'^, * •) ., ^■/' v*^' •^/- OO' ^^" •n^ v^ ^.^•^^^ <^^ V^ ,N^ .4 /- 'si .^> -.-i.^ ^ ."^^ c" v\V ^r. ^1-A V^' .-^ o.<.„^ -^^ V^ c> ^c^. I A lENTENNIAL lEW OF I Cirn 11 II HI Brief Outline History of the Birth and Growth of the Nation and each State separately, AND THUS INTRODUCING THE READER TO THEIR PRESENT VAST EXTENT AND VARIED RESOURCES, AND FOLLOWING WITH GRAPHIC 1)ESCRIPTI0I(S OP THE Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, CITIES, Soil, Glimafe. Productions, Minerals, Manufactures, Internal Improvements, Commerce, Finances, Government, Schools, Religious Denominations. Ea?C., DETC. INTERSPERSED WITH MANY Exciting Incidents in American History, AND CLOSING WITH VIVID WORD-PICTURES OF THE MOST WOXDERFl'L THINGS IN NATURE AND ART IN AMERICA, AN ABLE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN FREE SCHOOLS, AND A RESUME OF THE GLORIOUS RESULTS OF A CENTURY UNDER FREE INSTITUTIONS. By JAS. D. McCABE, Jr., AtTTHOE OP "GREAT FORTUNES," "PLANTING THE WILDERNESS," "CROSS AND CROWN," ETC. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. HUBBAED BROTHERS: Philadelphia, Springfield, Mass., Cincinnati and Chicago. Anchor Pcblishinq Co., St. Louis, Mo. A. L. Bancroft k Co., San Francisco, Cal. fT^k^ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the j'ear 1876, by HUBBARD BROS., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at AViishington, D. C. PREFACE. ^^ MID the rejoicings and congratulations which will occupy the people of the United States during the Centennial year now ^ opening, we may with profit and with pride turn our atten- tion from the consideration of our history to an examination of the actual condition of our country at the close of its first century of national existence. Few of our people are well informed as to the land of their birth. They have a vague idea that it is a "great country," but they have but a faint conception of the immense size of the Republic. Some years ago an English traveller published the following comparative view of the magnificent extent of our country, and his statement seemed to take even our own people by surprise. He said : " Yes, the Republic is a big country. In England we have no lines of sufficient length, no areas of sufficient width, to convey a just idea of its size. The State of Oregon is bigger than England ; California is about the size of Spain ; Texas would be larger than France, if France had won the frontier of the German Rhine. If the United States were parted into equal lots, they would make fifty-two kingdoms as large as England, fourteen empires as large as France. Even the grander figure of Europe fails, us when we come to measure in its lines such amplitudes as those of the United States. To wit : from Eastport to Brownsville is farther than from London to Tuat, in the Great Sahara ; from Washington to Astoria is farther than from Brussels to Kars ; from New York to San Francisco is farther than from Paris to Bagdad. Such measures seem to carry us away from the sphere of fact into the realms of magic and romance. 6 PREFACE. "Again, take the length of rivers as a measurement of size. A steamboat can go ninety miles up the Thames, two hundred miles up the Seine; five hundred and fifty miles up the Rhine. In America, the Thames would be a creek, the Seine a brook, the Rhine a local stream, soon lost in a mightier flood. The Mississippi is five times longer than the Rhine; the Missouri is three times longer than the Danube; the Columbia is four times longer than the Scheldt. From the sea to Fort Snelling, the Missouri is plowed by steamers a distance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-one miles ; yet slie is but the second river in the United States. " Glancing at a map of America, we see to the north a group of lakes. Now our English notion of a lake is likely to have been derived from Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda. But these sheets of water give us no true hint of what Huron and Superior are like, scarcely indeed of what Erie and Ontario are like. Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda, put together would not cover a tenth part of the surface occupied by the smallest of the five Amer- ican lakes. All the waters lying in Swiss, Italian, English, Irish, Scotch, and German lakes might be poured into Michigan without making a perceptible addition to its flood. Yorkshire might be sunk out of sight in Erie ; Ontario drowns as much land as would make two duchies equal in area to Schleswig and Holstein. Denmark proper could be washed by the waves of Huron. Many of the minor lakes in America would be counted as inland seas elsewhere ; to-wit : Salt Lake, in Utah, has a surface of two thousand square miles; while that of Geneva has only three hundred and thirty ; that of Como only ninety; that of Killarney only eight. A kingdom like Saxony, a principality like Parina, a duchy like Coburg, if thrown in one heap into Lake Superior, might add an island to its beauty, but would be no more conspicuous in its vast expanse than one of those pretty grc n islets which adorn Loch Lomond. "Mountain masses are not considered by some as the strongest parta of American scenery ; yet you find masses in this country which defy all measurement by such puny chains as the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Savoy Alps The Alleghanies, ranging in height between PREFACE. t Bfelvellyn and Pilatus, run through a district equal in extent to the country lying between Ostend and Jaroslaw. The Wahsatch chain, though the name is hardly known in Europe, has a larger bulk and grandeur than the Julian Alps. The Sierra Madre, commonly called the Rocky Mountains, ranging in stature from a little below Snowdon to a trifle above Mont Blanc, extend from Mexico, through the Republic, into British America, a distance almost equal to that dividing London from Delhi." Such are the territorial dimensions of our country, as measured by a foreigner, and that they are in no way exaggerated will be found by all who study the subject. But the greatness and interest of the Republic do not consist in its vast size. We have within our limits nearly every variety of climate known to man, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The ground is rich in mineral deposits, from the useful, but homely veins of coal, to beds of the most brilliant and valuable jewels. The earth yields us not only our food, but the rarest medicines and drugs. It pours out in streams oil for burning, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs, salt that requires but the heat of the sun for its })erfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the highways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. Such aire the natural advantages of our favored land. All these existed at the time when our fathers laid the first foundations of the great nation into whose hands the destinies of this wonderful land have been committed. Looking back over the years that have elapsed since the period of colonization, we can trace the successive steps by which the country has been brought to its present state of prosperity and power. We can note the unprecedented increase of population ; the civilization and building up of all parts of the vast continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from British America to the Gulf of Mexico ; we can see stately and populous cities rising where less than a century ago the red man roamed through the forest ; 8 PREFACE. we can trace the long lines of railway stretching over the Union where once the Indian trails were the only paths, and can count by millions the value of the mighty inland commerce which has succeeded to the ventures of the insignificant traders of a hundred years ago. Surely a more profitable or engaging study cannot employ our time during the Centennial season we are now celebrating. The aim of this work is to present to the reader in a compact and convenient form the means of pursuing such a study with but little trouble to himself. The work is meant to show at a glance the actual condition of the Republic at the present day, its achievements, wealth, power, prosperity, resources, and liabilities. It is believed that nothing that can contribute to this end has been omitted. The tables and other statistics in the body of the book are from the latest reports, both State and Federal, available. The census of the whole country is taken but once in ten years, and for many of the items the census of 1870 is the only authority accessible. The book presents the latest information to be obtained on the subjects of which it treats. It is to be hoped that among the achievements of our country during the next century the provision of a more perfect system for the collection of statistics, both State and Federal, will Ijc numbered. The author would here express his grateful acknowledg- ments to General Francis A. Walker, the accomplished Superin- tendent of the Census of 1870, for assistance received from him. It is hoped that the illustrations will aid in bringing to the mind of the reader a vivid picture of the busy, restless, energetic Republic of the West, and' also render him more familiar with some of the charms of American scenery. J. D. McC. January 1st, 1876. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 3. Rapids of the St. Lawrence 51 4. A View on the Alleghanj' Mountains 59 5. A View on the Rocky Mountains 61 6. Ploughing on a Western Prairie 63 7. Life in New England, 1776 64 8. A Western Homestead 78 9. View on the Hudson River, showing the Steamboat, Telegraph, and Railroad 84 10. Indians Viewing the Pacific Railroad 87 11. Sioux Indians Burning a Prisoner 88 12. An Indian Village in Winter 105 13. Ruins of Jamestown, Va 109 14. Plymouth Rock Ill 15. First Settlement of New York City 113 16. First Settlers of America Clearing Land 115 17. Burning of Deerfield, Mass 119 18. Ruins of Ticonderoga 130 19. Independence Hall in 1776.. 133 20. Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain 148 21. Plain of Chalmette ; Scene of the Battle of New Orleans 150 22. The Pine Forests of Maine 197 23. Lumberman's Camp in the Woods of Maine 200 24. City Hall and Court House, Portland 212 25. Scene on the White Mountains 219 26. The State Hou.se at Concord 228 27. A View of Montpelier, Vt... 241 28. A View of Rutland, Vt 244 29. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass 257 30. A View of Boston 267 31. Chickering & Sons' Manufactory 268 32. State House at Boston ". 269 33. Faneuil Hall, at Boston 270 34. Bunker Hill Monument, at Boston 278 35. Coast Fishing 308 36. Narragausett Bay, R. 1 310 37. A View of Newport, R. 1 313 38. A View from Mount Holyoke, Conn 321 39. Yale College, New Haven, Conn 328 40. A View of New Haven, Conn 334 41. A Scene in the Catskill Mountains 350 42. A View on the Hudson River 355 43. Scene on Lake George 356 44. The Falls of Niagara 35S' 45. New York Citv in 1664 37.") 46. A View of Albany, N. Y 379 47. A View of New York City 38o 48. New York Life Insurance Company's Building 384 49. Scene on Broadway, New York City 386 50. Scene on Fifth Avenue, New York City 388 51. View in Central Park, New York City 389 52. The Water Terrace in Central Park, New York City 3'JO 53. City HhII, New York City 393 54. Academy of Design 395 55. New Post Office, Broadway, New York City 397 56. Steinway & Sons' Piano Manufactory 398 57. High Bridge, at Harlem 400 58. LTnion Square and Washington Monument 40;i 59. United States Navy Yard, BrooK'.Vh, L. 1 407 9 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. PAOK 60. View from West Point 410 61. Genesee Falls, at Rochester, N. Y 413 62. The Celebrated Ten-Cylinder Rotary Printing Press 414 63. Gathering Watermelons 433 64. Passaic Falls, at Paterson, N. J 443 65. A Scene at Atlantic City, N. J 445 66. A View on the Juniata River 453 67. The Schuylkill above Philadelphia 454 68. Mauch Chunk 455 69. Old Portage Road 456 70. Nesquehoning Bridge 456 71. Mount Pisgah and the Coal Region 457 72. Deep Cut on the Pennsylvania Railroad 465 73. The Susquehanna above Ilarrisburg 467 74. The Girard Bridge 7. 469 75. League Island ^ 470 76. Port Delaware 470 77. Philadelphia, from Fairmount Park 471 78. The Wissahickon, at Chestnut Hill 472 79. Philadelphia Small Homes 473 80. The Ledger Building, Philadel])hia 474 81. Fairmount Water Works, Philadelphia 475 82. The Wissahickon, Philadelphia 476 83. The Union League Building, Philadelphia 477 84. The New Masonic Temple, Philadelphia 478 85. Hemlock Glen, Fairmount Park, Philadel))hia 479 86. New Academy of Natural Sciences, Phihuleljihia 480 87. Wissahickon New Drive, Philadelphia 481 88. The Schuylkill River, at the Falls, Philadelphia 482 89. Chestnut Street Bridge, Philadelphia 483 90. A Public Fountain, Philadelphia 484 91. Independence Hall in 1872, Philadelphia 486 92. A View of Pittsburgh, Pa 489 93. Manufacture of Glass Bottles 490 94. A View of Scranton, Pa 500 95. A View of Easton, Pa 501 96. A Peach Farm in Delaware 524 97. Oyster Fishery, Maryland 527 98. Battle Monument at Baltimore 541 90. A Scene on Baltimore Street 544 100. Scene on Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 547 101. Columbian Deaf and Dumb Institution 553 102. New Building of the Y. M. C. A., Washington 554 103. United States Treasury Building, Washington 568 104. United States Patent Office, Washington 571 105. Natural Bridge, Virginia 581 106. Little Stony Falls, Virginia 585 107. A View of Richmond, Virginia 596 108. Mount Vernon 600 109. A View on the Sea Coast of North Carolina 616 110. Capitol at Raleigh, N. C 625 111. Rice Fields 634 112. A View of Charleston, S. C 643 113. A View of Savannah, Georgia 660 114. St. John's River, Florida. 667 115. St. Augustine, Florida 678 116. A Bluff on the Alabama River 682 117. Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama 693 lis. The Landing at Mobile 695 119. Picking Cotton 700 120. Jackson, Miss 707 121. Natchez, Miss 708 122. A View of Vicksburg, Miss 709 123. Hauling Cotton to Market 710 124. Gathering Sugar Cane .' 718 125. A Sugar House 721 126. Scene on St. Charles Street, New Orleans 731 127. Jackson Square, New Orleans 734 128. Lafayette Square, New Orleans 737 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 WO- PAGE 129. On the Gulf. 748 130. Galveston, Texas 764 131. The Alamo, San Antonio, Texas 750 132. A View of Harper's Ferry, West Virginia 770 133. A View of Wheeling, West Virginia 778 134. Nashville, Tenn 798 135. Alemphis, Tenn 800 13(5. Inside View, Mammoth Cave, Ky 807 137. Frankfort,' Ky .'. 815 138. Louisville, Ky 816 139. State Capitol at Columbus, 832 140. A View of Cincinnati, 835 141. Slaughtering Hogs..., 836 142. Scene on Fourth Street, Cincinnati, 837 143. The Tyler Davidson Fountain, Cincinnati, 839 144. Scene on Superior Street, Cleveland, 843 145. State House at Indianapolis, lud 855 146. Evansville, Ind 857 147. Lafayette, Ind 853 148. New Albany, Ind 858 149. State House, at Springfield, 111 873 150. A View of Chicago, 111 875 151. McCormick's Reaper Manufactory 876 152. The Tribune Building, Chicago, 111 879 153. Scene on Lake Street, Chicago, 111 883 154. Quincy, III 890 155. Alton, 111 894 156. Chicago in Flames 897 157. Grand Pacific Hotel 898 158. A Western River Scene 907 159. Capitol of Michigan, at Lansing 917 160. Trout Fishing 918 161. A Copper Mine in Wisconsin 928 162. Madison, Wis 935 163. R,iver View in Milwaukee, Wis 937 164. Falls of St. Anthony, Minn 940 165. St. Paul, Minn 948 166. Davenport, Iowa 958 167. Dubuque, Iowa 959 168. Burlington, Iowa 960 169. Floating Island, on the Missouri River 968 170. Court House, at St. Louis 978 171. Little Rock, Ark 991 172. Hele a. Ark 992 173. Indians Attacking U. S. Overland Mail Coach 999 174. Indian Cemetery 1000 175. Crossing the Plains 1006 176. Depot a"t Omaha 1011 177. Miners Around the Camp Fire 1012 178. A View of Omaha, Nebraska 1013 179. The Palisades, Humboldt River, Nevada 1015 180. Silver Mining, Nevada 1017 181. Original BigTree, California 1024 182. Hydraulic Mining, California 1030 183. A View of San Francisco Iit41 184. Gathering Hops 1042 185. Cape Horn 1053 1S6. An Oregon Valley 1064 187. Natives'House Biiilding 1077 188. Skin Canoe and Indians 1077 189. Moose Hunting in Yokon River 1078 190. Mount St. Elias, Alaska 1080 191. Sitka, Alaska 1082 192. Aztec Mountains 1084 193. A Rest on the Prairies 1085 194. Procuring Poison for his Arrows 1086 195. A Cation in the Rocky Mountains 1093 196. Indians Hunting Bison 1095 197. The Great Shoshone Falls 1090 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TfO. PAGE 198. A Frontier City 1102 199. Santa Fe, New Mexico 1105 200. The Tabernacle, Salt Lake City 1109 201. Main Street, Salt Lake City 1111 202. View of Great Salt Lake 1112 203. A Street in Olympia 112] 204. A Prairie Dog City 1123 205. St. Louis 1165 206. St. Louis Bridge ; 1166 207. Bronze Doors of the Capitol 1173 208. Bronze Doors of the Capitol 1174 209. Big Trees 1181 21L LakeTahoe 1182 212. Great Geyser of Fire Hole Basin 1197 213. Near View of Yosemite Falls 1197 214. Mirror Lake 1198 215. Sentinel Kock .' 1198 216. Crater of the Giant Geyser 1201 217. The Fan Geyser 1201 218. Lower Falls of the Yellowstone 1202 219. Mud Volcano 1202 220. Coats of Arms of United States 1205 221. " " Maine 1205 222. " " New Hampshire 1205 223. '• " Vermont 1205 224. " " Massachusetts 1205 225. " " Rhode Island 1205 226. " " Connecticut 1205 227. " " New York 1206 228. " " New Jersey 1206 229. " " Pennsylvania 1206 230. " " Delaware 1206 231. " " Maryland 1206 232. " " Virginia 1206 233. " " North Carolina 1206 234. " " Georgia 1206 235. " " South Carolina 1207 236. " " Florida 1207 237. " " Alabama 1207 238. " " Mississippi 1207 239. " " Louisiana 1207 240. " " Texas 1207 241. " " West Virginia 1207 242. " " Tennessee 1207 243. " " Kentucky 1208 244. " " Ohio 1208 245. " " Indiana 1208 246. " " Illinois 1208 247. " " Michigan 1208 248. " " Wisconsin. 1208 249. " " Minnesota 1208 250. " '* Iowa 1208 251. " " Missouri 1209 252. " " Arkansas 1209 253. " " Kansas 1209 254. " " California 1209 255. " " Oregon 1209 256. " " Colorado 1209 257. " " Utah • 1209 258. Independence Hall 1210 259. Carpenter's Hall 1210 260. Birthplace of Liberty 1210 261. Main Exhibition Building 1224 262. Art Gallery 1224 263. Woman's Pavilion 1224 264. Machinerv Hall 1225 265. Agricultural Hall 1225 266. Horticultural Hall 122o OOKTENTS. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Description of the American Continent — Its grand divisions — North America — Di- mensions and Divisions — The United States of North America — Description of the Great Kepublic — Its dimensions and political divisions — Its population, showing the increase since 1790 — The rivers of the United States — Description of the great water system of the Republic — The Mississippi — Its wonderful history — Its wealth and peculiarities — Tlie Missouri River — How the Mississippi Valley is drained — The other tributaries of the " Father of Waters " — The Great Lakes of the North — Explanation of the mountain system of the United States — The wonders of the Rocky Mountains — Soil of the United States — Statement of the various qualities of soil existing in the Republic, and of their capacity for adding to the national wealth — Description of the Climate of the United States, showing the peculiar features of each section of the Country — Relative healthfulness of the various States, showing which is the healthiest — Description of the mineral wealth of the Republic, showing where the different minerals are found and in what quantities — The undeveloped riches of the country — Products of the soil — Animals of the United States — A brief sketch of American natural history — Characteristics of the population — The distin- guishing marks of the inhabitants of the various States — Table, showing arrivals and destination of emigrants since 1820 — What emigration has done for the Union — Tlie agricultural resources of the United States — List of the agricultural products, show- ing where each is grown, and the portion of the country to which it is best adapted — Facts for producers and consumers — The manufacturing interests — Rapid growth and great extent of this portion of our wealth — The commerce of the United States — Its vast proportions — Our internal improvements — History of the rise and growth of the canal, railroad, steamboat, and telegraph in this country — Our educational system — Explanation of the American system of Free Schools — The Press — Its importance and power — Number of newspapers and periodicals published — The postal system of the Republic — Religious denominations, showing the strength of each religious sect in the United States— Population of the leading cities of the Union — Explanation of the Government of the L^nited States — A concise view of the Federal Constitution — The Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary, and their duties — Relations of the States to the General Government — Powers and limitations of the General Government — The Army and 'Nary of the Republic — Their strength — Financial condition of the United States in 187^ — History of the United States — General view of the Indians of North America — Who they were — Discovery of America by Columbus — Other discoveries — Expedition of De Soto — Efforts of the French and Spaniards to settle the South— England alarmed — Raleigh's colony on 13 14 CONTENTS. Roanoake Island — The settlement at Jamestown — Voyages of Captain John Smith — First Legislative Assembly in America— Introduction of African Slavery into Vir- ginia — The Plymouth colony — Landing of the Pilgrims — Internal organization of the Colony and its progress — Foundation of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay — Consoli- dation of the Massachusetts settlements — Settlement of Maine, Connecticut, and Rhode Island — Discovery of the Hudson River — The Dutch settle New York — History of the Colony — It is captured by the English — Settlement of New Jersey and Delaware — Set- tlement of Pennsylvania and Maryland — The Carolinas and Georgia colonized by the English — Prosperity of the Colonies — Different characteristics — Establishment of common schools and colleges — Troubles with the Indians — Aggressions of the French — Their success in the Mississippi Valley — They aid the Indians in their attacks upon the English — King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's wars — Capture of Louisburg — Trouble with the French on the Ohio— Washington's journey — Military operations west of the Mountains — Braddock's defeat — "The Old French War" in the . other Colonies — Failures of the English — A change of ministry — William Pitt — Cap- ture of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne — Death of Lord Howe — Capture of Quebec — .Expulsion of the French from Canada — The conspiracy of Pontiac — Services of the Colonists during the wars with the French — Injustice of Great Britain toward the • Colonies — Resistance of the Americans — The unjust taxes — Further aggressions — The call for a Continental Congress — Meeting and acts of the first Congress — Suicidal policy of the British Government — The " Boston Massacre " — The tax on tea — Destruc- .tion of tea in Boston harbor— Closing of the Port of Boston— The Colonies make common cause with Massachusetts — The second Colonial Congress — Its acts — The petition for redress — Stubbornness of the King — General Gage brings matters to a crisis — The conflicts at Lexington and Concord— The beginning of the Revolution — The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence— Meeting of the Continental Con- gress — Measures of resistance — Washington appointed to the command of the Amer- ican army — Battle of Bunker Hill — Organization of the American Army — Siege of Boston — The invasion of Canada — The British fleet repulsed at Charleston — Vigorous measures of Congress — The Declaration of Independence — Battle of Long Island — The British occupy New York City — Gloomy state of affairs for the Colonies — Battle of Trenton — A gleam of hope — Defeat of the British at Princeton — The "Articles of Confederation" adopted— Events of the campaign of 1777 — Capture of Philadelphia- Battles of Germantown and Bennington — Surrender of Burgoyne's army — The treaty with France— Great Britain's eflbrts at conciliation — Too late — The winter at the Valley Forge — Arrival of the French fleet — Battle of Monmouth — Capture of Savan- nah by the British — Naval affairs — The British take Charleston, S. C. — Partisan war in the South — Gates defeated at Camden — Battle of King's Mountain — Greene sent to the Carolinas — Treason of Arnold — Battles of the Cowpens and Guilford Court House — Washington goes after Cornwallis — Siege of Yorktown- — vSurrender of Cornwallis — The close of the war — Condition of the country — Organization of the Reijublic of the United States — Adoption of the Federal Constitution— Wasliington's two Administra- tions — Admission of new States — Washington retires to private life — Administration of John Adams — War with France — The Administrations of Jefferson — Political dis- putes — Purchase of Louisiana — The afliair of the Chesapeake and the Leopard — British and French outrages upon American commerce — The Embargo — James Madison elected President — Tiie second war with England — Its events by land and sea — The battle of New Orleans — The peace of 1815 — The Barbary States chastised — The Hartford Convention — Re-election of Mr. Madison — The Bank of the United States — . Admission of Louisiana and Indiana — Mr. Monroe elected President — Admission of CONTENTS. 15 Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri into tlie Union — The slavery excitement — The " Missouri Compromise" — "The Monroe Doctrine" — John Quincy Adams elected President — The Tariff question — Administration of Andrew Jackson — The National Bank question — The Nullification troubles — Firmness of the President ^His opposition to the National Bank — He removes the public funds — The National Debt paid — Admission of Arkansas and Michigan — Election of President Van Buren — The commercial crisis of 1837 — Election of President Harrison — Death of General Harrison — John Tyler becomes President — His Administration — Admission of Texas — James K. Polk elected President — The war with Mexico — Results of the war — Set- tlement of the Oregon question — Admission of Wisconsin — General Taylor elected President — The " Wilmot Proviso " — Discovery of gold in California — Admission of California into the Union — Political strife — The " Compromise of 1850" — Death of General Taylor — Mr. Fillmore's Administration — The Japan expedition — Election of President Pierce — The Kansas-Nebraska controversy — The Republican party — The anti-slavery agitation increases — Efforts to purchase Cuba — Filibustering expeditions — The Know-Nothing party — Election of President Buchanan — Admission of Minne- sota — The Kansas war — The Mormon troubles — The John Brown affair — The Presi- dential contest of 1860 — Threatening condition of public affairs — Election of President Lincoln^Secession of the Southern States — The Civil War — Formation of the South- ern Confederacy — Inauguration of President Lincoln — Attack on Fort Sumter — Proc- lamation of President lincoln — Secession of the Border States — Preparations for war — Battles of Bethel Church and Rich Mountain — Battle of Bull Run — The war in Mis- souri and Kentucky — Capture of Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal — The Mason and Slidell affair — Opening of the campaign of 1862 — Battle of Mill Spring — Grant cap- tures Forts Henry and Donelson — Loss of Kentucky and Tennessee by the Confed- erates — Battle of Shiloh — Capture of Island No. 10 — Bragg Invades Kentucky — Battle of Richmond — Failure of the Confederate invasion — Bragg retreats into East Tennessee — Battle of Perryville — Grant's campaign in Northern Mississippi — Battles of luka and Corinth — Rosecrans advances— Battle of Stone River — Grant's first campaign against Vicksburg — Capture of Roanoake Island and the North Carolina ports — Surrender of New Orleans — Engagement between the "Virginia" and the "Monitor" — Johnston retreats from Centreville — Transfer of the Army of the Potomac to the Peninsula — The siege of Yorktown— The Union Army before Richmond — Battle of Seven Pines — Jackson's victories in the Valley of Virginia — The Seven Days' Battles before Rich- mond — Retreat of McClellan to the .James River — The Campaign in Northern Vir- ginia — Second Battle of Bull Run — Invasion of Maryland by the Confederates — Battle of Antietam — Retreat of Lee — Battle of Fredericksburg — The Emancipation Procla- mation — Battle of Chancellorsville — Death of Stonewall Jackson — Invasion of the North — Battle of Gettysburg — Capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson — Battle of Chickamauga — Blockade of Chattanooga — Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge — Siege of Knoxville — Capture of Fort Wagner — Grant made Lieutenant Gen. eral — Advance of the Army of the Potomac — Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsyl- vania Court House — Battle of Cold Harbor — Grant crosses the James River — Siege of Petersburg — -Early's advance upon Washington — Sheridan's victories in the Valley of Virginia — Advance of Sherman into Georgia — Johnston gradually falls back to Atlanta — Is removed from his command and succeeded by Hood — Capture of Atlanta by Sherman — Hood's Tennessee campaign — He is routed by Thomas at Nashville — Sherman's " March to the Sea " — Capture of Savannah — Battle of Mobile Bay — Sink- ing of the Alabama — Re-election of President Lincoln — Nevada admitted into the Union— The Hampton Roads Conference — Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington — 16 ' CONTENTS. Sherman advances through the Carolinas — Battles of A verasboro and Benton- ville — Advance of Grant's army — Lee retreats from Kichmond and Petersburg — Surrender of Lee's army — Assassination of President Lincoln — Punishment of the assassins — Surrender of Johnston's and the other Confederate armies — Close of the war — Andrew Johnson President — The Army Disbanded — Finances — Tlie Thirteenth Amendment — Quarrel between the President and Congress respect- ing the Reconstruction of the Union — Severe measures of Congress — The Four- teenth Amendment — Admission of Nebraska — The South under military rule — Impeachment of President Johnson — Release of JefTerson Davis — Mexican affairs — The Atlantic Telegraph — Alaska — U. S. Grant elected President — The Fifteenth Amendment — The Pacific Railway — Reconstruction accomplished — The Alabama claims settled — The Chicago Fire — Re-election of President Grant — Fire in Boston — Cuban affairs — The Panic of 1873 — Centennial cele- brations 31 THE NEW EI^^GLAI^D STATES. MAINE. Area in square miles — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Description of the topography of the State — Its bays, islands, rivers, mountains, and lakes — The woods of Maine — Their beauty and resources — Description of the Lumber region — The minerals of Maine — Agricultural resources of the State — Its com- merce and manufactures — Internal improvements — The railroads of Maine — The Common School system — Explanation of its features — Statement of the schools and colleges of the State — Its newspapers and libraries — The penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Constitution and Government — History of Maine — The visit of Gosnold — First settlement of Maine — Its earlj' history — Period of the Revolution — Admission into the Union as a State — Inroads of the Rebels — Statement of troops furnished to the United States army during the Civil War — The chief cities and towns — Description of Augusta — Portland — Bangor — The story of Arnold's march to Quebec 193 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area — Population in 1870— Position upon the Globe— Description of the topog- aphy of the State— The White Mountains and their beauties— The lakes and rivers of the State — The Isle of Shoals — The agricultural products— Descrip- tion of the soil of the State — Commerce and manufactures— Internal improve- ments — The educational system — Description of the penal and charitable insti- tutions and their present condition — Religious denominations — The State Gov- ernment — Explanation of its various features— History of New Hampsliire— First settlements at Dover and Portsmouth — Trouble with the Indians — The Revolution Enters the Union — Troops Furnished during the Civil War — Description of Concord, Manchester, Portsmouth, and Dover — Story of the burning of Dover by the Indians 217 CONTENTS. 17 VERMONT. Area — Population in 1870— Position upon the Globe— Physical features of Ver- mont — The Green Mountains — Lake Champlain — Mineral wealth — Climate — Description of the soil — Agricultural products in detail — Commerce and manu- factures — Internal improvements — The Free School system— The charitable and penal institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Its government and internal system— History of Vermont — First settlement — Troubles with New York — The Revolution— Cajiture of Ticonderoga— Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain boys — Vermont refuses the British offers — Ad- mission into the Union— War of 1812-15— The St. Albans affair — Troops fur- nislied during the Civil War— Description of the principal cities— Montpelier — Burlington — Rutland — Bennington — The battle of Bennington— The taking of Ticonderoga 2^3. MASSACHUSETTS. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Description of the topo- graphical features of the State^Its islands, bays, rivers, mountains and lakes — Beauty of the scenery of Massachusetts — Its mineral wealth — Climate — Descrip- tion of the soil — its agricultural wealth — Commerce — The vast manufacturing system of the State— Its internal improvements— Tiic Free Schools of Massa- chusetts — A noble system of public education — Harvard University — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Massachusetts — Dis- covery— Gosnold's colony — Landing of the Pilgrims— Growth of the Plymouth Colony— Settlement of Massachusetts Bay— Troubles with the Indians— Internal troubles— Accession of William and Mary— Consolidation of the Colonies— The Salem Witchcraft— Wars with the French and Indians— Resistance to the injustice of Great Britain— The Revolution— Massaclnisctts enters the Union— Shay.s's Rebellion— War of 1812-15— Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Boston— An inside view of the Metropolis of New England— Its public institutions— Its characteristics, sights, habits, etc.— History of the city of Boston from its settlement to the present day— Roxbury and Dorchester— Story of the Boston Massacre— Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor— Charlestown— Bunker Hill Monument— Battle of Bunker Hill— Cambridge— Harvard Uni- versity—Lowell—An inside view of the factories of Lowell— Springfield— The United States Armory— Taimton— Salem— Plymouth— Miscellanies— Arrival of the Pilgrims at Cape Cod— The first Sabbath in New England— The first crimes in New England— Story of the Salem Witchcraft— A wonderful relation— Prim- itive extravagance— A fearful snow storm— The men of " Seventy-Six "—The great fire 250' RHODE ISLAND. Area— Population in 1870— Position upon the globe— Topographical sketch of the State— Minerals— Climate— Soil and agricultural products— Commerce — Im- portance of Rhode Island as a manufacturing State — Liternal improvements — Educational system— Penal and charitable institutions— Religious denomin- ations—Financial condition— Explanation of the State Government— History of Rhode Island— Settlement by Roger Williams— Early years of the Colony — 2 18 CONTENTS Death of King Philip — Colonial history — The Revolution — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Providence — Newport — The most fashion- able watering place in America — Early history of Newport — Seizure of General Prescott — Destruction of the Gasp^e 302 CONNECTICUT. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topographical features of the State — Mineral wealth of Connecticut — Climate — Description of the soil and agricultural products of the State — Commerce — Manufactures — Interesting details of the factories of Connecticut — Internal improvements — The Common School system of the State — A noble school fund — Yale College — Penal and charitable institutions — The system of instruction for the deaf and dumb — Re- ligious denominations — Finances of the State — Its debt and annual expenses — Explanation of the State Government — History of Connecticut — Dutch settle- ments — The English in Connecticut — Founding of Hartford and New Haven — Wars with the Pequots — The affair of the Charter Oak — Colonial history — The Revolution — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of New Haven — Yale College and its history — Capture of New Haven by the British — Hartford — Extracts from the old laws of the city — Norwich — Bridgeport — Waterbury — New London — Norwalk — Middletown — The Blue Laws of Con- necticut — The Regicides — The penalty for kissing — The dark day — American Independence — Election day in the olden time 320 THE MIDDLE STATES. NEW YORK. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — The Hudson — The Catskills — Lake George — Niagara Falls — Long Island — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions of the State — Statement of the foreign and domestic commerce of New York — Manufactures — Magnifi- cent system of internal improvements — The Erie Canal — Educational sy.stem — The Free Schools — The colleges — Newspapers and periodicals — Penal and charitable institutions — A noble system — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of New York — Discoveries of Cham plain and Hudson — The Dutch at Manhattan Island and Fort Orange — The Province passes into the hands of the English — Early troubles — Injustice of the Crown — Wars with the Indians and the French — The Revolution — Controversy with Vermont settled — War of 1812-15 — Internal improvements begun— Completion of the Erie Canal — Troops furnished during the Civil War— Description and history of Albany — The city of New York— Description of it — The Metropolis of the Union — Its palaces of trade and art— The Central Park — Commercial importance of the city— The ferry system— Places of amusements— Public buildings— Schools — Scientific, literary and benevolent institutions— Prisons— Croton water— History of the City of New York — Brooklyn— The city of churclies — The United States Navy Yard ^Prospect Park — Buffalo — Its commercial importance — Ancient laws of New York— Old time customs of New York City— The Negro Plot in New York -How Rochester was saved from the British o4y CONTENTS. 19 NEW JERSEY. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography of the State — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufactureft — Internal improvements — The school system — Penal and charitable institu- tions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of New Jersey — It passes into the hands of the English — The Revolution — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Trenton — Newark — Its manufactures — Jersey City — Battle of Trenton — Mur- der of Rev. James Caldwell — A mutiny in the Continental Army 430 PENNSYLVANIA. Area — Population in 1870 — Topographical features of the State — Mineral wealth of Pennsylvania — Its extent and importance — Climate— Soil and productions — Commerce — Manufactures of Pennsylvania — Internal improvements — The canal system — The Free Schools and Colleges — The Press — Libraries — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations— Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Pennsylvania — First settlement of the State — The grant to William Penn — Settlement by the Quakers — Philadelphia founded — Treaty with the Indians — Progress of the Colony — The Revolution — Philadelphia occupied by the British — The whiskey insurrection — Invasion of the State during the Civil War — Battle of Gettys- burg—Description of Harrisburg — Philadelphia — Its location — Description of the city — Its dimensions — Fairmount Park — The Public buildings — Markets — Schools and Colleges — Literary and scientific institutions — Prisons — Hospitals and Asylums — The Press — Importance of the manufactures of the city — Com- merce — United States Navy Yard — History of Philadelphia — Pittsburg — Sketch of its manufactures — The American Birmingham — Scranton — Reading — Easton — Old time customs in Philadelphia — Massacre of Wyoming — The sermon before the Brandywine — Battle of the Brandywine — Adam Poe's fight with the Indians ^- j DELAWARE. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topographv — Minerals — Climate — Soil and productions— Manufactures — Internal improvements — Edu- cational system — Religious denominations — Finances — Explanation of the State Government— History of Delaware — First settlement— Becomes a sep- arate Colony— The Revolution— The Civil War— Description of Dover- Wilmington .517 THE SOUTHERlSr STATES. MARYLAND. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topographical sketch — Chesapeake Bay — Duck shooting — Mineral wealth of the State — Climate — Soil and productions— Manufactures — Internal improvements — The new Free School system — Colleges — Newspapers and periodicals published in the State — Penal 20 CONTENTS. and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of Maryland — Explanation of the State Government — History of Maryland — Set- tlement on Kent Island — Arrival of Lord Baltimore's Colony — Trouble with Clayborn — Religious freedom guaranteed — Civil War — Triumph of the Pur- itans^-:— Annapolis made the capital — Baltimore settled — Wars with France — The Revolution — Suflerings of the Bay counties during the war of 1812-15 — Battles of Bladensburg, Fort McHenry and Korth Point — The Civil War — Invasion of the State by General Lee — Battle of Antietam — Description of Annapolis — Baltimore City — Washington Monument — Public institutions and buildings — History of Baltimore — The Baltimore Riot — Anecdote of Charles Carroll 525 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area — Population in 1870 — Dimensions — Explanation of the new Territorial Government — History of the District — Washington City — Description of it — The Public Buildings — The Capitol — Its magnificence without and within — The White House— The Treasury building— The Patent Office— The General Post Office — The Navy Yard — The Department of Agriculture — The Smith- sonian Institution — The Washington Monument — Georgetown 551 VIRGINIA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the Globe — Detailed description of the physical features of the State — Its various divisions, rivers, mountains, etc. — The Dismal Swamp — Mineral wealth of Virginia — An opportunity for capital- ists — The mineral springs— Agricultural products — Commerce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — The educational .system — The University of Virginia — Penal and Benevolent institutions — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government^ — History of Virginia — The settlement of Jamestown — Colo- nial history — Introduction of slavery into the colony — Virginia sides with the King — Treaty with the Commonwealth — Bacon's Rebellion — Williamsburg made the capital — Troubles with the French on the Ohio— Washington's mis- sion — Resistance to the aggressions of tlie Crown — The Revolution — The war in Virginia — Surrender of Cornwallis — Formation of the Union — War of 1812-15 — The Southampton Mas.sacre — The John Brown affiiir — The Civil War — Prin- cipal cities— Richmond — Description of the city — Norfolk — Portsmouth — United States Navy Yard — Alexandria — Mount Vernon — The home and tomb of Washington — Tlie first Legislative Assembly in America — Treaty between Virginia and England — Introduction of Tobacco into Europe — Anecdotes of Patrick Henry — Speech of Logan — Washington and the Widow Custis — Death of Washington 575 NORTH CAROLINA. Area — Population in 1870 — Topographical .sketch of the State — Climate — Soil and productions — Natural growth of North Carolina — Mineral deposits — Manu- factures — Commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — The Free Schools — University of North Carolina — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of North Carolina — The Colony on Roanoake Island — The grant of Charles II.- — Locke's Con.stitution — Early troubles — War with the Indians — Separation of the Carolina.^ — The Revolution — The Mecklenburg CONTENTS. 21 Declaration of Independence — Battles of King's Mountain and Guilford Court House — Cession of Tennessee to the United States — Events of the Civil War — Description of the cities of Ealeigh and Wilmington — The First English Col- ony in America — The Greatest American g-j o SOUTH CAROLINA. Area— Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Physical features of the State — The Sea Islands — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Com- merce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — The educational system — The Free schools — The Colleges — Penal and benevolent institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of South Carolina — Explanation of the State Government — History of South Carolina — Settlement of Port Eoyal by the French — The English occupy the country — Formation of the Province of ; South Carolina — Troubles with the Indians and Spaniards — The Revolution — Attack on Fort Moultrie repulsed — Enters the Union — The Civil War — Rccen- struction — Description of Columbia — Charleston — Detailed description of it — An incident in the life of Sergeant Jasper 631 GEORGIA. Area— Population in 1870 — Position on the Globe — Topography of the State — Mineral wealth of Georgia— Climate — Soil and agricultural products — Com- merce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational .system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition- Explanation of the State Government — History of Georgia — First settlement — Severe conditions — They are withdrawn — Wars with the Spaniards — Introduc- tion of negro slavery— Growth of the Colony — The Revolution — Capture of Sa- vannah — Removal of the Indian tribes — The Civil War — Description of Atlanta —Savannah— The " Forest City " of the South— The Empress of Georgia 650 FLORIDA. Area — Population in 1870— Position on the globe— Topographical features of Florida — The Everglades — Climate — Description of the soil — Agricultural products — Commerce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Florida — Early settlements — Florida under Spanish rule — French settlements — Troubles with the English — Florida ceded to Great Britain — It is restored to Spain — Pur- chased by the United States — War with the .Seminoles — Florida admitted into the Union as a State — The Civil War — Reconstruction — Description of Tal- lahassee — Pensacola — St. Augustine — A peculiar city rid"* ALABAMA. Area — Popidation in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography of the State — The Alabama i-iver — Soil — -Climate— Agricnitaral products — Minerals — Manu- factures — Commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — The Uni- versity of Alabama — Penal and benevolent institutions — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Alabama — De Soto's expedition — Settlement of Mobile — Alabama under British rule — Indian wars — Admission of the State into the Union — The Civil W^ar — Reconstruction — De.-icription of Montgomery — Mobile — The battle of Horse-Shoe Bend. .... 060 22 CONTENTS. MISSISSIPPI. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Climate — Soil — Agricultural products — Commerce and manufactures — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Mississippi — First settlements — Extermination of the Natchez Indians — Organization of Mississippi — Admission into the Union us a State — Events of the Civil War — Reconstruction — Description of the cities of Jackson, Natchez, and Vicksburg — Full account of the extermination of the Natchez Indians — Mason the outlaw 698 LOUISIANA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Climate — Soil and agricultural productions — Manufactures and commerce — Internal improve- ments — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Eeligious de- nominations — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Louisiana — Discoveries of La Salle — Efforts to settle the Province — Law's scheme — Settlement of New Orleans — Growth of the Colony — New Orleans in Spanish hands — Louisiana restored to France — History of the pur- chase of Louisiana by the United States — Admission of the State into the Union, — Events of the Civil War-^Reconstruction— Detailed description of the City of New Orleans — Its mixed population — The public buildings and institutions — The Levee — Commerce of New Orleans — Manufactures — The Carnival — History of New Orleans — Battle of New Orleans 715 TEXAS. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and agricultural products — Commerce and Manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Texas — La Salle's Expedition — His death — Settlement of Texas by the Spaniards — First struggle for Independence — The Texan Revolution — The Republic of Texas — Annexation to the United States — Admission of Texas as a State — Events of the Civil War — Reconstruction — Description of the cities of Austin and Galveston — The capture of the Alamo — Fannin's Massacre 747 THE WESTER]^ STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — Harper's Ferry — Climate — Mineral wealth — Soil and productions— Manufactures and commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Explanation of the State Government — History of West Virginia — The Civil War — Separation of the Western counties from the State of Virginia — Description of Charleston — The Kanawha Saline-s — Wheeling — Its manufac- tures — Border life, showing the trials and mode of life of the first settlers of the "West : 769 CONTENTS. 23 TENNESSEE. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon tlie globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufactures — Inter- nal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — History of Ten- nessee — First settlements — Siege of Fort Loudon — The Revolution — North Carolina cedes Tennessee to the United States — Admitted into the Union as a State — Events of the Civil War — Description of the cities of Nashville, Mem- phis and Knoxville — The boyhood of Andrew Jackson 790 KENTUCKY. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and char- itable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition — Explana- tion of the State Government — History of Kentucky — Early discoveries — First settlement of Kentucky — Wars with the Indians — The settlers desire a separate Government — Virginia cedes Kentucky to the United States — Admission into the Union as a State — The war of 1812-15 — The Civil War — Description of Frankfort — Louisville — A beautiful city — The Falls of the Ohio — Importance of the manufactures and commerce of the city — Daniel Boone's account of his adventures 805 OHIO. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and agricultural productions — Commerce and manufac- tures—Internal improvements — Educational system— The Ohio Free Schools — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial con- , dition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Ohio- First settlements on the Ohio — Wars with the Indians — The Revolution — Ces- sion of the Northwest Territory — Emigration to Ohio — St. Clair's defeat — Settlement of Cincinnati — Organization of the Territory of Ohio — Admission of the State into the Union— The war of 1812-15— Rapid progress of the State — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Columbus— The State buildings — Cincinnati — Description of the city — Its commercial importance — The river trade — Manufactures — Pork packing — History of Cincinnati — Cleve- land — The Lake trade — Memoirs of Simon Kenton — Cincinnati in 1794 824 INDIANA. Area — Population In 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — Mineral wealtli — Climate — Soil and agricultural productions — Commerce and Manufac- tures — Internal improvements — Educational sy.stem — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Libraries and newspapers— Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Indiana — Settlements of the French Missionaries — Indiana under French and British rule — The Revolution — Campaign against the British by General Rogers Clarke — Wars with the Indians — Efforts to introduce slavery — Battle of Tippecanoe — War of 1812-15 — Admission of Indiana into the Union — Rapid 24 CONTENTS. growtli of the State — Troops furnished during; tlie Civil War — Description of the cities of Indianapolis, Evansville, Fort Wayne, and New Albany — Inter- view between General Harrison and Tecuniseh — Capture of Vincennes 84'f^ ILLINOIS. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — The prairies — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufac- tures — Internal improvements — The railroad system — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Libraries and Newspapers — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Gov- ei'nment — History of Illinois — Early Fi-ench discoveries — Settlements of the Missionaries — Tiie Revolution — Admission into the Union as a State— The war of 1812-15— The Chicago Massacre— The BIhcIv Plawk War— The Mormon troubles — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description o( Springfield — Chicago — Description of the city — Situation on the I^ake — Raising the grade of the city — Public buildings and institutions — Commerce of Chicago — The grain trade — An elevator examined — Tlie pork trade — Inside view of a pork house — History of Chicago — Quincv' — Galena — The lead mines — Alton — The Mas- sacre at Chicago — Peter Cartwriglit and Joe Smith 86o MICHIGAN. Area — Population in 1870 — Position upon the globe — Topography — The North- ern and Southern Peninsulas — Mineral wealth — The Lake Superior Mines — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufactures— Internal im- provements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Finances — Explanation of the State Government — History of Michigan — Settlements of the French Missionaries — The French in the Province — Transfer to Great Britain — Conspiracy of Pontiac — Michigan Territory organ- ised — War of 1812-15 — Surrender of Detroit — Massacre at the River Raisin — Emigration to Michigan — Admission into the Union as a State — Troops fur- nished during tiie Civil War — Description of the cities of Lansing wnd Detroit — Pontiac's etlort to capture Detroit — Massacre at the River Raisin 906 WISCONSIN. Area — Population in 1870 — Position ujion the globe — Topograjjhy — Mineral wealtii — Soil and productions — Commerce and manufactures — Internal im- provements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Re- ligious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Wisconsin — Discoveries of the Frencli — The Jesuit Missionaries — The Province passes into the iiands of the English — Ad- mission into the Union as a State — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Description of Madison — Milwaukee — The "Cream City" — The oldest man in the world 92C^ MINNESOTA. Area — Population-^Position on the globe — Topograpliical sketch of the State — Falls of St. Anthony — Mineral wealth — Climate — Resort for invalids — Soil and productions — Manuiactures and Commerce — Internal improvements — Educa- tional svsten-. — The Fj-ee Schools — Penal and benevoltiit institiitions— Libraries CONTENTS. 25 and newspapers — Eeligious denominations — Financial condition of Minnesota — Explanation of the State Government — History of Minnesota — First settled by the Jesuit Missionaries — French settlements — A part of Louisiana purchase — The Fur trade — St. Paul founded — Admission of the State into the Union — Troops furnished during the Civil War — St. Paul 9?,9 IOWA Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce and manu- factures — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Government — History of Iowa — A part of Louisiana l)urcliase — Julien Dubuque — The Lead Mines — The Black Hawk War — Settle- ment of lowa^ Admission into the Union as a State — Des Moines — Davenport — Dubuque — The Lead Mines — Burlington — Frontier justice 910 MISSOURI. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Manufactures and commerce — Internal improvements — Educational .system — -Penal and charitable institutions — Keligious denominations — Libraries and newspapers — Financial condition of Missouri — Explanation of the State Government — ^Historv of Mi.«- souri — First settled by tiie French — Under Spanish rule — Restored to France — Events of the Revolution — A part of tlie Louisiana purchase — Organization as a Territory — Slavery agitation — The " Missouri Compromise "—Admission into tiie Union as a State^The Civil War — Jefferson City — Description of St. Louis— Rapid growth of the city — Its public buildings and institutions — Its commerce and manufactures— History of St. Louis — Missouri during tiie war of 1812-15 967 ARKANSAS. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — C'ommerce and manufactures — Internal im- provements — ^Edncational system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the State Goverrmient — History of Arkansas — Discovered by De Soto— A part of tlie Lou- isiana purchase— Admission of the State into the Union — Events of tlie Civil War — Description of Little Rock and Helena 980 KANSAS. Area— Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topograpliical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — ^Climate — Soil and productions — Internal improve- ments — Eilucational system — The Kansas Free Schools — Penal and benev- olent institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of tlie State Government — History of Kansas — A part of the Louisiana purchase — Made free soil by the Missouri Compromise — Organiza- tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska — Efforts to introduce slavery 26 CONTENTS. into Kansas — Struggle in Congress — The Border War — Foundation of free soil Settlements — Admission into the Union as a Free State — Troops furnished during the Civil War — Topeka — Leavenworth 993 NEBRASKA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on tlie globe — Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil and productions — Internal improvements — Educational system — Finances — Explanation of the State Government— History of Nebraska — A part of the Louisiana purchase — Admission into the Union as a State — Lincoln — The new capital — Omaha — Nebraska City 1005 NEVADA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topography — Mineral wealth — Tlie gold and silver mines of Nevada — Climate — Internal improve- ments — Educational system — Finances — ExjDlanation of the State Government — History of Nevada — Discovery of Silver — Carson City — Virginia City 1014 CALIFORNIA. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth of California — Climate — Soil and productions — Com- merce — Manufactures — Internal improvements — Educational .system — Penal and charitable institutions — Religious denominations — Libraries and news- papers — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Government — Plistory of California — Discovered and settled by the Spaniards — The Missions — Becomes a part of Mexico — Efforts to throw off the Mexican yoke — The American settlers take up arms — The war with Mexico — Acquisition of Cali- fornia — Discovery of gold — Enormous emigration — Admission into the Union as a State — Early disorders — The "Vigilance Committees" — DescriiJtion of Sacramento — San Francisco — A peculiar city — The Sand Hills — Rapid growth of San Francisco — Prosperity of the city — Its public buildings and institutions — The Chinese Marter — Commerce of San Francisco — History of the city — San Jose— San Francisco in 1848-9— "The Vigilance Committee" 1022 OREGON. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Jlincral wealth — Climate — Soil and productions — Commerce — Internal improvements — Educational system — Penal and benevolent Institutions — Religious denominations — Financial condition of the State — Explanation of the vState Government — History of Oregon — Discovery of the Columbia River —Expedition of Lewis and Clark — Astoria — Boundary disputes with Great Britain — The United States abandon their claim— Admission of Oregon into the Union as a State — Description of Salem — Portland 1061 COLORADO. Area — Population in 1870 — Position on the globe — Topographical sketch of the State — Mineral wealth — Soil and productions — Manufactures and Com- merce — Internal improvements — Educational system — Financial condition — Explanation of the State Goyefnraent — History — Denver 1070 CONTENTS. 27 THE TERKITORIES. ALASKA. General description of the Territory — Practical value of the purchase — History of Alaska — Description of Sitka 1075 ARIZONA. Topographical sketch of the Territory — Its mineral wealth — Capacity for agricul- ture — History of Arizona — Description of Tucson 1083 DAKOTA. Topographical sketch of the Territory — Its magnificent river system — Capacity for stock raising and agriculture — The Pioneer Schools — History of Dakota — Description of Yancton 1088 IDAHO. Description of the topograpliical features of the Territory — Its great mineral wealth — Capacity for agriculture — History of Idaho— Description of Boise City 1092 INDIAN TERRITORY. General description of the Territory — Description of the Indian inhabitants and the system of government — Ellbrts to organize the Territory 1097 MONTANA. Topographical sketch of Montana — A delightful climate — Capacity for agricul- ture and stock raising — Mineral wealth — History of Montana — Its rapid growth — Description of Virginia City 1099 NEW MEXICO. Topographical sketch of New Mexico— Capacity of the Territory for agriculture — Stock raising — Undeveloped mineral wealth — Hostility of the Indians — His- tory of New Mexico — Description of Santa Fe 1103 UTAH. Description of the physical features of the Territory— The mountain system — The great Basin— The Great Salt Lake— Irrigation necessary to the production of crops — What has been done for agriculture — Mineral resources — History of the Territory— Salt Lake City— The Mormon capital 1106 WASHINGTON. Topographical sketch of the Territory— The two great divisions— Climate- Agriculture — Mineral resources— The lumber trade — The Columbia Eiver — History of the Territory — Description of Olympia 1 117 23 CONTENTS. WYOMING. Description of the physical features of the Territory — Agriculture — Great mineral wealth — The Pacific Railway — History of Wyoming — Description of Cheyenne.l 1 '22 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES 112.3 WONDERS OF NATURE AND ART IN AMERICA. Our oldest inhabitant — The American flag — The Astor Library — Operations of the United States Mint — The Piny Wood.s — Tlie Indian sign language — The ice trade — An American enterprise — The Chicago lake tunnel — The Mount Washington railway — The New York clearing house — The oil regions — American glassware — The New York Post-Offioe — The salmon nursery in California — The fast mail sers-ice — The manufacture of tobacco — The Ice Mountain — The Natural Bridge — The St. Louis Bridge — Music by telegraph — The Croton Water Works — The bronze doors of the Capitol — An American picture — The LTnited States Observatory — The "Big Trees" of Caliibrnia — The Hoosac Tunnel — The Valley of Yosemite — The Signal Service — The Moqui Towns — The Yellowstone National Park 1141 A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT — ITS RESULTS — A CONTRAST 1211 11 1 lis Eli THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. The Continent of America, though not discovered until a very late period in the history of the world, is the second in size of the great natural divisions of the earth. It extends from Point Barrow (on the north), in latitude 71° 24' N., to Cape Froward, on the Straits of Magellan (on the soutli), in latitude 53° 53' 7" S.* It is known that the extreme northern lands of America extend beyond the seventy-eighth degree of North latitude, and the islands of Terra del Fuego prolong the land two or three degrees southward of the main land; but as these form no practical portions of our great division of the globe, we shall pass them by without further discussion. The mainland, which is alone embraced in our estimate, is 10,500 English miles in length, and includes every variety of climate, soil, produc- tion, race, and natural formation known, covering as it does an area of about 14,950,000 square miles. The Continent, taking this esti- mate as our guide, is four times larger than Europe, one-third larger than Africa, and one-half as large as Asia, including Australia and Polynesia. Its extreme breadth, north of the Equator, is between Cape Canso, in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout, in Oregon, a dis- tance of 3100 miles, and very near the forty-fifth parallel of North latitude. South of the Equator it attains its greatest breadth between * This calculation does not include the regions north of Point Barrow, or the Archipelago of Terra del Fuego. 31 32 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cape St. Roquc, in Bi-azil, and Cape Parina, in Peru, a distance of 3250 miles, and between the fourth and seventh parallel of South latitude. The physical features of this great Continent are among the most remarkable and interesting in the world. Constituting as it does about three-tenths of the dry land upon the surface of the globe, it is, in general, a region of great fertility. With the exception of about one-seventh, the entire Continent is susceptible of cultivation, and in its natural growths it is one of the most favored lands in tlie world. Its mineral resources are vast and inexhaustible, and embrace nearly every geological formation known to science. On the west side, the Continent is traversed by a vast range of mountains, ten thousand miles in length, stretching from Point Barrow on the north, to the Straits of Magellan on the soutli, and rearing their lofty sun:imits far above the region of perpetual snow. The rivers, bays, and lakes of America are the most magnificent and extensive in the Morld, and afford commercial advantages of the highest order. The Continent consists of two great peninsulas, known as North America and South America, connected by an isthmus called Central America. The relative importance of its great divisions may be seen from the following table, in which North and Central America are counted as one division : Engli-h Sqiinie >rilo.s. North America, 7,400,000 South America, 6,o00,000 Islands, 150,000 Greenland, and the islands connected with it, . 900,000 Total, 14,950,000 As it is not our purpose to devote any portion of this work to the other divisions of the Continent, we juiss at once to a brief considera- tion of the division of NORTH AMERICA. Including Central America, this great division of the Continent lies between the sixth parallel of North latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the north l)y the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of INIexico and South America, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its length on the Atlantic side, from Hudson's Straits to the Florida Channel, . THE UNITED STATES. 33 following the indentations of the coast, is about 4800 miles, and from thence to Panama about 4500 more, making a total length of 9300 miles. On the Pacific side, the length, counting the coasts of the Gulf of California, is 10,500 miles. The north and northeast shores are reckoned at about 3000 miles, which gives a total coast line of about 22,800 miles. According to Professor De Bow, the Superintendent of the Seventh Census of the United States, North America comprises an area of 8,377,648 square miles, an estimate which exceeds that already given by us. It is subdivided by him as follows : Square Miles. British America, 3,050,398 United States 3,306,865 Mexico 1,038,834 Russian America,* 394,000 Danish America (Greenland) 384,000 Central America, 203,551 8,377,648 The country lying north of the United States, and known as: British America, extends from the States to the Arctic Ocean. It is-, settled thickly along its southern and eastern borders, but the re- mainder is a vast, untamed region, too cold for colonization by Europeans, and inhabited only by a hardy race of Indians, and by a few whites engaged in the fur trade. The country along the southern, and eastern borders, however, is of the greatest importance. It pos- sesses a population of over three millions, and will compare favor- ably in its civilization and material prosperity with the States., adjoining it. South of the United States is a vast region, nominally a Eepublic,, but in reality a country afflicted with chronic anarchy, called Mexico.' Its people number nearly eight millions, and consist of a mixture of Spanish and Indians. They are but little more than half civilized, and are utterly incapable of conducting the government or developing the resources of their country, naturally one of the richest and most productive in the world. * Kqw a part of the United States, and known as Alaska. S THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Is the name given to the great and powerful Republic, occupying thr central portion of North America, and lying between Mexico and Br tish America. The Republic lies between latitude 24° 30' and 49° N., and between longitude 66° 50' and 124° 30' W. It is bounded on the north by British America, and is partly separated from that country by the River Saint Lawrence, and Lakes Superior, Huron, Saint Clair, Erie, and Ontario; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It has recently added to its territory that country formerly known as Russian America, now called Alaska, lying along the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, and between the fifty- eighth and seventy-second parallels of North latiludt, and the one (hundred and fortieth, and one hundred and severttieth degrees of iWest longitude. DIMENSIONS. This vast region covers an area of 3,306,865 square miles, and -comprises nearly one-half of North America. Its extreme length, from Cape Cod, on the Atlantic, to the Pacific Ocean, is about 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Madawaska, in Maine, to Key West, in Florida, is about 1600 miles. Its northern frontier line measures 3303 miles, and its southern line 1456 miles. Following • the indentations of the shore, its coast line on the Atlantic is 6861 miles, on the Pacific 2281 miles, and on the Gulf of Mexico 3467 miles, making a total coast line of 12,609 miles. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, and are marked by comparatively few indentations. The principal are San Francisco Bay and the Straits of San Juan de Fnca. On the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the shore is generally low, and depply indented by numerous inlets, the principal of which are Passamaquoddy, Fench- man's, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Buzzard's, New York, Rari- tan, Delaware, and Chesapeake Bays, and Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle Sounds on the Atlantic ; and Tampa, Appalachee, Appa- 34 THE UNITED STATES. 35 lachicola, Pensacola, Mobile, Black, Barataria, Atchafalaya, Ver- milion, Galveston, Matagorda, Aransas, and Corpus Christi Bays, on the Gulf ot" Mexico. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. The Republic consists of thirty-eight States and eight Territories. These are the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Ne- braska, Nevada, California, Oregon, and Colorado ; and the Terri- tories of Arizona, Dacotah, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and Washington. Besides these are the Indian Territory and Alaska. For convenience, the States are usually subdivided as follows: The ]^ew England States : — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut. 6. The Middle States : — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. 4. The Southern States : — Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. 10. ' The Western States : — Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Nebraska, West Virginia, and Colorado. 18. POPULATION. The following table will show the relative size and importance of the States and Territories, together with their population, and the date of their admission into the Union : 36 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ? » S g a as ^iW r?j ^ O.S 2 2 » 1'^ Hill? li li lliy lit till ^ ^ 1 11 H H- P C3 o 2. S 5 ■ 5J clT? C B" =■ 5- i : K-3 » d d p ~, — -- o 5" 3 0? c- )O000Q0aOODCO(XCO s:ciajO)^-:?ic;ic» > OO C« 00 oo c ' o O O' C;t a> ic — -" I— *00-s]--li-'OOC0»f-.^4;0Or-i-»0iCI0C0J0C:^l0t';^ai010'bS~^tD0*0000C000OC ) OO O 00 i-*GO C 00 h^ O 1^ . 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A — ^ Kl CO ^ CO !-• ^ OS «0 >^ ^ to en -1 O 00 'I *^oaO'-'OootocD-itot*»- J^.^J-* J^ '"' to CC i-» ^iiI^'^!:!'^T''H:rf;:;!*?9?:::?"::?'^ "-* o -^t co'b* qs k-i'cD o= "bo *- i-j'to co co oi *■ W jy'j-'jDj£Jj£>j:jnjo_c^^rf»,j» H-'j*i._p_;-^_CO tOCSOi^atCOitOOO*-i-»cnOscr. 5GO00CO4*!— 'cjic:* cp"rf^"toilD'co'to'*-"to"-4l7s"co~o"oTo"f-jlD"^"»-jl3>1r''o"olc -rT..«r^.. .^^nr,- -t,-.^^^.- ^^.- — cOM^^l-tCCCO^-tOOiCO^-I »ocooie;ic;ien— looicooocc p0OirOOi.G0C0i^COl0iOc0G000C04*i-'OiC:.00**t0iOC0tO*-l ^trT'-P-^*^'^^^'^'~'>*-enCcentO'— 'OOOO :n— lOOOtCi -qoii^rf^— if--cr'*-0itoooc;»)-'i-'cocot04-i— 'OCJ'tooii-'OM THE UNITED STATES. 3t RIVERS. The topographical features of the United States are varied and in- teresting, consisting of immense chaini^of mountains, numerous rivers, bays, and lakes, and vast plains inhabited only by savages and wild beasts. The majority of the bays along its coasts are the outlets of the great rivers of the Republic. These rivers may be divided into four distinct classes, viz: . . . . • . • I. Tlie Mississippi and its tributaries. II. The rivers which rise in the Alleghany chain and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. III. The rivers rising in the Southern States, and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. IV. The rivers which flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers of the first class are the Mississippi, Missouri, Wiscon- sin, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Yazoo, Minnesota, Des Moines, Arkansas, and Red. Those of the second class are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Connecti- cut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico or Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Great Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altaraaha. Those of the third class are the Appalachicola, Mobile, Sal)ine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, and Rio Grande. Those of the fourth class are the Columbia, San Joaquin, and the great Colorado of the West, the last of which flows into the Gulf of California. THE MISSISSIPPI RIYER Is the most important stream in the United States, and, together with its main branch, the Missouri, is the longest in the world. Its name is derived from an Indian word, signifying " The Great Father of AVaters." The Mississippi proper is the smaller branch (the Mis- souri reaching farther back into the interior), and it is%)mewhat sin- gular that it should have given its name to the whole stream. It rises in Itasca Lake, in the State of Minnesota, in a region kno\vn a's the Hauteurs de Terre, 1680 feet above tide level, in latitude 47^ 10' N., and longitude 94° 55' W. From this point it flows in a generally southward direction, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 29° N. Its total length, from its source to its mouth, is estimated at 2986 miles. 38 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOURCES. The main branch is called the Missouri River above the point of its junction with the smaller branch. The two rivers unite a short distance above the city of St. Louis. Under the present heading it is our })urpose to treat of the Mi^issippi proper, reserving the Missouri for discussion farther on. The Mississippi constitutes the great centre of a gigantic system of rivers, all of which unite in one grand channel and empty their waters into the Gulf The area drained by them comprises a very large por- tion of the interior of North America. The tributaries of the great rivor find their Avay to it through rich and populous States, and be- tween its source and its mouth it collects all the waters (with the single exception of those rivers flowing directly into the Gulf) of the immense region lying between the Alleghany and the Rocky Moun- tains. This region is usually known as the Mississippi Valley. Its southern boundary is the Gulf, and its northern limit the high hills in which rise the streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the lakes of British America. According to Charles Ellet, this region covers an area of 1,226,600 square miles, above the mouth of the Red River. The river, with its tributaries reaching far back into the neighbor- ing States and Territories, furnishes a system of inland navigation unequalled by any in the world. Steamers ascend the Mississippi itself from its mouth to the Falls of St. Anthony, in Minnesota, about 2200 miles, and above the falls the river is navigable for a consider- able distance. In 1858 a steamboat succeeded in ascending the stream to near the forty-ninth degree of north latitude. The Missouri is navigable to the foot of the Rocky Mountains; the Ohio, to its head, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and the Arkansas and the Red, each for more than 1000 miles. By means of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, the mountains of East Tennessee have water trans- portation to the Gulf; and the Illinois River steamers penetrate to the country just back of Lake Michigan. These rivers are all more or less crowded with steamers and other cr;ift, plying a trade in comparison with which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. Niuneroiis other branches of less extent empty into the main river, all of which are navigable to a greater or less degree. Below the mouth of the Red River, the main stream is divided into numerous branches, which are called bayous. Some of these, after pursuing an erratic course, find their way back to the Mississippi, while others THE UNITED STATES. 39. follow an independent course to the Gulf. The most important o^ these bayous is the Atchafalaya. The country lying between thi^ stream (after its departure from the great river), the Mississippi, and the Gulf, is known as the Delta of the Mississippi. The Delta is about 200 miles in length, with an average width of 75 miles. It comprises an area of 15,000 square miles, and is com- posed entirely of alluvion, the depth of which is estimated at 1000 feet. " The debris carried along with the flood is principally de- posited near the borders of the stream, the necessary result being that these portions have been raised to a much higher level than the ad- joining lands. In some places the slope is as much as eighteen feet in a distance of a few miles. The interior consists of vast swamps covered with trees, of which the tops only are visible during the floods. The river, for almost fifty miles from its mouth, runs nearly parallel with the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is separated at par- ticular places by an embankment only half a mile across." The alluvion plain extends above the Delta to a formation called the Chains, 30 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, a distance esti- mated at a little over 500 miles. The average breadth of this plain, which has been formed by the river itself, is about fifty miles, and its tolal area, including the Delta, about 31,200 square miles. Its height, at its northern extremity, according to Prof. Charles Ellet, jr., is 275 feet above the level of the sea. It descends this plain to the Gulf at the rate of about eight inches per mile. Its average de- scent along its entire course is about six inches to the mile. The river is very tortuous, especially after passing the mouth of the Ohio. Its curves are immense, often traversing a distance of twenty- five or thirty miles, in a half circle, around a point of land only a mile, or half a mile in width. Sometimes, during the heavy freshets, the stream breaks through the narrow tongue of land, forming a "cut- off," which frequently becomes a new and permanent channel, leaving the old bed a " lake," as it is called by the boatmen. But for the height of the banks, and the great depth of the river, the formation of these " cut-offs" would be quite frequent, and the stream would be constantly changing its course. Attempts to form "cut-offs" by arti- ficial means have generally failed. The river is remarkable for the constancy with which it maintains its average breadth of about 3000 feet. It rarely exceeds or falls short of this breadth except in the curves, which frequently broaden to near a mile and a quarter. The current is sluggish, except at high water, its depth at ordinary stages m OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. being 7h feet at the head of the plain we have described, and 120 feet flt its foot. Were the stream straighter, its current, which is now checked by the bends, would no doubt be too swift for navigation, and commerce would suffer. " One of the most important facts in regard to the Mississippi is, that it flows from north to south. A river that runs east or west has no variety of climate or productions from its source to its mouth. The trapper and husbandman descending the ' Father of AVaters,' constantly meet with a change of climate ; they take with tliem their furs and cereal grains, the products of the North, to exchange for the sugar and tropical fruits that are gathered on the banks below. Again, the floods produced by winter snows and spring rains cannot be simultaneously discharged. The course of the stream being from north to south, spring advances in a reverse direction, and releases in succession the waters of the lower valley, then of the middle section, and finally tiie remote sources of the Mississippi and its tributaries. It is a remarkable fact that the waters from this last-named region do not reach the Delta until upwards of a month after the inundation there has been abating. The swell usually commences toward the end of February, and continues to rise by unequal diurnal accretions till the 1st of June, when it again begins to subside. No experience will enable a person to anticipate, with any approach to certainty, the elevation of the flood in any given year. In some seasons the waters do not rise above their channels ; in others, the entire lower valley of the Mississippi is submerged. Embankments, called levees, have been .raised from five to ten feet high on both sides of the stream, extend- ing many miles above and below New Orleans. By this means the river is restrained within its proper limits, except at the greatest freshets, Avhen the waters sometimes break over, causing great destruc- tion of j)roperty, and even loss of life. The average height of the flood, from the Delta to the junction of the Missouri, is about 15 feet; at the mouth of the latter river It Is 25 feet; below the entrance of the Ohio, the rise is often 50 feet; at Natchez, It seldom exceeds 30 feet; and at New Orleans Is about 12 feet. This diminution is sup- posed to I'esult from the drainage through the Atchafalaya, Bayou La Fourche, and other channels breaking from the lower part of the river to the Gulf of Mexico. The flood often carries away large masses of earth with trees, which frequently become embedded in the mud at one end, while the other floats near the surface, forming snags and sawyers." * These snags are very dangerous to steamers navigating * Lippincott's Gazetteer. THE UNITED STATES. 41 the river, and formerly caused many terrible accidents. Recently they have been removed to a great extent by snag-boats and improved machinery. The Mississippi empties itself into the Gulf through several mouths, which are termed Passes. The navigation is here very seriously ob- structed by numerous bars, formed by the gradual deposit of the sedi- ment with which the water is heavily charged. These render it impossible for vessels of the largest class to reach New Orleans. Over these bars there is a depth of water, varying greatly at different times, and often measuring only fifteen feet. Steam tugs can force vessels drawing two or three feet more than the actual depth, through the soft mud of the river bed. Repeated efforts have been made to deepen the passes by dredging, but the channel has filled up again so rapidly as to make all such efforts futile. It Avas once attempted to deepen the South West Pass (the principal mouth) by driving piles along each side. It was thought that by thus confining the stream within a limited width, it would of itself excavate a deep channel. The effect, however, was to force the bulk of the flow through another mouth called Pass a I'Outre, which for the time became a better channel than the South West Pass. The navigation of the Upper Mississippi is broken in several places by falls and rapids, of which the principal are the Falls of St. Anthony, above St. Paul, Minnesota.* The Mississippi River was discovered by Hernando de Soto, in June 1541. He reached it, it is supposed, at a point not far below the present town of Helena in Arkansas. In 1673, Marquette and Jolliet descended the stream to within three days' journey of its mouth ; and in 1682, La Salle passed through one of its mouths to the Gulf, and took possession of the country along its shores, in the name of the King of France. In 1699, Iberville built a fort on the river; in 1703, a settlement was made on the Yazoo, a tributary, and called St. Peter's; and in 1718, the city of New Orleans was laid out. The levees of the lower Mississippi were begun in that year, and finished in front of New Orleans about 1728. The subject of the free navigation of the river occupied the earliest attention of the United States, and was the principal cause of the acquisition of lioui- siana, by purchase from France. The battle of New Orleans (as it is called) was fought on its banks on the 8th of January 1815. During * The prominent points along the river will be described in the chapters relating to the States. 42 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the late war, the Confederates undertook to close the navigation of the river, and succeeded in doing so for more than two years, when the control of it was wrested from thera by the Union forces. A number of severe engagements were fought on its banks, the principal of which were the battle of Belmont, in Missouri, and the conflicts at Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, New Madrid, Memphis, Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Grand Gulf, Baton Rouge, and Forts Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi are, on the east, the Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Yazoo ; on the west, the Minnesota, Dcs Moines, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. The total value of the steamboats engaged in trade on the Missis- sippi and its tributaries, is estimated at over $6,000,(JOO. THE MISSOURI RIYER. Though commonly regarded as the principal tributary of the INIis- sissippi, the Missouri is in reality the main stream, since it is longer and of greater volume than the other river. It derives its name from an Indian word signifying " Mud River." It rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of Montana, in latitude 45° N., longitude 110° 30' W. The springs in which it has its source are not more than a mile distant from the headwaters of the great Colum- bia River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean. The Missouri proper begins at the confluence of three small streams of about equal length — the Jefferson's, Madison's, and Gallatin's — which run nearly parallel to each other. For the first 500 miles of its course, the Missouri flows nearly north, then turning slightly to the E. N. E., it continues in that direction until it is joined by the White Earth River, in latitude 48° 20' N. It then bends to the southeast, and continues in that general direction until it joins the Mississippi, near St. Louis. Four hundred and eleven miles from its source, the river passes through what is called "The Gates of the Rocky Mountains." This pass is one of the most remarkable on the Continent. For nearly six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly from the water's edge to a height of 1200 feet. The river is confined to a width of only one hundred and fifty yards, and for the first three miles there is only one point on which a man could obtain a foothold between the rocks and the water. One hundred and ten miles below the "Gates" are the "Great Falls of the Missouri," which, after those of the Niagara, are the mostmagnifi- THE UNITED STATES. 43 cent in America. These falls consist of four cataracts, respectively of 2G, 47, 19, and 87 feet perpendicular descent, separated by rapids. They extend for a length of sixteen and a half miles, and the total descent in that distance is 357 feet. The falls are 2575 miles above the mouth of the river, which is navigable to them, though steamers do not usually ascend higher than the mouth of the Yellow Stone River. The Missouri is said to be 309G miles long from its mouth to its source, tliough it is believed that this estimate is a little too large. Add to this the length of the lower Mississippi, 1253 miles, and the total distance from the Gulf to the source of the Missouri, is 4349 miles — making it the longest stream in the world. It is generally turbid and swift, and upon entering the INIississippi, i)ours a dense volume of mud into that until then clear stream, and forever changes its hue. At the confluence of the two rivers, the water of the Mis- sissippi refuses to mingle with that of its muddy rival, and the current of the Missouri may be easily distinguished for some distance below. There is no important obstacle to navigation below the Great Falls, except that during the long hot summers the water is apt to be too low for any but the smallest steamers, owing to the fact that in its upper course the river passes through an open, dry country, where it is subject to excessive evaporation. Below the. Falls it is bordered by a narrow alluvial valley, very fertile, and capable of being highly cultivated. Back of this valley lie extensive prairies. The river is half a mile, wide at its mouth, and is in some places much wider. It receives all the great rivers rising on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, witli the single exception of the Arkansas River, and the majority of the streams between its own bed and the Mississippi. For the most part it flows through a savage or thinly settled region, and has but few important cities or towns on its banks. The princi- pal of these are Omaha City, in Nebraska, Atchison and Leavenworth, in Kansas, and St. Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, Jef- ferson City, and St. Charles, in Missouri. Its principal tributaries are the Yellow Stone, Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, (greater) White Earth, Ni-obrarah, Platte or Nebraska, Kansas and Osage, on the right; and the Milk, Dacotah, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and Grand, on the left. These streams, with the Mis- souri, drain the entire country north of St. Louis, and between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains — ^an area of 619,400 square miles. 44 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE OHIO RIYER Is the first great tributary of the Mississippi, flowing into it below the mouth of the Missouri. It was called by the early French settlers La Belle Riviere (the beautiful river), and its Indian name is said to have a similar meaning. It is noted for the uniform smoothness of its current, and the beauty of the valley through which it flows. It is formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. It flows in a generally W. S. W. direction, separating the States of West Virginia and Ken- tucky from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and empties into the Missis- sippi at Cairo, Illinois, 1216 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The total length of the Ohio is 950 miles. The length of the valley through which it flows is only 614 miles, the windings of the river making up the difference. Its average breadth is a little over 600 yards. Its elevation at Pittsburg is 680 feet above the level of the sea, at Cincinnati, 414 feet, and at Cairo, 324 feet, giving an average descent of about 5 inches to the mile. The current is placid and uni- form, having a medium force of about 3 miles an hour. Like all the western rivers, it is subject to great variations of depth. In the win- ter and spring it is very high, the spring rise being sometimes as great as 60 feet; and in the summer it is so low that it may be forded in many places above Cincinnati. The writer, when a lad, has fre- quently waded from the Virginia to the Ohio shore. At high water, steamers of the first class ascend to Pittsburg, but at low water only the lightest draft vessels can navigate it, and even these do so at a constant risk of running on a sand bar, and being compelled to remain there until the late summer and fall rains swell the stream again to an extent sufficient to float them. At Louisville, Kentucky, the only falls of the river occur. Tiie descent is here about 22| feet in two miles. The current is very swift, but in high water first-class steam- ers pass over the rapids. A canal has been cut around them to the river below, by means of which the obstruction they present to navi- gation has been partly overcome. Formerly the river trade was most important and extensive. Of late years, however, it has been very much reduced by the competition of tiie railroads, but is still im- mense. The Ohio, for the greater part of its course, flows through a narrow, but beautiful valley. The hills, from two hundred to three hundred feet high, are covered with an almost continuous forest of a dark rich green hue, and come down so close to the water that at THE UNITED STATES. 45 times they seem to shut it in entirely. Though beautiful, the scenery is monotonous, and is rather tame. The river contains fully one hundred islands, some of which are exceedingly valuable and beautiful. There are also a number of '' Tow Heads," as they are called — small sandy islands, covered with willows, and utterly barren. Below Louisville the country becomes flatter, and by the time the Mississippi is reached, tiie hills have entirely disappeared. The valley of the Ohio is ex- ceedingly fertile, and is rich in various kindS of minerals. Its principal tributaries are the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, and Wabash, on the right, and the Great Kanawha, Big Sandy, Green, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee, on the left. The most im- portant are the Wabash, Cumberland, and Tennessee, the last of which is the largest. The Tennessee and its tributaries reach far back into the mountains of that State and Virginia, and the headwaters of the Alleghany rise in the southern part of the State of New York and in Potter County, Pennsylvania. Between them and the waters which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Chesapeake Bay, there is only a slight elevation, and a distance of but a few acres. The area drained by the Ohio and its tributaries is about 200,000 square miles. The country through which the Ohio flows is a prosperous agricul- tural region, and a number of large and thriving cities and towns are located on its banks. Its various prominent features will be noticed in other portions of this work. THE ARKANSAS RIVER Is the next important tributary of the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio. Next to the Missouri, it is the longest affluent of the great river. It rises in the Rocky Mountains near the centre of Colo- rado, and flows easterly for several hundred miles, after which it turns to the southeast and continues in that general direction until it reaches the Mississippi, in latitude 30° 54' N., longitude 91° 10' W. It enters Arkansas at Fort Smith, on the western frontier, and divides the State into two nearly equal portions. In the upper part of its course it flows through vast sterile plains, but after entering the State which bears its name, continues its way through a region of considerable fertility. It is 2000 miles long from its source to its mouth, and is not obstructed by rapids or falls. It varies in width from three furlongs to half a mile. Its current is turbid and sluggish. The difference in the height of the water in the 46 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. floods and the dry seasons is about 25 feet. For the greater part of the year it is navigable by steamers for a distance of 800 milts froir. its mouth. The most important town on the river is Little Rock, the the capital of the State. The last important tributary of the Mississippi is THE RED RIVER. This stream is formed 'by the confluence of two principal branches, of which the southern and larger rises in New Mexico, a little beyond the western boundary of Texas, in latitude 34° 42' N., longitude 103° 7' 10" W.; the northern in Texas, in latitude 35° 35' 3" N., hmgi- tude 101° 55' W. These two branches unite in latitude 34° 30' N., longitude 100° W., in the State of Texas, and constitute the main river, which then flows nearly due east, forming the boundary between the Indian Territ(»ry and Texas. Upon reaching the Arkansas line, it passes into that State to Fulton, near the border, when it bends to the south and enters Louisiana. Then turning to the southeast, it flows across the last named State and empties into the Mississippi, 341 miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Its length, including the South Fork, is estimated by Colonel Marcy, U. S. A., by whom the river was explored, at 2100 miles — the main stream being 1200 miles long. According to this authority, the South, or main. Fork, rises in the fissures of an elevated and sterile plain, called the Llano Estacado, at an altitude of 2450 feet above the sea. For the first sixty miles the sides of the river rise from 500 to 800 feet so directly from the water that the exploring party were obliged -to pass up through the channel of the stream. "After leaving the Llano Estacado," says Colonel Marcy, "the river flows through an arid prairie country, almost entirely destitute of trees, over a broad bed of light shifting sands, for a distance of some 500 miles, following its sinuosities. It then enters a country covered with gigantic forest trees, growing upon a soil of the most })reeminent fertility; here the borders contract, and the water for a great ]iortion of the year washes'both banks, carrying the loose allu- vium from one side, and depositing it on the other, in such a manner as to produce constant changes in the channel, and to render naviga- tion difficult. This character continues throughout the remainder of its course to the Delta of the Mississippi ; and in this section it is subject to heavy inundations, which often flood the bottoms to such THE UNITED STATES. 41 a degree as to destroy the crops, and occasionally, on subsiding, leaving a deposit of white sand, rendering the soil barren and Avorthless." Shortly after leaving its sources, the Soutli Fork passes through a vast bed of gypsum for a distance of 100 miles, which gives to its waters an intensely bitter and unpleasant taste, causing them rather to augment than diminish thirst. The river is navigable during the greater part of the year to Shrevej)ort, 500 miles from its mouth. Small steamers can ascend about 300 miles farther in high water. About 30 miles above Shreveport is an immense collection of rub- bish known as the "Great Raft," which forms the principal obstacle to the navigation of the upper river. It consists of driftwood and trees, which have been brought down for hundreds of miles by the current, and lodged here. This raft obstructs the channel for a dis- tance of seventy miles, and for a considerable portion of the year causes the river to overflow the country along its banks. In 1834-35 it was removed by the Government of the United States at a cost of $300,000, but a new raft has formed since then. In very high water small steamers pass around it. Tiie principal tributaries of the Red River are the Little Washita and Big Washita. The other rivers, which are national in character — by which .we mean not lying entirely or for the greater part in one particular State or Territory of the Union — are the Rio Grande, the Great Colorado of the West, the Columbia, and the St. Lawrence, the first and last of which form a portion of the boundaries of the Republic. THE EIO GRANDE Rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of New Mexico, near latitude 38° N., and longitude 106° 30' W. Its course is at first southeast, then E. S. E., and finally nearly east. It forms the boundary between the State of Texas and the Republic of Mexico, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, near latitude 25° N., and longi- tude 97° W. It is 1800 miles long, and is for the most part very shallow. Sand bars are numerous and render the stream almost unfit for navigation. SiDall steamers have succeeded in reachincr Kinos- bury's Rapids, about 450 miles from the Gulf About 900 miles from its mouth the river is only three or four feet deep. This point is called the "Grand Indian Crossing," because the Comanche and 48 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Apachee Indians ford the stream here in their incursions from Texas into Mexico. The principal town on the river is Brownsville, 40 miles from its mouth, and opposite the Mexican city of Mattamoras. THE COLORADO EIYER, Or, as it is sometimes called, the Great Colorado of the West, to dis- tinguish it from the Colorado River, of Texas, rises in latitude 44° N., in Idaho Territory, and, flowing through Utah Territory, and along the borders of Nevada, California, and Arizona, empties into the Gulf of California, near latitude 32° 30' N. From its source to the 36th parallel of North latitude, where it is joined by the Grand and Little Colorado Rivers, it is known as the Green River. It has several small tributaries between its source and the Great South Pass. At this pass, it receives the Big Sandy Creek, at an elevation of 7489 feet above the sea. Just on the other side of the mountains are the Wind and Sweetwater Rivers, two of the principal tributaries of the Upper Missouri. From the South Pass, the Colorado flows in a generally southwest direction to its mouth. It is about 1200 miles long, and, with the exception of the Columbia, is the most important stream west of the Rocky Mountains, but, in spite of its great length, the volume of water which it discharges is comparatively small. "About 490 miles above its mouth commences the great defile in the mountains called the Black Cailon, 25 miles long, through which the river has forced its way. The banks in many places are very pre- cipitous, from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and for a long distance the river is unapproachable. A steamboat under the command of Lieut. Ives, U. S. Topographical Engineers, ascended the stream early in 1858, and passing a portion of the great cailon reached the head of navigation at the head of Virgen River. Few obstacles except shift- ing sand bars were met on the voyage. The explorations of Lieut. Ives, Avho traversed the valley of the river from its mouth to latitude 36° N., and the greater part of the regions along latitude 35° and 36° as far east as the Rio Grande, and the previous reconnoissances con- nected with the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, have made known interesting facts connected with the region watered by the Colorado. In its valley is found a large extent of fertile bottom land, easily cul- tivated by artificial irrigation. This valley varies in width from three to eight miles. The greater part of it is covered with timber, chiefly Cottonwood and mezquit. Other portions are cultivated by the nu- THE UNITED STATES. 49 raerous tribes of Indians who live along its banks, affording tliera an abundance of wheat, maize, melons, beans, squashes, etc. Cotton is also cultivated by such of the Pueblo Indians as are acquainted with the art of weaving. Some jjortions of the country are uninhabitable; others are rich in silver, copper, and lead, besides containing gold and mercury in small quantities. According to an estimate made by the U. S. officers who have explored the Colorado, there are about 700 square miles of arable land between the mouth of the Gila and the 35th parallel of North latitude. After receiving the Gila, the Colo- rado takes a sudden turn westward, forcing its way through a chain of rocky hills, 70 feet high, and about 350 yards in length. In this passage it is about GOO feet wide, but soon expands to 1200 feet, which it retains. After sweeping around 7 or 8 miles, it assumes a south direction, and with a very tortuous course of nearly 160 miles reaches the Gulf of California. The bottom lands are here from 4 to 5 miles wide, and covered with a thick forest. On a rocky emi- nence at the junction with the Gila stands Fort Yuma. Near the fort are the remains of the buildings of the old Spanish Mission established here in the early part of the last century, and in the valley are traces of irrigating canals, which show that it has once been cultivated." * The average depth of water between Fort Yuma and the Gulf of California Is 8 feet. Spring tides rise 25 or 30 feet, and neap tides 10 feet. There is regular communication by means of small steamers between Fort Yuma and the mouth of the river. At low water there is a draught of 4 feet at the Fort, and in high water 13. feet. The channel at the mouth of the river is continually changing, and has been known to shift from one bank to another in the course of a single night. There is also a heavy tidal wave at its mouth, which renders it difficult and dangerous for any but the. lightest draught steamers to enter the stream. When the freshets occur,, the river overflows its banks, submerges a part of the California Desert, and fills up several basins, and what is known as New River.. This water is left in the basins and New River when the main stream returns to its proper channel, and continues in them for about two years, when it is absorbed by the soil, or dried up by the sun. The mouth of the Colorado was discovered in the year 1540, by Fernando Alarchon, who undertook a voyage to the Gulf of Cali- fornia, by order of the Viceroy of Spain. He described; it as " a very mighty river, which ran with so great a fury of stream that we could! * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol. v. p. 502. 50 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. hardly sail against it." He sent an expedition, consisting of two boats, some distance up the river. In 1700, a Mission was estab- lished by Father Kino near the site of the present Fort Yuma, at the mouth of the Gila. The name of the Colorado signifies "the Red River," its waters being stained by the red earth along its course. Its principal tribu- taries are the Grand, San Juan, White, Little Colorado, Virgen, Wil- liams, and Gila Rivers. The Mohave was formerly supposed to be a tributary, but is now known to empty into Soda Lake, in California. THE COLUMBIA RIVER Is the principal body of water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from the Continent of America. It rises in a small lake on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, about latitude 50° N., longitude 116° W. Its first course is towards the northwest, along the base of the Rocky Mountains, until it is joined by its most northern tributary, in about 53° 30' N. latitude, after which it flows in a southerly direction to the 46th parallel. From this point to the Pacific it runs due west, forming the boundary between the State of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is extremely tortuous between the 46th and 48th parallels of North latitude. This is the case until Fort Wallawalla is reached. It is very rapid, and frequently passes through mountain gorges and over falls. The tide ascends to the foot of the Cascades, 140 miles from the sea. The Cascades are a series of rapids caused by the pas- sage of the river through the Cascade range of mountains. Between o o o each of the rapids there is an unbroken stretch of the river for about 25 or 30 miles. Steamers ply on the lower river, on the clear waters between the Cascades, and for some distance above the last fall. Passengers and freights are carried around the falls by railroad. Vessels of 200 or 300 tons burthen navigate the stream to the foot of the Cascades. For 30 miles from its mouth, the Columbia forms a splendid bay from 3 to 7 miles in breadth, through which it dis- charges its waters into the Pacific. There is about 20 feet water on the bar at its mouth, but the depth of the channel is 24 feet. The principal tributaries of the Columbia are the Lewis and Clark Forks, which, uniting, form the main river, the McGillivray's, or Flat Bow River, Okonagan, Fall River, Wallawalla, and Willa- mette. The Lewis Fork is sometimes called the Snake River, and the Clark Fork, the Flathead River. The total length of the Columbia, from its source to the sea^ is about 1200 miles. THE UNITED STATES. 51 KAPIDS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. THE SAINT LAWRENCE PJVER Forms a portion of the boundary between the United States and tlic Canadas, and though washing the shores of the Union for but a part of its course, cannot be passed over in this chapter. Some geogra- phers, in consequence of its forming the outlet of the chain of lakes upon the northern frontier of the Union, regard it as commencing at the source of the St. Louis, which rises in Minnesota and flows into Lake Superior. Viewed in this light, it flows through the great lakes, and its total length from the head of the St. Louis to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, would be 2200 miles. Its course to the head of I^ake Erie would be in a generally southeast direction ; and from the head of Lake Erie to the sea, in a generally northeast direction. Viewing it in this light, we must regard the Ste. Marie, between Lakes Huron and Superior; the St. Clair and Detroit, between Lakes ^Huron and Erie; and the Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, as forming parts of the St. I/awrence. By the St. Lawrence River, however, is most commonly meant that portion of it lying between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of St Lawrence. This constitutes a lai'go river 750 miles long, having an average breadth of half a mile, ar.'J 52 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. navigable for steamers to the Gulf. Ships of the line ascend to Que- bec, and vessels of 600 tons to Montreal, in Canada. Above Mon- treal the navigation is interrupted by numerous rapids, around which a canal has been cut. The river forms the boundary of the United States from the foot of Lake Ontario to the extreme northwestern corner of the State of New York. Ogdensburg and Cape Vincent are the principal American towns on its banks. LAKES. The principal lakes of the United States, are Lakes Superior, Micliigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, lying along the northern frontier, and the Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory. LAKE SUPERIOR Is the largest body of fresh water in the world, and the principal of the chain of great lakes extending along the northern boundary of the United States. It lies between latitude 46° 30' and 49° N., and longitude 84° 50' and 92° 10' W. It forms a species of crescent, with its convexity on the north, and its concavity on the south. Its greatest length, from east to west, measured through the curve, is 420 miles, and its gr'eatest breadth, from north to south, 160 miles. The total length of its coast line is about 1750 miles. It covers an area estimated at 32,000 square miles. It is 630 feet above the level of the sea, and has an average depth of one thousand feet. Its shape is very irregular. It is very Avide at its centre, but narrows slightly towards its eastern end, and very much towards its western end. The shore on the north side is bold and rocky, and consists of almost continuous ranges of cliffs, which rise to a height varying from 300 to 1500 feet. The south shore is flat and sandy, as a gene- ral rule, but near the eastern side is broken by limestone ridges, which rise to a height of near 300 feet, in strange and fantastic forms, worn into numerous caverns. These have been cut by the action of the great waves, especially during the season of the floating ice, and have been colored by the continual drippings of mineral substan- ces. From the earliest times they have been known as the " Pictured Rocks." They lie to the east of Point Keweenaw, and form one of the most wonderful of the natural curiosities of the New World. Is- lands are very numerous towards the south and north shores, but the centre of the lake is free from them. The islands towards the south THE UNITED STATES. 53 are generally small, but those along the north shore are often of con- siderable size. The largest is Isle Royal, which is about 40 miles long, and 7 or 8 miles wide. Its hills rise to a height of 400 feet, with fine bold shores on the north, and several excellent bays on the south. Near the western end of the lake is a rocky, forest-covered group, called the Apostles' Islands. They are exceedingly pictur- esque in appearance, and form a prominent and interesting portion of the scenery of the lake. On the extreme southwestern end of the largest, is La Pointe, a famous fur trading post, and well known as the principal rendezvous for the hardy adventurers of the lake region. Lake Superior receives its waters from more than 200 streams, about 30 of which are of considerable size. These drain an area of 100,000 square miles, and furnish the lake with water remarkable for its clearness, and abounding in fish of various kinds, but especially in trout, white fish, and salmon. The rivers are almost all unfit for navigation, by reason of their tremendous currents, rapids, and rocks. The outlet of the lake is at the southeastern end, by means of St. Mary's Strait, or as it is sometimes called, St. Mary's River, Avhich connects it with^Lake Huron and the other great lakes. This strait is about 63 miles long, and enters Lake Huron by three channels. It is very beautiful and romantic in its scenery, at some places spread- ing out into small lakes, and at others rushing in foaming torrents over the rocks that seek to bar its way, or winding around beautiful islands. It is navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water, from Lake Huron to within one mile of Lake Superior, at which point falls obstruct the navigation. This part' of the strait is called the Sault Ste. Marie. A canal has been constructed by the General Gov- ernment around the rapids. It is 100 feet wide and 12 feet deep, and affords unbroken communication between Lakes Superior and Huron. The falls have a descent of 22 feet in three-fourths of a mile, and are exceedingly beautiful. The strait also separates the State of Michigan from Canada West. The greatest obstacles to the navigation of the lake are the violent storms that sweep over it. Until very recently it was an almost unknown region, but now there is constant steamboat communication along its entire length, and it is frequently visited by persons in search of pleasure or health. The principal export of the lake is copper, which is found in large quantities, and of a superior quality, along its shores. The total ship- ments of this metal, from the period of its discovery on the lake down to the close of the year 1871, amounted to over $30,000,000. 54 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Fond du Lac, and Duluth, at the western end of the lake, are the principal settlements on its shores. For many years the savage settlements along the lake were mere fishing villages, and even at the period of its discovery, the Indians had made bnt few lodgments here. Attention was first drawn to it by its valuable fur trade, and the early Jesuit missionaries reached it about tiie year 1641. They established their first mission at the head of the Bay of Pentanguishene (in Georgian Bay), and ])assed up in a canoe to the Sault Ste. Marie, where they found a village of 2000 Chi])pewa Indians, and heard from them of the great lake beyond, Avliicl) was explored by the missionaries about 20 years later. In 1G68, a permanent mission was established at the Sault Ste. Marie, and in 1671, the region was formally taken possession of in the name of the King of France. The mines were first worked in 1771 and 1772, by an Englishman named Alexander Henry, whose enterprise proved unprofitable. General Lewis Cass, by order of the Government of the United States, explored the region in 1820, and since then it has been growing in importance, and has yearly become better known io tlie people of the country at large. LAKE HURON Is the third in size of the great inland seas we are describing. It lies between latitude 43° and 46° 15' N., and longitude 80° and 84° W. It receives the waters of Lake Superior by the St. Mary's River, and of Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinaw, and empties into Lake Erie by the St. Clair River. It is bounded on the S. S. W. by the State of Michigan, and on all other sides by Canada West. A long peninsula called Cabot's Head, and the Manitouline chain of islands divide it into two unequal portions. Those portions lying to the north and east are generally called Manitou (the Great Spirit) Lake, or the North Channel, and Manitouline Lake, or Georgian Bay. The general outline of the rest of the lake is in the form of a crescent, pursuing a S. S. E. and N. N. W. course. Its extreme length, fol- lowing the curv^e, is about 280 miles. Its greatest breadth, exclusive of Georgian Bay, is 105 miles. Its average breadth is about 70 miles, and it covers an area of 20,400 square miles. The surface of the water is elevated 19 feet above Lake Erie, 352 feet above Onta- rio, and 600 feet above the level of the sea. Its average depth is over 1000 feet. Off Saginaw Bay, which indents the coast of Michi- gan, leads have been sunk 1800 feet without finding the bottom. I THE UNITED STATES. 55 The waters of the lake are remarkably pure and sweet, and so ex- ceedingly transparent that objects can be distinctly seen 50 or GO feet below the surface, The lake is said to contain upwards of 3000 is- lands. It is subject to frequent fearful storms, but its navigation is not considered dangerous. Steamers ply between its various ports, and pass through the Straits of Mackinaw into Lake Michigan. There are many fine harbors on the coast, and the local trade is im- portant. The scenery is romantic and beautiful, and is much admired by travellers. The outlet of Lake Huron is by the St. Clair River, Avhlch leaves the lake on its southern extremity. It has an average breadth of half a mile. It pursues a southerly course for forty miles, forming a part of the boundary between the United States and Canada, and empties into Lake St. Clair. It is navigable for large vessels. Lake St. Clair lies between Canada and the State of Michigan, in latitude 42° 30' N., longitude 82° 3' W. It is 30 miles long, has a mean breadth of 12 miles, and is 20 feet deep. It is thickly inter- spersed with islands, and receives the waters of the Thames, Clinton, and Great Bear Creeks, and other streams. At its southwestern ex- tremity it flows into the Detroit River, which connects it with Lake Erie. This river is in reality a mere strait 25 miles long, and from half a mile to a mile wide. The entire passage between Lakes Huron and Erie is navigable for large vessels. LAKE MICHIGAN Lies wholly within the limits of the United States, and is the largest lake included within the territory of the Republic. The greater por- tion of the lake lies between the State of Michigan, on the east, and Illinois and Wisconsin, on the west; but the upper portion is entirely within the State of Michigan. The lake is situated between 41° 30' and 46° N. latitude, and between 85° 50' and 88° W. longitude. It bends slightly to the N. E. in the upper i)art, and its extreme length, following the curve, is about 350 miles; its extreme width 90 miles. It has an average depth of about 900 feet, and covers an area of 20,000 square miles. As a general rule, the shores of the lake are low, and are formed of limestone rock, clay, and sand. The sand thrown on the east shore by the heavy seas which prevail during storms, soon becomes dry, and is carried inland by the winds, where it is piled up in hills to a height of from 10 to 150 feet. The form of these hills is constantly changing. The lake is said to be gradually 56 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. moving westward, or, in other words, to be leaving the shore of Michigan, and encroaching upon that of Wisconsin. There are very few islands in Lake Michigan, and these lie to- wards its northeastern extremity. It has but few bays on its shores, and still fewer good harbors. Little Traverse Bay, Grand Haven, and Green Bay are the principal. As the lake is subject to terrible storms throughout the year, it is not considered very safe for naviga- tion. Previous to the completion of the railroads, however, its com- merce was very great, and several lines of fine steamers ran between Chicago, Illinois, and Buffalo, New York, on Lake Erie. There are many steamers and other craft still on the lake, but the railroads have taken away nearly the entire passenger, and much of the freight business. Lake Michigan is connected with Huron and the other lakes by the Straits of Mackinaw, or Mackinac. The lake is usually free from ice by the last of March, but the Straits of Mackinaw are frozen over until late in April. Fish abound in the lake, are caught in great quantities near Mackinaw, and are sent to the various parts of tte Union, packed in ice. The principal cities and towns on Lake Michigan, are Chicago, Racine, Milwaukee, and Sheboygan, on the west side, and Michigan City and Grand Haven, on the east side. There are 23 lighthouses and 4 beacons on the lake. LAKE ERIE Lies between Canada West, on the north, a part of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, on the south, Michigan on the west, and New York on the east. It is situated between 41° 25' and 42° 55' N. latitude, and between 78° 55' and 83° 34' W. longitude. It is elliptical in form, is 240 miles long, has an average width of 38 miles, its greatest width being 57 miles, and has a total circumference or coast line of 658 miles. Its depth is less than that of any of the other great lakes, being only 270 feet in its deepest portion. Its average depth is estimated at 120 feet. It is 322 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, which distance is overcome at a single effort by the falls of the Niagara. The shallowness of Lake Erie offers a great obstacle to navigation, inasmuch as the shoal portions freeze over regularly every winter. There are scarcely any naturally good harbors on the lake. Those now in use require to be deepened and protected by artificial means. Not- THE UNITED STATES. 5t withstanding the fact that the raih'oads have drawn off an immense amount of trade^ and in spite of the obstacles presented by the lake itself, its commerce is still very great. The trade of the port of Buifalo alone is estimated at over $85,000,000 annually. The total trade of the lake is over $220,000,000 annually. A large nuralier of steamers and other vessels are engaged during the season of naviga- tion, which lasts from about the 1st of April to about the 1st of De- cember. The principal harbors on the American side, are those of Cleveland, Sandusky City, Toledo, Buffalo, Erie, and Dunkirk. Those on the Canadian side are Ports Dover, Burwell, and Stanley. The shores of the lake are in many places of a very unstable nature, and yield easily to the action of the water, causing frequent dangerous " slides," as they are called. Buffalo has suffered considerably from this cause. The waters abound in fish, the principal of which are the trout and white fish. Several species of pike, the sturgeon, sisquit, muskelonge, black bass, white bass, and Oswego bass are found. There are 26 lighthouses and beacons on the American, and 10 on the Canada shore. Communication is maintained between Lakes Erie and Ontario by means of the Welland Canal, which is cut through the Canadian peninsula. The Maumee, Sandusky, Grand, Huron, Raisin, and several other rivers flow into the lake. The most violent storms sweep over it, particularly in the months of November and December, causing many shipwrecks and considerable destructioa to life and property. The outlet is by the Niagara River, which commences at Black Rock, about 4 miles north of Buffalo. It is 34 miles long, and has a general northward course. About 7 miles from Buffalo, the river divides and encloses a large island, called Grand Island, 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 miles wide. Two or three miles below Grand Island are the famous Falls of Niagara, which will be described in the chapter relating to the State of New York. The river is navi- gable above the falls from a short distance above the rapids to Lake Erie — nearly 20 miles ; and from its mouth to Lewiston, 7 miles. It is spanned by two fine suspension bridges. On the 10th of September 1813, Commodore Oliver N. Perry, in command of a small American squadron, defeated a British fleet of superior force near Put-in-bay, a harbor among the Bass Islands, near the Avestern end of the lake. This victory completely destroyed the British power along the shores of Michigan. 58 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. LAKE ONTARIO Is the smallest and most easterly of the five great lakes of America, and is situated between latitude 43° 10' and 44° 10' N., and between longitude 76° and 80° W. It runs nearly due east and west, and divides the State of New York on thescuth from Canada on the north. It.is 190 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 55 miles. It covers an area of 5400 square miles, is about 230 feet above the tide water in the St. Lawrence, and has a depth of about 600 feet. It is navigable throughout its entire extent for ships of the line, and has several fine harbors, the principal of which are Oswego and Sackett's Harbor, on the New York shore, and Kingston, Toronto, and Hamil- ton, in Canada. The lake is rarely closed with ice to any extent, ex- cept in the shoal water along the shore, and never freezes over. It receives the waters of the upper lakes through the Niagara, and those of the Genesee, Oswego, and Black Kivers, in the United States. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal. It contains a number of islands, the largest of which, Amherst Island, is 10 miles long, and 6 miles broad. The waters of the lake are very clear and abound in a variety of fine salmon, trout, bass, and other fish. A number of steamers and other vessels are engaged in the lake trade, Avhich is important, amoupting to between $35,000,000 and $40,000,000 per annum. During the war of 1812-15, the United States and Great Britain maintained powerful fleets on Lake Ontario, and in the course of the war several severe engagements occurred on the lake between the op- posing forces. Besides the five great lakes already described, there are a number of others which will be referred to in connection with the States in which they are situated. MOUNTAINS. The principal mountain ranges of the United States are the great Alleghany range on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west. THE ALLEGHANY OR APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. This is the general term applied to the vast system of mountains in the southeastern part of North America, extending from Maine to the northern part of Alabama, pursuing in their course a general southwestward direction. As the range passes through different THE UNITED STATES. 59 ALLEGIIAXY MOUNTAINS. States, it is called by different names. The distance of this chain from the sea varies along its course. In New Hampshire, near its northern termination, it is less than 100 miles from the ocean, and at its southern end the distance from the sea is 300 miles. In New England and New York the chain is broken and irregular, some of its ranges running almost north and south, but in the States south of New York, the ranges are very continuous, and run for the most part parallel to the main ridge. In common usage, the term Alleghany Mountains applies almost exclusively to that portion of the range lying in and south of the State of Pennsylvania. The White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, and the Adirondacks of New York, are considered outliers of this great chain, as are also the Catskills, of the latter State. The entire length of the main range, not counting its lateral groups, is 1300 miles. Its extreme width, which occurs in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about half way in its length, is 100 miles. The highest summits of the Appalachian chain are Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, 6470 feet, Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, 6226 feet, and Mount Marcy, in New York, 5467 ^eai, above the level of the sea. The entire range is rich in the most interesting" geological forma- 60 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tions. Nearly all the minerals known to the Continent are found in these mountains. The scenery is grand, and the atmosphere pure and invigorating. Numerous railroads cross the range, or pierce it with their tunnels. The great western range is known as THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. These are a continuation northward of the Cordilleras of Central America and Mexico. They enter the United States at the southern extremity of New Mexico and Arizona Territories, near latitude 31° 30' N., and pass up the entire western side of the Republic, into British America. They are divided into several ranges, and cover an area 1000 miles wide from east to west. The most easterly range extends through New Mexico, Colorado, AVyoraing, and Montana Territories, and forms the boundary between Wyoming and Id^ho, and Idaho and Montana. It includes the Span- ish Peaks, Pike's Peak, and the Wind River Mountains, the last of which contain Fremont's Peak, 13,570 feet high. West of this great range is a smaller one, called the Wahsatch Mountains, lying south of the Great Salt Lake. These mountains, under other names, pass northward, to the east of Salt Lake. In Utah they cover a wide district, and their ridges spread out in various directions. The ridge known as the Uintah Mountains extends east and west. The M'estern division of the Rocky Mountains enters the State of California from the Peninsula of Old California, and soon breaks into two ranges, the lowest of which, known as the Coast Range, runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of from 10 to 50 miles from the sea until the northern part of California is reached, when it rejoins the higher range, which is called the Sierra Nevada, which runs parallel to the Coast Range, at a distance of 160 miles from the sea. F;-om the point of the reunion of its branches the range pursues its way northward into British America, the two ridges being again divided in Oregon and Washington Territory, the lesser retaining its own name, and the Sierra Nevada being styled the Cascade Range. The summits of the Sierra Nevada are generally above the line of perpetual snow, while the Coast Range has an average height of from 2000 to 3000 feet. Several of its peaks, however, rise to more than double that altitude. Mount Ripley is 7500 feet, and Mount St. John 8000 feet high. Mount Linn is still higher, but its exact altitude has not yet been ascertained. Mount Shasta, at the point of the union of the two ranges in Northern California, is 14,440 feet high. THE UXITED STATES. ei TIOCKY MOUNTAINS* " Between the highest ridge of the Rocky Mountains on the east, and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade E-ange on the west, is a vast region of table land, which in its widest part extends through fourteen de- grees of longitude ; that is about 700 miles from east to west. Humboldt, in his 'Aspects of Nature/ observes that the Rocky Mountains, be- tween 37° and 43°, present lofty plains of an extent hardly met with in any other part of the globe ; having a breadth from east to west twice as great as the plateaus of Mexico. In the western part of the great central plateaus above described, lies the Great Basin, otherwise called Fremont's Basin, from its having been first explored by Colonel Fremont. It is situated between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch Mountains, and is bounded on every side with high hills or moun- tains. It is about 500 miles in extent, from east to west, and 350 from north to south. It is known to contain a number of lakes and rivers, none of whose waters ever reach the ocean, being probably taken up by evaporation, or lost in the sand of the more arid districts. As far as known, the lakes of this basin are salt, except Utah Lake. The largest of these, the Great Salt Lake, is filled with a saturated solution of common salt ; it has an elevation of 4200 feet above the sea." * * Lippincott's Gazetteer. 62 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Owing to the broad base and gentle rise of the Hocky Mountain Range, it is crossed with comparatively little difficulty. Its passes are among the finest on the globe, and will vie in grandeur of scenery with any of those of the old world. We have already spoken of the rivers wdi.ich rise upon the slopes of this great range, and shall pass them by for the present, to return to tliem again in other portions of this work. SOIL. The soil of the United States " presents almost every variety, from the dry sterile plains in the region of the Great Salt Lake, to the rich alluviums of the Mississippi Valley. It can most conveniently be described by following the seven great divisions indicated by the river system of the country, viz., the St. I^awrence basin, the Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, the Texas slope, the Pacific slojie, the inland basin of Utah, sometimes called the Great or Fremont Basin, and the basin of the Red River of the north. L The St. Lawrence basin embraces parts of A'^crmont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi- ana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Michigan; it is an elevated and fertile plain, generally well wooded. 2. The Atlantic slope includes all New England except a part of Vermont; all of New Jersey, Delaware, the District of Columbia, South Carolina, and Florida ; and portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, A^^ir- ginia. North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It may be subdivided into two regions, a N. E. section and a S. W. section, separated by the Hudson River. The former is hilly, and generally better adapted to grazing than tillage, though some parts of it are uatiu'ally fertile, and a large proportion is carefully cultivated. The S. AV. section may be again divided into a coast belt from 30 to 150 miles in width, running from Long Island Sound to the mouth of the IMississippi, and including the whole peninsula of Florida; and an inland slope from the mountains towards this coast belt. The former^ as far south as the Roanoke River, is sandy and not naturally fertile, though capable of being made highly productive; from the Roanoke to the IMississippi it is generally swampy, with sandy tracts here and there, and a considerable portion of rich alluvial soil. The inland slope is one of the finest districts in the United States, the soil con- sisting for the most part of alluvium from the mountains and the de- composed primitive rocks which underlie the surface. 3. The Mis- sissippi Valley occupies more than two-fifths of the area of the LIFE TX XP:W K.NOLAXI), 177G. I THE UNITED STATES. 65 Kepublic, and extends from the Alleghany to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to British North America, thus includ- ing parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the Territories north of Nebraska and east of tiic moun- tains. It is for the most part a prairie country, of fertility unsur- passed by any region on the globe, except perhaps the Valley of tiie Amazon. The ground in many places is covered with mould to the depth of several feet, in some instances to the depth of 25 feet. The northwest part of tiie valley, however, offers a strong contrast to the remainder. There is a desert plateau 200 to 400 miles wide, Ij'ino- at the base of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation 2000 to 5000 feet above the sea, part of it incapable of cultivation on account of the deficiency of rain and lack of means of irrigation, and part naturally sterile. 4. Tiie Texas slope includes the southwestern country of the Mississippi Valley, drained by rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and embracing nearly all of Texas, and portions of Louisiana and New Mexico. It may be divided into three regions : a coast belt from 30 to 60 miles wide, low, level, and very fertile, especially in the river bottoms; a rich, rolling prairie, extending from the coast belt about 150 or 200 miles inland, and admirably suited for grazing; and a lofty table-land in the northwest, utterly destitute of trees, scantily supplied with graSs, and during a j^art of the year parched M'ith complete drought. Almost the only arable land in this section is found in the valleys of the Rio Grande and a few other streams. 5. The Pacific slope, embracing the greater part of California, Oregon, and AVashington Territory, and parts of New Mexico and Utah,* is generally sterile. That part, however, between the Coast Range and the ocean, and the valleys between the Coast Range, and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, are very fertile, and the same may be said of a few valleys and slopes among the Wahsatch and Rocky Moun- tains, though these are better adapted to pasturage than to anything else. 6. The great inland basin of Utah, which includes besides Utah parts of New Mexico, California, Oregon, and Washington, is probably the most desolate portion of the United States. It abounds * To this add a part of Colorado, and all of Nevada and Idaho, formerly included in Oregon, and in Utah and Washington Territories. 66 . OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in salt lakes, and there are only a few valleys where the soil acquires by irrigation eiiough fertility to afford a support for man. 7. That portion of the basin of the Red River of the north which belongs to the United States is confined to the small tract in the northern part of Dacotah and Minnesota; it contains some very productive lands, especially in the river bottoms." * CLIMATE. The climate of the United States is varied. It could not possibly be uniform in a country presenting such a wide diversity of physical features in its various parts. In Florida, the thermometer does not vary over twelve degrees during the year, but in the remainder of the country the climate is exceedingly variable, and the changes are sudden and severe, often ranging over thirty degrees in the course of a few hours. Alternations from rain to drought are also as common and severe as those from heat to cold and from cold to heat. The summers are always hot. The thermometer frequently ranges as liigh as 110° F. In the North, however, the hot weather does not con- tinue in full vigor for more than a few days at a time, and in the South, the heat is seldom so extreme, though it continues for a longer time. California has a climate as mild as that of Italy, but the North-Eastern States are swept by the chill winds from the Atlantic and the ice fields of British America. The great lakes mitigate to a considerable extent the temperature of the country around them. A similar effect is produced upon the temperature of their surrounding regions by the elevated plains of New Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. The following table shows the average temperature of each of the seasons of the year on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the interior : Place op Obskrvation. Fortress Monroe (noar Norfnlk, \i\.). Fort CoUimlius (N«w York Iliirbor).. Fort Sulliviiii CKastport, Maine) St. Louis, Missouii Chicago, Illinois Fort Ripley, Minnesota Monterey, Calif irnia San Franci^ro, Calif.)riiia t Astoria, Oref;oii Latituije. Spring. Summer. Autumn. ■Winter, 37° 50-87° 70-57° 61CS° 40-45° 40° 42' 48-74° 7-2-10° 54-55° 31-38° 44° 1.-/ 40-1.5° 60-50° 47-52° 23-90° 88° 4(J' 54-1.=)° 70-19° 55-44° 32-27° 41° r.2' 44-90° 67-33° 4^-85° 25-90° 4f.° 19' 39-33° 6494° 42-91° 10-01° 3G° ofi' 53-99° 58-04° 57-29° 51-2-2° 37° 4S' 54-41° 57-33° 56-83° 50-sn° 4f)° 1 1 ' 51-16° 61-5S° 53 70° 42-43° Year. 5S-K9° 51-69° 43-02° 54-51° 40-7i° 39-30° 55-29° 54-88° 5-2-230 * Appleton's Cyclopsedia, vol. xv. p. 716. f Id. p. 717. THE UNITED STATES. 67 Rain is abundant in nearly all parts of the Union, and is distributed over the country in a very nearly equal degree throughout the year. In the Atlantic States south of Washington City, the fall is less regu- lar than in the States north of the Capital, but is more plentiful than in the latter, and occurs more frequently in summer than in winter. On the- Pacific coast, the fall of rain is periodical, occurring chiefly in the winter and spring, and south of the fortieth parallel of North latitude, in the autumn also. Very little rain falls between the Cascade Range and the one-hundredth meridian of West longitude. When rain does visit this region, it comes in violent showers, which are especially severe in the mountains. The annual fall in the desert region through which the Colorado flows, is estimated at 3 inches; in the great plain south of the Columbia River, 10 inches; in the desert east of tVie Rocky Mountains, from 15 to 20 inches. Scarcely any of this falls in the summer.* Snow falls in the Northern States to a considerable depth. In the Lake Superior country, more or less snow falls every day during the winter, and remains on the ground until the spring. It is compara- tively rare south of the James River, in Virginia, and does not remain on the ground very long. In the Gulf States, it is scarcely ever seen except in the extreme northern portion. The most dangerous local diseases, of the New England and Middle States, are pulmonary complaints; of the Southern States, bilious fevers, and yellow fever along the Gulf coast ; of the Western States, intermittent and bilious fevers, and dysentery. The "fever and ague" prevails chiefly in new regions, and disappears as they become thickly settled. The following table, taken from the eighth census of the United States, will show the ratio of mortality in each State, for the year end- ing June 1st, 1860 : * Appleton's CyclopiEdia. 68 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. States and Territories. Alabama Ai'kuiisas .. Califciniia Connecticut Delaware I'lorida Georgia llliiiuia... Iiuliatia Iitwa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massacliusetts Michi<>:an Minnesota MissisMippi Missouri . New llampsliire New Jersey Now York ■ North Carolina Ohio ^ Oregon Pennsylvania Rliode Island Snutli Carolina Tennessee » .Texas A'ertnont *. Virginia 'AVisconsin Colorado D:lCotMb Ni'braska Nevada New Mexici Utah AVasliington District of Columbia Total, United States, 12,7.30 8,8S5 3,704 6,138 1,246 1,7G4 12,810 19,299 15,325 7,2,'-.9 1,443 10,466 12,234 7.GU 7,370 21 ,303 7,390 1,108 12,213 17,652 4,409 7,-525 40,881 11,002 24,724 237 S0,2U 2,479 9,745 15,153 9,377 8,355 22,472 7,141 i S81 392.S21 74 48 101 74 89 78 81 87 87 92 73 C9 67 81 92 57 100 153 64 05 84 93 218 95 69 71 72 63 92 70 107 71 100 22S 1C4 2-C6 0-G9 1-35 1-13 1-28 1-23 114 1-15 1-09 1-37 1-45 1-TG 1-23 1-09 1.76 1-CO 65 1-57 1-52 1-39 114 1-22 119 107 0-46 1-03 1-44 1-41 1-39 1-58 1-03 1-43 0-93 1-34 1-42 0-94 0-44 1-72 1-27 rrom this table, it will be seen that "Washington Territory is the first in point of health fulness, Oregon second, Minnesota third, \yis- consin fourth, Utah fifth, California sixth, Massachusetts twenty-ninth, and Arkansas thirtieth. MINERAL WEALTH. The mineral productions of the United States are varied and ex- tensive. Coal exists in all the States except ISIaine, Vermont, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Wisconsin. Three distinct qualities are found — anthracite, bitumi- nous and semi-bituminous. In 1870, the production amounted to — Of antliracite 15,664,275 tons. Of bituminous 17,199,415 " Total - . . . . 32,863,690 " There are valuable and extensive beds of marl in Maine, New Jer- sey, Maryland, Virginia and several other States. Salt springs, some THE UNITED STATES. 69 of them of very great strength and value, are found in New York, Michigan, Virginia, Kentucky, and Arl^ansas. Nitrates of soda and potassa are found in the caves of Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas, while the plains of the great American desert and the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains furnish considerable quantities of nitrate and carbonate of soda. Gyj)sura, or sulphate of lime, is found in Maine, Maryland, and Texas, and in portions of New Mexico and Arizona. Marble, of every variety required for building, exists in nearly all the States. In those bordering on the Mississippi, a fine, compact car- bonate of lime supplies its place. Iron exists in every State and Ter- ritory, and in every form known, from the bog ore, which contains about 20 per cent, of iron, to the pure metal. In the year 1870, the total product of iron ore taken from the mines was estimated at 3,395,718 tons. Of this amount, Pennsylvania produced 1,095,186 tons. There are small quantities of lead in a large number of the States ; but Missouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois alone contain the great lead deposits of the country. An incomplete return for 1870 places the value of the lead production of the Union at $736,004. The great copper region of the Union lies along the shores of Lake Superior, but the metal has been found in considerable quan- tities in Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. The ore found in the Lake Superior region yields from 71 to 90 per cent, of pure copper. The total product for 1870 was 20,000 tons, valued at $5,201,312. Zinc is found in Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey — the yield in the whole Union in 1870 being valued at $790,000. Tin is found in Maine to some extent, and also in California. Silver is found in connection with almost all the deposits of lead and copper ; and in Nevada, Arizona and Now Mexico, extensive veins of a fine quality exist. These are being well worked, but at present there is no accurate return of the total products of the mines. Silver also exists in California, North Carolina and Colorado. Small quantities of gold exist in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Alabama, and Tennessee. The gold veins are more im- portant in Virginia and Georgia, which formerly furnished the greater part of the gold found in the United States. The mines of the At- lantic Statte, however, are comparatively neglected at present for those of the Pacific States. Immense deposits of gold exist in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Dacotah. Platinum and mercury are also f )und in California — 1!.< former in small quantities, but the yield of the latter is so great as U 70 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. almost supply the demand for it for raining purposes. Osmium and iridium have been discovered in Oregon. They are used in manufac- turing gold pens. Cobalt is found in North Carolina and Missouri. Pennsylvania, in 1860, yielded 2348 tons of nickel. Chromium ex- ists in Vermont, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and JNIary- land ; and Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and South Caro- lina supply considerable quantities of manganese. PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. The native vegetation of the United States is too vast and varied to admit of a description here. We can only say that it covers a wide range of plants and trees, from the giant trees of California to the tiniest flower that blooms on the hill side. Nearly all the prin- cipal productions of the frigid, temperate and torrid zones are found within the limits of the Republic. None of the great staples of food are natives of the country, but have been brought from other lands. It must be admitted, however, that they have been greatly benefited by the change, and many of them are produced here in finer qualities than in their old homes. Cucumbers, melons, squashes, and all the edible Cucurbitacece are importations. So are the most of the fruits, especially the apple, pear, plum, quince, and apricot. The edible berries, such as the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, whortleberry, bilberry, cloudberry, etc., are natives of the soil. Cotton, flax, and hemp are naturalized plants. ANIMALS. The zoology of the United States includes all the animals found on the North American Continent. Of bats, there are three genera and eleven species. The largest of the Sarcophaga or Carnlvora, is the cougar or catamount, which ranks next to the lion and Bengal tiger in ferocity and strength. This animal is sometimes called the Amer- ican panther, an erroneous appellation, as the panther is not a native of this country. The wild cat or bay lynx, and the Canadian lynx are found. The entire monkey tribe is lacking. There are seven species of the fox — the common red, the cross fox, the black or silver, the prairie, swift, gray, and short-tailed fox. The wolves are divided into two distinct species, the gray wolf of the woods, (divided into the reddish, black, and giant wolf,) a cowardly animal, and the fero- cious prairie wolf, which resembles the jackal of the East. The THE UNITED STATES. 71 Digitigrada consist of the pine marten or American sable, the Ameri- can fisher, the American ermine, the weasel, and two species of mink. The black, and the grisly bear, the badger, wolverene, skunk, and raccoon are found in various parts of the country. Several varieties of the seal family exist. The deer, the antelope, the Rocky Moun- tain or big horn sheep, also abound. The bison, which is usually but incorrectly called the buffiilo, is found in the far West. Nearly all the birds, fish, reptiles, and insects of America are found in the vari- ous parts of the Union. " The domestic animals of the United States have been, with one or two exceptions, introduced from Europe. The horse, though not native to this continent, became wild at an early period, and now roams in large herds in the plains of Texas, but is domesticated with- out great difficulty. There have been at different times stocks intro- duced from England, France, Spain, and some from Morocco and Arabia ; much attention has been paid to the breeding of these ani- mals, and some of them have not been surpassed in speed or other good points. The asses are mainly from Spain and Malta; the cattle from Great Britain ; the goats from the south of Europe, though some efforts have been made to introduce Asiatic species; and the sheep from the Southdown, Saxon, and Spanish Merino breeds. The swine are of various stocks; one breed, common in Central and Western Virginia and other mountainous districts, is tall, long, and gaunt, and of ferocious nature and uncertain origin ; l)ut the most common breeds are the Berkshire (English) and Chinese, and crosses upon these. Our domestic dogs and cats are, with few exceptions, of European origin. The brown or Norway rat was an importation from tiie country whose name it bears, but has now been nearly de- stroyed by a more powerful and ferocious black rat, said to be from the south of Europe. Efforts have been made, but with no very satisfactory result, to introduce the llama of South America into our mountainous districts. The attempt to acclimate the Bactrian camel in Texas and California, gives promise of greater success."* CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION. The people of the United States consist of representatives of every nation in Europe, and of many in Asia and Africa. For a long time after the Revolution the characteristics impressed upon certain parts * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 726. 72 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the country by the original settlers remained in their full force with their descendants, but at present the rush of emigration has been so great from all parts of Europe, that these have been either very much weakened or entirely destroyed. The New England States were originally settled by the Puritans, antl to the present day still retain many of the strongest of tiie pecu- liarities of their forefathers. The gradual but steady increase of their Irish population is working great changes, however, in these States. The city of Boston is being especially affected in this manner. New York was settled by emigrants from Holland, and though the eastern portion of the State has scarcely any traces of its origin left, the inte- rior possesses still many communities, which not only retain very many of the customs and chnraiteristics of the old settlers, but in which, until a very recent period, the Dutch language was spoken to a considerable extent by those born on the soil. Maryland was settled by Catholics, who have not yet lost their controlling influence in the State. Delaware and New Jersey were settled by the Swedes. Pennsylvania was colonized by English Quakers, who were followed by many German fiimilies. The descendants of these classes still control the State — the Quakers, as of old, living in the eastern, and the Germans in the southwestern, western, and central portions. Virginia was settled by the English, who were followed by many French Huo-uenots and Germans. These settled in three distinct parts of the State — the first settlers along the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, the French along the U})per James, above the falls, and the Germans in the rich valley of the Shenandoah. These dis- tinctions were strongly preserved as late as the period of the rebel- lion. North Carolina was settled by non-conformists from Virginia. South Carolina, by English Churchmen and French iTuguenots, who had not lost the control of the State at the time of the rebellion. Georgia by English prisoners for debt, followed by other classes from the mother country. Louisiana was settled by the French, and was inhabited chiefly by them when purchased from the French crown. Texas and California were originally Spanish, and, to a great extent, are still so. The latter State has a strong Chinese element in it. Florida was originally Spanish, and still retains its original character- istics along the Gulf Coast. The other States and the Territories were settled by adventurers from the older portions of the country, and by emigrants from Europe, who still continue to flock to our shores in great numbers. The following tables will show the number THE unitp:d states. 73 of arrivals of emigrants in this country for a period of fifty-one years, or from January 1st, 1820, to September 30tb, 1870, their national- ities and destinations : Wholly or nuniibj of English Speech. EriRland 501,316 lirliiiid l,40ii,0;JO Sc.itliind 82,4():5 Wiiles 12,213 Other Great Britain 1,S24,078 Briti8h America 271,1X5 Australia Aiiores Beriiuidas St. Helena Cape cif GiKid Ilupe.... New Zealand Sandwich Islands Malta Jamaica < 240 6,036 01 33 88 17 35 127 85 Total English speech ...4,104,553 Wliolly or m.ninly of Germanic and Scandinavian Speech. .822 ,983 ,904 ,104 ,221 905 850 ,209 11 Germany 2,250. PruHfia 100, Austria 7. Sweden and Norway 151. Denmark 23. Holland 30, Bel;;nim 16. Swit/eihind 61, Iceland Total Germanic 2,643,0r.9 Wholly or mainly of Llavic Races. Russia 2,930 Poland 3,95.5 Hungary Total Slavic 4S8 7,373 Wliolly or mainly Prench. Spanish, Portuguese and Ilalian. France '. 245,147 Spain 23,090 Portugal 4,416 Italv 23,.-,S7 Saniinia 2.103 .MexiGO _ 20,039 Central America 1,007 Gniamt 53 Venezuela 40 Peru.. 36 Chili 28 Brazil 45 Buenos Ayres 7 Bolivia 3 New Granada 2 Paraguay 1 Other South America...... 7.407 Cuba 3,900 Ilayti 81 Porto Rico 50 Other West Indies 45,458 Cape de Verdes 71 Madeira 313 Canaries 290 Miquelon 3 Corsica 11 Sicily 075 Total French, etc 377,889 Wholly or mainly nf Asiatic Uaces. China 108,010 215 178 33 i 14 24 79 7 5 Japan . India Arabia Syria Persia Asia (general) East India Islands.. Society Islands Pacific Islands Total Asiatic 109,109 Wholly or mninh/ of Afri'-an Na- tions, with Turkey and Greece. 64 20 5 471 11 299 195 Liberia ^:Kypt Abyssinia Africa (general) . Barbary States.. Turkey Greece Total, Africa, etc l,O05 From countries not speci- fied 205,807 Aggregate since 1820 7,448,925 NUMBER OF EMIGRANTS IN EACH YEAR. 1820 1821 8,385 9,130 1833 1834 1822 6,911 1835 1823 6,354 1836 1824 1825 1826 7,912 10.199 10 837 1837 1838 1 8:59 1827 18,875 1840 1828 27,382 1841 1829 22,520 1842 1830 1831 1832 23,322 22,633 60,482 1843 1844 1845 58,640 1846 65.365 1847 45,374 1848 76,242 1849 79,340 1850 38,914 1851 68,072 18.52 84,000 1853 80,289 18.54 104,565 1855 52,496 1856 78,615 1857 114,371 18.58 154. 234, 226. 297. 309. 379. 371. 308. 427, 200, 200, 251 123. 416 ,968 527 ,041 ,903 ,406 ,603 ,615 ,833 ,877 .436 306 ,126 1859 18t>0 1801 1802 1803 1864 1865 1866 1807 IStiS 18f,9 1870 (9 mos.) .. tal , 121,282 153,040 , [11,920 . 91,987 . 170,282 . 193,418 . 248,120 . 318,554 . 298,358 . 297,215 . 385,287 . 285,422 .7,448,925 AVOWED DESTINATION OP EMIGRANTS LANDED AT CASTLE GARDEN, FROM AUGUST \, 1855, TO JANUARYS, 1870, BEING 2,340,928 PASSENGERS. New York and undecided.. 972,207 Eistern Slates. M'line New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut 4.013 2,859 4.405 111.129 21,430 39,109 Total Eastern States.... 183,005 Central States. New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland Delaware District of Columbia, Total Central States... Northwestern Slates. Ohio 120,428 Michigan 52,205 Indiana 29,576 Illinois 213,315 Wisconsin 121,660 Minnesota 29,,360 Iowa 44,286 Missouri 44,309 Kan8a.s 5,052 Nebraska 4,198 Total Northwest. States. 664,389 Pacifc Slates and Territories. Nev.ada 80 California 22,823 Oregon 189 317,162 1 Washington Territory 6 Colorado New Mexico Idaho Dacotah Montana Utah Wyoming Total Pacific States Southeastern States. Virginia. West Virginia.... North Carolina., South Carolina., Georgia Florida Alabama 47,172, 8,235 172 784 1,854 1,623 199 577, Total Southeast. States. 13,444 74 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. AVOWED DESTINATION OF EMIGRANTS— Connimed Southwestern Slates. Missouri 44,309 Kentucky 11,057 Tennessee Arkansas Mississippi Louisiana...: Texas Total Southwest. States. Other Places. 60,828 1,028 816 New Brunswick 5.56 Cuba 349 210 141 113 Vancouver's Island 6 i;; 2 1 1 British Columbia 466 1 China 6 .... 22 035 Total .... 76.572 Previous to 1820, no exact account was kept of the arrivals of emi- grants from foreign countries ; but as near as can be ascertained, the number was as follows : From 1790 to 1800 50,000 " 1800 " 1810 . , 70,000 " 1810 " 1820 . - . 114,000 Total 234,000 This added to the number of emigrants since 1820, gives a total number of 7,682,925 emigrants since the formation of the Federal Government. Since 1871, the number of arrivals has been unusually small, the "hard times" and other causes having operated to decrease emigration. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the principal interest of the United States, and is growing in importance every year. A brief glance at each of the great staples in detail will be interesting and useful. Maize, or Indian Corn. Maize is the principal production of the United States, and is cultivated in every State and Territory of the Republic. It is best adapted to the soil and climate of the country, and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. It is generally a sure crop where it is properly cultivated. The method of cultivation is substantially that of the Indians, from whom the white settlers learned it in 1608, in which year they first planted it in tlie vicinity of Jamestown. At present the yield varies from 20 to 135 bushels to the acre. In 1870, the total product of the country amounted to 769,944,549 bushels. The States which produced the greatest num- ber of bushels that year, stand as follows: Illinois, 129,921,395 bushels; Missouri, 66,034,075 bushels; Ohio, 67,501,144 bushels; Indiana, 51,094,538 bushels; Kentucky, 50,091,006 bushels; Ten- nessee, 41,343,614 bushels; and Iowa, 68,935,065 bushels. The THE UNITED STATES. 75 product of the other States ranged from 9000 to 60,000,000 bushels. The first was the yield of Nevada, the smallest of all. Wheat. This graih ranks next to Indian Corn in importance, and when the climate and soil are adapted to its growth, is preferred bv the American farmer to all others. Considerable care is exercised in its culture, and the greatest ingenuity has been displayed in the effort to. improve the means of cultivation, and with best results. The wheat region of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, is situated between the 30th and 50th parallels of North latitude. On the Pacific coast, however, it extends several degrees farther north. As a general rule the wheat of America, especially that of the great wheat producing States of the Atlantic coast, is superior to any other in the world. At the London Exhibition, wheat from Genesee County, New York, won the prize medal from the Royal Commissioners. The total yield of wheat for 1870 amounted to 287,745,626 bushels. The product of the principal wheat producing States was as follows : Illinois, 30,128,405 bushels; Wisconsin, 25,616,344 bushels; Iowa, 29,435,692 busheh; Indiana, 27,747,222 bushels; Ohio, 27,882,159 bushels; California, 16,676,702 bushels; and Pennsylvania, 19,672,- 967 bushels. Rye is raised in all the States, but principally in the Eastern and Middle States. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey produce more than half the quantity raised in the whole country. There is a decided increase in the Western States, and in Maryland and Dela- ware. In the New England States it has decreased. The total pro- duct for 1870 was 16,918,795 bushels. Pennsylvania raised 3,577,641 bushels; New York, 2,478,125 bushels; New Jersey, 566,775 bush- els ; and Wisconsin, 1,325,294 bushels. Barley is grown in the Atlantic States, between the 30th and 50th degrees of North latitude, and on the Pacific coast between the 20th and 62nd degrees of North latitude. The two-rowed barley is principally cultivated because of the fulness of its grain, and its exemption from smut. It yields from 30 to 50 bushels to the acre, and will average about 50 pounds to the bushel. Very little of it is exported, as nearly the whole crop is used at home for the manufacture of beer, ale, etc. The demand for it is increasing. The crop of 1870 amounted to 29,761,305 bushels, or more than five times the amount produced in 18-50. The States yielded as follows: California, 8,783,- 490 bushels; New York, 7,434,621 bushels; Ohio, 1,715,221 bush- els; and Wisconsin, 1,645,019 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Florida, 12 bushels. 76 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Buckwheat is raised principally in the New England and Middle States. The average yield is from 30 to 45 bushels to the acre, though in some good soils it has yielded as much as 60 bushels. The crop of 1870 amounted to 9,821,721 bushels. Pennsylvania pro- duced 2,532,173 bushels; New York, 3,904,030 bushels ; and Ohio, 180,341 bushels. Oats. This grain constitutes one of the most important crops of the country, and flourishes in sections where the heat or cold is too great for wheat or rye. It is grown principally in the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 282,- 107,157 bushels. New York produced 35,293,625 bushels; Penn- sylvania, 34,702,006 bushels; Ohio, 25,347,549 bushels; Illinois, 42,780,851 bushels; Wisconsin 20,180,016 bushels; and Iowa, 21,- 005,142 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Louisiana, 17,782 bushels. Peas and Beans were largely cultivated by the Indians before the settlement of the country by the whites. At present they are grown as a field crop, principally in the Eastern, Middle, and Southern States. The yield averages from 25 to 40 bushels per acre, weighing about 64 pounds per bushel. The crop of 1870 amounted to 5,746,- 027 bushels. Mississippi produced 176,417 bushels; Georgia, 410,- 020 bushels; North Carolina, 532,749 bushels; South Carolina, 460,378 bushels; and New York, 1,152,541 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Nevada, 414 bushels. Rice was first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, in 1647; into the Carolinas in 1694; and into Louisiana in 1718. It is confined chiefly to a few of the extreme Southern States, where the climate is favorable to it, and the supply of water plentiful. The yield is usually from 20 to 60 bushels to the acre, weighing from 45 to 48 pounds to the bushel, when cleaned. The yield for 1870 was 73,635,021 pounds. South Carolina produced 32,304,825 pounds; Georgia, 22,277,380 pounds; Louisiana, 15,854,012 pounds; North Carolina, 2,059,281 pounds; Mississippi, 374,627 pounds; and Ala- bama, 222,945 pounds. It has been grown in Illinois, California, Missouri, Kentucky, New York, and Virginia, though of an inferior quality. Potatoes. The Irish or White Potato ranks next to wheat and corn in the industry of the Republic. The yield depends upon the soil and climate, and the manner of cultivation, and varies from 50 to 400 bushels, the average being less than 200 bushels to the acre. It THE UNITED STATES. 77 suffers frequently from the " rot." The crop of 1870 amounted to 143,337,473 bushels. New York produced 28,547,593 bushels; Pennsylvania, 12,889,367 bushels; Ohio, 11,192,814 bushels; and Illinois, 10,994,790 bushels; Indiana, 5,399,044 bushels; Massachu- setts, 3,025,446 bushels; Michigan, 10,318,799 bushels; New Plamp- shire, 4,515,419 bushels; New Jersey, 4,705,439 bushels; Vermont, 5,157,428 bushels; and Wisconsin, 6,646,129 bushels. Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato is a native of the E-ist Indies, and was introduced into the Colonies soon after the settlement of Vir- ginia. It is now extensively cultivated in the Southern and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 21,709,824 bushels. Georgia produced 2,621,562 bushels; North Carolina, 3,071,840 bushels; Alabama, 1,871,360 bushels; Mississippi, 1,743,432 bushels; and South Carolina, 1,205,683 bushels. Louisiana, New Jersey, Ten- nessee, and Texas each produced over a million of bushels. Hay. The production of hay is confined principally to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, comparatively little being raised in the Southern States. The product of 1870 amounted to 27,316,048 tons. New York produced 5,614,205 tons ; Pennsylvania, 2,848,219 tons;. Illinois, 2,747,339 tons; and Ohio, 2,289,565 tons. Hops. The hop crop for 1870 anaounted to 25,456,669 pounds, and of this the State of New York produced 17,558,681 pounds, or more than one-half of the entire amount produced in the United States. Tobacco is indigenous to Central America, and was cultivated in various parts of the Continent before the discovery by Europeans. Columbus, in 1492, was offered a cigar by an Indian Chief on the Island of Cuba. In 1585, Sir Richard Greenville found it and saw- it smoked in Virginia; and in 1616, it was extensively cultivated by the Colonists in that province. It is cultivated to a greater or less extent in nearly all the States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 262,- 735,341 pounds. Virginia produced 37,086,364 pounds; Kentucky, 105,305,869 pounds; Tennessee, 21,465,452 pounds; Maryland, 15,- 785,339 pounds; North Carolina, 11,150,087 pounds; Ohio, 18,741,- 973 pounds; Missouri, 12,320,483 pounds; and Connecticut, Indiana, and Massachusetts each produced more than 7,000,000 pounds. The rebellion almost destroyed the cultivation of tobacco in the Southern States, and it has not yet been fully resumed. Sugar and Molasses. The sugar-cane is said to have been intro- duced into Florida, Louisiana, and Texas at the period of their first 78 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. AVESTEIiN HOMESTEAD. settlement by the French and Spaniards. It does not thrive beyond the 33d degree of North latitude, or the 35th of South latitude. A very small quantity (283 hhds. in 1860) was raised in the Avarmest section of Wisconsi-n. The crop of 1870 amounted to 87,043 hogsheads of one thousand pounds each, of which Louisiana produced 80,706 hhds. In the same year the amount of cane molasses manufactured was 6,- 593,323 gallons. Louisiana produced 4,585,150 gallons. About the year 1858, a hardier species called the Sorghum, or Chi- nese sugar-cane, adapted to the climate of nearly all the States, was introduced. It has since been extensively cultivated, and is used ex- clusively for the manufacture of molasses, as it will not produce sugar. In 1870, while it was yet new to our people, the yield of Sorghum molasses was 16,050,089 gallons. In the same year, 28,443,645 pounds of maple sugar were produced in the United States, and 921,057 gallons of maple molasses. Of maple sugar. New York produced 6,692,040 pounds; Vermont, 8,894,302 pounds; Ohio, 3,469,128 pounds; and Indiana, New Hampshire, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, each over a million. Of THE UNITED STATES. 79 maple molasses, Ohio produced 352,612 gallons; and Indiana, 227,- 880 gallons. Butter and Cheese. The total product of butter for 1870 was 514,- 092,683 pounds. Of this amount. New York produced 107,147,526 pounds; Pennsylvania, 60,834,644 pounds; Ohio, 50,266,372 pounds; Illinois, 36,083,405 pounds; Indiana, 22,915,385 pounds; and Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Vermont and "Wisconsin, each produced more thau 20,000,000 pounds. The amount of cheese produced in the same year was 53,492,153 pounds. New York produced 22,769,964 pounds, and Ohio, 8,169,- 486 pounds. Wine. The culture of the vine has not yet attained the importance which the future holds out to it, and the returns of 1870 afford but an indifferent test of the wine producing capacity of the United States. The yield in 1870 was 3,092,330 gallons, a gain of 1,132,322 gallons over the vintage of 1860. Of this, the State of Ohio pro- duced 212,912 gallons; California, 1,814,656 gallons; New York, 82,607 gallons; North Carolina, 62,348 gallons; Illinois, 111,882 gallons; Connecticut, 27,414 gallons; and Virginia, 26,283 gallons. The vine is cultivated in nearly all the States, but the great grape regions of the country are the Lower Ohio Valley, and the Valleys of the Pacific coast. Cotton. At the outbreak of the Rebellion, American Cotton con- trolled the markets of the world, as regards both the quantity and the quality furnished; but the war, by stopping the production of cotton, by disorganizing the system of labor, and by injuring the plantations in various ways, struck a blow at this branch of our industry, which will damage it for many years to come. In some States where free labor has been organized under control of the old planters, happy re- sults have been attained, with the brightest prospects for the future. Cotton is grown principally in the extreme Southern States. In Virginia and North Carolina it is becoming less important every year. The yield for 1860 amounted to 5,198,077 bales, of 400 pounds each. This amount was distributed as follows : Bales. Mississippi, 1,195,699 Alabama, 997,978" Louisiana, 722,218 Georgia, 701,840 Texas, 405,100 Arkansas, 367,485 80 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bales. South Carolina, 353,413 Tennessee, 227,4a0 North Carolina, 14-5,154 Florida, G3,322 Virginia, 12,727 Kentucky, . - 4,092 New Mexico, 1,133 Missouri, ICO Illinois, 6 Total, 5,19ci,t/77 The yield for the year ending September 1st, 1870, was 3,011,996 bales, including 90,000 bales manufactured in the South, but counted in the following statement of the production of each State. Bales. Mississippi, 564,938 Louisiana, 350,832 Alabama, 429,482 Florida, 39,789 Georgia, 473,934 Texas, 350,628 South Carolina, 224,500 North Carolina, 144,935 Virginia, 183 Tennessee, Arkansas, etc., 432,958 Wool is grown in all the States to a greater or less extent. The yield for 1870 was 100,102,387 pounds, of which Ohio produced 20,539,643 pounds; New York, 10,599,225 pounds; Michigan, 8,- 726,145 pounds; California, 11,391,743 pounds ; and Illinois, and Indiana, each over 5,000,000 pounds; and Maine, New Hampshire, Tennessee and Texas, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Flax and Hemp. Flax is a native of Great Britain, and hemp of India. The second was formerly cultivated in this country to a greater extent than at present, having been to some degree superseded by the Southern cotton. In 1870 the yield of flax was 7,133,034 pounds — more than twice the amount grown in 1850. New York produced the largest amount, 3,670,818 pounds. In the same year 1,730,444 bush- els of flax-seed were produced, of which Ohio grew 631,894 bushels. Of hemp, 92,746 tons were grown in 1870. Kentucky produced 7,777 tons; and Missouri 12,816 tons. Silk. Silk is said to be a native of Asia. Its production was introduced into the colony of Virginia in 1622, into Louisiana in THE UNITED STATES. 81 1718, into Georgia in 1732, and into Connecticut in 1760. The total product of silk cocoons in 1870 was 3937 pounds, or 2625 pounds less than the yield of 1860. California produced 3587 pounds. Orchard ProducU. The value of the orchard crop of 1870 amounted to $47,335,189. It was distributed amongst the leading States as follows: New York, $8,347,417; Ohio, $5,843,679; Penn- sylvania, $4,208,094; Indiana, $2,858,086; Illinois, $3,571,789. Market Garden Productions. These, in 1870, amounted to $20,- 719,229, distributed among the principal States as follows: New York, $3,432,354; New Jersey, $2,978,250; Pennsylvania, $1,810,- 016 : Massachusetts, $1,980,231 ; California, $1,059,779. Clover and Grass Seed. The yield of clover seed for 1870 was 639,657 bushels. Pennsylvania produced 200,679 bushels; Ohio, 102,355 bushels ; and New York, 98,837 bushels. The yield of grass-seed for the same year was 583,188 bushels, of which Illinois produced 153,464 bushels; and New Jersey, 72,401 bushels. Beeswax and Honey. In 1870, 631,129 pounds of beeswax were produced in the United States. North Carolina produced 109,054 pounds ; and New York 86,333 pounds. In the same year, 14,702,815 pounds of honey were produced. Illinois yielded 1,547,878 pounds; North Carolina, 1,404,040 pounds; and Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Value of Home-Made Manufactures. The total value of home- made manufactures in the United States, in 1870, amounted to $23,- 433,332. Tennessee produced $2,773,820 of this, and Missouri, 1,737,606. The Value of Slaughtered Animals, in 1870, was $398,956,376. Illinois returned $56,786,944 of this amount, and Ohio, $40,498,375. Cash Value of Farms. Tn 1870, the cash value of farming lands in the United States amounted to $9,262,803,861. Of this amount, New York possessed $1,272,857,766 ; and Ohio, $1,054,465,226. In the same year the farming implements and machinery in the Union were valued at $336,878,429. Those of New York were valued at $45,997,712, and those of Pennsylvania at $35,658,196. 82 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MANUFACTURES. The three great staple manufactures of the United States are cottons, woollens, and iron. These are manufactured in twenty-five of the States, but principally in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and New York. The cotton manu- factures of the United States rank next to those of Great Britain. The woollen manufactures are of a more recent date than either of the others, but are growing in importance. In 1870, there were 252,148 establishments in the Union engaged in manufactures and the mechanic arts. The capital invested in them amounted to $2,118,208,- 769. They consumed $2,488,427,242 worth of raw material, and employed 2,053,996 hands, of which 1,615,598 were males, and 323,770 females above sixteen years. The annual cost of the labor employed by them was $775,584,343, and the annual value of their products amounted to $4,232,325,442. The cotton manufactures of the United States, in 1870, employed a capital of $140,706,291, in operating 956 establishments. They con- sumed $117,737,686 worth of raw material. They paid annually $39,044,132 for labor, employed 118,920 hands, of whom 45,315 were males, and 75,605 females. They received annually for their products the sum of $115,237,926. The Avoollen manufactures in the same year employed a capital of $35,520,527, in oj^erating 1909 establishments. They employed 48,900 hands, of whom 28,780 were males, and 20,120 were females. They consumed $40,461,300 worth of raw material; paid $10,937,877 for labor; and received $68,865,963 for their products. The iron manufactures, including pig, cast, and wrought iron, em- ployed, in 1870, a capital of $207,448,028, and 140,841 hands. They consumed $212,010,601 worth of raw material in the manufacture of pig iron, castings, bar iron, forged iron, etj3., and received for their products the sum of $346,952,694. The other more important manufactures amounted in value, during the year 1870, to the following sums : I Leather ' . . . $157,480,697 Sawed and Planed Lumber ....... 252,032,229 rionr 444,985,143 Salt 4,890,629 Malt Liquors 55,706.643 Spirituous and Vinous Liquors 38,416,371 In the year 1870 the product of fisheries was valued at $11,- 096,522. THE UNITED STATES. COMMERCE. From the report of the Secretary of the Treasury for 1875 we find the tonnage of vessels of the United States to be 4,853,732 tons, an increase of 53,080 tons over that of the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874, exclusive of the canal-boat tonnage, amounting to about 48,000 tons, exempt from enrolment and license by the act of April 18, 1874. The actual increase is believed to be about 141,878 tons, this amount being the excess of gains over losses during the year ; but this aggregate has been reduced to 53,080 tons (the increase first above mentioned) by omitting the tonnage of the exempted canal- boats, and by corrections of tonnage returns, about 40,000 tons. The following table exhibits the total tonnage for the last two yearsi 1874. 1875. Vessels. Tons. Vpssels. Tons. Registered .... 2,728 1,428.923 2.981 1.553.828 Enrolled and licensed 29,758 3,371,729 29.304 3.299,904 Total .... 32,486 4,800,652 32,285 4,853,732 The tonnage of vessels built, as given by the Register, is 297,639, being a decrease from that of the preceding year of 135,086 tons, or over 31 per centum. The number of vessels built was 1301. The comparative value of the exports and imports of the United States for the last fiscal year, in coin, appears from official returns to the Bureau of Statistics to be as follows : Exports of domestic goods $499,284,100 00 Exports of foreign goods 14,158,611 00 Total exports 513,442.711 00 Imports of goods 533,005,436 00 Excess of imports over exports .... 19,562,725 00 , For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1874, the excess of exports over imports was $18,876,698. Exports of specie and bullion $92,132,142 00 Imports of specie and bullion 20,900,717 00 Excess of exports over imports .... 71,231,425 00 Total excess of exports of goods, specie and bullion, over imports of same . . $51,668,700 00 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. For many years after the States were settled by the whites, the thor- oughfares were in such a wretched condition that they could scarcely be called roads at all. It was not until some years after the war for in- dependence that a proper degree of attention was paid to them. Therj 6 84 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. VIEW OX HUDSON III VER— fillOWIXG THE STEA^riJOAT, TELEOIIAI'Il^ AKD RAILKOAD. it was held to be the duty of the General Government to provide the great routes of travel leading to the remote parts of the country, while the States themselves ought to look after their local highways. The first great public work constructed in America was the turn- pike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, which was com- pleted near the close of the last century, and was for a long time the great highway across the Alleghany Mountains. This was followed by the National lload, from Wasliington city to St. Louis, constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps, at the expense of the General Govern- ment, and by tlie road from Bangor to Hamilton, Maine, also built by the Govei-nment. The National Road, one of the best of its kind in the world, was carried successfully over the mountains, across the Ohio, via Wheeling and Cincinnati, and completed as far as the State of Illinois ; but the rapid growth of railroads has rendered it so comparatively useless that it Avill hardly be completed to St. Louis. Several other fine roads were constructed by the General Govcrnr.-icr.t in various parts of the country. THE UNITED STATES. 85 At the same time that these turnpikes were engaging the attention of the cuuntry, the States were urgently entreated to inaugurate a sys- tem of canals, which should provide cheaper and more abundant transportation between the distant parts of the Union. AVashington exerted his influence to secure the speedy completion of canals from the head of tide water on the James and Potomac Rivers, to the Ohio. He appreciated the great advantages M'hich would have been derived from the prompt completion of these works, and was eager to secure them for the State of Virginia. His plans are remarkable for their wis- dom and their deep insight into the future, and had they been carried out would, beyond all doubt, have made Norfolk, Virginia, the largest and most important city in America. Pennsylvania and Maryland also began at an early day to lay out extensive canal systems, but, thanks to the genius and energy of De Witt Clinton, the State of New York was the first to reach the West with her Erie and Hudson Canal, and thus secured for her great metropolis the immense advantages which have never forsaken it. This canal Avas opened in 1824. In the West, Ohio and Indiana were the first to construct such works. Since 1850, howev'cr, the railroads of the country have rendered the further con- struction of canals unnecessary. In 1870 there were about 5000 miles of canal navigation in the United States. The last, in point of date of construction, but the first in impor- tance, of the public works of the United States, were the railroads. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the trans- portation of granite, from the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett River, in Massachusetts, constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk Railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh River, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were mere local works, and of but little importance, except in so flir as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of more importance were now obtained in Mas- sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina, whose example was rapidly followed by the other States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, and in 1829 on the South Carolina Railroad — at present two of the finest works in the country. It was not until about the year 1850, however, that our railroad system began to attain anything like its present importance. The fol< lowing table will show the increase in this branch of our industry ?ince 1838 : 86 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ;Numbei- of miles iu 1838 1,843 '' '' '' 1842 2,ie7 '•' '' '' 1844 4,863 " '' '' "■ 184G 4,285 '' '' " 1848 6,491 "■ '' '' '' 1850 8,827 " " '' 1852 12,.S41 '' " " 1854 19,193 " " '' 1856 23,721 " "■ '' 18.58 27,158 " " " " 1860 31,185 '' '' " " 1865 35,935 " '^ " 1869 42,245 The number of miles in operation in 1875, was about 63,000. There is a continuous railway connection from Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, on the Gulf coast, and San Francisco on the Pacific coast. All the prominent cities and towns of the Union are connected by means of railways, and the most distant parts of the country are brought within a few days' travel of each other. The electro-magnetic telegraph was invented by Professor Morse, about the year 1840, and in 1844 he erected between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles, the first line ever established in the United States or in the world. This line was extended north- ward, in 1845, through Philadelphia and New York, as far as Boston. Tiie telegraph wires of the United States now form a network over the Republic, and would make a continuous line of more than 60,000 miles. This includes the overland line between the Missouri River and San Francisco, California, and Portland, Oregon. The American wires are also connected with those of Europe by means of the Atlan- tic cables, between New Foundland and Ireland, and France. It is proposed to construct another line from Portland, Oregon, along the west coast of North America to the northern part of Alaska, from which a cable is to be laid, via Kamtchatka, to the mouth of the Amoor River, in Asia, to connect with a line through Asia to St. Petersburg, in Russia. EDUCATION. The first settlers of the States, with a wise foresight, were prompt to provide for the education of their descendants. Almost their first act was to found a system of common schools, upon which the estab- lishments of the present day are modelled. They also made provision for securing the means of instruction in the higher and nobler branches of learning. William and Mary College, in Virginia, Harvard Col- *.*^ .... 7,493,120 050,317 i Utah G,G81,707 Q7S,7.^5 1 1 Total 48,909,535* " The table given on the following page shows the number of public schools, academies, and colleges, with their incomes and the number of pupils in attendance, and also the number of libraries and volumes, of the several States, as derived from the Census of 1860. " Maine has one pupil at school to every 3*2 of the whole popula- tion ; being a greater proportion than in any other State or country. In the whole United States the proportion at school is 1 to 4*9, not including slaves, or 1 to 5*7, including slaves, either of which is greater than in any other country in the world except Denmark, vyhere the proportion is 1 to 4'G. "A greatly increased interest in the subject of popular education has been manifested within the last few yeai-s; especially in the Northern and Western States. Public sentiment has demanded a higher standard of qualification in the teachers; and, as a consequence, normal schools, expressly designed for their instruction and training, have been established in several States; besides which, teachers meet regularly in convention, to inteix'hange views upon the best methods of teaching; thus opening a larger field of comparison^ and stimu- lating through emulation to far greater efforts for improvement. Tliese conventions, Ave believe, are now held in every free State in tli3 Union, and in some States they assemble twice annually in each county; the sessions generally continuing a week. The classification of schools is also undergoing a thorough revision. Union schools, or what is termed the 'graded system,^ which comprises high, grammar, "" Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1094:. THE UNITED STATES. 91 intermediate, and primary schools, are being established in all the principal cities, towns, and villages. By placing the classes iu the intermediate and primary schools, in charge of competent female in- structors, school committees are enabled to secure the services of male teachers of the highest qualifications for the more advanced pupils, without increasing the aggregate cost of tuition. Table — Exhihitmg tlie Schools and Libraries of the United Stales, for 1870. STATES & TERBITOKIES. Aliil)*ma ,.., Arizona Ai'kiiasas „.., Ciilifornia C'll'iiaiio Cutmecticut I nk,itii I wlrtware I'Utiict of Columbia riorida • Jeiirjcia hUli... Fliiiiois Iii(liaiiau„ I.IWII Kausiis Kentucky LiiiilNiana , Maine Maryland Massachusetts -Miihlftau Minnesota Mississipyi Missduii .Montana Nebraska Nevada .\e«' Hampshire New Jersey , New Mexico New Vork North Carolina •.(Iiio Oregoa , Pennsylvania Itliode Island , :juuth Caiolina Tennessee... Te.xas . UtHh Wrrnont \ irs^inia \V';uiliin;!,ton West Virginia M Isconsin Wymiing Total Schools. Teachers. 2,969 3,364 1 7 1,978 2 297 1,548 2,444 142 188 1,917 2,926 45 52 375 510 313 573 377 482 1,88U 2,4:32 25 33 11,835 24,056 9.073 11.652 7.496 9,319 1.6S9 1,955 5,149 6,316 592 1,902 4,723 6,986 1,779 3,287 5,726 7 561 5,595 9,559 2,479 2,886 1.564 1,728 6,750 9,028 54 65 796 840 53 84 2,542 3.355 1,893 3 889 44 72 13,021) 28,918 2,161 2 692 11.952 23,589 637 876 14,872 19,522 561 951 750 1,103 2,794 3,587 548 706 267 408 3,1184 5 160 2 024 2,697 170 197 2,445 2,838 4,943 7,955 9 15 141,629 221,042 1 75,866 132 81,526 65,507 5,033 98,621 1,255 19,575 19.503 14,670 66.150 1,208 767,775 464,477 217,654 59,882 245,139 60,171 162,636 107,384 269 337 266,627 107,266 43,451 370,337 1 745 17,614 2.373 64 667 129,8110 1,798 862 022 64,968 790,795 32,693 811,863 32,596 38,249 125,831 23,076 21,067 62,9.3 60,019 5,499 104,949 344,014 305 Income. $ 976,:J51 6,000 081 962 2,946 308 87,915 1,856,279 9,284 212,712 811,212 154.569 1.253,299 19 938 9.S)7O,O09 2,499,511 3,570,093 787.226 2,5.38,429 1,199,681 l,li 10,203 1,998 215 4 817,939 2 550,018 1,011,769 780 339 4,340 805 41,170 207 560 110,493 574,5-98 2 982,250 29.886 1.5,936.783 635,892 10,24 l,t 41 248,022 9.628,119 6t^5 012 577,9.53 1,050 692 414,880 1511447 7U7 292 1,155,586 48,302 698 061 2,600 310 8,376 $95,402,726 June 1, 1870. 1.430 6 1,181 1.617 175 63 19 473 696 253 1,735 43 13 570 6.301 3,540 574 5,546 2,332 3,334 3,353 3,169 20,763 1,412 2,788 6,645 141 390 314 1.526 2,413 116 20,9.9 1,746 17,790 ■/.361 14 849 769 1,663 3,506 465 133 1,792 4,i71 102 1,728 2,883 31 164,815 Volumes. 576,882 2,(XX) ia5,564 474.299 39,344 286,937 9.726 183,423 793.702 112 928 467,232 10,625 3,323,914 1,125,553 673,600 218,676 1.909,230 847,406 984,610 1,713,483 3 017.813 2,174 744 36:1,810 488 482 1,066,638 19 790 147,040 158,040 704.269 895 291 39,4 J5 6,310,352 541,915 3,6-7,363 334 959 6,377,845 693 387 546,-44 802,112 87,111 39,177 727.--63 1,107 3i3 33,362 37:^,745 905.811 2,603 45,528,938 Of late years efforts have been made, with success, to introduce into this country the system of education known a.s the Kindergarten. The system is becoming more and more popular every year, as its good results become more apparent. In 1873 there were about fifty Kindergarten in successful operation in the United States, and at present the number is believed to be much larger. The great obstacle in the way of the growth of the system is the difficulty of obtaining properly trained teachers. A Normal Kindergarten is in operation in Boston, and is meeting with success:. 92 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. " The effect of the system upon the physical and mental develop- ment," says Professor Hailman, of Louisville, " is more than satis- factory. The children grow strong, vigorous, and energetic; they attain full and conscious control of their muscles; become nimble and skilful ; the glow of health upon their cheeks, the fire of energy in their eyes, elasticity and decision in their movements. Mentally, they become so far the superiors of children who have not enjoyed Kindergarten culture that, for the first four years, at least, in the elementary school, they accomplish fully twice as much. This is due not only to their greater physical vigor and to the kno\\'l- edge and skill imparted by tlie Kindergarten, but more particularly to the habits of attention, concentration, industry and free obedience which they owe to Frobel's system." "All the reports received from teachers who have taken pupils from the Kindergarten," says the United States Commissioner of Educa- tion, '' mention the superiority of these children over others in their (rapacity for learning, owing to the careful cultivation of all their capabilities, particularly their observing faculties. They show great quickness of mental perception, and advance rapidly in the studies they undertake. The foundations of mathematical science are so well laid in the occupations and lessons of the Kindergarten, that geometry will not be to them the dry, unmeaning study it is to most, but be- comes an old, familiar friend when met with in the text book." Hon. William T. Harris, Superintendent of Public Schools in St. Louis, says of the public Kindergarten in that city : " The results during the short time this Kindergarten has been in operation have been so satisfactory, that the public school teachers desire nothing more heartily than to see the Kindergarten idea prevail in all the primary schools. The testimony of all who have a practical knowl- edge of the Kindergarten method is unanimous, that as a means to an end, nothing can be better, and that it will be found a matter of economy to make it a part of the public school system." THE PRESS. The press of the United States has kept pace with the wonderful growth of the country. In 1870, the number of newspapers and j)eriodicals published in the States and Territories of the Union was as follows : Weeklies 4295 I Quarterlies 49 Monthlies 622 Bi-Monthlies 13 Total 5775 Dailies r.74 Semi-Weeklies 1 15 Tri-iVeeklies 107 These were divided as follows : Political 4333 | Keligious 407 | Literary and Miscellimoons 503 THE UNITED STATES. ^^ Their circulation was as follows : Dailies, 2,601,547 Semi-Weeklies, ., 247,197 Tri-Weeklies, 155,105 Weeklies, 19,594,643 Monthlies, 5,650,843 Bi-Monthlies, 31,650 Quarterlies, 211,670 Taking the aggregate annual circulation (the above statements re- presenting the aggregate number of copies printed at each stated issue of the journals), we find that the whole number of copies of news- papers and periodicals printed annually in this country, in 1870, was 1,508,548,250. POST OFFICES. According to the statistics of the Post Office Department of the United States for the year ending June 30th, 1863, there were 29,047 post offices in the States and Territories of the Union. The aggregate length of mail routes was 139,598 miles. The annual ex- penditures of the Department were $11,314,206, and the receipts $11,163,789, leaving a deficit of $150,417. The receipts for the year ending June 30th, 1865, were $14,556,158, and the expenditures $13,694,728, leaving a surplus of $861,430. The number of postage stamps issued during the latter year was 387,419,455, which yielded the sura of $12,099,787. The number of stamped envelopes sold, 25,040,425, which yielded $724,135. The foreign postage for the ■^ame year reached the sum of $1,819,928. . RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. The Constitution of the United States forbids the establishment of any State religion, and places all religious sects upon a footing of equality by leaving every citizen of the Republic " free to worship God after the dictates of his own conscience." All churches and ministers, therefore, derive their incomes from the voluntary contri- butions of their own congregations. The principal religious sects, and their respective strength, in the year 1870, are shown by the following table: * * U. S. Census, 1870. 94 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1870, DENOMINATIONS. 15 i-tist (Re^'iiliir) Li iptist (other) Christian (yingregationul Episcopal (Protestant) Kvangelioal A.^siciatiun Friends Jewish Lutheran Methodist Miscellaneous Moravian {Unitus Fratniin) Mormon ,., : N'evv Jerusalem (Svvedenborgian) Presbyteiian ( Regular) , Presbyterian (other) lli'formed Church in America ( late Du'eh ReforniM) lieforined Church in the U. S. (late (Jerni. Refonn'd) Roman Catholic S'Cond Advent Shal.810 5,692.325 687,800 965.295 CITIES. The largest city in the United States is the city of New York, \vhich, in 1860, had a population of 813,669, and in 1870 a po[mla- tion of 942,337, according to the census of that year; though there can be but little doubt that the actual population exceeds 1,000,000. The following table shows the population of the principal cities of the Union according: to the last three censuses: GIT IKS. Philadelphia. Penn... Bruoklyn, N. Y St. Louis, Mo Chicago, III Baltimore, Md Boston, Mass Cincinnati, Ohio New Orleans, La San Francisco, Cal... 1870. ISOO. 1850. 674,022 565,629 408,762 :;96,:-!00 26(i,661 90,83s 310,864 212,418 77,860 298,977 109,260 29,963 267.354 212.418 169,054 250,526 177,841 136,881 •J16,2/ifl 161,044 115,436 191 322 168,675 116,376 149,482 66,802 34,870 CITIKS. Buffalo, N. Y Washington, D. C Newark, N. J Louisville, Ky Cleveland, Ohio .. Pittsburg, Pa Jersey City, N. J Detroit, Mich Milwaukee, Wis.. 1S70. ISGO. 117,115 81,129 109,204 61,122 105,059 71,941 100,764 68,033 92,846 43,417 86,235 49.217 82,547 29,226 79.68(1 45.619 71,499 46,246 1850. 42,261 40,001 38,894 43.194 17,034 46,601 6,856 21,019 20,061 / THE UNITED STATES. 95 CITIES. Albany, jM. Y.., Providence, 15. I Rochester, N. Y Alleghany Cit.v, Pa.. Richmond, Va New IJaven, Conn... Charleston, S. C Troy.N.Y Syracuse, N.Y Worcester, Ma?.< Lowell, Mnss Memphis, Tenn Cambridge, Mass Hiirtford, Conn Indianapolis, Ind.... vScranton, Pa Reading, Pa Columbus, Ohio Patterson, N. .1 Kansas City, Mo l)ayton, Ohio Mobile, Ala Portliind, Me Wilmington. I><'l Iiawrence, Ma.-'.-' Utica, N.Y Toledo, Ohio Chariestown, ,M:iss.. IiVnn, Masti Fall River, M;i8s Si>ringfipl(l, Mns.<.... Nashville, Tenn Covington, Kj' Salem, Mass Quincy, Ills... Manchester, N. H.... Harrisburg, Pii Trenton, N. .J Peoria, 111 Evansville, Ind New Bedford, Ma>s. Osuego, N. Y Elizabeth, N. J 69,422 fi8,906 62,;il5 5:^,181 51,(138 60,840 48,956 46,465 4.S,058 41,105 40,928 40,226 39,634 37,180 48,244 35.093 33.932 31,274 33,582 32.260 30,473 32,184 31.414 30,841 28,921 28,804 31,584 28.323 28,233 26,786 26.703 25,865 24,605 24,117 24,063 23,536 23,109 22.S74 22.849 22,830 21,320 20.910 20,838 1860. 62,367 50,666 48,204 28,702 37,91(1 39,267 40,522 39,235 28,119 24.960 36,827 22,623 26,060 29,152 18,611 9.223 23,162 18.654 19,586 20,081 29.258 26.341 21,258 17,639 1850. 50,763 41,513 36,403 27,570 20,345 42,985 28.785 22,271 17,049 33,383 8,839 15,215 13,555 8.034 17,882 11,334 13,768 25,065 19,083 14,026 16.199 16,988 22,252 20,107 13,406 11,045 11,484 22,30h 16,816 10,977 20,515 20.815 13,979 8,282 3,829 17,216 14,257 11,524 11,766 10,165 20,264 7,834 3,235 16,443 12,205 Bangor, Me Lancaster, Pa Savannah, Ga , Poughkeepsie. N. Y.. Camden, N. J Davenport. Iowa St. Paul, Minn Erie, Pa Wheeling. W. Va Norfolk, Va Taunton, Mass Chelsea. Ma-s Dubuque, Iowa Leavenworth, Kan... Fort Wnvne. Ind Springfield, III Auburn, N. Y Newburgh, N. Y Atlanta, Ga Norwich, Conn Sacramento, Cal Omahn, Neb Elmira, N. Y.. , Lockport. N. Y Gloucester, Mass Cohoes, N. Y New Brunswick, N. .1 New Albany, Ind Gnlveston, Tcx:is Newburyport, Mass., Alexandriji, \n Wilmington, N. C... Newport, R. I Little Rock. Ark Concord, N. II Des Moines, Iowa.... W:iterbury, Conn Nashua, N. II Raleigh, N. C New London. Conn.. Portliind, Oreg Virginia City. Nev.. Topeka, Kan 1870. 20,600 1860. ISfiO. 20,233 17,603 12,369 28,235 20,080 20,045 20,042 11,267 20.031 10,401 19,646 19,282 19,256 14,620 14,326 18,629 15,376 18,547 13,395 18,404 17,849 7,429 17.718 17,365 17,225 17,014 16,986 16,653 14,048 16,484 13,785 16.083 16,863 15,458 15,387 10,904 15,367 15,059 15.396 12,647 9,895 13.818 ';;.307 12,595 13,401 9,572 1.3,570 13,446 12,521 10,508 12,380 12.241 12,035 10,826 10.004 10,543 10,065 10,149 9,576 10,115 8,293 2,874 7,008 5,790 GOVERNMENT. The Government of the United States is a Confederation of the various States, each and all of which have delegated a certain share of their powers to a General Government for their mutual benefit and protection. This General Government is controlled by a written Constitution, which has been ratified by each State, and has thus been made the supreme law of the land. By the terms of this Constitu- tion, all powers not granted by it to the General Government are reserved to the several States and to the people thereof, but in the exercise of the powers delegated by the Constitution, the General Government is independent of and supreme over all the States. The Government of the Republic is divided into three c( ordinate branches — the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. 96 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Executive branch consists of a President and Vice-President, elected for four years by electors chosen by the popular vote in each State. The number of electors chosen in each State is equal to the number of Senators and Representatives from that State at the time of the election. Thus a State having four Representatives in the lower House of Congress, and two Senators in the upper House, is entitled to six electors in an election for President. It is usual for the electors to cast their votes in accordance with the will of the majority of the people of the State, as expressed by the popular vote, but it seems certain that it was the original design of the Constitution that the electors upon being chosen by the people should be free to elect a President of their own choice. A majority of the whole num- ber of electoral votes is necessary to a choice. If no person be chosen, then the names of the three persons receiving the highest number of votes shall be presented to the House of Representatives, which shall proceed to vote by States (each State having but one vote, and a majority of States being necessary to a choice) for President, or Vice- President, as the case may be. In the event of a failure, by both the electors and the House of Representatives, to elect a President before the 4th of March, next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President. In case the electors fail to choose a Vice-President, the Senate of the United States shall proceed to choose a Vice-Presi- dent from the two highest numbers on the list, a majority of the whole number being necessary to an election. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Com- mander-in-cliief of the Army and Navy of the United States. He has power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment; he makes treaties, with the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senate, nominates the mem- bers of his cabinet, foreign ministers, and other officers of the United States, which nomination must be confirmed by the Senate before the official can enter upon his office, and, by the terms of the Constitu- tion, may, at his pleasure, remove any officer of the Government sub- ject to his nomination. Pie may be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors, and be removed, if convicted. The articles of impeach- ment must be presented by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, sitting as a high court and presided over by the Chief Justice of the United States. In the event of the death, resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President succeeds to his office, and the President pro tempore of the Senate becomes the acting Vice- THE UNITED STATES. 97 President of the United States. It is the duty of the President to execute, or cause to be executed, the laws of the United States as pre- scribed by Congress. The Vice-President is ex-ojicio President of the Senate, and in case of the death or disability of the President, as explained above, becomes President of the United States. Should he die, resign, or be removed from his office, tiie President pro tempore of the Senate be- comes the President of the United States. In the event of the dis- ability of all three of the officials named above, the Speaker of the House of Representatives becomes the President of the United States. The President pi^o tempjore of the Senate is usually chosen near the close of each session with a view to the contingency we have men- tioned. The Speaker of the House of Representatives is elected at the beginning of each Congress — that is, every two years. The Legislative branch consists of a Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, which constitute the Congress of the United States. The Senate is composed of two members from eacth State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, so that one-third of the whole number of Senators shall retire at the end of every second year. A Senator must be at least thirty years of age, and must have been nine years a citizen of the United States. The Senate has power to ratify or reject all treaties between the United States and Foreign Powers, and to confirm or reject nominations to office under the Government submitted to it by the President of the United States. The House of Representatives is composed of Representatives chosen by the people of the States once every two years. A Representative must be at least 25 years of age, have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the State from which he is chosen. Representatives are apportioned among the States according to the number of inhabi- tants, excluding idiots and Indians not taxed. The ratio is changed with the increase of population. The number of Representatives is limited by law to 241, besides delegates from each Territory. Each State, whatever its population, must have at least one Representative. Delegates from the Territories are allowed seats on the floor of the House, and are permitted to participate in the debates, but have no votes. All bills for raising revenue and for taxation must originate in the House of Representatives. The Senate represents the States of the Union in their sovereign capacity (each State being made equal in that body by having two votes), and the House of Representatives the people,. 98 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress has power to levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, ancT excises, to provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States, but is required to make all such impositions uniform throughout the United States. It has power to borrow money on the credit of the United States, to make laws for the regulation of the foreign and inter-State trade of the Union, and to regulate the traffic with the Indian tribes; to make all laws respecting the subjects of naturalization and bankruptcies; to regulate the coinage and value of money, to fix the value of foreign money, and to adjust the stand- ard of weights and measures ; to provide for the punishment of per- sons counterfeiting the money or securities of the United States; to establish post-offices and post-roads; to regulate the granting of copy- rights and patents ; to regulate the courts of the United States, inferior to the Supreme Court; to define and punish piracies and ofPenccs committed on the high seas ; to declare war, conclude peace, and regu- late all matters appertaining thereto; to raise an army and navy, and provide for their support; to call forth the militia when their services are needed, and provide laws for their government while in the ser- vice of the United States; and to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over all forts, arsenals, and other property of the United States, and over the District of Columbia, in which the seat of government is located. A bill must receive a majority of the votes necessary to form a quorum in each house, and receive the signature of the President of the United States before it can become a law. Siiould the President object to a bill, or a part of its provisions, he must send it, with his objections in writing, to the house in which it originated, when that house must proceed to reconsider it, and if two-thirds of each house sustain the bill, in spite of his objections, it becomes a law without the approval of the President. If the President does not return a bill in ten days, Sabbaths excluded, it becomes a law without his ap- proval, provided Congress is still in session at the expiration of the ten days; but if Congress shall adjourn before the ten days have ex- pired, the President may defeat the bill by keeping it over until after the adjournment. This is usually termed a " pocket veto." The Judiciary branch of the Government consists of one Supreme Court, 9 Circuit Courts, and 47 District Courts. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal in the Union, and consists of one Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices, who are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and re- tain their offices during good behavior. The Supreme Court holds THE UNITED STATES. 99 one session annually, commencing the first Monday in December. A Circuit Court is held twice a year in each State by a judge of the Su- preme Court and the District Judge of the State or district in which the court is held. The District Courts are held by special judges, usually one for each district. The United States or Federal Courts have jurisdiction in all cases of law and equity arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made under their authority; in all cases concerning foreign ministers and agents; in all cases of marine jurisdiction ; in all cases in which the United States is a party ; in all cases between States, or between a State and a citizen of another State, or between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under the grants of another State, and between a State and citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Each District Court of the United States is provided with a prosecuting attorney and a marshal. The States are sovereign in themselves, and as regards their own affairs. The Government of each one is similar to that of the United States, consisting of an Executive or Governor, a Legislature, com- posed of two houses, all elected by the people, and a judiciary. Each State is independent of all the others, and subject only to the Consti- tution of the United States. Each is required to accord full faith and credit to tire transactions of the others, provided they are not contrary to the supreme law of the land. The States may not enter into any combinations with each other not provided for by the Con- stitution, nor keep troops in time of peace, nor make war nor conclude peace. A State may not impose any restrictions upon the trade be- tween the States, or levy or collect imposts of any kind upon any but its own citizens. The Territories are the common property of the United States, and are governed by Legislatures elected by their own inhabitants, and by Governors appointed by the President of the United States. A Territory having a number of inhabitants sufficient to entitle it to one representativ^e in Congress, may be admitted into the Union as a State. It must first adopt a State Constitution, which must be rati- fied by the people of the Territory at the polls, and submitted to Congress for its approval. If approved by Congress, the President shall issue his proclamation declaring the Territory duly admitted as a State, and the new State shall ratify the Constitution of the United States. Titles of nobility, acts of attainder, and ex-post facto laws are for- 100 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Ijidden by the Constitution of the United States, and by the States. No criminal can be sheltered by the authorities of a State or Territory in which he may take refuge, from the autiiorities of the State or Territory in which his offence was committed. Citizenship of a State confers all such privileges in the several States. Trial by jury is se- cured for all offences. No preference shall be shown to any religion by the Government, but equal rights and privileges are secured to all sects. The privacy of the house of a citizen is secured against unlaw- ful violation by search, seizure, or by quartering a soldier upon him in time of peace. Excessive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual pun- ishments are forbidden, and no one may be tried twice for a capital oflfence. THE ARMY. The military establishment of the United States, as reorganized by the Act of July 28th, 1866, consists of 10 regiments, or 120 com- panies, of cavalry, 5 regiments, or 60 companies, of artillery, and 45 regiments, or 450 companies, of infantry, making an effective force (should the maximum strength of all the regiments be attained) of 76,000 men, divided as follows: artillery 7000, cavalry 14,000, in- fantry 55,000. At present the effective strength of companies has been fixed as follows : for infantry, cavalry, and artillery (heavy), 64 privates, and for light artillery 122 privates; making an aggregate strength of 54,302 men. Besides this force, the militia of the States, which in many of them is well organized and effective, may be called into service by the General Government in case of emergency. The promptness with which such appeals have always been responded to by the States, shows that the real available force of the Republic is more than 1,000,000 men, the majority of whom are at present veteran soldiers. The President of the United States is the Constitutional Com- mander-in-Chief of the army, but it is usual for him to relinquish the active management of its affairs to the War Department and to the General of the Army, who is its immediate Commander-in-Chief, and has his headquarters in Washington City. The other officers of the regular establishment arc : One lieutenant-general; 5 major-generals; 10 brigadier-generals; 1 chief of staff to the general, brigadier-general ; 1 adjutant-gene- ral, brigadier-general; 1 judge-advocate-general, brigadier- gene- ral ; 1 quartermaster-general, brigadier-general ; 1 commissary- general, brigadier-general; 1 surgeon-general, brigadier-general; THE UNITED STATES. 101 I paymaster-general, brigadier-general; 1 chief" of engineers, briga- dier-general ; 1 chief of ordnance, brigadier-general ; 87 colonels ; 99 lieutenant-colonels ; 327 majors ; 835 captains ; 857 1st lieuten- ants ; 683 2d lieutenants ; 6 chaplains. A considerable force is required at all times on the western frontier to protect the settler's against the attacks of the Indians. The remain- der of the army is employed in garrisoning and protecting the forts, arsenals, and other public property of the Republic. THE NAVY. The naval establishment of the United States consists of 206 ves- sels, carrying 1743 guns. Of these, 35 are first-rates, carrying 662 guns. Each vessel is of at least 2400 tons ; the second-rates, of from 1200 to 2400 tons, are 37 in number, and carry 483 guns; the third- rates, of from GOO to 1200 tons, number 76 vessels, and carry 414 guns; the fourth-rates, under 600 tons, are 38 in number, and carry 184 guns. Of the above force, 52 are iron-clads, carrying 129 guns;. 95 are screw steamers, carrying 938 guns ; 28 are paddle-wheel steamers, carrying 199 guns; and 31 are sailing vessels, carrying 477. guns. The active list of the service is as follows : One admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-admirals, 25 commodores, 49' captains, 89 commanders, 139 lieutenant-commanders, 45 lieutenants,. 30 masters, 52 ensigns, 157 midshipmen, 67 surgeons, 37 passed as- sistant-surgeons, 36 assistant-surgeons, 79 paymasters, 56 passed as- sistant-paymasters, 52 chief-engineers, 90 first assistant-engineers, 137' second assistant-engineers, 24 third assistant-engineers, 19 chaplains, II professors, 7 naval constructors, 5 assistant naval constructors, 52, boatswains, 57 gunners, 39 carpenters, 31 sailmakers. In the Naval Academy, there are 34S midshipmen undergoing instruction, 16 third assistant-engineers, and 1 cadet engineer. The retired list is as follows : Eighteen rear-admirals, 60 commodores, 31 captains, 17 comman- ders, 3 lieutenant-commanders, 6 masters, 1 midshipman, 24 surgeons, 3 passed assistant-surgeons, 3 assistant-surgeons, 14 paymasters, 14 assistant-engineers, 8 chaplains, 2 professors, 6 boatswains, 6 gunners,. 6 carpenters, 5 sailmakers. 102 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FINANCES. The financial condition of the United States is thus stated by the Secretary of the Treasury in his report for 1875 : RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1875. Beceipts. The moneys received and covered into the Treasury by warrants during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1875, were as follows : From customs $157,167,722 35 From internal revenue 110,007,493 58 From sales of public lands 1,413,640 17 ■ From tax on circulation and deposits of national banks 7,268,379 16 From re-payment of interest by Pacific Railway companies.. 882,274 91 From customs' fines, penalties, etc 228,870 23 From labor, drayage, storage, etc 1,112,500 53 From sales of Indian trust lands 243,671 66 From fees — consular, letters patent and land 1,818,884 29 From proceeds of sales of Government property 1,278,693 87 From marine hospital tax 338,893 78 From stenmboiit fees 260,944 75 From profits on coinage, etc 452,657 40 From tax on seal skins 317,494 75 From miscellaneous sources ; 1,228,649 98 Total ordinary receipts 284,020,771 41 Premium on sales of coin 3,979,279 69 Total net receipts, exclusive of loans 288,000,051 10 Balance in treasury, June 30, 1874, including deposits of coin and United States notes represented by certificates outstanding 150,731,694 63 Total available cash 438,731,745 73 Expenditures. The net expenditures by warrants during the same period were : For civil expenses $17,346,929 53 For foreign intercourse 1,265,418 23 For Indians 8,384,656 82 For pensions 29,456,216 22 For military establishment, including fortification.--, river and harbor improvements and arsenals 41,120,645 98 For naval establishment, including vessels, und machinery and improvements at navy yards 21,497,626 28 For miscellaneous civil, including public buildings, light- houses, and collecting the revenues 50,528,536 22 For interest on the public debt, including interest on bonds issued to Pacific Railway companies 103,093,544 57 For payment of award to British claimants 1,929,819 00 Total net expenditures 274,623,392 85 Redemption of public debt 19,405,936 48 Total net disbursements 294,029,329 33 Balance in treasury, June 30, 1875 144,702,416 41 Total 438,731,745 74 THE UNITED STATES. 103 This statement shows that the net revenues for the fiscal year were $288,000,051 10 And the ordinary expenses (including the award to British claimants, $1,929,819) 274,623,392 84 Leaving a surplus revenue, exclusive of provision for the sinking fund 13,376,658 26 REDUCTION OF THE PUBLIC DEBT. By the monthly statement of the public debt issued June 30, 1875, the re- duction of the debt during the year was shown to be $14,399,514 84, viz. : Principal of the debt, July 1, 1874 $2,251,690,468 43 Interest due and unpaid, and accrued interest to date 38,939,087 47 Total debt 2,290,629,555 90 Cash in treasury 147,5J1,314 74 Debt, less cash in treasury 2,143,088,241 16 Principal of the debt July 1,1875 2,232,284,531 95 Interest due and unpaid, and accrued interest to date.... 38,647,566 19 Total debt 2,270,932,088 14 Cash in treasury 142,243,36182 Debt, less cash in the treasury 2,128,688,726 32 Showing a reduction, as above stated, of $14,399,514 84 The number of jSTational Banks organized from the authorization of tlie system to November 1, 1875, is 2307, of which 2087 were doing business on the 1st of October last. From their reports of the date last named it appears that the aggregate capital of these banks was $504,829,769 : surplus. $134,356,076 ; circulation outstanding, $318,350,379 ; individual deposits^ $664,579.619 ; loans, $980,222,951 ; specie, iuclnding coin certificates, $8,050,329; legal tender notes, including United States certificates of deposit, $125,- 268,734 ; and on deposit with the United States Treasurer, $19,686,960. HISTORY. There is reason to believe that the savages who were found in America by the first European settlers were not the original inhabi- tants of the Continent, but that they were preceded at a very remote period by another and a more powerful race, unknown and long ex- tinct, but which has left vague evidence of its existence in the curious mounds and earthworks which are to be seen in various parts of the Mississippi Valley. At the time of its discovery by the whites, how- ever, the red men were the sole human occupants of the Continent, which was covered with vast woods and plains abounding with game of every description, the pursuit of which formed the principal occu- Tjation of the natives, and furnished them with food and clothing. 104 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tlie Indians were really one people in physical appearance, man- ners, customs, religion, and in the observances of their social and political systems, but were divided into numerous tribes, each of which had a dialect distinct from that of the others. The tribes were for the most part bitterly hostile to, and constantly engaged in war with each other. They are generally divided into eight nations, S])eaking eight radically distinct languages. These were : I. The Algonquins, who inhabited the territory now comprised in flie six New England States, the eastern part of New York and Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Caroliiia as far south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and nearly all of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. This nation was subdivided into the following tribes : the Knistenaux, Ottawas, ChippcAvas, Sacs and Foxes, Menomonees, Miamis, Piankeshaws, Potawatomies, Kickapoos, Illinois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nanticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mohe- gans, Narragansets, Pequots, and Abenakis. II. The Iroquois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, the greater part of New Y''ork, and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsyl- vania. This territory, it will be seen, was completely surrounded by the domains of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins The nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas, Cnyugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks. These five were after- Avards called by the English the Five Nations. In 1722, they admitted the Tuscaroras into their confederation, and were afterwards called the Six Nations. The nation called itself collectively the Konoskioni, or " Cabin-builders." The Algonquins termed them Mingoes, the French, Iroquois, and the English, Mohawks, or Mingoes. III. TJie Catmobas, who dwelt along the banks of the Yadkin and Catawba Rivers, near the line which at present separates the States of North and South Carolina. IV. The Cherohees, whose lands were bounded on tlie cast by the Broad River of the Carolinas, including all of Northern Georgia. V. The Uohees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Sa- vannah, the Oconee, and the headwaters of the Ogeechee and Chatta- hoochee. They spoke a harsh and singular language, and are believed to have been the remnant of a once powerful nation. VI. The Mobilian Nation, who inhabited all of Georgia and South 106 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and all of Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. Their territory was next in extent to that of the Algonqnins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from the AtlanJ;ic Ocean to the Mississippi River. The nation was divided into three great confederations — the Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws — and was subdivided into a number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confederation. VII. The Natchez, who dwelt in a small territory east of the Mis- sissippi, and along the banks of the Pearl River, They were sur- rounded on all sides by the tribes of the Mobilian language, yet remained until their extinctiim a separate nation, speaking a distinct laniriiage peculiar to tlicmselves, and worsliipping tlie sun as their god. They are believed to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America. * VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, M'hose territory was bounded on the north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas River, on the east by the Mississippi, and on the west by the Rocky Mountains. TJie nation was divided into the following branches : the Winnc- bagoes, living between Lake Michigan and tbe Mississippi; the Assiniboins, living in the extreme north ; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkansas and the Platte ; and the Minatarees, Mandans, and Crows, who lived west of the Assiniboins. The great plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific coast were lield by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanchcs, Apachees, Utalis, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flatheads, and California Indians. Tliese were the inhabitants and possessors of the country at the time of its first settlement. In the year 1492, Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in Italy, sailing under the orders of the King and Queen of Sj)ain, dis- covered the West Indies; and thus proved beyond all doubt the ex- istence of a new world. There is a Scandinavian tradition that a Norwegian named Leif, in tiie year 1002, on his voyage from Iceland to Greenland, was driven southward by storms, to a country which was unknown to Europeans, and which he called Vinland, because of the wild grapes with which he found it covered. It is also said t'lat his discovery was followed by several Scandinavian settlements, «one of which proved permanent. It is supposed by some writers THE UNITED STATES. 107 that the country alluded to as Vinland, in this tradition, was the State of Rhode Island ; but as the legend rests upon no solid founda- tion, the credit of having been the first to discover the New World must be accorded to Columbus. On the 24th of June, 1497, John Cabot, a Venitian, commanding a ship belonging to Henry VII. of England, discovered land, along Avhich he sailed to the southward for over 1000 miles, makino- fre- quent landings, and taking possession of the country in the name of the English King. The next year his son, Sebastian Cabot, left Bristol, England, with two ships, to seek a northwest passage to China. He Avas stopped by the ice, however, and turned about and sailed southward down the American coast as far as the capes of Vir- ginia — the entrance to Chesapeake Bay. In 1513, Ponce de Leon, acting under the authority of the King of Spain, discovered Florida, and took possession of the country near the present site of the town of St. Augustine. A short while after, he returned and attempted to establish a colony. He was attacked and killed, and his followers driven away by the natives. In the latter part of the year 1523, John Verazzani, a native of Flore'nce, was sent by Francis I., of France, to ex[)lore the New World. He was fifty days in crossing the ocean, being vexed by terrible storms all the way, and made land off the mouth of the Cape Fear River, near the present city of Wilming- ton, North Carolina. He sailed southward for 150 miles, in search of a convenient harbor, but, failing to find one, passed up the coast as far north as Nova Scotia. He visited New York and Newport har- bors, as they are now called, both of which are accurately described in the account of his voyage. In 1539, Hernando de Soto landed with several hundred men, in Tampa Bay, Florida, and marched across the continent, defeating the natives on his way, and discovered the Mississippi River, near the site of the present city of Helena, Arkansas. He passed through the region now comprising the States of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and penetrated 200 miles west of the great river. Two years after his landing in Florida, he wandered back to the Mississippi, where he died, and was buried at midnight in the stream. His follow^ers, disheartened by his death, descended the river in boats to its mouth, and, crossing the Gulf, sought refuge in the Spanish settlements in Mexico, where they told marvellous stories of the country they had seen. For several years there was no further effort made to colonize the New World. In 1562, a band of French Calvinists, or Huguenots, 108 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. acting upon the advice of Admiral Coligni, endeavored to found a colony here, for the purpose of establishing a refuge for French Pro- testants, who should be driven out of their own country by the perse- cutions of the Roman Catholics. A charter was granted by Charles IX. of France, and an expedition sent out, under Jean Ribault, which made a settlement at Port Royal, in a country which was called Carolina, in honor of the French King. This settlement Avas soon abandoned, however, and another established on the banks of the St. John's River, in Florida. In 1565, Spain renewed her efforts to colonize Florida. An expedition was sent out in that year, which destroyed the French settlement on the St. John's River, and mas- sacred the inhabitants. Having removed their rivals, the Spaniards then proceeded to found the town of St. Augustine, which is the oldest and first permanent European settlement in the present territory of the Union. The English paid little or no attention to the discoveries of the Cabots for nearly a century. Then, alarmed by the efforts which France and Spain were making to secure a footing in the New World, England began the task of colonizing her distant lands upon a larger scale than had been attempted by either of her rivals, and was not slow to assert the claim which the discoveries of the Cabots had given her, and which, indeed, she had never relinquished. The first colony was sent out in 1585, in the reign of Elizabeth, under Sir Walter Raleigh, and was established on Roanoke Island, in the present State of North Carolina, a site which Raleigh had dis- covered during the previous year, and where he liad been hospitably entertained by the natives. The whole country was called Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen of England. The colony did not pros- per, however, and in a few years it was utterly gone. In 1606, James I. divided the English possessions in America into two parts — North Virginia, extending from the mouth of the Hudson River to Newfoundland, and South Virginia, extending from the Potomac to Cape Fear. Two companies were formed in England for colonizing these regions, the London Company, which received from the king the grant of South Virginia, and the Plymouth Company, to which the king gave North Virginia. These companies agreed to colonize their respective grants with due promptness, and to regard the terri- tory lying between the Potomac and the Hudson as neutral ground, upon which both companies were free to make settlements at pleasure. The London Company went to work at once, and sent over an expe- THE UNITED STATES. 109 ' ^"yuEn. ^ — ^ THE RUINS OF JAMESTOWN : THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGIilSH SETTLE- MENT IN AMERICA. dition commanded by Captain Newport, which made a lodgement on the north shore of the James River, in the present State of Vir- ginia, on the 13th of May, 1607. They called their settlement Jamestown, and the river on which it was located, the James, in honor of their sovereign. The command of this expedition was vested in Captain Newport, but the life and soul of the whole undertaking was the celebrated Captain John Smith, to whom alone is due the credit of carrying the colony firmly through the dangers and trials which surrounded its infancy, and planting it upon a permanent basis. He explored the Chesapeake and its tributaries, of which he made maps and sketches which are noted to-day for their accuracy. These voyages of discovery were made in an open boat, the crew of which he could not always depend upon. They were full of romantic adventure. In one of them he was captured and condemned to death by the Indians, but was rescued by Pocahontas, the daughter of king Powhatan. Captain Smith made 110 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. several voyages between England and America, and in 1614 explored and made excellent drawings of the coast from Cape Cod to the Pen- obscot. To this part of the country he gave tlie name of New Eng- land, by which it has since been known. He won the friendship of the Indians for the whites in Virginia, and by his maps and descrip- tions did more in England than was done by any other man to arouse that enthusiasm which finally led to the successful planting of the whole Atlantic coast of America with English settlements. The government of the Colony of Virginia was at first vested in a council appointed by the king, but this arrangement was found to Avork so badly that a change was made, which was followed by seve- ral others, until at length a House of Burgesses, chosen by the people, was established. This Assembly, which was the first representative body that ever sat in America, met on the 19th of June, 1619. This event, so important in our history, Avas^ followed by two of equal moment, one in August, of the same year, when a Dutch man-of-war entered the James River and sold a cargo of 20 Africans to the planters of Virginia, thus introducing negro slavery into the Colonies; and another in 1621, when the cultivation of cotton was begun in Virginia. The Plymouth Company made extensive preparations on paper for the settlement of their immense territory. Their charter gave them absolute property in and authority over the vast region lying between the Atlantic and Pacific, and bounded by the 40th and 48th parallels of North latitude, and they prepared to make very hard bargains with those who wished to buy lands of them. The first settlement in their domain, however, was made without their consent or authority, by a band of Puritans, under the leadership of John Carver, AVilliam Brewster, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, and Miles Standish. This colony sailed from England on the 6th of September, 1620, in a vessel of 480 tons burthen, called the Mayfliower, and landed on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, on the 21st of December of the same year. They numbered 100 men, women, and children, and at once pro- ceeded to found a settlement, which they named Plymouth, in honor of the last English port from which they had sailed, and where they had been kindly treated. They had no charter from the king, or sanction from the Plymouth Company, but conducted their enterprise upon their own responsibility, looking to God for assistance and pro- tection. While still on their voyage, they arranged the form of their government. They organized it upon a basis of religion as well as THE UNITED STATES. Ill PLYMOUTH KOCK. of civil justice. Their religious system is well described by Robert- son, who says : " They united together in a religious society, by a solemn covenant with God, and with one another, and in strict con- formity, as they imagined, to the rules of Scripture. They elected a Pastor, an Elder, and a Teacher, whom they set apart by the imposi- tion of the hands of the brethren. All who were that day admitted members of the church, signified their assent to a confession of faith drawn up by their Teacher, and gave an account of their own hopes as Christians; and it was declared that no person should hereafter be 112 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. received into communion until he gave satisfaction to the cliurch with respect to his faith and sanctity. The form of public worshij) which tliey instituted was without a liturgy, disencumbered of every su[)c r- fluous ceremony, and reduced to the lowest standard of Calvinistic simplicity." Their civil system was thoroughly republican. The governor was chosen by the people, and his acts Avere subject to the approval of a council consisting at first of 5 and afterwards of 7 as- sistants. In the beginning the legislative power was vested in the whole people, but as the colony expanded a legislature elected by the people was established. In 1629, the colony received a charter from Charles I. of England. It prospered from the first, and its success brought over other arrivals from England. In 1628, a settlement was made by a band of Puritans from England, under John Endicott, at Salem, on Massachusetts Bay, which general name was given to the new colony. In 1630, a fleet with 840 new settlers, under John Winthrop, arrived from England, and in September of that year founded the city of Boston, which they named in honor of the village in England from which the Hev. John Cotton, their pastor, came. * New settlers now came over by scores, the number of inhabitants in- creased rapidly, and in 1690 the colonies of Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay were united under one government. In 1623, Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason took out a patent for a territory called Taconia, lying between the Atlantic and the St. Lawrence, arid the Merrimack and the Kennebec. In the same year they settled the cities of Portsmouth and Dover, in New Plampshire. A French colony had been planted in Maine in 1613, but had been broken up by an expedition from Virginia, and the first permanent settlements in Maine were made by the English at Saco and on Monhegan Island, in 1622 or 1623. These settlements some years later became a part of the territory of Massachusetts, and were re- tained by her until the formation of the State of Maine in 1820. In 1635, a company of emigrants from Massachusetts, under tlie pious Hooker, settled the region now comprised in the State of Co;i" necticut, by founding the towns of Hartford and Wethersfield. The Dutcli had built a trading post and fort at Hartford in 1633, and a few huts at Wethersfield in 1634, and claimed the territory in con- sequence of this, but their claim was not regarded by the English. * It is not a little curious that the Puritan Fathers should have given their metropolis the name of a famous Roman Catholic Saint. THE UNITED STATES. 113 THE FIRST SETTLi:MENT OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. In 1636, Roger Williams, who had been exiled from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, founded the colony of Rhode Island, by settling the town of Providence, which is now the capital of the State. New York was settled by the Dutch, but the State was first entered by a French navigator named Samuel Champlain, who discovered the lake to which he has given his name, in July, 1609, and fought a battle on its shores with a band of Mohawks. He inflicted a severe defeat upon them, and from that time the Six Nations were the bitter 114 OUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and lasting enemies of the French. On the 6th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, sailing under the orders of the Dutch Bast India Company, entered the Bay of New York, discovered the great river which bears his name, and ascended it to within a few miles of the present city of Albany. He took possession of the country for the Government of Holland, by whkh it ^vas named New Netherlands. A few years later trading posts and forts M'ere estab- lished on Manhattan Island (New Y'ork City), at the mouth of the Hudson, and at Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, thirty families settled on Manhattan Island, and called their settlement New Amsterdam, and in the same year eighteen families came over to Fort Orange. From this time the Dutch settlements grew rapidly. Tliey extended along the Hudson, as far eastward as Connecticut, and as far southward as the Delaware. Tlie Swedes, who had settled the latter river, and had villages along both banks of the Delaware, almost as far up as the present city of Philadelphia, resisted the Dutch encroachments, but were finally driven away in 1655 by a military expedition of the latter. The English, who claimed the whole country by right of Cabot's discovery, finding that all diplomatic efforts to induce the Dutch to abandon their American settlements were vain, terminated the controversy by taking forcible possession of the province of New Netherlands in 1664. They changed the names of the province and the principal settlement, New Amsterdam, to New Y^'ork, and that of Fort Orange to Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany (afterwards James XL, of England), to whom Charles II. had granted the territory. That portion of New Jersey lying along the Hudson was settled by the Dutch about the same time that the colony of New Amsterdam beffan to attract emigrants from Holland. The Swedes settled the southwest portion along the Delaware, in 1627. It fell into the hands of the English when New York was seized by them, and at the same time acquired the name which it bears at present. Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley purchased the territory from the Duke of York, and made it a distinct colony, naming it New Jersey, after the island of Jersey, of which Sir George had been governor. Delaware was settled by the Dutch in 1630. They established their settlement near Lewes. In 1633, it was entirely destroyed by the Indians. In 1637, a company of Swedes and Finns made a set- tlement on the island of Tinicum, a few miles below Philadelphia. Several other settlements were formed, and the country was called New Sweden. The Dutch, after protesting against this occupation of THE UNITED STATES. 115 THE FIRST SETTLERS OF AMERICA CLEARING THE LAND. the territory by the Swedes, made war upon tliem, and in 1655 re- duced the Swedish forts, and sent back to Europe all the colonists who refused to swear allegiance to Holland. The Delaware settle- ments were held by the Dutch until the final conquest of New Netherlands by the English. The title to the Delaware lands was disputed by I-iord Baltimore, but was held by the Duke of York, who sold it to William Penn. Penn's rights were sustained by the Eufflish authorities, and the three counties of Delaware remained a part of Pennsylvania until 1703, when they were allowed the liberty 116 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES, of forming a separate establishment. Until 1776, however, the same governor administered the affairs of Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 168lYWilliam Penn procured a grant of the lands west of the Delaware, and in 1682 he brought over a colony of Friends, or Quakers, and founded the city of Philadelphia. His colony flourished from the beginning, and by treating the Indians with kindness and justice in his dealings with them, he secured their warm friendship, and a consequent immunity from the savage warfare to which the other colonies were subjected. There was peace between the Indians and the whites for nearly one hundred years. About the year 1710, there was a large emigration of Germans to Pennsylvania. They settled in the southern counties of the colony, which are to this day strongly marked by German characteristics. Maryland, so called in honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., was originally settled by a band of adventurers, under Captain William Clayborne, who went from Virginia, and established them- selves on Kent Island, near the head of Chesapeake Bay. The province was granted by Charles I. to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, in 1632. The next year the first colony, consisting of 201 persons, mostly Roman Catholics, sailed for America in two vessels, called the Ark and the Dove. They lauded on St. Clement's Island, on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th began the settlement of St. Mary's, in what is now St. Mary's County in that State. Their first legislative assembly met .in 1639, and in 1649 passed the first law ever enacted in America granting religious freedom to all persons. This memorable Act will be found in the historical sketch of the State of Maryland farther on. In 1670, the settlement of South Carolina was begun by English colonists, who first located themselves at Port Royal, but soon re- moved to Charleston. The country south of Virginia was given the general name of Carolina, and was governed by the propiuetors under an absurd constitution prepared by John Locke. In 1727, the King of England bought out the proprietors, and divided the territory into two provinces, called respectively North and South Carolina. Settle- ments in North Carolina were formed by emigrants from Virginia as early as 1653. From that time this part of the province continued to increase in population as rapidly as the southern part. A very large number of French Calvinists, about the year 1690, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in South Carolina. Some years later they were followed by a number of Swiss, Irish, and Germans. « THE UNITED STATES. 117 Georgia, originally a part of Carolina, was settled in 1733, by a band of English emigrants, under General James Oglethorpe. The first settlement was made at Yamacraw Bluff, the site of the present city of Savannah. The province was named in honor of George II. of England. Georgia was the last settled of all the English colonies, having been founded 127 years after the landing at Jamestown. During the in- terval which elapsed between these two events, the French had firmly planted themselves in Canada, and had established settlements along some of the great lakes and the upper Ohio, and in portions of Indi- ana, Illinois, and Louisiana, and the Spanish had settled Florida and New Mexico. The English, after the settlement of Georgia, pos- sessed thirteen vigorous and flourishing colonies in America, which were rapidly growing in importance, wealth, and power. They had an aggregate population of about 2,000,000, and were actively en- gaged in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. The majority of the inhabitants were from England, or of English parentage, but there was also a liberal admixture of Scotch, Irish, French, and Ger- man elements. The prevailing religious sentiment of the New- England colonies was .Calvinistic. Quakerism predominated ini Pennsylvania, and Roman Catholicism in Maryland; while the' Church of England claimed as her children the majority of the people- of New York and of the southern colonies. African slavery had be- come, firmly established in th^ South, and the industry of that section, nad been based upon it. The institution of slavery, and the presence- of considerable wealth in all the colonies of the South, had rendered it useless for the better classes of the people to labor for their own sup- port, and had engendered habits of aristocratic luxury, while the climate had cast over all ranks that fatal spell of indolence and lack of energy which has always been the bane of that section. In the Northern colonies labor was a necessity with all classes. They had been originally poorer in wealth than their Southern neighbors, and' had also a less generous climate, and a soil which required to be- worked with the utmost energy and fidelity. Nature did but little for them, and they were forced to make up the deficiency by their own efforts, a necessity which, though hard at first, eventually proved their greatest blessing. They were thus trained in habits of patient and intelligent industry, which they have left to their children. By the period of which we are writing (1732) they had made their bleak, country to blossom as a rose, had established thriving;- dties, and' 118 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. towns, and, besides laying the sure foundations of an enormous system of manufactures and trade, had already acquired considerable wealth. Learning and the refining arts were common amongst them. Eng- land, it is true, did much to hamper and destroy the industry of all the colonies, hoping by this short-sighted policy to ensure their de- pendence upon her, but American energy flourished in spite of the mother country. Nor were the material interests of the country the only ones con. suited. One of the very first cares of the settlers was to establisli a system of common school education. This system was simple enough at first, but it steadily improved, as the colonies continued to prosper. Schools were established in Virginia in 1621, in the Plymouth Colony soon after, and in New Amsterdam shortly after its settle- ment. In 1637, Harvard College was founded in Massachusetts; in 1692, William and Mary College was established in Virginia ; in 1701, Yale College was founded in Connecticut; in 1738, the College of New Jersey was established; and in 1754, King's (now Columbia) College was founded in New York. With the exception of William and jNlary College, which was destroyed by fire during the late civil war, all of these institutions are in operation to-day. It does not belong to this portion of our work to present a detailed statement of the difficulties which lay in the path of the colonies dur- ing the first century after the settlement of the country. A more minute account will be presented in the historical sketches oi the States, and we must confine ourselves here to a mere general outline of the progress of events. The first settlers found the Indians very friendly, and for some time maintained kindly relations with them ; but as the number of the whites increased, decided encroachments were made upon the hunting grounds of the savages, and this, with various other causes df quarrel, brought about a series of long and bloody wars with the Indians, which continued with but slight intermission from the death of King Powhatan, the great Virginian chief and the friend of the whites, in 1622, until the red men were driven west of the Mississippi, after the close of the second war with England. They were expelled from the greater number of the Atlantic States, or forced to submit to the authority of the whites, by-ihe close of the Revolution. Their power was broken in Virginia by the death of Opecancanough, in 1644; in New England by the death of King Philip, in 1676 ; and in the Carolinas by the destruction of the Yemassees, in 1715. West THE UNITED STATES. 119 BURNING OF DEERFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS. of the mountains and along the northern frontier they were trouble- some for many years later. The French, as we have said, had been as energetic as the English in colonizing America. They had made Canada a thriving province, had settled Acadie, and had established a line of posts between Mon- treal and New Orleans. There were sixty of these j)osts in all, some of which, as Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg), Detroit, Kaskaskia, Vin- cennes, and New Orleans, have since become important cities. They were located with an almost intuiti\'« perception of their importance in securing the command of the country, and, as they completely liemmed in the settlements of the English, were not slow in exciting the alarm and jealousy of Great Britain, who claimed the entire 120 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Nor was the jealousy en- tirely upon the part of the English. The French, believing that they had securely established themselves in Canada and the north- west, were very anxious to dislodge their powerful neighbors from their growing possessions, and towards the close of the seventeenth century began to incite the Indians to commit depredations upon the English colonies, supplying them with arms and ammunition, and sometimes joining with them in such expeditions. New England and New York suffered severely from them, and several towns (Dover, N. H., Schenectady, N. Y., and Deerfield and Haverhill, Mass.,) were destroyed by bands of Indians, or French and Indians, and their inhabitants massacred or carried into captivity. Open hos- tilities between the French and English in America broke out in 1690. This war was really caused by the English Revolution of 1688, and is known in American history as King William's War. It lasted seven years, and was terminated by the Treaty of Ryswick, September 20th, 1697. During its continuance the English colonies suffered greatly from the incursions of the French and Indians, and, in ' retaliation, made several attempts to conquer Canada, but were unsuccessful. Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War of the Spanish Succession, or, as it is known in America, Queen Anne's War, began in Europe (in 1702). It soon spread to America, and embroiled the English and French in this country. The English settlements on the western frontier of New England were almost annihilated by the Indians, while the French were unusually active. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island made a combined attempt in 1707 to conquer Acadie, but without success. In 1710, an expedition from Boston drove the French out of Acadie, and annexed the province to the British Crown, with the name of Nova Scotia, which it still bears. In 1711, two vigorous efforts were made to conquer Canada, but both proved unsuccessful. On the 11th of April, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht closed the war, " and the land had rest for thirty years." King George's War, or, as it is called in European history, the War of the Austrian Succession, began in Europe in March, 1744, and soon extended to America, it lasted a little over four years, and was brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix la Chapelle, Octobei 18tii, 1748. The principal event of this war was the capture of Louisburg, the strongest position of the French in America, by a vol- THE UNITED STATES. 121 unteer force from New England, led by William Pepperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine. This event did much to encourage the martial spirit of the colonists, and was hailed with delight in the mother country. At the conclusion of peace, however, Louisburg was re- stored to the French. In 1749, the Governor of Virginia received orders from England to grant to the "Ohio Company" half a million acres of land lying on the Ohio River, and between the Monongahela and the Kanawha. This region was claimed by France, and as soon as the English com- pany began to form settlements in it, they were resisted by the French commander at Fort Duquesne, to whom the authorities of the province of Virginia resolved to address a letter of remonstrance, before pie- paring to meet force with force. Their message was entrusted to George Washington, then a young man of less than twenty-two years of age, but with a reputation for bravery, prudence, and ability far beyond his years. He> performed the long and dangerous journey between the Virginian frontier and Fort Duquesne, delivered the letter, and returned with the reply of the French commandant, who positively refused to comply with the demand of the English. Vir- ginia then prepared to maintain her claim by force of arms, and an expedition, in which Washington was assigned the second place, and of which he finally became the commander, was dispatched towards the Ohio, to occupy the country. On the 28th of May, 1754, it was attacked and cut to pieces by a French force under Jumonville, who was slain in the fight. This affair began the determined struggle which is known in our history as the Old French, or the French and Indian War, and in Europe as the Seven Years' War. Hostilities, however, were not immediately declared in Europe. France and England did not come to blows in the Old World until about the year 1756. Each country professed to be at peace with the other, but both were busily engaged in sending aid to their colonies. The prin- cipal events of the campaign of 1755 in America were as follows: I. The unfortunate expedition of General Braddock against the French at Fort Duquesne, in which Washington first displayed those great qualities which won for him the leadership of our armies in the struggle for liberty. Braddock's army was ambushed by the Indian allies of the French, about ten miles from Fort Duquesne, and cut to pieces, the general himself being mortally wounded. II. The expe- dition against Niagara and Frontenac, led by Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts. This attempt proved abortive. Shirley was delayed 122 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. by storms and sickness among his troops, and bis Indian allies, wha belonged to the tribes of the Six Nations, deserted him to such an extent that their aid amounted to nothing. Disheartened, he aban- doned his attempt and retraced his steps eastward. III. The expe- dition against the French posts on the Bay of Fundy, led by General Winslow, of New England. This was successful. The posts were captured and held by the English. Subsequently General Winslow received positive orders from his Government to remove the neutral French from Acadie to the English colonies, which duty he per- formed. There was no actual necessity for the removal of these })eople, and this harsh and cruel measure of the English Government caused great suffering to them. IV. The expedition against Crown Point, led by Sir William Johnson. Johnson's troops were princi- pally from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. He met the French, under Dieskau, at the head of Lake George, on the 6th of September, 1755, and was at first repulsed by them, but, thanks to General Lyman, the second in command, and an American, he succeeded in rallying his army and utterly routing the French, whose commander was fatally wounded and made a prisoner. He lost the fruits of his success, however, by lingering on the field of his victory until it was too late in the season to advance upon Crown Point. Dieskau was succeeded by the Marquis de Montcalm, to whom Avas assio-ned the command of all the French forces in America. He was an officer of experience, energy, and skill, and opened the campaign of 1756 with a series of successes which continued for two years, and which taught the English that he was no insignificant foe. In 1756, he captured Oswego, with its immense military stores, "which had been placed there by the English. In 1757, he compelled Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George, to surrender, a disaster which was made the more appalling by the massacre of a part of the garri- son, after the capitulation, by the Indian allies of the French. Thus far fortune had smiled upon the French, but their enemies were not disheartened. The English people were convinced that the disasters which had befallen their arras were due to the incompetency of their Government, and demanded a change of the Ministry. The popular demand was unwillingly complied with, and William Pitt was placed by the king at the head of affairs. From the moment that liis great mind began to direct the war, the prospects of the English improved. Pitt appreciated the efforts the Americans had made during the struggle, and called on them to volunteer for fresh THE UNITED STATES. 123 service under able generals who were sent out from England. His calls were well responded to, and when the campaign of 1758 opened, the English took the field with 50,000 men, commanded by officers of experience and skill. The principal events of this campaign were: the capture of Louisburg by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, after a siege of fifty days ; the capture of Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, by a force of Colonial troops, under Colonel Bradstreet ; the capture of Fort Duquesne, in which the forces of the colony of Virginia were commanded by Washington ; and the defeat of Abercromble at Ticou- deroga. The British in this engagement attacked Ticonderoga with a force four times as great as that with which Montcalm defended the position. Their army was commanded by General Abercrombie and Lord Howe, the latter of whom was an officer of great promise, and warmly loved by the army. Howe was killed at the head of his column, and Abercrombie proved himself so incompetent for the task before him, that Montcalm defeated him, and compelled him to re- treat with the loss of 2000 men. This event closed the campaign, and more than counterbalanced the successes of the English at the outset. The English authorities at once removed Abercrombie, and put Amherst in his place, who opened the campaign of 1759 by advancing upon Ticonderoga and Crown Point, from which the French retreated without risking an engagement. About the same time Sir William Johnson took Niagara, and routed a large French force which was marching to its relief. On the 13th of September, 1759, the great event of the war occurred. Quebec was taken by the British army, under General Wolfe, after a battle on the heights of Abraham, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The capture of Quebec is justly regarded as one of the most remarkable events in modern history, not only because it decided the war in America, but because it broke the power of France and confirmed that of England in the Now World. " It gave to the English tongue and the institutions of the Germanic race," says Bancroft, " the unexplored and seemingly infinite west and north." The war in America virtually ceased after the fall of Quebec, but continued on the ocean and in Europe for nearly four years longer. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763, by which Canada and its dependencies, including the posts along the lakes and the Ohio, were forever ceded to Great Britain. This very treaty, however, was the cause of another war. The French, by their friendly and conciliatory policy, had generally won the friendship of the Indians, but the English, by their arrogance and 124 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. harshness, had rarely failed to excite their hostility, and the transfer of Canada and the northwest made by the Treaty of Paris was bitterly resented by the Indians of that region. One of their chiefs, Pontiac, a leader of great courage and ability, persuaded his countrymen to join him in an attempt to drive out the English. He was successful, and the first blow was struck in June, 1763. In the two weeks which followed the outbreak, the savages captured all the forts west of Oswego, except Niagara, Detroit, and Pittsburg, and mtissacred the garrisons. No English settler of either sex or any age who fell into the hands of the savages was spared. Siege was laid to Detroit, which was invested for six weeks. It was finally relieved, and the Indians were in their turn pressed with so much vigor that they were compelled to sue for peace. Pontiac, however, refused to yield to his conquerors, and set off towards the Mississippi, inciting the western tribes against the English, until he was murdered in 1769. The old French war was the only one of the* struggles between France and England in which the Colonies bore a part, which origi- nated in America. These conflicts, though they at length resulted in removing the hostile French and Indians from the very doors of the Colonies, left them greatly exhausted in both men and money. They had shown the devotion of America to the mother country in a most conspicuous manner, and had certainly earned for the colonists at least the considerate forbearance of the Home Government. As for the Americans themselves, they had learned valuable lessons in modern warfare, had seen for themselves that British generals were not infallible, nor British troops invincible, and had gained a very decided confidence in their own prowess as shown by their achieve- ments. Great Britain, however, did not regard her Colonies with either motherly wisdom or kindness. Jealous of their growing commercial and manufacturing wealth, she sought in numerous ways to cripple their industry. Always a law-abiding people, the Americans bore all the harsh measures of the mother country in silence, so long as they were kept within the limits sanctioned by the constitution of the realm. In 1761, however, the Home Government threw off its con- stitutional restraints. A law was enacted by Parliament, empowering sheriffs and customs officers to enter stores and private dwellings, upon the authority of " writs of assistance," or general search war- rants, and search for goods which it was suspected had not paid duty. The first attempt to use these writs was made in Massachusetts, THE UNITED STATES. 125 where obedience was refused to them by the indignant people, on the ground that they were issued in violation of the laws of England and of the Colony. The persons refusing obedience to them were brought to trial. James Otis, the eloquent attorney for the Crown, refused to sustain them, resigned his office, and in the trials which ensued pleaded the cause of the people with such force that, in the language of John Adams, " every man of an immense crowded audience ap- peared to go away ready to take arms against the writs of assistance." The judges decided to avoid a decision, and the writs were never used, though they were granted in secret. It was now proposed by the British Government to levy a direct tax upon the Colonies, and at the same time to deny them any voice in the imposition of this tax. An Act for this purpose, generally called the Stamp Act, was passed by the Commons on the 22d of March, 1705, by a majority df nine-tenths of the members, and on the 1st of April by the House of Lords with scarcely a dissenting voice. The king at once signed the bill. This Act required that every written or printed paper used in trade, in order- to be valid, should have affixed to it a stamp of a denomination to be determined by the character of the paper, and that no stamp should be for a less sum than one shilling. The Colonies had earnestly protested against the measure while it was being discussed in Parliament, but the only notice which the Government took of these protests was to send over a body of troops for the purpose of enforcing obedience to the Stamp Act, and the Ministers were authorized by Parliament to compel the Colonies to find " quarters, fuel, cider or rum, candles and other necessaries " for these troops. Such infamous measures produced great excitement in America. Patrick Henry introduced a series of resolutions into the General As- sembly of Virginia, which were adopted by that body, declaring that the Colonists were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own legislatures. The Legislature of Massachusetts author- ized the courts of that province to proceed to transact their business without the use of stamps. In the other Colonies the opposition was strong, but not so vehement, and associations called " Sons of Liberty " were formed all over the country, consisting of men who pledged themselves to oppose the Stamp Act and defend the rights of the Colonies when assailed. The determination not to use the stamps was general, and when the 1st of November, 1765, the day on which the hated law was to go into operation, arrived, it was found that all 126 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the officials appointed to distribute the stamps had resigned their places. The bells in all the Colonies were tolled, and the flags lowered in mourning for the death of liberty in America. The merchants pledged themselves to import no more English goods, and the people agreed to use no more articles of English manufacture until the law was repealed. Previous to this, in June, the Legislature of Massachusetts had is- sued a call for a general Congress of delegates from all the Colonies to meet in New York, on the first Tuesday in October, to consider the state of affairs. Nine of the Colonies were represented in this body, which met at the appointed time. The Congress drew up a declaration of rights for the Colonies, a memorial to Parliament, and a petition to the king, in which, after asserting their loyalty to the Crown and laws of England, they insisted upon their right to be taxed only by their own representatives. Thfee documents were submitted to and approved by the provincial legislatures, and were laid before the British Government in the name of the United Colonies. These popular demonstrations brought up the subject in Parlia- ment, and the friends of America urgently demanded a rej)eal of the Act. Pitt and Burke advocated the repeal with powerful eloquence. The Commons examined a number of witnesses as to the temper and condition of the Colonies. One of these was Benjamin Franklin, who was sojourning in London. He told the House that his country- men were not possessed of a sufficient amount of gold and silver to buy the stamps, that they were already greatly burdened by debts contracted by them in support of the recent war, in which they had borne more than their just share of the expenses, that they were loyal and attached to the mother country, but that the harsh acts of the Government could only result in destroying their loyal friendship, that unless the Acts complained of were repealed, the Colonies would cease to trade with England, and that they would never consent to pay any taxes except those imposed upon them by their own legis- latures. Influenced by these representations, the Parliament resolved to retrace its steps, and on the 18th of March, 1766, the Stamp Act was repealed. The repeal was celebrated with great rejoicings in both America and England, the latter country having become alarmed by the decrease in its trade with the Colonies. The British Government, however, did not relinquish its determi- nation to tax America, and on the 29th of June, 1767, the king signed an Act of Parliament imposing duties on glass, tea, paper, and THE UNITED STATES. 127 some other articles imported into the Colonies. The Americans met this new aggression with a revival of their societies for discontinuing the importation of English goods. Massachusetts led this opposition, and in Boston the custom house officers were mobbed for demandinir duties on the cargo of a schooner owned by John Hancock. The officers sought refuge from the mob in the fort in the harbor, and in September, 1768, the Government ordered General Gage to occupy " the insolent town of Boston " with a strong military force. This measure but increased the disaffection of the Bostonians, and on the 5th of March, 1770, a collision occurred between the citizens and the troops, in which three of tlie former were killed and five wounded. This " massacre," as it was called, produced great excitement in all the Colonies. The soldiers who had fired on the crowd were tried for murder in Boston, and were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who were resolved that they should have impartial justice dealt out to them. The evidence showing that the troops did not fire until provoked to it by the people, the jury acquitted all the pris- oners but two, who were convicted of manslaughter. The feeling of the Colonies was so unmistakable that Parliament resolved to remove the obnoxious duties. The king, however, ex- pressly ordered that at least one nominal duty should be retained, as he did not mean to surrender his right to tax the Colonies. In ac- cordance with this command, a duty of three per cent, on tea was re- tained, and all the others removed. The Americans, however, objected to the principle of taxation without representation, and not to the amount of the tax, and resolved to discontinue the use of tea until the duty should be repealed. Meetings for this purpose were held in the principal seaports of the country. When it was ascertained that several ships loaded with tea were on their way to Boston, a large meeting of citizens was called, at which it was resolved to send the vessels back to England. Three ships loaded with tea reached Bos- ton soon after, and their owners, in compliance with the public de- mand, consented to order them back to England, if the Governor would allow them to leave the port. Governor Hutchinson, how- ever, refused to allow the ships to go to sea, and on the night of the 18th of December, a band of citizens, disguised as Indians, seized the vessels, emptied the tea into the harbor, and then quietly dispersed without harming the vessels. This bold act greatly incensed the British Government, and Parliament adopted severe measures for the purpose of punishing the Colonies. The harbor of Boston was closed 128 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to all commerce, and the Government of the Colony ordered to be removed to Salem, soldiers were to be quartered on all the Colonies at the expense of the citizens, and it was required that all officers who should be prosecuted for enforcing these measures should be sent to England for trial. The excitement in the Colonies over th'ese acts was tremendous. Boston was everywhere regarded as the victim of British tyranny, and was in constant receipt of assurances of sympathy, and of money and provisions for the poor of the town, sent to her from all parts of the country. Salem refused to accept the transfer of the seat of Gov- ernment, and the authorities of Marblehead requested the merchants of Boston to use their port free of charge. Even in London £30,000 were subscribed for the relief of Boston. The excitement continued to increase throughout the country, and the breach between the Colo- nies and the mother country grew wider every day. On the 5th of September, 1774, a Congress of 55 delegates, repre- senting all the Colonies except Georgia, whose royalist governor prevented an election, met in Philadelphia. It was composed of the ablest men in America, among whom were Washington, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edward Rutledge, John Rutledge, Christopher Gadsden, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Philip Livingston, William Livingston, John Jay, Dr. Witherspoon, Peyton Randolph, and Charles Thomson. This body, after consider- ing the grievances of the Colonies, adopted a declaration setting forth their rights as subjects of the British crown to a just share in the making of their own laws, and in imposing their own taxes, to the right of a speedy trial by jury in the community in which the offence should be committed, and to the right to hold public meetings and petition for redress of grievances. A protest against the unconstitu- tional Acts of the British Parliament was adoped, as well as a petition to the king, an appeal to the British people, and a memorial to the people of the Colonies. The Congress proposed, as a means of re- dress, the formation of an "American Association," whose members should pledge themselves not to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, or with any persons engaged in the slave trade, and to refrain from using British goods or tea. The papers drawn up by the Congress were transmitted to England. The Earl of Chatham (Wil- liam Pitt) was deeply impressed by them, and declared in Parliament that "all attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation must be vain." The English people, as a general rule, were THE UNITED STATES. 129 sincerely anxious that the demands of the Americans should be com- plied with, and even Lord North, the Prime Minister, who carried the measures in question through Parliament, was in his hsart op- posed to them, and only continued in office to uphold them at the express command of the king, who was obstinately determined upon whipping his American subjects into submission. Few of the leaders of the Colonists now doubted that hostilities would soon begin, and with a view to prepare for the emergency, the Colonies began to take steps for raising and arming troops at a minute's warning. These preparations were especially vigorous in Massachusetts, and alarmed General Gage, who fortified Boston neck, and commenced to seize all the arras and munitions of war he could find in the province. The Colonial authorities of Massachusetts had established small stores of arras and ammunition at Worcester and Concord, and General Gage resolved to secure them. On the night of the 18th of April, 1775, he sent a large detachment of troops to destroy the stores at Concord. It was his design that the movement should be secret, but he was so closely watched by the patriots that the march of 'his troops was instantly discovered, and the alarm spread through the country by messengers. The people at once flew to arras, and when the troops reached Lexington, a village half way between Boston and Concord, on the morning of the 19th, Major Pit- cairn, their commander, found his progress opposed by a considerable number of the country people. He ordered his men to fire upon thera. The order was obeyed, and the citizens were driven oif with a loss of eight killed and several wounded. The troops then pro- ceeded to Concord, where they destroyed some stores, but upon reach- ing the north bridge over Concord River, they met with a de- termined resistance from the people, who had now assembled in con- siderable force, and were obliged to retreat to Boston. The Colonists followed them closely on their retreat, pouring in a galling fire from every convenient point. The total loss of the British on this occasion was 273 men killed and wounded. This battle, if a battle it can be called, put an end to the long dis- pute between America and Great Britain, and inaugurated the Revo- lution. Previous to this, no one ever heard, as Jefferson remarks, "a whisper of a disposition to separate from Great Britain," but after the first surprise of the shock had worn off, the people of the Colonies commenced to take up arms for freedom. On the 22d of April, the authorities of Massachusetts ordered that a New England army of 130 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. KUINS OF TICONDEROGA. 30,000 men should be put in the field, and that Massachusetts should furnish 13,000 of these. Troops were raised with rapidity under this authority, and by the 1st of May, an army of 20,000 men was en- camped before Boston. In the other Colonies equally important measures were set on foot. The fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were seized by vol- unteers from Connecticut and Vermont, led by Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen. The cannon and stores taken with them were of in- calculable service to the Americans, who were sadly in need of mili- tary supplies. In Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia, the people took up arras as soon as the news from the North was received, and in North Carolina a convention was held at Charlotte, in Mecklenburg county, which body, in May, 1775, proclaimed the independence of the people of North Carolina, and prepared to resist the authority of Great Britain by force of arms. THE UNITED STATES. 131 On the 10th of May, 1775, the second Colonial Congress met at Philadelphia. It was composed of the most eminent men of the country, among whom were Washington, Franklin, Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Jay, George Clinton, Jefferson, and others. The proceedings of this body were eminently moderate. The first step taken was to elect John Hancock President of the Congress. A petition to the king was drawn up, and forwarded to him, denying any intention to separate from Great Britain, and asking only for redress of the wrongs of which the Colonies complained. A federal Union of the Colonies was formed, and the Congress assumed and exercised the general gov- ernment of the country. Measures were taken to establish an army, to procure military supplies, and to fit out a navy. A loan of $2,000,000 was authorized, and the faith of the " United Colonies " pledged for its payment. The troops before Boston were organized as a Continental army, and placed under the control of the Congress, and Washington was elected Commander-in-Chief. As soon as he received his commission, he set out for Boston, but did not arrive there until after the occurrence of the events now to be related. Alarmed by the presence of the American forces before Boston, the British commander in that town formed the plan of seizing and forti- fying Bunker Hill in Charlestown. His plan was betrayed to the A.mericans, who at once sent a force under Colonel William Prescott to fortify the hill. Prescott misunderstood his instructions, and pro- f^eeded to fortify Breed's Hill, which, though inferior in height to Bunker Hill, was nearer to Boston, and more perfectly commanded the harbor. He threw up a slight breastwork during the night of the 16th of June, which was discovered by the British on the morn- ing of the 17th. A force of 3000 regulars was detailed to carry the hill, assisted by the fire of the royal ships in the harbor. The Ameri- can force was scarcely more than half this number, and consisted of raw and undisciplined provincials. They repulsed two assaults, however, inflicting upon their enemies a loss of 1045 men killed and wounded ; but were at length, after their ammunition had given out, driven from the hill. They retreated across Charlestown neck to Cambridge, which was held by the Continental army, having lost 449 men killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the killed was General Joseph Warren, of Boston, one of the most valuable of the American leaders. This battle, though an actual defeat for the Americans, was Regarded by them as a victory, inasmuch as it demonstrated their 132 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ability to hold their ground against the regular troops of Great Britain, and inspired them with a confidence which attended them during the entire war. • Washington reached the army before Boston several days after the battle of Bunker Hill, and immediately took command. He was re- ceived with enthusiasm by the troops and people. He was accom- panied by General Charles Lee, an officer who had seen service before. Congress had appointed a full complement- of general officers for the army, all of whom were with their commands. The Major-Generals were : Charles Lee, of Virginia, Philip Schuyler, of New York, Arte- mas Ward, of Ma.ssachusetts, and Israel Putnam, of Connecticut. The Brigadiers were : Horatio Gates, Seth Pomeroy, Richard Mont- gomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathanael Greene. Of all these. Gates was the only man who possessed sufficient experience to be of much assistance to Washington in the task of perfecting the organization of the army, which was in reality little better than a mere rabble in dis- cipline, clothing, and equipment. By extraordinary exertions, Wash- ington and Gates at length succeeded in bringing the force to a tolerably effective condition. Boston was at once regularly besieged, and closely invested until March 17th, 1776, when, Washington having secured a position from which his cannon could render the city untenable, the British forces evacuated the place, and sailed for Halifax. They were accompanied by a large body of loyalists, who feared to remain in the town after its occupation by the Americans. Meanwhile, during the progress of the siege of Boston, other opera- tions had been going on elsewhere. General Montgomery had been sent into Canada with a small, weak force, to conquer that province, which was believed to be disaffected towards England. His second in command was Benedict Arnold, who rendered brilliant service during the campaign. The principal event of the invasion was a joint attack upon Quebec by Montgomery and Arnold, which was unsuc- cessful, and in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. The expedition accomplished nothing of importance, and was com- pelled to return to the Colonies, after suffering great losses and con- siderable hardships. A British fleet attacked and burned Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) on the New England coast, and committed many outrages on the coast of Virginia. A powerful force, under Sir Peter Parker, attacked Fort Sullivan, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina^ THE UNITED STATES. 133 INDEPENDENCE HALL IN 1776. and was repulsed with heavy loss. The Americans managed during the year to fit out several cruisers, which were fortunate enough to capture a number of prizes loaded with military stores for the British army, and which proved of infinite service to the Americans. Indeed, these captures seemed providential, for often when the stock of arras and munitions was running low, a cruiser would make its way into port with a prize laden with the supplies most needed, which it had taken from the enemy. Congress took measures for the active prosecution of the war. Supplies were drawn from the West Indies, and a regular system for that purpose inaugurated ; powder mills and cannon founderies were provided for; thirteen frigates were ordered to be built (a few of which eventually got to sea) ; a committee of war, one of finance, and a secret committee, to which was entrusted the negotiations of the Colonies with the individuals and authorities of foreign States, were appointed; and an energeticj if defective, system of government for 9 184 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the "United Colonies" was fairly established. Finally, on the 4tb of July, 1776, Congress adopted a declaration on behalf of" the Colo- nies, declaring their independence of the English crown, and pro- claiming that henceforth the Colonies were free and independent States. This declaration changed the entire nature of the strus-gle. " The war," says Bancroft, " was no longer a civil war ; Britain was become to the United States a foreign country. Every former subject of the British king in the thirteen Colonies now owed primary allegi- ance to the dynasty of the people, and became citizens of the new republic; except in this, everything remained as before; every man retained his rights; the Colonies did not dissolve into a state of na- ture, nor did the new people undertake a social revolution. The affairs of internal police and government were carefully retained by each separate State, which could, each for itself, enter upon the career of domestic reforms. But the States which were henceforth indepen- dent of Britain, were not independent of one another; the United States of America assumed powers over war, peace, foreign alliances, and commerce." As he supposed that New York would be the next object of attack by the British, Washington transferred his army to that j^lace imme- diately after his occupation of Boston. He had not long to wait, for in June, Admiral I^iord Howe entered New Y''ork bay Mith a formi- dable fleet and 30,000 troops, consisting principally of German mer- cenaries hired by the King of England. The troops were landed on Staten Island, and preparations made for attacking the city of New York. Lord Howe issued a proclamation to the people of America, offering a free pardon to all who would lay down their arms and ac- cept the king's clemency; but the proclamation produced no effect whatever upon the patriots, who were convinced that they could ex- pect but a poor regard for their rights and liberties at the hands of King George. Washington's force was vastly inferior to that c^ the enemy in every respect. He was compelled to divide it, and to place a portion of it on Long Island, in order to cover the approaches to the city of New Y^ork. The force on Long Island was attacked and defeated by the British on the 27th of August, 1776, and compelled to abandon the island. The enemy followed up their successes, and finally obliged Washington to give up INIanhattan Island and the lower Hudson. Disasters now fell thickly upon the Americans, and by the close of the year Washington had been driven across the Delaware, THE UNITED STATES. 135 and had with him less than 4000 half-starved and miserably equipped troops. The British had by this time taken possession of the island of Rhode Island, and had made a descent upon Baskingridge, New Jersey, and had captured General Ciiarles Lee. By December, 1776, the cause of the Colonies seemed so desperate that the people generally began to abandon the hope of liberty and apply themselves to the task of making their peace, individually, with the royal authorities. In- fluenced by this state of affairs, Sir William Howe, the British Commander-in-Chief, refrained from making a vigorous eifort to fol- low up his antagonist and crush him. At this hour, when everything was so gloomy, Washington was calm and hopeful. He had expected reverses, and they did not dis- may him. He did what lay in his power to cheer and encourage the little band of heroes who remained faithful to him, and watched the enemy with sleepless vigilance, and at length discovered an opportu- nity for striking a powerful blow in behalf of his country. Perceiving that the Advanced wing of the English army occupied an exposed position at Trenton, New Jersey, he crossed the Delaware witli his army, in open boats, in the midst of snow and ice, on the night of the 25th of December, and falling suddenly upon the enemy at daybreak the next morning, completely routed them, capturing 1000 prisoners, 1000 stand of arms, 6 brass field pieces, and 4 standards. On the night of the 2()th, he recrossed the Delaware, and returned to his camp in Pennsylvania. On the .3d of January, 1777, he again de- feated a strong British detachment at Princeton, New Jersey, and in a short while had cleared that State almost entirely of the enemy. These victories, so brilliant and so audacious, completely startled the British, who had believed the war virtually over in the North, and aroused, as if by magic, the drooping spirits of the Americans. Congress, which had remained unmoved by the disasters of 1776, now inaugurated a series of more vigorous measures than had yet been de- termined upon. Washington was invested with almost dictatorial powers; troops were ordered to be enlisted for three years, instead of one year, which was the term of the first levies; a central government was established, and a constitution, known as the ''Articles of Con- federation," was adopted by the States (Maryland did not ratify these articles until the next year) ; and agents were sent to foreign countries to procure the recognition of the independence of the United States. When the campaign of 1777 opened, the prospects of the country 136 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. had so far improved that Washington found himself at the head of an army of 7000 men. Sir William Howe made repeated efforts to bring on a general engagement, but Washington skilfully avoided it, and (he British General finally withdrew his army from New Jersey, and occupied Staten Island. Soon after this, he sailed with 16,000 men for the Chesapeake, and, landing at Elk River, in Maryland, advanced through Delaware towards Philadelphia, which was the seat of the Federal Government. Washington endeavored to check •the progress of the enemy on the Brandywine, September 11th, but was defeated with a loss of 1000 men. The British occupied Phila- de]i)hia a few days later, and Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On the 4th of October, Washington made a vigorous attack upon the British force at Germantown, 7 miles from Philadelphia, but was rej)ulsed with severe loss. This event closed the campaign in the ]\Iiddle States. In the North, the American forces had been more successful. General Burgoyne, with 7000 regular troops and a considerable force •of Canadians and Indians, entered the United States from Canada during the summer of 1777, and advanced as far as Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson. From this point a strong detachment was sent •to Bennington, in Vermont, to destroy the stores collected there by the Americans. This force was routed with a loss of 800 men, by the militia of New Hampshire and Vermont, under General Stark. The battle occurred at Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777. ■Burgoyne then advanced towards Saratoga, New York, making his way through the woods until he reached the vicinity of that place, rwhen he was met by the American army, under General Gates, to ;whom the command of the Northern department had been recently assigned. An indecisive battle was fought between the two armies on the 19th of September, and a second and more decisive engage- ment occurred on the 7th of October, on nearly the same ground. Burgoyne was considerably worsted, and endeavored to return to Canada, but finding his retreat cut off, surrendered his entire army to the American forces, upon favorable terms, on the 17th of October. This victory, the most important of the war, greatly elated the Americans and their friends in Europe, while it depressed the Tories or loyalists in America to an equal degree. It advanced the bills of -the Continental Congress, and had the effect of inducing the French Government, Avhich had secretly encouraged and aided the Colonies from the first, to recognize the independence of the States, and in THE UNITED STATES. 137 February, 1778, a treaty of friendship, commerce, and alliance was signed at Paris, by the French King and the American Commission- ers. Great Britain seemed to realize now, for the first time, that she was about to lose her Colonies, and endeavored to repair her mistaUes. On the 11th of March, 1778, Parliament repealed the Acts which had proved so obnoxious to the Colonies, and subsequently sent three commissioners to negotiate a reconciliation witii the Americans. As' these commissioners had no authority to consent to the independence of the States, Congress refused to treat with them until the king should withdraw his forces from the country, and rejected the terms offered by the British Government. Washington's army went into winter quarters at the Valley Forge, 20 miles from Philadelphia, about the middle of December, 1777. The troops suffered terribly from exposure, hunger, and the dreadful privations to which they were subjected, but remained with their colors through it all. Their devotion was rewarded in the spring by the news of the alliance with France, which reached them in May, 1778, and was greeted with demonstrations of the liveliest joy. The first result of the French alliance was the arrival in the Dela- ware of a fleet, under Count D'Estaing. D'Estaing had been ordered to blockade the British fleet in the Delaware, and arrived off the Capes in June, but before his arrival the enemy's ships had taken refuge in Raritan B.iy. The British army in- Philadelphia was now commanded by Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded General Howe. On the ISlh of June, Clinton withdrew his force from that city, and began his retreat through New Jersey to New York. Washin'j'tou pursued him promptly, and came up with him, on the 28th of June, on the [)lains of Monmoutii, near the town of Freehold, N. J., where a severe engagement took place. Although the result was indecisive, Clinton resumed his retreat to New York, and remained there for the rest of the summer, without making any effort to resume hostilities. In August, an attempt was made by the Americans, assisted by the French fleet, to drive the British from Rhode Island, but without success. D'Estaing withdrew from the coast soon after this, and re- turned to the West Indies, having rendered little practical aid during his presence in American waters. The finances of the country were now in the greatest confusion, and nothing but the wisdom and unshrinking patriotism of Robert Mon-is saved t!ie infant republic from utter bankruptcy and ruin. It is worthy of remark that a grateful country suffered this man to die in 1^8 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. a debtor's prison. On the whole, however, the cause of the States Avas much improved. Besides the alliance with France, they had the secret encouragement and assistance of Spain. They had confined the British to the territory held by that array in 1776, and had a larger and better disciplined army than they had yet possessed. In 1779, the principal mrlitary operations were transferred to the South. Savannah had been already captured on the.29th'of Decem- ber, 1778, by an expedition sent from New York by Sir Henry Clinton, and by the summer of 1779, the whole State of Georgia was in the hands of the British. In September, 1779, the French fleet and a land force of Americans under General Lincoln attempted to recover Savannah, but were repulsed with a loss of 1000 men. On the 16th of June, 1779, Spain declared war against England, and, in the summer of that year, the French King, influenced by the appeals of Lafayette, who had visited France for that purpose, agreed to send another fleet and a strong body of troops to the assistance of the Americans. The cruisers of the United States Avere doing con- siderable damage to the British commerce at sea and in British waters, and Paul Jones, on the 23d of September, fought and won one of the most desperate battles known to naval warfare, in 2:)lain sight of the English coast. Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to instructions received from England, now withdrew his forces from Rhode Island, and concen- trated his entire command at New York. Early in 1780, he pro- ceeded with the main body of his troops to the South, leaving General Knyphausen in command at New York, and at once laid siege to Charleston, South Carolina, Avhich Avas held by General Lincoln with a force of 2500 men. The city Avas surrendered Avith its garrison, on the 17th of May, 1780, after a nominal defence. By the 1st of June, the British were in possession of the whole State of South Carolina, and Clinton AA^as so Avell convinced of the completeness of its subju- gation that he Avent back to New York on the 5th of June, leaving the command in the South to Lord Cornwallis. Small bands of partisan troops, under Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and otiier no less devoted though less famous leaders, now sprang up in various parts of the State, and maintained a A'igorous guerilla war- fare, from Avhich the enemy suffered greatly. Congress soon after sent an army under General Gates into South Carolina to drive the enemy frum the State. Gates' success at Saratoga had made him the idol of the hour, and there were persons who seriously desired that he THE UNITED STATES. 139 should even supersede Washington himself; but his northern laurels soon wilted in the South. Cornwallis met him at Camden, routed him with a loss of 1000 men, and drove him into North Carolina. By the close of the summer, the only American force in South Caro- lina was the little band under General Marion. Cornwallis, feeling assured that his communications with Charleston were safe, followed Gates' beaten army into North Carolina, towards the middle of Sep- tember. On the 7th of October, a strong detachment of his army was totally defeated, with a loss of 1200 men, by the militia of North Carolina, at King's Mountain. This was a severe blow to him, and checked his advance. At the same time Marion and Pickens renewed their warfare in South Carolina so actively, and rendered Cornwallis' communications with the sea so uncertain, that he withdrew towards. Charleston. In the North, the British commander vainly endeavored to draw Washington into a general engagement, in which he felt confident that his vast preponderance of numbers would give him the victory.. AV^ashington warily avoided being caught in the trap; and on the 23d of June, General Greene inflicted such a stinging defeat upon a British force at Springfield, N. J., that Clinton withdrew to New York, and remained there for the rest of the year. After the battle of Camden, General Greene was sent to the Carolinas, to take com- mand of Gates' army. On the 10th of July, 1780, a French fleet and 6000 troops, all: under the Count de Kochambeau, reached Newport, Rhode Island* In September, during the absence of Washington at Hartford, Conn.,, whither he had gone to arrange a plan of operations with the French, officers, it was discovered that General Benedict Arnold, one of the- most brilliant officers of the Continental army, had agreed to deliver into the hands of the British the important fortress of West Point,, which he commanded at that time. The plot was promptly frus^ trated, and the traitor escaped, but Major Andre, a British officer- who had concluded the arrangement with him, and whose capture had. revealed the plot, was hanged as a spy. Towards the close of the year. Great Britain having discovered that Holland and the United States were secretly negotiating a treaty of alliance, declared war against the Dutch. The war against America,, however, still continued unpopular with the English people. The campaign of 1781 opened with the brilliant victory at the Cowpens, in South Carolina, won over the British under Colonel 140 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tarleton by General Morgan, on the 17th of January. On the 15th of March the battle of Guilford Court House was fought in North Carolina, and resulted in a partial victory for the British. In Sep- tember, 1781, the royal forces were terribly beaten in the bloody battle of Eutaw Springs, in South Carolina, and compelled to retire to the sea coast, to which they were confined until the close of the war. Meanwhile, Cornwallis, after the battle of Guilford Court House, had advanced into Virginia, driving before him the handful of forces under Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, wdiich sought to oppose his march. He occupied himself chiefly while in V^irginia in destroying private property, and at length, in August, 1781, in obedience to orders from Sir Henry Clinton, to occupy a strong defensive position in Virginia, intrenched himself at Yorktown, near the entrance of the York River into Chesapeake Bay. This movement led to an immediate change in the plan of operations which had been resolved upon by Washington, whose army had been reenforced on the Hudson by the French troops under Count de Rochambeau. It had been his intention to attack the British in New York with his combined force, aided by the French fleet, but Cornwallis' situation offered such a tempting opportunity that he at once resolved to transfer his army to Virginia. Skilfully deceiving Sir Henry Clinton into the belief that New York was the threatened point, and thus preventing him from sending assistance to Cornwallis, Washington moved rapidly to Vir- ginia, and arrived before the British works at Yorktown, with an ;army 12,000 strong, on the 28th of September, 1781. The enemy's jposition W'as at once invested by land, and the French fleet cul off" all fhope of escape by water. The siege was prosecuted with vigor, and «on the 19th of October, Cornwallis surrendered his whole army, which • consisted of 7000 well equipped troops. This victory virtually closed the war. It produced the wildest joy in America, and compelled a change of Ministers in England. Lord North and his Cabinet retired from oflSce on the 20th of March, 1782, and the new administration, perceiving the hopelessness of the struggle, resolved to discontinue the war. Orders were sent to the ^British commanders in America to desist from further hostilities, and on the 11th of July, 1782, Savannah was evacuated by the royal ^troops, which event was followed by the evacuation of Charleston on the 14th of December. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris on the 30th of November, 1782, and a formal treaty on the 3d of September, 1783. By this formal treaty Great Britain acknow- THE UNITED STATES. 141 ledged her former Colonies to be free, sovereign, and independent States, and withdrew her troops from New York on the 25th of No- vember, 1783. The great war was now over, and the new Republic took its place in the family of nations ; but it w'as terribly weakened by its efforts. Its finances were in the most pitiful condition, and it had not the money to pay the troops it was about to disband, and who were really suffering for want of funds. Considerable trouble arose on this account, and it required all the great influence of Washington to allay the dis- content. The army was disbanded immediately after the close of the war, and on the 23rd of December, 1783, Washington resigned his commission into the hands of Congress, and retired to his home at Mount Vernon. It was found that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate to the necessities of the Republic, and a new Constitution was adopted by the States after much deliberation. It went into operation on the 4th of March, 1789. The city of New York was designated as the seat of Government. Washington was unanimously chosen the first President of the Republic, Avith John Adams as Vice-President, He went into office on the 30th of April, 1789. The first riieasures of his administration greatly restored the confidence of the people in the Gov- ernment, Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, inaug- urated a series of financial reforms, which were eminently beneficial. The debts of the old Confederated Government and the debts of the States themselves, were all assumed by the United States ; a bank of th(j United States (which went into operation in February 1794) was incorporated, and a national Mint w^as established at Philadelphia. An Indian war in the West was firmly and vigorously prosecuted to a successful termination, and theneutrality of the Republic with regard to the various parties of the great Revolution in France, faithfully maintained. Washington and Adams were reelected in 1792. The principal events of the second term were the firmness with which the President met the efforts of the French Republic to embroil the United States in another war with England; the demand for the recall of M. Genet, the French Minister, which was at length complied with ; the British Treaty of 1794 (commonly known as Jay's Treaty), which was so Avarmly discussed by the Federalist and Republican parties in this country ; the outrageous decrees by which the French Government sought to cripple American commerce in revenge for the supposed 142 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. partiality of our Government for England ; the admission into the Union of the States of Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), and Ten- nessee (1796); and the Whiskey Insurrection, in 1794, which was a formidable outbreak in Western Pennsylvania against an odious excise law. Washington promptly suppressed it. Washington was urgently importuned to be a candidate for another term, but declined, although it was sure that there would be no oppo- sition to him. In September, 1796, he issued a " Farewell Address" to his countrymen, warning them of the evils to which their new system was exposed, and urging them to adhere firmly to the principles of the Constitution as their only hope of liberty and happiness. The third Presidental election occurred in 1796, and was marked by a display of bitterness between the opposing parties never surpassed in the subsequent history of the Republic. The Federalists presented John Adams as their candidate, while the Republicans advocated the claims of Thomas Jefferson. Adams received the highest number of votes, and Jefferson the next. By the terms of the Constitution as it then existed, Jefferson M-as declared the Vice-President. President Adams was opposed with considerable bitterness by his political enemies throughout his whole term. The administration of the Navy was removed from the War Department in 1798, and a Navy Depart- ment established. On the 15th of May, 1797, the President convened Congress in extra session to consider the relations of this country with France. The French Directory had been j)ursuing for some yeai-s a systematic course of outrage towards the ships and citizens of the United States, and had carried this to such an extent as to leave little doubt that it was their deliberate intention to destroy American com- merce. Three envoys were sent to France by President Adams, with authority to adjust all differences between the two countries. The Directory refused to receive them, but they were given to understand that the payment of a large sum of money by their Government would greatly tend towards securing proper treatment for our vessels ; and it was plainly intimated that if the American Government refused to pay this bribe, it would have to go to war for its obstinacy. When this message was delivered to the Commissioners, one of their number, Charles C. Pinckney, returned this memorable and patriotic reply, in which his associates heartily joined: "War be it then; millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute." The French Government then informed Mr. Gerry, who was a Republican, that he could remain in France, but ordered Messrs. Pinckney and Marshall to quit the country. THE UNITED STATES. 143 Great indignation prevailed throughout the Union, when these in- sults to the American Commissioners became known. The Govern- ment at once took measures to raise an army and navy adequate to the struggle which seemed imminent. Washington was appointed Com- mander-in-Chief, with the rank of Lieutenant-General, and hostilities actually began at sea, where the cruisers of the Republic won several brilliant successes over French ships of war. The energy and determination thus manifested by the United States had a happy effect in France, and the war was finally averted by the accession of Napoleon to the dignity of First Consul. The new ruler of France intimated his willingness to reopen the negotiations with America, and a treaty of peace and amity between the two countries was definitely concluded, on the 30th of September, 1800. During- the existence of hostilities with France, two laws were enacted by Congress, which are generally known as the "Alien and vSedition Laws." They empowered the President to send out of the country such aliens as should be found conspiring against the peace and safety of the Republic, and to restrict the liberty of speech and of the press. It was true beyond all doubt, as the Government claimed in defence of its course, that the country was overrun with English and French agents, who were here for the express purpose of embroil- ing the United States in the quarrels in progress in the Old World, and that the press, which was controlled mainly by European adven- turers, had become so corrupt and licentious as to be highly dangerous to the peace of the country. Nevertheless, these Acts aroused such a strong opposition throughout the States, that the Federalists were overwhelmingly defeated in the next Presidential election. During President Adams' term, the seat of Government was removed to Wash- ington City. In the fourth contest for the Presidency, the votes of the Republican party were equally divided between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. Each received 73 electoral votes. This threw the election Into the House of Representatives, where Jefferson was chosen President and Burr Vice-President. This circumstance also occasioned an amend- ment to the Constitution (adopted finally in 1804), requiring the elec- tors to vote separately, as at present, for President and Vice-President. ]Mr. Jefferson entered upon his office in March, 1801, 'and soon after began to remove the Federalist office-holders under the Government, appointed by his predecessor, and to fill their places with Rej)ublicans, or Democrats as they now began to call themselves. He justified his 144 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. course by declaring that Mr. Adams iiad appointed none but Fede- ralists to office, and that it was not fair for one party to have all the offices, or even a majority of them. This was the beginning of the system of removals from office for political causes, which has been the bane of our Government ; but it should be added, in justice to Mr. Jef- ferson, that he was not guilty of such wholesale political decapitation as has usually been pratitised by his successors. His removals Avere few in proportion to the whole number of officials. His first term was marked by wisdom and vigor. The domestic affairs of the nation prospered, and the finances were managed in a masterly manner by Albert Gallatin, the great Secretary of the Treasury. Louisiana was purchased from France, and the insolence and piracies of the Barbary States of Africa punished and stopped. In 1804, Mr. Jefferson was reelected, receiving all but^ 14 of the electoral votes. Burr was succeeded in the Vice-Presidency by Geori;;(» Clinton, and two years later was arrested and tried for a suj)posiul attempt to separate the Western States from the Union. He wi.|!5 acquitted of the charge, and his innocence is now generally admitted. American commerce was much injured by the retaliatory decrcei? and orders in Council of the French and British Governments, under the sanction of which American ships were seized with impunity in gross violation of the laws of nations. Great Britain was not content with these outrages, but asserted a right to impress American seamen into her navy, and to stop and search American vessels for deserters from her ships of war. These searches were generally conducted in the most aggravating manner, and hundreds of American sailors, owing no allegiance to King George, were forced into the British service. In June, 1807, the American frigate Chesapeake, on her way to the Mediterranean, was stopped off the Chesapeake Bay, by the British frigate Leopard, whose commander produced an order requiring him to search the ship for deserters. The American vessel refused to submit to the search, and was fired into by the Leopard, and, being in a helpless condition, was forced to yield with a loss of twenty-one of her crew. Four men were taken from her and sent on board the Leopard. Three of these afterwards proved to be native- born Americans. This outrage aroused a feeling of the most intense indignation in America, and the Federal Government at once de- manded reparation at the hands of Great Britain, which was evaded for the time, but finally made in 1811. On the 11th of November, 1807, England issued an order in THE UNITED STATES. 145 Council, forbidding neutral vessels to enter the ports of France until they had first touched nt a British port and paid a duty; and the next month Napoleoxi .replied to this, by issuing a decree from Milan, ordering the confi^cp.t'.O of every vessel which should submit to search by or pay any duties to the British authorities. These two piratical decrees, each of which was enforced by a powerful navy, meant simply the destruction of all neutral commerce, and that of America in par- ticular. Mr. Jefferson recommended to Congress, in December, to lay an embargo, detaining all vessels, American or foreign, in the ports of the United States, and to order the immediate return home of all American vessels. This measure, which was a most singular expedient, was adopted, and gave rise to such intense dissatisfaction in all parts of the country, that it was repealed in February, 1809. As Mr. Jefferson declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party supported James Madison, of Virginia, for the Presidency, and George Clinton, of New York, for the Vice-Presi- dency, and elected them in 1808. They were inaugurated in March, 1809. The measures of Mr. Jefferson's second term, and especially the embargo, had given rise to considerable opposition to the Demo- cracy, and this opposition was now directed against the new adminis- tration with no little bitterness, and followed it persistently until its withdrawal from power. Great Britain, instead of discontinuing her outrages upon American seamen and commerce, increased them every day, persistently refusing to be influenced by the protests and representations of the United States ; and our Government, having at length exhausted all peace- able means of redress, was compelled to defend its rights with arms. War was declared against England on the 3d of June, 1812, and measures looking to the conquest of Canada were at once set on foot. The nation was poorly prepared for war. The embargo iiad almost entirely destroyed the revenue of the Government, and the finances were in a state of sad confusion ; the navy consisted of only eight frigates and seven other vessels ; and the army was a mere handful of inefficient recruits. Still, America possessed this advantage. Great Britain was forced to make such tremendous exertions to carry on her war with France, that she did not have much vStrength left to expend upon this country. This is shown by the fact that England made no effort to blockade our coast until the 20th of March, 1813, when, having sent a strong fleet to our waters, she proclaimed the blockade of the entire American coast, except the shores of New England. 146 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress authorized the President to increase the regular army by 25,000 men, and to call for 50,000 volunteers. The calls were responded to promptly in some of the States, tardily in some, and almost ignored in others, for the country was far from being united in support of the war. Hostilities began in the Northwest. Previous to the war, the Indians of that region, instigated by British emissaries, commenced to make war upon the American settlements, under the leadership of the famous Shawnee Chief Tecumseh. General Harrison (afterwards President), the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, as soon as he learned of this, organized a considerable force of Western militia, and marched against the savages, whom he defeated with terrible loss, in a sanguinary battle at Tippecanoe, on the banks of the Wabash River, on the 7th of November, 1811. Though defeated in this battle, Te- cumseh was not conquered. He passed the next six months in re- organizing his forces, and with the beginning of the summer of 1812, renewed hostilities. General Hull, then Governor of Michigan, was sent to meet him with a force of 2000 men. He had just begun his march when war was declared against England, and he was ordered to discontinue his expedition against the Indians, and invade Canada. His force was utterly inadequate to such an undertaking, but the War Department was too stupid to perceive this. He entered Canada from Detroit, was met by a superior force of British and Indians, under General Brock, and was driven back to Detroit with a loss of 1200 men. This reduced his army to 800 men, with which he could do absolutely nothing. On the 16th of August, he surrendered Detroit to the enemy, who had followed him from Canada. This placed the whole of Michigan in the hands of General Brock. An invasion of Canada fi"om the Niagara frontier was also undertaken by our forces during the fall of 1812. It was a most disastrous failure. These defeats on land, however, were partly atoned for by our suc- cesses at sea. The navy had been utterly neglected by the Govern- ment at the outset of the war, and had been left to win by good service whatever encouragement it afterwards received. It achieved during the latter part of 1812 a series of brilliant victories, which placed it in the proud position it has since held. On the 19th of August, the frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere ; on the 1 8th of October, the sloop of war Wasp, Captain Jones, captured the British brig Frolic ; on the 25th of October, the frigate United States, Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate THE UNITED STATES. 147 Macedonian ; and on the 29th of December, the Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java. Privateers were sent to sea in great numbers, and, by the close of the year 1812, had cap- tured over 300 English merchant vessels. The Government renewed its efforts against Canada with the open- ing of tiie campaign of 1813. An army, under General Harrison, was collected near the head of Lake Erie, and styled the Array of the West ; an Army of the "Centre, under General Dearborn, was stationed along the Niagara frontier; and an Army of the North, under General Wade Hampton, was posted in northern New York, on the border of Lake (^ham plain. There were numerous engagements between these forces and the enemy, but nothing definite was accomplished during the first half year. In April, General Pike, with a force of 1700 Americans, captured' York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, but was himself killed by the explosion of a mine fired by the enemy. The town was not held, however, and the success of the attack was fully balanced by the terrible disaster which had befallei^ the Western Army, in January, at River Raisin, in which a detach- ment of 800 men, under General Winchester, had been defeated and the greater portion of them massacred by the Indians, who were now the open allies of the English. In May, the British made an attack on Sackett's Harbor, on Lake Ontario, but were repulsed. In the same month, an American force, under General Boyd and Colonel MilLer, captured Fort George, in Canada, inflicting upon the British a loss of nearly 1000 men. Nothing definite was accomplished on the Niagara frontier, owing to the quarrels between Generals Wilkin- son and Hampton, and the grand invasion of Canada, from which so much had been expected, never took place. The great events of the year, however, were the destruction of the British fleet on Lake Erie, by the squadron of Captain Oliver H. Perry, on the 10th of Se[)tember, wiiich caused the enemy to abandon the lake and with it the shores of Michigan and Ohio ; and the battle of the Thames, in Canada, in which the Western Army, under General Harrison, on the 6th of October, utterly defeated a strong British column, under General Proctor, and a force of 2000 Indians, under Tecumseh, inflicting upon them a severe loss in killed and wounded — Tecumseh himself being among the former — and taking 600 prisoners, 6 pieces of cannon, and large quantities of stores. At sea, this year, the American brig Hornet, Captain Lawrence, captured the Peacock. On the 24th of February, Captain Lawrence 148 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. was put in command of the frigate Chesapeake, which was captured by the British frigate Shannon, off Boston, on the 1st of June. Law- rence was mortally wounded in this engagement. On the 5th of September, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, cap- tured the British brig Boxer, Lieutenant Blythe. Both commanders were killed in the fight. The campaign of 1814 was more»important. The war in Europe having closed, large numbers of Wellington's veteran troops were sent over to America. They reached this country during 'the latter part of the year. On the 5th of July, the American army, under General Brown, defeated the British at Chippewa. On the 25th of the same month, General Brown won a second victory over the enemy THE UNITED STATES. 149 at Lundy's liane, or Bridge water. General Winfield Scott held an important command in each of these engagements, and was wounded in the latter. Towards the close of the summer, Sir George Prevost, having been strongly reenforced from Wellington's army, invaded the United States from Canada, at tlie head of 14,000 men. He was ac- companied hy a powerful fleet, which moved up Lake Champlain. He was me"t at Plattsburg, New York, on the 3d of September, by the little army of General Macomb and a small fleet under Commo- dore Macdonough. Macdonough inflicted a terrible defeat on the British squadron, utterly routing it with heavy loss, and General Macomb at the same time repulsed every effort on the part of the land forces of Sir George Prevost, who, dismayed at his disasters, retreated hastily into Canada, with a loss of 2500 men and the greater part of his fleet. In August, a British army, under General Ross, landed on the shore of the Patuxent Piver, in Maryland, and advanced upon the city of Washington, defeating the small American force which so ight to bar its way at Bladensburg. General Ross succeeded in occupying Washington, from which, after burning the public buildings, he re- tired to his fleet, which had ascended the Potomac to Alexandria, to meet him. He then passed up to Baltimore, landing at North Point, near that city, ^vhile his fleet made a sharp attack upon Fort Mc- Henry, which commanded the approach by water to the city. The fleet was repulsed by the fort, and Ross was killed in a skirmish near North Point. His successor at once reembarked the army, and abandoned the effort against Baltimore. At sea, the American frigates Essex and President were taken by superior forces of the enemy, while the British sloops of war, Epervier, Avon, Reindeer, Cyane, Levant, and Penguin were captured by the American cruisers. During the remainder of the year, nothing of importance occurred on land, but in January, 1815, a British force of 12,000 of Welling- ton's veteran troops made an attack upon the city of New Orleans, but were defeated with the loss of their commander and 2000 men, by 5000 American troops under General Jackson. This battle was fought after a treaty of peace had been signed in Europe between the United States and Great Britain, but before the news had reached America. The victory was most important to the Americans, for had the result been different, there can be little doubt that England would have disregarded the treaty and have clung to a conquest which would have given her the control of the mouth of the Mississipjji. In this 10 150 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE : SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. case, either the war would have been prolonged upon a more formid- able scale, or the destiny of the great West would have been marred forever. The restoration of peace in Europe upon the downfall of Napoleon removed many of the vexatious issues which had produced the war in this country, and disposed the British Government to be just in its dealings with America. Negotiations were begun in 1814, and a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 1814. By the terms of this treaty, the two Governments agreed to settle the vexed question of a boundary between the United States and Canada, and to mutually return all territory taken during the THE UNITED STATES. 151 war,' and arranged some minor details relating to their future inter- course, but nothing was said of the question of the impressment of American seamen, the chief cause of the war. Inasmuch, however, as Great Britain has never since then attempted such outrages, this question also may be regarded as settled by the war. During the war, the Barbary States resumed their old acts of piracy upon Ameri- can vessels, notwithstanding the pledges which they had given, and upon the return of peace with England, a strong naval force under Commodores Bainbridge and Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean. This expedition forced the Barbary Powers to make indemnity for their piracies, and to pledge themselves to cease to molest American vessels in the future. The Federalist party had always opposed the war with England, and during its continuance gave it no assistance beyond the aid which the laws of the land extorted from them. The strength of this party lay in the New England States, "vvhere the losses occasioned by the war fell heaviest. The Federalists denounced the war as unnecessary and unjust, and waged in reality for the benefit of France rather than of America, and complained that while they lost heavily by it, the Government did nothing for the protection of the Eastern States. To remedy the evils of which they complained, their leaders met in Convention at Hartford, Conn., near the close of the war. The Con- vention recommended certain measures to the Legislatures of the Eastern States limiting the power of the General Government over the militia of the States, and urged the adoption of several amend- ments to the Constitution. The news of the treaty of peace put a stop to all further proceedings of this body. The Convention resulted in nothing but the ultimate destruction of the Federalist party, Avhich came to be regarded by the people at large as having been untrue to the Republic in its hour of need. Mr. Madison was reelected President, and Elbridge Gerry chosen Vice-President, in 1812. Thus the former had the satisfaction of condu(!ting the war, which had been begun during his administration, to a successful close. He declined to be a candidate for a third term, and James Monroe, of Virginia, was nominated by the Democratic party, and elected in 1816, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice-President. Mr. Monroe had been Secretary of State during the greater part of Mr. Madison's administration. The return of peace found the country burdened with a debt of $80,000,000, and with almost a total absence of specie in its mercan- 152 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tile transactions, the majority of the banks having suspended payments of gold and silver. In 1817, Congress established a National Bank at Philadelphia, with a charter for twenty years and a OiUpital of $35,000,000. The notes of this institution supplied to a great extent the demand for a circulating medium of uniform value throughout the country, and did much to relieve the financial distress of the period. Two States were added to the Union during Mr. Madison's admin- istration, Louisiana (in 1812) and Indiana (in 1816). Mr. Monroe had been exceedingly popular as Secretary of State, and the good will of the people followed him into the Presidential chair. His administration proved so acceptable to all parties that he was reelected in 1820 by every electoral vote but one. Five new States were admitted into the Union during his continuance in office, viz: Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), Maine (1820), and Missouri (1821). For some years the opposition to African slavery in America had been spreading through the Northern States, and had been steadily gathering strength. When the territory of Missouri presented its pe- tition to Congress for admission as a State with a Constitution sanc- tioning slavery within its limits, there was a very general determination expressed on the part of the Fi'ce-labor States to oppose the admission of another Slaveholding State. The Southern members of the Con- federacy, on the other hand, insisted upon the right of Missouri to choose its own institutions, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if this right was denied her by excluding her from the Union. A bitter contest with regard to the subject of slavery now developed itself between the two section^ of the Republic, which ceased only with the late Rebellion. The country was agitated in every portion, and the best men of the land expressed grave fears that the Union would be torn to pieces by the violence of the contending parties. After much wrangling, however, Henry Clay succeeded in procuring the passage of a series of measures known as the " Missouri Com- promise." By this arrangement, Missouri was admitted into the Union with her slaveholding Constitution, and slavery was forever prohibited in that portion of the Territory of the Republic lying north of 36° 30' N. latitude. This Compromise was regarded as a final settlement of the slavery question, and had the effect of securing about thirty years of quiet and repose for the country. During Mr. Monroe's Presidency, the Spanish Republics of South America declared their independence of Spain, and successfully main- THE UNITED STATES. 153 tained it for several years. In 1822, they were ' recognized by the United States. In his annual message for the year 1823, Mr. Monroe gave utterance to the following principle, which has since been dis- tinctly recognized by successive administrations as the unwavering policy of the United States : " That as a principle the American con- tinents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." This declaration is commonly known as the " Monroe Doctrine." • Mr. Monroe declined to be a candidate for reelection in the political campaign of 1824. A' number of candidates were presented to the people, but the popular vote merely threw the election into the House of Representatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen President. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, had already been chosen Vice-President by the people. The principal event of this administration was the adoption for the first time of a high tariff for the purpose of protecting American manufactures from the com- petition of foreign importations. This act was sustained by the Northern people, who were engaged in manufactures, and for whose benefit it was adopted, but was bitterly denounced by the South, which, being an agricultural country, naturally desired the liberty of buying her goods where they could be procured best and cheapest. The division of sentiment thus produced grew more distinct every day, and brought about considerable trouble in the end. There can be no doubt that it was one of the principal causes of the late civil war. In 1828, Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, was elected President over Mr. Adams, and John C. Calhoun chosen Vice-President a sec- ond time. The President, at the outset of his term, increased the number of his Constitutional advisers by inviting the Postmaster- General to a seat in his Cabinet. The right of the Postmaster-General to such a place had never been conceded before, but has always been acknowledged since 1829. The new President began his career by advising Congre.'ss, in his annual message, not to extend the 0[>erations of the Nationiil Bank, whose directors sought a renewal of its charter. He declared that the existence of such an institution was not authorizetl by the Consti- tution. This inaugurated a long and bitter contest between the ad- ministration and tiie friends of the. bank, which was sustained by almost the entii-e mercantile community. In 1832, Congress passej 154 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. a bill renewing the charter of the bank, which was vetoed by the President. An effort was made to pass the bill over the veto, but failed for want of the constitutional number of votes. The charter of the bank, therefore, expired by law in 1836. The tariff question assumed formidable proportions, during this administration. In 1832, Congress increased the rate of duties. South Carolina immediately declared her intention to resist the efforts of the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston, and prepared to maintain her position by force of arms. The great leader of this opposition to the Government was John C. Calhoun, M'ho had a short time previous resigned the office of Vice-President, to become a United States Senator from South Carolina. His princi- pal coadjutors were Robert G. Hayne, Senator from South Carolina, and George McDuffie, the Governor of the State. The party of which these brilliant men were the leaders, boldly declared that a State might at pleasure nullify any law of Congress which it believed to be uncon- stitutional. The danger to the country was very great, and it seemed that open war would prevail between the General Government and South Carolina; for President Jackson, who had been reelected in 1832, with Martin Van Buren of New York as Vice-President, declared his determination to enforce the lavv. He sent a ship of war to Charleston, ordered General Scott to proceed to that place with all the available troops under his command, issued a proclamation deny- ing the right of a State to nullify the laws of the Federal Government, and warning all persons engaged in sustaining the State of South Carolina in its unlawful course that the extreme penalty of the law against treason would be inliicted upon them. He also caused the leaders of the rebellion to be privately informed of his intention to seize and hang them as soon as they should commit the first overt act against the United States. The President's firmness averted the troubles for the time. He was sustained by the great mass of the people throughout the country, and the vexed question was finally settled by the introduction of measures into Congress for the gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. This compromise was projDOsed by Henry Clay, and accepted by the nullifiers, who were now con- vinced that " Old Hickory " was sincere in his threat to enforce the law. The bank question came up again, just as the nullification excite- ment died out. The public funds were required by law to be de- posited in the Bank of the United States, the charter of which was THE UNITED STATES. 155 about to expire by limitation. The President, in December, 1832, recommended the removal by Congress of these funds, but that body refused to take this step. The President then ordered the Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. McLane, to remove the funds and deposit them in specified State banks. Mr. McLane refused to do so,. and was transferred to the State Department, which was then vacant. Wil- liam J. Duane was then appointed to the Treasury, but he, too, re- fused to remove the funds, and was deprived of his office and suc- ceeded by Roger B. Taney, who promptly transferred the funds from the Bank of the United States to the State banks designated by the President. This step left no doubt on the part of the people of tlie intention of the President to destroy the National Bank, and producedi a severe panic in business circles. The President lost many friends,, and was severely denounced throughout the country. In the Senate, Clay, Calhoun and Webster, the leaders of the opposition, assailed him bitterly, and the Senate passed a resolution censuring his course,." by a vote of 26 ayes to 20 noes. He was sustained by the House of" Representatives, whose endorsement, considering the origin of that body, was more important than the censure of the Senate. In March,. 1837, the Senate expunged its resolution of censure from its journal.. During President Jackson's administration, the national debt was. paid, and the States of Arkansas (in 1836) and Michigan (1837) were- admitted into the Union. France, Spain, Naples, and Portugal were- forced to make good their depredations upon American commerce;, important commercial treaties were negotiated with foreign countries ;- and the war against the Seminole Indians in Florida was begun and prosecuted with vigor. This war lasted until 1842, and cost tlm- country $40,000,000. In 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the candidate of the- Democratic party, was elected President. The contest for the Vice- Presidency was thrown into the Senate, and resulted in the choice of Richard M. Johnson. Mr. Van Buren began his administration at the outset of the great commercial crisis of 1837, and was seriously ham- pered during the whole of his term, by the troubles arising from that disaster. The ])rincipal measures of his administration were designed to> remedy the financial evils from which the country was suffering. The most important was the establishment of the Sub-Treasury of the United States, which is still in operation. In 1840, William Henry Harrison of Indiana, and Jalm, Tyler of Virginia, the candidates of the Whig i)arty, were elected President 156 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and Vice-President. General Harrison did not long survive his in- auguration. He died on the 4th of April, 1841, and was succeeded by John Tyler, the Vice-President. Tiie Whigs were in favor of a National Bank, and Congress passed several Acts chartering such an institutiop, all of which were vetoed by the President, whose views on the subject accorded with the principles of the Democratic party. In consequence of these Acts, he was abandoned by the party which had elected him, and was supported by the Democracy, with which he thenceforth identified himself. During Mr. Tyler's term, the question of the northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was settled by a treaty, which was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of August, 1842. A more real service was rendered, how- ever, by the measures resulting in the annexation of the Re[)ublic of Texas to the United States, which were carried to a successful issue in spite of a determined opposition by the Whig party. The admis- sion of Texas as a State of the Union, occurred on the 1st of March, 1845. It was a most important step, as it not only increased the ter- ritory of the Republic, but forever prevented Great Britain from acquiring a foothold on the Gulf Coast of America. Mr. Tyler's last official act was to approve the admission of the States of Florida and Iowa into the Union, on the 3d of March, 1845. In 1844, James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected President, with George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. This was a Democratic triumph. When Mr. Polk came into office, the country was involved in a dispute with the Republic of Mexico respecting the boundary between the State of Texas and Mexico. This dispute re- sulted in hostilities between the two countries, which began on the Rio Grande, between the armies of Generals Taylor and Arista, in April, 1846. General Taylor defeated the Mexican army on the Rio Grande, at Palo Alto, May 8th, 1846, and at Resaca de la Palma, the next day. On being recnforced, he drove the Mexicans into the inte- rior, capturing their strong city of Monterey, and defeating their best .army, under their President himself, at Buena Vista (Feb. 22, 1847). Taylor's operations were now brought to a close in consequence of troops being taken from him to reenforce General Scott, who was col- Jecting his forces for an expedition against the city of Vera Cruz. Scott landed before that city on the 9th of March, 1847, and captured it, after a vigorous siege, on the 29th. Moving into the interior, he defeated the enemy in a series of hard fought battles at Cherubusco, Cerro Gordo, Chapul tepee, and Molino del Rey, and captured the THE UNITED STATES. 157 city of Mexico, which he entered in triumph on the 14th of Septem- ber, 1847, and held until the close of the war. In 1846, General Stephen Kearney conquered New Mexico, while Commodore Stockton and Colonel Fremont drove the enemy out of and occupied California. Kearney marched from New Mexico into California in January, 1847, and on the 8th of February assun)ed the office of Governor of the territory, and proclaimed its annexation to the United States. About the same time Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 Missouri volunteers, made a forced march across the Plains, and on the 28th of February defeated a force of 4000 Mexicans and cap- tured the city of Chihuahua. A treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of February, 1848. Mexico yielded the boundary of the Rio Grande, and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States, and the latter Power agreed to pay Mexico the sum of $15,000,000, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to American citizens, to the amount of $3,750,000. Great Britain had claimed the territory of Oregon as a part of British America, and our Government had insisted upon it as a part of the common property of the Republic, and had even declared its intention to go to war with England rather than be satisfied with anything less than the whole of Oregon. Nevertheless, as a measure of peace, the administration of Mr. Polk proposed to England the 49th parallel of North latitude for a boundary, our original claim having extended to the line of 54° 40'. As this compromise gave to Great Britain all of Vancouver's Island and the present colony of British Columbia, it was accej^ted. Recent events have proved that the territory was worth fighting for, and that our Government parted with it too readily. Free trade ideas prevailed during this adminis- tration to an extent sufficient to secure a modification of the high protective tariff of 1846. In May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union. In 1848, Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, was elected President, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, Vice-President, by the AVhigs. In this campaign, the anti-slavery party presented Martin Van Buren as their candidate for the Presidency. This organization had grown by degrees into considerable prominence upon the principle of opposition to the extension of slavery, and its strength in 1848 is shown by the fact, that although Van Buren secured no electoral vote, he received a jiopular vote of 291,263. 158 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The slavery question now presented itself again, this time in a most aggravated form, for both the friends and enemies of that system of labor had become more powerful since the temporary settlement of 1820. A strong anti-slavery party had developed itself at the North, which was avowedly determined to oppose the further extension of slavery, and which was believed in the South to be working for the overthrow of that institution in the States in which it already existed. The contest was resumed in Congress, in 1846, while measures were on foot looking to peace with Mexico, by a proposition from a Northern member that in the territory which should be acquired by the war then going on, there should be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except for crime. This measure, known as the " Wilmot Proviso," passed the House of Representatives by a large majority, but the Senate adjourned before a vote could be had upon it. The next year the House readopted the " Proviso," \f hich was rejected by the Senate. The House then abandoned it. The measure was bit- terly assailed by the South, which claimed that inasmuch as it had furnished the larger number of the troops by which the war was fouo-ht and the territory won, its institutions should receive the same encouragement and protection in the new Territory as those of the North. The dispute became very bitter, and made the Presidential election of 1848 one of the most memorable in our history. Fresh excitement was added to the quarrel by the events in California. Gold was discovered in that Territory in February, 1848, and it at once attracted a large emigration from the Eastern States and all parts of the world. In a few months the population of the Territory was over 100,000. Early in 1849, it was found that an organized gov- enmient was an absolute necessity, and that there were inhabitants enouo-h to entitle the Territory to admission into the Union as a State; and in September, 1849, a Convention was held at Monterey, which adopted and submitted to Congress a Constitution prohibiting slavery. The Southern States took strong ground against the erection of California into a free State, and even went so far as to threaten to withdraw from the Union if slavery were interfered with any further by the Government. They held a Convention at Nashville, Tennes- see, in 1850, and pledged themselves to a united course of action. The tone assumed by them was belligerent and threatening in the ex- treme. They demanded in Congress not only the rejection of the free Constitution of California, but an amendment of the Constitution of the United States which should equalize the power of the Free and THE UNITED STATES. 159 Slave States in the General Government. New Mexico now asked admission into the Union, and Texas set up a claim to a western boundary which included a large part of New Mexico. These minor questions very greatly complicated the main issue. The excitement throughout the country was even greater than that of 1820, and for a while it seemed that the Union would surely be destroyed. Finally a compromise, known as the " Compromise of 1850," was proposed in the Senate by Henry Clay, and carried through Congress by great exertions on the part of the moderate men of both sections. This Compromise admitted California as a free State; erected Utah and New Mexico into Territories, leaving the question of the exclusion of slavery to the people thereof when they came to form State Con- stitutions ; arranged the western boundary of Texas ; abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and substituted a new law for the rendition of fugitive slaves, in place of the old Act, which was ineffective. This Compromise was bitterly opposed by the extreme men of both the North and the South. The former denounced the concessions to Texas in the boundary question, and fiercely assailed the refusal to forbid slavery in the Territories ; and the fugitive slave law was not only denounced as unchristian and unconstitutional, but was opposed on the part of the Free States by a series of j)rohibitory acts which the candid student of history is compelled to regard as as un- lawful as the disunion measures of the pro-slavery party. The South, on the other hand, was furious over the admission of California as a free State, and the refusal of Congress to sanction and protect slavery in the Territories. Still, as it was plain that these measures embodied the only settlement possible at the time, the great body of the nation accepted them in good faith, and the Government honestly executed the fugitive slave law in all cases in which its aid was invoked, put- ting down the resistance of mobs by force. In the midst of the struggle over the "Compromise," General Tay- lor died (on the 9th of July, 1850), and was succeeded by JNIillard Fillmore, the Vice-President, who opened his administration with a change of Cabinet ministers. He gave his hearty support to the Compromise measures, and contributed greatly towards securing their passage. The principal events of his term were, the invasion of Cuba by Lopez, in 1851, which was defeated by the Spaniards; the visit of Kossuth to the United States, in 1851 ; the disputes with England concerning the fisheries, in 1852, which were satisfactorily settled; and the expedition of Commodore Perry to Japan, by means 160 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of which an important treaty was negotiated with the Japanese Gov- ernment, and the ports of the empire opened to the commerce of all nations. The slavery question entered largely into the Presidential campaign of 1852, and so greatly weakened the Whig party as to defeat it. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Ala- bama, the candidates of the Democracy, were elected President and Vice-President by handsome majorities. This administration is memorable for the violent political contests which prevailed during its term. It began by settling a dispute with Mexico, by purchasing from it the Territory of Arizona. In 1853, Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War, inaugurated the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, by sending out an expedition of U. S. Engineers for that purpose. In December, 1853, Mr. Douglas, the Senator from Illinois, introduced a bill organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, lying west of the Missouri River, and north of the line of 36° 30' N. latitude, in which region tfie Act of 1820 had forever pro- hibited slavery. This new bill repealed the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820, and reopened the slavery question in that region. The ad- ministration and the leaders of the Democratic party supported the measure, which was opposed by the great mass of the people of the free States without regard to party, and denounced by them as a violation of the plighted faith of the nation. It was hotly debated in Ctmgress, but passed the Senate by a vote of 37 to 14, and the House by a vote of 113 to 100, and at length received the Executive approval on the 31st of May, 1854. The passage of this bill created the most intense excitement in the country. It greatly increased the strength of the anti- slavery party, which now began to be known as the Republican party, and alienated many Democrats from their party. The Act left the Ter- ritories free to decide between slavery and free labor, and thus opened the way for a long and bloody warfare within their limits; the events of which will be related in another part of this work. An effort was made by the administration to purchase Cuba fi-om Spain ; but that Power declined to sell the island. An expedition of filibusters, under General William Walker, succeeded in conquering the Central Ameri- can State of Nicaragua. Walker at once sent an envoy to AVashing- ton, who was formally recognized by the President. The anti-slavery, or Republican party now exhibited its strength by electing Mr. Banks, of Massachusetts, Speaker of the Lower House of Congress, and in the Presidential contest of 1856, nominated John THE UNITED STATES. 161 C. Fremont as its candidate, and secured for him 114 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,341,264. A new element in this contest Mas the Know-Nothing, or American party, which supported Mr. Fillmore for the Presidency. It was founded upon a principle of hostility to the influence of foreigners, and especially of Roman Catholics, in our Government. Mr. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes, and 874,534 popular votes. The election resulted in the choice of the candidates of the Democratic party; James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was elected President, and John C Breckenridge, of Kentucky, Vice- President. Mr. Buchanan's administration was entirely Southern in its sym- pathies, and was marked by a constant struggle in Congress and throughout the country over the slavery question. The struggle in Kansas went on with great bitterness until the close of his term, the power of the Government being generally cast against the free settlers of that Territory, who were forced to take extraordinary measures for their defence. An effort was made to force a pro-slavery Constitution upon the Territory, and it split the Democratic party into two wings — the larger of which, led by Stephen A. Douglas, united Avith the He- publicans in opposing the Constitution ; while the smaller, led by the extreme Southern men in Congress, received the aid of the adminis- tration, and secured the adoption of the Constitution by Congress after a severe and protracted struggle. In 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State, and was followed by Oregon in 1859. In 1857, the Mormon settlers of Utah Territory took up arms against the authority of the General Government. The rebellion continued for some time, and a military force was sent against the rebels ; but the trouble was at length quieted without bloodshed. In October, 1859, John Brown, with a small band of followers, seized the United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and endeavored to incite the slaves of Virginia to revolt against their masters. He and his men were captured by the United States troops, a number of them being killed by the soldiers in the fight. The survivors were turned over to the authorities of the State of Virginia, by whom they were tried, convicted, and hanged. This attempt was regarded in the South as incontestable evidence of the determination of the North to destroy slavery, while at the North a formidable party denounced the execution of Brown as a murder, and by their unwise and unpatriotic course greatly strengthened the hands of the leaders of the disunion movement in the South. 162 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Presidential election of 1860, turned mainly upon the question of slavery in the Territories. The Democratic party, already weak- ened by the Kansas question, now finally split into two fragments. The larger wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, as their candidate. They held that Congress had no power either to sanction or forbid slavery in the Territories, but that the question could be decided only by the people thereof, who were most interested in it. The smaller wing chose John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, as their candidate, and declared it to be the express duty of Congress to sanc- tion and protect slavery in all the Territories of the Republic, main- taining that the Constitution of its own force carried slavery into thera. The Republican party nominated Abraham Tiincoln, of Illi- nois, as its candidate. This party denied any intention to interfere with the domestic institutions of any of the States, but avowed its de- termination to prevent the introduction of slavery into tiie Territories by Congressional legislation, and denounced as false the doctrine that the Constitution established slavery in any part of the Union. It asserted the right of every community to manage its domestic affairs in its own way, and denounced the invasion of Virginia by John Brown as wicked and unjustifiable. A fourth party, known as the "Constitutional Union Party," nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the Presidency, and adopted the following very vague and indefinite platform of principles: "The Union, the Constitution, and the en- forcement of the laws." The contest was bitter beyond all precedent. When the election took place, the result at the polls was as follows: Popular vote for Lincoln 1,866,452 " " " Douglas 1,375,157 " " " Breckenridge 847,953 " " " Bell 590,631 The electoral vote was divided as follows : For Lincoln, 180; for Breckenridge, 72; for Bell, 39; for Douglas, 12. The election of Mr. Lincoln was seized upon by the extreme pro- slavery leaders as a pretext for the withdrawal of the Southern States from the Union. The Gulf States had, indeed, during the early part of the Presidential contest, declared their deliberate determination to secede, in case of the election of a Republican President. Their peo- ple honestly believed that such a result of the campaign Avould be fatal to their institutions, inasmuch as they expected a Republican President to destroy the institution of slavery, forgetting in their alarm THE UNITED STATES. 163 that that official could have no power to harm them. The disunion leaders took pains to deepen this vague fear. How well they suc- ceeded is shown by the result. As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the Legislature of South Carolina summoned a Convention of tlie people of that State, which met on the 17th of December, 1860. This Convention adopted an ordinance of Secession, and withdrew the State from the Union, on the 20th of December. The cause of this action was declared to be as follows : " We assert that fourteen of the States have deliberately refused for years to fulfil their Constitutional obli- gations, and we refer to their own statutes for proof. .... In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from the service of labor claimed, and in none of them has the State government com- plied with the stipulations made in the Constitution Thus the Constitutional compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by the nou-slaveholding States ; and the consequence fol- lows that South Carolina is released from her obligation." Another cause was declared to be, " the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery." This declaration may be regarded as embodying the principal reasons assigned by the other States for their action. The secession of South Carolina was followed by that of Mississippi, Janu- ary 9th, 1861, Florida, January 10th, Alabama, January 11th, Georgia, January 19th, Louisiana, January 26th, and Texas, Febru- ary 1st. The forts, arsenals, and other public property of the United States in these States were seized by the State authorities, and held by their troops, except Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida. Fort Sumter was occupied by Major Robert Anderson with 80 men. Major Anderson had origi- nally occupied Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's Island, but knowing the purpose of the State authorities to seize the public property at Charleston, he evacuated his post on the night of December 25th, 1860, and threw himself with his command into Fort Sumter. The General Government was at this time almost helpless. The army, but 16,000 strong, was posted on the remote frontier, and the available vessels of the navy were nearly all in foreign waters. Many of the most prominent officials, including several of the Cabinet Min- isters, were in open sympathy with the seceded States, and the Presi- dent seemed only anxious to delay any definite action in the matter until the inauguration of his successor. His recommendations to 164 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Congress were not equal to the emergency. He was in favor of con- ceding everything but separate independence to the Soutli, not seeing that the leaders of the secession movement would accept nothing but separation, and by his timidity lost the advantages which the Gov- ernment would have gained by a bold and firm course. Still, he refused to yield to the pressure which was brought upon him for the purpose of securing the surrender of Fort Sumter to the State of South Carolina. He also refused to sell the fort to the State, or to order Anderson back to Fort Moultrie, as he was urged to do. Various plans were proposed in Congress and by the States for the settlement of the national troubles, but none were attended with suc- cess. A Border State Convention met in Washington on the 4th of February, 1861, for this purpose, but adjourned, after a session of three weeks, without having accomplished anything of a definite character. The quarrel waxed hotter every day. An attempt on the part of the Government to send reenforcements and supplies to Fort Sumter was resisted by the forces of South Caro- lina, and the vessel charged with that duty was fired on, and turned back. South Carolina, through her Legislature, declared that any future attempt to send aid to Fort Sumter would be regarded as an act of war, and would be resisted by force. On the other hand, the Legislatures of New York, Ohio, and Massachusetts pledged those States to assist the President with their whole military force " in put- ting; down the rebellion." The seceded States now formed a league for their common defence. The various State Conventions elected delegates to a Convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, on the 4th of February, 1861. This Convention at once organized a new Republic, to which it gave the name of the Confederate States of America. On the 8th of February, a Provisional Constitution having been adopted, the Con- vention elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President of the Confeder- ate States. The action of the Convention was approved by all the States comprising the new Confederacy, and the Provisional Govern- ment at once entered upon its duties. Montgomery was made the seat of government. On the 4th of March, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of the United States. As it was feared that an attempt would be made to prevent the inauguration, the city of Washington was held by an armed force under the command of Lieutenant-General THE UNITED STATES. 165 Scott. The ceremonies passed off without interruption. In his inaugural address Mr. Lincoln announced his determination to collect the revenue in the ports of the seceded States, and to " hold, occupy, and possess " the forts, arsenals, and other public property seized by those States. At the time of his entrance upon the duties of his office Forts Sumter and Pickens were still held by Federal garrisons. The Confederate Government, convinced that a struggle was in- evitable, prepared with energy for it. Nearly all the officers of the army and navy of the United States, who were natives of the seceded States, resigned their commissions and entered the service of the- Confederacy. The troops assembled at Charleston and Pensacola were reinforced from other States. The command at the former place- was conferred upon General Pierre G. T. Beauregard, and of the latter upon General Braxton Bragg, both of whom had been distinguished officers of the old army. In the meantime the Federal Government had determined to send an expedition to Charleston for the relief of Fort Sumter. A fleet of seven ships and 2400 men was prepared, and sailed from New York early in April. On the 8th of April, after the fleet had sailed,, Governor Pickens was informed of the departure of the expedition, and of the purpose of the Government to relieve Fort Sumter at all hazards. The Governor communicated the intelligence to the Con- federate authorities, who ordered General Beauregard to demand of Major Anderson the surrender of the fort. ' The demand was refused,, and on the morning of the 12th of April the Southern batteries, opened fire upon Fort Sumter, and continued it until the afternoon of the 14th, when the fort, which had been greatly injured, surren- dered. The Federal fleet arrived in the offing during the bombard- ment, but made no effort to assist the fort. The garrison embarked on board of it after the surrender, and it returned to New York. The attack upon Fort Sumter put an end to the last hope of peace.. Both sides at once flew to arms. On the 15th of April President Lincoln called upon the States to furnish 75,000 troops for the suppression of the rebellion, and issued a proclamation convening Congress in extra session on the 4th of July. The Northern and Western States quickly responded to the call, and promptly forwarded their troops to the designated points. The Southern Government also called for troops to resist the Federal forces, and its call was responded to with alacrity. Until now the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 11 166 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Missouri, generally known as the border States, had remained in the Union in the hope of effecting a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. Each of these States was included in President Lincoln's call for troops; but their sympathies were with the South, and they refused to furnish the quotas demanded of them. All but Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri cast their lot with the South. Virginia seceded on the 17th of April ; Arkansas on the 6th of May ; North Carolina on the 20th of May ; and Tennessee on the 8th of June. All these States subsequently ratified the Con- stitution of the Confederate States, and became members of the new Republic. Kentucky and Missouri attempted to remain neutral, but were ere long drawn into the struggle. Harper's Ferry and the Portsmouth Navy Yard, in Virginia, were seized by the State forces, and the other important points in the South were occupied by the Confederate forces. The western counties of Virginia refused to follow the eastern portion of the State, and declared their independ- ence. In November, 1861, a Convention at Wheeling organized the new State of West Virginia, which was at length admitted into the Union by Congress on the 20th of June, 1863. The call of President Lincoln for troops w^as answered by 300,000 volunteers. In a short time a sufficient force was assembled at Washington to insure the safety of the capital, and Alexandria and the Virginia shore were seized and fortified. Baltimore was occu- pied, and the communications of Washington with the North were secured. On the 19th of April the President issued a proclamation declaring all the ports of the South in a state of blockade. On the 10th of May he declared the writ of habeas corpus suspended in certain localities. A little later the Legislature of Maryland, which was largely Southern in its sympathies, was prevented from meeting :by the arrest and imprisonment of a large number of its members by •order of the Secretary of War. Congress met on the 4th of July, and measures were adopted without delay for putting in the field an army of half a million of men, and for collecting and equipping a powerful navy, and the sum of $500,000,000 was appropriated for the prosecu- tion of the war. In the meantime the Confederates had collected troops in West Virginia, at Harper's Ferry, at Manassas Junction, near Washington, and on the Peninsula, between the York and the James rivers. Norfolk was also held by a strong, force. On the 10th of June a column of Federal troops attacked a Confederate force at P>ethel THE UNITED STATES. 167 Church, near Fortress Monroe, and was defeated. I„ West Virginia the Federal forces were more successful. General McClellan defeated the Confederates at Rich Mountain on the 11th of July and drove tliem across the mountains- with the loss of their leader, General Garnett. The main Federal force was assembled before Washington, and was placed under the command of General McDowell. An advance upon the Confederates at Manassas Junction, under General Beaure- gard, havmg been determined upon. General Patterson was sent into the vallej^ of Virginia to prevent General Johnston from marcldng from Harpers Ferry to Beauregard's assistance. On the 17th of .n nnn ''". ^'^'" ^'' ''^^^^"^" ^^^"^ '^'^ Potomac with over 50,000 men and 49 pieces of cannon. Upon learning of this move- ment Johnston skilfully eluded Patterson and marched to Manassa.. arnving thei^ with the bulk of his army in time to take part in the battle. On the 21st of July McDowell attacked the Confederate army which was 31,400 strong, with. 55 guns, on the banks of Bull Run and after a severe battle, which lasted from sunrise to nearly sunset' Jnnn ''T tn' "'' ""'' '""' "P"" Alexandria, with a loss of between 4000 and 5000 men and 28 cannon. The Confederates made no eflort at pursuit. 'As soon as it had recovered from the first shock of the disaster, the Federa Government set to work with vigor to repair its losses. General George B. McClellan was appointed to the chief command of the forces of the Union, and was ordered to take charge of the Army of the Potomac, which was assembling before Washino-ton He made of this force the best disciplined army in America In Virginia the fall and winter were passed by both armies in preparing ior the struggle which was to begin in the spring. On the 21st of October a Federal force under Colonel Baker was repulsed with heavy loss in an effort to drive in the Confederate left wing at i^eesburg. , '^ In order to be near the scene of operations the Confederate seat of government was removed on the 21st of May to Richmond, Virginia Ihat city remained the capital of the Confederacy throughout the war. "^ • *= ^ Indecisive but severe fighting marked the latter months of the year in West Virginia. The result was that the Confederates were unable to regain the footing they had lost in that section. The efforts of Missouri to remain neutral met the unqualified oppo- 168 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sition of the Federal authorities, and the Governor and State officials took up arms and formed a league with the Confederate States. The Federal troops under General Lyon drove the State forces from Jefferson City on the 15th of June, and defeated them in an encounter at Booneville on the 17th. The Missourians then retreated into the southwestern part of the State, and on the 5th of July repulsed the attack of a Federal column under General Sigel, at Carthage. The next day the Missourians were joined by a Confederate force under General McCulloch. The combined forces advanced into the interior of the State, and on the 10th of July were attacked by General Lyon at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield. Lyon was killed and his army defeated. On the 20th of September the State forces under General Price captured Lexington after a short siege. By the close of the year the Confederates had been driven out of Missouri into Arkansas. The State was by these decisive measures saved to the Union. Neither party respected the neutrality of Kentucky, which State, like Missouri, furnished troops to both armies. The Federal forces were poured into Kentucky, and the Confederates seized Columbus and Bowling Green. On the 7th of November General Grant, with a small force, attacked a Confederate force at Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the Mississippi, opposite Columbus, but was repulsed. At the outset of the war the Confederates held the principal points on the southern Atlantic coast, which they fortified as well as the means at hand would permit. In order to render the blockade effectual, the Government determined to capture these as soon as possible. The first expedition was despatched in August, 1861, from Fortress Monroe, and resulted in the capture of the Confederate works at Hatteras Inlet, which commanded the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. On the 7th of November a powerful fleet reduced the works at the entrance to Port Royal, South Carolina, and secured that magnificent harbor. It remained during the war the principal naval station of the Federal fleet on the southern coast. Efforts were made to render the blockade effective, but " blockade runners," built and owned principally in England, managed to elude the vigilance . of the fleet, and kept up a regular communication between the South and Europe, by way of the Bahamas and West Indies, until near the close of the war. In the fall of 1861 James M. Mason, of Virginia, and John Slidell, of Louisiana, were sent by the Confederate Government as I THE UNITED STATES. ) 169 Commissioners to England and France. They ran the blockade and reached Havana in safety. There they embarked for England on board the British mail steamer " Trent." This vessel was stopped on the high seas by the United States steamer '' San Jacinto," Captain Wilkes. Wilkes removed the Southern Commissioners to his own vessel, and suffered the "Trent" to proceed on her voyage. He then sailed to Boston, where the Commissioners were consigned to Fort Warren. The " Trent " reached England in safety, and her com- mander reported to his government the indignity offered to its flag. Great Britain promptly demanded of the United States the immediate and unconditional release of the Confederate Commissioners, and satisfaction for the insult to her flag. The Federal Government disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes in seizing the Commissioners, and those gentlemen were released and allowed to continue their voyage. They reached Europe in due time. Mr. Mason proceeded to London, INIr. Slidell to Paris ; but neither was received in an official capacity by the English or French Governments, nor could they at any time during the struggle secure the countenance of those governments for their cause. The opening of the year 1862 found both parties better prepared for the conflict. The war had by this time assumed colossal propor- tions. The military operations extended almost across the continent and engaged a number of powerful armies and a formidable navy. The opening of the year found the United States with an effective army of over half a million of men, splendidly equipped, and supplied with everything necessary for the prosecution of the war. Specie had disappeared from circulation on both sides of the Potomac, and both the General Governnient and that of the Confederacy had resorted to papef money as a means of supplying the lack of currency. In the Korth a heavy government loan was readily negotiated with the capitalists of the Eastern States, and furnished the Federal Govern- ment with the funds needed for the prosecution of the war. In the South volunteering had ceased, and the Confederate Govern- ment, after trying various expedients, was driven to the adoption of a conscription law which placed every able-bodied male white between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five years in the military service. The military operations of the year began in the West. On the 19th of January General George H. Thomas defeated a Confederate force under General Zollicoffer, at Mill Spring, in Kentucky, and broke the right of the Confederate line of defence, the centre of which 170 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. was at Bowling Green and the left at Columbus. This success was followed by the capture of Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, on the 6th of February, by the troops of Brigadier-General Ulysses S. Grant and the gunboat fleet under Commodore Foote. After this success the gunboats moved around to the Ohio and entered the Cumberland, while Grant's army marched acix)ss the country to Fort Donelsou on the latter river, below Nashville. This strong work was invested, and was captured on the 16th of February, after three days of hard fighting. Over 5000 prisoners fell into the hands of the victors. These successes compelled the Confederate forces to evacuate Bowling; Green and Columbus. General Beauregard fell back from Columbus to Corinth, an important railroad centre in northern Mis- sissippi, and General A. S. Johnston -fell back from Bowling Green through Nashville to the Tennessee river, and finally by a flank march joined Beauregard at Corinth. All Kentucky and Middle Tennessee were thus gained by the Federal troops. General Buell's army occupied Nashville, and General Grant advanced to Pittsburgh Landing, on the Tennessee, not far from Corinth. Buell was ordered to join Grant as soon as possible, when their combined forces were to attack Corinth, To prevent this junction General Sidney Johnston, the Confederate commander, after uniting his force with that under Beauregard at Corinth, advanced to the Tennessee to attack Grant before Buell could join him. He attacked the Federal army on the morning of April 6th, at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Landing, and drove it to the Tennessee. Towards the close of the day he was mortally wounded, and died a little later. The command passed to General Beauregard, who failed to follow up his advantage. During the night Buell's army arrived, and thus reinforced, Grant, on the morning of the 7th, attacked the Confederates, and after a sharp fight forced them to retreat to Corinth. On the 7th of April Island No. 10, in the Mississippi, which had been fortified by the Confederates, was captured by the gunboat fleet and a force under General Pope. The Confederates retreated to Fort Pillow, a short distance above Memphis. General Halleck now took command of the Union army in the West, and laid siege to Corinth, which was evacuated on the 29th of May by Beauregard, who retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. This petreat compelled the evacuation of Fort Pillow, and on the 6th of June the Federal forces occupied Memphis. All West Tennessee was now held by the Federal forces, whose line extended from Memphis, through Corinth, almost to Chattanooga. THE UNITED STATES. 171 The Confederates still held East Tennessee, and collected an army of over 50,000 men, under General Braxton Bragg, at Chattanooga and Knoxville. It was determined to use this army in a bold eflbrt to regain West Tennessee and Kentucky. About the middle of August Bragg's army moved from East Tennessee in two divisions, the advanced forces being under General E. Kirby Smith. Smith moved rapidly into Kentucky, and on the 30th of August defeated a Union force under General Mason, at Richmond. He then occu])ied Lexington and Frankfort, and advanced towards Cincinnati ; but learning that a powerful Union army was assembling at Cincinnati, fell back to Frankfort, where he rejoined General Bragg on the 4th of October. Bragg had moved ofi'as soon as Kirby Smith had gotten fairly on his way, and had marched for Louisville ; but Buell had fallen back from Nashville with such speed that he had managed to reach Louisville before Bragg, w^ho therefore halted at Frankfort. Being heavily reinforced, Buell moved forward from Louisville to attack Bragg, and the latter fell back slowly before him. An inde- cisive encounter occurred between the two armies at Perryville, on the 8th of October, and Bragg withdrew to Nashville \vithout any further effort on the part of Buell to check him. He took with him a train of wagons forty miles long loaded with plunder. During this campaign West Tennessee was held by the array of General Grant, whose line extended from Memphis to Corinth. A Confederate army under Generals Price and Van Dorn endeavored to drive Grant out of Tennessee, but was defeated at luka on the 19th of September, and again at Corinth on the 4th of October. Bragg continued his retreat from Nashville to Murfreesboro', 30 miles distant. General Buell was removed from the command of the Federal array, and was succeeded by General Rosecrans, who, toward the last of Deceraber, marched from Nashville to attack Bragg. At the same time, Bragg, ignorant of this movement, advanced to attack Nashville. The two armies met at Stone River on the 31st of December. A severe battle, which lasted all day, ensued, and at nightfall the Union forces were driven back at all points. During the night Rosecrans took up a stronger position, and on the 2d of January, 1863, Bragg renewed his attack and was repulsed with heavy loss. Each army lost about 10,000 or 12,000 pen. Bragg retreated in good order to Tullahoraa, about 30 miles from Murfreesboro'. In December General Grant made an unsuccessful attempt to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, which the Confederates had fortified 172 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to enable them to retain their hold on the Mississippi river. A severe battle, lasting two days, was fought at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, on the 7th and 8th of March. In the first day's fight the Confederates, who were commanded by General Van Dorn, were successful ; but were repulsed by General Curtis the next day. The plan of the Government to reduce the prominent points on the southern coast was continued with success during the year 1862. On the 8th of February a powerful expedition, under General A. E. Burnside, captured Roanoke Island, between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. On the 14th of March Newbern, North Carolina, was taken by the same force, and on the 25th of April Fort Macon, at the entrance of Beaufort Harbor, surrendered. A fleet under Commodore Farragut was sent against New Orleans. On the 24th of April it forced a passage by the batteries of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, and the next day anchored in front of New Orleans, which surrendered without opposition. A day or two later a force of Federal troops under General B. F. Butler occupied the city. The capture of New Orleans was followed by the surrender of Forts Jackson and St. Philip. These successes deprived the Confederacy of the largest and wealthiest city of the South, and wrested from it the whole of the lower Mississippi. On the 11th of April Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the Savannah river, surrendered to General Hunter after a bombardment of fifteen days. Its capture closed the port of Savannah to blockade runners. The Federal naval forces had a narrow escape from a crushing disaster on the coast of Virginia. Upon the evacuation of the Ports- mouth Navy Yard, at the opening of the war, the Federal authorities sunk several vessels in the yard, as they were unable to remove them. One of these was the steam frigate " Merriraac." She was raised by the Confederates, rebuilt by them, heavily plated with iron armor, and named the " Virginia." A long, stout bow was fitted to her to enable her to act as a ram, and she was armed with ten heavy guns. Thus prepared she was the most formidable vessel afloat. On the 8th of March she left Norfolk Harbor and ran down to Hampton Roads, where she destroyed the frigate "Congress" and the sloop-of-war " Cumberland," and spread dismay among the rest of the squadron col- lected there. She was herself uninjured. At sunset she withdrew into the Elizabeth river. During the night the iron-clad "Monitor" arrived from New York on her trial trip to Fortress Monroe. On the reap- pearance of the " Virginia" the next morning the " Monitor " engaged THE UNITED STATES. 173 her, and after a close fight of several hours forced her to draw off and return to Norfolk severely injured. This was the first engagement ever fought between iron-clads, and inaugurated a new era in naval warfare. The military events in Virginia were of the highest importance. Fearing that McClellan would interpose his army between him and Richmond, General Johnston, the Confederate commander, fell back from Centreville, on the 8th of March, to the line of the Rapidan. McClellan thereujjon transported his army, 120,000 strong, by water to Fortress Monroe, and advanced upon Richmond by the peninsula between the York and James rivers. His progress was stayed by the Confederate works extending across the peninsula from Yorktown to the James. This line was defended by a small force under General Magruder, who held it until the arrival of Johnston and his army from the Rapidan. On the night of the 3d of May Johnston fell back from this exposed line to a strong position on the north side of the Chickahominy river, immediately in front of Richmond. McClellan followed leisurely, and took position on the left or south bank of that stream. The evacuation of the peninsula by the Confederates compelled them to abandon Norfolk also, which they did on the 9th of May. The iron-clad " Virginia " was taken into the James river and destroyed, thus leaving that river open to within a few miles of Richmond. Upon the transfer of his army to the peninsula, General McClellan had been required to detach a heavy force to cover Washington city. Upon reaching the Chickahominy he induced President Lincoln to order this covering force to move by way of Fredericksburg and unite with the Army'of the Potomac before Richmond. AVith his army thus augmented, the Union cpmmander had no doubt of his ability to capture Richmond. While awaiting the arrival of this force he threw his left wing across the Chickahominy and lodged it in a posi- tion nearer Richmond. In this exposed position it was struck a tremendous blow by General Johnston, at Seven Pines, on the 31st of May, and was driven back a considerable distance. General Johnston was severely wounded, and was unable to drive the Federal left across the Chickahominy as he intended. Warned by this battle, McClellan heavily intrenched his position on both sides of the river. Early in the year General Jackson, who had been stationed with a small Confederate force in the valley of Virginia, was ordered to manoeuvre his troops in such a manner as to threaten Washington, 174 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and prevent reinforcements from being sent to MeClellan. He was entirely successful in this attempt. Fremont's army had been ordered to march from West Virginia into the valley to relieve Banks, who was to cover Washington, and allow the force in front of that city to move to McClellan's assistance. Jackson's task was to neutralize this plan. He attacked Fremont's advance, at McDowell, in West Vir- ginia, and drove it back on the 8th of May, and then, by a forced march across the mountains, hastened to the valley, defeated Banks' advanced guard at Front Royal, on the 23d of May, and his main body at Winchester, on the 25th, drove him out of the valley, and pursued him to the Potomac. This bold movement so alarmed the Federal Government that the effort to reinforce MeClellan was aban- doned. A part of the force intended for him was retained for the protection of Washington, and the rest was sent under General Shields to co-operate with Fremont, who was advancing into the valley from West Virginia, in an effort to intercept Jackson. Jackson, however, retreated up the valley with remarkable speed, and when he had placed himself beyond his pursuers, wheeled upon Fremont, and dealt him a blow at Cross Keys, on the 8th of June, which checked his advance, and on the 9th defeated Shields at Port Republic, and drove him back. Then, moving leisurely to a point of safety, he rested his army for a few days, and hastened to the Chickahominy to reinforce General Lee. Upon the fall of General Johnston at Seven Pines, the command of the Confederate army before Richmond was conferred upon General Robert E. Lee, who determined to force MeClellan back from the Chickahominy. Upon the arrival of Jackson's corps his army was increased to a strength of 90,000 men. McClellan's-force numbered 115,000 men. On the 25th of June Lee attacked the Federal right wing at Mechanicsville, and drove it back upon the centre at Cold Harbor. On the 27th the position at Cold Harbor was carried by the Confederates after a desperate struggle. With great difficulty MeClellan secured his retreat to the south side of the Chickahominy, and destroyed the bridges in his rear. MeClellan now decided to abandon his base on the York river and retreat to the James by way of White Oak Swamp. The retreat was begun on the night of the 28th. Lee attacked the retreating army at Savage Station on the afternoon of the 29th, and at Frazier's Farm on the afternoon of the 30th, but was not able on either occasion to prevent its passage through the swamp. On the 1st of July the Federal army was THE UNITED STATES. 175 massed at Malvern Hill, within a mile of the James. It was attacked there by the Confederates, who were repulsed with heavy loss. McClellan then moved to Harrison's Landing on the James, Avhere he estal>lished his army under the protection of his fleet. His losses in the " Seven Days' Battles " amounted to 20,000 men, 52 cannon, 35,000 stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores. The Confederates lost 19,533 men. The disasters to McClellan's army threw the North into the deepest despondency. President Lincoln, on the 2d of July, issued a call for 300,000 fresh troops, and on the 4th of August ordered a draft for 300,000 militia to serve nine months. Within three months this enormous mass of 600,000 fresh troops was placed in the field. A new army was formed in northern Virginia before Washington, and was placed under Major-General John Pope. Somewhat later McClellan was ordered to abandon his position on the James, and send his troops to the Potomac to reinforce Pope. In the meantime General Lee had sent General Jackson with his corps to the Rappa- hannock to watch Pope. On the 9th of August Jackson defeated Pope's advanced guard, under General Banks, at Cedar Mountain. As soon as he was informed, of McClellan's withdrawal from the James, Lee hastened with his whole force to the Rappahannock. He determined to attack Pope at once, before McClellan could reach him. He accordingly threw Jackson's corps in the rear of the Federal army, and seized its communications with Washington. Pope immediately fell back to the line of Bull Run, and Lee has- tened with all speed to rejoin Jackson. Before his arrival Jackson's forces resisted two attacks from Pope's troops. On the 29th the junction between Lee and Jackson was effected. On the same after- noon Pope attacked them and was repulsed, and on the 30th, having risked the fate of the campaign on a decisive battle, Pope was routed in the second battle of Bull Run, and was driven within the lines of Washington. His losses during the campaign amounted to over 30,000 men. Th6 Confederate loss was about 9000. General Lee followed up his victory by an invasion of Maryland, which State it was generally believed was only awaiting an oppor- tunity to unite its fortunes with the Confederacy. Scarcely a handful of Marylanders joined him. The Potomac was crossed on the 5th of September, and on the 6th the Confederate army occupied Frederick City. As Harper's Ferry was held by a garrison of 11,000 men, the reduction of that place was necessary in order to preserve Lee's 176 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. communications with his own country. General Jackson was de- spatched with his corps to reduce it, while Lee, witii tlie rest of the army, took position at South Mountain to await the result. Jackson reached Harper's Ferry and promptly carried the heights overlooking the town. On the 15th the garrison surrendered to him. After securing his prisoners he set off at once to join General Lee. In the meantime General McClellan had been restored to the com- mand of the Army of the Potomac. This force he reorganized on the march, and at once set out to meet the Confederates, moving slowly. At Frederick he found a copy of Lee's confidential order, giving his plan of operations. This document enabled the Federal commander to act with certainty, and he marched rapidly to South Mountain, and on the 14th of September attacked General Lee, who, after a stubborn fight, fell back behind Antietam Creek, where he was joined on the morning of the 17th by the troops of General Jackson, who had made a forced march from Harper's Ferry. The Southern army was now reduced to about 40,000 men, thousands having straggled from the ranks on the march through Virginia. On the 17th McClellan attacked Lee at Antietam. The battle lasted through the day, but the Confederates held their ground. On the night of the 18th Lee fell back to the Potomac, which he recrossed without losing even a wagon, and retired to Winchester. McClellan moved to the vicinity of Harper's Ferry, and on the 2d of November crossed the Potomac east of the Blue Ridge. Lee at once passed the mountains and moved towards the Rappahannock, placing his army between McClellan and Richmond. On the 7th of November McClellan was removed from his command, and was succeeded by General A. E. Burnside, who marched to the Rappahannock, opposite Fredericksburg. Lee took position on the hills back of that town. On the 11th and 12th of December Burnside crossed the Rappahan- nock at Fredericksburg, and on the 13th endeavored to carry the Southern line by assault. He was driven back with fearful loss, and retreated across the Rappahannock, where his army went into winter quarters. He was soon after relieved of his command at his own request. On the 1st of January, 1863, President Lincoln issued his Eman- cipation Proclamation, declaring all the negro slaves within the limits of the Confederate States free from that day. General Joseph Hooker was appointed to succeed General Burn- side in the command of the Army of the Potomac. Its losses were THE UNITED STATES. 177 made up by reinforcements, and it was thoroughly reorganized and brought to a splendid state of efficiency by its new commander. By the opening of the spring it numbered 120,000 men and 400 pieces of artillery. Learning that Lee's army had been weakened by the withdrawal of Longstreet's corps, 24,000 strong, Hooker determined to attack him. He detached a column of about 25,000 men, under General Sedgwick, to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg and force the Southern lines in the rear of the town, and with the bulk of his army moved to his left, crossed the Rappahannock, and planted himself on Lee's right and in his rear. Lee perceived his danger and took prompt measures to avert it. Leaving a small force to hold his lines in the rear of Fredericksburg, he moved with his main body against Hooker, who had intrenched himself at a place called Chancel lorsville. About the same time Sedgwick crossed the river and threatened the position at Fredericksburg. On the 2d of May Lee sent Jackson's corps to turn the right of Hooker's line. This movement was brilliantly executed, but cost the Confederates the life of Stonewall Jackson, who was mortally wounded. Hooker's right was driven in on his centre, and the next day Lee stormed his position at Chancellorsville and forced him to retreat to the junction of the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was about to renew his attack on Hooker at this point, when he was informed that Sedgwick had carried the heights of Fredericksburg and was marching against him. Leaving a part of his army to hold Hooker in check, Lee marched rapidly to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at Salem Heights, on the 4th, and drove him over the Rappa- hannock. Then turning upon Hooker, he prepared to renew his attack ; but the latter, disheartened by Sedgwick's defeat, withdrew his army across the Rappahannock on the 5th of May, and returned to his old position opposite Fredericksburg. The Confederate victory was dearly bought. Stonewall Jackson died a few days later. The Confederate Government now rapidly reinforced Lee's army to a strength of nearly 80,000 men, and brought it to an equality with Hooker's army, which had been reduced by losses in battle, desertions, and expirations of enlistment to that strength. It was resolved to take advantage of this circumstance, and of the despon- dency of the North which had followed the defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville, to renew the invasion of the North, in the hope of carrying the war out^ of Virginia. Accordingly Lee, on the 3d of June, left the Rappahannock, and marching rapidly through the 178 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. valley, crossed the Potomac on the 22d of June, and moved towards Hagerstown, in Maryland. On the 2.3d his advanced corps occupied Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Hooker, who had followed slowly, crossed the Potomac on the 25th and 26th of June, and marched towards Frederick. Unable to agree with the War Department as to his movements, he asked to be relieved, and was succeeded by INIajor- General George G. Meade. General Lee now moved his army east of the mountains, and directed his advance towards Gettysburg. In ignorance of his adversary's design, General Meade hastened forward to occupy the same point. The most intense excitement was occa- sioned throughouif the North by the invasion of Pennsylvania by the Confederates, and preparations were made to oppose an energetic resistance to it. On the morning of the 1st of July the advanced forces of the two armies encountered each other at Gettysburg. The Federal advance was forced back and its commander. General Reynolds, killed. General Hancock, who succeeded to the command, recognized the advantages of the position at Gettysburg, and held it until Meade came up with the main army. The two armies then took position on the hills on opposite sides of Gettysburg, with the town between them. On the 3d of July General Lee endeavored to carry the Federal position by storm, but his attack was repulsed with terrible loss. The Federal victory was decisive. It put an end to the invasion. On the night of the 4th of July Lee fell back from Gettysburg and retreated to the Potomac, which he passed in safety on the 13th and 14th, without serious opposition by the Federal army. On the 18th General Meade crossed the Potomac below Harper's Ferry, and endeavored to place his army between Lee and Richmond. The latter, by rapid marches, gained the line of the Rappahannock before him, and so defeated this effort. The remainder of the year was passed by the two armies on the Rapidan. In the West the Federal arms were crowned during the year by a series of brilliant and decisive successes. The first of the year found the army of General Grant encamped on the Mississippi at Milliken's Bend, a short distance above Vicks- burg. The Confederates had strongly fortified Vicksburg, and had collected an army of over 30,000 men, under General Pemberton, for its defence. They had also fortified Port Hudson, about 100 miles lower down the river. It was all important for them to hold these posts, as they commanded the river between them and secured free com- THE UNITED STATES. IjTQ munication between the States east and west of the Mississippi. After spending several months in fruitless endeavors to attack Vioksburg from the north, General Grant ran a number of gunboats and trans- ports by the batteries at that place, and marched his army across the country to a point opposite Bruinsburg, Mississippi, and with the aid of his boats crossed the river on the 1st of May and marched towards the rear of Vicksburg. Near Port Gibson a part of Pemberton's array was encountered and defeated on the same day. This success compelled the evacuation of Grand Gulf by the Confederates. Grant now boldly threw his army between Jackson — where a small force was being collected by General Joseph E. Johnston — and Pemberton's array, near Vicksburg, intending to prevent any junction between these forces, and to drive Pemberton within the lines of Vicksburg. On the 14th of May he attacked Johnston at Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, and forced him to retreat northward towards Canton. Then turning upon Pemberton, he defeated him at Baker's Creek, on the 16th, and the next day defeated him at the Big Black River, and compelled him to retreat within the defences of Vicksburg, which were promptly invested by the Federal army. On the 19th of May, and again on the 22d, Grant attempted to carry the Southern works by assault, but was each time repulsed with heavy loss. He then laid siege to the city, and subjected it to a terrible bombardment. While the siege was carried on, Johnston's army was held back and prevented from undertaking any movement for the relief of Vicks- burg. On the 4th of July Vicksburg was formally surrendered to General Grant by General Pemberton. Thirty thousand prisoners, 60,000 stand of arms, 250 cannon, and an immense quantity of stores were captured by the Union forces. It was justly regarded as the greatest victory of the war. While the siege of Vicksburg was in progress. General Banks ascended the Mississippi from New Orleans and laid siege to Port Hudson. It was surrendered to him on the 8th of July, the fall of Vicksburg having rendered it of no value. These victories wrested from the Confederates their last hold upon the Mississippi. They created the greatest rejoicings in the Northern and Western States, and a corresponding depression in the South. Being simultaneous with the defeat of the Southern army at Gettys- burg, they were decisive of the war, which, though it lingered for nearly two years longer, had from this time one inevitable result. In June, 1863, Rosecrans advanced from Nashville and threatened 180 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the communications of Bragg's array, which had passed the winter at Chattanooga. Bragg evacuated that place and fell back to Dalton, Georgia, where he was reinforced by Longstreet's corps from Lee's army. Thus strengthened, he wheeled upon Rosecrans, who had followed in pursuit, and attacked him at Chickamauga on the 19th of September. The battle was resumed on the 20th, and was one of the most stubbornly contested of the war. Rosecrans was defeated and driven into Chattanooga. Bragg at once invested that place and reduced the Federal army to great suffering. General Rosecrans was now removed from the command of the Army of the Cumberland, and was succe*eded by General Grant, who was given the command of all the Western armies of the Union. He marched with a strong force to the relief of Chattanooga, and arriving before that place, soon changed the aspect of affairs. On the 23d of November the besieged army, by a vigorous sortie, drove the Confederates from the important position of Orchard Knob ; • on the 24th General Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain and carried it ; and on the 25th the Confederates were driven from their last position on Mission Ridge. Bragg retreated into Georgia. He was soon removed from his command, and was succeeded by General Joseph E. Johnston. During the progress of this campaign, General Burnside, with about 25,000 men, moved from Kentucky into East Tennessee, and had occupied Knoxville. After the battle of Chickamauga Bragg sent Longstreet to recover East Tennessee, and that general laid siege to Knoxville. Burnside held the town, though almost starved, until Sherman's corps, sent by Grant after Bragg's defeat, arrived to his assistance and forced Longstreet to raise the siege and retreat into Virginia. On the 7th of April, 1863, Admiral Dupont endeavored to force his way into Charleston Harbor with the iron-clad fleet, but was repulsed with severe loss by the Southern batteries. Early in July a force under General Gilmore effected a lodgment on the south end of Morris Island, and pushed their advance towards Fort Wagner with such steadiness that on the night of the 6th of September the Confed- erates evacuated that work just in time to avoid the final assault. The Federal batteries on Morris Island soon reduced Fort Sumter to a mass of ruins and bombarded Charleston. Early in March, 1864, General Grant was raised to the grade of lieutenant-general, and was given the chief command of all the armies of the Union. He established his head-quarters with the Army of THE UNITED STATES. 181 the Potomac ; the Western army was placed under the command of General Sherman, and was to advance simultaneously with the Vir- ginia army. On the 4th of May the Army of the Potomac, 140,000 strong, under General Grant's command, crossed the Rapidan, turned Lee's right, and entered the region known as the Wilderness. Lee had but 50,000 men, but attacked Grant in the Wilderness, on the 5th of May, hoping to prevent him from reaching the open country beyond. The conflict was maintained for two days, both armies suffering greatly. On the 7th Grant moved to the right of Lee, and endeav- ored to seize the strong position of Spottsylvania Court House. Lee divined his purpose and reached the position before him. On the 10th and 12th of May Grant made vigorous efforts to drive Lee from this position, but failed. On the 21st of May he moved from Spott- sylvania to the North Anna river, hoping to get between Lee and Richmond ; but upon reaching that river found his antagonist in- trenched in a strong position behind it. Being unwilling to attack the Confederate army in this position, the Federal commander again moved to his left and marched to the Chickahomiuy. Lee followed him promptly, and took position at Cold Harbor, on the north side of the Chickahomiuy and within nine miles of Richmond, occupying nearly the same line as that held by McClellan in the battle of the 27th of June, 1862. He covered his line with strong earthworks. On the 3d of June the Army of the Potomac made a determined attack upon these works, and was repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men. Its losses since the passage of the Rapidan amounted to over 60,000 men. The Confederate loss during the same period was about 20,000 men. Failing to force the Southern works at Cold Harbor, Grant marched to the James river and crossed that stream at Wilcox's Landing, on the 15th and 16th of June, and advanced upon Petersburg. At the opening of the campaign a force under General Butler moved up the neck of land between the James and Appomattox rivers, and endeavored to capture the worlvs and railway between Richmond and Petersburg. It was defeated on the 16th of May by a force under General Beauregard, and was driven back to Bermuda Hundreds, where it was forced to remain until Grant crossed the James river. After passing the James Grant advanced at once upon Petersburg, and on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of June made repeated efforts to carry 12 182 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the defences of that place and the line between Petersburg and Richmond by storm, but witliout success. He thereupon laid siege to Petersburg. During tlie fall he gradually extended his left until he wre-sted from the Confederates the railway connecting Petersburg with Weldoi), North Carolina. From this point he sought to extend his left still farther and seize the South Side Railway, Lee's only remaining line of communication with the Southern States, but without success. Tlie siege was marked by a number of battles during the remainder of the year, but we have not, space or time to enumerate them all. During the early fall General Grant extended his lines across the James river, and established a force on the north side of that stream to lay siege to the defences of Richmond. Simultaneously with the advance of the Army of the Potomac a force of 10,000 men, under General Sigel, entered the valley of Vir- ginia with the design of penetrating into Southwestern Virginia and seizing the railway connecting Lynchburg with East Tennessee and Georgia. General Breckenridge attacked Sigel at New Market, on the 15th of May, and drove him back down the valley. General Hunter succeeded Sigel and advanced to the vicinity of Lynchburg, where he was attacked by General Early and driven into West Vir- ginia. Early then moved rapidly down the valley, crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on the 5th of July, and on the 7th occu- pied Frederick City, Maryland. On the 9th he defeated a small force under General Lew Wallace, at Frederick Junction, and marched upon Washington city. He arrived before that place on the 11th, and found the defences so strongly manned that, after skirmish- ing before them for several days, he recrossed the Potomac on the 14th and returned to Winchester. A force of 40,000 men was assembled on the upper Potomac by the Federal Government, and was placed under command of General Sheridan, who at once advanced against Early. On the 19th of'Sep- tember he defeated him at Winchester, and again, on the 22d, at Fisher's Hill, and drove him up the valley as far as Staunton. By order of General Grant, Sheridan now devastated the valley, driving off the stock and burning all the crops, mills, and farming imple- ments. Having received reinforcements. Early moved back down the valley, and on the 19th of October surprised Sheridan's camp at Cedar Creek, and drove his army in confusion. Sheridan was at " Winchester, twenty miles away," at the opening of the battle ; but as soon as he heard the firing sprang on his horse and rode with all THE UNITED STATES. 183 speed for the army. He reached it just as General Wright had rallied it. Early's men stopped to plunder the captured camp, and Sheridan moved back, routed them, and drove them up the valley for thirty miles. This success ended the valley campaign. The Western army, 100,000 strong, under General Sherman, marched from Chattanooga on the 7th of May. General Johnston, with an army of 50,000 Confederates, held a strong position at Dakon, Georgia. Sherman, being unwilling to assail him in this position, turned it, and compelled him to fall back to Resaca. On the 14tli and 15th of May he attacked the Confederate lines near Resaca, but without success, and by moving around Johnston's left flank again, compelled him to fall back to Dallas. He attacked him again between the 25th and 28th, when, Sherman having turned Allatoona Pass, Johnston occupied a new position embracing Pine, Kenesaw, and Lost Mountains. Being unable to force this position, Sherman turned it, and Johnston crossed the Chattahoochee and fell back within the defences of Atlanta, where he meant to risk a decisive battle. On the 17th of Jtlly, however, he was removed from his command, and was succeeded by General John B. Hood. On the 17th of July the Union army crossed the Chattahoochee and advanced towards Atlanta. On the 20th and 22d Hood attacked it on Peach Tree Creek, but was defeated. Sherman now thrust his army between the two wings of Hood's army, and that commander, on the 31st of August, evacuated Atlanta and retreated towards Macon. On the 2d of September Sherman occupied Atlanta. That city had been the principal depot in the South for the manufacture of military stores. Its loss was a crushing blow to the Confederates. With the hope of drawing Sherman out of Georgia, Hood, by the orders of his Government, marched into Tennessee and threatened Nashville. General George H. Thomas was intrusted with the defence of that place, and Sherman prepared to put in execution a plan he had long cherished, but had not been able to carry out while Hood remained in Georgia. Hood began his movement on the 19th of November. On the 30th he defeated General Schofield at Franklin, eighteen miles from Nashville, and forced him to retire within the defences of the latter place. Hood then advanced to Nashville and invested the place. On the 15th and 16th of December he was attacked by General Thomas, routed, and driven across the Tennessee with the remnant of his army. In the meantime Sherman had put in execution his plan, which 184 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. was to march from Atlanta through Georgia to the sea-coast, from which he could move northward to Virginia and aid Grant in bring- ing "the war to a close by the destruction of Lee's army. On the 14th of November he set fire to Atlanta and began his " march to the sea " at the head of a splendid army of 60,000 men. He ravaged the country as he went, leaving behind him a broad belt of desolation 60 miles in width and 300 in length. In about four weeks he reached the coast near the mouth of the Savannah river. On the 13th of December he carried Fort McAllister by assault, and on the 22d of December occupied the city of Savannah. On the 5th of August, 1864, Admiral Farragut forced his way, with his fleet, by Forts Morgan and Gaines into Mobile Bay, and defeated the Confederate fleet, destroying and capturing the whole of it. On the 7th of August Fort Morgan surrendered to General Granger, and on the 23d Fort Gaines also capitulated. These cap- tures closed the harbor of Mobile to blockade runners. A notable success was won at sea in this year. On the 19th of June the United States steamer " Keapsarge " sunk the Confederate cruiser "Alabama," in a fight off Cherbourg, France. In the fall of 1864 Abraham Lincoln was re-elected President of the United States by a large popular vote, and received the electoral vote of every State except New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky. On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. The year 1865 opened with an effort to restore peace. An informal interview was held in Hampton Roads, on the 3d of February, be- tween President Lincoln and Secretary Seward and a commission appointed by the Confederate Government. It accomplished nothing, as Mr. Lincoln would listen to no terms that were not based upon the unconditional submission of the South. On the 15th of January Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river, was captured by a land force under General Terry, after a terrific bombardment by the fleet under Admiral Porter. On the 22d of February Wilmington was occupied by the Federal forces. After the capture of Savannah Sherman allowed his troops a montli's rest, and then, in spite of the horrible condition of the roads, began his march northward. On the 17th of February he reached Columbia, South Carolina, and on the same day the Confederates evacuated Charleston and its defences, which were occupied the next THE UNITED STATES. 185 day by the Union forces under General Gilmore. On the 12th of March Sherman entered Fayetteville, North Carolina. In the emergency to whifch it was reduced, the Confederate Govern- ment was obliged to confer the command of the force assembling in Sherman's front upon General Joseph E. Johnston. General John- ston succeeded in collecting about 35,000 troops, with which he attacked Sherman, at Averasboro', on the 16th of March, and again, at Benton ville, on the 19th. He was unable to stay the advance of the Federal army, however, and on the 23d of March Sherman occu- pied Goldsboro'. Johnston withdrew towards Raleigh. At Golds- boro' Sherman was joined by the forces of Generals Schofield and Terry, which had moved up from the coast. The armies of Grant and Lee had confronted each other at Peters- burg during the winter. On the 26th of March Grant was reinforced by 10,000 magnificent cavalry under General Sheridan, who had moved down from the valley, laying waste the country along his route. Lee's situation was growing more critical every day. He had less than 40,000 men with him, and it was certain that no more could be obtained. By the last of March the Federal army num- bered 170,000 men. On the 29th of March Grant began his final advance, moving his left wing around Lee's right flank. On the 31st Lee endeavored to drive back the Federal left, but without success. On the 1st of April Sheridan captured the important position of Five Forks, taking 5000 prisoners and planting himself fairly in Lee's rear. As soon as Sheridan had seized this position, Grant opened a heavy fire upon the Confederate lines along his entire front, and maintained it throughout the night. On the 2d he made a general attack upon Lee's line and broke it at several points. General Lee thereupon took up a new position on a shorter line immediately around Petersburg, and held it against every effort to carry it. Seeing that it was impossible to hold his ground longer, Lee withdrew his army from Richmond and Petersburg, and retreated in the direction of Amelia Court House. The next morning the retreat was discovered by the Federal army, which at once occupied both Richmond and Petersburg. Leaving a small force to occupy them, Grant hastened with the rest of his army in pursuit of Lee. It was General Lee's intention to move by way of Burkesville to Danville, and seek to form a junction with General Johnston. Upon reaching Amelia Court House, to which place he had ordered supplies 186 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. for his army to be sent, he found that his orders had been counter- manded by the Confederate Government. His troops were without food, and had eaten nothing since the commencement of the retreat. Parties were sent into the surrounding country to obtain supplies, and this consumed the whole of the 4th and 5th of April, which Lee had hoped to use in getting beyond his .pursuers. The delay enabled Sheridan, with 18,000 mounted men, to seize the Confederate line of retreat at Jetersville and cut Lee off from Danville. The Confederate army therefore turned to the right and retreated towards Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynchburg ; but Sheridan by a forced march threw himself across Lee's path on the night of the 8th of April, near Appomattox Station. The next morning Sheridan was Joined by the Army of the James, under General Ord. The Army of the Potomac at the same time was closing in rapidly in Lee's rear. Seeing that the effort to retreat was hopeless. General Lee asked for a suspension of hostilities. In an interview between Generals Grant and Lee, on the same day, the terms of the surrender were arranged. Qeneral Grant treated the vanquished army with great generosity. The Confederates were fed by their conquerors, and after laying down their arms and signing their paroles, were allowed to withdraw to their homes. On the 12th of April the vanquished army formally la.id down its arms at Appomattox Court House. About 7500 men Avith arms, and about 18,000 unarmed stragglers took part in the surrender. . The news of the capture of Richmond and Petersburg, and of the surrender of General Lee, was received in the North with great rejoicings. It was understood on all sides that this was practically the end of the struggle. These rejoicings were suddenly brought to an end by the assassina- tion of President Lincoln, at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, on the evening of the 14th of April. He was shot in his private box by John Wilkes Booth, and died the next morning. At the same time an attempt was made to murder Secretary Seward, who was confined to his bed by the effects of an accident. Booth was pursued into Virginia, and was killed in the attempt to capture him. His accom- plices were secured, and were executed or imprisoned for various terms. The death of Mr. Lincoln was a severe blow to the country, and the manner of it caused great exasperation in the North. It was at first believed that the murder was encouraged by the South ; but it is now plain that Booth, who was evidently insane, had no accora- THE UNITED STATES. 187 plices in that section. His dastardly act was regarded with horror by the Southern people. After the fall of Richmond Mr. Davis and the various officers of his government repaired to General Johnston's army, which was near Raleigh. On the 10th of April General Sherman advanced from Goklsboro' towards Johnston's position, and steadily pressed the Con- federate army back. On the 13th Sherman occupied Raleigh. Upon learning of the surrender of General Lee's army General Johnston was convinced that further resistance on his part was hopeless. He therefore opened negotiations with General Sherman, and on the 18th of April an agreement was signed by the two commanders for the surrender of the Confederate array. As this agreement provided for the restoration of the Southern States to their lost places in the Union, it was repudiated by the Federal Government, and Sherman was ordered to resume hostilities. General Johnston was at once notified by General Sherman of this order, and on the 26th of April entered into an agreement with him by which he surrendered to General Sherman all the Confederate forces under his command upon terms similar to those granted to General Lee by General Grant. The example of Generals Lee and Johnston was followed by the other Confederate commanders throughout the South. The last to surrender was General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the 2Gth of May. On the 29th of May President Johnson issued a proclamation announcing the close of the war and offering amnesty to all who had participated in it on the Confederate side, with the exception of four- teen specified classes. Upon the surrender of Johnston's army Mr. Davis and the mem- bers of his former cabinet endeavored to make their way to the coast of Florida, from which they hoped to reach the West Indies. Some of them succeeded in doing so, but Mr. Davis was captured at Irwins- ville, Georgia, on the 10th of May, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, where he was held in confinement until May, 1867. The civil war was over. It had cost the country 1,000,000 of men in the killed and maimed for life of the two armies. In money it had cost probably as much as $5,000,000,000. By the death of Mr. Lincoln the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, became President of the United States. He took the oath of office on the 15th of April, and at once entered upon the discharge of his duties. The first task devolving upon the new administration was the dis- 188 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. banding of the army, which at the close of the war numbered over a million of men. It was successfully accomplished in the course of a few months. At the close of the war the public debt amounted to $2,700,000,000. The interest on this sum was $133,000,000. Congress by a solemn resolution pledged the faith of the nation for the payment of the debt, principal and interest, and adopted a system of direct taxation to pro- vide a revenue sufficient for the immediate wants of the Government. The most important question of the day was the adjustment of the relations of the Southern States to the Union. President Johnson held that they had never been out of the Union, but had simply been in insurrection, and having been brought back, were entitled to resume their former positions upon adopting constitutions recognizing the new order of affiiirs. He thereupon recognized the States which complied with these conditions as members of the Federal Union. On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress adopted the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting slavery within the limits of the Union. Having been ratified by the requisite number of States, this amendment became a part of the Constitution in Decem- ber, 1865. Upon the assembling of Congress in December, 1865, the recon- struction acts of President Johnson were treated by that body as null and void, and the Senators and Representatives of the Southern States were refused admittance into Congress, which body insisted that the Union should not be " restored," but should be " reconstructed " upon an entirely new basis. This basis was the citizenship of the newly enfranchised negroes. This was secured by the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was ratified after a considerable struggle by the requisite number of States. It became a part of the Constitution in July, 1868. This amendment was at first rejected by all the Southern States except Tennessee, which State ratified it, and was readmitted into the Union by Congress. The quarrel which thus began between the President and Congress grew more bitter every day. During this session Congress enacted a " Freedman's Bureau Bill," creating a department of the Federal Government for the care and protection of the newly emancipated negroes and the destitute whites of the South. It also adopted a " Civil Rights Bill," securing to the negro the rights of a citizen. Both measures were passed over the veto of the President. THE UNITED STATES. 189 As the quarrel between the President and Congress deepened, various efforts were made by the latter to hamper the executive and impair his powers. The Thirty-ninth Congress adopted for this purpose a measure known as tlie " Tenure of Office Act," by the terms of which the President was forbidden to remove any person from a civil office under the Government without the consent of the Senate. This measure was passed over the President's veto. On the 1st of March, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a State. In February, 1867, Congress placed all the Southern States that had refused to ratify the fourteenth amendment under martial law, by depriving them of their State governments and erecting them into military districts. The writ of habeas corpus was suspended within their limits, and the will of a military commander was made the supreme law in each. These measures were also passed over the President's veto. The military commanders exercised their authority with fairness and moderation, and took measures for the early recon- struction of their respective districts as States. Conventions were summoned and delegates were returned representing the extreme views of the party in power. They proceeded to ratify the amendments to the Federal Constitution, and after a bitter and protracted struggle organized their respective State governments. On the 24th of June Congress passed a bill over tlie President's veto admitting the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina into the Union. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas having refused to ratify the fourteenth amendment, were refused admission into the Union. In the meantime the President brought the quarrel between Con- gress and himself to a decisive issue. Having twice removed Mr. Stanton from the post of Secretary of War, in spite of the provisions of the Tenure of Office Act, which he held to be unconstitutional, he was impeached by the House of Representatives for a violation of this Act, on the 24th of February, 1868. The Senate met as a High Court of Impeachment, for the trial of the President, on the 5th of March, 1868. The trial lasted until the 26th of May, and resulted in the acquittal of the President of the charges preferred against him. On the 13th of May, 1867, Jefferson Davis, who had been indicted for treason, was released from Fortress Monroe on bail. The indict- ment was subsequently quashed by the Government. During the progress of the civil war the French Emperor had 190 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. forcibly intervened in the aifairs of Mexico, and had brought about the downfall of the Mexican Republic and the establishment of an empire in that country, with the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor, The Government of the United States had regarded this course with undisguised hostility, but, being engaged in the effort to crush the resistance of the South, was obliged to limit its opposition to a protest. Upon the return of peace it took a bolder stand, and demanded of France the withdrawal of her troops from Mexico. The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a while, but finally acceded to the American demand. The French troops were withdrawn from Mexico at the close of the year 1866, and the Emperor Maximilian was left to face the Mexican people alone. They at once rose against him, took him prisoner, and shot him on the 19th of June, 1867. In July, 1866, a telegraphic cable was laid across the Atlantic from Yalentia Bay, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in Newfoundland. Since then telegraphic communication between America and Europe has been uninterrupted. On the 29th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded between the United States and Russia, by which the former purchased, for the sum of $7,200,000, all the Russian possessions in America. The new territory received the name of Alaska. In the fall of 1868 General Ulysses S. Grant, the candidate of the Republican party, was elected President of the United States by a popular vote of 2,985,031, over 2,648,830 votes cast for Horatio Seymour, his Democratic competitor. In the Electoral College Grant received 217 votes and Seymour 77. The States of Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to take part in the election. In February, 1869, Congress adopted the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which provides that " The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment became a part of the Con- stitution in March, 1870. On the 4th of March, 1869, General Grant was inaugurated President of the United States. On the 10th of May, 1869, the Pacific Railway, extending from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco, California, was completed. In the year 1870 the ninth census of the United States showed the population of the country to be 38,558,371 souls. In the same year the work of reconstruction was concluded. On THE UNITED STATES. 191 the 26th of January, 1870, the State of Virginia, having ratified the amendment^ to the Constitution, was readmitted into the Union. On the 17th of February, 1870, Mississippi was readmitted upon the same terms. Texas was the last to ratify the amendments ; but having done so at last, was readmitted before the close of the year. Since the opening of President Lincoln's second term of office negotiations had been in progress with Great Britain for the settle- ment of the claims advanced by the United States against that power for the losses inflicted upon American commerce during the civil war by Confederate cruisers, built, equipped, and mamied in Great Britain. The British Government, after long refusing to admit its responsibility for these acts, at length consented to submit the matter to a Board of Arbitration. This Board assembled at Geneva, in Switzerland, on the 15th of April, 1872, and on the 27th of June made its award in favor of the United States. The claims of the United States were admitted ; the damages awarded to that Govern- ment amounting to $16,250,000. They were paid in due time by Great Britain. Thus were settled the famous "Alabama Claims " (so called from the fact that the Confederate cruiser "Alabama " caused the greater part of the loss), which at one time threatened to embroil the two countries in war. On the night of Sunday, October 8th, 1871, a fire broke out in Chicago, and raged with tremendous violence for two days, laying the greater part of the city in ashes. It was the greatest conflagration of modern times, destroying about $196,000,000 worth of property and rendering 98,000 persons homeless. In the fall of 1872 the Presidential election occurred. General Grant was renominated by the Republican party. A new party — the Liberal Republican — nominated Horace Greeley for its candidate, and he was endorsed and supported by the Democratic party. The cam- paign resulted in the election of General Grant by an overwhelming majority. A deplorable sequel to the struggle, which was unprece- dented in its bitterness, was the death of Horace Greeley, who died on the 29th of November, 1872. On the 9th of November, 1872, a fi»e broke out in Boston and burned until the 10th. It destroyed the greater portion of the busi- ness quarter of the city and inflicted upon it a loss of $78,000,000. On the 4th of March, 1873, General Grant was inaugurated a second time, at Washington, with great pomp. Twelve thousand troops from various parts of the country took part in the procession that escorted him to the Capitol. 192 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Since 1868 a revolution had been in progress in the island of Cuba. Great sympathy had been manifested for the patriots by the people of the United States, but the Government had fe,ithfully observed its duties as a friendly and neutral power. In spite of its efforts, how- ever, several expeditions managed to leave American ports for the assistance of the Cubans. One of these embarked in the steamer "Virginius," which was overhauled by the Spanish war steamer " Tornado," on the high seas, and was carried as a prize into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The American flag was flying from the " Virginius " at the time of her capture, and she was not in Spanish waters. The officers and a portion of the crew and passengers of the captured steamer were shot by order of a hastily summoned court- martial, at Santiago de Cuba. The American Consul exerted himself to save them, but was grossly insulted by the Spanish officials, and was not allowed to communicate with his Government by telegraph. The news of these outrages created the most intense excitement in the United States, and the popular voice demanded the instant pun- ishment of Spain for the insult to our flag. The Government acted with firmness and prudence. A strong naval force was sent to the West Indies, the execution of the surviving prisoners was prevented, and their restoration to liberty and the surrender of the " Virginius " demanded. The captives were set at liberty and the steamer was delivered up off the port of Havana. On the 17th of September, 1873, a severe financial crisis, known as " the railroad panic," burst upon the country. The panic was fol- lowed by several years of great financial distress. On the 4th of March, 1875, Colorado was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 19th of April, 1875, the one hundredth anniversary of the battles of Lexington and Concord was celebrated with great rejoicing. As early as 1872 measures were begun for the proper observance of the one hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. It was decided to celebrate it by an international exhibition of the products of the country, to be held at Philadelphia in 1876. All nations were invited to participate in it. The exhibition will un- doubtedly be one of the prominent events of the century. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. MAINE. Area, 31,766 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 62S,279 Population in 1870, 626,915 Maine is the most easterly of the United States. It is situated between latitude 42° 57' and 47° 32' N., and longitude 66° 52' and 71° 06' W. Its extreme length, from north to south, is 303 miles, and its extreme width 212 miles. Its average length is about 200 miles, and its average width about 160 miles. It covers an area of 20,330,240 acres. It is bounded on the north and northwest by Canada, on the east by New Brunswick, on the south and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by New Hampshire. TOPOGRAPHY. Beginning on the west at Kittery Point, and following the general coast line to Quoddy Head, on the east, the shore of Maine measures about 278 miles; but if we follow its indentations, and include the islands, the coast line will measure 2486 miles. The coast is deeply indented with numerous bays and inlets, many of which form excel- lent harbors. Many islands lie along the shore, some of them of con- siderable size. Mount Desert, the principal island, is situated in Frenchman's Bay, and forms a part of Hancock county. It comprises an area of 60,000 acres, and is 15 miles long, and 12 broad. It is traversed from west to north by a range of thirteen granite peaks, rising to a height of from 1500 to 2300 feet. Mount Adam, or Mount Green, is the high- est of these. Several beautiful lakes lie high up in these mountains. Some of these are quite large, and from nearly all of them flow clear, 193 194 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cool streams, abounding in trout. The southeastern coast is formed of huge cliffs, several hundred feet high. A narrow bay enters the island from tlie soutli side, and extends into the interior in a northerly direction for about seven miles. The scenery of tiie island is surpass- ingly grand and beautiful, and attracts many visitors and artists. Mount Desert is divided into 3 townships, Eden, Tremont, and Mount Desert. It contains 6 small villages, 9 post-offices, 8 churches, and over 50 schools. Its population is about 4000. Shipbuilding and mackerel fisheries are carried on, and there is regular steamboat communication with Portland and Bangor. The island was discovered and named by the French near the year 1600. In 1613, a small French settlement was formed here, which was broken up soon after by an expedition from Virginia. It was first permanently setthnl by Abraham Somes, in 1761. Twenty miles to the southward is Mount Desert Rock, with a fixed light, 50 feet above the sea. The other islands of the State which merit notice are Isle au Haut, at the entrance to Penobscot Bay, Deer, Long, and Fox islands, in that bay, and the Isle of Shoals, a group belonging in part to New Hampshire. The principal Bays are Passamaquoddy, Machias, Pleasant, French- man's, Penobscot, Muscongus, Casco, and Saco. Passamaquoddy Bay lies at the southeast extremity of Maine, and separates the State from the British province of New Brunswick. It extends inland about 15 miles, and is 10 miles wide. It is irregular in shape, contains a number of islands, affords numerous good harbors, and receives the waters of the St. Croix River. Frenchman's Bay extends inland about 30 miles. It contains Mount Desert and several other islands, and abounds in good harbors, which are never closed by ice. Casco Bay does not extend very far inland, but lies along the coast for a distance of 20 miles. It contains nearly 300 islands. Portland harbor opens upon it. The principal Rivers are the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Andro- scoggin, the Saco, the Woolastook, and the Aroostook. The Penobscot is 'the largest river in the State. It is formed by two branches, the East and the West, which rise in northern Maine, and unite in the upper part of Penobscot county, near the centime of the State. The general course of the river is south -southwest, and it flows into the sea through Penobscot Bay. Its length from its mouth to the headwaters of its western and larger branch, is about 300 miles, MAINE. 195 but from the junction of the two branches to its mouth, the distance is only 135 miles. It meets the tide water at Bungor, 60 miles from the sea. At this point the tides rise to a height of 17 feet. The river is navigable to Bangor for vessels of all classes, and for small steamers above that place. It receives through the AA'est branch the waters of Chesuncook and Pemadumcook lakes, and through the East branch those of the Seboois lakes. Its upper part affords valuable water power. There are a number of villages and towns on the river. Bangor is the only city on its banks. The Kennebec River rises in Moosehead Lake, in Somerset county, Maine, and flows southward into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 150 miles, and as its total descent in this distance is over 1000 feet, it affords most excellent water power. It is navigable for sloops to Plallowell, 40 miles, and for all vessels to Bath, 12 miles from the sea. It is closed by ice early in December, and remains frozen until early in April. Bath, Hallowell, Augusta, Waterville, and Norridgc- wock are the principal towns on its shores. The Androscoggin is a tributary of the Kennebec. It rises in Coos county. New Hampshire, and empties into the Kennebec 20 miles from the sea. It is 140 miles long. The Saco River rises among the White Mountains, in Coos county, New Hampshire, and flowing southeasterly through Maine, empties into the Atlantic near the northeast corner of York county. It is broken in several places by considerable falls, which aflPord fine water power, and is subject to sudden and dangerous freshets. The last falls are only 4 miles from the sea. Saco, Biddeford, and HoUis are its principal towns. The Woolastook and Aroostook drain the northern part of the State, and flow into the St. John, a river of New Brunswick. The State is well supplied with rivers and other streams, which not only afford fine water power, but furnish a means of floating vast quantities of lumber from the interior to the coast. A number of Lakes are scattered through Maine, some of which are very beautiful. The principal are Umbagog, Sebec, Chesuncook, Schoodic, Baskahegau, Long, Portage, Eagle, Madawaska, Millikonet, and Sebago. Moosehead Lake is the largest in the State. It is situated between Somerset and Piscataquis counties, and is very irregular in shape. It is about 35 miles long, and ten miles across at its widest point. The Waters are very deep, and abound in trout. The scenery is wild ancj 196 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. beautiful. On the west side Mount Kineo overhangs the water at a height of 600 feet, and affords a view of great but wild beauty. An hotel has been erected about midway, for the accommodation of travellers. Numerous islands stud the lake, which is navigated by steamers engaged in towing lumber to the Kennebec River, which forms the outlet. The surface of the State is generally hilly and diversified. To- wards the coast it is level, but rises towards the interior. A chain of detached mountains, supposed to be an extension of the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, crosses the State from west to northeast, terrainatins in Mars Hill on the border of New Brunswick. These peaks rise to a considerable elevation, and are very beautiful. Mount Katahdin, 6385 feet high, is the best known, as well as the most picturesque. It is situated in the eastern part of Piscataquis county, and is frequently visited by artists and the more daring tourists. The other peaks are the Saddleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South Russell, and the Haystack. The Forests of Maine furnish an immense amount of valuable lum- ber, and large numbers of hardy men are employed in cutting and floating the logs down the streams. The great forests lie in the upper part of the State, around the sources of the Kennebec, Penobscot, Aroostook, and Woolastook rivers. Mr. Charles Lanman thus pleasantly describes them : " Their extent can only be realized by fixing the mind upon the whole northern half of the State, which they cover with their sombre green, and by remembering the fact that no less than four splendid rivers have their birth in this great wilderness — the St. Croix, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Androscoggin. According to such figures as we have been able to collect, the number of saw-mills and other lumbering machines in operation on the above rivers, just before the rebellion, was nearly 900, the number of men employed about 17,000, and of horses and oxen perhaps 10,000; while the towns which are, to a great extent, supported by the lumbering business are Calais, Bangor, Augusta, and Brunswick, as well as Portland. The predominating tree in the wilderness under consideration, as is the case in Minnesota and Wisconsin, is the white pine, but the hemlock, the fir, and the spruce are also abundant in all its borders. It is said that fifty years ago specimens of the pine were found in Maine which attained the height of more than 200 feet, but in these times it is but seldom that we find a tree exceeding 150 feet in length. The grand MAINE. 197 THE PIIfE FORESTS OF HIAIXE. old monaix'hs of the land would seem to have perished with grief on beholding the ravages of man. But there is an aristocracy existing in these woods at the present day, for it has been observed that there are different classes of trees — families of nobility clusterino; too-ether m one place— while the more plebeian varieties congregate in com- munities by themselves. Were it not for the changing seasons and its living creatures, the monotony of this forest scenery would be well nigh unbearable; but summer fills every sunny nook with its bright flowers, and winter scatters everywhere the fantastic creations of the frost and snow. It is in these solitudes that the bold and hardy Pen- obscot Indian hunter tracks the moose and the deer, fights the bear in his den, decoys the gray wolf, and sets his traps for the wild cat 13 198 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and mink, the marten, the sable, and the beaver ; and if, in the most genial seasons, there should be found a scarcity of birds, you can never fail to hear the plaintive whistle of the Canada bird, or musci- capa of scientific dreamers. In the Valley of the Potomac this favorite bird of ours is the very first harbini^er of spring, coming from the South even before the blue-bird ; and when heard there late in autumn, you may be sure that winter has asserted- his empire on the Northern frontiers. We have heard it in the pine forests of Florida, among the mountains of Tennessee, along the glorious rivers of New Brunswick, Canada, and a part of Labrador, but never with more pleasure than in the forests of Maine. When away from home, it al- ways carries us back in fancy to the region where our lot is cast, and to our friends; and when at home it reminds us of far-off places and other friends linked with happy recollections. Its whole life, it seems to us, is devoted to singing, in a kind of monotone, about the joys of the wilderness. " Of permanent human inhabitants, the forests of Maine can boast of but a small supply; but for about nine months in the year the hardy lumbermen, consisting of explorers and cho])pers, of swampers, or road-cutters, and teamsters, make their dim, interminable aisles alive and cheery with their presence and manifold employments. In the autumn, small parties, equipped like trappers, go up the rivers in oanoes and locate the lands which are to be grapj)led with in winter ; and when winter comes, the great majority, with their oxen and axes, their salt pork and flour, migrate to the selected grounds, and, after housing themselves and their cattle in cabins half covered with snow, they proceed to the work of extermination ; and when the spring ar- rives, down to the tributary streams do they drag their logs ; and when the .first great thaw arrives, away they go down the larger rivers, driving the produce of their toil through lakes and lakelets, and over waterfalls, with many a wild and wayward shout, until they reach the booms where they would be ; and then for home and their happy families nearer the sea. All this for money? Most tnie. But where will you find better specimens of true manhood than among these lumbermen ? And as for poetry and romance, where can we find their equal among the laborers for hire in any land but ours? Fancy the heart-bursts of true patriotism, and the wild stories told by the side of their watch-fires, the hoot of the great white owl at mid- night in those dim solitudes, the white moonlight on the still whiter snow, the ringing cadences of the frost, the wolf prowling for food MAINE. 199 around the sleeping camps, the cave-like forest pictured against the cold blue sky, the terrible storms of sleet and hail, and then the thousand dreams of wives and children sleeping in their distant and peaceful homes. " The continuousness of the Maine woods, taken in connection with their extent, is one of their most impressive features. Unless there were something to relieve their monotony, a sensitive man could never have journeyed from one extremity to another without becom- ing a personification of gloom ; but behold with what exquisite taste and skill nature interposes her relief! She plants old Moosehead near the centre of the great forest, and scatters a thousand smaller gems of purest water on every side ; bids a few mountain peaks rise up as watch-towers against the northern sky; sends the most beautiful rivers like flashes of light in every direction singing to the sea ; and in a few localities spreads out those wonderful fields which have been denominated 'oceans of moss,' sometimes several feet in thickness, and in one instance covering a space of many miles. But more than this : around the lakes and along the water-courses are permitted to grow as great a variety of the more delicate and graceful trees as the climate will allow, with shrubs and vines, and flowers innumerable. All this is the workmanship of nature ; but it is man who marks the earth with ruin, and, not content with robbing the old forests of their giant treasures, he sometimes sets them on fire for his amusement, or by accident, and thus come into existence the desolate burnt districts to take the places of trees once valuable, and grand, and beautiful. "The last object that the wide-awake tourist beholds on leaving the great wilderness of Maine, is Mount Katahdin ; and that reminds us of the mountain forests of the Northern and Southern States. The representative peaks of the North are Katahdin, Mount Washington, the Camel's Hump, Tahawus, and High Peak ; and around all these are to be found the hemlock and spruce, the cedar and fir, the maple, the ash, the elm, and the birch, in such numbers, and variety, and beauty as to bewilder the mind. The declivities up which travellers climb oftentimes frown upon them as if to warn them of coming dan- ger, but the tough and rugged trees plant their roots in the rocky fissures and hold on with heroic fortitude; nor do they cease their persevering efforts, while apparently changing their places at each zone, until, robbed of their luxuriance and reduced to mere bushes by the savage winds and by the cold, they peep out from their hiding places only to behold the stupendous fields of granite desolation, thou- 200 OUR COUKTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. A LXmBEUMAN'S CAMP IN THE WOODS OF MAINE. »i ™ c1,mii(l«l in fou^, or bouintecl by the sea. sands of feet above tlie sei., «'''"''«' "•= 'j,„^j,,^,„ forests, the en- Inaecssible, for the most P"'' -;l ^^J^^^, ^aden .kpths for terprise of man has been sue as »° P«-^'^'^ j„ j^^.^^-J .rffish his advantage, and plunder hem of the.r ^^^""^ ^^ t,,;,^, ttsr^shes the -:p-— ii.rr'^rirr ct for his enjoyment, the sweetnes of then m, ^^^^ bammers out of .heir — ';■ f ; V^: l' „f it"! shaggy bark, valued iron ore, and raeanlj strips the " , and leaves it to perish inglor.ously upon the lulls. MAINE. 201 MINERALS. The mineral resources of Maine are limited. Copper pyrites, lead, and manganese are found in small quantities, but iron, lime, and a fine granite are plentiful. The principal iron deposit occurs on the Aroostook River, about 50 miles from its mouth, and the country along the west branch of the Penobscot furnishes a limited quantity of an excellent marble. A fine quality of slate is found in the region between the sources of the Kennebec and St. John rivers. The granite of which the Treasury Extension in Washington City is built, was brought from the coast of Maine. CLIMATE. The climate of Maine is considered healthy, in spite of the extreme northeastern situation of the State, because it is less subject than that of the other New England States to sudden and violent changes. The winters are severe and long. The mercury sometimes falls to 20 or 30 degrees below zero, but for the greater part of the season there is a uniform temperature averaging about 18°. The summers, though short, are warm. The thermometer has been known to indicate a heat of 100°, but the average temperature is about 60°. The snow lies on the ground from 3 to 5 months, and the season of vegetation lasts scarcely 4 months. The spring and early summer are rendered unpleasant by the cold northeast winds, which sweep down from the ice-fields of the Atlantic. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not uniform. Between the Kennebec and Penobscot, the lands are generally good and productive, and the same may be said of the valley of the St. John and the country watered by some of the lesser rivers. The lands in the mountainous districts and along the coast are for the most part poor, and require laborious culture. In 1869, there were 2,704,133 acres of improved lands, and 2,996,622 acres of unimproved lands in the State. Its agricultural wealth in the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, - . . . $80,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,400,000 Number of horses, 71,110 " asses and mules 168 202 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Number of milch cows, 190,110 " other cattle, 230,110 sheep, • 501,210 " swine, 65,340 Value of domestic animals, $19,437,538 Bushels of wheat, 248,000 rye, 158,000 " Indian corn, . • 1,450,000 " oats, 3,200,000 " peas and beans, 346,915 " Irish potatoes, 7,500,000 " barley, 750,000 " buckwheat, 350,000 " clover-seed, 50,000 Pounds of wool, 1,495,063 butter, 11,687,781- " cheese, 1,799,862 " hops, •. . . 102,987 " flax, 17,081 " maple sugar, 306,742 " beesAvax and honey, 323,454 Tons of hay, 1,050,000 Value of orchard products, $501,767 " market garden products, . . . . . $194,006 " home made manufactures, .... $490,787 " slaughtered animals, $2,780,179 COMMERCE. The staple export of Maine is lumber. The coast offere the best in- ducements for commerce of any State in the Union. It is so thickly studded with bays and navigable rivers that vessels can find an ex- cellent harbor at any point along its whole length. Shipbuilding is carried on to a considerable extent. The commercial returns for the year 1870 were as follows : Value of lumber produced during the year . . $11,728,122 Product of the fisheries 979,610 Besides these large quantities of marble, granite, lime, and ice are produced, of which we have no statistics. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 774,040 tons. In 1863, the total foreign imports were $3,911,468, and the exports $7,016,342. In 1870 this State built ships to the value of $2,358,445. MAINE. 203 MANUFACTURES. According to the census of 1870, there were in that year 5550 establishments in Maine devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 49,180 hands, possessed a capital of $.'^9,796,190, consumed raw material to the amount of $49,379,757 (including fuel), and produced goods worth $79,497,521. Of these establishments, 23 were cotton manufactories, employing 2606 male and 6246 female hands, consuming annually $6,716,780 worth of raw material, paying annually $2,565,197 for labor, and producing $11,844,181 worth of goods; and 56 were woollen mills, with a capital of $4,092,685, employing 1471 male and 1244 female hands, consuming $3,761,715 worth of raw material, paying $1,035,483 for labor, and producing goods worth $6,150,620. There were $4,939,781 worth of leather; 7000 tons of rolled iron, worth $1,591,196; $1,791,823 worth of steam engines and machinery; $231,991 worth of agricul- tural implements ; $4,415,998 worth of flour ; and $93,050 worth of malt and $215,715 worth of spirituous liquors produced during the same year. The manufacturing interest of Maine has greatly increased since 1860. In 1860, the capital invested in manufactures amounted to $22,044,020 and the annual value of fabrics produced to $38,193,- 284. The water-power of the State is immense, and holds out the best inducements to manufacturers. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State is making steady progress in internal i mi>rovements. In 1860, there were 14 railroads in Maine, having an aggregate length in the $tate of 472 miles, wliich had been constructed at a cost of $16,576,385. The Grand Trunk, which extends from Portland, through New Hampshire and Vermont to Quebec and Montreal .in Canada, passes through Maine for but a short distance. It is a first- class road, in respect to the amount of business done by it. The Maine Central is 138 miles long, and extends from Portland to Ban- gor, passing through Auburn and Waterville. The Portland and Kennebec, extending from Portland to Skowhegan, through Rich- inond, Gardiner and Augusta, is 100 miles long. There are other thriving linos in the State, one of which (the Portland, Saco, and Portsmovith) connects Portland with Portsmouth, N. H. The only canal in the State is the Cumberland- Oxford, uniting 204 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Portland with Sebago, Brandy, and Long Ponds. It is 20 miles long, and has 26 locks. Together witii the Songo River iraprovo- uients, it forms a navigable line of 50 miles, constructed at a cost of $50,000. EDUCATION. Maine has a permanent school fund, drawn from the sale of lands donated for that purpose by the State. Besides this, the banks are t ixcd one-half of one per cent, on their capital, and the towns are iissessed at the rate of 40 cents per capita, for educational purposes. 1 \ 11860, Maine had 2 colleges and 337 students, 110 academies and other schools, with 8273 pupils, and 4376 public schools with 186,717 ]Hi;>ils. lu the same year, the whole number of pupils, between the ages of 4 and 21 years, at all the. schools in the State, was 244,920. In 1868, this number had been reduced to 225,290, a falling off duo to the actual decrease of children in the State. In 1850, the \)ro])or- tion of minors in the State Avas 49 per cent, of the whole population, but in 1860 it was only 36 per cent. This, too, in spite of the fact that the population of Maine has steadily grown larger. It is doubt- less (hie to the fact that children are not now as much desired as in the better days of the community. * In 1868, the number of schools in the State was 3782. A writer in the Annual Cyclopasdia for 1867, says : " The perma- nent school fund amounts to $245,121.23, the income of which for the past year is $13,244.14. The receipts from the bank tax are rapidly falling off, being but $4475. The people are determined, how- ever, that the schools shall not suffer. They have raised, by direct taxation, the sum of $518,292.97, an average of $2.28 a scholar, and built seventy-nine new school -houses, at a cost of $323,581.13. Add to this the sum of $15,316.93, contributed to prolong public schools, with $40,614.33, paid for j>rivate schools and academies, and $6,428.25 paid out of the State lor the same purposes, making an aggr^ate ex- penditure for schools of $935,131.75, and you have abundant proof that the burdens and discouragements of the times are not allowed to diminish the interest of the people in common school education. There are also two Normal Schools, both of which are in a flourishing condition, and are liberally sustaineid armed." 210 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. During the Rebellion, Maine furnished an aggregate force of 71,558 men to the army and navy of the United States. Of these, 8446 were killed in battle or died from wounds and sickness, and 6642 were mustered out for disabilities resulting from wounds or sickness while in active service. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities of Maine are Augusta, Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Biddeford, Calais, Gardiner, Hallowell, Portland, and Rockland. The principal towns are Camden, Eastport, Ellsworth, Frankfort, Kittery, Lewis- ton, Old Town, Saco, Thomaston, Waldoborough, Waterville, and Wiscasset. AUGUSTA. The city of Augusta is situated in Kennebec county, on the Kenne- bec River, at the head of navigation, 43 miles from the sea. It is 60 miles north-northeast of Portland by railroad, and 175 miles from Boston. It lies on the right bank of the Kennebec, which is spanned by two fine bridges, one used by vehicles and pedestrians and the other by the railroad. The city is built partly upon the crest of a hill, and partly along the river at the foot of the hill. The former portion is occupied principally by private residences, while the latter is devoted to business. It is well built, and contains many handsome edifices, the principal of which is the State House, a splendid structure of white granite, located in the southern part of the city, and fronted by a large and tasteful park. A United States Arsenal, and the State Insane Asylum, lie on the opposite side of the river, and are attractive fea- tures of the landscape. Augusta is well supplied with water-power by means of a large dam constructed across the Kennebec, a short distance above the city. This dam also aifords water enough for steamboat communication between Augusta and Waterville when the stream is not closed by ice. There are several large manufacturing establishments in the city, 4 or 5 banks, an excellent female academy, 9 or 10 churches, and 8 or 9 hotels. It is connected with Portland and Bangor by railroad and steamboat. The greater part of the business portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1865. The population in 1870 was 7,808. The city was founded in 1754. Four weekly papers and one monthly are published in Augusta. MAINE. 211 PORTLAND. The principal city of the State, " is handsomely situated on a penin- sula, occupying the ridge and side of a high point of land, in the south- west extremity of Casco Bay, and, on approaching it from the ocean, is seen to great advantage. The harbor is one of the best on the Atlantic coast, the anchorage being protected on every side by land, whilst the water is deep, and communication with the ocean direct and conve- nient. It is defended by Forts Preble, Scammell, and Gorges, and dotted over with lovely islands. These islands afford most delightful excursions, and are among the greatest attractions of the vicinity. On the highest point of the peninsula is an observatory, 70 feet in height, commanding a fine view of the city, harbor, and islands in the bay. The misty forms of the White Mountains, 60 miles distant, are dis- cernible in clear weather. The original name of Portland was Muchi- gonne. It was first settled by the whites as an English colony in 1632, just two centuries before the charter of the present city was granted. On the night of the 4th of July, 1866, a fire occurred which swept away nearly one-half of the entire business portion of the city. " Portland is elegantly built, and the streets beautifully shaded and embellished with trees, and so profusely, that there are said to be no less than 3000 of these rural delights. Congress Street, previous to the fire the main iiighway, follows the ridge of the peninsula through its en- tire extent. Among the public buildings of Portland, the City Hall (rebuilding), the Court House, and some of the churches, are worthy of particular attention. The Society of Natural History, organized 1843, possesses a fine cabinet, containing specimens of the ornithology of the State, more than 4000 species of shells, and a rich collection of mineralogical and geological specimens, and of fishes and reptiles. The Athenaeum, incorporated in 1826, has a library of 12,000 vol- umes; and the Mercantile Library possesses, also, many valuable books. The Marine Hospital, erected in 1855, at a cost of $80,000, is an imposing edifice. Brown & Co.'s extensive sugar refinery, wholly destroyed by the late fire, has been rebuilt, and will shortly be in operation. The city is being rebuilt as rapidly as possible. Popula- tion, 31,414. The vicinity has several fine drives." * town, in 1786. In 1676, the savages made a descent upon it, and captured or killed thirty of the inhabitants, and compelled the rest to * Hand-Book of American Travel. 212 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. CITY HALL AND COURT HOUSE, PORTLAND. seek safety on a neighboring island. In 1689, the French and In- dians made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the town ; but the next year the Indians were more successful. They took the forts erected for the defence of the settlement, massacred the garrison and carried one hundred of the inhabitants into captivity. The settlement was resumed the next year. On the 19th of November, 1775, Falmouth was bombarded and destroyed by a British fleet. Ten newspapers and other journals are published in Portland. BANGOR, The second city in the State, is situated in Penobscot county, on the right bank of the Penobscot Riv^er, 60 miles from the sea, and 126 miles northeast of Portland, with which it is connected by railroad and steamer. Tlie city is located at the mouth of the Kenduskeag River, a branch of the Penobscot, and is built on both banks of the former stream, the two divisions of the city being connected by several bridges, each about 570 feet long. A fine bridge crosses the Ponob- MAINE. 213 soot a short distance ahove the city, and unites Bangor with Brewer. This bridge marks the upper line of the harhoi-, which is about 1500 feet wide, with a depth of water sufficient for the lai'gest vessels. Bangor is the principal lumber port in the Union. Immense quan- tities of lumber are brought down the Penobscot, and shipped from this place by sea. During the season of navigation, which continues for about 8 months, over 2000 vessels leave this port laden with lumber. The city is also extensively engaged in the coast trade, in ioreign commerce, and in shipbuilding. Bangor is located upon high ground, commanding an extensive view of the surrounding country. It is well built, and contains seve- ral fine structures, the principal of which is the Custom House. It contains 12 or 13 banks, 11 churches, 4 of which are among the handsomest in the State; a theological seminary, and a number of flourishing schools. Two daily and 4 weekly newspapers are pub- lished in the city. The water-power is derived from a fall in the Kenduskeag, half a mile above its mouth, and is excellent. Several large factories, including founderies, machine shops, furniture manu- factories, and saw mills, are established here. There is railroad communication to Old Town, on the Penobscot, and this road will soon be extended to Calais, on the border of New Brunswick. The population in 1870 was 18,289 MISCELLANY. ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC. Hon. J. T. Headley, in bis biography of the Rev. Samuel Spring, Chaplain of the expedition, thus describes this memorable march : At length provisions began to grow scarce, and every one had to be put on short allowance. Mr. Spring took his three-quarters of a pound of pork per day cheerfully with the rest. After incredible hardships, and the loss of 150 men, by sickness and desertion, the army at last reached the great carrying place, 15 miles long, extending from the Kennebec, to the Dead River. Only 3 small ponds occurred the whole dis- tance, on which the boats could be launched. The rest of the way they and the provisions, ammunitions, etc., had to be carried on men's shoulders. This was a terrific strain on the army, and the dispiriting effect upon the, soldiers was not re- lieved by the appearance of the Dead River, when they reached it, for it moved sluggish and dark like the waters of oblivion through the silent and motionless forest. Day after day they toiled up this sluggish stream, between the monoto- nous walls of forest that lined its banks, until it seemed as if there was no outlet or opening to the apparently interminable wilderness. At every bend, the eye strained forward to catch some indication of change, and when at last they came 14 214 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in sight of a snow-covered mountain in the distance, telling them there was an outer world after all, the men sent up a shout that woke the echoes far and wide. Near its l)ase they encamped 3 dajs, and Spring spent most of the time in visiting the sick, and praj-ing with them. The army had scarcely got under way again, when the heavens hecame overcast ; dark and angry clouds swept the heavens, and the heavy winds sobbed and moaned through the forest. Soon the rain came down in torrents. Side by side with the drenched soldier the tall chaplain trudged uncomplainingly on, and lay down like him on the wet ground at night. It poured without cessation for 3 days, shedding still deeper gloom over the army. The river rose steadily the whole time, till the sluggish current iit length swept down with such velocity and power that the boats could with (liliiculty stem it. On the third night, just as the soldiers had lain down to rest, iiller having kindled a huge fire, Mr. Spring Iieard a roar in the forest above them like the sound of the surf beating upon the sliore, and the next moment the glan- cing waters were seen sweeping througii the trees on both sides of the stream. In an instant the camp was alive with shouts and cries rising above the turbulent flood that deluged the ground on which they stood. The fires were extinguished, and in the tumult, and confusion, and darkness, no one knew which way to flee lor safety, or what to do. In this state of uncertainty and dread the night wore away. Tlie daylight revealed to them a spectacle sad enough to fill the bravest heart with discouragement. Boats had drifted into the forest, and as far as the eye could reacii the level ground was one broad lake, out of which arose the dark stems of the trees like an endless succession of columns. In nine hours the water rose 8 feet, totally obliterating the shores of Dead River. But the provisions were getting lower and lower, and Arnold could not wait for the river to subside. The army was, thei-efore, pushed on, slowly stemming the flood ; but seven boats, carrying provisions, were caught in the whirling, angry waters, and upset, and all their contents destroyed. The boldest now paused in dismay, for only 13 days' provisions remained, while 30 miles across the mountain were to be traversed before they could reach the head waters of the Chaudiere, that flowed into the St. Lawrence. A. council of w-ar was called to decide what should be done in this crisis of affairs. They had now been a month away from civilization, the sick were increasing, while famine Avas staring them in the face. It was determined at length to leave the sick there, and despatch orders to Colonels Green and Knox, in the rear, to has- ten up, and take them back to Cambridge. Here was an opportunity for the young chaplain to abandon the expedition, and yet apparently be in the path of duty. He had had enough, one would think, of toil, exposure, and suffering, not to wish to face still greater hardships, and perhaps death itself, by famine in the wilderness, he following its fortunes. But he believed the welfare of his country was deeply involved in its fate, and he de- termined, come what would, to share its vicissitudes, hazards, and destiny. Having, therefore, prayed with the sick, encouraged the desponding with the promise that relief would soon come, and pointed those whom he believed dying to the Saviour of men, and commended all to the care and mercy of God, he bade them farewell, and moved forward with the advancing column. The cold, autumnal rains had now turned into snow, which, sifting down through the leafless tree-tops, covered the weary, wan, and straggling column with a winding sheet, that seemed to be wrapping it for the tomb. After they left the sick in the wilderness, they passed 17 falls before they reached the head- MAINE. 215 waters of Dead River. It was still 4 miles across to the Cliaudiere, down which they were to float to the St. Lawrence. Here, on the summit of the hills on which the waters divide, one part flowing south and the other north, Arnold distributed the last provisions to the separate companies, and, taking only 13 men, pushed on for the Chaudiere. He told those left behind, in parting, that he would obtain provisions for them in advance, if human efibrts could procure them ; but directed them to follow after as fast as they could, for, he added, their only safety lay in advancing. Spring remained behind with the army, to share its privations and its fate, whatever that might be. The gallant fellows gave their indomitable leader three parting cheers, and then began to heave their heavy boats from the water. Hoisting them upon their shoulders, while others were loaded down with baggage and ammunition, and others still dragged the few pieces of artillery along like cattle, they staggered on tlirough the forest. The scanty provisions that were left them, though eked out with the greatest parsimony, grew rapidly less, and finally failed entirely. Under the low rations and severe labor combined, the men had gradually grown weaker and weaker, and now, pale and emaciated, looked on each other in mute inquiry. A council of war was called, and it was determined to kill the dogs they had witli them, and push on till this loathsome supply was exhausted. These faithful ani- mals, hitherto the companions of their toils, were slain and divided among the different companies. After the bodies were devoured, their legs aind even claws were boiled for soup. It was a sad sight to see the groups of half-famished soldiers seated together around a fire, watching with eager looks the pot containing this refuse of the dogs, and gazing with strange meaning into each other's eyes. The chaplain fared like the rest, and famine and incessant toil and exposure were telling on him as well as on the soldiers. The tall frame grew less erect, and the wan face showed that .starvation was eating away his life. Trusting, however, in God, whom he served, he endured all cheerfully, and bore that famished multitude on his heart to the throne of heavenly grace. The soldiers, in all their suff'erings, thought of him with the deepest sympathy, and could not but feel encouraged when they saw his serene, though emaciated countenance, and listened to his ex- pressions of calm confidence in God, that he would yet deliver them. He often walked through the woods to look at the various groups, and see where he could be of most service. His heart bled at the destitution he witnessed on every side. One day he came upon a company gathered around a fire, boiling some dogs' claws they had preserved to make soup with. As he paused to look at them, they rose, and, in true kindness of heart, urged him to share their meagre, dis- gusting broth. It was a novel, but touching evidence of the deep affection they bore their young chaplain, and told, in language stronger than words, what an example of patient endurance he had shown, and how kind and faithful had been his labors among them. At last the dogs gave out, and then the soldiers tore off" their moose-skin moc- casins, and boiled them to extract a little nourishment. The feet could stand the November frosts better than their stomachs endure the gnawings of famine. They reached at length the banks of the Chaudiere, and launched their boats. The current, however, was swollen and rapid — now boiling amid the rocks, and now shooting like an arrow around a jutting precipice. On such a turbulent flood the boats soon became unmanageable, and one after another was stranded or shivered into fragments, till nearly all were destroyed. 216 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. They were still 30 miles from the French settlements, and now were compelled to shoulder their burdens, and advance on foot, in straggling parties, through the forest. During all these perils and sufferings, scarce a Sabbath passed in which Spring did not mount his pulpit of knapsaclis, and preach to the troops, while every morning, before the march began, his earnest prayer arose to God for help. The last miserable substitute for food was at length exhausted, and with empty stomachs and bowed forms they slowly, despairingly toiled onward, while a",l along their track the snow was stained with blood. As they were now approacl;- ing the French settlements, severe discipline was enforced. They needed no fires to cook their food, for they had none to cook ; but none was allowed them to warm themselves by, and strict orders were given not to discharge a gun for any purpose. While the wearj" column was thus staggering silently on, suddenly the report of a musket was heard far in advance, then another, and another, till twenty echoed through the forest. They ceased, and then a long shout rolled back through the solitude, producing the wildest excitement. Mr. Spring never forgot that thrilling scene, and long after, in speaking of it, said : " The army was starving, but moving on. The pioneers, who were ahead to clear the way, roused suddenly a noble moose. It was the first that had been seen. The temp- tation was too strong to be resisted. One man fired — he missed. Twenty guns were levelled at him. He fell — they forgot all discipline in their extremity, and shouted. It was a noble moose, weighing not less than 1000 pounds. A halt was ordered — camp kettles taken out, fires kindled, meat, blood, entrails, hoofs and horns chopped up, and soup made of all for the army.'''' Revived by this unexpected supply, the troops pushed on. The next day they met a company of men with provisions, sent back by Arnold to relieve them. A loud shout arose from the whole army, and a general feast was ordered. Several of the soldiers, unable to restrain their appetites, eat so voraciously that they sickened and died. They had braved the wilderness, and withstood the ravages of famine, to fall victims to unrestrained indulgence. It was with profound sad- ness the young chaplain performed the last religious rites over their rude graves in the northern wilderness. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area, 9,280 Square Miles. Population in 1860, , 326,073 ' Population in 1870, 318,300 The State of New Hampshire is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by Maine and tlie Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by the Connecticut River and Ver- mont. It is 90 miles broad at its southern, and 45 miles broad at its northern extremity, and 185 miles long from north to south. It forms a species of irregular triangle, and is situated between latitude 42° 40' and 45° 25' N., and between longitude 70° 40' and 72° 35' W. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is broken and mountainous. The country rises rapidly as it recedes from the coast until its greatest height is at- tained in Mount Washington, one of the White Mountains, in Coos county. The White Mountains proper are only about 20 miles long, and lie almost entirely in Coos county, but broken and detached groups lie all over the State from the northern boundary down to and across the Massachusetts border. The only level land, exclusive of the mountain valleys, extends along the coast, and for about 30 miles into the interior. The principal Peaks in New Hampshire which are distinct from the White Mountains, are as follows : the Blue Hills, 1151 feet above the ocean, situated in the southeast part of the State; Mount Chocura, in Carroll county, 3358 feet high; Carr's Mountain, in Grafton county, 1381 feet high; Mount Kear- sarge, in Hillsborough county, 3067 feet; Mount Monadnock, in Clieshire county, 3718 feet; Mount Andover, in Merrimack county, 2000 feet; and Moosehillock, in Grafton county, 4636 feet. 217 218 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The White Mountains lie in the southern part of Coos county, in the northeastern part of the State. The principal peaks of this range are Mount Washington, 6226 feet; Mount Jeiferson, 5657 feet; Mount Adams, 5759 feet; Mount Madison, 5415; Mount Monroe, 5349; Mount Franklin, 4850 feet; and Mount Pleasant, 4712 feet. The prominent features of this region, which is styled, on account of its beauty, " The Switzerland of America," are thus sketched by a recent writer : " The White Mountains, already referred to, attract more tourists than any other natural object in the United States, excepting only Niagara Falls. The traveller may journey for weeks through its wild scenery, with a constant succession of grand objects to interest his mind. | The fashionable route is to enter New Hampshire by the Boston and Montreal Railways to Wier's, on Lake Winnipiseogee ; then take the steamboat, and, having made the circuit of the lake, enter the stage for Conway, on the east side of the White Mountains, and from thence, by another stage^ through the celebrated Notch, to the Notch House, which stands in the very jaws of the pass. The return is by the Franconia Notch (about 26 miles southwest of the White Mountain Notch), and south down the valley of the Pemige- wasset, to Plymouth, or back to Lake Winnipiseogee, according as the tourist wishes to direct his steps thereafter. The White Mountain Notch is a pass of great celebrity. Coming from the north or west, you enter it by an opening only 23 feet in width, between two per- pendicular rocks, one 20, and the other 12 feet high. The infant Saco trickles its way through this nar ow opening, gradually expand- ing as it proceeds down the pass, and receiving other tributaries from the mountain-sides, which form the walls of the gorge, and which tower to the height of about 2000 feet above the bed of the Saco. In this pass occurred, in 1826, the landslide which destroyed the Willey family. The more wild and abrupt parts of the Notch extend for 2 or 3 miles from its entrance at the Notch House. Mount Washington is ascended on horseback from the Notch House, by a bridle-path, first climbing Mount Clinton — in immediate proximity to the hoteL— for 2| miles, and then coasting the east side of the peaks of Mount Pleasant, Mount Franklin, and Mount Monroe, for 4 miles further, occasionally ascending a rough, steep ridge, and again descending, now riding on the verge of a vast ravine of several hundred feet in depth, and now on the crest of a ridge commanding a view of both sides of the chain — we arrive at the foot of Mount Washington, 1500 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 219 SCENE IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. feet iu perpendicular, and about one mile in inclined a-sceut, above the base of the cone or peak, and 6226 feet above the sea. This is the most difficult, though scarcely dangerous, part of tlie ascent, as it is little else than riding on horseback over a pile of rocks of every variety of size, cast together as if hurled there by the Titans, in war or at phiy. From the summit, if the day be clear, is afforded a view un- equalled, perhaps, on the eastern side of the North American conti- nent. Around you, in every direction, are confused masses of moun- tains, bearing the appearance of a sea of molten lava suddenlv cooled, whilst its ponderous waves were yet in commotion. On the southeast horizon gleams a rim of silver light — it is the Atlantic Ocean, 65 miles distant — laving the shores of Maine. Lakes — of all sizes, from Lake Winnipiseogee to mere mountain j)onds — and * mountains be- neath you gleam misty and mde.' Far off to the northeast is Mount Katahdin. In the western horizon are the Green Mountains of Ver- mont, and to the south and southwest are Mount Monadnock and Kearsarge, or Kiarsage, while the space between is filled up witli 220 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. every variety of landscape, mountain, and hill, plain and valley, lake and river. " Those to whom it is an object to reach Mount Washington with as little stage-riding as possible, may be landed at Gorham by the Portland and Montreal Railway cars, Avithin 5 miles of the base of the mountain. The Franconia Notch is deemed by many quite as inter- esting as the White Mountain Notch. Near it are many agreeable accessories not to be found in the latter; among which are Echo Lake, just at the northern entrance of the gorge, and the ' Old Man of the Mountain,' a well-defined profile of a human face, 1000 feet above the level of the pass. Tiie Basin, 4 miles south of the Notch, is a ]>ool of beautifully transparent water. One mile below this, again, in l!ie vicinity of the Flume House, is the celebrated Flume, a narrow gorge or opening in the rocks, only a few feet in width, and from 70 to 120 feet in height, through which flows a small tributary of the Pemigewasset; below this is a cascade of 616 feet in length, which in t'.ic spring and fall freshets is an object of great interest. In the same neighborhood is the Pool (a basin formed by a small fall in the Pemigewasset), which is about 60 feet in diameter, and 40 feet deep, surrounded by mural precipices 150 feet in height. The Flume, the Basin, and the Pool, all within an agreeable walking distance of the Flume House, make this one of the most agreeable stopping-^places among the mountains. Mount Lafayette — only 700 feet inferior in altitude to Mount Washington — is also ascended from the same house, which has the further advantage of being within a five-miles ride of the Franconia Notch. The other detached mountains scattered over New Hampshire would, in any other State, not overshadowed by Mount Washington and his court, merit conspicuous notice. Dixville Notch, about 46 miles north of Lancaster, is said to be but little in- ferior to the two great passes already described. New Hampshire shares with Vermont the beautiful river Connecticut, whose shores are often grand, and seldom tame. Bellows Falls, in this river, on the southwest border of the State, are formed by the contraction of the river bed to about 20 feet on the west side at low water, through which the stream rushes with great violence. At high water, it flows in the eastern as well as western channel. These beds are separated by a huge rock. The entire descent in half a mile is 42 feet. At Amoskeag, the Merrimac descends 50 feet in three successive pitches. In the White Mountain Notch is a cascade which winds down the face of the mountain, through a fill of 800 feet, giving, after copious NEW HAMPSHIRE. 221 rains, an additional interest to the scene, as it glides or leaps over the different stages of its descent. There are two interesting falls in the Animonoosuck, within a pleasant drive from the Notch House." * Lake Winnipiseogee is the principal inland. sheet of water. It is irregular in shape, its shores being deeply indented with a number of hays. It is 25 miles long, and varies in width from 1 to 10 miles. It is very deep, and the water, pure and clear as crystal, is alive with ti:ie trout. It is tliickly studded with islands, and abounds in the most picturesque scenery. Steamers ply between Alton Bay and CV'iitre Harbor, stopping at the various points along the lake. Large numbers of visitors come here every summer. The Connecticut River, the largest and most beautiful in New England, rises in the extreme northern part of this State, in the hills ]\i!)g along the border of Canada. Flowing across the State, it turns to the southwest at the northern line of Vermont, and pursuing a <;oneraliy southwest course, forms the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire, and passes into Massachusetts. The scenery along the river is very beautiful, and has made the "Connecticut Valley" famous throughout the country. Above the Massachusetts line it is chiefly mountainous. The Merrimac River is the next in importance, and lies almost entirely within the State. It is formed by the junction of the Pemige- wasset and Winnipiseogee rivers, in Belknap county. Flowing to the southward, it enters Massachusetts about 80 miles from its source. Then turning abruptly to the northeast, it flows into the Atlantic near Newburyport. It is about 110 miles long, and flows through a val- ley noted for its beauty. Haverhill, in Massachusetts, 15 miles from the sea, is the head of ship navigation, but canals have been cut around the falls, which enable boats to ascend to Concord, New Hampshire. The river turns by its excellent water-power more mills and factories than any other in the Union. The Salmon Falls, Pis- cataqua, Contoocook, Souhegan, and Nashua are the other prominent streams. Tlie Isle of Shoals is the name given to a group of 8 islands, 3 of which belong to New Hampshire, and the rest to Maine. They lie off the coast, 11 miles from Portsmouth. A steamer plies daily between that city and the principal island. " The voyage is but an honv in length, and the scenery, as the boat passes down the river * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1306. 222 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. through the Narrows, stemmiug bravely the rushing tide, or borne surfing upon it, is most delightful. Sliding by Fort Constitution and the Whale's Back Light House, the steamer is soon upon the wide Atlantic. Directly in. front is the dim outline of the islands, while behind stretches the white line of the coast. In the distance rise the hills of New Hampshire and the blue sides of Agamenticus, the high mountain of York. As the boat approaches the Appledore Island, the hotel unfolds its size and proportions. Landing by row-boats, the traveller ascends, by an easy path, to the portico, where an expectant crowd is assembled. "The 'Appledore' is conducted by Oscar and Cedric Laighton, whose father is well remembered as the former proprietor. His grave is now one of the interesting and noteworthy spots upon the rocky island. Here also are buried the unfortunate crew of a S[)anish ves- sel driven upon the cliffs on a winter's night. This incident has been made the subject of an effective poem by Longfellow. "The steamboat reaches the 'Appledore' at 1 o'clock each day, and starts upon its homeward trip at 3 P. M. Visitors to the other islands of the group are carried across in small boats. The distance is short to Gosport, where is a small village of some 30 houses, a church, and a school-house. Tiie population are hardy fishermen, among whom can still be traced the Portuguese featui'es of the origi- nal colonizers from the fleet of John Smith, by whom these islands were discovered. A disaster fell upon them a year ago, in the shape of fire. Half their little settlement was consumed in a single night; and this calamity, to so hard-working a j)eople, excited much sym- pathy throughout New England. Assistance was given them, and they are now recovering from their losses. "Near by is White Island, where a revolving light casts a crimson glow over a sea which sleeps through the summer months, but which rises in the winter storms with mighty strength. The other islands are known by the euphonious names of Smutty-Nose and Hog. They are visited only by sportsmen, and are a refuge for innumerable sea- fowl." MINERALS. Iron is found in several counties, principally at Franconia, Pier- mont, and Bartlett. Bog-ore deposits are thickly scattered over the State. Copper, lead, zinc and plumbago are also found in several localities, and silver has been discovered near Pittsfield. Granite of NEW HAMPSHIRE. 223 a fine quality abounds. Gneiss, crystallized-quartz, talc, steatite, tour- malins, ochres, limestone, spars of various kinds, terra sienna, sulphur, magnesia, beryls, garnets, jasper, manganese, asbestus, and amethysts are found. CLIMATE. The climate of New Hampshire is severe, but uniform. Franconia is said to be the coldest place in the Union ; the thermometer some- times indicating 40 degrees below zero. The summers are short, but pleasant. The cold weather begins in October, and snow falls in No- vember and lasts until May, in the northern part of the State, and until April in the southern. In the mountains it frequently lies on the ground until July. The springs are damp and are rendered dis- agreeable by heavy fogs. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not naturally fertile, but has been made so by patient and laborious tillage. The northern part is but little cultivated, and the best lands are in the valleys of the rivers, which occasionally en- rich them by overflows. Sheep and cattle raising for n a prominent part of the industry of the State, the high lands and mountain sides affording good pasturage. There are about 2,367,034 acres of improved land in New Hamp- shire, and 1,377,591 acres unimproved. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of the State may be generally stated as follows: Cash value of farms, $69,869,761 Value of farming Implements and machinery, . $2,682,412 Number of horses, 45,101 " asses and mules, 40 " milch cows, 99,540 " other cattle, 203,800 " sheep, 620,890 " swine 79,680 Value of domestic animals, $12,924,629 Bushels of M^heat, 291,000 " rye 150,000 , " Indian corn, 1,400,000 " oats, 1,663,000 " peas and beans, 89,454 " Irish potatoes, 4,500,000 " barley, ; . . . . 106,000 '• buckwheat '90,400 224 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of clover seed (estimated), 13,000 '' grass seed (estimated), 6,500 Pounds of wool (estimated), 2,000,000 " butter, 0,956,764 " cheese, 2,323,092 hops, 150,000 " maple sugar, 2,255,012 " beeswax and honey, 130,078 Tons of hay, 700,000 Value of orchard products, $557,934 '' home-made manufactures, . . .• . $251,013 " slaughtered animals, $3,787,500 COMMERCE. New Hampshire has but one good harbor, that of Portsmouth ; and but one river navigable, and that for but a short distance from the sea. Tiiis, of course, limits the amount of her foreign trade. During the year ending June 30th, 1861, the commerce of the State was as follows : value of exports, $6112 ; value of imports, $20,887. MANUFACTURES. The rivers of New Hampshire furnish an abundance of first class water-power, and the people are largely engaged in manufactures. According to the census of 1870, there were 3342 establishments in the State engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $36,023,743 and 40,783 hands; consumed raw material worth $44,577,697 ; and yielded products worth $71,- 038,249. Of these 35 were cotton factories, employing a capital of $13,331,710, and 3751 male and 7490 female hands, consuming $13,- 318,447 worth of raw material, paying $398,853 annually for labor, and yielding an annual product of $16,999,072; and 66 were woollen factories, employing a capital of $4,598,800, and 1811 male and 1549 female hands, paying annually $1,353,992 for labor, consuming raw material worth $5,264,520, and yielding an annual product of $8,703,- 307. The other manufactures were as follows: value of leather pro- duced, $3,758,236 ; rolled iron, $455,000; steam engines and machin- ery, $2,737,493 ; agricultural implements, $254,470; sawed and planed lumber, $4,786,692 ; flour, $2,747,973 ; liquors, $636,405. . INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 790 miles of railroad within the limits of the State. These, in many instances, merely crossed .it, terminating at NEW HAMPSHIRE. 225 either Boston or Portland. Others had one terminus in New Hamj)- shire, and another in some other State, and a few short routes lay within the State. The railroads iiave almost entirely supplanted the canals built for the improvement of the Merrimac Kiver. EDUCATION. In the year 1870, there were 2542 public schools in New Hamp- shire, attended by 33,123 male, and 31,554 female pupils. Thest; schools were conducted by 653 male, and 2702 female teachers. Be- sides these, there are about 50 private academies in the State, and ono college, which is located at Dartmouth. This institution was founded in 1769, and is in a flourishing condition. The educational system is maintained by sales of public lands, taxes upon the capital of the banks, and a poll tax upon the inhabitants. It is controlled by a series of district committees, who are subordinate to the Board of Education of the State. The expenditures for schools, not including the private schools, for the year 1870, was $403,310. In 1870, there were 1526 libraries in the State, containing 704,269 volumes. In the same year, upwards of 50 newspapers were published in this State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Insane Asylum, at Concord, was incorporated in 1838. It is provided with excellent and commodious buildings, and has a farm of 155 acres attached to it. The whole number of patients under treatment during the year 1870 was 367 — 190 males, 177 females. The Reform School is located near Manchester, and is surrounded by a farm of 100 acres, which is worked by the boys of the school. Children of both sexes are received here, and are subjected to a mild but firm course of discipline for their reformation. The school was founded in 1856, and has been very successful in its operations. During the year 1869-70, its inmates numbered 155 — males 135, females 20. The State Prison is located at Concord. It is in a flourishing con- dition, and is conducted upon a system which aims to reform as well as punish. The Legislature of 1867 passed an Act, known as the "Commutation law," by which, says the Governor of the Common- wealth, "every month of exemplary conduct on the part of a prisoner gains him a certain amount of time to be deducted from the term of 226 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. his sentence Every convict who avails himself of the benefits of this provision is released in advance of the expiration of his original terra of imprisonment, and thus retains the rights of citizenship." During the year 1870, the whole number of prisoners confined jiere was 118. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property was $3,303,780. The num- ber of churches was 624. FINANCES. The finances of the State are in a ]")rosperous 'Condition. In 1874, the total public debt was $3,826,599. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1874, including cash on hand, were $740,062, and the disbursements $431,491, leaving a balance of $308,571 in the Treasury on the 1st of July, 1874. There are but few State banks left, nearly all of the old institutions having embraced the National Bank system. In May, 1808, there were a few remaining with an aggregate capital of $237,3Q0, and these were preparing to reorganize under the new system. At the same time, there were 40 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of $4,785,000, besides a number of Savings institutions. GOVERNMENT. ' Every adult male inhabitant of the State, over twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers and persons not paying taxes, is entitled to vote in the place of his residence. The Government consists of a Governor assisted by a Council of five members, and a I^egislature, divided into a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen annunlly by the people on the second Tuesday of March. The Secretary of State and Treasurer are chosen on joint ballot by the Legislature at the beginning of every session of that body. The two houses of the Legislature are together styled " The General Court of New Hampshire." There is a Supreme Judicial Court, the highest State tribunal, com- prised of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. They are ap- pointed by the Governor and Council, and hold office during good behavior. The State is divided, for convenience, into four Judicial Districts. There is also a Superior Court for each c^nnty, and a local tribunal for each city. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 227 For purposes of government, the State is divided into ten counties. The seat of Government is located at Concord. HISTORY. Xew Hampshire "was first settled by the English, at Dover and Portsmouth, in 1023. It was originally a part of Massachusetts, but Mas organized as a separate province, with its present name, by a royal charter, in 1G79. In 1689^ it was annexed to Massachusetts, and was afterwards transferred to Xew York. It was erected into an independent j)rovince in 1741, however, and has since maintained a distinct existence. It was considerably annoyed in its early years by the Indians, who, in 1689, made a descent upon Dover, burned a part of the town, and killed a number of the inhabitants. In 1776, the State declared its separate independence of Great Britain. During the Revolution, it made liberal contributions of men and money to the cause. Its troops won especial credit at Stillwater, Saratoga, Mon- mouth, and Bennington. It adopted the Constitution of the United States on the 21st of June, 178$. During the late war, it contributed 33,427 men to the army of the United States. Of these, 5518 fell in battle, and 11,039 were disabled by wounds and sickness. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns of New Hampshire are Concord, the capital of the State, Manchester, Nashua, Portsmouth, Dover, Somers- worth, Keene, Claremont, Rochester, Exeter, Gilford, Sanbornton, and Great Falls. , CONCORD, The capital of the State, is situated on the banks of the Merrimac River, 20 miles above Manchester, and 59 miles northwest from Boston. It extends along the river for about 2 miles, and has an average width of about half a mile. Main street, the principal thoroughfare, is 2 miles long, and 150 feet wide. It contains the hotels and nearly all the prominent buildings. The city is handsomely built; the streets are broad, and well shaded ; and the entire place wears an air of comfort and refinement characteristic of New England towns. The principal building is the State House, constructed of a fine quality of native granite, and surrounded by a beautiful park. Concord is the seat of extensive manufactures, the falls of the Mer- 228 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUFCES. CONCORD STATE HOUSE. rimac furnishing excellent water-power. It contains 9 churches, sev- eral banks, and a number of fine private buildings. The State Lunatic Asylum is also located here. Railroads connect it with Boston and all parts of the Union, and with Canada. The population is 12,241. Four newspapers are published here. MANCHESTER, The largest city in the State, is situated in Hillsborough county, on the banks of the Merriraac River, 18 miles from Concord, and 59 miles from Boston. It is built along the river, on an elevated plateau, about 90 feet above the water. Several railroads centre here, and afford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the country. The city is well laid out, having broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, and several handsome public squares. The eastern section is built almost entirely of brick, but the western part is built of wood. It contains several fine buildings, the principal of which is the new town house, or city hall. The more elevated portion of the place is occupied by residences and churches, and the slope between NEW HAMPSHIRE. 229 the plateau and the river is devoted to the mills and the dwellings of the operatives. The city contains a good public library, about 12 churches, about 24 public schools, besides several private establish- ments, 3 or 4 banks, and 7 newspaper offices. Manchester owes its importance to its extensive manufactures. Cotton, woollen, and other factories are numerous, the motive power being derived from a series of rapids in the Merrimac, called the Amoskeag Falls. The river here makes a descent of 54 feet in a mile, and dams and locks have been constructed at the head of the rapids, by which the water is conveyed to all the mills in the city. Cotton and woollen goods, wrought iron goods of various kinds, locomotives, railroad cars, and steam fire-engines constitute the prin- cipal manufactures, and give employment to between six and seven thousand hands. The population is 23,536. PORTSMOUTH, In Rockingham county, is the second city, and only seaport in the State. It is situated on the right bi;nk of the Piscataqua River, 3 miles from the sea, and 54 miles northeast of Boston. Several rail- roads terminate here, and others pass through it, leading to all parts of the Union and Canada. The city is built upon a peninsula near the mouth of the river, and upon rising ground, which aifords a fine view of the harbor. It is well laid off, and possesses a number of handsome buildings. It contains a public library of over 10,000 volumes, and several excellent literary institutions. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. It is the seat of an activ^e foreign and coasting trade, which, though not so large as formerly, is still important. The fisheries are a source of considerable profit to it, as they lie but a short distance from it. The harbor of Portsmouth is one of the best in the world. It is completely land-locked, is never frozen, and is accessible to the largest ships. Its tides are high and rapid, and the bottom is a smooth bed of rock. The channel at low water is 40 feet in depth. It is de- fended by Fort Constitution, on Great Island ; Fort McClary, oppo- site ; Fort Sullivan, on Trepethen Island ; and Fort Washington, on Pierce's Island. It is estimated that the harbor is sufficiently capa- sious to admit with ease as many as 2000 vessels. The city is connected by bridges with Newcastle, on Grand Island, and with Kittery, in Maine, on the opposite side of the Piscataqua. 15 230 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The United States Navy Yard at Kittery, commonly known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is one of the principal establishments of the Government, and the greatest attraction of the place. It is pro- vided with a splendid dry dock, constructed at a cost of $800,000, with three large ship-houses, and all the appliances necessary to the construction of the largest vessels of war. Portsmouth was made a naval station during the Revolution, and the first ship of the line (the North America) ever constructed in the New World was laid down here during that struggle. The Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama during the civil war, was built here. Portsmouth contains numerous public schools, and supports 4 newspapers, 2 of which are daily. The Neiv Hampshire Gazette, published here, was established in 1756, and claims to be the oldest American journal now in existence. The population is 11,000. DOVER, In Strafford county, is the oldest city in the State. It is situated at the lower falls of the Cocheco River, and on both sides of that stream. It is at the head of sloop navigation, and is connected with all parts of the country by railroad. It is 12 miles northwest of Portsmouth, and 68 miles north of Boston. It is well built, and regularly laid off. It contains several handsome buildings, the principal of which is the city hall, several banks, a number of excellent public schools, 10 churches, and 2 good hotels. The falls of the Cocheco are 32 feet high, and furnish an abundance of excellent water-power. The capital invested in manufactures amounts to several millions of dollars. Cotton and woollen goods, boots and shoes, and iron ware are the principal articles produced. Shipbuilding was formerly an important interest. The city is lighted with gas, and contains a population of over 10,000. Dover was settled by a company from England, in 1623, and its early years were marked by constant trouble with the savages. In 1688, it was almost entirely destroyed by them. Belknap, in his " History of New Hampshire," gives the following account of this tragedy : In that part of the town of Dover which lies about the first falls in the rivei Cocheco, were five garrisoned houses ; three on the nortli side, viz., Waldron's, Otis's and Keard's ; and two on the soutli side, viz., Peter Coffin's and his son's. . Tliese houses were surrounded by timber walls, the gates of which, as well as the house doors, were secured with bolts and bars. The neighborin^f families retired NEW HAMPSHIRE. 231 to these bouses b}"^ night ; but, by an unaccountable negligence, no watch was kept. The Indians who were daily passing through the town, visiting and trad- ing with the inhabitants, as usual in time of peace, viewed their situation witli an attentive eye. Some hints of a mischievous design had been given out by their squaws ; but in such dark and ambiguous terms that no one could compre- hend their meaning. Some of the people were uneasy ; but Waldron, who, from a long course of experience, was intimately acquainted wi(h the Indhms, and on other occasions had been ready enough to suspect them, was now so thoroughly secure that, when some of the people hinted their fears to him, he merrily bade them go and plant their pumpkins, saying that he would tell them whenthe In- dians would break out. The very evening before the mischief was done, being told by a young man that the town was full of Indians and the people were much concerned, he answered that he knew the Indians very well and there was no danger. The plan which the Indians had preconcerted was, that two squaws should go to each of the garrisoned houses in the evening, and ask leave to lodge by the fire ; that in the night, when the people were asleep, they should open the doors and gates, and give the signal by a whistle ; upon which the strange Indians, who were to be within hearing, should rush in, and take their long-meditated revenge. This plan being ripe for execution, on the evening of Thursday, the 27th of June, two squaws applied to each of the garrisons for lodging, as they frequently did in time of peace. They were admitted into all but the j-ounger Coffin's, and the people, at their request, showed them how to open the doors, in case they should have occasion to go out in the night. Mesandowit, one of their chiefs, went to Waldron's garrison, and was kindly entertained, as he had often been before. The squaws told the major that a number of Indians were coming to trade with him the next day, and Mesandowit while at supper, with his usual familiarit}-, said: "Brother Waldron, what would 3-0U do if the strange Indians should come?'" The major carelessly answered, that he could assemble 100 men by I'.iting up his finger. In this unsuspecting confidence the fjamily retired to rest. When all was qaiot, the gates were opened and the signal given. The Indians, entered, set a guard at the door, and rushed into the major's apartment, which was an inner room. Awakened by the noise, he jumped out of bed, and though now advanced in life to the age of 80 years, he retained so much vigor as to drive them with his sword through two or three doors ; but, as he was returning for his other arms, they came behind him, stunned him with a hatchet, drew him into his hall, and, seating him in an elbow chair on a long table, insultingly asked him, " Who shall judge Indians now ? " TJiey then obliged the people in the house to get them some victuals ; and when they had done eating, they cut the major across the breast and belly with knives, each one with a stroke, saj^- ing, "I cross out my account." They then cut ofl" his nose and ears, forcing them into his mouth ; and when spent with the loss of blood, he was falling down from the table, one of them held his own sword under him, which put an end to his misery. They also killed his son-in-law, Abraham Lee ; but took his daughter Lee wit] several others, and having pillaged the house, left it on fire. Otis's • garrison, which was next to the major's, met with the same fate ; he was killed, with several others, and his wife and child were captivated. Heard's was saved by the barking of a dog just as the Indians were entering: Elder Wentworth, who was awakened by the noise, pushed them out, and falling on his back set 232 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. his feet against the gate and held it till he had alarmed the people ; two balls were fired through it, but both missed him. Coffin's house was surprised, but as the Indians had no particular enmity to liim, they spared his life, and the lives of his family, and contented themselves with pillaging the house. Finding a bag of money, they made him throw it by handfnls on the floor, while they amused themselves in scrambling for it. They then Avent to tlie house of his son, who would not admit the squaws in the evening, and summoned him to surrender, promising him quarter. He declined tlieir offer, and determined to defend his house, till they brought out his father and threatened to kill him before his eyes. Filial affection then overcame his resolution, and he surrendered. They put both families together into a deserted house, intending to reserve them for prisoners ; but while the Indians were busy in plundering, tliey all escaped. Twenty-three people were killed in this suprisal, and 29 were captivated ; 5 or 6 houses, witli tlie mills, were burned ; and so expeditious were tlie Indians in the executi(m of tlieir plot, that before tlie people could be collected from the otlier parts of the town to oppose them, they fled witli their prisoners and booty. As they passed by Heard's garrison in their retreat, they fired upon it ; but the people being prepared and resolved to defend it, and the enemy being, in haste, it was preserved. The preservation of its owner was more remarkable. Elizabetli Heard, witli her three sons and a daughter, and some others, were returning in the night from Portsmouth. They passed up tlie river in their boat unperceived by tlie Indians, who were then in possession of the houses; but sus- pecting danger by tlie noise which they heard, after they had landed, they betook themselves to Waldron's garrison, where they saw liglits, which they imagined were set up for direction to those who might be seeking a refuge. Tliey knocked and begged earnestly for admission ; but no answer being given, a young man of the company climbed up the wall, and saw, to his inexpressible suqjrise, an Indian standing in the door of tlic house, witli his gun. The woman was so overcome witli the fright that slie was unable to fly, but begged her cliildren to shift for themselves ; and they with heavy hearts left her. When she had a little recovered, she crawled into some bushes, and lay there till daylight. She then perceived an Indian coming toward her with a pistol in his hand ; he looked at lier and went away : returning, he looked at her again ; and- she asked him what he would have ; he made no answer, but ran yelling to the house, and she saw him no more. She kept her place till the house was burned, and the Indians Avere gone ; and then returning liome, found her own house safe. Her preserva- tion in these dangerous circumstances was more remarkable, if (as it is supposed) it was an instance of justice and gratitude in the Indians. For at the time when the four or five hundred were seized, in 1676, a young Indian escaped and took refuge in her house, where she concealed him ; in return for which kindness he promised her that he would never kill her, nor any of her family, in any future war, and that he would use his influence witli the other Indians to the same pur- pose. This Indian was one of the party who surprised the place, and she was Avell known to the most of them. Jl VERMONT. Area, 10,212 Square Miles. Population in I860, 315,098 Population in 1870, 330,552 The State of Vermont lies between latitude 42° 44' and 45° N,, and longitude 71 ° 33' and 73° 25' W., and is boundetl on the north by Canada East, on the east by New Hampshire, on the south bj' Massachusetts, and on the west bj Lake Champlain and the State of New York. It is 150 miles long from north to south, 85 miles wide from east to west in its northern part, and 35 miles wide from east to west at its southern boundary. TOPOGEAPHY. The surface of the State is greatly diversified by hill and valley. The Green Mountains extend in a direction almost from north to south, throughout its entire length, dividing it into two unequal por- tions. Just below Montpelier, the capital, this ridge divides into two portions, one of which, the higher, extends in a northern direction to the Canada line. The other, although lower, is continuous, and fol- lows the line of the Connecticut River, though at a considerable dis- tance from it, to the northeast corner of the State. The eastern ridge is broken in several places by the passage of the Onion, Lamoille, and Missisque rivers. South of this division, the range is not broken by any stream. The Green Mountains are among the most picturesque and beautiful in the Union, and offer many attractions to the tourist. The highest peaks are Mount Mansfield, 4360 feet above the sea, Camel's Rump, 4188 feet, Killington's, 3675 feet, and Ascutney Moun- tain, near the Connecticut River, 3320 feet. The southern part of the range divides the tributaries of the Hudson from those of the Con- 233 234 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. necticut. The mountains are covered with a thick growth of the evergreen fir, spruce, and hemlock, which give them always a rich hue of dark green, from which their name is derived. Lahe Champlaiii, the largest over which the State has any jurisdic- tion, lies between Vermont and New York, and belongs principally to the latter State; but, for convenience, will be described here. It extends from Whitehall, in New York, northward, a few miles be- yond the Canada line. It is 130 miles long, varies in width from iialf a mile to 10 miles, and is from 50 to 280 feet deep. A line, run from Vermont to New York across the principal island of the lake, would measure 15 miles. It receives the waters of Lakes George and Wood, and of the Saranac, Chazy, Au Sable, Missisquoi, and Wi- nooski rivers, and discharges itself through the Richelieu River into tlie St. Lawrence. On the New York side the shores are rocky, mountainous and sterile; but the Vermont shore is very productive, and is highly cultivated. The scenery of the lake is wild and beau- tiful, the view ranging, in fair weather, as far back as the Green Moun- tains in Vermont, and the Adirondacks in New York. The waters are clear and abound in fish. Steanjers ply daily between the upper a!id lower ends of -the lake. By means of canals there is uninter- rupted navigation, except during the season of ice, between Lake Champlain and the Atlantic, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson River. The commerce of the lake is estimated at over $30,000,000 annually. About 200,000 tons of shipping and 12,000 men are employed in this trade. Navigation is usually closed between the last of No- vember and the first of April. There are a number of islands in the lake, the principal of which are Grand Isle, South Hero, and North Hero, all belonging to Ver- mont. The principal towns belonging to Vermont are Swanton, Burlington, Charlotte, and Ferrisburg. Lake Champlain was discovered by Samuel Champlain, a French naval officer, in 1609. Important events occurred on its waters dur- ing the Revolution, and in the war of 1812—15, a British army and fleet were routed at Plattsburg, on the New York shore. Lalce Mempliramagog, wliich lies almost entirely in Canada, indents a portion of northern Vermont. The other lakes are Dunmore, Aus- tin, Bombazine, and Long Pond. The Connecticut River separates the State from New Hampshire. The other streams are the Otter Creek, Onion, Lamoille, and Mis- sisque. They are insignificant in length, but furnish good water-power. VERMONT. 235 MINERALS. Iron 18 found in considerable quantities in the Green Mountains, and there are deposits of bog-ore in various parts of the State. A brownish coal is found in Brandon. Sulphuret of iron is found near Strafford, and is used in making copperas, of which large quantities are produced. Granite and marble, the latter of a most excellent quality, abound. Slate quarries are numerous, and manganese is found in considerable quantities near Rutland; The other minerals are tita- nium, oxide of manganese, lead, magnetic iron ore, plumbago, copper and zinc. Traces of gold are very decided in the towns of Stowe and Bridgewater. CLIMATE. Being sheltered from the breezes which sweep over the other New England States from the ice fields of the Atlantic, Vermont has an even temperature, which renders it one of the healthiest States in the Union. The thermometer ranges from 17° below zero to 92° above. The winters begin about December, and continue until near the mid- dle of April. They are severe, as well as long. The summers are brief, but pleasant. Frost begins to appear in September, snow about the last of November. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The valleys of Vermont are fertile, the lands along the river bot- toms being excellent. The mountain slopes are used extensively for pasture, and large quantities of maple sugar are produced every year in the uplands. In 1869, there were 2,823,157 acres of improved land in the State, and 1,337,682 of unimproved land. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of Vermont, at the present time, may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, . . • $91,511,673 Value of farming implements and machinery, . $3,554,728 Number of horses, 71,840 " asses and mules, 120 " milch cows, 190,420 " other cattle, 230,300 " sheep, 997,890 " swine, ■ . . . . 81,450 Value of domestic animals, $19,241,989 236 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of wheat, 766,000 " rye, 155,000 " Indian corn, 1,475,000 "■ oats, 5,050,000 " Irish potatoes, • . 5,750,000 '' barley, 102,000 " buckwheat, 231,000 " grass seed, 12,000 Pounds of wool, 3,000,000 butter, 15,900,359 " cheese, . . . ; 8,215,030 " maple sugar (estimated), .... 10,000,000 " beeswax and honey (estimated), . . 212,905 Tons of hay (estimated), 1,100,000 Value of orchard products (estimated), . . . $198,427 " market garden products (estimated), $24,792 '■'■ home-made manufactures, " . $63,295 COMMERCE. Being an inland State without navigable rivers, Vernjont conducts its commerce connected with navigation exclusively by way of Lake Champlain. Daring the year 1862, the foreign exports amounted to $736,663, and the imports to $2,567,892. The entrances for the same year reached 22,012 tons, and the clearances to 23,281. Of this amount, 6067 tons were owned in the State. MANUFACTURES. Vermont has the best water-power of any New England State, but is not as extensively engaged in manufactures as the others, the prin- cipal pursuit of her people being agriculture. According to the census of 1870, there were 3270 establishments in Vermont devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. These employed a capital of $20,329,637, and 18,686 hands, consumed raw material worth $17,007,769, and returned an annual product of $32,184,606. The cotton manufactures were valued at $546,510 ; woollen manu- factures at $3,550,962; leather manufactures at $2,052,913; pig iron at $66,000; rolled iron at $31,500 ; steam engines and machinery at $1,122,567 ; agricultural implements at $523,669 ; sawed and planed lumber at $6,069,725 ; flour at $3,895,058. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Vermont is crossed by several lines of railway, connecting the prin- cipal towns with the cities of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New VERMONT. 237 York, Connecticut, and Canada. In 1872, there were 675 miles of railway completed in the State. Rutland is the great railroad centre. EDUCATION. The State makes a liberal provision for the education of the young. In 1870, there were 2750 public or district schools in operation, at- tended by 72,950 })upils, the average attendance being about 47,000. The number of teachers was 4239, and the amount spent for educa- tional purposes was about $425,000. There are also three Normal schools in the State, one in each Congressional district, subject to the control of the State Board of Education. Two courses of study are taught in these schools. Those who graduate in the first course receive a certificate, which is, by a law of the State, a licence to teach any- where in Vermont for five years. Graduates from the second course receive certificates licensing them to teach in the State for fifteen years. Besides the public schools, there were, in the year 1867, 348 private schools, attended by 9264 pupils, and 58 academies. The colleges are 3 in number, the University of Vermont, at Burlington, founded in 1791, Middlebury College, at Middlebury, founded in 1800, and Norwich University (partly military in its or- ganization), founded in 1834. There were, in 1870, 47 newspapers published in the State, 3 daily, 43 weekly, and one monthly. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Vermont are the Insane Asylum, the Reform School, and the State Prison. The Insane Asylum is located at Brattleboro'. It is surrounded by a large farm, and has ample buildings, which were burned in 1862, but are now being replaced. It is under the supervision of the Com- missioner of the Insane, who is appointed by the Legislature annually for the purpose of inspecting and reporting upon the affairs of the asylum. In 1867, there were 646 inmates of the asylum. The in- stitution is in a large measure sustained by the labor of its inmates. The Reform School, established in 1865, is located at Waterbury. It has a farm of 133 acres attached to it, and is provided with excel- lent workshops. It is in a flourishing condition. In September, 1868, there were 57 inmates remaining. 238 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The State Prison was established in 1807, and is located at Wind- sor. It is governed by a Board consisting of a Superintendent and three Directors, chosen annually by the Legislature. It is almost self-supporting. The labor of the convicts is let, by agreement, at 42 cents per head, per day, for a term of five years. The commutation system has been introduced with great success. In September, 1870, there were 94 convicts still in prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Vermont was $3,713,530. The number of churches was 744. FINANCES. The funded debt of the State in 1874 was about $450,000. A balance is still due the State by the General Government on account of the war. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending in July, 1874, were $460,380, and the expenditures were $397,188. In September, 1868, there were 40 National banks in Vermont, with an aggregate capital of $6,560,012. GOVERNMENT. Every male adult, either a native born or naturalized citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State one year, and can take the oath prescribed by the Constitution of Vermont, is entitled to vote in the State elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, who is the President of the Senate, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, chosen annually by the j^eople. The Senate consists of 30 and the House of 241 members. There is also a Secretary of State, a State Treasurer, and an Auditor of Accounts. The judiciary department of the Government consists of a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County Court in each county, a Probate Court in each probate district, and one or more justices of the peace in each town. "The Supreme Court has no original jurisdiction, except for divorce; but is a court of errors for the trial of questions at law, and a court of appeal in chancery suits. Each judge of the Supreme Court is a Chancellor, and holds his court at the same time as the County Court, ' VERMONT. 239 which is held in each county by one of the Supreme Judges and two Assistant Judges. The County Courts have original jurisdiction in all civil actions for over $200, or in relation to real estate, except trespass, where the damages claimed exceed $20 ; also in actions for replevin for amounts over $20. All actions out of the original juris- diction of the County and Chancery Courts, except for divorce, must be brought before a justice of the peace." The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Judge and five Assistant Judges. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. The seat of Government is established at Montpelier. HISTORY. Vermont was first discovered and partly explored by Samuel Cham- plain, a French officer, in 1609. It was first settled by the English, who founded Fort Dummer, on the present site of Brattleboro', in 1724. The territory was then believed to be a part of Massachusetts. 'By the year 1768, 138 townships Iiad been settled. These settlements were made under the authority of the Governor of New Hampshire, who claimed the territory as a part of his province by virtue of the original charter of New Hampshire. In 1763, a controversy arose between New York and New Hampshire, the former laying claim to the territory. An apj^eal was made to the king, in 1764, who granted to New York jurisdiction to the Connecticut Kiver. New Hampshire acquiesced in this decision, and the authorities of New York " at- tempted to eject and dispossess the settlers from their lands, and through venal judges decided every case against them. This roused the spirit of the settlers to such a degree, that they commenced, under the leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, and other bold and fear- less men, an armed resistance to the oppression of the New York Government; every officer who undertook to enforce a process of ejection was stripped, tied to a tree, and whipped with beechen rods without mercy. This application of the ' beech seal,' as it was called, was so effectual that no officers could be procured to serve writs." The contest went on for ten years. Finally the Governor of New York issued a proclamation offi?ring a reward for the capture of the Vermont leaders, who retorted by offering a reward for the capture of the Attorney General of New York. The Revolution began at this juncture, and suspended the controversy. The Vermont leaden did good service in the cause of the Colonies. Allen, with his owl 240 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. company of 83 men, surprised and captured the important post of Ticonderoga, in May, 1775. In the invasion of Canada, lie behaved gallantly and was made prisoner, while the Vermont regiment, under Setli Warner, covered the retreat from Quebec, and compelled the surrender of the enemy's garrison at St. John's. The '' Green Mountain Boys" made a brilliant name during the war, especially in the battles on Lake Champlain, in which nothing but their iieroic resistance saved the American force from total annihilation. Their victory at Bennington decided the fate of Burgoyne's army. In 1776, Vermont petitioned the Continental Congress for admis- sion into the Confederacy of the States, but her petition was rejected at the instance of New York. The next year, Vermont declared her independence, and in July made a second effort to secure admission into the Confederacy. Congress evaded a direct I'eply. The British now made strong overtures to Vermont to renew her allegiance to the Crown, but the Green Mountain leaders put the royal agents off with a vague reply, which was meant to encourage them to an extent suffi- cient to save the province from invasion by them till the answer of Congress should be known. In 1781, Congress offered to admit Vermont if she would consent to a curtailment of her territory, but she refused the offer. Fcjr eight years, she continued to occupy her anomalous position. In 1790, New York, wishing to settle the old dispute with her, revived her claim to the territory, but offered to compromise it on payment of $30,000. The offer M'as finally accepted, and the long difficulty set- tled. On the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont was admitted into the Union as a State — making the fourteenth member of the Confederacy, and the first admitted under the Constitution. In 1814, the State contributed a portion of the army which won the battle of Plattsburg". In 1837, during the Canadian Rebellion, considerable sympathy .ivas shown for the rebels by the people of Vermont, and some 600 men went into Canada, to take part in the struggle. Upon the ap- proach of a British force sent against, them, they withdrew into their own State and surrendered their arms to the United States authorities. During the late war, on the 19th of October, 1863, a descent was made upon the town of St. Albans by a party of Confederates from Canada, who seized the funds in the bank, amounting to $211,150, and committed some depredations upon the town. They were pur- sued by the citizens, and the whole party finally captured by the pursuers or by the Canadian authorities. VERMONT. 241 ^^» VvCl MONTPELIER. The State contributed to the army of the Union, during the war, a force amounting to 34,655 men. Of these 5128 were killed, a similar number were discharged, and others were permanently disabled. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal towns and cities of the State are Montpelier, the capital, Burlington, Brattleboro', Rutland, St. Albans, and Ben- nington. MONTPELIER, The capital of Vermont, is delightfully situated on the banks of the Onion River, near the centre of the State, about 200 miles northwest of Boston. It is a pretty little city, well built, and conducts an active and valuable trade with the surrounding country. It is on the main line of travel between Boston and Montreal, in Canada, and is thus immediately connected with the great railroad system of the country. 242 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It became the capital of the State in 1805, and now contains a popu- lation of over 3000. The State House fronts on State street, and is a splendid edifice of native granite. It is in the form of a cross, has a fine portico sup- ported by massive columns, and is surmounted by a dome the apex of which is 100 feet from the ground. Montpelier contains several flourishing schools, 2 banks, and 5 churches. Six newspapers are published liere. BURLINGTON, In Chittenden county, is the largest city in the State. It is situated on the east shore of Lake Champlain, 40 miles northwest of Mont- pelier, and about midway dovvn the lake. The surrounding country abounds in magnificent scenery. "Splendor of landscape," says Dr. Dwight, "is the peculiar boast of Burlington. Lake Champlain, here 16 miles wide, extends 50 miles northward, and 40 southward, before it reaches Crown Point, and throughout a great part of this magnificent expansion is visible at Burlington. In its bosom are encircled many beautiful islands; 3 of them, North and South Hero, and La Motte, sufficiently large to contain, the first and last, 1 township each, the other 2 ; forming, together with the township of Alburgh, on the point between the bay of Misciscoui and the river St. John, the county of Grand Isle. A numerous train of these islands is here in full view. In the interior, among the other interesting objects, the range of the Green Mountains, with its train of lofty summits, commences in the south with the ut- most stretch of the eye ; and limiting, on the east, one-third of the horizon, declines far northward^, until it becomes apparently blended with the surface. On the west, beyond the immense field of glass, formed by the waters of the lake, extends the opposite shore from its first appearance at the south, until it vanishes from the eye in the northwest, at the distance of 40 miles. Twelve or 15 miles from this shore ascends the first range of western mountains; about 15 or 20 miles further, the second range; and at about the same distance the third. The two former commence a few miles south of the head of Lake George ; one on the eastern, and the other on the western side of this water. Where the third commences, I am ignorant. The termination of all these ranges is not far from the latitude of Platts- burg. The prospect of these mountains is superlatively noble. The rise of the first range from the lake, the ascent of the second far above VERMONT. 243 it, and the still loftier elevation of the third, diffuse a magnificence over the whole, which n^ocks description. Three of the summits, hitherto without a name, are peculiarly distinguished for their sub- limity. Among those of the Green Mountains there are two, in the ■ fullest view from this spot, superior even to these. One of them, named the Camel's Rump, the Camel's Back, and the Camel ; the other the Mountain of Mansfield. The latter of these was by the fol- lowing expedient proved, not long since, to be higher than the former. A hunter, who had ascended to its highest point, put into his piece a small ball ; and pointing it to the apex of the Camel, the ball rolled out. Both of them are, however, very lofty; higher, as I belicv:'. than Killington Peak, notwithstanding the deference with which I regard the estimates of Doctor Williams. The peculiar form of the Camel's Back invests this mountain with a sublimity entirely superior to any other in the State." The city is built on rising ground, which becomes more elevated as it recedes from the lake, being quite low immediately at the water. The harbor has been deepened and enlarged by the General Govern- ment, and a breakwater constructed for its protection. Two railroads centre here, and afford direct communication with Montreal, Boston, New York City, and Albany. An important trade is carried on upon the lake. About 7000 tons of shipping and several steamers are owned here. The city is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. The streets intersect each other at right angles, extend back from the lake for more than a mile, and are well shaded. A handsome public square occupies the centre of the city, and upon this front the court house, the principal hotels, and th-e most prominent stores. Nearly all the houses have tasteful yards attached to them. Many have extensive grounds, planted with handsome shrubbery. The city contains 4 banks, a number of churches, and 3 newspaper offices. The popula- tion is about 14387. The University of Vermont occupies a commanding eminence at the eastern end of the city. It was founded in 1791, and is liberally en- dowed. It occupies four spacious and handsome buildings, and from the dome of the central edifice a view of unsurpassed beauty may be obtained. RUTLAND, In Rutland county, in the southwest part of the State, is the second city in Vermont. It is situated on Otter Creek^ 55 miles southwest 244 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. RUTLAND. of Montpelier, and 67 miles southeast of Burlington. It is an im- portant railroad centre, four lines converging here, and leading to all parts of the country. It is beautifully situated in the midst of a pic- turesque region, Killington Peak forming the leading feature of the landscape. The city is well laid out, and neatly built. It contains several churches, a number of schools, public and private, 2 banks, and 3 newspaper offices. It possesses an important trade with the surrounding country, and contains several manufacturing establish- ments. The population is 9834. Rutland is growing with marked rapidity, and will soon be one of the most important cities in New England. BENNINGTON", In the county of the same name, in the extreme southwest part of the State, is a thriving town of 2500 inhabitants. It is famous as being the scene of the battle of Bennington, fought August 16th, 1777, when a detachment of Burgoyne's array, under VEUxMO^'T. 245 Colonel Baurae, was terribly beaten by the "Green Mountain Boys/' led by General Stark. The following account of the engagement is taken from a popular publication : John Stark, the hero of Bennington, was a native of New Hampshire. At an early age he enHsted in a company of rangers, participated in several coniflicts with the savages, and at last fell into their hands, a prisoner of war. Redeemed by his fi-iends for $103, he joined Eogers' rangers, and served with distinction through the French and Indian difficulty. When the news came to his quiet home, that American blood had been spilt upon the green at Lexington, he rallied his countrjmien, and hurried on to Boston with 800 brave mountaineers. He presented himself before the American conmiander on the eve of the battle of Bunker Hill, and receiving a colonel's commission, instantly hurried to the in- trenchments. Throughout the battle of Bunker Hill, Stark and his New Hampshire men nobly sustained the honor of the patriot cause, and no troops exceeded in biavery the militia regiment of Colonel John Stark. In the spring of 1776, lie went to Canada, and at the buttle of Trenton he commanded the right wing of Washing- ton's army. He was at Princeton, Bennington, and several other severe battles, always sustaining his reputation, as a brave, honorable, sterling patriot, and an able general. He was a great favorite of General Washington, and very popular in the army. On the 8th of May, 1832, aged 93 years, he "was gathered to his fathers," and his remains repose upon the banks of the beautiful Merriraac, beneath a monument of granite, which bears the inscription — "Major-General Stark." Having given a very brief sketch of the celebrated officer who led our pati'iot militia upon the field of Bennington, we will proceed with the account of that battle. The magnificent army of General Burgoyue, which invaded the States in 1777, having become straitened for provisions and stores, the royal commander ordered a halt, and sent Colonel Baume, a Hessian officer, to scour the countiy for supplies. Baume took a strong force of British infantry, two pieces of artil- lery, and a squadron of heavy German dragoons. A great body of Indians, hirecj ftnd armed by the British, followed his force, or acted as scouts and flanking parties. Stark, on the intelligence of Burgoyne's invasion, was offered the command of one of two regiments of troops which were raised in New Hampshire, through the exertions, chiefly, of John Langdon, Speaker of the General Assemblj'. Stark had served for a long period as General, but at that time was at home, a private citizen. But at the call of his countrymen he again took the field. The two regiments were soon raised, and with. them, as senior officer. Stark hastened to oppose the British army. At that time the Vermont militia were enrolled into an organization, called tlie "Berkshire Regiment," under Colonel Warner. On arriving near Bennington, Stark sent forward Colonel Gregg, with a small force to reconnoitre, but that officer soon returned with the information that a strong force of British, Hessians and Indians was rapidly approaching. Upon this intelligence. Stark resolved to stand his ground and give battle. Mcssengei'S were sent at once to the Berkshire militia to hurry on, and the patriots were directed to see that their weapons were in good order. This was on the 14th of August, 1777. During the day, Baume and his army appeared, and learning that the militia were collecting in front of his route, the commander ordered hiS 16 246 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ar:::y to halt, and throw up intrenchments. An express was also sent to General Burgoync for reinforcements. Tlie 15tli was dull and rainy. Both armies continued their preparations, while waiting for reinforcements. Skirmishing was kept up all day and night, between the militia and the Indians, and the latter suffered so severely, that a great por- tion of the savage force left the field, saying that " the woods were full of Yan- kees." About 12 o'clock on the night of the 15th, a party of Berkshire militia came into the American camp. At the head of one company, was tlie Reverend Mr. Allen, of Pittsficld, and that worthy gentleman appeared full of zeal to meet the enemy. Sometime before daylight, he called on General Stark, and said : " General, the people of Berkshire county have often been called out, without being allowed to fight, and if you don't give them a chance, they have resolved never to turn out again." "Very well," replied Stark, "do you want to go at it now, while it is dark and rainy ?" "No, not just at this moment," said the warlike minister. "Then," said the General, "if the Lord shall once more give us sunshine, and I do not give you fighting enough, I'll never ask you to come out arain !" This satisfied the preacher, and he went out to cheer up his flock witii the good news. Day dawned, bright and warm, on the 16th. All nature, invigorated by the mild August rain, glared with beauty and freshness. Before sunrise, the Ameri- cans were in motion, while from the British intrenchments, the sound of bugles and tlie roll of drums, told that Baume's forces were ready for action. Stark early arranged his plan of attack. Colonel Nichols, with 300 men, was sent out to attack the British rear ; Colonel Herrick, with 300 men, marched against the light flank, but was ordered to join Nichols before making his assault general. With about 300 men. Colonels Hubbard and Stickney were sent against the entrenched front, while Stark, with a small reserve, waited to operate whenever occasion off'ered. It must be remembered that the American forces were militia, while Baume's army was made up of well-disciplined, well-armed, and experi- enced soldiers. Many of the patriots were armed with fowling-pieces, and there were whole companies without a bayonet. They had no artillery. General Stark waited impatiently until the roar of musketry proclaimed that the Siflerent detachments had commenced their attack, and then forming his small battalion, he made his memorable speech: ^'•Boys! there'' s the enemy, and we must heat them, or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night — Forward!" His sol- diers, with enthusiastic shouts, ruslied forward upon the Hessian defences, and the battle became general. The Hessian dragoons, dismounted, met the Ameri- cans with stern bravery. The two cannons, loaded with grape and canister, swept the hill side with dreadful effect. Stark's white horse fell in less than ten minutes after his gallant rider canie under fire, but on foot, with his hat in one hand, and his sabre in the other, he kept at the head of his men, who, without flinching a single foot, urged their way up the little hill. Brave Parson Allen, with a clubbed musket, was seen amid the smoke, fighting in the front platoon of his company. The whole field was a vol- cano of fire. Stark, in his official report, says that the two forces were within a few yards of each other, and "the roaring of their guns was like a continuous clap of thunder ! " The Hessian and British regulars, accustomed to hard-fought fields, held their ground stubbornly and bravely. For more than two hours the battle hung in even scale. At length, Baume ordered a charge ; at that instant he fell, mortally wounded, and his men charging forward, broke their ranks in VERMONT. 247 such a manner, that the Americans succeeded, after a fierce hand to hand fight, in entering the intrenchments. Stark shouted to liis men, "Forward, boys, charge them home!" and his troops, maddened by the conflict, swept the hill with irresistible valor. They pushed forward without discipline or order, seized the artillery, and gave chase to the flying enemy. The field being won, plunder became the object of the militia. The guns, sabres, stores and equipments of the defeated foe were being gath- ered up, when Colonel Breyman, with 500 men, suddenly appeared upon the field. He had been sent by Burgoyne to reinforce Baume, but the heavy rain had prevented his men from marching at a rapid rate. The flying troops instantly rallied and joined the new array, which speedily assumed an order of battle, and began to press the scattered forces of the patriots. This was a critical period. Stark put forth every eff'ort to rally his men, but they Avere exhausted, scattered, and nearly out of ammunition. It seemed as if the fortune of the day was in the royal hands, when from the edge of a strip of forest, half a mile off, came a loud and genuine American cheer. Stark turned, and beheld emerging from the wood, the Berkshire regiment, under Colonel Warner. This body of men, also delayed by the rain, after a forced march, had just reached the battle field, panting for a share in the aff"ray. General Stark hastened to the captain of the foremost com- pany, and ordered him to lead his men to the charge at once. But the captain coolly asked, "Where's the colonel? I want to see Colonel Warner before I move." The colonel was sent for, and the redoubtable captain, drawing himself up, said, with a nasal twang peculiar to the puritans of old, "Naow, Kenial', what d'ye want me tu dew?" "Drive those red-coats from the hill yonder," was the answer. "Wall, it shall be done," said the captain, and issuing the necessary orders, he led his men to the charge without a moment's hesitation. Said an eye-witness, afterwards, "The last we saw of Warner's regiment for half an hour, was when they entered the smoke and fire about halfway up the- hill." Stark with a portion of his rallied troops supported the Berkshire men,, and the royal forces were defeated after a close contest. A portion of them escaped, but 700 men and officers were taken prisoners, among the latter Colonel. Baume, who soon died of his wound. The British lost 207 men killed, and a large number wounded. Of the Ameri- cans, about 100 were killed and the same number wounded. The spoils consisted, of four pieces of cannon, several hundred stand of excellent muskets, 250 dragoon, swords, 8 brass drums, and 4 wagons laden with stores, clothing and ammunition. This victory severely crippled Burgoyne, and discouraged his army, while it; enlivened the Americans from one extent of the country to the other. It taught the British troops to respect the American militia, and it was a brilliant precursor, to the victories of Saratoga and Bemis' Heights. Congress voted thanks to General Stark and his brave troops for their great- victory, and took measures to push on the war with renewed energy and hope., MISCELLANY. THE TAKING OF TICONDEROGA. Ina.smuch as the capture of the fortress of Ticonderoga was the- work of the " Green Mountain Boys," it seems but just to append the 248 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUrCES. :iccoiint of their exploits to the description we have given of their State. The following narrative is taken from " Williams' History 'of Vermont : " The fii'st steps for this object seem to liave been taken by some gentlemen in Connecticut ; and Messrs. Deane, Wooster, Parsons, and otliers engaged in the affair. The success depended on the secrecy witli which tlie affair could be man- aged. Their first object was to obtain a sum of money to bear the necessary ex- penses. They procured this to tlie amount of about $1800, from the general assembly of Connecticut, by way of loan. Several of the militia captains pushed forward to Salisbury, the northwestern town in that colony ; and after a little consultation concluded not to spend any time in raising men, but to procure a quantity of powder and ball, and set off immediately for Bennington, and engage Ethan Allen in the business. With his usual spirit of activity and enterprise, Allen undertook the management of the scheme ; and set off to the northward, to raise and collect all the men that he could find. The Connecticut gentlemen hav- ing procured a small quantity of provisions, went on to Castleton ; and were there joined by Allen, with the men that he had raised from the new settlements. The Avhole niunber that were assembled amounted to 270, of which 230 were raised on the New Hampshire grants, distinguished at that time by the name of Green Mountain Boys ; so called from the Green Mountains, among which they resided. Sentries Avere immediately placed on all the roads, and the necessary measures taken to procure intelligence of the state of the works and garrison at Ticon- deroga. While Allen and his associates were collecting at Castleton, Colonel Arnold arrived, attended only by a servant. This officer belonged to New Haven, in Connecticut. As soon as the news arrived at that place that hostilities had com- menced at Lexington, Arnold, then a captain, set out at the head of a volunteer company, and marched with the greatest expedition to Cambiidge. The day after his arrival, he attended the Massachusetts committee of safely, and reported to them that the fort at Ticonderoga was in a ruinous condition ; that it was gar- risoned by about 40 men, and contained a large quantity of artillery and military stores ; and might easily be captured. The committee wished to avail themselves of his. information and activity ; and on the 3d of May appointed him a colonel, and gave him directions to enlist 400 men, and march for the reduction of Ticon- deroga. Under these orders, and with tliis design, he joined the men that were assembling at Castleton ; but was unknown to any of them but a IVIr. Blagden, one of the Connecticut officers. His commission being examined, it was agreed in a council that he should be admitted to join and act witli tliem ; but tliat Allen sliould also have the commission of a colonel, and have tlie command ; and that Arnold should be considered as his assistant. To procure intelligence. Captain Noah Phelps, one of the gentlemen from Con- necticut, disguised himself in the habit of one of the poor settlers, and went into tiie fort, pretending he wanted to be shaved, and inquired for a barber. Affect- ing an awkward appearance, and asking many simple questions, he passed un- suspected, and had an opportunity to observe the state of everytliing within the walls. Returning to his party, he gave them the necessary information, and the same night they began their march to the fort. With so much expedition and secrecy had the enterprise been conducted, that Colonel Allen arrived at Orwell, opposite to Ticonderoga, on the 9t!i of Jlny, at. 1 VERMONT. 249 night, -with bis 230 Green Mountain Boys, Avithoat any intelligence or apprelior.- siou on the part of tlie garrison. It was with difficulty tliat boats could be pro- cured to pass the lake ; a few, however, being collected, Allen and Arnold passc\l over, with 83 men, and landed near the works. Arnold now wished to assume tlie command, to lead on the men, and swore that he would go in himself tl;c' first. Allen swore that he sliould not, but that he himself would be the first man that should enter. The dispute beginning to run high, some of the gentlemen tliat were present interposed, and it was agreed that both should go in together, Allen on the right hand and Arnold on the left. On the 10th of May, in the gra}' of the morning, they both entered the port leading to the fort, followed by their men. The sentry snapped his fusee at Allen, and retreated through the covered way. The Americans followed the sentry, and immediately drew up on the parade. Captain De la Place commanded, but he was so little apprehensive of any danger or hostility, that he was surprised in his bed. As soon as he ap- peared, he was ordered to surrender the fort. "Upon Avhat authority do jxju require it?" said De la Place. "I demand it," said Allen, "in the name of tlie great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." Surrounded by the Americans, who were already in possession of the works, it was not in the power of the British captain to make any opposition, and he surrendered hrs garrison prison- ers of war, without knowing by what authority Allen was acting, or that hostili- ties had commenced between Britain and the Colonies. After Allen had landed with his party, the boats were sent back for Colonel Seth Warner with the re- mainder of the men, who had been left under his command. Warner did not arrive till after the place had surrendered, but he took the command of a party who set off for Crown Point. At that place there were only a sergeant and 12 men to perform garrison duty. They surrendered upon the first summons, and Warner took possession of Crown Point on the same da}^ that Ticonderoga was given up. Another party surprised Skeensborough, made a prisoner of Major Skeen, the son, took possession of a strong stone house which he had built, se- cured his dependents and domestics, and made themselves masters of that ini- portant harbor. By these enterprises the Americans had captured a British captain, lieutenant, and 44 privates. In the forts they found above 200 pieces of cannon, some mor- tars, howitzers, and large quantities of ammunition and military stores ; and a warehouse full of materials for carrying on the business of building boats. Hav- ing succeeded in their attempts against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, it was still necessary, in order to secure tlie command of Lake Cliamplain, to get pos- session of an armed sloop which lay at St. John's, at the north end of the lake. To effect this purpose, it was determined to man and arm a schooner, which la\' at South Bay. Arnold had the command of the schooner, and Allen took the command of a number of batteaux, and both sailed for St. John's. The wind being fresh at the south, Arnold soon passed the lake, surprised and captured the armed sloop in the harbor of St. John's : in about an hour after he had taken her, the wind suddenly shifted to the north, and Arnold made sail with his prize, and taet Allen with his batteaux at some distance from St. John's. MASSACHUSETTS. Area, 7800 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,231,066 Population in 1870, 1,457,351 The State of Massachusetts is situated (including its islands) be- tween 41° 10' and 42° 53' N. latitude, and between 69° 50' and 73° 30' \V. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New Hampshire and Vermont, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic, and the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the west by New York. It is very irregular in shape, its southeastern extremity extending far out into the ocean, and curving so as to almost enclose Cape Cod Bay. Its greatest length from east to west is about 145 miles. The eastern side is about 90 miles wide from north to .'Outh, and its western end about 48 miles broad. TOPOGRAPHY. The State has a considerable extent of sea coast, and possesses a number of excellent harbors. 3Iassachusetts Bay and Cajje Cod Bay are really one and the same sheet of water, and comprise a large gulf, which indents the eastern coast of the State for about 25 miles in a southwest and 65 miles in a southeast direction. The upper, or northern part of this gulf is called Massachusetts Bay, and the lower part Cape Cod Bay. The latter is famous as having been the harbor in Avhich the Mayflower cast anchor after her long and weary voyage from England, in 1620. The extreme eastern part of the State extends around Cape Cod Bay, enclosing it in a kind of semicircle. Plymouth is situated on the northwest side of this bay. Boston lies on the west side of Massa- chusetts B:iv. 250 MASSACHUSETTS. 251 Buzzard's Bay, in the southeastern part of the State, extends inland in a northward direction for about 30 miles, and is about 7 miles wide. The harbors of New Bedford, Fair Haven, and Rochester lie along this bay, which is separated from Vineyard Sound by the Elizabeth Islands. 3Iarthd's Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands lie in the Atlantic to the south of Barnstable county, and together form Duke's county. Martha^s Vineyard is separated from Barnstable county, on the main- land, by Vineyard Sound, a sheet of water from 3 to 7 miles wide. The island is 21 miles long, and from 3 to 9 miles wide. Edgarton is the chief town. The Elizabeth Islands, 16 in number, lie between Buzzard's Bay and Vineyard Sound. Only 2 or 3 are inhabited. The people of Duke's county are engaged principally in fishing and navigation. Nantucket is the name given to a large island in the Atlantic, about 30 miles south of Barnstable county. It is about 15 miles long, and from 3 to 4 miles wide. Several small islands lie immediately on its northern coast, and with it form the county of Nantucket. The chief town is Nantucket, on the northern part of the main island. This town was founded in 1659, and is one of the most thriving in the State. It is compactly and neatly built, has a library of several thousand volumes, 8 or 9 churches, a bank with a capital of $200,000, and several handsome buildings. The inhabitants are actively engaged in the fisheries, and, until the discovery of petroleum rendered this traffic of comparatively little importance, Nantucket was one of the principal depots of the whale trade. In 1863, 4407 tons of shipping were owned on the island. Steam communication is maintained with the mainland. In 1860, the population of the town was 5000, of the county 6064. In 1870, it was 4134. During the Revolution and the war of 1812-15, Nantucket sent out numerous privateers against the British commerce, and a Nantucket ship was the first to show the " Stars and Stripes " in the river Thames, after the recognition of our indejiendence by Great Britain. The surface of Massachusetts is generally uneven, and in the west- ern part is broken into mountain ranges of a moderate elevation.. The southeastern part is level and sandy, and the eastern and middle parts are broken and rugged. The Green Mountains pass across the western part of the State, from Vermont, and extend into Connecticut. They are about 20 or 30 miles west of the Connecticut River, and jiursue a course parallel with it. Besides this range, there are several 252 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. isolated peaks in the State, the principal of which are Wachusetts Mountain, 2018 feet; in the north-central part of the State, Mount Tom, 1200 feet; and Mount Holyoke, 910 feet, near Northampton. These are considered- outliers of the White Mountain range, of New Hampshire. The Green Mountains are divided into two ridges in IMassachusetts. The eastern is the lowest, and is called the Hoosic Kitlgo ; and tiie western is the most elevated, and is called the Tang- kannic Range. Its highest peak is Mount Washington, 2264 feet, in the southwest corner of the State. The Connecticut is the principal river of the State, flowing across it from north to south, and into the State of Connecticut. It is rendered navigable by means of canals, and furnishes excellent water-power. The Ilenimac, which has already been described in the chapter on New Hampshire, turns the mills of Lowell and Lawrence. The tribu- taries of the former stream in this State are Miller's, the Chicoopec, Deerfield, and Westfield rivers; those of the latter, the Nashua and Concord. Taunton River furnishes excellent water-power, and sup- plies the factories of the cities of Taunton and Fall River. Charles River rises in the interior, and flows into Massachusetts Bay. "Massachusetts abounds in picturesque scenery. This observation is especially true of the western part of the State, and the view of the Connecticut River and Valley from Mount Holyoke has long been celebrated. Though rather less than 1000 feet in height, the views it commands, and its easy ascent, being traversed to its summit by a good carriage road, have invited hither many tourists in the season for travelling. The spectator has below him the beautiful meander- ing Connecticut wending its way through the meadows and among tlio villages, while to the southwest, and at no great distance, is Mount Tom ; and still farther in the same direction, Bald or Washington Mount, and in the northwest Saddle Mountain, the highest ground in the State; and turning to the east and northeast he has the peaks of Wachusetts in Massachusetts, and Monadnock in New Hampshire; the intermediate parts of the scene being filled up with a great variety of landscape, villages, hills, rivulets, and low mountains. There is a good iiotel on the top of Mount Holyoke, and in the vicinity the beautiful village of Northampton, at which the tourist may take up his quarters and make his excursion from thence over the mountain. A yet more extensive view is obtained from Saddle Mountain, but it has hitherto lain more out of the line of travel, and been less visited, though of thrice the elevation of Mount Tom. It commands a view of the MASSACHUSETTS. 253 surrounding country for 40 or 50 miles, extending to the Catskills on the west, overlooking the Green Mountains on the north, south, and east, and on the northeast reaching to Monadnock Mountain, in New Hampshire. This mountain is fertile to the summit, near which is a small lake or pond. Goodrich describes a phenomenon as having oc- curred here in 1784, called by the inhabitants the bursting of a cloud. About dawn of a certain morning, the tenants of a house on the banks of the Hoosic, on the western slope, were aroused by the roaring of the torrent, and had barely time to escape before their dwelling was swept away by the flood. The torrent wore a gully in the mountain 20 feet deep, and swept away the timber entirely from about 10 acres of land. Berkshire county abounds in sublime and picturesque scenery, and has become a favorite resort not only for tourists, but for citizens seeking pleasant summer residences. Hawthorne, Miss Sedg- wick, Fanny Ivemble, James, and others, have rendered their tribute to the charms of Berkshire scenery, by taking up their abode there for considerable periods. The Ice Hole, a narrow and deep ravine of great wildness, in Stockbridge, where the ice remains the year round; a fall of about 70 feet descent, amid wild scenery, in the Housatonic, in Dalton ; the Natural Bridge, on Hudson's Brook, in Adams, where a fissure of from 30 to 60 feet deep, and about 500 feet long, has been worn through the limestone rock, forming a bridge 50 feet above the water ; a rock of 30 or 40 tons, in New INIarlboro', so nicely balanced that a finger can move it ; and Hanging Mountain, on the Farmington River, in Sandisfield, rising in a perpendicular wall above the river to the height of more than 300 feet; are, after the mountains already named, the most remarkable natural objects in Berkshire. Blue Hill, 11 miles southwest of Boston, which com- mands a fine view of Boston Harbor and the ocean, is 635 feet high, being the most elevated land in Eastern Massachusetts. On the side of Mount Toby, a hill of sandstone, elevated about 1000 feet above the Connecticut, is a cavern about 150 feet in length and 60 in depth. Nahant, a rocky promontory on the north shore of Boston Bay, ex- tending 4 miles into the sea, is the most noted watering-place in Mas- sachusetts. It is about 9 miles northeast of Boston, and commands a fine view of the ocean, and of the shipping entering and departing from the harbor. In addition to its good beach, Nahant has the charm of wildness given to it by the rugged rocks which form the promontory, and into the caves and recesses of which the sea surges at times with great violence. The mineral springs of this State have 254 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. not acquired any great celebrity beyond her own limits ; the principal are, one in the town of Hopkinton, impregnated with carbonic acid, and carbonates of lime and iron ; one in Shutesbury, containing mu- riate of lime; and a chalybeate sulphur spring in Winchenden. The Quincy granite quarries, 6 or 8 miles south of Boston, in a range of hills 200 feet high, are worthy of a visit." * MINERALS. Granite abounds, and is shipped to all parts of the Union for build- ing purposes. The gray granite of the Quincy Hills is famous. Mar- ble is found in Berkshire county. The new wings of the Capitol at Washington, and Girard College at Philadelphia are constructed of marble from this county. Small deposits of anthracite coal are found in Hampshire county. Iron is found in great abundance west of the Connecticut River, and in limited quantities in Plymouth and Bristol counties, while lead mines have beei> worked in Hampshire county (at Northampton), since 1765. The other minerals are gneiss, quartz, mica, limestone, hornblende, serpentine, asbestus, and slate. CLIMATE. The climate of Massachusetts is very severe in the winter. The writer has seen the thermometer indicate 28° below zero at 8 o'clock A. M. in Boston. The summers are short, and would be pleasant on the coast were it not for the sudden changes from extreme heat to cold by which they are marked. The spring is rendered disagreeable by severe northeast winds, which are a fruitful source of pulmonary complaints. In the western part of the State, the climate is steadier. The winter sets in early in all sections, and lasts long, but the spring, though late, is rapid. The early fruit trees are in full bloom by the middle of April. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of Massachusetts is not naturally fertile, but has been ren- dered productive by the industry of its people. The best lands are in the central and western counties, especially in the valleys of the Connecticut, Housatonic, and other streams. The farmers of Massa- chusetts compare favorably with those of any other part of the Union * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1156. II MASSACHUSETTS. 255 in intelligence, and there is perhaps no State which devotes more sci- entific skill to the production of its crops. The population is the densest in the Union, and the amount of grain produced is not ade- (|nate to the demands of the community. There are about 2,155,512 acres of improved land in Massachusetts, and 1,183,212 acres of unimproved land. The following statement shows the remainder of the agricultural wealth of the State at the present time : Cash value of farms, - . . . $123,255,948 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,894,998 I^ umber of horses, 49,430 " asses and mules, 139 " milch cows, 160,2i:0 " . other cattle, 140,340 " sheep, • 119,560 " swine, 93,540 Value of domestic animals, $9,737,744 Bushels of wheat, 167,000 " rye, 46J,000 '' Indian corn, 1,950,000 '' oats, 1,525,000 " Irish potatoes, ........ 4,300,000 barley, 144,000 " buckwheat, 85,000 Pounds of wool, 377,207 " butter, 8,297,936 " cheese, 5,294,090 " hops, 111,301 " maple sugar, 1,006,078 " beeswax and honey, 62,414 Tons of hay, 850,000 Value of orchard products, $925,519 " market garden products, $1,397,623 " home-made manufactures, .... $245,886 " slaughtered animals, $2,915,045 COMMERCE. In the extent and value of her commerce, Massachusetts stands next to New York. The total tonnage of the State in 1874 was 458,373, of which a part Avas engaged in the whale fisheries. In 1855, the total value of the product of the whale fisheries was $6,766,996. In the same year the product of the cod and mackerel fisheries was $2,902,796. In 1861, the total exports of Massachusetts were $16,532,736, and the total imports, $45,399,844. 256 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MANUrACTURES. Massachusetts is the third State in the Union in manufactures, ami tlie first as regards her cotton and woollen manufactures. By the census of 1870 there were 13,212 establishments in the State, devoted to manufactures, mining, and tlie mechanic arts, employing a capital of $231,677,862 and 279,380 hands, and yielding an annual product of $553,912,568. There were 194 cotton mills, employing 13,713 male and 24,128 female hands and a capital of $44,822,395. They consumed raw material worth $37,545,686 ; paid $13,61 2,925 for labor; and yielded an annual product of $59,979,153. There were 182 woollen mills, employing 10,754 male, and 7437 female hands, and a capital of $20,622,400. They consumed raw material worth $24,- 866,118, paid $7,296,752 for labor, and returned an annual product of $39,489,242. The value of leather produced was $33,658,475 ; of boots and shoes, $88,399,583 ; of pig iron, $722,225; of rolled iron, $6,699,907; of steam engines and machinery, $16,426,842; of agricul- tural implements, $1,033,590 ; of sawed and planed lumber, $8,651,- 690; of malt liquors, $1,542,487; of spirituous liquors, $774,821; of furniture, $4,124,822; the value of paper manufactured was $12,687,481. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In proportion to its size" and population, Massachusetts is the most important State in the Union as regards its railroads. In 1871, there were 1975 miles of single track in the State. These were constructed and equipped at a cost of $72,175,091, and during the year 1865, their net earnings amounted to $6,173,157. Boston is the great rail- road centre. Three continuous lines extend from that city into New York, two of them passing through the principal towns of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Two lines extend from Boston to Portland, passing through the intervening towns. Lines extend from the former city to all parts of the State, into New Hampshire, Vermont, and Canada, and by means of the Boston and Troy (N. Y.) Railroad, there is now unbroken railroad communication between Boston ami all parts of the west and the Pacific Ocean. EDUCATION. The State provides liberally for the cause of education. "The Board of Education, which consists of the Governor, Lieutenant- MASSACHUSETTS. 257 IIARVAKD TjxiVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. Governor, and eight members appointed by the Governor and Coun- cil, has the general oversight of the Normal Schools, Public Schools, and of Educational Statistics. The ofificers, trustees, or persons in charge of every institution of learning, whether litcrarv, scientific, or professional, public or private, and of all reform sc^hools or alm.s- houses, are required by law to report to the Board on or before the l.st day of June in each year, giving such statistics as the Board shall pre.scribe. The Board appoints a Secretary, who is its chief executive officer, and who gives his whole time to the supervision and improve- ment of common schools. Each town elects a School Committee of three persons, or a number which is a multiple of three, who examine teachers, visit schools, and have a general oversight of the schools of the town. In the cities and some of the larsrer towns, the School Committee appoints a superintendent, who has the immediate charge of the schools. The number of school districts is annually diminish- ing, there being 323 less in 1867 than in 1866, and 672 less than in 1861. Where the districts are abolished, the schools arc managed entirely by the towns. Each town having 500 or more families is by law reqniro'd to n>aintain a ptiblic high S'-linol. 258 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. " Provision for the special education of teachers is made in four State Normal Schools, two of which are for both sexes, and two for female teachers only. A Girls' High and Normal School, and an ef- ficient Training School, are also maintained by the city of Boston, for preparing teachers for primar}"^ schools. Teachers' Institutes are held annually under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Edu- cation." The public schools are supported by direct taxes. In 1870, the amount expended for these schools, exclusive of the cost of erecting and repairing buildings, was $3,125,053. In 1870 there were in the State 5100 public schools, presided over by 8977 teachers. The attendance was as follows: 242,155 pupils; 121,572 being males, and 120,573 females. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest college ill the Union, and ranks among the first in standing and usefulness. Besides the regular collegiate course, it has schools of divinity, medicine, law, science, and philosophy. Its museum of Scientifio' Zoology is the best in the country. Its faculty has included some of the most eminent men of the land, and many of our greatest statesmen, jurists, and men of science are numbered amongst its alumni. Williams College, at Williamstown, Amherst, at Amherst, Holy Cross, at Worcester, and Tufts, at Medford, are the other colleges of the State. All are well attended, and are prosperous. In 1871, there were 55 incorporated academies, with an average attendance of 3696 pupils; and 553 private schools of all grades, the estimated average attendance of which was 14,417. In 1870, there were in the State 3169 libraries, containing 3,017,813 volumes. Of these, about 1500 were public. In Massa- chusetts, as well as in the other New England States, there is a public library in nearly every town. In 1870. there were 259 periodicals published in the State — 129 political, 31 religious, 54 literary and niiscellaneous. Of these, 21 were daily, 1 tri-weekly, 14 semi-weekly, 1' 3 weekly, 48 monthly, 6 quarterly, and 1 annual. Their aggregate annual circulation was 129,691,266 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Charlestown. It was founded in 1800. The commutation system is in successful operation. Prisos- ers are confined in separate cells, and are required to perform their MASSACHUSETTS. 259 work in silence. On the 30th of September, 1869, there were 593 prisoners confined "in this establishment. The profits of the labor performed by the convicts amounted, during the year 1868-69, to $26,781 over the expenses of conducting the' establishment. In the old graveyard adjoining the prison is the monument to John Harvard, erected to his memory in 1828, by the students of Harvard University. There are in Massachusetts 20 jails, 16 houses of correction, and 1 House of Industry. The Board of State Charities has charge of all the charitable insti- tutions of the State. These are the lunatic asylums, the almshouses, and reform schools. There are three State Lunatic Hospitals, located respectively at Worcester, Taunton, and Northampton. All these receive State, town, and private patients. The State patients at the Northampton Hospital consist of incurables transferred from the other institutions. The State Almshouses are three in number, and are located respec- tively at Tewksbury, Monson, and Bridgewater. The Tewksbury Almshouse is a receptacle for aged, helpless, harmless, and insane paupers ; that at Monson is provided with a primary school, and is devoted to children old enough to receive education; while the Bridgewater Almshouse is a place of confinement for persons sen- tenced to a workhouse. There are three Reform Schools, — the State Industrial School for girls, at Lancaster, where a most excellent influence is exerted for the purpose of reclaiming young girls from vicious lives ; the State Reform School for boys, at Westborough, where a similar course of treatment is pursued for boys ; and the 3Iassachusetts Nautical School, estab- lished on two ships, at Boston and New Bedford, in which boys of bad character are placed for reformation. In this school the boys are trained for the U. S. Navy and the whaling service. These institutions are all in a flourishing condition. The State also supports wholly, or in part, the School^ for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth, at South Boston ; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind ; the Massachusetts General Hospital; the Eye and Ear Infirmary; the Wash ingtonian Home; the Discharged Soldiers' Home; the Temporary Asylum for Dis- charged Female Prisoners; the Home for the Friendless; the New England* ISIoral Reform Society ; and the Agency for Discharged Convicts, Pupils are maintained at the expense -of the State in the 260 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. " Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb/' at Hartford, Conn., and at the .Clarke Institution for Deaf Mutes, at Northampton, Mass. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Massachusetts was ^24,488, 285. In the same year there were 1764 churches in the State. FINANCES. On the 1st of January, 1875, the total State debt was $29,465,204. In the same year, the sinking fund for the redemption of this debt amounted to over $10,989,595. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 207 National Banks in the State, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $30,032,000. GOVERNMENT. The right of suffrage in this State is denied to j^aupers and persons under guardianship, but is extended to each male adult, able to read the Constitution of the State in the English language and to write his name, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of his election district for six months. The State Government is vested in a Governor, assisted by an Ex- ecutive Council of 8 members (one from each Council district of the State), a Lieutenant-Governor, a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members) and a House of Representatives (of 240 members), together styled "The General Court of the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts," a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, and an At- torney General, all chosen annually by the people, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. They enter upon their duties on the first Wednesday in January. The Judiciary comprises a Supreme Judicial Court, a Superior Court, a Probate Court in each county, and municipal and police courts in the cities and towns. The Supreme Judicial Court consists of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. It has exclusive cognizance of all capital crimes, and "exclusive chancery jurisdiction so far as chancery powers are conferred by statute, and concurrent original jurisdiction of all civil cases whei'e the amount in dispute exceeds $4000 in Suffolk county and $1000 in all other counties." MASSACHUSETTS. 261 The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice, and nine Associate Justices. It has jurisdiction in all criminal cases, except capital cases, and in all civil cases where the amount in dispute is over $20. The Governor of the State, by and with the advice and consent of his Council, appoints the Judges of both Courts, who hold office dur- ing good behavior. The seat of Government is established at Boston. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. HISTORY. According to the Icelandic legend, Massachusetts was first discov- ered by Biorn, in the year 906 ; but, as we have elsewhere intimated, this legend is vague and devoid of substantial proof, and the credit of the first discovery must be given to John Cabot, who visited the coast in 1497, under the orders of Plenry VII. of England, and five years after the first voyage of Columbus. He failed to discover any inhabi- tants,'but at a later period, his son, Sebastian, while endeavoring to dis- cover a northwest passage to China, visited the waters of New England, found that the country was inhabited, and took three of the natives with him to England. The Spaniards subsequently made some landings on the coast, and carried off a number of the natives, Avhom they sold in Europe as slaves. No attempt at settlement was made until 1602, when Bartholomew Gosnold, with a colony of 32 persons, made a lodgement on one of the Elizabeth Islands. The settlement was abandoned in a few weeks, however, in consequence of internal dis- sensions, and the expedition returned to England. This attempt had the effect of bringing the new country into prominent notice in Eng- land, and the Plymouth Company was organized, several years later, under the leadership of Sir John Popham and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, tiie first the Chief Justice of the Kino;'s Bench, and the other the Governor of Plymouth. This company was given almost sovereign powers over tlie territory assigned it. In 1614, Captain John Smith published a map of New England, together with a description of the country along the coast, which greatly increased the interest felt in the matter. The company sent out one or two trading expeditions, which were successful ; but the first permanent settlement was made in 1620, at Plymouth, by a band of English Puritans, who were flee- ing from religious persecution in their own country, and whose at- tempt was made without the sanction or authority of the Plymouth Company. They held a patent from the Virginia Company, whose 17 262 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. territory lay south of the Hudson, and the king would do no more than promise not to molest them. Soon after landiiig at Plymouth, this colony made a treaty of friend- ship with the Indians, which was not broken for a long period. The settlers endured many privations and hardships, but bore them all bravely until they had placed tlieir settlement beyond all danger of failure, and were joined by oth-rr emigrants from England. Other lodgements Avere made along the coast during the next twenty years, at Salem, Boston, CharlestoAvn, Roxbury, Watertown, Dorchester, Mystic and Saugus (Lynn), and other places. In 1G29, Charles I. granted the Plymotith Colony a charter, and the government of the province was divided between the colonies of Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay, Avhich were miited under one adn^inistration in 1692. The Bay colony was much annoyed by the interference of the home Government, which became jealous of its rapid growth and prosperity, and after an aggravating contest, whi{;h at onetime bade fair to result in blows, the m:itter w'as settled. The king refused to yield what he claimed as his right to interfere in the domestic affairs of the colony, whose officials, however, adroitly managed to prevent the exercise of such authority on his part. In 1637, the war against the Pequots broke out, and the settlements tow^ards Connecticut, upon which colony fell the principal shock of the war, suifered cousiderably. In 1675, King Philip's war began. This struggle was a bloody one, and lasted for more than a year. During its continuance, 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, more tlian 600 men were killed, and about 600 houses burned by the savages. The war cost the colony half a million of dollars, and rendered one- twentieth of the number of families homeless. Massachusetts at this time claimed jurisdiction over New Hamp- shire and Maine, but was deprived of it by the home Government in 1684. This act was followed iiy the appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of New England. Andros and his Council were guilty of the most infamous tyranny. They made laws and levied taxes in the most outrageous manner, and rendered themselves so odious to the colony, that as soon as news was received of the landing of William and Mary in England, the people of Boston rose in arras, imprisoned Andros and his companions, reinstated the former magis- trates, and declared for the new king and queen. They were sus- tained in this action by the rest of the province. In 1 690, in the war with France, INIassachusetts sent out an expe- MASSACHUSETTS. 263 dition under Sir William Phipps, which took and plundered Port Royal. When the fleet returned, the Province was not able to pay the men engaged in the expedition, and treasury notes were issued for that purpose. This was the first paper money seen in the colony. In 1692, the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united by the Crown under one Government. Massachusetts at this time was divided into the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, and Hampshire. It contained 55 towns, and had a total population of about 40,000. Plymouth was divided into the counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Barnstable. It contained 17 towns, and had a population of 7000. Sir William Phipps was appointed the first Governor under the new charter. In 1692, a remarkable delusion broke out in the colony on the sub- ject of witchcraft, beginning at and centering in Salem. In 1703, great suffering prevailed along the western border in consequence of the outrages of the French and Indians. During this war, Deerfield was burned a second time, having been first destroyed during King Philip's war. The struggle lasted several years, but the colony con- tinued to grow and prosper in spite of it. In 1722, war was resumed with the Indians, and continued for three years. It was prosecuted with such vigor on the part of the province, that the power of the savages was broken forever, and the long contest with them which had lasted for forty years was finally and triumphantly closed. In 1744, war again broke out with France, and the forces of the province distinguished themselves in the capture of Louisburg. Peace was restored in 1748, but did not long continue. The colony bore a fair share in all the struggles against the power of France in America, and responded liberally to every call for men and money. The les- sons learned in these contests were of infinite value in the great strug- gle for freedom which followed them. At the commencement of the troubles with the mother country, the province was well settled in all its parts, and had a total population of about 250,000 souls. In spite of the efforts of Great Britain to prevent it, it had built up a flourishing commerce, was largely engaged in the fisheries, and was to some extent interested in manufactures. Its enterprise and energy, and above all, the native independence of its people, made it the chief mark of the aggressions of the Crown, which were met by it with spirit and firmness. Massachusetts was the first to inaugurate an organized effort to secure justice from the Crown, which example was followed by her sister provinces. The 264 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. events which preceded the Revolution having been narrated in another chapter, it is not necessary to return to them here. Massachusetts, being the principal object of British injustice, was forced into the most prominent position, which she maintained with dignity and credit. The other colonies made common cause with her, and the war began in the encounter between the Royal troops and the people at Lexington. The conflict at Concord followed, and the people of the province flew to arms with a rapidity which proved how thor- oughly and carefully they had prepared themselves for the main- tenance of their rights. During the war which ensued, Massachusetts sustained her reputation for patriotism, bravery, and self-sacrifice. In 1780 a State Constitution was adopted, and John Hancock was elected Governor of the Commonwealth. In 1786, the people of the western counties, feeling themselves too poor to jiay the heavy taxes levied for the purpose of defraying the State debt, took up arms against the authorities of the Commonwealth. The insurrection was settled after a sharp conflict with the insurgents, who were forced to submit. The outbreak is known as "Shays's Rebellion," in con- sequence of the insurgents having been led by one Daniel Shays. The Constitution of the United States was ratified by Massachu- setts in 1788. Although the State opposed the second war with England, the seamen of Massachusetts were true to the country, and formed a considerable part of the crews of those famous vessels which won the glorious naval victories of the war. The people of the State, as a whole, however, sustained their authorities in opposing the war, in which they had a deeper interest than they were willing to admit, and throughout the struggle hampered the Federal Government by a most unwise and unpatriotic opposition. The State bore a prominent part in the Hartford Convention, in 1814. In 1820 the Constitution of the Commonwealth was amended, and again in 1857. In 1820 the State consented to the separation of the province of Maine, which was in the same year erected into an inde- pendent establishment, and admitted into the Union as a State. During the late Rebellion, Massachusetts furnished 159,165 men to the army and navy of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are : Cambridge, Lowell, Lynn, Lawrence, Charlestown, Salem, New Bedford, Newburyport, Nan- tucket, Gloucester, Marblehead, Plymouth, Provincetown, Worcester, II MASSACHUSETTS. 265 Springfield, Fall River, Chelsea, Taunton, Chicopee, Danvers, Ando- ver, and Haverhill. BOSTON, The capital of the State, and the largest city in New England, is situated on Massachusetts Bay, 464 miles northeast of Washington, and 236 miles northeast of New York. Latitude 42° 21' 22" N. ; longitude 71° 4' 9" W. It is decidedly one of the most interesting cities in the Union, apart from its being the metropolis of New Eng- land and the second commercial city of the Republic. It is divided into 3 sections, Boston proper. East, and South Bos- ton. Boston proper, or the old city, is built upon a peninsula origi- nally covering about 700 acres, but now much enlarged by the addition of "made land." The surface of this peninsula is broken bv 3 hills, which caused the first settlers to call the place Tremont, or Trimountain. The city was originally very narrow at its soutliern end, but the " Back Bay," as the shoal water surrounding it is called, is now being filled up with gravel brought from Needham, to an ave- rage height of 18 feet above the surface of the water. This "made land" will eventually double the size of the old city. It is graded as it is formed, and is laid off regularly with broad streets and hand- some parks. It is already well built up, and constitutes the hand- somest part of Boston. It will ultimately be one of the most splendid cities in America. The old city was originally joined to the main land by a strip of land called " The Neck," so narrow and low that it afforded scarcely room for a single vehicle to pass on firm ground. Now it has been raised and widened, and 4 fine avenues traverse it and connect Boston and Roxbury. South Boston formed a part of Dorchester until 1 804, when it was added to Boston. It extends along the south side of the harbor for 2 miles, between Fort Independence and the city proper. It is de- voted principally to the residences of the middle classes. This part of the city contains the famous " Dorchester Heights," the occupation of which by Washington, during the Revolution, compelled the British commander to evacuate Boston. East Boston occupies an island in the harbor, formerly known as Noddle's Island. It is about 650 yards distant from the city proper, with which it is connected by a steam ferry. It contains a number of residences of the middle classes, and is the seat of an important manufacturing interest. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the Grand Junction Railroad terminates here. 266 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Boston proper may be divided into the old and the new city. The old city still preserves its ancient characteristics. The houses are mostly in the style of a century ago ; the streets are narrow and crooked, and have a prim, formal air. Wandering through them, one can scarcely help watching to see some old-time Puritan step out from the quaint doorways. The new city is regularly laid out. The streets are broad and straight ; they cross each other at right angles, and are lined with magnificent edifices. Everything is modern. Near the southern end of the old city is one of the finest parks in America, known as " Boston Common," It covers an area of about 50 acres, and is beautifully ornamented. Adjoining it is a handsome enclosure of 25 acres, used as a botanic garden, and known as the " Public Garden." Both the " Garden " and " Common " are sur- rounded by tasteful iron fences. The fence enclosing the "Common" is nearly a mile and an eighth in length. The centre of the grounds is occupied by a pretty little pond, from which a fountain sends a fine jet of water into the air. Not far from the pond is an old elm, sup- ported by metallic bands and enclosed with an iron railing. It is the oldest tree in America, having attained its full growth in 1722. From the pond the grounds rise abruptly to the State House, which is situated on Beacon hill, just outside the enclosure. From this point they slope gently to CharJes River, which washes the western shore of the city. Several small but handsome parks lie in various parts of the city. The residences of Boston exhibit considerable taste, and much wealth, but are marked by a sameness peculiar to American cities, and the stores and public buildings are among the finest in the country. The State House, on Beacon street and Beacon hill, is a handsome, old-style structure, surmounted by a fine dome. It occupies the high- est ground in the city, and is the most prominent feature of any view of Boston. Its foundation is 110 feet above the level of the sea. It was commenced in 1795, and completed in 1798, at a cost of $133,330. In 1855 it was enlarged, $243,204 being expended upon it for that purpose. From the dome, a magnificent view of the city, the harbor, and the surrounding country may be had. More than a dozen cities and towns can be seen from it, and in fair weather, the White INIoun- tains of New Hampshire may be dimly discerned. The State Library is located in this building, and contains more than 25,000 volumes. In the rotunda is a collection of flags taken from the Southern forces i^ MASSACHUSETTS. 269 STATE HOUSE, HOSTON. during the late war, and two camion captured from the British during the war of 1812-15. lu the Boric Hall, oa the entrance floor, is Chantrey's statue of Washington. Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann ornament the steps facing the " Common," The Chambers of the Senate and Honse of Delegates are handsome apart- ments. The Old State House, at the head of State street, is a venerable and interesting building. The General Court sat here until the comple- tion of the new State House, and in the square just below it occurred the famous " Boston Massacre." The Court House, on Court street, the Merchants' Exchange and Post Office, on State street, and the Custom House, at the foot of State street, are fine granite buildings, and among the principal ornaments of the city. The City Hall, on School street, is a magnificent edifice, of light New Hampshire granite. It contains the offices of the City Government, but is badly located, and is almost hidden by the sur- rounding houses. Just opposite it stands a fine white mai'ble hotel, called the " Parker House." The Horticultural Hall and the Masonic 270 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FA^KUIL HALL. Temple, on Tremont street, opposite the Common, are amongst the handsomest buildings in the city. They are exhibited to strangers by the Bostonians with a pardonable pride. The former is built of white marble, and the latter of a fine granite. Faneidl Hall, in Faneuil Hall Square, is decidedly the most inter- cstinii; buildinai; in Boston. It is a large old-fashioned building. The lower ])art is nsed as a market, and the upper part as a public hall. It is 133 years old, tind Avas built in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, who presented it to the city for a town hall. It was destroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 1763, and enlarged to its present dimensions in 1805. It is often called "The Cradle of Liberty," since the public meetings of the patriots were held here in the exciting days which preceded the Revolution. To the east of the Hall is a fine granite i)uilding called the Quincy Market. The upper part comprises one of the largest halls in the Union. The Music Hall, fronting on Winter street and Bumstead place, is one of the best halls in the country, and contains the great organ, one MASSACHUSETTS. 271 of the most powerful and excellent instruments ever constructed. It was built at Ludwigslust, in Germany. It contains about 6000 pij^es and 89 stops. It is 60 feet liigh, 48 feet broad, and 24 feet deep. It cost $60,000. The literary and scientific institutions of Boston are amongst the best in the country. The Athcnccum, situated on Beacon street, is one of the wealthiest organizations in the world. It occupies a splendid freestone building, and possesses a library of 90,000 volumes, besides pamphlets and manuscripts, and fine galleries of paintings and statuary. The Public Library occupies a handsome brick building on Boyls- ton street, erected at a cost of $250,000. It is one of the noblest in- stitutions in the world. Its collection is free to all tax-payers ujjon certain liberal conditions. It contains nearly 200,000 volumes. The Mercantile Library, on Summer street, contains over 20,000 volumes. Tiie Ilassachusetts Historical Society })ossesses one of the best American libraries in the world. It numbers about 13,000 vol- umes, besides many valuable maps, charts, papers, manuscripts, and other documents. The Young Mcn\ Christian Association has also a good library. That of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences numbers over 20,000 volumes. The others are the State Library, Social Laio Library, and General Theological Library. Besides these, the city will compare favorably with any in the country, with respect to its private libraries. The other institutions of a literary and scientific character are, the Lowell Institute, the Institute of Technology, the Natural History So- ciety, the American Statistical Society, the Musical, Educational, and Handel and Hiydn Societies, and the Boston Academy of Music. The public schools of Boston are amongst the best in the world. There. are 254 primary, 20 grammar, and 3 high schools in the city. The school houses alone have cost the city about $2,980,000, and the annual sum expended for their sni)port is about $800,000. Besides these, there are a large number of private schools in the city. The benevolent institutions are numerous and well endowed. The Massachusetts General Hospital, on Charles River, just opposite Charlestown, and tlie new i^rce City Hospital, at the "South End," are fine institutions. The buildings of the latter constitute one of the principal ornaments of the city. The McLean Asylum for the Insane, a branch of tiie General Hospital, is located at Somerville, two miles northwest of Boston. The Boston Lunatic Asylum is situated in 272 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. South Boston, and the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind is in the same part of the city. The Alms House, the House of Industry and Reformation, and the Quarantine Hospital are on Deer Ishmd. There are over 60 benevolent institutions in the city. We have not the space to name each one, and have given only the most important. About 125 newspapers and periodicals are issued in Boston, 6 of which a^e daily. Several of the leading literary and scientific jour- nals of the country are published here. There are more than 115 churches in the city, the largest number belonging to the Unitarians. Christ Church (Episcopal) in Salem street, was erected in 1722, Trinity Church (Episcopal) in 1734, and King's Chapel in 1636. The graveyard attached to the last named church contains the remains of many of the Puritan settlers, and is one of the most interesting spots in the city. The Old South Church, on Washington street, was erected in 1730. The original edifice was of wood, and was built in 1670. It was one of the famous meeting places of the leaders of the Revolution, and during the occupation of the city by the British, was used as a riding-school. In the front of the tower of the Brattle Street Church, finished in 1773, may be seen a round shot fired from the American batteries at Cambridge during the evacuation of Boston by the British. The church edifices of Bos- ton, as a general rule, are not so handsome as those of the other large cities of the Union. The Cemeteries are Mount Auburn, Forest Hill, and Woodlawn. They are very beautiful, Mount Auburn being one of the loveliest in the world. The city is well supplied with theatres and places of amusement. The Boston Theatre is one of the largest and handsomest halls in the world. Boston is connected with the surrounding cities of Cambridge, Charlestown, and Chelsea, and with South Boston by seven fine bridges. Nearly all are free, and all will eventually become so. A massive causeway unites it with Brookline, now a part of the city. Telegraph lines enter the city from all parts of the Union, and there is also a municipal fire alarm and police telegraph connecting the various sections of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with excellent water from Cochituate Lake, 20 miles distant. Lines of horse cars connect all parts of Boston wi,th a common centre at the foot of Tremont street, and with the surrounding towns and villages. MASSACHUSETTS. 273 Seven lines of railroad terminate here, extending directly to the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western States, and into Canada. The principal hotels are the Parker, Treniont, and Revere Houses, and the American, St. James, and United States Hotels. The wharves are the finest in the United States, and anions: the best in the world. They would measure an aggregate length of 5 miles, and are lined with splendid warehouses, many of which are built of a rough granite, and are very handsome. The harbor opens to the sea between Point Alderton, on Nantasket, and Point Shirley, in Chelsea. The distance across from point to point is about 4 miles. There are three entrances formed by several islands which lie in the lower part. The main channel lies between Castle and Governor's Islands, and is so narrow that two ships, can scarcely sail abreast througli it. It is defended by Fort Independence and Fort Winthrop. Fort Winthrop also protects the passage north of Governor's Island, and Fort Warren, on George's Island, guards the lower entrance. The harbor covers an area estimated at 75 square miles. It is free from sand-bars, is rarely closed by ice, is sheltered from the sea, and is easy of access. About one-half of it affords a sure anchorage for vessels of the largest class. It receives the waters of the Cliarles, Mystic, JSTcponset, and Manatiquot rivers. Boston is the second commercial city in the Union. In 1864, its total imports were valued ai $30,751,595, and its exports at $21,142,834. There are about 45 banks in the city, with a capital of about $30,000,000. The population (including Roxbury and Dorchester) is 250,526. Roxhury was, until a few years since, a distinct city of Norfolk county, but is now a part of the corporation of Boston. At the be- ginning of the present century it was situated 3 or 4 miles south of Boston, but the intervening distance has since been built up, and the two cities, for some time before their union, joined each other so closely that a stranger could not tell where one began or the other ended. It contains a number of manufactures of its own, but is oc- cupied principally by the residences of persons doing business in Boston. The city abounds in picturesque views, and many of its lo- calities are very beautiful. It contained a population of about 30,000 previous to its annexation to Boston. Dorchester, in Norfolk county, has been recently annexed to Boston. Like Roxbury, this city was chiefly occupied with residences. It contains a population of about 15,000. 274 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Boston, as we have said, was originally called Tremont. Its first white inhabitant was the Rev. John Blackstone, who lived here alone until the arrival of Governor Winthrop, in 1630, when a settlement was established here. By the year 1635, quite a thriving village had sprung up, and the Rev. Mr. Blackstone sold his claim to the penin- sula for X30. The first church was erected in 1632, and the first wharf in 1673. In 1677, the first postmaster was appointed, and in 1704, the first newspaper, called The Boston Neios Letter, was issued. Boston was one of the first communities to resist the aggressions of the mother country, and Avas the scene of many of the most interesting of the events which preceded the Revolution. On the 5th of March, 1770, the "Boston Massacre" occurred ; on the 31st of March, 1774, the harbor of Boston was closed; on the 17th of June, 1775, the bat- tle of Bunker Hill was fought; and in March, 1776, the town was evacuated by the British. Boston was incorporated as a city on the 23d of February, 1822. The following incidents in the early history of Boston will be found interesting by the reader : THE BOSTON MASSACRE. On the 2d of March, 1770, a fray took place in Boston, near Mr. Gray's rope. walk, between a private soldier of the 29th Regiment and an inhabitant. The former was supported by his comrades, the latter by the rope-makers, till several on both sides were involved in the consequences. On the 5th a ihore dreadful scene was presented. The soldiers when under arms were pressed upon, insulted, and pelted by a mob armed with clubs, sticks, and snow balls covering stones. They were also dared to fire. In this situation, one of the soldiers, who had received a blow, in resentment fired at the supposed aggressor. This was followed by a single discharge from six others. Three of the inhabitants were killed, and five were dangerously wounded. The town was immediately in commotion. Such was the temper, force, and number of the inhabitants, that nothing but an engagement to remove the troops out of the town, together with the advice of moderate men prevented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed were buried in one vault, and in a most respectful manner, in order to express the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaughter of their brethren, by soldiers quartered among them, in violation of their civil liberties. Captain Preston, who commanded the party which fired on the inhabitants, was committed to jail, and afterwards tried. The captain, and six of the men, were acquitted. Two were brought in guilty of manslaughter. It appeared, on the trial, that the soldiers were abused, insulted, threatened and pelted, before they fired. It was also proved, that only seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners. These circum- stances induced the jury to make a favorable verdict. The result of the trial reflected great honor on John Adams' (the late President of the United States) and Josiah Quincy, Esqrs. the counsel for the prisoners ; and also on the integrity of the jury, who ventured to give an upright verdict, in defiance of popular opinions. MASSACHUSETTS. 275 The people, not dismayed by the blood of their neighbors thus wantonly shed, determined no longer to submit to the insolence of military power. Col. Dal- ryniple, who commanded in Boston, was informed the day after the riot in King street, "that he must withdraw his troops from the town within a limited term, or hazard the consequences." The inhabitants of the town assembled in Faneuil Hall, where the subject was discussed with becoming spirit, and the people unanimously resolved that no armed force should be suffered longer to reside in the capital ; that if the king's troops were not immediately withdrawn by their own officers, the Governor slioukl be requested to give orders for their removal, and thereby prevent the necessity of more rigorous steps. A committee from the body was deputed to wait on the Governor, and request him to exert that authority which tlie exigencies of the times required from the supreme magistrate. Mr. Samuel Adams, the chairman of the committee, with a pathos and address peculiar to himself, exposed the Illegality of quartering troops in the town in the midst of peace ; he urged the appreliensions of the people, and the fatal consequences that might ensue if their removal was delayed. But no arguments could prevail on jMr. Hutchinson ; who either from timidity, or some more censurable cause, evaded acting at all in the business, and grounded his refusal on a pretended want of authority. After which. Col. Dalrymple, wishing to compromise the matter, consented that the 29th Regiment, more culpable than any other in the late tumult, should be sent to Castle Island. This concession was by no means satisfactor}^ ; the people, inflexible in their demands, insisted that not one British soldier should be left Avitliin the town ; their requisi- tion was reluctantly complied with, and within four days the whole army decamped. THE DP:STRUCTI0N of the tea in boston HARBOR. As we have stated in another part of this work, the cargoes of three of the tea ships sent over to Boston in 1773 were destroyed by the citizens, in consequence of the refusal of the .Governor to permit the vessels to return to England. The following narrative of the occurence is by one of the actors in it — Mr. Hewes : The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other, at what was called at that time Griffin's wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war ; the commanders of which had publicly declared, that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it on shore, under the cover of their cannon's mouth. On the day preceding the 17th, there was a meeting of the citizens of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consult- ing on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty. At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutchinson, and request him to inform them whether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting. To the first application of this committee, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o'clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor's house, and on inquiry found he had gone to lus country seat at Milton, a distance of about 276 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. six miles. When tlie committee returned and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a confused murmur among the members, and tlie meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out, Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country ; and there was a general huzza for Griffin's wharf. It was now evening, and I immediately dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denomi- nated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and hands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin's wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street, after being thus disguised, I fell in with many who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and wlio fell in with me, and marched in order to the place of our destination. When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number wlio assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding tlie three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned, was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew. We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly oljeyed. The.commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were onboard the ship, appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain, and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles ; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging. We then were ordered by our commander to open the hatches, and take out all the chests of tea and throw them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders ; first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water. In about three hours from the time we went on board, we had thus broken and tlirov/n overboard every tea-chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time. We were surrounded by British armed ships, but no attempt was made -to resist us. We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without having any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates ; nor do I recollect of our having had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, who I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequences for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time, that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months. During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity, to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O' Conner, Avhom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him, and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was. stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore if off but springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had MASSACHUSETTS. 277 however to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf; each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke. The next day we nailed the skirt of his coat, which I had pulled off, to the whipping post in Charlestowu, the place of his residence, with a label upon it, commemorative of the occasion which had thus subjected the proprietor to the popular indignation. Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo, by a tall aged man, who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had slightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him, and taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In considera- tion of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick. The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it was floating upon the surface of the water ; and to prevent the possibility of any of it being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible, and by beating it with oars and paddles, so thoroughly drenched it, as to render its entire destruction inevitable. CHARLESTOWN, In Middle.sex county, is situated on a peninsula immediately north of Boston, is separated from it by the Charles River, and is connected with it by several bridges. It is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. It contains a number of churches, several banks, a large hotel, and the State Prison. It is supplied with M'ater from Mystic Lake, is lighted with gas, and traversed by several street railways. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, but is, after all, merely a suburb of Boston, the majority of its inhabitants pursuihg their avo- cations in that city. It contains an important Navy Yard of the United States, which covers an area of 70 or 80 acres. This is, perhaps, the most complete establishment owned by the Government, The population of Charlestowu is 28,323. In the centre of the city stands Breed's Hill, or, as it is more com- monly called. Bunker Hill, the scene of the battle of the 17th of June, 1775. The site of the old American redoubt is enclosed Avith a hand- some iron railing, and marked by a magnificent shaft of granite 220 feet high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top. It is ascended by means of an inner winding stairway, Avhich leads to a chamber immediately at the top. In this chamber are two old cannon, which, with two others, constituted all the artillery owned by the Americans at the beginning of the Revolution. The corner stone of this monu- ment was laid by Lafayette, on the 17th of June, 1825, in presence of an immense concourse of citizens. 278 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. BUNKER niLL MONUMENT. The following is a desci-iption of the struggle which the shaft com- memorates : • After the affair of Lexington and Concord, on tlie 19tli of April, 1775, tlie people, animated by one common impulse, flew to arms in every direction. The husbandman changed his ploughshare for a musket ; and about 15,000 men, 10,000 from Massachusetts, and the remainder from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assembled under General Ward in the environs of Boston, then oc- cupied by 10,000 highly disciplined and well fequipped British troops, under the command of Generals Gage, Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne, Pigot and others. Fearing an intention, on the part of the British, to occupy the important heights at Charlcstown and Dorchester, which would enable them to command the surrounding country, Colonel Prescott was detached, by his own desire, from the American camp at Cambridge, on the evening of the 16th of June, 1775, with about 1000 militia, mostly of Massachusetts, including 120 men of Putnam's regi- ment from Connecticut, and one artillery company, to Bunker Hill, with a view to occupy and tbitify that post. At this hill the detachment made a short halt, but concluded to advance still nearer the British, and accordingly took possessiot of Breed's Hill, a position which commanded the. whole inner harbor of Boston. Here, about midnight, they commenced throwing up a redoubt, which they com- pleted, notwithstanding every possible effort from the British ships and batteries to ^event them, about noon the next day. MASSACHUSETTS. 279 So silently had the operations been conducted through the night, that the British had not the most distant notice of the design of the Americans, until day- break presented to their view the half-formed battery and daring stand made against them. A dreadful cannonade, accompanied with shells, was immediately commenced from the British battery at Copps' Hill, and the ships of war and floating batteries stationed in Charles River. The break of day, on the 17th of June, 1775, presented a scene, which, for daring and firmness, could never be surpassed ; 1000 unexperienced militia, in the attire of their various avocations, without discipline, almost without artillery and bayonets, scantily supplied with ammunition, and wholly destitute of provis- ions, defying the power of the formidable British fleet and army, determined to maintain the liberty of their soil, or moisten that soil with their blood. Without aid, however, from the main body of the army, it seemed impossible to maintain their position ; the men having been without sleep, toiling through the night, and destitute of the necessary food required by nature, had become nearly exhausted. Representations were repeatedly made, through the morning, to headquarters, of the necessity of reenforcements and supplies. Major Brooks, the late revered Governor of Massachusetts, Avho commanded a battalion of min- ute-men at Concord, set out for Cambridge about 9 o'clock on foot (it being im- possible to procure a horse), soliciting succor ; but as there were two other points exposed to the British, Roxbury and Cambridge, then the headquarters, at which place all the little stores of the army were collected, and the loss of which would be incalculable at that moment, great fears were entertained lest they should march over the neck to Roxbury, and attack the camp there, or pass over the bay in boats (there being at that time no artificial avenue to connect Boston with the adjacent country), attack the headquarters, and destroy the stores : it was there- fore deemed impossible to aff'ord any reenforccment to Charlestown Heights, till, the movements of the British rendered evidence of their intention certain. The fire from the Glasgow frigate and two floating batteries in Charles River, were wholly directed with a view to prevent any communication across the isth- mus that conn-ects Charlestown with the mainland, which kept up a continued shower of missiles, and rendered the communication truly dangerous to those who should attempt it. AVhen the intention of the British to attack the heights of Charlestown became apparent, the remainder of Putnam's regiment. Colonel Gar- diner's regiment (both of which, as to numbers, were very imperfect), and some- New Hampshire militia, marched, notwithstanding the heavy fire, across the- neck, for Charlestown Heights, where they arrived, much fatigued, just after the: British had moved to the first attack. The British commenced crossing the troops from Boston about 12 o'clock, and' landed at Morton's Point, southeast from Breed's Hill. At 2 o'clock, from the- best accounts that can be obtained, they landed between 3000 and 4000 men, un- der the immediate command of General Howe, and formed, in apparently invin- cible order, at the base of the hill. The position of the Americans, at this time, was a redoubt on the summit of the heiglit, of about 8 rods square, and a breastwork extending, on the left of it, about 70 feet down the eastern declivity of the hill. This redoubt and breastwo; k was commanded by Prescott in person, who had superintended its construction, and who occupied it with the Massachusetts militia of his detachment, and a part of Little's regiment, which had arrived about 1 o'clock. They were dreadlully deficient in equipments and ammunilion, had been toiling incessantly for many 18 280 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. liours, and, it is said by some accounts, even tlien were destitute of provisions, A little to tlie eastward of the redoubt, and northerly to the rear of it, "svas a rail fence, extending almost to ]\Iystic Riven; to this fence another had been added during the night and forenoon, and some newly mown grass thrown against them, to afford something like a cover to the troops. At this fence the 120 Con- necticut militia were posted. Tlie movements of the British made it evident their intention was to march a strong column along the margin of the Mystic, and turn the redoubt on the uortli, Avhile another colun^n attacked it in front ; accordingly, to prevent tliis design, a large force became necessary at the breastwork and rail fence. The whole of the reenforcements that arrived, amounting in all to 800 or 1000 men, were ordered to this point by General Putnam, Avho had been extremely active throughout the niglit and morning, and liad accompanied the expedition. At this moment thousands of persons of both sexes had collected on the church steeples. Beacon Hill, housetops, and every place in Boston and its neighbor- hood, wliere a view of tlie battle ground could be obtained, viewing, with painful anxiety, the movements of the combatants ; wondering, yet admiring the bold stand of the Americans, and trembling at the thoughts of the formidable army marshalled in array against them. Before 3 o'clock the British formed, in two columns, for the attack ; one column, as had been anticipated, moved along the Mystic River, witii the intention of taking the redoubt in the rear, while the other advanced up the ascent directly in front of the redoubt, where Prescott was ready to receive them. General War- ren, President of the Provincial Congress and of the Committee of Safety, who had been appointed but a few days before a major-general of the Massachusetts troops, had volunteered on the occasion as a private soldier, and was in the re- doubt with a musket, animating the men by his influence and example to the most daring determination. Orders were given to the Americans to reserve their fire till the enemy ad- vanced sufficiently near to make their aim certain. Several volleys were fired by the British with but little success ; and so long a time had elapsed, and the British allowed to advance so near the Americans without their fire being returned, that a doubt arose whether or not the latter intended to give battle ; but the fatal mo- ment soon arrived : when the British had advanced to -^yithin about 8 rods, a sheet of fire was poured upon them, and continued a short time with such deadly effect that hundreds of the assailants lay weltering in their blood, and the remaiu- dej- retreated in dismay to the point where they had first landed. From daylight to the time of the British advancing on the works, an incessant fire had been kept up on the Americans from the ships and batteries — this fire was now renewed with increased vigor. After a short time, the British officers had succeeded in rallying their men, and again advanced, in the same order as before, to the attack. Thinking to divert the attention of the Americans, the town of Charlestown, consisting of 500 wooden buildings, was now set on fire by the British ; the roar of the flames, the crashing of falling timber, the awful appearance of desolation presented, the dreadful shrieks of the dying and wounded in the last attack, added to the know- ledge of the formidable force advancing against them, combined to form a scene apparently too mucli for men bred in the quiet retirement of domestic life to sus- tain. But the stillness of deatli reigned within the American works, and nought could be seen but the deadly presented -weapon, ready to hurl fresh destruction MASSACHUSETTS. * 281 on the assailants. The fire of the Americans was again reserved till the British came still nearer than helbre, when the same unerring aim was taken, and the British shrunk, terrified, from before its fatal effects, flying, completely routed a second time, to the banks of the river, and leaving, as before, the field strewed with their wounded and their dead. Again the ships and batteries renewed their fire, and kept a continual shower of balls on the works. Notwithstanding every exertion, the British officers found it impossible to rally the men for a third attack ; one-third of their comrades had fallen ; and finally it was not till a reenforcement of more than 1000 fresh troops, with a strong park of artillery, had joined them from Boston, that they could be induced to form anew. In the mean time every effort was made on the part of the Americans to resist a third attack ; General Putnam rode, notwithstanding the heavy fire of the ships and batteries, several times across the neck, to induce the militia to advance ; but it w\as only a few of tlie resolute and brave who would encounter the storm. The British receiving reenforcemeuts from their formidable main body — the town of Charlestown presenting one wide scene of destruction — the probability the Americans must shortly retreat — the shower of balls pouring over the neck — presented obstacles too appalling for raw troops to sustain, and embodied too much danger to allow them to encounter. Yet, notwithstanding all this, the Americans on the heights were elated with their success, and waited with cool- ness and determination the now formidable advance of the enemy. Once more the British, aided by their rei-nforcements, advanced to the attack, but with great skill and caution ; their artillery was planted on the eastern de- clivity of the hill, between the rail fence and the breastwork, where it was directed along the line of the Americans, stationed at the latter place, and against the gateway on the northeastern corner of the redoubt ; at the same time they at- tacked the redoubt on the southeastern and southwestern sides, and entered it with fixed bayonets. The slaughter on their advancing was great ; but the Americans, not having bayonets to meet them on equal terms, and their powder being exhausted, now slowly retreated, opposing and extricating themselves from tlie British with the butts of their pieces. The column that advanced against the rail fence was received in the most dauntless manner. The Americans fought with spirit and heroism that could not be surpassed, and, had their ammunition held out, would have secured to them- selves a third time the palm of victory ; as it was, they effectually prevented the enemy from accomplishing his purpose, which was to turn their flank, and cut the whole of the Americans off; but having become perfectly exhausted, this body of the Americans also slowly retired, retreating in much better order than could possibly have been expected from undisciplined troops, and those in tlie redoubt having extricated themselves from the host of bayonets by which they had been surrounded. The British followed the Americans to Bunker Hill, but some fresh militia at this moment coming up to the aid of the latter, covered their retreat. The Americans crossed Charlestown neck about 7 o'clock, having in the last twenty hours performed deeds which seemed almost impossible. Some of them pro- ceeded to Cambridge, and others posted tliemselves quietly on Winter and Pros- pect hills. From the most accurate statements that can be found, it appears the British must have had nearly 5000 soldiei's in tlie battle ; between 3000 and 4000 having 282 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. first landed, and the reenforcement amounting to over 1000. The Americans, throughout the whole day, did not have 2000 men on the field. The slaughter on the side of the British was immense, having had nearly 1500 killed and wounded, 1200 of whom were either killed or mortally wounded ; the Americans about 400. Had tlie commanders at Charlestown Heights become terrified on being cut off from the main body and supplies, and surrendered their army, or even retreated before they did, from the terrific force that opposed them, where would now have been that ornament and example to the world, the Independence of the United States ? When it was found that no reenforcements were to be allowed them, the most sanguine man on that field could not have even indulged a hope of success, but all determined to deserve it; and although they did not obtain a victory, their example was the cause of a great many. The first attempt on the commence- ment of a war is held up, by one party or the other, as an example to those that succeed it, and a victory or defeat, though not, perhaps, of any great magnitude in itself, is most powerful and iuiportant in its eff'ects. Had such conduct as was here exhibited been in any degree imitated by the immediate commander in the first military onset in the last war, how truly difierent a result would have been eS"ected, from the fatal one that terminated that unfortunate expedition. From the immense superiority of the British, at this stage of the war, having a large army of highly disciplined and well equipped troops, and the Americans possessing but few other munitions or weapons of war, and but little more disci- pline, than what each man possessed when he threw aside his plough and took the gun that he had kept for pastime or for profit, but now to be euiployed for a different purpose, from off" the hooks that held it, — perhaps it would have been in their power, by pursuing the Americans to Cambridge, and destroying the few stores that had been collected there, to inflict a blow which could never have been recovered from ; but they were completely terrified. The awful lesson they had just received filled them with horror ; and the blood of 1500 of then- compan- ions, who fell on that day, presented to them a warning which they could never forget. From the battle of Bunker Hill sprung the protection and the vigor that nurtured the tree of liberty, and to it, in all probability, may be ascribed our in- dependence and glory. The name of the first martyr that gave his life for the good of his countr}^ on that day, in the importance of the moment, was lost ; else a monument, in con- nection with the gallant Warren, should be raised to his memory. The manner of his death was thus related by Colonel Prescott : " The first man who fell in the battle of Bunker Hill was killed by a cannon ball which struck liis head. He was so near me that my clothes were besmeared with his blood and brains, which I wii)ed off, in some degree, with a handful of fresh earth. The siglit was so shocking to many of the men, that they left their posts and ran to view him. I ordered them back, but in vain. I then ordered him to be buried instantly. A subaltern officer expressed surprise that I should allow him to be buried without having prayers said ; I replied, this is the first man that has been killed, and the only one that will be buried to-day. I put him out of sight that tiie men may be kept in their places. God only knows who, or how many of us, will fall before it is over. To your post, my good fellow, and let each man do his duty." The name of the patriot wiio thus fell is supposed to have been Pollard, a young man belonging to Billcrica. He was struck by a cannon ball, thrown from the line-of-baf.le sliii> Somerset. MASSACHUSETTS. 283 CAMBRIDGE, In Middlesex county, lies west-northwest of Boston, and is connected with it by two bridges. It is a beautiful city. The streets are broad, and are shaded with lofty elms, and the houses are mostly of wood, and stand back amidst a profusion of tasteful shrubbery. The cor- porate limits contain 24 churches, several banks, and an excellent hotel. There are a number of manufacturing establishments in the city, but it is principally occupied with private residences. The popu- lation is 39,634. Cambridge ia the seat of Harvard University, one of the oldest and most important institutions of learning in the country. It is about three miles from Boston, and M^as founded in 1638, by the Rev. John Harvard. The University embraces, besides its collegiate depart- ment, schools of law, medicine, and theology. The buildings are 15 in number, and are all located in Cambridge, except the Medical School, which is in Boston. They are very handsome edifices, and are surrounded by tasteful grounds. LOWELL, In Middlesex county, is the second city in the State, and one of the most important manufacturing places in America. It is situated at the confluence of the Merrimac and Concord rivers, about 8 miles south of the New Hampshire line, and 25 miles northwest of Boston. The site is hilly, but the city is regularly laid out, and the streets are broad, are lighted with gas, and are traversed by a horse railway. Some of the buildings are handsome. The Court House is the princi- pal edifice. The city contains 7 banks, 4 savings institutions, 22 churches, and 5 newspaper establishments. The population is 40,928. _ As a manufacturing city, Lowell has no rival. Early in the present century some Newbury port merchants built a canal at this place as a means of floating lumber around Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimac Biver. In 182], a party of Boston merchants bought up this canal and the adjoining lands, for the purpose of utilizing the immense water-power furnished by the falls. They enlarged the canal to a width of 60 feet and a depth of 8 feet, and constructed mill races and feeders. They then laid out the town, and offered mill sites and town lots for sale. Their venture met with such success, that in 1846 it be- came necessary to construct an additional canal, 100- feet wide, 16 feet deep, and with sides of mason work. 284 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. To-day, the town projected by them has no superior in its speciality. In 1864, there were 13 manufacturing corporations in Lowell, with an aggregate capital of $13,850,000, engaged in operating 54 mills and factories. Previous to the war there were 1 2,384 operatives employed in these mills, divided as follows : males 3979, females 8405. Cotton and woollen goods, paper, cotton and paper machinery, locomotives, and machinists' tools are the principal products. In 1862, the celebrated English writer, Anthony Trollope, visited Lowell and its mills. He gives the following as the result of his observations : That which most surprises an English visitor, on going through the mills at Lowell, is the personal appearance of the men and women who work at them. As there are twice as many women as there are men, it is to them that the atten- tion is chiefly called. They are not onlj' better dressed, cleaner, and better mounted in every respect than the girls employed at manufactories in England, but they are so infinitely superior as to make a stranger immediately perceive that some very strong cause must have created the difference. We all know the class of young women whom we generally see serving behind counters in the shops of our larger cities. They are neat, well dressed, careful, especially about their hair, composed in their manner, and sometimes a little supercilious in the propriety of their demeanor. It is exactly the same class of young women that one sees in the factories at Lowell. They are not sallow, nor dirty, nor ragged, nor rough. They have about them no signs of want, or of low culture. Many of us also know the appearance of those girls who work in the factories in Eng- land ; and I think it will be allowed that a second glance at them is not wanting to show that they are in every respect inferior to the young women who attend our shops. The matter, indeed, requires no argument. Any young woman at a shop would be insulted by being asked whether she had worked at a factory. The difference with regard to the men at Lowell is quite as strong, thongli not so striking. Workingmen do not show their status in the world by their outward appearance as readily as women ; and, as I have said before, the number of the women greatly exceeded that of the men. One would of course be disposed to say that the superior condition of the workers must have been occasioned by superior wages ; and this, to a certain extent, has been the cause. But the higher payment is not the chief cause. Women's wages, including all that they receive at the Lowell factories, average about 14s. a week, which is, I take it, fully a third more than women can earn in Manchester, or did earn before the loss of the American cotton began to tell upon them. But if wages at Manchester were raised to the Lowell standard, tlie 'Ms.n- chester women would not be clothed, fed, cared for, and educated like the Lowell women. The fact is, that the workmen and the workwomen at Lowell are not exposed to the chances of an open labor market. They are taken in, as it were, to a philanthropical manufacturing college, and then looked after and regulated more as girls and lads at a great seminary, than as hands by whose industry profit- is to be made out of capital. Tliis is all very nice and pretty at Lowell, but I am afraid it could not be done at Manchester. MASSACHUSETTS. 285 Thus Lowell is the realization of a commercial Utopia. Of all the statements made iu the little book which I have quoted, I cannot point out one which is ex- aggerated, much less false. I should not call the place elegant ; in other respects I am disposed to stand by the book. Before I had made any inquiry into the cause of the apparent comfort, it struck me at once that some great effort at ex- cellence was being made. I went into one of the discreet matrons' residences ; and, perhaps, may give but an indifferent idea of her discretion, when I say that she allowed me to go into the bed-rooms. If you want to ascertain the inner ways or habits of life of any man, woman, or child, see, if it be practicable to do so, his or her bed-room. You will learn more by a minute's glance round that holy of holies, than by any conversation. Looking-glasses and such like, sus- pended dresses, and toilet-belongings, if taken without notice, cannot lie or even exaggerate. The discreet matron at first showed me rooms only prepared for use, for at the period of my visit Lowell was by no means full ; but she soon became more intimate with me, and I went through the upper part of the house. Jly report must be altogether in her favor and in that of Lowell. Everything was cleanly, well ordered, and feminine. There was not a bed on which any woman need havfe hesitated to lay herself if occasion required it. I fear that this cannot be said of the lodgings of the manufacturing classes at Manchester. The boarders all take their meals together. As a rule, they have meat twice a day. ilot meat for dinner is with them as much a matter of course, or probably more so, than with any Englishman or woman who may read this book. For in the States of America regulations on this matter are much more rigid than with us. Cold meat is rarely seen, and to live a day without meat would be as great a pri- vation as to pass a night without bed. The rules for the guidance of these boarding-houses are very rigid. The houses themselves belong to the corporations, or diiferent manufacturing establishments, and the tenants are altogether in the power of the managers. None but opera- tives are to be taken iu. The tenants are answerable for improper conduct. The doors are to be closed at ten o'clock. Any boarders who do not attend diviae worship are to be reported to the managers. The yards and walks are to be kept clean, and snow removed at once ; and the inmates must be vaccinated, etc., etc. It is expressly stated by the Hamilton Company — and 1 believe by all the com- panies — that no one shall be employed who is habitually absent from public worship on Sunday, or who is known to be guilty of immorality. It is stated that the average wages of the women are two dollars, or eight shillings, a week, besides their board. 1 found when I was there that from three dollars to three and a half a week were paid to the women, of which they paid one dollar and twenty-five cents for their board. As this would not fully cover the expense of their keep, twenty-five cents a week for each was also paid to the boarding- house keepers by tlie mill agents. ■ This substantially came to the same thing, as it left the two dollars a week, or eight shillings, with the girls over and above their cost of living. The board included washing, lights, food, bed, and attend- ance — leaving a surplus of eight shillings a week for clothes and saving. Now let me ask any one acquainted with Manchester and its operatives, whether that is not Utopia realized. Factory girls, for whom every comfort of life is secured, with 211. a j^ear over for saving and dress ! One sees the failing, however, at a moment. It is Utopia. Any Lady Bountiful can tutor three or four peasants and make them luxuriously comfortable. But no Lady Bountiful can give luxu- rious comfort to half a dozen parishes. Lowell is now nearly 40 3'ears old, and 286 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. contains but 40,000 inhabitants. From the very nature of its corporations it can- not spread itself. Chicago, wliich has grown out of nothing in a mucli sliorter period, and -wliich has no factories, has now 120,000 inhabitants. Lowell is a very •w'onderful place and shows what philanthropy can do ; but I fear it also shows what philanthropy cannot do. . . One cannot but be greatly struck by the spirit of philanthropy in which the system of Lowell was at first instituted. It may be presumed that men who put their money into such an undertaking did so with the object of commercial profit to themselves ; but in this case that was not their first object. I think it may be taken for granted that when Messrs. Jackson and Lowell w' ent about their task, their grand idea was to place factory work upon a respectable footing— to give employment in mills Avhich should not be unhealthy, degrading, demoralizing, or hard in its circumstances. Throughout the Northern States of America the same feeling is to be seen. Good and thoughtful men have been active to spread education, to maintain health, to make Avork compatible with comfort and per- sonal dignity, and to divest the ordinary lot of man of the sting of that curse which was supposed to be uttered when our first father was ordered to eat his bread in the sweat of his brow. One is driven to contrast this feeling, of which on all sides one sees such ample testimony, with that sharp desire for profit, that anxiety to do a stroke of trade at every turn, that acknowledged necessity of being smart, which we must own is quite as general as the nobler propensity. I believe that both phases of commercial activity may be attributed to the same characteristic. Men in trade in America are not more covetous than tradesmen in England, nor probably are they more generous or philanthropical. But that which tliey do, they are more anxious to do thoroughly and quickly. They desire that every turn taken shall be a great turn — or at any rate that it shall be as great as possible. They go ahead either for bad or good with all the energy they have. In the institutions at Lowell I think we may allow that the good has very much prevailed. I went over two of the mills, those of the Merrimac corporation and of the Massachusetts. At the former the printing establishment only was at work ; the cotton mills were closed. I hardly know whether it will interest any one to learn that something under half a million yards of calico are here printed annu- ally. At the Lowell Bleachery fifteen million yards are dyed annually. The Merrimac Cotton Mills were stopped, and so had the other mills at Lowell been stopped, till some shoi-t time before my visit. Trade had been bad, and there had of course been a lack of cotton. I was assured that no severe suffering had been created by this stoppage. The greater number of hands had returned into the country — to the farms from whence they had come ; and though a discontiuu- ance of work and wages had of course prod\iced hardship, there had been no actual privation — no hunger and want. Those of the work-people who had no homes out of Lowell to which to betake themselves, and no means at Lowell of living, had received relief before real suffering had begun. I was assured^ Avith something of a smile of contempt at the question, that there had been nothing like hunger. But, as I said before, visitors always see a great deal of rose color, and should endeavor to allay the brilliancy of the tint with the proper amount of human shading. But do not let any visitor mix in the browns with too heavy a hand '. MASSACHUSETTS. 287 SPRINGFIELD, In Hampden county, on the banks of the Connecticut River, 98 miles southwest of Boston, and 26 miles north of Hartford, Conn., is the largest city in Western Massachusetts. It is handsomely built, and is one of the most attractive cities in New England. The principal thoroughfare. Main street, is nearly 3 miles long. The city contains many fine buildings, 12 or 13 churches, 8 or 9 banks, several good hotels, and 5 newspaper establishments. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. The Connecticut is navigable to this place during the season of navigation. Four lines of railway centre here, and have added very much to the prosperity of the city. The United States Arsenal is one of the principal features of the place, and the most important establishment belonging to the Govern- ment. About 2800 hands are employed in the various departments of the Arsenal. The buildings are principally of brick, and are ar- ranged around a square of 20 acres. They are very handsome, and being situated on rising ground, command a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Springfield is actively engaged in manufactures. Paper, iron goods, locomotives, railroad cars, machinery, pistols, and woollen goods, are the principal articles. The population is 26,703. Taunton, in Bristol county, contains 18,629 inhabitants. Fall River, in the same county, contains 26,786 inhabitants. Both are important manufacturing cities. Salem, in Essex county, has a fine harbor, and is a city of some commercial importance. It. has a population of 24,117, and is noted as the scene of the famous witchcraft delusion. Plymouth, in the county of tlic same name, is extensively engaged in manufactures and the fisheries. It is the oldest town in New England, and is the place where the Pilgrim Fathers first landed after their voyage from England. MISCELLANIES. ARRIVAL OF THE PILGRIMS AT CAPE COD. On the 10th of November, 1620, the Mayflower, with her precious freight of emigrants, readied the harbor of Cape Cod. The charter which they liad brought with them from England, gave them permission to settle within the do- minions of the South Virginia Company, and was worthless in the region in which they liad arrived. In this situation they determined to take the matter into tlieir own hands. . A government was organized, a covenant drawn up and signed by all on board, and John Carver was elected Governor. 288 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Government having bccu thus regularly established, on a truly republican principle, sixteen armed men were sent on shore, as soon as the weather would permit, to fetch wood and make discoveries. They returned at night with a boat load of juniper wood, and made report " that they found the land to be a narrow neck, having the harbor on one side, and the ocean on the other ; that tlie ground consisted of sandhills, like the Downs in Holland ; that in some places the soil was black earth ' a spit's depth ;' that the trees were oak, pine, sassafras, juniper, birch, holly, ash, and walnut ; that the forest was open and without underwood ; that no inhabitants, houses, nor fresh water were to be seen." This account was as much as could be collected in one Saturday's afternoon. The next day they rested. While they lay in this harbor, during the space of five weeks, they saw great flocks of seafowl and whales every day playing about them. The master and mate, who had been acquainted with the fisheries in the northern seas of Europe, supposed that they might in that time have made oil to the value of £3000 or £4000. It was too late in the season for cod ; and, indeed, they caught none but small fish near the shore, and shellfish. The margin of the sea was so shallow, that they were obliged to wade ashore, and the weather being severe, manj-- of them took colds and coughs, which in the course of the winter proved mortal. On Monday, the 13th of November, the women went asliore under guard to wash their clothes, and the men were impatient for a farther discovery. The shallop, which had been cut down and slowed between decks, needed repairing, in which 17 days were employed. While this was doing, they proposed that ex- cursions might be made on foot. Much caution was necessary in an enterprise of this kind, in a new and savage country. After consultation and preparation, 16 men were equipped M'ith musket and ammunition, sword and corslet, under the command of Captain Miles Standish, who had William Bradford, Stephen Hop- kins, and Edward Tilly for his council of war. After many instructions given, they were rather permitted than ordered to go, and the time of their absence was limited to two days. When they had travelled one mile by the shore, they discovered five or six of the natives, who, on sight of them, fled. They attempted to pursue, and, lighting on their tracks, followed them till night ; but the thickets through which they had to pass, the weight of their armor, and the debility after a long voj^age, made them an unequal match, in point of travelling, to these nimble sons of nature. They rested at length by a spring, which afl"orded them the first refreshing draught of American water. The discoveries made in this march were few, but novel and amusing. In one place they found a deer trap, made by the bending of a young tree to the earth, with a noose under ground covered with acorns. Mr. Bradford's foot was caught in the trap, from which his companions disengaged him, and they were all enter- tained with the ingenuity of the device. In another place they came to an In- dian burying-ground, and in one of the graves they found a mortar, an earthen pot, a bow and arrows, and other implements, all which they very carefully replaced, because they would not be guilty of violating the repositories of the dead. But when they found a cellar, carefully lined with bark and covered with a heap of sand, in which about four bushels of seed-corn in ears were well secured, after reasoning on the morality of the action, they took as much of the corn as they could carry, intending, when they sliould find the owners, to pay them to their satisfaction. On the third day they arrived, weary and welcome, where the ship MASSACHUSETTS. 289 lay, and delivered their corn into the common store. The company resolved to keep it for seed, and to pay the natives the full value when they should have an opportunity. When the shallop was repaired and rigged, 24 of the company ventured on a second excursion to the same place, to make a farther discovery, having Captain Jones for their commander, with 10 of his seamen and the ship's long-boat. Tlie wind being high and the sea rough, the shallop came to anchor under the land, while part of the company waded on shore from the long-boat, and travelled, as they supposed, six or seven miles, having directed the shallop to follow them the next morning. The weather was very cold, with snow, and the people, hav- ing no shelter, took such colds as afterwards proved fatal to many. THE FIRST SABBATH IN NEW ENGLAND. The 10th of December, 1630, was the first Christian Sabbath in New England. The "Mayflower," a name now immortal, had crossed the ocean. It had borne its hundred passengers over the vast deep, and after a perilous voyage, it had reached the bleak shores of New England in the beginning of winter. The spot which was to furnish a home and a burial-place, was now to be selected. The shallop was unshipped, but needed repairs, and 16 weary days elapsed before it was ready for service. Amidst ice and snow, it was then sent out, with some half a dozen Pilgrims, to find a suitable place where to land. The spray of the sea, says the historian, froze on them, and made their clothes like coats of iron. Five days they wandered about, searching in vain for a suitable landing-place. A storm came on, the sn ow and rain fell ; the sea swelled ; the rudder broke ; the mast and the sail fell overboard. In this storm and cold, without a tent, a house, or the shelter of a rock, the Christian Sabbath approached — the day which they regarded as holy unto God — a day on which they were not to "do any work. ' ' What should be done ? As the evening before the Sabbath drew on, they pushed over the surf, entered a fair sound, sheltered themselves under the lee of a rise of laud, kindled a fire, and on that island they spent the day in the solemn wor- ship of their Maker. On the next day their feet touched the rock now sacred as the place of the landing of the Pilgrims. Nothing more strikingly marks the character of this people, than this act. The whole scene — the cold winter — the raging sea — the driving storm — the houseless, homeless island — the families of wives and children in the distance, weary with their voyage and impatient to land — and yet, the sacred observance of a day which they kept from principle, and not from mere feeling, or because it was a form of religion, shows how deeply imbedded true religion is in the soul, and how little it is afi"ected by sur- rounding difficulties. THE FIRST CRIMES IN NEW ENGLAND. . The first offence punished in the colony was that of John Billington, who was charged with contempt of.the captain's lawful commands, while on board the May- flower. He was trieJ by the whole company, and was sentenced to have his neck and heels tied together ; but on humbling himself, and craving pardon, he wa3 released. This same Billington, however, in 1630, waylaid and murdered one John Newcomen, for some aff'ront, and was tried and executed in October of that year. Governor Bradford says : " AVe took all due means about his trial ; he was 290 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. found guilty, both by grand and petit jury; and we took advice of Mr. Win- throp and others, the ablest gentlemen in the Massachusetts Bay, who all con- curred with ns, that he ought to die, and the laud be purged from blood." The first duel and second offence that took place in the colony was between two servants of Stephen Hopkins. They fought with sword and dagger, and were both slightly wounded. They were arraigned for the offence, on the 18tli June, 1621, before the Governor and company for trial, and were sentenced to have their heads and feet tied together, and to remain in that position for 24 hours. After an hour's endurance of this novel punishuient, these men of valor begged for a release, and the Governor set them at liberty. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. [From Governor Hutcldnson'' s History of Massachusetts. "[ The great noise which the New England witchcrafts made throughout the English dominions, proceeded more from the general panic with which all sorts of persons were seized, and an expectation that the contagion would spread to all parts of the country, than from the number of persons who were executed, more having been put to death in a single county in England, in a short space of time, than have suffered in all New England from the first settlement until the present time. Fifteen j^ears had passed, before we find any mention of witchcraft among the English colonists. The Indians were supposed to be worshippers of the Devil, and their powows to be wizards. The first suspicion of witchcraft, among the English, was about the year 1645 ; at Springfield, upon Connecticut River, sev- eral persons were supposed to be under an evil hand, and among the rest two of the minister's children. Great pains were taken to prove the facts upon several persons charged with the crime, but either the nature of the evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so no person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being a witch, after long examination was brought to con- fession of her guilt, but I do not find that she was executed. "Whilst this inquiry was making, Margaret Jones was executed at Charlestown ; and Mr. Hale men- tions a woman at Dorchester, and another at Cambridge about the same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon after, Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield and escaped death. In 1655, Mrs. Hil)bins, the assistant's widow, was hanged at Boston. In 1662, at Hartford in Connecticut (about 30 miles from Springfield, upon the same river), one Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next door to a Dutch family, and, no doubt, had learned something of the language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes spake Dutch and sometimes English, and sometimes a language which nobody understood, and who held a conference with one another. Several ministers, who were present, took down the conference in writing, and the names of several persons, mentioned • in the course of the conference, as actors or bearing parts in it ; particularly a wo- man, then in prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon ex- amination confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery. She owned that she and the others named had been familiar with a demon, who had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a formal covenant, yet she had promised to be ready at his call, and was to have had a high frolic at Christmas, When the agreement was to have been signed. Upon this confession she was MASSACHUSETTS. 291 executed, and two more of the company -were condemned at the same time. In 1669, Susanna INIartin, of Salisbury, Avas bound over to the court, upon suspicion of witchcraft, but escaped at that time. In 1671, Elizabeth Knap, another ventriloqua, alarmed the people of Groton in much the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hartford ; but her de- mon was not so cunning, for instead of confining himself to old women, he railed at the good minister of the town and other persons of good character, and the people could not then be prevailed on to believe him, but believed the girl, when she confessed she had been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of good persons ; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud and im- posture. In 1673, Eunice Cole of Hampton was tried, and the jury found her not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of familiarity with the devil. In 1679, William Morse's house, at Xewbury, was troubled with the throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a bo}-, of the family, was supposed to be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors ; and in 1683, the house of George AValtou, a .quaker, at Portsmouth, and another house at Salmon-falls (both in New Hamp- shire), were attacked after the same manner. In 1683, the demons removed to Connecticut River again, where one Desbo- rough's house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire kindled, nobody knew how, which burnt up great part of his estate ; and in 1684, Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military ofBcer and a representative of the town of Hadley, upon the same river (a hypochondriac person), fancied himself under an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of his neighbors, and languished and pined away, and was generally supposed to be bewitched to death. While he lay ill, a num- ber of brisk lads tried an experiment upon the old woman. Having dragged her out of her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her down, rolled her some time in the snow, and at last buried her in it and there left her, but it happened that she survived, and the melancholy man died. Notwithstanding these frequent instances of supposed witchcrafts, none had Buflered for near 30 years, in the Massachusetts colony. The execution of the assistant or councillor's widow in 16.j."), was disapproved of by many principal persons, and it is not unlikely that her death saved the lives of many other infe- rior persons. But in 16S.'5, a very circumstantial account of all or most of the cases I have mentioned, was published, and many arguments were brought to convince the country that they were no delusions or impostures, but the efTects of a familiarity between the devil and such as he found fit for his instruments ; and in 1687 or 1688, began a more alarming instance than any which had pre- ceded it. Four of the children of John Goodwin, a grave man and a good liver, at the north part of Boston, were generally believed to be bewitched. I have often heard persons, who were in the neighborhood, speak of the great conster- nation it occasioned. The children were all remarkable for ingenuity of temper, had been religiously educated and were thought to be without guile. The ekicst was a girl of 13 or 14 years. She had charged a laundress with taking away some of the family linen. The mother of the laundress was one of the wild Irish, of bad character, and gave the girl harsh language ; soon after which she fell into fits, which were said to have something diabolical in them. One of her sisters and two brothers followed her example, and it is said, were tormented in the same part of their bodies at the same time, although kept in separate apartments, 292 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and ignorant of one another's complaints. One or two things were said to be very remarliable ; all their complaints were in the day time, and they slept com- fortably all night ; they were struck dead at the sight of the Assembly's Catechism, Cotton's Milk for Babes, and some other good books, but could read in Oxford jests, popish and quaker books, and the common prayer, without any difficulty. Is it possible the mind of man should be capable of such strong prejudices as that a suspicion of fraud should not immediately arise ? But attachments to modes and forms in religion had such force, that some of these circumstances seem rather to have confirmed the credit of the children. Sometimes they would be deaf, then dumb, then blind ; and sometimes all these disorders together would come upon them. Their tongues would be drawn down their throats, then pulled out upon their chins. Their jaws, necks, shoulders, elbows and all their joints would appear to be dislocated, and they would make most piteous outcries of burnings, of being cut with knives, beat, etc., and the marks of wounds were afterwards to be seen. The ministers of Boston and Charlestown kept a day of fasting and prayer at the troubled house ; after whicli, the youngest child made no more complaints. The others persevered, and the magistrates then interposed, and the old woman was apprehended, but upon examination would neither confess nor deny, and appeared to be disordered in her senses. Upon the report of physicians that she was compos mentis^ she was executed, declaring at her death the children should not be relieved. The eldest, after this, was taken into a minister's family, where, at first, she behaved orderly, but, after some time, sud- denly fell into her fits. The account of her affliction is in print ; some things are mentioned as extraordinary, which tumblers are every daj^ taught to perform ; others seem more than natural, but it was a time of great credulity. The children returned to their ordinary behavior, lived to adult age, made profession of reli- gion, and the affliction they had been under they publicly declared to be one motive to it. One of them I knew many years after. She had the character of a very sober virtuous woman, and never made any acknowledgment of fraud in this transaction. The printed account was published with a preface by Mr. Bax- ter, who says, '•'■the evidence is so convincing, that he must be a very obdurate 8ad- ducee who will not believe.''^ It obtained credit sufficient together with other pre- paratives, to dispose the whole country to be easily imposed upon by the more extensive and more tragical scene, which was presently after acted at Salem and other parts of the county of Essex. Not many years before, Glanvil published his witch stories in England ; Perkins and other nonconformists were earlier ; but the great authority was that of Sir Matthew Hale, revered in New England, not only for his knowledge in the law, but for his gravity and piety. The trial of the Avitches in Sulfolk was publislied in 1684. All these books were in New England, and the conformity between the behavior of Goodwin's children and most of the supposed bewitched at Salem, and the behavior of those in England, is so exact, as to leave no room to doubt the stories had been read by the New England per- sons themselves, or had been told to them by others who had read them. Indeed, this conformity, instead of giving suspicion, was urged in confirmation of the truth of both ; the Old England demons and the New being so much alike. The court justified themselves from books of law, and the autliorities of Keble, Dalton and other lawyers, then of the first character, who lay down rules of conviction, as absurd and dangerous as any which were practised in New England. The trial of Ricliard Hatheway, the impostor, before Lord Chief .Justice Holt, was 10 or 12 years after. This was a great discouragement to prosecutions in England MASSACHUSETTS. 293 for witchcraft, but an effectual stop was not put to them, until the Act of Parlia- ment in the reign of his late iMujesty. Even this has not wholly cured the com- mon people, and we hear of old women ducked and cruelly murdered within these last twenty years. Reproach, then, for hanging witches, although it has been often cast upon the people of New England, by those of Old, yet it must have been done with an ill grace. The people of New England were of a grave cast, and had long been disposed to give a serious solemn construction even to common events in providence ; but in Old England, the reign of Charles II. was as remarkable for gaiety as any whatsoever, and for scepticism and infidelity, as any which preceded it. Sir William Phips, the governor, upon his arrival, fell in with the opinion pre- vailing. Mr. Stoughton, the lieutenant-governor, upon -whose judgment great stress was laid, had taken up this notion, that although the devil might appear in the shape of a guilty person, yet he would never be permitted to assume the shape of an innocent person. •This opinion, at first, Avas generally received. Some of the most religious women who were accused, when they saw the appear- ance of distress and torture in their accusers, and heard their solemn declarations, that they saw the shapes or spectres of the accused afflicting them, persuaded themselves they were witches, and that the devil, some how or other, although they could not remember how or when, had taken possession of their evil hearts and obtained some sort of assent to his afflicting in their shapes ; and thereupon they thought they might be justified in co:i!Vssing themselves guilty. It seems, at this day, with some poopie, perhaps but few, to be the question whether the accused or the afflicted were under a preternatural or diabolical pos- session, rather than whether the afflicted were under bodily distempers, or alto- gether guilty of fraud and imposture. As many of the original examinations have fallen into my hands, it may be of service to represent this affair in a more full and impartial light than it has yet appeared to the world. In February, 1691-2, a daughter and a niece of Mr. Parris, the minister of Salem village, girls of ten or eleven years of age, and two other girls in the neighborhood, made the same sort of complaints as Goodwin's children had made, two or three years before. The ph3'sicians, having no other way of ac- counting for the disorder, pronounced them bewitched. An Indian woman, wlio was brought into the country from New Spain, and then living with Mr. Parris, tried some experiments which she pretended to be used in her own country, in order to find out the witch. This coming to the children's knowledge, they cried out upon the poor Indian as appearing to them, pincliing, pricking, and tormenting tliem ; and fell into fits. Tituba, the Indian, acknowledged that she had learned how to find out a witch, but denied that she was one herself Several private fasts were kept at the minister's house, and several, more public, by the whole village, and then a general fast through the colony, to seek to God to re- buke Satan, etc. So much notice taken of the children, together with the pity and compassion expressed by those who visited them, not only tended to confirm them in their design, but to draw others into the like. Accordingly, the number of the complainants soon increased, and among them there were two or three women, and some girls old enough for witnesses. These had tlieir fits too, and, when in them, cried out, not only against Tituba, but against Sarah Osburn, a melancholy distracted old woman, and Sarah Good, another old woman who was bedrid. Tituba, at length, confessed herself a witch, and that the two old women 294 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. -n-ere her confederates ; and they were all committed to prison ; and Tituba, upon searcli, was found to have scars upon iier back which were called the devil's mark, but might as well have been supposed those of her Spanish master. This commitment was on the 1st of March. Aljout three weeks after, two other wo- men, of good characters and church members, Corey and Nurse, were coiuplaiued of and brought upon their examination ; when these children fell into fits, and the motlier of one of them, and wile of Thomas Putnam, joined with the children and complained of Nurse as tormenting her ; and made most terrible shrieks, to the amazement of all the neighborhood. The old women denied everything ; but were sent to prison ; and such was the infatuation, that a child of Sarah Good, about four or five years old, was committed also, being charged with biting some of the afflicted, who showed the print of small teeth on their arms. On April 3d Mr. Parris took for his text, '•'Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil.'''' Sarah Cloyse, supposing it to be occasioned by Nurse's case, who was hei- sister, went out of tlie meeting. She was, presently after, complained of for a witch, examined, and committed. Elizabeth Procter was charged about the same time : her husband, as every good husband would have done, accompanied her to her examination, but it cost the poor man his life. Some of the afflicted cried out upon him also, and they were both committed to prison. Instead of suspecting and sifting the witnesses, and sufiFering them to be cross- examined, the authority, to say no more, were imprudent in making use of lead- ing questions, and thereby putting words into tlieir mouths or suffering others to do it. Mr. Parris was over-officious ; most of the examinations, although in the presence of one or more of the magistrates, were taken by him. Governor Hutchinson, in the second volume of his History, introduces an ex- amination of several of the accused, which is certified by John Hawthorne and John Corwin, Assistants, but owing to prescribed limits they are here omitted : No wonder the whole country was in a consternation, when persons of sober lives and unblemished characters were committed to prison upon such sort of evidence. The most effectual way to prevent an accusation, was to become an accuser ; and accordingly the number of the afflicted increased every day, and the number of the accused in proportion, who in general persisted in their inno- cency ; but, being strongly urged to give glory to God by their confession, and intimation being given that this was the only way to save their lives, and their friends urging them to it, some were brought to own their guilt. The first con- fession upon the files is of Deliverance Hobbs, May 11th, 1692, being in prison. She owned everything she was required to do. The confessions multiplied the witches ; new companions were always mentioned, who were immediately sent for and examined. Thus more than a hundred women, many of them of fair characters and of the most reputable families, in the towais of Salem, Beverly, Andover, Billerica, etc., were apprehended, examined, and generally committed to pi-ison. The confessions being much of the same tenor, one or two may serve for specimens : "The examination and confession (8 Sept. 93,) of Mary Osgood, wife of Captain Osgood of Andover, taken before John Hawthorne and other their Majesties justices. "She confesses, that about 11 years ago, when she was in a melancholy state and condition, she used to walk abroad in her orchard ; and upon a certain time MASSACHUSETTS. 295 she saw the appearance of a cat, at the end of the house, which yet she thought was a real cat. However, at that time, it diverted her from firayiug to God, and instead thereof she prayed to the devil ; about which time she made a covenant with the devil, who, as a black man, came to her and presented her a book, upon which she laid her finger and that left a red spot : and that upon her signing, the devil told her he was her God, and that she should serve and worship him, and, she believes, she consented to it. She saj-s farther, that about two years agone, she was carried through the air, in company with deacon Frye's wife, Ebeuezer Baker's wife, and Goody Tyler, to five-mile pond, where she was baptized by the devil, who dipped her face in the water and made her renounce her former baptism, and told her she must be his, soul and body, forever, and that she must serve him, which she promised to do. She says, the renouncing her first baptism was after her first dipping, and that she was transported back again through the air, in company with the forenaraed pei-sons, in the same manner as she went, and believes they were carried upon a pole. Q. How manj' persons were upon the pole? A. As I said before (viz., four persons and no more but whom she had named above). She confesses she has afflicted three persons, John Sawdy, Martha Sprague, and Rose Foster, and that she did it by pinching her bed clothes, and giving consent the devil should do it in her shape, and lliat the devil could not do it without her consent. She confesses the afflicting persons in the court, by the glance of her eye. She says, as she was coming down to Salem to be examined, she and the rest of the company with her stopped at Mr. Phillips' to refresh themselves, and the afflicted persons, being behind them iTpon the road, came up just as she was mounting again, and were then afflicted, and cried out upon her, so that she was forced to stay until they were all past, and said she only looked that way towards them. Q Do you know the devil can take the shape of an innocent person and afflict? A I believe he cannot. Q. Who taught you this way of witchcraft ? A Satan (and that he promised her abun- dance of satisfaction and quietness in her future state, but never performed any- thing ; and that she has lived more miserably and more discontented since, than ever before). She confesses further, that she herself, in company with Goody Parker, Goody Tyler, and Goody Dean, had a meeting at Moses Tyler's house, last Monday night, to afflict, and that she and Goody Dean carried the shape of Mr. Dean, the minister, between them, to make persons believe that Mr. Dean afflicted. Q. What hindered you from accomplishing what you intended ? A. The Lord would not suffer it so to be, that the devil should afflict in an innocent person's shape. Q. Have you been at any other witch meetings 'i A. l know nothing thereof, as I shall answer in the presence of God and his people ; (but said, tiiat the black man stood before her, and told her that what she had con- fessed was a lie ; notwithstanding, she said that what she had confessed was true, and thereto put her hand). Her husband being present, was asked if he judged his wife to be any way discomposed. He answered, that having lived with her so long, he doth not judge her to be anj"- ways discomposed, but has cause to be- lieve what she has said is true, . . . When Mistress Osgood was first called, she afflicted Martha Sprague and Rose Foster, by tlie glance of her eyes, and re- covered them out of their fits by the touch of her hand. Mary Lacey, Betty Johnson, and Hannah Post saw Mistress Osgood afflicting Sprague and Foster. . . . The said Hannah Post, and Mary Lace}-^, and Betty .Johnson, jun., and Rose Foster and Mary Richardson were afflicted by Mistress Osgood, in the time of their examination, and recovered by her tonchinj. of their hands. 19 296 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. "I undenvritten, being appointed by authority, to take this examination, do testify upon oath, taken in court, that this is a true copy of tlie substance of it to the best of my knowledge, 5 Jan., 1693-3. The within Mary Osgood was ex- amined before their Majesties justices of the peace in Salem. "Attest, John Higgikson, Just. Peace." A miserable negro woman, charged by some of the girls with afflicting them, confessed, but was cunning enough to bring the greatest share of the guilt upon her mistress : "Salem, Monday, July 4, 1693. The examination of Candy, a negro woman, before Bartholomew Gedney and John Hawthorne, Esqrs. Mr. Nicholas Noyes also present : "Q. Candy, are you a witch ? A. Candy no witch in her country. Candy's mother no witch. Candy no witch, Barbados. This country, mistress give Candy witch. Q. Did your mistress make you a witch in this country ? A. Yes, in this country mistress give Candy witch. Q. "What did your mistress do to make you a witch ? A. Mistress bring book and pen and ink, make Candy write in it. Q. What did you write in it ? A. She took a pen and ink, and upon a book or paper made a mark. Q. How did you afflict or hurt these folks, where are the puppets you did it with ? Slie asked to go out of the room and she would show or tell ; upon which she had liberty, one going with her, and she presently brought in two clouts, one w^ith two knots tied in it, the other one ; which being seen byMary Warren, Deliverance Hobbs, and Abigail Hobbs, they were greatly affrighted and fell into violent fits, and all of them said tljat the black man and Mrs. Hawkes, and the negro stood by the puppets or rags and pinched them, and then they were afflicted, and when the knots were untied yet they continued as aforesaid. A bit of one of the rags being set on fire, the afflicted all said they were burned, and cried out dreadfully. The rags being put into water, two of the forenamed persons were in dreadful fits, almost choked, and the other was violently running down to the river, but was stopped. "Attest, John Hawthorne, Just. Peace." Mrs. Hawkes, the mistress, had no other way to save her life but to confess also. The recantation of several persons in Andover will show in what manner they were brought to their confessions : " We, whose names are underwritten, inhabitants of Andover ; when as that horrible and tremendous judgment beginning at Salem village in the year 1692, by some called witchcraft, first breaking forth at Mr. Parris's house, several young persons, being seemingly afflicted, did accuse several persons for afliicting them, and many there believing it so to be, we being informed that if a person was sick, the afflicted person could tell what or who was the cause of that sick- ness : Joseph Ballard, of Andover, his wife being. sick at the same time, he, either from himself or by the advice of others, fetched two of the persons called the af- flicted persons, from Salem village to Andovir, Avhich was the beginning of that dreadful calamity that befell us in Andover, believing the said accusations to be true, sent for the said persons to come together to the meeting house in Andover, the afflicted persons being there. After Mr. Barnard had been at prayer, we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon the afflicted persons, they being in their fits and falling into their fits at our coming into their presence, as they MASSACHUSETTS. 297 said ; and some led us and laid our hands upon them, and then they said they were well, and that we were guilty of afflicting them : whereupon Ave were all seized as prisoners, by a warrant from the justice of the peace, and forthwith carried to Salem. And, by reason of that sudden surprisal, we knowing our- selves altogether innocent of that crime, we were all exceedingly astonished and amazed, and consternated and affrighted even out of our reason ; and our nearest and dearest relations, seeing us in that dreadful condition, and knowing our great danger, apprehended there was no other way to save our lives, as the case was then circumstanced, but by our confessing ourselves to be such and such I)ersons as the afflicted represented us to be, they, out of tenderness and pitj', persuaded us to confess what we did confess. And indeed that confession, that it is said we made, was no other than what was suggested to us by some gentle- men, they telling us that we were witches, and thej^ knew it, and we knew it, which made us think it was so ; and our understandings, our reason, our faculties, almost gone, we were not capable of judging of our condition ; as also the hard measures they used with us rendered us incapable of making our defence, but said anything and everything which they desired, and most of what we said was l)nt, in effect, a consenting to what they said. Some time after, when we were better composed, they telling us what we had confessed, we did profess that we were innocent and ignorant of such things ; and we hearing that Samuel Ward- well had renounced his confession, and quickly after condemned and executed, some of us were told we were going after Wardwell. Mary Osgood, Deliverance Dane, Sarah Wilson, Mary Tiler, Abigail Barker, Hannah Tiler." The testimonials to these persons' characters, by the principal inhabitants of Andover, will outweigh the credulity of the justices who committed them, or of the grand jury which found bills against them. Although the number of prisoners had been increasing, from February until the beginning of June, yet there had been no trials. The charter was expected from day to day, and the new constitution of government to take place. Soon after its arrival, commissioners of oyer and terminer were appointed for the trial of witchcrafts. By the charter, the general assembly are to constitute courts of justice, and the governor with the advice of the council is to nominate and ap- point judges, commissioners of oyer and terminer, etc., but whether the gover- nor, with advice of council, can constitute a court of oyer and terminer, without authority for that purpose derived from the general assembly, has been made a question ; however, this, the most important court to the life of the subject which ever was held in the province, was constituted in no other manner. It was opened at Salem, the first week in June. Only one of the accused, Bridget Bishop, alias Oliver, was then brought to trial. She had been charged with witchcraft twenty years before. The accuser, upon his death-bed, confessed his own guilt in the accusation ; but an old woman, once charged with being a witch, is never afterwards wholly free from the accusation, and she being, besides, of a fractious temper, all the losses the neighbors met with in their cattle and poultry, and accidents in oversetting their carts, etc., W'ere attributed to her spite against them, and now suffered to be testified against her. This evidence, together with the testimony of the afflicted, and of the confessors, what they had heard from the spectres and seen of her spectre, and an excrescence, called a teat, found upon her body, were deemed by court and jury plenary proof, and she was con- 298 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. victed, and on the lOtli of June executed. The further trials were put off" to the adjournment, the 30th of June. At tlie. first trial, there was no colony or provincial law against witchcraft in force. The statute of James the First must therefore have been considered as in force in the province, witchcraft not being an offence at common law. Before the adjournment, the old colony law, which makes witchcraft a capital offence, was revived, with the other local laws, as they were called, and made a law of the province. At the adjournment, June 30, five women were brought upon trial, Sarah Good, Rebekah Nurse, Susannah Martin, Elizabeth How, and Sarah Wilder. There was no diflaculty with any but Nurse. She was a member of the church and of a good character, and, as to her, the jury brought in their verdict not guilty ; upon which the accusers made a great clamor, and the court expressed their dissatisfaction with the verdict, which caused some of the jury to desire to go out again ; and then they brought her in guilty. This was a hard case, and can scarcely be said to be the execution of the laio and justice in mercy. In a capital case, the court often refuses a verdict of guilty, but rarely, if ever, sends a jury out again upon one of not guilty. It does not indeed appear that in this case the jury was ordered out again ; but the dissatisfaction expressed by the court seems to have been in such a manner as to have the same effect. At the next adjournment, August 5th, George Burroughs, John Procter, and Elizabeth his wile, John Willard, George Jacobs, and Martha Carrier were all brought upon trial and condemned, and all executed upon the 19tli of August, except Elizabeth Procter, who escaped by pleading pregnancy. Burroughs had been a preacher, several years before this, at Salem village, where there had been some misunderstanding between him and the people. Af- terwards he became a preacher at Wells, in the province of Maine. W^e will be a little more particular in our account of his trial. The indictment was as follows : "Anno Regis et Reginse, etc., quarto. '■'■ Essex ■)«. The Jurors for our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, present, that George Burroughs, late of Falmouth, in the province of Massachu- setts bay, clerk, the ninth day of May, in the fourth j'ear of the reign of our sovereign Lord and Lady William and Mary, by the grace of God of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, King and Queen, defenders of the faith, etc., and divers other daj's and times, as well before as after, certain detestable arts called witchcrafts and sorceries ; wickedly and feloniously hath used, practised, and exercised, at and within the town of Salem, in the county of Essex aforesaid, in, upon, and against one Mary Walcot of Salem village, in the county of Essex, single woman ; by which said, wicked arts, the said Mary Walcot, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year above said, and divers other days and times, as well before as after, was and is tortured, afflicted, pined, consumed, wasted, and tor- mented, against the peace of our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, and against the form of the statute in that case made and provided. Endorsed Billa vera." Three other bills were found against him for witchcrafts upon other persons, to all which he pleaded not guilty, and put himself upon trial, etc. September the 9th, Martha Cory, Mary Esty, Alice Parker, Ann Pudeater, Dorcas Hoar, and Mary Bradbury were tried, and September 17th, Margaret Scott, Wilmoi Bead, Samuel Wardwell, Mary Parker, Abigail Falkuer, Rebekah MASSACHUSETTS. 299 Eames, Mary Lacey, Ann Foster, and Abigail Hobbs, and all received sentence of deatli. Those in italics were executed the 22d following. Mary Esty, who was sister to Nurse, gave in to the court a petition ; in which she says she does not ask her own life, although she is conscious of her inno- cence ; but prays them, before they condemn any more, to examine the confessing witches more strictly ; for she is sure they have belied themselves and others; which will appear in the world to which she is going, if it should not in this world. Those who were condemned and not executed, I suppose, all confessed their guilt. I have seen the confessions of several of them. Wardwell also confessed,' but he recanted and suffered. His own wife, as well as his daughter,* accused him and saved themselves. There are many instances, among the examinations, of children accusing their parents, and some of parents accusing their children. This is the only instance of a wife or husband accusing one the other, and surely this instance ought not to have been suffered. I shudder while I am relating it. Besides this irregularity, there were others in tlie course of these trials. The facts laid in the indictments were, witchcrafts upon particular persons, there was no evidence of these facts, but wliat was called spectral evidence, which, in the opinion of the ministers, was insufficient ; some of the other evidence was of facts ten or twenty years before, wliich had no relation to those with which they were charged ; and some of tliem no relation to the crime of witchcraft. Evidence is not admitted, even against the general character of persons upon trial, unless to encounter other evidence brought in favor of it ; mucii less ought their whole lives to be arraigned, without giving time sufficient for defence. Giles Cory was the only, person, besides those already named, who suffered. He, seeing the fate of all who had put themselves upon trial, refused to plead ; but the judges, who had not been careful enough in observing the law in favor of tlie prisoners, determined to do it against this unhappy man, and he had judg- ment oi peine fort et dure for standing mute, and was pressed to death ; the only instance which ever was, either before this time or since, in New England. In all ages of the world superstitious credulity has produced greater cruelty than is practised among the Hottentots, or other nations, whose belief of a deity is called in question. This court of oyer and terminer, happy for the country, sat no more. Nine- teen persons had been executed, all asserting tlieir innocence ; but this was not enough to open the eyes of the people in general. The jail at Salem was filled with prisoners, and many liad been removed to other jails : some were admitted to bail, all reserved for trial, a law having passed constituting a supreme standing court, with jurisdiction in capital, as well as all other criminal cases. The gen- eral court also showed their zeal against witchcraft, by a law passed in the words of the statute of James I., but this law was disallowed by the king. The time, by law, for holding tiie court at Salem, was not until January. This gave opportunity for consideration ; and this alone might have been sufficient for a change of opinions and measures, but another reason has been given for it. Ordi- narily, persons of the lowest rank in life have had the misfortune to be charged with witchcrafts ; and although many such liad suffered, yet there remained in prison a number of women, of as reputable families as any in the towns where they lived, * Tlie daugliter upon a second enquiry denied tliat she knew her fitlier aiiJ mother to be witches; the vife was not asked a second tini(» 300 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and several persons, of still superior rank, were hinted at by the pretended bo- witched, or by the confessing witches. Some had been publicly named. Dudley Bradstreet, a justice of the peace, who had been appointed one of president Dud- ley's council, and who was son to the worthy old Governor, then living, found it necessary to abscond. Having been remiss in prosecuting, he had been charged by some of the afflicted as a confederate. His brother, John Bradstreet, was forced to fly also. Calef says it was intimated that Sir WiUiam Pliips's lady was among the accused. It is certain, that one who pretended to be bewitched at Boston, where the infection was beginning to spread, charged the secretary of the colony of Connecticut. At the court in January, the grand jury found bills against about 50 for witch- craft, one or two men, the rest women ; but upon trial, they were all acquitted, except three of the worst characters, and those the Governor reprieved for the king's mercy. All that were not brought upon trial he ordered to be discharged. Such a jail delivery was made in this court as has never been known at any other time in New England. PRIMITIVE EXTRAYAGANCE. Mv. Dudley was in favor of making Newtown, now Cambridge, the metropoHs of the colony ; and after consultation. Governor Winthrop, and the assistants, agreed to settle there, and streets and squares, and market places, were duly sur- veyed and laid out. In the spring of 1631, Mr. Dudley and others commenced building. Governor Winthrop had set up the frame of a liouse, but soon after changed his mind, and removed it to Boston. Mr. Dudley finished his house, and moved into it with his family. The first houses were rude structures, the rool's covered with thatch, the fii-e-places generally made of rough stones, and the chimneys of boards, plastered with clay. The settlers were publicly enjoined to avoid all superfluous expense, in order that their monc}' might be reserved for any unforeseen necessities. Mr. Dudley having finished his house with a little more regard to domestic comfort, exposed himself to public censure. At a meet- ing of the Governor and assistants, he was told, that "he did not well to bestow such cost about wainscoting and adorning his house, in the beginning of a planta- tion, both in regard to the expense, and the example." Dudley's answer, was, that it was for the warmth of his house, and the charge was little, '■'■being but clapboards nailed to the wall in the form of wainscot.'''' THE MEN OF " SEYENTY-SIX." In Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Mass., Deacon Cleveland and another lead- ing member of the church had been selected, for their positions in the centre of the valley and of the village, to spread the note of alarm. The son of the deacon, a young man only 17 years of age at the time, gave to a friend of the writer a description of the reception of the news in that little village. One quiet Sabbath morning, when all was still, as it ever was in that peaceful valley on that holy day, he was suddenly startled by the report of a musket. On going out to ascertain what it meant, he saw his father in the back yard with the discharged piece in his hand. Before he had time to express his wonder, another ■report broke the stillness of the Sabbath morning, and as the smoke curled up in the damp atmosphere, he saw in the neighboring j-ard one of the chief pillars of the church, standing with his musket in his hand. He paused astounded, not know- MASSACHUSETTS. 301 ing what awful phenomenon this strange event portended. lie said that he thought that the judgment day had come. But in a few moments he noticed men hurrying along the hitherto deserted street, with weapons in their hands. One by one they entered his father's gate, and gathered on the low stoop. The flashing eye and flushed cheek told that something eventful had transpired — and there had. When tlie report of tliose two muskets echoed along the sweet valley of the Housatouic and up the adjacent slopes, the sturdy farmers knew what it meant, T)ie father, just preparing for the duties of the sanctuary, heard it, and, flinging aside his Sahbath garments, hastily resumed his work-day dress, and taking down his musket, strained his wife and children in one long farewell embrace to his bosom, then turned from the home he might never see again. Tlie young man buckled on his knapsack, and amid sobs and tears shut the little farm gate behind liim, the fire in his eye drying up the tears as fast as they welled to the surface. Although the heart heaved with emotion, the step was firm and the brow knit and resolute. In a short time the little porch was crowded with men. A moment after, Dr. "West, the pastor, was seen slowly descending the hill towards the same place of rendezvous. It was a cold, drizzly morning, and as, with his umbrella over his head, and the Bible under his arm, he entered the dnoryard, his benevolent face revealed the emotion that was struggling within. He, too, knew the meaning of those shots ; tliey were the signals agreed upon to infonn the minute-men of Stockbridge that their brethren in the East had closed with the foe in battle. He ascended the steps, and, opening the Bible, read a few appropriate passages, and then sent up a fervent prayer to Heaven. When he ceased, the rattling of arms was heard. A short and solemn blessing closed the impressive scene, and before 13 oYlock twenty men, with knapsacks on their backs and muskets on their shoul- ders, had started on focvt for Boston, nearly 200 miles distant. Oh, how deep down in tlie consciences of men had tlie principles of that strug- gle sunk, when they made those Puritans forget the solemn duties of the sanc- tuary for the higher duties of the battle-field. Tliey had been taught from the pulpit that it was the cause of God, and they took it up in the full belief they had his blessing and his promise. Such scenes as these were enacted every where, and from the consecrating hand of the man of God went forth the thousand sepa- rate bands that soon after met and stood shoulder to shoulder on the smoky heights of Bunker Hill. GREAT FIEE OF 71. On the 9th and 10th of November, 1871, Bostton experienced the greatest calamity that ever befell it. On the 9th a fire broke out, and raged for two days. It resisted for a while every efibrt to staj' its progress, and swept through the ricliest business quarter of the city. It began at about 7 o'clock in tlie evening of the 9th of Novem- ber, at the corner of Summer and Kingston streets, and owing to the delay of the engines, consequent upon the prevalence of disease among the horses of the Fire Depart- ment, gained considerable headway before anything could be done to check it. Its course was steadily to the northward. It passed through, and laid in ruins, most of the district bounded by Summer, Washington, and State streets and the water line. This district embraced the heavy wholesale portion of the business quarter, and was built in the most .solid and substantial manner, the buildings being chiefly of stone and iron. RHODE ISLAND. Area, 1,306 Square Miles Population in 1800, 174,620 Population in 1870, 217,356 The State of Rhode Island is the smallest in the Union. It is sliuuted between 41° 18' and 42° N. latitude, and 71° 8' and 71° 52' \Y. longitude. It is. bounded on the north and east by Massachusetts, A.lilAOANSli;T BAY. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance, besides the capitals, are, Smith- field, North Providence, Warwick, Bristol, South Kingston, Coventry, East Greenwich, and Pawtucket. PROVIDENCE, In Providence county, is the largest city, and one of the capitals of the State. It is situated at the head of navigation on Narraganset Bay, 43 miles south-southwest of Boston. "It is one of the most beautiful cities in New England, and is sur- passed only by Boston in wealth and population. It is pleasantly situated on the northern arm of the Narraganset Bay, called Provi- dence River. It is an ancient town, dating as far back as 1G36 — when its founder, Roger Williams, driven from the domain of Massa- chusetts, sought here that religious liberty which was denied him elsewhere. " This city makes a charming picture seen from the approach by RHODE ISLAND. 311 the beautiful waters of the Narraganset, which it encircles on the north by its business quarter, rising beyond and rather abruptly to a lofty terrace, where the quiet and gratefully shaded streets are filled with dainty cottages and handsome mansions. Providence was once a very important commercial depot, its rich ships crossing all seas, and at the present day the city is equally distinguished for its manufac- turing and commercial enterprise. In the former department of hu- man achievement it early took the lead, which it still keeps, the first cotton-mill which was built in America being still in use, in its sub- urban village of Pawtucket, and some of the heaviest mills and print- works of the Union being now in operation within its limits. It has also extensive manufactories of machinery and jewelry. The work- shops of the American Screw Company are the best appointed of their kind in the country. The total capital invested here in manufactures is upwards of $16,000,000. " Providence is the seat of Brown University, one of the best educa- tional establishments in America. It was founded in Warren, Rhode Island, in 1764, and removed to Providence in 1770. Its library is very large and valuable, and is remarkably rich in rare and costly works. "Rhode Island Hospital, now progressing towards completion in the southwestern suburb, will be one of the finest structures in the State. The entire cost, including grounds, will exceed a quarter million of dollars. "The Athenaeum has a fine reading-room, and a collection of 29,000' books. The Providence Historical Society, incorporated 1822, has a. library of 4000 volumes. The Butler Hospital for the Insane, upon the banks of Seekonk River, is an admirable institution, occupying large and imposing edifices. In the same part of the city, and lying also upon the Seekonk River, is the Swan Point Cemetery, a spot of great rural beauty. There are upwards of 60 public schools in Provi- dence, in which instruction is given to between eight and nine thou- sand pupils. The Dexter Asylum for the Poor stands upon an elevated range of land east of the river. In the same vicinage is the yearly meeting boarding-school, belonging to the Society of Friends. The Reform School occupies the large mansion, in the southeast part of the city, formerly known as the Tockwotton House. The Home for Aged Women and the Children's Friend Society are worthy a visit. The Custom-House (Post-Office, and United States Courts) is a handsome granite structure, and one of the principal architectural ornaments of 20 312 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the city. The raih'oad depot, some of the banks, and many of the churches of Providence, are imposing structures. The railways di- verging from Providence, are the Providence and Worcester, 43 miles, to Worcester, Mass. ; Hartford, Providence and Fishkill, 123 miles, to Waterbury, Conn. ; Boston and Providence, and Stonington and Provi- dence, 62 miles, to New London ; and the Providence, Warren and Bris- tol. Upon the immediate edge of the city, on the shore of a charming bay in the Seekonk River, stands the famous What Cheer Rock, where the founder of the city, Roger Williams, landed from the Massachu- setts side, to make the first settlement here. "At Hunt's Mill, 3 or 4 miles distant, is a beautiful brook with a picturesque little cascade, a drive to which is among the morning or evening pleasures of the Providence people and their guests. Vue de I'Eau is the name of a picturesque and spacious summer hotel, perched upon a high terrace 4 miles below the city, overlooking the bay and its beauties for many miles around. " Gaspee Point, below, upon the opposite shore of the Narraganset, was the scene of an exploit during the Revolution. Some citizens of Providence, after adroitly beguiling an obnoxious British revenue craft upon the treacherous bar, stole down by boats in the night and settled her business by burning her to the water's edge." * Providence . contains many handsome buildings, both j)ublic and private. There are 54 churches, 35 banks, 27 public schools, and 7 or 8 newspaper establishments in the city. It is supplied with water, and lighted with gas. Street railways connect the prominent points. Providence is the centre of an important commerce with the At- lantic coast of the Union, and with foreign countries. Manufactures are also extensively carried on here. Jewelry is made in great quan- tities, sometimes amounting to $3,000,000 per annum. Cotton and woollen goods, furniture and wooden ware, iron goods, machinery of various kinds, paper, boots and shoes, carriages, and locomotives, are the principal articles. In 1864, the value of the manufactures of Providence was $30,638,177. The population of the city is 68,906, which makes it the second city .in New England. NEWPORT, In Newport county, 28 miles southeast of Providence, is one of the capitals of the State. It is situated on the west shore of the island * Iland-Book of American Travel. RHODE ISLAND. 813 NEWPORT. of* Rhode Island, about 5 miles from the sea. The town is located on the slope of a slight hill facing the harbor, and is, in the main, hand- somely built, containing a number of fine public buildings and private residences. The principal buildings are the State House, the Custom House, Market House, and the Redwood Library, a fine Doric building containing about 1500 volumes, and a number of valuable busts and paintings. There are abont 16 churches, 7 banks, 2 newspaper offices, and a number of manufacturing establishments in Newport. The city is well laid off, and is lighted with gas. It has a population of 12,521. The hotels are its principal attraction. There are several first-class establishments, capable of accommodating several thousand visitors. Its admirable climate and situation have made Newport one of the most popular seaside resorts in the Union. Th^ whole southern pai't of the island is now dotted with cottages and villas, many of them very handsome, belonging to wealthy citizens of various parts of the country, who pass the summer months here. "The facilities for surf-bathing at Newport are not excelled by any place in this country. There are three fine beaches, called Easton's, Sachuest's, and Smith's. Easton's is the one generally used by the majority;, and it is so situated that there is no danger to the bathers 8U OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. from under-currents, while the breakers follow each other in majestic succession. This beach is about half a mile from the principal hotels, and public conveyances ply regularly to and fro. "The drives about Newport are excellent. In 1867, a new one was m-ade by the city authorities, commencing at Bollevue avenue, near the Ocean House, and continuing south 2 miles; thence west 3 miles, along the shore; thence north 1 mile; and thence northeast to Bellevue avenue, 3 miles. The entire drive is 10 miles long, 80 feet wide, and is macadamized. It is pronounced the best one in the country, and some of the finest residences in the city are located on it. An unobstructed view of the Atlantic Ocean is afforded for nearly the entire length of this road. " Near Sachuest Beach, at the northern extremity of the Bluff, is a dark chasm called Purgatory. By actual measurement, the chasm is 160 feet in length; from 8 to 14 feet wide at the top; from 2 to 24 feet wide at the bottom; 50 feet deep at the outer edge; and 10 feet of water at low tide. Near by are the Hanging Rocks, within whose shadow it is said that Bishop Berkeley wrote his " Minute Philoiiopher." The Glen and the Spouting Cave are charming places to ride to, when the w^eather invites. Lily Pond, the largest sheet of spring water' on the island, is easily reached from Spouting Cave. The waters of the pond swarm with perch. " The city of Newport is so ancient, and once so prominent a town, that it would be of interest to the visitor, wholly apart from its present fashionable relations. Indeed, Newport may be said properly to be two places — an old metropolis, and a watering-place ; and, like Que- bec reversed, it has its upper, or new town, and its lower, or old town. The harbor is one of the best and deepest in the world. The entrance to it is 2 miles in width, 29 fathoms in depth, and in only one instance has it been closed by ice since the first settlement. As late as 1769, the city exceeded New York in the extent of her foreign and domestic commerce. In the Revolution, the British long held possession of the place, during which time (till 1797) the population decreased from 12,000 to 4000. Among the interesting relics to be found in the town, are : Franklin's printing-press, imported by James Franklin in 1720, It is in the office of the Newport Mercury, established in 1758. Upon this press the first newspaper issued (1732) was printed. The Chair of State, in wdiich Benedict Arnold sat at the reception of the charter in 1633, is in the possession of the Gould family. The first Baptist Church, founded in 1638, and claimed as the oldest church in Rhode Island, is worthy a visit. RHODE ISLAND. 315 " Newport was the birthplace of tlie gifted miniature painter Mal- bone, and Gilbert Stuart's place of nativity may be seen in Narra- ganset, across the bay. Stuart made two copies of his great Wash- ington picture for Rhode Island, one of which may be seen in the State House at Newport, and the other in that at Providence. " The old Stone Mill, in Touro Park, oj)posite the Atlantic House, is a curiosity, and is tenderly cared for by the city authorities. It is sometimes called the Round Tower. The origin and early history of this ^old mill' is a mystery, and has led to many fruitless conjec- tures. Some antiquarians claim for it the honor of having afforded a secure shelter to the Norsemen, who, they say, built it as a lookout and a tower of defence ; but the modern observers deny it this envia- ble renown, and maintain that it was built by Governor Benedict Ar- nold, the first charter governor of the colony, who owned the property at the time of his death, and calls it in his will ' my stone-built wind- mill.' Redwood Library, near the opera-house, established by Abra- ham Redwood in 1750, contains one of the very best collections of paintings, choice books, and statuary in the country. The Jewish Synagogue, on Touro street, was built in 1672, and up to the Revolu- tionary war was regularly opened for worship, and was the only place in New England where Hebrew was chanted and read weekly. There were many families of wealthy and influential Jews in Newport at that time; now there are none. Abraham Touro left $20,000 in charge of the town authorities, the interest to be expended in keeping the synagogue and grounds, and street leading to it, in repair ; and the wishes of the donor have been carefully complied with. Besides these places, the visitor should see the Perry Monument, Commodore Perry's house, built in 1763, and long known as the 'Granary;' the fortifications in the harbor. Fort Adams, Fort Wolcott, Fort Brown, and the Dumplings. Fort Adams, on Brenton Point, is one of the largest works in the United States, mounting 460 guns." * Newport was occuj)ied by the British during several years of the Revolution. They quartered 8000 troops upon the town, destroyed 480 houses, robbed the library, which was then the finest in America, and carried off the town records. In the spring of 1776, Admiral Wallace was driven out of the harbor of New- port, by a vigorous attack, assisted by the Providence troops. But in December of the same year arrived the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. It sailed up the West Passage, crossed from the north point of Conanicut, and landed an army of 8000 or 10,000 English and Hessians, commanded by General Clinton and Lord Percy, in Middletown, about five miles from Newport. The army im- mediately began to plunder, and Avas quartered upon the inhibitants until Mav, 316 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 1777, when Clinton and Percy, with a large party left for New York, and General Prescott sncceeded to the command. He made himself obnoxious by petty tyranny, but Major Barton revenged the injuries of the island by a feat of memo- rable ingenuity and valor. Earton was on duty with the Rhode Island line, and after the capture of Gen- eral Lee, in November, 1770, he considered how he might retort upon the enemy, and resolved to capture Prescott. When the English landed. Major Barton was stationed at Tiverton, upon the mainland, not far from the shore of Rhode Island. He waited for several months, but found no fit opportunity, until a British de- serter was brought into his quarters. Barton ascertained from him the situation of Prescott' s headquarters, and all the necessary details, and prepared to put his plan immediately into execution. He and his men were new to the service, and failure was permanejit disgrace, as he well knew ; but without a moment's hesita- tion he selecled his companions from the officers, told them the scope of the "un- dertaking, and engaged their confidence and sympathy. Five whale-boats were procured and fitted. At the last moment Barton addressed his soldiers, and said that he wished the voluntary assistance of about 40 men. The whole regiment advanced, and declared itself ready to accompany him. On the 4th of Jul}-, 1777, the party left Tiverton, and crossed to the western shore of the bay. At o'clock on the evening of the 9th of July, they left Warwick Neck in the whalcJljoats. That of Major Barton went in front, and was distinguished from the others by a handkerchief tied to a pole in the stern. The little fleet dropped silently down the bay, between the islands of Patience and Prudence. In the stillness of tlie night they heard the drowsy call of "All's well," from the sentinels on the English ships, and as they touched the shore of Rhode Island a sound as of run- ning horses was heard. It was too late to be alarmed, and the party landed in silence. Major Barton detailing one man to remain in each boat. They landed about a mile from the headquaiters of General Prescott, and crept toward it in five divisions. There were three doors to the house — on the south, the east, and the west. One division was to advance upon each door, the fourth was to guard the road, and the fifth to act as a reserve. As they reached the house they were challenged by the sentinel. "Friends," said Barton. "Advance and give the countersign," was the reply. " D— n you, we have no countersign. Have you seen any deserters to-night ? " said Barton, advancing upon the sentrj', seizing his musket, telling him he was a prisoner, and threatening him with instant death if he betrayed them by making a noise. The sentry said that the general was in the house. Each division had now reached its station ; the doors were forced, and the soldiers rushed up stairs to the chamber of the host. He was speechless with fright, and pointed to the room below as that of the general. Making sure of the host, they returned into the entry, where Barton ordered them to fire the house at the four corners, as he meant to have the general, alive or dead. But at this moment, aroused by the aoise, Prescott called to know what was the matter. The soldiers ran down stairs and entered his room, where Barton saw a man sitting on the side of the bed. " Are yoiT General Prescott ?" demanded Barton. " I am, sir," replied the officer. " You are my prisoner," returned Barton. " I acknowledge it, sir," said tlie general. RHODE ISLAND. 317 Major Barton then told him that he must go with them, and to his request that he might be allowed to dress himself, replied that he was very sorry that his busi- ness required great dispatch, and the general was obliged to hurry off as he was. Prescott's aid, Major Barrington, had leaped out of a window at tlie beginning of the fray, and had landed safely in the midst of the guard of reserve. Of the three prisoners, only the sentinel had his shoes on ; and as the party hurried across the field of rye-stubble tangled with blackberry bushes, the general's feet and legs, as also those of Major Barrington, were sorely scratched. But the party was led along to the shore as directly and rapidly as possible, and reached their boats safely. Barton placed the prisoners in his boat, and wrapping his cloak around the shivering general, he ordered the little fleet to put off. The alarm was given from the shore by guns and rockets, but the boats darted silently and swiftly out of danger. General Prescott asked if Barton commanded, and said to him : " You have made a bold push to-night," and expressed the hope that he should not be hurt. " Not while you are in my care," said Barton. The bay was in a wild confusion Avith the spreading alarm ; but straight under the bows and sterns of the English ships, in that darkest hour preceding dawn, the prisoner was safely rowed, and morning broke upon the expedition arriving under the guns of its own batteries. General Prescott ^w.s afterwards exchanged for General Lee. MISCELLANY. In 1773, the famous seizure of the British schooner Gaspee occurred in Narra- ganset Bay. The following account of the occurrence was written by Colonel Ephraim Bowen, of Providence, who was an actor in the scene : In the year 1772, the British Government had stationed at Newport, Rhode Island, a sloop of war, with her tender, the schooner called the Gaspee, of eight guns, commanded by William Duddingston, a lieutenant in the British navy, for the purpose of preventing the clandestine landing of articles subject to the pay- ment of duty. The captain of this schooner made it his practice to stop and board all vessels entering or leaving the ports of Rhode Island, or leaving New- port for Providence. On the 17th of June, 1772, Captain Thomas Lindsay left Newport, in his packet, for Providence, about noon, with the wind at north ; and soon after, the Gaspee was under sail, in pursuit of Lindsay, and continued the chase as far as Namcut Point. Lindsay was standing easterly, with the tide on the ebb, about two hours, when he hove about at the end of Namcut Point, and stood to the westward ; and Duddingston, in close chase, changed his course and ran on the point near its end and grounded. Lindsay continued in his course up the river, and arrived at Providence about sunset, when he immediately informed Mr. John Brown, one of our first and most respectable merchants, of the situation of the Gasp6e. Mr. Brown immediately resolved on her destruction ; and he forthwith directed one of his trusty shipmasters to collect eight of the largest long boats in the harbor, with five oars to each, to have the oar-locks well muffled to prevent noise, and to place them at Fenner's wharf, directly opposite to the dwelling of Mr. James Sabine. Soon after sunset, a man passed along the main street, beating a drum, and informing the inhabitants that the Gaspee was aground on Namcut Point, and 318 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. inviting those persons who felt a disposition to go and destroy that troublesome vessel, to repair in the evening to Mr. James Sabine's house. About nine o'clock I took my father's gun, and my powder-horn and bullets, and went to Mr. Sa- bine's, and found it full of people ; where I loaded my gun, and all remained there till ten o'clock, some casting bullets in the kitchen, and others making ar- rangements for departure, when orders were given to cross the street to Fenner's Avharf and embark, which soon took place, and a sea-captain acted as steersman of each boat, of whom I recollect Captain Abraham Whipple, Captain John B. Hopkins (with whom I embarked), and Captain Benjamin Dunn. A line from right to left was soon formed, with Captain Whipple on the right, and Captain Hopkins on the right of the left wing. The party thus proceeded, till within iibout sixty yards of the Gaspee, when a sentinel hailed, " Who comes there ? " No answer. He hailed again, and no answer. In about a minute, Duddingston mcjunted the starboard gunwale, in his shirt, and hailed, " Who comes there ? " No answer. He hailed again, when Captain Whipple answered as follows: "I am the sheriff of the county of Kent ; I have got a warrant to apprehend you ; so surrender, d — n you." I took my seat on the thwart, near the larboard row-lock, with my gun at my right side, and facing forward. As soon as Duddingston began to hail, Joseph Bucklin, who was standing on the main thwart by my right side, said to me, "Ephe, reach me your^uu, and I can kill that fellow." I reached it to him accordingly, when, during Captain Whipple's replying, Bucklin fired, and Dud- dingston fell ; and Bucklin exclaimed, " 1 have killed the rascal ! " In less than a minute after Captain Whipple's answer, the boats were alongside the Gaspee, and boarded without opposition. The men on deck retreated below, as Dud- dingston entered the cabin. As it was discovered that he was wounded, John Mawney, who had, for two . or three years, been studying medicine and surgery, was ordered to go into the cabin and dress Duddingston's wound, and I was directed to assist him. On ex- amination, it was found that the ball took effect directly below the navel. Dud- dingston called for Mr. Dickinson to produce bandages and other necessaries for the dressing of the wound ; and, when this was done, orders were given to the schooner's company to collect their clothing and everything belonging to them, and to put them into the boats, as all of them were to be sent on shore. All were soon collected and put on board of the boats, including one of our boats. They departed and landed Duddingston at the old still-house wharf at Pawtuxet, and put the chief into the house of Joseph Rhodes. Soon after, all the party were ordered to depart, leaving one boat for the leaders of the expedition, who soon set the vessel on fire, which consumed her to the water's edge. The names of the most conspicuous actors are as follows, viz : Mr. John Brown, Captain Abraham Whipple, John B, Hopkins, Benjamin Dunn, and five others whose names I have forgotten, and John Mawney, Benjamin Page, Joseph Bucklin, and Toupin Smith, my youthful companions, all of whom are dead — I believe every man of the party — excepting myself; and my age is eighty-six years, this twenty-ninth day of August, eighteen hundred and thirty- CONNECTICUT. Area, 4,674 Square Miles. Population iu 1860, 460,147 Population in 1870, 537,454 The State of Connecticut lies between latitude 41° and 42° 3' N., and longitude 71° 55' and 73° 50' W. ; and is bounded on the north by Mas- sachusetts, on the east by Rhode Island, on the south by Long Island Sound, and on the west by New York. Its extreme length from east to west is about 93 miles, and its greatest width from north to south 68 miles. It is, next to Rhode Island and Delaware, the smallest State in the Union. TOPOGRAPHY. The country bordering Long Island Sound is level, but a great part of the State is rugged and mountainous, though the mountains, as they are called, are little morje than high hills. In the eastern part, be- tween the Connecticut River and the Rhode Island line, is a ridge, supposed to be the extreme prolongation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The western part is crossed by an extension of the Green Mountains of Vermont, which reach almost, to the shore of the Souud. This range consists of a series of detached peaks. TheT'alcet or Greenwood Range passes across the State from the Massachusetts line to the immediate vicinity of New Haven. East of this range are the Middletown Mountains, which extend southward from Hartford to North Branford, east of New Haven, running parallel with the Greenwood Range In the northern part of the State there is a small range between the Green and the Greenwood Mountains. Though of a moderate elevation, these ranges are exceedingly picturesque, and give a peculiar charm to the scenery of the State. " Most of the ridges are 320 CONNECTICUT. 321 VIEW FROM MOUNT HOLYOKE. parallel, and their western parts generally precipitous, so that in many places the country seems divided by stupendous walls. Immense masses of ruins are collected at their feet. These consist sometimes of entire cliffs and pillars of many tons weight, which are thrown off by the freezing of water in the gullies, and often fall with a mighty con- cussion into the valleys. On the opposite side there is generally a slope covered with trees In Meriden is a natural ice- house, in a narrow defile, between ridges of greenstone. The defile is choked up with the ruins of the rocks which have fallen from the 322 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ridges, and form a series of cavities overgrown with trees, and strewn with thick beds of leaves. The ice is formed in the cavities of these rocks, and remains the whole year. A portion of it melts during summer, causing a stream of cold water perpetually to flow from the spot. The space between the mountains is called Cat Hollow, and presents the most wild and picturesque scenery in the State." The principal peaks are Mount Tom, near Litchfield, and Bald Mountain in the extreme northern part of the State. The entire southern border is washed by Long Island Sound, into which flow the principal rivers of the State. There are several good harbors along the Sound, of which New London is the best, though New Haven Bay is the largest. The Connecticut River enters the State from Massachusetts, and flows through it into Long Island Sound, dividing it into two unequal parts. It is navigable for a distance of 50 miles for vessels drawing eight feet of water, and much higher for steamers.. The scenery of the valley of this stream is very beautiful in many places ; Hartford, Middletown, and Haddam are the j^rincipal places on its banks. The ITousatonic River flows through the western part of the State into the Sound. It is navigable for 12 miles for small vessels. It rises in the northern part of Berkshire county, Mass., and in its course through Connecticut receives a number of small tributaries, which drain the little lakes or ponds, which are quite numerous in Litchfield county. The whole region through which it flows is noted for the beauty of its scenery, and the healthfulness of its climate. It is a region of bold hills and lovely valleys, through which the merry little streams come leaping to join the main river. The falls of the Housa- tonic, 67 miles from its mouth, are 60 feet in height, and are among the most beautiful in America. The Thames River is formed by the junction of the Quinebaug, Shetucket, and Yantic rivers, near Norwich, in New London county, and is about 14 miles long. It flows southward into the Sound. At its mouth it widens into the fine harbor of New London, which is the best in the State. It is navigable for its entire length. Norwich and New London are its principal towns. Nearly all the rivers of the State furnish excellent water-power. * MINERALS. Connecticut is very rich in mineral deposits. Granite abounds, and marble of an excellent quality is found. The chrysoberyl and the CONNECTICUT. 323 precious beryl are found near Haddam, and the columbite near Middle- town. Dr. Frankfort, of Middletown, thus sums up the mineral re- sources of the State : " The State of Connecticut may be geologically divided into two, large fields, the first of which is composed of tlie unstratified and niotamorphic rocks, and the other of those secondary strata which, under the name of * freestone,' are so extensively quarried in different parts of the State for building purposes, and constitute the new rci sandstone of Lyell. The best place to study this jDcculiar formation is near Portland, in Middlesex county. In the vicinity of the new red sandstone, are to be found in nearly every part of the State, large dykes of trap, Avhich protrude and traverse it, as for example, at Mcr- iden. This gives Connecticut a great analogy to the Lake Superior copper region, in which large veins of native copper, unequalled as yet in any other part of the world, are found nearly always at the junction of these trapdykes with the red sandstone. From this fact we might expect that in Connecticut, also similar deposits of copper would exist. In several instances indeed, the vestiges of the presence of such have been found ; as, for example, near New Haven, where a large mass of native copper was discovered; and also near Meriden, where ancient excava- tions made in search of j^opper may be seen. The State is very rich in mining resources, as veins of the different metals have been discovered, and more will undoubtedly be found. In every part of the world, such veins are chiefly known to exist where the mctamorphic strata are in junction with the secondary ; and the mineral veins of Connec- ticut are near these junctions, of which a great many may be found throug^hout the State. The followins: is a brief statement of the differ- ent localities in which valuable minerals are known to exist in veins or deposits. Gold has been found in small quantities in Middle Ilad- dara, Middlesex county ; silver, in the argentiferous lead ore of the Middletown mines, now extensively worked. One of the richest copper mines in the United States has been worked in Bristol, Hart- ford county, for ten years. The ores found here are chiefly sulphurets. Copper deposits also exist near Litchfield, Simsbury, Plymoutli, Granby, Farraington and Middletown. Lead occurs, as galena, at the miuL'S near Middletown; also near Wilton and Brookfield, and near Monroe, Fairfield county. Iron is mined at Salisbury, where large furnaces are suj^plied with ' brown hematite,' the ore chiefly found at the mines. Roxbury furnishes an excellent ore, from which the very best of steel could be manufactured, if the large deposits of pure spathic 324 OUR -COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. iron, known to exist there, should be worked. Bismuth is found at different places in the town of Monroe. The only vein containing tliese valuable metals (cobalt and nickel) in abundance in the United States is in the town of Chatham, where at present extensive mining operations for their extraction are carried on."* CLIMATE. The climate is severe in winter, but pleasant in summer, owing to the cool sea breeze which mitigates the heat. The spring comes earlier than in the other New England States, but is accompanied by keen northeast winds, which are neither pleasant nor healthful. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Except in the valleys of the principal rivers, the soil of Connecticut is not remarkable for fertility. In the river valleys the lands are very good, especially along the Connecticut River. The northwestern part of the State is devoted to dairy farming and grazing. Agriculture receives great attention in this State, and the soil is skilfully and in- dustriously tilled. , In 1869, there were 1,830,808 acres of improved, and 673,457 acres of unimproved land in Connecticut. The other agricultural products were stated as follows for the same year : Cash value of farms, - . . . $125,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, 3,o00,000 Number of horses, ' . 40,150 " asses and mules, 110 " milch cows, 99,350 " other cattle, . 112,680 " sheep, • 118,300 " swine, 90,450 Value of domestic animals, $17,311,009 Busliels of Avheat, ... 75,000 rye, 837,000 " Indian corn, 1,950,000 " oats, 2,100,000 " Irish potatoes, 2,500,000 " barley, 25,000 " buckwheat, 270,000 Poimds of tobacco, 6,000,000 " wool, 350,000 Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 489. Connecticut. • 325 rounds of butter, • 7,G20,912 " cheese 3,898,411 " maple sugar, 44,259 " beeswax and honey, 67,101 Gallons of wine, . . ' 46,783 Tons of hay, 750,000 ■ COMMERCE. Connecticut possesses little or no foreign conv.norce of her own, her trade with other countries, except that with the West Indies, being conducted almost entirely through the ports of New York and Boston. An active trade is maintained with the principal ports of the American coast, especially with New York. In 1863, the total tonnage owned in the State was 110,033. In 1861, the total exports of Connecticut amounted to $421,320, and the imports to $753,309. MANUFACTURES. Connecticut is extensively engaged in manufactures, and contains, perhaps, more small establishments conducted by persons of moderate capital than any of the New England States. The products of these little factories make up an imposing sum total, which compares favor- ably with that of the States containing larger establishments. The Avooden clocks of this State (to say nothing of its " wooden nutmegs ") are famous, and of late years have even been exported to Europe. "Nearly all the inhabitants are directly or indirectly interested in some kind of manufactures. It is the genius of the people to attend to a multiplicity of pursuits, and consequently, while all are busy, undertakings on a large scale are seldom made. More recently, how- ever, combined capital, aided by men of means from other States, has much enlarged manufacturing operations. Much of the machinery used is the fruit of the inventions and improvements by the manufac- turers themselves, among whom we need mention but the names of Whitney, Goodyear and Colt. The people are always contriving and enthusiastic in whatever they undertake. The most extensive manu- factures are those of iron, clocks, carriages and india-rubber goods ; iron of all possible varieties, from the heaviest castings to the finest cutlery, including anchors and boilers, firearms, edge-tools, wire, etc. Connecticut has almost engrossed the manufacture of clocks for our whole country, and for a large part of the civilized world. . . . The ^-f^nius of Goodyear and of his co-laborers, has given gi^eater variety to 326 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the manufactures of India rubber than of almost any other known substance. In the manufacture of carriages, Connecticut is second to no State in the Union." * In 1870, there were in the State 5128 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 89,523 hands, and a capital of $95,281,278, using raw material M^orth $86,419,517, and yielding an annual product of $191,065,474. There were 111 cotton mills, employing 4734 male and 2909 female ha,nds, and a capital of $12,710,700, consuming raw material worth $8,818,651 ; paying $3,246,783 for labor; and yielding an annual product of $14,026,334. There were 103 woollen mills, employing 7285 male and 4247 female hands, and a capital of $12,490,400; consuming raw material worth $11,016,925; paying $2,800,120 for labor; and yielding an annual product of $17,365,148. The other manufactures are stated as follows in the same year : Value of agricultural implements, $1,183,947 " pig iron, 979,125 " rolled iron, 1,191,140 " steam engines and machinery, . . . 4,910,389 " sewing machines, 3,619,000 " sawed and planed lumber, .... 2,123,118 " flour, 3,966,328 " leather, 1,307,030 « boots and shoes, 2,319,596 « furniture, 1,103,690 " jewelry, silverware, etc., 4,150,000 • INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In the year 1868, there were 637 miles of railroad in operation in Connecticut, the total cost of which was $24,370,000. Lines cross the State in every direction, connecting its principal towns with each other, and with New York and Boston. A continuous line skirts the shore of Long Island Sound, from which several routes diverge, at various points, to the northward. An important "Air Line" between New Y^ork and Boston is now in construction across the State. There is but one canal in the State, and that a short one around Enfield Falls, in the Connecticut River. * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol, v. p. 617. CONNECTICUT. 327 EDUCATION. This State has always been noted for the excellence of its public school system. There is a permanent school fund, which, in 1870, amounted to $2,044,058. The interest of this sum is applied to the support of the schools, and the remainder of the amount needed for fheir maintenance is raised by taxation. In 1868 there were 1645 public schools. The attendance was as follows : in the winter, 80,148, average attendance 57,117, in the summer, 73,863, average attendance 52,299.. The proportion of children attending school is less than in any other New England State, and truancy prevails to such an alarm- ing extent that the authorities of the State are urged by the Board of Education to take decisive measures to put a stop to the evil. They assert that less than one half the children of the State are found on an average in the public schools. The school system is under the control of the State Board of Edu- cation, which consists of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, e.v officio, and one person appointed by the Legislature from each of the four Congressional districts, for a term of four years. The principal executive officer is the Secretary, who is chosen by the Board, and manages its affairs, and supervises the public schools under its direc- tion. The State is divided into 1620 educational districts, each of which is immediately in charge of a School Committee, elected by tli<' people of the district. In order to be entitled to the benefits of tho scliool fund, each common school must be conducted for at least six months in the year by a regularly licensed teacher. There is a State Normal School, for the education of teachers, at, New Britain, and Teachers' Institutes are held in various parts of the State under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Educa- tion. The Commonwealth makes an appropriation of $3000 per annum to defray their expenses. Seven cities, and several of the ' large towns, support public high schools. There are 35 incorporated academies, and a number of flourishing private schools in the State. Connecticut contains three colleges, Yale College, at New Haven, Trinity College, at Hartford, and Wesleyan University, at Middle- town. The first is a Congregationalist, the second an Episcopal, and the third a Methodist institution. Yale College was originally located at Killingworth, and was founded in 1700. It was removed to Sajbrook in 1707, and to New 21 o28 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUPCES. YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. Haven in 1716. It embraces five schools, the academical, theological, medical, law school, and the school of science and the arts. Each of tliese has its own faculty. It is one of the best institutions of its kind in the Union, but is considerably hampered in its usefulness by a lack of means. Recently, however, it has received some assistance from the State and from private individuals. Trinity College was founded in 1823, is located at Hartford, and is under the direction of the Episcopal Church. The college is in a ])rosperous condition, and ranks high amongst the institutions of its kind in the Union. The Wesleyan University, at Middletown, is a flourishing institu- tion under the direction of the Methodists. The course is similar to that of other first-class colleges. In 1867 there were 490 libraries in the State (of which 194 were public), conta'ning 404,200 volumes. In the same year there were CONNECTICUT. 329 55 periodicals published in the State — 45 political, 3 religious, 5 literary, and 2 miscellaneous. Of these, 14 were daily, 1 semi- weekly, 37 weekly, 1 monthly, and 2 quarterly. Their aggregate annual circulation was 9,555,672 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. - The State Prison is located at Wethersfield. The inmates work in silence during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. Their labor is let out to contractors, and in ] 868 the earnings of the institution were slightly in excess of its expenses. The commutation system is carried out here with great success, and concerts and other healthful entertainments are occasionally given in the prison by benevolent citizens. In March, 1870, there were 219 convicts con- fined here. The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest as well as one of the best institutions of its kind in America. It was incorporated in 1816, and opened the next year. In 1819 it received from Congress an endowment of 23,000 acres of land, and the Legislatures of several of the States made liberal provisions for it, upon the condition that they should each have the privilege of placing a certain number of pupils under its care. This arrangement is still in operation. " In the earlier periods of instruction much use was made of the syvStem of methodical signs, so carefully elaborated by Dr. L'Epee and Sicard, in which each word had a definite and fixed sign, and could be given in the proper order in the sentence. These signs were greatly sim})lified and improved by Mr. Gallaudet and his early as- sociates. His successors continued to introduce such modifications and improvements as the experience of intelligent teachers suggested. The methods now pursued have the same general ends in view as at first, that is, to enable the pupils to hold communication with society by means of written language, but they secure this result earlier and more satisfactorily by leading the pupil sooner to use forms of con- nected language. Special attention has been given from the first to the religious and moral culture of the pupils." The average annual attendance at this institution is about 250. Nearly 1500 pupils have attended it since its establishment. The Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, is supported in part by the State, and was incorporated in 1822. A General Hospital for the Insane has been established by the State at Middletown, on the 330 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. banks of the Connecticut .River, and is now in operation. In 1868 the number of patients at the Hartford Retreat was 413. Patients are maintained here by some of the other Eastern States. The State Reform School, at West Meriden, was opened in 1854. Boys between ten and sixteen years of age, convicted of offences, other than those for which the penalty is imprisonment for life, may be sent to this school, and parents and guardians may indenture unruly youths to the school by paying a sum of $3 a week while they continue their connection with it. The boys are required to be in the school-room four hours each day, where they are thoroughly taught in the various branches of a plain, practical education, and for several hours are en- gaged in the workshop and on the farm. The receipts of their labor in 1870 were as follows: from the farm, $1087; from the workshop, $20,887. In March, 1870, there were 267 boys in the school. The State supports in part a School for Imbeciles, at Lakeville, and three Homes for Soldiers' Orphans, located at Darien, Cromwell, and Mansfield, and makes an annual appropriation for the support of patients at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the" total value of church property in Connecticut, was $13,428,109. The number of churches was 902. FINANCES. In 1874, the public debt, over and above the assets of the State, was $5,014,500, having been reduced one-half since the close of the civil war. There is no floating debt. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending March 31st, 1874, were |1, 762,427. In 1868, there were 88 banks in the State (6 of which were State banks), with an aggregate capital of $25,994,220. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Connecticut was adopted in 1818. Every male white citizen 21 years old and able to read any article of the Constitu- tion, who shall have resided in the State one year and in the town six months, may vote, upon taking the oath required by law. The Government of the State is conducted by a Governor, Lieu- tenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of not less than 18 nor more CONNECTICUT. 331 than 24 members), and a House of Representatives (of 237 members), all chosen annuallv by the people, on the first Monday in April. They enter upon their offices on the first AVednesday in May. The Legislature holds annual sessions at Hartford, the capital of , the State. ' There is a Supreme Court of Errors, composed of one Chief Judge and three Associate Judges. Appeals from the lower courts are heard and decided in this body. Its judgment is final and conclusive. The Superior Court consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are judges of the Supreme Court, and has cognizance of all cases, civil or criminal. In criminal cases, where death is the penalty of the crime for \vhich the prisoner is on trial, the court is required by law to be composed of two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the Supreme Court. The judges of these courts are elected on joint ballot by the Legis- lature, and hold office for a period of eight years. Upon reaching the age of 70 years, they are disqualified by the Constitution from holding office. Hartfortl is the capital of Connecticut. For purposes of govern- ment, the State is divided into 8 counties HISTORY. In 1633, the Dutch built a trading house at Hartford, and defended it by a fort. As early as 1631, however, Seguin, the chief of the In- dians who owned the lands along the Connecticut River, had sent messengers to Governor Winthrop, at Boston, and Governor Winslow, at Plymouth, inviting them to come and settle his country. His in- vitation was accepted, and the present town of Windsor, above Hart- ford, was founded in 1633, by a company from Plymouth, who built a trading house there. This is regarded as the first permanent settle- ment of the State, although the Dutch trading post was in existence at the time. The first town which was built, however, was Wethers- field, which was established by a company of emigrants from Massa- chusetts, in 1634. By 1633, three towns, Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford, were established, with an aggregate population of 750 in- habitants. In 1638, New Haven was settled by emigrants from England, and continued to form an establishment distinct from that of Hartford until 1662, when Charles II. united the two colonies under one gov-' ernraent. 332 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1637, the settlers of the Hartford or Connecticut colony were greatly harassed by the Pequot Indians. The authorities resolved to put an effectual stop to their depredations, and a levy of 90 men, half the number of able-bodied males in the colony, was ordered. This force was well armed, and placed under the orders of Captain John Mason, who at once made a descent upon the main stronghold of the Pequots, and inflicted upon them a blow that completely de- stroyed them as a tribe. The locality where this encounter took place is known as Mystic. The effect of this decisive action was most happy as regarded the other tribes. In 1639, the colony of Connecticut adopted its first Constitution ; and in 1662, Governor John Winthrop obtained from Charles II. a charter uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven under one govern- ment, the name of the former being given to the whole province. New Haven at first opposed the measure, but at length consented to it in 1 665, when the union was finally accomplished. " The charter granted the colony jurisdiction over the lands within its limits; provided for the election of a governor, deputy-governor, and 12 assistants, and 2 deputies from each town — substantially the same as provided for under the previous Constitution; allowed the free transportation of colonists and merchandize from England to the colony ; guaranteed to the colonists the rights of English citizens; provided for the mak- ing of laws and organization of courts by the general assembly, and the appointment of all necessary officers for the public good ; the or- scanization of a soldiery, providing for the public defence, etc. This ciiarter was of so general a character, and conferred so large powers, that no change was necessary when Connecticut took her stand as one of the independent States of the Union, on the declaration of inde- pendence in 1776 ; but it was continued, without alteration, as the Constitution of the State until 1818, when the present Constitution was formed. Until 1670, at the general election, all the freemen assembled at Hartford, and personally voted for the State officers and assistants. Thereafter they voted by proxy, or sent up their votes. In July, 1685, a writ of quo warranto was issued by the King's Bench, and served on the governor and company, with the design of taking away the charter and uniting the New England colonies in one gov- ernment under a royal governor. Sir Edmund Andros arrived in Boston, December 19th, 1686, with his commission as governor. In October, 1687, he came to Hartford, while the assembly was sitting, and demanded the charter. It was produced and laid upon the table. CONNECTICUT. 333 The discussion was protracted into the evening. Suddenly the lights were extinguished, and Captain Josej)h Wadsworth seized and carried away the charter and hid it in the famous charter-oak. Andros seized the government, which he administered, or rather it was administered under him, in a very oppressive manner. On the dethronement of James II., and the consequent deposition of Andros, the government, on May 9th, 1689, resumed its functions, as if the period since the usurpation of Andros to that time, were annihilated ; and as the char- ter had not in the King's Court been declared forfeit, it was, after a struggle, allowed to continue in force, the freest Constitution eve- granted by royal favor." During the wars with the French and Indians, the colony bore a liberal share of the burdens, and warmly supported the cause of American independence during the Revolution, in which struggle tht- shores of Long Island Sound suffered severely from the depredations of the British. New Haven M-as captured, and its inhabitants bar- barously treated, and New London and Groton were taken and burne;! by a force under Benedict Arnold. In 1814^ the famous New England Convention met at Hartford, atid during this and the preceding year New London M^as closely blockaded by the British fleet. During the recent Rebellion, Connecticut contributed 54,468 men to the military service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The important cities and towns are. New London, Norwich, Mid- dletown, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Stonington, Guilford, Danbury, Greenwich, Sharon, Meriden, Windsor Locks, Bristol, Falls Village, New Hartford, Norfolk, Greenville, Deep River, and New Milford. NEW HAVEN, The larojcst and much the most important city in the State, is situated on a harbor of considerable size, 4 miles distant from Long Island Sound. It is in New Haven county, and is 76 miles northeast of New York, and 160 miles southwest of Boston. It is on the line of direct communication between those two cities, and from it railways diverge to all parts of New England. "The country round New Haven is very picturesque. Behind the town, at a distance of about two miles, is an amphitheatre of rugged hills, not unlike some of our Scottish scenery; in front is an inlet from 334 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. KEW HAVEN. Long Island Sound, affording a safe and commodious harbor; to the right and left, a richly cultivated country, relieved by patches of forest; and, in wide expanse before it, the blue waves of the sea rolling in magnificence. Two large precipices, called East and West Rock, 400 feet high, and about two miles apart, form part of the semicircular range. They are prominent features in the landscape ; and events in the annals of our native country, with which they are associated, impart to them that traditional charm which is so often wanting in American scenery. In the fastnesses of these rocks, some of the regicides of Charles I. found shelter from their pursuers, whea the agents of his profligate son hunted them for their lives." * Seve- ral small streams flow into New Haven Bay, as the harbor is called. Several bridges span them, and connect the city with the opposite shores. New Haven extends back about 2 miles from the harbor, and is about 3 miles broad from east to west. It is regularly laid out, and is one of the handsomest cities in America. The streets are unusually broad, and are shaded with the most magnificent elms in the New World. Temple street, and some other thoroughfares, are so thickly shaded that the rays of the sun rarely ])enetrate the thick foliage overhead. The abundance of these trees * Duncan's Travels. CONNECTICUT. 335 has gained for New Haven the sobriquet of " The City of Ehns." There are several fine public squares within the corporate limits, and also one or two very beautiful cemeteries. The residences are sur- rounded by large grounds handsomely ornamented and planted with a luxuriant shrubbery. The principal public buildings are the State House, a stuccoed edi- fice, modelled after the Parthenon ; and the City Hall, facing the green, a handsome Gothic edifice of Portland and Nova Scotia stone. The tower, 84 feet high, is surmounted by a spire QQ feet high, which contains an observatory and an alarm bell. The churches, 32 in number, are very handsome, and form conspicuous and attractive features in the general appearance of the city. New Haven contains several excellent institutions of learning, be- sides Yale College, and has oile of the best free school systems in the world. It has a good public library, 5 or 6 banks, and is lighted with gas, supplied with water, and traversed by street railways. Nine newspapers and three magazines are published here. The population is 50,840. The city carries on an active trade with all parts of the country by means of its railroads. It has steamboat communication with New York and the towns on the Connecticut River. The harbor, though extensive and admirably sheltered, is too shallow to admit vessels of a large size. It is rapidly filling up. The General Government has made several attempts to deepen it, but it is feared that nothing can resist the course of nature, which seems to be rendering the harbor too shallow to be fit for use. A wharf, 3493 feet — the longest in the United States — has been built out into the bay to accommodate ves- sels, but the water surrounding it is becoming very shallow. In spite of these disadv^mtages, however, the city possesses some foreign commerce, and an active coasting trade. New Haven is extensively engaged in manufactures, and it is esti- mated that fully one-fourth of the entire population is so employed. The principal wares produced are carriages, india-rubber goods, iron ware of various kinds, boots and shoes, and clocks. " The chief ornament and attraction of New Haven remains to be noticed, — its college, the rival of Harvard University in literary respectability, and honorably distinguished from it by the orthodoxy of its religious character. The buildings of Yale College make a con- spicuous appearance, when entering the town eastward ; and the effect is considerably heightened by three churches, which stand at a little 336 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. distance in front, in a parallel line. The ground between the college and the churches is neatly divided and enclosed, and ornamented with trees. Including passage-ways, the principal edifices present a front of upwards of 800 feet. The buildings are chiefly constructed of brick, and consist of five spacious edifices, each four stories high, 104 feet by 40, containing 32 studies ; a chapel for religious worship and ordinary public exhibitions; a Lyceum, containing the library and recitation rooms ; an Athenaeum ; a Chemical Laboratory ; an extensive stone Dining Hall, containing also in the upper story, apart- ments for the mineralogical cabinet; a separate Dining Hall for The- ological Students; a dwelling house for the President; a large stone building occupied by the medical department; and the Trumbull Gal- lery, a neat and appropriate building erected as a repository for the valuable historical and other paintings of Col. Trumbull. "■ Yale College was originally established at Saybrook, in the year 1700, and was incorporated by the colonial legislature in the follow- ing year. The project of establishing a college in Connecticut ap- pears to have been seriously entertained fifty years before ; but it was checked, Dr. Dwight informs us, by well founded circumstances, by the peojjle of Massach usetts, who justly urged that the whole popula- tion of New England was scarcely sufficient to support one institution of this nature, and that the establishment of a second would endanger the prosperity of both ; these objections put a stop to the design for the time; it was not, however, lost sight of. In 1718, the infant Institu- tion was removed by the Trustees to New Haven. It was originally intended simply for the education of young men for the ministry : but, as it gathered strength from individual liberality and public patron- age, the range of its plan of study was gradually extended, until it now embraces the more essential parts of a complete literary, scientific, and medical education. "Tiie college received its name, in commemoration of the benefi- cence of the Honorable Elihu Yule, a son of one of the first settlers, who went to England in early life, and thence to India, where he be- came governor to Madras; and on his return to England, he was elected governor of the East India Company. From this gentleman the college received donations at various times, between 1714 and 1718, to the amount of <£500 sterling ; and a short time before his death, he directed another benefiiction to the same amount to be trans- uiitted, but it was never received. Another of its early benefactors was the celebrated Dean Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne, who CONNECTICUT . 337 came to America in 3 732, for the purpose of establishing a college in the island of Bermuda ; a project to which he nobly sacrificed con- siderable property, as well as time and labor. His efforts being frus trated by the failure of the promised support from Government, he jjresented to this Institution a farm which he had purchased in Rhode Island, and afterwards transmitted to it from England a very valua- ble collection of books — ' the finest that ever came together at oiie time into America/ Sir Isaac Newton, and many other distinguished men, presented their works to the library. " Although founded under the sanction of the colonial legislature, and partly endowed by it, the college was for a long time indebted for its support chiefly to individual patronage : the whole amount be- stowed by the colonial legislature, during the first 90 years of its ex- istence, did not much exceed X4500 sterling. But when the Federal Government was consolidated, a grant was made, in 1792, to Yale College, out of a fund created by uncollected arrears of war taxes, by which ultimately $60,000 were realized. "The library of the college has recently been riiuch enlarged by the addition of many valuable volumes, selected by Professor Kingsley, who visited Europe with reference to that selection. The libraries of the different societies receive frequent additions. At present the libraries belonging to the institution form an aggregate of from 30,000 to 40,000 volumes. The college possesses the richest mineralogical cabinet on the continent." * The city was founded as a separate colony, in 1638, by a company of emigrants from London. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. During the Revolution, it was captured by the British. This occurrence took place on the 5th of July, 1779, and is thus described in the Connecticut Journal, of July 7th — two days later : About two o'clock on the morning of the 5th instant, a fleet consisting of the Camilla and Scorpion men-of-war, with tenders, transports, etc., to tlie number of 48, commanded by Commodore Sir George Collier, anchored off West Haven. They had on board about 3000 land forces, commanded by Major-General Tryon; about 1500 of whom, under Brigadier-General Garth, landed about sunrise on West Haven point. The town being alarmed, all the preparation which tlie con- fusion and distress of the inhabitants, and a necessary care of their families would permit, was made for resistance. Tlie West Bridge on Milford road was taken up, and several fieldpieces were carried thither, and some slight works thrown up for the defence of that pass. The division under General Garth being landed, immediately began their march toward the town. The first opposition was made * The Land We Live In, pp. 153-154. 338 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. by about 25 of the inhabitants, to an advanced party of the enemy of two com- panies of light infantry. These, though advancing on the height of Milford hill, were attacked with great spirit by the handful of our people, and driven back almost to West Haven, and one of them was taken prisoner. The enemy then advanced in their main body, with strong flanking parties, and two fieldpieces ; and finding a smart fire kept up from our fieldpieces at the bridge aforesaid, chose not to force an entrance to the town by that, the usual road, but to make a cir- cuitous march of nine miles, in order to enter by the Derby road. In this march our small party on Milford hill, now increased to perhaps 150, promiscuously col- lected from several companies of the militia, had a small encounterwith the enemy's flank near the Milford road, in which was killed their adjutant, Campbell, the loss of whom they lamented witli much apparent sensibility. Our people on the hill, being obliged by superior numbers, to give way, kept up a continual fire on the enemy, and galled them much, through all their march to Thomson's bridge on the Derby road. In the mean time, those who were posted at the West bridge, perceiving the movements of the enemy, and also that another large body of them had landed at the South End, on the east side of the harbor, quitted the bridge and marched thence to oppose the enemy at Thomson's bridge. But by the time they had reached the bank of the river, the enemy were in possession of the bridge, and the places at which the river is here fordable : yet having received a small accession of strength by the coming in of the militia, they gave the enemy a smart fire from two fieldpieces and small arms, which continued with little abate- ment, till the enemy were in possession of the town, or through the town across the Neck bridge. The enemy entered the town between 12 and 1 o'clock. In the mean time, the division of the enemy, before-mentioned to have landed at the South End, which was under the immediate command of General Tryon, Vas bravely resisted by a small party of men, with one fieldpiece, who, besides other execution, killed an officer of the enemy, in one of the boats at their landing. This division marched up by land, and attacked the fort at Black Rock ; at the same time, their shipping drew up, and attacked it from the harbor. The fort had only 19 men, and three pieces of artilery, yet was defended as long as reason or valor dictated, and then tlie men made good their retreat. The town being now in full possession of the enemy, it was delivered up, ex- cept a few instances of protection, to promiscuous plunder ; in which, besides robbing the inhabitants of their watches, money, plate, buckles, clothing, bed- ding, and provisions, they broke and destroyed their household furniture to a very great amount. Some families lost every thing their houses contained : many have now neither food, nor clothes to shift. A body of militia sufl^cient to penetrate the town, could not be collected that evening : we were obliged therefore to content ourselves with giving the enemy every annoyance in our power, which was done with great spirit for most of the afternoon at and about the Ditch corner. Early on Tuesday morning, the enemy unexpectedly and with the utmost still- ness and clespatch, called in their guards, and retreated to their boats, carrying with them a number of the inhabitants captive, most, if not all of whom, were taken without arms, and a few who chose to accompany them. Part of them went on board their fleet, and part crossed over to General Tryon at East Haven. On Tuesday afternoon, the militia collected in such numbers, and crowded so close upon General Tryon, that he thought best to retreat on board his fleet, and set sail to the westward. CONNECTICUT. 339 The loss of the euemj^ is unknown ; but for many reasons it is supposed to be considerable, and includes some officers whom they lament, besides Adjutant Campbell. Ours, by the best information we can obtain, is 27 killed, and 19 ■wounded. As many of our dead upon examination appeared to have been woun- ded with shot, but not mortally, and afterwards to have been killed with bayo- nets, this demonstrated the true reason why the number of the dead exceeded that of the wounded to be, that being wounded and falling into the enemy's hands, they were afterwards killed. A further confirmation of this charge is, that we have full and direct testimony, which affirms that General Garth declared to one of our militia, who was wounded and taken, that "he was sorry his men had not killed him, instead of taking him ; and that he would not have his men , give quarter to one militia man, taken in arms." Although in this expedition, it must be confessed to the credit of the Britons that they have not done all the mischief in their power, yet, the brutal ravishment of women, the wanton and malicious destruction of property, the burning of the stores upon the wharf, and eight houses in East Haven ; the beating, stabbing, and insulting of the Rev. Dr. Daggett, after he was made a prisoner, the mortally wounding of Mr. Beers, senior, in his own door, and otherways abusing him ; the murdering of the very aged and helpless Mr. English in his own house, and the beating and finally cutting out the tongue of and then killing a distracted man, are sufficient proofs that they were really Britons. HARTFORD, Now the capital, and the second city in the State, is situated on the right bank of the Connecticut Kiver, 36 miles northeast of New Haven, 124 miles southwest of Boston, and 112 miles northeast of New York. On the opposite side of the river lies East Hartford, with which it is connected by a long covered bridge 1000 feet long. The city is about 2 miles long by 1|^ miles broad, and extends length- wise along the banks of the river. It is laid off regularly in some places, and irregularly in others. Main street, the principal thorough- fare, is broad and well built up, and contains the majority of the prominent buildings. The houses are mostly of brick or freestone, and render the general appearance of the place very handsome. The city contains about 25 churches, several fine libraries, 12 or 13 banks, and is supplied with water from the Connecticut River, and is lighted with gas. A street railway connects its various points. The public schools are numerous and are of a high character. There are also several fine institutions of learning in the city, the principal of which is Trinity College, founded in 1823. It has tii.ree handsome edifices of freestone, a fine library, apparatus, and cabinet, and ranks high amongst the educational institutions of the land. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, the Retreat for the Insane, and the Hartford Hospital are noble institution.s, and are amongst the most prominent 340 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ornaments of the city. The old Charter Oak was until 1856, when it was blown down by a storm, one .of the attractions of the city. There are 12 banks in Hartford, which is also the central point of a number of insurance companies, possessing a capital of between fifteen and twenty millions of dollars. A number of large book publishing houses are located here. In 1868 the gross amount employed in this business amounted to several millions of dollars. The principal public buildings are the City Hall and the State House. The former is a handsome building, the lower part of which is used as a market-house. The State House is the finest building in the State. It is surmounted with a cupola, and is 50 feet in width, 50 in height, and 130 in length. Hartford has railroad communication with all parts of the Union, and, except in the severe season of winter, when it .*;s closed by ice, the Connecticut is navigable for steamers. The city is extensively engaged in manufactures. The capital employed in them is over $10,000,000. Fire-arms and hardware of various kinds constitute tUe principal articles produced. The celebrated manufactory of the late Colonel Colt, the inventor of the " Colt Revolver," is located here. There are 12 newspapers published in the city. The popula- tion is 37,180, and is increasing. Hartford was permanently settled by the English in 1635. The following is an abstract from some of the first laws of the town : 163o. — It is ordered, that there shall be a guard of . . . men, to attend with their arms fixed, and two shot of powder and shot, at least, . . . every public meeting for religious use, with two sergeants to oversee the same, and to keep out one of them sentinel .... and the said guard to be freed from boarding, and to have seats provided near the meeting house door, and the ser- geants repair to the magistrates for a warrant for the due execution thereof. It is ordered, that every inhabitant which hath not freedom from the whole to be absent, shall make his personal appearance at every general meeting of the whole town, having sufficient warning ; and whosoever fails to appear at the time and place appointed, shall pay sixpence for every such default ; but if he shall have lawful excuse, it shall be repaid him again ; or whosoever departs away from the meeting before it be ended, without liberty from the whole, shall pay the lilcewise. It is ordered, that whosoever borrows the town chain, shall pay two pence a day, for every day they keep the same, and pay for mending, if it be broken in their use. It is ordered, that there shall be a set meeting of all the townsmen together the first Thursday of every month, by nine o'clock in the forenoon, so that if any in- iiabitant have any business with them, he may repair unto them ; and whosoever of them do not meet at the time and place set, to forfeit two shillings and sixpence for every default. CONNECTICUT. 341 The 17th September, 1G40. — It is ordered, that .... Woodward shall spend his time about killing of wolves, and for his encouragement he shall have four shillings and sixpence for his board, in case he kill not a wolf, or a deer in the week ; but if he kill a wolf or a deer, he is to pay for his board himself; and if he kill .... to have it for two pence a pound. This order is made for a month before he begins. It is further ordered, that if any person hath lost any thing that he desireth should be cried in a public meeting, he shall pay for crying of it two pence to Thomas Woodford, to be paid before it be cried ; and the crier shall have a book of the things that he cricth. At a general Town Meeting in April, 1643 — It was ordered, that Mr. Andrews should teach the children in the school one year next ensuing, from the 25tli of March, 1643, and that he shall have for his pains £16 ; and therefore the towns- men shall go and inciuire who will engage themselves to send their children ; and all that do so shall pay for one quarter at the least, and for more if they do send them, after the proportion of twenty shillings the year ; and if they go anj^ weeks more than an even quarter, they shall pay sixpence a week ; and if anj- would send their children, and are not able to pay for their teaching, they shall give notice of it to the townsmen, and they shall pay it at the town's charge ; and Mr. Andrews shall keep the account between the children's schooling and himself, and send notice of the times of payment and demand it ; and if his wages doth not come in so, then the townsmen must collect and pay it ; or if the engage- ments come not to sixteen pounds, then they shall pay what is wanting, at the town's chai'ges. At a general Town Meeting, October 30tli, 1643 — It was ordered, that if any boy shall be taken playing, or misbehaving himself, in the time of public services, whether in the meeting house or about the walls .... by two witnesses, for the first time shall be examined and punished at the present, publicly, before the assembly depart ; and if any shall be the second time taken faulty, on witness, shall be accounted .... Further, it is ordered, if the parents or master shall desire to correct his boy, he shall have liberty the first time to do the same. It was further ordered, in the same general meeting, that there should be a bell rung by the watch every morning, an liour before daybreak, and that they are appointed by the constables for- that purpose ; shall begin at the bridge, and so ring the bell all the way forth and back from Master Mo()d3''s (Wyllj's \\\\\) to John Pratt's .... and that they shall be in every house, one up, and . . . . some liglits within one quarter of an hour after the end of the bell ringing .... if they can .... the bell is rung before the time ap- Itointed, then to be up with lights as before mentioned, half an hour before day- break, and for default herein is to forfeit one shilling and sixpence, to be to him that finds him faulty, and sixpence to the town. The other cities of the State are as follows : Norwich, at the head of navigation, on the Thames River. It has a population of 16,653, is connected with all parts of the country by railroad, and is the ter- minus of a line of steamers from New York. It is actively engaged in commerce and manufactures. Bridgeport, on Long Island Sound, lias 19,876 inhabitants, and is connected with New York by steam- boat, and is on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway. 342 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It is largely engaged in manufactures. Waterbury, on the Naugatuck Railway^ 20 miles from New Haven, is an important place for the manufacture of brass, German silver, buttons, and other small articles. It contains a population of 10,876. New London, on the Thames River, has 9756- inhabitants. It is a thriving manufacturing place, and is actively engaged in commerce, both foreign and domestic, having the best harbor in the State. Norwalh, on Long Island Sound, on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway, has a popu- lation of about 15,000, and is extensively engaged in maufactures. Middletown, on the Connecticut River (35 miles from its mouth), and West Meriden, on the Hartford and New Haven Railway (16 miles from New Haven), each has a population of 10,000 ; they are grow- ing manufacturing cities. MISCELLANIES. THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. The following is a transcript of the principal part of the celebrated judicial code, known as the Blue Laws, by which it is said the first colonists of Connecti- cut were governed for a considerable time. Some writers have questioned the genuineness of the laws, and it seems certain that, if genuine, the code was never written, but was declared and interpreted by the select men, the judges, and the pastors of the different congregations : The Governor and magistrates, convened in general assembly, are the supreme power, under God, of this independent dominion. From the determination of the assembly no appeal shall be made. The Governor is amenable to the voice of the people. The Governor shall have only a single vote in determining any question, ex- cept a casting vote when the assembly may be equally divided. The assembly of the people shall not be dismissed by the Governor, but shall disn^iss itself. Conspiracy against this dominion shall be punished with death. Whoever attempts to change or overturn this dominion, shall suffer death. The judges shall determine controversies without a jury. No one shall be a freeman, or give a vote, unless he be converted, or a member in free communion in one of the churches in this dominion. No food or lodging shall be afforded to a Quaker, Adamite, or other heretic. No one shall cross a river without an authorized ferryman. No one shall run of a Sabbatli day, or walk in his garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from the church. No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep houses, cut hair, or shave. on the Sabbath day. No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day. A person accused of trespass in the night, shall be judged guilty, unless he clear himself by his oath. No one shall buy or sell lands without permission of the select men. CONNECTICUT. 348 Whoever publishes a lie to the prejudice of his neighbor, shall sit in the stocks, or be wliiiiped fifteen stripes. Whoever wears clothes trimmed with silver, or bone lace, above two shillings a yard, shall be presented by the grand jurors, and the select men shall tax the offender at the rate of 300Z. estate. Whoever brings cards or dice into this dominion shall pay a fine of 51. No one shall read Common Prayer, keep Christmas or Saint's day, make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of music, except the drum, the trumpet, and jews-harp. When parents refuse their children suitable marriages, the magistrates shall determine the point. The select men, on finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents and put them into better hands, at the expense of the parents. A man that strikes his wife shall pay a fine of 101. ; a woman that strikes her husband shall be punished as the court directs. Jlarried persons must live together, or be imprisoned. Every male shall have his hair cut round according to a cap. THE REGICIDES. Soon after the restoration of monarchy in England, manj' of the judges who had condemned King Charles I. to death, were apprehended. Thirty were con- dcniiicd, and ten were executed as traitors; two of them, Colonels GofTe and Wliallcy, made their escape to New England, and arrived at Boston, July, 1660. The}' wOre gentlemen of worth, and av ere 'much esteemed by the colonists for llieir unfeigned piety. Their manners and appearance were dignified, command- ing universal respect. Whalley had been a Lieutcnant-General, and Goffe a >I.ajor-General in Cromwell's army. An order for their apprehension, from Charles II., reached New England soon after their arrival. The king's commis- sioners, eager to execute this order, compelled the judges to resort to the woods and caves, and other hiding places ; and they M'ould undoubtedly have Leen taken, had not the colonists secretly aided and assisted them in their concealments. Sometimes they found a refuge in a cave on a mountain near New Haven, and at others, in cellars of the houses of their I'riends, and once they were secreted un- der the Neck bridge, in New Haven, while their pursuers crossed the bridge on horseback. While in New Haven, they owed their lives to the intrepidity of Mr. Daven- port, the minister of the place, who, when tlie pursuers arrived, preached to the people from this text: '•^Take council, execute judgment., make thy shadow as the night in the midst of the noonday, hide the outcasts., bewray not him that wandereth. Let my outcasts dwell loith thee. Moab, be thou a covert to them from the face of the spoilej'.'''' Large rewards were oflFered for their apprehension, or for any in- formation which might lead to it. Mr. Davenport was threatened, for it was known that he had harbored them. Upon hearing that he was in danger, they offered to deliver themselves up, and actually gave notice to the deputy governor of the place of their concealment ; but Davenport had not preached in vain, and the magistrate took no other notice than to advise them not to betray themselves. After lurking about for two or three years in and near New Haven, they found it necessary to remove to Hadley, where they were received by Mr. Russell, witli whom they were concealed fifteen or sixteen years. After many hairbreadth es- 22 344 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. capes, the pursuit was given over, and tlioy were finally suffered to die a natural death in their exile. The following interesting incident is related in connection with the sojourn of the Kegicides in Connecticut : In the course of Philip's war, which involved almost all the Indian tribes in New England, and, among others, those in the neighborhood of this town, the inhabitants thought it proper to observe the 1st of September, 1675, as a day of fasting and prayer. While they were in the church, and employed in their wor- ship, they were surprised by a band of .savages. The people instantly betook themselves to their arms, which, according to the custom of the times, they had car- ried with them to the church ; and, rushing out, attacked the invaders. The panic under Avhich they began the conflict was, however, so great, and their number was so disproportioned to that of their enemies, that they fought doubtfully at first, and in a short time began evidently to give way. At this moment, an ancient man, with hoary locks, of a most venerable and dignified aspect, and in address widely differing from that of the inhabitants, appeared suddenly at their head, and with a firm voice and an example of undaunted resolution, reanimated their courage, led them again to the conflict, and totally routed the savages. When the battle was ended, the stranger disappeared, and no one knew whence he had come, or whither he had gone. The relief was so timely, so sudden, so unexpected, so providential ; the appearance and retreat of liim, who had fur- nished it, were so unaccountable ; his person was so dignified and commanding, his resolution so superior, and his interference so decisive, that the inhabitants, without any uncommon exercise of credulity, readily believed him to be an angel sent from heaven for their preservation. Nor was this opinion seriously contro- verted, until it was discovered, years afterwards, that Goffe and Whalley had been lodged in the house of Mr Eussell. Then it was known that their deliverer was Goffe ; Whallej^ having become superannuated some time before tlie event took place. There is an obscure and very doubtful tradition, that Goffe also was buried here. PENALTY FOR KISSING. In 1654, a trial took place in Connecticut, under the section of the "Blue Laws" prohibiting kissing. The culprits were Sarah Tuttle and Jacob Newton. It seems that Sarah dropped her gloves, and Jacob found them. When Sarah asked for them, Jacob demanded a kiss for liis pay, and Sarah, not thinking the charge extortionate, paid it in full. Complaint was made by some sour-tempered individual, and the guilty parties were arraigned before the magistrate. The facts were clearly proved, and the parties were each fined twenty shillings. THE DARK DAY. The 19th of May, 1680, was remarkable for the intense darkness which pre- vailed throughout the New England colonies. At this time the Legislature of Connecticut was in session in Hartford. A very general opinion prevailed, that the day of judgment was at hand. The House of Representatives, being unable to transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn the council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel Davenport was asked, he answered, "I am against an adjournment. The day of judgment is either ap' CONNECTICUT. 345 proaching, or it is not. It' it is not, there is no cause for an adjournment ; if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wisli tlierefore that candles may be brouglit." AMERICAN INDEPENDEXCE. The people of Connecticut resolved to maintain their independence of the Duke of York, as their charter was of piior date to tliat of the Duke. Detachments of militia were therefore ordered to New London and Saybrook, the troops at Say- brook being placed under the command of Captain Thomas Bull, of Hartford. Early in July, 1675, the people of Saybrook were surprised by the appearance of Major Andros, with an armed force, in the Sound, making directly for the fort. They had received no intelligence of the hostile expedition of Andros, and having no instructions from the Governor, were undecided what course to take, when, at a critical juncture, Captain Bull with his companj^ arrived, and preparations were at once made for the defence of the fort and town. The assembly met at Hartford on the 9th of July, and immediately drew up a protest against the pro- ceedings of Andros, which they sent by express to Saybrook, with instructions to Captain Bull to propose to Andros a reference of tli<5 dispute to commissioners. On the 11th, Major Andros, witli several armed sloops, drew up before the fort, hoisted the king's flag on board, and demanded a surrender of the fortress and town. Captain Bull immediately raised His Majesty's colors in the fort, and arranged his men in the best manner possible. The major did not like to fire on the king's colors, and perceiving that, should lie attempt to reduce the town by force, it would in all likelihood be a bloody affair, he judged it expedient not to fire upon the troops. Early in the morning of the 12th of July, Andros desired that he miglit have permission to land on the shore, for the purpose of an interview with the minis- ters and chief officers of the town. He probably flattered himself that if he could obtain a foothold upon the soil, and then read the Duke's patent, and his own commission, to tlie people, it would make a serious impression upon them, and that he would be able to gain by artifice that which he could never accomplisli by force of arms. He was alloM'ed to come on shore with his suite. Captain Bull and his officers, with the officers and gentlemen of the town, met him at his landing, and informed him that they had, at that instant, received instructions to tender him a treaty, and to refer the whole matter in controversy to commis- sioners, capable of determining it according to law and justice. Major Andros rejected the proposal at once, and forthwith commanded, in His Majesty's name, that the Duke's patent, and the commission which he had received from His Roj^al Highness, should be read. Captain Bull, comprehending at once the arti- fice of Andros, commanded him, in His Majestj^'s name, to forbear the reading. And when his clerk attempted to persist in reading. Captain Bull repeated his command, with such energy of voice and manner as convinced the major that it might not be altogether safe for him to proceed. The Yankee captain, having succeeded in silencing the valiant representative of the Duke, next informed him that he had a communication to deliver from the assembly, and he then read the protest. Governor Andros, affecting to be well pleased with the bold and soldier-like appearance of his opponent, asked, " What is your name ? " He rephed, " My name is Bull, sir." — " Bull ! " exclaimed the governor. "It is a pity that your horns are not tipped with silver." Finding that he could make no impression upon the officers or people, and that the Legis- 346 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lature of the colony were determined to defend themselves in the possession of their chartered rights, Andros prudently gave up his design of seizing the fort. The militia of the town courteously guarded him to his boat, and, going on board, he soon sailed for New York, and Connecticut was no more troubled by his pres- ence or interference until after the accession of James the Second. ELECTION DAY IN TFIE OLDEN TIME. Previous to the adoption of the Constitution of 1819, the freemen of the State met annually at Hartford on the first Wednesday in May, to choose State officers. The following description of the counting of the votes, and the inauguration of the Governor, is taken form "Kendall's Travels," published in 1808 : I reached Hartford at noon, on Wednesday, the 19th of May, 1807. The city is on the west bank of the Connecticut, 50 miles above its mouth. The governor, whose iamily residence is on the east side of the river, at some distance from Hartford, was expected to arrive in the evening. This gentleman, whose name is Jonathan Trumbull, is the son of the late Governor Jonathan Trumbull ; and though the election is annual, he has himself been three or four years in office, and will almost certainly so continue during the remainder of his life. It was known that the votes at this time were in his favor. The governor has volunteer companies of guards, both horse and foot. In the afternoon the horse were drawn up on the bank of the river to receive him, and escort him to his lodgings. He came before sunset, and the fineness of the even- ing, the beauty of the river, the respectable appearance of the governor, and of the troop, the dignity of the occasion, and the decorum observed, united to gratify the spectators. The color of the clothes of the troops was blue. TJie governor, though on horseback, was dressed in black, but he wore a cockade in a hat, which I did not like the less^ because it was in the form rather of the old school than of the new. In the morning the foot guards were paraded in front of the State House, where they afterwards remained under arms, while the troop of horse occupied the street which is on the south side of the building. The clothing of the foot was scarlet, with white waistcoats and pantaloons ; and their appearance and demeanor were military. The day was fine, and the apartments and galleries of the State House afforded an agreeable place of meeting, in which the members of the Assembly and others awaited the coming of the governor. At about 11 o'clock his excellency entered the State House, and shortly after took his place at the head of a procession, which was made to a meeting-house or church, at something less than half a mile distant. The procession was on foot, and was composed of the person of the governor, together with the lieutenant-governor, assistants, high sheriffs, mem- bers of the lower house of the assembly, and, unless with accidental exceptions, all the clergy of the State. It was preceded by the foot guards, and followed by the horse ; and attended by gazers, that, considering the size and population of the city, may be said to have been numerous. The church, which from its situ- ation is called the South Meeting House, is a small one, and was resorted to on this occasion only because that more ordinarily used was at this time rebuilding. The edifice is of wood, alike unornamented within and without ; and when filled, Mierc was still presented to the eye nothing but what had the plainest appearance. CONNECTICUT. 347 The military remained iu the street, witli tlie exception of a few officers, to whom 110 place of honor or distinction was assigned ; neither the governor nor other magistrates were accompanied witli any insignia of office ; the clergy had no canonical costume, and there were no females in the church, except a few (rather more than twenty in number), who were stationed by themselves in a gallery opposite the pulpit, iii quality of singers. A decent order was the highest characteristic that presented itself. The pulpit, or, as it is here called, the desk, was filled by three, if not four, clergymen ; a number by its form and dimensions it was able to accommodate. Of these, one opened the service with a prayer, another delivered a sermon, a third made a concluding prayer, and a fourth pronounced a benediction. Seve- ral hymns were sung ; and among others an occasional one. The total number of singers was between forty and fifty. The sermon, as will be supposed, touched upon matters of government. When all was finished, the procession returned to the State House. The clergy who walked Avere about a hundred in number. It was in the two bodies of guards alone that any suitable approach to magni- ficence discovered itself. The governor was full dressed, in a suit of bhicL ; but the lieutenant-governor wore riding boots. All, however, was consistently plain, and in unison with itself, except the dress swords, which were worn by high sheriffs, along with their village habilaments, and of which the fashion And the materials were marvellously diversified. Arrived in front of the State House, the military formed on each side of the street ; and, as the governor passed them, presented arms. The several parts of the procession now separated, each to a dinner prepared for itself at an adjoining inn ; the governor, lieutenant-governor, and assistants to their table, the clergy to a second, and the representatives to a third. The time of day was about two in the afternoon. Only a short time elapsed before business was resumed, or rather at length commenced. The General Assembly met in the council room, and the written votes being examined and counted, the names of the public officers elected were formally declared. They were in every instance the same as those which had been successful the preceding year. This done, the lieutenant-governor administered the oath to the governor elect, who, being sworn, proceeded to administer their respective oaths to the lieuten- ant-governor and the rest ; and here terminated the affairs of the election day. Soon after 6 o'clock, the military fired three feu dejoies, and were then dismissed. On the evening following that of election day, there is an annual ball at Hart- ford, called the election ball ; and on the succeding Monday, a second, which is more select. The election day is a holiday throughout the State ; and even the whole remainder of the week is regarded in a similar light. Servants and others are now indemnified for the loss of the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whit- suntide, which the principles of their church' deny them. Families exchange visits, and treat their guests with slices of election cake ; and thus preserve some portion of the luxuries of the forgotten feast of the Epiphany. THE MIDDLE STATES. ' « » f NEW YORK. Area, 47,000 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 3,880,735 Population in 1870, 4,382,759 In population, wealth, and variety of resources, New York is the first State in the Union. It is situated between 40° 29' 40" and 45° 0' 42" N. latitude, and between 71° 51' and 79° 47' 25" W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Onta- rio; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; and on the west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Canada. TOPOGRAPHY. The following" admirable sketch of the topographical features of the State is taken from French's " Gazetteer of the State of New York :" " Surface. — This State lies upon that portion of the Appalachian Mountaiu system where the mountains generally assume the character of hills, and finally sink to a level of the low-lands that surround the great depression filled by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Three distinct mountain masses or ranges enter the State from the south and extend across it in a generally northeast direction. The first or most easterly of these ranges — a continuation of the Blue Ridge of Virginia — enters the State from New Jersey, and extends northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson, ap- pears on the east side of that river, and forms the highlands of Put- nam and Dutchess counties. A northerly extension of the same moun- tains passes into the Green Mountains of Avestern Massachusetts and Vermont. This range culminates in the highlands upon ti)e Hud- 349 550 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE ON CATSKILL MOUNTAINS. son. The highest peaks are 1000 to 1700 feet above tide. . . . The deep gorge formed by tlie Hudson in passing through this range j)re- sents some of the finest scenery in America, and has often been com- pared to the celebrated valley of the Rhine. " The second series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylva- nia, and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster, and Greene counties, terminating and culminating in the Catskill Mountains upon the Hudson. The highest peaks are 3000 to 3800 feet above tide; the Shawangunk Mountains, a high and continuous ridge ex- tendino; between Sullivan and Orange counties and into the south part of Ulst(ir, is the extreme east range of this series. The Helder- berg and Hellibark Mountains are spurs extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharie counties. . . . The declivities are steep and rocky ; and a large share of the surface is too rough for cultivation. The highest peaks overlook the Hudson, and from their summits are obtained some of the finest views in eastern New York. " The third series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, NEW YORK. 351 Montgomery, and Herkimer counties to the Mohawk, and appears upon the north side of" that river, and extends northeast, forming the whole series of highlands that occupy the northeast part of the State and generally known as the Adirondack Mountain region. South of the Mohawk, this mountain system assumes the form of broad, irregu- lar hills, occuj>ying a wide space of country. It is broken by the deep ravines of the streams, and in many places the hills are steep and nearly precipitous. The valley of the Mohawk breaks the con- tinuity of the range, though the connection is easily traced at Little Falls, the Noses, and other places. North of the Mohawk, the high- lands extend northeast in several distinct ranges, all terminating upon Lake Champlain. The culminating point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the State, is Mount Marcy, 5467 feet above the tide. The mountains are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A large share of the surface is entirely unfit for cultivation ; but the regioai is rich in minerals, and especially in an excellent variety of iron ore. West of these ranges, series of hills forming spurs of the Alleghanies enter the State from Pennsylvania, and occupy the entire south half of the western part of the State. An irregular line extend- ing through the southerly counties, forms the watershed that sepa- rates the northern and southern drainage; and from it the surface gradually declines northward until it finally terminates in the level of Lake Ontario. The portion of the State lying south of this water- shed, and occup}-ing the greater part of the two southerly tiers of counties, is entirely occupied by these hills. Along the Pennsylvania line they are usually abrupt and are separated by narrow ravines, but toward the nortii their summits become broader and less broken. A considerable portion of the highland region is too steep for profita- ble cultivation, and is best adapted to grazing. The highest summits in Allegany and Cattaraugus counties are 2000 to 3000 feet above tide. " From the summits of the watershed the highlands usually descend toward Lake Ontario in series of terraces, the edg-es of which are the outcrops of the different rocks which underlie the surface. These ter- races are usually smooth, ttnd, ultliough inclined toward the north, the inclination is generally so slight that they appear to be level. Between the hills of the south and the level land of the north is a beautiful rolling region, the ridges gradually declining toward the north. In that part of the State south of the most eastern mountain range the surface is generally level or broken by low hills. In New York and Westchester counties, these hills are principally composed 352 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of primitive rocks. The surface of Long Island is generally level or gently undulating. A ridge 150 to 200 feet high, composed of sand, gravel, and clay, extends east and west across the island north of the centre. " Rivers and Lakes. — The river system of the State has two general divisions, — the first comprising the streams tributary to the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the second those whicli flow in a generally southerly direction. The watershed which separates these two systems extends in an irregular line eastward from Lake Erie through the southern tier of counties to near the northeast corner of Chemung ; thence it turns northeast to the Adirondack Mountains in Essex county, thence southeast to the eastern extremity of Lake George, and thence nearly due east to the eastern line of the State. " The northerly division has five general subdivisions. The most westerly of these comprises all the streams flowing into Lake Erie and Niagara Kiver and those flowing into Lake Ontario west of Genesee River. In Chautauqua county the streams are short and rapid, as the watershed approaches within a few miles of L;xke Erie. Catta- raugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks are the most important streams in this division. Buffalo Creek is chiefly noted for forming Buffalo Harbor at its mouth ; and the Tonawanda for 12 miles from its mouth is used for canal navigation. Oak Orchard and other creeks flowing into Lake Ontario descend from tlie interior in a series of rapids, aflbrding a large amount of water-j)ower. " The second subdivision comprises the Genesee River and its tribu- taries. The Genesee rises in the north pai*t of Pennsylvania anil flows in a generally northerly direction to Lake Ontario. Its upper course is through a narrow valley bordered by steep, rocky hills. Upon the line of Wyoming and Livingston counties it breaks thnjugh a moun- tain barrier in a deep gorge and forms the Portage Falls, — one of the finest waterfalls in the State. . Below this point the course of the river is through a beautiful valley, one to two miles wide and bordered by banks 50 to 150 feet high. At Rochester it flows over the precipitous edges of the Niagara limestone, forming the Upper Genesee Falls; and three miles below, it flo\vs over the edge of the Medina sandstone, forming the Lower Genesee Falls. The principal tributaries of this stream are Canaseraga, Honeoye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka and Black creeks from the west, Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock, and Conesus lakes lie within the Genesee Basin. " The third subdivision includes the Oswego River and its tribu- NEW YORK. 353 taries, and the small streams flowing into Lake Ontario between Gene- see and Oswego rivers. The basin of the Oswego includes most of the inland lakes which form a peculiar feature of the landscape in the interior of the State. The principal of these lakes are Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Crooked, and Owasco, — all occupying long, narrow valleys, and extending from the level land in the centre far into the highland region of the south. The valleys which they occupy appear like immense ravines formed by some tremendous force, which has torn the solid rocks from their original beds, from the general level of the surrounding summits, down to the present bottoms of the lakes. Oneida and Onondaga lakes occupy basins upon the level land in the northeast part of the Oswego Basin. Mud Creek, the most westerly brancli of Oswego River, takes its rise in Ontario county, flows northeast into Wayne, where it unites. with Canandaigua Outlet and takes the name of Clyde River ; thence it flows east to the west line of Cayuga county, where it empties into Seneca River. This latter stream, made up of the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes, from this point flows in a northeast course, and receives successively the outlets of Owasco, Skaneateles, Onondaga, ai*id Oneida lakes. From the mouth of the last-named stream it takes the name Oswego River, and its course is nearly due north to Lake Ontario. " The fourth subdivision includes the streams flowing into Lake On- tario and the St. Lawrence, east of the mouth of the Oswego. The principal of these are Salmon, Black, Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Racket rivers. These streams mostly take their rise n])on the plateau of the great northern wilderness, and in their course to the lowlands are fre- quently interrupted by falls, furnishing an abundance of water-power. The water is usually very dark, being colored with iron and the vege- tation of swamps. " The fifth subdivision includes all the streams flowing into lakes George and Champlain. They are mostly mountain torrents, fre- quently interrupted by cascades. The principal streams are the Chazy, Saranac, and Au Sable rivers, and Wood Creek. Deep strata of tertiary clay extend along the shores of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek. The water of most of the streams in this region is colored by the iron over which it flows. "The second general division of the river-system of the State in- cludes the basins of the Allegany, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hud- son. The Allegany Basin embraces the southerly half of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties and the southwest corner of Allegany. The 354 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Allegany River enters the State from the south in the southeast corner of Cattaraugus county, flows in nearly a semicircle, with its outward curve toward the north, and flows out of tlie State in the southwest part of the same county. It receives several tributaries from the north and east. These streams mostly flow in deep ravines, bordered by steep, rocl^y hillsides. The watershed between this basin and Lake Erie approaches within a few miles of the lake, and is elevated 800 or 1000 feet above it. "The Susquehanna Basin occupies about one-third of the south border of th6 State. The river takes its rise in Otsego Lake, and, flowing southwest to the Pennsylvania line, receives Charlotte River from the south and the Unadilla from the north. After a course of a few miles in Pennsylvania, it again enters the State, and flows in a general westerly direction to near the west border of Tioga county, whence it turns south and again enters Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is Chenango River. Tioga River enters the State from Pennsylvania near the east border of Steuben county, flows north, receives the Canisteo from the west and the Conhocton from the north. From the mouth of the latter the stream takes the name Chemung River, and flows in a southeast direction, into the Susque- hanna in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the State line. The upper course of these streams is generally through deep ravines bor- dered by steep hillsides ; but below they are bordered by wide and beautiful intervales. " The Delaware Basin occupies Delaware and Sullivan and portions of several of the adjacent counties. The north or principal branch of the river rises in the northeast part of Delaware county and flows southwest to near the Pennsylvania line; thence it turns southeast and forms the boundary of the State to the line of New Jersey. Its principal branches are the Pepacton and Neversink rivers. These streams all flow in deep, narrow ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hills. "The Basin of the Hudson occupies about two-thirds of the east bor- der of the State, and a large territory extending into the interior. The remote sources of the Hudson are among the highest peaks of the Adirondacks, more than 400'^ feet above tide. Several of the little lakes which form reservoirs of the upper Hudson are 2500 to 3000 feet above tide. The stream rapidly descends through the narrow defiles into Warren county, where it receives from the east the outlet of Schroon Lake, and Saeondaga River from the west. Below the mouth of the latter the river turns eastward, and breaks through the NEW YORK. 355 VIEW ON THE HUDSON KIVER. barrier of the Luzerne Mountains in a series of rapids and falls. At Fort Edward it again turns south and flows with a rapid current, fre- quently interrupted by falls, to Troy, 160 miles from the ocean. At this place the river falls into an estuary, where its current is aiFected by the tide ; and from this place to its mouth it is a broad, deep, sluggish stream. About 60 miles from its mouth, the Hudson breaks through the rocky barrier of the Highlands, forming the most easterly of the Appalachian Mountain Ranges; and along its lower course it is bordered on the west by a nearly perpendicular wall of basaltic rock 300 to 500 feet high, known as ' The Palisades.' Above Troy the Hudson receives the Hoosick River from the east and the Mo- hawk from the west. The former stream rises in western Massachu- setts and Vermont, and the latter near the centre of the State. At Little Falls and the ' Noses,' the Mohawk breaks through the moun- tain barriers in a deep, rocky ravine ; and at Cohoes, about one mile from its mouth, it flows down a perpendicular precipice of 70 feet, forming an excellent water-power. Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson are all comparatively small streams. South of the Highlands 356 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Vv^/^-^ ^^^/|^^ ^=^ LAKE GEORGE. the river spreads out into a wide expanse known as ' Tappan Bay.' A few small streams upon the extreme east border of the State flow eastward into the Housatonic; and several small branches cf ^he Pasaic River rise in the south part of Rockland county. "Lake Erie forms a portion of the west boundary of the State. . . . The harbors upon tlie lake are Butfalo, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, and Barcelona Niagara River, forming the outlet of Lake Erie, is 34 miles long, and, on an avei'age, more than a mile wide. . . . Lake Ontario forms a part of the nortli boundary to the west half of the State." Between Warren and Washiligton counties, lies Lake George, sometimes called by its Indian name, Horicon, the most beautiful body of water in the State. It is 36 miles long, with a breadth vary- ing from three-quarters of a mile to 4 miles. " The water is remark- ably transparent, and in some parts is more than 400 feet deep. To a passenger traversing this lake, scarcely anything can be imagined NEW YORK. 357 more beautiful or picturesque than the scenery along its banks. The romantic effect of the prospect is greatly enhanced by a multitude of delightful islands of various forms and sizes, which meet the gaze of the beholder on every side. Of these, if we include many little islets and rocks, there are more than 300: a popular notion prevails that their number corresponds to that of the days of the year. Twelve miles from the southwestern extremity of the lake, there is an island of about 20 acres, called, from its position, Twelve Mile Island. A mile farther north there is a high point, or tongue of land, called Tongue Mountain, west of which projects a small arm of the lake, named Nortiiwcst Bay. Here the Narrows, that is, the narrowest part of the lake, commence and continue 7 or 8 miles. Near the west end of the Narrows, on the eastern side of the lake, is Black Mountain, the summit of which is regarded as the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the lake, having an elevation of 2200 feet above its surface. About 12 miles beyond Black Mountain there is a rock about 200 feet high, rising almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. During the French War, Major Rogers, being closely pursued by the Indians, slid down this steep declivity, and landed safely on the ice, leaving his pursuers petrified with astonishment at the dangerous exploit which they had witnessed. From this circumstance, the rock lias been named Rogers' Slide. Two or three miles beyond the place just mentioned, is Lord Howe's Point, where the division of the English army under Lord Howe landed previous to their attack on Ticonderoga." The greatest of all the natural wonders of the State, however, are the famous Falls of the Niagara, which lie partly within the limits of New York, and partly in Canada. The Niagara River, as has been stated, forms the outlet of the 4 great upper lakes, and discharges their waters which it receives through Lake Erie, into Lake Ontario. At the point where it leaves Lake Erie, the Niagara is very wide, but it narrows as it recedes from the lake, and about 16 miles from Lake Erie, it begins to contract suddenly, and the current increases in velocity. This is the beginning of the rapids, which are a mile in length. The fall of the river in this distance is 52 feet, and down this descent the immense volume of water rushes m great swells, until the Falls are reached. As it ap})roaches the precipice, the river makes a curve from west to north, and spreads out to an extreme width of about 4750 feet. Goat Island, which extends down to the brink of the cataract, occupies about one-fourth of this space, leaving the river on the American side about 1100 feet wide, and on the Canadian side about double this 358 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. width. The line along the verge of the Canadian fall, is much longer than the breadth of this portion of the river, by reason of its horseshoe form, the curve extending up the central part of the current. In passing down the rapids the waters acquire a force which dashes them over the precipice in a grand, resistless torrent, and they fall in a magnificent curve, as they leap clear of the rocky wall into the boiling pool at its base. The fall is 164 feet on the American side, and 150 on the Canadian. The greater volume of water passes over the Canadian, or " Horseshoe Fall." The space between the cataract and the wall of rock over which it dashes, widens near the bottom, the strata being there of a loose, shaly character, and consequently hollowed out by the continual action of the spray. A cave is thus formed behind the fall, into which, on the Canadian side, persons can enter, and pass by a rough and slippery path toward Goat Island. Below the falls, the current, contracted to less than 1000 feet in width, is tossed tumultu- ously about, and forms great eddies and whirlpools as it sweeps down its rapidly descending bed. Small boats can pass the river in safety here, and a little steamer used to convey passengers almost to the foot of the falls. The river is crossed by two suspension bridges. One immediately below the falls, is used by vehicles and pedestrians, the other, a mile below, is used partly by these, and partly by the railway line entering Canada. Fourteen miles below, the river enters Lake Ontario. The Falls of Niagara are unsurpassed in grandeur and magnificence by any in the world. When the state of the atmosphere is favorable, the roar of the cataract may be heard for miles. It sometimes rolls over the land to Lake Ontario, and across its waters to Toronto in Canada, 46 miles distant. Anthony Trollope has written of them as follows : "The falls, as I have said, are. made by a sudden breach in the level of the river. All cataracts are, I presume, made by such breaches ; but generally the waters do not fall precipitously as they do at Niagara, and never elsewhere, as far as the world yet knows, has a breach so sudden been made in a river carrying in its channel such or any approach to such a body of water. Up above the falls for more than a mile the waters leap and burst over rapids, as though conscious of the destiny that awaits them. Here the river is very broad and com- paratively shallow ; but from shore to shore it frets itself into little torrents, and begins to assume the majesty of its power. Looking at it even here, in the expanse which forms itself over the greater fall, one XEW YORK. 359 FALLS OF THE NIAGARA. feels «nre that no strongest swimmer could have a chance of inmself if fate had cast him in even among those pottv whir i .c waters, though so broken in their descent, are deliciously llus color, as seen early in the morning or just as the sun has so bright, as to give to the place one of its chicfest charms Ihis wdl be best seen from the farther end of the island- island as It is called-which, as the reader will understand, d savuig Ipools. green, set, is -Goat ivides 360 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the river immediately above the falls. Indeed, the island is a part of that precipitously-broken ledge over which the river tumbles, and no doubt in process of time will be worn away and covered witli water. The time, hosvever, will be very long. In the meanwhile, it is perhaps a mile round, and is covered thickly with timber. At the upper eu/* of the island the waters are divided, and, coming down in two courses each over its own rapids, form two separate falls. The bridge by which the island is entered, is a hundred yards or more above the; smaller fall. The waters here have been turned by the island, and make their leap into the body of the river below at a right angle with it — about 200 yards below the greater fall. Taken alone, this smaller cataract would, I imagine, be the heaviest fall of water known ; but taken in conjunction with the other, it is terribly shorn of its majesty. The waters here are not green as they are at the larger cataract; and, though the ledge has been hollowed and bowed by them so as to form a curve, that curve does not deepen itself into a vast abyss as it does at the horseshoe up above. This smaller fall is again divided ; and the visitor, passing down a flight of steps and over a frail wooden bridge, finds himself on a smaller island in the midst of it. " But we will go at once on to the glory, and the thunder, and the majesty, and the wrath of that upper hell of waters. We are still, lot the reader remember, on Goat Island — still in the States — and on what is called the American side of the main body of the river. Advancing beyond the path leading down to the lesser fall, Ave come to that point of the island at which the waters of the main river begin to descend. From hence across to the Canadian side the cataract continues itself in one unabated line. But the line is very far from being direct or straight. After stretching for some little way from the shore to a point in the river which is reached by a wooden bridge at the end of which stands a tower upon the rock, — ^after stretching to this, the line of the ledge bends inward against the flood — ^in, and in, and in — till one is led to think that the depth of that horseshoe is immeasurable. It has been cut Avith no stinting hand. A monstrous cantle has been worn back out of the centre of the rock, so that the fury of the Avaters converges ; and the spectator, as he gazes into the hollow with Avishful eyes, fancies that he can hardly trace out the centre of the abyss. " Go down to the end of that wooden bridge, seat yourself on the rail, and there sit till all the outer world is lost to you. There is no grander spot about Niagara than this. The Avaters are absolutely around you. If you have that power of eye-contrio which is so neces- NEW YORK. 361 sary to the full enjoyment of scenery, you will see nothing but the water. You will certainly hear nothing else ; and the sound, I beg you to reoieraber, is not an ear-cracking, agonizing crash and clang of noises, but is melodious and soft withal, though loud as thunder. It fills your ears, and, as it were, envelops them, but at the same time you can speak to your neighbor without an effort. But at this place, and in these moments, the less of speaking, I should say, the better. There is no grander spot than this. Here, seated on the rail of the bridge, you will not see the whole depth of the fall. In looking at the grandest works of nature, and of art too, I foncy it is never well to see all. There should be something left to the imagination, and much should be half concealed in mystery. The greatest charm of a mountain range is the wild feeling that there must be strange, unknown, desolate worlds in those far-off valleys beyond. And so here, at Niagara, that converging rush of waters may fall down, down at once into a hell of rivers, for what the eye can see. It is glorious to watch them in their first curve over the rocks. They come green as a bank of emeralds, but with a fitful flying color, as though conscious that in one moment more they would be dashed into spray and rise into air, pale as driven snow. The vapor rises high into the air, and is gath- ered there, visible always as a permanent white cloud over the cataract ; but the bulk of the spray which fills the lower hollow of that horseshoe is like a tumult of snow. This you will not fully see from your seat on the rail. The head of it rises ever and anon ouj: of that caldron below, *but the caldron itself will be invisible. It is ever so far down — far as your own imagination can sink it. But your eyes will rest full upon the curve of the waters. The shape you will be looking at is that of a horseshoe, but of a horseshoe miraculously deep from toe to heel ; and this depth becomes greater as you sit there. That which at first wan only great and beautiful becomes gigantic and sublime, till the mind is at a loss to find an epithet for its own use. To realize Niagara, you must sit there till you see nothing else than that which you have come to see. You will hear nothing else, and think of nothing else. At length you will be at one with the tumbling river before you. You will find yourself among the waters as though you belonged to them. The cool, liquid green will run through your veins, and the voice of the cataract will be the expression of your own heart. You will fall as the bright waters fall, rushing down into your new world with no hesitation and with no dismay ; and you will rise again as the spray rises, bright, beautiful and pure. Then you will flow away in your course to the uncompassed, distant, and eternal ocean. 362 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. " When this state has been reached and has passed away, you may got off your rail and mount the tower. It is not very high, and there is a balcony at the. top on which some half-dozen persons may stand at ease. Here the mystery is lost, but the whole fall is seen. It is not even at this spot brought so fully before your eye, made to show itself in so complete and entire a shape, as it will do when you come to stand near it on the Canadian shore. But I think that it shows itself more beautifully. And tlie form of the cataract is such, that here on Goat Island, on the American shore, no spray will reach you, though you are absolutely over the waters. But on the Canadian side, the road as it approaches the fall is wet and rotten with spray, and you, as you stand close upon the edge, will be wet also. The rainbows as they are seen through the rising cloud — for the sun's rays, as seen through these waters, show themselves in a bow, as they do when seen through rain — are pretty enough, and are greatly loved. "And now we will cross the water, and with this object will return by the bridge out of Goat Island, on the mainland of the American side. But as we do so, let me say that one of the great charms of Niagara consists in this : that over and above that one great object of wonder and beauty, there is so much little loveliness — loveliness espe- cially of water I mean. There are little rivulets running here and there over little falls, with pendent boughs above them, and stones shining under their shallow depths. As the visitor stands and looks tlirough the trees, the rapids glitter before him, and then hide them- selves behind islands. They glitter and sparkle in far distances*under the bright foliage, till the remembrance is lost, and one knows not which way they run " Having mounted the hill on the Canada side, you will walk on toward the falls. As I have said before, you will from this side look directly into the full circle of the upper cataract, while you will have before you, at your left hand, the whole expanse of the lesser fall. For those who desire to see all at a glance, who wish to comprise the whole with their eyes, and to leave nothing tobe guessed, nothing to be sur- mised, this no doubt is the best point of view "Here, on this side, you walk on to the very edge of the cataract,, and, if your tread be steady and your legs firm, you dip your foot into, the water exactly at the spot where the thin outside margin of the current reaches the rocky edge and jumps to join the mass of the fall. The bed of white foam beneath is certainly seen better here than elsev where, and the green curve of the water is as bright here as when seen NEW YORK. 363 from the wooden rail, across. But nevertheless I say again that that wooden rail is the one point from whence Niagara may be best seen aright. "Close to the cataract, exactly at the spot from whence in former days tlie Table Rock used to project from the land over the boiling caldron below, there is now a shaft, down which you will descend to the level of the river, and pass between the rock and "the torrent. This Table Rock broke away from the cliif and fell, as up the whole course of the river the seceding rocks have split and fallen from time to time through countless years, and will continue to do till the bed of the upper lake is reached " In the spot to which I allude the visitor stands on a broad safe path, made of shingles, between the rock over which the water rushes and the rushing water. He will go in so far that the spray, rising back from the bed of the torrent, does not incommode him. With this exception, the farther he can go in the better ; but circumstances will clearly show him the spot to which he should advance. Unless the water be driven in by a very strong yvind, five yards make the difference between a comparatively dry coat and an absolutely wet one. And then let him stand with his back to the entrance, thus lading the last glimmer of the expiring day. So standing, he will look up among the falling waters, or down into the deep, misty pit, from which they reascend in almost as palpable a bulk. The rock will be at his right hand, high and hard, and dark and stmight, like the wall of Some huge cavern, such as children enter in their dreams. For the first five minutes he will be looking but at the waters of a cataract — at the waters, indeed, of such a cataract as we know no other, and at their interior curves which elsewhere we cannot see. But by and by all this' will change. He will no longer be on a shingly path beneath a waterfall ; but that feeling of a cavern wall will grow upon him, of a cavern deep, below roaring seas, in which the waves are there, though they do not enter in upon him; or rather, not the waves, but the very bowels of the ocean. He will feel as though the floods surrounded him, coming and going with their wild sounds, and he will hardly recognize that though among them he is not in them. And they, as they fall with a continual roar, not hurting the ear, but musical withal, will seem to move as the vast ocean waters may per- haps move in their internal currents. He will lose the sense of one continued descent, and think that they are passing round him in their appointed courses. The broken spray that rises from the depths below,, 364 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rises so strongly, so palpably, so rapidly, that the motion in every direction will seem equal. And, as he looks on, strange colors will show themselves through the mist ; the shades of gray will become green or blue, with ever and anon a flash of white ; and then, when some gust of wind blows in with greater violence, the sea-girt cavern will become all dark and black. Oh, my friend, let there be no one there to speak to thee then ; no, not even a brother. As you stand there speak only to the waters." The principal rivers are navigable for a greater or less distance, and canals connect the various parts of the State, and afford water transportation along the unnavigable parts of the rivers. The principal islands are Long Island and Staten Island. Long Island extends eastward from the mainland, and lies south of Connecticut. Its northern shore is washed by Long Island Sound, and its eastern and southern shores by the Atlantic Ocean, while the East River, a narrow strait, separates it from Manhattan Island. It is about 115 miles long, and about 20 miles broad. Its surface is generally level, rising only in slight elevations. The coast is broken into numerous bays and harbors, some of which are excellent. Gar- diner's and Great Peconic bays, at the eastern extremity of the island, extend into the land for about 30 miles. The majority of these bays form the harbors of flourishing towns. The coast is well lighted, and several fine summer resorts are situated along it. The soil is fertile and highly cultivated. Several important towns are located on the island, and railroads furnish sure and rapid communication between them. Brooklyn, the second city in the State, is located on the ex- treme western end of Long Island. Staten Island lies in the lower part of New York Bay. It is about 14 miles long, 4 miles wide, and is built up with a number of busy little villao;es. Its shores and heights are lined with handsome country seats, and a railroad extends throughout its entire length. MINERALS. The State is very rich in mineral deposits. Iron abounds. Ex- tensive beds of hematite ores are found in Columbia and Dutchess counties, magnetic ores in Putnam, Orange, and Westchester counties, and the region lying between Lakes Champlain and Ontario is espe- cially rich in specular and magnetic ores. The western counties also contain large deposits of this mineral. Coal is found in Steuben county, and lead in St. Lawrence, Ulster, Sullivan, Columbia, Wash- NEW YORK. S65 ington, Dutchess, Rensselaer, and Westchester counties. Zinc, copper, titanium, manganese, arsenic, silver, cobalt, and bismuth are found to a limited extent. Marble, gneiss, and sandstone abound. Sulphuret of iron is found in St. Lawrence county, and carburet in Essex, Clinton, and Dutchess counties. Mineral springs are numerous. There are fine salt springs in Onondaga (which yield in this county largo quantities of table salt), Erie, Genesee, and Orleans counties. Natural issues of carbureted hydrogen exist in sev*eral counties in the State. In Chautauqua county, the village of Fredonia is lighted by means of this gas, as is also Barcelona lighthouse in the .same county. CLIMATE. In the northern and western parts of the State, the summer is short and hot, the winter long and severe, and the spring cold and damp, and rendered unpleasant by chilly winds. In the eastern section the sea breezes temper the severity of the cold, and lessen the heat of the summer. The climate of New York City is the most delightful in the country, taking it " the year round.'' SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the valleys of the principal rivers of the State the soil is gene- rally of an excellent quality, and very fertile. In the mountainous regions it is poor. The average soil, however, is good, and the State as a whole is fertile. Agriculture is carried on to a very great extent, much care being given to scientific farming. The State is noted for its market gardens, as well as for its dairy and grazing farms. In 1869, there were 14,355,403 acres of improved land, and 6,616,553 acres of unimproved land in the State, whose agricultural wealth for the same year may be stated as follows: Cash value of fanns (estimated) $1,000,000,000 Value of fanning implements and mac'iinery (estimated), $38,000,000 ]Sr umber of horses, 703,120 " asses and mules, 1,960 " milch cows, 1,980,300 " young cattle 2,450,600 " sheep, 3,750,960 " swine, 4,960,300 Value of domestic animals, $108,856,290 Bushels of wheat, 9,750,000 " i-ye 4,748,000 " Indian corn 19,100,000 " oats 31,250,000 366 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of peas aud beans, 1,909,339 Irish potatoes, 28,500,000 "■ barley, 4,600,000 '' buckwheat, 278,109 Poiinds of wool, ' . . . 9,500,000 " butter, 103,097,280 cheese, 48,548,289 hops, ..',... 9,600,000 Tons of hay, 4,600,000 Maple sugar, 10,816,458 Gallons of wme, 62,000 Value of orchard products (estimated), . . . $4,000,000 " market garden products (estunated), $3,800,000 " home-made manufactures, " . $825,000 " slaughtered animals, . . " . $16,000,000 COMMERCE. The commerce of New York is the most important of any of the States. In 1863 the total tonnage owned in the State was 1,889,190 tons, of which 848,328 was registered, and 321,714 was steam tonnage. In addition to this, however, a very large proportion of the vessels owned in other States are engaged in trading with the ports of New York. This State possesses the principal harbor of the Republic, and is more extensively engaged in the foreign and coast trade than any other. A very large share of the exports, and nearly all the imports, of the country pass through the port of New York. The share of the State in the lake trade is immense. Buffalo is the great centre of this trade. The enrolled and licensed tonnage of the port in 1863 was 112,893 ton;?, of which 50,964 was steam tonnage. In the same year, 7647 American and foreign vessels were entered, and 7729 were cleared at Buft:ih). The value of imports from the west by lake and railroad, i n the same year, was estimated at $125,000,000. Of this sum, $2,957,021 were on account of imports from Canada. The total value of imports from all sections was $256,214,614. Immense quantities of grain are received annually from all parts of the -west, and shippcKl eastward by the Erie Canal. In 1863, the value of canal exports was $56,644,792. In 1869, the tonnage of merchandise car- ried through them an:jounted to 1,000,000 tons, the capacity of all the vessels entered at the ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and S;in Francisco. In the same year the tolls amounted to $1,278,507.52. These tolls are pledged by the Constitution for the support and repair of the canals, the repayment of the State indebted nc-s on their account, the reimbursement of the NEW YORK. 367 treasury for taxation upon the people, and for the support of the State Government. MANUFACTURES. The State is largely engaged in manufactures, almost every species of industry being represented in this branch of its wealth. In 1870, there were in the State 36,206 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 351,800 hands and a capital of |366,994,320, consuming raw material worth ^452,065,452, and yielding an annual product of |785,194,651. There were 81 cotton mills, with a capital of $8,511,336, employing 2608 male and 4546 female hands, consuming raw material worth $6,990,626, paying $2,626,131 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $11,078,211. There were 188 woollen mills, with a capital of $9,972,857, employing 4381 male and 2992 female hands, con- suming raw material worth $8,348,693, paying $2,824,344 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $14,152,645. The other manufactures were as follows : Value of leather produced, $36,509,800 '' pig iron produced, 7,922,463 " rolled iron produced, 16,834,480 " steam engines and machinerj'^ produced, 20,962,058 " agricultural implements produced, . 11,847,037 " sawed and planed lumber produced, 27,570,509 flour produced, 60,237,220 " salt produced, ■ 1,017,509 " malt and spirituous liquors produced, 10,297,274 " boots and shoes produced, .... 23,679,874 " furniture produced, 16,075,268 " musical instruments produced, . . 5,453,015 " jewelry, silverware, etc., produced, . 10,853,950 " soap and candles produced, . . . 6,125,018 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State of New York was the first member of the Union to en- gage in internal improvements upon a large scale. In 1817, the great Erie, and Hudson Canal was commenced. It was completed in 1825 at a cost of $7,000,000. This magnificent work, connecting the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Great Lakes, is due to the genius and determination of De Witt Clinton, who more than any other man contributed to its successful accomplishment. The Erie Canal has several branches diverging from it, viz : one from Utica to Binghampton, one from Syracuse to Oswego^ one from Geneva to 368 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Montezuma, and one from Rochester to Danville. The next import- ant main line is the Champlain Canal, from Albany to Lake Cham- plain, which is not far behind the " Erie " in the extent and value of its trade. The other canals are the Delaware and Hudson, connecting the Hudson River with the coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania ; the Chemung, connecting Senaca Lake and Elmira; the Crooked Lake, between Penn Yan and Dresden ; and the Black River and Genesee Valley Canal, which is not yet completed. There are about 873 miles of canal navigation completed in the State. The various routes are all in successful operation, each commanding a large and profitable trade. They have all been constructed by the State. The railroads of New. York are among the most important in the country. In 1870 there were 4773 miles of completed roads in the State. The total cost of these was about $225,000,000. The State is traversed in every direction l)y roads of this class, which connect its principal towns and cities, and extend into the States lying around it. Close connections are made with the most important roads of the Union, and by a judicious system, inaugurated within the last few years, travellers are conveyed from New York City to the principal cities of the Union without change of cars in the majority of instances, and with but one or two changes in the others. Freights are brought from the far South and the remote West to the metropolis in the cars in which they were originally placed. The New York Central Rail- way, extending from Albany to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo and Oswego ; the Erie Railway, from Jersey City, opposite New York City (and lying for a short distance in New Jersey), to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo, Dunkirk, and Rochester; the Albany and Susquehanna, from Albany to Binghampton ; and the Hudson River and Harlem Railways, the last two from New York City to Albany, are the principal roads in the State. EDUCATION. "The institutions of higher education in this State are mostly under the general supervision of a board styled ' The Regents of the University of the State of New York.' The Board consists of the Governor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the Secretary of State, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction, as ex-oficio members, and of nineteen other persons chosen by the Legislature in the same manner as Senators in Congress. The officers of the Regents are a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor, a Treasurer, a Secretary and an Assistant Secretary, NEW YORK. 369 who are appointed hy the Board, and who hold their offices at its pleasure. The leading duties with which the Regents are charged, are the incorporation of colleges, academies and other institutions of learning, under such general rules and regulations as they may from time to time establish, and the visitation and general supervision of all colleges and academies. " The Regents are the Trustees of the State Library, the Trustees of the State Cabinet of Natural History, and the Historical and Antiquarian Collection connected therewith. They annually apportion among the academies the sum of $40,000 from the income of the Literature Fund; also the sum of $18,000, or thereabouts, to acade- mies appointed to instruct classes in the science of common school teaching; and $3000 to academies which shall have raised an equal amount, for the purchase of books and philosophical and chemical apparatus. "An organization consisting of the officers of colleges and academies, subject to the visitation of the Board, and called ' The University Convocation of the State of New York,' holds an annual session at Albany, commencing on the first Tuesday in August. " There are in the State 23 colleges, the oldest, Columbia College, having been incorporated by the colonial government in 1754. This college has, in addition to its academical department, a Law Depart- ment, and a School of Mines. The University of the City of New York has schools of Art; of Civil Engineering and Architecture; of Analytical and Practical Chemistry; and of Law. " Cornell University, at Ithaca, incorporated in 1865, and opened to students in 1868, has been liberally endowed by Mr. Ezra Cornell. It has also received the donation of land scrip made to this State by the General Government to found an agricultural college. In its plan and object, it combines the advantages of a university with the prac- tical benefits of a school of science and art. " Rutger's Female College, in New York City, provides a thorough collegiate course of instruction, surpassing even many colleges for young men. " Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie ; The Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn ; and other institutions for young ladies, offer every facility desired for complete education. " The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the general super- vision of Public Schools in the State. School Commissioners in the different counties, city and town superintendents in the principal 370 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cities and towns, and trustees in the scliool districts, exercise a local supervision over the schools in their respective localities. Great im- provements have been made in the public schools of the State. The schools were made free in 1867. Tiiere are four State Normal Schools in successful operation, and four others have been authorized by law. The State Normal and Training School at Oswego has been distin- guished for its influence in introducing special methods of primary- instruction, known as Object Teaching. During the year 1867-68, 81 academies instructed teachers' classes in the science of common school teaching and government, under the supervision of the Regents of the University. Teachers' Institutes are held in nearly all the counties, principally under the direction of the County Commis- sioners," * In the year 1870, there were 11,705 public schools in the State, conducted by 5283 male and 21,230 female teachers. The number of children at school during some portion of the year was 1,029,955. The amount expended on these schools in thesame year was $9,929,462. In 1867 the number of private schools was 1433. In 1870 there were 8360 libraries in the State, containing 2,436,576 volumes. Of these 774 were public. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows: daily 74, semi-weekly ] 0, tri-weekly 7, weekly 366, monthly 69, quarterly 10, annual 6 — total 542. Of these 365 were j^olitical, 56 religious, 63 literary, and 58 miscellaneous. Ttieir total annual circulation was 320,930,884 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The charitable institutions of this State are, perhaps, the most complete and the best managed of any in America. They are under the general supervision of a Board of Public State Charities, appointed by the Governor. The Neio York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, located at New York City, was founded in 1818. It is one of the largest and most complete in the world, and is famous for the excellence and success of its system of treatment. On the 1st of January, 1868, it contained 439 pupils. The New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, to which place it * America]! Year Book, vol, i. I'p. 415-416. NEW YORK. 371 was removed from Albany in 1855, is in a flourishing condition. Tlie number of inmates is 140. The State Lunatic Asylum is at Utica. It was opened in 1843, and is always full of patients. On the 1st of January, 1867, the number was 401. Besides this establishment the State maintains the Willard Asylum, at Ovid, and the Hudson River Asylum, at Poughkeepsie. The City and County of New York maintain a large Insane Asylum on Blackwell's Island ; King's county has one at Flatbush, and the Commissioners of Emigration have one on Ward's Island, There ar? also several private, and a number of county asylums. The Inebriate Asylum is at Binghampton. Persons addicted to the use of strong: drink are reclaimed here. There ^vere 40 inmates in the asylum on the 1st of January, 1868. The Western House of Refuge, at Rochester, is lor the confinement and reformation of juvenile delinquents. It was opened in 1849. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were 448 boys confined here. There are three State Prisons — one at Sing Sing, one at Clinton, and one at Auburn. They are each managed by a warden, and are under the supervision of a Board of five persons appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They hold office ten years. The prisoners are required to labor during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. The number of inmates in the Sing Sing prison on the 1st of September, 1867, was 1409; the number in the Auburn prison, 927; in the Clinton prison, 507. All the principal cities of the State are provided with excellent penal establishments of their own, and make liberal ])rovision for the support of such charitable institutions as are needed. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 the total value of church property was $66,073,755. The number of fhiirchcs was 5 '74. FINANCES. On the 30th of September, 1874, the total funded debt of the State was $30,1 99,456, classified as follows : General fund, $3,988,526 Contingent, 68,000 Canal, 10,230,430 Bounty, 15,912,500 Total, $30,199,456 372 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The following statement shows the amount of the State debt on September 30th, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of tlie sinking funds at that date : Balances. As provided fur. General fund, $4,040,026.40 $1,008,975.74 $3,031,050.66 Contingent, 68,000.00 17,992.21 50,007.79 Canal, 11,966,580.00 2,149,884.61 9,816,695.39 Bomity, 22,567,000.00 3,055,609.58 19,511,390.42 $38,641,606.40 $6,232,462.14 $32,409,144.26 The State debt, on September 30th, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds, amounted to $38,641,606.40 On September 30th, 1874, to 30,199,456.40 Showing a reduction of $8,442,150.00 The receipts of the State Treasury, on account of all funds except the Canal and Free School funds for the fiscal year, amounted to $26,465,370.43, and the expenditures to $19,636,308.36. The gross valuation of taxable property in the State for the year 1870 was $1,967,001,1 80. The total State tax amounted to $14,285,976, being a little more than seven mills on the dollar. On the 1st of October, 1870, there were 292 National Banks in operation in the State of New York, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $13,497,741, and an aggregate circulation of $67,077,668. At the same time there were 61 banks doing business under the State laws, whose outstanding circulation was $2,253,937.50. There were, at the same time, 133 Savings Banks, with assets estimated at $220,000,000. GOVERNMENT. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in 1777. It has been amended and changed since then. The last Convention for this purpose met in June, 1867, and continued its sessions for several weeks into the year 1868. The Government of the State is placed in the hands of a Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Go vernor. Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 32 members) and an Assembly (of 128 members). The Executive officers named above and the Senators are elected once every two years, and the members of the Assembly annually. The election for Governor and Lieutenant-Governor and that for the other officers are held on alternate years. The Canal Commissioners and Inspectors of State NEW YORK. 373 Prisons are elected for three years, one each year. The Canal Ap- praisers, the Superintendent of the Banking Department, and the Auditor of the Canal Department are appointed for three years by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Adjutant-General and other officers of the military staff are appointed by the Governor. " The Court for the Trial of Impeachments is composed of the President of the Senate (who is president of the court, and when absent the chief judge of the Court of Appeals presides), the Senators, or the major part of them, and the judges of the Court of Appeals, or the greater part of them. It is a court of record, and, when sum- moned, meets at Albany, and has for its clerk and officers the clerk and officers of the Senate. " The Court of Appeals has full power to correct and reverse all proceedings and decisions of the Supreme Court. It is composed of eight judges, of whom four are elected (one every second year) by the people at large, for eight years, and four selected each year from the Justices of the Supreme Court having the shortest time to serve. These selections are made alternately from the First, Third, Fifth, and Seventh, and from the Second, Fourth, Sixth, and Eighth Judicial Districts. The judge (of the four chosen at large) whose term first expires, presides as Chief Judge. Six judges constitute a quorum. Every cause must be decided within the year in which it is argued, and, unless reargued, before the close of the term after the argument. " The Supreme Court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, and power to review judgments of the County Courts, and of the old Courts of Common Pleas. For the election of the Justices, the State is divided into eight judicial districfs, the first of which elects five, and all the others four, to serve eight years. In each district one justice goes out of office every two years. The justice in each district whose terra first expires, and who is not a judge of the Court of Appeals, is a Presiding Justice of the court, and the clerks of the several counties serve as clerks. " The County Courts are always open for the transaction of any business for which no notice is required to be given to an opposing party. At least two terms in each county for the trial of issues of law or fact, and as many more as the County Judge shall appoint, shall be held in each year. " County Judges are elected for four years ; they are vested with the powers of justices of the Supreme Court at Chambers, are mem- 374 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. bers of Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and, with two Justices of the Peace, constitute Courts of Sessions. "The Criminal Courts are the Courts of Oyer and Terminer and the Courts of Sessions. The Courts of Oyer and Terminer in each county, except in the city and county of New York, are composed of a justice of the Supreme Court, who presides, the County Judge, and the two Justices of the Peace chosen members of the Court of Ses- sions. The Presiding Justice and any two of the others form a quorum. In the city and county of New York they are held by a justice of the Supreme Court alone. These courts are all held at the same time and place at which the Circuit Courts are held. Courts of Sessions, except in the city of New York, are composed of the County Juflge and the two Justices of the Peace designated as members of the Court of Sessions, and are held at the same time and place as the County Courts." * The seat of Government is established at Albany. For purposes of government the State is divided into 60 counties. HISTORY^ The first white man who trod the soil of New York, was Samuel Champlain, a French navigator, who entered the lake- to which he has given his name, on the 4th of Jul}', 1609. On the 12th of the same month, Hendrik Hudson, an Englishman, commanding a ship in the service of the Dutch East India Company, entered the bay of New Y'ork, having discovered the entrance to it three days previous. He explored the river which is called after him, as far as Albany ; and during the next ten years, frequent voyages for trade were made to this region by the Dutch, and small trading posts were established by them at IManhattan Island (New Y^'ork City) and Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, Fort Orange and Manhattan Island were permanently set- tled, 18 families locating themselves at the former place, and 30 at the latter, which was called New Amsterdam. The English claimed the territory by right of prior possession; and in March, 1664, Charles II. granted it to his brother, the Duke of York. In August of the same year, the English took forcible possession of the province, which had been called New Netherlands by the Dutch, and changed its name to New Y^ork, which also became the name of the town of New Amsterdam. * American Year Book, vol. ii. p. 412. NEW YORK. 375 NEW YORK' IN 1GG4. Under the rule of James II., the colony was governed with an iron hand. Large grants of land and odious privileges were awarded to unworthy favorites, but the people at large were oppressed with heavy taxes, and their industry hampered by burdensome restric- tions upon manufactures and trade. Frequent conflicts between the authorities and the people were the result of these narrow measures. It was hoped that the accession of William and Mary to the throne would bring with it a change in the policy of the Government towards the province, but this expectation was doomed to disappointment. The new king was quite as fond of high taxes as the old one had been. Nicholson, the Governor appointed by King James, oppressed the people so grievously, tliat they rose against him in 1689, seized the government, and made their leader, Jacob Leisler, a merchant of New York, Governor in the names of William and Mary. Leisler held his place for two years, although the home Government never formally recognized him. In 1691, the king sent Governor Sloughter over to supersede him. Leisler and his son-in-law, Milborne, made some slight resistance to the new ruler, and were arested, tried for treason, and executed. The Indians gave great trouble to the first settlers, and the early history of New Y'"ork is little more than a record of a continuous war- fare with the various tribes of the Five Nations. In 1689, Schenec- 24 376 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. tady was taken and burnt by the savages, and many of its inhabitants killed. During the wars with the French in America, many incur- sions were made into the province by the French and Indians, and con- siderable suffering was experienced by the settlers. The province bore a prominent part in these struggles, furnishing many men and much money, and providing some of the best officers connected with them. The country along Lakes George and Champlain was made historical by the events of these wars. The victory over Dieskau was won at the head of the former lake, which beautiful sheet of water was again made memorable by the fearful massacre of the garrison of Fort Wil- liam Henry, in 1757. The fort had been surrendered to the French, but their Indian allies refused to respect the capitulation. The next year, Abercrorabie's army of 16,000 men, the largest and best equipped force that had ever been seen in America, was defeated before Ticon- deroga. Besides these important events of the last French war, there were many other enterprises connected with these struggles, in which the colony won considerable renown. New York contained, perhaps, more royalist partisans than any of the colonies ; but in spite of this, the people, as a whole, were warm in their resistance to the oppressions of England, and gave a hearty support to the measures adopted by the United Colonies for their common protection. In October, 1775, they forced Tryon, the last loyalist Governor, to take refuge on a British man-of-war. Some of the principal events of the Revolution occurred in this State, which, besides furnishing its fair share of men and means, gave to tlie cause many of the brightest names which adorn it. The fortresses of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which were situated within the limits of New York, were seized by the " Green Mountain Boys,'' of Vermont, in May, 1775. The other events of the war occurring in this State, were the advance and retreat of the army of Montgomery and Schuyler, which was expected to conquer Canada, in July, 1775, the battle of Long Island, and the occupation of New York, in February, 1776; the invasion of the State by Burgoyne, in the summer of 1777, and his subsequent surrender at Saratoga, after the battles of Stillwater and Saratoga, in October of the same year; the contests with the Six Nations, who had espoused the English cause, and the destruc- ti(m of their villages by General Sullivan, in 1779; and tlie evacua- tion of the city of New Y^ork by the British, on the 25th of Novem- ber, 1783. Immediately after the close of the war, the State was involved in NEW YORK. 377 the renewal of an old controversy respecting the territory now known as the State of Vermont. * For some time it seemed that the quarrel would result in open hostilities between New York and Vermont; but it was at length compromised in 1790, as has been shown in another chapter. The original Constitution of New Y'ork was adopted in March, 1777. It was revised in 1801, 1821, and 1846. A fourth revision was made in 1868. Slavery existed in New York until 1817, when it was finally abolished. Indeed, at the time of the seizure of the province by the English, in 1664, it contained, in proportion to its population, more slaves than Virginia. New York was the eleventh State to ratify the Constitution of the United States, which was done on the 26th of July, 1788. The western part of the State was rapidly settled after the close of the Revolution, but suffered considerably from the attacks of the British during the war of 1812-15. The State bore a conspicuous part in this struggle. The principal naval depot of the Americans on the lakes was at Sacket's Harbor, on Lake Ontario, and was the object of an unsuccessful attack by the British. The battle of Platts- burg and the great naval fight on Lake Champlain both occurred within the limits of the State, which was also well represented in the gallant little navy which made such a glorious name on the high seas. "In 1796, the 'Western Navigation Company' was incorporated. This company built locks around the Rapids upon the Mohawk, and dug a canal across the portage at Rome, so that laden boats could pass from the ocean to Oneida Lake, and thence by the outlet of that slieet of water to Lake Ontario. Various plans were brought before the public from time to time for improving this channel of navigation and for building locks around Niagara Falls, so as to unite the waters of Ontario and Erie. In 1800, Governeur Morris conceived the bold plan of bringing the waters of Lake Erie to the Hudson by means of a canal directly through the centre of the State. In 1808, James Geddes made a partial survey of the proposed route, and gave a re- port highly favorable to the enterprise. De Witt Clinton soon after investigated the matter, and from that time forward gave to the pro- ject the whole weight of his influence. The war of 1812 caused a suspension of the work, but upon the return of peace in 1815, the dis- * See Chapter on Vermont. 378 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cusslon was vigorously resumed; and in 1816, a law was passed authorizing the construction of the canal. The work was actually commenced in 1817, and the canal was finished in 1825. It speedily became the great channel of trade and emigration, and poured into New York City the rich streams of traffic which have made it the commercial metropolis of the western continent. The State has been covered with a network of railways, rendering communication between distant points easy and rapid. The early attention paid to internal improvements, and the consequent development of internal resources^ gave to New Y^ork the impetus which has placed it first in commer- cial importance, and given to it the name of ' The Empire State.' " * During the recent war, the State was amongst the first and most active in its support of the Government. It contributed to the ser- vice of the Union a force of 473,443 men, of which number the city of New York furnished 267,551. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance are New York, Brooklyn, Buf- falo, Rochester, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Watervleit, Oswego, Newtown, Poughkeepsie, Auburn, Newburgh, Elmira, Morrisania, Cohoes, Flushing, Hempstead, Johnson, Lockport, Binghanipton, Fishkill, Rome, Schenectady, Kingston, Cortlandt, Yonkers, Oyster Bay, Og- densburgh, Brookhaven, Huntington, Ithaca, Rondout, Saugerties, and Green burg. ALBANY, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Albany county, on the right bank of the Hudson, at the head of tide-water and sloop navigation, in 42° 39' 3'' N. latitude, 73° 32' W. longitude; 145 miles north of New York, 164 west of Boston, and 370 northeast from Washington. It is finely located, the ground rising to the westward, from the river shore to an elevation of about 220 feet. These heights are divided into three distinct hills by ravines through which con-, siderable streams of water flow, viz., the Foxen Kill, Rutten Kill, and the Beaver Kill. The ravines have been almost entirely filled up, and the creeks reach the river by means of huge sewers far below the surface. " The view from the most elevated points in Al- bany is very fine. To the north may be seen the city of Troy and adjacent vilages, and in the distance loom up the Green Mountains * N'ew American Cyclopsedia, vol. xii. p. 269. KEW YORK. 379 ALBAXY. of Vermont. To the east we behold a beautiful extent of country stretching beyond the Hudson as far as the eye can reach ; and to the south, the Helderbergs and the Catskill Mountains, with the river flowing at their base." Being situated at the head of sloop navigation, Albany has a large cohimerce with all parts of the State. The Hudson affords water communication with the sea, the Erie Canal connects it with the great lakes, and the Champlain Canal binds it to Lake Champlain and the lower St. Lawrence. Seven railways connect it with all parts of the Union. The Erie Canal enters the city at its northern limits. The boats are thence conveyed to a large basin covering 32 acres, which has been formed by constructing a pier, more than a mile in length, ■Avhich cuts oif and encloses a bend in the river. A safe and fine anchorage is thus secured for vessels and steamers during the season of ice, and the sides of the basin afford excellent wharfage. The trade brought to the city by the canals is immense, and has been the chief cause of its rapid growth and prosperity. The lumber trade is esti- mated at about $7,000,000. About 2,000,000 barrels of flour, over 380 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 3,000,000 bushels of corn, nearly 2,000,0C0 busliels of barley, and about 5,000,000 pounds of wool, pass through Albany yearly. The city is also largely interested in manufactures. Iron, hollow- ware, and malt are the principal articles. Large numbers of stoves and large quantities of beer are produced annually. Pianofortes, hats, caps, bonnets, sleighs, coaches, leather, are also produced in large quantities. The city is well built as a rule, and contains a number of handsome edifices. The streets are more crooked and irregular than those of any American city, save Boston, but, with this exception, Albany re- tains few tracfs of its origin. State street, extending from the river, westw^ard to the Capitol, is the principal thoroughfare. The city mn- tains a number of public squares, some of which are handsome. The public buildings are handsome, though not in keeping with the wealth and importance of the Empire State. The Capitol was erected in 1807, at a cost of $173,000. It is a plain building of brown stone, from the quarries on the Hudson River, with a Doric portico of white marble. It is 115 by 90 feet, and is 50 feet high. It is surmounted by a dome ornamented with a statue of Justice. In this building are the halls of the two Houses of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor, and Adjutant-General, and the chambers of the Court of Appeals and Supreme Court. Immediately in the rear of the Capitol stands the new State Library, a handsome modern fire-proof edifice, containing more than 60,000 volumes, among which are some of the rarest and most valuable works in print. The State Hall, a large edifice of white marble, stands opposite the Capitol, with a liandsome park between them. It contains the offices of 'the Secretary of State and other State officials. It was built in 1843, at a cost of $350,000. A new and imposing Capitol is now in course of erection. Near the State Hall, and on the same side of the square, is the City Hall, also built of white marble, at an expense of $120,000. It is occupied by the officers of the city government, and by the city and county courts. The educational and scientific institutions of Albany are of a high character. They possess many of the handsomest buildings in the city. In addition to the free common schools, the Albany Academy, the Albany Female Academy, the State Normal School, for the educa- tion of teachers in common schools, and the Albany University are the principal. The University embraces departments of law, medi- cine, and science in its various branches, and connected with it is the iVEW YORK. 381 Dudley Observatory, founded by Mrs. Blandina Dudley. The Mer- chants' Exchange, Post Office, and Exchange Bank are handsome edifices. The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous, and are liberally supported. The city contains upwards of 50 churches and 6 missions. The most imposing church edifice is the Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, one of the largest churches in the Union. It will seat 4000 persons. There are several fine libraries in the city, and the newspapers pub- lisiied here are influential and possessed of a large circulation. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, which is distributed in pipes from a large reservoir built at an expense of $1,000,000. For purposes of government the city is divided into ten wards, each of which elects two aldermen, who, together with the Mayor and Recorder, form the Common Council, or city government. The population, according to the census of 1870, is 69,422. With the exception of Jamestown, in Virginia, Albany is the oldest settlement within the limits of the original thirteen States. Before the arrival of the whites, the Indians gave to the place the name of Scho-negh-ta-da, " over the plains," which name the Dutch settlers afterwards gave to an Indian settlement which marked the present site of Schenectady, as " over the plains " from Albany. In Septem- ber, 1609, ITendrik Hudson, having discovered the river which bears his name, ascended it to a point now marked by the city of Hudson, where he anchored, having spent nearly two weeks in the voyage from the mouth of the river. From this point the mate and a boat's crew ascended to the head of tide water, the present site of Albany, 27 miles higher up the stream. In 1614, a fort and a trading post were established by the Dutch on Boyd's Island, near the southern limits of the present city. In 1617, the fort was carried away by a flood, and a year or two later, a new one was built near the present site of Fort Orange Hotel, on Broadway, and called Fort Orange in honor of the Prince of Orange. In 1630, Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a dealer in pearls, of Amsterdam, bought from the Indians a large tract of land, including Fort Orange, on the west bank of the Hudson, and sent out a considerable colony of Dutch mechanics and farmers to oc- cupy his new estate. Seven years afterv.^ards he purchased from the Indians another tract lying immediately across the Hudson, and thus became proprietor of a district extending for 24 miles along the river, and"48 miles from east to west. Over this region, to which he gave the name of Rensselaerswyck, he exercised sovereign authority, as its 382 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. patroon, committing the administration of matters of justice and fi- nance to a commissary-general. In 1664, the province passed into the hands of the English. Van Rensselaer was secured in his pos- session of the soil by a new patent from the king, but the sovereignty passed to the crown. The Van Rensselaer family still retain a large portion of the orininal estate, and a part of the Van Rensselaer man- sion, built in 1765, is still standing in Albany. After passing into the hands of the English, the settlement, which had been known as Fort Orange, Beaverwyck, Williarastadt, and the Fuyck, was called Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., of England. Albany received a city charter in 1686, with Peter Schuyler as its first mayor. The selection of the mayor was fortunate, as both he and his family possessed the confi- dence and friendship of the Indians to such an extent that the savages never attacked Albany, though they made the neighboring settlements feel severely the terrors of their hostility. During the Revolution, Albany gave an active support to the patriot cause, and contributed many troops to the American army. The defeat of Burgoyne at Sara- toga saved it from capture, as that general was marching directly upon it. Sir Henry Clinton also made two attempts to reach it, both of which resulted in failure. In 1807, Albany became the capital of the State, but it was a comparatively insignificant town until the in- troduction of steam navigation and the opening of the Erie Canal placed it in the path to its present prosperity. NEW YORK, The largest and most important city of the State and the United States, is situated in New York county, on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of tiie Hudson River, 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, latitude (of the City Hall) 40° 42' 43" N., longitude 74° 0' Z" W. The city limits comprise the entire county of New York, embracing Manhattan Island, Randall's, Ward's, and Blackwell's islands, in the East River, and Governor's, Bedloe's, and Ellis' islands in the bay, the last 3 of which are occupied by the military posts of the Federal Government. Manhattan Island is bounded on the north by Harlem River and Spuyten Duy vel Creek, on the east by the East River, on the west by the Hudson River, and on the South by New York Bay. It is 9 miles long on the east side, 13| miles long on the west side, and 2^ miles wide at its greatest breadth. It is but a few feet in width at its southern extremity, but spreads out like a fan NEW YORK. 385 as it stretches to the northward. The southern point is but a few inches above the level of the bay, but the island rises rapidly to the northward, its extreme northern portion being occupied by a series of bold, finely wooded heights, which terminate at the junction of the Hudson River and Spuyten Duyvel creek, in a bold promontory 130 feet high. These heights, known as Washington Heights, are 2 or 3 miles in length. The southern portion of the island is principally a sand bed, but the remainder is rocky. The island covers an area of 22 square miles, or 14,000 acres. It is built up compactly for about 6 miles, and irregularly along the east side to Harlem, 3 miles farther. Along the west side it is built up compactly to the Central Park, 59th street, and irregularly to Manhattanville, 125th street, from which point, to Spuyten Duyvel creek, it is covered with country seats, gardens, etc. Three wagon and 2 railroad bridges over the Harlem River connect the island with the mainland, and 26 lines of ferries connect it with Long and Staten islands and jSTew Jersey. The city is finely built, and presents an aspect of industry and liveliness unsurpassed by any city in the world. Lying in full sight of the ocean, with its magnificent bay to the southward, and the East and Hudson rivers washing its shores, the city of New York possesses a climate which renders it the most delightful residence in America. In the winter the proximity of the sea moderates the severity of the cold, and in the summer the heat is tempered by the delightful sea breezes which sweep over the island. Snow seldom lies in the streets for more than a few hours, and the intense '' heated terms " of the summer are of very brief duration. As a natural consequence, the city is healthy, and the death-rate, in proportion to the population, is small. The southern portion is densely built up, and between the City Hall and 23d street, it is more thickly populated than any city in America. It is in this section that the '' tenement houses," or build- ings containing from 10 to 20 families, are to be found. In this region there are many single blocks of dwellings containing twice the number-of families residing on 5th avenue, on both sides of that street, from Washington Square to the Central Park, or than a continuous row of dwellings, similar to those of 5tli avenue, 3 or 4 miles in length. There is a multitude of these squares, any one of which con- tains a larger population than the whole city of Hartford, Connecticut, which covers an area of 7 square miles. * The greatest mortality is * Annual Cyclopsedia, 1S61. Hartford at that time contained a popula- tion of about 28,000. 586 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. fcCENE IN BROADWAY, in these overcrowded districts, which the severest police measures cannot iicep clean and free from filth. It must not be supposed, however, that poverty alone induces persons to live in such houses. Many of the most crowded districts are occupied by people, especially foreigners, who wish to avoid the expense and trouble of more com- modious residences. The southern portion of the city is devoted almost exclusively to trade, comparatively few persons residing below the City Hall. Be- low Canal street the streets are narrow, crooked, and irregular, but above this point they are broad and straight, and are laid out at regu- lar intervals. Above Houston street the streets extending across the island are numbered. The avenues begin in the vicinity of 3d street, and extend, or will extend, to the northern limits of the island, run- ning parallel with the Hudson River. They are generally 100 feet wide, and are compactly built up. The numbered cross streets are usually 60 feet wide, but a few have a width of 100 feet. First street is about a mile and three quarters above the southern end of the island, which is known as the Battery. The main thoroughfare is Broadway, which extends throughout the entire length of Manhattan Island. It NEW YORK. 387 IS built up compactly for about 5 miles. There are over 420 miles of streets iu the patrol districts, and 11 miles of piers along the water. The sewerage is good in the main, but is defective in some places. Upwards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid. The streets are lighted by over 15,000 gas lamps, the footways are generally made of broad stone flags, and the streets are laid in some cases with the wooden pavement, and in others with the Belgian, or stone block pavement. Cobble stones are rapidly disappearing. For so large a city. New York is remarkably clean, except in those portions lying close to the river, or given up to paupers. The city is substantially built. Frame houses are very rare. Many of the old quarters are built of brick, but this material is now used to a limited extent only. Broadway and the principal business streets are lined with buildings of marble, iron, brown and Portland stone, palatial in their appearance ; and the sections devoted to the residences of the better classes are built up mainly with brown stone or Portland stone, and in some instances with marble. Thus the city presents an appearance of grandeur and solidity most pleasing to the eye. The public buildings Avill compare favorably with any in the world, and there is no city on the globe that can boast so many palatial warehouses and stores. Broadway is one of the most magni- ficent thoroughfares in the world. The stores which line it are gene- rally from five to six stories high above the ground, with two cellars below the level of the pavement, and vaults extending to near the middle of the street. The adjacent streets in many cases rival Broad- way in their splendor. The stores of the city are famous for their elegance and convenience, and for the magnificence of the goods dis- played in them. The streets occupied by private residences are broad, clean, well paved, and are lined with dwellings inferior to none in the world in convenience and elegance. Fifth, Madison, Park, and Lexington avenues, and the numbered streets crossing them, are lined with magnificent residences of brown or light-colored stone and marble. The amount of wealth and taste concentrated in the dwellings of the better classes of the citizens of New York is very great. The city is well provided with public parks and promenades. The principal parks, commencing at the lower end of the island, are the Battery, containing 10 acres, and facing the Bay; the Bowling Green; the City Hall Park, comprising an area of 10 acres, and containing the City Hall, the new Post Office, Court House, etc. ; Washington Square, about 9 acres ; Union Park ; Grammercy Park, belonging to 388 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCENE IN FIvTIl AVEXUE. the owners of the residences facing it ; Stuy vcsant Square, about 3 acres, divided in the centre by the passage of 2nd avenue ; Tomp- kins Square, about 11 acres; Madison Square, 6 acres; and Hamil- ton Square, 15 acres. These are handsomely laid off, with the excep- tion of Tompkins Square, which is used as a drill ground, and are ornamented with fountains, statues, etc., and are kept in good order by the city. The chief pleasure ground is the Central Park, situated on the eastern slope of an elevated ridge extending along the western side of the island, in the upper part of the city, from 59th street, on the south, to 110th street, on the north, and from 5th avenue, on the east, to 8th avenue, on the west. It is two miles and a half in length, by half a mile in width, and embraces an area of 843 acres. It is laid out with great taste and skill, and compri- ses a variety of landscape, which renders it one of the most beauti- NEW YORK. 389 VIEW I>i CENTRAL PAKK. ful and attractive parks in the world. Up to the present day the outlay upon it has exceeded ten millions of dollars. It is divided into the Lower Park,, extending from 59th to 79th streets, and com- prising an area of 336 acres ; and the Upper Park, extending from 79th to 110th streets. Between the Upper and Lower Parks lie the vast reservoirs of the Croton water works, which cover an area of 137 acres, and have a capacity of 1,150,000,000 gallons. The Lower Park is generally level, and is laid oif in lawns, terraces, walks, and drives, with two beautiful lakes, which cover an area of 40 acres; and is ornamented with statuary, flowers, and tasteful buildings. The Upper Park is more rugged, and is naturally the more beautiful. It is a succession of charming hills and dales, whose beauties have been increased and heightened by the best landscape gardeners and engi- neers. A museum of natural history, and the beginning of a zoolo- gical garden are located in the Lower Park, near the principal en- trance on 5th avenue ; and a museum of statuary has been opened in one of the buildings at Mount St. Vincent, in the Upper Park. The management of the Park is entrusted to a Commission, appointed by 390 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE WATER TERRACE LN THE CENTRAL PARK. the Governor of the State. Naturally, the Park is an object of great pride to the citizens, and is one of the principal attnactions to stran- gers visiting the city. It is usually full of pleasure seekers, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, and it is pleasant to record that no crime, of the most trifling character, has ever been committed within its limits. In 1870, the total number of persons visiting it, including the drivers and occupants of carriages, was 8,421,427. Pleasure boats ply on the principal lake, and may be engaged for a small sum ; and " park omnibuses," or open carriages of a peculiar construction, under the control of the Commissioners, convey visitors through the grounds for the sum of 25 cents each. The streets enclosing the Park are being rapidly built up with elegant' mansions, and afford one of the most delightful quarters for residence on the island. New York is the commercial metropolis of the United States. The local trade of the city is necessarily very great, but its trade with the rest of the Union is enormous, and it conducts a large foreign com- merce. Only three lines of railway enter the city limits, but 14 lines, terminating on the shores of Long Island and New Jersey, connect it with all parts of the Union. At least 100 steamboats, large and small, ply between the city and the towns on the Bay, the Hudson River, and Long Island Sound, while fully as many steamships con- nect New York with the more distant ports of the Union. Besides these, the number of sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade is very large. About 120 first class steamers ply between New York and the ports of Europe, and about 20 sail to South American, Mexican, and West Indian ports. Being entirely surrounded by water, New NEW YORK. 391 York is admirably adapted to commerce. The largest ships can lie alongside of its piers, of which there are eleven miles, constantly crowded with shipping, on the North and East River fronts. During the year 1870, the foreign imports of New York were valued at $315,200,022, and the exports to foreign countries at $195,945,733, exclusive of $58,191,475 in specie and bullion. About two-thirds of all the imports, and about forty per cent, of all the exports of the United States pass through the port of New York. In the year 1868, the arrivals at New York from foreign ports were as follows: Vr^ = l2! o 3 "^ 5 o NEW YORK. 399 The cemeteries lie out of the city limits, with the exception of that belonging to Trinity Parish, which is located on the Hudson, near Washington Heights. The others number 12, and are situated on Long Island and in Westchester county. The principal are Green- wood and Calvary on Long Island, and Woodlawn in Westchester county. The journals of New York stand at the head of the American jirc: ~. The principal dailies are the Herald, Tribune, Times, World, Sun, Standard, Evening Post, Express, and Evening Mail. There are 140 newspapers and periodicals published in the city, claiming a circula- tion of over 5000 copies. New York is also the principal place in the Union for the publication of books. The office of the New York Herald is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. The city is supplied with pure water by means of the Croton Aque- duct, from the Croton River, a small stream in Westchester county. The total length of the Aqueduct, to the reservoirs in the Central Park, is about 38 miles. It was begun in 1837, and completed in 1842, at an expense of $10,375,000. It is the largest and most mag- nificent of all modern constructions of its class, and supplies the city with an abundance of pure and delightful drinking water. The water is conducted by the Aqueduct from the Croton River to the reservoirs at the High Bridge (on which bridge it crosses the Harlem River) and those in the Central Park, from which it is distributed over the city in large iron pipes, there being a small distributing reservoir on 5th avenue, at the corner of 42d street. The buildings, both public and private, of the city are thoroughly supplied with water. Up- wards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid through the streets, and every portion of the city is well supplied in this respect. The capacity of all the reservoirs is nearly 2,000,000,000 of gallons. The city is lighted with gas, which is supplied by several private companies. There are upwards of 1 5,000 gas lamps in the streets, which burn from dusk until dawn. The city is divided into 22 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council, elected by the people. The Mayor is chosen once in two years. The.council is divided into a Board of Aldermen, 17 in number, elected for two years, and a Board of Councilmen, 25 in number, chosen annually. The police force consists of a Board of Commissioners, to whom the direct control of the force is entrusted, a Marshal, and about 2100 officers and men. They are dressed in a neat uniform of dark blue cloth, are armed with clubs and revolvers, 400 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HIGH BRIDGE, HARLEM, and are drilled regularly in military tactics. There are 33 precincts, including the detective squad. The force is charged with the duty of guarding about 300 day and 400 night posts, about 425 miles of streets, and 14 miles of piers. There are 25 station houses fitted up with lodging rooms for the men, and having rooms also for the ac- commodation of wandering or destitute persons, large numbers of whom thus receive temporary shelter. The Fire Department is under the control of a Board of Commis- sioners. It consists of a Chief Engineer, an Assistant Engineer, 10 District Engineers, and over 500 men and 46 horses. There are 34 steam fire engines, 4 hand engines, and 12 hook and ladder companies in the department. The men are regularly enlisted, and are paid by the city. There is a fire alarm telegraph, with about 800 stations, extending through the city, and it is so arranged that the most inex- perienced person can at once telegraph the exact location of a fire to all the engine houses in the city. It requires but 15 seconds in the day, and one minute at night, to get the engines ready for action and start them on the way to a fire. A system -of fire patrols is main- tained by the city and by the insurance companies. There are also a number of lofty look-out towers, from which a constant watch is kept. According to the United States census of 1870, the population of New York is 942,337. There can be no doubt, however, that the NEW YORK. 401 actual population is over 1,000,000. The rate at which the city has grown is shown by the following table : Year. Population. , 1656, 1,000 1756, 10,381 1800, 60,489 1820, 123,706 1830, 202,589 1840, 812,852 1850, 515,547 I860, 814,287 On the 12th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navi- gator in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered Manhattan Island. The Dutch made a temporary settlement on the island in 1612, and established a permanent colony in 1623, when a fort was built, and the settlement named New Amsterdam. The first white child, Sarah Rapelje, was born in the same year, and in 1626, Peter Minuits, the Dutch Governor, arrived. In 1633, a new fort was begun on the present site of the Battery. Previous to 1638 to- bacco was cultivated and slavery was introduced. In 1656, there were 1000 inhabitants and 120 houses in the town ; in 1658, wharfs were constructed, and in 1662 a windmill was built. In August, 1664, an English fleet arrived in the bay, and took possession of the town in the name of the King of England. No resistance was ofiered, and the name of the town was changed to New York, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., to whom Charles II. had granted the entire province. In July, 1673, the Dutch fleet recaptured the town, drove out the Englisli, and named it New Orange. The peace between Great Britain and the Dutch, whicli closed the war, restored the town to the English, November 10th, 1674, and the name of New York was resumed. The Dutch Gov- ernment was replaced by the English system under a liberal charter, and during the remainder of the seventeenth century the town grew rapidly in population and size. In 1700, New York contained 4500 white, and 750 black inhabitants, and about 750 dwellings. In 1689, there was a brief disturbance, known as Leisler's Rebellion. In 1702, a terrible fever was brought from St. Thomas', and carried oif 600 persons, one-tenth of the whole population. In 1696, the first Trinity Church was built, and in 1719, the first Presbyterian Church was built. In 1711, a slave market was established; in 1725, the New York Gazette, the fifth of the Colonial newspapers, was estab- 402 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. lishecl; in 1732, stages ran to Boston, the journey occupying 14 days; and in 1735, the people made their first manifestation of hostility to Great Britain, which was drawn forth by the infamous prosecution by the officers of the Crown of Rip Van Dam, who had been the acting Governor of the town. In 1741, a severe fire occurred in the lower part of the city, destroying the old Dutch fort and the Dutch church, and in the sarnie year the yellow fever raged with great violence. The principal event of the year, however, was the so-called negro plot for the destruction of the town. Though the reality of the plot was never proved, the greatest alarm prevailed ; the fire in the fort was declared to be the work of the negroes, numbers of whom were arrested ; and upon the sole evidence of a single servant girl a number of the poor wretches were hanged. Several whites were also charged with being accomplices of the negroes. One of these, John Ury, a Roman Catho- lic priest, and, as is now believed, an innocent man, was hanged in August. In the space of six months 154 negroes and 20 whites Ave re arrested ; 20 negroes were hanged, 13 were burned at the stake, and 78 were transported. The rest were discharged. In 1750 a theatre was established, and in 1755 St. Paul's Church was built. New York took a prominent part in the resistance of the Colonies to the aggressions of the mother country, and, in spite of the presence of a large number of Tories, responded cordially to the call of the Colonies for men and money during the war. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island having been lost by the Americans, the city was occupied by the British, who held it tlintil the close of the war. It suffered very much at their hands. Neai'ly all the churches, except the Episcopal, were occupied by them as prisons, riding-schools, and stables ; and the schools and colleges were closed. On the 21st of September, 1776, a fire destroyed 493 houses, all the west side of Broadway from Whitehall to Barclay street, or about one-eighth of tlie city ; and on the 7th of August, 1778, about 300 buildings on East River were burned. On the 25th of November, 1783, the British evacuated the city, which was at once occupied by the American army. In 1785 the first Federal Congress met in the City Hall, which stood at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and on the 30th of April 1789, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States on the same spot. By 1791 the city had spread to the lower end of the present City Hall Park, and was extending along the Boston Road (Bowery) and Broadway. In 1799, the Manhattan ( NEW YORK. 403 IINIOK SQUARE. STATUE OF WASHINGTON. Company, for supplying the city with fresh water, was chartered. On the 20th of September, 1803, the corner-stone of the City Hall was laid. Free schools were established in 1805. In the same year the yellow^ fever raged with violence, and had the effect of spreading the population by driving them up the island, where many located them- selves permanently. In 1807, Robert Fulton navigated the first steamboat from New York to Albany. The War of 1812-15 for a while stopped the growth of the city, but after the return of peace, its onward progress was resumed. In August, 1812, experimental gas lamps were placed in the Park, though tiie use of gas for purposes of lighting was not begun until 1825. In 1822, the yellow fever again drove the population higher up the island, and caused a rapid growth of the city above Canal street. In 1825, the Erie Canal was completed. This great work, by placing the trade of the West in the hands of New York, gave a powerful impetus to the growth of the city, which was now increasing at the rate of from 1000 to 1500 houses per year. In 1832 and 1834, the cholera raged severely, carrying off upwards of 4484 persons in the two years. In 1835, the "great fire" occurred. This terrible conflagra- tion (December 16th) laid 648 houses, almost the entire business portion of the city, south of Wall street, and east of Broadway, in 404 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ashes, and inflicted a loss of more than $18,000,000 upon the city. New York rose from this disaster with wonderful energy and rapidity, but only to meet, in 1837, the most terrible commercial crisis that had ever been known in the country. Even this did not check the growth of the city, the population increasing 110,100 between 1830 and 1840. In 1842, the Croton water was introduced. In 1849 and 1854, the cliolera again appeared, killing over 5400 persons. In 1852, the first street railway was built. In 1858, the Central Park was begun. Since then the city has grown rapidly in extent and population, and is fast becoming one of the most beautiful and brilliant in the world. It possesses every advantage for rapid improvement, and is moving on surely to the accomplishment of a glorious destiny. BROOKLYN, The second city in the State, and the third city in the United States, is situated in Kings county, on the western end of Long Island, immediately opposite the city of New York, from which it is separated by the East River. The city extends from Newtown Creek, including Green Point, to the boundary below Greenwood, a direct distance of 7^ niiles, and nearly 10 miles following the low-water line. From the river it stretches back inland for about 4 miles. The city proper is divided into the Western District ( W. D.), Williamsburg, Greenpoint, the Eastern District (E, D.), and South Brooklyn. The ground on which the city is located is for the most part flat and low, and was formerly marshy, but a portion of the city is built upon a line of bold heights overlooking the bay, and commanding a fine view of New Y'ork and the harbor. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. It is well built, and some portions of it will compare favorably with New Y^'ork. The streets are broad, straight, and well- paved, and many of them are delightfully shaded with noble trees. Brooklyn covers nearly as much ground as New York, but its popula- tion is only about one-third as great, and is not so much crowded. Small houses are the rule in this city, large residences being rare, except in the wealthier quarters. Many of the streets are lined with- tasteful cottage residences, in front of which ai'e yards of considerable size, ornamented with flowers, shrubbery, etc. The site of Brooklyn was originally very irregular, but the constant iniproveraents which have been carried on during the growth of the city have very much changed the primitive appearance of the land. Immediately opposite the lower end of New Y^'ork, is a ridge 70 feet NEW YORK. 405 above the level of the East River, known as " The Heights." This is the wealthiest and most fashionable quarter of Brooklyn, though it is now rapidly giving way to business edifices. The principal tho- roughfare is Fulton street, stretching from the Fulton Ferry to the City Hall^ from which point it turns abruptly to the eastward, and extends to the city limits, under the name of Fulton avenue. It is enclosed as far as the City Hall, about one mile, with large and hand- sonic stores and offices. From the City Hall eastward, it is less sub- stantially built. The proximity of Brooklyn to New York and its facilities for economical living have been the chief causes of its rapid growth. Thousands of persons living in Brooklyn conduct their business in New York, and pass and repass between the cities daily. The trade of Brooklyn is mostly local. The city is largely engaged in manu- factures, but its productions are sold chiefly through New York. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here, and the city has a large trade in flour, sugar and whiskey. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The City Hall, at the southern end of Fulton street, is an imposing edifice of white marble, 162 by 102 feet, and 75 feet high, surmounted by a dome, the top of which is 153 feet from the ground. It was erected at a cost of $200,000. Just in the rear of the City Hall, and fronting on Joralemon street, is the County Court House, 140 feet wide, and 315 feet deep, built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture. It cost $543,000. The Academy of Music, and the Mercantile Library, on Montague street, are built in the modern Gothic style, of a fine quality of brick ornamented with stone, and are among the handsomest buildings in the city. There are nearly 200 churches in Brooklyn, in consequence of which the place is frequently called " The City of Churches." Some of these are magnificent edifices, but the majority are simple and modest in their appearance. They are all in prosperous condition, and there are, perhaps, few cities in the land -whose church finances make so favorable a showing as those of Brooklyn. The city is well supplied with public schools of every grade, and contains a number of thriving private schools and academies. The average attendance is over 50,000. There are also schools for colored children. During the year ending February 1st, 1864, the amount expended by the city for purposes of education was $229,845.61. The Literary Institutions are of a high character. The Mercantile 406 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Library contains about 35,000 volumes, and is supported by the sub- scriptions of its members. The Long Lsland Historical Society pos- sesses a fine collection of 15,000 volumes, besides numerous manu- scripts and historical relics. The United States Lyceum is located in the Navy Yard, and possesses a large and valuable collection of curi- osities, geological and mineralogical specimens. The Lyceum, in Washington street, possesses a splendid granite building and a fine lecture hall. The Art Association holds two exhibitions in each year. Besides these, are the Philharmonic Society, and several other societies devoted to literary, scientific, and musical ends. The Charitable Institutions are the Long Lsland College Hospital; the City Hospital, in Raymond street, wi^i beds for 170 patients; the Graham Institution, for the relief of respectable aged, indigent females; the Orphan Asylum of the City of Brooklyn, which shelters about 150 children ; the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, a noble charity, which has in a single year rendered substantial aid to 8000 persons; the Marine Hospital, belonging to the United States; the Church Charity Foundation, for the relief of indigent and desti- tute persons ; and the Brooklyn and Homoeopathic Dispensaries. Be- sides these, are a number of religious and private charities, which are well sustained. There are several small squares and parks in the city, the principal of which is Washington Park (Fort Greene), occupying an elevated plateau northeast of the City Hall. During the Revolutionary war, the site of this park was occupied by extensive fortifications designed to cover the Long Island approaches to the city of New York. The ruins of Fort Greene, the principal work, still remain. The park is tastefully laid out, and commands a good view of the city. During the last few years, a large park, known as Prospect Park, has been laid out in the southwestern portion of the city. It contains 550 acres, and promises to be one of the handsomest parks in the Union. The United States Navy Yard , is situated within the city limits, on the south side of Wallabout Bay, which lies in the northeast part of Brooklyn. It occupies about 40 acres of ground, enclosed by a stone wall, and contains a large dry-dock, constructed at a cost of $1,000,000, several extensive shops for the construction of vessels, machinery, arms, etc. It is one of the principal naval stations of the Republic. To the north of the Navy Yard, stands the Marine Hospital, in the midst of extensive grounds. During the war of the Revolution, the KEW YORK. 407 TJisITED STATES NAVY YAKD, BKOOKLYX. British prison ships were anchored in Wallabout Bay. Large num- bers of American prisoners of war were confined in these hulks, and it is said that 11,500 of them perished from ill usage and impure air. They were hastily buried on the shore of the bay. By 1808, their bones were entirely exposed, the tide having washed out their graves. In that year, their bones were collected and deposited in 13 coffins, inscribed with the names of the 13 original States, and deposited in a vault in Hudson avenue, near the present Navy Yard. The Govern- ment property at the Navy Yard, not counting the shipping, is esti- mated at $25,000,000. The Atlantic Dock, in South Brooklyn, opposite Governor's Island, is a very extensive work. ' It embraces within the piers an area of nearly 41 acres, and can accommodate ships of the largest size. It was built by a company incorporated in 1840, with a capital of $1,- 000,000. The outer pier extends for 3000 feet along Buttermilk Channel, and is covered with large granite warehouses. It is the centre of one of the largest grain trades in the world. The cemeteries of Brooklyn are used by that city in common with 408 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. New York. The principal is Greenwood, in the extreme southern part of Brooklyn, about 3 miles from Fulton Ferry. The street cars run to the gates. It is beautifully laid out, contains 242 acres of ground, and is one of the most beautiful cemeteries in the world. Many of its monuments are noted as works of art. It commands ex- tensive views of the ocean and of the bay and city of New York. The cemeteries of the Evergreens and Oypress Hills lie about 4 miles to the eastward of Greenwood. Brooklyn is connected with New York by numerous ferries. It is lighted throughout with gas, and is abundantly supplied with pure Avater from the Ridgewood water-works. There is also a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. The city is divided into 20 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. The population in 1870 was 396,300. Brooklyn was first settled in 1625, by a band of Walloons, sent out as agriculturists by the Dutch West India Company. These settled on the shores of the bay now used by the Navy Yard, and gave to their settlement the name of Waalboght, or Walloon's Bay, which has since been corruj^ted into Wallabout Bay. From this beginning sprang a straggling town, to which the Dutch gave the name of Breuckelen, from a village in Holland. The first white man who actually settled within the limits of the present city of Brooklyn, was George Jansen de Rapelje. The Dutch Government bought the title to the land from the Canarsee Indians, a large tribe which dwelt in the southern part of what is now Kings county. In 1641, the Dutch allowed the English to settle on Long Island, on the condition of their taking the oath of allegiance to the States General. In 1654, the erection of the first church was begun by order of Governor Stuy- vesant. It was located at Flatbush. Previous to this, the settlers on Long Island attended worship in New Amsterdam. The history of Brooklyn until the period of the Revolution is un- eventful. During that struggle, it was the scene of several important events. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island was fought, the battlefield being within the present city limits in the direc- tion of Flatbush. The American army was defeated and compelled to abandon Long Island. The occupation of New York by the British forces was the result. Brooklyn grew very slowly after its settlement. In 1698, it contained 509 persons ; in 1800, 3298 ; in 1820, 7175. In 1834, it was incor- porated as a city. In 1855, it was consolidated with the city of NEW YORK. 409 Williamsburg and the town of Bushwick, including the village of Greenpoint, under the general name of Brooklyn. BUFFALO, The third city in the State, is situated in Erie county, at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, in latitude 42° 53' N., longitude 78° 55' W. It is 352 miles by the Erie Canal, and 300 miles by the New York Central Railway, west of Albany, and 460 miles northwest of New Y^ork by railway. It is connected with Albany and the Hudson River by the Erie Canal, and has railway connections with all parts of the Union. The water front of the city is 5 miles long, half of it lying along Lake Erie, and the rest along the Niagara River. Buffalo Creek extends through the southern portion of the city, and forms a part of the harbor. " The harbor of Buffalo is now one of the best in the great chain of lakes. The present harbor is formed by Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal, the Erie and Ohio Basins, and North Buffalo Harbor. Buffalo Creek is navigable for more than 2 miles from its entrance into the lake for vessels drawing 12 feet of water. Nearly parallel to, and from 200 to 800 feet from it, is the Blackwell Ship- Canal, one mile and a quarter long, and connected with it by 4 ship- canal slips. About 1 mile from the mouth of the creek, and connected with it by a ship-canal slip, is the Ohio Basin, containing 10 acres. A pier or brealcAvater on the south side of the creek, and a sea wall next the lake, give ample protection from storms. On the end of this pier, extending about 1500 feet into the lake, is a mole on which is the Government light-house. On the north side of the creek is another pier, extending into the lake about 500 feet. At nearly right angles to the south pier, and distant from it and the north pier 600 feet, com- mences the Erie Basin Pier, extending towards North Buffalo Harbor 5000 feet, and about 1000 feet distant from the shore line of the lake. The intermediate space betM-een this pier and the shore line, 1000 by 5000 feet, is called the Erie Basin Harbor, which has sufficient depth of water for vessels drawing- 10 feet. At the lower end of the Erie Basin sea-wall is a mole, and vessels can enter it at this point, or from the entrance through Buffalo Creek. About three-quarters of a mile from the mole of the Erie Basin Pier is the Black Rock Pier, enclosing a portion of the Niagara River, about 2 miles long and from 200 to 600 feet wide, forming what is called ' Black Rock Harbor.' The water in this harbor is shoal, and only vessels of light draught can enter it. 410 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. VIEW FROM WEST POINT. It forms for more tlian a mile the Eric Canal, and boats drawing 6 feet of water can pass through it. Buffalo Creek, the Blackwell Canal and slips, the Ohio and Erie Basin harbors, give abundance of sea-room to accommodate a fleet of 300 sail and steam vessels. The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Tonawanda, a distance of 12 miles, is nearly parallel with the Niagara River, and for a very considerable portion of the distance is only separated from it by an embankment of from 100 to 400 feet in width. The Niagara River from North Buffalo to Tona- wanda, a distance of 8 miles, has from IG to 25 feet of water, with good bottom for anchorage and wide river for a harbor. The rapid growth of the West and the large augmentation in the receipt of cereals have given rise to immense grain warehouses, called elevators, which Avere introduced to facilitate and cheapen thq transhipment of this kind of produce. There are now built and in successful operation 27 of these grain warehouses, besides 2 floating elevators. They have a storage capacity for 5,830,000 bushels, and have . a transfer capacity equal to 2,808,000 bushels in each 24 hours. They were first intro- duced in 1842. There are 6 ship-yards in the city, 4 of which have NEW YORK. 411 dry-docks. They will admit the largest vessels navigating the lakes. There is a marine railway and a very powerful derrick for handling boilers and heavy machinery." The position of Buffalo has placed in its hands the immense commerce of the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal, and its trade has been greatly increased by the great lines of railways which connect it with all parts of the United States and Canada. Its grain trade is enormous, and is growing rapidly. In 1863, the total number of vessels entering and clearing at the port of Buffalo was 15,376. These had a total tonnage of 6,757,903. In the same year the trade of Buffalo by lake, rail, and canal amounted to $256,214,614. In the same year there were received at this port grain and flour estimated as wheat to the amount of 64,735,510 bushels. It is not an unusual sight during the season of navigation to see a fleet of 150 sailing vessels and steamers enter Buffalo harbor from the west during a period of 24 hours. The manufacturing interests are increasing rapidly. Iron, leather, agricultural implements, and oil refining are the most important. It is believed that Buffalo will soon rank next to Pittsburg in its iron manufactures. Its proximity to the iron and coal regions of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio afford it great facilities for the econo- mical working of this metal. The city is well built. The streets are broad and well paved, and as a rule intersect each other at right angles. The stores and business houses are substantial, and in many cases handsome. The business portion of the city lies near the water. Farther back are the streets devoted to private residences. These are generally well shaded, and are lined with tasteful and sometimes with elegant dwellings. There are six public squares, viz : Niagara, Lafayette Place, Washington,, Franklin, Delaware Place, and Terrace Parks. The public buildings include the City Hall, 2 Court- Houses, the City Penitentiary, the City Jail, the Custom House, the State Arsenal, and the building of the Young Men's Christian Association. Among the Literary and Benevolent Institutions are the Buffalo University and lledical School; the Young Men's Association,, with a library of over 13,000 volumes ; the Buffalo Female Acad- emy ; the City and Marine Hospitals ; St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum ; and the Hospital of the Sisters of Charity. All of these are provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There are upwards of 70 churches in the city, several of which are- noted for their beauty and grandeur. 26 t 412 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure Avatcr, and its thoroughfares are traversed by street railways. The city is divided into 13 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council chosen by the people. There are over 30 public schools, besides a Central High School, and a number of private institutions in the city. There are 18 publications issued liere, 6 of which are daily, 8 weekly, and 3 serai-weekly newspapers. The population in 1870 was 117,714. Buffalo was laid out in 1801 by the Holland Company, and in 1812 it became a military post, at which time it contained about 200 houses. In December, 1813, it was captured and burned by the British and Indians, and only 2 houses left standing. Congress made a donation of $80,000 to the settlers to assist them in rebuilding the place. In 1832, it was incorporated as a city, and in 1852, the charter was amended so as to include Black Rock. Since 1814, the growth of the city has been very rapid. It contained only 2095 inhabitants in 1820, its wonderful growth being confined almost entirely to half a century. ROCHESTER, In Monroe county, is the fifth city in importance in the State. It is situated on both sides of the Genesee River, 7 miles from its entrance into Lake Ontario, 230 miles west by north of Albany, and 68 miles cast-northeast of Buffalo. Latitude 43° 8' N., longitude 77° 51' W. The ground upon which the city stands is generally flat, and the cor- })orate limits cover an area of 8 square miles, nearly all of which is closely built up. The streets are broad and straight, and are well paved. In the business sections are many handsome buildings, and the private residences are generally tasteful and often elegant. The Genesee River is navigable to the city limits, but the docks are situated at the mouth of the river, 7 miles distant. These are con- nected with the city by railway, and by lines of steamers. Rochester controls a large trade on Lake Ontario. The Erie Canal passes through the city, crossing the river on a fine stone aqueduct. The Genesee Valley Canal connects with it here, and extends southward from Rochester to the Alleghany River. The Erie and New York Central railways and their branches have added much to the wealth and importance of the city. The unlimited water-power afforded by the Genesee, has been one of the chief sources of the prosperity of Rochester. Within a distance of 3 miles, the river has a descent of 226 feet, which it accomplishes in 3 perpendicular falls of 95, 20 and 75 feet. The upper falls lie within the city limits and are noted for their beauty. NEW YORK. 415 In consequence of the possession of this water-power, Rochester is now one of the principal manufacturing cities in the Union. The flour mills are the most extensive in the country. Shoes, iron ware, woodon \vare, clothing, etc., are extensively manufactured. There is also an extensive trade in produce, which is collected here for shipment to other markets. The nurseries of Rochester are famous, and are unsurpassed. The public buildings of the city are handsome. The principal arc the City Hall, and the Arcade, the latter containing the Post Office and other Federal offices. The Educational and I^iterary Institutions are the University of Rochester, with a fine edifice of broM-n stone, and an endowment of $200,000 ; the Rochester Theological Seminary, under the control of the Ba])tists; the Athenaeum; the Public Library; and the Free Aca- demy. There over 20 public schools, in excellent condition, and a number of private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are St. 3Iary\ Hospi- tal, the City Hospital, the Industrial School, the Home for the Friend- less, an Insane Asylum, two Orphan Asylums, and the Western House of Refuge, for boys, belonging to the State. There are over 45 churches in the city, many of them elegant structures. The city is well supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. Street railways afford communication between its various parts. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 62,315. Rochester was settled in 1812, and was named in honor of Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, one of the pioneers of the city. It was incor- porated as a city in 1834. TROY, The sixth city in the State, lies on both sides of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Poestenkill Creek, at the head of steamboat naviga- tion, 6 miles northeast of Albany, and 151 miles north of New York. The principal portion of the city lies immediately along the river, for about 3 miles, communication between the two banks being main- tained by means of a bridge and ferry boats. The city lies in a plain. At the southern end of the east side rises a bold hill, called Mount Ida, from which an extensive view may be gained of Troy, the river, and the surrounding country. In the northern part of the city is a rugged mass of rockj 200 feet high^ called Mount Olympus. 41G OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANIES. ANCIENT LAWS OF TPIE PROVINCE OP NEW YORK. The following laws are extracted from those establisliecl by the Dnke of York for the government of New York, in the year 1G64. This code (called the "Duke's Laws") was compiled under the direction of NicoUs, the first English Governor. It continued in force till the period of the Revolution in England, and ceased to have efifcct in 1091, when the General Assembly of t])e Province began to exercise a new legislative power under the sovereignty of King William: Capital Laics. — t. If any person within tliis Government shall by direct ex- prcst, impious or presumptuous ways, deny the true God and his Attributes, he shall be put to death. 2. If any person shall Commit any wilful and premeditated Murder, he shall be put to Death. 3. If any i)erson Slayeth another with Sword or Dagger who hath no weapon to defend himself; he shall be put to Death. 4. If any person forcibly Stealeth or carrieth away any mankind ; He* shall be put to death. 5. If any person shall bear false witness maliciously and on purpose to take away a man's life, lie shall be put to Death. 6. If any man shall Traitorously deny his Majestyes right and titles to his Crownes and Dominions, or shall raise armies to resist his Authority, He shall be put to Death. 7. If any man shall treacherously conspire or Publiquely attempt to invade or Surprise any Town or Towns, Fort or Forts, within this Government, He shall be put to Death. 8. If anj"- Child or Children, above sixteen years of age, and of Sufficient under- standing, shall smite their natural Father or Mother, unless thereunto provoked and forct ibr their selfe preservation from Death or Maj'ming, at the Complaint of the said Father and Mother, and not otherwise, they being Sufficient witnesses thereof, that Child or those Children so offending shall be put to Death. Bond Slavery. — No Christian shall be kept in Bondslavery villenage or Cap- tivity, Except Such who shall be Judged thereunto by Authority, or such as wil- lingly have sould, or shall sell themselves, In which Case a Record of such Servitude shall be entered in the Court of Sessions held for that Jurisdiction where Such ]Matters shall Inhabit, provided that nothing in the Law Contained shall be to the prejudice of Master or Dame who have or shall by any Indenture or Covenant take Apprentices for Terme of Years, or other Servants for Term df years or Liie. Church. — Whereas the publique Worship of God is much discredited for want of ]iainful and able Ministers to Instruct the people in the true Religion and for want of Convenient places Capable to receive any Number or Assembly of people in a decent manner for Celebrating Gods holy Ordinances. These ensueing Lawes are to be observed in every parish (Viz.) 1. That in each Parish within this Government a church be built in the most Convenient pai't thereof, Capable to receive and accommodate two Hundred Persons. 2. To prevent Scandalous and Ignorant pretenders to the Ministry from in- NEW YORK. 417 imuing themselves as Teachers ; No Minister shall be A.tlmitted to OfRciate, ^vitlnn the Government but such as shall produce Testimonials to the Governour, that he hath Received Ordination either from some Protestant Bishop, or Minis- ter within some part of his Majesties Dominions or the Dominions of any foreign Prince of the Reformed Religion, upon which Testimony the Governour shall induce the said Minister into the parish that shall make presentation of him, as duely Elected by the Major part of the Inhabitants householders. 8. That the Minister of every Parish shall Preach constantly every Sunday, and shall also pray for the Kinge, Queene, Duke of Yorke, and the Royall fam- ily. And every person affronting or disturbing any Congregation on the Lords Day and on such publique days of fast and Thanksgiving as are appointed to be observed. After the presentments thereof by the Churchwardens to the Sessions and due Conviction thereof he shall be punished by fine or Imprisonment accord- ing to the merit and Nature of the offence. And every Minister shall also Pub- liquely Administer the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper once every Year at the least in his Parish Church not denying the private benefit thereof to Persons that for want of health shall require the same in their houses, under the penalty of Loss of preferment unless the Minister be restrained in point of Conscience. Fasting Bays and Days of Thanks givin To he observed. — Whereas by an Act of Parliament the fifth Day of November is annually to be observed for the Great deliverance from the Gunpowder Treason, And whereas by one other Act of Parliiynent The thirtyeth Day of January is annually to be observed with Fast- ing and Prayer in all his Majesties Dominions to shew a hearty and Serious Re- pentance and Detestation of that Barbarous Murther Comriiited upon the Person of our late King Charles the first, thereby to divert Gods heavy Judgment from falling upon the whole Nation, as also by another Act of Parliament we are en- joyned thankfully to acknowledge the providence of God upon the Nine and Twcntyeth Day of May for his Majesties Birth and Resturation to the Throne of his Royall Ancestors whereby Peace and unity is Established in all his Majesties Domains, Every Minister within his Severall Parish is enjoyned to pray and Preach on these days and all other Persons are also enjoyned to abstain from their Ordinary Laboure and Calling According to the true intent of both the said Acts. Every Person Licenced to keep an Ordinary shall always be provided of strong and wholesome Beer, of four bushels of malt, at the least to a Hoggshead which he shall not Sell at above two pence the quart under the penalty of twenty Shil- lings, for the first Offence, forty shillings for the Second, and loss of his Licence, It is permitted to any to Sell Beer out of Doores at a peny the Ale quart or under. No Licenced Person shall suffer any to Drink excessively or at unseasonable Uours after Nine of the Clock at night in or about any their houses upon penalty of two shillings six pence for every Offence if Complaint and proofe be made thereof. All Injurj'^es done to the Indians of what nature whatsoever ; shall upon their Complaint and proofe thereof in any Court have speedy redress gratis, against any Christian in as full and Ample manner, (with reasonable allowance for dam- age) as if the Case had been betwixt Christian and Christian. No Indian whatsoever shall at any time be Suffered to Powaw or performe ont- '\'ard worship to the Devil in any Towne within this Government. Lying and False News. — Every Person of age of discretion which shall be re- 418 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. puted of fourteen years or upwards, who shall wittingly and willingly forge or Publish fals newes whereof no Certain Auther nor Authentique Letter out of any part of Europe can be produced, whereby the minds of People are frequently dis- quieted or exasperated in relation to publique Aflfairs, or particular Persons in- juried in their good names and Credits by such Common deceites and abuses Upon due proofe made by Sufficient witnesses before the Governour or any Court of Sessions the Person so Offending in ordinary Cases shall for the first of- fence be fined ten shillings, for the second off"ence twenty shillings and for the third off'ence forty Shillings and if the party be unable jto pay the same he shall be Sett in the Stocks so longe, or publiquely whipt with so many stripes as the Governor or any Court of Sessions shall think fitt not exceeding forty stripes : or four houres Sitting in the Stocks, and for the fourth offence he shall be bound to his good behaviour, paying Cost or Service to the Informer and witnesses, such as shall be judged reasonable sattisfaction, But in Cases of high nature and publique Concernes, the fine or punishment shall be increast according to the dis- cretion of the Governor and Council onely. If any Masters or Dames shall Tyrannically and Cruelly abuse their Servants, upon Complaint made by the Servant to the Constable and Overseers, they shall take Speedy redress therein, by Admonishing the Master or Dame not to provoke their Servants, And upon the Servants Second Complaint, of the like usage It shall be Lawful lor the Constable and Overseers to protect and Sustaine such Ser- vants in their Houses till due Order be taken for their Roliefe in the ensuing Sessions Provided that due Notice thereof be Speedily given to Such Masters or Dames, and the Cause why such Servants are Protected and Sustained, and in Case any Master or Dame by such Tyranny and Cruelty, and not casually, shall smite out the Eye or Tooth of any such man or maid Servant, or shall otherwise Maim or disfigure them such Servants after due proof made shall be sett free from their Service, And have a further allowance and recompence as the Court of Ses- sions shall judge meet. But in Case any Servant or Servants shall causelessly Complain against their Master or Dame If they cannot make proofe of a just occation for such Com- plaints such Servants shall by the Justices of the Court of Sessions be enjoyned to serve three Months time extraordinary (Gratis) for every such vndue Com- plaint. AH Servants who have served Diligently; and faithfully to the benifit of their Masters or Dames five or Seaven yeares, shall not be Sent empty away, and if any have proved unfaithful or negligent in their Service, notwithstanding the good usage of their Masters, They shall not be dismist, till they have made satis- faction according to the Judgment of the Constable and Overseers of the parish where they dwell. No man Elected into any Military Office, shall refuse to accept thereof, or dis- charge his trust therein under the penalty of five pounds whereof one half to bo paid to the Governour and the other halfe to him that is chosen in his place, and accepts thereof. No man shall be Compeld to bear Armes or wage war by sea or Land, without the bounds and limits of this Government, But from Defensive warrs noe man shall be exempted. At a sessions held at the City of New York, Oct. 6, 1694, in the 6th year of Williiiin and Mary, present the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, and assistants of the Coimnon Council. NEW YORK. 419 For the better preservation of the Lords day, no servile work to be done, or any goods bought or sold on the Lords day, under the penalty of ten shillings for the first oflFence, and double for every subsequent oifence. The Doors of Publick Houses, to be kept shut, no company to be entertained, in them, or any sort of Liquor sold in time of Divine service ; Strangers, Travel- lers, or such as lodge in such Houses excepted ; also no person to drink exces- sively, or be drunk, the penalty lOs. for every ofTence. No Negro or Indian servants to meet together, above the number of four, on the Lords Day, or any other day, -within the City liberties ; nor any slave to go around with Gun, Sword, Club, or any weapon, under penalty of ten lashes at the publick whipping post, or to be redeemed by his master or owner, at six shil- lings per head. One of the Constables in the five wards on the south side the fresh Water, by turns to walk the streets of the city, in time of Divine Service, to see these laws observed, and to have power to enter into all publick Houses to put the same in execution. The Constable to make enquiry after all strangers, and give in their names to the Mayor, or in his absence to the eldest Alderman, no keeper of publick house &c, to entertain or lodge any suspected person, or men or women of evil fame, both these heads under penalty of 10s. for each offence. No person to keep shop or sell any goods by retail or exercise any handy-craft trade, but such as are Freemen of the City, under penalty of 5s. every offence. All Jesuits, Seminary Priests, Missionaries, or other Ecclesiastical person, made or ordained by any power or Jurisdiction derived or pretended from the Pope, or see of Rome, residing or being within the Province, to depart the same, on or before the first of Nov. 1700. If any such continue, remain, or come into the Province, after the said first of November, he shall be deemed an Incendiary, a disturber of the publick peace, an Enemy to the true Christian Religion, and shall suffer perpetual imprison- ment. If any such person, being actually committed, shall break Prison and escape, he shall be guilty of Felony, and if retaken shall die as a Felon. Persons receiving, harbouring, succouring, or concealing any such person, and knowing him to be such, shall forfeit the sum of 200 pounds, half to the King, foi and towards the support of the Government, and the other half to the prose- cutor, shall be set in the Pillory three days, and find sureties for their behaviour, at the discretion of the court. Any Justice of peace may cause any person suspected to be of the Romish Clergy to be apprehended, and if he find cause, may commit him or them, in order to a trial. Any person, without warrant, may seize, apprehend, and bring before a Magis- trate, any person suspected of the crimes above, and the Governor, with the Council, may suitably reward such person as they think fit. OLD TIME CUSTOMS OF NEW YORK CITY. The Dutch kept five great festivals of peculiar notoriety, in the year : Kersiydt (Christmas) ; Nieuwjar (New Year) ; a great day of cake, Paas (the Passover) ; Pinxter (i. e. Whitsuntide) ; and San Claas (i. e. Saint Nicholas, or Christ-Kinkle day). The negroes on Long Island on some of those days came in great crowds to Brooklyn, and heldJ.heir field frolics. 420 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. It was the general practice of families in middle life to spin, and make much of their domestic wear at home. Short gowns and petticoats were the general in-door dresses. ^ Young women who dressed gay to go abroad to visit, or to church, never failed to take oflF that dress and put on their homemade, as soon as they got home ; "even on Sunday evenings, when they expected company, or even their beaux, it was their best recommendation to seem thus frugal and ready for any domestic avocation. The boys and young men of a family always changed their dress for a common dress in the same way. There vvas no custom of offering drink to their guests ; when punch was offered, it was in great bowls.. Dutch dances were very common ; the supper on such occasions was hot chocolate and bread. The negroes used to dance in the markets, using tom-toms, horns, etc., for music. None of the stores or tradesmen's shops then aimed at any rivalry as now. There were no glaring allurements at windows, no over-reaching signs, no big bulk windows ; they were content to sell things at honest profits, and to trust to an earned reputation for their share of business. Many aged persons have spoken to me of the former delightful practice of families sitting out on their "stoops" in the shades of the evening, and their saluting the passing friends, or talking across the narrow streets with neighbors. It was one of the grand links of unipn in the Knickerbocker social compact. It endeared, and made social neighbors : made intercourse on easy terms ; it w'as only to say. Come, sit down. It helped the young to easy introductions, and made courtships of readier attainment. 1 give some facts to illustrate the above remarks, deduced from the family B. with which I am personally acquainted. It shows primitive Dutch manners. His grandfather died at the age of sixty-three, in 1782, holding the office of alder- man eleven years, and once chosen mayor and declined. Such a man, in easy circumstances in life, following the true Dutch ton, had all his family to break- fast, all the year round, at daylight. Before the breakfast he universally smoked his pipe. Ilis family always dined at twelve exactly, at that time the kettle Avas invariably set on the fire for tea, of Bohea, which was always as punctually fur- nished at three o'clock. Then the old people went abroad on purpose to visit relatives, changing the families each night in succession, over and over again all the year round. The regale at every such house was expected as matter of course to be chocolate supper, and soft wafliles. Afterwards, when green tea came in as a new luxury, loaf sugar also came with it ; this was broken in large lumps and laid severally by each cup, and was nibbled or bitten as needed ! The family before referred to actually continued the practice till as late as sev- enteen years ago, with a steady determination in the patriarch to resist the modern innovation of dissolved sugar while he lived. While they occupied the stoops in the evening, you could see every here and there an old Knickerbocker with his long pipe, fuming away his cares, and ready on any occasion to offer another for the use of any passing friend who would sit down and join hira. The ideal picture has every lineament of contented comfort ana clieerl'ul repose. Something much more composed and happy than the bustling anxiety of " over business" in the moderns. The cleanliness of Dutch housewifery was always extreme ; everything had to NEW YORK. 421 submit to scrubbing and scouring ; dirt in no form could be endured by them : and dear as water was in the city, where it was generally sold, still it was in per- petual requisition. It was their honest pride to see a well-furnished dresser, showing copper and pewter in shining splendor, as if for ornament, rather than for use. It was common in families then to cleanse their own chimneys without the aid of hired sweeps ; and all tradesmen, etc., were accustomed to saw their own fuel. No man in middle circumstances of life ever scrupled to carry home his one cwt. of meal from the market ; it would have been Ms shame to have avoided it. Men wore three-square or cocked hats, and wigs ; coats with large cuffs, big skirts lined and stiffened with buckram. None ever saw a crown higher than the head. The coat of a beau had three or four large plaits in the skirts, wadding almost like a coverlet to keep them smooth ; cuffs very large, up to the elbows, open below and inclined down, with lead therein ; the capes were thin and low, so as readily to expose the close plaited neck-stock of fine linen cambric, and the large silver stock-buckle on the back of the neck ; shirts with hand ruffles, sleeves finely plaited, breeches close fitted, with silver, stone, or paste gem buckles ; shoes or pumps with silver buckles of various sizes and patterns ; thread, worsted, and silk stockings'; the poorer class wore sheep and buckskin breeches close set to the limbs. Gold and silver sleeve buttons, set with stones or paste of various colors and kinds, adorned the wrists of the shirts of all classes. TJie very boys often wore wigs ; and their dresses in general were similar to those of the men. The women wore caps (a bare head was never seen), stiff stays, hoops from six inches to two feet on each side ; high heeled shoes of black stuff, with white silk or thread stockings ; and in the miry times of the winter they wore clogs, gala shoes, or pattens. As soon as wigs were abandoned, and the natural hair was cherished, it became the mode to dress it by plaiting it, by queuing and clubbing, or by wearing it iu a black silk sack or bag, adorned with a large black rose. In time, the powder with which wigs and the natural hair had been severally adorned, was run into disrepute (about 38 or 30 years ago) by the then strange innovation of "Brutus heads;" not only then discarding the long-cherished powder and perfume, and tortured frizzle-work, but also literally becoming "round heads" by cropping off all the pendent graces of ties, bobs, clubs, queus, etc. The hardy beaux who first encountered public opinion by appearing abroad unpowdered and cropt, had many starers. The old men, for a time, obstinately persisted in adherence to the old regime ; but death thinned their ranks, and use and prevalence of numbers at length gave countenance to modern usage. From various reminiscents, we glean that laced ruffles, depending over the hand, was a mark of indispensable gentility. The coat and breeches were gene- rally desirable of the same material — of "broadcloth" for winter, and of silk camlet for summer. No kind of cotton fabrics were then in use, or known. Hose were, therefore, of thread or silk in summer, and fine worsted in winter; shoes were square-toed, and were often "double channelled." To these suc- ceeded sharp-toes, as piked as possible. When wigs were universally worn, grey wigs were powdered ; and for that purpose sent in a wooden box frequently to the barber to be dressed on his block-head. But "brown wigs," so-called, were exempted from the white disguise. Coats of red cloth, even by boys, were con- siderably worn ; and plush breeches, and plush vests of various colors, shining and smooth, were in common use. Everlasting, made of worsted, was a fabric 422 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of great use for breeches, and sometimes for vests. The vest had great depend- ing pocket flaps, and the breeches were short above the stride, because the art, since devised, of suspending them by suspenders, was then unknown. It was then the test and even the pride of a well formed man, that he could by his natu- ral form readily keep his breeches above his hips, and his stockings, without gar- tering, above the calf of his leg. With the queues belonged frizzled side-locks and tout pies, formed of the natural hair, or, in defect of a long tie, a splice was added to it. Such was the general passion for the longest possible whip of hair, that sailors and boatmen, to make it grow most, used to tie theirs in eel skins. Nothing like surtouts were known ; but they had coating or cloth great-coats, or blue cloth and brown camlet cloaks, with green baize lining to the latter. In the time of the American war, many of the American officers introduced the use of Dutch blankets for great-coats. The sailors used to wear hats of glazed leather, or woollen thrums, called chapeaus ; and their "small clothes," as we now call them, were immensely wide "petticoat-breeches." The workingmen in the country wore the same form, having no falling-flaps, but slits in front ; and they were so full in girth, that they ordinarily changed the rear to the front, when the seat became prematurely worn out. At the same time numerous workingmen and boys, and all tradesmen, wore leather breeches and leather aptons. Some of the peculiarities of the female dress were these, to wit : Ancient ladies are still alive, who often had their liair tortured for hours at a sitting, in getting up for a dress occasion, the proper crisped curls of a hair curler. This formidable outfit of head-work was next succeeded by "rollers," over which the hair was combed above the forehead. These were again superseded by "cushions" and artificial curled work, which could be sent to the barber's block, like a wig, "to be dressed," leaving the lady at home to pursue other objects. When the ladies first began to lay off" their cumbrous hoops, they supplied their place with successive substitutes, such as these, to wit: first came " bishops," a thing stuff'ed or padded with horsehair ; then succeeded a smaller affair, under the name of Cue de Paris, also padded with horsehair. Among other articles of female wear, we may name the following, to wit : Once they wore a " skimmer-hat," made of a fabric which shone like silver tin- sel ; it was of a very small flat crown and big brim, not unlike the present Leg- horn fiats. Another hat, not unlike it in shape, was made of woven horsehair, wove in flowers, and called "horsehair bonnets," an article which might be again usefully introduced for children's wear, as an enduring hat for long service. I have seen what was called a bath-bonnet, made of black satin, and so con- structed to lay in folds that it could be set upon, like a chapeau bras ; a good article now for travelling ladies. The "muskmelon-bonnet," used before the Revolution, had numerous whalebone stiffeners in the crown, set an inch apart, in parallel lines, and presenting ridges to the eye between the bones. The next bonnet was the "whalebone-bonnet,'' having only the bones in the front as stiffeners. A "calash-bonnet" was always formed of green silk; it was worn abroad, covering the head, but when in rooms it could fall back in folds like the springs of a calash or gig-top ; to keep it over the head, it was drawn up by a cord always held in the hand of the Avearer. The "wagon-bonnet," always of black silk, was an article exclusively in use among the Friends, and was deemed to look, on the head, not unlike the top of the "Jersey wagons," and having a pendent piece of like silk hanging from the bonnet and covering the shoulders. The only straw wear was that called the "straw Cheshire bonnet," worn gene- rally by old people. NEW YORK. 423 The ladies once wore "hollow-breasted stays," which were exploded as inju- rious to the health. Then came the use of straight stays. Even little girls wore such stays. At one time the gowns worn had no fronts ; the design was to dis- play a finely quilted Marseilles, silk, or satin petticoat, and a worked stomacher on the waist. In other dresses, a white apron was the mode ; all wore large pockets under their gowns. Among the caps was the " queen's nightcap," the same always worn by Lady Washington. The "cushion head-dress" was of gauze, stiifened out in cylindrical form, with white spiral wire. The border of the cap was called the balcony. Formerly there were no sideboards, and wlien they were first introduced after the Revolution, they were much smaller and less expensive than now. Formerly they had couches of worsted damask, and only in very affluent families, in lieu of what we call sofas, or lounges. Plain people used settees and settles, — the latter had a bed concealed in the seat, and by folding the top of it outwards to the front, it exposed the bed, and widened the place for the bed to be spread upon it. In those days, there were no Windsor chairs : and fancy chairs are still more modern. Their chairs of the genteelest kind were of mahogany or red walnut (once a great substitute for mahogany in all kinds of furniture, tables, etc.), or else they were of rush bottom, and made of maple posts and slats, with high backs and perpendicular. Instead of japanned waiters as now, they had mahog- any tea boards, and round tea tables, which, being turned on an axle underneath the centre, stood upright, like an expanded fan or palm-leaf, in the corner. An- other corner was occupied by a beaufet, which was a corner closet with a glass door, in which all tlie china of the family was intended to be displayed, for orna- ment as well as use. A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great china punchbowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage, — for wine drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were then about half their present size ; and china teapots and coff"eepots, with silver nozzles, was a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware was not then known, and all who showed a silver surface had the massive metal too. This occurred in tlie wealthy families, in little colfee and teapots ; and a silver tank- ard, for good sugared toddy, was above vulgar entertainment. Where we now use earthenware, they then used delfware, imported from England ; and instead of queensware (then unknown), pewter platters and porringers, made to shine along a "dresser," were universal. Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden trenchers. Gilded looking-glasses and picture frames of golden glare were unknown ; and both, much smaller than now, were used. Small pictures painted on glass, with black mouldings for frames, with a scanty touch of gold leaf in the corners, was the adornment of a parlor. The looking-glasses in two plates, if large, had either glass frames figured with flowers engraved thereon, or were of scalloped mahogany — painted white or black, with here and there some touches of gold. Every householder in that day deemed it essential to his convenience and comfort to have an ample chest of drawers, in his parlor or sitting-room, in which the linen and clothes of the family were always of ready access. It was no sin to rummage them before company. These drawers were sometimes nearly a^ high as the ceiling. At other times they had a writing desk about the centre, with a falling lid to write upon when let down. A great high clock case, reaching to tlie ceiling, occupied another corner ; and a fourth corner was appropriated to the chimney place. 424 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. They then had no carpets on their floors, and no paper on their walls. The silver sand on the floor was drawn into a variety of fanciful figures and twirls of the sweeping-brush, and much skill and even pride was displayed therein in the de- vices and arrangement. They had then no argand or other lamps in parlors, but dipt candles, in brass or copper candlesticks, was usually good enough for com- mon use ; and those who occasionally used mould candles, made them at home in little tin frames, casting four to six candles in each. A glass lantern with square sides furnished the entry lights in the houses of the affluent. Bedsteads then were made, if tine, of carved mahogany, of slender dimensions ; but, for common purposes, or for the families of good tradesmen, they were of poplar, and always painted green. It was a matter of universal concern to have them low enough to answer the purpose of repose for sick or dying persons — a pro- vision so necessary for such possible events, now so little regarded by the modern practice of ascending to a bed by steps, like clambering up to a haymow. A lady, giving me the reminiscences of her early life, thus speaks of things as they were before the war of Independence : Marble mantels and folding doors were not then known ; and well enough we enjoyed ourselves without sofas, car- pets, or girandoles. A white floor sprinkled with clean white sand, large tables and heavy high-back chairs of walnut or mahogany, decorated a parlor genteelly enough for anybody. Sometimes a carpet, not, however, covering the whole floor, was seen upon the dining room. This was a show parlor up utairs, not used but upon gala occasions, and then not to dine in. Pewter plates aud dishes were in general use. China on dinner tables was a great rarity. Plate, more or less, was seen in most families of easy circumstances, not indeed in all the vari- ous shapes that have since been invented, but in massive silver waiters, bowls, tankards, cans, etc. Glass tumblers were scarcely seen. Punch, the most com- mon beverage, was drunk by the comjiany from one large bowl of silver or china ; and beer from a tankard of silver. The use of stoves was not known in primitive times, neither in families nor churches. Their fireplaces were as large again as the present, with much plainer mantel pieces. In lieu of marble plates around the sides and top of the fireplaces, it was adorned with china Dutch tile, pictured with sundry Scripture pieces. Dr. Franklin first invented the "open stove," called also the "Franklin stove," after which, as fuel became scarce, the better economy of the "ten plate ctove " was adopted. The most splendid looking carriage ever exhibited among us was that used, as befitting the character of that chief of men, General Washington, while acting as President of the United States. It was very large, so as to make four horses, at least, an almost necessary appendage. It was occasionally drawn by six horses, Virginia bays. It was cream colored, globular in its shape, ornamented Avith cupids, supporting festoons, and wreaths of flowers, emblematically arranged along the panel work ; — the whole neatly covered with best watch glass. It was of English construction. Some twenty or thirty years before the period of the Revolution, the steeds most prized for the saddle were pacers, since so odious deemed. To this end tlie breed was propagated with much care. The Narraganset pacers of Rhode Island were in such repute that they were sent for, at much trouble and expense, by some few who were choice in their selections. It may amuse the present generation to peruse the history of one such horse, spoken of in the letter of Rip Van Dam of New York, in the year 1711, which I have seen. It states the fact of the NEW YORK. 425 trouble he had taken to procure him such a horse. He was shipped from Rliode Island in a sloop, from which he jumped overboard, when under sail, and swam ashore to his former home. He arrived at New York in 14 days' passage, much reduced in flesh and spirit. He cost £33, and his freight 50 shillings. This writer, Rip Van Dam, was a great personage, he having been President of the Council in 1731 ; and on the death of Governor Montgomer}^ that yor, he was Governor, ex-offlcio, of New York. His mural monument is now to be seen in St. Paul' 8 Church. * THE NEGRO PLOT IN NEW YORK. A robbery, which had been committed at tne house of Robert Hogg, a merchant in New York, on the 28th of February, 1740-1, seemed to have led to the dis- covery of a plot, whicli was afterwards called the negro plot. One Mary Burton, an indentured servant to John Ilughson (a man of infamous character, and to whose house slaves were in tlie practice of resoiting to drink and gamble, and of secreting the goods they had stolen), was the instrument, in the hands of the magistrates, for the detection and punishment of the offenders. On the ISth of March, after the robbery, a fire broke out in the roof of His Majesty's house at Fort George, near the chapel, consuming the house, the chapel, and some other buildings adjacent. Most of the public records in the secretary's office, over the fort gate, were fortunately rescued from the flames. A week after, another fire broke out at the house belonging to a Captain \Yarren, near the long bridge, at the soutiivvch^t end of the city. Both these fires were, at first, supposed to be ac- cidental. But about a week after the last fire, another broke out at the store house of a Mr. Van Zandt, towards the east end of the town. Three days after, a fourth alarm was given, and it was found that some hay was on fire in a cow- stable near the house of a Mr Quick, or a Mr. Vergereau. The fire was soon sup- pressed. The people, in returning from that fire, were alarmed by a fifth cry, at the house of one Ben Thompson, next door west of a Captain 'Sarly's house. It appeared that fire had been placed between two beds, in the loft of a kitchen, where a negro usually slept. Tlie next morning coals were discovered under a haystack, near the coach house and stables of Joseph Murray, Esq., in Broadway. All these circumstances having occurred in quick succession, the people were in- duced to believe that some designing persons intended to destroy the city by fire. What strengthened this belief was, a seventh alarm of fire the next day, at the house of a Sergeant Burns, opposite the fort garden, an eighth alarm, occasioned by a fire breaking out the same day, in the roof of a Mr. Hilton's house, near the fly mai-ket ; and again, the same afternoon, and within a few hours after, a ninth fire occurring at Colonel Philipse's store house. This strange coincidence of events leaves indeed little room for doubt that some one or more of the fires oc- curred through design. It was soon rumored that the negroes were the perpe- trators. One Quacko, a negro belonging to a Mr. Walter, was said to have made use of some mysterious language and threats, indicating his knowledge of a plot. , A proclamation was issued, off"ering rewards for the discovery of the offenders. Quacko and several other negroes were apprehended and closely interrogated, but without effect. The Supreme Court, at its April term, strictly enjoined the grand jury to make diligent enquiries as to the late robberies and fires within the • Watson's Hi-storic Tales of Oldeti Time. 426 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. city. Mary Burton, -who had been apprehended as a witness, relative to the rob- bery at Mr. Hogg's, gave the grand jury reason to believe that she was also privy to the design to set fire to the city. After some difficulty, she made a disclosure, which, in all probability, was greatly exaggerated, though some of its parts might have been true. She stated that meetings of negroes were held at her master's (Hughson). That their plan was to burn the fort and city. That one Cassar (a black) was to be Oovernor, and Hughson, her master, king! That Ihey were to destroy the whites. That she had known seven or eight guns, and some swords, in her master's house. That the meetings at her master's house consisted of twentj' or thirty negroes at a time. Upon this evidence, warrants were issued, and many negroes committed to prison. One Arthur Price, a ser- vant, charged with stealing goods belonging to the Lieutenant-Governor, like- ■\vise became informer. Being in prison himself, and having access to the negroes there committed, he received, or pretended to have received, much information from them. He was afterwards employed by the magistrates, to hold private conferences with the negroes in prison, and to use persuasion and other means to gain confessions from them. In this business he was peculiarly expert, and received the most unqualified approbation of the magistrates. Yet many of his stories are of such a chivalrous and romantic description as to excite suspicion of their truth. But everything he related was implicitly believed. The more extravagant the tale, the more readily was it received and credited. A white wo- man, who was a common prostitute, and familiar even with negroes, of the name of Margaret or Peggy Salinburgh, alias Kerry, alias Sorubiero, likewise declared she could make great discoveries. The magistrates eagerly hastened to take her ex- nmination, and the consequence Avas, that fresh warrants were issued for the ap- prehension of many other negroes, not before implicated. Informers were now rapidly increasing. Arthur Price, while in prison, was making great discoveries. Operating on the fears and hopes of the negroes, many declared themselves ac- complices. The magistrates were unceasingly engaged. The grand jury were daily presenting bills of indictment against the parties accused. To be inculpated by Mary Burton, Arthur Price, or Peggy Salinburgh, was sufficient to authorize the indictment and conviction of any person. It is to be regretted that on proof of such suspicious characters so many lives were placed in the hands of the exe- cutioner. Not that we dispute the fact that some of the fires were designedly set, but that we mean to be understood as doubting the extent and nature of the plot ascribed to the negroes. It is evident that Mary Burton was wholly un- worthy of credit. Independent of the absurdity and improbability of many of her stories, she had, on the 22d April, in her first examination and disclosure under oath, declared, "that she never saw any white person in company when they talked of burning the town, but her master, her mistress, and Peggy ; " yet, on the 2oth of June following, she deposed that one John Ury, a Catholic priest (a white person), was often at her master's, and "that when he came to Hugh- son's, he (Ury) always went up stairs in the company of Hughson, his wife and daughter, and Peggy, with whom the negi'oes used to be, at the same time, con- bTilting about the plot ; " and that " the negroes talked in the presence of the said Ury about setting fire to the houses and killing the white people." She after- wards, on the 14th July following, declared, on oath, that one Corry, a dancing master (also a white person), used to come to Hughson's and talk with the negroes about the plot. Yet, on evidence of this kind, Ury, who had previously been committed, under the act against Jesuits and Popish priests, was indicted, NEW YORK. 427 tried, convicted, and executed. At the place of execution, he solemnly denied the charge, and called on God to witness its falsity. But Ury was a Catholic, and the public prejudice was so strong that it required very little more to ensure his condemnation. Had not Ury been obnoxious, on account of his religion, the accusation against him would perhaps never have been made, or, if made, would have been little regarded. Mary Burton received the hundred pounds which had been promised as a reward for discovering the persons concerned in setting fire to the city. We shall now dismiss this article, after giving the number who were accused, tried, and suffered on this occasion, with some remarks, which grow out of tliis subject. One hundred and fifty-four nc^groes were committed to prison, of whom 14 were burnt at the stake, 18 hanged, 71 transported, and the rest pardoned, or discharged for want of proof Twenty white persons were committed, of whom 2 only, John Hughson and John Ury, were executed. At this time the city of New York contained a population of about 12,000 souls, of whom one-sixth were slaves. If a plot, in fact, existed for the destruction of the city and the massacre of its inhabitants ; and if that plot w'as conducted by Ury, it certainly betrayed greater imbecility of intellect, and want of caution and arrangement, together with less union of action, than could have been expected from one who was evi- dently, if we believe his own account, a man of classical education, and profound" erudition. It is worthy of remark, that Corry, the dancing master, accused by Mary Burton, was discharged for want of proof It seems that Mary's testi- mony began, at length, to be doubted. Indeed, it well might ; for had the prose- cutions continued much longer, she would, more than probable, have accused a great portion of the white citizens of New York, as being concerned in this plot. Daniel Horsmanden, Esq., published, at the time, a history of this conspiracy, and labored hard to prove its existence and extent. But it is evident that that hostility to Catholicism, which the British Government so industriously incul- cated, tinctured his mind, and gave it a bias unfriendly to the fair development of truth, or to the full and impartial examination of facts and circumstances. The negroes were without defence. All the counsel in the city were arrayed against them, and volunteered their services on behalf of the crown, on the trial of tliose unfortunate slaves. The want of education, and utter ignorance of those infatuated wretches, easily made them the victims of craft and imposition. The hopes of life, and the promise of pardon, influenced some of them to make con- fessions. Yet falsehood was so ingeniously and artfully blended with truth, that it was not an easy task to separate the one from the other. It must, however, be admitted, that many circumstances aided the opinion that the plot, in fact, ex- isted, and if the people w^ere mistaken in this, it was an error into which they might naturally fall at the moment of confusion and distress, and under the at- tending circumstances. A day of public thanksgiving for the deliverance of Plis Majesty's subjects from the alleged conspiracy, was appointed by the Lieutenant- Governor, and was devoutly and reverently observed by the inhabitants. — SmiWs History. HOW ROCHESTER WAS SAVED FROM THE BRITISH. In the spring of 1814 — the war between the United States and Great Britain being in progress — Sir James Yeo, with a fleet of 13 vessels, appeared off the mouth of the Genesee, threatening the destruction of the rude improvements in 428 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 3nd around Rochester. Messengers were despatched to arouse the people in the surrounding country, for defence against the threatened attack. At this time there were but thirty-three people in Rochester capable of bearing arms. This little band threw up a breastwork called Fort Bender, near the Deep Hollow, beside the Lower Falls, and hurried. down to the junction of the Genesee and Lake Ontario. 5 miles north of the present city limits, where the enemy threatened to land ; leaving behind them two old men, with some young lads, to remove the women and children into the woods, in case the British should at- tempt to land for the capture of the provisions, and destruction of the bridge at Rochester, etc. Francis Brown and Elisha Ely acted as captains, and Isaac W. Stone as major, of the Rochester forces, which were strengthened by the addi- tions that could be made from this thinly settled region. Though the equipments and discipline of these troops would not form a brilliant picture for a warlike eye, their very awkwardness in those points, coupled as it was with their sagacity and courage, accomplished more, perhaps, than could have been effected by a larger force of regular troops, bedizzened with the trappings of military pomp. The militia thus hastily collected were marched and countermarched, disappear- ing in the woods at one point, and suddenly emerging elsewhere, so as to impress the enemy with the belief that tlie force collected for defence was far greater than it actually was. (The circumstances here related are substantially as mentioned to the writer by one who was then and is now a resident of Rocliester.) An offi- cer with a flag of truce was sent from the British fleet. A militia officer marched down with ten of the most soldierlike men to receive him on Lighthouse Point. Tliese militia men carried their guns upright, as might be consistent with their plan of being ready for action by keeping hold of the triggers. The British offi- cer was astonished : he "looked unutterable things." "Sir," said he, " do you receive a flag of truce under arms, with cocked triggers ?" — " Excuse me, excuse me, sir: we backwoodsmen are not well versed in military tactics," replied the American officer, who promptlj'- sought to rectify his error by ordering his men to 'ground arms." The Briton was still more astonished; and, after de- livering a brief message, immediately departed for the fleet, indicating by his countenance a suspicion that the ignorance of tactics, which he had witnessed, was all feigned for the occasion, so as to deceive the British Commodore into a snare. Shortly afterwards, on the same day, another officer came ashore with a flag of truce for farther parley, as the British were evidently too suspicious of stratagem to attempt a hostile landing, if there was any possibility of compromis- ing for the spoils. Captain Francis Brown was deputed with a guard to receive the last flag of truce. The British officer looked suspiciously upon him and upon his guard ; and, after some conversation, familiarly grasped the pantaloons of Captain Brown about the knee, remarking, as he firmly handled it, " Your cloth is too good to be spoiled by such a bungling tailor," alluding to the width and clumsy aspect of that garment. Brown was quick-witted, as well as resolute, and replied, jocosely, that he was prevented from dressing fashionably by his haste that morning, to salute such distinguished visitors. The Briton obviously imagined that Brown was a regular officer of the American army, whose regi- mentals were masked by clumsy over clothes. The proposition was then made, that, if the Americans would deliver up the provisions and military stores, which might be in and around Rochester, or Charlotte, Sir James Yeo would spare the settlements from destruction. "Will you comply with the offer?" — "Blood knee deep first," was the emphatic reply of Francis Brown. NEW YORK. 429 While this parley was in progress, an American officer, witli his staff, return- ing from the Niagara frontier, was accidentally seen passing from one wooded point to another; and this, with other circumstances, afforded to the British "confirmation strong" that their suspicions were well founded ; that there was a considerable American army collected ; and that the Yankee officers pretended ignorance for the purpose of entrapping ashore the Commodore and his forces. The return of the last flag to the fleet was followed by a vigorous attack in bombs and balls, while the compliment was spiritedly returned, not without some effect on at least one of the vessels, by a rusty old six-pounder, which had been fur- nished and mounted on a log for the important occasion. After a few hours spent in this unavailing manner. Admiral Yeo ran down to Pultneyville, about 20 miles eastward of Genesee River, where, on learning how they had been out- witted and deterred from landing by such a handful of militia, their mortification could scarcely restrain all hands from a hearty laugh at the " Yankee trick." 27 NEW JERSEY. Area, 7,'nC) Square Miles. Population in ISOO, C;:j,Go5 Population in 1870, 900,096 The State of New Jersey was one of the original colonies whicli formed the American Union. It is situated between 38° 56' and 41° 21' K latitude, and between 74° and 75° 33' W. longitude. It is bounded on the nortli by New York, on the east by New York (from which the Hudson River separates it) and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Delaware Bay, and on the west by the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware, from which it is separated by the Dela- ware River. TOPOGRAPHY. The southern and middle parts of the State are generally low, flat, and sandy, especially along the coast and for some distance inland. The northern part is rugged and mountainous. Schooley's, Trow- bridge, Ramapo, and Second mountains in the northeast part are ridges of the Alleghany range, making their way across the State from Pennsylvania into New York. The Blue Mountains cross the extreme northwestern part of the State, running parallel with the Delaware River at this point. Southeast of Raritan Bay, there is a range of high hills, extending for a short distance along the coast, called the Nevesink Highlands. They are crowned with a lighthouse and signal station, and are the first land seen by vessels entering the port of New York, and the last on leaving it. Along the Atlantic coast, the shores are cut up with numerous in- lets, into some of which flow the princi|xil rivers of the State. Some of these furnish excellent harbors. Raritan Bay, in the northeast part, lies opposite the harbor of New York, and possesses m:uiv ad- 430 \ NEW JERSEY. 431 vantages for commerce over the waters of the Great Metropolis. New- ark Bay is connected with it by Staten Island Sound, and is really little more than a broad estuary by which the Passaic River finds its way to the sea. It also receives the waters of the Hackensack River. The Delaicare River and Bay wash the entire western side of the State. The river rises on the western slope of the Catskill Moun- tains, in New York. It at first consists of two branches, which unite near Hancock, in Delaware county, on the southwest border of the State. Flowing southeast, it forms the boundary between Ncav York and Pennsylvania as far as the northwest corner of New Jersey, where its course is inflected to the southwest by the Kittatinny (or Shawan- gunk) Mountain. It pursues this course to near the 41st i)arallel of X. latitude, when it breaks through the Blue Mountains by the famous Delaware Water Gap, and flows southward. The "Gap" is one of the most celebrated places in the country. It lies in the State of Pennsylvania, but for convenience is mentioned here. The clifls rise up perpendicularly from 1000 to 1200 feet high, and the river rushes through it in grand style. It is much visited by tourists. Tiie river flows southward until it passes Easton, Pa., when it turns again to the southeast, which course it pursues to its mouth. Its cur- rent is broken by a succession of Rapids at Trenton, but below this city it is smooth and deep. The river is 300 miles long, and is naviga- ble for ships of the line to Philadelphia, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. Steamboats ascend to Trenton. A canal has been constructed from Bristol, below Trenton, to Easton, Pa., along the west side of the river. A heavy trade is carried on by means of it. The Delaware is bridged in several places along its upper course, commencing at Trenton. A canal, extending from Trenton to New Brunswick, connects it with the waters of theRaritan River and New York Bay. Philadelphia and Easton, on the right bank, and Trenton, Bur- lington, and Camden, on the left bank, are the principal towns on the river. The Hudson River washes part of the eastern shore of the State. The other streams are the Raritan, rising in Morris county, and flow- ing into Raritan Bay, navigable to New Brunswick ; the Passaic, rising in Morris county, and flowing into Newark Bay, navigable to Newark ; and the Hackensack, which rises in Bergen county, and flows into Newark Bay. The Passaic has a perpendicular fall of 50 feet, at Paterson. A number of small streams flow into the inlets on the east coast. 432 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cape May, on the extreme southeastern side of Delaware Bay, is one of the most fashionable watering places in America. Long Branch, on the Atlantic coast, near New York, is another fashionable resort, and ranks next to Newport in the list of sea-shore resorts. There are several others on the Atlantic coast. The scenery of the State is very beautiful in many places, and very dreary in others. The Falls of the Passaic are noted for their beauty when the stream is full ; and the mountainous region of the north, especially the country along the upper Delaware, is wild and pictur- esque. The Nevesink Highlands command a fine view of the ocean, and of Raritan and New York bays. The country northwest of New York is finely cultivated, and is well built up with numerous pretty towns and villages. MINERALS. Central and southern New Jersey contain immense beds of marl, which is now growing in favor as a fertilizer. The changes in the agriculture of the State, caused by the introduction and general use of this cheap manure, are almost marvellous. These deposits seem to be inexhaustible, and for the most part lie very near the surfj^ce of the ground. Bog ore is found in the southern counties, and hema- tite and magnetic ores in the hilly regions of the north. Marble, limestone, slate, beds of peat, copperas, and a fine sand used in mak- ing glass are found. In Sussex county are situated the most valu- able zinc mines in the Union. CLIMATE. The climate of the northern and northwestern parts of the State is severe. In the eastern and southern the winters are milder. The summers are hot and dry, but the spring comes early, and is pleasant. The southern and eastern parts are, to a great extent, marshy, and covered with rank, coarse vegetation. Agues and fever prevail along almost the entire water line of the State, and in many of the interior districts. The northern and northwestern portions are healthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Along the sea coast, and in some of the interior regions, the soil con- sists of a fine white sand, and is worthless for agriculture. The hilly region of the north is devoted to dairy farming and grazing. The soil of the greater .portion of the State is light and sandy, and was fpr NEW JERSEY. 433 GATHERING WATERMELONS. a long time esteemed too poor to justify cultivation, but the liberal and judicious use of fertilizers has brought it to a high, and even re- markable state of fertility. Lying so near the great cities of New York and Philadelphia, unusual advantages are offered the farmers of this State for the raj^id sale of their crops, and as a consequence they are largely engaged in market-gardening. In 1869, there were 1,944,441 acres of improved, and 1,039,086 acres of unimproved land in the State. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of New Jersey, for the same year, is given as follows ; Cash value of farms (estimated), $250,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), $7,000,000 Number of horses, 85,460 " asses and mules, 6,960 " milch cows, . 149,450 " yomig cattle, . 99,450 " sheep, • 140,160 " swine, 300,540 Value of domestic animals, $19,134,693 Bushels of wheat, 1,646,000 434 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Bushels of rye, 1,500,000 " Indian corn, . 9,200,000 " oats, 6,440,000 " potatoes, 5,300,000 " barley, 26,000 " buckwheat, 800,000 Pounds of butter, 10,714,447 " cheese, 182,172 " flax, 48,651 " beeswax and liouey, 194,055 Gallons of wine, , 22,000 Tons of hay, 525,000 Valueof orchard products (about), .... $1,000,000 " .market garden products (about), . . $2,000,000 " slaughtered animals (about), . . . $5,000,000 COMMERCE. Though admirably situated for commerce, it is the misfortune of New Jersey to lie just between the great ports of New York and Philadelphia, which of course manage her commerce for her. This situation, however, throws an enormous internal transit trade into her hands, and has given to her railroads and steamboat communica- tions an importance they would not otherwise have attained. Some idea of this maybe gained from the following statistics. In 1867, the Canideu and Amboy Railroad and Transportation Com})any car- ried over their road, 539,688 tons of freight, and 40,667 tons of coal. The Delaware and Raritau Canal in the same year transported 1,838,- 968 tons of coal, 2,636,738 cubic feet of timber, 20,348,288 feet of lumber, 2,605,012 bushels -of grain and feed, 55,630 tons of iron, and 365,751 tons of merchandise. In 1861, the total value of the exports of this State was $46,067, and of the imports .$5510. In 1863, the imports were valued at $3616, and the exports at $56,192. lu 1863, the tonnage owned in the State Avas 138,046 tons. MANUFACTURES. The water power of the State is excellent, and the manufactures are extensive. In 1870 there were 6636 establishments in New Jersey, devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 75,552 hands, and a capital of $79,606,719, consuming raw material worth $103,415,245, and yielding an annual product of $169,237,732. The following is a list of the principal manufactures of the State in 1870 : NEW JERSEY. 435 Value of cotton goods, $4,078,768 " woollen goods, 1,. '•96, 825 leather, 9,307,948 pig iron, 1,546,965 rolled iron, 5,297,898 " steam engines and machinery, . . . 8,818,123 " agricultural implements, 633,875 " sawed and planed lumber, 3,330,769 flour 12,593,148 " malt and spirituous liquors, .... 3,675,208 boots and shoes, 3,639,076 " jewelry, silverware, etc., 3,422,109 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. This State is amply provided with raih'oad communication. Four great lines, the New Jersey, Erie, Central New Jersey, and Morris and Essex, afford direct and unbroken trans- portation to all parts of the West, and the Camden and Amboy extends across the State, from New York to Philadelphia. Five main THE BEUGEN TUNNEL, routes Centre in Jersey City, opposite New York, and four in Camden, opposite Phila- delphia. In 1872, there were 1265 miles of completed railroads in the State. Two canals, having an aggregate length of 147 miles, extend across the State, one from Bordentown (through Trenton) to New Bruns- wick, affording steam transportation between the Delaware and Rari- tan rivers, and the other extending from Jersey City and Newark to Easton, Pennsylvania. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Jersey is controlled by a State Superintendent and Board of Education, the latter consisting of 17 persons, who are appointed for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who has immediate charge of its schools. There is a Normal School at Trenton, and a Normal Preparatory School at Beverly, both in flourishing condition. There is a perma- nent School Fund amounting to $557,115. In 1870, the State expended the sum of $1,562,573 on its schools. The number of children in the State, between the ages of five and eighteen years, in 1870, was 258,- 436 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. 227. Of these, 161,683 attended the public schools, and 32,447 at- tended private schools, making a total of 194,130 children receivin;^- instruction. A number of private schools, and several academies are in successful operation in the State. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, is the oldest in the State, having been established in ] 746. It is in a flourishing condition, and is justly regarded as one of the principal educational establishments of the Union. Butger's College, at New Brunswick, is also a flourish- ing institution. Connected with it is the State Agricultural College, which is in prosperous operation. The instruction is by the example of the college farm, and the lectures of the Professor of Agriculture, delivered in all the counties of the State. There are several other colleges and theological seminaries in the State. In 1870, there 2413 libraries in New Jersey, containing 895,291 volumes. Of these about 1300, containing over 300,000 volumes, are public. In the same year, there were published in the State 20 daily, 1 semi- weekly, 95 weekly and 7 monthly newspapers and magazines. Of these, 105 were political, 2 religious, 10 literary and miscellaneous, making a total of 117, with an aggregate annual circulation of 18,625,740 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison, at Trenton, is overcrowded, and is in great need of more extensive buildings. The labor of the convicts is let out to contractors. The separate and silent systems are not in force in this institution, to the injury of its discipline. A library is provided for the prisoners. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were about 550 convicts confined here, or nearly 200 more than the prison ^vas de- signed to accommodate. The State Lunatic Asylum, at Trenton, is a flourishing institution, with 450 patients on the 1st of November, 1867. The State also maintains a flourishing Reform ScJiool, at Jamesburg, a Home for Dis- abled Soldiers, at Newark, and a Home for Soldiers' Children, at Tren- ton, and makes a liberal provision for its deaf, dumb, and blind, in the establishments of Philadelphia and Hartford. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the total value of church property in the State was 347,150. The number of churches was 1384. NEW JERSEY. 437 FINANCES. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war, and amounts to $2,500,000. Deducting a&sets it is $1,200,000. The receipts of the Treasury for eleven months of 1874 were $3,538,126, and the expen- ditures $3,265,266, leaving a balance on hand of $72,860, In 1868, tliere were 54 national banks, with au aggregate paid in capital of $11,583,450. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1844. By its terms, every white male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, having resided in the State one year and in the county five months, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is confided to a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consist- ing of a Senate (of 21 members), and a House of Representatives (of 60 members). The Governor is elected by the people for the term of three years. The Senators are elected for three years, one-third every year; and the Representatives annually for one year. The Secretary of State holds office for five years, is appointed by the Gov- ernor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The State Treasurer is elected by the Legislature, on joint ballot, and holds office for one year. The Court of Chancery is held by the Chancellor. The, Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and six Asso- ciate Justices. The members of this court and the Chancellor are appointed by the Governor, confirmed by the Senate, and hold office for seven years. The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the Chancellor, the Judges of the Supreme Court, and six other judges (appointed and confirmed in the manner stated above, for a period of six years, one judge going out of office each year). The State is divided into seven districts. A Judge of the Supreme Court is assigned to each one of these, and holds in his district courts of Oyer and Terminer three times a year in each county. He is also ex-officio judge of the court of Common Pleas, Orphans Court, and Court of Quarter Sessions in his district. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 21 counties. The seat of Government is loaited at Trenton. 43.8 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOURCES. HISTORY. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch, soon after their arrival in New Amsterdam. They established a colony at Bergen, between the years 1617 and 1620. In 1630, they built a small fort on the Dela- ware, below the present city of Philadelj)hia. In 1634, a company of English settlers, under the authority of a patent from their king, settled on the shores of the lower Delaware; and in 1638, the same reirion was colonized by a party of Swedes and Finns. The Dutcli and Swedes LS OF PASSAIC AT PATERSO::. JERSEY CITY, The second city in the State, is situated in Hudson county, on the right bank of the Hudson Rivei', at its entrance into New Yorlc Bay, and immediately opposite the city of New Y'ork. The city limits at present include Jersey City, Hoboken, Hudson City, and the otiier towns in Hudson county. The site of Jersey City proper is low and flat, as is that of Hol)oken, but Hudson City and tlie other towns noAv included within the corporate limits lie on a range of bold heights, extending back from the Hudson, which command fine views of New York and the surrounding country on both sides of the Hudson. From the highest point on these heights, New Y'ork, Brooklyn, the neighboring towns in Westchester county. New Y^'oi-k, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, Orange, and Elizabeth, the Hudson, East Hack- ensack, and Passaic rivers, New York and Newark Bays, Long Island Sound, and the Atlantic Ocean, may all be seen. The streets are generally wide and straight, crossing each other at right angles. The appearance of the city is not prepossessing, though there are some handsome localities. There are no public buildings worthy of mention. 444 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ELIZABETH, The fifth city in the State, is situated in Union county, 15 miles west- southwest of New York, and 5 miles south by west of Newark. It is pleasantly located on elevated ground, and is one of the handsomest cities in the State. It is mainly taken up with frame cottages and villas, but brown stone and brick are now coming into general use. Street railways connect its various parts, and the New Jersey and New Jersey Central Railways intersect each other here, and connect it with New York and the various parts of the country. It contains several large manufactories, a number of handsome buildings devoted to business, and over 20 churches, some of which are very handsome. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York reside here. Its public schools are noted for their excellence. It is lighted with gas ; is supplied with water ; and is jirovided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the population was 20,838. Elizabeth was settled in 1655, and was for a long time the capital and chief town of the Colony and State. It has always been noted as one of the most cultivated towns in the Union. CAMDEN, The sixth city of New Jersey, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Camden county, immediately opposite the city of Philadelphia, with which it is connected by means of 4 steam fer- ries. It is 32 miles south -south west of Trenton. It is located in a large plain, and is regularly laid off. It is well built, and contains some handsome residences and commercial buildings. It owes its importance to its powerful neighbor, Philadelphia. It contains some extensive manufacturing establishments, and is the terminus of the Camden and Amboy, New Jersey Southern, and West Jersey rail- ways. It is lighted with gas ; is supplied with water ; and has a steam fire department, and an effective police force. Its public schools are good and numerous, and it contains one or two literary institutions. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, chosen by the people. In 1870, the population was 20,045. The city was incorporated in 1831. The other important towns of the State are New Brunswick, on the Raritan River; Rah way, between New Brunswick and Elizabeth; Burlington, on the Delaware River, below Trenton ; and Orange, near NEW JERSEY. 'i^J Newark. Long Branch, in Monmouth county, and Atlantic City, in Atlantic county, on the sea shore, and Cape May, in Cape May county, at the mouth of the Delaware Bay, are among the most fashionable watering places in the Union. THE BATTLE OF TRENTON. The Bummer and fall of 1776 was the most gloomy period of the American revolution. General Washington liad been obliged lo retreat from Long Island to New York, thence over the Hudson to New Jersey, and through New Jersey to Pennsylvania, vigorously pursued by an enemy flushed Avith a series of success. The retreat through New Jersey was attended with circumstances of a painful and trying nature. Washington's army, wliich had consisted of 30,000 men, was now diminished to scarcely 3000, and these were without supplies, without pay, and many of them without shoes or comfortable clothing. Their footsteps were stained with blood as they fled before the enemy. The affairs of the Ame- ricans seemed in such a desperate condition, that tho.se wlio had been most con- fident of success, began despairingly to givQ up all for lost. Many Americans joined the British, and took protections from tliem. In this season of general despondency, the American Congress recommended to each of the States to observe "a day of solemn fasting and humiliation before God." General Washington saw the necessity of making a desperate effort for the sal- vation of his country. On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, the American army recrossed the Delaware, which was fllled with pieces of floating ice, and marched to attack a division of Hessians, who had advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen, as the tents of the enemy appeared in sight. No time was to be lost — Washington, rising on his stirrups, waved his sword towards the hos- tile army, and exclaimed, " There, my brave friends, are the enemies of yoxtr coxintry ! and noio all I have to ask of you is, to remember what you are about to fight for! March .'" The troops, animated by their commander, pressed on to the charge ; the Hes- sians were taken by surprise, and the contest was soon decided ; about 1000 were taken prisoners, and 40 killed, among whom was their commander, (a German ofScer,) Colonel Rahl. In this important expedition, Washington divided his troops into three parts, 28 446 OUE COUNTKY AND ITS TvESOURCES. Av'uch were to assemble on the banks of llie Delaware, on the night of the 25th of December. One of these divisions, led by General Irvine, was directe;! to cross the Delaware at the Trenton ferry, and secure the bridge below the town, so as to prevent the escape of any part of the enemy by that road. Another division, led by General Cadwallader, was to cross over at Bristol, and carry the post at Burlington. The third, which was the principal divisio'n, and consisted of about 2100 Continental troops, commanded by General Washington in person, was to cross at M'Konkey's ferry, abont nine miles above Trenton, and to march against the enemj'' posted at that town. The night fixed on for the enter- prise was severly cold. A storm of snow, mingled with hail and rain, fell in great quantities ; and so much ice was made in the river, that the artillery could not be got over until three o'clock ; and before the troops could take up their line of marcii it was nearly four. The general, who had hoped to throw them all over by twelve o'clock, now despaired of surprising the town ; but knowing that, he could not repass the river without being discovered and harassed, he de- termined, at all events, to push forward. He accordingly formed his detachment into two divisions, one of which was to march by the lower or river road, the other, by the upper or Pennington road. As the distance to Trenton by these two roads was nearly the same, the general, supposing that his two divisions would arrive at the place of destination about the same time, ordered each of them, immediately on forcing the outguards, to push directly into the town, that Ihey might charge the enemy before they had time to form. The upper division, accompanied by the general himself, arrived at the enemy's advanced post ex- actly at eight o'clock, and immediately drove in the outguards. in three min- utes, a firing from the division that had taken the river road, gave notice to the general of its arrival. Colonel Raid, a very gallant Hessian officer, who com- manded in Trenton, soon formed his main body, to meet the assailants ; but at the commencement of the action he received a mortal wound. His troops, at once confused and hard pressed, and having already lost their artillery, attempted to file off by a road on the right, leading to Princeton ; but General Washington perceiving their intention, threw a body of troops in their front, which inter- cepted and assailed them. Finding themselves surrounded, they laid down their arms. About 20 of the enemy were killed ; and 909, including officers, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. The number of prisoners was soon increased to about 1000, by the additional capture of those who had concealed themselves in houses. Six field pieces, and a 1000 stand of small arms, were also taken. Of the Americans, two privates only were killed ; two were frozen to death ; one officer and three or four privates were wounded. General Irvine being prevented by the ice from crossing the Delaware, the lower road toward Bordcntown remained open: and iiJiout 500 of the enemy, stationed in the lower end of Trenton, crossing over the bridge in the commencement of the action, marched down the river to Bordentown. General Cadwallader was prevented by the same cause from attacking the post at Burlington. This well-judged and successful enterprise, revived the depressed spirits of tlie colonists, and produced an immediate and happy effect in recruiting the American army. THE MURDER OF THE REV. JAMES CALDWELL. The next summer, in June, Knypliausen made his sudden and apparently objectless inroad into New Jersey. On the night of the 24th, Mr. Caldwell slept NEW JKRSEY. 447 in his own house, but was wakened early in the m.ornnig by tlic news of the ap- proach of the enemy. ^lounting liis horse in Iniste, he started for headquarters with the information. He liad proceeded but a short distance, however, when he began to have serious fears for his wife and family that he had left behind. The former, when she bade him good-bye, told him that she had no apprehen- sions for her own safety, for the enemy, she said, would not harm her and her little children. He had often left them in a similar way before, and always found them safe on his return, but now he was oppressed with unusual anxiety, and, after striving in vain to sliake it off, turned his horse and galloped back. As he rode up to the door, his wife came out to inquire what he wanted. He told hcv that he wished her and the children to accompany liim to camp, for he felt very uneasy about leaving them behind. But she, knowing they would encumber his movements, smiled at his fears, saying there was no danger at all, and declined entirely to leave the house. In the meantime she v.ent in and brought from the breakfast table a warm cup of coffee. "While he sat on his horse drinking it, the enemy came in sight. Handing back the cup, an 1 flinging her a hasty farewell, and commending her to the care and mercy of the God in whom they botli trusted, he struck his spurs into his horse and dashed away. He had not been gone long before she had cause to regret that slie had not yielded to his entreaties, for columns of smoke rising in the distance — the screams of terrified women and children running through the streets, told her that the enemy was on a raid, and murder and devastation were marking their passage. She saw at once that she was surrounded with deadly perils, but calm as became the wife of a hero as well as clergyman, she took her infant and retired into u private room to commit herself and cliildren in prayer to God. Arising from licr devotions, she sat down upon the bed, and was pondering on her desolate condi- tion, when the maid, who had accompanred her with the other children, stepped to the window to look out. As she did so, she saw a " red coat " jump over the fence into the yard. Alarmed, she turned quickly and told Mrs. Caldwell. Tlie latter knew at once that evil was intended her, and arose from the bed either to watch the man's actions or to pass out of the room, when the villain caught a glimpse of her through the window. He knew her at a glance, and, having come on purpose to kill her, he raised his musket and fired at her through the Avindow, when she fell amid her terrified children, pierced by two balls. In the midst of the alarm and confusion that followed, the torch was applied to the house, and soon the little parsonage was wrapped in tlames. It was with great difficulty that some of the neighbors, whom the maid informed of the murder, were enabled to drag the body out of the burning building. But, having ac- complished this, they were compelled to flee, leaving it exposed in the hot sun in the public street, w"here it lay for hours with no one humane enough to throw a covering over the pale and ghastly face. At length some of her friends ob- tained permission from the enemy to remove it into the only hcmse left standing near by. Mr. Caldwell Avas at the "Short Hills," Avith the army, while this murderous scene was being enacted at his quiet home. That evening passing by chance tAvo soldiers who were talking in whispers, he heard the name of "Mrs. Caldwell" repeated two or three times. Suspecting at once that something was wrong, he asked them what they were talking about — if anything had happened to Mrs. Caldwell. They at first hesitated to reply, unwilling tn break to him tlie painful ^ntelligence, but he besonght tliem so eanu'slly to kt him know the Avorst tliat 448 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUICES. tliey finally told him nil. The good man staggered like a smitten ox under the Budden blow, and turned pale as death. Rallying, however, he murmured a broken prayer and turned away to weep alone. That was a painful night to the noble patriot, lor not only did he mourn deeply over the tragical end of his wife, whom he loved tenderly, but he was filled with apprehension respecting his or- phaned children, one of whom was an infant — now in possession of the enemy. In the morning he procured a flag of truce and went over to " Connecticut Farms." The quiet little village was a heap of smoking ruins, Avith only hero and there a solitary building standing as monuments to mark tiie desolation. In one of these lay the lifeless body of his wife, and in an adjoining apartment were grouped his weeping children. The enemy, after burning Connecticut Farms, kept on towards Springfield, with the intention of committing the same barbarous cruelties there. !Mr. Cald- well, after seeing his wife buried and his children placed in the care of one of his parishioners, hastened forward to join the army. At Springfield, a sharp en- gagement took place between the enemy and the American troops, and though the former were compelled to beat a hasty retreat, it was not till they had burned the village to the ground. Mr. Caldwell was in the hottest of the fight, and see- ing tlie fire of one of the companies slackening for want of wadding, he galloped to the Presbyterian meeting house near by, and, rushing in, ran from pew to pew, filling his arms with hj'mn books. Hastening back with these into the battle, he sc;\ttered them about in every direction, saying, as he pitched one here and another there, "Now, put Watts into them, boys." With a laugh and a cheer, they pulled out the leaves, and ramming home the cliarges did give the JBiitish Watts with a will. The next year this patriotic, gifted man met the tragical fate of his wife, and sealed his devotion to his country with his blood. New Jersey remained comparatively tranquil after the raid of Knyphausen, and flags of truce were constantly passing to and fro to New York, and only sol- diers enough were left in the State to act as sentinels at main points. At this time there lived in New York a family by the name of Murray, who had rela- tives residing in Elizabethtown, and who were much beloved by the people in the vicinity for their kindness to Jersey prisoners confined in the city. One of the family, Miss Murray, wishing to visit Elizabethtown, came to Elizabethtown Point on the 24th of November, under a flag of truce. Mr. Caldwell went down in a carriage to meet her, and accompany her to the town. The details of the events that followed, I will let Dr. Murray tell in his own language. "A sentry was kept up at that time at the fort. Tying his horse outside the sentinel, Mr. Caldwell proceeded to the wharf, and taking with him Miss Murray, placed^ her in his carriage, and then returned to the boat for a small bundle that belonged to her. Thus he passed three times the man who was keeping guard. With a small package he was returning a second time to his carriage, when the sentinel ordered him to stop, thinking, probably, that there was something contraband in the bundle. He replied that the bundle belonged to the young lady in his car- riage. The sentinel said that it must be examined. Mr. Caldwell turned quickly about to carry it back to the boat, tliat it might be opened there, when the fatal ball struck him. Tlie captain of the guard, hearing the report of a gun, looked around, and saw Mr. Caldwell staggering before -him. He ran and caught him in his arms and laid him on the ground, and without speaking a word he almost instantly expired, the ball having passed through his heart. NEW JERSEY. 449 " The man who shot him was James Morgan, belonging to the Jersey militia — an Irishman by birth, and a man of the most debased and profligate character. He T\ as always drunk when he could be ; and liquor turned him into a savage. His family resided near a well in Elizabethtown, into which a child of his fell one day and was drowned. When he returned, he found his child dead, and taking it by the arms he beat the broken-hearted mother with the dead body of her own child until her cries brought some of the neighbors to her rescue." "Whether Morgan was on duty as a sentinel when he shot Caldwell is at least questionable. It is said that on his trial it was proved that he had just been re- lieved. Different motives are assigned for the murder. Some say that Morgan was angry because he had not received his regular wages, and, inasmuch as Caldwell was commissary, supposed " he was responsible for the iieglect ; " others, again, say that he was bribed by the British, or Tories. Whatever the motives might have been that influenced him, he was, after a fair trial, convicted of murder, and hung the next January. The body of Mr. Caldwell was placed on some straw in the bottom of a wagon, and taken up to town, and the next Tuesday buried. A MUTINY IN THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. The situation of General Washington was often, during the war, embarrassing, for want of proper supplies for the army. It was peculiarly so while at Morris- town, in 1780, where he had encamped during the winter. The cold was un- commonly severe, and the army suffered extremely. The following account of the state of the American army is taken from " Grimshaw's History of the United States: " " The distress 8uff"ered by the American army did not arrive at its highest pitch until the present season. The officers of the Jersej' line now addressed a memo- rial to their State Legislature, complaining, that four months' pay for a private would not procure for his family' a single bushel of wheat ; that the pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse ; and that a common laborer re- ceived four times as much as an American officer. They urged, that unless an immediate remedy was provided, the total dissolution of their line was inevitable; and concluded by saying, that their pay should be realized, either by Mexican dollars, or something equivalent. Nor was the insufliciency of their support the only motive to complaint. Other causes of discontent prevailed. The original idea of a continental army, to be raised, paid, and regulated upon an equal and uniform principle, had been, in a great measure, exchanged for that of State es- tablishments ; a pernicious measure, partly originating from necessity, because State credit was not quite so much depreciated as continental. Some States, from their superior ability, furnished their troops not only with clothing, but with many articles of convenience. Others supplied them with mere necessaries ; whilst a few, from their particular situation, could give little or perhaps nothing. The officers and men, in a routine of duty, daily intermixed and made compari- sons. Those who fared worse tlian others were dissatisfied with a service that allowed such injurious distinctions. Mutiny began to spread, and at length broke out among the soldiers at Fort Sciiuyler. Thirty-one privates of the gar- rison went off" in a body. They were overtaken, and 13 of their number instantly killed. About the same time, two regiments of Connecticut troops mutinied, and got under arms, determined to return home, or gain subsistence by the bayonet. 450 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Their officers reasoned with them, and used every argument that could iniert ht. tlieir passions or their pride. They at first answered, 'Our suiferings are too great, we want present relief;' but military feelings were, in the end, trium- p!uint ; after much expostulation, they returned to tiic encampment. 'It is natural to suppose tliat tlie British commander would not lose so favor- able an Ojiportnait}' of severing the discontented from their companions, and attracting them to his own standard. He circulated a printed paper in the Ameri- can camp ; tending to heighten the disorders by exaggeration, and create desertion by promises of bounty and caresses. But, so great was the firmness of the sol- diery, and so strong their attachment to their country, tliat on the arrival of only a scanty suppl}' of meat, for tlieir immediate subsistence, military duty was cheerfully performed, and the rolls were- seldom dishonored by desertion. "The necessities of the American army grew so pressing that Washington was constrained to call on the magistrates of the adjacent counties for specified quan- tities of provisions, to be suppHed in a given number of da3's ; and was compelled even to send out detachments to collect subsistence at the point of the bayonet. ICven this expedient at length failed ; the country in the vicinity of tlie army being soon exhausted. His situation was painfully embarrassing. The army looked to him for provisions ; the inhabitants for protection. To supply the one, and not offend the other, seemed impossible. To preserve order and subordina- tion, in an army of republicans, even when well fed, regularly paid, and com- fortably clothed, is not an easy task ; but to retain them in service, and subject tliem to the rules of discipline, wlien wanting not only the comforts but often the necessaries of life, requires such address and abilities as are rarely found in human nature. These were, however, combined in Washington. lie not only kept his army in the field, but opposed those difficulties with so much discretion as to command the approbation of both soldiers and people. "To obviate these evils, Congress sent a committee of its own members to tlic encampment of the main army. They confirmed the representations previously made of the distresses and the disorders arising from commissaiial mismanage- ment, which everywhere prevailed. In particular, they stated that tlie main army was unpaid for five months ; that it seldom had more than six days' ])ro- vision in advance ; and was on different occasions, for several successive days, without meat ; that the horses were destitute of forage ; that the medical depart- ment had no sugar, tea, chocolate, wine, or spirituous liquors of any kind ; tl.;;t every department was without money and without credit ; and that the patience of the soldiers, worn down by the pressure of complicated sufierings, was on the point of being exhausted. "Misfortunes, from every quarter, were at this time pouring in upon the United States. But they seemed to rise in the midst of their distresses, and gain strength from the pressure of calamities. When Congress could obtain iieitlier money nor credit for the subsistence of their army, the inhabitants of Philadelphia gave ;i;300,000 to procure a supply of necessary provisions for the suffeiing troops ; and the ladies of that city, at the same time, contributed largely to their immediate relief. Their example Avas generally followed. Tlie patriotic fiame wliich blazed forth in the beginning of the war was rekindled. The different States Avere ardently excited ; and it was arranged that the regular army should be raised to 35,000 effective men." P E NN S Y L V A N I A. Area, 46,000 Square iviiles. Population in ISGO 2,906,115 Popiilation in 1870, 3,521,951 The State of Pennsylvania, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 39° 43' and 42° 15' N. latitude, and between 74° 42' and 80° 35' W. longitude. Its extreme length is about 310 iv.iles, and its extreme widtli, from north to south, about 160 miles. It is bounded on the north by New York and Lake Erie, on the easl: by New York and New Jersey, from Avhich it is separated by the Delaware River, on the south by Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia, and on the west by VV'est Virginia and Ohio. TOPOGRAPHS. "No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface than Pennsyh^ania. Though they do not rise to any great elevation (sel- dom above 2000 feet), its mountains spread over about one-fourth of the State in parallel ridges, in a direction generally from northeast to southwest, and occupy the southern, central, and eastern counties. Though all forming parts of the great Appalachian chain, they are known by various local appellations. Commencing below Easton, on the Delaware, we have the South Mountain ; then in order, pro- ceeding west or northwest, the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains (both entering the State from New Jersey, and passing southwest into Maryland), and the Broad Mountain, which lies south of the North Branch of the Susquehanna. We now cross the river just mentioned, but still have with us the Broad Mountain, under the name of the Tuscarora; passing which, we come upon another ridge, lyino: mostly * 451 452 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. goiith of the Juniata River, known as Sideling Hill ; which is suc- ceeded in turn by the Alleghany Mountains proper, the dividing ridge between the Atlantic slope and the Mississippi Valley. De- scending the very gi'adual Ohio slope, we cross two inferior but well- defined chains, known as Laurel and Chestnut Ridges. As before stated, these mountains do not rise to a great height ; the South Moun- tain is within 1000, and the Blue Mountain within 1500 feet. Broad Mountain is said to rise higher above its immediate base than the Alleghany range, but to be inferior to them in elevation above the sea. These different ridges are separated by valleys, now contracted within nari'ow limits, and now spreading out to a width of from 15 to 30 miles. The entire belt in Pennsylvania spreads over a space of 200 miles — the greatest breadth the Alleghany range attains in its whole course from Maine to Alabama. In the northern part of the State the mountains become high and rugged hills ; the west is also hilly, and the southeast and northwest moderately so, but occasionally level. The rivers of the western part of the State, cutting their way through the table-land, present sometimes precipitous shores of several hundred feet in height, and many valleys bear evident marks of their having been formed by running water." * The Delaware River washes the eastern shore of the State, and fur- nishes the principal means of access to the sea. The city of Philadel- })hia, the second in size in the Union, is situated on this stream, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. The Susquehanna is the principal river of the State. It is formed by two branches, the eastern rising in Otsego Lake, in central New York, and the western in western Pennsylvania. They unite and form the main stream at Northumberland, 60 miles above Harris- burg. Then flowing in a southeasterly direction, it enters the State of Maryland, and empties into Chesapeake Bay. The East, which is also called the North, Branch is 250 miles long, and the West Branch 200 miles. The length of the main stream is about 150 miles. They all flow through a very beautiful and fertile country, which is also rich in mineral resources. A series of canals extends from the mouth of the river to Northumberland, and the navigation of its branches is improved in several places. The principal tributary of the Susque- hanna is the Juniata, which enters it above Harrisburg, and which is famous for its beautiful and picturesque scenery. Lippiucott's Gazetteer, p. 1453. PENXSYLYANIA. 4j3 VIEW ON THE JUNIATA RIVER. The Alleghany River is the principal stream in the western part of the State. It rises in Potter county, and flows northward into New York, after which it sweeps back into Pennsylvania, and pursuing a southwesterly course, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela (which rises in West Virginia and flows northward to Pittsburg), and forms the Ohio. It is navigable for small steamers for about 200 miles above Pittsburg. The Ohio lies in this State for the first fifty miles of its course. The Schuylkill is a beautiful river in the eastern part of the State. It empties into the Delaware at Philadelphia, and supplies that city with fresh water. The Lehigh flows into the Delaware at Easton. Lake Erie, already described in another chapter, is the only lake lying in the State. It washes the northwest part of Pennsylvania for about 50 miles. MINERALS. " Pennsylvania stands first among the United States in the abun- dance of her coal and iron. Though not possessing a great variety 454 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. '"-■^j^ lilt bCIlLlLKILL ABOVE PHILADELPHIA. of rare minerals, and none of the precious metals, she has those which have made England the wealthiest and most powerful nation on the globe, while Spain and Portugal, with their gold, silver, and diamond mines, have become poor in national wealth, and have sunk to a low degree of political influence. Owing no doubt to her homely, but useful minerals, Pennsylvania has advanced, between 1840 and 1850, in a greater ratio in population than even the Em])ire State (New York), or that vigorous and youthful giant of the West, Ohio. The vast anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania lie mostly between the Dela- ware and Susquehanna rivers, about the head-waters of the Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Lackawana. In 1854 this region sent to market, 5,919,555 tons of coal ; in 1864, the product had increased to 10,564,- 926. Nearly half of this came from Schuylkill county. At BIoss- burg, in Tioga county, and in Clinton county, are mines of bituminous coal, said to be equal, if not superior, to the Newcastle coal of Eng- land ; while the region around Pittsburg, the commencement of the coal field of the Mississippi Valley, abounds in coal of the same kind, but little inferior in purity. Cannel coal of fine quality is found in Beaver county. The bituminous coal mined in western Pennsylvania, in 1864, was estimated at 3,000,000 tons. Petroleum abounds in MAUCH CHUNK AND MOITNT TISGAH. The "Switzerlanrl'" of America. PENNSYLYAXIA. 437 >IOL'NT PISGAII AN"I) THE COAL KKGION. the western part of the State. The best evidences of the quantity and excellence of the iron of Pennsylvania is the fact, according to the census report of 1850, that nearly half of the i)io:, cast, and wrought iron manufactured in the Union was from her forges and furnaces. This State also abounds in lime, marble, slate, and stones suitable for building. Marble is particularly abundant in Chester and Mont- gomery counties. The most important copper mines in Pennsylvania are in the same counties. Zinc is mined in the vicinity of Bethlehem plumbago in Bucks county, and lead in Chester and Montgomery counties. A bed of this mineral, of great richness, is reported to have been discovered recently in Blair county. Chromium occurs in Ches- ter and Lancaster counties. Scattered over the State are some of the following minerals: titanium, plumbago, magnetic iron ore, iron pyrites, magnesia, talc, asbestos, barytes, zircon, tourmalin, marl, etc. Salt springs exist on the Monongahela, Kiskeminitas, and Beaver rivers, and in other parts of the State. Nearly 12,000,000 bushels of salt were manufactured here in 18G0. Nitre or saltpetre has re- cently been discovered in an extensive deposit, and of great richness, 458 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in the central part of the State. There are several medicinal springs, generally chalybeate, the most noted of which are Bedford, in the county of the same name ; York, in Adams county ; Doubling Gap, in Cumberland; Yellow Springs, in Chester; and Ephrata, in Lan- caster county." * CLIMATE. The southern and eastern portions of Pennsylvania have a milder climate than the western part. In the latter, the winters are long and severe. The summers are very hot all over the State, and all parts are liable to sudden changes from heat to cold. The spring comes early in the southern counties, but is late in the others. As a whole the State is one of the healthiest in the Union. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of the State is good. That of the lime- stone regions, and along the river valleys is excellent, and there arc some fine lands in the mountain valleys. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in agriculture, being one of the first States in the Union, with respect to its productions. The system of fiirming is enlightened and progressive, and the people are amongst the most industrious in the world. In 1870 there were 11,515,965 acres of improved land in the State, and 5,740,864 acres of unimproved land. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of the State for the same year was as follows : Cash value of farms, $1,043,481,582 Value of farming implements and machinery, $35,658,196 Number of horses, . ' 460,339 " milch cows, 706,437 " working oxen, 30,048 sheep, 1,794,301 swine, 867,548' Yalue of all live stock, $115,647,075 Bushels of wheat, 19,672,967 rye, 3,577,641 " Indian corn, 34,702,006 oats, 36,478,585 barley, 529,562 " Irish potatoes, 12,889,367 buckwheat, 2,532,173 Tons of hay, 2,848,219 * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1454. PENNSYLVANIA. 459 Pounds of maple sugar, . 1,545,917 " tobacco, 3,407,530 " beeswax and honey, 824,022 " wool, ....." 6,561,722 " butter, 60,834,644 " cheese, 1,145,209 Gallons of milk sold, 14,411,729 Value of orchard products, $4,208,094 " market garden products, .... $1,810,016 " slaughtered animals, $28,412,903 " forest products, $2,570,370 COMMERCE. The returns of the port of Philadelpliia do not fairly exhibit the foreign trade of this State, since a large portion of its commerce passes through the port of New York. The railroads and canals of the State transport immense quantities of freight every year, and the trade with the South and West, by the Ohio River, is enormous. The dis- covery of petroleum has greatly increased the foreign and domestic trades of the State. The export of this article from Philadelphia in 1868 was 40,505,620 gallons. In the same year the petroleum trade of Pittsburg amounted to about $13,000,000. In 1860 the State pro- duced $21,266,906 worth of coal, which amount has been greatly increased since then. In 1863, the tonnage of the State was 300,741, of which 94,305 was steam tonnage. In 1861, the total imports of the State amounted to $12,628,348, and the exports to $10,013,097. MANUFACTURES. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in manufactures, ranking in this respect amongst the most important States in the Union. In 1870, there were 37,200 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 319,487 hands, a capital of $406,821,845;* consuming raw material worth $421,197,673, and yielding an annual product of $711,894,344. There were 153 cotton mills, employing a capital of $12,575,821, and 3881 male and 6105 female hands, consuming raw material worth $10,749,472, paying $3,510,534 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $17,565,028. There were 403 woollen factories, employing 5699 male and 5032 female hands, and a capital of $14,066,785; consuming raw material worth $17,325,849; paying $4,340,066 for labor; and yielding an *The largest amount so invested in any State. •i^j^ OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. annual product of $27,36], 897. The other manufactures for the same year were valued as follows : Leather, $28,899,396 Pig iron, 32,636,410 Eolled iron, 57,976,471 Steam engines and machinery, 29,248,153 Agricultural implements, 3,6-')2,295 Sawed and planed lumber, 35,254,590 Flour 49.476,245 Malt and spirituous liquors, 11.692,528 Boots and shoes, 16,864,310 Furniture, 7,981,560 Jewelry, silverware, etc., 2,011,431 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the task of providing means of rapid and direct communication between her various jioint;-. The first great work ever undertaken in this country was the turnpike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, which until the completion of tiic Erie Canal of New York, was the great highway between the East and the West. In 1825, the State began an extensive system of canals. Tliis undertaking was badly managed, however, and slie did not at once derive the great advantages from them she had expected. Many of these works were injudiciously located in parts of the State where there was no need for them. The consequence was that the profits of the paying lines had to be used to defray the expenses of these unprofitable routes, and in the course of time the State was burdened with a heavy debt on their account. Tiic railroads have taken away the greater part of their business, and have thus greatly increased the burden to the State. The railroads of Pennsylvania are amongst the most important in the country. Philadelphia has direct railroad communication with all the important towns of the State, with New York, Baltimore, and ail parts of the Union. Seven or eight main lines centre in this city, and three or four in Camden, New Jersey, immediately opposite. These bring through freights and passengers froui all parts of the Union to Philadelphia. In 1872, there were about 1100 miles of canal navigation in Penn- sylvania, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. In the same year there were 5113 miles of completed railroads \n the State. The cost of construction was about .'t|>250,000,000. This makes Pennsylvania tlie first State in the Union with respect to the length and cost of her railroad system. PENNSYLYANIA. 461 EDUCATION. The State has always been noted for the excellence of its schools. One of the first efforts of tlie original settlers was to provide for public education, and we find that the plan of Government drawn up by AVilliani Penn in 1682, provided for the cstal)lishment of public S'-hools, and their control by the Governor and Provincial Council. The first Constitution of the State (1776) required the establishment of at least one such school in each county, and in 1786, the State made a donation of 60,000 acres of the public lands for the support of the public schools. In 1836, a permanent school fund was established. The educational system is under the control of a State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, who is appointed by the Governor. The State is divided into 2002 school districts, each of which is immediately controlled by six school directors, two of them being elected each year. They hold office for three years. They manage all the business affairs of the schools, appoint the teachers, select the text-books, and make an annual report to the county superintendent. This officer is required to be an experienced teacher, and is elected for three years by the school directors of the county. It is his duty to make a thorough inspection of the schools in his county, to satisfy himself of the com- petency of the teachers and the proficiency of the pupils, and to make an annual report of his observations to the State Superintendent. The Public Schools of the city of Philadelphia are distinct from those of the State, and are supported by the municipal authorities. Includ- ing these, there were 14,212 public schools in Pennsylvania in 1870. The number of teachers was 17,612, of pupils, 828,981. The whole amount expended during the year for public instruction was $7,771,- 761.20. In Philadelphia, in the year 1867, there were 374 schools, with a tbrce of 1314 teachers. The total number of pupils was 129,226, tJie average attendance, 66,333. There are five normal schools ; at Millers ville, Mansfield, Edinboro, and Kutztown. The city of Philadelphia has a fine normal school of its own. The law provides for the establishment of twelve such schools in the State, whenever they may become necessary. The present number of pupils is 2675. There are 13 colleges in Pennsylvania. One of these, the College of Agriculture, is a State institution. It is in vigorous operation, and is meeting with great success. The Medical School of the University 462 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical College, the former founded in 1765, and the latter in 1824, are amongst the best schools of their kind in the world. Besides these are 6 other Medical Colleges. There are 7 Theological Seminaries, 1 Law School, and 9 Colleges of Literature and Science in the State. The University of Pennsylvania and Girard College at Philadelphia; Dickinson College at Carlisle ; Washington College at Washington ; the Lewisburg University at Lewisburg; Franklin and Marshal College at Lancaster; and the Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg, are the principal institutions in the State. In 1870, there were 601 academies, seminaries, and private schools in the State, with 848 teachers, and 24,815 pupils. In 1860, there were 1416 libraries in Pennsylvania, containing 1,- 344,924 volumes. Of these, 529, with 761,299 volumes were public. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows : daily 29, semi- weekly 3, tri- weekly 1, weekly 297, monthly 28, quarterly 6, annual 3, — total 367. Of these 277 were political, 43 religious,- 25 literary, and 22 miscellaneous. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of this State have long been noted for their extent and excellence. The Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, at Philadelphia, the State Lunatic Hospital, at Harrisburg, and the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, near Pittsburg, are among the best establishments of their kind in the world. Besides these there are three incorporated hospi- tals, and several private establishments. The Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dimib, established in 1820^ and the Institution for the Blind, established in 1833, both at Philadelphia, are open to pupils from New Jersey and Delaware. Tliose States, consequently, contribute to the support of these esta- blishments. The Training School for Feeble-minded Children is at Media. It is supported in part by the State. There are two Houses of Refuge. One, for Western Pennsylvania and located at Pittsburg, is maintained entirely, and the other, at Philadelphia, in part, by the State, which also maintains 39 schools and homes for the support and instruction of soldiers' orphans. There are two great Penitentiaries in Pennsylvania — one at Phila- delphia, and the other at Alleghany City. The Philadelphia peni- PENNSYLVANIA. 463 tentiary is one of the most complete establishments of its kind in the country. Both prisons are conducted on the silent system, and the prisoners are kept separate from each other. The discipline is mild but firm, and every effort is made to reform as well as punish the prisoner. In 1866 there were 569 convicts in the Philadelphia prison, and 418 in the Alleghany prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Pennsylvania was $52,758,384. The number of churches was 5668. FINANCES. The total debt of the State in December, 1874, was $24,568,635. The funded debt was $24,371,884, and the unfunded debt $196,- 751. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30, 1874, amounted to $7,697,119, and the expenditures to $6,642,567. A large part of the debt was discharged in the same year. In September, 1874, there were 199 National Banks in operation in the State, with a capital of $52,000,000. GOVERNMENT. Every male freeman, twenty-one years old, who has paid a State or County tax, within two years, (except in cases of male freemen between 21 and 22 years, who are not required to pay tax as a condition to this right,) and has resided in the State for one year, and in his election district ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The State Government is conducted by a Governor, Auditor-Gen- eral, and Surveyor-General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 33 members, elected for 3 years, one-third retiring annually), and a House of Representatives (of 100 members, elected annually), all chosen by the people. There are, also, a State Treasurer, elected annually by the Legislature, and a Secretary of State, Attorney-Gen- eral, and Adjutant-General, and several other executive officers, appointed by the Governor. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Judges, elected by the people for fifteen years. The Judge who has the shortest term to serve, is Chief Justice. This is the High Court of Errors and Appeals. 29 464 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The District Courts are two in number, and are established at Philadelphia (for the City and County of Philadelphia) and at Pitts- burg (for the County of Alleghany). Their jurisdiction extends over all civil suits in which the claim exceeds $1000, and in certain other cases prescribed bylaw. They are the principal commercial courts Ibr the cities in which they are held. The Courts of Common Pleas are each presided over by one Judge, elected for ten years, and one or more Associate Judges, elected for five years. There is a court in every county. They are also Judges of Oyer and Terminer and general jail delivery in their respective counties. Besides these, there are police courts in the cities. For purposes of government, Pennsylvania is divided into 65 coun- ties. Harrisburg is the capital of the State. HISTORY. In 1627, a colony of Swedes and Finns, well provided with means from Europe, settled along the lower part of the western shore of the Delaware, and in a short time spread their settlements to the mouth of the Schuylkill River. In 1655 they were compelled by the Dutch to submit to the authorities of New Amsterdam, and in 1664 passed under the rule of the English. In 1681, Charles II. granted the territory west of the Delaware to William Penn, in payment of a debt due by the British Government to Penn's grandfather. Penn colo- nized his grant at once with members of his own faith (Friends or Quakers), and in 1682 founded the City of Philadelphia. His grant included the present State of Delaware, which was then known as the "lower counties." In 1699, Pennsylvania granted these counties a separate Assembly, but they continued subject to the authority of her Governor until 1776, when, upon the breaking out of the Revolution, they formed an independent establishment. Penn's charter failed to define with exactness the boundaries of his grant, and this led to considerable unpleasantness with the neighboring provinces, which was not settled until 1767, when the surveys of Mason and Dixon defin- itely established the boundaries of the province. The first years of the colony were passed in peace with the Indians, whose friendship was won and retained by the wise and just policy pursued towards them. Upon the outbreak of the war of the Revo- lution, however, they waged upon the colonists a cruel and extermin- ating warfare, the character of which is well shown by the terrible massacre at Wyoming. PENNSYLVANIA. 465 DEEP CUT, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD ally and If . "i ''' ™ '"''^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ -%-- all}, and after ti.em by the Friends or Quakers. These thrifty nefnJe soon brought the colony to a flourishing condition, JZle^Zt Iiaps, the most successful of all. They were joined in 1 tTk i^ and west of Thiladelphia, in the southern part of the SHfp f. i • u they gave the peo.,Ii„ oharaeteH.ties which' d^^lX^otf' The colo„,sts contributed their full share to th! wa,^ with France IPeZ'^Vi-^lTr '° "" ""''""'' '- securing aI^^::' inclepeudenoe. Pliiladelph.a was at tjiis time the largest and n,o,t c:~ T.r™ert"i-™r ^^ "' '-'-"'' ''"--• „„t;f r eontiimed to be the seat of Government u.>t,l the „ceupat,o„ of the city by the British in 1777 compiled Congress to w.thdraw to York. The battles of Brandywine' „d Germantown were fought in this State about the same t me The n^ssacres of Wyoming and Paoli, in the same year, anTt rmenTor 466 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Convention which adopted the Constitution of the United States held its sessions in the city of Philadelphia, which had already- been made memorable by the adoption of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. The Whiskey Insurrection, to which we have already alluded, occurred during Washington's administration. The State bore its share of the burdens of the war of 1812, and has since always maintained its position as one of the wealthiest, most progressive, and influential members of the Union. During the late Rebellion, it contributed (exclusive of militia) a force of 362,284 men to the army and navy of the United States. The southern counties suffered very much from the incursions of the Confederates. In one of these raids the town of Chambersburg was burned. In June, 1863, the State was invaded by the Confede- rate army under General Lee. This force was defeated at Gettysburg, in Adams county, on the 3d of July, in one of the most memorable and decisive battles of the war. In consequence of this defeat, Gen- eral Lee retreated into Maryland, and recrossed the Potomac. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Philadel- phia, Pittsburg, Alleghany City, Scranton, Reading, Lancaster, Erie, Easton, Norristown, Pottsville, York, Allentown, Danville, Carlisle, Williarasport, Chambersburg, West Chester, Oil City, Wilkesbarre, Johnstown, and Altoona. HARRISBURG, The capital, and sixth city of the State, is situated in Dauphin county, on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 106 miles west by north of Philadelphia, and 110 miles north of Washington. Latitude 40° 16' N.; longitude 76° 50' W. The city is beautifully located, and its elevated points command fine views of river and mountain scenery. It lies in the midst of a fertile and healthy country, and is regularly laid off. The business of the place is extensive, owing to the fact that it is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and has canal transportation to the tide- waters of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its proximity to the great coal and iron regions of the State also adds to its importance. It is already engaged in manufacturing enterprises to a considerable extent. Several extensive iron furnaces, rolling mills, a cotton factory, a manufactory of railway cars, and other works are PENNSYLVANIA. 467 SUSQUEHANNA ABOVE IIARRISBURG, carried on. The city is rapidly growing in size and population, and promises to be a large and important inland city. The streets are wide and well paved, and the city is substantially built. In its general appearance it resembles Philadelphia, the build- ings being generally of red brick trimmed with white marble. Front street, a handsome avenue, overlooks the Susquehanna, and contains many of the handsomest residences in the city. The Public Buildings are few in number. The State House is an imposing edifice, and occupies a picturesque and commanding position upon a natural eminence, a little north of the centre of the city; and from its dome a fine view may be obtained of the broad and tortuous river, its beautiful islands, its bridges, and the adjacent ranges of the Kittatinny Mountains. The Land Office, a brick building, stands on the right of the State House; and the State Department, also of brick on the left. To the south of the Land Office, is the State Arsenal The Court House, on Market street, is a stately structure, built of brick and surmounted by a dome. The State House contains a large and valuable library. There are 9 public schools in the city, and 19 churches. There are 468 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water from the river. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 23,109. The first white settlement made at Harrisburg was in 1719, by an Englishman named John Harris. He purchased from the proprieta- ries of Pennsylvania a grant of 300 acres of land near his residence, and bought of other grantees 500 acres adjoining. He carried on a considerable trade with the neighboring Indians, In 1753, the Penns granted to his son, John Harris, jr., the right to establish a ferry across the Susquehanna at this point, and the settlement became known as Harris' Ferry. In 1784, the town was laid out. It was made the seat of justice of the new county formed from Lancaster and called Dauphin, in honor of the heir to the Crown of France. The town itself was called Louisburg, in honor of Louis XVI. In 1791, it was incorporated as a town, and its name changed to Harris- burg. In 1812, it became the capital of the State; and in 1860, it was incorporated as a city, and divided into six wards. PHILADELPHIA, In the county of Philadelphia, the largest and most important city of the State, and the second city of the United States, lies between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 5 miles from their junction and nearly 100 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, following the course of the Dela- ware River and Bay. It is 136 miles northeast of Washington City, and 87 miles southwest of New York. The city proper is located in a perfectly level plain; but the recent additions, especially those on the northwest, are built on a fine rolling country, which abounds in picturesque views which offer a striking contrast to the uniform flat- ness of the old city. As originally laid out in 1701, the city was bounded by the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, and by Vine and Cedar streets. In 1854, the adjoining districts of Spring Garden, Penn, Northern Liberties, Kensington, and Richmond on the north. West Philadelphia on the west, and Southwark, Moyamensing and Passyunk on the south, were consolidated with the city in one muni- cipal government. These constitute, with old Philadelphia, the city proper; but by a recent Act of the Legislature, the limits of the city of Philadelphia have been made coextensive with those of the county, which include an area of 120 square miles. The entire length of the city, from north to south, is 20 miles ; and its greatest breadth, from I PENNSYLVANIA. 471 VIEW OF PHILADELPHIA FROM FAIRMOUNT PARK. east to west, 8 miles. The suburbs are verv beautiful, and are thickly built up with handsome country seats, villas, cottages, etc. They abound in exquisite scenery, especially in the vicinity of the Wissa- hickon. The most densely settled portion of the city is the southern part, between the two rivers, where the peninsula is only about 2 miles in width. From this point it widens to the northward. Unlike New York, the population is not crowded into a few houses. The dwel- lings contain one family as a rule, and rarely more than two. They are small as a general thing, large mansions being the exception, save in the richer portions of the city. The densely inhabited portion -covers an area of about 9 square miles, extending for about 5 miles along the Delaware, and 2 miles along the Schuylkill. The largest part of the business of the city is transacted between Vine and Spruce streets, east of 12th street. The wealthiest private section, that inhabited by the "fashion," is south of Walnut, and west of 7th street, Walnut being considered the radst desirable street in the citv. Business is making considerable inroads upon this section. Here arc to be found some of the most beautiful and elegant residences in tlio Union. Arch street, north of Market, and Broad street towards its northern end, are among the handsomest and most desirable thorough- fares. Market street, which is entirely devoted to bnsinecs, c-^iiiids 472 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE WISSAHICKON AT CHESTNUT HILL. throuo-hout the city from east to west, beginning at the Delaware and crossing the Schuylkill. It is 100 feet in width, and is lined with large warehouses, usually of" brick. Broad street, 113 feet wide, extends from the northern to the southern limit of the city. Its nortliern i)ortion is lined with elegant residences. The central and southern portions are devoted to business, and contain some of the handsomest buildings in the place. Philadelphia is laid out with great regularity. The original plan of Penn contemplated a city with 10 streets running from river to PENNSYLVANIA. 473 PHILADELPHIA SMALL HOMES. river, and crossed by 25 other streets at right angles to them. Broad and Market streets were to divide this city into four nearly equal por- tions, a considerable area being reserved at the intersection of those streets for four large squares. These constituted the famous Penn Square, which has been recently stripped of its magnificent trees and shrubbery to make way for the new municipal buildings which are to occupy its four divisions. The streets are usually from 50 to QQ feet in width, with a few of greater breadth. Those running from north to south are numbered, beginning at the Delaware or eastern side ; those extending from east to west are named. In the old sections of the city, the sewerage is defective, in consequence of the flatness of the land, but the higher portions have nothing to complain of in this respect. Considering its size and importance, Philadelphia is remark- ably deficient in good pavements. The streets are generally paved with cobble stones, but Belgian and wooden pavements are now begin- ning to make their appearance. The general aspect of the city is bright and pleasing, mingled with a certain primness, however, due to its Quaker origin. Except in those portions along the water, it is very clean, and is healthy. Market street divides it into two 474 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE LEDGER BUILDING. portions, called north and south. The houses are numbered according to the streets between which they are located, 100 to a block. Thus 740 would be located between 7th and 8th streets. This system renders it comparatively easy to find a building in any part of the city. That portion of the city lying east of the Schuylkill is called Philadel- phia, and all west of that river West Philadelphia. As a rule the city is built of brick, but of late years many edifices of brown and free stone, iron and marble, have been erected. Market street is the principal business thoroughfare, and is lined with immense stores, generally devoted to the wholesale trade. Chestnut street corresponds to Broadway in New York, and is the handsomest business street. It is quite narrow, but contains the most elegant buildings in the city, and is one of the handsomest and most attractive streets in the Union. It contains the principal hotels ; Independence Hall ; the Custom House ; and the Post-Office. Third street is the great money centre, and is occupied for a considerable distance with the offices of bankers and brokers, many of which are handsome buildings. Now that Penn Square has been destroyed, there are 7 public squares in the city. These are Independence, Washington, Ritten- house, Logan, Franklin, Jeffi^rson, and Norris Squares. They cover each from 6 to 8 acres, are enclosed with tasteful iron railings, and are ornamented with magnificent trees, shrubbery, fountains, etc. They are surrounded with large and elegant residences. PENNSYLVANIA. 475 The principal pleasure ground is Fairmount Park, in the northwest portion of the city. This magnificent pleasure ground lies on both sides of the Schuylkill Eiver, from the Fairmount water- works to the mouth of the Wissahickon, and along both banks of the latter stream' to Chestnut Hill, a distance of 7i miles along the Schuylkill and 6 miles along the Wissahickon, making in all, a distance of ISJ miles. The entire park comprises nearly 3000 acres, making it the most extensive pleasure ground in the world. Its great length enables it to include the most beautiful portions of the Schuylkill and the far-famed 476 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE WISSAHICKON. Wissahickon, and it abounds in views of landscape and river scenery unsurpassed in any portion of the world. It is rich in forest trees, on which the white man's hand has never been laid. It is still in its infancy as a park, the work of improvement having been scarcely begun : but what has been accomplished gives promise of a judicious and tasteful assistance of nature. In its primeval state, this park PENNSYLVANIA. 477 THE UNION LEAGUE, BROAD STREET. constituted one of the loveliest regions in America. When art and wealth have done their part, it will be indeed worthy of the pride of the people of Philadelphia. The Park contains the Fairraount water- works, and a number of interesting and historical localities. Small steamers ply on the Schuyl- kill from Fairmount water-works to the Falls, and carriages supplied by the Commissioners convey visitors to the principal points at a moderate rate of fares. From the high grounds in the northern por- tion a fine view of the city and the surrounding country is obtained. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. Girard College, in the northern portion of the city, is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in the United States. It is built of white marble, and is entirely fire-proof. There are two additional buildings on each side •of the main building, all of which are of marble. The U. S. Custom House, on Chestnut street, also of white marble, is a magnificent struc- ture in the Doric style. It is built on a raised platform, and both fronts are ornamented with noble colonnades of fluted Doric columns. The U. 8. Mint, on Chestnut street, extends back to Olive street, 220 feet. It is built of marble, and is the principal establishment of the Federal Government for the coining of money. The Merchants' Ex~ -change, at the intersection of Walnut, Third, and Dock streets, is a handsome building of white marble. The State House, or as it is 478 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NEW MASONIC TEMPLE, ON BROAD STREET. better known, Independence Hall, is a plain edifice of brick, remark- able only for its venerable appearance and its interesting history. It was in this building that the early sessions of the Continental Congress were held, and here was adopted the famous Declaration of Independ- ence, on the 4th of July, 1776. The Union League House on Broad street, is a handsome edifice of brick, used as a club house by the Union League of Philadelphia. The Masonic Te»ip?e, just completed, on Broad street between Market and Arch, opposite to the new city buildings, is one of the most magnificent structures in the city. Many (rfthe churches are elegant and imposing. The theatres are about 6 in number, and besides these there are a number of inferior places of amusement. The Academy of Music on Broad street, is one of the largest and finest halls in the country ; but the other theatres, though handsome, are not equal to those of the other large cities of America. The hotels are large, elegant, and well kept. The principal are the Continental, the La Pierre, the Girard, the Merchants', the American, and Colonnade Hotel. The Continental is a splendid building, and in its internal arrangements is equal to any house of the kind in the Union. The city is well supplied with provisions by means of its excellent markets, of which there are 24. Some of these are handsome struc- tures of brick and iron ; others are less pretentious ; but the display of edibles of all kinds to be seen in them is perhaps the finest in the PENNSYLVANIA. 479 world . The great market garden regions of the Middle States lie so close to Philadelphia, that but a few hours intervene between the gathering of the articles and their delivery to the purchaser in the market. The Educational, Literary, and Scientific Institutions are numerous and of a very high order. The Public Schools have long been noted for their excellence. They are distinct from the State Schools of this kind, and are conducted by the city. There are about 375 free schools within the corporate limits, including two high schools. The average attendance of pupils is about 67,000. There are numerous private schools and academies, which are well attended. Phi- ladelphia has always been famous for the care bestowed by its people upon the educa- tion of the young, and no doubt owes a large share of its prosperity to this care. The University of Pennsyl- vania, 9th street, between Chestnut and Market, em- braces four departments, viz. : the Academical, the Collegiate, the Medical, and the Law. It ranks among the first in- stitutions of its kind in Amer- ica, and its Medical College is the oldest in the Union. The Jefferson Medical College is also a famous and flourishing institution, l^he Female Medi- cal College is devoted to the object indicated by its name. The others are an Eclectic and Homoeo- pathic Medical College, a College of Pharmacy for the education of druggists and chemists, a College of Dental Surgery, a College of Phy- sicians, which is one of the principal sources of the American Phar- macopoeia, and a Polytechnic College, organized on the plans of the Industrial Colleges of France and Germany. The Wagner Free Institute, the gift of Professor Wagner, is a fine institution. Girard College, in the northwest portion of the city, about two miles from the 8iate House, was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France and HEMLOCK GLEN ON THE WISSAHICKON. 480 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. I. NEW ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES. a merchant of Philadelphia, who died in 1831. He bequeathed $2,000,000 for this purpose. The buildings were completed in 1847, and the institution was opened January 1, 1848. It is devoted to the "gratuitous instruction and support of destitute orphans." The build- ings, 6 in number, are of white marble. The American Philosophical Society has a valuable library and collection of minerals, fossils, and. ancient relics. The Franklin Institute is a flourishing society composed of manufacturers, artists, mechanics, and persons friendly to the mechanic arts. It possesses a library of over 8000 volumes, and holds an annual exhibition in October. The Academy of Natural Sciences is one of the best insti- tutions of its kind in the Union. It possesses a library of 26,000 volumes, and a remarkably fine collection of specimens, embracing over 200,000 subjects. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania was founded for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of local history, especially in relation to the State of Pennsylvania. It has published a number of valuable works on this subject. It possesses a library of 18,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of contemporary documents and relics. The Philadelphia Library was founded in 1731 through the influ- ence of Benjamin Franklin. It numbers about 90,000 volumes, and is free to all who wish to use it. The Mercantile Library is supported by the subscriptions of its members. It contains over 40,000 volumes. The AtJianaum Library numbers about 25,000 volumes. Connected PENNSYLVANIA. 481 with it are a news and reading room and a chess room. The Appren- tices' Library contains 22,000 volumes; the Friends' Library 7000 volumes ; and the Law Association Library 7500 volumes. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts possesses a valuable per- manent collection of paintings, and holds an annual exhibition of new works. The Artists' Fund Society, the Numismatic Society of Phila- delphia, and the School of Design for Women are the other art societies. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions number more than IQO. We can mention but a few of the most jJrominent. In respect to her institutions of this kind, Philadelphia is second to no city in the land. The Pennsylvania Hospital is a noble institution, founded in 1751. It possesses an anatomical museum, and a library of more than 10,000 volumes. The County Alms House is-an immense struc- ture, situated in the midst of large grounds in West Philadelphia. Connected with it is a hospital with 600 beds. The Pennsyl- vania Insane Asylum is in West Philadelphia. It is ^ one of the best institutions of its kind in existence. Its grounds cover an area of 114* acres. The main building is 430 teet long. The United States Naval Hospital, on the east bank of the Schuylkill, below South street, is for the use of invalid officers and seamen of the U. S. Navy. The Pennsylvania Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, the Preston Retreat, the House of Refuge, the House of Correc- tion, and Wills Hospital are noble charities. The Prisons are Avell conducted. The Eastern State Penitentiary occupies an area of 11 acres, enclosed by a stone wall, 30 feet high. It is built of stone, and consists of an octagonal building in the centre, from Avhich radiate wings, with rows of cells on each side, and a 30 ON THE WrSSAIIICKOX DRIVE. 482 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCHUYLKILL RIVER, FROM THE FALLS. passage way extending tlie entire length of each wing. It is a model institution in every respect. The Philadelphia County Prison is a massive building of stone. It is used for the purposes of a peniten- tiary as well as a county jail and work-house. There are about 375 churches in the city. As a rule they are handsome and substantially built. The meeting-houses of the Friends 'are generally plain brick structures, remarkable for their absence of display. They are 14 in number. The Cemeteries are, Laurel Jrlill, Glenwood, Mount Vernon, Monu- ment, Woodlands, Ronaldson\s, Odd Fellows', and 3Iouni3Ioriah. They are noted for their beauty. Laurel Hill is considered by many persons the most beautiful cemetery in the Union. It is located on the banks of the Schuylkill, in a lovely countiy, and contains many handsome tombs. Philadelpliia is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, which is supplied at a reasonable rate to the citizens. The gas works are con- ducted by the city, and the consumers are secured the best quality of gas that can be made, and are protected from the extortions of private companies. The total length of street mains is about 500 miles. PENNSYLVANIA. 483 CHESTNUT STREET BEIDGE, OVER THE SCHUYLKILL, PHILADELPHIA. The city is supplied with water from the S<-huylicill River. In 1812 the Fairmount Water Works were begun, and in 1827 M-ater was introdnccd into tlie city. Since then the city has constructed additional reservoirs. The Fairmount Water Works, on the Schuyl- kill River, in the northwest part of the city, arc very interesting and constitute one of the chief attractions to visitors. The average amount used per diem exceeds 25,000,000 gallons. Philadelphia is connected with the Jersey shore on the opposite side of the Delaware by six lines of steam ferries. Numerous steamers ply on the Delaware between Pliiladolphia and the towns on that river. The street railway lines are 22 in number. They constitute the best system of street transportation in the Union. By the use of transfer tickets almost any point within the city limits can be reached at a uniform fare of seven cents. There are 9 bridges in and near Philadelphia. Some of these are used exclusively by the railway lines entering the city. The bridge over the Schuylkill at Chestnut street is a beautiful structure of iron, 390 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 40 feet above high water. It cost $500,000. The city is provided witii a strong and efficient police force, a fire 484 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department, with more than 30 steam engines. It is divided into 24 wards, and -is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. There are 10 daily, and 40 weekly newspapers, and about 50 peri- odicals, weekly and monthly, published in Philadelphia. A large share of the book publishing trade of the Union is carried on here. Philadelphia is largely engaged in manufactures. The district of Manayunk is almost wholly engaged in these enterprises, devoting itself principally to cotton and woollen goods, and carpets. Sugar refining is carried on extensively in the city. Large quantities of shoes, chemicals, medicines, paints, umbrellas, parasols, carts, wheel- barrows, household furni- ture, jewelry, iron manu- factures of every descrip- tion, steam engines, water and gas pipes, military goods, flour, soap, ale and beer, glass, clothing, can- dles, hosiery, etc., etc., are ma n u factured ann ual ly . — The total capital invested in manufactures in Phila- delphia is estimated at nearly $100,000,000. Shij) building is also carried on to a limited extent. The commerce of Phi- ladelphia is large, and is growing rapidly. Its for- eign trade passed principally through the port of New York. There is now direct communication between Philadelphia and Europe with American iron steamships. In 1865, there were 541 arrivals from foreign ports. The city carries on an immense coasting trade, and its harbor is usually crowded with vessels. In 1865, there were 31,705 arrivals from American ports. The total value of exports from the port of Philadelphia in 1865 was, $11,278,603. The imports in the same year amounted to $7,164,744. The city also conducts a large trade with all parts of the country, and especially with the West, by means of its railroads. Immense quantities of coal and petroleum annually pass through Philadelphia, thus adding to its wealth. PUBLIC FOUNTAIN. PENNSYLVANIA. 485 Philadelphia is at present the fourth city in the Union in commercial importance, but it is making rapid progress towards a higher position. The U. S. Navy Yard is located on the Delaware E,iver in tlie southeastern j^art of the city. It covers an area of 12 acres, and contains 2 large ship-houses, and all the necessary Avorks. Some of the best vessels in the Navy have been constructed here. It also con- tains a sectional floating dock. In 1870, the population of Philadelphia was 674,022. In 16S4, it had 2500 inhabitants, in 1778, 42,520 ; in 1820 (up to Svhich time it was the largest city in the Union), 167,325 ; and in 1860, 565,529. The city of Philadelphia was founded by William Penn immediately upon taking possession of the grant of a province by Charges II. He sent out a body of colonists in August 1681, and in 1682, came over himself, and superintended the surveys of the new city. During the latter year, a large number of colonists arrived, the majority of whom were Friends or Quakers, and persons of respectability and wealth. Penn's deliberate intention was to found a large city, and the general })]an of the present city differs very slightly from his original design. The new settlement Avas named by him Philadelphia, partly from the city of that name in Asia Minor, but principally because of the signi- ficance of the term. Penn's first care was to make an equitable treaty with the Indians, who, on their part, carefully abstained from molest- ing the new city, which jirospered in a marked degree, and became the largest and most important place on the continent, which preeminence it held until about 30 years after the opening of the Revolution. Philadelphia bore its full share in the events of the early wars of the country with the French and Indians, though it was itself never assailed. "In 1741, the city was divided into 10 wards. In December 1719, a printing press was set up, and Andrew Bradford began to publish the AmeriGan Weekly Mercury, which was continued until 1746, In 1728, the Gazette was begun, which fell to Franklin to conduct in 1 729. In the latter year, the building of a State House was author- ized, the site was selected in 1730, and the building begun in 1732, and completed in 1735. The bell tower was not erected till 1750; and on June 7th, 1753, the new ' great bell,^ cast here, weighing 2080 pounds, with the motto, 'Proclaim liberty,' etc., was raised to its place; this is the bell celebrated in connection with the Declaration of Independence, and now in Independence Hall. The first Colonial Congress met in Philadelphia at Carpenters' Hall, a building still in 486 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. use as a hall, on September 4, 1774. Congress held its sessions at the State House in 1776, and here adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence. The British forces occupied the city from September, 1777 to June, 1778. A census was then taken by General Corn- walli's, and the're were found to be 21,767 inhabitants and 5470 houses, but the people were then much scattered. Congress resumed its PENNSYLVANIA. 487 sessions at Philadelphia after the British left it, and continued to make this the national capital until the removal to ^Yashington City in 1800. The battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777, was fought within the present chartered limits of the city, 7 miles northwest of the centre of the old city proper. The State Legislature removed its sessions to Harrisburg in 1800, simultaneously with the removal of tlie seat of the General Government to Washington. The foreign commerce and general trade of Philadelphia increased rapidly after the close of the Revolution. At the war of 1812 this commerce almost wholly ceased ; iu 1816, business and speculation revived, but the results were not fortunate, and direct external trade never recovered its former import- ance. Previous to 1839, the banking capital of Philadelphia was large, and for most of the period previous to 1836, it was the monetary centre of the country. The First Bank of the United States, established by Act of Congress, in 1791, with a capital of $10,000,000, was located here ; and the Second Bank of the United States was established here in 1816, with a capital of $35,000,000. The subsequent failure of the bank under its State charter in 1839, and the loss of its large capital, greatly weakened the financial strength of the city, and the monetary centre was permanently transferred to New York. The re- vulsion of 1837, and the subsequent financial depression, fell heavily on the city and State, the recovery from them not being apparent until 1844. In 1793, the yellow fever made terrible ravages, nearly deci- mating the population, and driving numbers into the country; and again in 1798, it was epidemic. In 1832, the Asiatic cholera was very destructive, the Victims numbering 770. More recently, there have been milder forms of epidemic cholera and yellow fever, but as a whole the city has from its foundation been conspicuously healthy " The separate municipalities proved for many years the source of considerable trouble, and in 1854, they were all consolidated into one city, under the general name of Philadelphia. By the same enact- ment, the corporate limits of the city were made to embrace the entire county. PITTSBUEG, The second city in the State, is situated in Alleghany county, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, Mdiich here form the Ohio River. It is 357 miles west of Philadelphia, and 223 north- west of Ayasliin'2:ton ciity. The city is located on the triangular plain enclosed by. the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers, and by Grant's Hill 488 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and the other eminences at the eastern side of the plain. " The general outline and many other features of this city bear a striking resemblance to the lower part of New York. Along the Monongahela the streets were laid out at right angles to each other, and extend either parallel or perpendicular to the river. The same plan was also adopted on the Alle- ghany side, by which arrangement the cross streets meet obliquely a few squares south of the latter stream. Tiie space included within these limits was found insufficient to meet the requirements of the rapidly increasing population, which soon extended itself to the opposite shores. Here have sprung up several large and flourishing towns, the most important of which are Alleghany City and Manchester, situated directly opposite the junction of the Alleghany River with the Ohio, and Birmingham, on the left bank of the Monongahela. In commer- cial and social interests, all these are identical with the city proper, and we should do Pittsburg injustice, not to consider them as a part of the same community." The situation of Pittsburg is exceedingly beautiful. The city lies in a plain surrounded by hills from 400 to 500 feet in height. At the base of these flow the three rivers we have named. The hills are very rich in coal, iron, and limestone. The soil is fertile to the very summit of the hills, which are covered with picturesque forests, orchards, and gardens, thus giving an additional beauty to the land- scape. An English traveller writes of the scenery as follows : " As regards scenery it is beautifully situated, being at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains, and at the junction of the two rivers Monongahela and AUegliany. Here, at the town, they come together, and form the River Ohio. Nothing can be more picturesque than the site, for the spurs of the mountains come down close round the town, and the rivers are broad and swift, and can be seen for miles from heights which may be reached in a short walk. Even the filth and wondrous blackness of the place are picturesque when looked down upon from above. The tops of the churches are visible, and some of the larger buildings may be partially traced through the thick, brown, settled smoke. But the city itself is buried in a dense cloud. The atmosphere was especially heavy when I was there, and the effect was probably increased by the general darkness of the weather. The Monongahela is crossed by a fine bridge, and on the other side the ground rises at once, almost with the rapidity of a precipice; so that a commanding view is obtained down upon the town and the two rivers and the different bridges, from a height immediately above them. I PENNSYLVANIA. 491 was never more in love with smoke and dirt than when I stood here and watched the darkness of night close in upon the floating soot which hovered over the house-tops of the city. I cannot say that I saw the sun set, for there was no sun. I should say that the sun never shone at Pittsburg, as foreigners who visit London in November declare that the sun never shines there." The city is handsomely built, brick and stone being the principal materials used ; but the dense smoke soon defaces the handsomest structure. In consequence of this the place has a black grimy appearance, which effectually mars the work of taste and wealth. There are many handsome residences in the eastern section. The suburbs are preferred for purposes of residence however. They are very picturesque in themselves, and are beautifully built up, and present a very marked contrast to the city in cleanliness. The Public Buildings are among the handsomest in America. The Court House is situated on the summit of Grant's Hill, and is a hand- some edifice of granite, of the Grecian Doric order, with a noble por- tico. The summit of the dome is 148 feet from the ground. The new Custom House is built of freestone in the Grecian style. It con- tains the Post Office. Besides these are several others which are worthy of notice. Some of the churches and commercial buildings are among the principal ornaments of the city. There are also 2 fine market houses, one of which contains a large public hall. The Educational Institutions are in a flourishing condition. The public schools are numerous, and are attended by about 20,000 pupils. Besides these the city contains a number of private schools. The Benevolent Institutions are the Mercy Hospital, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy, the United States Marine Hospital, the Home for the Friendless, the Church Home, designed chiefly as a home for children of all denominations, the Pittsburg Infirmary, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum and a House of Refuge. In addition to these are the Western Pennsylvania Hospital (which has a depart- ment for the insane at Dixmont, 8 miles from the city), and the House of Industry, situated in Alleghany City, but really to be regarded as among the institutions of Pittsburg. The Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania is located in Alleghany City. It is an immense stone building in the Norman style. There are about 110 churches in the city of Pittsburg, and about 30 in Alleghany City. Some of them are imposing structures and are admirably located. 492 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Pittsburg is supplied with pure water from the Alleghany River, and is lighted with gas of an excellent quality. It is divided into 9 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is well provided with street railways, which also connect its business centres with the suburbs on both rivers. Four fine bridges connect it with Alleghany City, and two extend across the Monongahela to Birmingham. Alleghany City is simply an extensive suburb of Pittsburg, and is divided from it by the Alleghany River. It is well built in the main, and contains many handsome residences, being a favorite resi- dence of the people of the greater city, as it is very much cleaner. It contains a large number of manufacturing establishments, and is a place of considerable importance. Here are located the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church ; the Theological Seminary of the Associate Reformed Church; and the Alleghany Theological Institute. In 1870 the population of Alleghany City was 53,181. The manufactures, etc., of the city will be treated of in con- nection with those of Pittsburg. Alleghany is a distinct corporation, and is governed by its own Mayor and Council. Birmingham and 3fanchester are considerable suburbs. The former is situated on the south side of the Monongehela River, immediately opposite Pittsburg, and the latter is on the Ohio, 2 miles below the city. Mr. Geo. II. Thurston, in his Quarterly Circular, thus describes manufacturing Pittsburg : '' Pittsburgh is not to be seen in a day, nor yet in a week ; and while the simple fact that it is. a great manufacturing city is generally acknowledged, yet the details of- that greatness are but little under- stood. Many years ago, before the iron horse had crossed the Alle- ghanies, while yet the transportation of the merchandise for the West was made in the old six-horse Conestoga wagons, the City of Wheeling claimed importance and coming greatness, inasmuch as that forty of those wagons had arrived in that city in one day. Since then Wheel- ing has grown into an active little competitor of Pittsburgh, the great parent of all western manufactures, and of which it, as well as a dozen other manufacturing towns, are off-shoots, the natural outspringing and colonization of Pittsburgh's growth. That growth has been so marked and so continuous that we have often, in the past few years, been tempted to remodel the language of AVheeling, and say : Forty miles of mills and factories every day in operation in Pittsburgh. This is no brag, but almost literally a reality, although no doubt a terse explanation of ' what Pittsburgh really is like ' is rather startling to her PENNSYLVANIA. 49] own citizens. The real fa,cfc is tliat actual measurement shows that in the limits of what is known throughout the country as Pittsburgh there are thirty-five miles of manufactories of iron, of glass, of steel, of copper, of oil, of wools, of cottou, of brass, alone, not to include manufactories in other materials, nor including any of less grade than manufactories of iron chains in iron, or plows in wood. A measure- ment of the ground also shows that these 35 miles of factories are so closely contiguous that were they placed in a single row each factory would have but about 400 feet of front space for its workings. " The statistics of this statement of the extent of Pittsburgh manu- facturing power are these : From the point up the south bank of the Alleghany River to the Sharpsburg bridge is 5 miles; in that dis- tance, between the river bank and Penn street, there are 115 factories of the classes designated. From Sharpsburg bridge down the north bank of the Alleghany River to Wood's Run is 8 miles, and in that distance there are 67 manufactories. From Temperanceville to Brownstown, up the west bank of the Monongahela River, is 4 miles, and in that distance there are 70 factories, between the river and Carson street. From the Monongahela bridge up the course of the Monongahela River, to a point beyond Brownstown, is 3| miles, and in that distance, between Carson street and the hill, there are 43 manufactories. From the Point to the Copper WorlvS, on the east bank of the Monongahela, is 3 J miles, and in that distance there are 65 factories. From Federal street out Ohio street to Duquesne Borough is 1|^ miles, and in that distance there are 15 factories. On Butcher's Run, in a distance of 2 miles, there are 32 factories. Along Liberty street, from the Point to the Outer Depot, there are 19 fac- tories in a distance of 2 miles. On 2d and 3d avenues, from Liljerty to Try streets, a distance of 1 mile, there are 18 factories. Along Pennsylvania avenue to Soho street, a distance of 1 J miles, there are 17 factories. Between Ohio street and the base of the hill there are, in a distance of 3 miles, 24 factories. "Thus in a distance of 35J miles of streets, there are 475 manu- factories of iron, of steel, of cottxin, of oil, of glass, of copper, occupy- ing an average of less than 400 feet front each. "Were these factories placed in a single row, it will be easily seen Jiow compactly they would be crowded, each occupying no more terri- tory than was actually needed. They would be a continuous row, witiiout interval, and show' that in reality there are in Pittsburgh ab- solutely over 35 continuous miles of n)aj>iifacturea ia daily ojieration. 494 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. " Pittsburghers, then, in answer to the question, what is Pittsburgh like? can readily answer — Like a row 35 miles long of factories twisted up into a compact tangle all belching forth smoke, all glow- ing with fires, all swarming with workmen, all echoing with the clank of machinery. The territory over and around which this immense chain of machinery is strung, though all popularly known as Pitts- burgh, is composed of the citv' of Pittsburgh and the city of Alleghany, the boroughs of Tempcranceville, West Pittsburgh, Monongahela, South Pittsburgh, Birmingham, and East Birmingham. The whole ibrms, however, one compact city, in effect, divided only by the two rivers, which, running through the district, are spanned by numerous bridges, over several of which street railroads link, with their almost continuous lines of cars, in one mass, a population in this hive of in- dustry nTimbering 200,000 souls. Although the name of Pittsburgh, and the term Pittsburgh manufactures, haVe been 'as household words ' throughout the West, since the days of the earlier Western settlements, still its growth has been so equable "with that of the West that but few-realize the real magnitude of the community. " Called into existence by no sudden s|>ecalative rush of emigra- tion, drawn primarily by some adventitious circumstances, Pittsburgh has accumulated its population througii the course of years from the solid advantages each passing year rendere but more apparent. In all past years Pittsburgh has been a 2>oint of departure for much of the emigration to the West, a position the city still maintains. Thus iiaturally Pittsburgh became a supply point for the West, and the West the chief market for her productions. The increase of the popu- lation of the West has told with unerring certainty upon the business and the population of Pittsburgh. " In 1800, the population of the States through and along which Pittsburgh enjoys river navigation, Avas 385,667, and that of Pitts- burgh was 1565, or a little over -^'^^ per cent., while the vaUie of her business was, in 1803, but $350,000, or equal to 92^*0 per cent, of the ])opnIation of the AYest. "In 1810, there were in the same western ten-itory 1,057,531 in- habitants, and in Pittsburgh 4876, or ^o per cent., being o'o over the necessar}' increase to preserve the ratio of our increase in the city's population, in proportion to that of the West. The amount of busi- ness of the city was then estimated at $1,000,000, equal to 93 per cent, on the |X)pnlation of the territoiy indicated. "In 1830, there were 3,331,298 inhabitants in the section of the PENNSYLVANIA. 49") Union before indicated, and in Pittsburgh there were 16,988, still showing the growth of the city was not in the same ratio of increase as the West, as in past periods, but a gain of xo over what was neces- sary. "In 1840, there were 5,173,949 inhabitants in the western and southwestern States, and the population of Pittsburgh was 38,931, being ^§ per cent., showing not only the maintenance of the progres- sive ratio, but a gain over it of ^q per cent. "In 1836, the business of the city was estimated at $31,146,550, being something over 600 per cent., showing the business of the city had not only kept pace with the population of the West, as shown in previous ratios, but had compounded thereon 500 per cent. "In 1860, the population of the Mississippi basin and the western lake slopes (Pittsburgh's market), was shown by the census of that year to be in round numbers 17,000,000. At that date the business of Pittsburgh was estimated at over $100,000,000, showing the ratio of business on the population of the West, attained in 1836 and 1840, was still maintained. "The population of the district considered and claimed as Pitts- burgh, being the compact mass of population between and on both sides of the rivers to the city limits, was estimated at 140,000 in that year, showing that in population as well as business the ratio of Pitts- burgh's prosperity with the wealth of the West continues to be main- tained. What the population of the West may be as shown by the census of 1870 we know not, but those who know the great growth of Pittsburgh in the last nine years, the vast increase in her rolling- mills and in her workshops, cannot doubt that the ratio of increfise is still maintained. In the groat swell of the population of the West, Pittsburgh seems not only to keep pace and to hold her trade, but that trade, like her population, seems to increase in arithmetical pro- portion with the growth of the country. Considering the competitors which have arisen for the market Pittsburgh supplies with her staples, this is worthy especial note as indicative of a natural force in her position and her resources not to be lost sight of in contemplating her future. " The force of Pittsburgh's position is seen at a glance. Distant only 300 to 400 miles from three of the greatest sea- board cities of the Union ; but 200 miles from the great chain of inland seas, and reaching in all directions by continuous river navigation an area of country 1200 by 960 geographical miles, she is at the same time the 196 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. key point of a railway route nearer by 40 miles from New York t(? tlie West than any now constrncted. Situated in the heart of a bitu- minous coal formation of the Appalachian field, and equally advan- tageously located as to deposits of iron ore, her geographical relations to the staples for manufacturing are unequalled. She stands in a geo- graphical centre from which a circle with a radius of 400 miles em- braces Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, Canada, parts of Illinois and South Carolina. This circle embraces every variety of climate, and nearly, if not quite all the staples of the United States and its valuable manuficturing minerals, over which she holds the magician's wand in her unequalled supply of fuel. For 'coal,' says Vischcrs, ' is the indispensable aliment of industry. It is to in- dustry Avhat oxygen is to the lungs — water to the plant — nourishment to the animal.' " The statistics of the coal by wdn'ch Pittsburgh is surrounded sliovvs how inexhaustible is this element of her force and her progress. The extent of the bituminous coal fields by which Pittsburgh is surrounded is equal to 8,600,000 square acres. The amount of coal contained in that area it is difficult to estimate. It has been stated that the upper soam, i-ating it at 8 feet, contains 53,516,430,000 tons, which at $2 j)er ton, or a little over 7 cents ])er bushel, would bo worth $107,032,- 860,000 — a sum which, could it be realized, would pay the national debt thirty times. Of course although centuries will not see it taken from the earth, the figures show what a mine of wealth Pittsburgh has to draw from ; and how mighty is the magnet she possesses to attract to her boundaries minerals and staples of all the States, popu- lation and wealth. At the present tim^ the coal trade of the city amounts to about $10,000,000 annually, and there are in the vicinity of Pittsburgh 103 collieries; the value of lands, houses, improve- ments, cars, etc., amounts to about $11,000,000. The amount of coal mined from these collieries in 1864 was 48,462,966 bushels, of which nearly 30,000,000 bushels were exported down the Ohio River alone. "But not in coal alone is her strength shown. In those things which coal enables her busy artizans to produce, is her power equally apparent. As nearly as can be ascertained, oue-half of the glass fac- tories in the United States are located at Pittsburgh, where there are 40 firms engaged in the manufacture of glass, who run 60 factories producing the various descriptions of green, window, flint, and lime PENNSYLVANIA. 497 glass, employing over 4000 workmen, and producing between four and five millions worth of glass. " In iron and steel, Pittsburgh claims and maintains to be the great market of the country. Tiie exact money value of this great trade has always been difficult to arrive at. Much of the iron is shipped by rail to various points, and much by river. By figures we have at command of the shipments of ])late, bar, sheet, and rod iron and steel from Pittsburgh in the year 1865, it would seem that there were ex- ported, by rail aloiie, to 24 diiFerent States, over 143,000 tons, and 180,()00 kegs of nails to 20 different States. These railroad exporta- tions, it must not be forgotten, are not probably half the manufacture. That of castings there were shipped by rail alone 5,143,008 pounds in 1864, to 22 different States; and that by one railroad alone there were received in 1864, into the city, 107,000 tons of pig-iron and blooms, exclusive of the yield of 6 or 8 furnaces running in the city of Pittsburgh, or the imports by river and other railroads. It is esti- mated that of shipments made from Pittsburgh, at least as much is sent by river as by rail. There are over 30 iron rolling-mills in Pittsburgh, 6 steel mills, and between 50 and 60 iron founderies. These figures but feebly indicate the full extent of the great iron and steel trade of the city, of which the sales alone of articles made of iron .subject to tax, made and returned to the city, was from March, 1865, to March, 1866, over $27,000,000. " Oil is another great staple, and there are in Pittsburgh 58 re- fineries, in which is invested a capital of nearly $8,000,000 in buildings and machinery ; and in the tanks and barges necessary to the carrying on of the business, nearly $6,000,000 more. The oil trade of the city for the 5 years from January, 1863, to January, 1868, amounted to about $56,000,000, or an average of about $11,000,000 annually. " Other branches of Pittsburgh manufactures might be cited to show its force and solidity, but enough has been stated to partially show what Pittsburgh is like. To show that she is like a great city of nearly 200,000 population ; that she is a great arsenal for the supply of manufactured articles ; that she grows with the growth, and in- creases in wealth with the prosperity of the West. Although she has apparently grown but slowly, yet she has grown like the oak, and but counts her infancy in the years in which other cities spring and ma- ture ; and she stands like a sooty giant astride the head waters of the Ohio, rejoicing in the lusty strength of her fresh youth, while her powerful servant, the mighty Geni of the Mine, throughout the waters 498 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of the Ohio, along the shores of the Father of Waters, around the borders of the great lakes, on either hand of the pathway of the iron horse, athwart the Western prairies, proclaims her the dusky Queen of Industry, and commands homage to her iron sceptre in three- fourths of the States of the Union." Its very location has placed an enormous trade in the hands of Pittsburg. Lying at the head of the Ohio River, it has water com- munication with every town on the navigable portion of the Ohio, .the Mississippi, and the Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Being one of the principal railway centres of the West,'it has railway con- nections with all parts of the Union. The principal harbor is fur- nished by the Monongahela River, which has a greater depth of water than the Alleghany. The Ohio is navigable to the confluence of those streams for boats of light draught, except at infrequent periods of very great dryness. The boats are generally built in such a manner as to adapt them to the lowest stages of water. Large side-wheel steamers also navigate the Ohio during the season of high water. By means of these steamers, a heavy trade is maintained with the States along the rivers we have mentioned. Pittsburg thus controls about 12,000 miles of water transportation, and can deliver its products without breaking bulk in over 400 counties of 17 States. In 1865, there were 159 steamboats owned in the city. The number is much greater at present. Besides these, hundreds of steamers, owned in other States, trade with Pittsburg. In 1870, the population of Pittsburg was 86,235. In February, 1754, a party of English settlers built a stockade and established a trading post on the point of land lying between the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers at their confluence, on the site of the present city of Pittsburg. In April, they were attacked and driven away by the French, who claimed the country. The con- querors erected a fort on the spot, and called it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor of Canada. This fort at once became the centre of all the military operations of the French in this part of the country. To the French claim, which was based upon their discovery of the region, the English advanced a counter claim based upon a charter from the Crown, strengthened by a treaty with the Iroquois. The importance attached to the position by the French made it a matter of the greatest moment to the English to obtain possession of it. General Braddock was sent, in 1755, at the head of the largest force that had ever crossed the mountains, to recapture it. He was attacked PENNSYLVANIA. 499 and defeated by the French and Indians, on the 9th of July of that year, at a point on the Monongahela, about 12 miles above the fort. On the 15th of October, 1758, a force of 800 men, under Major Grant, advancing to attack the fort, was defeated with terrible loss. On the 25th of November, 1758, the fort fell into the hands of a force of 6000 men under General Forbes. The French and their Indian allies vainly endeavored to check Forbes' advance, and failing in this, set the fort on fire and retreated on the 24th, the day before the arrival of the English. General Forbes rebuilt and strengthened the fort. It was completed in January, 1759, and was called Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English Minister. The French made several efforts to recapture it, but without success. In 1764, the settlement of the town began, the houses being erected in the vicinity of the fort. In 1772, the fort was abandoned by the English, who had no further use for it as a military post. The site was claimed by Virginia under a charter from James I. Pennsylvania also claimed it under a char- ter from Charles II. Virginia prepared to assert her claim by force, and on the 11th of August, 1775, threw a company of soldiers into Fort Pitt. The Revolution made this a minor question, however, and in August, 1779, Commissioners, appointed by the two provinces, met in Baltimore, and agreed upon the existing boundary which was ratified by their respective Legislatures. The excise troubles of 1 79 1-4, made Pittsburg the scene of considerable violence. In 1845, a fire destroyed the entire business portion of the city, causing a loss of $5,000,000. Pittsburg was incorporated as a borough in 1804, and as a city in 1816. SCRANTON, The fourth city in population in the State, is situated in Luzerne county, on the left bank of the Lackawanna River, 137 miles north- east of Harrisburg. It is the terminus of several railway lines lead- ing direct to Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and New York, and the centre of an immense coal trade. Iron ore is found in large quantities in the vicinity, and the city is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron wares of various kinds. The principal sources of its prosperity, however, are the rich coal mines which lie near the town. These mines are worked by the Pennsylvania and other companies, and em- ploy large numbers of miners of all nationalities. Scranton is a well built town, containing about 4 public schools, 11 churches, and 2 newspaper offices. It is prettily situated, and is 31 .300 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SCR ANTON. improving in its architectural pretensions. During the last few years, the population has increased with unprecedented rapidity. In 1860, the city contained 9223 inhabitants. In 1870, the population was 35,762. If Pittsburg and Alleghany are regarded as one city, Scranton is the third city in Pennsylvania. READING, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Berks county, on the left or east bank of the Schuylkill River, 52 miles east of Harrisburg, and 52 miles northwest of Philadelphia, with both of which places it is connected by railways. It has railway connections with other parts of the State. The Schuylkill Canal brings it in direct commu- nication with the entire Schuylkill region. The river is here crossed by two bridges, one of which is 600 feet long. The city is beautifully situated on a sloping plain, which rises from the river, and is terminated on the east by an eminence called Penn's Mount. The city is well built, brick being the principal material. PENNSYLVANIA. 501 EASTON. E ASTON, In Xorthamj3ton county, on the right bank of the Delaware River, at the junction Avith that stream of the Lehigh River and Bushkill Creek, is a flourishing city. It is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, is well built, and is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water. It is finely situated in the midst of some of the most beauti- ful scenery of the State, and is in many respects one of the most pic- turesque cities in America. The Lehigh and Delaware are here crossed by fine bridges. The city possesses good water-power, and is largely engaged in manufactures. Flour, oil, iron, lumber, cotton goods, and fire-arms are the principal articles procyond tlie waters of yonder stream, and all nature holds a pause of solemn silence on the eve of the uproar of the bloodshed and strife of to-morrow. '"They that take the sword shall perish by the sword;' and have they not taken the sword ? " Let the blood-stained valley — the desolated homes — the burned farm house — the murdered farmer — let the whitening bones of our own countrymen answer ! Let the starving mother with the babe clinging to her witheved breast, let her answer — with the dealli rattle mingling with the murmuring tones that mark the last struggle for life ; let the dying mother and her babe answer I " It was but a day past, and our land slept in the light of peace. War was not PENNSYLVANIA. 511 here, wrong was not here. Fraud, aud woe, and misery and want dwelt not among us. From the eternal solitude of the green woods, arose the blue smoke of the settler's cabin ; and golden fields of corn looked forth from amid the waste of the wilderness, and the glad music of human voices awoke the silence of the forest. " Now ! God of mercy ! Behold the change. Under the shadow of a pretext, under the sanctity of the name of God — invoking the Redeemer to their aid, do these foreign hirelings slay our people. Thej' throng our towns, thej' darken our plains, and now they encompass our posts on the lonely plain of Chadd's Ford. "'The}' that take the sword shall perish by the sword.' Brethren ! think me not unworthy of belief, when I tell you that the doom of the Britisher is near ! Tliink me not v.iin when I tell you that beyond the cloud which now enslirouds us, I see gathering thick and fast, the darker cloud and the blacker storm of Divine Retribution ! They may conquer us on the morrow ! — might and wrong may prevail, and we may be driven from the field — but the hour of God's ven- geance will come ! Aye, if in the vast solitudes of eternal space, if in the heart of the boundless universe, there throbs the being of an aAvful God, quick to revenge and sure to punish guilt, there will the man, George of Brunswick, called king, feel in his brain and in his heart the vengeance of the eternal Jeho- vah ! a blight will be upon his life — a withered brain, an accursed intellect ; a blight will be upon his children, and his people. Great God ! how dread the punishment ! " Soldiers ! I look around upon your familiar faces with a strange interest. To-morrow we will all go forth to battle — for need I tell you that your unworthy minister will march with you, invoking God's aid in the fight. We will march forth to battle. Need I exhort 3-ou to fight the good fight for your homesteads, your wives, and your children ? " And in the hour of battle w'hen all around is darkness, lit by the lurid cannon glare, and the piercing musket flash, when the wounded strew the ground and the dead litter j'our path ; then remember, soldiers, that God is with you. The eternal God is with 3'ou, and fights for you. God ! the awful, the infinite, fights for you, and 3M)u will triumph. '"They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.' "You have taken the sword; but not in the spirit of wrong and revenge. You have taken the sword for your homes, for your wives, and for your little ones. You have taken the sword for truth, for justice, and for right, and to you the promise is, be of good cheer, for j'our foes have taken the sword in defiance of all man holds dear. They shall perish hy tJie sword. " And now, brethren and soldiers, I bid you all farewell. Many of us may fall in the fight of to-morrow. God rest the souls of the fallen — many of us viay live to tell the story of the fight of to-morrow, and in the memory of all will rest the quiet scenes of this autumnal night. " 'Solemn twilight advances over the valley ; the woods on the opposite heights fling their long shadows over the green of the meadow — around us are the tents of the continental host — the suppressed bustle of the camp, the hurried tread of the soldiers to and fro among the tents, the stillness that marks the eve. or battle. " When we meet again, may the long shadows of twilight be flung over a peaceful land. God in hcavea grant it ! Amen." 512 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE BATTLE OF THE BRANDYWINE, Sept. 11th, 1777. The American army, in order to enconrage the partisans of independence and overawe the disaffected, marched through the city of Philadelphia ; it afterwards advanced towards the enemy, and encamped behind White Clay Creek. A little after, leaving only the riflemen in the camp, "Washington retired with the main lioily of his army behind the Red Clay Creek, occupying with Lis right wing the town of Newport, situated near the Christiana, antl upon the great road to Phila- delphia ; his left was at Hockesen. But tliis line was little capable of defence. The enemy, reinforced by the rear guard under General Grant, threatened with liis right the centre of the Americans, extended his left as if with the intention of turning their right flank. "Washington saw the danger, and retired with his troops behind the Brandy wine ; he encamped on the rising grounds which extend from Chadsford, in the direction of northwest to southeast. The riflemen of Max- well scoured the right bank of the Brandywine, in order to harass and retard the enemy. The militia under the command of General Armstrong, guarded a passage below the principal encampment of "Washington, and the right wing lined the banks of the river higher up, where the passages were more difficult. The passage of Chadsford, as the most practicable of all, was defended hy the chief force of the anny. The troops being thus disposed, the American general "Waited the approach of the English. Although the Brandywine, being fordable almost everywhere, could not serve as a sufficient defence agyinst the impetuosity of the enemy, yet Washington had taken post upon its banks, from a conviction that a battle was now inevitable, and that Philadelphia could only be saved by a victory. General Howe displayed the front of his army, but not however with- out great circumspection. Being arrived at Kennen Square, a short distance from the river, he detached. his light-horse to the right upon Wilmington, to tlie left upon Lancaster road, and in front towards Chadsford. The two armies found themselves Avithin 7 miles of each other, the Brandywine flowing between them. Early in the morning of the llth of Septemlwr, the British army marched to the enemy. Howe had formed his army in two columns ; the right commanded hy General Knyphausen, the left by Lord Comwallis. ITis plan was, that while the first should make repeated feints to attempt the passage of Chadsford, in order to occupy the attention of the republicans, the second should take a long- circuit to the upper part of the river, and cross at a place where it is divided into two shallow streams. The English marksmen fell in witli those of Maxwell, and a smart skirmish was immediately engaged. Tlie latter were at first repulsed ; but being reinforced from the camp, they compelled the English to retire in their turn. But at length, they also were reinforced, and Maxwell was constrained to withdraw his detachment behind the river. Meanwhile, Knj'phausen* advanced with his column, and commenced a furious cannonade upon the passage of Chads- ford, making all his dispositions as if he intended to force it. The Americans defended themselves with gallantry, and even passed several detachments of light troops to the other side, in order to harass the enemy's flanks. But after a course of skirmishes, sometimes advancing, and at others obliged to retire, they were finally, with an eager pursuit, driven over the river. Knyphausen then appeared more than ever determined to pass the ford ; he stormed and kept up an incredible noise. In this manner the attention of the Americans was fully occupied in the neighborhood of Chadsford. • Meanwhile, Lord Comwallis, at PENNSYLVANIA. 513 the head of the second column, took a circuitous march to the left, and gained unperceived the forks of the Brandywine. By this rapid movement, he passed both branches of the river at Trimble's and at JefiFery's fords, without opposition, about 2 o'clock in the afternoon, and then turning short down the river took the road to Dilworth, in order to fall upon the right flank of the American army. The republican general, however, received intelligence of this movement about noon, and, as it usually happens in similar cases, the reports exaggerated its im- portance exceedingly ; it being represented that General Howe commanded this division in person. Washington therefore decided immediately for the most Judi- cious, though boldest measure ; this was, to pass tlie river with the centre and left wing of his army, and overwhelm Knyphausen by the most furious attack. He justly reflected that the advantage he should obtain upon the enemy's right would amply compensate the loss that his own might sustain at the same time. Accordingly he ordered General Sullivan to pass the Brandywine with his division at an upper ford, and attack the left of Jvnyphausen, while he, in person, should cross lower down and fall upon the right of the general. They were both already in motion in order to execute this design, when a second report arrived, which represented what had really taken place as false, or in other words, that the enemy liad not crossed the two branches of the river, and that he had not made his appearance upon the right flank of the American troops. Deceived by tliis false intelligence, Washington desisted ; and Greene, who had already passed with the vanguard, was ordered back. In the midst of these uncertainties, the commander-in-chief at length received positive assur- ance, not only that the English had appeared upon the left bank, but also that they were about to fall in great force upon the right wing. It was composed of the brigades of generals Stephens, Sterling, and Sullivan ; the first was the most advanced, and consequently nearest to the English ; the two others were posted in the order of their rank, that of Sullivan being next to the centre. This gene- ral was immediately detached from the main body, to support the former brigades, and being the senior officer, took the command of the whole wing. Washington himself, followed by General Greene, approached with two strong divisions to- wards this wing, and posted himself between it and the corps he had left at Chads- ford, under General Wayne, to oppose the passage of Knyphausen. These two divisions, under the immediate orders of the commander-in-chief, served as a corps of reserve, ready to march, according to circumstances, to the succor of Sullivan or of Wayne. But the column of Cornwallis was aready in sight of the Americans. Sullivan drew up his troops on the commanding ground above Birmingham meeting- house, with his left extending towards the Brandywine, and both his flanks covered with very thick woods. His artillery was advantageously planted upon the neighboring hills ; but it appears that Sullivan's own brigade, having taken a long circuit, arrived too late upon the field of battle, and had not yet occupied the position assigned it, when the action commenced. The English having recon- noitred the dispositions of the Americans, immediately formed, and fell upon them with the utmost impetuosity. The engagement became equally fierce on both sides about 4 o'clock in the afternoon. For some length of time the Americans defended themselves with great valor, and the carnage was terrible. But such w:as the emulation which invigorated the efforts of the English and Hessians, that neither the advantages of the situation, ixor a heavy and well supported fire of small arms and artillery, nor the unshaken courage of the Americans, were able to resist their 514 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. impetuosity. The light infantry, chasseurs, grenadiers, and guards threw tliem- selves with such fury into the midst of the republican battalions, that they were forced to give way. Their left flank was tirst thrown into confusion, but the rout soon became general. The vanquished fled into the woods in their rear ; the Tictors pursued, and advanced by the great road towards Dilworth. On the first fire of the artillery, Washington, having no doubt of what was passing, had pushed forward the reserve to the succor of Sullivan. But this corps, on ap- proaching the field of battle, fell in with the flying soldiers of Sullivan and per- ceived that no hope remained of retrieving the fortune of the day. General Greene, by a judicious manoeuvre, opened his ranks to receive the fugitives, and after their passage having closed them anew, he retired in good order ; checking the pursuit of the enemy by a continual fire of the artillery which covered his rear. Having come to a defile, covered on both sides by the wooas, he drew up hi3 men there, and again faced the enemy. His corps was composed of Vir- ginians and Pennsylvanians ; they defended themselves with gallantry ; the former especially, commanded by Colonel Stephens, made a heroic stand. Knyphausen finding the Americans to be fully engaged on their right, and ob- serving that the corps opposed to him at Chadsford was enfeebled by the troops which had been detached to the succor of Sullivan, began to make dispositions for crossing the river in reality. The passage at Chadsford was defended by an intrenchment and battery. The republicans stood firm at first ; but upon intelli- gence of the defeat of their right, and seeing some of the British troops who had penetrated through the woods, come out upon their flank, they retired in disorder, abandoning their artillery and munitions to the German general. In their retreat, or rather flight, they passed behind the position of General Greene, who still defended himself, and was the last to quit the field of battle. Finall}', it being already dark, after a long and obstinate conflict, he also retired. Tlie whole army retreated that night to Chester, and the day following to Philadelphia. There the fugitives arrived incessantly, having efl'ected their escape through by-ways and circuitous routes. The victors passed the night on the field of battle. If darkness had not arrived seasonably, it is very probable that the whole Ameri- can army would have been destroyed. The loss of the republicans was com- puted at about 300 killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 taken prisoners. They also lost ten field-pieces and a howitzer. The loss in the royal army was not in pro- portion, being something under 500, of which the slain did not amount to one-fifth. ADAM FOE'S FIGHT WITH THE INDIANS. A REMINISCENCE OF THE EARLY HISTORY OF PITTSBURG. About the year 1782, six or seven Wyandotte Indians crossed over to the south side of the Ohio River, 50 miles below Pittsburg, and in their hostile excursions among our early settlers killed an old man, whom they found alone in one of the houses which they plundered. The news soon spread among the white people, seven or eight of whom seized their rifles and pursued the marauders. In this party were two brothers named Adam and Andrew Poe, strong and active men, and much respected in the settlement. The Indians had frequently been over before, had sometimes penetrated 20 miles into the country, and had always suc- ceeded in recrossing the river without being overtaken by our people. The Poes and their companions were, therefore, particularly anxious not to let them escape PENNSYLVANIA. 51j on this occasion. They pursued them ail niglit, and in the morning found them- selves, as they expected, upon the right track. The Indians could now be easily followed by the traces left upon the dew. The print of one very large foot was seen, and it was thus known that a famous Indian of uncommon size and strength must be of the party. The track led to the river. Our people followed it di- rectly, Adam Poe excepted, who feared that they might be taken by surprise, and broke off from the rest to go along on the edge of the bank, under the cover of trees and bushes, and to fall upon the savages suddenly that he might get them between his own fire and that of his companions. At the point where he sus- pected they were, he saw the rafts, which they were accustomed to push before them when they swam the river, and on which they placed their blankets, toma- hawks, and guns. The Indians themselves he could not see, and was obliged to go partly down the bank to get a shot at them. As he descended, with his rifle cocked, he discovered two, the celebrated large Indian and a smaller one, sepa- rated from the others, holding their rifles also cocked in their hands. He took aim at the large one, but his rifle snapped without giving the intended fire. Tl;e Indians turned instantly at the sound. Poe was too near them to retreat, and had not time to cock and take aim again. Suddenly he leaped down upon them, and caught the large Indian by the clothes on his breast, and the small one by throwing an arm round his neck. They all fell together, but Poe was uppermost. While he was struggling to keep down the large Indian, the small one, at a word spoken by his fellow savage, slipped his neck out of Poe's embrace, and ran to the raft foe a tomahawk. The large Indian at this moment threw his arms about Poe's body, and held him fast that the other might come and kill him. Poo watched the approach and the descending arm of the small Indian so well tiuit at the instant of the intended stroke he raised his foot, and by a vigorous and skillul blow knocked the tomahawk from the assailant's hand. At this the large Indian cried out with an exclamation of contempt for the small one. The latter, how- ever, caught his tomahawk again, and approached more cautiously, waving hi>v arm up and down with mock blows to deceive Poe as to the stroke which was intended to be real and fatal. Poe, however, was so vigilant and active that he averted the tomahawk from his head, and received it upon his wrist, with a con- siderable wound, deep enough to cripjde, but not entirely to destroy the use of his hand. In this crisis of peril, he made a violent effort, and broke loose from the large Indian. He snatched a rifle and shot the small one through the breast as he ran up a third time with his lifted tomahawk. The large Indian was now on his feet, and, grasping Poe by the shoulder and the leg, hurled him in the air heels over head upon the shore. Poe instantly rose, and a new and more despe- rate struggle ensued. The bank was slippery, and they fell into the water, where each strove to drown the other. Their efforts were long and doubtful, each al- ternately under and half strangled, till Poe fortunately grasped, with his un- wounded hand, the tuft of hair upon the scalp of the Indian, and forced his hc.-ul into the water ; this appeared to be decisive of his fate, for soon he manifested all the symptoms of a drowning man bewildered in the moment of death. Poe re- laxed his hold, and discovered too late the stratagem. The Indian was instantly upon his feet again, and engaged anew in the fierce contest for life and victor}-. They were naturally carried further into the stream, and the current, becoming stronger, bore them beyond their depth. They were now compelled to loosen their hold upon each other, and to swim for mutual safety. Both sought Iho shore to seize a gun, but the Indian was the best swimmer, and gained it first. 32 516 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Poe then turned immediately back into the water to avoid a greater danger, meaning to dive, if possible, to escape the fire. Fortunately for him, the Indian caught up the rifle -which had been discharged into the breast of his smaller com- panion. At this critical juncture, Andrew, his brother, returned in haste, having left the party who had been in pursuit of the other Indians, and who had killed all but one of them, at the expense of three of their own lives. He heard that Adam was in great peril, and alone in the fight with two against him. One of our people, following not far in the rear of Andrew, mistook Adam in the water with his bloody hand for a wounded Indian, and fired a bullet into his shoulder. Adam cried out to his brother to kill the big Indian on the shore, but Andrew's gun had been discharged and was not again loaded. The contest was now be- tween the savage and Andrew. Each labored to load his rifle first. The Indian, after putting in his powder, and hurrying his motions to force down the ball drew out his ramrod with such violence as to throw it some yards into the water. While he ran to pick it up, Andrew gained an advantage, and shot the Indian just as he was raising his gun to his eye for a deadly aim. Andrew then jumped into the river to assist his wounded brother to the shore ; but Adam, thinking more of carrying the big Indian home as a trophy than of his own wounds, urged Andrew to go back and prevent the struggling savage from rolling himself into the current and escaping. Andrew, however, was too solicitous for the fate of Adam to allow him to obey, and the Indian, jealous of his honor as a warrior even in death, and knowing well the intention of his white conquerors, succeeded iu retaining life and action long enough to reach the current, by which his dead body was carried down beyond the chance of pursuit. This native was the most distinguished among five celebrated brothers belong- ing to the royal family of the tribe of Wyandottes. Notwithstanding he was 'en- gaged iu this predatory expedition, he was acknowledged by all to be peculiarly magnanimous for an Indian, and had contributed, more than any other individual, to preserve and extend the practice which was known to prevail in his tribe, thiU of not taking the lives of prisoners, and of not suffering them to be treated ill. This practice was an honorable distinction for the Wyandottes, as was well un- derstood by the white people who were traders with the Indians, and by those of our early settlers and brethren who had been made prisoners in war. It was a common remark among them, " If we become the prisoners of the Wyandottes, we shall be fortunate." The death of this large Indian and of his four brothers, who were all in the party, was more deeply lamented by the tribe, as was after- ward learned, than all the other losses sustained during the hostilities carried on between them and us. There -was a universal, solemn, and distressing mourning. Adam Poe recovered from his wounds, and gave this account in person to James Morrison, Esq., from whom we have received it, and by whom we are assnred that it is correct. The courage and enterprise, the suffering and forti- tude, the decision and perseverance of the early settlers of this western country, by whose labors we are now so peaceful and happy, ought not to be forgotten, but may well be related from time to time to excite in us the spirit of similar virtues, and to teach us how to consider the slight privations which we are, or may be, called to meet. Gratitude is more appropriate to our condition than discontent. DELAWARE. Area, 2,120 Square Milci^. Population in 1860, 112,216 Population in 1870, 125,015 The State of Delaware, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38° 28' and 39° 50' N. latitude, and 75° and 75° 45' .W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware River and Bay (by which it is separated from New Jersey) and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and west by Maryland. It is about 96 miles long, from north to south, and 37 miles wide, from east to west. TOPOGRAPHY. The northern part of the State is a fine rolling country, healthy and beautiful ; but the southern and central counties are low and generally sandy. The lower part of the State is occupied by a large cypress swamp. Just north of this swamp, is a slight elevation running north and south. It is occupied with swamps, in which rise the waters flowing into the Delaware Bay. This State and the eastern shore of Maryland, lying between the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, form a low peninsula, over which the salt air sweeps Avith but little to interrupt it. The Delaware River, which washes the eastern shore of the State, has been described. It is the principal stream. The Brandywine, which enters the State from Pennsylvania, on the north, and flows into the Delaware at Wilmington, is a fine mill stream. Indian River, which flows into the Atlantic in the southern part of the State, is the largest stream lying wholly within the limits of Delaware. A num- * 517 518 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ber of creeks flow into Delaware Bay and the Atlantic, and the Nanti- coke and Choptauk rivers of Maryland rise in the southwestern part of the State. Delaware Bay is a large arm of the sea, separating the States of Delaware and New Jersey. It is 13 miles wide at its mouth. Cape Henlopen, on the southwestern side, is in Delaware ; and Cape May, on tlie northeast side, in New Jersey. The bay is 60 miles long, from the capes to the mouth of the Delaware River, and is 25 miles wide at its broadest part. It is considerably obstructed with shoals, which make its navigation difficult in many places. It offers the only harbor between New York and the Chesapeake ; And for the purpose of protecting it, the Government has erected, at a cost of over $2,000,000, a magnificent breakwater consisting of two sides, extending out from the Delaware shore at Cape Henlopen. The upper side protects the harbor thus formed from floating ice, and the lower side guards it from the violence of the waves of the sea. The breakwater is built of massive stone, and is one of the best in the world. MINERALS. Delaware is almost without mineral resources. Bog iron ore exists in the southern swamps ; and a fine white sand, used in making glass, is found near the head of Delaware Bay. Large quantities of it are shipped to New England. CLIMATE. The sea breeze, which sweeps over the entire State, renders the climate mild and pleasant, as a general rule; but the winters are sometimes severe and trying. The southern and central portions are afflicted with ague and fever, and are consequently unhealthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the southern portion of the State is sandy; in the centre it consists of a mixture of clay and sand ; and in the northern part it is a fine, fertile loam. Since the census of 1860, the State has made great progress in agriculture, and the cultivation of fruit has increased beyond the most sanguine expectations. The" abolition of slavery has drawn into the State a considerable emigration of small farmers from New England, and it is becoming one of the most pro- ductive sections of the Union. The peach crop is rarely a failure in DELAWARE. 519 this State, and its small fruits, melons, and sweet potatoes have made it famous throughout the country. In 1869, there were 637,065 acres of improved, and 367,230 acres of unimproved land in Delaware. The other products for the same year were as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated), $31,426,357 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), $820,000 dumber of liorses, 25,160 " asses and mules, 4,112 " milch cows, 24,198 " young cattle, 35,340 " sheep, . . .• 19,540 " swine, 51,360 Value of domestic animals, $5,144,706 Bushels of wheat, 830,000 rye, 35,000 " Indian com, 3,200,000 " oats, 1,723,000 '■' peas and beans, 8,438 " potatoes, 200,000 " barley, 6,000 " buckwheat, 12,000 Poimds of butter, , 1,430,502 " cheese, ........... 6,579 " beeswax and honey, 68,130 Tons of hay, 30,000 COMMERCE. Delaware has but little direct foreign trade, almost the entire busi- ness of the State passing through the ports of Philadelphia and Balti- more. In 1863, the tonnage owned in the State amounted to 25,963. Delaware exports large quantities of fruit to the northern States, together with a considerable quantity of lumber from her swamps. MANUFACTURES. The only manufacturing town in Delaware is Wilmington; but manufacturing establishments are located in various parts of the State. In 1870, the State contained 800 establishments devoted to manufac«« tures. They employed 9710 hands and a capital of $10,839,093, oxjusumed raw material worth $10,206,397, and yielded an annual product of $16,791,382. The following is a detailed statement of the value of the principal manufactures in 1870: 520 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Cotton goods, $1,060,898 Woollen goods, 569,721 Leather, 2,050,846 Steam engines and machinery, 839,428 Agricultural implements 41,325 Sawed and planed Lumber, 466,941 Flour, 2,037,401 Boots and shoes, 490,698 Carriages, 842,176 The railroad cars and gunpowder of Wihningtou rank high amongst the products of the State, but no estimates of them are at hand. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The principal public work in the State is the Canal, extending en- tirely across the State and connecting Delaware and Chesapeake bays. It is 16 miles long, 66 feet wide at the surface, 10 feet deep, and is pro- vided with two lift and two tide locks, 100 feet long by 22 feet wide. It was completed in 1829, cost $2,750,000, and affords /nland steam communication between Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Near the eastern end of the canal, is the famous " deep cut," an ex- cavation 90 feet deep, and 6 miles long, through which the canal passes. A railroad from Philadelphia to Baltimore, the main line of the through travel between the North and the South, extends across the northern part of the State. The Delaware Railroad extends from Wilmington through the centre of the State to the lower part of the eastern shore of Maryland. A branch road leads off from the main stem to Easton, Md., and another into the eastern part of Sussex county. Owing to the extreme narrowness of the State, the Delaware road brings every part of it below Wilmington within direct rail- road communication with all parts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 227 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of about $7,000,000. The Delaware road, it should be added, connects with steamers for Norfolk at Crisfield, Md., and thus forms the most direct route from Norfolk to Philadelphia and New York. EDUCATION. There is no regular public school system in Delaware, as in the other Middle States. The counties and towns are left to themselves in their efforts to provide public instruction. The State makes an DELAWARE. 521 annual appropriation for tli'm purpose, of 50 cents for each pupil in Sussex and Kent counties, and 20 cents for each pupil in Newcastle county. In 1870, there were 326 public schools in the State, with 17,835 pupils. The number is about the same at present. A State Normal School was established in 1866. Besides tiiis, there are two colleges in the State with about 90 students. Delaware College is located at Newark, and St. Mary^s College at Wilmington. The schools being closed to colored children, about 24 colored schools have been opened in various parts of the State. In 1870, the State contained 473 libraries, of which over 200 were public. There were 14 political papers — 1 daily, 10 weekly, and 3 semi-weekly — and 1 literary paper (a weekly) published in Delaware. They had a total annual circulation of 1,607,840 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. Delaware maintains its insane, deaf, dumb, and blind, in the insti- tutions of other States, and has no such establishments of its own. The State is also without a penitentiary. Criminals are confined in the county jails. Until within a year or two, many offences were punished by whipping at the public whipping-post, and standing in the pillory. As late as the 5th of December, 1868, a scene of this kind occurred at Newcastle. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Delaware was $1,823,950. The number of churches was 252. FINANCES. At the beginning of the year 1871, the aggregate indebtedness of the State of Delaware amounted to $1,632,000, an increase of $1 76,000 in two years. The State has investments amounting to $1,074,150, which is $224,000 more than it held at the beginning of 1869. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1870 were $120,577. In 1868, there were 11 National Banks in Delaware, with an aggre- gate capital of $1,428,185. GOVERNMENT. In this State every free male citizen, 22 years of age, who has re- sided one year in the State, and for the last month of this year in the 522 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS llESOniCES. county, and who has paid a county tax assessed at least 6 months be- fore the election, is entitled to vote; but free male citizens between 21 and 22 years of age may vote without paying taxes, provided they have complied with the other conditions. The Government is conducted by a Governor, and Legislature con- sisting of a Senate (of 9 members) and a House of Representatives (of 21 members), all elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and serves for 4 years. The Attorney- General is appointed in the same way, and holds office 5 years. The State Treasurer and Auditor are elected by the Legislature for 2 years. The Governor serves for 4 years, and the members of the Legislature for 2 years. The Legislature meets once in two years. The Judiciary consists of a Court of Errors and Appeals, Superior Court, Court of Chancery, Orphans' Court, Court of Oyer and Ter- miner, Court of General Sessions of the Peace and Jail Delivery, Register's Court, and Justices of the Peace. The Chancellor is the principal Judge of the State. Dover, in Kent county, is the capital. For purposes of government, Delaware is divided into three coun- ties, viz : Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex. HISTORY. The first settlements in this State were made by the Swedes and Finns, in 1627. As we have shown in the sketch of Pennsylvania, they were conquered by the Dutch, in 1655, and turned over to the English when New York passed into their hands, in 1664. Dela- ware formed a. part of the territory granted to William Penn, in 1682 ; and from that time until the Revolution, continued to form a part of Pennsylvania. It was allowed a se))arate Assembly about the year 1701, but remained subject to the authority of the Governor of Penn- sylvania until 1776, when it was granted an independent existence. It adopted a State Constitution, on the 20th of September, 1776, and was received into the Union of the States. The province bore its ilill share of the burdens of the wars with France; and in the Revohitiou, the Delaware regiment was known as one of the most efficient in tlie army. On the 7th of December, 1787, the State ratified the Consti- tution of the United States; and in 17i)2, a new State Constitution was adopted. In 1865, slavery was abolished in the State by the ratification of an DELAWARE. 523 amendment to the Federal Constitution. The number of slaves was 1798 in 1860, but had been considerably reduced by 1865. CITIES AND TOWNS. Wilmington Is the largest town in the State, The other places of importance are, Smyrna, Dover, Newcastle, Delaware City, Seaford, and Lewes. DOVER, The capital of the State, Is situated in Kent county, on Jones' Creek, 5 miles above the Delaware River. It is 50 miles south from Wilmington, and 1 14 northeast from Washington City. The town is prettily situated on high ground, and is built mostly of brick. The streets are wide and cross each other at right-angles, and are prettily shaded with trees. The town contains a fine State House, and the buildings devoted to the public offices, all of which face an open and tastefully ornamented square. The railway from Wilmington to Crisfield, Md., passes through Dover, which is thus brought in communication with all parts of the State. There are several flourishing schools in Dover, 4 churches, and 1 newspaper office. Many of the residences are handsome and attractive. In 1870, the population was 1913. WILMINGTON, The largest and most important city of the State, Is situated in New- castle county, on Christiana Creek, just above its junction with the Brandywine, and within 2 miles of the Delaware River. It is 28 miles southwest of Philadelphia, and 108 miles northeast of Washing- ton City. It is built on the southern slope of a hill, the summit of which is 110 feet above tide-water. The upper portions of the city command excellent views of the Delaware River and the surrounding country. The general plan of Wilmington is regular, with wide, straight streets intersecting each other at right-angles. The buildings are principally of brick, and give to the city a substantial air, which is being greatly improved of late by the frequent Introduction of stone in the more modern edifices. The principal business thoroughfare is Market street, about a mile in length. It extends from the Chris- tiana to the Brandywine, intersects the other streets at right-angles, and crosses each of the creeks named by a handsome " SfH^e. Street railways connect the principal points of the city. 524 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RE80UKCES. S5~SV??59 PEACH FAK3I. Tlie Public Buildings are the Town Hall, the Custom House, a fine granite structure, and the Institute. The Roman Catholic College, about 10 public schools, and 7 or 8 private schools constitute the educa- tional establishments. The Institute contains a spacious hall, a scien- tific lecture-roora, and a library of over 8000 volumes. The city also contains a large hospital, an alms-house, and about 30 churches ; is supplied with pure water from the Brandywine, and is lighted with gas. It has a well organized police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. Five newspapers are pub- lished here. Wilmington is accessible to steamers and ships, and is connected with Philadelphia and Baltimore by railway. It is also the northern terminus of the Delaware Railway. It is a place of considerable trade, and is also largely engaged in manufactures. The principal of these are iron steamboats, railway cars, steam engines, railroad wheels, locomotive and car springs, mill machinery, other iron goods, powder, carriages, flour, leather, shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and agricul- tural implements. THE SOUTHERN STATES. • » I MARYLAND. • Area,, 9,356 Square Miles * Population in 1860, 687,049 Population in 1870, 780,894 The State of Maryland, one of the original members of the Union, i.i situated between 38° and 39° 44' N. latitude, and 75° 10' and 79° 20' W. longitude. It is 190 miles long from east to west in the ex- treme northern part, and 120 miles wide from north to south in the extreme eastern part. Its width, however, varies greatly in different localities. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware, on the south by Virginia and West Virginia, and oa the west by West Virginia. It is separated from the two Virginias on the south by the Potomac River. The District of Columbia, the seat of the Federal Government, lies on the banks of the Potomac, in the southwestern part of the State, and originally formed a part of the State of Maryland. TOPOGRAPHY. The Chesapeake Bay divides the State into two unequal portions, called the Eastern and Western Shore. The Western Shore is about twice the size of the Eastern, and comprises the more important part of the State. The Eastern Shore is mostly level, or at the best slightly rolling. The 'surface of the Western Shore rises as it recedes from the bay, and west of Baltimore is rugged and mountainous. The Alleghany Mountains cross the State in the western part, and are known as the Southeast Mountain, Sugar Loaf Mountain, Catoctin, Blue Ridge, Kittatinny, Rugged Mountain, and Will's Mountain. * This estimate is exclusive of the area occupied by the Bay. Including the Chesapeake, the area of the State is about 11,124 square miles. 525 526 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The State is not over 6 or 7 miles wide in the greater part of this re- gion, but it is rich in magnificent scenery. The Chesapeake Bay lies in the eastern part of the State, and di- vides it, as we have stated, into two unequal portions. Tt receives the waters of the Susquehanna at its head, the Elk, Chester, Sassafras, Choptank, and Nanticoke rivers from the Eastern Shore, and the Patapsco, Patuxent, and Potomac from the Western. The bay is about 200 miles long, and for 120 miles lies entirely in Maryland. The lower part, from the mouth of the Potomac, lies in Virginia. Its northern point is called Cape Charles, and its southern Cape Henry. The width between these capes is 12 miles. Above this the bay varies in width from 10 to 40 miles. Its shores are thickly studded with inlets, many of which are fine harbors. It is navigable for the largest ships nearly to its head, and for steamers into the Susquehanna. It is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the world. After passing the southern boundary of Maryland, it receives the waters of the Rappahannock, York, and James rivers, of Virginia, on its western side. It connects Alexandria, Norfolk, and Richmond, in Virginia, Washington City, in the District of Columbia, and Baltimore, in Maryland, with the sea. An immense trade is carried on over its waters. TJje Chesapeake is famous for the abundance and variety of the game which it furnishes. Its oysters are world-renowned, and seem inexhaustible. The bay and inlets abound in a variety of the finest fish and terrapin, and other salt-water delicacies are found all along its shores. These waters supply the principal markets of the Eastern States with such delicacies. *' There is," says Dr. Lewis, in the "American Sportsman," "no place in our wide extent of country where wild fowl shooting is followed with so much ardor as on the Chesa- peake Bay and its tributaries, not only by those who make a comfort- able living from the business, but also by gentlemen who resort to these waters from all parts of the adjoining States to participate in the enjoyments of this far-famed ducking ground. All species of wild fowl come here in numbers beyond credence, and it is really ne- cessary for a stranger to visit the region if he wishes to form a just idea of the wonderful multitudes and numberless varieties of ducks that darken these waters, and hover in interminable flocks over these famed feeding grounds. It is not, however, the variety or extraor- dinary numbers of ducks on the Chesapeake that particularly attract the steps of so many shooters to these parts, as there are other rivers MARYLAND. 527 OYSTER nSHI^STG. and streams equally aceessible where wild fowl also abound. But the great magnet that makes these shores the centre of attraction, is the presence of the far-famed Canvass- Back, that here alone acquires its peculiar delicacy of flavor, while feeding upon the shores and flats of these waters." "The canvass-backs," says Dr. Sharpless, of Philadelphia, in a paper contributed to "Audubon's Birds of America," "pass up and down the bay, from river to river, in their morning and evening flights, giving, at certain localities, great opportunities for destruction. They pursue, even in their short passages, very much the order of their migratory movements, flying in a line of baseless triangle: and when the wind blows on the points which may lie in their course, the sportsman has great chance of success. These points or courses of the ducks are materially affected by the winds; for they avoid, if pos- sible, an approach to the sliore; but when a strong breeze sets tliem on to these projections of the land, they are compelled to pass within shot, and often over the land itself In the Susquehanna and Elk rivers there are few of these points for shooting, and there success 528 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUFCES. depends on approaching them while on their feeding grounds. After leaving the eastern point at the raouth of the Susquehanna and Tur- key Point, the western side of the Elii River, which are both mode- rately good for flying shooting, the first place of much celebrity is the Narrows, between Spesutic Island and the western shore. These Narrows are about 3 miles in length, and from 300 to 500 yards in breadth. By the middle of November, the oanvass-backs, in particu- lar, begin to feed in this passage, and the entrance and outlet, as well as many intermediate spots, become very successful stations. A few miles down the western shore is Taylor's Island, which is situated at the mouth of the Rumney and Abbey Island, at the mouth of Bush River, which are both celebrated for ducks, as Avell as for swans and geese. These are the most northerly points where large fowl are met with, and projecting out between deep coves, where immense numbers of these birds feed, they possess great advantages. The south point of Bush River, Legoe's Point, and Robbins' and Pickett's points, near Gunpowder River, are famous localities. Immediately at the mouth of this river is situated Carroll's Island, which has long been known as a great shooting ground. Maxwell's Point, as well as some others up other rivers, and even further down the bay, are good places, but less celebrated than those mentioned. Most of these places are let out as shooting grounds for companies and individuals, and are esteemed so valuable that intruders are severely treated." Nor- folk, Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, at the lower extremity of the bay, is the depot for the receipt and sale of the game taken in the Chesapeake, and there the best purchases can be made. The sport, as all who have joined in it full well know, is not without its diffi- culties and its dangers. Says the learned doctor from whom we have already quoted : " Notwithstanding the apparent facilities that are of- fered of success, the amusement of duck-shooting is probably one of the most exposing to cold and wet; and those who undertake its en- joyment without a courage 'screwed to the sticking-point,' will soon discover that ' to one good a thousand ills oppose.' It is, indeed, no parlor sport; for, after creeping through mud and mire, often for hundreds of yards, to be at last disappointed, and stand exposed on points to the ' pelting rain or more than freezing cold,' for hours, without even the promise of a shot — would try the patience of even Franklin's 'glorious nibbler.' It is, however, replete with excite- ment and charm. To one who can enter on the pleasure with a sys- tem formed for polar cold, and a spirit to endure the weary toil of MARYLAND. 529 many a stormy day, it will yield a harvest of health and delight that the roamer of the woods can rarely enjoy." The rivers of the State are little more than arms of the bay. The PatapsGo River rises in Carroll county, in the northern part of the ^State. It flows southward as far as the line of Baltimore and Anne Arundel counties, where it turns to the east, forming the boun- dary between those counties, and emptying into the Chesapeake, 14 miles east of Baltimore City. It is about 80 miles long. Until it reaches the border of Anne Arundel county,, it flows through a hilly country, and, being broken by numerous falls, forms a fine mill stream. It flows into the bay through a wide estuary about 14 miles long, and 3 miles wide, which is navigable to Baltimore for the largest ships. The Patuxent River rises about 18 miles southeast of Frederick City, and flowing south-southeast between the counties of Montgomery, Prince George's, Charles, and St. Mary's, on the right, and Howard, Anne Arundel, and Calvert, on the left, empties into Chesapeake Bay, through a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide. The river is 90 miles long, and is navigable for about 48 or 50 miles from its mouth. It flows through a fine agricultural region. The Chop- tank River rises in Kent county, Delaware, and flows into the Chesa- peake Bay, between Dorchester and Talbot counties, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. About 20 miles from its mouth, it spreads out into a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide, which affords some of the finest water scenery in America. It is about 100 miles long, is navi- gable for steamers for about 40 miles, for sloops for 10 or 15 miles higher, and lies for the greater part in Maryland. The other rivers are the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Pocomoke, and Nanticoke. These, with the bay itself, cut up the Eastern Shore into so many inlets that vessels can lie alongside the shores of the majority of the farms in that part of the State and receive the crops on board. Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, opposite Annapolis, forms a part of Queen Anne's county, and is famous as having been the site of the first English settlement in the State. MINERALS. Coal and iron are found in large quantities in the western part of the State, and of the very best qualities. Copper is found in Frederlcl: and Carroll counties, where important mines are located. Cobalt is found along the Patapsco, and traces of nickel have been discovered 530 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in some of the copper mines. Lignites occur in quantities in Anne Arundel county, mixed with amber and iron pyrites. Ahim, porce- lain-clay, lime, chrome, manganese, magnesia, barytes, marble, marl, and ochres are also found, and gold has been discovered. CLIMATE. Lying between the Northern and Southern States, Maryland does not share the extremes of the temperature of either section, but ])0s- sesses a climate noted for its evenness and mildness. The breezes I'roni the bay sweep over the greater part of the State, and add much to this effect. The country along the bay and its tributaries, however, is sickly, being afflicted with chills and fevers. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the eastern shore is sandy in the lower part, but consists of mixtures of clay and sand above the Choptank River. The lands of Talbot county are among the finest in the State. The southern counties of the western shore have also a sandy soil, but that of the other counties is very fertile. That of Frederick county M'ill compare in productiveness with any in the Union. The agriculture of the State is backward. Manures have been but little used, although lime and marl exist in considerable quantities in the State. A change for the better has taken place of late, however. The abolition of slavery has opened the way for the small formers of New England and the Middle States, who are settling in the State, especially upon the eastern shore, in great numbers. Great attention is being paid to the growing of fruits, to which this State is peculiarly adapted. Large quantities of peaches and small fruits are annually sent to northern markets. Tobacco also forms an important staple. The land is easily brought to a high state of fertility, and in the eastern counties the winters are short and mild. Horses in the sandy counties do not require to be shod, and many of the farms having water boundaries need little or no fencing. In 1869 there were about 3,002,269 acres of improved, and 1,833,306 acres of unimproved land in the State. The other products for the same year may be stated as follows : Number of horses, 99,112 " asses and mules, 11,310 " milch cows, 100,030 MARYLAND. 531 IT umber of young cattle, 170,110 " sheep, 160,211 " swine, 398,120 Value of domestic animals, $15,667,853 Bushels of wheat, 7,733,000 " rye, 182,000 " Indian corn, 12,300,000 " oats, 7,100,000 " peas and beans, 39,407 " potatoes, 1,050,000 " barley, 24,000 " buckwheat, 150,000 Hhds of tobacco 25,000 Pounds of wool (estimated), 500,000 " butter, 5,265,295 " cheese, * . . . 8,342 Tons of hay, 191,000 COMMERCE. Baltimore is the chief commercial city of the State, and is actively engaged in an important trade with the Southern and Western States, and with Europe. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 288,860. During the same year the exports of the State amounted to $12,089,072, and the imports to $4,484,399. The coal of this State is coming into considerable prominence as fuel for steamers, and an important trade is carried on with all parts of the world in canned fruits, vegetables, oysters, etc., prepared in the Bay counties and in Baltimore. MANUFACTURES. Maryland is extensively engaged in manufactures. In 1870 there- were 5812 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, min- ing, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $36,438,729 and 44,860 hands, consumed raw material worth $46,897,032, and returned an annual product of $76,593,613. The value of the prin- cipal manufactures for 1870 was as follows: Cotton goods, $4,852,808 Woollen goods, 390,036 Leather, 2,084,696 Pig iron, 2,143,089 Kolled iron, 3,573,212 Steam engines and machinery, 954,866 Agricultural imi)lements, 549,085 Sawed and planed lumber, 1,976,328 Flour, 6,786,459 33 "^32 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Copper, $1,026,500 Spirituous and malt liquors, 1,555,004 Boots and shoes, 3,111,076 Furniture, 1,399,488 Soap and candles, 521,439 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Maryland was one of the first States in the Union to engage in internal improvements. Her first effort was to build the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, between Washington City and Cumberland. This work cost her over $7,000,000, Ijut has never been a source of profit to her. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, extending from Baltimore across the mountains to the Ohio River, at AVheeling, West Ya,, is one of the most important lines in the Union, and was the first ever • opened in this country for purposes of general travel. Baltimore is connected with all the important towns of the State, and with all >j)arts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 820 miles of com- pleted railroads (including a few miles in the District of Columbia\ coiiBtructed at a cost of about $45,000,000. The total length of canals in the State is about 200 miles. EDUCATION. Until recently the public school system of Maryland was not in keeping with the traditional enterprise and public spirit of the State. Since the close of the war, however, the system has been reorganized and established upon a much better plan. The supervision of schools is rested in a State Board, County Boards, and School District Boards. The State Board consists of four members, appointed by the Governor. The principal of the State Normal School is ex-qfficio a membor of this board. The State Board has the general control of the educational system of the State. Each county is in charge of a Board of County School Commissioners, appointed by the judges of the Circuit Court, and consisting of three members. Each District Board consists of three persons, appointed by the County School Commissioners. The County Commissioners appoint County l^lxaminers, who have power to grant to teachers, after examination, certificates of two grades, which are good for three years, but no longer. A State tax of 10 cents on each one hundred dolhirs of tax- able property throughout the State is to be levied annually for the support ;)f the schools. MARYLAND. 533 The State Normal School is located in Baltimore, and was opened in January, 1866. In September, of the same year, a Model School was added to it. A liberal provision is made for a system of colored schools thoiighout the State. The schools of the city of Baltimore are distinct from those of the State, and are controlled by the municipal authorities. They have long been noted for their excellence. The school system in the city is of far older date than that of the State. In 1870 Maryland contained 1347 public schools, exclusive of those of Baltimore City, attended by 75,402 children. The total amount expended upon the public schools in tbe same year was $751,310. The principal collegiate institutions are ^yashington College, at Chcstertown ; St. John's College, at Annapolis; St. Mary's College, at Baltimore ; St. Charles's College, at Ellicott's Mills ; Mount St. Mary's College, at Emmittsbnrg; the College of St. James, in Wash- ington county; St. John's College, at Frederick City; St. Mary's Theological Seminary, at Baltimore; the Medical School of the Uni- versity of Maryland, Washington Medical College, the College of Deiital Surgery, and Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore; and the State Agricultural College, in Prince George's county. They are all prosperous. During the war some of them were temporarily closed, but all are again in operation. The State supports the Agri- cultural College, and assists St. John's College, at Annapolis, Wash- ington College, at Cbestertown, and the Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore City. There were in Maryland, in 1870, about 3353 libraries, containing 1,713,483 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows: daily 8, tri-weekly 1, weekly 69, miscellaneous 10. In the same year several literary and religious papers were published in the State. The political journals had an aggregate annual circulation of 31,858,514 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The city of Baltimore is well provided with penal and charitable establishments of its own. Those of the State are the Penitentiary and the Hospital for the Insane. The Maryland Penitentiary is located at Baltimore. Extensive additions have been made to its buildings, of late, but there is still a 53 i OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. deficiency in the accommodations provided for the prisoners. In No« vember, 1867, the number of inmates was 679. The Maryland Hospital for the Insane, at Baltimore, is an excel- lent institution, and is liberally supported by the State. In January, 1868, it contained 113 patients. Two classes are received here — State patients, and those who pay their own expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Maryland was $12,038,650. The number of churches was 1389. FINANCES. In 1874, the public debt of the State was $11,095,019. The re ceipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30th, 1874, were $2,842,012, and the expenditures $2,276,906. In 1868, there were 32 National Banks, with a total capital of |1 2,790,202, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. In this State every male citizen of the United States, twenty-one years old, who has resided one year in the State and six months in the county, is entitled to vote at the elections. The first Constitution of Maryland was adopted in August, 1776. It has been changed several times, the present Constitution having been adopted in 1867. The Government is vested in a Governor (elected by the people for four years), a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 24 members, elected for four years, one-half going out of office every two years), and House of Delegates (of 86 members, elected for two years), a Comptroller, and Treasurer, elected for two years, a Secretary of State, and an Attorney-General and Superintendent of Labor and Agricul- ture, elected for four years. The Governor, Legislature, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and Superintendent of Labor are chosen by the people, the Treasurer by the Legislature, and the Secretary of State and other officers appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. No person holding an office under the United States, and no minister of the gospel is eligible to a seat in either house. The Leg- islature meets biennially. The general election is held in November. The Court of Appeals consists of the Chief Judges of the first seven judicial districts of the State, and a judge from the city of Baltimore, MARYLAND. 535 who is specially elected for that purpose. The Chief Justice Is nomi- nated by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. Four of the judges constitute a quorum, but a decision cannot be rendered with- out the concurrence of at least three. The judge who tried the cause in the lower court, is not allowed to participate in the decision in this court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only, but that in all parts of the State. The other courts are the Circuit Courts of the counties, Orphans' Courts, and Justices' Courts, held by justices of the jieace. Besides these are the several courts — Superior, Circuit, and Criminal — of Baltimore City. Annapolis, in Anne Arundel county, is the capital. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. The first settlement in the State was made on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, in the year 1631, by Captain William Clayborne, with a party of men from Virginia. On the 20th of June, the terri- tory of Terra Mariae, or Mary's Land, so named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria of England, was granted by Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Calvert sent out a colony in two vessels, the Ark and the Dove, in November, 1G33. This expedition reached St. Clement's Island on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th founded the settlement of St. Mary's (in what is now St. Mary's county), on the mainland. The expedition was composed mainly of Catholic gentlemen, their families, and followers, and was in charge of Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, who was ap- pointed Governor. As soon as the colony was firmly established, other emigrants came from England in considerable numbers, and Qlayborne, having refused to submit to the authority of the Gover- nor, was driven from Kent Island. The Indians gave the settk'rs some trouble, but were promptly made to keep the peace. The first Legislative Assembly met in 1639. In 1642, a band of Puritans, expelled from Virginia for refusing to conform to the worship of the Church of England, settled in Mary- land, and were not long in giving evidences of their determination to disregard the authority of the rightful government of the province. Clayborne also came back and regained possession of Kent Island. The Governor made an effort to expel him, but he and his followers, aided by the Puritan settlers, not only defeated this cfibrt, but seized 536 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the government of the province, and forced Calvert to fly into Vir- ii,inia, in 1644. Clayborno held the control of affairs until 1646, when Calvert entered the province at the head of a considerable force, and reestablished the authority of the proprietary. In 1649, the As- sembly enacted this wise statute : " Whereas the enforcing of the con- silience in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequences in those Commonwealths where it has been practised, and for the more quiet and peaceful •governn'.ent of this Province, and the better to preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this Province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested, or discounte- nanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof." The Puritans gave great trouble to the colony. They had founded tiie town of Providence, which was afterwards called Annapolis, and were centred mainly in that part of the State. Finally they were granted the county of Charles. Upon the establishment of the Com- monwealth in England, they insisted that the colony ought to submit to it, but the authorities proclaimed Charles II, When the Assembly met again, it was found that the Puritans were largely in excess of the followers of the Proprietary. In 1652, the Commissioners sent out from England by the Parliament arrived, and completely estab- lisiied the authority of the Commonwealth. Governor Stone, the representative of Lord Baltimore, was removed. One of the Com- missioners referred to was no other than Clay borne, the old enemy of Lord Baltimore. Kent Island was given up to him, and he wa> also assigned Palmer Island, at the month of the Susquehanna River. In 1654, Lord Baltimore made a vigorous attempt by force of arms to regain his rights. A bitter contest was begun, and continued Avith alternate success and failure until March 25th, 1655, when Lord Baltimore's forces made an attack on Providence (Annapolis), and were repulsed with terrible slaughter by the Puritans, the whole force being killed or captured. Governor Stone was among the ]>risoners, a! I of whom were condemned to death. It is known that at least four of them were executed. The Puritans continued to hold the govern- ment until 1657, when Loi'd Baltimore's rights Avere restored, and his brother Philip Calvert appointed Governor. His family continued to hold the government imtll 1688, when William and Mary, having come to the throne of England, assumed the control of the Province. i'\-om this time the Governor was appointed by the Crown, until 1714, when Benedict Charles Calvert, the lineal heir of the first pro- MARYLAND. 537 prietor, was granted the government again. Unlike the rest of his family, he was a Protestant, which was the cause of his succession to his hereditary rights. In 1G91, tlie seat of government was transferred to Providence, the name of which was changed to Annapolis. In 1695, a post route, the first in America, was established from the Potomac, through Anna- polis, to Philadelphia. In 1729, the town of Baltimore was founded, Frederick City in 1745, and Georgetown (now in the District of Columbia) in 1751. By 1756 the population of the colony had in- creased to 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The colony also increased in material prosperity. By the year mentioned above, the annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, and, in spite of the efforts of the home government to prevent it, there were 8 furnaces and 9 forges for smelting copper in operation in the province. During the wars with France, Maryland contributed liberally to the common cause. Between 1754 and 1758, her western frontier suffered severely from the savages, whose outrages were stopped only by the capture of Fort Duquesne, The colony offered a spirited resistance to the injustice of the home Government, and promptly made common cause in this matter with the other provinces. The outbreak of the Revolution caused the overthrovn. of the proprietary government, which patriotically sub- mitted to the necessity, and in August, 1776, a Convention of the people adopted a State Constitution, which went into immediate ope- ration. The State made liberal contributions of men and money for the maintenance of the war. The " Maryland Line " won a name in this struggle, which is one of the most precious legacies they have left to their children. Congress assembled at Baltimore, and afterwards at Annapolis, towards the close of the war, and it was at the latter place that Washington resigned his commission, on the 23d of Decem- ber, 1783. Upon the close of the war, great and successful efforts were made to settle the Avestern part of the State. Maryland ratified the Federal Constitution April 28th, 1788. During the war of 1812, the shores of the Chesapeake Bay were brutally ravaged by a British fleet commanded by Admiral Cockburn. Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Frederictown, and Georgetown were sacked and burned. The militia of the State were defeated at Bla- densburg, where they attempted to arrest the march of the Britisli upon Washington City, in 1814. They repulsed the same force /I 538 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. North Point, near Baltimore, on the 13th of September, 1814, and killed the British Commander, General E-oss; and on the 14th re- pulsed the attack of the enemy's fleet upon Fort McHenry, which protected the entrance to the city of Baltimore. When the question of establishing a seat of Government was brought up, near the close of the last century, Maryland granted to the United States 60 square miles of her territory, lying near tlie falls of the Potomac. Virginia united with her, and added enough of her own territory to make the grant consist of 100 square miles. The offer was accepted by the United States, and the District of Columbia was erected. The seat of Government was transferred to it in 1800. At the outbreak of the late war^ it was generally supposed that Maryland would secede from the Union, and join the other States of the South in their attempt to establish a new Confederacy. This course would undoubtedly have been pursued, had the State been free to act as it wished; but at the first opening of the struggle, it was promptly occupied by the forces of the General Government. During the war, it was nominally allowed to control its own affairs, but was really held down by force until the cessation of hostilities. It was invaded three times by a Confederate araiy, and, with the District of Columbia, formed the base from Avhicli the operations of the Federal Army of the Potomac were conducted. The battles of South Mountain and Antietam, or Sharpsburg, and Monocaoy Bridge, near Frederick City, were fought in the western part of the State ; and Maryland Heights, opposite Harper's Ferry, on the Potomac, bore a prominent part in the military operations around that place. Raiding parties entered the State repeatedly from Virginia, penetrat- ing upon one occasion beyond Baltimore, and a number of minor conflicts occurred between these parties and detachments of the Union army. During the war, the State furnished a considerable force to the army and navy of the United States; but a much larger number of native Mary landers crossed the Putouiac and entered the Southern army. Slavery was abolished by a State Convention in 1864. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the most important cities and towns in the State are, Baltimore, Frederick, Cumberland, Cambridge, Easton, and Chestertown. MARYLAND. 539 ANNAPOLIS, The capital of the State, is situated in Anne Arundel county, on the south or riglit bank of the Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is beautifully located in full view of tlie bay, of which it commands extensive and picturesque views. It is 30 miles south by east from Baltimore, and 37 miles east by north from Washington. It is one of the oldest towns in the country, and bears marks of its antiquity on every hand. The buildings are gene- rally in the style of a century ago, though the city contains many handsome modern edifices. As a rule the town is well built. The plan of the city bears some resemblance to that of the National Capi- tal, all of the streets radiating from two points, the State House and the Episcopal church. The city bears ample evidence of the wealth and prosperity which it once possessed in many ancient and extensive mansions, with large ranges of offices and stables, now gone to decay, and in some cases uninhabited. The State House stands near the centre of the city, and is a vener- able edifice of brick, with a lofty dome and cupola. It is situated in a small park on the highest point of the city, and contains the halls of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor and Secretary of State, and the State Library. The hall now occupied by the State Senate was used for the sessions of the Continental Congress near the close of the Revolution, and it was here that Washington resigned his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the American armies. The hall is now ornamented with a large painting commemorating that event. It is from the pencil of Mr. Edwin White, of New York. To the cast of the State House. stands the official mansion of the Governor of Maryland, who is obliged to reside here during his term of office. Annapolis is lighted with gas, but many of the buildings still use oil lamps. It is connected with Baltimore and Washington City by a railway, and with the former city by a line of steamers. It was. formerly a place of considerable trade, but is now important only as the capital of the State. It contains 6 churches, and 2 newspaper of- fices, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the popu- lation was 5744. The city is well supplied with public and private schools. 8t. John's College is a flourishing institution, supported in part by the State. It was closed during the civil war, but is now in a fair way to regain its former prosperity. 540 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Annapolis is the seat of the Naval Academy of the United States, established during the administration of President Polk, the Hon. Geo. Bancroft being Secretary of the Navy. It is located in the northeast part of the city, immediately on the shore of the Severn, and is de- si;2;ned for the education and traiuino; of officers of the United States Navy. Annapolis was founded about IMO, arid was at first called Provi- dence. The events of its early history have been already related in the sketch of the history of the State. In 1708 it was chartered as a city, and named Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anno, who had be- stowed several valuable presents upon the town. It was for many years the most important city in Maryland, but was at length sur- passed by Baltimore, to which city its large trade was transferred. BALTIMORE, The largest and most important city of the State, and the sixth city of the United States, is situated in Baltimore county, on the north side of the Pataj)Sco River, about 12 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is 38 miles northeast from Washington, 98 miles southwest from Philadelphia, and 200 miles from the ocean by the course of the Chesapeake. The city is built partly along the river s'lore, and partly along a range of hills overhanging the Patapsco and commanding distant views of the bay. Below Baltimore the river widens into a broad estuary, several miles in width. Some portions of the city are 100 feet above tide water, and the view of Baltimore from the river is very beautiful and attractive. This rolling charac- ter of the ground enables the city to provide the best system of sewerage in the country, and does much to render Baltimore a re- markably clean city. " Perhaps no city in the United States has such a picturesque sight as Baltimore, covering as it docs a number of emi- nences, which, however inconvenient they may be for the residents, furnish a pleasant variety for the 'stranger. If the visitor ascends the Washington Monument, in the northern part of the city, on a hill, itself 100 feet above tide, he has one of the finest panoramas furnished by any city in the Union. Immediately beneath and around him are some of the most capacious streets, lined Avith residences rarely equalled in elegance, size, and position. To the north and northwest are the newer and finer buildings, constituting the fashionable part of the city, while to the south lies the great centre of trade; a little to the southeast is the harbor, and beyond it Federal Hill ; while far in the MARYLAND. 5il BATTLE MONUMENT. distance, but nearly in the same direction, stretches the beautiful arm of the bay on which Baltimore stands. To the east and southeast, across Jones' Falls (a small creek which divides the city into two portions), lie the Old Town and Fell's Point ; and to the west the newer portions, which are extending rapidly. The view is varied by the dome of the Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian church, and the Excliange, by the Shot-tower, by the Battle Monument, and by the steeples and towers of the various churches scattered in all directions ; the whole girt on the northwest and east by beautiful hills crowned with a natural growth of trees. Although the site of the city is such as to cause irregularity in some of the streets, the different sections are laid out with great uniformity. Baltimore street, the fashionable promenade, and seat of the retail and jobbing business, divides the city into two nearly equal portions, the larger part lying to the north. Charles street, crossing this at right angles, also divides the city into two nearly equal parts, the portion called North Charles street being mostly occupied with elegant residences, and South Charles street, bet\veen Baltimore and Lombard streets, with extensive wholesale warehouses. "* 542 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. "From the number and prominence of its monuments, Baltimore has been denominated the * Monumental City.' The most remarkable of these is the Washington Monument, standing in a small, open area at the intersection of Charles and Monument streets. Its base, 50 feet square and 20 high, supports a doric column 176 J feet in height, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of Washington, 16 feet high, giving its summit an elevation of 31 2| feet above the level of the harbor. The shaft, 20 feet square at the base, and 14 at the top, is ascended by means of a winding stairway within. The whole is con- structed of white marble, and cost $200,000. Battle Monument, also a beautiful structure of marble, is situated in Monument Square, in Calvert street, near Lexington street. From the base, which is square and ornamented Avith various devices, rises a facial column, 18 feet high, on the bands of whicli are inscribed the names of those who fell while defending the city from the attack of the British, September 12th, 1814. This is surmounted by a beautiful statue of the Goddess of Liberty, 7| feet high, making the entire height of the monument 52J feet. Another object of much interest to strangers is the Mer- chants' Shot-tower, the highest, it is said, in the world,, liaving an elevation of 246 feet." * The public buildings are handsome. The City Hall, on Holliday street, is a magnificent building of white marble, covering an entire square ; the U. 8. Court House, on Fayette street, is a fine granite structure ; and the U. S. Custom House and Post Office, on Lombard and Gay streets, the City Jail, the Maryland and Peabody Institutes, the latter of white marble, and the Masonic Hall, also of white marble, are imposing structures. The depots of the Baltimore and Ohio and the Northern Central Railways are among the handsomest buildings of the city. There are also many elegant buildings of stone, iron, and marble, used for mercantile purposes, which must be included among the ornaments of the city. Many of the churches are also worthy of notice in this connection. The educational, literary, and scientific institutions of Baltimore have always been amongst the best in the land. The public schools were famous when those of the other large American cities were striv- ing for the excellence they have since attained. In 1870, the city coiitained 119 schools, attended by 23,913 pupils. In the same year the city paid $26,322 for schools for colored children. The private * Lippincott's Gazetteer. MARYLAND. 543 schools are numerous, of a high character, and are well attended. The higher schools are tlie University of Maryland, the Medical Depart- ment of which was founded in 1807; Loyola College-, the Theological School, formerly connected with St. Mary's (R. C.) College ; the Balti- more College of Pharmacy ; and the College of Dental Surgeons. The Peabody Institute, on Charles and Monument streets, is the gift of George Peabody, and is devoted to literary and scientific purposes. It contains a good and growing library, and a gallery of fine arts. The Athanceum, St. Paul and Saratoga streets, contains the 3Iercan- tile Library, about 20,000 volumes, and the Baltimore Library, 15,000 volumes. It is also occupied by the Historical Society of Ilaryland, which possesses a library of 1000 volumes, and a collection of papers and other relics. An annual exhibition of paintings is held in the rooms of this society. The 3Iaryland Institute occupies a large build- ing on Baltimore street near Jones' Falls. The lower part is used as a market. The upper part is an immense hall, in which an annual exhibition of the mechanic arts is held. It possesses a fine library. The reading room belonging to the Board of Trade is supplied with newspapers from all parts of the world. The benevolent and charitable institutions are the Maryland Hos- pital for the Insane, situated on a hill in the eastern part of the city ; the 3Ioimt Hope Institution, for the same purpose, under the charge of the Sisters of Charity ; the Baltimore Infirmary, with beds for 300 patients; the Maryland Institution for the Instruction of the Blind ; the Church Home and Infirmary, connected with the Episcopal Church ; the Union Protestant Infirmary ; i\\e Aged Women'' s Home ; the Old Men's Home; the Home of the Friendless ; the House of the Good Shepherd, for tiie reformation of fallen women ; the Almshouse, and four Dispensaries. The prisons and reformatory establishments are the State Peniten- tiary, the City Jail, a handsome granite structure, and the House of Refuge, for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. The hotels of Baltimore are good. The principal are the City Hotel (Barnum's), and the Gilmore and Eutaw Houses. Baltimore is very far behind its eastern rivals in many things. Tiie streets are badly paved, cobble stones predominating, and the side- walks are of brick. While the city contains a large number of mag- nificent buildings, its principal thoroughfare, Baltimore street, cannot compare with the corresponding streets of either New York, Phila- delphia, Boston, Chicago, or St. Louis. In the private portions, the 544 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS rj:SOURCES. BALTIMORE STREET. principal material used is brick, with white marble trimmings. Brown stone is now becoming common in the wealthier sections. The city is noted for the large juimber of small dwellings which it con- tains. These furnish homes for the working classes, who live in greater comfort and privacy than in almost any other large city in the world. Few houses contain more than one family. The more fashion- able quarters are beautifully built up, and will compare favorably with any city in the country. Street railway lines connect the various parts of the city. The cars of every line touch Baltimore street below Calvert and above Gay street, and thus bring all points in connection with the business centre. Similar lines connect the city with its principal suburbs. There are between 160 and 170 churches in Baltimore. Some of these are very costly and beautiful. Baltimore is the See of a Roman Catholic Archbishop, who is the Primate of the United States. The city contains several parks and pleasure grounds. These are Union, Franklin, and Lafayette squares, and Patterson and Druid Hill parks. Patterson Park contains 36 acres, and embraces the MARYLAND. 545 earthworks thrown up for the defence of the city in the war of 1812. Druid Hill Park contains 550 acres, and abounds in tine trees and shrubbery. It is naturally one of the most beautiful of the American parks, and has been greatly improved and ornamented since its pur- chase by the city. It is situated in the northern suburbs of the city, beyond the extreme end of Madison Avenue. The cemeteries are Greenmount, Loudon Park, Baltimore, Mount Olivet, Mount Carmel, and the Western. Greenmount is very beauti- ful, and contains many handsome monuments. The theatres of Baltimore are behind those of the other large cities of the Union. The principal are the Hoi liday Street Theatre and the Concordia Opera House. Baltimore is the terminus of five railway lines, which connect it with all parts of the country. The Baltimore and Ohio Railway is one of the great trunk lines to the West, and one of the finest works in the world. By means of these it conducts an enormous trade with the West, and with the interior of the State of Virginia. Steamboats ply between Baltimore and the principal towns on the Chesapeake Bay and the rivers emptying into it, and a large coasting trade is carried on from this port. A line of first-class steamers connects the city with the port of Bremen, in Germany, and is bringing a large portion of the emigration from that country through the port of Balti- more. Baltimore enjoys very great facilities for commerce from its situation, and needs but the energy and enterprise of its former days to be a more important commercial city than it is. In 1864, the arrivals at the port of Baltimore, not counting the bay craft, were 1143 steamers, 38 ships, 137 barks, 197 brigs, 1025 schooners, mak- ing a total of 2540 vessels. In the same year, the foreign imports of Baltimore were $6,076,300; and the exports were $12,362,448. The registered tonnage for the same year was 45,198 ; enrolled and licensed, 203,497 ; making a total of 248,695 tons. By means of the Baltimore and Ohio and Northern Central Railways, a heavy coal trade is carried on through Baltimore. Large quantities of this are shipped from Locust Point. Baltimore is largely engaged in manufactures, Jones' Falls furnish- ing excellent water-power. Some of the largest machine shops in the country are located here. The pi'incipal manufactures are cotton and iron goods, machinery, steam engines, agricultural implements, and flour. The city is abundantly supplied with water from Swann Lake and 546 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Jones' Falls. The water is brought a distance of seven miles to the city reservoirs, which are from 110 to 150 feet above tide- water. The city is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, and is provided with a police and fire alarm telegraph, an efficient police force, and an admirable steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 267,354. In the*year 1729, the General Assembly of Maryland took meas- ures for "erecting a town on the north side of the Patapsco in Balti- more county." The site had been settled as early as 1682, by David Jones, who gave his name to the small stream which now flows thi^ough the city of Baltimore, dividing it into "old" and "new" town. On the 12th of January, 1730, a town of 60 acres of land was laid out by the county surveyor and commissioners, and called Balti- more in honor of Cecilius Calvert Lord Baltimore. "In the same year, William Fell, a ship-carpenter, having purchased a tract east of the falls, called it Fell's Point, after his own name, which it still bears. In 1732, a new town of 10 acres in 20 lots, was laid out on the east of the falls, and called Jonestown, in honor of David Jones, the first settler. The name has long been forgotten, and as a settle- ment existed there before that of Baltimore, it was called 'old town.' Jonestown was united to Baltimore in 1745, dropping its own name, and two years afterward Baltimore, which properly lay up about the head of the ' basin,' near the foot of the present South Charles street, was extended as far eastward ly as Jones' Falls, under an express pro- vision that there was nothing in the Act recognizing a right to 'elect delegates to the Assembly as representatives from the town.' This was the earliest manifestation of that singular jealousy, which has ever since been shown in the Legislature by the Maryland county mem- bers against the city of Baltimore." In 1755, Baltimore contained but 25 houses and 200 inhabitants. In 1767, it was made the county seat. In 1769, the first fire engine was introduced. In 1773, William Goddard began the publication of the " Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser." In the same year a line of stage coaches and a line of sailing packets were estab- lished between Baltimore and Philadelphia ; and a theatre was built on Albemarle street. In 1775, Baltimore contained 564 houses, and 5934 inhabitants. In 1776, Philadelphia having fallen into the hands of the British, Ccmgress removed to Baltimore, and held its sessions in a building on the southeast corner of Baltimore and Lib- erty streets. In 1784, the streets were lighted with oil lamps, and MARYLAND. 647 SCENE ON BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILWAY. 3 constables and 14 watchmen were appointed " for the security of the town." In 1796, Baltimore was incorporated as a city, the popu- lation being about '20,000. In 1800, the population was 26,514. The city was now highly prosperous, and was ' possessed of a large and thriving trade with all parts of the world. In 1814, it was attacked by the British, who were repulsed at North Point and at Fort McHenry, by both land and water. In 1829, the first public school was opened. In 1813, the first steamboat, called the Chesa- peake, was placed upon the line to Philadelphia via Frenciitown and Newcastle, Del. On the 4th of July, 1828, the corner-stone of the great Baltimore and Ohio Railway was laid by the venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton. MISCELLANIES. THE BALTIMORE RIOT. A few days after the declaration of war, tlie town of Baltimore was seriously disturbed. Some harsh strictures on the conduct of Government having appeared in a newspaper of that city, entitled the Federal Republican, the resentment of the opposite party vi'as shown by destrovins: the office and press of that establish- 34 548 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ment. The cominotiou excited by this outrage had, however, in a great measure subsided, and the transaction was brouglit before a criminal court for investiga- tion. But events more alarming and tragical shortly afterwards succeeded. On the 26th of July, Mr. Hanson, tlie leading editor of the obnoxious journal, who had deemed it prudent to leave the disordered city, returned, accompanied by his political adherents ; amongst whom was General Henrj^ Lee, of Alexandria, an officer distinguished in the Revolution for his bravery in partisan warfare at the head of a legion of cavalry, afterwards Governor of Virginia, and a representa- tive from that State in the Congress of the Federal Government. Determined to re-commence the paper, by first printing it in Georgetown, in the District of. Columbia, and then transmitting it to Baltimore for distribution, a house was for this purpose occupied in Charles street, secured against external violence, and guarded by a party well provided for defence. On the 28th, papers were accord- ingly issued. These contained severe animadversions against the Mayor, police, and the people of Baltimore, for the depredations committed on the establishment in the preceding month, and were generally circulated throughout the city. In the course of the day it became known that Mr. Hanson was in the new of- fice in Charles street, and it was early whispered that the building would be as- sailed. A number of citizens who espoused his opinions went, therefore, to the house, and joined in its protection. Towards the evening, a crowd of boys col- lected, who, after using opprobrious epithets to those within, began to throw stones at tlie windows ; and about the same time a person on the pavement, en- deavoring to dissuade the youths from mischief, was severely wounded by some- thing ponderous thrown from the house. They were cautioned from the windows to desist ; but still continued to assail the place with stones. Two muskets were then fired from the upper story ; charged, it was supposed, with blank cartridges, to deter them from further violence.; immediately the crowd in the street greatly increased ; the boys were displaced by men ; the sashes of the lower windows were broken, and attempts made to force the door. Muskets, in quick succession, were discharged from the house ; some military arrived to disperse the crowd ; several shots were fired in return ; and at length a Dr. Gale was killed by a shot from the oflice door. TJie irritation of the mob was increased. They planted a cannon against the house, but were restrained from discharging it by the timely arrival of an additional military force, and an agreement that the persons in the house would surrender to the civil authority. Accordingly, early in the follow- ing morning, having received assurances on which they thought themselves safe in relying, they surrendered, and were conducted to the county jail, contiguous to the city. The party consisted of about 20 persons ; amongst whom were Gene- ral Lee, General James Lingan, and Mr. Hanson. The Mayor directed the Sheriff" to use every precaution to secure the doors of the prison, and the commander of the troops to employ a competent force to pre- serve the peace. In the evening everything bore the appearance of tranquillity ; and the soldiers, by the consent of the magistrate, were dismissed. But shortly after dark, a great crowd of disorderly persons reassembled about the jail, and manifested an intention to force it open. On being apprised of this, the Mayor hastened to the spot, and, with the aid of a few otlier gentlemen, for a while pre- vented the execution of the design : but they were at length overpowered by the number and violence of the assailants. The Mayor was carried away by force, and the turnkey compelled to open the doors. A tragedy ensued, which cannot be described : it can be imagined only by those who are familiar with scenes of MARYLAND. 549 lilood. General Lingan was killed ; eleven were beaten and mangled with weapons of every description, such as stones, bludgeons, and sledge-hammers, and then thrown as dead, into one pile, outside of the door. A few of the prisoners fortu- nately escaped through the crowd : Mr. Hanson, fainting from his repeated wounds, was carried by a gentleman (of opposite political sentiments), at the hazard of his own life, across the adjoining river, whence he with difficulty reached the dwelling of a friend. No effectual inquisition was ever made into this signal violation of the peace, nor punishment inflicted on the guilty. The leaders, on both sides, underwent trials ; but, owing to the inflammation of public feeling, they were acquitted. ANECDOTE OF CHARLES CARROLL. The name of Carroll is the only one on the Declaration to which the residenre of the signer is appended. The reason why it was done in this case is under- stood to be as follows : The patriots who signed that document, did it, almost literally, with ropes about their necks, it being generally supposed that they would, if unsuccessful, be hung as rebels. When Carroll had signed his name, some one at his elbow remarked, "You'll get clear — there are several of that name — they will not know which to take." — " Not so," replied he, and immedi- ately added, "of Carrollton." DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area, 60 Square Miles Population in 1860 75,080 Population in 1870, 131,706 The District of Columbia originally embraced an area of ten milles square, but the portion ceded by Virginia M'as restored to that State in 1846, so that the present District comprises only the grant made to the General Government by the State of Maryland. It lies on the east side of the Potomac at the head of tide water, 160 miles from the mouth of the river. It includes the cities of Washington and George- town, and is the seat of the Federal Government of the Eepublic. In its physical features it is like those portions of the State of Mary- land immediately surrounding it. Until recently it was governed exclusively by Congress, and had no voice in its own aifairs. Early in the year 1871, however, the two Houses of Congress passed a bill, which received the signature of the President on the 21st of February, making great changes in the affairs of the District. By this law the District of Columbia has been given the management of its own affairs. The District is organ- ized as a Territory, with a Government, consisting of a Governor and an Assembly. The Governor is appointed by the President of the United States by and with the advice* and consent of the Senate. He holds office for four years and until his successor shall be appointed and qualified. He must be a citizen of the District for at least 12 months previous to his appointment, and have the qualifica- tions of a voter. His duties and powers are similar to those of the Governor of a Territory of the United States. The Assembly 551 r.n ?. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. consists of a Council and a House of Delegates. The Council is composed of 11 members, of whom 2 are residents of the City of Georgetown, 2 residents of the District outside of Washington and Georgetown, and 7 residents of the City of Washington. They are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They must have the qualifications of voters to be eligible to their office. They hold office for two years, five and six going out on alternate years. The House of Delegates consists of 22 members, 2 from each of the 11 districts into which the District of Columbia is divided. They are elected by the people, and must have the qualifi- cations prescribed for members of the Council. The right of suifrage is conferred upon all male citizens of the United States above the age of 21 years, who have resided in the Dis- trict for a period of 12 months previous to an election, except persons of unsound mind and those convicted of infamous crimes. The Assembly has no power to abridge or limit the right of suffi'age. The Government must confine itself entirely to the affairs of the District of Columbia. The inhabitants of the District do not vote for President or Vice-President of the United States. They send one delegate to Congress, who is entitled to the same rights and privileges in that body as are exercised and enjoyed by the Delegates from the several Territories of the United States to the House of Representa- tives. He is by virtue of his position a member of the House Com- mittee for the District of Columbia. His term of office is 2 years. All the acts of the Legislative Assembly are subject at all times to repeal or modification by the Congress of the United States, which body retains its powers of legislation over the District as formerly. By this law the charters formerly held by the Cities of Washing- ton and Georgetown are repealed, and all offices of those corporations abolished. The cities are brought directly under the control of the District Government, which succeeds to the possession of the muni- cipal property. The cities retain their names and boundaries, but no longer exist as separate corporations, the government of both being confided to the authorities of the District. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia is the highest judicial tribunal. It consists of four justices (one of whom is desig- nated as the Chief Justice), appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The other Courts are the Dis- trict and Criminal Courts, below which are the Justices of the Peacfi. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 555 HISTORY. After the close of the Revolution, Congress continued to meet in the City of Philadelphia. In June, 1783, a band of mutinous soldiers broke into the hall where Congress was in session, and in a grossly insulting manner demanded the " back pay" due them, which amounted to a considerable sum. This insult was felt deeply by the members, and it was agreed by common consent that it woukl be better for the seat of Government to be removed to a part of the country where the danger of a repetition of the occurrence would not be so imminent. Elbridge Gerry introduced a resolution authorizing the building of a Federal City, on the banks of the Delaware or Potomac, and the erection of buildings suitable for the use of Con- gress, provided a good location and the proper amount of land could be obtained on either of those rivers. This resolution was carried on the 7th of October, 1783, but was amended by a provision for build- ings on both rivers, and was repealed on the 26th of April, 1784. Congress met at Trenton, N. J., in October, 1784, and appointed three commissioners, who were authorized to lay out a district between two and three miles square on the Delaware, for a Federal City. The next January, Congress met in New York, and efforts were made to locate the district on the Potomac, but Avithout success. In September, 1787, the present Constitution of the United States was adopted, which provides that Congress shall have power " to exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the United States." This clause of the Constitution fixed definitely the size of the new district, and was the first real step towards its acquisition. Appre- ciating the advantage of having the Capital within its limits, the State of Maryland, through its Legislature, on the 23d of 'December, 1788, offered to Congress "any district (not exceeding ten miles square) which the Congress may fix upon and accept for the seat of Government of the United States." The matter was^ debated in Con- gress in 1789. It was agreed on all sides that the district ought to be located in a section of the country easy of access from all parts of the Union, and ought to be as central as was consistent with the wealth and popula- tion of the section chosen. The North and the South — for the sec- 556 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES, tional division of the country had been made even at that early day — each desired to secure the location of the new city within its own limits. The former demanded tliat the capital should be built on the banks of the Susquehanna, and the latter made a similar demand in favor of the Delaware or Potomac. New York, Philadelphia, Ger- mantown, Havre de Grace, Wright's Ferry, Baltimore, and Cono- cocheague (now Washington City), each had its partisans. The con- troversy ran very high, and came near resulting in a serious quarrel between the States. On the 5th of September, 1789, the House of Representatives passed a resolution, "That the permanent seat of Government of the United States ought to be at some convenient place on the banks of the Susquehanna, in the State of Pennsylvania." This resolution gave great offence to the Southern members, and even Mr. Madison went so far as to declare that had such an action on the part of Congress been foreseen, Virginia would not have ratified the Constitution. The matter was made worse by, the immediate passage of a bill by the House for the purpose of carrying the resolution into effect. The vote stood, 31 to 19. The Senate amended the bill by inserting Germantown, Pennsylvania, instead of the location on the Susquehanna, which amendment was accepted by the House. The House further amended the Act by providing that the laws of Pennsylvania should continue in force in the new district until Con- gress should order otherwise. The Senate decided to postpone the consideration of this amendment until the next session, and the matter went over. Germantown was thus actually chosen as the Federal City, and it needed only the consent of the Senate to the last-men- tioned amendment to rnake the transaction complete. Thus far none of the States but Maryland had taken any official action in this matter. The South was greatly excited over the course of Congress, all of the Northern States were not pleased, and the matter was felt to be a very serious danger to the harmony of the new Confederation. On the 3d of December, 1789, the General Assembly of Virginia passed an Act ceding a district to Congress on the banks of the Potomac. The cooperation of Maryland was asked in inducing Congress to accept the offer, and a sum not exceeding $120,000 was j)ledged for the erection of public buildings, if Maryland, on her part, would contribute a sum not less than two-fifths of that amount for the same purpose. Maryland at once agreed to the request of Vir- ginia, and pledged herself for the money. Other States now made offers of territory to Congress, but no immediate action upon the sub- ject wa« taken by that body. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 557 The great question which at that time occupied the attention of the people, was the funding of the public debt. Congress was divided upon the subject. An amendment had been presented to the House, and had been rejected, providing that the General Government should assume the State debts to the amount of $21,000,000. This question had become very closely interwoven with that of selecting a Federal district. The Northern members were in favor of the assumption, but did not desire the location of the district in the South ; and the Southern members, while divided upon the assumption question, were to a man in favor of having the offers of Maryland and Virginia accepted. Matters were at a dead halt, and the future seemed ominous. Jefferson was at this time Secretary of State, and Hamilton Secre- tary of the Treasury. Both were anxious to avert the danger which the vexed questions threatened, and after discussing the matter confi- dentially, came to the conclusion that a compromise was necessary. Hamilton urged that the South should consent to the assumption of the State debts by the Government, and declared that he felt sure if they would do this, the North Avould agree to locate the capital on the Potomac. It was decided that Jefferson should ask the members whose votes would accomplish this, to dine with him the next day, and lay the matter before them. The dinner was given, the plan proposed by Hamilton discussed, and a sufficient number of votes pledged for the assumption bill. Hamilton undertook to win over the Northern members to the capital scheme, and succeeded. The assumption bill became a law, and Congress definitely accepted the offers of Maryland and Virginia. On the 3d of March, 1791, Congress amended the original Act so as to include the city of Alexandria in the district, and the following proclamation was issued by President Washington, establishing the new district : "Whereas, By a proclamation, bearing date the 14th of January of this present year, and in pursuance of certain Acts of the States of Maryland and Virginia, and of the Congress of the United States, therein mentioned, certain lines of experiment were directed to be run in the neighborhood of Georgetown, in Maryland, for the purpose of determining the location of a part of the territory of ten miles square, for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States; and a certain part was directed to be located within the said lines of ex- periment, on both sides of the Potomac, and above the limits of the Eastern Branchy prescribed by the said Act of Congress ; 558 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. "And Congress, by an amendatory Act, passed on the 3d day of this ])resent montli of March, have given further authority to the Presi- dent of the United States to make any part of the said territory, be- low the said limit, and above the mouth of Hunting Creek, a part of the said District, so as to include a convenient part of the Eastern Branch of the lands lying on the lower side thereof, and also the town of Alexandria ; "Now, therefore, for the purpose of amending and completing the location of the whole of the said territory of ten miles square, in con- formity with the said amendatory Act of Congress, I do hereby declare and make known that the whole of the said territory shall be located and included within the four lines following, that is to say : "Beginning at Jones' Point, being the uj^per cape of Hunting Creek, in Virginia, and at an angle in the outset of 45° west of north, and running in a direct line ten miles, for the first line; then beginning again at the same Jones' Point, and running another direct line at a right angle with the first, across the Potomac, ten miles, for the second line; then, from the terminations of the said first and sec- ond lines, running two other direct lines, of ten miles each, the one crossing the Eastern Branch aforesaid, and the other the Potomac, and meeting each other in a point. "And I do accordingly direct the Commissioners named under the authority of the said first-mentioned Act of Congress to proceed forth- with to have the said four lines run, and by proi>e'r metes and bounds defined and limited, and thereof to make due report under their hands and seals; and the territory so to be located, defined, and limited, shall be the whole territory accepted by the said Act of Congress as the District for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States. "In testimony whereof, I have caused the seal of the United States to be affixed to these presents, and signed the same with my hand. Done at Georgetown aforesaid, the 30th day of March, in the year of our Lord, 1791, and of the Independence of the United States, the fifteenth. George Washington." The District Was laid out by three Commissioners, appointed by the President, in accordance Avith the Act of Congress, in January, 1791. These Commissioners were Thomas Johnson, David Stuart, and Daniel Carroll. On the 15th of April, in the same year, they superintended the laying of the corner-stone of the District, at Jones' DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 559 Point, near Alexandria. This act was performed with the ceremonies prescribed by the Masonic ritual. The District was named Columbia, in honor of the great discoverer of the continent. Having thus acquired a Federal District, and having definitely lo- cated its boundaries, the next step was to lay off the new city which was to be the capital of the nation. This task was confided to Major L'Enfant, a distinguished engineer, who was informed by the Com- missioners that the new city would bear the name of " Washington." In February, 1871, the Government of the District was reorganized, as has been already described. The cities of the District are Washington and Georgetown. WASHINGTON CITY, The capital of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac River, between that stream and a tributary called the East Branch, a few miles bel()>v the head of tide water. It is 295 miles from the ocean, 226 miles southwest of New York, 432 miles south- west of Boston, 544 miles northeast of Charleston, 1203 miles north- east of New Orleans, 497 miles east of Cincinnati, 763 miles southeast of Chicago, 1200 miles northeast of St. Louis, and 2000 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco. The Capitol, which is nearly the centre of the city, is located in 38° 52' 20" N. latitude, and 77° 0' 15" W. longitude from Greenwich. The city has connections by railroad and steamboat with all parts of the continent, and telegraphic lines extend from it all over the world. The Potomac is navigable for ships of the largest size as far as Greenleaf 's Point, the site of the Arsenal and Penitentiary. The British fleet anchored here in 1814, and the frigate Minnesota was launched at the Navy Yard some years ago, and carried down the stream after being equipped. The situa- tion of the city is advantageous in many respects. Its front is washed by the Potomac, on the east is the East Branch, and on the left a stream called Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown. " The general altitude of the city plot is 40 feet above the river, but this is diversified by irregular elevations, which serve to give variety and commanding sites for public buildings. The plot is slightly amphitheatrical, the President's House, on the west, standing on one of the sides, and the Capitol on the other, while the space between verges towards a point near the river. The President's House and the Capitol stand centrally with regard to the whole, though situated at the distance of a mile and a half from each other, the former 44 feet 560 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. above the Potomac, and the latter 72 feet. The summit of the hill on which the Capitol stands is the commencement of a plain stretch- ing east, while that to the north of the President's House tends westward." Washington is laid off in a peculiar manner. According to the original plan, the Capitol was designed to be the centre of the city, and the starting point of the whole system of streets. This plan has been adhered to in the main, though it has been altered in some re- spects. The streets running east and west are designated by letters. They are divided into two classes or sets — those north of the Capi- tol, and those south of it. Thus, the first street north of the Capitol is A Street North, and the first street south of it, A Street South ; the next is B Street, North or South, and so on. The streets running north and south are numbered. Thus, the street immediately east of the Capitol is First Street East, and that immediately west of it, First Street West, and so on. These distinctions of North, South, East, and West are most important, as forgetfulness of them is apt to lead to very great blunders. The streets are laid off at regular distances from each other, but for convenience, other thoroughfares, not laid down in the original plan, have been cut through some of the blocks. These are called " Half streets," as they occur between and are parallel with the numl)ered streets. Thus, Four-and-a-half Street is between Fourth and Fifth streets, and runs parallel with them. The avenues run diagonally across the city, cutting the streets at right-angles. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware avenues intersect at the Capitol, and Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, and Connec- ticut avenues intersect at the President's house. Pennsylvania Ave- nue is the main thoroughfare. It is 160 feet wide, and runs the entire length of the city, from the Eastern Branch to Rock Creek, — which latter stream separates Washington from Georgetown. It was origin nally a swampy thicket. The bushes were cut away to the desired width soon after the city was laid off, but few persons cared to settle in the swamp. Through tlie exertions of President Jefferson, it was planted with four rows of fine Lombardy poplars, — one on each side and two in the middle, — with the hope of making it equal to the famous Unter den Linden, in Berlin. The poplars did not grow as well as was hoped, however, and, when the avenue was graded and paved by order of Congress, in 1832 and 1833, were removed. The street is now well paved and lighted. It is handsomely built up, and contains some buildings which would do credit to any city. The DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 561 view from either the Capitol or the President's House along the ave- nue is very fine. There are 1170 blocks or squares, bounded by 22 avenues ranging from 130 to 160 feet in width, named, as far as they go, after the different States ; and 100 streets, from 70 to 100 feet wide. The cir- cumference of the city is 14 miles. There are 199 miles of streets, and 65 miles of avenues. The paving and grading of the streets has been done almost entirely by the city. The Government claims every privilege accorded to it by the original design, but steadily refuses to carry out the part assigned it by that same plan. Were it not for the Public Buildings which it contains, Washing- ton would be a most uninteresting city ; but these have made it one of the principal attractions of the country. With the single exception of the City Hall and the Smithsonian Institute, these buildings are owned and used by the Federal Government of the United States. The Capitol is the grandest and most majestic edifice in the New World, and one of the finest on the globe. It stands on the western brow of a commanding hill, and overlooks the city and the surrounding country. The site was chosen by Washington, who was greatly im- pressed with its advantages. The corner-stone of the original build- ing was laid by W^ashington, on the 18th of September, 1793. This edifice was finished in 1811, and was burned by the British army, in 1814. Its reconstruction was begun immediately after the close of the war, and the building was completed according to the original design in 1825. In 1851, work was begun on the Capitol for the purpose of enlarging and beautifying it. The principal additions con- sist of a massive dome over the central building, and a wing at the northern and southern extremities of the old structure. The building is not quite finished at present, but will require only a few years to complete it. The extension consists of two wings, each of which has a front of 142 feet 8 inches, and a depth of 238 feet 10 inches, not including the porticoes and steps. The porticoes front the east, and have each 22 monolithic fluted columns. They " extend the entire width of the front, having central projections of 10 feet 4 inches, forming double porticoes in the centre, the width of the gable. There is also a por- tico of 10 columns on the west end of each wing, 105 ieat 8 inches wide, projecting 10 feet 6 inches, and like porticoes on the north side of the north wing and south side of the south wing, with a width of 121 feet 4 inches. The centre building is 352 feet 4 inches long and 121 feet 6 inches deep, with a portico 160 feet wide, of 24 columns. 562 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. with a double fagade on the east, and a projection of 83 feet on the west, embracing a recessed portico of 10 coupled columns. The en- tire length of the Capitol is 751 feet 4 inches, and the greatest depth, including porticoes and steps, is 324 feet. The ground actually cov- ered by the building, exclusive of the court-yards, is 153,112 square feet, or 652 feet over 3J acres. " The material of which the extension is built, is a white marble slightly variegated with blue, and was pro- cured from a quarry in Lee, Massachusetts. The columns are all of white marble obtained from Maryland. The principal story of the Capitol rests upon a rustic basement, which supports an ordon nance of pilasters rising to the height of the two stories above. . Upon these pilasters rests the entablature and beautiful frieze, and the whole is surmounted by a marble balustrade. The main entrances are by the three eastern porticoes, being made easy of access by broad flights of stone steps with massive cheek-blocks, and vaulted carriage-ways be- neath to the basement entrances." The building faces the east, and the rear is in the direction of the principal part of the city. This location was made under the impres- sion that the neighborhood of the Capitol would be first settled in the growth of the new city ; but the designs of the projectors not having been realized, the building now faces the wrong way. Standing in front of the edifice, and at a distance sufficient to take in the whole view, the effect is indescribably grand. The pure white marble glitters and shines in the sunlight, and the huge structure towers above one like one of the famed palaces of old romance. The broad flights of steps of the wings and central buildings have an air of elegance and lightness which is surprising when their massive character is considered. The pediments of the porticoes will contain magnificent groups of sculpture. The central pediment is decorated with a group sculptured in alto-relievo. The Genius of America, crowned with a star, holds in her right hand a shield bearing the letters U. S. A., surrounded with a glory. The shield rests on an altar inscribed with the date, "July 4, 1776," encircled with a laurel wreath. A spear is behind her within reach, and the eagle crouches at her feet. She is gazing at Hope, who stands on her left, and is directing her attention to Justice, on her right, who holds in her right hand a scroll inscribed, " Constitution of the United States," and in her left the scales. The group is said to have been designed by John Quincy Adams, and was executed by Signor Persico. The northern pediment contains Craw- ford's famous group, representing the progress of civilization in the United States. America stands in the centre of the tym2>anum, in DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 563 the full light of the rising sun. On her right hand are War, Com- merce, Youth and Education, and Agriculture ; on her left the pio- neer backAvoodsraan, the hunter, the Indian and his squaw with an infant in her arms, sitting by a filled grave. The southern pediment has not yet been filled. It is said that the design adopted for it is bv William R. Barbee, and represents the discovery of the country by Columbus. The cheek-blocks of the steps to the central portico are ornamented by two fine groups of statuary. The group on the right of the steps represents the discovery of America, and is by Persico. Columbus, landing in the New World, holds aloft in his right hand a globe, symbolic of his discovery. He is clad in armor, which is said to be a faithful copy of a suit worn by him. An Indian maiden crouches beneath his uplifted arm, her face expressive of the surprise and terror of her race at the appearance of the whites. The group on the left is called " CiviUzation/' and is by Greenough. A terror- stricken mother, clasping her babe to her breast, crouches at the feet of a stalwart Indian warrior, whose arms, raised in the act of striking her with his tomahawk, are seized and pinioned by the husband and father, who returns at the fortunate moment, accompanied by his faithful dog, which stands by ready to spring to the aid of his master. The entire cost of the Capitol and its improvements, when completed, will be over $12,000,000. The interior of the Capitol is in keeping with the exterior. The Rotunda, which is the central portion of the old building, is sur- mounted by a grand dome, the ceiling of which is beautifully frescoed with allegorical designs. The walls are adorned with paintings and statuary, illustrating the history of the country. The effect of the whole is very beautiful. On the east side of the central building, opposite the main entrance, is the Library of Congress, a magnificent hall, filled with a collection of nearly ^200,000 volumes. The copyright laws require a copy of each and every copyrighted book published in the United States to be deposited in this library. The library is free to the public for use within the hall, but only Members of Congress and certain other per- sons are privileged to take the books from the hall. On the north side of the Rotunda is the portion of the building used by the Supreme Court of the United States, its officers, and its library, numbering between 25,000 and 30,000 volumes. A hand- some corridor leads from this portion to the new North Wing, used by the Senate of the United States and its Committees. The base- "61 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. inent of this wing is exquisitely frescoed with ilhistrations belonging to the natural history of North America, the designs being painted from life. The Committee rooms in this wing are handsome apart- ments, elegantly fitted up, Tlie corridors are beautiful, and are mostly of marble, with floors of encaustic tiles. Two handsome marble stairways lead from the basement to the second, or main floor. They are situated in the southeastern and southwestern ends of the wing. They are continued, on a much more magnificent scale, from the second floor to the galleries and rooms of the third floor. This portion of the two wings is on a level with the floor of the Rotunda, and contains the principal apartments of the Capitol. The main entrances are by the magnificent North and South Porticoes, which are now ornamented with the superb bronze doors designed for them. The doors of the Senate portico illustrate the events of the life of Washington. The retiring rooms of the Senate, and the rooms used by the Presi- dent and Vice-President of the United States are gorgeous apartments. The President's room is adorned with fresco portraits of Washington's first Cabinet. Lying between the President's and Vice-President's rooms is a suite of sumptuous apartments — the most magnificent in the building — known as the Marble Room. The total length of the three rooms is about 85 feet, the width 21J feet, and the height 19| feet. The floor is an exquisite piece of mosaic in marble, and the ceil- ing is in panels of slightly colored Italian marble, and rests upon a series of magnificent white Italian marble pillars with elaborate capi- tals. The walls are adorned with large and superb mirrors, and are veneered with the finest specimens of Tennessee marble in the country. The windows are richly curtained, the furniture is exquisite, and the apartment is lighted by a large brass chandelier. The suite is used by the Senators as a retiring and private reception room. The pi'in- cipal apartment in this wing is the Senate Chamber, a magnificent hall, 112 feet in length, 82 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The ceiling is constructed entirely of cast iron, deeply panelled, Avith stained glass skylights, and ornamented witli foliage, pendants, and drops, of the richest and most elaborate description. The walls and ceiling are painted with strong, brilliant colors, and all the iron work is i)ronzed and gilded. A cushioned gallery extends entirely around the hall. That portion immediately over the chair of the Vice- President of the United States is assigned to the reporters of the press, and a section enclosed by handsome iron railings, and immediately DISTKICT OF COLUMBIA. 56-3 facing the Chair, is for the use of the members of the Diplomatic Corps, The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for ladies and gentlemen. A fine view of the hall can be obtained from any part of it. The space under the gallery is enclosed, and used as cloak-rooms, etc. The gallery will seat one thousand persons. Immediately opposite the main door of the Chamber is the chair of the Vice-President of the United States, Avho presides over the Senate. It is placed on a platform of pure white marble, and behind a desk of the same material. Just below this is a similar but larger desk, used by the Secretary of the Senate and his assistants, and at the foot of this table are the chairs of the short-hand reporters of the debates. The floor rises in the form of an amphitheatre from the space in front of the Secretary's desk to the rear. Along these rows of steps, the registers are built in the floor, and keep the temperature of the Chamber at a fixed heat. The desks of the Senators are of oak, of a handsome and convenient pattern, and are arranged in three semi- circular rows facing the Chair. A comfortable armchair is provided for each desk ; and sofas and chairs for the convenience of Senators and those entitled to the privileges of the floor, are arranged around the sides of the hall. The choice of seats is determined by drawing lots. During the day the glass ceiling allows a soft and pleasant light to pass into the chamber, and at night the gas jets, which are arranged above the skylights, shed through the beautiful hall a radiance whicli, can scarcely be distinguished from the light of the sun. In the South Wing of the old building, and opening upon the Rotunda, is the old Hall of the House of Representatives, one of the most beautiful apartments in the Capitol. In accordance with the popular wish this hall is preserved in its original state, and is now used as a gallery of Statuary. A fine corridor, ornamented with a pair of bronze doors, leads to the new South Wing, now used by the House of Representatives and its officers. These doors are the work of Ran- dolph Rogers, an American artist, and are said to be the finest works. of their kind in the world. They illustrate the principal scenes in the life of Columbus, The basement of the South Wing contains the Committee roomnto possession of their lands, which now form the northern counties' of the State. At the outbreak of the civil war Georgia had reached a high de- gree of prosperity, which she was destined to lose during the struggle. The State seceded from the Union on the 19th of January, 1861. From the commencement of the war it began to suifer. Its coast was at the mercy of the navy of the United States, and was greatly dam- aged during the early part of the war. In the winter of 1862 the western armies commenced to operate in the northwestern part of the State, and from this time until the capture of Atlanta this section was the scene of -i constant warfare. The battles of Chickamauga, between Rosecrans and Bragg, and the campaign between Sherman and John- ston, occurred in this State. In the fall of 1864 the Confederates «\'ere forced to evacuate Atlanta, which was at once occupied by Sherman. The inhabitants were driven out, and the city burned. After destroy- ing Atlanta, Sherman marched southward to Savannah, which he reached and occupied on the 24th of December, 1864, ravaging the plantations along his march, destroying railroads, bridges, factories, and mills, carrying off provisions of all kinds, and marking his way by a wide belt of ruin. It is said by competent State authorities that the destruction of property in Georgia during the war amounted to $400,000,000. After the restoration of peace a Provisional Governor was appointed by the President, and a new State Government put in operation. Congress repudiated all these acts, and made the State a part of the Third Military District, the command of which was given to Major General Pope, who was succeeded by Major General Meade. In March, 1868, a State Convention was held, and a new Constitution adopted, which was ratified by the people in April, and the State was readmitted into the Union on the 25th of June, 1868. Owing, how- ever, to the failure of the Constitution to admit the negroes to all the privileges possessed by the whites, Congress, on the 22d of December, 1869, passed a bill declaring Georgia not reconstructed, and handed the State over to the military authorities again. After an exciting contest the terms imposed by Congress were complied with, and the State was readmitted into the Union on the 14th of July, 1870. GEORGIA. 659 CITIES AND TOWNS. Beside the capital, the principal cities and towns of Georgia are, Savannah, Augusta, Macon, Columbus, Rome, West Point, Dalton Americus, Kingston, Marietta, Albany, Brunswick, and Darien. ATLANTA, Capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Fulton county, 7 miles southeast of the Chattahoochee River, 171 miles west of Augusta. The location is high and healthy. Four of the principal railroads of the State terminate here, and it is to this that the city owes its rapid growth. Previous to the introduction of railways, it was an unim- portant country village. It was incorporated as a city in 1847, and at the outbreak of the civil war had a population of about 10,000. It was occupied by the Confederate forces at the outset of the war, and was one of their most important posts. It was attacked by General Sherman in the summer of 1864, and several severe battles were fought in its vicinity. On the 2d of September it was captured by Sherman, M'ho banished the inhabitants into the Southern lines. On the night of the 15th of November he caused the city to be burned, on the eve of his setting out on his "March to the Sea." Since the close of the war Atlanta has been almost entirely rebuilt. Owing to its position as a railroad centre, and the location of the capital of the State here, it is rapidly recovering its former trade and importance. It is well built and regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the City Hall, the Medical College, and the Opera House, pur- chased in 1870 by the State, and now being fitted up as a State House. It contains 5 churches, several excellent public and private schools, and 9 newspaper offices. Three monthly magazines are also pub- lished here. The city is lighted with gas, is supplied with water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1868 it became the capital of the State. In 1870 the population was 21,789. SAVANNAH. The largest city in the State, is situated in Chatham county, on the south bank of the Savannah River,. 18 miles from the sea, and 188 miles east-southeast of Milledgeville. It is situated on a sandy plain about 40 feet above low-water mark, and is one of the most interest- ing cities in the South. Its streets are wide and straight, and at every other corner there is a public square, usually circular or oval in 660 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SAVANNAH. shape, planted with the Pride of India. The streets are broad, un- paved, and densely shaded with magnificent trees. Broad and Bay streets have handsomely turfed promenades in the centre, with car- riage ways on each side. There is also a broad walk on each side of these streets. Its beautiful streets have gained for Savannah the name of " the Forest City " of the South. The squares are orna- mented with handsome fountains, statues, monuments, etc. In John- son's Square stands a handsome monument erected to the memories of Generals Greene and Pulaski. It is of pure white marble, and stands on the spot where Pulaski fell in the attack on the city by the Ameri- can army in 1779. It cost $22,000 in gold. The city is handsomely built, many of the residences being of brick. The majority are of wood, however. In the business edifices brick and stone are extensively employed. The Public Buildings are in keeping with the rest of the city. The principal are the Exchange, the Court House, the State Arsenal, the Custom House, the Jail, the Lyceum, Oglethorpe and St. Andrew's Halls, the Armory, the Theatre, and the Chatham Academy. GEORGIA. Gvil The schools are excellent, and the free schools are among the best in the South. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions comprise the Orphan Asylum, the Union Society, founded by Whitfield, the Hibernian and Seaman's Friend Societies, the Georgia Infirmary, and the Savannah Hospital. The State Historical Society possesses a fine library. The city contains about 18 churches, a public library, sev- eral reading rooms, and 3 newspaper offices. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is considered one of the healthiest cities in the South ; and is im- proving in this respect in consequence of the improved manner of cultivating the land in the vicinity. It is a favorite winter resort for invalids. In 1870 the population was 28,235. In the vicinity is the Cemete7'y of Bonaventure, one of the most re- markably beautiful spots in the world. Savannah is connected with all parts of the State, and with Charles- ton, S. C, by railway. Steamers navigate the Savannah to Aqgusta, and an active coast trade is maintained with the Northern and South- ern ports of the Union. The chief articles of export are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores, of which large quantities are shipped an- nually from this port. The trade of the city is growing rapidly. Savannah was founded by General Oglethorpe, in 1732 or 1733. It was captured by the British in December, 1778, and was evacuated by them in 1783. In 1796, and again in 1820, it suffered severely from fire. In December, 1864, it was captured by the United States army, under General Sherman, and was held by the Federal Govern- ment until the close of the civil war. On the 28th of January, 1865, a severe fire destroyed a considerable portion of the city. AUGUSTA, The second city of the State, is situated in Richmond county, on the west bank of the Savannah Hiver, 120 miles north-northwest from Savannah, 230 miles from the mouth of the river by its course, and 136 miles northwest of Charleston. It lies at the head of navigation on the Savannah, and controls to a great extent the lucrative trade of upper Georgia. It is one of the handsomest cities in the South, and is laid off regularly, with broad, straight streets crossing each other at right angles. Broad street is the main thoroughfare, and is lined with substantial buildings. It contains the principal stores, the hotels, the banks, and tiie markets, and is the fashionable promenade. 41 a32 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. MISCELLANY. THE "EMPRESS" OF GEORGIA. Among the Georgia settlers was a man by the name of Thomas Bosomworth, a chaplain in the regiment ot Oglethorpe. It appears that he was an artful and avaricious man. In 1747, he laid a plan either to destroy the colony or acquire a fortune. Among a number of Indians present at Frederica, a small English settlement, not far from Savannah, in December, was an Indian king by the name of Malatche. Bosomworth suggested to him the idea of being crowned in imperial form, by those of his tribe who were with him : accordingly, a paper was drawn up, filled with royal ceremonies, acknowledging Malatche Opiya Meco to be the rightful, natural prince and emperor of the dominions of the Creek Nation ; vest- ing him with powers to make laws, frame treaties, declare war, convey lands, and transact all affairs relating to the nation ; binding themselves, on the part of their several towns, to abide by and fulfil all his contracts and engagements. This paper being signed and sealed by the pretended kings and chiefs, and wit- nessed in due form, Malatche requested that a copy of it might be sent over to the king of England, for his sanction, and to have it put on record among the archives of his great ally. Bosomworth had thus accomplished an important object. He had some time before married Mary Musgrove, a half-breed Indian. He now drew up a deed of conveyance in the common form, from Malatche Opiya Meco, Emperor of the Upper and Lower Creek Nations, to Thomas and Mary Bosomworth, of the Colony of Georgia, "for, and in consideration of ten pieces of stroud, twelve pieces of duflles, two hundred weight of powder, two hundred weight of lead, twenty guns, twelve pair of pistols, and one hundred weight of vermilion ; war- ranting and defending to the said Thomas and Mary all those tracts of land known by the names of Hussoope, or Ossabaw, Cowleygee, or St. Catherines, and Sapelo islands, with their appurtenances, etc., to the said Thomas and Mary his wife, their heirs and assigns, as long as the sun shall shine, or the waters run in the rivers, forever. Signed on the 4th day of the windy moon, corresponding with the 14th of December." His next object was to induce Mary to claim to be the elder sister of Malatche, and of having descended in a maternal line from an Indian king, .who held from nature the whole territories of the Creeks ; and Bosomworth now persuaded her to assert her right to them, as superior not only to the trustees, but also to that of the king. Accordingly, Mary assumed the title of an independent Empress. A meeting of the Creeks was summoned, before which she set forth her claims. The Indians l)ecame fired through her eloquence, and escorted her towards Savannah to prose- cute her claim. A messenger was dispatched to notify the president and council of the royal lamily's approach. On receiving this intelligence, the council felt embarrassed. Mary was an artful and eloquent woman ; tlie English were few in number, and small their means of defence. The militia were ordered under arms. Captain Noble Jones, at the head of a troop, was dispatched to prevent, if possible, tlieir entrance into Savannah armed. Having met them, he ordered them to stop and lay down their arms. At first they refused ; but his determined appearance at length prevailed, and they laid aside their arms, upon which Thomas Bosom- GI'OIIGIA, 663 worth, in liis canonical robes, with his queen by his side, followed by the kino- and chiefs, marched into the town. * The inhabitants were struck with terror at tlie sight of this ferocious tribe of savages. When they advanced up to the parade, they lound the militia drawn up under arms to receive them, by whom they were saluted with fifteen cannon, and conducted to the president's house. Bosomworth being ordered to with' draw, the Indian chiefs, in a friendly manner, were requested to declare their in tention in paying this visit in so large a body, without being sent for bv any person in authority: the warriors, as they had been instructed, answered that Mary was to speak for them, and that they would abide by whatever she said • that they had heard that she was to be sent like a captive over the great waters and tliey were come to know on what account they were to lose their queen '• that they intended no harm, and begged that their arms might be restored to them ; and after consulting with Bosomworth and his wife, they would return and amicably settle all public affairs. To please them, their guns were returned but strict orders were issued to allow them no ammunition, until the council should see more clearly into their dark designs. On the day followin-^ tlie Indians, having had some private conferences with Mary, were observed, with sullen countenances, to march in a tumultuous manner through the streets evi- dencing a hostile temper, apparently determined on mischief: all the men bein- obliged to mount guard, the women and cliildren were terrified and afraid to re- main in the houses by themselves, expecting every moment to be murdered and scalped. During this confusion, a false rumor was circulated, that they had cut off President Stephen's head with a tomahawk, which so exasperated the inhabi- tants that it was with difficulty tlie officers could restrain the troops from firing upon the savages : perhaps the exercise of the greatest prudence was never more requisite to save the town from being deluged with blood. Orders were given to. lay hold on Bosomworth, to whom it was insinuated that he was marked as the first victim in case of extremities ; and he was carried out of the way, and closel v ,0 confined, upon which Mary, his beloved queen, became outrageous and frantic ,. and threatened tlie thunder of her vengeance against the magistrates, and thr whole colony : she ordered all white persons to depart immediately from her ter- ritories, and at their peril to refuse ; she cursed Oglethorpe and his fraudulent treaties, and, furiously stamping her foot upon the earth, swore by her Maker that the whole globe should know that the ground she stood upon was her own. To, ^Y prevent any ascendancy by bribes over the chiefs and warriors, she kept tlie 'i- leading men constantly under her eye, and would not suffer them to utter a sen- d tence on public affairs, but in her presence. The president, finding no peaceable agreement could be made with the Indians while under tiie baleful influence of their pretended queen, ordered her to be seized and confined. To allay the storm of indignation excited by this, a least was made for the Indians, at which the evil designs of Bosomworth were un- folded in a speech by the president. This had a temporary effect. Even Malatche seemed satisfied. But wishing to see Bosomworth and his wife alone for a lew minutes, the artful couple again seduced the aged chief, who returned to the council full of indignation, insisting on the rights of the queen. Upon this, the president rose, and in a short but plain address, so set forth the impositions of Bosomworth and Mary, that the Indians said they were satisfied; their eyes were opened, and tliey now offered to smoke the pipe of peace. Accordingly, pijies and rum were brought, and they joined hand in hand and smoked to-ether Presents were distributed, and all appeared satisfied and happy. 664 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. But in the midst of this friendly interview, Marj^ who by some means had contrived to escape, rushed in lilaired, with a few chosen warriors, to Fort Rosalie, and all were well armed with knives and other concealed weapons. "The company had recently sent up a large supply of powder and lead, ai,d provisions for the use of the post. Tlie Indians had recourse to stratagem to pi o- 44 712 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. cure a supply of ammunition, pretending that they were preparing for a grait hunting excursion. Before they set out, they wished to purchase a supply /,)f ammunition, and they had brought corn and poultry to barter for powder a.id lead. Having placed the garrison off' their guard, a number of Indians were per- mitted to enter the fort, and others were distributed about the company's waje- house. Upon a certain signal from the Great Sun, the Indians immediately drtw their concealed weapons, and commenced the carnage by one simultaneous and fuiiotis massacre of the garrison, and all who were in and near the warehouse. "Other parties, distributed through the contiguous settlements, carried on tlie bloody work in every house as soon as the smoke was seen to rise from the houses near the fort. "The massacre commenced at 9 o'clock in the morning, and before noon tiie whole of the male population of the French colony on St. Catharine (consisting of about 700 souls) were sleeping the sleep of death. The slaves were spared for the service of the victors, and tlie females and children were reserved as prison- ers of war. Chopart fell among the first victims ; and, as the chiefs disdained to stain their hands with his despised blood, he was dispatched by the hand of a common Indian. Two mechanics, a tailor, and a carpenter were spared, because they might be useful to the Indians. "While the inassacre was progressing, the Great Sun seated himself in the spacious warehouse of the company, and, with apparent unconcern and com- placency, sat and smoked his pipe while his warriors were depositing the heads of tlie French garrison in a pyramid at his feet. The head of Chopart Avas placed in tlie centre, sui'mounting those of his officers and soldiers. So soon as the warriors informed the Great Sun that the last Frenchman had ceased to live, he commanded the pillage to commence. The negro slaves Avere employed in bringing out the plunder for distribution. The powder and military stores were reserved for public use in future emergencies. " While the ardent spirits remained, the day and the night alike presented one continued scene of savage triiUmph and drunken revelry. AVith horrid yells they spent tlieir orgies in dancing over the mangled bodies of their enemies, which lay strewed in every quarter where they had fallen in the general carnage. Here, iniburied, they remained a prey for dogs and hungry vultures. Every vestige of the houses and dwellings in all the settlements were reduced to ashes. "Two soldiers only, who happened to be absent in the woods at the time of the massacre, escaped to bear the melancholy tidings to New Orleans. As they approached the fort and heard the deafening yells of the savages, and saw the columns of smoke and flame 'ascending from the buildings, they well judged the fate of their countrymen. They concealed themselves until they could procure a boat or canoe to descend the river to New Orleans, where they arrived a few days afterward, and told the sad story of the colony on the St. Catharine. "The same fate was shared by the colony on the Yazoo, near Fort St. Peter, and by those on the Washita, at Sicily Island, and near the present town of Monroe. Dismay and terror were spread over every settlement in the province. New Orleans was filled with mourning and sadness lor the fate of friends and countrymen. " The whole number of victims slain in this massacre amounted to more than 200 men, besides a few women and some negroes, who attempted to defend their masters. Ninety-two women and 155 children were taken prisoners. Among the victims Avere Father Poisson, the Jesuit missionary ; Laloire, the principal Mississirn. 713 tigent of the company ; j\I Kollys and Son, wlio had purchased M. Hubert's in- terest, and had just arrived to take possession." When the news of this terrible disaster reached New Orleans, tlie Frencli com- menced a war of extermination against the Natcliez. The tribe eventually were driven across the Mississippi, and finally scattered and extirpated. The Great Sun and his principal war chiefs, falling into the hands of the French, were shipped to St. Domingo and sold as slaves. Some of the poor prisoners were treated with excessive cruelty ; four of the men and two of the women were pub- licly burned to death at New Orleans. Some Tonica Indians, who had brought down a Natchez woman, wliom they had discovered in the woods, were allowed to execute her in the same manner. The unfortunate woman was led forth to a platform erected near the levee, and, surrounded by the whole population, was slowly consumed by the flames! She supported her tortures with stoical forti- tude, not shedding a tear. "On the contrary," says Gayarre, "she upbraided her torturers with their want of skill, flinging at them every opprobrious epithet she could think of." The scattered remnants of the tribe sought an asj'lum among the Cliickasawa and other tribes wlio were hostile to the French. Since that time, the individu- ality of the Natchez tribe has been swallowed up in the nations with whom they were incorporated. Yet no tribe has left so proud a memorial of their courage, their independent spirit, and their contempt of death in defence of their rights and liberties. The city of Natchez is their monument, standing upon the field of their glory. Such is the brief history of the Natchez Indians, who are now considered extinct. In refinement and intelligence they were equal, if not su- perior, to any other tribe north of Mexico. In courage and stratagem they were inferior to none. Their form was noble and commanding ; their stature was sel- dom under 6 feet, and their persons were straight and athletic. Their counte- nance indicated more intelligence than is commonly found in savages. The head Avas compressed from the (»s frontis to the occiput, so that the forehead appeared high and retreating, wliile the occiput was compressed almost in a line with the neck and shoulders. This peculiarity, as well as their straight, erect form, is ascribed to the pressure of bandages during infancy. Some of the remaining in- dividuals of the Natchez tribe were in the town of Natchez as late as the year 1782, or more than half a century after the Natchez massacre. MASON, THE OUTLAW. Among the incidents in the early history of the Mississippi Territory was the violent deatli of the notorious robber. Mason. This fearless bandit had become tiie terror of the routes from New Orleans and Natchez through the Indian na- tions. After the organization of the Territorial Government, and tlie opening of roads through the wilderness to Tennessee, the return of traders, supercargoes, and boatmen to the Northern settlements, with the proceeds of their voyage, was • in foot and on horseback, in parties for mutual protection, through the Indian nations ; and often rich treasures of specie were packed on mules and horses over these long and toilsome journeys. Nor was it a matter of surprise, in a dreary wilderness, that bandits should infest such a route. It was in the year 1802, when all travel and intercourse from New Orleans and the Mississippi Territory was necessarily by way of this solitary trace, or by the slow-ascending barge and keel, that Mason made his appearance in the Mississippi Territory. 714 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. L )ng accustomed to robbery and murder upon the Lower Ohio, during the Spanish dominion on tlie Mississippi, and pressed by tlie rapid approacli of the American population, he deserted the "Cave in the Rocl<," on the Ohio, and be- gan to inlest the great Natcliez Trace, where the ricli proceeds of the river trade were tlie tempting prize, and where he soon became the terror of every peaceful traveller through the wilderness. Associated with him were his two sons and a few other desperate miscreants ; and the name of Mason and his band was known and dreaded from the morasses of the southern frontier to the silent shades of the Tennessee River. The outrages of Mason became more frequent and sanguinary. One day found him marauding on the banks of the Pearl, against the life and fortune of the trader ; and, before pursuit was organized, tiie liunter, attracted by the descending sweep of the solitary vulture, learned the story of another robbery and murder on the remote shores of the Mississippi. Their depredations became at last so frequent and daring, that the people of the territory were driven to adopt measures for their apprehension. But such was the knowledge of the wil- derness possessed by the wily bandi^, and such his untiring vigilance and activity, that for a time he baffled every attempt for his capture. Treachery at last, however, effected what stratagem, enterprise, and courage had in vain attempted. A citizen of great respectability, passing with his sons through tlie wilderness, was plundered by the bandits. Their lives were, how- ever, spared, and they returned to the settlement. Public feeling was now ex- cited, and the Governor of the Territory found it necessary to act. Governor Claiborne accordingly offered a liberal reward for the robber. Mason, dead or alive. The proclamation was widely distributed, and a copy of it reached Mason himself, who indulged in much merriment on the occasion. Two of his band, however, tempted by the large reward, concerted a plan by which they might obtain it. An opportunity soon occurred ; and while Mason, in company with the two conspirators, was counting out some ill-gotten plunder, a tomahawk was buried in his brain. His head was severed from his body and borne in triumph to Wasliington, then tlie seat of the Territorial Government The heail of Mason was recognized by many, and identified by all who read the proclamation, as the head entirely corresponded with the desci'iption given of certain scars and peculiar marks. Some delay, however, occurred in paying over the reward, owing to the slender state of the treasury. Meantime, a great assemblage from all the adjacent country had taken place, to view the grim and ghastly head of the robber chief. They were not less inspired with curiosity to see and converse with the individual whose prowess had delivered the country of so great a scourge. Among those spectators were the two J'oung men, who, unfortunately for these traitors, recognized them as companions of Mason in the robbery of their father. It is unnecessary to say that treachery met its just reward, and that justice was also satisfied. The reward was hot only withheld, but the robbers were im- prisoned, and, on the full evidence of their guilt, condemned and executed at Greenville, Jefferson county. The band of Mason, being thus deprived of their leader and two of his most efficient men, dispersed and fled tiie country. Thus terminated the terrors which had infested the route tlirongli the Indian nations, known to travellers as the '' Natchez and J^ashville Trace. ' LOUISIANA. Area, 41,346 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 708,002 (Whites, 357,629. Negroes, 350,373) Population i]i 1870, 726,915 The State of Louisiana is situated between 29° and 33° N. latitude, and between 88° 50' and 94° 20' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Arkansas and Mississippi, on the east by Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Tf^as. Its extreme length from east to west is about 292 miles, an * its extreme width from north to south about 250 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the entire State is low and flat, its highest point being less than 200 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico. The southern portion is so low that it is always subject to overflows, when tl'e rivers are full. In the northern part, the country is slightly rolling, except in the northwest, where it is converted into a series of extensive marshes by the Ked River and its tributaries. The Gulf coast is extensive, and is cut up into innumerable bays, lakes, bayous, and inlets. The principal are, Lake Borgne in the southeast, which is, strictly speaking, a bay tiirough which Lake Pontchartrain discharges its waters into the Gulf. Black Lake Bay lies south of this. On the southern coast are (beginning on the east) West, Barataria, Timbalier, Terre Bonne, Pelto Lake, Caillou, Atcha- falaya. Cote Blanche, Vermilion bays, and Mermenteau, Calcasieu and Sabine lakes. The majority of these afford excellent harbors. They are principally the extensions of the rivers with which lower 715 716 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Louisiana is cut up. A number of low islands lie along the coast. Some of them are productive, while others are worthless. Small lakes are very numerous in the southern part of the State, the whole of which is more or less marshy. Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain lie in the southeast part of the State, near the city of New Orleans. Lake Maurepas is but an extension of the Amite River and flows into Lake Pontchartrain, which in its turn pours its waters through Lake Borgne into the Gulf. Lake Pontchartrain is about 40 miles long and from 8 to 24 miles wide, and has a maximum depth of from 16 to 20 feet. It is navigable for steamers, and is connected with New Orleans by a canal. Several pleasant towns lie on its shores. The Mississippi River, already described, forms the eastern bound- ary of the northern half of this State, as far as the southern line of the State of Mississippi. It then flows southeast through the centre of lower Louisiana, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southeast corner of the State. It receives the waters of the Red River just above the Mississippi line, and j)ours its own flood into the Gulf through several channels besides its own mouths. 1 hese channels are called bayous, and leave the main stream below fl-.e mouth of the Red Riv^er, and west of the Mississippi. They e:npty into the Gulf in the southern part of the State, and are almost all of them navigable for steamers. In this way New Orleans lias ;ibundant direct water communication with the southwest parishes. The principal of these are the Atchafalaya and Lafourciie rivers or bayous, the former 250, and the latter 150 miles long. The former is more properly an outlet of the Red than of the Mississippi, and is believed to have been the original channel of the Red River. The Red River, already described, flows across the State from nortiiwest to southeast. It is navigable for steamers to the border of Arkansas. Its principal branch, the Washita, flows into it near its mouth, and is 500 miles long. It is navigable for large steamers to Gamden in Arkansas, 300 miles from its mouth. The Washita, in its turn, re- ceives the waters of the Tensas, a short distance above its mouth. This river is 250 miles long, and navigable for 150 miles. The Teche River, or Bayou, commences a short distance southeast of Alexandria, on tiie Red River, and flows southeast into the Gulf of Mexico. It is about 200 miles long, is very tortuous, and flows through a low, flat prairie region in which cotton and sugar grow to great perfection. It is navigable at high water for nearly its entire length. The Cal- LOUISIANA. 71? easieu River, about 250 miles long, drains the southwest part of the State. It is not navigable. The Sabine River, which rises in Texas, and has a length of about 500 miles, forms a part of the western boundary of Louisiana, and flows into Sabine Lake. It is shallow at its mouth, and navigable only for very small steamers at high water. MINERALS. "In the soil and timber are to be found the chief resources of this State, but few minerals, except salt, having as yet been developed or discovered, though some coal, iron, and copper are reported to exist in Union parish. Timber is abundant in all parts of the State, embracing many varieties of oak, ash, cottonwood, cypress, gum, elm, sycamore, pecan, hackberry, pine, etc., and presenting great induce- ments for development, some of the pine forests capable of producing quantities of turpentine. On one of the islands within the limits of St. Mary's parish — Petite Anse or Salt Island — there exists an immense bed of salt. By boring, parties have prov'cd that the bed is half a mile square, and it may extend a mile or more. They have gone thirty-eight feet into the solid salt, and find no signs of the bottom of the stratum. The surface is about on a level with tide-water, and the earth covers the salt from eleven to thirty feet. On the sur- face of the salt they found a soil like that of the surrounding marshes, and above this sedge or marsh grass in a good state of preservation. Above the latter the soil appears to be the workings of the hill-sides above." CLIMATE. The climate is mild as a general riile, but the winters are severer than those of the Atlantic States lying along the same parallel. The summers are long, hot, and dry, and cause a poisonous exhalation from the marshy soil which is the fruitful source of yellow fever. The spring is early and pleasant. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The best soil is along the rivers and in the marshy district. Almost all the land in the lower part of the State is fertile, but in the northern part, away from the rivers, it is poor. The swamp lands are easily drained, and are almost inexhaustible. Tropical fruits grow well in the southern parishes, but neither the orange nor the sugar- cane thrives above the 31st parallel of north latitude, which marks the southern boundary of the western part of the State of Mississippi. In the northern part the fruits of the Middle States thrive. 718 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GATHERING SUGAR-CANE. The "Report of the Bureau of Agriculture for 1868 thus speaks of this State : " Cotton, sugar, corn, and potatoes are the principal croj>s in Louisiana, and before the war the cultivation of the first two named was very profitable, but our correspondents uniformly represent the jiroduction of cotton as ruinous to the planter during the past year. Jackson parisli reports two hundred pounds of lint cotton to the acre, fifteen bushels of corn, one hundred and fifty bushels of sweet potatoes, and twenty bushels of peas. Tensas parish, one to one and a half bales to the acre in good season, fifty to seventy-five bushels of corn ; in cultivation, nine acres of cotton allotted to one laborer, and five acres of corn. In Union parish about six bales of cotton to the hand was expected before the war. In Carroll parish cotton will produce LOUISIANA. 719 six hundred pounds lint to the acre when newly cultivated, and a fair laborer can make eight bales of cotton and one hundred bushels of corn, yielding about |500 to the hand ; but under the present system the average is two and a half bales cotton and twenty-five bushels corn to the hand. Prior to the war the parish of Rapides produced from 30,000 to 40,000 bales cotton, 15,000 to 18,000 hogs- heads sugar, and 30,000 barrels molasses, but the production has much deteriorated, though with the labor and capital at command, the capabilities are still as great. In the southern tier of parishes sugar, rice, and tobacco are made specialties, and fruits are extensively grown, with great inducements for the increase of the latter produc- tion. "Louisiana possesses great capabilities for fruit culture, and the climate and soil present strong inducements to persons desiring to engage in such production. In St. Mary's parish they have fruits of various kinds from April to November: 'The Japan plum grows all winter and ripens in April ; dewberries also ripen in April, and grow in abundance; strawberries, blackberries, and mulberries ripen in May; plums in June; peaches, quinces, and figs in July; and grapes and apples in August. The muscadine, a species of scupper- nong, grows wild, and ripens in August; pears ripen in August, and grow in great perfection ; oranges ripen in October, and usually remain good on the trees till December; bananas, limes, and lemons ripen in October.' The yield of oranges per acre is enormous. Our correspondent writes that Mt is usual to plant about one hundred trees to the acre below New Orleans on the river. Some orchards yield from 110,000 to |20,000 annually. A full-grown tree will bear 1000 oranges, and a single tree has been known to yield 5000 oranges. Trees commence bearing when five years old, when properly man- aged.' What we quote in regard to the capabilities of this parish may be said, with slight variation, of most of the lower counties of the State, while in the more northern regions many of (lie fruits named grow in perfection, and in some localities the aj)ple succeeds well. Our Rapides reporter writes : ' I have a second crop of ajiples this year. They are hanl, small, and ])0()r, though they are eaten.' " In Wasiiington parish a small orchard, chiefly peaches, in one season yielded a profit of ^4000, the fruit being early and within close proximity to New Orleans markets. Our East Feliciana correspon- dent writes: 'This is one of the finest fruit regions in the world. Apples, peaches, pears, quinces, plums, figs, grapes, berries, etc., do 720 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. well, and wild blackberries grow in great abundance, from which a superior wine is made. We have, as yet, but few orchards. One man this season sold $600 worth of pears from fourteen trees.' .Though but little attention has heretofore been given to fruit culture, the capabilities of the State are so evident, and the inducements so strong, in a pecuniary point of view, that the production must, at an early day, become a leading interest of Louisiana." The civil war laid prostrate the agricultural interests of the State. The plantations in many cases were utterly ruined. The levees of the rivers were cut or allowed to give way, and many of the finest cotton and sugar fields were thus converted into worthless swamps. It will require many years to repair these losses. The returns of the State are as follows : Bushels of Indian corn, 8,000,000 Pounds of rice, 16,000,000 Hhds of sugar, ^ 85,000 Gallons of molasses, 4,8(»0,000 Bales of cotton, 400,000 Bushels of sweet potatoes (estimated), .... 1,100,000 Number of horses, 65,000 " asses and mules, 64,000 " milch cows, . ■ 110,000 " sheep, 120,000 " swine, 340,000 " young cattle, • 210,000 Value of domestic animals, $16,000,000 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. More attention is being paid to manufactures. In 1870 the capital invested in tliem amounted to $18,313,974. With respect to its commercial advantages the State is unequalled by any portion of the world. The Mississippi and its tributaries bring to it the products of nearly one half the Union. New Orleans is the princijial port, and is actively engaged in trade with all parts of the world. In 1860 the exports of Louisiana amounted to $108,417,798, and the imports to $22,992,773. In spite of the losses of the war, they were as follows in 1870: exports, $107,657,042; imports, $14,993,754. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Within the limits of the State the great abundance of water trans- portation does away with the necessity for many railways. In 1868 LOUISIANA. 721 A SUGAR-HOUSE. there were 539 miles of completed railway in the State, constructed at a cost of about $20,000,000. A main line extends north through Mis- sissippi to the States of the East and West, and roads are in construction from a point opposite to Vicksburg, Miss., to Shreveport and north- eastern Texas, and from Algiers along the Gulf coast to Galveston, Texas. EDUCATION. In 1870 there were in Louisiana 13 colleges, with over 1600 students; 400 academies and other schools, with about 25,000 pupils; and 178 public schools, with over 25, "00 jnipils. With the exception of the schools of New Orleans, nearly all the educational institutions of the State were destroyed or discontinued by the war. Since the return of peace, Centenary College, at Jackson, and several academies and private schools have been reopened with success. The new Constitution establishes a system of public education, and requires that at least one free public school shall be opened in each parish in the State. A permanent school fund is established, and the Legislature is required to levy taxes for the support of the schools. Appropriations by the State for the support, assistance, or encourage- ment of any private school or private institution of learning, whatso- ever, are forbidden. 722 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. A University, with collegiate, law, and medical departments, is es- tablished at New Orleans, and supj)orted in part by the State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State has but a few charitable institutions of its own, depending mainly on similar establishments in the city of New Orleans, to the support of which it contributes. The Penitentiary is located at Baton Rouge, the old capital. It was destroyed during the war, but has since been restored. There were 342 males and 12 females confined there in 1870. The institu- tion is supported to a great extent by the labor of the convicts, who are eny-ao^ed in the manufacture of cotton and woollen p;oods. Two hundred looms, with the necessary machinery, are in operation. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 599 churches in Louisiana, and the value of church property was $4,048,525. Tlie greater part of this amount is owned in New Orleans. In the rest of the State the loss was heavy during the war. FINANCES. The finances of Louisiana are in a very unfortunate condition. The amount of the public debt is disputed, but the Governor estimates it at $24,634,407, inclusive of an obligation to issue about $15,000,000. worth of bonds. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30, 1870, were $6,537,959 ; while the total expendi- tures for the same period amounted to $7,050,636. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of Louisiana was adopted by the people April 23d, 1868. Every male ])orson, 21 years old, born in the United States, or naturalized, without respect to race, color, or pre- vious condition, who has resided in the State one year, and in tlic parish ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Criminals, and certain persons concerned in the Rebellion, are excluded from the franchise. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, Treasurer, Attorney-General, and a Gen- eral Asseniblj, consisting of a Senate (36 members, elected for four LOUISIANA. 723 years, one-half retiring biennially) and a House of Kepresentatives (101 members, elected for two years), all chosen by the people. The Governor and other State officers are elected for four years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Court, Parish Courts, and in Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Justices, appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a period of eight years. Except in specified cases, this court has ap- pellate jurisdiction only. The judges of the other courts are chosen by the popular vote. The seat of Government is located at New Orleans. Previous to the war Baton Rouge was the capital. The State is divided into 48 parishes. HISTORY. In 1691 La Salle discovered the mouth of the Mississippi River, and took possession of the country in the name of the King of France. In 1699 Iberville attempted to form a settlement along the lower Mississippi, but his attempt ended in the establishment of the Colony of Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi. In 1712 Louis XIV., of France, named the region in honor of himself, and granted it to M. Crozat, a wealthy capitalist, who, in 1717, surrendered his charter to the Government, complaining that he had not been properly sup- ported by the authorities, and that he had suffered such losses in at^ tempting to settle the province as almost to ruin him. In 1717 the famous John Law, living in Paris, obtained a charter for a bank, and for a Mississippi company, to whom the king granted the province. A remarkable financial scheme was conceived by Law in connection with these grants, and for a while carried out so successfully that the stock of the bank went up to six hundred times its par value. It finally exploded, however, and ruined every one concerned in it, having accomplished nothing but the settlement of New Orleans, in 1717. In 1732 Law's company surrendered their charter to the king, who declared the commerce of Louisiana free to all nations. In 1760 war was begun between Great Britain and France, and Canada was conquered by the former power. Large numbers of Canadians now emigrated to Louisiana, and settled in the country west of the Mississippi, founding the settlements of Attakapas, Ope- lousas, and Avoyelles. In 1762 France ceded her possessions in 724 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Louisiiina west of the Mississippi to Spain, and the country east of that river to England. The Spanish authorities soon took possession of New Orleans, and inaugurated a series of cruel and oppressive measures, which filled the French settlers with dismay. They held the province during the American Revolution, and towards the close of the war the Spanish Governor of New Orleans captured the British garrison at Baton Rouge. The treaty of 1783 opened the navigation of the Mississippi River to all nations, but the Spaniards at New Orleans effectually neutralized this concession by seizing all merchan- dize brought to that city in any but Spanish ships. This gave rise to a long and vexatious dispute between the United States and Spain, which was terminated only by the acquisition of Louisiana by the former power. The manner in which this territory passed into our hands, is thus related by Bonner, in his "History of Louisiana : " " In 1763 Louisiana was ceded to Spain, and by a secret article in the treaty of St. Udefonso, concluded in 1800, that power ceded it back to France. Napoleon, however, wished to keep this cession secret until he should have — ae he hoped to do — reduced St. Domingo to submission. Failing in this, he was rendered indifferent to his new acquisition. In January, 1803, he sent out Laussat as prefect of the colony, which was the first intimation that the inhabitants had of the transfer, which gave them great joy. "On being informed of this retrocession. President Jefferson had dispatched instructions to Robert Livingston, the American minister at Paris, to represent to the First Consul that the occupation of New Orleans by France would endanger the friendly relations between the two nations, and, perhaps, even oblige the United States to make com- mon cause with England ; as the possession of this city by the former, by giving her the command of the Mississippi, the only outlet to the produce of the Western States, and also of the Gulf of Mexico, so im- portant to American commerce, would render it almost certain that the conflicting interests of the two nations would lead to an open rup ture. Mr. I^iivingston was therefore instructed not only to insist upon the free navigation of the Mississippi, but to negotiate for the acquisition of New Orleans itself, and the surrounding territory ; and Mr. Monroe was appointed with full powers to assist him in the nego- tiation. "Bonaparte, who always acted promptly, soon came to the conclu- sion that what he could not defend, he had better dispose of on the best terms ; but before deciding, he summoned two of his ministers in council, on the 10th of April, 1803, and thus addressed them: LOUISIANA. 725 • "'I am fully sensible of the value of Louisiana, and it was my wish to repair the error of the French diplomatists who abandoned it in 1763. I have scarcely recovered it before I run the risk of losing it; but if I am obliged to give it up, it shall hereafter cost more to those who force me to part with it, than to those to whom I yield it. The English have despoiled France of all her northern possessions in America, and now they covet those of the south. I am determined that they shall not have the Mississippi. Although Louisiana is but a trifle compared to their vast possessions in other parts of the globe, yet, judging from the vexation they have manifested on seeing it re- turn to the power of France, I am certain that their first object will be to gain possession of it., They will probably commence the war in that quarter. They have twenty vessels in the Gulf of Mexico, and our aifairs in St. Domingo are daily getting worse, since the death of Le Clerc. The conquest of Louisiana might be easily made, and I have not a moment to lose in putting it out of their reach. I am not sure but that they have already begun an attack upon it. Such a measure would be in accordance with their habits ; and in their place I should not wait. I am inclined, in order to deprive them of all prospect of ever possessing it, to cede it to the United States. Indeed, I can hardly say that I cede it, for I do not yet possess it ; and if I wait but a short time, my enemies may leave me nothing but an empty title to grant to the Republic I wish to conciliate. They only ask for one city of Louisiana, but I consider the Avhole colony as lost; and I believe that, in the hands of this rising power, it will be more useful to the political, and even the commercial interests of France, than if I should attempt to retain it. Let me have both your opinions on the subject.' "One of the ministers, Barbe Marbois, fully approved of the ces- sion, but the other opposed it. They debated the matter for a long time, and Bonaparte concluded the conference without making his determination known. The next day, however, he sent for Marbois, and said to him : " ' The season for deliberation is over ; I have determined to re- nounce Louisiana. I shall give up not only New Orleans, but the whole colony, without reservation. That I do not undervalue Louis- iana I have sufficiently proved, as the object of my first treaty with Spain was to recover it. But, though I regret parting with it, I am convinced it would be folly to persist in trying to keep it. I commis- pion you, therefore, to negotiate this aflFair with the envoys of the 726 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. • United States. Do not wait the arrival of Mr. Monroe, but go this very day and confer with Mr. Livingston. Remember, however, that I need ample funds for carrying on the war, and I do not wish to commence it by levying new taxes. For the last century France and Spain have incurred great expense in the improvement of Louisiana, for which her trade has never indemnified them. Large sums have been advanced to different companies, which have never returned to the treasury. It is fair that I should require re[)ayment for these. Were I to regulate my demands by the importance of this territory to the United States, they would be unbounded ; but, being obliged to part with it, I shall be moderate in my terms. Still, remember, I must have 50,000,000 francs, and I will not consent to take less. I would rather make some desperate effort to preserve this fine country.' "The negotiations commenced that very day. Mr. Monroe arrived at Paris on the 12th of April, and the two representatives of the United States, after holding a private conference, announced that they were ready to treat for the cession of the entire territory, which at first Mr. Livingston had hesitated to do, believing the proposal of the First Consul to be only a device to gain time. "On the 30th of Ai)ril, 1803, the treaty was signed. The United States were to pay $15,000,000 for their new acquisition, and be in- demnified for some illegal captures; while it was agreed that the ves- sels and merchandise of France and Spain should be admitted into'all the ports of Louisiana, free of duty, for 12 years. "Bonaparte stipulated in favor of Louisiana that it should, as soon as possible, be incorporated into the Union, and that its inhabitants should enjoy the same rights, privileges, and immunities as other citi- zens of the United States; and the third article of the treaty, securing to them these benefits, Avas drawn up by the First Consul himself, who presented it to the plenipotentiaries with these words : " ' Make it known to the people of Louisiana that we regret to part with them ; that we have stipulated for all the advantages they could desire; and that France, in giving them up, has insured to them the greatest of all. They could never have prospered under any Euro- pean government as they will when they become independent. But, while they enjoy the privileges of liberty, let them ever remember that they are French, and preserve for their mother-country that affection which a common origin inspires.' " The completion of this important transaction gave equal satisfac- tion to both parties. ' I consider,' said Livingston, ' that from this LOUISIANA. 727 day the United States takes rank with the first powers of Europe, and BOW she is entirely escaped from the power of England;' and Bona- parte expressed a similar sentiment in these words : ' By this cession of territory I have secured the power of the United States, and given to England a maritime rival, who, at some future time, will humble her pride.' These w^ords appeared prophetic when the troops of Britain, a few years after, met so signal an overthrow on the plains of Louisiana. " The boundaries of the colony had never been clearly defined, and one of Bonaparte's ministers drew his attention to his obscurity. ' No matter,' said he, 'if there was no uncertainty, it would, perhaps, be good policy to leave some;' and, in fact, the Americans, interpreting to their own advantage this uncertainty, some few years after seized upon the extensive territory of Baton Rouge, which was in dispute between them and the Spaniards. "On the 30th of November, 1803, Laussat took possession of the country, when Casa Calvo and Salcedo, the Spanish commissioners, presented to him the keys of the city, over which the tri-colored flag floated but for a short time. The colony had been under the rule of Spain for a little more than 34 years. " On the 20th of December, in the same year, General Wilkinson and Governor Claiborne, who were jointly commissioned to take pos- session of the country for the United States, made their entry into New Orleans at the head of the American troops. Laussat gave u}) his command, and the star-spangled banner supplanted the tri-colored flag of France." In 1804, Louisiana "was erected into a Territory by Congress. In 1810, the Spanish post at Baton Rouge was seized by the United States forces under General Wilkinson, and the territory connected with it added to Louisiana, which in 1812, was admitted into the Union as a State. During the second war with England, the British made several attempts to get possession of the mouths of the Mississippi, but were finally and decisively defeated on the plains of Chalmette, below New Orleans, on the 8th of January, 1815, by an American force under General Andrew Jackson. The territory purchased from France by the Louisiana treaty is now occupied by the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and Oregon, and the Territories of Dacota, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Washing- ton. , The reader will thus see the importance of the transaction, 45 728 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. On the 26th of January, 1861, the State withdrew from the Union and joined the Southern Confederacy. One of the first objects of the Federal Government was to secure the city of New Orleans, which was captured early in 1862 by the fleet of Admiral Farragut. From this time the lower part of the State was more or less overrun by the forces of the North and South. The country along the rivers suffered terribly. In 1863, the Confederate stronghold at Port Hudson, on the Mississippi River, a short distance above Baton Rouge, was be- sieged by the forces of General Banks. The flill of Vicksburg, in July, 1863, compelled the surrender of this place. Subsequently the northwest part of the State — the Red River country — was invaded by a powerful force under General Banks. He was defeated by the Confederates in two severe battles and forced to retreat. While the siege of Vicksburg was in progress, a severe battle was fought at Baton Rouge, wliicli town was almost destroyed during the war. Several towns along the Mississippi were burned, and the lower par- ishes generally desolated. Attempts were made, in 1864, to organize a "restored government" for the State, and Representatives were elected to Congress. The whole system was repudiated by Congress subsequently. In 1865, a Provisional Government was recognized by the President, and over- thrown by Congress, which body, in 1867, placed the State under military rule as a part of the Fifth Military District. A Convention met in New Orleans, in November, 1867, and adopted a State Con- stitution, which \vas ratified by the people on the 23d of April, 1868. The State was readmitted into the Union on the 25th of June, 1868. CITIES AND TOWNS. The most important cities and towns in the State are Donaldson- ville, Algiers, Baton Rouge, Jefferson, Carrolton, Plaquemine, Thi- bodeaux, Alexandria, Shreveport, Homer, and Opelousas. NEW ORLEANS, The capital and commercial and social metropolis of the State, is also the ninth city of the United States with respect to population, and the largest and most important city in the South. It is situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, about 100 miles from the mouth of that stream. Latitude 29^ 58' N. ; longitude 90° 7' W. It is 1663 miles southwest of New York, 2000 miles south-by-east of the LOUISIANA. 729 Falls of St. Anthony, the head of navigation on the Mississippi, 1628 miles south-by-west of Chicago, and 1438 miles southwest of Wash- ington. "New Orleans is built around a bend in the river, from which cir- cumstance it has been denominated the ' Crescent City.' The site inclines gently from the margin of the Mississippi towards the marshy ground in the rear, and is from 2 to 5 feet below the level of the river at the usual spring freshets. To prevent inundations, an embank- ment or levee, about 15 feet high in some places, and 6 feet in others, has been raised, extending 120 miles above the city, and to Port Plaquemine, 43 miles below it. This forms a delightful promenade. In consequence of the change of the course of the river opposite New Orleans, large quantities of alluvion, swept from the north and held in suspension by the current, are here deposited. New formations from this cause, in front of that portion of the quay most used for the purposes of commerce, have been so rapid that it has been necessary within a few years to build piled wharves jutting out from 50 to 100 feet into the Mississippi. The levee here has also been gradually widened, so that an additional tier of warehouses has been erected between the city and the river. The old city proper, originally laid out by the French, is in the form of a parallelogram, 1320 yards long and 700 yards wide. Above this are what were formerly the faubourgs of St. INIary, Annun- ciation, and La Coui-se ; below, Marigny, Dunois, and Declouet ; and in the rear, Trcme and St. John's. Lafayette, until a few years ago under a separate government, is immediately above the city." The city is regularly laid out. , The streets are narrow in the older portion, and wide in the new, and are well paved. Since the civil war, the city has been kept unusually clean. The princij)al business thor- oughfare. Canal street, is 190 feet wide, with a turfed promenade, 25 feet wide, extending along the middle of the entire street. Esplanade, Rampart, and Basin streets have similar grass-plots. The city is we!l built, the buildings being mostly of brick. Owing to the marsh}' nature of the ground — water being found two feet below the surface — the houses have no cellars. A basement, about 6 feet in height, takes the place of the cellar. In the business portions, the buildings are 5 and 6 stories in height^ but in the private sections they are lower. The dwellings in the suburbs, especially in Lafayette, are surrounded by orange, lemon, magnolia and other trees which fill the air with a delicious perfume. Many of the better class dwellings are palatial in their external and internal appointments, and there is, perhaps, no 730 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. city in the country where the higher classes are more luxurious in their tastes and style of living. The general aspect of the city is bright, cheerful ami inviting. It is so thoroughly French in its gen- eral characteristics, that this could hardly be otherwise. " In the old city, many of the dwellings are constructed with a carriage-way and gate leading directly from the street to an interior courtyard enclosed by the main building. Most of the signs over the shops are inscribed in French, or both French and English. This portion of the city, with the old Faubourg Trcme in its rear, constitutes the 2d district, formerly the 1st municipality. Next above, extending from Canal street to Felicity road, lies the 1st district, formerly the Faubourg St. Mary, and subsequently the 2d municipality ; while still beyond is the 4th district, prior to 1852 the city of Lafayette. In these two districts, the buildings are more modern, and most of the streets are wider, though very irregular in their directions. In the 4th district, many of the dwellings are spacious and of great elegance, with ample grounds for shrubbery, etc. Below the old city, again, lies the 3d district, formerly the Faubourg Marigny, and afterwards the 3d nmni- cipality, which is the residence of a large portion of the Creole and foreign population. The nomenclature of the streets is remarkable. French, Spanish, and Anglo-American ideas and personages are all / represented. The 9 Muses, with other heathen divinities, give name to one series, while in other quarters are found St. Charles, St. Mary, St. Louis, and the like, together with ' Love,' ' Piety,' * Virtue,' ' Re- ligious,' etc. The Pontchartrain railway runs through the Elysian Fields, a street, and by no means the most attractive one of the city. 'Greatmen,' 'Goodchildren,' 'Frenchmen,' X'rops,' etc., are specimens of other odd and apparently whimsical names. The same street re- • peatedly changes, not only its directiofi, but its designation. Thus Royal, one of the original streets of the old city, becomes St. Charles on entering the 1st district, and still higher takes the pagan and poetical name of Nayadcs ; while its continuation in the opposite direc- tion, through the 3d district, commemorates the Marquis Casa Calvo, the last of the Spanish Governors. In like manner, Bourbon becomes Carondelet and then Apollo in one dii-ection, and declines into Baga- telle in the other." The city contains a number of handsome public squares. The principal of these is the Neio City Park, in the northeastern portion, near Metarie road and Monroe avenue. It contains about 150 acres, and is handsomely laid out. JacJcson Square, formerly the Place LOUISIANA. VIEW IX ST. CHARLES STREET, XEW ORLEANS. d'Armes, covers the centre of the river front of the okl Town Plot, now the 1st district. It is the favorite place of resort. It is beau- tifully laid out in shell walks, and is ornamented with the rarest plants and flowers of the South, statuary, etc. In the centre is an equestrian statue of General Jackson. The Cathedral of St. Louis and the Court buildings front the square. Lafayette Square is in the 2d district, and is bounded by St. Charles and Camp streets. The City Hall and several handsome buildings face it. Tivoli Circle, Annunciation and Washington Squares, and Circus Place, are the others. The last named is better known as Congo Square, and is famous as the favorite play-ground of the negroes. The Public Buildings of New Orleans are numerous and handsome. The U. S. Custom House, on Canal street, near the levee, is still in- complete, but when finished will be, next to the Capitol at Washing- 732 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOURCES. ton, the largest building in the United States. It is built of granite from Quincy, Mass. Its main front, on Canal street, is 334 feet long. Its depth is 297 feet. The Post Office and other Government offices are located in the building. The 3Iint is a large edifice of brick, stuccoed in imitation of brown stone, and was used by the Federal Government for the coining of money until the breaking out of the civil war. The City Hall is a handsome building of white marble, at the intersection of St. Oiarles and Lafayette streets. It is in the Grecian Ionic style of architecture, and is 208 feet by 90. It con- tains the offices of the City Government. In the absence of a State Capitol, it is also used by the Governor of Louisiana and the Secretary of State. Lyceum Hall is a handsome building on St. Charles street, containing a lecture hall and the City and State Libraries. Odd Fel- lows' Hall is a showy edifice of brick stuccoed in imitation of marble. Masonic Hall and the Merchants' Exchange are also imposing struc- tures. Two handsome buildings in the Doric and Tuscan orders, used by the city courts, are located on Jackson Square, one on each side of the Cathedral. They were constructed towards the close of the last century, through the liberality of the founder of the Cathedral, Don Andre Al monaster. The Benevolent and Charitable institutions are numerous, and are famous for their efficiency. Perhaps no city in the Union has a greater number of such institutions, in proportion to its population. They are liberally supported by the city and the citizens. The most important are the U. 8. 'Marine Hospital^ the Charity Hospital, with beds for 450 patients, the Female Orphan Asylum, with accommoda-' tions for 160 children; the Poydras Female Orphan Asylum; the 3Iale Orphan Asylum; the Asylum of St. Elizabeth, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy ; and the Maison de Sante. The Penal and Reformatory establishments consist of a Parish Jail and a Police Jail, and a Workhouse in each municipality. The .jails are 3 stories high, and are built of brick stuccoed in imitation of granite. The workhouses of the 2d and 3d municipalities are model insti- tutions, and are devoted to the reformation of criminals, especially of juvenile offiinders. The city contains between 55 and 60 church edifices. About one- half of these are Roman Catholic. The principal church edifice is the Cathedral of St. Louis, on .Jackson Square, begun in 1792 and com- pleted in 1794, by Don Andre Almonaster, perpetual regidor, and Alvarez Real, of the province. It is plain and simple, but venerable and imposing in appearance. LOUISIANA. 733 The schools of New Orleans consist of 4 high schools, and 38 pri- mary and grammar schools, which are public and designed for both sexes. In addition to these are 18 schools for colored children. The University of Louisiana was organized in 1849, and consists at present of a law and medical school, both of which are in a flourishing con- dition. The city contains but few public libraries, and these are unimport- ant. The City Library contains about 20,000 volumes. The best libraries in New Orleans are those of private individuals, and such collections are said to be numerous. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the Mississippi. The water is pumped by steam into an elevated reser- voir, and thence distributed through the city in the ordinary way. Street railways and omnibuses connect the principal points. There is a police and fire-alarm telegraph in operation in the city, which has also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The government consists of a Mayor and Common Council. The newspapers of the city are among the most influential and the ablest in the country. More than 15 journals, daily and weekly, are published here, several in the French language. The cemeteries of New Orleans are among its most peculiar features. There are 10 or 12 of these. Each one is enclosed with a brick wall, of arched cavities, or "ovens," as the natives call them, made just large enough to admit a single coffin, and built tier upon tier, to a height of about 12 feet, with a thickness of 10. Tlie whole enclosure is divided into plots, with gravel paths intersecting each other at right angles, and is densely covered with tombo built wholly above ground, and from one to three stories high. Many of these tombs are very handsome. Burial beneath the surface is impracticable, and is only resorted to by persons too poor to buy a tomb for their friends. Strangers, the friendless, and the very poor are taken to the Potters' Field, and literally laid in the w^ater, which is found 2 feet below the surface. The marshy soil often casts these coffins up again, leaving the bodies to rot under the fierce sun. The Markets are characteristic and numerous. "The principal are the vegetable and meat (French) markets on the levee near Jackson Square and the French Cathedral. To be seen to the greatest advan- tage, they should be visited on Sunday morning, between the hours of 8 and 9 o'clock. At break of day the gathering commences — all colors^ nations, and tongues, commingled in one heterogeneous mass. 734 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. JACKSON SQUAKE, NEW OKLEANS. The music, far from being unpleasant, however, is musical to the stranger's ear. A visit thither is thus described by a well-known writer : ' One morning we rose early to visit the market of the 1st municipality, and found the air on the bank of the Mississippi filled with mist as dense as a London fog, but of a pure white instead of yellow color. Through this atmosphere the innumerable masts of the ships alongside the wharf were dimly seen. Among other fruits in the market we observed abundance of bananas, and good pine-apples, for twenty-five cents each, from the West Indies. There were stalls where hot coffee was selling, in white china cups, reminding us of Paris. Among other articles exposed for sale were brooms made of palmetto-leav&s, and wagon-loads of the dried Spanish moss, or Tillandsia. The quantity of this plant hanging from the trees in the swamps of Louisiana, and everywhere on the Delta of the Mississippi, miirht suffice to stuff all the mattresses in the world. The Indians formerly used it for another purpose — to give porosity or lightness to their building materials. When passing througli the stalls, we were surrounded by a population of negroes, mulattoes, and quadroons, some talking French, others a patois of Spanish and French, and others a mixture of French and English, or English translated from French, and with the French accent. They seamed very merry. LOUISIANA. 735 • especially those who were jet black. Some of the Creoles also, both of French and Spanish extraction, like many natives of the South of Europe, were very dark.' " The hotels of New Orleans are among the largest in the country, and are well kept. The principal are the St. Charles, the St. Louis, the St. James, and the City Hotel. There are 3 Theatres, and 2 Opera Houses in the city. They are well supported — especially the Opera Houses ^nd the Orleans Theatre, at the last of which the performances are in the French language. New Orleans is the commercial metropolis of the South, and the most important cotton market in the Union. It is admirably situated for commerce. It lies within 100 miles of the mouth of the Mississippi, and 2000 miles from the Falls of St. Anthony. All the immense trade of the Mississippi and its tributaries can be brought to the city without reshipment. Thus New Orleans is the natural gateway, through which pours the commerce of the entire Mississippi Valley. The river in front of the city is deep enough for the largest vessels, but the bar at the mouth of the river will not admit vessels drawing over 18 feet of water. The Levee, or steamboat landing, is one of the most interesting places in the city, and is thoroughly indicative of its immense trade. It extends along the river shore for about 4 miles, and has an average breadth of 100 feet. Here may be seen every description of craft navigating the Mississippi and the adjJbent waters. At one portion are hundreds of flat boats drawn up on the land, some filled with hay, corn, potatoes, butter, cheese, apples, and cider, and some with horses, mules, cattle, hogs, sheep, etc. The levee here is piled up with flour, pork, and all sorts of agricultural produce in the greatest profusion. Beyond this is the steamboat landing, where as many as 1200 steamers may be seen in the busy season, discharging and receiving freight. The levee at this point is covered with im- mense piles of cotton in bales, and steamers are constantly arrivino- from, and departing for all parts of the Mississippi Valley. Above and below the steamer landing are dense lines of steamships and sail- ing vessels, in rows two and three deep, bringing the products of every country, and carrying away the products of the great valley. The whole of the commerce of the city, however, is not carried on upon the levee. The railways bring enormous quantities of produce into Ne,w Orleans, and the trade which comes by way of Lake Pont- chartrain is important. The lake is connected with New Orleans by means of a railway and a canal. This canal terminates in a spacious 736 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. basin near the centre of the city. This basin is always filled with sloops, schooners, and other vessels engaged in the trade with tlie ports on the Gulf coast to the eastward. The river trade of New Orleans is immense, and its foreiirn and coasting trades are in proportion. The war for the time destroyed both, but they are now reviving. In 1860, the year before the civil war, there were received at New Orleans 2,255,458 bales of cotton, and in the same year 2,214,315 bales were exporte^^. In the same year $185,211,254 worth of Southern and Western produce, were re- ceived. The separate products were valued as follows : cotton, $109,- 389,228 ; sugar, $18,190,880; molasses, $6,250,335; tobacco, $8,7 17,- 485 ; other products, $42,663,326. In the same year the exports of the city were valued at $108,293,567, and the imports at $22,920,- 849. During the year ending June 30, 1860, the entrances at the port of New Orleans amounted to 2052 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,212,029; and the clearances to 2235 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,248,526. During the year ending August 31, 1860, the arrivals of steamboats were 3566, and of flatboats 831» These figures show the trade of the city in its palmiest days. During the year ending September 1, 1870, there were received at New Orleans 1,208,000 bales of cotton, valued at $120,000,000 ; 57,956 bbls. of rice; produce from the interior to the amount of $200,000,0 WD ; and manufactured articles from the Northern States to the amount of $50,000,000. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1870, the foreign exports of New Orleans amounted to $107,657,042, and the imports to $14,993,754. The entire value of the commerce of the city for the same year was more than $500,000,000. The ex- ports coastwise amounted to nearly $60,000,000. In the same year 4406 vessels were entered and cleared at the Custom House, with an ago-reo-ate tonnage of 3,126,319 tons. The arrivals of steamboats were 3650, with an aggregate tonnage of 3,000,000 tons. In the same year 2 large cotton mills M^ere in operation in the city, also a number of fu'torios engaged in making oil from cotton seed. One of the greatest drawbacks to the prosperity of New Orleans is the iinhealthiness of the city and the region in which it is situated. During the first 70 or 80 years after its settlement it was regarded as eminently healthful. Since its transfer to the American Govern- ment it has been repeatedly ravaged by yellow fever. Apart from this disease, the city is regarded as thoroughly healthful, and the na- tives and acclimated residents compare favorably Avith those of any LOUISIANA. 737 LAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS, other large city in respect of health and longevity. According to some writers, yellow fever made its first appearance with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1769 ; according to others, it did not appear until 1796. Previoiis to this it had appeared in Europe and in the more northern cities of North America. In 1819, '22, '29, '33, '35, '37, '39, '41, '43, '47, '53, and '58, it raged with fearful violence. In 1853, between May 26tli and October 22d, 8500 persons are said to have died of the fever. The greatest mortality was on the 22d of August, when 283 persons died. During the summer season large numbers of persons leave tlie city, and trade is very dull. In 1870 the population of New Orleans was 191,322, and is made up of native Americans, persons of foreign descent called Creoles, foreigners, and negroes and persons of African descent. "Those who would form a just estimate of the social character and appear- ance of the Creole population of the city, should visit tiie opera in the height of the season. The French Creole ladies, many of them descended from Norman ancestors, and of pure, unmixed blood, are very handsome. They are usually attired in Parisian fashion, not over-dressed, nor so thinly clad as are the generality of American women — their luxuriant hair, tastefully arranged, fastened with or- namental pins, and adorned with a colored ribbon or a single flower. The word 'creole' is used in Louisiana to express a native-born 738 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. American, whether black or white, descended from old-world parents, for they would not call the aboriginal Indians Creoles. It never means persons of mixed breed ; and the French or Spanish Creoles in New Orleans would shrink as much as a New Englander from in- termarriage with one tainted, in the slightest degree, with African blood. The frequent alliances of the Creoles, or Louisianians, of French extraction, with lawyers and merchants from the Northern States, help to cement the ties which are every day binding more firmly together the distant parts of the Union. Both races may be improved by such connection, for the manners of the Creole ladies are, for the most part, more refined ; and many a Louisianian might justly have felt indignant if he could have overheard a conceited young bachelor from the North telling me ' how much they were preferred by the fair sex to the hard-drinking, gambling, horse-racing, cock-fighting, and tobacco-chewing Southerners.' If the Creoles have less depth of character, and are less striving and ambitious than the New Englanders, it must be no slight source of happiness to the former to be so content with present advantages. They seem to feel, far more than the Anglo-Saxons, that if riches be worth the winning they are also worth enjoying. The quadroons, or the offspring of the whites and mulattoes, sit in an upper tier of boxes appropriated to them. When they are rich, they hold a peculiar and very equivocal position in society. As children they have often been sent to Paris for their education, and, being as capable of improvement as any whites, re- turn with refined manners, and not unfrequently with more culti- vated minds than the majority of those from whose society they are shut out. ' By the tyranny of caste they are driven, therefore, to form among themselves a select and exclusive set. Among other stories illustrating their social relation to the whites, we are told that a young man of the dominant race fell in love with a beautiful quad- roon girl, who was so light-colored as to be scarcely distinguishable from one of pure breed. He found that, in order to render the mar- riage legal, he was required to swear that he himself had negro blood in his veins; and, that he might conscientiously take the oath, he let some of the blood of his betrothed into his veins with a lancet. The romance of this doubtful tale was greatly diminished, although I fear that my inclination to believe in its truth was equally en- hanced, when the additional circumstance was related, that the young lady was rich.' The foregoing sketch of society and social life in New Orleans, I need hardly remind my reader, was penned LOUISIANA. 739 long before the late rebellion had so changed the aspect of every thing throughout the South. The visitor will, however, be sur- prised as well as delighted at the extent to which the manners and customs of the 'old re(/ime' are still perpetuated among the descend- ants of the early settlers in the Crescent City." Many of the European customs are still observed in New Orleans. " The holiday season, which includes Christmas and New Year's Day," says the writer quoted above, " is the best time to visit the city. No place on the broad continent presents such numerous and varied at- tractions at this festive season, and stolid, indeed, must be the stranger vrho is not impressed with his experiences. The distinguished author from whom we have so largely quoted, thus writes of the Carnival and the ceremonies of Mardi Gras : ' It was quite a novel and refreshing sight to see a whole population giving up their minds for a short season to amusement. There was a grand procession parading the streets, almost every one dressed in the most grotesque attire, troops of them on horseback, some in open carriages, with bands of music, and in a variety of costumes — some as Indians, with feathers on their heads, and one, a jolly fat man, as Mardi Gras himself. All wore masks, and here and there in the crowd, or stationed in a balcony above, we saw persons armed with bags of flour, which they showered down copiously on any one who seemed particularly proud of his attire. The strangeness of the scene was not a little heightened by the blending of negroes, quadroons, and mulattoes in the crowd; and we were amused by observing the ludicrous surprise, mixed with con- tempt, of several unmasked, stiff, grave Anglo-Americans from the North, who were witnessing for the first time what seemed to them so much mummery and tomfoolery. One wagoner, coming out of a cross street in his working dress, drove his team of horses and vehicle, heavily laden with cotton-bales, right through the procession, causing a long interruption. The crowd seemed determined to allow nothing to disturb their good humor; butalthough many of the weal thy Protestant citizens take part in the ceremony, this rude intrusion struck me as a kind of foreshadowing of coming events, emblematic of the violent shock which the invasion of the Anglo-Americans is about to give to the old regime of Louisiana. A gentleman told me that, being last year in Rome, he had not seen so many masks at the Carnival there; and, in spite of the increase of Protestants, he thought thei'e had been quite as much "flour and fun" this year as usual. The proportion, however, of strict Romanists is not so great as formerly, and to-mor- 740 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. row, they say, when Lent begins, there will be an end of the trade in masks; yet the butchers will sell nearly as much meat as ever. Dur- ing the Carnival the greater part of the French population keep open houses, especially in the country.'" New Orleans was first settled in 1718, by Bienville, who had be- come satisfied of the propriety of removing the seat of government of the French province of Louisiana from Mobile to the more productive region of the lower Mississippi. In 1722, it contained about 100 log cabins and a population of 200 persons. In 1723, the seat of Govern- ment was permanently removed from Mobile to New Orleans. In 1727, the construction of the levee was begun. It AX'as more than a mile in length, and was designed to protect the city from the over- flows of the river. Smaller levees were constructed for 15 miles above, and 15 miles below the city. In the same year, a company of Jesuit Fathers, and one of Ursuline nuns arrived. The Jesuits re- mained until 17G3, when they were expelled. The city grew gradu- ally. In 1745, the population was estimated at 800 persons, exclu- sive of women and children, 200 soldiers, and 300 negroes. In 1763, the city of New Orleans passed into the hands of Spain, with the rest of Louisiana. The inhabitants, however, bitterly opposed the transfer, and the Spaniards did not take actual possession of the city until 1769, at which time the entire population numbered 3190. Many of the best inhabitants removed to the West Indies, rather than live under Spanish rule. Under the later Spanish Governors, however, matters took a different turn, and the city grew rapidly. In 1785, it con- t:i:ncd 4980 inhabitants. In March, 1788, a fire destroyed 900 houses. Provisions ran low, and a famine was imminent. Between 1792 and 1797, the streets were lighted, fire companies were organized, and the Carondelet Canal was opened. In 1800, Spain re-ceded the province of Louisiana to France; and iji 1803, Louisiana was jiurchased by the United States, and New Orleans became an Ameri- can city. The population of the city at this time was 8000. During the second war with England, the English were very anxious to cap- ture New Orleans, M-hich was a prize of great value as controlling the navigation of the Mississippi. They made their grand attempt on the 8th of January, 1815, on the plain of Chalmette, near the city, and were defeated with heavy loss by a small American force under General Andrew Jackson. In 1836, the city was divided, by an Act of the Legislature, into three municipalities, each with a separate gov- ernment; but, in 1852, these municipalities were consolidated, and LOUISIANA. 741 the limits of the corporation were extended to include the town of Lafayette, lying in the adjacent parish of the same name. At the beginning of the civil war, the city and the forts commanding the lower Mississippi Avere held by the Confederates. On the 25th of April, 1862, Admiral (then Commodore) Farragut passed the forts with his fleet, defeating and destroying the Confederate squadron which sought to bar his way. This victory opened the city to the United States army, which occupied it on the 1st of May, 1862, and held it until the close of the war. Soon after its capture, New Orleans became the capital of the State. MISCELLANY. THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. On his arrival in the city, General Jackson, in conjunction with Judge Hall, and many influential persons of the city, on the 16th of December, 1814, issued an order declaring the city and environs of New Orleans to be under strict martial law. Every individual entering the city was required to report himself to the adjutant-general, and no person by land or water was suffered to leave the city without a passport. The street lamps were ordered to be extinguished at 9 o'clock ; after which any persons found in the streets, or from their homes with- out permission in writing, and not having the countersign, were ordered to be apprehended as spies. This measure at once converted the whole city into a camp, and subjected the persons and property of the citizens to the will of the commanding general. Writs of habeas corpus, and all other civil processes by means of which the lives and properties f»f the people are protected, were for the time suspended. Such was the alarm and confusion of the moment, that few in- quiries were made whence the commanding general of a military station derived such powers, to be exercised over tliQ inhabitants of the adjacent country, in no- wise connected witli his camp. Although the brilliant success which afterward attended the operations of General Jackson seemed to justify tlie measure, yet the people saw in it a precedent, which, though it might have saved New Orleans, might at some future period extinguish their liberties. A most rigid police was now instituted. Spies and traitors, with which, the Governor complained, the city abounded, and who had been industriously employed in seducing the French and Spanish inliabitants from their allegiance, now fled ; and the remaining citi- zens cordially co-operated with the general in the means of defence. Fort St. Philips, which guarded the passage of the river at the Detour la Plaqemine, was strengthened and placed under the command of Major Overton, an able and skil- ful engineer. A site was selected for works of defence, 4 miles below the city, where its destinies were ultimately to be determined. The right rested on the river, and the left was flanked by an impenetrable cypress swamp, which exten- ded eastward to Lake Fontchartrain, and westward to within a mile of the river. Between the swamp and the river Avas a large ditch or artificial bayou, wiiich had been made for agricultural objects, but which now served an important military purpose. On the northern bank of this ditch the entrenchments were thrown up. 742 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Each flank was secured b}^ an advance bastion, and the latter protected by bat- teries in the rear. These worlds were well mounted with artillery. Opposite this position, on the west bank of the river, on a rising ground. General Morgan, with the city and drafted militia, was stationed ; and Commodore Patterson, with the crews of the Caroline and Louisiana, and the guns of the latter, formed an- other, near General Morgan's ; both of which entirely enfiladed the approach of an enemy against the principal works. A detachment was stationed above tlie town to guard the pass of the Bayou St. John, if an attempt should be made from that quarter. These arrangements, promptly and judiciously made, gave entire confidence to the citizens, and inspired them with zeal to second the general's exertions. Reinforcements were daily arriving, and as they arrived were imme- diately conducted to their respective stations. Landing of the British. — In the meantime the British were actively employed in making preparations for the attack ; believing the pass from Lake Borgne to Lake Pontchartrain to be defended according to General Wilkinson's plan, by the fortress of Petit Coquille, they determined to land from Lake Borgne by the Bayou Bienvenue. For this purpose they concentra.'ed tlieir forces on Ship Island, 80 miles distant from the contemplated place of landing. The depth of water in Lake Borgne was such that this distance could be traversed only by boats and small craft, and must necessarily be passed several times in order to bring up the whole armament. Tlie first object of the British general was to clear the lake of the American gunboats ; and, for this purpose, 40 British launches were sent in pursuit of them, and, after a desperate resistance, captured and destroyed the whole American flotilla, stationed on Lakes Borgne and Pont- chartrain, for the defence of New Orleans, consisting of 5 gunboats and a small sloop and schooner. By this success, they obtained the undisturbed possession of the lake ; and, on the 22d of December, proceeded from their rendezvous on Ship Island, with all their boats and small craft capable of navigating the lake, to the Bayou of Bienvenue ; and having surprised and captured the videttes at the mouth of the bayou, the first division acccmiplished their landing unobserved. Major-General Villiere, of the New Orleans nlilitia, living on the bayou, to whom the important service of making the first attack, and giving notice of the enemy's approach, was entrusted, found them on his plantation, 9 miles below the city, without any previous knowledge of their approach. Skirmishes on the 33d. — Notice was immediately given to General Jackson, who came out and attacked them on the evening of tlie 33d. In this affair the British sustained a loss, in killed, wounded, and missing, of 500. The British entrenched themselves at the Bienvenue plantation, 4 miles from the American camp, making the plantation house, in the rear of their works, their headquarters. General Jackson established his headquarters at M'Carty's plantation, on the bank of the river, and in full view of the British encampment. Two armed schooners, the Caroline and Louisiana, constituting all the American naval force on the river, dropped down from tlie city, anchored opposite the British encamp- ment, and opened a brisk fire upon their lines with considerable effect. On the 27th, the Caroline, Captain Henly, got becalmed within reach of the British bat- teries, and was set fire to and destroyed by their hot shot : the other succeeded in getting out of their reach. On the 38th, the British advanced to within half a mile of the American lines, and opened a fire of shells and rockets ; but were driven back by the artillery with considerable loss. On the night of the 31st of Decem- ber, the enemy again advanced to within 600 yards of General Jackson's position. LOUISIANA. 743 and erected three batteries, mounting 15 guns, and at 8 o'clock in the morning opened a heavy fire. In the course of the day, under cover of these batteries, three unsuccessful attempts were made to storm the American works. B}- 4 in the afternoon, all the batteries were silenced, and in the following night thej^ re- turned to their former position. On the 4th of January, General Adair arrived with 4000 Kentucky militia, principally without arms. The muskets and muni- tions of war destined for the supply of this corps, were provided at Pittsburgh; and did not leave that place until the 25th of- December ; passed Louisville the 6th of January, and arrived at New Orleans several days after the battle of the 8th. On the 6th, the last reinforcement of 3000 men arrived from England, under Major-General Lambert. Before the final assault on the American lines, the British general deemed it necessary to dislodge General Morgan and Commodore Patterson froni their positiotis on the right bank. These posts so effectually en- filaded the approach to General Jackson's works, that the army advancing to the assault must be exposed to the most imminent hazard. To accomplish this ob- ject, boats were to he transported across the island from Lake Borgne to the Mississippi ; for this purpose the British had been laboriously employed in deep- ening and widening tlie canal or Bayou Bienvenue, on which they first disem- barked. On the 7tli, tliey succeeded in opening the embankment on the river, and completing a communication from the lake to the Mississippi. In pushing the boats through, it was found at some places the canal was not of sufficient* width, and at others the banks fell in and choked the passage, which necessarilj'- occasioned great delay and increase of labor. At length, however, they suc- ceeded in hauling through a sufficient number to transport 500 troops to the right bank. At dawn of day, on the 8th, was the period fixed for the final assault on the American lines. Colonel Thornton was detached with 500 men, to cross the river and attack the batteries on that side, at the same time that the main assault was to be made, of which he was to be informed by a signal rocket. The Ameri- can general had detached Colonel Davis, with 300 Kentucky militia, badly armed, to reinforce General Morgan. These were immediately ordered to the water-edge, to oppose the enemy's landing. Unable in their situation to contend with a superior force of regular troops, well armed, the}^ soon broke and fled, and the Louisiana militia at General Morgan's battery followed their example. Com- modore Patterson's marine battery being now unprotected, his crews were obliged to yield to an overwhelming force, and the British succeeded in silencing both ; but the opposition which Colonel Thornton met with prevented this opera- tion from being completed until the contest was nearly ended on the opposite side of the river. At daylight, on the morning of the 8th, the main body of the British, under their commander-in-chief. General Packenham, were seen advancing from their encampment to storm the American lines. On the preceding evening, they had erected a battery within 800 yards, which now opened a brisk fire to protect their advance. The British came on in two columns, the left along the levee on tb.e bank of the river, directed against the American right, while their right advanced to the swamp, with a view to turn General Jackson's left. The country being a perfect level, and the view unobstructed, their march was observed from its com- mencement. They were suffered to approach in silence and unmolested, until within 300 yards of the lines. Tliis period of suspense and expectation was em- ployed by Genera] Jackson and his officers in stationing every man at his post, and arranging everything for the decisive event. When the British columns harJ 46 JU OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. advanced within 300 yards of the lines, the whole artillery at once opened upon them a most deadly fire. Forty pieces of cannon, deeply charged with grape, canister, and musket balls, mowed them down by hundreds; at the same time the batteries on the west bank opened their fire, while the riflemen, in perfect security behind their works, as the British advanced, took deliberate aim, and nearly every shot took eflfoct. Through this destructive fire the British left column, under the immediate orders of the commander-in-chief, rushed on with their fascines and scaling-ladders to the advance bastion on the American right, and succeeded in mounting the parapet ; here, after a close conflict with the bayonet, they succeeded in obtaining possession of the bastion, when the battery planted in the rear for its protection, opened its fire and drove the British from the ground. On the American left, the British attempted to pass the swamp and gain the rear, but the works had been extended as far into the swamp as the ground would permit. Some who attempted it sunk into the mire and disap- peared ; those behind, seeing the fate of their companions, seasonably retreated and gained the hard ground. The assault continued an hour and a quarter: dur- ing the whole time the British were exposed to the deliberate and destructive fire of the American artillery and musketry, which lay in perfect security behind their earthen breastworks, through which no balls could penetrate. At 8 o'clock, the British columns drew off" in confusion, and retreated behind their works, •Flushed with success, the militia were eager to pursue the British troops to their intrenchments, and drive them immediately from the island. A less prudent and accomplished general might have been induced to yield to the indiscreet ardor of his troops ; but General Jackson understood too well the nature both of his own and his enemy's force to hazard such an attempt. Defeat must inevitably have attended an assault made by raw militia upon an intrenched camp of British regulars. The defence of New Orleans was the object ; nothing was to be hazv arded which would jeopardize the city. The British were suffered to retire be- hind their works without molestation. The result was such as might be expected from the diff"erent positions of the two armies. General Packeuham, near the crest of the glacis, received a ball in his knee. Still continuing to lead on his men, another shot pierced his body, and he was carried off" the field. Nearly at the same time, Major-General Gibbs, the second in command, within a few yards of the lines, received a mortal wound, and was removed. The third in com- mand, Major-General Keane, at the head of his troops near the glacis, was se- verely wounded. The three commanding generals, on marshaling their troops at 5 o'clock in the morning, promised them a plentiful dinner in New Orleans, and gave them Booty and Beauty as the parole and countersign of the day. Be- fore 8 o'clock the three generals were carried off the field, two in the agonies of death, and the third entirely disabled ; leaving upwards of 2000 of their men, dead, dying, and wounded, on the field of battle. Colonel Raynor, who com- manded the forloin hope Avhich stormed the American bastion on the right, as he was leading his men up, had the calf of his leg carried away by a cannon shot. Disabled as he was, he was the first to mount the parapet, and receive the Ameri- can bayonet. Seven hundred were killed on the field, 1400 wounded, and 500 made prisoners, making a total on that day of 2600. But 6 Americans were killed and 7 wounded. Of General Morgan's detachment on the west bank, and in a sortie on the British lines, 49 were killed, and 178 wounded. After the battle, General Lambert, who had arrived from England but two days before, and was now the only surviving general, requested a truce for the LOUISIANA. 745 purpose of burying his dead. This was granted until 4 o'clock in the aftcrnoou of the 9th. Lines were drawn 100 rods distant from the American camp, within which the British were not permitted to approach. In the, ditch, and in front of the works, witliin the prescribed lines, 482 British dead were picked up by the American troops, and delivered to their companions over the lines for burial. The afternoon of the 8th, and the whole of the 9th, was spent by the British armj' in burying their dead. The American sentinels guarding the lines during this interval, frequently repeated in the hearing of the British, while tumbling their companions by hundreds into pits, "Six killed, seven wounded." Retreat of the British. — On the night of the 18th, they broke up their encamp ment, and commenced their retreat to the place of their first landing. To accom- plish this with safety, it was necessary that the army should move in one body. With this view, immediately after the battle of the 8th, large working parties liad been employed in constructing a road through a quagmire, for a considerable dis- tance along the margin of the bayou : by binding togetlier large quantities of reeds, and laying them across the mire ; in the course of nine days, these parties had constructed someting resembling a road from their encampment to the place of debarkation. Along this insecure track the British ai-my silently stole their march in the night of the 18th of January. By the treading of the first corps, the bundles of reeds gave way, and their followers had to wade up to their knees in mire. Several perished in the sloughs, the darkness of the night preventing their companions from affording relief. At the mouth of the bayou were a few huts, which afforded shelter for fishermen in the season of catching fish for the New Orleans market ; here the troops halted and bivouacked previous to their embarkation. Their provisions being exhausted, a few crumbs of biscuit and a small allowance of rum was their only support. Here they were 80 miles from their ships, the whole of which distance they had to traverse in small open boats; and having but few of these, the embarkation occupied ten days. On the 27th, the whole land and naval forces which remained of this disastrous expedition, tO' tjieir great joy, found themselves on board their ships. Their ranks thinned, their chiefs and many of their companions slain, their bodies emaciated with hunger, fatigue, and sickness, they gladly quitted this inauspicious country. The' surviving commanding general observes, "that the services of both army and' navy, since their landing on this coast, have been arduous beyond anything he.- ever before witnessed, and difficulties have been gotten over with an assiduity and perseverance beyond example by all ranks." A British officer of distinction, an actor in the scene, thus describes his tour from the encampment to the em- barkation : "For some time our route lay along the high road" beside the brink of the river, and was agreeable enough ; but as soon as we began to enter upon the path through the marsh, all comfort was at an end. Being constructed of materials so slight, and resting upon a foundation so infirm, the treading of the first corps unavoidably beat it to pieces : those which followed were therefore compelled to flounder on in the best way they could ; and by the time the ref.t of the column gained the morass, all trace of a way had entirely disappeared. But not only were the reeds torn asunder and sunk by the pressure of those who had gone before, but the bog itself, which at first might have furnished a few spots of firm footing, was trodden into the consistency of mud. The consequence ■was, that every step sunk us to the knees, and frequently higher. Near the ditches, indeed, many spots occurred which we had the utmost difficulty of cross- ing at all ; and as the night was dark, there being no moon, nor any light, ex.Gept; 746 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. what the stars supplied, it was difficult to select our steps, or even to follow those who called to us that they were safe on the other side. At one of these places, I myself beheld an unfortunate wretch gradually sink, until he totally disappeared. I saw him flounder in, heard him cry for help, and ran forward with the inten- tion of saving him ; but before I had taken a second step, I myself sunk at once as high as the breast. I could feel no solid bottom under me, and continued slowly to go deeper and deeper till the mud reached my arms. Instead of en- deavoring to help the poor soldier, of whom nothing now could be seen except the head and hands, I was forced to beg assistance for myself, when a leathern canteen strap being thrown me, I laid hold of it, and was dragged out just as my fellow-sufferer became invisible. Over roads such as these did we continue our march during the whole of the night, and in the morning arrived at a place called Fishermen's huts, consisting of a clump of mud-built cottages, standing by the edge of the water, on a part of the morass rather more firm than the rest. Here we were ordered to halt ; wearied with exertions and oppressed with want of sleep, I threw myself on the ground without so much as taking off my muddy garments, and in an instant all cares and troubles were forgotten. Nor did I awake from that deep slumber for many hours ; when I arose, cold and stiff, and addressed myself to the last morsel of salt pork my Avallet contained. Without tents or huts of any description, our bed was the morass, and our only covering the clothes which had not quitted our backs for more than a month ; our fires ■were composed solely of reeds, which, like straw, soon blaze up and expire again, without communicating any degree of warmth. But, above all, our pro- visions were expended, and from what quarter an immediate supply was to be obtained, we could not discover. Our sole dependence was upon the boats. Of these a flotilla lay ready to receive us, in which were already embarked the black corps and the 44th ; but they had brought with them only food for their own use, it was therefore necessary that they should reach the fleet and return again before we could be supplied. But as the nearest shipping was 80 miles distant, and the weather might become boisterous, or the winds obstinate, we might starve before any supply could arrive. As soon as the boats returned, regiment after regiment embarked and set sail for the fleet ; but the distance being considerable, and the wind foul, many days elapsed before the whole could be got off ; by the end of the month, we were all once more on board our former ships." TEXAS. Area, 247,356 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 604,215 (Whites, 421,294; Kegroes, 182,921.) Population in 1870, 818,579 The State of Texas lies between 25° 50' and 36° 30' :N'. latitude, and between 93° 30' and 107° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Territory and New Mexico, on the east by Ar- kansas, Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and the Republic of Mexico, and on the west by the Re- public of Mexico and the Territory of New Mexico. It is very irregu- lar in shape, and is the largest of the States. Its extreme length, from northwest to southeast, is estimated at 800 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, at 750 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. "This great State embraces every variety of surface, mountain, plain, hill, and desert within its limits. In the southeast, along the coast is a level belt of land, from 30 to 60 miles in breadth, which is succeeded by an undulating and prairie country, occupying another belt of from 150 to 200 miles in width, which is followed in the west and northwest by the mountainous region and the table-land. The extreme north is invaded by the Great American Desert, which ex- tends, perhaps, about 60 miles within the boundary of Texas. Accord- ing to Mr. Bartlett, the pleateau of Texas, including part of New Mexico, extends from 30° to 34° N. latitude, and from the Rio Grande east for 300 miles. The north portion, called Llano Rstacado or 'Staked Plain,' is 2500 feet above the sea. This broad district is des- 747 748 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUFCES. ON THE GULF. titute of forest trees and shrubbery, except along the margins of the streams, and even there never extending 100 yards from the banks. Just after rains a short stunted grass springs up, but speedily becomes dry, affording little nourishment. In this region rise the Red, Brazos, and Colorado rivers. About 29° 30' N. latitude the table-land breaks off into spurs, which descends to the prairies. The rivers have gener- ally alluvial bottoms of from 3 to 20 miles in width, which are of great fertility, and heavily timbered. The belts referred to above run across the State in a direction nearly northeast and southwest, so that almost all the northern part of Eastern Texas is included in the second division, or the undulating country. Little is known of the ele- vated lands of the west and northwest, as they are yet the home of few white men except the hunters, who pursue its buffaloes and other wild TEXAS. 749 animals. It is, however, represented as being a well-watered and fertile region. A low range of mountains, called the Colorado Hills, runs in a northern and southern direction, east of the Colorado River; indeed, the whole section of the State in the same parallel, between the Colorado and the Brazos rivers, is broken with low mountains. Between the Colorado and the Rio Grande, and north of the sources of the Nueces and San Antonio, the country is crossed by broken ranges of mountains, running in various directions, but of whose altitude and character we have little rijliable information. They appear, however, to be outlying ridges of the great Rocky Mountain chain. Of these the Organ, Hueco or Waco, and Guadalupe Moun- tains extend from the northwestern extremity of Texas, where they terminate, in a northern direction into New Mexico. According to Bartlett, the first are about 3000 feet above the Rio Grande, and the last the same altitude above the plain. "The coast of Texas is lined with a chain of low islands, which form a series of bays, sounds, and lagoons; the most important of which are Galveston, Matagorda, Espiritu Santo, Aransas, and Cor- pus Christi bays, and the Laguna del Madre. Commencing at Gal- veston Bay, in the northeast, they lie along the Gulf of Mexico in the order in which they are named. Galveston Bay, the largest of these, extends about 35 miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico, in a direction nearly north. Matagorda Bay, 60 miles long by 6 to 10 wide, and Laguna del Madre, 90 miles long by 3 to 6 wide, are sounds rather than bays, and run nearly parallel with the shore. Tl'ie inlets of these are much obstructed by bars ; Galveston Inlet, the best, is said to have but 12 feet water, the entrance of Matagorda Bay 11 feet, and that of San Luis but 10 feet. Aransas Bay extends in a northeastern and southwestern direction about 25 miles, by about 12 miles in width ; Corpus Christi Bay, 40 miles from north to south, by 20 miles from east to west; and Espiritu Santo is 20 miles long by 10 wide; Copano Bay, opening into Aransas, is 20 miles long by 3 wide. A writer in *De Bow's Resources in the South and West,' however, says — ' Steamships of 1200 to 1500 tons, and sail vessels of 1000 tons, can enter the port of Galveston.' Texas is crossed by several long rivers, generally rising in the table-lands of the west and northwest, and pursuing a southeastern course, discharge their waters into the Gulf of Mexico. Commencing with the Rio Grande, the largest river in Texas, 1800 miles long, and which forms its southwestern bound- ary, and proceeding along the coast, we have the Nueces, San Antonio. 750 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Guar]alupe, Colorado, Brazos, Trinity, Neclies, and Sabine, whose lengths, in the order named, are about 300, 250, 275, 800, 500, 400, 300, and 350 miles, as estimated by measurements on the map. The Red River rises in the northwest of the State, and forms a large ])art of the northern boundary line. The Canadian, a branch of the Arkansas, crosses the northern projection of the State. All of these are navigable to a greater or less extent, (depending on the wetness or dryness of the season, and on local obstructions,) the Sabine for about 150 miles; the Trinity, to Porter's Bluffs, latitude 32° 20'; the San Jacinto, 50 miles; the Brazos, to Sullivan's Shoals, near lati- tude 31° jN". ; the Nueces, 100 miles; the Rio Grande, 400 miles; and the Red River, to Preston, latitude 34° N., and longitude 96° 20' W. ; (during high water.) The Colorado is obstructed by a raft 10 miles from its mouth ; but when this is removed, which it doubtless will be ere long, it will give a navigation of several hundred miles. There are a number of small rivers or tributaries, navigable to some extent, and besides their value as channels of commei'ce, they afford in many instances excellent sites for mill seats. There are no known lakes of importance in Texas. Sabine Lake, an expansion of the river of that name, near its mouth, 20 miles long, is on the boundary of Texas and Louisiana. There is a salt lake near the Rio Grande, from which large quantities of salt are annually taken."* MINERALS, CLIMATE, SOIL, AND PRODUCTS. The Hon. Henry S. Randall, of New York, in a paper lately con- tributed to The Rural New Yorker, thus describes the niineral and agricultural productions of the State : " Geology. — The lower and rolling lands are alluvial. The hilly region is cretaceous, and abounds in excellent limestone for building. Beyond this, primitive rocks appear in many places. The great plains consist of stratified clay and cretaceous marls. On tlie verge of these plains are deposits of gypsum extending over an area of thousands of square miles. Coal beds exist in different localities. Iron ores are found in inexhaustible quantities on the Llano River, and they abound on tributaries of Red River in northeastern Texas. Cop[ier has been discovered in different places, and also specimens of the precious metals. The mineral regions of the State have been so little explored, that the extent of its resources in tiiis respect are but be- * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1905. TEXAS. 751 ginning to be known. Various salt springs have been found, and salt of good quality, produced by natural evaporation, can be obtained in immense if not inexhaustible quantities at the salt lagunes below Corpus Christi, and at the salt lake in Hidalgo county, forty miles from the Rio Grande. " Climate. — As a sample of the climate, we give the mean tem- perature of every month in the year 1859, as observed by Professor C. G. Forshey, in Fayette county, on the Colorado, in latitude 30° : January, 50° 57'; February, 62° 44'; March, 61° 50'; April, 65° 31'; May, 75° 61'; June, 81° 56'; July, 84° 76' ; August, 84° 90'; September, 79° 42' ; October, 66° 29' ; November, 63° 92' ; Decem- ber, 43° ; annual mean, 68° 04'. " * In point of climate,' says Olmsted, ' Texas claims, with at least as much justice as any other State, to be called the Italy of America. The general average of temperature corresponds, and the skies are equally clear and glowing. The peculiarities over other climates of latitude are found in its unwavering summer sea-breeze and its winter northers. The first is a delightful alleviation of its summer heats, flowing in each day from the Gulf, as the sun's rays become oppres- sive, and extending remotely inland to the farthest settlements, with the same trustworthy steadiness. It continues through the evening, and is described as having so great elFect that, however oppressive the day may have been, the nights are always cool enough to de- mand a blanket and yield invigorating rest.' " The severe northers occur from December to April, and usually occupy not much over 40 days. The rapid reduction of the tempera- ture from 70 or 75 degrees, to 30 or 40 degrees, and the driving wind, are keenly felt. When most cold and violent, and accompanied with rain and sleet, they sometimes cause considerable destruction among domestic animals exposed to their fury. These instances, however, are rare, and the shelter of a grove or hill, or even a good farm wall, is sufficient to prevent such consequences. They are regarded as healthful and invigorating, and, notwithstanding the sudden change of temperature accompanying them, do not cause, or even exasperate, pulmonary diseases. It is claimed that consumption does not origi- nate in the region where they prevail. • "As in all new, warm, and highly fertile countries, the low, rich river bottoms — especially those of southern Texas, which are covered with a boundless profusion of semi-tropical vegetation — are not healthy to unacclimated persons. The higher lands between those 752 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rivers are usually considered healthy, where judicious dispositions are made by the emigrant ; but the Northern emigrant runs some risk of undergoing a 'seasoning' course of chills and fever. The hilly regions of the west are as free from malaria as any other new countries we ever heard of — far more so, we judge, than were large portions of Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan, when first settled. We have known of hundreds of people from the Northern, Middle, and Western States, who have emigrated to the sheep-region, presently to be described, and we scarcely remember of hearing of one who incurred any disease in the process of acclimation. Great numbers of invalids, especially of consumptive invalids, from the older Southern States, resort to the region around San Antonio for the improvement of their health. The native Mexicans used to tell a story in regard to its healthful ness which has a regular Yankee smack to it. They said some travellers approaching San Antonio met three disconsolate looking persons who were hastening away from the city. They asked thera what was the matter, and where they were going. The three disconsolate looking persons replied that they had met witli reverses, that they wished to die, and were going to some place where people could die. "Yellow fever is imported into the coast towns, as it is imported into New York and Philadelphia, but it does not originate in them. Its ravages, as would be expected in such a climate, are sometimes severe; but it does not penetrate into the hilly region any more than it penetrates into the interior of New York or Pennsylvania. "Soils and Products. — In the north, the rich, black soil is espe- cially adapted to the production of wheat, yielding in ordinary sea- sons, and under the very imperfect cultivation it receives, an average of 21 bushels to the acre. It is of superior quality, and very heavy — in occasional instances reaching 72 pounds to the bushel. The wheat region proper embraces about 30 counties, of which Dallas is the centre. " The eastern counties, unlike the rest of the State, were covered by forests. The most northerly of these are highly adapted to a diversi- fied husbandry The southeastern and central southern counties are the most fertile in Texas, and include the best cotton-growing region of anything like an equal area in the world. The cotton counties proper constitute about one-third of the State Sugar has been produced to considerable extent near the mouths of the Brazos and Colorado. The soil of western Texas, exclusive of the barren region between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, consists gen- erally of black, calcareous loam, and its pasturages are probably un- equalled by any other natural ones in the world TEXAS. 753 . . . . " Corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, millet, sorghum, Irisli potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, beans, turnips, pumpkins, and gar- Jen \egetables of every kind, produce remunerative, and some of them abundant, crops on all the good soils of the State, and from many of them two crops might be taken in a season. Fruits can be grown in boundless profusion Horses, neat cattle, sheej), and hogs re- quire so little artificial food that they can be raised at the most trifling expense." In 1869 there were 2,650,781 acres of improved land in the State. The returns for the same year were as follows : Bushels of wlieat, 1,250,000 Indian corn, 23,000,000 " peas and beans, 341,961 " sweet potatoes (estimated), .... 1,500,000 oats, 1,250,000 Bales of cotton, 465,000 Pounds of butter, 5,850,583 Number of horses, 600,000 " asses and mules, 93,800 milch cows, 640,320 sheep, • 998,972 " swine, 1,580,600 young cattle, 2,540,300 Value of domestic animals, $49,825,447 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Texas has a large and profitable trade with the Northern States, and 'with Mexico, and some European commerce. In 1860 the ex- ports of the State amounted to $6,783,934, and the imports to ^2,- 436,408. Manufactures receive but little attention. In 1870 the capital invested in them amounted to $5,284,110. The annual product was valued at $11,517,302. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Considering that Texas was but recently settled, and that it is still very sparsely populated, we must admit that it has made very decitled progress in internal improvements. Good ro:i(ls connect the various partsof the State, and there is railroad communication l)etween Madison, on the Sabine River, and Houston, Austin, and Galveston. A rail- road is in progress across southern Louisiana, from the Sabine River 754 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to New Orleans. In 1872 tlie State contained 865 miles of railroad, constructed at a cost of about $30,000,000. EDUCATION. In 1870, Texas contained 8 colleges, with 588 students; 527 acade- mies and other schools, with over 20,000 pupils; and 13 public schools with 800 pupils. There was a Board of Education for the State, which controlled the system. The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in 1868, wrote as follows concerning the schools of his State : " There is no school system in Texas, and the school fund which had been accumulating, was mainly ruined and dissipated by the war. A plan for free schools, in essentials similar to the systems of the States of the North and West, has been submitted to the Reconstruction Committee, now in session, and strong hopes are entertained of its adoption. The number of children who should be at school in Texas, exceeds 200,000 ; the number actually enjoying school privileges is about 20,000." Since 1868 a public school system similar to that of the other States has been adopted, but had not gone into operation in 1870. The permanent school fund of the State amounts to $2,575,000, nearly all of which is available. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Huntsville. It was erected in 1848. We have no recent returns from it. The Texas Institution for the Deaf and Dumb is located on the west bank of the Colorado River, opposite the city of Austin. It is in great need of suitable buildings, and is sadly embarrassed by the unsettled condition of the State. In 1868 it contained 22 pupils. There are also a Blind Asylum and a State Lunatic Asylum in opera- tion, both of which are supported by the State. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 there were 6 17 churches in Texas, and the value of church property was $1,035,430. FINANCES. The finances of Texas are in a prosperous condition. The State debt, January 1st, 1875, amounted to about |4,01 2,421. The resources TEXAS. 755 of the State are amply sufficient to meet its liabilities. The receipts from September, 1867, to April 16th, 1870, were $1,384,190, and the expenditures for the same period, $1,024,891, leaving an unexpended balance in the Treasury of $379,531 . Adding the balance of the Con- vention fund still on hand, the cash balance in the Treasury amounted to $416,709. GOVERNMENT. Until the latter part of the year 1869, the State constituted a part of the Fifth Military District. Between the 30th of November, and 3d of December, 1869, the people by their votes ratified the new Constitution, and on the 30th of March, 1870, the State was readmit- ted into the Union. By the terms of the new Constitution, every male citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, except criminals, lunatics, and Indians not taxed, without regard to race, color, or previous condition, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county six months, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller; and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate of 30 members, and a House of Representatives of 90 members, all elected by the people. The highest judicial tribunal is the Supreme Court, consisting of three judges. The State is divided into 35 judicial districts, for each of which, a District Judge is elected, who is required to hold three terms of his court annually, in each county of his district. There are also Justices of the Peace, with jurisdiction in petty cases, wdio try causes by themselves, or with a jury of 6 men. For the purpose of repressing crime and lawlessness, there is a State police force, consisting of 4 captains, 8 lieutenants, 20 sergeants, and 225 privates. Tlie Adjutant-General of the State acts as Chief of this police. All sheriffs, their deputies, constables, marshals of cities and towns, their deputies, and the police of cities and towns, are made ex-qfficio members of this force, and as such are at all times subject to the orders of the Governor, or of* the Adjutant-General, for the purpose of preventing crime or arresting offenders. The chief and the whole force are subject to the orders of the Governor. For the protection of the settlers against the Indians, companies of rangers are maintained on the frontier, at the expense of the State. Home- 756 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. steads of not more than 200 acres in the country, and a lot or lots not in a village or town exceeding $5000 in value, exclusive of the value of the improvements, are exempted from executions for debt. Liberal inducements in offers of land are iield out to actual settlers. The lands thus offered are among the finest in the State. For purposes of Government the State is divided into 124 countie&. The seat of'goverument is located at Austin. HISTORY. Texas was first settled by a colony of French under La Salle. It was the intention of the leader of this expedition to found a colony near the month of the Mississippi, but sailing past it through mistake, he entered Matagorda *t3ay, and ascended the Lavaca for five or six miles, where he built Fort St. Louis, about the year 1686. After enduring many hardships, he was murdered by his men on the 20th of ]March, 1687. When the Indians heard of his death, they attacked the fort, the garrison of which had been much reduced by quarrels among themselves, captured it, and killed all its defenders but four, whom they carried into captivity. In April, 1689, a Spanish expedi- tion arrived in Matagorda Bay for the purpose of driving away the French, but found the fort destroyed. A few years later several settlements were made in Texas by the Spaniards, but in consequence of the hostilities of the Indians, they abandoned them. In 1712, Louis XIV. of France, granted the province, which he claimed, to Crozat, to whom he had granted Louisiana. This act so alarmed the Spanish authorities in Mexico that they at once made numerous settlements in Texas, in order to secure the territory in advance of the French, who in 1721 made an unsuccessful effort to expel them. In 1728, 400 families were sent out to Texas from the Canary Isles by the Spanish Government, and were joined in that country by others from Mexico. These settlers founded the city of San Antonio. The Indians of Texas and Louisiana proved very troublesome for some time, but were defeated in a great battle by the Spaniards, in 1732, and quieted for some years. During the American Revolution, the authorities of Texas, after the declaration of war against England by Spain in 1779, carried on active hostilities against the British on the Mississippi. During this period prosperous trade was carried on via Nacogdoches, between the Spanish settlement of Natchez, in Mississippi, and the interior of Texas, and was finally the means of makinsi: this State known to the Americans. TEXAS. 757 In 1803 Louisiana passed into tlie hands of the United States, and in 1819, a treaty between this country and Spain, fixed the Sabine River as the eastern boundary of Texas upon the Gulf. In 1806, the population numbered 7000 souls, a number of whom were Americans. " West of the Sabine was a tract called the ' Neutral Ground/ which was occupied by bands of outlaws and desperate men, who lived as buccaneers, by robbery and plunder, perpetrated upon the traders. The Spanish authorities had endeavored to expel them, but could not. The United States sent a force against them, and drove them away; but they returned again, and renewed their depredations. About this time, Lieutenant A. W. Magee, a native of Massachusetts, who had commanded an expedition against these outlaws, conceived the idea of conquering Texas to the Rio Grande, and establishing a republican Government. The enterprise was undertaken in the name of Don Bernardo Gutierres, though Magee was in reality at the head of the movement. The freebooters of the neutral ground joined his standard, in June, 1812. The civil war at this time raging in Mexico favored the designs of Magee, who had with him nearly every able- bodied man east of the Trinity. He crossed the Colorado with about 800 men. At this point, he learned that Salcedo, the royalist Gov- ernor of Texas, had come out against him as far as the Guadalupe, with 1400 men, where he lay in ambush. Magee then made a forced march, and reached La Bahia on the 14th of November, which was surrendered to him with but little opposition. Here Magee was be- sieged by Salcedo for three weeks. Previous to the last assault, Ma- gee agreed to deliver up the fort and return home. When this agree- ment was made known to the army, it was unanimously voted down. Major Kemper, the next in command, took the lead. Magee, deeply mortified, retired to his tent, and, it is said, died by his own hand a little after midnight. The Spaniards withdrew to San Antonio, after having continued the siege till the 12th of March, 1813, "The Americans, being reinforced, marched on San Antonio. When within about nine miles of that place, they came upon the Spanish army, under Governor Salcedo, about 2500 strong, being about double the number of the Americans. The battle of Rosalis ensued, nearly 1000 of the Spaniards were slain, and some few taken prisoners. The next day. Governor Salcedo surrendered, and being ])ut in charge of a company of Bexar Mexicans to be transported to New Orleans, he, with 13 other officers, among whom was ex-Gov- 768 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ernors Herrera and Cordero, were taken to the bank of the river below the town, where they were stripped and tied> and their throats cut ! Colonel Kemper, Major Ross, and others, being disgusted with such treachery and barbarity, left tiie army and returned home. Captain Perry now took the command, and on the night of June 4th, attacked and routed an army of over 2000 sent against them. The repub- licans, however, were finally defeated by another army, under General Arredondo, on the Medina, with great slaughter. Only 93 Americans reached Natchitoches, among wliom were Colonel Perry and Captains Taylor and Ballard. The Spaniards being successful, in revenge, committed horrid attrocitics upon the friends of the republican party. Thus ended the first effort at Texan independence. "In February, 1819, in a treaty with Spain, the Floridas were ceded to the United States, and the Sabine agreed upon as the boun- dary of the Spanish possessions. Texas thus being relinquished for Florida, a far less valuable territory, gave much dissatisfaction to tlie southern portion of the people of the United States. Early in 1810, Dr. James Long raised a company in Natchez, of 75 men, and pro- ceeded to Nacogdoches, and on his arrival, being joined by Colonel Davenport and Bernardo Gutierres, his command was increased to 300. A provisional Government was then formed, and Texas was declared to be a 'free and independent republic.' They also enacted laws, and fixed the price of lands, those on Red River being estimated at a dollar per acre. They also established the first printing office, Horatio Bigelow being the editor of the paper. General Long posted a few troops at the crossing of the Trinity, the falls of the Brazos, and at other places ; he also dispatched Colonel Gaines to Galveston, in order to obtain the cooperation of Lafitte, the freebooter, in the revo- lution. This was declined, Lafitte stating the forces were entirely inadequate for the purpose. Meantime, the royalists, under Colonel Parez, came and took the post on the Brazos, Avith 11 prisoners, Octo- ber 11th, 1819, and on the 15th they took La Bahia (now Goliad), and afterwards the post on the Trinity, and then proceeded to Nacog- doches, General Long and his men having barely made their escap? to the Sabine. Parez proceeded to Cooshattie village, and about 40 miles below that place, after a severe conflict with the republicans, routed them. The latter fled to" Bolivar Point, near Galveston, where General Long afterwards joined them. " General Long appears to have continued his head-quarters at Boli- var Point for some time; meanwhile Lafitte was obliged to leave Gal- TEXAS. 759 veston. On the day on which he left, General Long, with Colonel Milam and others, came over from Bolivar Point and dined with Lafitte. Soon after. Long, Milam, and Trespalacios, collecting their forces, sailed with them down the coast. General Long landed near the mouth of the San Antonio, and proceeding with a party took possession of La Ba- hia. Milam and Trespalacios soon after went to Mexico, in order to raise funds from the Republican Government, for at this time the revolutionary cause was gaining ground in Mexico. Notwithstanding this, it appears that the royalists succeeded in capturing General Long soon after, when he was sent to the city of Mexico, and then set at liberty, and finally assassinated. The wife of General Long, who re- mained at Bolivar Point during the absence of her husband, having heard of his death, returned to her friends in the United States. " In December, 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, but for some time a resident of Missouri, set out for San Antonio de Bexar, to solicit the sanction of the Government, and to procure a tract of land, for the settlement of an Anglo-American colony in Texas. On presenting himself to the Governor, he was, according to the Spanish regulations respecting foreigners, ordered to leave the province im- mediately. On crossing the public square, he accidentally met the Baron de Bastrop, with whom he had a slight acquaintance in the United States, many years before. By his influence lie obtained a second interview with the Governor, the result of which was that his petition to introduce 300 American families into Texas was recom- mended and forwarded to the proper authorities in Mexico. It was granted in January, 1821. Mr. Austin returned before its fate was known, and died shortly afterward. He left special injunctions to his son, Stephen F. Austin, to carry out his cherished plan to establish a colony. "On July 21, 1821, Stephen F. Austin, accompanied by Senor Se- guin and seventeen pioneers, entered the wilderness of Texas to lay the foundation of her present prosperity. He explored various parts, and after meeting with losses and difficulties, located his colony on the Brazos. Austin soon repaired to San Antonio, to report to the Governor, who appears to have been friendly to the enterprise. When he arrived there, in March, 1822, he learned, with much regret, that it was necessary to make a journey to the city of Mexico, to procure a grant from the supreme autliorities. On the 29th of April ensuing. Colonel Austin arrived in Mexico, and succeeded in obtaining from Iturbide, then emperor, a confirmation of the grant made to his father, 47 760 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. When about to return to Texas, Iturbide was overthrown, and his acts declared null and void. Austin was again obliged to apply to the reigning authorities, who renewed the grant, and in eifect clothed him with almost sovereign power. In conjunction with Baron Bastrop, Austin fixed his colonial capital on the Brazos, calling it San Felipe de Austin. " When the Mexican Government, in 1825, abolished slavery within her limits, most of the settlers in Texas being planters from the Southern States, who had brought their slaves with them, felt them- selves aggrieved, and petitioned the Mexican congress in vain for re- lief. On the establishment of Centralism, under Santa Anna, Texas, in 1835, declared her independence. In 1836, Santa Anna, President of Mexico, with a force of several thousand men, moved forward, threat- ening to exterminate the Americans, or to drive them from the soil of Texas. In March, San Antonio de Bexar was besieged ; the Alamo there, defended by only 187 Americans, was carried by storm, and all slain ; among them were Colonel Travis, Colonel David Crockett and Colonel Bowie, the inventor of the bowie-knife. While Santa Anna was -engaged at San Antonio, General Urrea marched upon Goliad. He had a severe contest with Colonel Fannin's troops, who, on March 20th, surrendered themselves as prisoners of war. Nine days afterward the Texan prisoners, to the number of 330, were led out and massacred in cold blood. "On the 7th of April, 1836, Santa Anna arrived at San Felipe with the divisions of Sesraa and Tolsa. He proceeded down the M^est bank of the Brazos, crossed the river at Richmond, and on the 16th reachal Harrisburg. The Texans, under General Houston, now reduced to less than 8^0 men, retiring before his advance, proceeded down the bank of the Buffalo Bayou, and took a position near the River San Jacinto, On the 21st of April, 1836, Santa Anna, with a force of over 1700 men, Ixiing encamped near General Hougton, was attacked by the Texans. When within about 600 yards, the Mexican line opened their fire upon them, but the Texans, nothing daunted, pressed on to a close conflict, which lasted about 18 minutes, when the enemy gave way, and were totally routed, nearly every man was either killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. The Texan loss was but 2 killed, and 23 wounded. This victory secured the independence of Texas. "In 1841, President Lamar organized what has been termed the 'Santa Fc Expedition,' the object of which Mas to open trade with , Santa Fe, and to establish Texan authority, in accordance with the TEXAS. 761 treaty of Santa Anna, over all the territory east of the E,io Grande. Sa«ta Fe, lying east of that river, was still in possession of the Mexi- cans. On the 18th of June, the expedition, numbering 325 men, under General M'Leod, left Austin, the capital of Texas, and after a journey of about three months, arrived at the Spanish settlements in New Mexico. They were intercepted by a vastly superior force, and sur- rendered on condition of their being allowed to return ; but instead of this, they were bound with ropes and leather thongs, in gangs of six or eight, stripped of most of their clothing, and marched to the city of Mexico, a distance of 1200 miles. On their route, they were treated with cruelty, beaten, and insulted ; forced to march at times by night as well as by day ; blinded by sand, parched by thirst, and famishing with hunger. " Having arrived at Mexico in the latter part of December, they were, by the orders of Santa Anna, thrown into filthy prisons. After a while, part were compelled to labor as common scavengers in the streets of the city; while others were sent to the stone quarries of Pueblo, where, under brutal taskmasters, they labored with heavy chains fastened to their limbs. Of the whole number, three were murdered on the march ; several died of ill-treatment and hardship ; some few escaped, some were pardoned, and nearly all eventually re- leased. " Soon after the result of this expedition was known, rumors pre- vailed of an intended invasion of Texas. In September, 1842, 1200 Mexicans, under General Woll, took the town of Bexar; but subse- quently retreated beyond the Rio Grande. A Texan army was collec- ted, who were zealous to carry the war into Mexico. After various disappointments and the return of most of the volunteers, 300 Texans ci'ossed the R,io Grande and attacked the town of Mier, which was garrisoned by more than 2000 Mexicans strongly posted. In a dark, rainy night, they drove in the guard, and in spite of a constant fire of the enemy, effected a lodgment in some houses in the suburbs, and with the aid of the deadly rifle fought their way into the heart of the place. At length, Ampudia sent a white flag, which was accom- panied by General La Vega and other officers, to inform the Texans ofihe utter hopelessness of resistance against an enemy ten times their number. The little band at length very reluctantly surrendered, after a loss of only 35 in killed* and wounded, while the Mexicans admitted theirs to have been over 500. " The Texans, contrary to the stipulations, were marched to Mexico, 7G2 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. distant 1000 miles. On one occasion, 214 of tliem, although un- armed, rose upon their guard of over 300 men, overpowered atid dispersed them, and commenced their journey homeward ; but igno- rant of the country and destitute of provisions, and being pursued by a large party, they were obliged to surrender. Everj^ tenth man was shot for this attempt at escape. The others were thrown into the dungeons of Perote, where about 30 died of cruel treatment. A few escaped, and the remainder were eventually released. " Early application was made by Texas to be annexed to the United States. Several years passed over without any serious attempts having been made by Mexico to regain Texas, and the political free- dom of the country was thus considered as established. Presidents Jackson and Van Buren, in turn, objected on the ground of the un- settled boundary of Texas, and the peaceful relations with Mexico. President Tyler brought forward the measure, but it was lost in Con- gress. It having been the test question in the ensuing Presidential election, and the people deciding in its favor by the election of the Democratic candidates, Texas was annexed to the Union by a joint resolution of Congress, February 28, 1845. "The Mexican Minister, Almonte, who had before announced that Mexico would declare war if Texas was annexed, gave notice that since America had consummated 'the most unjust act in her history,' negotiations were at an end. "War with Mexico then ensued. The theatre of war in this State was on the Rio Grande. General Taylor, with the American troops, routed the Mexicans on the soil of Texas, at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and the arms of the United States were everywhere triumphant. The State Government was organized on the 19th of February, 1846. The boundary between New Mexico and Texas, the latter of Avhich claimed the line of the Rio Grande, was adjusted by treaty in 1850. "The joint resolution by which Texas was annexed to the Union gives permission for the erection of four additional States from its territory, and in these words — ' New States, not exceeding four in number, in addition to said State of Texas, and having sufficient population, may hereafter, by the consent of said State, be formed out of the territory thereof, which shall be entitled to admission un- der the provisions of the Federal Constitution.' " * * Barber's History of All the Western States. TEXAS. 763 Oa the 5th of February, 1861, the State seceded from the Union, and joined the Southern Confederacy. During the war it had com- parative exemption from hostilities, except along the coast, where considerable suffering was experienced. At the close of the war a Provisional Government was erected, but was repudiated by Congress, and in 1867 the State was made a part of the 5th Military District, and continued under military rule until March, 1870, when it was readmitted into the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Galveston, Houston, San An- tonio, Brownsville, and New Braunfels. AUSTIN, The capital of the State, is beautifully situated in Travis county, on the north bank of the Colorado, about 200 miles, by land, from its mouth, 230 miles west-northwest of Galveston, and about 1420 miles southwest of Washington. Latitude 30° 15' N. ; longitude 97° 47' W. The city is built on a plain elevated about 40 feet above the level of the river. It is well built, but owes its importance entirely to its being the seat of the State Government. The Colorado is navigable to Austin during the winter months, which constitute the, season of navigation. The city contains the public buildings of the State. The Capitol stands on an eminence at the head of Congress avenue, the main street of the city. It is a handsome building, and is constructed of un oolite, of a soft white color. It is built in the Ionic style of architecture. The Governor's House is a plain edifice of brick, on an eminence about 300 yards from the capitol. The Treasury Depart- ment, Land Office, and the Lunatic, Blind, and Deaf and Dumb Asylums, are fine buildings. The scenery in the vicinity of Austin is much admired. The city became the capital of Texas in 1844. In 1870 the population was 4428. GALVESTON, The largest city and the commercial metropolis of the State, is situated in the county of the same name, on Galveston Island at its eastern end, at the mouth of Galveston Bay. It is 230 miles east-southeast of Anstin, and about 200 miles west of New Orleans. The island, which separates the bay from the Gulf of Mexico, is about 30 miles 764 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GALVKSTON long and 3 miles broad. The surface is level, and its average eleva- tion above the water is only about 4 feet. From Galveston City the bay extends to the northward for 35 miles to the mouth of Trinity River. The harbor of Galveston is the best in the State, and at low tide has from 12 to 14 feet of water on the bar. Within the harbor the anchorage is ample and secure, and the city is supplied with a series of excellent wharves. Galveston is the seat of a large coasting trade, and has regular communication by steamship with New Orleans and New York, and steamboats navigate the Trinity and San Jacinto rivers, bringing the produce of the interior to the seaboard. There is railway communication with the principal towns of the State, and a railway is in progress which will connect Galveston with New Orleans. MISCELLANY. CAPTURE OF THE ALAMO. The " Fall of the Alamo," like the f\\mous defence of Thermopylas, is au event that will long live among the heroic incidents of history. At 2 o'clock in tlio afternoon, February 23d, 1836, Santa Anna, with the 2d division of the Mexican army, marched into the town of San Antonio, having been preceded by an ad- vance detachment the second day preceding. His army numbered several thou- sand strong, and comprised the choicest troops of his country. On the same day a regular siege of the Alamo commenced, and lasted eleven days, until the final assault. The Alamo was then garrisoned by loG men, under Lieutenant-Colonel William Barret Travis, with Colonel James Bowie, second, as is believed, iu command. Colonel David Crockett was also with the garrison, but it is un- known whether he had a command, as he had joined it onl3' a few weeks before. TEXAS. 765 Santa Anna immediately demanded a surrender of the garrison, without terms. Their reply was a shot from the fort. He then raised a blood red flag on the church at Bexar, as a token of vengeance against the rebels, and began an attack, and this by slow approaches. Travis sent off an express with a strong appeal for aid, declaring that he would never surrender nor retreat. For many days no marked incidents occurred in the siege. On the 1st of March, 33 gallant men, from Gonzales, under Captain John W. Smith, entered the Alamo, and raised the effective force to 188 men. On the 3d, Travis sent out by a courier a last ap- peal, setting forth fully his determination to remain until he got relief or perished in the defence. About the same time he also wrote an affecting note to a friend : *' Take care of my little boy. If the country should be saved, I may make him a splendid fortune ; but if the country should be lost, and I should perish, he will have nothing but the proud recollection that he is the son of a man who died for his country.''^ The account of the final assault, with the accompanying description of the Alamo, we take from the "Fall of the Alamo," a pamphlet by Captain R. M. Potter, published at San Antonio, in July, 1860. He had unusual opportunities for obtaining all that can be known of the final tragedy, the details of which have not been accurately given, for the reason that not a single defender survived it : " Santa Anna, after calling a council of war .on the 4th of March, fixed upon (he morning of Sunday, the 6th, as the time for the final assault. Before narrat- mg it, however, I must describe the Alamo as it then existed. It had been founded soon after the first settlement of the vicinity, and being originally built as a place of safety for the settlers and their property, in case of Indian hostility, with suflicient room for that purpose, it had neither the strength nor compact- ness, nor the arrangement of dominant points, which belong to a regular fortifi- cation. "As its area contained between two and three acres, a thousand men would barely have suflSced to man its defences, and before a heavy siege train its walls would soon have crumbled. "This work was not manned against the assault. According to Santa Anna's report, 21 guns of various calibres were planted in different parts of the works. Yoakum, in his description of the armament, mentions but 14. Whichever num- ber be correct, however, has but little bearing upon the merits of the final defence, in which the cannon had little to do. They were in the hands of men unskilled in their use, and owing to the construction of the fort each had a limited range, which the enemy, in moving up, seem in a measure to have avoided. "It was resolved by Santa Anna that the assault should take place at early dawn. The order for the attack, which I have read, but have no copy of, Avas full and precise in its details, and was signed by Brigadier-General Amador as head of the staff. The besieging force consisted of the battalions of Toluca, Jimenes, Matamoros, los Zapadores (or sappers), and another, which I think was that of Guerrero, and the dragoon regiment of Dolores. The infantry was di- rected at a certain hour, between midnight and dawn, to form at a convenient distance from the fort in four columns of attack and a reserve. This disposition was not made bj' battalions ; for the light companies of all of them were incorpo- rated with the Zapadores to form the reserve, and some other transpositions may have been made. A certain number of scaling ladders and axes were to be borne with particular columns. The cavalry were to be stationed at different pomta around the fortress to cut off fugitives. From what I have learned of men en- 766 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. gaged in the action, it seems that these dispositions were changed on the eve of attack, so far as to combine the five bodies of infantry into three columns of at- tack. This inckided the troops designated in the order as the reserve ; and the only actual reserve that remained was the cavalry. "The immediate command of the assault was entrusted to General Castrillon, a Spaniard by birth and a brilliant soldier. Santa Anna took his station, with a part of his staff and all the regimental bands, at a battery south of the Alamo and near the old bridge, from which the signal was to be given by a bugle note for the columns to move simultaneously, at double quick time, against different points of the fortress. One, composed mainly of the battalion of Toluca, was to enter the north breach — the other two to move against the southern side : one to attack the gate of the large area — the other to storm the chapel. By the timing of the signal, it was calculated that tlie columns would reach the foot of the wall just as it became light enough to operate. " When the hour came, the batteries and the music were alike silent, and a single blast of the bugle was at first followed by no sound save the rushing tramp of soldiers. The guns of the fortress soon opened upon them, and then the bands at the south battery struck up the assassin note of deguello — ' no quarter.' But a few and not very effective discharges from the works could be made before the enemy were under them. A sergeant of the Zapadores told me that the column he belonged to encountered but one discharge of grape in moving up, and that passed mostly over the men's heads ; and it is thought that the worn and weary garrison was not till then fully mustered. The Toluca column arrived first at the foot of the wall, but was not the first to enter the area. A large piece of can- non at the northwest angle of the area probably commanded the breach. Either this, or the deadly fire of the riflemen at that point, where Travis commanded in person, brought the column to a disordered halt, and its leader, Colonel Duque, fell dangerously wounded. But, while this was occurring, one of the other col- umns entered the area by the gate, or by escalade near it. The defence of the outer walls had now to be abandoned ; and the garrison took refuge in the build- ings. It was probably while the enemy were pouring in through the breach that Travis fell at his post ; for his body was found beside the gun just referred to. All this passed within a few minutes after the bugle sounded. The early loss of the outer barrier, so thinly manned, was inevitable ; and it was noi until the garrison became more concentrated and covered in the inner works, that the main struggle commenced. They were more concentrated as to the space, not as to unity ; for there was no communicating between the buildings, nor in all cases be- tween rooms. There was now no retreating from point to point ; and each group of defenders had to fight and die in the den where it was brought to bay. From the doors, windows, and loopholes of the rooms around the area, the crack of the rifle sind hiss of the bullet came fierce and fast : and the enemy fell and recoiled in his first efforts to charge. The gun beside which Travis lay was now turned against the buildings, as were also some others ; and shot after shot in quick succession Avas sent crashing through the doors and barricades of the several rooms. Each ball was followed by a storm of musketry and a charge ; and thus room after room was carried at the point of the bayonet, when all within them died fighting to the last. The struggle was made up of a number of separate and de.'iperate combats, often hand to hand, between squads of the garrison and bodies of the enemy. The bloodiest spot about the fortress was the long barrack and the ground in front of it, where the eneniy fell in heaps. TEXAS. 767 •'In the meantime, the turning of Travis' gun had been imitated by the garri- son. A small piece on the roof of the chapel, or one of the other buildings, was turned against the area while the rooms were being stormed. It did more execu- tion than any other cannon of the fortress; but after a few effective discharges, all who manned it fell under the enemy's fire. Crockett had taken refuge in a room of the low barrack near the gate. He either garrisoned it alone, or was left alone by the fall of his companions, when he sallied to meet his fate in the face of the foe, and was shot down. Bowie had been severely hurt by a fall from a platform, and, when the attack came on, was confined to his bed in an upper room of the barrack. He was there killed ou his couch, but not without resist- ance ; for he is said to have shot down with his pistols one or more of the enemy as they entered the chamber. " The church was the last point taken. The column which moved against it, consisting of the battalion of Jimenes and other troops, was at first repulsed, and took refuge among some old houses outside of the barrier, near its southwest angle, till it was rallied and led on by General Amador. It was soon joined by the rest of the force, and the church was carried by a coup de main. Its inmates, like the rest, fought till the last, and continued to fire from the upper platforms after the enemy occupied the floor of the building. A Mexican officer told of seeing a man shot in the crown of the head in this melee. During the closing struggle. Lieutenant Dickinson, with his child in his arms, or tied to his back, as some accounts say, leaped from an upper window, and both were killed in the act. Of those he left behind him, the bayonet soon gleaned what the bullet missed ; and in the upper part of the church the last defender must have fallen. The morning breeze which received his parting breath probably still fanned his flag above that fabric, ere it was pulled down by the victor. It is a fact not often remembered, that Travis and his men died under the Mexican Federal fiag of 1834, instead of the 'Lone Star,' although the independence of Texas, unknown to them, had been declared four days before. They died for a Republic whose existence they never knew. "jT/je Alamo had fallen. "The action, according to Santa Anna's report, lasted 30 minutes. It was certainly short, and possibly no longer space passed between the moment when the enemy fronted the breach and that when resistance died out. Some of the incidents which have to be related separately, no doubt occurred simultaneously, and occupied very little time. "The account of the assault which Yoakum and others have adopted as au- thentic, is evidently one which popular tradition has based on conjecture. "A negro boy, belonging to Travis, the wife of Lieutenant Dickinson, Mrs. Alsbury, a native of San Antonio, and another Mexican woman, and two children, were the only inmates of the fortress whose lives were spared. The children were those of the two females whose names are given. Lieutenant Dickinson commanded a gun in the east upper window of the church. His family was pro- bably in one of the two small upper rooms of the front. This will account for his being able to take one of his children to the rear platform while the building was being stormed. A small irrigating canal runs below the window referred to ; and his aim, in the desperate attempt at flight, probably was to break his fall by leaping into the water ; but tlie shower of bullets which greeted him rendered the precaution as needless as it was hopeless. "At the time the outer barriers were carried, a few men leaped from them and 768 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. attempted to escape, but were all cut down by the cavalry. Half an hour or more after the action was over, a few men were found concealed in one of the rooma under some mattresses — General Houston, in a letter of the 11th, says as many as seven ; but I have generally heard them spoken of as only three or four. The offi- cer to whom they were first reported entreated Santa Anna to spare their lives ; but he was sternly rebuked and the men ordered to be shot, v/hich was done. Owing to the hurried and confused manner in which the mandate was obeyed, a Mexican soldier was accidentally killed with them. " Castrillon was the soul of the assault. Santa Anna remained at the south battery with the music of the whole army and a part of his staff, till he supposed the place was nearly mastered, when he moved up with that escort toward the Alamo ; but returned again on being greeted by a few rifle balls from the upper windows of the church. He, however, entered the area toward the close of the scene, and directed some of the last details of the butciiery. " The five infantry corps that formed the attacking force, according to the data already referred to, amounted to about 2500 men. The number of Mexican wounded, according to various accounts, largely exceeded that of the killed ; and the estimates made of both by intelligent men who were in the action, and whose candor I think could be relied on, rated their loss at from 150 to 200 killed, and from 300 to 400 wounded. The real loss of the assailants in killed and wounded probably did not differ much from 500 men. General Bradburn was of opinion that 300 men in the action were lost to the service, counting with the killed those who died of wounds or were permanently disabled. This agrees with the other most reliable estimates. Now, if 500 men or more were bullet-stricken in half an hour, by 180 or less, it was a rapidity of bloodshed almost unexampled, and needs no exaggeration. " Of the foregoing details, which do not refer to documentary authority, I ob- tained many from General Bradburn, who ii.rrived at San Antonio a few daj^s after the action, and gathered them from oiScers who were in it. A few I had through a friend from General Amador. Others again I received from three in- telligent sergeants, who were men of fair education, and I think truthful. One of them. Sergeant Becero, of the battalion of Matamoras, who was captured at San Jacinto, was for several years my servant in Texas. From men of their class I could generally get more candid statements, as to loss and other matters, than from commissioned officers. I have also gathered some minor particulars from local tradition preserved among the residents of this town. When most of the details thus learned were acquired, I had not seen the locality ; and hence I had to locate some of the occurences by inference ; which I liave done carefully and I think correctly. "The stranger will naturally inquire, 'Where lie the heroes of the Alamo?' and Texas can only reply by a silent blush. A few hours after the action, the bodies of the slaughtered garrison were gathered up by the victors, laid in three piles, mingled with fuel, and burned. On the 25th of February, near a year after, their bones and ashes were collected, placed in a coffin, and interred with due solemnity, and with military honors, by Colonel Seguin and his command. The place of burial was in what was then a peach orchard outside the town, a few hundred yards from the Alamo. It is now ajarge enclosed lot in the midst of the Alamo sni^-urh." THE WESTERN STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. Area, 23,000 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 376,688 Population in 1870, 442,014 The State of West Virginia (excluding the narrow strip in the northwest, called the "Pan-handle") lies between 37° 6' and 39° 44' X. latitude, and between 77° 40' and 82° 35' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania and Maryland, on the south- east by Virginia, on the southwest by Virginia and Kentucky, and on the northwest by Ohio. It is very irregular in shape. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface is generally hilly. The northeast part of the State is crossed by the Alleghany Mountains, west of which are the Green- brier, Cheat Mountains, and other enainences, supposed to be a pro- longation of the Cumberland Mountains. The valley between these ranges and the Alleghanies is elevated to a level of from 1200 to 2000 feet above the level of the sea. The scenery of the State is grand and beautiful. The celebrated pass at Harper's Ferry lies in this State, and is but the beginning of a series of mountain views, unsurpassed in grandeur by any in the world. ^ " The scenery at Harper's Ferry is, perhaps, the most singularly picturesque in America. To attain the view here given, it was necessary to climb the Blue Ridge by a narrow winding path immediately above the bank of the Potomac. The view from this lofty summit amply repays the fatigue incurred by its ascent. The junction of the two rivers is immediately beneath the spectator's feet; and his delighted 769 770 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HARPER'S FERRY. eye, resting first upon the beautiful and thriving village of Harper's Ferry, wanders over the wide and woody plains, extending to the Alleghany Mountains. President Jefferson, who has given the name to a beautiful rock immediately above the village, has left a powerful description of the scenery of Harper's Ferry. He says : ' The passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge, is, perhaps, one of the most stupendous sCenes in nature. You stand on a very high point of land ; on your right comes up the Shenandoah, having ranged along the foot of a mountain a hundred miles to seek a vent. On your left approaches the Potomac, in quest of a passage also ; in the moment of their junction, they rush together against the moun- tain, rend it asunder, and pass off to the sea. The first glance of this scene hurries our senses into the opinion that this earth has been created in time; that the mountains were formed first; that the rivers began to flow afterwards ; that in this place particularly, they have been dammed up by the Blue Ridge of mountains, and have formed an ocean which filled the whole valley ; that, continuing to rise, they have at length broken over at this spot, and have toi"n the mountain down from its summit to its base. The piles of rock on WEST VIRGINIA. 771 each hand, particularly on the Shenandoah — tne evident marks of their disrupture and avulsion from their beds by the most powerful agents of nature, corroborate the impression. But tiie distant finish- ing which nature has given to the picture, is of a very different character; it is a true contrast to the foreground ; it is as placid and delightful as that is wild and tremendous ; for the mountain being cloven asunder, she presents to your eye, through the clefts a small catch of smooth blue horizon, at an infinite distance in the plain country, inviting you, as it were, from tiie riot and tumult warring around, to pass through the breach and participate of the calm below. Here the eye ultimately composes itself; and that way, too, the road happens actually to lead. You cross the Potomac above the junction, [)ass along its side through the base of the mountain for three miles, its terrible precipices hanging in fragments over you, and within about twenty miles reach Fredericktown, and the fine country round that. This scene is worth a voyage across the Atlantic; yet here, as in the neighborhood of the Natural Bridge, are people who have passed their lives within half a dozen miles, and have never been to survey these monuments of a war between rivers and mountains, which must have shaken the earth itself to its centre.' There are many points of view from which the scenery appears romantic and beautiful. Among these, that seen from Jefferson's Rock, which is on a hill overhanging the town, is very fine. The top of this rock is flat, and nearly twelve feet square; its base, which does not exceed five feet in width, rests upon the top of a larger rock ; and its height is about five feet. The whole mass is so nicely balanced, that the application of a small force will cause it to vibrate considerably. On this rock once reposed another rock, on which Mr. Jefferson, during a visit to this place, inscribed his name. In the extraordinary political excitement of 1798-9, between the federal and the democratic , parties, a Captain Henry, who was stationed here with some United States troops, at the head of a band of his men hurled off the apex of this rock. At Harper's Ferry, on the Maryland side, there is said to be a wonderful likeness of Washington in the stupendous rocks which overhang the Potomac. The nose, lips, and chin are admirably formed, and bear the semblance of studied art. The fore- head is obscure; yet there is sufficient to give the mind a just idea of the noble form and dignified carriage, with the mildness of feature, which the original possessed so pre-eminently as to inspire all men V^'ith a profound reverence towards this august personage." 772 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Ohio River, already described, washes the entire northwestern shore of the State. The cities of Wheeling and Parkersburg lie on its banks. Its scenery is beautiful, but tame. It receives the waters of the principal rivers of the State. These are the Little and Great Kanawha, the Guyandotte, and Big Sandy, which last separates the State from Kentucky. The Monongahela, one of the branches of the Ohio, rises in the centre of this State, and flows north into Pennsyl- vania. The Potomac also rises in the northeastern part and separates West Virginia from Maryland. The Great Kanawha is the principal river, lying for the greater part within the State, It rises in Ashe county, North Carolina, and flows northwest through Virginia and AVest Virginia into the Ohio, at Point Pleasant. Before entering West Virginia it is known as New River. It breaks through the Alleghany and Blue Ridge ranges, and in Fayette county, in this State, is joined by its principal tributary, the Gauley. Two miles below the mouth of the Gauley, the Kanawha, now 500 yards wide, falls over a ledge of rocks 25 feet high. These falls are very pic- turesque, and are at the head of the navigation of the stream. The scenery, especially along the New River, is very beautiful. The Kanawha is 400 miles long, and navigable for 100 miles. The Monongahela is navigable at high water from Pittsburg, Pa., to Fair- mont in this State. CLIMATE. The climate in West Virginia is invigorating and delightful. ' The summers are cool and pleasant, yet hot enough for the crops, and the winters though severe are steady and not unpleasant. In healthful- ness, the State will compare favorably with any part of the Union. MINERALS. A recent report of the Bureau of Agriculture thus describes the minerals of the State : " The minerals of West Virginia are too well known for particular comment. Nearly all the counties in the State contain coal, iron, and other minerals ; coal, in veins suitable for working, is found in greatest abundance along the banks of the Upper Ohio, in the hills along the course of the Monongahela and its branches, in the central counties of the State, in the Piedmont region east of the summit, in the Ka- nawha valley, and in all the counties south of that river. The coal WEST VIRGINIA. 773 • lands of Guyandotte, being bituminous, cannel, and splint varieties, cover nine-tenths of the Guyandotte valley, in horizontal strata in the hills, from three to eleven feet thick, aggregating in some hills, twenty- five or thirty feet. Coal mining in Kanawha is represented as paying well. The inducements for employing capital under practical super- vision is claimed to be very flattering, while complaint is made of the visionary character of recent coal and oil operations. Of Brooke, our correspondent says: — 'The most valuable mineral, however, is bitu- minous coal, accessible by level adits over the greater part of the county. The stratum is four to five feet thick. In the hills, fronting on the Ohio River, it i& about 200 feet above the river level, and the coal is let down by railways to boats for shipment. Off from the river it is mined merely for home consumption. As soon as railways are made up the valleys, an immense supply can be obtained. About 300 feet beneath the river level, there is another stratum, some six or seven feet in thickness, of superior coal, which has been mined by shafts or galleries at Steubenville, and at Rust Run, on the opposite side of the river. A company was formed a short tiiiie ago to mine this coal at Wellsburg, our county seat, but they have as yet failed to commence. This coal is almost wholly free from sulphur, and on that account admirably fitted for working iron.' Iron ore, of various descriptions, and of superior quality, abounds in many of the counties. It is worked in a few localities on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, but development of the iron of the State can scarcely be said to have commenced. Other minerals are reported in every section of the State. Some of the best timber of the country is to be found here, of all the different kinds of oaks, black walnut, hickory, poplar, cherry, etc. A considerable trade in timber is already in progress in the river counties, and hoat-biiilding is engaged in to some extent. The soil is generally productive, yielding well all farm products." SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is excellent as a general rule. The river bot- toms and the mountain valleys are the best lands, bub the hill-sides are fertile, also, and admirably suited for grazing. In 1869, there were about 3,000,000 acres of improved land in the State, and about 7,000,000 acres of unimproved land. The cash value of farms was about $120,000,000. Farming implements and machinery amounted to about $2,500,000 in value. The value of domestic animals was |1 7,088,568. 774 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The principal products are : Bushels of wlieat, 2,500,000 " rye, 300,000 " oats, . 2,500,000 " buckwheat, 90,000 " Indian corn, 8,250,000 barley, 56,000 " Irish potatoes, 1,125,000 Pounds of tobacco, 2,000,000 Tons of hay, 225,000 MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. Manufactures are growing in importance in the State. Wheeling, the principal city, is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron and glass. In 1870 there were 2444 manufacturing establishments in the State, employing 11,672 hands, and a capital of $11,084,520; using raw ma- terials to the value of $14,503,701 ; and yielding an annual product of 124,102,201. The iron manufactures were valued at $9,833,892. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 485 miles of completed railroads in West Vir- ginia, constructed at a cost of about $33,000,000. The great Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which connects Wheeling with Baltimore, and its branch, the Northwestern Virginia Railroad, ])ass through the northern and northwestern counties of the State. The Hempfield Railroad will connect Wheeling with Washington, Pennsylvania, and is to be ex- tended to the Pennsylvania Central Railroad at Greensburg in that State. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway is completed from Coving- ton to the Ohio River, and connects its eastern terminus with the Central Railroad of Virginia. EDUCATION. Bethany College, in Brooke county, is the principal institution of the State. It is under the care of the Campbelite Church. The State Superintendent of Free Schools has the general super- vision of the system of public instruction in the State. He makes an annual report of the condition of the schools to the Legislature. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, elected for two years. He is required by law to visit the schools and examine the teachers. at least once in six months. He reports annually to the State Superin- WEST VIRGINIA. 775 tendent. The immediate control of the schools is vested in a Board of Education in each township. Each board consists of three Com- missioners, elected for three years, and the clerk of the township. They report to the County Superintendent. Three normal schools Iiave been established — one at Guyandotte, Cabell county ; one at West Liberty, Ohio county ; and one at Fairmont, Marion county. The school at West Liberty has been opened, and has an attendance of 90 pupils. An Agricultural College, established by the State at Morgantown, in Monongalia county, was opened in June, 1867. It is provided with excellent buildings and a farm of 25 acres. In 1870, there were 2113 school-houses in the State. The annual attendance was 87,330. The number of children of school age w^as 162,430. The permanent school fund, of which only the interest can be used, amounts to $254,860. The total sum received for sciiool purposes, during the year, amounted to $562,761. The value of school property in 48 counties was $1,057,473. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Moundsville, and is in course of construction, but sufficiently advanced to accommodate the con- victs, who in November, 1870, numbered 114. The Hospital for the Insane is at Weston, in Lewis county. It is not yet finished, but is sufficiently advanced to accommodate its pa- tients, who in 1870 numbered 207. The buildings, when completed, will be ample and very handsome. They were begun by the old State of Virginia before the war. The Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Asylum of West Virginia is situated at Romney, and was opened in 1870. It is too small to accommodate the patients. FINANCES. The State has no debt of its own, and it is not yet decided whether it will assume any share of the debt of the old State of Virginia. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1874, were $695,951 ; and the expenditures $657,183. On the 1st of Oc- tober, 1874, there was a cash balance in the Treasury of $38,768, exclusive of balance of school fund, etc. There were, in 1868, in this State, 5 State banks, with a capital of $570,200, and 15 National banks, with a capital of $2,216,400. 48 776 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was ratified by the people in May, 1862. Every white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided in the State one year, and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. Paupers, lunatics, and convicts, are not allowed to vote. Tlie Government is vested in a Governor, Secretary of State, Audi- tor, Treasurer, Attorney-General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 22 members, elected for two years) and a House of Dele- gates (of 51 members, elected for one year), all elected by the peo- ple. The State officers are chosen for two years. The Legislature meets every year on the third Tuesday in January, and sits for 45 days only, unless two-thirds of both houses agree to prolong the session. The Courts of the State are, the Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, and County Courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals consists of 3 judges, elected by the people for 12 years, one judge retiring every 4 years. The seat of Government is located at Charleston, in Kanawha county. The State is divided into 53 counties. HISTORY. This State formed a part of Virginia until the outbreak of the late war. Being unwilling to be forced out of the Union by the action of the eastern counties, the people of the western district met at Wheeling in convention, on the 11th of June, 1861, and organized a State Government. Delegates from 40 counties were present. On the 26th of November, 1861, another Convention met at Wheeling and adopted a State Constitution for the new State of West Virginia. This was ratified by the people on the 3d of May, 1862, but Congress insisted on the adoption of certain amendments to the Constitution. These changes were made by the Convention, the amendments sustained by a vote of the people, and the new State was admitted into the Union on the 20th of June, 1863. During the war the State was repeatedly invaded by the Confede- rates, and those regions bordering on the old State of Virginia put to considerable loss. The Kanawha Valley was the scene of several se- vere battles, but towards the close of the war the State was almost exempt from hostilities. WEST 7IRGIXIA. 777 The people were much divided in sentiment, the Union element preponderating, however. A large number of men enlisted in the Con- federate army, and the State furnished 31,884 troops to the United States army. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are. Wheeling, Parkersburg, Martins- burg, Charleston, Lewisburg, Clarksburg, Fairmont, Grafton, and Wellsburg. CHARLESTON, The capital of the State, is situated in Kanawha county, on the north bank of the Kanawha River, 60 miles from its mouth, and at its con- fluence with the Elk River, and about 150 miles S.S.W. of Wheeling. The river here is about 300 yards wide, and is navigable for small steamers during the entire year. These furnish the only means of communication with Wheeling and Parkersburg, the principal cities of the State. Charleston will soon be connected with Eastern Vir- ginia by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, now in course of con- struction. Charleston is a pretty country town, containing the county buildings, a newspaper office, 3 or 4 churches, and several schools. Its only im- portance is due to its being the capital of the State. Being difficult of access, it is believed that the seat of Government will soon be re- moved to some more convenient town. In 1870 the population was 3162. Just above Charleston are the famous Kanawha Salt Works, which extend on both sides of the river for about 15 miles. Previous to the civil war they gave employment to about 3000 persons, and produced large quantities of salt annually. During the civil war they were greatly injured. The entire Kanawha region is rich in coal, and abounds in fine water-power. Its proximity to the iron regions of the two Virginias gives it peculiar advantages for manufacturing, which will no doubt be improved in the course of a few years. WHEELING, The commercial and political metropolis of West Virginia, and the first capital of the State, is situated in Ohio county, on the east bank of the Ohio River, and on both sides of Wheeling Creek, at the mouth of the latter stream, 92 miles below Pittsburg, 365 miles above Cin- 778 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. WIIEKLIXG. einnati, and 420 miles west of Washington by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. Latitude 40° 7' N. ; longitude 80° 42' AV. The city is built along a narrow alluvial tract extending from the river to a range of hills less than a mile from the water, and running parallel with it. It is about 2 miles in length, with an average breadth of half a mile. It is regularly laid out, with moderately wide streets crossing each other at right angles, and though it contains a number of handsome buildings, public and private, is but indifferently built as a whole. The streets are tolerably well paved, and some of them are well shaded with handsome trees. The houses are mostly of brick, and nearly the whole of those recently erected are of this material. The principal public buildings are, the United States Custom House (in which is located the Post Office), a handsome granite edifice, and the Court House. The city contains 24 churches, some of which Mould do credit to any city ; an efficient hospital ; 7 public schools, and several excellent private schools, its female seminaries being among the best in the country ; a free library of 35,000 volumes ; 2 hotels, and 4 newspaper offices. Its principal points are connected by a street railway, which is also extended across the Ohio to the town of Bridgeport, in the WEST VIRGINIA. 779 State of Ohio; it isliglited with gas, is supplied with pure water from the Ohio River, and is jiiovided with a steam fire department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 19,282. Wheeling lies in the midst of one of the loveliest portions of the Ohio Valley, and is destined to become a place of very great import- ance. It is connected with Baltimore and the East by the Baltimore and Ohio Railway. A lailway on the opposite side of the river con- nects it with Pittsburg and Cleveland, and another on the same side with Columbus, Cincinnati and all parts of the West. The Ohio is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and affords M'ater communication with all parts of the Mississippi Valley. The city is engaged in a heavy river trade, a number of steamboats being owned in AVheeling. The prosperity of the city is due almost entirely to its manufactures. The mills by which it is surrounded are filled with coal, which lies i)ut a few feet below the surface. The larfje mills mine their own coal at a moderate cost, many of the " coal banks," as they are called, lying within the city limits. Dr. Reeves, of Wheeling, writing in 1870, thus speaks of the manufactures of the city: " In the manufacture of iron and nails, within the limits of the city, 2295 persons are employed ; of these the principal operatives are boilers and their helpers, 620 ; blacksmiths, 80; nailers, 127; nail- feeders, 385. Boilers work at the furnaces by turns of ten hours, both day and night, and prepare the metal for the rolls, where it is made into bars and nail sheeting. This class of laborers is generally composed of Germans and Irish — the most of them foreign born, and, as a rule, are a hardy set of men. " The nail mills of Wheeling — the Riverside Iron Works, Belmont, La Belle, and Wheeling Iron and Nail Works, including the two mills at Benwood and Bellaire, which are four miles distant from Wheeling, cut 17,350 kegs of nails per week, or about 902,200 kegs annually, at an average value of $4,059,900. Besides these, and other rolling mills for the manufacture of railroad bar rod, hammer iron, sheet iron, bridge iron, bolts, etc., there are two spike mills which turn out annually, for railroad and boat building purposes, from 50,000 to 60,000 kegs. The tougliness of Wheeling nails, and therefore their superiority to nails made at other mills, is generally conceded. The Whitaker Mills, situated on the bank of W^heeling Creek, engage principally in the manufacture of railroad iron, spikes. 78. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. sheet iron, etc., aud are capable of rolling and finishing 60 tons of railroad bars per day. Fifty miles of the rails of the great Pacific road were made at these mills. The Norway Manufacturing Com- pany's mills, situated in South Wheeling, are supplied with machin- ery of the most improved invention, and are capable of doing all kinds of wrought iron bridge work. A part of the grand railway superstructure soon to span the Missouri at St. Charles, near St. Louis, is now going through these mills, which^uot only proves their capacity, but as well their competitive ability. The hinge and tack factories are extensive establishments, and because of the superior manufacture of their stocks, they are rapidly extending their trade in all directions. The founderies and machine shops give employment to 475 persons, who are remarkable for their general good health, notwithstanding their frequent excesses in eating and drinking. There are eight founderies in the city. Three or four of these establishments are principally engaged in duplicating the patterns of machinery employed in the different iron and nail mills, and they are also as well prepared to make original patterns and single castings of any shape and for any purpose, weighing from one pound to fifteen tons. Recently a new item of business — the making of iron fronts of the most beautiful and substantial patterns, for business houses — has come into existence. " The stove market is entirely supplied from home founderies, which turn out annually thousands of diiferent patterns, both for cooking and heating purposes. In this particular line of trade, busi- ness is constantly on the increase, for two reasons, mainly : the truly excellent patterns made, and the exceedingly low price at which they are sold. Besides, it has been ascertained that Wheeling stoves with- stand greater and longer heat Avithout burning than many patterns of Eastern and Northern manufacture. " There are eight machine shops in the city. Of these the Baltimore and Ohio are the most extensive, and command the labor of from 60 to 120 men, both day and night. In each of the other shops, how- ever, equally skilled machinists are busily employed the year round making steam-engines, boilers, shafting, mill work, steamboat iron.?, etc., etc. In a word, anything in the way of Machinery can be made at the Wheeling shops as well and at as low price as it can be furnished from the competing shops of Pittsburg and Cincinnati. " The Manufacture of Glass. — In this department there are eix extensive establishments — one of which is said to be the largeiit WEST VIRGINIA. 781 of the kind in the United States — which employ 860 persons of both sexes, men and women, boys and girls. Many articles of Wheeling , glass manufacture find ready sale in the markets of other cities — from Maine to California; and it is, indeed, remarkable that New England sand can be shipped to Wheeling, where it is made into the finest flint glass wares, and then these sent to Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York and Boston, for sale at even smaller prices than tiieir own manufacturers can produce like articles. Some idea may be had of the extent of the business done, when it is mentioned that to one house alone, the annual cost of packages, boxes, barrels, etc., for shipment of wares, is $15,000; and that during the past three months, over 16,000 second-hand barrels have been used at a cost of $5000. The superior quality of Wheeling window glass is generally acknowledged. Several of the finer grades, usually cut into large panes, closely resem- ble the best specimens of imported plate glass. " Besides the manufacture of iron, nails and glass, there are several establishments which are of very great importance, both on account of the amount of capital invested, and the number of skilled laborers they employ. First in importance among these, perhaps, are the two extensive ship-yards — one in North AVheeling, the other in South Wheeling. Many first-class boats are built at these yards, and fur- nished with the most improved machinery from Wheeling shops. There are also several extensive wagon and carriage manufactories in the city. In these establishments a very large capital is invested. Their trade is principally with the South, and the supply of their manufactures scarcely equals the demand. The woollen factory is a busy institution, and supplies the home and other markets with many excellent fabrics." There are ai^out 34 establishments engaged in the manufacture of the articles referred to. Besides these, flour, white lead, and silk are also produced here. The Ohio is crossed at Wheeling by a beautiful wire suspension bridge, which is one of the largest in the world, with a span of 1010 feet. The height of the towers is 153 feet above low- water mark, and 60 feet above the abutments. The bridge is supported by four wire cables, each 1380 feet in length, and 8 inches in diameter. The cost of the bridge was $210,000 in gold. It extends from Wheeling proper to Zanes' Island, now the 7th ward of the city of Wheeling. On the western side of the island, a covered wooden bridge connects it with the town of Bridgeport in Ohio. 782 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Wheeling was originally settled in 1769 by Colonel Ebenezer Zane, his brothers Silas and Jonathan, and a number of others. They chose the site of the present city for their new home, and the next spring brought out their families. The name of the city is derived from an Indian word — Weeling — signifying the place of a head. Some }"oars before the settlement a party of whites descending the Ohio, stopped at the mouth of the creek. They were murdered by the Indians, who cut off the head of one of the victims, and placed it on a pole with the face to the river, and called the spot Weeling. Soon after the settlement a fort was built near the mouth of the creek. In Septem- ber, 1777, this Fort (Henry) was besieged by a force of about 500 Indian warriors, led by the notorious renegade Simon Girty. The garrison, only 42 strong, repulsed the attack, until the arrival of a reinforcement of about 50 men, when the savages raised the siege and retreated. After the close of the Revolution the city grew slowly. The introduction of steam navigation on the Ohio, gave it an impetus, and it soon entered upon its manufacturing career, which can be limited only by the amount of capital available to its citizens. After the secession of Virginia, and the separation from the old State, it was made the capital of West Virginia, and continued to be the seat of Government until the removal of the capital to Charleston, in 1870. PARKERSBURG, The second city of the State, is situated in Wood county, on the cast bank of the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha, 100 miles below Wheeling, and about 400 miles by railway west of Washington. It is well laid out, and is neatly built. It contains a Coiirt House, about 5 churches, several good schools, 3 newspajjcr offices, and several steam mills. It is the western terminus of the Northwestern Virginia railway, a branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railway. The Ohio River is here crossed by a fine railway bridge, by means of which close connections are made with the railways leading to Cincinnati, etc. The city is also actively engaged in the river trade. The valley of the Little Kanawha abounds in oil wells, many of which are very profitable. Just below Parkersburg is the long cele- brated Blannerhasset's Island. Good turnpike roads extend from Parkersburg to Winchester and Staunton, in Eastern Virginia. la 1870j the population of Parkersburg was 5546. WEST VIRGINIA. 783 MISCELLANY. BOEDER LIFE. Dodridge, in his "Notes on Western Virginia," gives the following account 'D IIS PwESOURCXS. ties of Campbell, Rhea, Marion, etc.; some gold is reported in Polk, salts, in Greene and Hawkins ; lead, in Perr%' ; fine marble and build- ing-stones, in Hawkins, Campbell, Monroe, Meigs, Giles, and William- son ; thick stratum of shale, in Coffee, etc., etc. The timber resources are also extensive, embracing a great variety, and many of the finest qoaliiv of forest trees — hickory, the various oaks, poplar, walnut, ash, beech, chestnut, locust, cedar, sugar, pine, etc., which cover a large portion of the va^t tracts classed ' wild or unimproved lands.' The soil ranges from that of the deep rich bottoms, of exhaustless fertilit}-, to light and hilly uplands, which require high culture to become pro- ductive. In a numl>er of counties, the iron interest has been partially developed. In Greene, one furnace is in operation, and a northern company have purchased several thotisand acres of ore-lands, and -will soon have extensive works completed. Xear the town of Greeneville, there is a bed of sulphate of iron, from which copperas was made durincr the war, and where even the clay is impregnated with the mineral. Our Montcromery correspondent says : ' that \*-ithin twent}.-- five miles of Clarksville there are from ten to twenty furnac-es lying idle for want of capital ; most of them were burned during the war, and the proprietors being unable to rebuild and run them, would sell out verv low.' The zinc of Greene county is said to be very rich ; during the war, Epsom salts were also made to some extent in the mountains. In Hawkins, our cjrrespondent states, 'there is an nndersrronnd stream of salt water traversing the valley, which has been tapped at several points, at one of which the manufacture of salt has been soceessfully prosecuted for a number of years, though not upon a large scale; but it is thought that, with capital and enterprise, it might be made to rival the salt-wells of southwestern Virginia in the pr»xlnction of this valuable product. ... A most beautiful qualirv c^ marble is found at various points in this connty; one quarrv of which was worked to a considerable extent l^efore the war. Much capital might be profitably invested and many laborers use- ftillv employed in the manufacture and preparation for market of the two articles named — salt and marble — as well as iron, the ore of which is present in tlie mountains.' Onr Marion correspondent says, ' the quantity of bituminous and semi-bifnminous coal and irwi ore in this countv is unlimited, with but little development of the former and none of the latter, though the inducements are great, produce being abundant and transportation good and improving.' "* * Agricultural Report. TENNESSEE. 793 CLIMATE. The climate is usually mild. Ex^*ept in the eastern part the winters are short and pleasant, and snow does not often fall. The summers are cool and delightful, and the State is generally healthful. In the mountains the winters, though short, are severe. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the mountains of East Tennessee, the land is poor and difficult of cultivation. The valleys, however, are fertile, and amply repay the labor expended upon them. The soil of Middle Tennessee is generally good, whilst that of Western Tennessee consists of a rich black mould. The staple products are Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton. The agriculture of Tennessee was almost destroyed by the war, the State being, like Virginia, a vast battle-field, but the people are slowly recovering from their losses, and are bringing their crops up to some- thing like the old average. In 1869, the State contained 6,795,337 acres of improved land. The principal returns for the same year were : Bushels of wheat, 6,750,000 " rye, 226,000 " peas and beans, 547,803 " oats, 3,500,000 " Indian corn, 47,500,000 " , Irish potatoes, 1,000,000 Tons of hay, 158,000 Pounds of butter, 10,017,787 Number of horses, 300,975 " asses and mules, 131,780 " milch cows, 260,190 sheep, 960,312 swine, 2,800,312 young cattle, 709,360 Yalue of domestic animals, $65,211,425 In 1870, the cotton crop amounted to about 215,000 bales, and the tobacco crop is estimated at about 35,000,000 pounds. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State has scarcely any foreign trade. Its cotton is exported from New Orleans, and the most of its other products are disposed 794 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of in that city. Memphis has an important trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and with Arkansas. Previous to the war manufactures were an important interest in Tennessee, and were becoming more extensive every year. The water power of the State is magnificent, and offers many inducements to capitalists. In 1870 there were 5317 establishments in Tennessee devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of $1 5,595,295, and 19,412 hands, consuming raw material worth $19,657,027, and yielding an annual product of $34,362,636. The principal products were stated as follows for that year : Value of cotton goods, $941,542 " flour and meal, 10,767,388 " pig iron, 1,147,707 bar and rolled iron, 369,222 " copper, 510,677 " coal, 330,498 " sawed and planed lumber, .... 3,819,237 " leather, 1,851,638 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. There were, in 1872, in the State of Tennessee, 1520 miles of com- pleted railroads, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. Nashville, Memphis, and Chattanooga are the principal railroad centres of tiie State, and are connected with each other and with all parts of the country. Western and Middle Tennessee are covered with a network of roads extending into Kentucky on the North, and Mississippi and Alabama on the south, and the great route from Virginia to the Mis- sissippi crosses the eastern part of the State in a southwest direction, from Bristol to Chattanooga. These railroads were almost entirely destroyed during the war. EDUCATION. In 1870, there were in Tennessee 61 colleges, with 5785 students; 801 academies and other schools, with 33,176 pupils; and 1932 pub- lic schools, with 82,970 pupils. Schools were organized in this State as early as 1780, in East Tennessee, and by the year 1795 there were 3 colleges in the State. The new Constitution makes a liberal provision for the support of free schools. A permanent school fund is established, and taxes are levied for the maintenance of the schools. The educational system is placed in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, and is similar to that of West Virginia. TENNESSEE. 795 PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. •, The State Penitentiary is located at Nashville. It is provided with fine commodious buildings, and is conducted on the silent system. The Tennessee Hospital for the Insane and the Tennessee Blind School are located at Nashville. They were damaged greatly, and met with many losses during the war, but have been reopened with success since the return of peace. Measures are on foot for the erec- tion of a hospital for the colored insane. TJie Tennessee Deaf and Dumb School is at Knoxville. It \vas established in 1845. It was broken up during the war, and the build- ing occupied by the two armies, in turn, as a hospital, and greatly damaged. It was reopened in 1866, and is now prosperous. FINANCES. In 1870 the State debt amounted to $29,718,961, of which $24,- 900,417 consisted of bonds loaned to railroads. The expenditures of the treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1867, were $2,259,522, and the receipts $2,336,445. In 1868 there were 12 National banks, with a capital of $2,025,300, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. By the Constitution of this State every male citizen 21 years old, residing in the State 1 year and in the county 6 months, Mdio has paid the poll tax specified by the Constitution, is entitled to vote at the elections. The government of the State is' vested in a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and a General As- sembly, consisting of a Senate and House of Delegates. The Gover- nor and members of the Legislature are elected by the people for two years. The State officers, with the exception of the Attorney-General, are elected for four years by the Legislature. The Attorney-General is appointed by the judges of the Supreme Court. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Courts of Chan- cery, Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justices' Courts. The Su- preme Court consists of 5 judges, no two of which must reside in the same part of the State. The seat of Government is at Nashville. For purposes of government the State is divided into 84 counties. 796 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. HISTORY. Tennessee originally formed a part of the province of North Caro- lina. It was, at the time of its settlement, a vast wilderness, whioh was claimed as a hunting ground by the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Shaw- nees, and the Six Nations. The Cherokees dwelt in the extreme south- east part, hut no other tribe made the Territory a place of habitation. In 1756 Andrew Lewis was sent into this region for the purpose of settling it, by the Earl of Loudon, then the Governor of Virginia, and commander of the Royal forces in America. He built a post, which he called Fort Loudon, on the Wautauga or Little Tennessee, about 30 miles southwest of Knoxville. This settlement is now a thriving village. The fort was given a strong garrison of British troops, and, influenced by the sense of the protection which this force imparted, the region round about was soon partially settled by emi- grants, and in the spring of 1758 the garrison of the fort was increased to 200 men. In 1758, Colonel Bird built a post in what is now Sullivan county. This was for some time believed to be in Virginia, and was called Long Island Fort. In 1768, many families came out to the new region, and settled along the Holston and Wautauga rivers. In 1769, or 1770, a party of 10 hunters descended the Cumberland River to the Ohio, in boats which they had built, stopping for a while at the site of the present city of Nashville. They descended the Ohio to the Mississippi, and passed down that river to Natchez, which was then a Spanish settle- ment. They were kindly treated by the Spaniards, and some of them remained there, but others returned to the settlements along the AVautauga. In 1760, Fort Loudon was besieged by the Cherokees, and closely invested for a month. The garrison, 200 in number, consumed their horses and dogs, and finally, being on the point of starvation, surren- dered upon condition that they should be allowed to return to Vir- ginia. They were suffered to depart and to march 15 miles from the fort without being molested, but when they had accomplished that distance, were treacherously attacked and nearly all massacred on the spot. This outrage was avenged the next year by Colonel Grant, who, with a force of 2600 regular and provincial troops and friendly Indians, invaded the Cherokee country and laid waste their fields and villages. These severe measures compelled the savages to sue for peace. TENNESSEE. 797 By the outbreak of the Revolution the Tennessee country was quite thickly settled, and the population was increasing at an encouraging rate. In 1776, the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a formid- able war upon the settlers, but were defeated by the forces of Virginia and North Carolina. The Tennessee settlements, at tlTis time known as the "District of Washington," were represented in the Convention which framed the Constitution of North Carolina, and, in 1780, the Tennessee militia, under Colonel Levier, bore a conspicuous part in the bloody battle of King's Mountain."^ After the war lands in this region were offered the North Carolina troops in payment of the bounties due them. Many of them accepted the offer and settled on the lands. Others sold their warrants to actual settlers. Nashville had been settled by a party of two or three hun- dred, under Colonel Robertson, as early as 1780, and the rich lands of Davidson county, lying around it, now attracted the greater part of the holders of the military warrants. In 1785, the inhabitants of the j)resent counties of Sullivan, Wash- ington, and Greene, attempted to set up an independent State Govern- ment, as they declared, and with truth, that the capital of North Carolina was too far away to benefit them. They called their new State Franklin. This course produced considerable confusion, which was not quieted until 1790, when North Carolina ceded the territory to the United States. Congress established a Territorial Government, and the region' was called " The Territory of the United States south- west of the Ohio River." In 1794, the Territory of Tennessee was organized, and the Legis- lature met at Knoxville. The next year it was found that it con- tained a population of 77,262, of which 10,613 were negro slaves. Efforts were now made to secure its erection into a State, and on the 1st of June, 1796, Tennessee was admitted into the Union. The State took an active part in the second war with England, and contributed to the cause Andrew Jackson, who won the victory of New Orleans, and many of the hardy backwoodsmen who fought under him that day. After the return of peace, Tennessee entered upon a career of pros- perity, which was checked by the Rebellicm. Being a slaveholding State, it was expected that the people would take sides with the ex- trcmie pro-slavery party. When the Gulf States seceded from the Union in the winter of 1860-61, Tennessee was urged to join them. The Legislature submitted to the people the call for a Convention, for 798 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NASHVILLE. a the purpose of seceding, and this call was defeated by a popular majority of 64,114. After the fall of Fort Sumter, however, the Governor convened the Legislature in extra-session, and on the 9th of May, 1861, that body adopted an Ordinance of Secession, and sent representatives and senators to the Confederate Congress. Western and Middle Tennessee were very clearly in sympathy with this action of the Legislature, but East Tennessee was loyal to the Union. The State was at once occupied by the Confederates, and in the spring of 1862, the western and northern portions fell into the hands of the Union forces. Volunteers enlisted on each side, and the State became the western battle-field of both armies. The severe battles of Fort Donnelson, Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing, Murfreesboro, Chat- tanooga, Knoxville, and Nashville, were fought within the limits of the State. After the close of the war, a Provisional Governor was appointed, and the State was restored to its former position in the Union on the 24th of July, 1866. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Murfreesboro. TENNESSEE. 799 NASHVILLE, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in Davidson county, on the left bank of the Cumberland River, at the head of steamboat navigation, about 200 miles from the mouth of that stream, 230 miles east-northeast of Memphis, and 684 miles southwest of Washington. Latitude 36° 9' N; longitude 86° 49' W. The city is delightfully situated in a beautiful, healthy, and fertile country, and has long been one of the most important places in the southwest. It is built on an elevated bluff of limestone, and com- mands fine views of the river and vicinity. It is regularly laid off, and contains many handsome edifices. Many of the residences are palatial in their character. The public buildings are handsome. The Capitol is one of the finest edifices on the continent. It stands on an eminence 197 feet above the river, and is built of fine fossilated limestone, much like marble, which was quarried on the spot. Many of the blocks weigh 10 tons each. Its dimensions are 270 by 140 feet. "Its architecture is Grecian, consisting of a Doric basement, and supporting on its four fronts, Ionic porticoes, rnodelled after those of the Erechtheum at Athens." In the centre of the building is a tower 80 feet high. The halls of the Legislature are among the handsomest in the country, being surpassed only by those of the two Houses of Congress. The cost of the capitol was $1,000,000 in gold. The Lunatio Asylum, and the State Penitentiary are imposing buildings. The latter contains 200 cells.* The City Hall is also a handsome building. The schools of the city are noted for their excellence. It has several public schools in operation, and one for colored children. The University of Nashville, founded in 1806, is an institution of high character. Its Medical Department is regarded as an excellent school. The female schools are considered the best in the State. The State Library contains over 12,000 volumes. The Cumberland River is crossed here by a fine bridge. The river is navigable for steamers during the greater part of the year, and Nashville is the seat of a heavy river trade. It has railway com- munication with all parts of the State and country. It contains about 14 churches, and about 8 newspaper and 4 magazine offices. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water from the Cumberland River, and possesses a steam fire-engine department, and an efficient police force. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the popu- lation was 25,865. 800 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES; MEMPHIS. Nashville has long been noted for its enterjirisiiig spirit, literary taste, and polished society. It is in everything but geographical position a Southern rather than a AVestern city. It was founded in 1779, by a party of emigrants from North Carolina, and established as a town by the Assembly of that State, in 1784. It was named in honor of Colonel Francis Nash, who fell at the head of his regiment at Ger- mantown. It suifered very greatly during the civil wjfr. It was occupied by the United States army in February, 1862, and held until the close of the war. On the 16th of December, 1864, General Thomas, in command of the United States forces, inflicted a bloody defeat upon the Confederate army, under General Hood, in the vicinity. MEMPHIS, The largest city in the State, is situated in Shelby county, on the east bank of the Mississippi River, just below the mouth of Wolf River, 420 miles below St. Louis, 956 miles above New Orleans, and 230 miles west-southwest of Nashville. It stands on the 4th Chickasaw BluflP, and possesses the only convenient locati'on for a commercial city between the mouth of the Ohio and Vicksburg, Mississippi, a dis- tance of 650 miles. Possessing this, it has become the most populous and important place on the river, between St. Louis and New Orleans. TENNESSEE. 801 The bluff, on which the city is built, is elevated 60 feet above the river, and is about 3 miles in length. At its base a bed of sandstone projects into the river, and forms the levee or landing. The city lies entirely on the bluif above, and presents a fine appearance when viewed from the river. An esplanade, several hundred feet in width, occupies the front of the plateau, and this is lined with handsome buildings, which face the river. The general appearance of the city is attractive, and many of the business edifices and private residences would do credit to any city in the land. Memphis is lighted witli gas, and a street railway connects its various points. It contains about 24 good public schools, several private schools, a Mercantile Library, 20 churches, and 10 newspaper offices. It is gov(}rned by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the popu- lation was 40,226. Memphis is the most important city on the lower Mississippi, be- sides New Orleans. It has grown with surprising rapidity, notwith- standing the civil war, which injured it severely. It is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and controls a large share of the enormous trade of the Mississippi. MISCELLANY. THE BOYHOOD OF ANDREW JACKSON. His parents were Scotch-Irish emigrants from Carriclifergus, of the humblest condition in life, and to add to the struggles of tlie family with adversity, his fatlier died just after tlie birth of his son. His mother was obhged to find a home, as housekeeper and poor relation, iu the family of a brotlier-in-law, and here young Andrew passed tlie first ten or twelve years of his life. He soon ac- quired the reputation of being the most mischievous boy in the neighborhood, always full of pranks and getting into trouble. His school-days were not of the most promising character; nor, judging from Mr. Parton's lively description, was his youthful brain in danger of being turned by any superfluity of book- learning. In due time the boy was sent to an "old-field school," an institution not much unlike the road-side scliools in Ireland of which we read. Tlie Nortlieru reader is, perhaps, not aware tliat an "old-field" is not a field at all, but a pine forest. When crop after crop of cotton, without rotation, has e,xhausted the soil, the fence.s are taken away, the land lies waste, the young pines at once spring up, and soon cover the whole field with a thick growth of wood. In one of these old fields, the rudest possible shanty of a log house is erected, with a fire-place that extends from side to side, and occupies a third of the interior. In winter, tlie in- terstices of tlie log walls are filled up with clay ; whicli the restless fingers of the boys malve haste to remove in time to admit the first warm airs of spring. An itinerant schoolmaster presents himself in a neigliboriiood ; the responsible farmers pledge him a certain nimiber of pupils, and an old-field school is estab- lished for the season. Such schools, called by the same name, exist to this day 802 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in the Carolinas, differing little from those which Andrew Jackson attended in his childhood. Beading, writing, and aritlimetic were all the branches taught in the early day. Among a crowd of urchins seated on the slab benches of a school like this, fancy a tall, slender boj', with bright blue eyes, a freckled face, an abundance of long, sandy hair, and clad in coarse, copperas- colored cloth, with bare feet dangling and kicking, and you have in jour mind's eye a picture of Andy as he appeared in his old-field school days in the Waxhaw settlement. His mother seems to have had more ambitious views for her son, and hoped that by being enabled to obtain tor him a liberal education, she would have the pleasure to see him "wag his pow in a pulpit" as a clergyman of the Presbj'te- rian Church. He was not destined, however, to "beat the drum ecclesiastic," though if his good mother's wishes could have been realized, he Avould doubtless have proved a valiant soldier of the " church militant," and dealt thick and heavy blows on the sinner and heretic with as much unction as he subsequently discom- fited the invaders of his country at New Orleans. He was a fighter from his earliest boyhood. Not a drop of tame blood ran in his veins. Andy was a wild, frolicsome, wilful, mischievous, daring, reckless boy ; gene- rous to a friend, but never content to submit to a stronger enemy. He was pas- sionately ibnd of tliose sports which are mimic battles — above all, wrestling. Being a slender boy, more active than strong, he was often thrown. "I could throw him three times out of four," an old schoolmate used to say, " but he would never stay throwed. He was dead game, even then, and never would give up." He was exceedingly fond of running foot races, of leaping the bar, and jumping, and in such sports he was excelled by no one of his years. To younger boys, who never questioned liis mastery, he was a generous protector ; there was nothing he would not do to defend them. His equals and superiors found him self-willed, somewhat overbearing, easily offended, very irascible, and, upon the whole, "difficult to get along with." One of them said, many years after, in the heat of controversy, that of all the boys he had ever known, Andrew Jackson was the only bully who was not also a coward. But the boy, it appears, had a special cause of irritation in a disgraceful disease, name unknown, which induces a habit of — not to put too fine a point on it — " slobbering." Woe to any boy who presumed to jest at this misfortune ! Andy was upon him incontinently, and there was either a figlit or a drubbing. There is a story, too, of some boys secretly loading a gun to the muzzle, and giving it to young Jackson to fire ofiF, that they might have the pleasure of seeing it "kick" him over. They had tli.at pleasure. Springing up from the ground, the boy, in a frenzy of passion, exclaimed : " By , if one of you laughs, I'll kill him ! " He soon had an opportunity for pursuing higher game. He was 9 years old when the Declaration of Independence was signed. By the time the war ap- proached the obscure settlement in the region of the Catawba, where he was born, he was a little more than 13. A change now came over his rustic life. The schoolhouse was closed, the peaceful labors of the people interrupted. His elder brotlier Hugh had ah'eady mounted his horse and ridden southward to meet the bloody strife. It was on the 29th of May, 1780, that Tarleton, with 300 horse- men, surprised a detachment of militia in the Waxhaw settlement, and killed 118 of them, and wounded 150. The wounded, abandoned to the care of the settlers, were quartered in the houses of the vicinity, the old log Waxliaw meeting-house TENNESSEE. 803 itself being converted into a hospital for the most desperate cases. Mrs. Jack- son was one of the kind women who ministered to the wounded soldiers in the church, and under tliat roof her boys first saw wliat war was. Tlie men were dreadfully mangled. Some had received as manj^ as thirteen wounds, and none less than three. For many days Andrew and his brother assisted their mother in waiting upon the sick men ; Andrew, more in rage than pity, though pitiful by nature, burning to avenge their wounds and his brother's death. Tarleton's massacre at the Waxhaw settlement kindled the flames of war in all that region of the Carolinas. Andrew, with his brother Robert, was present at Sumter's attack on the British post at Hanging Rock, where he might have re- ceived his first lesson in the art of war. Soon after he passed his 14th birthday, there ensued a fierce, intestine warfare in the vicinity of his home — a war of Whig and Tory, neighbor against neighbor, brother against brother, and even father against son. Among other instances of the madness that prevailed, a case is related of a Whig, who, having found a friend murdered and mutilated, devo- ted himself to the slaying of Tories. He hunted and lay in wait for them, and before the war ended had killed 20, and, then, recovering from that insanity, lived the rest of his days a conscience-stricken wretch. Andrew and his brother soon began to take a personal share in the eventful conflict. Without enlisting in any regular corps, they plunged into the fight on their own hook, joining small par- ties that went out on single enterprises of retaliation, mounted on their own horses, and carrying their own weapons. Mr. Parton gives a description of one of his adventures in this line, which illustrates both the time and the boy: "In that fierce, Scotch-Indian warfare, the absence of a father from home was often a better protection to his family than his presence, because his presence in- vited an attack. The main object of both parties was to kill the fighting men, and to avenge the slaying of partisans. The house of the quiet hero Hicks, for example, was safe until it was noised about among the Tories that Hicks was at home. And thus it came to pass, that when a Whig soldier of note desired to spend a night with his family, his neighbors were accustomed to turn out and serve as a guard to his house while he slept. Behold Robert and Andrew Jack- son, with 6 others, thus employed one night in the spring of 1781, at the domicil of a neighbor. Captain Sands. The guard on this occasion was more a friendly tribute to an active partisan than a service considered necessary to his safety. In short, the night was not far advanced before the whole party were snugly housed and stretched upon the floor, all sound asleep except one, a British de- serter, who was restless, and dozed at intervals. "Danger was near. A band of Tories, bent on taking the life of Captain Sands, approached the house in two divisions, one party moving toward the front door, the other toward the back. The wakeful soldier, hearing a suspicious noise, rose, went out of doors to learn its cause, and saw the foe stealthily near- ing the house. He ran in in terror, and seizing Andrew Jackson, who lay next the door, by the hair, exclaimed : ' The Tories are upon us ! ' "Andrew sprang up and ran out. Seeing a body of men in the distance, he placed the end of his gun in the Jow fork of a tree near the door and hailed them. No reply. He hailed them a second time. No reply. They quickened their pace, and had come within a few rods of the door. By this time, too, the guard in the house had been roused, and were gathered in a group behind the boy. Andrew discharged his musket, upon which the Tories fired a volley, which killed the hapless deserter who had given the alarm. The other party of Tories, 804 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. who were approaching the house from the other side, hearing this discharge, and the rush of bullets above their heads, supposed that the firing proceeded from a party that had issued from the house. They now fired a volley, which sent a shower of balls whistling about the heads of their friends on the other side. Both parties hesitated, and then halted. Andrew having thus, by his single discharge, puzzled and stopped the enemy, retired to the house, where he and his comrades kept up a brisk fire from the windows. One of the guard fell mortally wounded by his side, and another received a wound less severe. In the midst of tliis sin- gular contest, a bugle was heard, some distance off, sounding the cavalry chaige, whereupon the Tories, concluding that they had come upon an ambush of Whigs, and were about to be assailed by horse and foot, fled to where they had left their horses, mounted, dashed pell-mell into the woods, and were seen no more. It appeared afterward that the bugle charge was sounded by a neighbor, who, judg- ing from the noise of musketry that Captain Sands was attacked, and having not a man with him in his house, gave the blast upon the trumpet, thinking that even a trick so stale, aided by the darkness of the night, might have some effect in alarming the assailants." After peace was restored to his neighborhood, young Jackson embraced every opportunity to engage in a "free fight," beside sharing largely in the fun and frolic, which were almost as congenial to his disposition as the drubbing of an adversary. Several Charleston families of wealth and distinction were waiting in the settlement for the evacuation of their city. With the young men whose acquaintance he thus made, Andrew led a life in the summer and autumn of 1782 that was more merry than wise. He now began to betray that taste for horse- flesh which became such a decided passion in after life. He ran races and rode races, gambled a little, drank a little, indulged in a cock-fight occasionally, and presented a glorious specimen of the Young America at that day. He seems to have had but a faint love for his Carolina relations, and was probably regarded as the scapegrace of the family. It is credibly related that his first attempt at earning a living for himself was in the capacity of a country schoolmaster; but, after trying his hand in this un- congenial employment for a short time, he resolved to study law. Gathering together his scanty earnings, he mounts his horse, sets his face to the northward in quest of a master with whom to pursue his law studies, and finally enters an office in Salisbury, N. C, at the age of 18. Of his residence in that pleasant old town, Mr. Parton has succeeded in bagging some characteristic if not altogether edifying reminiscences : "Salisbury teems with traditions respecting the residence there of Andrew Jackson as a student of law. Their general tenor may be expressed in ih& lan- guage of the first old resident of the town, to whom I applied for information : 'Andrew Jackson was the most roaring, rollicking, game-cocking, horse-racing, card-playing, mischievous fellow that ever lived in Salisbury.' Add to this such expressions as these : ' He did not trouble the law books much,' ' He was more in the stable than in the office,' 'He was the head of all the rowdies hereabouts.' That is the substance of what the Salisbury of 1859 has to say of the Andrew Jackson of 1785. KENTUCKY. Area, 37,680 Square Miles. Population in 1860 1,155,684 (Whites, 919,517 ; Negroes, 236,167.) Population in 1870, 1,321,911 The State of Kentucky is situated between 36° 30' and 39° 10' K latitude, and between 81° 50' and 89° 26' ^Y. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, on the east by West Virginia and Virginia, on the south by Tennessee, and on the west by Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. It is very irregular in shape, the northern line following the windings of the Ohio River. Its ex- treme length, from east to west, is about 300 miles, and its greatest width (following a line drawn south from Cincinnati, Ohio) about 180 miles. At its southwest end it is not over 50 miles wide. TOPOGRAPHY. The southeast part of the State is crossed by the Cumberland Moun- tains, which separate it from Virginia. Some outlying ridges of this range, none of them more than 2000 feet high, extend into the south- east counties. The centre of the State is a fine rolling country, but west of the 85th meridian of longitude the surface is principally level, except along the Ohio River, which is bordered by a range of hills. These hills approach the stream as near as half a mile in some places, and in others recede from it to a distance of 10 or 20 miles. The Ohio River washes the entire northern and northwestern shore of the State, and receives the waters of the Big Sandy (which separates Kentucky from West Virginia), Licking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. It borders the State for 600 805 806 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. miles, and is navigable for large steamers the whole distance. The Kentucky River rises in the southeast part of the State, the Licking in the northeast, the Salt and the Green rivers in the centre. All flow in a generally northwest course. They are all navigable for over 50 miles, except the Licking. MINERALS. " Kentucky is rich in mineral resources, and her beds of coal and mountains of iron are almost inexhaustible. Coal is found in abun- dance at Greenup, Rockcastle, Laurel, Pulaski, Whitley, Clinton, Ed- monson, Hardin, Ohio, Butler, Christian, Webster, and other coun- ties. In most of these counties this coal is of excellent quality, but used only for home consumption, there being no means of transporta- tion. In Laurel county, the coal beds are from 3 to 5 feet in thick- ness. Iron is found in greater or less quantity in Greenup, Trimble, Rockcastle, Pulaski, Whitley, Russell, Clinton, Edmonson, Ohio, Butler, etc., but, like the coal deposits, has been but feebly developed. In Greenup, the furnaces are closed up, ore within reach of present facilities being pretty well exhausted. Iron ore is found all through Russell county. ' About 35 years since a very superior iron was manufactured here, from which some of the blacksmiths made good edged tools without steel. The iron was hard and tough. There has been no development since, and it is doubted whether the ore»is in sufficient quantity to pay for M'orking.' This ore also abounds in Clinton county, and David Dale Owen, in his Geological Survey of Kentucky, in speaking of this and counties east of it, says : — * There is every reason for believing that their resources in coal and iron — staple commodities of those nations of greatest prosperity — will, when fully developed, compare favorably with those of any civilized country on the face of the earth.' In Butler county there is much iron ore, but it is said to be of the honeycomb variety, which is considered comparatively valueless. A large amount of capital could be profitably invested in utilizing the iron interest of this State. " Lead is found in Trimble, Owen, Bourbon, Scott, Franklin, An- derson, Livingston, and counties contiguous. In Anderson there is a mine said to yield 80 per cent, of lead, but the chemist making the test reported that it would not pay to work it. In Livingston, lead has been found upon the surface, but has not been worked to any extent. Salt wells exist in several counties, but are not worked. In KENTUCKY. 807 INSIDE MAMMOTH CAVE. Clinton, says our correspondent, 'a fine stream of salt water has been struck on Willis Creek, in the northwest, and a comjDany are now at work producing salt, and the prospect is considered good. There is a fine opening for men experienced in salt making, there being an abundance of water, and timber and labor is cheap. Salt for the Nashville market and for the Cumberland River country comes from Ohio and Western Virginia. The cost of shipping salt down the Ohio and up the Cumberland is certainly much greater than down the Cumberland to Nashville.' Salt water also abounds in Metcalfe, Anderson, Whitley, Russell, etc. There has recently been discovered a gold mine in Anderson county, and its value is being now tested by a company. Saltpetre is found in Rockcastle, and limestone and free- stone abound iu Lewis, Trimble, Clarke, and other counties. Our Lewis county correspondent claims for his county ' the finest ledge of freestone from Pittsburg to Cincinnati, from which nearly all the fine buildings in the latter city are now being built, and the rock of which the Cincinnati and Covington bridge was built was taken from 50 808 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the quarries of this county ; not extensively worked, there being but one quarry in operation, employing 200 men.' " * CLIMATE. The climate is mild and healthful. The winters are short and pleasant, and the summers are cool and delightful. The State is al- most exempt from the sudden changes which afflict the Atlantic States. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of Kentucky is extremely fertile. Scarcely any of the land is unfit for cultivation. The soil is generally a black mould, often two and three feet deep. Extensive and almost impene- trable canebrakes occur in various parts of the State, and fine natural pastures occupy a region lying in the south central part, along the sources of the Green River, and known as the " Barrens." The State is almost exclusively agricultural in its pursuits. The great staples are corn, tobacco, flax, hemp, and wheat. There are 20,563,652 acres of improved and unimproved land in the State, valued at $217,672,826. The tobacco crop, in 1870, amounted to 90,000 hhds. In 1869, the principal returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat, 5,500,000 " Indian corn, 51,500,000 " oats, 5,800,000 " Irish potatoes, 2,100,000 rye, . . . . ■ 775,000 barley, 304,000 Tons of hay, 155,000 Number of liorses, . 650,811 " asses and mules, 140,910 " milch cows, . 280,191 " sheep, 1,001,861 " swine, • . 2,690,870 " young cattle, 610,845 Value of domestic animals, $69,868,237 Pounds of wool (estimated), 2,500,000 " flax " 800,000 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Kentucky has no foreign commerce, but carries on an active trade with the States along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Stock raising * Agricultural Keport, March, 1868. KENTUCKY. 809 forms an important interest in this State, and large droves of cattle, horses, and mules are annually sent to the Eastern States for sale. In 1870 there were in this State 5390 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capi- tal of $29,277,809, and produced goods worth $54,625,809. The principal products were as follows : Value of woollen goods, . $897,057 " agriculraltu implements, 1,384,917 " pig iron, 2,182,482 " rolled iron, 2,464,928 " steam engines and machinery, . . . 1,472,199 " coal, 446.795 " sawed and planed lumber, 4,245,749 " flour, 7,886.734 " spirituous and malt liquors, .... 5,222,089 " leather, 1,693,574 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 1123 miles of completed railroads in Kentucky, constructed at a cost of over $35,000,000. The principal cities and towns in the northern, central, and western portions of the State are connected with each other and with all parts of the Union by railroad, but still many of the finest sections of the State are without such means of communication with the cities on the Ohio. Several im- portant roads have been projected, and if constructed will remedy this defect. A canal extends around the falls of the Ohio, at Louisville. It is one mile and a half long, and was constructed by the General Government at a cost of $750,000. EDUCATION. In 1870, Kentucky contained 55 colleges, with nearly 8000 students; 857 academies and other schools, with about 28,000 pupils; and 4237 public schools, with 218,240 pupils. The public school system is in charge of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boards of County Commissioners and local trustees in the districts, and measures are being carried out which will revolu- t. ^r.ize the old system and render it more efficient. The State has a per* -.nent school fund. Tt: most important institution in the State is the Kentucky Uni- vfTsity. This now includes the State University established in 1858, 810 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Transylvania University, and the Agricultural College. It is located at Lexington, and includes "Ashland," the home of Henry Clay. In 1870, there were 5546 libraries in the State, with 1,909,230 volumes; and the number of newspapers and periodicals was 89, of which 72 were political, 7 religious, and 1 literary. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Penitentiary is located at Frankfort. In Janftar}', 1871, it contained 680 convicts. Considerable additions have been recently added to the buildings. There are two Lunatic Asylums, the " Eastern," at Lexington, and the '•' Western," at Hopkinsville. The former contained 258 inmates, in October, 1867, and the latter 283, in September, 1868. The Kentucky Institution for Deaf Mutes is located at Danville, and contains about 96 pupils ; and the Institution for the Education and Training of Feeble-minded Children is at Danville, and contains about 52 pupils. The State has no juvenile reformatory establishments in operation, but the new House of Reform was completed and ready for use in the summer of 1871. RELIGIOUS DEMOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 2696 churches in this State, and the value of church jiroperty was $9,824,465. FINANCES. On the 10th of October, 1870, the total debt of the State was $1,424,934. The total expenditures of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending in October, 1870, amounted to $1,082,639, and the receipts to $996,750. In October, 1868, there were 15 National banks, with a capital of $2,885,000, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. Every white male citizen, 21 years old, who has resided two years in the State, one year in the county, and sixty days in the precinct in which he presents his ballot, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State^ Auditor, Treasurer, and Attorney-General, and a KENTUCKY. 811 General Assembly, composed of a Senate (of 38 members, elected for four years, one half retiring biennially) and a House of Delegates (of 100 members, elected for two years). The Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, Auditor, and Attorney-General, and Members of the Legis- lature are elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and confirmed by the Senate. All the State officers serve four years. The courts of the State are a Supreme Court of Appeals (con- sisting of four judges). Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justices' Courts. All the judges are Justices of the Peace, and all are elected by the people. In the Supreme Court, the judge having the shortest term to serve is the Chief Justice. The seat of Government is at Frankfort. For purposes of government the State is divided into 109 counties. HISTORY. Kentucky was originally included within the limits of Virginia. The name is an Indian word, signifying "the dark and bloody ground." In 1766, Colonel James Smith made a journey of explora- tion into this region, starting from the Holston River. He was accom- panied -by three white men and a negro slave. He found the territory unoccupied by any Indian tribes for purposes of residence, but evidently used as a hunting-ground by several of them. It gave evi- dence of great fertility, and its rich beauty impressed the explorers profoundly. In 1767, John Findley and several companions set out from North Carolina on a trading expedition to this region, and in 1769, Daniel Boone entered it with a party of five, in which went John Findley, for the purpose of exploring it. The party built a cabin on Red River, from which they made repeated excursions. During one of these excursions, Boone and a man named Stuart Avere captured by the Indians. They made their escape, and returned to their camp. They found it deserted and destroyed, but never learned the fate jof those whom they had left there. Soon after this, Boone returned to his home in North Carolina. In 1770, a party of Tennesseans, from the Clinch River, under Colonel James Knox, went into Kentuckv. They remained there some time, and thoroughly explored the southern and middle parts. Boone's party was in Kentucky at this time, but never encountered Colonel Knox or any of his men. They confined their explorations to the middle and northern sections. 812 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The reports of Boone and Knox caused the settlers of Virginia and North Carolina to feel a lively interest in the new country, in which the lands given to the Virginia troops, for services in the French war, were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off these lands, and in 1773, a party, under Captaih Bullit, reached the falls of the Ohio, and built a fortified camp there, for the purpose of sur- veying the region. In 1774, James Harrod built a station, which soon grew into con- siderable importance, and thus founded the town of Harrodsburg, the oldest settlement in Kentucky. The next year, 1775, Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the present town of Boonesborough, The savages made repeated attacks upon his party, hoping to drive them away, but without success. The fort was finished by the middle of April, 1775, and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters. He continued to reside in the fort with them. In the same year Simon Kenton built a cabin on the site of the present town of Washington, in Mason county. In the spring of 1777, the General Assembly of Virginia consti- tuted the Kentucky region a county, and established a Court of Quarter Sessions at Harrodsburg. During the Revolution the settlements suffered much from the British and Indians. In 1780, several of the forts were taken by them, cannon being employed for their reduction. A laro;e number of settlers came out in 1780 and 1781, notwith- standing the danger from the Indians. On the 19th of August, 1782, a bloody battle was fought between the whites and the savages, near Blue Lick Springs, in which the former were defeated. For some years after this, numerous expeditions were sent from Kentucky into the Indian country (the present State of Ohio) and many severe conflicts were fought in that region. After the close of the Revolution, the Government of Virginia and the Federal Congress afforded so little protection to the settlers that they became restless and discontented. The trouble was increased by the fear that the Federal Government meant to surrender the right to navigate the Mississippi, which the settlers saw would be essential to the future prosperity of their country. It was some time before these discontents were quieted. In 1774 and in 1775, conventions were held at Danville, which recommended peaceable and quiet separation from Virginia, and the establishment of a separate Government for KENTUCKY. 813 • Kentucky. Several other conventions were held, during which a de- sire for a separate nationality was distinctly expressed. Spain en- deavored to draw the Kentuckians off from the Union by offers of special privileges on the Mississippi, but better counsels prevailed, and the Kentuckians adopted an address to Congress. The result was that the Territory of Kentucky Avas ceded by Virginia to the General Government. It was fully organized by Congress in 1790, and in 1792 was admitted into the Union as a State. Its population now numbered 75,000. The inefficient protection against the Indians afforded by the Federal Government, the taxes, and the Mississippi question continued to agitate the State for some years, and until the purchase of Louisiana put an end to the Mississippi dispute, and the peace of 1815 broke the power of the savages. During the second war with England, Kentucky contributed many troops to the western army under General Harriso'i. Many of her best citizens were killed at the massacre at the River Kaisin, and in the attempt to relieve Fort Meigs. Her citizens responded promptly to the call for troops for the defence of New Orleans, and the Kentucky riflemen made a proud name on the plains of Chalmette. Indeed, they volunteered so fast that the State authorities had to intervene, and compel them to remain at home. The Kentucky troops nobly sustained their old reputation in the war with Mexico. The State grew rapidly in population and wealth, and was prosper- ing beyond the most sanguine expectations of its original founders. When the Rebellion broke out, the people were divided in sentiment, and a strong effort was made to withdraw the State from the Union, and unite it Avith the Confederacy. Failing to accomplish this, the friends of the South crossed the Tennessee line, and entered the Con- federate army. The State authorities, however, remained loyal to the Union, and the regular administration of the Government, though much interrupted, was continued. The State was invaded by the Confederate forces in the summer of 1861, and was held by them until the next spring, when they were forced back into Tennessee. In the summer of 1862, it was again invaded by the Confederates. Several severe battles were fought on its soil, and it was frequently entered and harassed by raiding parties. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Newport, Mnysville, Henderson, Paducah, Columbus, Hickman, Danville, and Paris. 814 OUR COQNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. FRANKFORT, The capital of the State, is situated in Franklin county, on the north- east bank of the Kentucky River, 60 miles from its mouth, 53 miles east of Louisville, and 550 miles west of Washington. Latitude 38° 14' N., longitude 84° 40' W. The site of the town is a deep valley, surrounded by abrupt hills. Towards the northeast it rises to a considerable height, and from this portion of the town views may be had of some most exquisite scenery. The city is regularly laid out, and is generally well built. Many of the houses are constructed of a fine limestone or marble which abounds in the vicinity. The general appearance of the city is hand- some and picturesque. The State Capitol is a fine building of white marble. It stands on an eminence near the centre of the town. Frankfort contains the Governor's House, the State Penitentiary, the State Arsenal, a Court House, six churches, several good schools, the State Institution for Feeble Minded Children, and the Kentucky Military Institute. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with spring-water brought into the town in iron pipes. Two newspapers are published here. In 1870, the population was 5396. The Kentucky River is 100 yards wide at Frankfort, and is spanned by a chain bridge which connects the city with the suburb of South Frankfort. Steamers ascend to the city, which is the centre of an active trade. The river here flows through a deep channel of lime- stone rock, and is noted for its beautiful scenery. Railroads connect Frankfort with Louisville, Cincinnati, Nashville, and the other cities of the Union. Frankfort was established by Act of the Legislature of Virginia, in 1786. It was made the capital of Kentucky in 1792. During the civil war, it was captured by the Confederate cavalry, on the 6th of September, 1862. LOUISVILLE, The largest city in the State, is situated in Jefferson county, on the south or left bank of the Ohio River, at the head of the falls, 51 miles west of Frankfort, 625 miles by the course of the river below Pittsburg, 394 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, and 590 miles west- by-south from Washington. The city is built on a spacious sloping plain, 70 feet above low- KENTUCKY. 815 FRANKFORT. water mark, and is laid out with regularity, the streets, which are from 60 to 120 feet in width, intersecting at right-angles in a direc- tion with and from the river. Ten streets run parallel with the river, and thirty streets intersect them. Along the river shore are extensive wharves. The streets are generally well paved, and are in many instances shaded with trees. The general appearance of the city is bright and attractive, and here are to be seen some of the handsomest buildings in the West. The surrounding country is very beautiful. The principal public buildings are the City Hall, the .Court House, the Custom House, and the Jlasonie Hall, all of which are handsome structures. The schools of Louisville have always been regarded as among the best in the country. Its public schools are perhaps the oldest in the West. There are a number of public schools for both sexes, and several flourishing private seminaries. The higher schools are the University of Louisville, and the Medical Institute. There is a Law School connected with the University. The 3fercantile Library is a flourishing institution with a good collection of books; and the His- torical Society possesses many interesting documents relating to the early history of the State. The Benevolent Institutions are well managed. They are the State Asylum for the Blind, whose handsome buildings were erected partly by the contributions of the citizens ; the State Marine Asylum, two 816 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. LOUISVILLE. Orphan Asylums, and several societies for the relief of the poor and suflfering. The city contains about 40 churches, and about 12 newspaper and 4 magazine offices ; and is lighted with gas, and supplied with water from the Ohio River. It possesses an efficient police force, and a steam fire engine service. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, tlie population was 100,753. Louisville is connected with all parts of the countrj- by railway. The Ohio is here crossed by a magnificent railway bridge, which gives the city unbroken communication with the East and West. The navigation of the Ohio is interrupted at Louisville by the only falls which occur in the course of the stream. These falls are very picturesque in appearance. In high stages of the water, they entirely disappear, and steamboats pass over them ; but when the water is low, the whole width of the river, which is scarcely less than a mile, has the appearance of a great many broken rivers of foam, making their way over the rocks. The river is divided by a fine island, which adds to the beauty of the scene. To overcome the obstruction caused KENTUCKY. 817 by the falls, a canal was cut around them, in 1833. It is 2h miles long, 50 feet wide, 10 feet deep, with a total lockage of 22 feet. It was cut through the solid limestome rock, and cost $750,000. The city carries on a heavy river trade, both above and below the falls. Its wharves are at all times thronged with steamers and other river craft, carrying to and fro a merchandise inferior only to that coming and going from Pittsburg and Cincinnati. The principal exports are tobacco, bagging, rope, cordage, spirits, pork, flax, hemp, live stock, and machinery. The value of the commerce of the city is estimated at from $80,000,000 to ^100,000,000 per annum. A large number of steamers engaged in the river trade are owned in tlje city. The city is also largely engaged in manufacturing enterprises. It has a number of machine shops and founderies ; several large steam bagging factories, rope walks, cotton and woollen factories, flouring mills, tobacco factories, distilleries, breweries, and agricultural imple- ment factories. MISCELLANY. ADVENTURES OF DANIEL BOONE. WRITTEN BY HIMSELF. It was on the. 1st of May, 1769, that I resigned my domestic happiness, and left my family and peaceable habitation on the Yadkin River, in North Carolina, to wander through the wilderness of America, in quest of the countrj^ of Kentucky, in company with John Finley, John Stuart, Joseph Holden, James Monay, and "William Cool. On the 7th of June, after travelling in a western direction, we found ourselves on Red River, where John Finley had formerly been trading with the Indians, and from the top of an eminence saw with pleasure the beautiful level of Ken- tucky. For some time we had experienced the most uncomfortable weather. We now encamped, made a shelter to defend us from the inclement season, and began to hunt, and reconnoitre the country. We found abundance of wild beasts in this vast forest. The buffaloes were more numerous than cattle in the settle- ments, browsing on the leaves of the cane, or cropping the herbage on these ex- tensive plains. We saw hundreds in a drove, and the numbers about the salt- springs were amazing. In this forest, the habitation of beasts of every American kind, we hunted witii great success until December. On the 23d of December, John Stuart and I had a pleasing ramble ; but fortune changed the day at the close of it. We ]ia88ed through a great forest, in which stood myriads of trees, some gay with blossoms, others rich with fruits. Nature was here a series of wonders and a fund of delight. Here she displayed her in- (^enuitj'^ and industry in a variety of flowers and fruits, beautifully colored, ele- gantly shaped, and charmingly flavored ; and we were favored with numberless animals presenting themselves perpetually to our view. In the decline of the day, near Kentucky River, as we ascended the brow of a small hill, a number of 818 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Indians rushed out of a canebrake and made us prisoners. The Indians plun- dered U3, and kept us in confinement seven days. During this time, we dis- covered no uneasiness or desire to escape, which made them less suspicious ; but in the dead of night, as we lay by a large fire in a thick canebrake, when sleep had locked up their senses, my situation not disposing me to rest, I gently awoke my companion. We seized this favorable opportunity and departed, directing our course toward the old camp, but found it plundered, and our company de- stroyed or dispersed. About this time, my brother, with another adventurer, who came to explore the country shortly after us, were wandering through the forest, and accidentally came upon our camp. Notwithstanding our unfortunate circumstances, and our dangerous situation, surrounded with hostile savages, our meeting fortunately in the wilderness gave us the most sensible satisfaction. Soon after this my companion in captivity, John Stuart, was killed by the sav- ages, and the man who came with my brother, while on a private excursion, was soon after attacked and killed by the wolves. "VVe were now in a dangerous and helpless situation, exposed daily to perils and death, among savages and wild beasts, not a white man in the country but ourselves. Although many hundreds of miles from our families, in the howling wilder- ness, we did not continue in a state of indolence, but hunted every day, and pre- pared a little cottage to defend us from the winter. On the 1st of ]May, 1770, my brother returned home for a new recruit of horses and ammunition, leaving me alone, without bread, salt, or sugar, or even a horse or a dog. I passed a few days uncomfortably. The idea of a beloved wife and family, and their anxiety on my account, would have disposed me to melancholy if I had further indulged the thought. One day I undertook a tour through the country, when the diversities and beauties of nature I met with in this charming season expelled every gloomy thought. Just at the close of the day, the gentle gales ceased ; a profound calm ensued ; not a breath shook the tremulous leaf. I had gained the sujnmit of a commanding ridge, and, looking around with astonishing delight, beheld the ample plains and beauteous tracts below. On one hand, I surveyed the famous Ohio rolling in silent dignity, and marking the western boundary of Kentucky with inconceivable grandeur. At a vast distance, I beheld the mountains lift their venerable brows and penetrate the clouds. All things were still. I kindled a fire near a fountain of sweet water, and feasted on the loin of a buck which I had killed a few hours before. The shades of night soon overspread the hemis- phere, and the earth seemed to gasp after the hovering moisture. At a distance I frequently heard the hideous yells of savages. My excursion had fatigued my body and amused my mind. I laid me down to sleep, and awoke not until the Bun had chased away the night. I continued this tour, and in a few days ex- plored a considerable part of the country, each day equally pleasing as the first; after which I returned to my old camp, which had not been disturbed in my ab- sence. I could not confine my lodging to it, but often reposed in thick cane- brakes to avoid the savages, who I believe frequently visited my camp, but, fortunately for me, in my absence. No populous city, with all its varieties of commerce and stately structures, could afford such pleasure to my mind as the beauties of nature I found in this country. Until the 27th of July, I spent my time in an uninterrupted scene of sylvan pleasures, when my brother, to my great felicity, met me according to appoint- KENTUCKY. 819 ment at our old camp. Soon after we left the place, and proceeded to the Cum- berhiud River, reconnoitering that part of the country, and giving names to the different rivers. In March, 1771, I returned home to my family, being determined to bring them as soon as possible, at the risk of my life and fortune, to reside in Ken" tucky, which I esteemed a second Paradise. On my return, I found my family in happy circumstances. I sold my farm on the Yadkin and what goods we could not carry with us, and, on the 2oth of Sep- tember, 1773, we took leave of our friends and proceeded on our journey to Kentucky, in company with live more families, and 40 men that joined us in Powell's Valley, which is 150 miles from the new settled i)aits of Kentucky. Bat this promising beginning was soon overcast with a cloud of adversity. On the 10th of October, the rear of our company was attacked by a party of Indians, who killed 6, and wounded one man. Of these, my oldest son was one that fell in the action. Though we repulsed the enemy, yet this unhappy affair scattered our cattle and brought us into extreme difficulty. We returned 40 miles, to the settlement on Clench River. We had passed over two mountains, Powell and Walden's, and were approaching Cumberland JUIountain, when this adverse fortune overtook us. These mountains are in the wilderness, in passing from the old settlement in Virginia to Kentucky ; they range in a southwest and nortlieast direction ; are of great length and breadth, and not far distant Irom each other. Over them nature has formed passes less difficult than might be ex- pected from the view of such huge piles. The aspect of these cliffs is so wild and horrid that it is impossible to behold them without horror. Until the 6th of June, 1774, I remained with my family on the Clench, when myself and another person were solicited by Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, to conduct a number of surveyors to the falls of Ohio. This was a tour of 800 miles, and took 62 days. On my return. Governor Dunmore gave me the command of three garrisons during the campaign against the Shawnees. In March, 1775, at the solicitation of a number of gentlemen of North Carolina, I attended their treaty at Wataga with the Cherokee Indians, to purchase the lands on the south side of the Ken- tucky River. After this. I undertook to mark out a road in the best passage from the settlements through the Avilderness to Kentucky. Having collected a number of enterprising men, well armed, I soon began this work. We proceeded until we came within 15 miles of where Boonsborough now stands; where the Indians attacked us, and killed 2, and wounded 2 more of our party. Tiiis was on the 22d of March, 1775. Two days after, we were again attacked by them, when we had 2 more killed, and 3 wounded. After this, we proceeded on to Kentucky River without opposition. On the 1st of April, we began to erect the fort of Boonsborough, at a salt lick 60 yards from the river, on the south side. On the 4th, the Indians killed one of our men. On the 14th of .Tune, having completed the fort, I returned to my family on the Clench, and whom I soon afterward removed to the fort. My wife and daughter were supposed to be the first white women that ever stood on the .banks of Kentucky River. On the 24th of December, the Indians killed one of our men, and wounded another ; and on the 15th of July, 1776, they took my daughter prisoner. I im- mediately pursued them with 8 men, and on the 16th overtook and engaged them. I killed 2 of them and recovered my daughter. 820 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Indians, having divided themselves into several parties, attacked in one day all our infant settlements and forts, doing a great deal of damage. The hus- bandmen wore ambushed and unexpectedly attacked while toiling in the field. They continued this kind of warfare until the 15th of April, 1777, when nearly 100 of tliem attacked the village of Boonsborough, and killed a number of its in- habitants. On the 16lh, Colonel Logan's fort was attacked by 200 Indians. There were only 13 men in the fort, of whom the enemy killed 2, and wounded one. On the 20th of August, Colonel Bowman arrived with 100 men from Virginia, with which additional force we had almost daily skirmishes with the Indians, who began now to learn the superiority of the " long knife," as they termed the Virginians ; being out-generalled in almost every action. Our affairs began now to wear a better aspect ; the Indians no longer daring to face us in open field, but sought private opportunities to destroy us. On the 7th of February, 1778, while on a hunting excursion alone, I met a party of 102 Indians and 2 Frenchmen, marcliing to attack Boonsborough. They pursued and took me prisoner, and conveyed me to Old Chilicothe, the principal Indian town on Little Miami, where we arrived on the 18tli of February, after an uncomfortable journey. On the 10th of March, I was conducted to Detroit, and while there was treated with great humanitj' by Governor Hamilton, the British commander at that port, and Intendant for Indian Affairs. The Indians had such an affection for me, that they refused £100 sterling, of- fered them by the G()venK)r, if they would consent to leave me with him, that he might be enabled to liberate me on my parole. Several English gentlemen, then at Detroit, sensible of my adverse fortune, and touched with sympathy, gene- rously offered to supply my wants, which I declined with many thanks, adding that I never expected it would be in my power to recompense such unmerited generosity. On the 10th of April, the Indians returned with me to Old Chilicothe, where we arrived on tlie 25th. This was a long and fatiguing march, although through an exceeding fertile country, remarkable for springs and streams of water. At Chilicothe I spent my time as comfortably as I could expect ; was adopted, ac- cording to their custom, into a family where I became a son, and had a great share in the afiFection of my new parents, brothers, sisters, and friends. I was exceedingly familiar and friendly with them, always appearing as cheerful and contented as possible, and they put great confidence in me. I often went a hunt- ing with them, and frequently gained the applause for my activity at our shwot- ing matches. I was careful not to exceed many of them in shooting, for no people are more envious than they in this sport. I could observe in their counte- nances and gestures the greatest expressions of joy when they exceeded me, and when the reverse happened, of envy. The Shawnee king took great notice of me, and treated me with profound respect, and entire friendship, often intrusting me to hunt at my liberty. I frequently returned with the spoils of the woods, and as often presented some of what I had taken to him, expressive of duty to my sovereign. My food and lodging were in common with them ; not so good, indeed, as I could desire, but necessity made everything acceptable. I now began to meditate an escape, and carefully avoided giving suspicion. I continued at Chilicothe until the 1st day of June, when I was taken to the salt springs on Sciotha, and there employed ten days in the manufacturing of salt. During this time, I hunted with my Indian masters, and found the land, for a great extent about this river, to exceed the soil of Kentucky. KENTUCKY. 821 On my return to Chilicothe, 150 of the choicest Indian warriors were ready to march against Boonsborough. They were painted and armed in a frightful man- ner. This alarmed me, and I determined to escape. On the 26th of June, before sunrise, I went off secretly, and reached Boons- borough on the 30th, a journey of 160 miles, during which I had only one meal. I found our fortress in a bad state, but we immediately repaired our flanks, gates, posterns, and formed double bastions, which we completed in ten da3's. One of my fellow-prisoners escaped after me, and brought advice, that on account of my flight, the Indians had put off their expedition for three weeks. About the 1st of August, I set out with 19 men to surprise Point Creek-town, on Sciotha, within 4 miles of which we fell in with 40 Indians going against Boonsborough. We attacked them, and they soon gave way, without any loss on our part. The enemy had one killed and two wounded. We took three horses and all their baggage. The Indians having evacuated their town, and gone altogether against Boonsborough, we returned, passed them on the 6th, and on the 7th ar- rived safe at Boonsborough. On the 9th, the Indian army, consisting of 444 men, under the command of Captain Duquesne, and 11 other Frenchmen, and their chiefs, arrived and sum- moned the fort to surrender. I requested two days' consideration, which was granted. During this we brought in through the posterns all the horses and other cattle we could collect. On the 9th, in the evening, I informed their commander that we were deter- mined to defend the fort while a man was living. They then proposed a treaty : they would withdraw. The treaty was held within 60 yards of the fort, as we suspected the savages. The articles were agreed to and signed, when the In- dians told us, as it was their custom for two Indians to shake hands with every white man in the treaty, as an evidence of friendship. We agreed to this also. They immediately grappled us to take us prisoners, but we cleared ourselves of them, though surrounded by hundreds, and gained the fort safe, except one man, who was wounded by a heavy fire from the enemy. The savages now began to undermine the fort, beginning at the watermark of Kentucky River, which is 60 yards from the fort ; this we discovered by the water being made muddy by the clay. We countermined them by cutting a trench across their subterraneous passage. The enemy, discovering this by the clay we threw out of the fort, desisted. On the 20th of August, they raised the sie^e, during which we had 2 men killed, and 4 wounded. We lost a number of cattle. The loss of the enemy was 37 killed, and a much larger number wounded. We picked up 125 pounds of their bullets, beside what stuck in the logs of the fort. In July, 1779, during my absence. Colonel Bowman, with 160 men, went against the Shawnecs of Old Chilicothe. He arrived undiscovered. A battle en- sued, which lasted until 10 in the morning, when Colonel Bowman retreated 30 miles. The Indians collected all their strength and pursued him, when another engagement ensued for two hours, not to Colonel Bowman's advantage. Colonel Harrod proposed to mount a number of horses, and break the enemy's line, who at this time fought with remarkable fury. This desperate measure had a happy effect, and the savages fled on all sides. In these two engagements we had 9 men killed and one wounded. Enemy's loss uncertain. Only two scalps were taken. 822 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. June 23d, 1780, 500 Indians and Canadians, under Colonel Bird, attacked Riddle and Martain's station, and the forks ot Licking River, with 6 pieces of ar- tillery. They took all the inhabitants captive, and killed one man and two wo- men, loading the others with the heavy baggage, and such as failed in the journey were tomahawked. The hostile disposition of the savages caused General Clarke, the commandant at the falls of Ohio, to march with his regiment and the armed force of the country against Peccawa}-, the principal town of the Shawnees, on a branch of the Great Miami, which he attacked with great success, took 70 scalps, and re- duced tlie town to ashes, with the loss of 17 men. About this time, I returned to Kentucky with my family ; for, during my cap- tivity, my wife, thinking me killed by the Indians, had transported my family and goods, on horses, through the wilderness, amidst great dangers, to her father's hou.se in North Carolina. On the 6th of October, 1780, soon after my settling again at Boonsborough, I went with my brother to the Blue Licks, and on our return he was shot by a party of Indians, who followed me by the scent of a dog, which I shot, and es- caped. Tlie severity of the winter caused great distress in Kentucky, the enemy, during the summer, having destroyed most of the corn. The inhabitants lived chiefly on Ijtuffalo's flesh. In the spring of 1782, the Indians harassed us. In May, they ravished, killed, and scalped a woman and her two daughters, near Ashton's station, and took a negro prisoner. Captain Ashton pursued them with 25 men, and in an engage- ment, wliich lasted two hours, his party were obliged to retreat, having 8 killed, and 4 mortal!}' wounded. Their brave commander fell in the action. On August 18th, two boys were carried off from Major Hoy's station. Captain Holder pursued the enemy with 17 men, who were also defeated, with the loss of 7 killed, and 2 wounded. Our affairs became more and more alarming. The savages infested the country, and destroyed the whites as oppf)rtunity presented. In a field near Lexington, an Indian shot a man, and, running to scalp him, was himself shot from the fort, and fell dead upon the ground. All the Indian na- tions were now united against us. On August 15th, 500 Indians and Canadians came against Briat's station, 5 miles from Lexington. They assaulted the fort, and killed all the cattle round it ; but being repulsed, they retired the third da}', having about 80 killed ; their wounded uncertain. Tlie garrison had 4 killed, and 9 wounded. On August 10th, Colonels Todd and Trigg, Major Harland and myself, speedily collected 176 men, well armed, and pursued the savages. They had marched be- yond the Blue Licks, to a remarkable bend of the main fork of the Licking River, about 43 miles from Lexington, where we overtook them on tlie 19th. The savages, observing us, gave way, and we, ignorant of their numbers, passed the river. When they saw our proceedings, having greatly the advantage in situation, they formed tlieir line of battle from one end of the Licking to the other, about a mile from the Blue Licks. The engagement was close and warm for about 15 minutes, when we, being overpowered by numbers, were obliged to retreat, with a loss of 67 men, 7 of whom were taken priscmers. The brave and much-lamented Colonels Todd and Trigg, Major Harland, and my second son, were among the dead. We were afterward informed that the Indians, on num- bering their dead, finding that they had 4 more killed than we, 4 of our people, they had taken, were given up to their young warriors, to be put to death after their barbarous manner. KEMTUCKY. 823 On our retreat, w* were met by Colonel Logan, who was hastening to join us with a number of well-armed men. This powerful assistance we wanted on the day of the battle. The enemy said, one more fire from us would have made them give way. ■ I cannot reflect upon this dreadful scene without great sorrow. A zeal for the defence of their country led these heroes to the scene of action, though with few men, to attack a powerful army of experienced warriors. When we gave way, they pursued us with the utmost eagerness, and in every quarter spread destruc- tion. The river was difficult to cross, and many were killed in the fight, some just entering the river, some in the water, others after crossing, in ascending the cliff's. Some escaped on horseback, a few on foot ; and being dispersed every- where, in a few hours brought the melancholy news of this unfortunate battle to Lexington. Many widows were now made. The reader may guess what sorrow filled the hearts of the inhabitants, exceeding anything that I am able to describe. Being reinforced, we returned to bury the dead, and found their bodies strewed everywhere, cut and mangled in a dreadful manner. This mournful scene ex- hibite^k a horror almost unparalleled ; some torn and eaten by wild beasts ; those in the river by fislies ; all in such a putrid condition that one could not be dis- tinguished from another. "\Ylien General Clarke, at the falls of the Ohio, heard of our disaster, he ordered an expedition to pursue the savages. We overtook them within 2 miles of their town, and we should have obtained a great victory had not some of them met us when about 200 poles from their camp. The savages fled in the utmost disorder, and evacuated all their towns. We burned to ashes Old Chilicothe, Peccaway, New Chilicothe, and Willstown ; entirely destroyed their corn and other fruits, and spread desolation through their country. We took 7 prisoners and 15 scalps,, and lost only 4 men, 2 of whom were accidentally killed by ourselves. This- campaign damped the enemy, yet they made secret incursions. In October, a party attacked Crab Orchard, and one of them, being a good way before the others, boldly entered a house in which were only a woman and her children, and a negro man. The savage used no violence, but attempted to carry off" the negro, who happily proved too strong for him, and threw him on tlie ground, and in the struggle the woman cut off" his head with an axe, while her little daughter shut the_^door. The savages instantly came up, and applied their tomahawks to the door, when the mother putting an old rusty gun-barrel through the crevice, the savages immediatel}' went off". From that time till the happy return of peace between the United States and Great Britain, the Indians did us no mischief. Soon after this, the Indians de- sired peace. Two darling sons and a brother I have lost by savage hands, which have also taken from me 40 valuable horses, and abundance of cattle. Many dark and sleepless nigluts have I spent, separated from the cheerful society of men, scorched by the summer's sun, and pinched by the winter's cold, an instrument ordained to settle the wilderness. Daniel Booke. Fayette county^ Kentucky. 51 OHIO. Area, 39,964 Square Mil^s. Population in 1860, 2,339,511 Population in 1870, 2,665,260 The State of Ohio is situated between 38° 32' and 42° N. latitude, :and between 80° 35' and 84° 40' W. longitude. It is bounded on :the north by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the east by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on the south by West Virginia and Kentucky, and on the west by Indiana. Its extreme length from north to south is about 200 miles, and its width about 195 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The centre of the Staife is occupied by a level country elevated about 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and the north central part of tiie State is crossed by a ridge of hills which separate the waters which flow into Lake Erie from those which flow into the Ohio River. A second slope interrupts the Ohio slope in the south central part of the State, and from this ridge the lower part of the State is a fine rugged country, which rises into a range of bold hills along the Ohio River. There are some prairie lands in the centre and northwest, and in the latter portion is a large tract of great fertility, called the Black Swamp, a considerable part of which is heavily timbered. Much of the country in the neighborhood of Lake Erie is marshy. Lake Erie, already described, forms the greater part of the northern boundary, and receives the waters of the Maumee, Sandusky, Huron, and Cuyahoga. Witii the exception of the Maumee, which has its •source in Indiana, all these streams rise in and flow through this State. The principal towns on the lake are Cleveland and Sandusky. San- 824 OHIO. 825 dusky Bay extends inland for about 20 miles. There are several good harbors on the lake. The Mauniee is the only navigable river empty- ing into the lake. Steamers ascend it for 18 miles. The Ohio River forms the greater part of the eastern, and the whole of the southern boundary, first touching the State about 50 miles be- low its head, and flows by it for a distance of about 470 miles. It is navigable the whole distance for large steamers for one-half of the year. Its principal tributaries, beginning on the east, are the Mus- kingum, Scioto, Little Miami, and Miami rivers. They vary in length from 110 to 200 miles. The Muskingum is navigable, by means of al establishments are, the United States Marine Hospital; the Cleveland Orphan Asylum; 3 Roman Catholic orphan asylums; the Home of the Friendless (Episcopal); the City Inji7'mary ; the House of Refuge; the Charity Hospital. Fourteen newspapers, 5 of which are daily, and 9 magazines, arc [>ublished in Cleveland. The city contains about 43 churches, and 7 hotels. It is lighted with gas and is supplied with water, which is forced by steam from Lake Erie into an elevated reservoir, from -which it is distributed through the city. It is provided with an efficient police force, a police and fire alarm telegraph, a steam fire-engine de- partment, and a system of street railways. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 92,829. The position of Cleveland on Lake Erie has placed it in possession of an important trade. It is next to Buffalo the most important port on the lake. The harbor is good, and has been greatly improved by the United States Government. During the season of navigation daily lines of passenger steamers ply between Cleveland and the Lake Superior ports, and about 20 lines of steam propellers maintain a busy trade with the principal towns on all the great lakes. There is direct cominunication between Cleveland and Liverpool, England, by 844 OUR COUNTPvY AND ITS KESOURCES. mailing vessels, via the lakes, the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence. The lake trade is very large and valuable, and is increasing. The Ohio Canal connects the lake with the Ohio River at Portsmouth, and, by means of a branch at Beaver, seven lines of railway, one leading direct to the oil regions of Pennsylvania, connect the city V. ith all parts of the Union. These have added greatly to its trade. The lake trade alone is estimated at about $225,000,000 per annum. . Cleveland is largely engaged in ship-building. Many vessels have been constructed here for ocean service as well as for the lake trade. The manufactures of the city are growing rapidly. It is especiallv favored in this resj^ect, owing to its proximity to the coal fields, its daily receipts from the mines, and its great facilities for distributing its products over the country. MISCELLANY. SIMON KENTON. Simou Kenton Mas a Virginian by birth, and emigrated to the wilds of the West in the year 1771. He was born (according to a manuscript which he dic- tated to a gentleman of Kentucky, some years since,) in Fauquier county, on the 15th of May, 1755, of poor parents. His early life was passed principally on a furni. At the age of 16, having a quarrel with a rival in a love affair, he left his antagonist upou the ground for dead, and made quick steps for the wilderness, la the course of a few days, wandering to and fro, he arrived at a small settle- ment on Cheat Creek, one of the forks of the Monongahela, where he called him- self Butler. Here, according to Mr. McClung, he attached himself to a small company headed by John Mahon and Jacob Greathonse, which was about start- ing fiirllier west, on an exploring expedition. He was soon induced, however, by a young adventurer of the name of Yager, who had been taken by the western Indians when a child, and spent manj' years among them, to detach himself from the company, and go with him to a land which the Indians called Kan-tuc-kee, and which he represented as being a perfect elysium. Accompanied by another young man, named Strader, they set off for the backwoods paradise in high spirits : Kenton not doubting that he should find a country flowing with milk and honey, where he would have little to do but to eat. drink, and be merrj'. Such, however, was not his luck. Tliey continued wandering through the wilderness for some weeks, without finding the "promised land." and then retraced their steps, and successively explored the land about Salt Lick, Little and Big Sandy, and Guyandotte. At length, being totally wearied out, they turned their atten- tion entirely to hunting and trapping, and thus spent nearly two years. Being discovered by the Indians, and losing one of his companions (Strader), Kenton was compelled to abandon his trapping-waters, and hunting-grounds. After divers hardships, he succeeded in reaching the mouth of the Little Kanawha, with his remaining companion, where he found and attached himself to another exploring party. This, however, was attacked by the Indians, soon after com- mencing the descent of the Ohio, compelled to abandon its canoes, and strike diagonally through the woods for Greenbriar county. Its members suffered much OHIO. 845 in accomplishing this journey, from fatiyue, sickness, and famine ; and on reacli- ing the settlements separated. Kenton's rival of the love affair had long since recovered from the castigation which he had given him. But of this the young hero had not heard. He there- fore did not think proper to venture home; hut, instead, built a canoe on the Monongahela, and once more sought the moutii of the Great Kanawha, where he hunted till the spring of 1774. This year, he descended the Oiiio as far as the mouth of Big Bone Creek, and was engaged in various explorations till 1778, when he joined Daniel Boone in his expedition against the Indian town on Paint Creek. Immediately, on his return from this, lie was dispatched by Colonel Bowman, with two companions, to make observations upon the Indian towns on Little Miami, against which the colonel meditated an expedition. He reached the towns in safety, and made the necessary surveys without being observed by the Indians ; and the expedition might have terminated much to his credit, and been very useful to the settlers in Kentucky, had he not, before leaving the towns, stolen a number of the Indians' horses. The animals were missed early on the following morning, the trail of the marauders was discovered, and pursuit instantly commenced. Kenton and his companions soon lieard cr.ies in tlieir rear, knew that they had been discovered, and saw the necessit}' of riding for their lives. They therefore dashed through the woods at a furious rate, with the liue and cry after them, until their course was suddenly interrupted by an im- penetrable swamp. Here they, from necessity, paused for a few moments, and listened attentively. Hearing no sounds of pursuit, they resumed their course : and skirting the swamp for some distance, in the vain hope of crossing it, they dashed off in a straight line for the Ohio. They continued tlieir furious speed for 48 hours, halting but once or twice for a few minutes to tiike some refreshment, and reached the Ohio in safety. The river was high and rough, and they found it impossible to urge the jaded horses over. Various efforts were made, but all failed. Kenton was never remarkable for prudence ; and, on this occasion, his better reason seems to have deserted him entirely'. B}' abandoning the animals, he might yet have escaped, though several hours had been lost in endeavoring to get them over. But this he could not make up his mind to do. He therefore called a council, when it was determined, as they felt satisfied they must be some 12 hours in advance of their pursuers, that they should conceal their horses in a neighboring ravine, and themselves take stations in an adjoining wood, in the hope t!iat by sunset the high wind would abate, and the state of the river be such as to permit their crossing with the booty. At the hour waited for, however, the wind M'as higher, and the water rougher than ever. Still, as if completely infatuated, they remained in their dangerous position through the night. The next morning was mild ; the Indians had not yet been heard in pursuit, and Kenton again jirged the horses over. But, recollecting the difficulties of the preceding day, the affrighted animals could not now be induced to enter the water at all. Each of the three men therefore mounted a horse, abandoning the rest (they had stolen quite a drove), and started down the river, with the intention of keeping the Ohio and Indiana side till they should arrive opposite Louisville. But they were slow in making even this movement ; and thej'^ had not ridden over 100 yards when they heard a loud halloo, proceeding apparently from the spot which they had just left. •* They were soon surrounded by the pursuers. One of Kenton's companions effected his escape, the other was killed. Kenton was made pris- oner — "falling a victim," says Mr. McClung, "to his excessive love of horse- flesh." 846 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. After the Indians had scalped his dead companion, and kicked and cuffed Ken- ton to their hearts' content, they compelled him to lie down upon his back, and stretch out his arms to their full length. They then passed a stout stick at right angles across his breast, to each extremity of which his wrists were fastened by thongs of buffalo-hide. Stakes were next driven into the earth near his feet, to which they were fastened in like manner. A halter was then tied round Jiis neck, and fastened to a sapling which grew near. And finally, a strong rope was passed under his body, and wound several times round his arms at the el- bows — thus lashing them to the stick which lay across his breast, and to which liis wrists were fastened, in a manner peculiarly painful. He could move neither feet, arms, nor head ; and was kept in this position till the next morning. The Indians then, wishing to commence their return-journey, unpinioned Kenton, and lashed him by the feet to a wild, unbroken colt (one of the animals he had stolen from them), with his hands tied behind him. In this manner he was driven into a captivity as cruel, singular, and remark- able in other respects, as any in the whole history of Indian warfare upon this continent. "A fatalist," says the author of the "Sketches of Western Adven- ture," "would recognize the hand of destiny in every stage of its progress. la the infatuation with which Kenton refused to adopt proper measures for his safety, while such were practicable ; in the i)ersevering obstinacy with which he remained on the Ohio shore until flight became useless ; and afterward, in that remarkable succession of accidents, by which, without the least exertion on his part, he was so often at one hour tantalized with a prospect of safety, and the next plunged into the deepest despair. He was eight times exposed to the gauntlet — three times tied to the stake — and as often thought himself upon the eve of a terrible death. All the sentences passed upon him, whether of mercy or condemnation, seem to have been pronounced in one council only to be reversed in another. Every friend that Providence raised up in his favor, was immedi- ately followed by some enemy, who unexpectedly interposed, and turned his short glimpse of sunshine into deeper darkness than ever. For three weeks he was constantly see-sawing between life and death ; and during the whole time he Avas perfectly passive. No wisdom, or foresight, or exertion, could have saved iiim. Fortune fought his battle from first to last, and seemed determined to per- mit nothing else to interfere." He was eventually liberated from the Indians, when about to be bound to the stake for the fourth time and burnt, by an Indian agent of the name of Drewycr, who was anxious to obtain intelligence for the British commander at Detroit, of the strength and condition of the settlements in Kentucky. He got nothing im- portant out of Kenton ; but in three weeks, Football of Fortune was sent to De- troit, from which place he effected his escape in about eight months, and returned to Kentucky. Fearless and active, he soon embarked in new enterprises ; and was with George Rogers Clarke, in his celebrated expedition against Viucennes and Kaskaskia ; with Edwards, in his abortive expedition to the Indian towns in 1785 ; and with Wayne, in his decisive campaign of 1794. Simon Kenton, througliout the struggles of the pioneers, had the reputation of being a valuable scout, a hardy woodsman, and a brave Indian fighter ; but, in reviewing his eventful career, he appears to have greatly lacked discretion, and to have evinced frequently a want of energy. In his after life he was much re- spected, and he continued to the last fond of regaling listeners with stories of the early times. A friend of ours, who some years ago made a visit to the OHIO. 847 abode of the venerable patriarch, describes in the following terms his appearance at that time : "Kenton's form, even under the weight of 79 years, is striking, and must have been a model of manly strength and agility. His eye is blue, mild, and yet penetrating in its glance. The forehead projects very much at the eyebrows — which are well defined — and then recedes, and is neither very hioh nor very broad. His hair, which in active life was light, is now quite gray • his nose is straight ; and his mouth, before he lost his teeth, nmst have been expres- sive and handsome. I observed that he had yet one tooth — which, in connection with his character and manner of conversation, was continually remindiuo- me of Leatherstocking. The whole face is remarkably expressive, not of turbulence or excitement, but rather of rumination and self-possession. Simplicity, frankness, honesty, and a strict regard to truth, appeared to be the prominent traits of his character." In giving an answer to a question which my friend asked him, I was particularly struck with his truthfulness and simplicity. The question was, whether the account of his life, given in the " Sketches of Western Adventure," was true or not. " Well, I'll tell you," said he ; " not true. The book says that when Blackfish, the Injun warrior, asked me, when they had taken me prisoner, if Colonel Boone sent me to steal their horses, I said, 'No, sir.' " Here he looked indignant and rose from his chair. " I tell you I never said ' sir ' to an Injun in my life ; I scarcely ever say it to a white man." Here Mrs. Kenton, who was engaged in some domestic occupation at the table, turned round and remarked, that when they were last in Kentucky, some one gave her the book to read to her husband ; and that when she came to that part, he would not let her read any further. "And I tell j'ou," continued he, "I was never tied to a stake in my life to be burned. They had me painted black when I saw Girty, but not tied to a stake." We are inclined to think, notwithstanding this, that the statement in the "Sketches," of his being three times tied to the stake, is correct ; for the author of that interesting work had before him a manuscript account of the pioneer's life, which had been dictated by Mr. Kenton to a gentleman of Kentucky, a . number of years before, when he had no motive to exaggerate, and his memory •was comparatively unimpaired. But he is now beyond the reach of earthly toil, or trouble, or suffering. His old age was as exemplary as his youth and man- hood had been active and useful. And though his last years were clouded by poverty, and his eyes closed in a miserable cabin to the light of life, yet shall he occupy a bright page in our border history, and his name soon open to the light of fame. INDIANA. Area, 33,809 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,350,428 Population in 1870, 1,680,637 The State of Indiana is situated between 37° 50' and 41° 50' N. latitude, and between (about) 84° 50' and (about) 88° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, on the east by Ohio and Kentucky, on the south by Kentucky, and on the Avest by Illinois. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 280 miles, and its extreme width, from east to west, about 144 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The Ohio River is bordered for the most part by a range of hills; and the country south of the White River is mostly rugged. A low ridge enters the State from Kentucky, and crosses the southern part in a northwestern direction. The White and Wabash rivers break through this ridge in a series of rapids. The rapids of the Ohio River are produced by the same cause. North of the White River, the country is either gently rolling or level. Fine prairies occupy the western counties, and the eastern part of the State is heavily timbered. Some swamp lands occupy several of the northwestern counties. Lake 3Iichigany already described, washes the western portion of the northern part of the State. Michigan City is the principal town on the lake. The Ohio Rivo^ washes the entire southern shore of the State, and receives the waters of its principal stream, the Wabash. The Wabash 848 INDIANA. 849 rises in the western part of the State of Ohio, and enters Indiana near the centre of the eastern boundary. It then flows northwest to Huntington, where it bends to the southwest, and flows in that direc- tion across the State to the Illinois border, below Terre Haute. It then forms the boundary between Indiana and Illinois for about 100 miles, and empties into the Ohio River at the southwestern extremity of the former State. It is 550 miles long, and is navigable for 300 miles for steamboats, at high water. The White Rive)' is the principal branch of the Wabash. It is formed by two branches, called the* East Fork and the West Fork. The West Fork, which may be re- garded as the main stream, rises in the eastern part of the State, and is 300 miles long. It flows through the central part of Indiana, and is navigable, at high water, for 200 miles above the mouth of the White River. The East Fork is 250 miles long, and is navigable for flat-boats. The two branches unite near Kinderhook, in Davies county. The main stream is about 40 or 50 miles long. The gen- eral course of the White River and its branches is southwest. The Wabash is obstructed at low water by a ledge of rocks just above the mouth of the White River. The Maumee and its branches drain the northeastern counties, and the Kankakee, one of the sources of the Illinois, flows through the northwest. The Upper St. Joseph's of Michigan flows for 30 miles through this State, in the extreme northern part. The Tippecanoe and Mississinewa, flowing into the Wabash, the White Water and Blue River flowing into the Ohio, and the Flat Rock flowing into the White River, are the other streams of importance. MINERALS. The southwestern part of the State is rich in coal beds. It is esti- mated that they are capable of producing 50,000,000 bushels to the square mile. Iron, zinc, gypsum, marble, limestone, and sandstone, of an excellent building quality, and grindstones are found. CLIMATE. The climate is mild as a general rule, but liable to sudden and severe changes. The summers are warm, but the winters, though severe, are short, and except in the most northern counties deep snows are not usual. 850 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the State is good, and has never been worked to its full capacity. The best and most fertile lands lie along the rivers. The State contains a great deal of excellent grazing land. According to the Report of the Agricultural Bureau for 1869, there were in Indiana 8,242,183 acres of improved land. In the same year, the other returns were as follows : Bushels of wheat, 20,600,000 " Indian corn, 73,000,000 " rye, 575,000 " oats, 12,413,000 " barley, 411,000 " buckwheat, 303,000 " potatoes, 4,750,000 Pounds of tobacco, 7,000,000 " butter, 18,306,051 Tons of hay, • 1,200,000 JiT umber of horses, 890,340 " asses and mules, 35,340 sheep, 1,011,120 " milch cows, 390,450 " swine, , 3,580,120 " young cattle, 744,850 Yalue of domestic animals, $50,855,539 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. This State has no foreign commerce, but has an active lake and river trade. Manufactures do not yet occupy the position to which the cheapness of fuel and abundance of water-power in Indiana entitle them. The State is almost entirely agricultural at present, but there is good reason to believe that it will one day become a prominent manufacturing community. In 1870, the State contained 11,847 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They em- ployed a capital of $52,052,425, consumed raw material worth $63,- 135,492, and returned an annual product of ^108,617,278. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, Indiana contained 3529 miles of completed railroads, con- structed at a Gostof over$100,000,000. Nearly all thegreatlines between the far West and the East cross this State, which is one of the fore- INDIANA. 851 most in the country in the work of internal improvements. A perfect network of roads covers the State, and there is scarcely a county which is not crossed in some part by a railroad. Seven lines centre at the capital, and half a dozen cross the northern part of the State to Chicago. All the important points are thus connected with each other, and with all parts of the country. The roads of Indiana are amongst the best in the country. There are 453 miles of canal navigation in the State. EDUCATION. Indiana is one of the first States in respect to the provision made for public education. In 1870, there were 26 colleges in the State, the principal of which is the State University, at Bloomington, which is a part of the public school system, and furnishes education free. A State Normal school has been established at Terre Haute. The educational system is under the general control of a Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, elected by the people for a term of two years. He reports the condition of the schools to the Legislature at the end of his term. A County Commissioner is in charge of the schools of each county, and in each city and township the schools are controlled by a Board of Trustees. An Examiner is appointed in each county by the Commissioner. It is the duty of this official to visit the sciiools and examine the teachers, under the direction of the Commissioner, and to hold a Teachers' Institute in his county at least once a year. In 1870, the school fund amounted to over $7,000,000. The num- ber of public schools in the State was 8871, and the number of pupils was 446,076. There were also 202 private schools, with about 18,000 pupils. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. There are two State prisons in this State — the State Prison, North, at Michigan City, and the State Prison, South, at Jeffersonville. At the Jeffersonville prison, the labor of the convicts is let out to con- tractors, and the institution is self-sustaining. The State conducts the northern prison. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is at Indianapolis, and is a flourishing and excellent institution. The Institute for the Education of the Blind, and the Hospital for the Insane, are also at Indianapolis. They are well managed. In the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, shoe- 852 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. making and cabinet-making are taught the boys, while the girls are instructed in needle- work. Brush and broom making are carried on by the boys, and bead work of various kinds by the girls, at the Blind Asylum. In October, 1867^ there were 169 deaf mutes in the first institution named above; 96 blind persons in the second ; and in 1868, 313 lunatics in the third. The Soldiers' and Seamen's Home is located in Rush county. It was established in this county in 1866, and will accommodate 100 patients. A State Reform School is just being put in operation in Hendricks county. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 3106 churches in Indiana, and the value of church property was $11,942,227 LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. In 1870, there were 5301 libraries in the State, containing 1,125,- 533 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and magazines pub- lished in this State was as follows : daily, 20 ; semi- weekly, 1 ; weekly, 233; monthly, 28. Total, 293. Of these 240 were political, 9 religious, 16 literary, and 28 miscllaneous. They had an aggregate annual cir- culation of 26,964,894 copies. FINANCES. On the 31st of October,1874, the State debt amounted to $1,172,755. The receipts of the Treasury during the fiscal year ending October 31st, 1874, amounted to $2,410,917, and the expenditures for the same period to $1,544,216. In 1868, there were 68 National banks doing business in the State, with a capital of $12,867,000. GOVERNMENT. By the terms of the State Constitution, every male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, who has resided in the State six months, and every male of foreign birth, 21 years old, who has resided in the United States one year, and in the State six months, and has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, INDIANA. 8o3 Secretary of State, Auditor of State, Treasurer of State, and Attorney- General, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 50 members) and a House of Representatives (of 98 members), all elected by the people. The General election is held in October. The Governor and Lieutenant-Governor are chosen for four years, and the other officers and the Legislature for two years. The Legislature meets biennially in January. The Courts of the State are the Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, and a Court of Common Pleas. The judges are elected by the people; those of the Supreme Court for seven years, those of the Circuit Courts for six years, and those of the Court of Common Pleas for four years. The Supreme Court consists of four judges. The seat of Government is established at Indianapolis. Indiana is divided into 92 counties. HISTORY. Originally a part of New France, Indiana was first explored by the French missionaries and traders. As early as 1700, Vincennes was a missionary station, and in 1716 it became a trading-post. It is be- lieved that the first actual white settlers were French soldiers, who, by frequent intermarriages with the Indians, lost their habits of civili- zation, and became a degenerate community, remaining a distinct class for fully one hundred years. The treaty of 1763, turned over to Great Britain all the French possessions east of the Mississippi. During the Revolution, the French settlers were bitterly hostile to the English, and in one instance gave such accurate information of the situation and condition pf the British fort at Vincennes, that General Rogers Clark, of Virginia, was enabled to capture it. After the close of the Revolution, the territory east of the Mississippi became the property of the United States. Soon after the settlement of Ohio, several military expeditions were sent into the present State of Indiana, which was then known as the Indian country. In 1790, General Harmar destroyed the Indian towns on the Maumee, which are supposed to have occupied the site of the present -town of Fort Wayne, but was himself very badly handled by the savages. In May, 1791, an expedition from Kentucky, under General Charles Scott, laid waste the towns on the Wabash and Eel rivers, without losing a man ; and in the following^ August, another Soi OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Kentucky expedition crossed into Indiana, and completed the work which General Scott had begun. The Indians continued hostile after the treaty of 1795, owing to the etforts of Tecuraseh, but a portion of them sold their lands to the United States for the benefit of the white settlers. In 1802 and 1803, and again in 1807, unsuccessful efforts were made to introduce slavery into the Indiana territory in spite of the prohibition of the ordinance by which the territory had been ceded to the United States. The Indians having become troublesome again, the Governor, Gen- eral William Henry Harrison, summoned the people to take up arras against them. The savages were led by Tecumseh and his brother The Prophet, two able and determined chieftains. General Harrison marched into their country with a considerable force. On the 7th of November, 1811, he appeared with his army before Tippecanoe {the Prophet's town) on the XV^abash, and demanded that the savages should restore all the property they had taken from the whites. A conference was held between the American commander and Tecumseh, in wliich it was agreed that hostilities should not begin until the next morning. Harrison, however, knew that the Indians would not scruple to disregard the truce, and bivouacked his army in order of battle. His suspicions were realized. Just before daylight Tecumseh made a furious attack upon the American camp, but, thanks to the wise precautions of Harrison, was repulsed, and his warrioi's routed with terrible loss. Harrison followed up his victory by devastating the Indian country. Soon after this the tribes sued for peace. During tlie w^ar of 1812 the Indians joined tiie British in their efforts against the Americans, but were terribly punished for so doing. Their \varriors were slain and their country laid waste, and in the battle of the Thames their famous chieftain, Tecumseh, Avas killed. In the year 1800 the region now included in the States of Illinois and Indiana was organized as the Territory of Indiana. In 1809 Illinois Territory was separated from Indiana. On the 29th of June, 1816, a State Constitution was adopted by the people, in Convention, and on the 11th of December, of the same year, Indiana was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The new State grew rapidly, and attracted settlers from all parts of the country. Emigrants from Europe also came over, and it en- tered upon that splendid career of wealth and prosperity which it is still pursuing. INDIANA. 855 STATE HOUSE AT INDIANAPOLIS During the late war Indiana furnished 195,147 troops to the ser vice of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, New Albany, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Terre Haute, Madison, Richmond, Laporte, Jeffersonville, Logansport, and Michi- gan City. INDIANAPOLIS, The capital and largest city of the State, is situated in Marion county, on the west fork of White River, just below the mouth of Fall Creek, 109 miles northwest of Cincinnati, 200 miles southeast of Chicago, and 573 miles west by north of Washington. Latitude, 39° 46' N. ; longitude, 86° 5' W. It is located in an extensive plain, and lies in almost the exact centre of the State. The city is regularly laid out, and is well built. It is making rapid progress every year in the character of its edifices, both public and private, and is now noted as one of the handsomest and most attractive of the Western capitals. The streets are wide, and generally cross each other at right angles. Four of them, however, are diagonal, and converge to a circular area in the centre of the town. Washington street is the principal thoroughfare, and is 120 feet wide. The streets are well paved, are shaded with trees, and are traversed by lines of street railways. The r 856 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. business portions boast many handsome and showy structures, and the private streets contain a large number of elegant residences. The public buildings are a credit to the city and State. Tiie State House is a noble edifice, built in imitation of the Parthenon, and sur- mounted by a dome. Its dimensions are 180 by 80 feet. The Court House and the Union Depot are the other prominent buildings. The schools of the city are excellent and prosperous. The public schools deserve special commendation, and the private academies and .seminaries are well conducted. The Northwestern Christian Univer- sity, conducted by the Christian Church, the Baptist Female College, the Indiana Female College, and the Indiana Medical College, are located here. The State and Mercantile Libraries are the principal collections of books. The Benevolent Institutions are, the State Lunatic Asylum, the State Asylums for the Blind, and for the Deaf and Dumb, and several local institutions for the relief of the poor and afflicted. The city contains about 34 churches, and several newspaper offices, IS lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water. It is provided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department, and is gov- erned by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 48,244. Eight railway lines centre at Indianapolis, and make it one of the most important railway points in America. Manufactures are carried on to a limited extent, iron, machinery, paper, flour, and window sashes being the principal products. Indianapolis is noted for its rapid growth. In 1820, when the site Avas selected for the capital of the State, it was covered with a dense forest. The first settlement was made in the spring of that year, and on the 1st of January, 1825, the State offices were removed from Corydon to this place. The State Capitol was finished in 1834. EVANSVILLE, In Vanderburgh county, on the northern bank of the Ohio, is the second city of the State, with respect to population. It is 200 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, 200 miles below Louisville, Ky., and 144 miles southwest of Indianapolis. The city lies on a high bank of the river, the ground sloping gradually from the first street to the edge of the water. It is well built, and presents a handsome appear- ance from the river. The principal streets are M'ide and well paved. The public buildings are, th6 Court House, the Marine Hospital of the United States, and the State Bank. The city is lighted with gas, and INDIANA. 857 EVAKSVILLE. is supplied with water from tlie Ohio. It contains about 30 churches, a number of public and private schools, about 4 newspaper offices, and several hotels. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 21,830. Evansville is one of the most important places in the State. It is the terminus of the Wabash and Erie Canal, which is 462 miles long, and the principal market of the famous Green River Valley of Ken- tucky. The annual exports of the city exceed $8,000,000 in value, of which pork, lard, and tobacco are the principal articles. The city is also extensively engaged in the manufacture of iron, brass,, and flour. The coal for this purpose is rained about a mile from the Court House. A large portion of the population is of German origin. The town was laid out in 1836, at which time the site was covered with a dense forest. It received its name from Robert Morgan Evans, a native of Virginia, one of the original proprietors. FORT WAYNE, In Allen county, is situated at the confluence of the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers, which here unite and form the Maumee. It is 1 12 miles northeast of Indianapolis, and 96 west of Toledo, Ohio. The city is laid out on the level prairie land, and is well built. It has grown rapidly in the past ten years, and its railway connections have made it a place of considerable importance. The Wabash and Erie Canal connects it with the Ohio and Lake Erie. 53 858 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. NEAV ALBANY. NEW ALBANY, In Floyd county, on the right bank of the Ohio River, is a very thriving city. It is 3 miles below the falls of the Ohio, and 5 miles below Louisville, 136 miles below Cincinnati, and 100 miles south-by-east from Indianapolis. It is a handsome city, built on level ground, at a slight elevation above the river, with broad well-paved streets, shaded with handsome trees. It contains some showy buildings and fine residences. The principal are the county buihlings. MISCELLANY. THE MEETING OF GENERAL HARRISON AND TECUMSEH. In the spring of 1810, General Harrison, being Governor of the Northwestern Territory, and residing at Vincennes — the seat of Government — had learned from various quarters that Tecumseh had been visiting the different Indian tribes, scattered along the valleys of the Wabash and Illinois, viiih a view of forming an alliance and making common cause against the whites, and that there was great probability that his mission had been successful. Aware, as he was, that if this was the case, and that if the combination had been formed, such as was repre- sented, the settlements in the southern portion of Indiana and Illinois were in great danger •, that Vincennes itself would be the first object of attack, and that, with a handful of troops in the territory, a successful resistance might not be made ; and not probably fully aware of the extent of tlie organization attempted by Tecumseh, and desirous of avoiding, if he could, the necessity of a call to arms, he sent a message to him, then residing at the " Prophet's Town," inviting INDIANA. 859 him to a council, to be held at as early a period as possible, for the purpose of talking over and amicably settling all difficulties which might exist between the .whites and the Shawnees. It was not until the month of August of tlie same year, that Tecumseh, accompanied by about 70 of his warriors, made his appear- ance. Tliey encamped on the banks of the Wabash, just above the town, and Tecumseh gave notice to the Governor that, in pursuance of his invitation, he had come to hold a talk "with him and his braves." The succeeding day was appointed for the meeting. The Governor made all suitable preparations for it. The officers of the territory and the leading citizens of the town were invited to be present, while a portion of a company of militia was detailed as a guard — fully armed and equipped for any emergencJ^ ISTotice had been sent to Tecumseh, previous to the meeting, tliat it was expected that himself and a portion of his principal warriors would be present at the council. The council was held in the open lawn before the Governor's house, in a grove of trees which then sur- rounded it. But two of these, I regret to say, are now remaining. At the time appointed, Tecumseh and some 15 or 20 of his warriors made their appearance. With a firm and elastic step, and with a proud and somewhat defiant look, he advanced to the place where the Governor and those who had been invited to at- tend the conference were sitting. This place had been fenced in, with a view of preventing the crowd from encroaching upon the council during its dcHberations. As he stepped forward, he seemed to scan the preparations which had been made for his reception, particularly the military part of it, with an eye of suspicion — by no means, however, of fear. As he came in front of the dais^ an elevated portion of the place, upon which the Governor and the officers of tiie territory were seated, the Governor invited him, through his interpreter, to come forward and take a seat with him and his counsellors, premising the invitation by saying : "That it was the wish of tJieir ' Great Father,' the President of the United States, that he should do so." The chief paused for a moment, as tlie words were ut- tered and the sentence finished, and raising his tall form to its greatest lieight, surveyed the troops and the crowd around liini. Then, with his keen eyes fixed upon the Governor for a single moment, and turning them to the sky above, with his sinewy arm pointing toward the heavens, and with a tone and manner indi- cative of supreme contempt for the paternity assigned him, said, in a voice whose clarion tone was heard throughout the whole assembly : " My Father ?— The sun is my father — the earth is my mother — and on her bosom I will recline." Having finisiied, he stretched himself with liis warriors on tlie greensward. The effect, it is said, was electiin], and for some moments there was perfect silence. The Governor, through the interpreter, then informed him, "that he had un- derstood lie had complaints to make, and redress to ask, for certain wrongs which he (Tecumseh) supposed had been done his tribe, as well as the others ; tliat he felt disposed to listen to the one and make satisfaction for the other, if it was proper that he should do so. That in all his intercourse and negotiations with the Indians, he had endeavored to act justly and honorably with them, and believed he had done so, and had learned of no complaint of his conduct until he learned that Tecumseh was endeavoring to create dissatisfaction toward tlie Gov- ernment, not only among the Shawnees, but among the other tribes dwelling on the Wabash and Illinois ; and had, in so doing, produced a great deal of trouble betweeii them and the whites, by averring that the tribes whose land the Govern- liient had lately purchased, had no right to sell, nor their chiefs any authoritj to 860 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. convey. That he, the Governor, had invited him to attend the council, -with a view of learning from liis own lips, whether there was any truth in the reports which he had heard, and to learn whether he, or his tribe, had any just cause of complaint against the whites, and, if so, as a man and a warrior, openly to avow it. That as between himself and as great a warrior as Tecumseh there should be no concealment — all should be done by them under a clear sky, and in an open path, and with these feelings on his own part, he was glad to meet him in coun- cil." Tecumseh arose as soon as the Governor had finished. Those who knew him speak of him as one of the most splendid specimens of his tribe — celebrated for their physical proportions and tine forms, even among the nations who sur- rounded them. Tall, athletic, and manly, dignified, but graceful, he seemed the bean ideal of an Indian chieftain. In a voice first low, but, with all its indis- tinctness, musical, he commenced his reply. As he warmed with his subject, his clear tones might be heard, as if " trumpet-tongued," to the utmost limits of the assembled crowd who surrounded him. The most perfect silence prevailed, ex- cept when the warriors who surrounded him gave their guttural assent to some eloquent recital of the red man's wrong and the white man's injustice. Well in- structed in the traditions of his tribe, fully acquainted with their history, the councils, treaties, and battles of the two races tor half a century, he recapitulated the wrongs of the red man from the massacre of the Moravian Indians, during the Revolutionary war, down to the period he had met the Governor in council. He told him "he did not know how he could ever again be the friend of the while man." In reference to the public domain, he asserted " that the Great Spirit had given all the coiiiilry from tlie Miami to the Mississippi, from the lakes to the Ohio, as a common property to all the tribes that dwelt within those bor- ders, and that the land could not, and should not be sold without the consent of all. That all the tribes on the continent formed but one nation. That if the United States would not give up the lands they had bought of the Miamis, the Delawares, the Potawatomies, and other tribes, that those united with him were determined to fall on those tribes and annihilate them. That they were deter- mined to have no more chiefs, but in future to be governed by their warriors. That their tribes had been driven toward the setting sun, like a galloping horse (Ne-kat-a-cush-e Ka-top-o-lin-to). That for himself and his warriors, he had de- termined to resist all further aggressions of the whites, and that with his consent, or that of the Shawnees, they should never acquire another foot of land." To those who have never heard of the Shawnee language, I may here remark it is the most musical and euphonious of all the Indian languages of the West. When spoken rapidly by a fluent speaker, it sounds more like the scanning of Greek and Latin verse, than anything I can compare it to. The effect of this address, of which I have simply given the outline, and which occupied an hour in the de- livery, may be readily imagined. William Henry Harrison was as brave a man as ever lived. All who knew him will acknowledge his courage, moral and physical, but he was wholly unpre- pared for such a speech as this. There was a coolness, an independence, a defi- ance in the whole manner and matter of the chieftain's speech which astonished even him. He knew Tecumseh well. He had learned to appreciate his high qualities as a man and warrior. He knew his power, his skill, his influence, not only over his own tribe, but over those who dwelt on the waters of the Wabash and Illinois. He knew he was no braggart— that what he said he meant— what he promised he intended to perform. He was fully aware that he was a foe not INDIANA. 861 to be treated light— an enemy to be conciliated, not scorned— one to be met with kindness, not contempt. There was a stillness througliout the assembly when Tecumseh had done speaking which was painful. Not a whisper was to be heard— ail eyes were turned from the speaker to the Governor. The unwarranted and unwarrantable pi-etensions of the chief, and the bold and defiant tone in which he had announced them, staggered even him. It was some momejits be- fore he arose. Addressing Tecumseh, who had taken his seat with his warrioi's, he said : " That the charges of bad taith made against the Government, and the assertion that injustice had been done the Indians in anj-^ treaty ever made, or any council ever held with them by the United States, had no foundation in fact. That in all their dealings with the red man, they had ever been governed by the strictest rules of right and justice. That while other civilized nations had treated them with contumely and contempt, ours had always acted in good faith with them. Tiiat so far as he individually was concerned, he could say, in the pres- ence of the 'Great Spirit,' who was watching over their deliberations, that his conduct, even with the most insignificant tribe, had been marked with kindness, and all his acts governed by honor, integrit}', and fair dealing. That he had unilormly been the friend of the red man, and that it was the first time in his life that his motives had been questioned or lus actions impeached. It was the first lime in his life that he had ever heard such unfounded claims put forth, as Te- cumseh had set up, by any chief, or any Indian, having the least regard for truth, or the slightest knowledge of the intercourse between the Indian and the white man, from the time this continent was first discovered." Wliat tlie Gover- nor had said thus far had been interpreted by Barron, the interi)retcr to the Shawnees, and he was about interpreting it to the Miamis and Potawatomies, who formed part of the cavalcade, when Tecumseh, addressing the interpreter in Shawnee, said, "He lies!" Barron, who had, as all subordinates (especially in the Indian department) have, a great reverence and respect for the "powers that be," commenced interpreting the language of Tecumseh to the Governor, but not exactly in the terms made use of, wlien Tecumseh, who understood but Utile English, perceived from his embarrassment and awkwardness, that he was not giving his words, interrupted him, and, again addressing him in Shawnee, said ; " No, no ; tell Jiim he lies.'''' The guttural assent of bis party showed they coin- cided with their clilef 's opinion. General Gibson, Secretary of the Territory', who understood Shawnee, had not been an inattentive spectator of the scene, and understanding the import of the language made use of, and from the excited state of Tecumseh and his party, was apprehensive of violence, made a signal to the troops in attendance to shoulder their arms and advance. They did so. The speech of Tecumseh was literally translated to t!ie Governor. lie directed Barron to say to him, "he would hold no further council with him," and the meeting broke up. One can hardly imagine a more exciting scene — one which would be a finer Bubjcct for an "historical j)ainting," to adorn the rotunda of the Capitol. On the succeeding da}', Tecumseh requested another interview with tlie Governor, which was granted on condition that he should make an apology to the Governor for his language the day before. This he made through the interpreter. Measures for defence and protection were, however, taken, lest there should be another outbreak. Two companies of militia were ordered from the country, and the one in town added to them, wiiile the Governor and his friends went into council fully armed and prepared for any contingency. The conduct of Tecumseh upon 862 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. this occasion was entirely diflFerent from that of the day before. Firm and in- trepid, showing not the slightest tear or alarm, surrounded as he was with the military force quadrupling his own, lie preserved the utmost composure and equanimity. No one could have discerned from his looks, although he must have fully understood the object of calling in the troops, that he was in tlie slightest degree disconcerted. He was cautious in his bearing, dignified in his manner, and no one from observing him would for a moment have supposed he was the principal actor in the thrilling scene of the previous day. In the interval between the sessions of the first and second council, Tecumseh had told Barron, the interpreter, ''that he had been informed by the ■whiles, that the people of the Territory were almost equally divided, half in favor of Tecum- seh, and the other adhering to the Governor." The same statement he made in council. He said "that two Americans liad made him a visit, one in the course of the preceding winter, the other lately, and informed him that Governor Harri- son had purchased land from the Indians without any authority from the Gov- ernment, and that one half of the people were opposed to the purchase. He also told the Governor that he, Harrison, had but two years more to remain in office, and that he, Tecumseh, could prevail upon the Indians who sold the lands not to receive their annuities for that time ; that when the Governor was displaced, as he would be, and a good man appointed as his successor, he would restore to the Indians all the lands purchased from them." After Tecumseh had concluded his speech, a Wyandotte, a Kickapoo, a Potawatomie, an Ottawa, and a Winnebago chief, severally spoke, and declared that their tribes had entered into the "• Shaw- nee Confederacy," and would support the principles laid down by Tecumseh, whom they had appointed their leader. At the conclusion of the council, the Governor informed Tecumseh that "he Avould immediately transmit his speech to the President, and as soon as his answer Avas received, Avould send it to him ; but, as a person had been appointed to run the boundary line of the new purchase, he wished to know whether there would be danger in his proceeding to run the line." Tecumseh replied, "that he and his allies were determined that the old boundary line should continue, and that if the whites crossed it, it would be at their peril." The Governor replied, "that since Tecumseh had been thus candid in stating his determination, he would be equally so with him. The President, he was convinced, would never allow that the lands on the Wabash were the property of any other tribes than those who had occupied them and lived on them since the white people came to America. And as the title to the lands lately purchased was derived from those tribes by fair purchase, he might rest assured that the right of the United States would be supported by the sword." " So be it," was the stern and haughty reply of the Shawnee chieftain, as he and his Jiraves took leave of the Governor and wended their way in Indian file to their camping ground. And thus ended tlie last conference on earth between the chivalrous and gallant Tecumseh, the Shawnee chief, and he lyho since the period alluded to has ruled the destinies of the nation as its Chief Magistrate. The bones of the first lie bleaching on the battle field of the Thames — those of tlie last are deposited in the mausoleum that covers them on the banks of the Ohio. ILLINOIS. Area, 55,410 Square Miles. Population in 1860 1,711,951 Population in 1870, 2,539,891 The State of Illinois is situated between 37° and 42° 30' N. lati- tude, and between 87° 30' and 91° 40' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Wisconsin, on the east by Lake Michigan and Indiana, on the south by Kentucky, and on the west by Missouri and Iowa. It is separated from Kentucky by the Ohio, and from Missouri and Iowa by the Mississippi. One half of the eastern partis divided from Indiana by the Wabash. TOPOGRAPHY. There is a hilly region in the southern part, and some rugged country in the northwest; but as a general rule, the surface of Illinois is level, consisting in many parts of gently undulating prairies, which are covered with a luxuriant grass and an abundance of beautiful wild flowers. They also abound in wild fowl. Says a recent writer: " The great landscape feature of Illinois is its prairies, which are seen in almost every section of the State. The want of variety, which is ordinarily essential to landscape attraction, is more than compensated for in the prairie scenery, as in that of the boundless ocean, by the impressive qualities of immensity and power. Far as the most searching eye can reach, the great unvarying plain rolls on; its sublime grandeur softened but not weakened by the occasional groups of trees in its midst, or by the forests on its verge, or by the countless flowers everywhere upon its surface. The prairies abound in game. The prairie duck, sometimes but improperly called grouse, 863 864 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. are most abundant in September and October, when large numbers are annually taken. Perhaps the most striking picture of the prairie country is to be found on Grand Prairie. Its gently undulating plains, profusely decked with flowers of every hue, and skirted on all sides by woodland copse, roll on through many long miles from Jack- son county, northeast to Iroquois county, with a width varying from one to a dozen or more miles. The uniform level of the prairie region is supposed to result from the deposit of waters by which the land was ages ago covered. The soil is entirely free from stones, and is extremely fertile. The most notable characteristic of the prairies, their destitution of vegetation, excepting in the multitude of rank grasses and flowers, will gradually disappear, since nothing prevents the growth of the trees but the continual fires which sweep over the plains. These prevented, a fine growth of timber soon springs up; apd as the woodlands are thus assisted in encroaching upon and occupying the plains, settlements, and habitations will follow, until the prairie tracts are overrun with cities and towns. Of the thirty- five and a half millions of acres embraced within the State, but thirteen millions, or little more than one-third, were improved in 1860, showing that despite her wonderful progress in population and production, she is yet only in her infancy. Excepting the specialty of the prairie, the most interesting landscape scenery of this State is that of the bold, acclivitous river shores of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Illinois rivers." * Lake Ilichigan forms the northern part of the eastern boundary. Chicago, the principal city, is situated near the southern end of the lake, and possesses a very large lake trade. The otlier towns on Lake Michigan are, Otsego, Waukegan, Rockland, and Evanston. The Mississippi River forms the western boundary of this State, and receives the waters of the Rook, Illinois, and Kaskaskia rivers, besides those of several smaller streams. The important places on the Mississippi, beginning on the north, are Galena, Rock Island, Oquawka, Quincy, Alton, East St. Louis, and Thebes. The Ohio River forms the southern boundary, and empties into the Mississippi, at the extreme southern end of the State. The city of Cairo is situated at the confluence of these two rivers, and is an important place. The Illinois River is the largest in the State. It is formed by the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee, which unite at * Appleton's Hand-Book of American Travel. ILLINOIS. 865 Dresden, in Grundy county, southwest of Lake Michigan. It flows across the State in a southwestern direction, and empties into the Mississippi about 20 miles from Alton. It is about 320 miles long, and has been rendered navigable at all seasons, to Ottawa, 286 miles from the Mississippi. Peoria, 200 miles from its mouth, is the most important town on the river. The Fox and Sangamon rivers are its principal branches. The former rises in Wisconsin, and is 200 miles long. It is a fine mill-stream ; the latter rises in the east-central part of the State, and flows west into the Illinois. It is 200 miles lonsr, and is navigable at high water for small steamers. The Rock River rises in Fond du Lac county, in Wisconsin, about 10 miles south of Lake Winnebago, and flows southward into Illinois, near the centre of the northern part of the State. It then turns to the south- west and flows across the State into the Mississippi, at Rock Island City. It is 330 miles long, and though interrupted in several places by rapids, could be rendered navigable at a small expense ; steamers have ascended it to Jefferson, Wisconsin, 225 miles. It flows through one of the most beautiful and fertile portions of Illinois. The Kas- kaskia River rises in Champaign county, in the eastern part of the centre of the State, and flows southwest into the Mississippi a few miles below the town of Kaskaskia. It is 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for a considerable distance. The Vermilion, Embarras, and Little Wabash rivers, small streams, flow into the Wabash from this State. Several small lakes lie in the northern part of the State. MINERALS. There are extensive deposits of lead in the extreme northwestern part of this State, and extending into Wisconsin and Iowa. The principal mines lie in the vicinity of Galena. Copper exists in large quantities in the northern part of the State. Bituminous coal abounds. Iron is also found in abundance in the north, and to a limited extent in the south, and it is said that silver has been discovered in St. Clair county. There are a number of salt springs in the State, and a variety of medicinal springs. The other minerals are zinc, lime, marble, freestone, gypsum, and quartz crystals. CLIMATE. The climate is not very severe, but is subject to sudden changes. Deep snows are not of general occurrence, but occasionally take place, and at long intervals the rivers are frozen over. 866 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Illinois is one of the richest agricultural States in the Confederacy. "The soils are all highly fertile and productive. In the bottoms, or al- luvial borders of the rivers, the soil is chiefly formed from the de- posits of water during flood. In some cases the mould so formed is twenty-five feet and upward in depth, and of inexhaustible fertility. A tract called the 'American Bottom,' extending along the Missis- sippi for ninety miles, and about five miles in average width, is of this formation. About the French towns it has been cultivated, and pro- duced Indian corn every year, without manuring, for a century and a half. The prairie lands, although not so productive, are yet not in- ferior for many agricultural purposes, and are preferred, where wood is to be had, on account of their superior salubrity. The barrens, or oak openings, have frequently a thin soil." The agricultural wealth of the State is thus summed up in the Re- port of the General Land Office for 1867 : "In 1850, Illinois had 76,208 farms, valued at $96,133,290; in 1860, 144,338, valued at $408,944,033. The quantity of land in farms increased about 77 per cent, during the decade, the improved land 165 per cent., the cash value of farms about 325, and the value of farming implements and machinery nearly 200 per cent. "The value of live stock in 1850 was $24,209,258 ; in 1860, $72,- 501,225; and in 1865, according to the State returns, it had advanced to $123,770,554, showing an increase, during the ten years following 1850, of 200 per cent., or 20 per cent, per annum, and 70 per cent, for the five years following 1860, or 14 per cent, per annum. " New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio are the only States making larger quantities of butter ; and, in the value of slaughtered animals, Illinois is exceeded only by New York. "In 1860, Illinois produced 23,837,023 bushels of wheat, and 115,- 174,777 bushels of Indian corn, being 14 bushels of wheat and 67 bushels of Indian corn to every man, woman, and child. " The State surpassed all others in wheat and corn products, there having been cultivated upon its soil nearly one-seventh of the entire wheat and corn crop of the United States. In 1865, 177,095,852 bushels of Indian corn were produced, and 25,266,745 bushels of wheat. The entire grain crop in 1865, including Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat, amounted to 232,620,1 73 bushels. The cyop of potatoes was 5,864,408 bushels, tobacco, 18,867,722 pounds, and ILLINOIS. 8f)7 hay, 2,600,000 tons, the whole amounting in value to $116^274,322. Besides this, there were produced in 1865, 5,000,000 pounds of cotton, a branch of industry just beginning to receive attention, yet already pronounced one of the most profitable crops in the southern part of the State ; also large quantities of grass-seeds, maple and sorghum sugar and molasses, flax, flaxseed, hemp, hops, silk cocoons, bees-wax, honey, wine, butter and cheese, peas and beans. The wool clip in 1865 was over 6,000,000 pounds; orchard products of the value of $2,000,000, and market $500,000. "The year 1865 was unfavorable for wheat in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, the yield in each being less tlian either 1862, 1863, or 1864. Illinois.then produced 32,213,500 bushels. " In every year since 1860, the State has maintained a position as the leading wheat and corn-growing region, while the product of other staples is annually increasing." In 1869 the principal returns were as follows: Bushels of wheat, 29,200,000 " Indian corn, 121,500,000 " oats, 35,726,000 " Irish potatoes, 7,500,000 " rye, 675,000 " -buckwheat, 251,000 " barley, 1,250,000 Pounds of butter 28,052,551 Tons of hay, 2,800,000 Number of horccs 1,340,320 " mules and asses, 99,450 " milch cows, 850,340 sheep, 1,340,120 " swine, * 3,502,820 " young cattle, 2,320,500 Value of domestic animals, $100,501,270 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Illinois possesses a large lake and river trade, dealing principally in agricultural products. The grain trade of Chicago is immense ; the lumber trade is also important, and Chicago is at present the principal pork market of the Republic. Manufactures are rapidly increasing in Illinois. In 1870, the State contained 12,597 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $94,368,057, and 82,979 hands; consumed raw material worth $127,600,077, and yielded an annual product of $205,620,672. 868 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Illinois is one of the foremost States in the Union in respect to its internal improvements. In 1872, there were 5904 miles of completed railroads in the State, constructed at a cost of nearly $200,000,000. The Report of the General Land Office for 1867 thus refers to the in- ternal improvements of this State: " The railroad system is on a scale commensurate with its advanta- • geous position in respect to agriculture and internal commerce; 3160 miles are completed, and now in operation, 812 miles more are in course of construction, making in the aggregate 3979 miles, or one mile of railroad to 14 square miles of territory. Eight lines cross the eastern boundary of the State, and the Mississippi River is ap- proached within the State by thirteen, connecting with the east and west through routes across the States of Missouri and Iowa, and northern routes through Wisconsin and Minnesota, westward to the Pacific, and eastward to the great trade marts of the Atlantic coast. In addition to the facilities thus afforded to commerce, a canal has been constructed from Lake Michigan, at Chicago, to La Salle. on the Illinois River, 100 miles in length, affording communication by water between the lake and the Mississippi. The canal is now being enlarged by deepening its channel to accommodate large class vessels, so that the waters of Lake Michigan will flow through to the Illinois River, the bed of which is improved so as to establish unin- terrupted steam navigation at all seasons from the Mississippi, by way of the lakes and the St. Lawrence, to the Atlantic." • EDUCATION. There are twenty-four colleges in Illinois ; the majority of them are in prosperous condition. Some of them are really entitled to rank only as academies and seminaries. The public school system is excellent. There is a permanent school fund, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. In 1870, the amount thus expended in the State was $6,027,510. In the same year there were 11,050 schools in the State, conducted by 20,097 teachers, and attended by 677,623 children. The State Normal University is located at Normal, near the city of Bloomington, and is a flourishing institution, amply provided with buildings and grounds. At the close of the regular term, a Teachers' ILLINOIS. 869 Institute is usually held for two weeks, and is attended by hundreds of teachers from all parts of the State. The State Industrial University is located at Quincy. It was opened in 1 STATE HOUSE, SPRINGFIELD. tl-.ey were attacked by a mob and assassinated, on the 27th of June, 1844. The prisoners were at the time under the protection of the State, and this made the assassination all the more outrageous. Like all such violent acts, it failed of its object, and made the success of Mormonism more certain. Soon after this, the Mormons abandoned Nauvoo, and began their emigration to their present home in Utah. During the late war, the State of Illinois furnished (to December ], 1864) 197,364 troops to the service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides- the capital, the principal cities and towns of Illinois are, Chicago, Peoria, Quincy, Bellville, Alton, Rockford, Galena, and Bloom ington. SPRINGFIELD, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Sangamon county, 3 miles south of the Sangamon River, 97 miles northeast of St. Louis, and 188 miles southwest of Chicago. Latitude 39° 48' N.; longitude 89° 33' W. The city lies near the centre of the State, and is built on the open prairie which surrounds it in every direction. It is regularly laid out, and is well built. The streets are 54 874 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. wide and straight, and are ornamented witii shade trees. From the abundance of its shrubbery and floral ornaments Springfield has been called " the City of Flowers." Many of the residences are large and handsome, and the business section contains numerous showy buildings. The State House is an elegant structure, and stands in a beautiful square of three acres, in the centre of the city. On the streets facing the square are the various public buildings of the State and city. The Court House and State Arsenal are the other prominent buildings. The city contains about 13 churches, several public and private schools, the Illinois State University, 2 hotels, and 5 newspaper offices, and is lighted with gas. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 17,365. Lying in a country unsurpassed in fertility, Springfield is a place of considerable commercial importance. It has railway connections with Chicago and St. Louis, and with all parts of the State and the West. It is also engaged in the manufacture of flour, woollen goods, and iron ware. In the vicinity are extensive beds of bituminous coal. The city is noted as having been the home of the late President Lincoln. In the picturesque cemetery of Oak Ridge, two miles north of the city, the statesman lies buried. Springfield was first settled in 1819. In»1822 it was formally laid out, and in 1837 it became the capital of the State. CHICAGO, The metropolis of the State, is the fifth city of the Republic and the second city of the Western States. It is situated in Cook county, on the western side of Lake Michigan, about 30 miles north of its southern end, at the mouth of the Chicago River, on the margin of a prairie several miles in width. It is 188 miles northeast of Spring- field, 285 miles northeast of St. Louis, 300 miles northwest of Cincin- nati, 928 miles northwest of New York, and 763 miles northwest of Washington. The site of Chicago is low, being but five feet above the lake, but sufficiently elevated to prevent inundation. " The general direction uf the lake shore here is north and south. The water, except at the mouth of the river, is shoal, and vessels, missing the entrance ground, go to pieces in a storm within 100 yards of the shore. The harbor of Chicago is the river, and nothing more. It is a short, deep, slug- glish stream, creeping through the black, fat mud of the prairie, and iili' ' I mil mH'" ll ik Hit tttk L' i^ 'Mi fc n ! "^f^i^iiiiiiiii^^ ILLINOIS. 877 in some places would hardly be thought worthy of a name ; but it makes itself wonderfully useful here. Outside of its mouth a vessel has no protection, nor are there any piers or wharves. The mouth of the river has been docked and dredged out, to aiford a more easy entrance ; but, after you are once in, it narrows to a mere canal, from 50 to 75 yards in width. The general course of the river, for about three-fourths of a mile, is at right angles with the lake shore, and this portion is known as the Chicago River. It here divides, or more properly, two branches unite to form it, coming from opposite direc- tions, and at nearly right angles to the main stream. These are called, respectively, the ' Nortli Branch ' and the * South Branch,' and are each navigable for some -i miles, giving, in the aggregate, a river front of some 15 or 16 miles, capable of being increased by canals and slips, some of which have iil ready been constructed. Into the ^ South Branch ' comes the Illinois Canal, extending from this point 100 miles to La Salle, on the Illinois River, forming water communication lietween the lakes and the Mississippi. For the want of a map, take the letter H; call the upright column on the right hand the lak€ shore ; let the cross-bar represent the Chicago River, the left hand column will stand for the two branches, and you have a plan of the water lines of the City of Chicago, which will answer very well for all purposes of general description. The general divisions thus formed are called, respectively, ' North Side,' ' Soutli Side,' ' West Side.' In this narrow, muddy river, lie the heart and strength of Chicago. Dry this up, and Chicago would dry up with it, mean and dirty as it looks. From the mouth of the St. Joseph River, in Michigan, round to Milwaukie, in the State of Wisconsin, a distance, by the lake shore, of more than 250 miles, Chicago is the only place where 20 vessels can be loaded or unloaded, or find shelter in a storm. A glance at the map, then, will show that it is the only accessible port— and hence the commercial centre— of a vast territory, measuring thousands of square miles of the richest agricultural country in the world." The harbor is being gradually deepened to admit vessels of a large class, and is being so greatly improved at the expense of the General Government that it will soon be one of the best on the lakes. The city is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, with the streets having an average width of 80 feet. From the lake the city extends westward for about 5 miles. Its length, parallel with the lake, is about 8 miles. The ground gradually rises to the westward to an ex- tent sufficient to drain the city thoroughly. The streets are paved 878 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. to a great extent with the Nicholson pavement of wooden blocks. Until 1856, most of the streets of Chicago were planked, and the buildings then erected were generally without cellars. Consequently in the spring of the year the ground asserted its original character of a swamp. Since 1856, it has become necessary to change the grade of the city several times, and this has made a difference of from two to five feet in the original level. The process of raising the houses of Chicago was one of great interest. Buildings of immense size, and even entire blocks, were raised several feet above their original level without a crack being made in them, or a single thing displaced. During all this time the houses were occupied, and the business and every day life of the occupants went on as usual. The following account from the Chicago Tribune, of the raising of a entire block of business houses, in the spring of 1860, will show how the work was carried on : " For the past week the marvel and the wonder of our citizens and visitors has been the spectacle of a solid front of first-class busi- ness blocks, comprising the entire block on the north side of Lake street, between Clark and La Salle streets, a length of 320 feet, being raised about four feet by the almost resistless lifting force of 6000 screws. The block comprises 13 first-class stores, and a large double marble structure, the Marine Bank Building. Its subdi- visions are a five-story marble front block of three stores ; a second four-story block of three stores, and a five-story block of four stores, at the corner of Clark street — these all presenting an unbroken front, in the heart of our city, and filled with occupants. This absence from annoyance to the merchants and the public was due to the skill with which the contractors hung the side walks to the block itself, and carried up the same with the rise of the building. The block was raised four feet eight inches, the required height, in five days, when the masons put in the permanent supports. The entire work occupied about four weeks. An estimate from a reliable source made the entire weight thus raised about 35,000 tons. So carefully was it done, that not a pane of glass was broken, nor a crack in masonry appeared. The internal order of the block prevailed undisturbed. The process of raising, as indicated above, was by the screw, at 6000 of which, three inches in diameter and of three-eighths thread, 600 men were employed, each man in charge of from eight to ten screws. A com- plete system of signals was kept in operation, and by these the work- men passed, each through his series, giving each .screw a quarter turn, ILLINOIS. 879 THE TRIBUNE BUILDING. then returning to repeat the same. Five days' labor saw the immense weight rise through four feet eight inches, to where it stood on tempo- rary supports, while rapidly being replaced by permanent foundations. The work, as it stands, is worth going miles to see, and has drawn the admiration of thousands within the past week." Chicago is one of the most magnificent cities on the continent, and is often called the " New York of the West." The business streets are lined with splendid warehouses, which have no superiors in ele- gance and convenience in any of the Eastern cities. Iron, stone, and marble are in common use. Lake street is the Broadway of Chicago, while Michigan avenue and Wabash avenue are lined with princely edifices, and are adorned with rows of luxuriant trees. South Water street is devoted to the heavy wholesale trade. Many of the private residences on the north and west side of the river are handsomely built, and are surrounded with elegantly ornamented grounds. 880 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Chicago River is crossed by numerous bridges, uniting the various parts of the city. These are all drawbridges, made so in order not to interfere with the navigation of the river. They are hung in the middle, and turn on a pivot, only two men being needed for each bridge. In 1867-8, a tunnel was built under the river, and is now in constant use by vehicles and pedestrians. It is the only work of the kind in America, and with the exception of the Thames Tunnel, in London, the only one in the world. Street railways- connect the various portions of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from Lake Michigan., The water is brought into the city by means of a tunnel, extending from the shore, under the bed of the lake, to a crib or well built up in the lake, twa miles from the land. The depth of the shore shaft is 69? feet,, and of the lake shaft 64 feet. The crib is simply a well into which the water of the lake is allowed to flow, and from which it makes its way ta the city through the tunnel, which is nearly circular in form, being & feet 2 inches high, and 5 feet 2 inches wide. It is enclosed in brick masonry, 8 inches thick. The cost of the entire -work was^ about $1,000,000. The city contains two arte- sian wells of great value. They are respectively 911 and 694 feet deep, and flow about 1,200,000 gallons daily. The principal public buildings are the Custom House, in which is the Post Office, a fine building of stone; the Chamber of Commerce, a beautiful edifice of white marble; the Court House ; Crosby^ s Opera House ; and the Iferchants' Exchange. There are about 112 churches in the city. Some of which possess handsome buildings. The schools of the city, both public and private, are noted for their excellence. There are about 27 public schools, 3 commercial colleges, and 24 Roman Catholic convents and schools in operation. The institutions of the higher class are the University of Chicago, founded by the late Senator Douglas, and possessing a series of elegant buildings; the Chicago Theological Seminary ; the Presbyfenan Theological Semi- nctry; the University of St. Mary of the Lake ; the Rush Medical College, and two other medical colleges. The Dearborn Observatory possesses a fine telescope. The Academy of Sciences has a collection of 38,000 s]iecimens in the various departments of natural history. The His- torical Society Library numbers 85,000 bound and unbound books and [lamphlets. The library of the Young Men^s Association contains about 10,000 volumes; that of the Law Listitute numbers over 8000 volumes. ILLINOIS. 881 The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous and well managed. The principal are the United States Marine Hospital; the Cook County Hospital; the Magdalen Asylum; the Protestant Or- phan Asylum; the Home/or the Friendless ; St. Joseph's (male) and St. Mary's (female) orphan asylums ; and the Soldiers' Home. The city contains about 5 theatres, and a number of concert and lecture halls, and second-class places of amusement. The cemeteries are 12 in number. Gracelaud, Rose Hill, Calvary, and Oakwoods are the principal. They are all situated beyond the city limits. The city contains a number of handsome public squares. The principal of these are the Esplanade or Lake Park, and Dearborn, Union, Jefferson, and Lincoln Parks. With the exception of the last, these contain from 1 to 5 acres each. Lincoln Park embraces an area of 60 acres, fronting on the lake, and will eventually be the hand- somest pleasure-ground in the West. The hotels of Chicago are among the best in the country, including four or five first-class establishments, and several inferior houses. The Grand Pacific, Sherman, Palmar, and Briggs' Houses are the leading establishments. The city is supplied with an efficient police force and steam fire de- partment, a police and fire alarm telegraph, and is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 298,977. The position of Chicago on the lake and its connections by rail- way with the rest of the Union have made it one of the most im- portant places in America. Possessing now one of the best harboi^s on the great chain of lakes, it c<-)ntrols a large share of the enormous trade of those inland seas, and its water communication with the Gulf of Mexico is made sure by means of the Michigan and Illinois Canal, which is so constructed as to turn the current of the Chicago River into the navigable portion of the Illinois River. This canal is being deepened so as to admit the passage of steamers from the Il- linois to Chicago and the lakes. Fifteen lines of railway centre here, and aiford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the 'Union. Lines of steamships ply between Chicago and the various ports on Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior. Some idea of the lake trade of Chicago may be gained from the following statement ])ublished by the Custom House authorities of the port. The state- ment is for the year 1870: HS2 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. During the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, Oc- tober and November, the following number of vessels entered and cleared the port of Chicago, and those of the other cities mentioned : Ei.lereJ. Cleared. Chicago 12,546 12,358 New York 5757 6158 Philadelphia 2098 1698 Baltimore '. 1736 1866 New Orleans 1148 1352 San Francisco 468 499 Mobile 456 408 Savannah 596 610 Entered at Chicago during the eight months of navigation... 12,546 Entered at other ports during the same time 12,259 Chicago's excess 287 Average tonnage of vessels entered at Chicago 239,921 Average tonnage of vessels entered at New York 599,661 Chicago is the largest interior grain market in the world. In 1838, the first shipment of wheat was made, and consisted of 78 bushels. In 1867, the total receipts of grain and flour were as fol- lows: 1,814,236 barrels of flour; 13,090,868 bushels of wheat ; 23,- 018,827 bushels of corn; 10,988,617 bushels of oats; 1,306,204 bushels of rye; 2,246,446 bushels of barley ; in all, equal to 59,722,142 bushels of grain, the heaviest amount received in any one year. The grain elevators of Chicago are among its greatest curiosities. There are about 17 in all, possessing an aggregate capacity of 10,055,000 bushels. An English traveller thus describes them : " An elevator is as ugly a monster as has been yet produced. In uncouthness of form it outdoes those obsolete old brutes who used to roam about the semi-aqueous world, and live a most uncomfortable life with their great hungering stomachs and huge unsatisfied maws. The elevator itself consists of a big moveable trunk — moveable as is that of an elephant, but not pliable, and less graceful even than an elephant's. Tiiis is attached to a huge granary or barn ; but in order to give altitude within the barn for the necessary moving up and down of this trunk — seeing that it cannot be curled gracefully to its purposes as the elephant's is curled — there is an awkward box erected on the roof of the barn, giving some twenty feet of additional height, up into which the elevator can be thrust. It will be understood, then, that this big moveable trunk, the head of which, when it is at rest, is thrust up into the box on the roof, is made to slant down in an oblique direction from the building to the river; for the ele- ILLINOIS. 883 SCENE ON LAKE STREET. vator is an amphibious institution, and flourishes only on the banks of navigable waters. When its head is ensconced within its box, and the beast of prey is thus nearly hidden within the building, the un- suspicious vessel is brought up within reach of the creature's trunk, and down it comes, like a .mosquito's proboscis, right through the deck, in at the open aperture of the hold, and so into the very vitals and bowels of the ship. When there, it goes to work upon its food with a greed and an avidity that is disgusting to a beholder of any taste or imagination. And now I must explain the anatomical ar- rangement by which the elevator still devours and continues to devour till the corn within its reach has all been swallowed, masticated, and digested. Its long trunk, as seen slanting down from out of the build- ing across the wharf and into the ship, is a mere wooden pipe; but this pipe is divided within. It has two departments; and as the grain-bearing troughs pass up the one on a pliable band, they pass empty down the other. The system, therefore, is that of an ordinary dredging machine ; only that corn and not mud is taken away, and that the buckets or troughs are hidden from sight. Below, within the 884 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RE::OURCES. stomach of the poor bark, three or four laborers are at work, helping to feed the elevator. They shovel the corn up toward its maw, so that at every swallow he should take in all that he can hold. Thus the troughs, as they ascend, are kept full, and when tiiey reach the upper building they empty themselves into a shoot, over which a porter stands guard, moderating the shoot by a door, which the weight of his finger can open and close. Through this doorway the corn runs into a measure, and is weighed. By measures of forty bushels each, the tale is kept. There stands the apparatus, with the figures plainly marked, over against the porter's eye ; and as the sum mounts nearly up to forty bushels he closes the door till the grains run thinly through, hardly a handful at a time, so that the balance is exactly struck. Then the teller standing by marks down his figure, and the record is made. The exact porter touches the string of another door, and the forty bushels of corn run out at the bottom of the measure, dis- appear down another shoot, slanting also toward the water, and de- posit themselves in the canal boat. The transit of the bushels of corn front the larger vessel to the smaller will have taken less than a minute, and the cost of that transit will have been — a farthing. " But I have spoken of the rivers of wheat, and I must explain what are those rivers. In the working of the elevator, which I have just attempted to describe, the two vessels were supposed to be lying at the same wharf, on the same side of the building, in the* same water, the smaller vessel inside the larger one. When this is the case, the corn runs direct from the weighing measure into the shoot that communicates with the canal boat. But there is not room or time for confining the work to one side of tiie building. There is water on both sides, and the corn or wheat is elevated on the one side, and reshipped on the other. To effect this, tilie corn is carried across the breadth of the building ; but, nevertheless, it is never handled or moved in its direction on trucks or carriages requiring the use of men's muscles for its motion. Across the floor of the building are two gut- ters, or channels, and through these small troughs on a pliable band circulate very quickly. They which run one way, in one channel, are laden ; they which run by the other channel are empty. The corn pours itself into these, and they again pour it into the shoot which commands the other water. And thus rivers of corn are running through these buildings night and day. The secret of all the motion and arrangement consists, of course, in the elevation. The corn is lifted up; and when lifted up, can move itself and arrange itself, and weigh itself, and load itself." ILLINOIS. 885 Next to its trade in grain is the lumber trade of Chicago; the city being the most important lumber market in the United States. In 1867, there were received here 861,912,900 feetof lumber, 432,261,000 shingles, and 143,847,000 pieces of laths. Chicago ranks next to New York as a beef and cattle market. In 1864, its receipts Avere 336,627 head. As a beef-packing point it is unsurpassed by any city on the continent, its annual packing amounting to about 100,000 head. As a pork-packing point it is the first in the Union, having sur- passed Cincinnati some years ago. In 1864-5, 760,514 hogs were killed and packed here. In the same year, the total receipts of hogs at Chicago amounted to 1,410,320. The pork houses of Chicago are models of their kind, and are richly worth visiting. The pork house is usually a substantial structure of brick, of about 180 by 160 feet on the ground floor, with a large and commodious lard house adjoining, but separated from it by a heavy brick wall and iron doors to prevent the steam and vapor from entering the main build- ing. The pork house is three stories high, with a strong, double, flat roof, and this roof is arranged into convenient pens, the whole being capable of containing 4000 hogs at once. The lower floor is used for curing and storing the meat, the second for packing and shipping, and the third for cooking and cutting np the hogs. As soon as the hogs arrive at the pork house, they are driven up an inclined plane to the pens at the top of the building. They are allowed to remain there two nights and a day. By this arrange- ment they are given an abundance of pure, fresh air, and are brought to the best possible sanitary condition. If they were killed imme- diately after hard exercise and excitement, as in driving them to the slaughter pens, the flesh would be in a high state of fever, the marrow in a semi-fluid condition, and this would produce what is known as foul joints, and the meat would in a short time become tainted and eventually unfit for use. When the time for killing arrives, twenty hogs are driven into a pen with a fine grated floor. A man enters the pen, and with a long hammer deals each hog a blow on the forehead between the eyes, which fells him to the floor. He is followed by another man, who cuts the throat of each animal with a sharp knife, the blood flowing through the grated floor into gutters which conduct it to a large tank outside the building. Another lot of hogs is driven into an adjoining pen, and the same process gone through with. 886 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. When the hogs have been bled sufficiently, they are, one at a time, slid down an inclined plane into a large scalding tub or vat, in which the water is kept at a regular temperature by steam coils. Here tliey are floated along slowly until they reach the table at the opposite end, where they are taken out by a very simple contrivance worked by one man. After being placed upon the table, they are passed along through the hands of different men, each of whom has stated duties to perform. The first two take from the back in an in- stant all the bristles suitable for the brushmaker or cobbler, and de- posit them in barrels ibr removal ; eight or ten pairs more of men strip the hog of its coat, and clean it, when the gambrel stick is put into it, and it is swung to an overhead railway, and thoroughly drenched with cold water to remove all impurities. It is then opened and the intestines removed, after which it is again drenched with cold water, and the back bone is split down, and the leaf lard loosened. It is then taken to the cooling room, and allowed to remain there two days, in which time all animal heat disappears. The hog is then cut up. One blow from an immense cleaver severs tiie head froin the body. Another man cuts away the hind-parts con- taining the hams, and the remainder of the hog is cut up according to the requirements of the market, the leaf lard being taken away by hand. So rapidly is the cutting process performed, that two expert men can easily cut up over 2000 hogs in eight hours, though the day's work is generally confined to about 1200 head. The process is completed in the curing room. Here a solution of saltpetre is liberally applied to all the green meat, except the shoulders ; and, while wet, it is covered with salt, and packed away in tiers to dry. In three weeks it is handled again ; receives a second dressing of salt, and is allowed to stand seven days more, when it is cured, and ready for packing. After the small intestines are removed from the hog, they are taken by men and boys, and all the fat is separated from them and placed in large vats of water to wash it clean, going through two waters, when it is ready to be pUt into the lard tank. The lard house is, like the main building, three stories in height. In the second story are seven large iron tanks, extending up through the ceiling into the third story, where they are each provided with an opening used for filling them. In these tanks all the fatty sub- stances used for making lard are placed until the vessels are full. The mass is then subjected to a jet of steam from the boilers, of a ILLINOIS. 887 pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch. Each tank is provided with a safety valve, so that on reaching the maximum pressure al- lowed the steam passes off, causing a continuous flow of steam through the whole mass. By this process every particle of lard is set free from the mass. After the steam has been kept on for a certain time, a faucet is opened midway of the tank, or about where the lard and water meet, and the former is drawn off into an immense clarifying vessel, in which, on being subjected to a heat of 300 degrees Fahrenheit, it is thoroughly cleared of all impurities, a part rising to the top of the lard, where it is skimmed off, and the rest settling at the bottom, from which it is drained off by a faucet. The remainder is the purest and sweetest lard that can be made, being entirely free from any un- pleasant odor, and as agreeable to the taste as new, unsalted butter. The refuse material is used in various ways, nothing that can be put to any conceivable use being thrown away. The salt trade of Chicago is alco important, varying from 650,000 to 775,000 barrels annually. In 1867, there were 7500 buildings erected in Chicago, at a cost of $7,500,000. The name of the city is said to have been derived as follows : Along the shores of the river the wild onion was found in great abundance, to which the Indians gave the name Chi-ka-jo, from which the word Chicago is derived. The first white men to visit the spot were the early French Jesuit missionaries and fur traders. Father Marquette visited it in 1673, and Perrot about the year 1770. At that time, this territory was in possession of the Miami Indians, but subsequently the Potawatomies crowded the Miamis back, and became the sole possessors, until the year 1795, when they became parties to a treaty with Wayne, by which a tract of land, six miles square, at the mouth of the Chicago River, was ceded to the United States — the first ex- tinction of Indian title to the land on which Chicago is built. In 1804, Fort Dearborn was built by the United States on the point south of the river, near its mouth. In 1812, the Government, becoming appre- hensive that a fort so far advanced from the frontiers could not be successfully held against the British and their allies, ordered its evacu- ation. On the 12th of August, Captain Heald, the commandant, inarched out of the fort with his little garrison, consisting of about 75 persons in all, and commenced his withdrawal along the lake shore. When he had gotten about two milas from the fort he was attacked S88 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. by the Potawa^xjmie Indians, and 52 persons, viz., 12 militia, 26 re- gulars, 2 women and 12 children, were killed and wounded. The rest succeeded in escaping. The Indians destroyed the fort, but it was rebuilt in 1816, under Captain Bradley. The fort was held as a mili- tary post until 1837, when the Indians having left the country, it was abandoned. In 1831, Chicago contained a few log cabins which had sprung up around the fort, and about a dozen families besides the officers and soldiers in Fort Dearborn. On the 26th of September, 1833, the town was laid out, and on the 4th of March, 1837, received its first charter. At that time, it contained 4470 inhabitants. It re- mained stationary until about 1840, when it began its remarkable career of prosperity. The following table will show its rapid growth during the past thirty years: V>--i'-. Population. 1840, 4853 1850, . . . .• 29,963 I860, 109,420 1870, 298,977 On the evening of Saturday, October 8th, 1871, a fire broke out in a stable on De Koven street, near the river, on the west side of the city. It was caused by the overturning of a kerosene lamp by the kick of a cow. The flames spread rapidly, and were fanned furiously l)y a high wind. The quarter in which the fire originated being of wood, there was everything to favor the progress of the conflagration, which soon defied all efforts to control it. It raged until after mid- night on the 9th, and destroyed the entire quarter between the lake and the north branch of the Chicago river, and the larger and more important part of the district lying between the lake and the south branch of the river, involving in the general ruin the entire business quarter, and a large portion of the residence section. It was the most disastrous conflagration of modern times. The total area burned over, including streets, was 2124 acres, or very nearly three and one-third square miles. The number of buildings destroyed was 17,450; about 98,500 persons were rendered homeless; and 250 persons died during the conflagration. The loss occasioned by the fire amounted to $196,- 000,000 as nearly as can be ascertained. The exact loss will probably never be known. The people of Chicago met their crushing disaster with a manly firmness that excited the admiration of the civilized world. The ILLINOIS. 889 ashes of their city were scarcely cold when they set to work to rebuild it, and to win back the prosperity and comfort of which they had been so suddenly deprived. In the short space of two years they succeeded in almost obliterating the traces of the fire. New and splendid edifices were erected, and the city has assumed its old aspect, with this difference, — that the new buildings are generally of a handsomer and more substantial character than the old ones. A stranger visiting the city at present would scarcely believe that four years ago the busy, teeming city, with its splendid streets and superb edifices, was a blackened ruin. The city has profited by the lesson of the fire, and wooden edifices are disappearing and giving place to structures of brick, stone, and iron. The energy and enterprise which surmounted the great loss of 1871, and won back for Chicago the prosperity she had so fairly earned, must ever rank among the proudest achievements of the American people, or of the human race. The new city was visited, in 1874, by an extensive fire, which would have been regarded as a great disaster, but for the more serious calamity of 1871. QUINCY, In Adams county, is the second city of the State. It is situated on the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi, 160 miles above St. Louis, 268 miles southwest of Chicago, and 109 miles west of Springfield. The city is built on a limestone bluff, 125 feet above the river, of which it commands beautiful and extensive views. It is well built, and contains a number of handsome edifices. Some of the residences are tasteful and elegant. It is lighted with gas and supplied with water. It contains several excellent public and private schools, 24 churches, 10 public halls, a court house, and 5 newspaper offices. Two of these journals are printed in the German language, a large proportion of the inhabitants being of German origin. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 24,052. Quincy is actively engaged in the Mississippi River trade, and the landing is usually thronged with steamboats. The city is the terminus of two lines of railway, which connect it with all parts of the West on both sides of the Mississippi. The surrounding country is an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated prairie; and of this region Quincy is the principal market. The city is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures; iron, tobacco, lumber, flour, ma- 890 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCEa QUINCY. chinery and carriages being the principal articles produced. About 100,000 hogs are packed here annually. Quincy was settled about the year 1822, the first inhabitant being John Wood, of the State of New York. In 1825, the town was laid out by order of the county court. It received its name on the day that John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States. The Indians continued in the vicinity as late as 1832, when the Black Hawk War occurred. At the time of the first settlement of the town, there were but three white inhabitants within the limits of the present county of Adams. These were obliged to go to Atlas, 40 miles distant, where there was a horse-mill, in order to have their corn meal ground, this being their princii)al breadstuff. GALENA, In Jo Daviess county, is an important city. It is situated on Fevre River, 6 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi, 250 miles north-by-west of Springfieldj 160 miles west-northwest of Chicago. ILLINOIS. 891 1651 miles above New Orleans, and 450 miles above St. Louis. " The river, sometimes called the Galena, on whose rocky shelf this town is built, is more properly an arm of the Mississippi Eiver, sitting up between lofty bluffs, around whose base it winds with picturesque effect. The streets rise one above another, and communicate with each other by flights of steps, so that the houses on the higher streets are perched like an eagle's eyrie, overlooking the rest, and command- ing an extensive prospect. Pleasant churches meet the eye on the first ledge or terrace above the levee, and private residences wearing an aspect of neatness and comfort adorn each successive height." The city is well paved, and the houses are built mostly of brick. It is lighted with gas, and contains, beside the county buildings, a number of churches and public schools, and several newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the j^opulation was 7019. Galena is one of the oldest and most interesting towns in the State, but owes its importance entirely to the great lead mines by which it is surrounded in every direction. Considerable quantities of copper are found in connection with the lead. It is estimated that these mines are capable of yielding 150,000,000 pounds annually for an indefinite period in the future. Mineral from some eight or ten mining localities in Wisconsin is sent to Galena for shipment down the Mississippi, there being regular steamboat communication between Galena and the river towns. The city is connected with all points east and west by railway. The lead mines lie in every direction around the city. The country is hilly, and has a desolate and bleak appearance. A visitor thus describes it: "Every hill is spotted with little mounds of yellow earth, and is as full of holes as a worm-eaten cheese. Some winding road at length brings you to the top of one of these bare, bleak hills, and to a larger mound of the same yellowish earth, with which the whole country in sight is mottled. On the top of this mound of earth stands a windlass, and a man is winding up tubs full of dirt and rock, which continually increase the pile under his feet. Beneath him, forty, fifly, a hundred feet under ground is the miner. As we look around on every ridge, see the windlass-men, and know that beneath each one a smithy-faced miner is burrowing by the light of a dim candle, let us descend into the mines and see the miners at their work. The wind- lass-man makes a loop in the end of the rope, into which you put one 55 892 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. foot, and, clasping, at the same time, the rope with one hand, slowly you begin to go down; down, it grows darker and darker; a damp, grave-like smell tomes up from below, and you grow dizzy with the continual whirling around, until, when you reach the bottom and look uj) at the one small spot of daylight through which you came down, you start witli alarm as the great mass of rocks and earth over your head seem to be swaying and tumbling in. You draw your breath a little more freely, however, when you perceive that it was only your own dizziness, or the scudding of clouds across the one spot of visible sky, and you take courage to look about you. Two or three dark little passages, from four to six feet high, and about three feet wide, lead off into the murky recesses of the mine; these are called, in mining par- lance, drifts. You listen a little while, and there is a dull 'thud! thud!' comes from each one, and tells of sometliing alive away off in the gloom, and, candle in hand, you start in search of it. Y"ou eye the rocky walls and roof uneasily as, half bent, you thread the narrow passage, until, on turning some angle in the drift, you catch a glimpse of the miner, he looks small and dark, and mole-like, as on his knees, and pick in hand, he is prying from a perpendicular crevice in the rock, a lump of mineral as large as his head, and which, by the light of his dim candle, flashes and gleams like a huge carbuncle; or, per- haps, it is a horizontal sheet or vein of mineral that presents its edge to the miner; it is imbedded in the solid rock, which must be picked and blasted down to get at the mineral. He strikes the rock with his pick, and it rings as though he had struck an anvil. Y^ou cannot conceive how, with that strip of gleaming metal, seeming like a ma- gician's wand, to beckon him on and on, he could gnaw, as it were, his narrow way for hundreds of feet through the rock. But large, indeed, you think, must be his organ of hope, and resolute his perse- verance, to do it with no such glittering prize in sight. Y^et such is often the case, and many a miner has toiled for years, and in the whole time has discovered scarcely enough mineral to ])ay for the powder used. Hope, however, in the breast of the miner, has as many lives as a cat, and on no day, in all his toilsome years, could you go down into his dark and crooked hole, a hundred feet from grass and sunshine, but he would tell you that he was 'close to it now,* in a few days he hoped to strike a lode (pronounced among miners as though it was spelled leed), and so a little longer and a little longer, and his life of toil wears away, while his work holds him with a fasci- nation equalled only by a gambler's passion for his cards. Lodes or ILLINOIS. 893 veins of mineral in the same vicinity run in the general direction. Those in the vicinity of Galena, run east and west. The crevice which contains the mineral, is usually perpendicular, and from 1 to 20 feet in width, extending from the cap rock, or the first solid rock above tiie mineral, to uncertain depths below, and is filled with large, loose rocks, and a peculiar red dirt, in which are imbedded masses of mineral. These masses are made up cubes, like those formed of crys- tallization, and many of them as geometrically correct as could be made with a compass and square. Before the mineral is broken, it is of the dull blue color of lead, but when broken, glistens like silver. Sometimes caves are broken into, whose roofs are frosted over with calcareous spar, as pure and white as the frost upon the window-pane in winter, and from dark crevices in the floor comes up the^gurgling of streams that never saw the sun. The life of a miner is a dark and lonesome one. His drift is narrow, and will not admit of two abreast; therefore, there is but little conversation, and no jokes are bandied about from mouth to mouth by fellow-laborers. The alternations of hope and disappointment give, in the course of years, a subdued expression to his countenance. There are no certain indications by which the miner can determine the existence of a vein of mineral without sinking a shaft. Several methods are resorted to, however. The linear arrangement of any number of trees that are a little larger than the generality of their neighbors, is considered an indication of an opening underground corresponding to their arrangement. De- pressions in the general surface are also favorable signs, and among the older miners there are yet some believers in the m^'stic power of witch-hazel and the divining-rod. In the large.st number of cases, however, but little attention is paid to signs other than to have con- tinuous ground — that is, to dig on the skirts of a ridge that is of good width on top, so that any vein that might be discovered would not run out too quickly on the other side of the ridge. On such ground the usual method of search is by suckering, as it is called. The miner digs a dozen or more holes, about 6 feet deep, and within a stone's throw of each other, and in some one of these he is likely to find a few pieces of mineral, the dip of certain strata of clay then indicates the direction in which he is to continue the search, in which, if he is so successful as to strike a lode, his fortune is made; in the other event, he is only the more certain that the lueky day is not far off." The city derives its name from the French word signifying a lead ■mine. It was settled in 1826, and was then about 300 miles from the settlements. Previous to the war it was the home of President Grant 894 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. He was at that time an unknown man, and was a clerk in the leather house of "J. R. Grant." "He was courteous and popular with all who met him on business, but never sought acquaintances. He was a very poor salesman, could not chaifer, and did not always know the price of an article." While residing there, he once declared he would like to be mayor of Galena, as he would then cause the sidewalk from his house to the business quarter of the town to be properly laid. His remark was laughed at at the time, but was remembered in after years. He was residing in Galena at the commencement of the civil war. In the summer of 1865, Grant returned to Galena on a brief visit. He had left it an unknown man ; he returned to it one of the most noted personages in the world, the conqueror in the most formidable struggle of the century. His biographer thus describes his reception : "As he neared Galena, the enthusiasm was unbounded. When the train arrived there, cannon Avere booming, bands playing, flags flying, and thousands of human throats lustily cheering. . . . An arch spanned one street, bearing the inscription wreathed with flowers, ' General, ihe sidewalk is built.' The people had presented to him a completely furnished house — costing sixteen thousand dollars — first buildino; a new sidewalk half a mile to the station." ALTON, In Madison county, is a prominent city. It is situated on the left or east bank of the Mississippi River, 3 miles above the mouth of the Missouri River, 21 miles above St. Louis, 20 miles below the mouth of the Illinois, 76 miles southwest of Springfield, and 257 miles southwest of Chicago. " The site of the city is quite uneven and broken, with high stony bluffs, and in front of it the Mississippi runs almost a due course from east to west." The city is one of the handsomest in the State, and is well built. It contains a splendid City Hall, 10 churches, one of which (the Cathedral) is a magnificent structure, 4 newspaper offices, and a number of flourishing public and private schools. Shurtlcff College and the Monticello Female Seminary are located in the vicinity. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 8665. Alton is one of the principal towns on the Mississippi, and is actively engaged in the trade of that river and of the Missouri. It has direct railway communication with Chicago and Terre Haute, Indiana. It is engaged in manufactures to a considerable extent. ILLINOIS. 895 ALTON. Alton was first settled about the year 1808. The first settlers were much exposed to the savages, and lived in block houses for their mu- tual protection. The town was laid out about the year 1818. It grew slowly until 1832, when the Penitentiary of the State was lo- cated here. This gave a considerable impetus to Alton. The Peni- tentiary has since been removed to Joliet. In 1837, Alton was incor- porated as a city. MISCELLANIES. GREAT CONFLAGRATION IN CHICAGO. The following account of the origin and progress of tlie fire is taken from Harper's Weekly : The fire had an ignoble beginning. Late on Sunday evening, October 8th, 1871, a woman went into a stable on Dekoven street, near the river, on the west side, to milk a cow, carrying; with her a kerosene lamp. This was kicked over by the cow, and the burning fluid scattered among the hay and straw. A single fire- extinguisher on the premises, or the immediate application of water, would have confined the flames to the quarter where the fire began ; but the engines were waited for, and when they arrived the firemen, stupefied by their exposure and exertions at a large fire the previous night, worked with less than their usual readiness and skill. The flames soon obtained headway. A high wind fanned them into hxry, and they became uncontrollable. They sprang from house to house, and from square to square, until the district burned over the day belore was reached. In tiie other direction the flames crossed the river north of Twelfth street to the south side, and threatened the business portion of the city. The full extent of the danger was then for the first time realized ; the firemen, already worn out and exhausted, worked like heroes, and the Mayor and other officials bestirred themselves to take measures for the protection of the city. But 896 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. the opportunity was lost. The time when thorough organization could have blown up buildings, or prepared for the emergency, had been allowed to pass, and it was now a fight tor life. The wind blowing a stitf gale had possession of the flames, and the beautiful buildings, Cliicago's glory, lay before them. Harrison, Van Buren, Adams, Monroe, and Madison streets were soon reached, the inter- vening blocks from the river to Dearborn street, en tlie east, being consumed ; and within an incredibly short space of time nearly a mile of brick blocks was consumed, as if by magic. It being Sunday evening, this part of the city was nearly deserted. Proprie- tors and employes were at home, utterly unconscious of what was taking place. Those who saw the light of this fire supposed it was tlie remains of Saturthiy night's fire, and, having confidence in the Fire Department, were unconcerned ; but l)et\veen 11 and 12 o'clock, a rumor got abroad tliat the fire was in the busi- ness portion of the city. Then everybody was on the alert, and from the southern part of tlie city a stream of people poured toward the scene of the conflagration. By this time nearly all the public buildings were either consumed or in flames. The air was filled with burning brands, which, carried north and east by the wind, kindled new fires wlierever they fell. The fire-engines were powerless. The streams of water appeared to dry up the moment tliey touched the flames. An attempt was made to blow up the buildings ; but this availed little, as the high wind carried the flaming brands far across the space tljus cleared away. To add to the horrors of the scene, the wooden pavements took fire, driving the firemen from stations where their eflbrts might have been continued ibr many precious minutes. Nothing could long resist the terrible heat of the flames. They seemed to strike right through the most solid walls. Buildings supposed to be fire-proof burned like tinder, and crumbled to pieces like charred j^aper. Block after block was consumed. The red hot coal shot higher and higher, and the flames spread further and furtlier, until that part of the city lying north of Lake street was a vast sea of fire. At one time the people were so hemmed in by the circle of flame that thousands were in danger of perishing, and escaped only Viy a precipitate retreat. The hotels were hurriedly emptied of tlieir guests, who swarjned into the streets with whatever they could carry away. Tliose who could do so, made their way to the yet unburned bridges, and escaped across the river, while others fled to the lake shore, and found a safe line of retreat to the southern part of the city. This, it must be borne in mind, was in the night-time, but the city and the country and lake for miles around wej-e illuminated with a lurid light. When morning dawned at length, there was but one block of buildings left in what the day before had been the most flourishing business part of the city. The magnificent Court House, the Board of Trade building, the Slierman House, and other hotels, and hundreds of stores and offices, were in ruins. The Tribune block alone remained unharmed. A wide space had been burned around it, and its safety was supposed to be assured. A patrol of men, under Mr. Samuel Medill, swept off live coals and put out fires in the side walls; and another patrol, under the direction of the Hon. Joseph Medill. watched the roofs. Up to 4 o'clock in the morning, writes the correspondent of the World, the reporters had sent in detailed accounts of the fire. At 5 o'clock the forms were sent dowa. In ten minutes the two eight-cylinders in the press-room would have been throw- ing off" the morning paper. Then the front basement was discovered to be on fire. The plug on tlie corner was tapped, but there was no water. The con- flagration which had for some time been raging on the north side had destroyed ILLINOIS. ^99 the Water-works. There was not a drop of water in the city. The pressmen were driven from their presses. Tiie attaches of the office said good-by to the handsomest newspaper otfice in the AVestern country, and tearfully withdrew to a place of safety. In a very short time the office was enveloped in fire, and by 10 o'clock the whole block was a mass of blackened ruins. M'Vickar's fine theatre, the Crosby Opera House, which was to have been reopened Monday evening, the office of the PuUman Car Company, the great Union Railroad Depot at the toot of Lake street, all the banks, and many of the finest churches in the city had already been destroyed. By the destruction of the Water- works, on the north side of the river, early in the day, the efficiency of the Fire Department was fatally impaired. It was impossible, owing to the smoke and fire, to get to the lake or river. So intense was the heat that the sluggish river seemed to boil, and clouds of steam rose from its surface to mingle with the smoke from the flames. Early in the forenoon of Monday, it became evident that nothing could save the cit}^ and all the streets leading southward and westward from the burning quarter were crowded with men, women, and children, all flying for life, and attempting to save sometliing from the general wreck. The number is vaguely estimated at T.'iiOOO. Ever}^ sort of vehicle was pressed into service. With the selfishness which on such occasions comes uppermost in some natures, the truck- men charged enormous prices for transporting trunks, boxes, and packages, and turned a deaf ear to all who could not pay tlie money down. Thousands of per- sons, inextricably commingled with horses and vehicles, poor people of all colors and shades, and of every nationalitj', mad with excitement, struggled with each other to get away. Many were trampled under foot. Men and women were loaded with bundles, to whose skirts children were clinging, half-dressed and barefooted, all seeking a place of safety. Hours afterward these people might have been seen in vacant lots, or on the streets far out in the suburbs, stretched in the dust. Many pitiful sights were witnessed in the course of this terrible scramble for life. There were mothers and fathers, who, leaving children in places of sup- posed safety, had gone to save clothing and valuables from their burning houses, and returned to find their little ones swept away, and were seeking them in vain among the maddened crowd. Tliere were men and women whom terror had made insane. Among the saddest incidents of this calamity was the appearance in the streets of hundreds of men and boys in a state of beastly drunkenness. In the North Division the liquor saloons were broken open, and their contents flung into the streets, where they were eagerly seized upon by the maddened crowd, who seem to have felt the same impulse that leads sailors on a sinking ship to drown their terrors in the delirium of intoxication. There can be hardly any doubt that many of these poor wretches found their death in the flames from which they were helpless to escape. Several hundred persons sought refuge on a barge, and were towed out into the lake, where they remained all niglit. The loss of life cannot yet be definitely ascertained, but will probably reach several hundred. Thus the dreadful day wore on, and night drew near. The principal business portion of the city, and the North Division, from the river to Lincoln Park, had been swept by the flames, comprising an area of more than 5 square miles. As the awful day drew to its close, thousands of anxious eyes watched the clouds of smoke that hung over the scene of desolation, dreading lest a change of wind might drive the flames upon that portion of the city which was still unburned, and fervent were the prayers for rain. 900 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. No pen can describe the horrors of the night, a. hundred thousand people encamped in the fields and in Liiicohi Park. The weather was tempestuous and cold. A heavy rain the day previous had drenched "the turf, which tlie trampling feet of tlie thousands of fugitives from the fire had soon beaten into a morass. And there, on the bleak prairie, shelterless and half-naked, delicate women slept with their babes clasped to their breasts, or moaned in unspeakable anguish throughout tlie dreadful night, longing for day and yet dreading its dawn. What hearts were broken during that awful watch in cold, and darkness, and terror, what lives of lingering sickness and pain prepared, can never be known. It would seem as if such distress might soften the most obdurate heart ; yet even there armed patrols were needed to guard the helpless from robbery and the baser passions of desperate ruflians, who, under cover of the general panic and disorganization, sought to inaugurate a new reign of terror. Houses were broken open and pillaged all over the town. Rape, and arson, and murder were not unfrequent; and it became necessary to form vigilance committees. Fortunately General Sheridan was at his post. The city was placed under martial law, and wretches caught in the act of pillaging or setting fire to buildings — for, incredible as it may seem, men became incendiaries in the midst of the burning town — were executed on the spot. During the whole of the night of the 9th, the fire continued to burn on the north side ; but the wind went down, and shortly after midnight rain commenced falling, and by daylight the flames were under control. Freed from an.xicty in regard to the further spreading of the flames, the citizens took measures for the protection of property and for the care of the thousands who -were homeless and shelterless. The first night few could be provided with shelter, and the most harrowing scenes were witnessed on every hand. Several children were born into the world in the midst of the storm, only to die. There were invalids of every age and condition of life, who had been taken from their beds and carried where death came to them less swiftly but not less surely than in the fiery flood. In response to the cry for help that went up from the stricken city, instant and abundant relief was sent from every part of the Union. The General Govern- ment sent thousands of tents and army rations. Societies and private citizens sent money, clothing, and provisions. Railroad companies dispatched special tniins laden with these gifts. From Canada and from Europe came expressions of sympathy and proffers of assistance. Wherever the news M'as carried, it awakened the best impulses of human nature. The spirit and courage exhibited by the business people of Chicago is above all praise. The smoke still hung over their ruined city, when they met and resolved upon measures that would restore its fame and magnificence, and maintain its credit unimpaired. The newspapers, with their accustomed enterprise, immedi- ately resumed publication as best they could, and generous assistance was afforded by the press of other cities, in the shape of type, paper, etc. Temporary buildings were erected in every direction, and in less than a week after the cessa- tion of the fire, hundreds of houses were ready for occupation. The spirit of prostration gave way to one of confidence and hope. Every business man who could hire a shed resumed business. One hundred thousand dollars were sub- scribed toward rebuilding the Chamber of Commerce, and the work will be cotnmenced at once. With this spirit animating her citizens, Chicago will soon recover from this great calamity, more magpificent and beautiful than she was before the fire. ILLINOIS. 901 THE MASSACRE AT CHICAGO. On the 7th of August, 1812, in the afternoon, Winnemeg, or Catfish, a friendly- Indian of the Potawatomie tribe, arrived at Chicago and brouglit despatches from General Hull, containing the first, and at that time the only intelligence of the declaration of war. General Hull's letter announced the capture of Mackinaw, and directed Captain Heald "to evacuate the fort at Chicago, if practicable, and in that event, to distribute all of the United States property contained in the fort, and the United States factory, or agency, among the Indians in the neighbor- hood, and repair to Fort Wayne." Winnemeg, having delivered his despatches to Captain Heald, and stated that he was acquainted with the purport of the com- munication he Iiad brought, urged upon Captain Heald the policy of remaining in the fort, being supplied as tliey were witli ammunition and provisions for a considerable time. In case, however, Captain Heald thought proper to evacuate the place, he urged upon him the propriety of doing so immediately, before the Potawatomies (through whose country they must pass, and who were as yet ig- norant of the object of his mission) could collect a force sufficient to oppose them. This advice, though given in great earnestness, was not sufficiently regarded by Captain Heald ; who observed that he should evacuate the fort, but having re- ceived orders to distribute the public property among the Indians, he did not feel justified in leaving it until he had collected the Potawatomies in its vicinity, and made an equitable distribution among them. Winnemeg then suggested the ex- pediency of marching out, and leaving everything standing; "while the Indians," said he, "are dividing the spoils, the troops will be able to retreat without mo- lestation." This advice was also unheeded, and an order for evacuating the fort was read next morning on parade. Captain Heald, in issuing it, had neglected to consult his junior officers, as it would have been proper for him to have done in such an emergency, and as he proba!)ly would have done had there not been some coolness between him and Ensign Ronan. The lieutenant and ensign, after the promulgation of this order, waited on Captain Heald to learn his intentions ; and being apprised, for the first time, of the course he intended to pursue, they remonstrated against it. "We do not," said they to Captain Heald, "believe that our troops can pass in safety through the country of the Potawatomies to Fort Wayne. Although a part of their chiefs were opposed to an attack upon us last autumn, they were actuated by motives of private friendship for some particular individuals, and not from a regard to the Americans in general ; and it can hardl}'^ be supposed that in the present excited state of feeling among the Indians, those chiefs will be able to influence the whole tribe, now thirsting for vengeance. Besides," said they, "our march must be slow, on account of the women and children. Our force, too, is small. Some of our soldiers are superannuated, and some of them are invalids. We tbink, therefore, as your orders are discretionary, that we had better fortity ourselves as strongly as possible, and remain where we are. Succor may reach us before we shall be attacked from Mackinaw ; and, in case of such an event, we had better fall into the hands of the English than become victims of the savages." Captain Heald replied that his force was inadequate to contend with the Indians, and that he should be censured were he to continue in garrison when the prospect of a safe retreat to Fort Wayne was so apparent. He therefore deemed it advisable to assemble the Indians and distribute the public property among them, and ask of them an escort thither, with the promise of a considerable sum of money to be paid on their safe arrival ; adding, that he had perfect confidence in the friendljr 902 OUR COUNTRY A^V ITS RESOURCES professions of the Indians, from whom, as well as from the soldiers, the capture of Mackinaw had studiously been concealed. From tills time forward, the junior officers stood aloof from their commander, and, considering his project as little short of madness, conversed as little upon the subject as possible. Dissatisfaction, however, soon filled the camp ; the sol- diers began to murmur, and insubordination assumed a threatening aspect. The savages, in the meantime, became more and more troublesome ; entered tlie fort occasionally in defiance of the sentinels, and even made their way with- 'out ceremony into the quarters of its commanding officer. On one occasion, an Indian, taking up a rifle, fired it in the parlor of Captain Heald. Some were of opinion that this was intended as the signal for an attack. The old chiefs at this time passed back and forth an>ong the assembled groups, apparentlj'^ agitated, and the squaws seemed much excited, as though some terrible calamity was im- pending. No further manifestations, however, of ill-feeling were exhibited, and the day passed without bloodshed. So infatuated at this time was Captain Heald that he supposed he had wrought a favorable impression upon the savages, and that the little gariison could now march forth in safety. From tlie 8tii to the 12th of August, the hostility of the Indians was more and more apparent ; and the feelings of the garrison, and of those connected with and dependent upon it for their safety, more and more intense. Distrust every- where at length prevailed, and the want of unanimity among the officers was ap- palling. Every inmate retired to rest, expecting to be aroused by the war-whoop ; and each returning day was regarded by all as another step on the road to massacre. The Indians from the adjacent villages having at length arrived, a council was held on the 13th of August. It was attended, however, only by Captain Heald on the part of the military ; the other officers refused to attend, having previously learned that a massacre was intended. This fact was communicated to Captain Heald ; he insisted, however, on their going, and they resolutely persisted in their refusal. When Captain Heald left the fort, they repaired to tlie blockhouse, which overlooked the ground where the council was in session, and, opening the port-holes, pointed their cannon in its direction. This circumstance and their absence, it is supposed, saved the whites from massacre. Captain Heald informed the Indians in Council that he would next day distri- bute among them all the goods in the United States factory, together with the ammunition and provisions with which the garrison was supplied ; and desired of them an escort to Fort Wayne, promising them a reward on their arrival thither, in addition to the presents they were about to receive. The savages as- sented with professions of friendship to all he proposed, and promised all he required. Tlie council was no sooner dismissed, than several, observing the tone of feel- ing which prevailed, and anticipating from it no good to the garrison, waited on Captain Heald, in order to open his eyes, if possible, to their Qondition. The impolicy of furnishing the Indians with arms and ammunition, to be used against themselves, struck Captain Heald with so much force that he resolved, without consulting his officers, to destroy all not required for immediate use. On Auguk 13th, the goods in the factory store were distributed among the Indians who had collected near the fort ; and in the evening the ammunition, and also the liquor belonging to the garrison, were carried, the former into the sallyport and thrown into the well, and the latter through the south gate, as si- lently as possible, to the river bank, where the heads of the barrels were knocked in and their contents discharged into the sti-eam. ILLINOIS. 903 The ludiaus, however, suspecting the game, approached as near as possible and witnessed the whole scene. The spare muskets were broken up and thrown into the well, together with bags of shot, flints, and gun screws, and other things ; all, however, of but little value. On the 14th, the despondency of the garrison was for a while dispelled by the arrival of Captain Wells and 15 friendly Miamis. Having heard at Fort Wayne of tlie order to evacuate Chicago, ami knowing the hostile intentions of the Pota- watomies, he hastened thither, in order to save, if possible, the little garrison from its doom. Having on his arrival learned that the ammunition had been de- stroyed, and the provisions distributed among the Indians, he saw there Avas no alternative. Preparations were tlierefore made for marching on the morrow. In the afternoon, a second council was held with the Indians, at wiiicli they expressed their resentment at the destruction of the ammunition and liquor in the severest terms. Notwithstanding the precautions which had been observed, the knocking in of the heads of the whiskey barrels had been heard by the In- dians, and the river next morning tasted, as some of them expressed it, "like strong grog." Murmurs and threats were ever3'where heard, and nothing ap- parently was wanting but an opportunity ft)r some public manifestation of their resentment. The morning of the 15th dawned as usual. The sun rose with uncommon splendor, and Lake Michigan "was a slieet of buruislied gold." Early in the day, a message was received in the American camp from To-pce- na-bee, a chief of the St. Joseph's band, informing them tliat mischief was brew- ing among the Potawatomies, who had promised them protection. About 9 o'clock, the troops left the fort with martial music and in military array. Captain Wells, at the head of the Miamis, led the van, his face blackened after the manner of tlie Indiarts. The garrison vwith loaded arms followed, and the wagons with the baggage, the women and children, the sick and the lame, closed the rear. The Potawatomies, about 500 in number, who had promised to escort them in safety to Fort Wayne, leaving a little space, afterward followed. The party in advance took the beach road. They liad no sooner arrived at the sand-hills, which separate the prairies from the beach, about a mile and a half from the fort, when the Potawatomies, instead of continuing in the rear of the Americans, left the beach and took to the prairie. The sand-hills, of course, in- tervened, and presented a barrier between the Potawatomies and the American and Miami line of march. This divergence had scarcely been effected when Captain Wells, who, with the Miamis, was considerably in advance, rode back and exclaimed : "They are about to attack us ; form instantly and charge upon them." The words had scai-cely been uttered before a volley of musketry Irora behind the sand-hills was poured in upon tiiem. Tlie troops were brought im- mediately into a line, and cliarged up the bank. One man, a veteran of seventy, fell as they ascended. The battle at once became general. The ^Miamis fled in the outset ; tlieir chief rode up to the Potawatomies, charged them with duplicity, and, brandishing his tomahawk, said, "he would be the first to head a pai'ty of Americans, and return to punish them for their treachery." He then turned his horse and galloped off in pursuit of his companions, who were then scouring across the prairie, and nothing was seen or heard of them more. Tbe American troops beliaved gallantly. Though few in number, they Gold their lives as dearly as possible. They felt, however, as if their time had come, and sought to forget all that was dear on earth. While the battle was raging, the surgeon. Doctor Voorhes, who was badly 904 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. wounded, and whose horse had been shot from under him, approaching Mrs. Hehn, tlie wife of Lieutenant' Helm (who was in the action, participating in all its vicissitudes), observed : "Do you think," said he, "they will take our lives? I am badly wounded, but I think not mortally. Perhaps we can purchase safety by offering a large reward. Do you think," continued he, "there is any chance?" — " Doctor Voorhes," replied Mrs. Helm, "let us not waste the few moments which yet remain, in idle or ill-founded hopes. Our fate is inevitable. We must soon appear at the bar of God. Let us make such preparations as are yet in our power." — "Oh," said he, "I cannot die! I am unfit to die ! If I had a short time to prepare! — Death ! — oh, how awful I" At this moment Ensign Ronan was fighting at a little distance w ith a tall and portly Indian ; the former, mortally wounded, was nearly down, and struggling desperately on one knee. Mrs. Helm, pointing her finger and directing the at- tention of Doctor Voorlies thither, observed : " Look," said she, "at that young man, he dies like a soldier." " Yes," said Doctor Voorhes, " but he has no terrors of the future ; he is an unbeliever." A young savage immediately raised his tomahawk to strike Mrs. Helm. She sprang instantly aside, and the blow intended for her head lell upon her shoulder. She thereupon seized him around his n'eck, and while exerting all her efforts to get possession of his scaiping-knife, was seized by another Indian, and dragged forcibly from his grasp. The latter bore her, struggling and resisting, toward the lake. Notwithstand- ing, however, the rapidity with which she was hurried along, she recognized, as she passed, the remains of the unfortunate surgeon, stretched lifeless on the prairie. She was plunged immediately into the water and held tliere, notwithstanding her resistance, with a forcible hand. She shortly, however, perceived that the intention of her captor was not to drown her, as he held lier in a position to keep her head above the water.. Thus reassured, she looked at him attentively, and, in spite of his disguise, recognized the "white man's friend." It was Black Partridge. AVhen the firing had ceased, lier preserver bore her from the water and con- ducted her up the sand-bank. It was a beautiful day in August. The heat, however, of the sun was oppressive, and walking through the sand exposed to its burning rays in her drenched condition, weary and exhausted by efforts beyond her strength, anxious beyond measure to learn the fate of her friends, and alarmed for her own, her situation was one of agony. The troops having fought with desperation till two-thirds of their number were slain, the remainder, 27 in all, borne down by an overwhelming force and ex- hausted by efforts hitherto unequalled, at length surrendered. They stipulated, however, for their own safety and for the safety of their remaining women and children. The wounded prisoners, however, in the hurry of the moment, were unfortunately omitted, or rather not particularly mentioned, and were therefore regarded by tlie Indians as having been excluded. One of the soldiers' wives, having frequently been told that prisoners taken by the Indians were subjected to tortures worse than death, had frbm the first ex- pressed a resolution never to be taken, and when a party of savages approached to make her their prisoner, she fought with desperation, and though assured of kind treatment and protection, refused to surrender, and was literally cut in pieces, and her mangled remains left on the field. After the surrender, one of the baggage-wagons, containing 12 children, was ILLINOIS. 905 assailed by a single savage, and the whole number were massacred. All, with- out distinction of age or sex, fell at once beneath his murderous tomahawk. Captain Wells, who had as yet escaped unharmed, saw from a distance the whole of this murderous scene, and being apprised of the stipulation, and on see- ing it thus violated, exclaimed aloud, so as to be heard by the Potawatomies around him, whose prisoner he then was : " If this be your game, I will kill too!" and, turning his horse's head, instantly started for the Potawatomie camp, where the squaws and Indian children had been left ere the battle began. He had no sooner started than several Indians followed in his rear, and dis- charged their rifles at him as he galloped across the prairie. He laid himself flat on the neck of his horse, and was apparently out of their reacli when the ball of one of his pursuers took. effect, killing his horse and wounding him severely. He was again a prisoner. As the savages came up, Winnemeg and Wa-ban-see, two of their number and both his friends, used all their endeavors in order to save him ; they had disengaged him already from his horse, and were supporting him along, when Pec-so-tum, a Potawatomie Indian, drawing a scalping-knife. stabbed him in the back, and thus inflicted a mortal wound. After struggling for a moment, lie fell, and breathed his last in the arms of his friends — a victim for tliose he had sought to save— a sacrifice to his own rash, presumptuous, and per- haps indiscreet intentions. The battle having ended, and the prisoners being secured, the latter were con- conducted to ihe Potawatomie camp near the fort.- Here the wife of Wau-bee- nee-mali, an Illinois chief, perceiving the exhausted condition of Mrs. Helm, took a kettle, and dipping up some water from the stream which flowed slug- gishly by tliem, threw in^o it some maple sugar, and stirring it up with her hand, gave her to drink. "It was," says Mrs. Helm, "the most delicious draught I had ever taken, and her kindness of manner amid so much atrocity touched my heart." Her attention, however, was soon directed to ether objects. The fort, after the troops had marched out, became a scene of plunder. The cattle were shot down as they ran at large, and lay dead, or were dying around her. It called up afresh a remark of Ensign Ronan's, made bcibu: "Such," said he, "is to be our fate— to be shot down like brutes." The wounded prisoners, we have already remarked, were not included in the stipulation made on the battle field, as the Indians xinderstood it. On reaching, therefore, the Potawatomie camp, a scene followed which beggars description. A wounded soldier lying on the ground was violently assaulted by an old squaw, infuriated by the loss of friends, or excited by the murderous scenes around her — who, seizing a pitchfork, attacked with demoniac ferocity and deliberately mur- dered in cold blood the wretched victim, now helpless and exposed to the burn- ing rays of the sun, his wounds already aggravated by its heat, and he writhing in torture. During the succeeding night 5 other wounded prisoners were toma- hawked. Those unwounded remained in the wigwams of their captors. The work of plunder being now completed, the fort next day was set on fire. A fair and equal distribution of all the finery belonging to the garrison had apparently been made, and shawls, ribbons, and feathers were scattered about the camp in great profusion. Most of the prisoners remained among the Indians until the treaty made in the next year, when they were returned to their friends. Captain Heald and hi3 wife, and Lieutenant Helm and his wife, were ransomed soon after their capture. Their suff"erings and perils, however, during their short captivity were most trying MICHIGAN. Area, 56,451 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 749,113 Population in 1870, 1,184,059 The State of Michigan is situated between 41° 40' and 47'' 30' N. latitude, and 82° 12' and 90° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Superior, on the east by the River Ste. Marie, Lake Huron*, the Lake and River St. Clair, the Detroit River, and Lake Erie, which separate it from Canada, on the south by Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin, and on the west by Wisconsin and Lake Michigan. TOPOGRAPHY. Lakes Michigan and Huron, and the Straits of Ma- kinaw, divide the State into two unequal peninsulas. The Northern Peninsula is about 320 miles long, from southeast to northwest, with an extreme width of 130 miles. The Southern Peninsula is about 283 miles long, from north to south, and 210 miles wide in its broadest part. " The Southern Peninsula of Michigan, so interesting in its agri- cultural and economical aspects, is rather tame in its topographical features, as there is no considerable elevation (compared with the country immediately around it) within its whole extent, though the ridge which divides the waters flowing into Lakes Huron and Erie from those flowing into Lake Michigan, is 300 feet above the level of the lakes, and about 1000 feet above the sea. The country, how- ever, may be generally characterized as a vast undulating plain, sel- dom becoming rough or broken. There are occasional conical eleva- tions of from 150 to 200 feet in height, but generally much less. The 906 MICHIGAN". 907 A WESTERN PaVEll. shores of Lake Huron are often steep, forniinjj; bluffs; while those of Lake Michigan are coasted by shifting sand-hills of from 100 to 200 feet in height. In tlie southern part are those natural parks, thinly scattered over with trees, called in the parlance of the country, ' oak openings;' and in the southwest are rich prairie lands. The Northern 'Peninsula exiiibits a striking contrast, both in soil and surface, to the southern. While the latter is level or moderately undulating, and luxuriantly fertile, the former is picturesque, rugged, and even moun- tainous, with streams abounding in rapids and waterfalls — rich in minerals, but rigorous in climate, and sterile in soil. The Wisconsin or Porcupine Mountains, which form the watershed between Lakes Michigan and Superior, are muoh nearer the latter than the former, and attain an elevation of about 2000 feet in the northwestern portion of the peninsula. The jeastern part of this division of the State is undulating and picturesque, but the central is hilly, and composed of table-land. The shores of Lake Superior a,re composed of a sandstone rock, which, in many places, is worn by the action of the wind and waves into fancied resemblances of castles, etc., forming the celebrated 908 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Pictured Rocks ; while the shores of Lake Michigan are composed of a limestone rock. The streams on the northern slope of the Porcu- pine Mountains have a rapid descent, and abound in picturesque falls and rapids. The Northern Peninsula is primitive, and the Southern secondary ; but primitive rocks are scattered over the plains of the latter, of more than 100 tons weight, most abundant on the borders of the Great Lakes, on the flanks of valleys, and where traces of recent floods are apparent." * Lake Superior, washes the northern shore of the State, Lake Michigan the western, and Lakes Huron and Erie the eastern. They have all been described, together with the channels connecting them, in the chapter devoted to the United States. Detroit, between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and Grand Haven on Lake Michigan, are the principal ports of the State. The principal bays are Saginaw and Thunder bays on Lake Huron, Tequamenon and Kewechaw bays on Lake Superior, and Green, Little and Grand Traverse bays, and the Great and Little Bays des Noquets on Lake Michigan. A number of small lakes lie in the State. They possess no com- mercial value, but form a beautiful feature of the landscape. The rivers of the State are nearly all small. The Detroit and Ste. Marie Iiave been noticed. Those of the southern peninsula empty into Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie. Those flowing into Lake Michigan are the St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grand, Maskegon and Manistee. The Au Sable and Saginaw flow into Lake Huron, the latter through Saginaw Bay, and the Huron and Raisin into Lake Erie. The rivers of the northern peninsula are fine mill streams, but are unfit for navigation by reason of rocks and rapids. The princip;il are the Menomonee, Montreal, and Ontonagon. The first flows into Gi'cen Bay, and the others into Lake Superior. A group of Islands, forming Manitou county, lies in the northern part of Lake Michigan. MINERALS. " The upper peninsula, rich in minerals, prominent among which is copper, is mostly of primitive geological character; the lower exclu- sively secondary. The copper deposits among the primary rocks of the northern peninsula are the richest in the world, the copper belt * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1189. MICHIGAN. 90f) being 120 miles long and from 2 to 6 miles wide. A block of several tons of almost pure copper, taken from the mouth of Ontonagon River, has been built into the wall of the Washington monument at the national capital. A mass weighing 150 tons was uncovered, in 1854, in the North American mine. Isle Royale abounds in this mineral ; one house in that district, during five and a half months of 1854, shipped over 2,000,000 of pounds, and in the nine years pre- vious there were produced 4824 tons. The yield of copper in the State has risen to an annual average of 8000 tons, with promise of steady increase. The opening of the St. Mary's Canal and the clear- ing of the entrance into Portage I^ake have given fresh impetus to this branch of mining industry, which is becoming one of the most cherished interests of the State. Silver has been found in connection with the copper in the proportion of from 25 to 50 per cent, of the precious metal. Iron of a superior quality has been discovered in a bed of slate from 6 to 25 miles wide, and 150 long, extending into Wisconsin. In the production of this mineral, in 1863, Michigan was only second to Pennsylvania, having produced 273,000 tons of ore. Bituminous coal is mined on an enlarging scale to meet the demand of manufac- tures. Salt also exists in quantities repaying the investment of capital.. The high prices lately prevailing have caused a rapid development of the salt fields around Saginaw, a basin some 40 or 50 miles square, in which, by boring some 800 feet, an inexhaustible supply of brine is obtained, yielding 80 or 90 per cent, of salt." * CLIMATE. The climate of the State is less severe than that of other portions of the country in the same latitude, being greatly tempered by the lake breezes. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the middle and lower part of the southern peninsula is very rich, and yields handsome returns. It consists generally of a deep, dark, rich sandy loam, which is frequently mixed with gravel and clay. The northern part abounds in excellent timber. The northern peninsula is heavily wooded with white ])Ine, spruce, hem- lock, birch, and oak. The iiardier grains do well in this part of the State, but maize i§ not suited to it. * General Land Office Report. 56 910 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. There are upwards of 5,000,000 acres of improved land in the State. The principal agricultural returns are as follows: Bushels of wheat, 16,800,000 " Indian corn, 14,100,000 oats, ; . . . 8,700,000 Irish potatoes, 10,325,000 " rye, 160,000 " peas and beans, 350,000 " buckwheat, 450,000 " barley, 840,000 Tons of hay, 1,300,000 Pounds of butter, 25,000,000 cheese, 675,000 Number of horses, 230,000 " asses and mules, 2,500 milch cows, 255,000 sheep, 2,000,000 swine, 425,000 young cattle, 270,000 Value of domestic animals, $52,000,000 Pounds of wool, 8,750,000 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Wheat, and otVier grains, flour, pork, lumber, copper, and wool, are the principal exports of the State. Michigan is admirably located for commerce, having many good harbors, and an immense water front. In 1863, the foreign exports of the State were valued at $2,008,599, and the imports at $771,834. Manufactures are yet in their infancy. In 1870, there were in this State 9455 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $71,712,283, consumed raw material worth $68,142,515, and yielding an annual product of $118,394,676. The principal products were valued as follows : Pig iron, $2,911,515 Copper, 9,260,976 Sawed and planed lumber, 33,078,241 Flour, 21,174,247 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872 there were 2235 miles of completed railroads in Michigan, con- structed at a cost of over $1 00,000,000. The only railroad in the northern peninsula is from the upper end of Green Bay to the iron region. In MICHIGAN. 911 the lower peninsula the railroads lie south of Saginaw Bay, beyond which tiie State is comparatively unsettled. The principal towns of the State have railroad communication with each other and with all parts of the Union. EDUCATION. There are seven colleges in Michigan, the principal of which is the University of Michigan, which is located at Ann Arbor, in the south- east ])art of the State. It embraces departments of literature, law, and medicine, and, in 1867, was attended by 1255 students. The State has a Normal School at Ypsilanti. It was opened in 1854, and is in a prosperous condition. The system of public education is under the general supervision of a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is elected by the people for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superin- tendent, who manages the schools thereof. In 1870, there were 5110 public schools in Michigan, attended by 278,086 children. The amount expended on these schools during the year was $2,783,943. The State has three distinct school funds (the Primary School, University, and Normal School Funds), amounting in the aggregate to $2,925,644. In 1870, there were 181 private schools \'n the State, attended by about 12,000 pupils. In 1870, there were 26,763 libraries in the State, with 2,174,744 volumes. In the same year, there were 16 daily, 3 tri-weekly, 174 weekly, and 18 other newspapers and ])eriodicals published in the State, mak- ing a total of 211. Of these, 167 were political, 7 religious, and 37 miscellaneous. Their total annual circulation was 19,686,978 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Michigan State Prison is located at Jackson. It is provided with ample buildings, and in November, 1870, contained 663 convicts. The prisoners are required to labor, and the institution is self-sup- porting. < The Reform School, at Lansing, was opened in 1856, and contains about 262 boys. The Michigan Insane Asylum is located at Kalamazoo. It was opened in 1859. On the 1st of January, 1870, it contained 305 in- mates — 156 males and 149 females. 912 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOUKCES. The Asylum for the Education of the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind is at Flint. It was opened in 1854, and, in 1870, contained 120 deaf nintes, and 30 blind persons. State i)risoners are sent to the Detroit House of Correction (a city institution) for crimes punishable with imprisonment in the county jails. • RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 1415 churches in Michigan. The value of church property was $9,133,816. FINANCES. On the 30th of November, 1874, the State debt amounted to $1,588,135. The total receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending on that date, including a balance of $854,713 on hand from the previous year, amounted to $3,065,879, and the total expenditures for the same period to f 1,995,604. In 1868 there were 42 National banks, with a capital of $5,210,010, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. All citizens of the United States over 21 years of age, who have resided in the State six months, and all male foreigners who have resided in the State two years, and have declared their intention to become citizens six months before the elections, are entitled to vote at the elections in this State. All civilized Indians residing in the State, not belonging to any tribe, are also entitled to vote. The government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor-General, and Attorney-General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 32 members) and a House of Representatives (of 100 members), all elected by the people for 2 years. The Legislature meets biennially, on the first Wednesday in January. The general election is held in November. The Courts of the State are the Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, Probate Courts, and Courts held by Justices of the Peace. The Supreme Court consists of four judges, elected for 8 years, one judge retiring every 2 years. All judges in this State are elected by the j>eople. , The seat of Government is located at Lansing. The State is divided into 62 counties. MICHIGAN. 913 HISTORY. Michigan was first settled by the Freuch. It derives its name from an Indian word (Michi-sawg-ye-gan), meaning " the Lake Country." In 1630 the French missionaries established a station on Lake Huron, and in 1660 founded one on Lake Superior. In 1668 a mission was established at the Sault-Ste.-Marie, and in 1671 Father Marquette founded the mission of St. Ignatius on the main land, to the north of the island of Mackinaw. These missionaries were so successful in their efforts that nearly all the Hurons were converted to Christianity. Soon after this became known to the other tribes, the converts were attacked, and massacred or dispersed by the Iroquois. In 1667 the trading posts were garrisoned by French soldiers by order of the king of France, who wished to foster the fur trade. In 1 701 Detroit was founded by a colony from Montreal. A fort was erected and garrisoned for the protection of the settlement, and a flourishing trade opened with the western Indians. The settlements languished, however. The home Government did but little to encourage them, and the Iroquois were their constant enemies. In 1763 the whole country passed, with Canada, into the hands of the British. Pontiac, one of the leading chiefs, now induced the tribes to take concerted measures for the expulsion of the whites. Simultaneous attacks were made upon the English forts. Mackinaw w^as taken by stratagem, and all the western posts were captured and destroyed. Detroit was invested and besieged for several months. It held out bravely, however, and the majority of the Indians, be- coming tired of the siege, returned to their homes. Thus deserted by his allies, Pontiac was forced to abandon the struggle. In 1783 Michigan, as a part of the Northwest Territory, became the property of the United States. The British, however, appreciat- ing the importance of Detroit, held on to it for a much longer time, and did not finally surrender it to the Americans until 1796. In 1805 the territory of Michigan was organized, and General William Hull, an officer who had served gallantly through the Revo- lution, was appointed Governor. Detroit was made the seat of government. The Territory was sparsely settled, but suffered much during the second war with England. The fortress of Mackinaw was surren- dered to the British and Indians on the 17th of July, 1812. On the 16th of August, General Hull surrendered Detroit to General Brock, 914 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. without making the least effort to defend it. In Januar)^, 1813, General Winchester was surprised and surrounded at Frenchtown on the River Raisin, by a strong force of British troops and Indians. He made a stubborn defence, but finally surrendered upon the condi- tion that his men should be protected from the Indians. General Proctor violated his word, however, and suffered his Indian allies to massacre Americans, the wounded and many of the disarmed prisoners. In September, 1813, the gloom which the reverses of the Americans had cast over the frontier was lightened by the splendid victory won over the British fleet in Lake Erie, only a few miles from the shores of Michigan, by Commodore O. H. Perry. This was followed by the evacuation of Detroit by the British, and the important triumph achieved by the American army under General Harrison, over the British and Indians, on the banks of the River Thames, in Canada, and but a few miles distant from Detroit. Tecumseh was killed in this battle. Several other minor actions occurred along the Michigan frontier, but the Territory was not again occupied by the enemy. In 1820 the population of the Territory was 8900 souls, and in this estimate the dwellers in the present State of Wisconsin were included. "About the year 1832, the tide of emigration began to set strong towards Michigan Territory. Steamboat navigation had opened a new commerce upon the lakes, and had connected the eastern lakes and their population with the Illinois and Upper Missi&sij)pi. Tiiis immense lake navigation encircled the peninsula of Michigan. It became an object of exploration. Its unrivalled advantages for navi- gation, its immense tracts of the most fertile arable lands, adapted to the cultivation of all the northern grains and grasses, attracted the attention of western emigrants. The tide soon began to set strong into Michigan. Its fine level and rolling plains, its deep and endur- ino; soil, and its immense advantages for trade and commerce had be- come known and duly appreciated. The hundreds of canoes, pirogues, and barges, with their half-civilized couriers du bois, which had annu- ally visited Detroit for more than a century, had given way to large and splendid steamboats, which daily traversed the lakes from Buffalo to Chicago, from the east end of Luke Erie to the south-western ex- tremity of Lake Michigan. Nearly a hundred sail of sloops and scjiooners were now travei-slng every part of these inland seas. Under these circumstances, how should Michigan remain a savage wilderness? New York State and the New England States began to send forth their MICHIGAN. 915 numerous colonies, and the wilderness to smile. At the end of two years more, or in 1834, the population of Michigan had increased to 87,273 souls, exclusive of Indians. The following year the number amounted to more than 90,000 persons, distributed over 38 counties, comprised in the southern half of the peninsula, and the 'attached Huron, or Wisconsin District,' lying west of Lake Michigan. The town of Detroit, which in 1812 was a stockade village, had now be- come 'a city,' with nearly 2500 inhabitants. The humble villages and wigwams of the Indians, sparsely distributed over a wide extent of wilderness, had now given way to thousands of farms and civilized habitations. Towns and smiling villages usurped the encampment and the battle-field. The fertile banks of the 'River Raisin' were crowned with hamlets and towns instead of the melancholy stockade. A constitution had been adopted on the 15th of June, 1836, and the 'State of Mijhigan' was admitted into the Union on the 26th day of January, 1837, and Stephens T. Mason was made the first Governor." During the late war Michigan contributed 90,119 troops to the service of tiie United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns of the State are, Detroit, Grand Rapids, Adrian, Kalamazoo, Ann Arbor, Jackson and Monroe. LANSING, The capital of the State, is sitnated in Ingham county, on the Grand River, 110 miles northwest of Detroit. Latitude 42° 42' 30" N. ; longitude 84° 28' W. Tiie city Avas originally laid out upon quite an extensive plan, and is not yet built with sufficient compactness to do justice to the designs of its founders. The streets are broad, intersect each other at right- tangles, and are shaded with trees. The principal building is the State House, a large and handsome structure, located on an eminence, 50 feet above the level of the river. The State Agricultural College is located in the vicinity, and the House of Correction, for juvenile offenders, stands in the eastern portion of the city. Lansing contains a female college, 2 good public schools, 2 newspaper offices, and 12 churches. In 1870, the population was 5241. The city has railway communication with all parts of the State. The river affords excellent water-power, which is used for operating BBveral flour mills and factories 916 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1847, a Mr. James Seymour, owning some land on the Grand River, made a proposition to the Legislature of Michigan, that if they would remove the seat of Government on to his lands, he would give 20 acres, and erect the capitol and buildings for the use of the State authorities. This oiFer was not accepted, but the Legislature passed a bill locating the capital in the township. At this period but one family occupied the site of the future capital. In May, 1847, the town of Lansing was laid out, and within the next few weeks one thousand persons moved into the place, which was named from Lan- sing in New York, the former home of some of the settlers. In 1850, the seat of Government was formally transferred from Detroit to this place. DETROIT, The metropolis of the State, is situated on the right or northwest bank of the Dvjtroit River, 18 miles from the head of Lake Erie, 8 miles from the outlet of Lake St. Clair, and 110 miles by railway from Lansing. The width of the river averages about five-eighths of a mile, the width from the docks of Detroit to the opposite docks of Wind- sor, in Canada, being about half a mile. The depth between the docks varies from 12 to 48 feet, averaging 32 feet; the descent from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie is about 6 feet, averaging 3 inches per mile; and the velocity of the current in the deepest part opposite the city is two miles and a half per hour. The stream is so deep and its current so strong and uniform, that it keeps itself clear, and its navigation is not affected as is that of the Mississippi, with either rocks, sand-bars, trees, or sawyers. Its current also carries along the ice with a slow and uniform motion, so that it is never dammed up in winter, while the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, is shallow, full of rocks, against which the ice lodges, and often forms a dam across the river, and raises the water from 20 to 25 feet, overflowing its low banks for miles, and sweeping off and destroying large amounts of property. These pecu- liarities make Detroit a secure and accessible harbor in all seasons. • Bordering the river, along which it extends for several miles, and for 1200 feet back from the water, the plan of the city is rectangular. In the rear of this portion it is triangular. The city covers an area of about 10 square miles, and is for the most ])art well built. The streets and avenues are wide, many of them from 100 to 200 feet. Five of these centre at a public ground, called the Grand Circus. In the city are several public squares or spaces, the principal of which MICHIGAN. 919 are tlie Grand Circus and the Campus Martius. The streets arc gen* erally well paved, with broad side walks, and are shaded with noble forest trees. Jefferson and Woodward avenues, and Congress street are the most important thoroughfares. Lines of street cars connect the principal points of the city. A largo portion of the city is built of wood, but of late years, brick, stone, and iron have been largely used in erecting new edifices and in improving old ones. In consequence of this, the business streets now present a handsome appearance, and in the private sections are to be found many elegant and tasteful residences. The principal buildings are the Custom House, a magnificent stone edifice ; the City Hall, a fine structure of stone ; and the Old State House, now used for literary purposes. ^ The city contains about 66 public schools, each of which is provided with handsome and convenient buildings. The citizens are very proud of their free school system, and with good reason. The benevolent and charitable institutions are numerous, and are well conducted. The principal establishments are the Industrial School, the Harper, St. Mary^s, and Marine Hospitals, the Orphan Asylum, and the House for the Friendless. In the Industrial School, the ragged and vagrant children of the city are gathered and taught to read, write, and sing, to mend and make their clothing, and are given a good meal every day. The city contains about 38 churches, some of which are among its principal ornaments, 11 news[)aper, and 3 magazine offices, and 3 first- class hotels. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water, which is pumped from the Detroit River by means of a steam engine into a hydraulic reservoir, from which it is supplied to the city pipes. The city is provided with an efficient police force and a steam fire de- partment, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 79,577. The admirable position of Detroit has made it an important com- mercial point. It controls a large share of the commerce between the United States and Canada, but its chief source of prosperity is the lake trade. Commanding the only outlet of the three upper lakes, it of necessity controls a large share of their commerce, and also conducts a large trade with the ports of Lake Erie. It is largely interested in the rich trade which the working of the copper and iron mines of Lake Superior has developed. Regular lines of steamers ply between the city and the ports on the lakes. Detroit has direct railway com- munication with all parts of the Union, and the terminus of the Great 920 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Western Railway of Cauada is at Windsor, on the opposite side of the river. The grain trade of Detroit is important, and is increasing every year. The city is extensively engaged in manufactures. The most im- portant articles produced are locomotives, iron machinery, window sashes and blinds, cabinet ware, leather, malt liquors, iron and brass ware, and lumber. The Detroit Copper Smelting Works annually smelt over $2,000,000 worth of copper ore into ingot copper. Another large establishment is engaged in manufacturing iron from the iron ore sent from the Lake Superior mines. In 1670, the French built a fort on the present site of Detroit. The vicinity at this time was occupied by villages of the Huron, Po- tawatomy, and Ottowa Indians. Ninety years later, in 1760, the French posts passed into the hands of Great Britain. In 1783, after the close of the Revolution, Detroit became a part of the United States, but was not formally delivered up to the American forces until 1796. MISCELLANIES. PONTIAC'S EFFORT TO CAPTURE DETROIT. As every appearance of war was at an end, and the Indians seemed to be on a friendly footing, Fontiac approached Detroit without exciting any suspicions in the breast of the Governor or the inhabitants. He encamped at a httle distance from it, and let the commandant know that he was come to trade ; and being de- sirous of brightening the chain of peace between the English and his nation, desired that he and his chiefs might be admitted to hold a council with him. The Governor, still unsuspicious, and not in the least doubting the sincerity of the Indians, granted their general's request, and fixed on the next morning for their reception. On the evening of that day an Indian woman, who had been appointed by Major Gladwyn to make a pair of Indian shoes out of a curious elkskin, brought them home. The major was so pleased with theui that, intending these as a present for a friend, he ordered her to.take the remainder back and make it into others for himself. He then directed his servant to pay her for those she had done, and dismissed her. The woman went to the door that led to the street, but no further ; she there loitered about as if she had not finished the business on whicli she came. A servant at length observed her, and asked her why she stayed there. She gave him, however, no answer. Some short time after, the Governor himself saw her, and inquired of his ser- vant what occasioned her stay. Not being able to get a satisfactory answer, he ordered the woman to be called in. When she came into his presence, he de- sired to know what was the reason of her loitering about, and not hastening home before the gates were shut, that she might complete in due time the work he had given her to do. She told him, after mucli hesitation, that as he had always MICHIGAN. 921 behaved -with great goodness towards lier, she was unwilling to tal.e awaj^ the remainder of the skin, because he put so great a value upon it ; and yet had not been able to prevail upon herself to tell him so. He then asked her why slie was more reluctant to do so now than she had been when she made the former pair. With increased reluctance she answered, that she should never be able to bring them back. His curiosity was now excited ; he insisted on her disclosing the secret that seemed to be struggling in her bosom for utterance. At last, on receiving a promise that the intelligence she was about to give him should not turn to her prejudice ; and that, if it appeared to be beneficial, she should be rewarded for it, she informed him that at the council to be held with the Indians on the following day, Pontiac and his chiefs intended to murder him, and, after having massacred the garrison and inhabitants, to plunder the town. That for this purpose all the chiefs who were to be admitted into the council-room had cut their guns short, so that they could conceal them under their blankets ; with which, on a signal given by their general on delivering the belt, they were all to rise up and instantly to fire on him and his attendants. Having effected this, they were immediately to rush into the town, where they would find themselves supported by a great num- ber of their warriors that were to come into it during the sitting of the council under the pretence of trading, but privately armed in the same manner. Having gained from the woman every necessary particular relative to the plot, and also the means by which she acquired a knowledge of them, he dismissed her with injunctions of secrecy, and a promise of fulfiUing on his part with punctuality the engagements he had entered into. The intelligence the Governor had just received gave him great uneasiness, and he immediately consulted the officer who was next him in command on the subject. But this gentleman, considering the information as a story invented for some artful purpose, advised him to pay no attention to it. This conclusion, however, had happily no weight with him. He thought it prudent to conclude it to be true till he was convinced it was not so ; and therefore, without revealing his suspicions to any other person, he took every needful precaution tliat the time would admit of. He walked around the fort for the whole night, and saw himr self that every sentinel was upon duty, and every weapon of defence in proper order. As he traversed the ramparts that lay nearest to the Indian camp, he heard them in high festivity, and, little imagining that their plot was discovered, pro- bably pleasing themselves with the anticipation of their success. As soon as the morning dawned, he ordered all the garrison under arms, and then, imparting his apprehensions to a few of the principal officers, gave them sucli directions as he thought necessary. At the same time he sent round to all the traders to inform them, that as it was expected a great number of Indians would enter the town that day, who miglit be inclined to plunder, he desired they would have their arms ready, and repel any attempt of tliat kind. About 10 o'clock, Pontiac and his chiefs arrived, and were conducted to the council chamber, where tlie Governor and his principal officers, each with pistols in his belt, awaited iiis arrival. As the Indians passed on, they could not help ohserving that a greater number of troops than usual were drawn up on the parade, or marching about. No sooner were they entered, and seated on the skins prepared for them, than Pontiac asked the Governor on what occasion h'i young men, meaning the soldiers, were thus drawn up and parading the street^. 922 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. He received for answer that it was only intended to keep them perfect in their exercise. The Indian chief warrior now began his speech, which contained the strongest professions of friendsliip and good-will towards the English : and when he came to the delivery of the belt of wampum, the particular mode of which, according to the woman's information, was to be the signal for thf chiefs to fire, the Gover- nor and all his attendants drew their swords half way out of their scabbards ; and the soldiers at the same time made a clattering with their arms before the door, which liad been purposely left open. Pontiac, though one of the bravest men, immediately turned pale and trembled ; and instead of giving the belt in the manner proposed, delivered it according to the usual way. His chiefs, who had impatiently expected the signal, looked at each other with astonishment, but continued quiet waiting the result. The Governor, in his tut-n, made a speech ; but, instead of thanking the great warrior for the professions of friendship he had just uttered, he accused him of being a traitor. He told liim that the English, who knew everything, were con- vinced of his treachery and villanous designs ; and as a prr)of that they were acquainted with his most secret thoughts and intentions, he stepped towards an Indian chief that sat nearest to him, and drawing aside the blanket, discovered the shortened firelock. This entirely disconcerted the Indians and Irustrated their design. He then continued to tell them, that as he had given his word, at the time they had desired an audience, that their persons should be safe, he would hold his promise invioiable, though they so little deserved it. However, he desired them to make the best of their way out of the fort, lest his young men, on being acquainted with their treacherous purposes, should cut every one of them to pieces. Pontiac endeavored to contradict the accusation, and to make excuses for his suspicious conduct ; but the Governor, satisfied of the falsity of liis protestations, would not listen to him. The Indians immediately left the fort ; but, instead of being sensible of the Governor's generous behaviour, they threw off the mask, and the next day made a regular attack upon it. Thus foiled, Pontiac laid formal siege to the fortress, and for many months that siege was continued in a manner and with a perseverance unexampled among the Indians. Even a regular commissariat department was organized, and bills of credit drawn out upon bark were issued, and, what is rarer, punctually paid. MASSACRE AT THE RIVER RAISIN. Immediately after the battle of the 18th of .January, 1813, some of the French inhabitants, who had sold provisions to the Britisb, followed them to Maiden to get their pay. On their return, they brought word that the British and Indians were collecting in large force, to the amount of 3000, to attack Frenchtown. General Winchester paid but little attention to these reports, feeling considerable confidence in his own strength, and expecting reinforcements that would render him safe beyond a doubt, before the enemy could possibly attack him. The British seemed to be aware that they must make the attack before these reinforce- ments came up, if they wished to effect anything ; hence they hastened their preparations. On the 21st, several of the more prominent French citizens went to "Winchester and told him that they had reliable information that the American MICHIGAX. 923 camp would be attacked tliat night or the next duy. He was so infatuated that he paid no further deference to their statement than to order those sokliers who were scattered around the settlement, drinking cider with the inhabitants, to assemble and remain in camp all night. About daylight, on the morning of the 23d of January, 1813, a large force of British and Indians, under.Proctor and the celebrated Indian chiefs. Round Head and Split Log, attacked the camp of the Americans. The attack was made all along the lines, but the British forces were more particularly led against the upper camp, occupied by Major Madison and Colonels Lewis and Allen, and the Indians against the lower camp, occupied by Colonel Wells. The Britisli were unsuccessful at their part of the lines, where the Americans fought with great bravery, and were protected very much by the pickets, which, being placed at some distance from the woods, afforded the Kentucky riflemen a tine opportunity to shoot the enemy dowu as they were advancing. An attempt was then made by the British to use a field piece just at the edge of the woods, by which they hoped to prostrate the pickets and batter down the houses, but the Kentuckians, with their sharpshooters, picked the men off as fast as they attempted to load it, 80 that they were forced to abandon the attack and suffer a repulse. "While these things were happening at the upper camp, a far different state of things existed at the lower one. The attack of the Indians was so impetuous, the position so indefensible, ami the American force so inadequate, consisting of only 200 men, that, notwithstanding the bravery of Colonel Wells and his men, it was impossible to retain the position. Colonels Lewis and Allen attempted to take a reinforcement to the right wing, to enable Colonel Wells to retreat up the river on the ice, under cover of the high bank, to the upper camp. But before they arrived at the lower camp, the fire of the savages had become so galling that Wells was forced to abandon his position. This he attempted to do in good order, but as soon as his men began to give way, the Indians redoubled their cries and the impetuosity of their attack, so that the retreat speedily became a rout. In this condition they were met by Colonel Allen, who made every effort • to call them to order and lead them in safety to the upper camp. But, notwith- standing the heroic exertions of Colonel Allen, and his earnest protestations and commands, they continued their disordered flight, and from some unaccountable reason, probably through an irresistible panic, caused by the terrible cries and onslaught of the savages, instead of continuing up the river to the upper camp, they fled diagonally across to the Hull road, so called, which led to Maumee, and attempted to escape to Ohio. And now the flight became a carnage. The Indians seeing the disorder of the Americans, who thought of nothing save running for their lives, and escaping the tomahawks of the savages, having warriors posted all along the woods which lined or were within a short distance of the river, now raised the cry that the Americans were flying, which cry was echoed by thousands of warriors, who all rushed to the spot and outstripped the fleeing soldiers. Some followed them closely in their tracks and brained them with their tomahawks from behind ; some posted themselves on both sides of the narrow road and shot them down as they passed ; and finally some got in advance, and headed them off at Plumb Creek, a small stream about a mile from the River Raisin. Here the panic-stricken soldiers, who had thrown away most of their arms to facilitate their flight, huddled together like sheep, with the brutal foe on all sides, were slaughtered, and so closely were they hemmed in, tradition says, that after the battle. 40 dead bodies were found lying scalped and plundered on 2 rods square. 924 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. General Winchester, impressed with the foolish idea tliat an attack would not be made, had retired the night before without having made any arrangements for safety or dispatch in case of an attaclt. Therefore, when awakened by the firing, lie and his aids made great confusion, all crying for their horses, which were in Colonel Navarre's stable, the servants scarcely awake enough to equip them with haste. The luckless commander became very impatient to join his forces, nearly a mile distant, and, to gratify his desire. Colonel Navarre offered liim his best and fleetest horse, whicli had been kept saddled all night, as Navarre, in common witli all the French inhabitants, expected an attack before morning. On tliis horse he started for the camp, but, on the way, finding that a large number of the troops were then fleeing on the Hull road, he followed after them to rally them, and, if possible, regain the day ; but on his way he was taken prisoner by an Indian fsaid to have been Jack Brandy), who knew by his clothes that he was an officer, and therefore spared his life. Proctor persuaded the Indian to deliver him over into his hands. Colonel Allen was also taken prisoner about the same time ; he had behaved with extraordinary courage during the whole action, although wounded in the thigh. He was finally killed by an Indian while held a prisoner. With Winchester as his prisoner. Proctor felt that he could dictate terms to that portion of the American troops under the command of Major Madison in the upper camp, who had thus far made a successful resistance. Proctor sent with a flag one of General Winchester's aids, with the peremptory orders of the latter, directing Major Madison to surrender. Colonel Proctor had demanded an imme- diate surrender, or he would burn the settlement, and allow the Indians to massacre the prisoners and the inhabitants of the place. Major Madison replied, that it was customary for the Indians to massacre the wounded and prisoners after a surrender, and he would not agree to any capitulation General Winchester might make, unless the safety and protection of his men were guaranteed. After trying in vain to get an unconditional surrender. Major Madison and his men being disposed to sell their lives as dearly as possible, rather than run the risk of being massacred in cold blood. Proctor agreed to the terms demanded, which were, that private property should be respected, that sleds should be sent next morning to take the sick and wo^inded to Maiden, and that their side arms should be restored to the officers on their arrival there. These terms completed, the surrender was made, and the prisoners, and British, and Indians started for Maiden ; not, however, until the Indians had violated the first article of the agreement, by plundering the settlement. But finally all departed, except the sick and wounded American soldiers, who were left in the two houses of the upper camp, to await the coming of the sleds on the morrow. Only two or three persons were left in charge of them, a neglect which was nearly or quite criminal on the part of Proctor. The last and most disgraceful scene in this bloody tragedy was yet to be enacted. The sleds that were to take the ill-fated sufferers to Maiden never came. In their stead came, the next morning, 800 Indians, painted black and red, determined on massacreing the wounded Americans, in revenge for their loss the day before. The slaughter soon commenced in earnest. Breaking into the houses where the Americans were, they first plundered and then tomahawked them. The houses were set on fire, and those within were consumed ; if any attempted to crawl out of the doors or windows, they were wounded with the hatchet and pushed back into the flames : those that happened to be outside were stricken down, and their dying MICHIGAN. 925 bodies thrown into the burning dwellings. Major Wolfolk, the secretary of General Wincliester, was killed in the massacre. Thus ended the " Massacre of the River Raisin." Thus perished in cold blood some of Kentucky's noblest heroes : their death filled with sorrow many homes south of the Ohio. No monu- ment marks the place of their death: but little is known of the private history of those brave spirits who traversed a wilderness of several hundred miles, and gave up their lives for their country: who died alone, unprotected, wounded, in a settlement far from the abode of civilization. But few of the killed were ever buried. Their bones lay bleaching in the sun for years. On the 4th of July, 1818, a company of men under the charge of Colonel Anderson, an old settler of Frenclitown, went to the spot of the battle and collected a large quantity of the bones, and burled them, with appropriate ceremonies, in the old graveyard in Monroe. For years after, however, it was not uncommon to find a skull, fractured by the fatal tomahawk, hidden away in some clump of bushes, where the dogs and wild beasts had dragged the body to devour its flesh. WISCONSIN. Area, 53,924 Square Miles. Populiitiou ill IStJO, ......... 775,881 Population in 1870, 1,054,670 The State of Wisconsin is situated between 42° 30' and 46° 55' N. latitude, and between 87° and 92° 50' W. longitude. It is bounded on tlie north by Micliigan, Lake Superior and Minnesota; on tlie east by Lake Micliigan; on the south by Illinois; and on the west by Iowa and Minnesota. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 285 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 255 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is generally an elevated rolling prairie. The highest point is in the northwest, while a slight ridge divides the waters flowing into Lake Superior from those flowing into the Mis- sissippi. Another ridge crosses the south central part of the State. A third ridge crosses the southeast corner, and separates the rivers flow- ing into Green Bay from those emptying into Lake Michigan. The rivers which flow into Lake Superior descend abruptly to it, and are broken by numerous falls and rapids, which afford fine mill sites. Lake Superior washes the northern shore of the State, and Lake Michigan the western. Green Bay enters the State from Lake Michigan, in the extreme northeast. It is about 100 miles long, and from 15 to 35 miles wide. It lies between this State and the northern peninsula of Michigan. It has an average depth of 500 feet, and abounds in picturesque scenery. It possesses an active trade, and is navigated by steamers to Green Bay City, its head. The Fox River unites the Bay with Lake Win- 926 WISCONSIN. 927 nd)ago, about 25 miles south of Green Bay City. This lake is about 28 miles long, and about 10 miles wide. It is navigable for steamers, as is also the Fox River. The scenery is very beautiful. Fond du Lac, at the southern end of the Lake, is the principal town. From Oshkosh, on the western side of the Lake, a ship canal has been con- structed to Portage City, which affords uninterrupted communication between the Mississippi River and Lake Michigan. The Mississippi River washes the southwestern shore of the State as far as Prescot, where it bends to the northwest, and passes into Minnesota. It re- ceives the waters of the St. Croix, the Chippewa, the Black, the Bad Axe, and the Wisconsin rivers. The St. Groix River rises south of the western end of Lake Superior, and flows southwest to the Minne- sota line, when it turns to the south, separates Wisconsin from Min- nesota, and empties into the Mississippi about 40 miles southeast of I'-tt. Paul. It is about 200 miles long. Near its mouth it expands into a lake 36 miles long, and 4 miles wide, known as St. Croix I^ake. It is about 100 yards wide at its mouth. It is repeatedly broken by falls. The Chippewa is about 200 miles long, and the Black about 150. The Wisconsin River rises in the extreme jivorthern part of tlie State, and flows south to Portage City, where it is joined by the waters of a number of small lakes, extending north- east into Lake Winnebago. This chain forms the Grand Portage, by means of which water communication is maintained between the Mis- sissippi and the lakes. From Portage City it flows southwest into the Mississippi, near Prairie du Chien. It is about 500 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for about 200 miles. The Menomonee forms a part of the northeast boundary, and flows into Green Bay. It falls 1049 feet during its course, and is an excellent mill stream. A number of small lakes are scattered through the State. MINERALS. " The mineral resources of the State are varied and valuable. The lead region of Illinois and Iowa extends over an area of 2140 square miles in Wisconsin, which compares with the other portions in the abundance and richness of the ores. In 1863, there were 848,625 pounds of lead received at Milwaukee. The completion of the Southern Wisconsin Railroad will raise the aggregate to 2,500,000 pounds. It is mingled with copper and zinc ores. The iron region of Lake Superior presents within the limits of this State abundant deposits of great richness. Magnetic iron, plumbago, and the non- 57 928 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. COPPER 3IIXE, metallic earths abound. Copper deposits have also been developed, bat as yet have only been worked to a limited extent. Beautiful n?iarbles, susceptible of elaborate working, exist. The mineral pro- ductions are rapidly opening a very inviting field for capital and in- dustry, promising an immense addition to the resources of this energetic young State." * CLIMATE. The winters are long and severe, but the temperature is somewhat mitigated by the lake breezes. The summers are warm, but pleasant. The State is healthy as a general rule, and is less liable than other new places to the diseases incident to new settlements, owing to the openness of the country. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil, as a general rule,, is fertile, and is productive, even in tho mineral regions of the north. The best lands are on the prairies, where the soil consists of a dark brown vegetable mould, from one to Report of the General Land Office. WISCONSIN. 929 two feet in depth, very mellow^ and entirely destitute of stones or gravel . " Wisconsin possesses abundant timber resources, and an immense lumbering business is carried on in many of tiie northern and western counties, the pineries of Marathon, Chippewa, Clark, Wood, St. Croix, and other counties, furnishing many millions of feet of logs and lumber annually. Our Clark correspondent claims that 100,000,000 feet of pine timber is cut each year in that county alone ; while in Monroe 30,000,000 feet is annually cut into lumber by about twenty mills. Hard wood timber also abounds in all parts of the State, and there are few counties without sufficient wood for local uses. The lumbering business is a source of great profit to those engaged in it, and in Brown county parties boast of cutting enough white pine logs from eighty acres to net $1200 to |1500." * Wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, and hay, are the staple crops of this State, the first named being the most important. In 1870, there were in Wisconsin 5,795,538 acres of improved land. In the same year the returns were as follows ; Bushels of wheat, 25,323,647 " rye, 1,356,736 " Indian corn, 14,875,968 " oats, 19,878,794 barley, 1,627,569 . " potatoes, 6,642,845 Pounds of wool, 4,086,638 butter, 22,257,117 cheese, 1,494,145 hops, 4,738,222 Tons of hay, • 1,280,432 Number of horses 149,989 " asses and mules, 1,998 cattle, . 480,319 sheep, ■. . . . 790,458 swine, 865,998 " milch cows, 250,312 Yalue of domestic animr.ls, about, $28,000,000 Estimated value of all farm productions, . . . $77,507,261 Total assessed value of real and personal estate, $326,765,238 COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES. Possessing water communication with the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, Wisconsin has a growing commerce. Her exports of grain * Agricultural Report, April, 1868. 930 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and lumber are very large. In 1863, the foreign exports were valued at $3,323,637, and the imports at $24,479. A large part of the pro- ducts of the State passes through Chicago. Manufactures are yet in their infancy. In 1870, there were in the State 7136 establishments, employing 39,055 operatives, and pro- ducing goods to the amount of $85,624,966, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State contaitied, in 1872, 1725 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of nearly |45,000,000. The principal towns of the State are connected with each other, and with all parts of the Union. The main lines lead either to Chicago, Illinois, or to St. Louis, Missouri. Besides these roads, there is the Portage Canal, already mentioned, connecting the Wisconsin with Lake Winnebago, which was con- structed by the State. EDUCATION. There are seven colleges in the State, the principal of which is the State Universityy at Madison. It embraces a College of Letters, a College of Arts, a Preparatory Department, and a Female Department. It is well endowed. There is a Normal School at Platteville, and one at Whitewater, and measures are on foot to establish others at Stoughton, Oshkosh, "and Sheboygan. Teachers* Institutes are held at stated times' in various parts of the State. The educational system is under the general supervision of a Super- intendent of Public Instruction, elected by the people of the State for two years. Each county and each city has a separate Superintendent, who manages its affairs, a3 in the other Western States. There is a permanent school fund, amounting to $2,205,487. In 1870, the amount expended for the schools was $2,094,160. The number of public schools was 5000, attendal by 264,525 pupils. In the same year there were about 400 private schools in the State, attended by about 30, 000 pupils. In 1870, there were 2857 libraries in Wisconsin, containing 880,508 volumes. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was 173, nearly all political. They had an ag- gregate annual circulation of nearly 11,000,000 copies. WISCONSIN. 931 PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Waupun, and is one of the best in the country. In October, 1870, it contained 217 convicts. In May, 1870, the M'orkshops were destroyed ; loss, $70,000. The HospUal for the Insaney at Madison, is an excellent institution, and is iu a prosperous condition. In October, 1870, it contained 532 inmates. The Institute for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb is at Delavan, and the Institvlion for the Education of the BlirA, at Janesville. The former contains about 122, and the latter 64 pujuls. The}' are excel- lent institutions, and besides furnishing their pupils with the rudiments of a plain education, teach them some simple, but useful employment. The State Reform School, at Waukesha, is in excellent condition, and is conductefiIo;l $2,500,000, making the total pnxluct of Xevada for tlie calendar year, 1867, $20,000,000. The average percentage of gold and silver is about 66 per cent, silver, and 34 per cent. gold. In the outside districts the proportion of gold is considerably less. Thcanioiiiit <»f ore niised from the mines on th^ Comstock lode may be put down at the [)resent time at about 1500 tons daily, and the total amount raised since the com- mencement of operations at about 2,000,000 tons. From information furnished by the superintendents of the following mines, the yield per ton appears to be: Savage Mine — 30,250 tons produced in the last six months of 1866, yielded an average of $12.93 per ton. Hale and Noreross Mine — 16,836 tons produced in the same time, yielded an average of $50.33 per ton. Gould and Curry Mine — 62,425 tons pro- r of some of them scalds the skin of a human being, and produces painful sores. The coast is indented with several fine bays. Beginning on the north, the most important are Trinidad, Humboldt, Bodega, Tomales, Sir Francis Di-ake, San Francisco, Monterey, El.stero, San Luis, San Pedro, and San Diego Bays. All these, except the Bay of San Fran- cisco, open directly upon the ocean. San Francisco J5o3/ is the best harbor on the Pacific Ocean, as well as the largest. It extends inland for about 60 miles, north and south, and is 14 miles wide at its broadest part. About 30 miles from its northern extremity it communicates with the Pacific through a strait two miles long, and about six miles wide, which breaks through the range of highlands which lines the coast at this point. This entrance is very picturesque, and is known as the Golden Gate. The northern j)art of the bay is called San Pablo Bay, and communicates through the Straits of Carquinez, with Suisin Bay, 16 miles long and 5 miles wide, which is formed by the united waters of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The city of San Francisco is situated on the west shore of the southern part of San Francisco Bay, just within the Golden Gate. Several towns lie along the shore, and four or five small islands lie in the bay. The principal rivers of the State are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin. The Sacramento River rises in the northern part of the State, near the foot of Mt. Shasta, and flows in a generally southern direction into Suisin Bay, through which it communicates with the Bay of San Francisco. It is the most important river in the State, is 400 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for 300 miles. It flows through a valley about 50 miles wide, which is almost a perfect level, and is remarkably open. Its principal tributaries (commencing on the north) are the Pitt, Feather, Yuba, and American rivers, which rise along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada. Sacramento City is the principal place on the main river. The San Joaquin River rises in the Sierra Nevada, near the centre of the State. It flows south for a short distance, and then, meeting the outlet of Tulare Lake, changes its course, and flows north-northwest into Suisin Bay, at the mouth of the Sacramento. It is about 350 miles long, and is navigable for about 200 or 250 miles. Its chief tributaries rise in the Sierra Nevada. They are the Calaveras, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced rivers. 1026 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The Moquelumne joins the Sacramento and San Joaquin at their junc- tion. It rises in the Sierra Nevada, almost due east from its mouth. The streams which flow into the Pacific (beginning on the north) are the Eel and Russian rivers, above San Francisco Bay, and the Salinas, Guiainas, Santa Inez, Santa Clara, Santa Anna, San Luis, San Diego, and Tia Juana rivers — all small streams. The Colorado forms the southeast boundary of the State, and the Klamath River, of Oregon, flows through the northwest. Several lakes lie in the State. The principal are Tulare, Clear, Owen Mountain, and Mono Lakes. Tulare Lake is 35 miles long, and empties its waters into the San Joaquin River. The rest are small lakes. MINERALS. " The great and distinguishing feature of California is, however, its unexampled mineral wealth. The first discoveries of gold were made in 1848, when $10,000,000 were taken from the mines, increasing to $40,000,000 in 1849, and upwards of $65,000,000 in 1853. No re- turns are made of the quantity taken from the mines, and the mint records are the only official data existing upon the product for any portion of the Pacific coast. Various estimates have been made by riiining engineers, bankers, and other intelligent and practical business men in San Francisco, and elsewhere in California, as to the total product of that State since 1848. These estimates vary from eight handred millions to one billion. From the commencement of 1849 to the close of 1866, upward of seven hundred and eighty-five millions have been manifested at San Francisco for exportation, all of which, with the exception of sixty-five millions, appears to have been the product of California. How large a portion of gold found its way out of the State without being manifested for exportation, is, of course, a niiatter of conjecture, different autliorities estimating it from one hun- dred to three hundred millions. But either estimate is sufficient to furnish an idea of the immensity of the mineral wealth of the State. Silver mines in the State are comparatively inconsiderable, yet quan- tities of that metal are annually obtained by separating it from gold, with which it is, in small portions, generally united when taken from the mines. The quicksilver mines of California are among the most valuable, and have, since their discovery, materially contributed to the prosperity of the mining interests, not only of California and the adjoining States, but also of Mexico and South America. All the useful metals, such as iron, lead, copper, tin, and zinc, exist in this CALIFORNIA. t027 region. Coal has been discovered in diiJerent localities, and marble, gypsum, and valuable building stone, are abundant. Some of the rarer and more valuable minerals, as the agate, topaz, cornelian, amethyst, and, in some instances, the diamond, have been found."* It is stated that between the years 1849 and 1864, the total amount of treasure exported from California through the Custom House, was valued at $695,684,879, and thht the amount taken from the State, without being manifested at the Custom House, was about |150,000,- 000, making the total yield of the State during that period nearly $850,000,000. CLIMATE. " The climate of California is too much varied to be considered us a whole. It might be regarded almost as a heterogeneous mixture of the tropical and the arctic. From the capital city (Sacramento), under the noonday sun of the summer solstice, with a temperature of from 90° to 100°, exceeding the extreme summer heat of the Atlantic States, you will see the snows glistening on the Sierras at no great distance. And by taking the cars on the trans-continental railroad, a few hours travel will transport you to an arctic landscape. On the other hand, embarking on the steamer for San Francisco, at two o'clock in the afternoon, and travelling in the opposite direction, before night you are shivering in the cold sea-breeze which sweeps up the bay. It is not necessary to journey so far in order to experience the same transition. You have only to cross any of the mountain walls which separate the ocean and bay from the interior, and which dam out the cold ocean atmosphere. There are essentially two climates in California, the land climate and the sea climate. The latter derives its low temperature from the ocean, the water of which, along the coast, stands at from 52° to 54° all the year round. The evenness of the ocean temperature is owing to a steady current from the north, which is accompanied also by winds in the same direction during the entire summer season, or rather from April to October, inclusive. Almost daily, during this period, a deluge of cold, damp air, of the same temperature as the ocean over which it has passed, is poured upon the land. It is mostly laden with mist, in dense clouds, which it deposits at the foot-hills, and on the slopes of the highlands, or car- ries a short distance into the interior, wherever there is a break in the * Eeport of the General Land-Office. 1028 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RE80UPCES. laud wall. The land climate is as nearly as possible the opposite in every respect. In snnimer and autumn it is hot and dry. It under- iroes various modifications from the confio^uration of the surface of the earth. Even the mountains, which retain the snow to a late period, present a high temperature in the middle of the day ; and the presence of snow on their summits, in June, is owing to the great mass which has accumulated on them, rather tha'n to cold weather. A large dis- trict of territory lies between the jurisdiction of the two climates, and subject to their joint influence. It is composed chiefly of valleys sur- rounding the bay of San Francisco, and penetrating into the interior in every direction. There is no climate in the world more delightful than these valleys enjoy, and no territory more productive. Whilst the ocean prevents the contiguous land from being scorched in summer, it also prevents it from being frozen in winter. Hence, ice and snow are not common in the ocean climate. The difference in temperature is comparatively slight between summer and winter The absence of warm weather in the summer months is characteristic of the coast climate, and strikes a stranger forcibly. The most ordi- nary programme of this climate for the year is as follows, beginning with the rainy season : The first decided rains are in November or December, when the country, after having been parched with drought, puts on the garb of spring. In January, the rains abate and vege- tation advances slowly, with occasional slight frosts. February is spring-like, with but little rain. March and April are pleasant and showery, with an occasional hot day. In May the sea-breeze begins, but does not give much annoyance. In June, just as warm weather is about to set in, the sea-breeze comes daily, and keeps down the temperature. It continues through July and August, occasionally holding up for a day or two, and permitting the sun to heat the air to the sweating point. In September, the sea-wind moderates, and there is a slight taste of summer, which is prolonged into the next month. The pleasant weather often lingers in the lap of winter, and is inte'*- rupted only by the rains of November or December." * SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the valleys is fertile, and produces liberal cro])s. In the districts where water is scarce it does not yield so well. The mountain lands are generally poor and unfit for cultivation. * The Xatnral Wealtli of California. By T. F. Cronise. CALIFORNIA. 1029 " The soil and climate of California, are eminently adapted to the growth of wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, hops, tobacco, hay, and sor- ghum ; in certain localities, to corn, cotton, the southern sugar-cane, to almost every variety of garden vegetables cultivated east of the Rocky Mountains ; to the apple, pear, plum, cherry, apricot, necta- rine, quince, fig, and grape ; and along the southern coast, to the orange, lemon, citron, olive, pomegranate, aloe, filbert, walnut, hard and soft-shell almond, currants, prunes, pine-apples, and the plantain, banana, cocoa-nut, and indigo. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, figs, grapes, and the hardier fruits, as the apple, peach, and pear, succeed M'ell in every portion of the State. There are very few parts of the world where fruit-trees grow so rapidly, bear so early, so regularly, so abundantly, and produce fruit of such size, and where so great a variety can be produced, and of such superior quality, as on the southern coast of California. /The pear is more especially the fruit- tree of California. It thrives in all parts of the State; neither tree nor fruit is subject to any form of disease, the fruit being everywhere of delicious flavor and large size. Some trees produce annually 40 bushels of pears. The varied climate on the Pacific, its freedom from frosts, severe cold, and furious storms, give it special advantages as a fruit-growing region ; and although the trees grow more rapidly and bear much earlier than on the Atlantic, they are not subject to early decay. The fruit-trees of the missions, many of them 30 and 40 years old, are still in excellent condition, and full bearing, not having failed at any season during the past 20 years to produce good crops. Experience has established the fact, that the climate and soil of Cali- fornia are equal to any in the world in their adaptation to grape cul- ture and the manufacture of wine. The yield of the grape has been larger, its freedom from disease greater, than in the most cele- brated European vineyards. Three hundred varieties have been already successfully cultivated, including the choice foreign wine-pro- ducing grapes ; and so diversified are the soil and climate that all wines can be produced here, and even superior in quality to the im- ported. The vine in California is not subject to the oidium or grape disease, frequently so destructive in other countries, nor is it liable to mildew. The vineyards of the State seldom, or never, yield less than 1000 pounds of grapes per acre, and even 20,000 pounds have been produced. The crops are regular every year, and as there are neither severe frosts, nor hail, rain, nor thunder-storms, from the budding of the vines until the grape is gathered, they are not liable to 63 1030 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. nYDiiAT:r>i(; mixing. the accidents and drawbacks attending tliem in other places. In Europe, tlie vine is trained with a stock four feet high, and support-ad by a pole put up every year to which the vine is fastened. In Cali- fornia it stands alone, the labor thus far being nothing compared with that bestowed upon the best European vineyards. The number of vines already set, all of which will be in full bearing in three years, is estimated at nearly thirty millions. In 1863, the total number planted in vineyards, in the State, was nearly three and a half millions, showing an increase of 25,000,000 in four years. Hock, champagne, port and claret, constitute the varieties of wine already exported. No doubt is entertained that when the California wine-makers have had the necessary experience, and their wines have attained sufficient age, they will take rank with the very best, and that its manufacture on the Pacific coast is destined to become of vast importance, while series of vineyards, stretching from San Diego to Mount Shasta, will within another quarter of a century add not only beauty, but substantial wealth to the State. Among the fruits cultivated on the southern coast during the present year, have been the orange, lemon, fig, lime, the English walnut, almond, olive, apricot, and nectarine, numbering CALIFORNIA. 1031 in the aggregate between 400,000 and 500,000 trees, in a greater or less state of maturity. The cultivation of these and other fruits is rapidly extending in California with marked success." * In 1870, there were about 2,500,000 acres of improved or culti- vated land in the State. In the same year, the returns were as follows : Bushels of wheat, 21,500,000 barley, • . 8,000,'ooO " oats, 1,200,000 rye, 16,000 " Indian corn, 1,000,000 " buckwheat, 10,000 " peas and beans, 214,000 " peanuts, 78^000 " Irish potatoes, 1,400,000 Tons of hay, 350,000 Pounds of hops, 570,000 butter, 5,000,000 " cheese, 3,000,000 Gallons of wine, 4,000,000 " brandy, 300,000 Value of agricultural products, $89,000,000 Number of liorses, 209,000 " asses and mules, 24,000 " cattle, 500,000 " sheep, 2,200,000 " swine, • . 412,000 Pounds of wool (estimated), 5,000,000 Stock-raising forms an important part of the industry of California, the climate being exceedingly favorable to it. Large numbers of horses, mules, oxen, beef-cattle, cows and sheep, are raised in the interior. COMMERCE. The City of San Francisco is the only port of any consequence in the State, but its situation is such as to render it one of the most im- portant places in the world. It is the great centre of the growing commerce of the Pacific Ocean, and occupies the same commercial position on the western coast of the Republic that New York does on the Eastern. The following statement will show the proportions which its commerce has assumed : "Trade and Commerce op San Francisco, for the first six * The Natural Wealth of California. By T. F. Cronise. 1032 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. months of 1868 : — Imports from foreign countries, $8,000,000 gold ; from the Atlantic States, $22,457,000, currency; an increase of $8,000,000 over the same period last year. The exports were — mer- chandise, $11,000,000; coin, $20,000,000; total, §31,000,000 gold. The duties on imports amounted to $4,028,522, and the receipts of internal revenue, $3,000,000. During these six months, 1550 vessels arrived, bringing 500,000 tons of freight. The arrivals of passengers by sea were 32,186 ; departures, 11,367; net gain, 20,819. Of the $5,448,000 of merchandise shipped the first quarter of 1868, $4,316,- 000 was fur some 50 articles of California produce, the principal items of which were as follows: wheat, $2,452,000; flour, $836,000; barley, $37,000 ; beans, $13,000; potatoes, $9000; borax, $10,000 ; quicksilver, $387,000; ores, $78,000; hides and skins, $116,000; Avool, $186,000; leather, $41,000; wine, $42,000; brandy, $9000 ; and bread, $12,000. The gold deposits at the San Francisco Branch Mint during the first three months of 1868, amounted to 60,000 ounces, and the coinage to $1,312,000. The total exports of treasure for the first quarter of the past three years have been as follows : 1866, $9,532,544; 1867, $9,825,304; 1868, $10,540,415. The ex- ports of merchandise for 1867 were $22,465,903 ; and of treasure, $41,676,722.16. About $6,000,000 was shipped east by the United States sub-treasurer, making the total, $47,676,292, and the aggregate of treasure and merchandise, $70,142,195. The total amount of treasure exported from 1849 to 1868, was $826,873,738.11." * In 1869, £he imports of the State were valued at $51,604,000, $36,104,000 being from the Atlantic ports of the Union, and $15,- 500,000 from foreign countries. The exports for the same period, exclusive of treasure, were upwards of $23,000,000. The arrivals of vessels at San Francisco dui'ing 1869 were as follows: From Atlantic ports of the United States, 146 ; from foreign ports, 3524 ; from Pacific ports of the United States, 2904. MANUFACTURES. California is making rapid progress in manufactures. In 1870 there were 3984 establishments in the State, employing a capital of $39,728,202, and producing goods to the amount of $66,594,556 annually. The principal products were valued as follows * American Year Book, vol. i. p. 293. CALIFORNIA. 1033 I'^K^l^er, $6,279,914 ^^our, 9,036,386 Boots and shoes, 2 214 807 Machinery, '..... 3!814,'817 Liquors, 3,332,934 Woollen goods, 1,102,754 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1868, there were 321 miles of completed railroads in tiie State constructed at a cost of $24,200,000. The Pacific Railway, now in operation, extends from Sacramento City eastward into Nevada, with connecting lines from Sacramento to San Francisco and other points. The railroad interest of the State is rapidly advancing, and will soon be equal to its necessities. In 1872, there were 1013 miles of com- pleted railroads in the State. In 1865, there were in California 491 miles of turnpike, 62 toll bridges, and 78 ferries. The principal rivers are navigated by steamers, and stage routes extend through the most important parts of the State, not otherwise connected. EDUCATION. California has been very energetic in the cause of education. The school system of the State is under the supervision of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, who is elected by the people for four years. He is the executive officer of the State Board of Educatioi), which con- sists of the Governor, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the principal of the State Normal School, the Superintendents of schools in San Francisco, and in Sacramento, Santa Clara, and San Joaquin counties, and two professional teachers holding State diplomas. The counties are under the supervision of County Superintendents, elected for two years. Each school district is managed by a Board of Di- rectors, elected by the people. Certificates of competency for terms varying from the lifetime of the holder to one year, are granted by the State, City, and County Boards of Examiners. There is a State Normal School in successful operation. There are six colleges in California. The State University is located at Oak- land. It was established in 1855, and is liberally endowed. The permanent school fund amounts to about $800,000, and yields an income of over $50,000 per annum. In 1867, the total amount expended by the State for educational purposes was $1,168,583. In 1870, there were 1342 public schools in the State, conducted by 1883 teachers, and attended by 75,527 pupils. 1034 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The public schools of San Francisco are distinct from those of the State, but are included in the above statement. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at San Quentin. It is well conducted, but is in need of enlarged accommodations. In 1867, there were 692 convicts confined here. The Insane Asylum of California is at Stockton. It was opened in 1851. In October, 1867, it contained 769 patients. The California Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind is at San Francisco. It was opened in 1866, and in October, 1867, contained 48 pupils. The State Reform School is at Marysville, and is in successful ope- ration, RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 532 churches in California. The value of church property was $7,404,235. The State contains large numbers of Chinese settlers, who are Pagans. LIBRARIES AND NEWSPAPERS. The libraries of California (other than private collections) contain about 200,000 volumes, more or less. In 1870, ti^ere were published in the State, 197 newspapers, and 4 magazines, with an aggregate annual circulation of 47,472,756 copies. Of tiiese, 141 were political (28 being dailies), 14 religious, 18 literary and miscellaneous. FINANCES. In November, 1870, the public debt of the State was about $7,- 000,000. The receij)ts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1870, were $3,508,164, and the expenditures for the same period, $3,814,037. All financial transactions in this State are in coin, or its equivalent. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States, and every white male citizen of Mexico, who has become a citizen of the United States according to the terms of the treaty of Queretaro (May 20th, 1848), CALIFORNIA. 103o who is 21 years old, and has resided in the State six months and in the county thirty days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is vested in a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary, Treasurer, Comptroller, and Attorney-General, and a Legis- lature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members), and a House of Repre- sentatives (of 80 members), all chosen by the people. The State offi- cers and Senators are elected for four years, and Representatives for two years. One-half of the Senators retire biennially. Tiie general election is held in September, aud the Legislature meets biennially in December. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court, Dis- trict Courts, County Courts, and in Justices of the Peace. All judges are elected by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice aud four Associate Justices, elected for 10 years. Judges of the District Courts serve 6 years, and those of the County Courts 4 years. The seat of Government is established at Sacramento. The State is divided into 50 counties. HISTORY. The term California is said by some writers to be derived from two Spanish words, Caliente fornalla, or homo, and to mean simply " a hot furnace." Other writers question this derivation. The Spaniards divided the country into two portions — Old California, which was then, as now, merely the Peninsula; and LTpper, or New California, which included the present States of California and Nevada, and the greater part of New Mexico. "California was discovered in 1548, by Cabrillo, a Spanish navi- gator. In 1758, Sir Francis Drake visited its northern coast, and named the country New Albion. The original settlements in Cali- fornia were mission establishments, founded by Catholic priests for the conversion of the natives. In 1769, the mission of San Diego was founded by Padre Junipero Serra. ''.The mission establishments were made of adobe, or sun-burnt bricks, and contained commodious habitations for the priests, store- houses, offices, mechanic shops, granaries, horse and eattle pens, and apartments for the instruction of Indian youth. Around and attached to each, were, varying in diffiirent missions, from a few hundred to several thousand Indians, who generally resided in corucal-shaped huts in the vicinity, their place of dwelling being generally called the 1036 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. rancheria. Attached to each mission were a few soldiers, for protect tion against hostilities from the Indians. " The missions extended their possessions from one extreme of the territory to that of the other, and bounded the limits of one mission by that of the next, and so on. Though they did not require so much land for agriculture, and the maintenance of their stock, they appro- priated the whole; always strongly opposing any individual who might wish to settle on any land between them. All the missions were under the charge of the priests of the order of San Francisco. Each mission was under one of the fathers, who had despotic authority. The general products of the missions were large cattle, sheep, horses, Indian corn, beans and peas. Those in the southern part of California, produced also the grape and olive in abundance. The most lucrative product was the large cattle, their hides and tallow affording an active commerce with foreign vessels, and being, indeed, the main support of the inhabitants of the territory. From 1800 to 1830 the missions were in the height of their prosperity. Then, each mission was a little principality, with its hundred thousand acres and its twenty thousand head of cattle. All the Indian population, except the 'Gentiles' of the mountains, were the subjects of the padres, cultivat- ing for them their broad lands, and reverencing them with devout faith. The wealth and power in possession of the missions, excited the jealousy of the Mexican authorities. In 1833, the Government commenced a series of decrees, which eventually ruined them. In 1845, the obliteration of the missions was completed by their sale at auction, and otherwise. '^ Aside from the missions, in California, the inhabitants were nearly all gathered in the presidios, or forts, and in the villages, called 'Los PueblosJ The presidios, or fortresses, were occupied by a few troops under the command of a military prefect or governor. The Padre President, or Bishop, was the supreme civil, military and religious ruler of the province. There were four presidios in Calafornia, each of which had under its protection several missions. They were respec- tively, San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco. Within four or five leagues of the presidios, were certain farms, called ranchios, which were assigned for the use of the garrisons, and as de- positories of the cattle and grain M-hich Avere furnished as taxes from the missions. Los Pueblos, or towns, grew up near the missions. Their first inhabitants consisted of retired soldiers and attaches of the army, many of whom married Indian women. Of the villages of this CALIFORNIA. 1037 description, there were but three, viz : Los Angelos, San Jos6, and Braneiforte. In later times, the American emigrants established one on the Bay of San Francisco, called Yerba Buena, i. e., good herb which became the nucleus of the flourishing city of San Francisco, Another was established by Captain Sutter, on the Sacramento, called New Helvetia. The larger pueblos were under the government of an alcalde, or judge, in connection with other municipal officers. "The policy of the Catholic priests, who held absolute sway in California until 1833, was to discourage emigration. Hence, up to about the year 1840, the villages named comprised all in California, independent of those at the missions ; and at that time, the free whites and half-breed inhabitants in California numbered less than 6000 souls. The emigration from the United States first commenced in 1838 ; this had so increased from year to year, that, in 1846, Colonel Fre- mont had but little difficulty in calling to his aid some five hundred fighting men. Some few resided in the towns, but a majority were upon the Sacramento, where they had immense droves of cattle and horses, and fine farms, in the working of which they were aided by the Indians. They were eminently an enterprising and courageous body of people, as none other at that time would brave the perils of an overland journey across the mountains. In the ensuing hostilities they rendered important services. At that period, the trade carried on at the diffiirent towns was quite extensive, and all kinds of dry goods, groceries and hardware, owing to the heavy duties, ranged about 500 per cent, above the prices in the United States. Mechanics and ordinary hands received from two to five dollars per day. The commerce was quite extensive, 15 or 20 vessels not unfrcquently being seen in the various ports at the same time. Most of the merchant vessels were from the United States, which arrived in the spring, and engaged in the coasting trade until about the beginning of winter, when they de- parted with cargoes of hides, tallow, or furs, which had been collected during the previous year. Whale ships also touched at the port for supplies and to trade, aqd vessels from various parts of Europe, the Sandwich Islands, the Russian settlements, and China." The Mexican revolution of 1822 overthrew the Spanish power in California, and made it a province of Mexico. The Government of that country directed its efforts to the task of secularizing the province, and finally stripped the fathers of their possessions and power. Severe measures were also practised towards the laity, and several effiarts were made by the Californians to throw off the Mexican yoke, and establish 1038 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. their independence. They were finally quieted, and emigrants begaa to come out to the territory in great numbers. During the years 1843, 1844, 1845, and 1846, the emigration was especially large, a very great proportion of the new settlers coming from the United States. Early in 1846, a quarrel broke out between the authorities and the American settlers. The Mexican commander undertook to expel the American settlers, who at once flew to arms, under the lead of Colonel John C. Fremont. By a series of bold and rapid movements the Americans made themselves masters of* the greater part of the country, and .proclaimed their independence of Mexico. At this juncture an American squadron, under Commodore Stockton, arrived on the coast with news of the declaration of war between the United States and Mexico. Several conflicts now occurred between the Americans and the Mexicans, the result being generally in favor of the former, and at the close of the war the greater part of the territory was lield by the United States. By the terms of the treaty of peace, Mexico ceded the territory of California to the United States for the sum of $15,- 000,000. The white population was now about 15,000. In February, 1848, gold was discovered on the farm of Colonel Sutter, in Coloma county, and it was soon found that the precious metal was widely distributed all over the State. An enormous emi- gration at once set in from all parts of North and South America, from Europe, and from China. In about a year, the population of the territory was nearly a quarter of a million. A more reckless, daring, dangerous body of men never collected in any part of the world. An organized government became a necessity. General Riley, the military governor of the territory, summoned a convention to meet at Monterey, on the 1st of September, 1849. This convention adopted a Constitution, which was ratified by the j)opular vote, and on the 9th of September, 1850, Califoi'nia was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State. The first years of the new State were marked by excessive violence and disorder. The principal classes of the iniiabitants were the miners and gamblers. Crime of all kinds increased with frightful rapidity. In San Francisco especially, neither life nor property was safe. The authorities were either in league with the criminals, or incompetent to the task of putting a stop to the outrages from which the commun- ity suffered ; and in 1855 the citizens took the law into their own hands, organized a " vigilance committee," and by a rigorous admiuis- CALIFORNIA. 1039 tration of justice brought the city to a condition of peace and order Since then it has never flagged in its career of prosperity. The growth of the State has been unprecedentedly rapid, and is now not far behind the most prosperous Atlantic communities. The Pacific Railroad is doing much to build it up, and by brino-ino- it nearer, in point of time, to the East, will enable it to acquire with still greater facility those refining and ennobling elements of civiliza- tion, without which its material prosperity would be comparatively worthless. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the most important places in the State are, San Francisco, San Josd, Marysvillc, Stockton, Nevada, Grass Valley, Petaluma, Yreka, Placerville, and Oakland. SACRAMENTO, The capital and second city of the State, is situated in the county of the same name, on the left bank of the Sacramento River, a short distance below the mouth of the American River, 75 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco, and 120 miles by the river from that city. Latitude 38° 34' N., longitude 121° 26' W. The city lies in a level plain, and is regularly laid out. It has been raised ten feet above its original level, in order to protect it against the floods of the Wo rivers, and for its further security an artificial wall has been built around the American River, 4 feet above high water in the Sacramento ; the work cost $250,000. Sacramento has sufi^ered severely from freshets, the most disastrous being that of 1861-62, in which large amounts of property were destroyed. The street next to the river is called Front Street, the next Second Street, and so on ; the streets crossing these at right angles are named from the letters of the Al])habet. The numbered streets run north and south. The city is about 3 miles in length, and is divided into four wards. The principal business houses lie within the portion bounded by Fifth, Sixth, H, and L streets. In the business portion, the houses are built principally of brick. The dwellings are mostly of wood, and many are provided with handsome grounds. The principal building is the new Capitol, which promises to be when completed the most magnificent edifice in the West, and one of the finest in the Union. The Court House, now used as a State House, is a handsome building. Tlie State Agricultural Pavilion, 1040 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. erected by the citizens of Sacramento for the annual fairs of the State Agricultural Society, is one of the finest buildings in California. The benevolent and charitable institutions embrace several noble societies for doing good. Among these are the County Hospital, and the Howard Society. The schools of the city are excellent. There are about 11 public schools, and about 8 or 10 private schools, including the Sacramento College and 3 Female Seminaries. There are 3 public libraries in the city, containing nearly 40,000 volumes. The State Library contains over 20,000 volumes. Three daily newspapers are published here. The city contains 12 or 13 churches, and is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 16,283. Sacramento is the largest inland city of California, and is admirably situated for trade. It can be reached by steamers and sailing vessels throughout the entire year. The Sacramento and its tributary the Feather River are navigable for small steamers above the city for a considerable distance. Sacramento, in consequence of its position, has become the point of supply for the great mining region of the State. It is connected with San Francisco by railway, and is the western terminus of the Central Pacific Railway, the eastern terminus of that road being near Salt Lake City, in Utah Territory. Railways to several parts of the State are under construction. Sacramento was founded in the Spring of 1849, the central part of the town being one mile below Sutter's Fort. It was originally called Nueva Helvetia. SAN FRANCISCO, The metropolis of the State, is situated on the west shore of the bay of the same name, in the county of San Francisco, 75 miles in an air line southwest of Sacramento, and 2500 miles in an air line from Richmond, Va., which is in about the same latitude. Latitude 37° 47' 35" N., longitude 122° 26' 15" W. The city is located in a plain which slopes gently towards the bay, and is bounded by a number of hills at the back. The soil is sandy, and to the north are numerous sand-hills. The city is regularly laid off, the streets crossing each other at right angles. Montgomery street is the leading thoroughfare, and presents a handsome and attractive spectacle. California street is devoted to banking, broker- age, and insurance offices. On Stockton and Dupont streets, in the CALIFORNIA. 1043 southern part of the city, are to be found many handsome residences. The first buildings of San Francisco were entirely of wood, but since the destructive fires that have several times laid the greater part of the city in ashes, brick and iron have been extensively used, and the more thickly settled portions are now substantially built. Many of the business houses are splendid fire proof structures. The city was originally built around a semi-circular bay, its limits, Clark's Point, on the north, and Rincon Point, on the south, being but a mile apart. This portion is now built up with heavy business houses, and the shore is lined with wharves supported upon piles driven into the river. Market street, a broad avenue, running southwest from the bay, divides the old and new portions of the city. San Fi-ancisco, like all the Pacific cities, presents an appearance of incompleteness, though it is rapidly improving in this respect, and is already begin- ning to wear a metropolitan air. Mr. Samuel Bowles, thus writes of the city of to-day : " This is a very ridiculous and repulsive town, in some aspects, and a very fascinating and commendable one, in others, -both materially and morally, physically and sesthetically. Its youth is its apology in one regard, its wonder and its merit on the other. The location must have been chosen for its water, and not its land privileges. It is set upon the inside of a range of the purest sand-hills, six or seven miles wide, blown up from the ocean, and still blowing up, between it and the bay. The main business streets are in the hollows, or on the flat land, made by pulling down the sand from the hills. But go out of these in any direction, and you are confronted by steep hills. Some of these are cut through, or being cut through ; others are scaled, to make room for the spread of the town. The happy thought of winding the streets about their sides, which would have made a very picturesque and certainly get-around-able town, came too late. If but the early San Franciscans had thought of Boston, and followed the cow-paths, what a unique, nice town they would have made of this ! Only I fear there never was even an astray cow on these virgin sand-hills, as innocent of verdure as a babe of sorrow or vice. The modern American straight line style was the order, no matter what was in front ; and the result is that going about San Francisco is all collar and breeching work for man and beast. The consequence is, also, there are only two or three streets that you can think of driving out of town on. The only way to get up and down the others with a horse, is to go zig-zag from one side to the other. Some of the principal residence streets 1044 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. are after this fashion, however ; I found our friend, Rev, Horatu) Stebbins, of the Unitarian Church, here, holding on by main strength to a side hill that runs up at an angle of something like thirty de- grees. And so they run up and down, and the city is straggling loosely over these hills for several tniles in all directions. Some of the highest of the knobs are being cut down, and this leaves the early houses, — that is, those built four or five years ago, — away up one hundred feet or more in the air, and reached by long flights of steep steps. " Wherever the hill-sides and tops are fastened Avith houses or pavements, or twice daily seduced witli water, there the foundations are measurably secure, and the deed of the purchaser means some- thing ; but all elsewhere, all the open lots and unpaved paths are still undergoing the changing and creative process. The daily winds swoop up the soil in one place, and deposit it in another in great masses, like drifts of snow. You will often find a suburban street blocked up with fresh sand ; and the owner of vacant lots needs cer- tainly to pay them daily visits in order to swear to title ; and the chance is anyway that, between one noon and another, he and his neighbor will have changed properties to an indefinite depth. Inci- dental to all this, of course, are clouds of sand and dust through all the residence and open parts of the city, making large market for soap and clothes-brushes, and putting neat housekeepers quite in despair for their furniture. Naturally enough, there is a looseness on the subject of cleanliness that would shock your old-fashioned New England housewives. ** But then, as compensation, the winds give health, — keeping the town fresh and clean ; and the hills oifer wide visions of bay and river, and islands and sister hills, — away out and on with varying life of shipping, and manufactures, and agriculture; and, hanging over all, a sky of azure with broad horizons. Ocean ward is Lone Mountain Cemetery, covering one of the hills with its scrawny, low-running, live oak shrub tree, and its white monuments, conspicuous among which are the erections to those martyrs to both western and eastern civilization and progress, — Broderick, the mechanic and senator, James King of William, the editor, and Baker, the soldier. Here is the old mission quarter, there the soldiers' camp, yonder, by the water, the bristling fort, again the conspicuous and generous Orphan Asylum, monument of the tenderness and devotion of the women of the city, and to the left of that still, the two Jewish Cemeteries, each with its CALIFORNIA. IO45 appropriate and tasteful burial chapel. No other American city holds in its very centre such sweeping views of itself and its neighbor- hood. " Then the little yards around the dwellings of the prosperous, even of those of moderate means, are made rich with all the verdure of a green-house, with only the cost of daily watering. The most delicate of evergreens ; roses of every grade and hue ; fuchsias vigorous and high as lilac bushes; nasturtiums sweeping over fences and up house walls; flowering vines of delicate quality, unknown in the East; geraniums and salvias, pansies and daisies, and all the kindred summer flowers of New York and New England, grow and blossom under these skies, throughout the whole year, — the same in December and January as in June and August, — with a richness and a profusion that are rarely attained by any out-door culture in the East. The public aqueducts furnish water, though at considerable expense, and pipes convey and spread it in fine spray all over yard and garden. The result is, every man's door-yard in the city is like an eastern conser- vatory ; and little humble cottages smile out of this city of sand- hills and dust, as green and as yellow, and as red and as purple, as gayest of garden can make them. There is no aristocracy of flowers here ; they greet you everywhere in greatest profusion, and are tender solace to home-sick heart, and cheap and sweet tonic to weary brain. " Kindred contrasts force themselves upon the observant stranger, in the business and social life of the town. Some of the finest quali- ties are mingled with others that are both shabby and 'shoddy.' There is sharp, full development of all material powers and excellen- cies ; wealth of practical quality and force ; a recklessness and rioting with the elements of prosperity ; much dash, a certain chivalric honor combined with carelessness of word, of integrity, of consequence ; a sort of gambling, speculating, horse-jockeying morality, — born of the uncertainties of mining, its sudden heights, its equally surprising depths, and the eager haste to be rich, — that all require something of a re-casting of relationships, new standards, certainly new charities, in order to get the unaccustomed mind into a state of candor and justice. People who know they are smart in the East, and come out here thinking to find it easy wool-gathering, are generally apt to go home shorn. Wall street can teach Montgomery street nothing in the way of 'bulling' and 'bearing,' and the 'corners' made here require both quick and long breath to turn without faltering. 1046 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOURCES. " Men of mediocre quality are no better off here than in older cities and States. Ten or fifteen years of stern chase after fortune, among the mines and mountains, and against the new nature of this original country, has developed men here with a tougher and more various experience in all the temporalities of life, and a wider resource for fighting all sorts of ' tigers,' than you can easily find among the present generation in the Eastern States. Nearly all the men of means here to-day have held long and various struggle with fortune, failing once, twice or thrice, and making wide wreck, but buckling on the armor again and again, and trying the contest over and over. So it is throughout the State and the coast; I have hardly met an old emigrant of '49 and '50, who has not told me of vicissitudes of fortune, of personal trials, and hard work for bread and life, that, half-dreamed of before coming here, he would never have dared to encounter, and which no experience of persons in like position in life in the East can parallel. ''In consequence partly of all this training, and partly of the great interests and the wide regions to be dealt with, the men I find at the head of the great enterprises of this coast have great business ])ower, — a wide practical reach, a boldness, a sagacity, a vim, that I do not believe can be matched anywhere in the world. London and New York and Boston can furnish men of more philosophies and theories, — men who have studied business as a science as well as practised it as a trade, — but here are the men of acuter intuitions, and more daring natures ; who cannot tell you why they do so and so, but who will do it with a force that commands success. Such men have built up and direct the California Steam Navigation Company, that is to the waters of this State what the Oregon Company is to those of that, commanding the entire navigation, and furnishing most unexceptionable facilities for trade and travel ; the California and Pioneer Stage Companies, that equally command the stage travel of the coast ; the woollen mills of this city ; the Wells & Fargo Express Company ; the great maciiine shops of Pacific street; the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; and the great private banking houses, of which there are many and most prosperous. Much British capital is invested in banking here ; not only in original houses, but through branches of leading bankers in London, India, and British Columbia. But chief of the banks is the Bank of California, with two millions of capital, divided into only forty shares of fifty thousand dollars each, and owned by fewer than that number of persons, who represent a total property of thirteen CALIFORNIA. 1047 millions (gold). This institution does about half the banking of the city, and its average cash movement every steamer day, in shipments of bullion and drafts, is five millions of dollars. It keeps the best commercial and financial writer of the coast in its employ, has agents in all the centres of productive wealth in the Pacific States, invest*, directly or indirectly, in most of the leading enterprises of the State, has an eye out for the politics and religion of the country, and, to a very considerable extent, 'runs' California every way." The principal buildings are the City Hall, fronting upon the Plaza or Portsmouth square ; the United States Custom House, in which is located the Post Office ; the United States Marine Hospital ; the United States District Court Building ; the United States Mint ; the Mercantile Library Building; the Masoiiic and Odd Fellows' Halls. Some of these are elegant structures, and would do credit to any eastern city. There are upwards of 50 church edifices in San Francisco. Some of these are very handsome, and are among the principal ornaments, of the city. There are 3 High Schools, 8 Grammar Schools, and 24 Primary Schools in San Francisco. The amount expended annually by the city for the free education of children averages about $210,000. Some of the School buildings are among the finest in the country. The city also contains about 75 excellent and flourishing private schools. There are also several public libraries in the city ; 46 newspapers and periodicals are published here : 9 are daily ; 26 weekly ; 3 tri- weekly; 2 semi- weekly; 7 monthly; and 2 semi-monthly. These include journals published in the French, Spanish, Italian and Ger- man languages. The benevolent and charitable institutions are numerous, liberally supported, and well conducted. They embrace the United States Marine Hospital, the State Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, the Cit'i/ and County Hospital, several Orphan Asylums, and several societies for the relief of suffering and distress. The principal cemeteries are Calvary and Lone Mountain Cemetery. The latter is very beautiful. The Cemetery of the Old Mission, a few miles from the city, is interesting, as is also the Mission itself It was built in 1776, and is constructed of adobe in the old Spanish style. The hotels of San Francisco are excellent, and two of these, the Lick House and Occidental Hotel, are among the finest and best man- aged houses in the Union. The principal houses are the Grand Lick, Occidental, Buss, Cosmopolitan, and Continentcd. 64 1048 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The places of amusement are numerous. There are 3 first-class theatres. The distant points of the city are connected by a street railway. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water from Mountain Lake, which lies about 3^- miles west of the corporate limits. It possesses an efficient police force, and a reliable and well managed fire department, consisting of hand and steam engines. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 149,482, making it the tenth city of the Republic. San Francisco contains a large population of Chinese. These num- ber at present about 15,000, and inhabit a distinct quarter — the dirtiest and most disorderly — of the city. They are principally men, but few women of their own race being among them. A recent writer thus 'sketches tiie " Chinese Quarter:" " We could hardly realize that we were still in the United States, the whole surroundings were so unfamiliar. Chests of tea covered with hieroglyphics, piles of curious shaped and colored garments, formed a fitting background for the noiseless movements of the at- tendants as they went about their work. The atmosphere was heavy with opium smoke, rising in curling clouds from the tiny pipes held by two impassive figures seated on either side of the little table, which held the inevitable lamp and the tiny transparent cups to be found in every Chinese domicile. Mr. Choy Chew, himself, a courteous, agree- able gentleman, seemed a vision, the creature of Dreamland, as he sat perched upon a high stool opposite our party. His smooth face, shaven head and pigtail, the dark blue color and curious fashioning of his broad cloth ' blouse,' and, above all, his restless, gleaming black eyes, were in marked contrast to the familiar appearance of the gen- tlemen of our ptu-ty, with their bearded faces, closely cut hair, and American style of dress. "It was hard to shake off the feeling that this was but a vision of Shadow-land. We looked out of the windows, but gained no help there, for the street was full of quickly moving figures, clad in the same odd attire, with their boat-shaped shoes, walking noiselessly up and down, intent on their own affairs " At a few words — all tang and chang and yang, except those that were ski and chi — an oldish Chinaman handed to us, on a tea-box lid, some curious, dried, brown objects, not unlike black walnuts in appear- ance. Following Mr. Choy Chew's example, and crushing them between our fingers, there developed an inner kernel, resembling a dried prune CALIFORNIA. 1049 in looks and taste. These we were informed were a species of Chinese fruit. Our host then MTote for us, on Chinese paper, his name and address in English and Chinese, using a camel's-hair brush and India ink, and writing (or painting would be a more applicable term) with as great rapidity as though the best Gillott pen and writing fluid were his implements. " The evening previous to this visit, while prowling around Sacra- mento street, and watching the curious Celestials in their every-day life, our attention was attracted by a singular arrangement on a door- step, and we stopped for a nearer view. Nine tiny lights were arranged after this fashion • • • • • • • • • upon the two ends and in the middle of the door-stone. While pon- dering and commenting, the door suddenly opened, disclosing a China- man with a bowl containing ashes and fire in one hand, in the other a huge wisp of burning scented paper. This he waved over the tiny lights, performed some rapid hocus pocus, bumped his head on the door- sill, and vanished, the door closing with the same quiet celerity which marked its opening. The lights burned brighter, and save for that no token remained of this performance. We looked at each other more bewildered than before, and took up our line of progress in a dazed manner, mentally querying whether we had not been uncon- sciously dropped into some strange land, and not quite recovering our equanimity until some distance lay between us and the scene which so puzzled us. " With this occurrence vividly before us, we queried of Mr, Choy Chew as to what it might mean. He told us that their people wor- ship the moon; that once a year, when the moon is 'at its bigness and roundest,' they ' make holiday ;' and that evening had been the fulness of the harvest moon ; so their people had celebrated it, and the performance we had witnessed was a burning of incense in honor of pale Cynthia. We then inquired if strangers would be allowed to visit the Chinese tem])les, and were told they had no temples in America, but only miserable little 'joss-houses,' where we would find not much to interest. If, however, we would take the trouble to go, there was one up a court, just above Stockton street. And so we made our adieux, exchanging shakes of the hand with one after another who came forward smiling effusively, and departed to find the 'joss- house.' On the way we meet How Yang, an acquaintance made the day before, and under his guidance we proceeded to the court, into a 1050 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. little house, up stairs to a back-room, entering through a small ante- room ; and here we found ' Joss.' So far as we could learn, ' Joss ' is a corruption of the Spanish ' Dios,' and stands as a generic term for gods. The worship we saw, and that which is generally performed, seems to be of an appeasing nature. The evil spirits are those who are worshipped — those who will do harm if not conciliated by offerings and incense-burnings and genuflections. The room was a small one : an oldish and exceedingly dirty ' Chinee' (California vernacular) was clearing up generally, making the toilet of the exceedingly ugly and saturnine-looking idolship that sat in the centre of a long, low table covered with cloths stiff with quaint embroideries. A large china bowl, very similar to a mammoth punch bowl, was filled with ashes, in which were 'joss-sticks' burning slowly, and filling the air with their heavy, incense-like perfume. Round the room, in every possible place, hung strips of paper, of that red color so well known to us all on the outside of packs of fire-crackers, and covered with apparently identical characters. These are the jora^/ers, w^ritten out and pinned up in quantities. In one corner stood an uncouth representation of a tiger, the jaws widely distended and stuffed full of comestibles; rats and raw meat seeming to hold the chief place. This is to provide against probable hunger on the part of Mr. Tiger, and possible de- vouring of humanity. But for the all-pervading perfumed smoke from the burning 'joss-sticks,' the air of the room would have been un- bearable. Outside the door, in the little ante-room, was another bowl, also stuck full of burning sticks. " We were told that at certain seasons this room is filled to over- flowing with the articles of food brought and offered to their idols. " All the intelligent Chinamen we met deprecated our intention of going to see the 'joss-house,' saying it was not worth while; that they had no place of worship in this country; that what were here were only temporary substitutes. The men do not seem reverent. How Yang, we noticed, looked round the place with even more carelessness than we did, and seemed to feel utterly indifferent, and certainly was or pretended to be entirely ignorant as to the name and title of the presiding deity, and could not or would not answer any of our numer- ous questions. " We have since seen it stated that the women among the Chinese, as in most communities, are the devout worshippers ; and we have also heard that they are impelled to extra exertion in the matter by the fond belief that in the future condition the most relicrious will be CALIFORNIA. 1051 elevated from feminine inferiority to masculine superiority — a belief, which, as the Chinese have very little respect for women, and treat them with neglect and contumely, gives great comfort — a comfort that possibly some of our strong-minded sisters might like to share, foi-, doubtless, it would afford huge satisfaction to those who struggle and strive after unattainable masculine prerogatives here to know that in a future state these will all be theirs of right and title. " We inquired closely of various residents of San Francisco who employ ' Chinee ' servants as to their qualifications and the satisfac- tion they give. In all cases the answers were favorable. They are docile, quick, honest, and reliable. O Biddy-ridden housekeepers! can it be that a day of deliverance is dawning? Did ever Norah or Biddy prove at once quick to learn and docile, honest and thoroughly reliable? Chinamen, however, are not remarkably cfe^w^i/, though they can be made so, but of themselves do not care for cleanliness. Neither godliness nor its next virtue has had any power over them. A friend told us that for delicious cooking she would put a Chinese cook foremost. One peculiarity is, that owing to the national low estimate of women, it promotes comfort to have many of the necessary orders promulgated directly from the gentleman of the household. A rather amusing incident came to our notice, illustrative of the difference it makes how one looks at a thing. One lady remarked, in a most em- phatic way, that one thing she would not permit, and that was to allow her Chinese cook to wear his queue down his back while about her premises. She had, after much difficidty, succeeded in obliging 'John' to keep his queue bound around his head, and was triumph- ant. Another lady, apropos to the same subject, remarked that there was one thing persons employing Chinese servants ought to be most particular about : that it was a sign of intense disrespect and contempt when a Chinaman wore his pig-tail wrapped round his head, andnever should this be allowed by a mistress! 'Where ignorance is bliss,' probably applied in the first case; but the lady's self-gratulation on her success was extremely comical to us when we had the ' cue ' to the arrangement of the queue. "In laundry- work these people excel; we watched them quite fre- quently, and saw that in this worrisome portion of domestic labor they were most competent. They do most of the washing and iron- ing for Sun Francisco — do them cheaply (according to California rates) and well. To be sure their mode of sprinkling is unique, and not quite pleasant to think about, but it is thoroughly successful as U 1052 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. results. We stopped one morning at Ho Sun's establishment. With the uniform good humor that greeted all our pryings, the busy ironerg looked up, nodded, and smiled, 'How do?' 'Walk in,' and went on assiduously with the piece in hand, evidently appreciating that wc were ' lookers on in Vienna.' A large bowl of water stood beside the iron; the ironer stooped his face down into it, taking up a mouthful of water, and by the action of the tongue against the teeth, ejected it in a fine spray like mist equally over the article to be sprinkled. Two mouthfuis thoroughly and uniformly dampened the piece, and then he commenced to iron. "On Sundays this portion of the city is alive; the barber shops are crowded with customers waiting their turn to be freely shaven, and to have their queues rebraided. The gambling houses, whose name is legion, overflow, the dreary squeak of the so-called music resounds on every side. In many shops and workrooms labor is going on ; shoe-making, cigar-rolling, and similar avocations are being pursued." San Francisco being the principal city on the Pacific coast is one of the most important commercial centres on the coast. It is con- nected with Omaha, Nebraska, by the Pacific Railway, and by railway with the most important cities of the State. Lines of steamers ply between the city and the towns on the bay, and along the navigable rivers emptying into the bay. It has steamship com- munication with the principal ports oij the Pacific coast, with New- York, via Panama, and with Japan and China. It is the centre of a large and growing commerce with all parts of the world. The statistics for the first six months of the year 1868, and for 1869, having been already presented in the section relating to the commerce of California, may be passed by here. In the same place the reader will find the returns of the shipment of treasure from this place. San Francisco was first settled in 1776, by the Spaniards, who built a mission and established a Presidio here. The place was called " Yerba Buena," or "good herb," from a plant of supposed medicinal virtue, which grew in great quantities in the neighboriiood. In 1839, it was laid out as a town. In 1845, it contained 150 inhabitants. The attention of American settlers was drawn to it about this time, and by 1847, the population had increased to 500. The result of the war between the United States and Mexico made California an American Territory, and it was about this time that the town changed its name to San Francisco. In December, 1847, gold was discovered CALIFORNIA. 1053 CAPE houn. in California. The news was scattered over the civilized world the next spring, and emigrants began to pour in from every country. By the middle of 1849, the town contained a population of 5000, the larger portion being mere adventurers, who were of no permanent advantage to the place. In 1850, the city of San Francisco was incorporated. It has grown rapidly, and having passed successfully through the stormy days of its pioneer history, is now in the enjoy- ment of a solid prosperity which promises to make it one of the greatest cities of the world. SAN JOSE, In Santa Clara county, is the third city of the State. It lies in the lovely valley of Santa Clara, on the right bank of the Guadaloupe River, about 8 miles above the head of San Francisco Bay, and about 50 miles south-southeast of San Francisco, It is the most beautiful place on the Pacific coast, and lies in the "garden district" of the State, and is the centre of a large trade. It is laid off regularly, and is well built. It contains some fine public buildings, and a number of elegant private residences. The climate is one of almost perpetual spring, and the valley is noted for its great beauty. The city contains a handsome new Court House, the largest and 1054 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. finest in the State, 7 churches, 3 newspaper offices, several public and private schools, including the female College of Notre Dame, and a good hotel. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water by means of artesian wells. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, and in 1870, contained a population of 9089. The port of San Jose is at Alviso, on the bay, 7 miles distant. San Jose was founded in the early part of the present century. It was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was at one time the capital of California. MISCELLANIES. SAN FRANCISCO IN 1848-9. In the early spring of this year (1848), occasional intelligence had been received of the finding of gold in large quantities among the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada. Small parcels of the precious metal had also been forwarded to San Francisco, while visitors from the mines, and some actual diggers arrived, to tell the wonders of the region and the golden gains of those engaged in explor- ing and working it. In consequence of such representations, the inhabitants began gradually, in bands and singly, to desert their previous occupations, and betake themselves to the American River and other auriferous parts of the great Sacramento Valley. Labor, from the deficiency of hands, rose rapidly in value, and soon all business and work, except the most urgent, was forced to be stopped. Seamen deserted from their ships in the bay, and soldiers from the barracks. Over all the country the excitement was the same. Neither threats, punishment, nor money could keep men to their most solemn engagements. Gold was the irresistible magnet that drew human souls to the place where it lay, rudely snapping asunder the feebler ties of affection and duty. Avarice and the over- weening desire to be suddenly rich, from whence sprang the hope and moral certainty of being so, grew into a disease, and the infection spread on all sides, and led to a general migration of every class of the community to the golden quarters. The daily laborer, who had worked for the good and at the command of another, for one or two dollars a day, could not be restrained from flying to the happy spot where he could earn six or ten times the amount, and might possibly gain a hundred or even a thousand times the sum in one lucky day's chance. Then the life, at worst, promised to be one of continual adventure and excitement, and the miner was his own master. While this'was the case with the common laborer, his employer, wanting his services, suddenly found his occupation at an end ; Avhile shopkeepers and the like, dependent on both, dis- covered themselves in the same predicament The glowing tales of the successful miners all the while reached their ears, and threw tlieir own steady and large gains comparatively in the shade. They therefore could do no better, in a pecuniary sense even, for themselves, than to hasten after their old servants, and share in their new labor and its extraordinary gains, or pack up their former business stock, and, travelling with it to the mines, open their new shops, and stores, and stalls, and dispose of their old articles to the fortunate diggers, at a rise of 500 or 1000 per cent. CALIFORNIA. 1055 In the month of May, it was computed that at least 150 people had left San Francisco, and every day since was adding to their number. Some were occa- sionally returning from the auriferous quarter ; but they had little time to stop and expatiate upon what tliey had seen. They had hastily come back, as they had hastily gone away at first, leaving their household and business to waste and ruin, now to fasten more properly their houses, and remove goods, family and all, at once to the gold region. Their hurried movements, more even than ihe words they uttered, excited the curiosity and then the eager desire of others to accompany them. And so it was. Day after day the bay was covered with launches, filled with the inhabitants and their goods, hastening up the Sacramento. This state of matters soon came to a head ; and master and man alike hurried to the placeres^ leaving San Francisco, like a place where the plague reigns, forsaken by its old inhabitants, a melancholy sohtude. On the 29th of May, the Californian published a fly-sheet, apologizing for the future non-issue of the paper, until better days came, when they might expect to retain their servants for some amount of remuneration, which at present was impossible, as all, from the "subs" to the "devil," had indignantly rejected every offer, and gone off to the diggings. "The whole country," said the last editorial of the paper, "from San Francisco to Los Angeles, and from the sea shore to the base of the Sierra Nevada, resounds with the sordid cry of gold! GOLD ! ! GOLD ! ! ! — while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and pick-axes, and the means of transportation to the spot where one man obtained $128 worth of the real stuff in one day's washing, and the average for all concerned is Ucenty dollars per diem.'''' Within the first eight weeks after the "diggings" had been fairly known, $250,000 had reached San Francisco in gold dust, and within the next eight weeks .$600,000 more. These sums were all to purchase, at any price, additional supplies for the mines. Coin grew scarce, and all that was in the country was insufficient to satisfy the increased wants of commerce in one town alone. Gold dust, therefore, soon became a circulating medium, and after some little demur at first, was readily received by all classes at $16 an ounce. The authorities, however, would only accept it in payment of duties at $10 per ounce, with the privilege of redemption, by payment of coin, within a limited time. When subsequently immigrants began to arrive in numerous bands, any amount of labor could be obtained, provided always a most unusually high price was paid for it. Returned diggers, and those who cautiously had never went to the mines, were then also glad enough to work for rates varying from $12 to $30 a day; at which terms capitalists were somewhat afraid to commence any heavy undertaking. The hesitation was only for an instant. Soon all the labor that could possibly be procured was in ample request at whatever rates were demanded. The population of a great State was suddenly flocking in upon them, and no preparations had hitherto been made for its reception. Building lots had to be surveyed, and streets graded and planked— hills levelled— hollows, lagoons, and the bay itself piled, capped, filled up and planked— lumber, bricks, and all other building materials provided, at most extraordinarily high prices- houses built, finished, and furnished— great warehouses and stores erected— wharves run far out into the sea— numberless tons of goods removed from ship- board, and delivered and shipped anew everywhere— and ten thousand other thin'^s had all to be done without a moment's unnecessary delay. Long before 1056 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. these things were completed, the sand-hills and barren ground around the town were overspread with a multitude of canvas, blanket, and bough-covered tents — the bay was alive with shipping and small craft, carrying passengers and goods backward and forward — tlie unplanked, ungraded, unformed streets (at one time moving heaps of dry sand and dust ; at another, miry abysses, whose treacherous depths sucked in horse and dray, and occasionally man himself) were crowded with human beings from every corner of the universe and of every tongue — all excited and busy, plotting, speaking, working, buying and selling town lots, and beach and water lots, shiploads of every kind of assorted merchandise, the ships themselves, if they could — though tliat was not often — gold dust in hundred weights, ranches square leagues in extent, with their thousands of cattle — allot- ments in hundreds of contemplated towns, already prettily designed and laid out — on paper — and, in short, speculating and gambling in every branch of modern commerce, and in many strange things peculiar to the time and place. And everybody made money, and was suddenly growing rich. The loud voices of the eager seller and as eager buyer — the laugh of reckless joy — the bold accents of successful speculation — the stir and hum of active, hur- ried labor, as man and brute, horse and bullock, and their guides, struggled and managed through heaps of loose rubbish, over hills of sand, and among deceiving deep mud pools and swamps, filled the amazed newly arrived immigrant with an almost appalling sense of the exuberant life, energy, and enterprise of the place. He breathed quick and faintly — his limbs grew weak as water — and liis heart sunk within him as he thought of the dreadful conflict, when he approached and mingled among that confused and terrible business battle. Gambling saloons, glittering like fairy palaces, like them suddenly sprang into existence, studding nearly all sides of the plaza, and every street in its neighbor- hood. As if intoxicating drinks from the well plenished and splendid bar they each contained were insufficient to gild the scene, music added its loudest, if not its sweetest, charms ; and all was mad, feverish mirth, where fortunes were lost and won, upon the green cloth, in the twinkling of an eye. All classes gambled in those days, from the starchiest white neck-clothed professor to tlie veriest black rascal that earned a dollar for blacking massa's boots. Nobody had leisure to think, even for a moment, of his occupation, and how it was viewed in Christian lands. The heated brain was never allowed to get cool while a bit of coin or dust was left. These saloons, therefore, were crowded, night and day, by impatient revellers who never could satiate themselves with excitement, nor get rid too soon of their golden heaps. THE VIGILANCE COMMITTEE. By the beginning of 1851, San Francisco had become crowded with adven- turers of all sorts and from every land. Many were professional criminals, and as the law failed to protect the respectable settlers against their outrages, the citizens were compelled, for their owji preservation, to take the nratter into their own hands. Around Clark's Point and vicinity, in San Francisco, was the rendezvous of these villains. " Low drinking and dancing houses, lodging and gambling houses of the same mean class, the constant scenes of lewdness, drunkenness, and strife, abounded in the quarter mentioned. The daily and nightly occupants of these vile abodes had every one, more or less, been addicted to crime ; and many of CALIFORNIA. 1057 them were at all times ready, for the most trifling consideration, to kill a man or fire a town. During the early hours of night, when the Alsatia was in revel, it was dangerous in the highest degree for a single person to venture within its bounds. Even the police hardly dared to enter there ; and if they attempted to apprehend some known individuals, it was always in a numerous, strougly-armed company. Seldom, however, were arrests made. The lawless inhabitants of the place united to save their luckless brothers, and generally managed to drive the assailants away. When the different fires took place in San Francisco, bands of plunderers issued from this great haunt of dissipation, to help themselves to whatever money or valuables lay in their way, or which they could possibly secure. With these they retreated to their dens, and defied detection or appre- hension. Fire, however, was only one means of attaining their ends. The most daring burglaries were committed, and houses and persons rifled of their valuables. Where resistance was made, the bowie-knife or the revolver settled matters, and left the robber unmolested. Midnight assaults, ending in murder, were common. And not only were these deeds perpetrated under the shade of night ; but even in daylight, in the highways and byways of the country, in the streets of the town, in crowded bars, gambling saloons and lodging houses, crimes of an equally glaring character were of constant occurrence. People at that period generally carried during all hours, and wherever tiiey happened to be, loaded firearms about their persons ; but these Aveapons availed nothino- against the sudden stroke of the 'slung-shot,' the plunge and rip of the knile, or the secret aiming of the pistol. No decent man was in safety to walk the streets after dark ; while at all hours, both of night and day, his property was jeopardized by incendiarism and burglary. "All this while, tiie law, whose supposed 'majesty' is so awful in other countries, was here only a matter for ridicule. The police were few in number, and poorly as. well as irregularly paid. Some of them were in league with the criminals tiiemselves, and assisted these at all times to elude justice. Subsequent confessions of criminals, on the eve of execution, implicated a considerable num- ber of people in various high and low departments of the executive. Bail was readily accepted in the most serious cases, where the security tendered was absolutely w^ortiiless ; and where, whenever necessary, both principal and cautioner quietly disappeared. The prisons likewise were small and insecure ; and thougii filled to overflowing, could no longer contain the crowds of appre- hended offenders. When these were ultimately brought to trial, seldom could a conviction be obtained. From technical errors on the part of the prosecutors, laws ill understood and worse applied, false swearing of tlie witnesses for the prisoners, absence often of the chief evidence for the prosecution, dishonesty of jurors, incapacity, weakness, or venality of the judge, and from many other causes, the cases generally broke down, and the prisoners were freed. Not one criminal had yet been executed. Yet it was notorious tbat, at this period, at least 100 murders had been committed within the space of a few months ; while innumerable were the instances of arson, and of theft, robber}^ burglary, and assault with intent to kill. It was evident that the offenders defied and laughed at all the puny efforts of the authorities to control them. The tedious processes of legal tribunals had no terrors for them. As yet ever3'tlnng had been pleasant and safe, and they saw no reason why it should not always be so. San Francisco had just been destroyed, a fifth time, by conflagration. The cities of Stockton and Nevada had likewise shared the same fate. That part of it was the doing of 1058 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. incendiaries no one doubted ; and, too, no one doubted but that tliis terrible state of tilings would continue, and grow worse until a new and very different execu- tive from the legally constituted one should rise up in vengeance against those pests that worried and preyed upon the vitals of society. It was at this fearful time that the Vigilance Committee was organized." Tliis was in June, 1851, at which time the association organized "for the pro- tection of the lives and property of the citizens and residents of the City of San Francisco." They formed a constitution, and selected a room in which to hold their meetings, which were entirely secret. The first person they arrested was John Jenkins, a notorious "Sydney cove." He was seized for stealing a safe on the 10th of June. About 10 o'clock that night, the signal for calling the members was given — the tolling of the bell of the Monumental Engine Company. Shortly afterward about 80 members of the Committee hurried to the appointed place, and giving the secret password were admitted. For two long hours the Committee closely examined the evidence and found him guilty. "At midnight the bell was tolled, as sentence of death by hanging was passed upon the wretched man. The solemn sounds at that unusual hour filled the anxious crowds with awe. The condemned at this time was asked if he had anything to say for himself, when he answered : ' No, I have nothing to say, only I wish to have a cigar.' " This was handed to him, and afterward, at his request, a little brandy and water. He was perfectly cool, and seemingly careless, confidently expecting, it was believed, a rescue, up to the last moment. A little before one o'clock, Mr. S. Brannan came out of the Committee rooms, and, ascending a mound of sand to the east of the Rassette House, addressed the people. He had been deputed, he said, by the Committee, to inform them that the prisoner's case had been fairly tried, that he had been proved guilt}^ and was condemned to be hanged ; and that the sentence would be executed within one hour upon the plaza. He then asked the people if they approved of the action of the Committee, when great shouts of Ay ! Ay ! burst forth, mingled with a few cries of No ! In the interval a clergyman had been sent for, who adminis- tered the last consolations of religion to the condemned. Shortly before 2 o'clock, the Committee issued from the building, bearing the prisoner (who had his arms tightly pinioned) along with them. The Committee were all armed, and closely clustered around the culprit, to prevent any possible chance of rescue. A procession was formed ; and the whole party, followed by the crowd, proceeded to the plaza, to the south end of the adobe building, which then stood on the northwest corner. The opposite end of the rope which was already about the neck of the victim was hastily thrown over a projecting beam. Some of the authorities attempted at this stage of affairs to interfere, but their efforts were unavailing. They were civilly desired to stand back, aiid not delay what was still to be done. The crowd, which numbered upward of 1000, were perfectly quiescent, or only applauded by look, gesture, and subdued voice, the action of the Committee. Before the prisoner had reached the building, a score of persons seized the loose end of the rope and ran backward, dragging the wretch along the ground and raising him to the beam. Thus they held him till he was dead. Nor did they let the body go until some hours afterward, new volunteers relieving those who were tired holding the rope. Little noise or confusion took place. Muttered whispers among the spectators guided their movements or betrayed their feelings. The prisoner had not spoken a word, either upon the march or during the rapid preparations for his execution. At the CALIFORNIA. 1059 cud he was perhaps strung up ahnost before lie was aware of what was so imme- diately coming. He was a strong-built, healthy man, and his struggles, when hanging, were very violent for a few minutes. The next execution which took place was about a month later, that of James Stuart. He was an Englishman, who had been transported to Australia for forgery. On leaving it, he wandered in various parts of the Pacific until he reached California, where he was supposed to have committed more murders and other desperate crimes than any other villain in the country. Before his death he acknowledged the justice of his punishment. He was hung July 11th, from a derrick at the end of Market street wharf, in the presence of assembled thousands. One month more rolled round, and the Committee again exercised their duties upon the persons of Samuel Whittaker and Robert McKenzie, who were guilty of robbery, murder, and arson, and on trial confessed these crimes. Tlie sheriff and his posse, with a writ of habeas coi'pus, took these men from the hands of the Committee and confined them in jail. The latter, fearful that the rascals would escape through the quibbles of the law, prepared for the rescue. "About half past 3 o'clock," says the "Annals of San Francisco," "on the afternoon of Sunday, the 24th of August, an armed party, consisting of 36 members of the Vigilance Committee, forcibly broke into the jail, at a time when the Rev. Mr. Williams happened to be engaged at devotional exercises with the prisoners, among whom were Whittaker and McKenzie. The slight defence of the jailors and guards was of no avail. The persons named were seized, and hurried to and placed within a coach, that had been kept in readiness a few steps from the prison. The carriage instantly was driven off at full speed, and nearly at the same moment the ominous bell of the Monumental Engine Company rap- idly and loudly tolled for the immediate assemblage of the Committee and the knell itself of the doomed. The whole population leaped with excitement at the sound ; and immense crowds from the remotest quarter hurried to Battery street. There blocks, with the necessary tackle, had been hastily fastened to two beams which projected over the windows of the great hall of the Committee. Within 17 minutes after the arrival of the prisoners, they were both dangling by the neck from these beams, the loose extremities of the halters being taken within the building itself and forcibly held by members of the Committee. Full 6000 people were present, who kept an awful silence during the short time these pre- parations lasted. But so soon as the wretches were swung off, one tremendous shout of satisfaction burst from the excited multitude ; and then there was silence again. " This was the last time, for j^ears, that the Committee took or found occasion to exercise their functions. Henceforward the administration of justice might be safely left in the hands of the usual officials. The city now was pretty well cleansed of crime. The fate of Jenkins, Stuart, Whittaker and McKenzie showed that rogues and roguery, of whatever kind, could no longer expect to find a safe lurking-place in San Francisco. Many of the suspected, and such as were warned oflf by the Committee, had departed, and gone, some to other lands, and some into the mining regions and towns of the interior. Those, however, who still clung to California found no refuge anywhere in the State. Previously, different cases of lynch law had occurred in the gold districts, but these were solitary instandes which had been caused by the atrocity of particular crimes. When, however^ the Vigilance Committee of San Francisco had started up, fully organ- 1060 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ized, and began their great work, Sacranu'iilo, Stockton, San Jose, as well as other towns and the more thickly peopled mining quarters, likewise formed their committees of vigilance and safety, and pounced upon all the rascals within their bounds. Tliese associations interchanged information with each other as to the movements of the suspected ; and all, with the hundred eyes of an Argus and the hundred arms of a Briareus, watched, pursued, harassed, and finally caught the worst desperadoes of the country. Like Cain, a murderer and wanderer, as most of them were, they bore a mark on the brow, by which they were known. Some were hanged at various places, some were lashed and branded, but the greater number were simply ordered to leave the countr}', within a limited time, under penalty of immediate death if found after a stated period witiiin its limits. Justice was no longer blind or leaden-heeled. With the perseverance and speed of a bloodhound, she tracked criminals to their lair, and smote them where they lay. For a long time afterward, the whole of California remained comparatively free from outrages against person and property. "From all the evidence that can be obtained, it is not supposed that a single instance occurred in which a really innocent man suffered the extreme penalty of death. Those who were executed generally confessed their guilt, and admitted the punishment to have been merited." OREGON. Area, 95,274 Square Milos. Population in 1860, 52,465 Population in 1870, 90,923 The State of Oregon is situated between 42° and 46° 20' N. lati- tude, and between 116° 31' and 124° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Washington Territory, on the east by Idaho Territory, on the south by Nevada and California, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It is about 395 miles long, from east to west, and about 295 miles wide, from north to south. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the eastern part of the State, lying between the Cas- cade Pange and the Snake River, is mostly an elevated plateau, broken by mountain ranges. The western part, lying between the ocean and the Cascade Range, is mountainous. "The Coast Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, traversing Cali- fornia, continue northward through Oregon; the latter, after leaving California, are named the Cascades. Near the soutliern boundary the chain throws off a branch called the Blue Mountains, which extend northeastwardly through the State, passing into Washington and Idaho. The course of the Cascades through tlie State is generally parallel with the shore of the Pacific, and distant therefrom an average of 110 miles. In California, the direction of the Coast Mountains and coast valleys is that of general parallelism with the sea-shore; the mountains sometimes approaching close to the shore, and then receding miles from it, leaving belts of arable land between them and the ocean. In Oregon, the Coast Range consists ot a seriss 1061 1062 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. of high lands running at right angles Avith the shore, with valleys and rivers between the numerous spurs having the same general direc- tion as the highlands." * The western part of the State is the only inhabited and regularly organized portion. It is thus described by a writer thoroughly familiar with it: "Western Oregon, between the Cascades and the Pacific, is made up chiefly of three valleys, those of the Willamette (pronounced Wil- lam'-ette), Umpqua, and Rogue rivers. The first named stream begins in the Cascade Mountains, runs west 60 miles, then turns northward, runs 140 miles, and empties into the Columbia. The last two begin in the Cascades, and run westward to the ocean. There are, perhaps, several thousand miners, including Chinamen, in the Rogue River Valley; but nearly the whole permanent farming popu- lation is in the Valley of the Willamette. This valley, taking the word in its more restricted sense of the low land, is from 30 to 40 miles wide, and 120 miles long. This may be said to be the whole of agricultural Oregon. It is a beautiful, fertile, well-watered plain, with a little timber along the streams, and a great deal in the moun- tains on each side. The soil is a grav^elly clay, covered near the creeks and rivers with a rich sandy loam. The vegetation of the val- ley is composed of several indigenous grasses, a number of flowering plants and ferns, the latter being very abundant, and exceedingly troublesome to the farmer on account of its extremely tough vitality. The tributary streams of the Willamette are very numerous, and their course in the valley is usually crooked, as the main stream itself is, having many 'sloughs,' 'bayous,' or 'arms,' as they are differently called. In some places the land is marshy, and everywhere moist. Drouth will never be known in western Oregon ; its climate is very wet, both summer and winter, the latter season being one long rain, and the former consisting of many short ones, with a little sunshine intervening. The winters are warm, and the summers rather cool — too cool for growing melons, maize, and sweet potatoes. Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and domestic animals thrive well. The climate, take it all in all, is much like that of England, and all plants and animals which do well in Britain will prosper in Oregon. The Oregon fruit is excellent, particularly the apples and plums ; the peaches and pears are not quite so good as those of California. All along the coast of * Report of the General Land-Office. OREGON. lOfi.; Oregon, there is a range of mountains about 40 miles wide, and they are so densely timbered with cedar, pine, spruce, and fir, that the density of the wood alone would render them worthless for an age, if they were not rugged. But they are very rugged, and the Umpqua and Rogue rivers, in making their way through them, have not been able to get any bottom lands, and are limited to narrow, high-walled canons. The only tillable lands on the banks of those rivers are about 50 miles from the sea, each having a valley which, in general terms, may be described as 12 miles wide by 30 long. Rogue River Valley is separated from California by the Siskiyou Mountains, about 5000 feet high, and from Umpqua Vnlley by the CaHon Mountains, about 3000 feet high; and the Umpqua again is separated from the Willamette Valley by the Calapooya Mountains, also about 3000 feet high. All Oregon — that is, its western division, except the low lands of the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue valleys — is covered with dense timber, chiefly of coarse grained wood — such as fir, spruce, and hem- lock. In the southwestern corner of the State, however, there are considerable forests of white cedar — a large and beautiful tree, pro- ducing a soft, fine-grained lumber, and very fragrant with a perfume, which might be imitated by mixing otto of roses with turpentine. Oak and ash are rare. Nearly all the trees are coniferous. In Rogue Valley and along the beach of the Pacific, there are extensive gold diggings. There are also large seams of tertiary coal at Goose Bay. These are the only valuable minerals in the State. The scenery on the Columbia is grand, from Wallawalla, where it first touches Oregon, to the ocean. There are five mountain peaks in the State, rising to the region of perpetual snow: Mount Hood, 13,700 feet high; Mount Jefferson, 11,900 feet high; the Three Sisters, Mount Scott, and Mount McLaughlin, all about 9000 feet high." The Columbia River, already described, forms the principal part of the northern boundary of the State. It receives the waters of the Wallawalla, Umatilla, John Day, and Falls rivers, east of the Cas- cade Range, and those of the Willamette, west of it. The Rogue and Umpqua rivers empty into the Pacific Ocean. The lower part of the Columbia forms a fine bay, and affords an excellent harbor. It is navigable to the falls for large vessels, and above them for a consider- able distance for steamers. The Willamette is navigable to Portland for ships, and for 80 miles above the falls for small steamers. The Umpqua is navigable for 25 miles for small steamers, and its- mouth- forms a harbor for vessels drawing 12 feet of water. There are several small lakes in the State. 65 1064 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCE! AN OREGON VALLEY. MINERALS. Oregon is principally an agricultural State, but mining is growing In importance. Gold exists in the State. The deposits of" copper are almost inexhaustible, and there are considerable deposits of coal in the Valley of the Williamette. CLIMATE. The climate is mild along the coast, but increases in severity as one proceeds eastward. The winters are very irregular, but are usually short and mild. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the eastern part of the State, much of the land is unfit for culti- vation. In Western Oregon, the lands in the valleys are among the most fertile in America, and produce large crops. In 1869, the agricultural resources of the State were as follows : Acres of improved land (estimated), .... 1,000,000 Bushels of wheat, 1,750,000 rye, 5,200 " oats, 500,000 " buckwheat 8,000 " Indian corn, 200,000 " barley, 200,000 " Irish potatoes, 500,000 OREGON. j^^gr^ Tons of hay, 75 000 ]N'umber of horses, , 49 800 asses and males, 1560 milch cows, 79^'312 slieep, 101^960 ««'"^e 112,700 " young cattle, 140,500 Value of domestic animals, $7 946255 COMMERCE. Oregon has some direct trade with Europe, South America, and tJJc Sandwich Islands, but her principal transactions are with San Fran- cisco, between which city and Portland (Onjgon), a line of fine steam- ships plies regularly. The exports are lumber, stock, hog.s, beef, butter, eggs, chickens, pork, flour, and fish. Cattle raising forms an important part of the industry of the State, and large droves are annually driven into California for sale. Manufactures are .still unimportant. The annual product is about ^6,877,387. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The internal improvements of this State consist of the works that have been erected by a private corporation for the improvement of the navigation of the Columbia River, and the railroads built around the falls of that stream, and connecting the successive stages of naviga- tion. There are 159 miles of railroad within the State. The principal is that of the Oregon Central Railroad, which is to extend from Port- land to the California border, where it will ultimately connect with a road from San Francisco, It has been completed from Portland to Salem. EDUCATION. There are three colleges in the State. The principal of these is the Willamette University, at Salem, which is under the charge of the Methodist Church. It is an excellent institution, and has an endow- ment of $30,000. The common school system is similar to that of the Eastern States, The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the general supervision of the schools. The counties have each a Local Superintendent, and each district is governed by its Bonrd of Trustees. A school fund has been established, and taxes are levied for the support of the schools. Measures are on foot for the establishment of a State University. 1066 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. In 1870, there were 594 public schools in the State, with 29,822 jMjpils. Ill the same year, there were 2361 libraries in Oregon, containing 334,959 volumes. The number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows : 4 daily, 26 weekly, and 5 monthly, making a total of 35, with a total annual circulation of 3,657,300 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Penitentiary is located at Portland, and is a flourishing institu- tion. The convicts are confined in temporary quarters, due regard being had to their safe keeping, and are required to labor on the public buildings. Measures are being taken for the erection of buildings for charitable and benevolent purposes by the State, and as soon as the pecuniary condition of the Commonwealth will permit it, these institutions will be provided. At present the insane and idiotic are cared for by private persons at the expense of the State. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, there were 135 churches in Oregon. The value of church property was $471,100. FINANCES. In September, 1874, the total State debt was $596,256. During the two fiscal yeai-s extending from September 5th, 1872, to Septem- ber 5th, 1874, the receipts of the Treasury were $628,775, and the expenditures for the same period $663,193. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen of the United States who has resided in the State six months, and every male foreigner who has lawfully declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, who is twenty- one years old, and has resided In the State one year, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 16 members), and a House of Representatives (of 34 members), all OREGON. 1067 chosen by the people. The State officers and Senators are elected for four years, and Representatives for two years. The general election is held in June, and the Legislature meets biennially in September. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court and five Circuit Courts. The judges of the Supreme Court are five in number, and are also judges of the Circuit Courts. They are elected by the people for six years. The seat of Government is located at Salem. The State is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. Oregon was known to various navigators during the 17th and 18th centuries, but the first white man who entered it was Captain Rob«;rt Gray, of the ship Columbia, of Boston, who on the 7th of May, 1792, entered and explored the lower part of its principal river, to which he gave the name of his ship. On his return home - he published a description of the river and its valley, which aroused so much interest on the part of the Government, that in 1804 an explor- ing expedition was sent out across the Continent, under Captains Lewis and Clark, of the United States army. The explorations of this party extended through the years 1804 and 1805, and made known for the first time the vast region watered by the Columbia. In 1811, the American Fur Company, of which John Jacob Astor was the leading member, established a post for trading purposes at the mouth of the Columbia River, and called it Astoria. It was the design of the Company to make this place an important city, in course of time, but this part of their project failed, and they sold the post to the Northwest Company (of England), to save it from capture r- 1083 1084 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. - > ^ #-i^ KbSs^M^ ^'^■B' H A/TliC MOUXTAIXS. tions of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, to the sea, is of the greatest value to those regions. Gold, silver, copper, mercury, and lead, are found in the Territory. Valuable silver mines are worked in the central and southern portions of Arizona, especially along the Colorado and Gila rivers. The great drawbacks to the success of mining enterprises in this Territory are the scarcity of Avater in the vicinity of the mines, and the hostility of the Indians. It is believed that the mineral wealth of Arizona very largely exceeds the discoveries that have thus far been made. A very large part of the land is utterly barren. The basin of the Colorado consists of elevated ti\ble-lands, broken by mountain ranges. The valleys of these ranges are fertile. South of the Gihi, and west of the 112th meridian, the country is sandy, and not generally fertile, except along the river. In other portions, there are many rich valleys and fertile prairies, containing millions of acres, and producing wheat, barley, oats, tobacco, vegetables, and fruits. Cotton and sugar grow well in the south, and grazing lands, of the finest quality, are abun- ilant. AVood is scarce tliroughout the Territory, and, in many parts, IS entirely absent. In the north-central portion is a large forest of yellow pine, interspersed with oak. Cottonwood grows along the shores of the streams. In the southeast part grows a low, stunted tree, called the Mezqnit. It is of no use for building, but is said to be valuable for mining purposes. ARIZONA. 1087 The climate is mild. In southern Arizona, and along a portion of the Colorado, the sunmiers are too warm to allow the performance of work in the open air. In the central portion the sun is rarely so oppressive. In the mountain regions the nights are always cool. Snow falls in the central and northern portion, but does not remain long upon the ground. The Territory is sparsely inhabited, the settlements being confined to the southern portion. Its population in 1870 is no larger than that of 1850. The inhabitants consist of American settlers, miners, Spanish, half-breeds, and Indians. The towns are built chiefly of adobe, or sun-dried bricks, and bear a close resemblance to the INIcxI- can towns, having but few marks of American civilization about them. The greatest obstacle to the settlement of the Territory has been the merciless depredations of the Apachee Indians. The mllltaiy force of the United States stationed in the Territory is small, and the people are obliged to protect themselves by volunteer companies. The Governor, in his last message, urges the people to form military companies in all the settlements, and to exterminate the Apachces as far as possible. There are no railways or telegraphs, and no public schools in the Territory. The Governor and Secretary are appointed l)y tlie Presi- dent. The Legislature and other officials are all elected by the people. The principal towns are Tucson, containing 3000 Inhabitants, Pres- cott, with 1200 inhabitants, and Arizona City, with a })opulation of 600. They are all wretched places, built of adobe, and filled with dirt and half civilized people. Ross Browne thus describes Tucson : "A city of mud boxes, dingy and dilaj)Idated, cracked and baked Into a composite of dust and filth ; littered about with broken corrals, sheds, bake-ovens, carcasses of dead animals, and broken pottery ; barren of verdure, parched, naked, and grimly desolate in the glare of a southern sun. Adobe walls without whitewash inside or out, hard earthen floors, baked and dried Mexicans, sore-backed burros. Coyote dogs, and terra-cotta children ; soldiers, teamsters, and honest miners lounging about the mescal shops, soaked with the fiery poison; a noisy band of Sonoranian buffoons, dressed in theatrical costume, cutting their antics in the public places to the most diabolical din of fiddles and guitars ever heard; a long train of Government wagons preparing to start for Fort Yuma or the Rio Grande — these are what the traveller sees, and a great many things more, but in vain he looks for a hotel or lodging house. DAKOTA. Area, 152,000 Square Miles Population in 1870, 14,181 The Territory of Dakota lies between 43° and 49° N. latitude, and between 96° 25' and 104° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by Nebraska and Colorado Territory, and on the west by Mon- tana and Wyoming Territories. It is about 400 miles long, from north to south, and nearly as broad. A recent Report of a Committee of the Legislature of Dakota, thus speaks of the Territory : " The Territory occupies the most elevated section of country be- tween the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; forming, to a great extent, the water-shed of the two great basins of North America — the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers, and the tributaries of Hudson Bay. Thus within the limits of Dakota are found the sources of rivers running diametrically opposite; those flowing northward reach a region of eternal ice, while those flowing southward pass from the haunts of the grizzly bear and the region of wild rice through the cotton-fields and tiie sugar plantations of the Southerner, until their waters are mingled with the blue waves of the Gulf. "The general surface of the country east and north of the INIissouri is a beautiful, rich, undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, or slough ; traversed by many streams and dotted over M'ith innumerable lakes of various sizes, whose wooded margins, and rocky shores, and gravelly bottoms afford the settler the purest water, and give to the scenery of the Territory much of its interest and fascination. West •of the Missouri the country is more rolling, and generally becomes 1C88 DAKOTA. 1089 broken, hilly, and finally mountainous, as the western limits are reached and terminated by the Rocky Mountains. " The mighty Missouri runs through the very heart of our Terri- tory, and gives us more than 1000 miles of navigable water-course, thus giving us the facility of cheap water transportation, by means of which we can bear away the surplus products of our rich, luxuriant lands to Southern markets, and receive in exchange the trade and commerce of all climes and lands. " We have, located on the Missouri, Big Sioux, Red River of the North, Vermilion, Dakota, and Niobrara, millions and millions of acres of the richest and most productive of lands to be found anywhere within the bounds of the National Government. " We have, combined, the pleasant, salubrious climate of Southern Minnesota, and the fertility of Central Illinois." The principal rivers are the Missouri, the Red River of the North, the Big Sioux, Big Cheyenne, and the White Earth. Concerning these streams, the Report quoted above proceeds as follows : " The Missouri River extends a thousand miles through the Territory, and is navigable for steamboats the entire distance, and hundreds of miles above. The country along the river is of unsurpassed fertility. The Big Sioux River is 200 miles long, a clear running stream of clear water, and cannot be surpassed for fertility of soil and the variety and luxuriance of its vegetation. The bottom lands on this stream are from a half to three miles wide, and bear an enormous growth of blue- joint grass, which makes hay of an excejlent quality. The Big Cheyenne is a most important river, and has its extreme source west of the Black Hills, which its two main branches enclose. These forks are supplied by numerous streams from the mountains, and they unite in about longitude 102° 20', the river flowing into the Missouri in latitude 44° 48'. In its lower course there is fertile land on its banks, and there are considerable areas in and around the Black Hills. The Cheyenne River can be rafted, and tlie stream that comes from the hills could be used to drive the logs down the river, and thus a way is opened to this fine supply of timber. White Earth River has generally an open well-wooded valley, with fine soil and luxuriant grass. Any one who travels in Nebraska will always feel rejoiced when he reaches the banks of this beautiful stream. It is much resorted to by the Brules. It has numerous branches, the largest of which is called the South Fork. The pine on White River and its tributaries is nearly equal in extent to that on the Niobrara. This 1090 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. stream has been lused by traders to boat down their furs. I believe it can also be used to raft down the pine timber on its banks and branches. Lieutenant Warren speaks very favorably of the Niobrara River, which is partly in our Territory, that there is con- siderable pine timber on its banks and branches, and much good land and excellent water. The Red River of the North, rises in Lake Travers, flows north 380 miles to the British possessions, and is a navigable stream its entire distance, well-wooded, and a soil unsur- passed in fertility. There are a number of other small streams, some of which have abundance of timber, and a good soil, and clear running water. There are quite a number of lakes in East Dakota remark- able for their beauty, and with their sylvan associations form the prominent charm of its rural landscape. There is an abundance of timber on some of these lakes surrounded with a good soil, water, and plenty of fish in the waters of the same. All the streams of Dakota abound in delicious fish of many varieties. " The prevailing soil of Dakota is a dark, calcareous, sandy loam, containing a various intermixture of clay, abounding in mineral salts, and an organic ingredient derived from the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter, for long ages of growth and decay. The earthy materials of our soil are minutely pulverized, and the soil is every- where light, mellow, and spongy; while its sandy predominance makes our soil very early. The upland soil of East Dakota cannot be sur- passed for fertility and the variety and luxuriance of its vegetation. "Your committee have been unable to get any accurate informa- tion in relation to the amount of the crops per acre, but from their own personal observation, they are of the opinion that no State or Territory surpasses Dakota in the yield of their crops per acre, and they are of the opinion the average yield of wheat per acre is 25 bushels; oats, 45 ; corn, between 50 and 60; potatoes, 225. All vines and garden vegetables yield bountifully. But for raising wheat, Dakota, we believe, is not equalled by any State or Territory in the Union. Our dry, pure atmosphere is what is required for the perfec- tion of this grain ; the best wheat grown in the world is the wheat grown on the Red River, within the limits of Dakota. The inhabi- tants of that section claim 60 bushels as an average yield per acre, and the wheat weighs from 65 to 70 pounds per bushel. Every one that has ever seen any of the Red River wheat ]ironounced it the finest they ever saw. And we are of the opinion that a large portion of our Territory will yield equally as well ; some farmers have told your DAKOTA. 1091 committee of a yield of 104 bushels of potatoes from oue and one- fourth bushels of seed, and corn at 100 bushels per acre. "Dakota is the finest field in the world for stock-growing. It stands prominent above all other countries as the best for the produc- tion of grass. ' The grasses/ says Farrey, ' are proverbially in perfec- tion only in northern and cold regions. It is in the north alone that we raise animals from meadows, and are enabled to keep them fat and in good condition without grain.' In none of the prairie districts of North America are the native grasses so abundant and nutritious as on the plains and in the valleys of Dakota. This is sufficiently proved by the countless herds of buffalo that pasture throughout the year, upon its plains, even north of the 49th parallel of latitude ; a fact which suggests an equivalent capacity for the herding of domestic cattle. Horses and cattle roam during summer and winter over the prairies and through the woods, and keep fat without housing or hay. The wihl grasses of Dakota are of many varieties. The blue-joint of the valleys makes the best of hay, and generally yields about three tons per acre. The gramma or buffalo grass of the upland prairies is so nutritious that horses will work all the time they are fed on it, without any grain, and keep fat. All the wild grasses of Dakota are more nutritious than any of the tame grasses ; cattle become fatter by pasturing on it. When cut it shrinks much less in curing for hay. It seldom heats. There is no dust in the hay. Horses that eat it never have the heaves. The hay in appearance is green, and it smells much sweeter than tame hay. On the whole, it is superior either for pasturage or hay for horses, cattle, or sheep. Owing to the healthi- ness and the dryness of the climate of Dakota, sheep must do extremely well in Dakota. We have no cold sleet-storms here, that are so fatal to sheep in many countries. The Indians have always kept thousands of horses in this country, but never feed them hay in winter." Among the animals found in and native to the Territory are the buffalo or bison, the elk, antelope, deer, grizzly bear, black bear, wolf, raccoon, and muskrat." It is believed that the Territory is very rich in minerals. Valua- ble deposits of gold, silver, iron, and copper have been discovered. Coal also exists in considerable quantities, and the salt lakes in the northern part of the Territory furnish an abundant supply of salt. The Government is similar to that of the other Territories ; it was organized by Congress in March, 1861. 1092 OUR COUNTKY AND ITS RESOURCES. YANCTON, the capital, is situated on the left bank of the Mis- souri River, about 7 miles above the mouth of the Dakota or James River, and in the southeastern corner of the Territory. It is 60 miles northwest of Sioux City, in Iowa, the present terminus of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. It contains about 1500 inhabitants, 2 churches, 2 schools, 1 seminary (conducted by the Episcopal Church), and a newspaper office. IDA HO. Area, - . 96,000 Square Miles. Population in 1870, 14,998 The Territory of Idaho lies between 42° and 49° N. latitude, and 110° and 117° W. longitude. It is bounded on tiie north by British America, on the east by Montana and Wyoming Territories, on the south by Utah Territory and Nevada, and on the west by Oregon and Washington Territory. Its greatest length, from north to south, is 480 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, is about 340 miles. The widest portion is below the southern boundary of Mon- tana. North of that the Territory varies in width from 40 to 60 miles. The surface is mountainous. The Rocky Mountains extend for 250 miles along the eastern and northeastern borders, and a curvilinear range, called the Bitter Root Mountains, continues the eastern border from the Rocky Mountain range to the northern part of the Ter- ritory. Fremont's Peak is the highest point of the Rocky Mountain range in the United States, and has an altitude of 13,570 feet. It lies on the border between Idaho and Dakota. "The Snake River and its branches drain the whole Territory, except a portion, of about 120 miles long and 45 wide, in the extreme IDAHO. 1093 A CANOX IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIXS. northern part, which is drained by Clark's Fork of the Columbia and its branches, and an irregularly-shaped portion in the southeastern corner, which is drained by Green and Bear rivers. Bear River falls into Salt Lake, and Green River empties into the Colorado. This portion of the Territory has some farming and a large amount of good grazing lands, and is very scantily supplied with wood. No mines have been discovered in it. The principal branches of the Snake River in Idaho are the Clearwater, Salmon, Payette, Boise, and many small rivers and creeks, which, uniting, form a large river, with many falls and rapids and a current of great swiftness." There are three lakes of considerable size in Idaho, the CilaI of 1 lie Territory, is eitimtcd in 'I'linrston rnni)ty, on ♦!•'> east side of Tenalqiict's Klvor, at its entrance into I*ngot Soimd. It lies at t]»n head of Rliip navigntion on Pnget Honnd, 150 miles from the iV-ifje Ocean. It contains the Htate Houce, Terriloiial library, several ehurohes and schools, and 6 news- jitjicr oltices. W Y O M ING. Area , . iihout HH,ono Sijunre Mileft. Popdialion ill 1H7(», ti.llH TiiK Territory of Wyoming lies Ix-fween 41" and 45" JM. latitude, and between 104" and 112" W. longitude. Its extreme length, from east to west, is about 30O miles, and its breadth, from iinrlh to komIIi, Ml)OUt 275 miles. It is bounded on the north by Monlann, on the «»!iHt by Hakola and Nebraska, on the sontli by ( 'ohnado and Utah, Mild on I ho west by Utah, Idaho, and Montana. A largo jiart oC the T<'rril«)rv is monnlsiinoiis. Th(< IlofKv Moun- tains cross the western part from northwest to southeast. 'Jhe Kattle- snoke an noilheasfcrn ])or- lioii is drained i)v the headwaters of tlu' Shvenne and ils branehes. Much of the laml of NVyoming is suited to enltivalion. ()(li(>r see- lions, however, sulVer from a senreity of water. The whole Terri- ((»rv is well sn|i|)lie lt(<|»l vvillnMil, f>)liii||,(iir I'immI III I III' Hlmiiliii(f \n'i\m of iIh' |Miii|'||iM, l'y« <''ilinicilill|r nl' null llinl Wnlni'll, Wliai v\lh pHiii'lU'il n(, liiu'imiiM Cily on lln' Vili ol' Mm'cli, IM7<). WniiM'n «Uo liiiv>* |Im« rif/lil III IhiIiI oIDi'k. AI iIik 'iVi'i'llni'liil cloi'llnii of Hi'|ili'iii- Ih'I' 7, IH'/d, (l«i woiiH'M v«'i'y gt'iK'riilly voIimI. VVniiM«ii wmim nnntl 1124 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. nated by the Republican party at Cheyenne for the offices of county clerk and school superintendent, but were defeated with the rest of the local ticket. The Territory of Wyoming was organized on the 25th of July, 1868, out of portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah, the larger part consisting of the western portion of Dakota. CHEYENNE, the capital, and largest and most important town in the Territory, has now a population of from 3000 to 5000. Much of it is " floating," and the population of the place varies more than that of most mining towns. It is situated on the Union Pacific Railway, 516 miles from Omaha, and is a place of considerable trade. Two newspapers are published here. " The first stake was driven at Cheyenne on the 13th of July, 1867, and in one month there was a town of 8000 inhabitants on the spot. These were, however, made up in a large measure of adventurers and disreputable characters. No sooner was a new station of the Pacific Railway established at Lara- mie than a large part of this population departed from Cheyenne, but the more respectable portion remained, and a permanent city has been founded." THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1125 THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES. One of the most important achievements of the American nation is its system of free public education, by which the precious gift of knowledge is brought within the reach of all classes of the people, and by means of which the humblest citizen may obtain for his children the advantages which in other countries are enjoyed only by the richer and aristocratic classes. This system has been the object of much discussion of late years, and is commonly regarded in this country as the basis of our prosperity. It will be interesting, tlierefore, to glance at its history and examine some of its results. The free education of every child in the community at the cost of the public at large is an American idea. In no ancient country was there any provision for the education of all classes. The nearest approach to this was in Sparta under the system established by Lycurgus. The education of the Spartan youth was furnished at the expense of the State, it is true, but it was chiefly physical ; the object being to render the men of the country invincible in battle. Even this system was confined to the aristocratic class. The great mass of the people were serfs, and were designedly kept in ignorance and poverty in order that they might be the more easily ruled by the nobles. In Rome schools were abundant, but they also were restricted to the patricians and the wealthier plebeians. In none of the ancient States were the common people regarded as of suflicient importance to be entitled to the benefits of education. Tliey were simply hewers of wood and drawers of water for their aristo- cratic masters, and were looked upon as little better than the beasts of the field. It was not until Christianity became the controlling power of the world that the duty of educating the people as a whole was recognized or taught. The Church of Christ has always been a foe to ignorance, and has at all times branded it as the prolific mother of vice and crime. As soon, therefore, as they were in a position to do so, the bishops and priests began to impress upon their people the duty of teaching the young of all classes. The great and the rich would always find the means of education open to them, but the poor and humble had no such advantages, and the church at once constituted herself their instructor. In the year 529 the Council of Vaison recommended the founding of public scliools in every Christian land, in which all persons might receive instruction. It is true that the recommendation of the Council was not generally observed, and that the clergy as a whole did not carry out the designs of the church with respect to education ; but it is also true that the only schools in existence during those dark ages, in which the poor scholar could find the means of slaking his thirst for knowledge, were those kept open by the church. When Charlemagne came to the throne, at the end of the eighth century, the world was sunk in ignorance. In spite of his love of war and power, his sensual pleasures, and great ambition, his vigorous and comprehensive mind readily appreciated the importance of knowledge to a people, and he resolved that his own should possess it. At the age of forty-five he began to atone for the deficiencies in his own neglected education bv commencing a regular course of study under the learned monk Aicuin. "He established," says Russell, "schools in the cathedrals and principal abbeys, for teaching writing, arithmetic, grammar, and church music; certainly no very elevated sciences, vet considerable at a time when many dignified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils in which they .sat as members, and when it was deemed a suflScient qualification for a priest to be able to read the Gospels and under- stand the Lord's Prayer." The clergy being the most appropriate teachers, 1126 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Charlemagne endeavored to make them more careful in the discharge of their duties. He embraced all classes of the clergy in his vigilant circumspection, and was espe- cially anxious that the lower clergy, who were most immediately in contact with tlie common people, should qualify themselves to be their instructors. In one of his edicts upon this subject he ordained that, " if, after the repeated admonitions of their bishop to improve the poverty of their understandings by study, they should still show no traces of amendment, their ignorance should not only be punished with the loss of their office, but of whatever ecclesiastical preferment they held." By a capitular of 789, and by several successive ordinances, the bishops were ordered to establish two sorts of schools in their respective dioceses. Infant schools were to be established, in which reading and writing were to be taught. Others of a higher grade were to be opened in the cathedi-als and monasteries, in which the arts of music, grammar, logic, and rhetoric were to be taught. The instruction afforded in these schools was to be gratuitous. In A. d. 800 the Synod of Mentz ordered that schools should be established by the parochial priests in every town and village, that " the little children of all the faithful should learn letters from them. Let them recei^ve and teach these with the utmost charity, that they themselves may shine as stars forever. Let them receive no remuneration from their scholars, unless what the parents, through charity, may voluntarily ofier." " Over the progress of the young scholars Charlemagne watched with a degree of attention not to be expected from the multiplicity of liis public concerns ; and he took great delight in examining, with the masters, their different compositions. Having discovered, upon some remarkable occasion, that the children of the poorer classes of the people, whom he had caused to be educated among those of the nobles, left the latter far behind in their studies, he applauded their proficiency, and declared that his favors should be exclusively bestowed on them. Then turning to their high-born fellow-students, he addressed them in words which evinced his fixed determination to stimulate and reward talents, even if they should be deduced from the lowest origin. * It is evident,' says he, ' that you rest your claims to promotion solely upon the merits of your ancestors. Know, therefore, that they have received their recompense, and that the State renounces all obligations, except to those who are capable of promoting her interests and honor by their abilities.' " But Charlemagne died, and when his strong hand was removed there was no one to guide the cause of popular education in the way he had meant it to proceed. The monks became careless ; the great schools survived, but the majority of the smaller ones disappeared. In 1179 the Council of Lateran endeavored to revive the zeal of the church, and ordered that grammar schools should be established in every cathe- dral for the free instruction of the poor. In 1245 the Council of Lyons enlarged this ordinance and made it more binding. It was easy, however, for councils to enact decrees, but difficult to enforce them. In some countries they were entirely neglected ; in others they were obeyed in the larger towns, where excellent schools existed and flourished, always under the control of the clergy. In the smaller towns and country districts the decrees of the councils were neglected. The priests were idle and careless, and the people poor and ignorant. The common school, it will thus be seen, was the outgrowth of the Christian Church. It was designed at the outset to afford a mingled religious and secular instruction. As time passed on the more important establishments developed into the great universities and colleges of Europe. These were capable of extending their benefits but to a small number of the whole people, and while they did noble service to the cause of learning, were not able to carry out the original design of the church in THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1127 educating the masses of tlie people. That was left to the clergy in the common schools. Many of these schools perished, as we have stated. The instruction received at the hands of the clergy by the common people became limited to religious instruc- tion. The priesthood came to the conclusion that so they instructed the people in the doctrines of the church, in the legends of the saints, and trained them to reverence and obey the clergy as the lawful administrators of "Holy Church," it was not necessary to teach them reading, writing, or any of the scholastic arts. Thus the object with which the church had started out was defeated by its own appointed instruments, and the very means it had designed for raising the common people out of the depths of ignorance was made the engine of sinking them lower into that abyss. The reason is well known. The church was becoming corrupt, was neglecting its spiritual ends, and was seeking after temporal power. It was easier to fasten its yoke upon an ignorant than upon an educated people, and so it became the settled policy of the church and the priesthood to discourage and prevent the spread of knowledge among the people. So far was this policy carried that the church became the chief foe of knowledge. Its hatred of it was fanatical. The clergy, who were meant to be the teachers of the masses, became the most ignorant — with few exceptions — of the community. They pursued with a bitter hatred every friend of learning. Only the universities were safe from them. Even Pope Sylvester the Second was pursued to his grave by the fanatical hostility of the monks because of his zeal for learning. " The genius of this famous pontiff'," says Mosheim, "was extensive and sublime, embracing all the branches of literature ; but its more peculiar bent was turned toward mathemat^ ical studies. Mechanics, geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, and every other kind of knowledge that had the least affinity to these important sciences, were cultivated by this restorer of learning with the most ardent zeal, and not without success, as his writings abundantly testify. Nor did he stop here, but employed every method that was proper to encourage and animate others to the culture of the liberal arts and sciences Hence it was that the geometrical figures described by this mathe- matical pontiif were regarded by the monks as magical operations, and the pontiff himself was treated as a magician and a disciple of Satan." The monks zealously spread the story that Sylvester did not die, but was carried off by the devil, to whom he had sold himself for a number of years. The cause of popular education languished until the dawn of the Eeformation. That great movement gave it new life. The Reformers well understood that a people to be virtuous and pure must be intelligent, and they exerted themselves from the first to spread among the masses at least a plain common school education. Luther was especially active in this respect. The ignorance of the people was to him a terrible evil, and ought to be ameliorated at almost any cost. In 1526 he wrote to the Elector of Saxony: "Government, as the natural guardian of all the young, has the right to compel the people to support schools. What is necessary to the well being of a State, that should be supplied by those who enjoy the privileges of such State. Now nothing is more necessary than the training of those who are to come after us to bear rule. If the people are too poor to pay the expense, and are already burdened with taxes, then the monastic funds, which were originally given for such purposes, are to be employed in that way to relieve the people." Melancthon gave Luther his earnest support and co-operation in his measures, and in 1527 assisted him in drawing up the plan for a common school system in Saxony. This system was soon put in operation in that country, and thus Luther had the pleasure of seeing the inauguration of one of his dearest hopes — the free education of the young of all classes. The system was destined to be short lived, however. The 1128 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. breaking out of the Thirty Years' War, in 1618, involved all Germany in the most terrible conflict in which it had ever engaged, and which brought general ruin to the whole country. The Saxon schools were neglected in the struggle and fell into decay. Still, the good effects of Luther's work were not lost. His schools perished, but his system was the germ from which sprang the great modern system of German public education. We have neither the time nor space to describe here the growth of the German schools. We have traced, imperfectly, the progress of free education up to the time when Protestant Germany took up the cause which she has since rendered triumphant. We can do no more at present than ask the reader's attention to the following brief notice of the German system of to-day, which we take from the "American Educa- tional Encyclopaedia" for 1875: "The Prussian system of education, which likewise prevails in most of the German States, is the most complete and thorough of any in the old world. It assumes that it is the right and duty of the State to provide schools, and compels the attendance of all well children between seven and fourteen years of age. It furthermore looks to tlie special preparation of teachers, as far as practicable, for every grade of school, with opportunities for professional improvement and promotion, and guaranty of pecuniary aid when sick, infirm, or aged, and for their families in case of death. The State exercises supervision over all schools, public and private. Formerly the clergy possessed this supervising power to a large extent. The new school law of 1872, however, aimed at the entire separation of school and church, and the withdrawal of school management from the clergy as such. The Minister of Instruction, appointed by the crown, exercises supreme authority in educational matters. Local supervision rests in the provisional authorities, who have the general control of secondary educa- tion, including the gymnasia, ' Realschule,' and primary normal schools. The schools of Prussia are divided by Professor Drove into five general classes : 1st. Primary. 2d. Burgher. 3d. Eealschule. 4th. Gymnasium. 5th. University. " In nearly all the German States, as well as in Denmark and Sweden, persons are prohibited from opening schools or seminaries without undergoing examinations before boards constituted for that purpose. If found qualified, the candidate receives a teacher's license, but in this license the grade of the school he is found capable of teaching is clearly defined, and he renders himself liable to prosecution as an impo.stor if he represents his school in his announcements as of any higher grade than that which his license declares him qualified to teach. The following studies are obliga- tory for all children in Prussia : religion, the mother tongue, including writing and grammar, arithmetic, practical elementary geometry, realien (comprising geography, history, the elements of natural history, and the rudiments of physics), drawing, singing, gymnastics, and for girls, needlework. To each of the last four branches the pupils of the upper classes are required to give two hours weekly. In giving the gymnastic exercises the teachers must follow the course laid down in the ofl5cial manual prepared for the purpose. Prussia was the first country in the world to estab- lish normal schools, the earliest of these dating back as far as 1701. In 1819 it was decreed that ten should be established, one in each province. Now there are eighty- eight. In the whole German Empire there are one hundred and forty-three. The course of training in these professional schools varies from three to six yeans. In 1873 there were twenty-one universities in the German Empire, with 1734 professors and 18,588 students." Scotland was, next to Germany, the country in Europe which after the Reformation gave most care to the education of tlie masses. Its free schools were the work of the THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1129 Eeformaiion, and were among the most potent allies of that great movement. As they grew out of a religious movement, they naturally remained under the control of the clergy. In 1560 -John Knox urged upon the Government the necessity of estab- lishing free public schools in every parish, and advised that they should be supported- by the Kirk and conducted by its ministers. The suggestions of the Reformer were discussed with true Scotch caution, but no action was taken upon them for a number of years. In 1696 the free school system was given a national existence by an Act of the Scottish Parliament, which established a common school in each parish, to be supported in part by the parish and in part by rate bills. These schools were placed under the charge of the clergy. It was not in Europe, but in America, however, tiiat the free public school system was to receive its widest development. The emigrants to the new world were chiefly of English birth and training, and came to America to found a State. They were convinced that such a task could be accomplished only by an intelligent people, and one of their first measures was to make provisions for schools which should afford their children tlie means of fitting themselves for the discharge of the duties of free citizens of a free State. As early as 1621 a " Free Grammar School," as it was called, was established in Charles City, Virginia. In 1636 tlie General Court of Massacliusetts made provision for the establishment of a similar school at Boston, appropriating to this object the sum of £-400, which was equal to a year's rate of the whole colony. In 1637 an order was passed locating the school at Newtown, the name of whicli place was changed to Cambridge, in memory of the university in England where most of the leading men of the colony had received their education. In 1638 regular academic studies were begun, and in 1639 it was ordered that the name of the school be changed to Harvard College, in honor of the Rev. John Harvard, its great benefactor, wlio bequeathed to it the sum of £779 17s. 2cZ. "Free grammar schools" were also founded in New Haven in 1638, in Salem in 1641, and in Eoxbury prior to 1645. All these schools were supported in part by donations of money or real estate, either by towns or indi- viduals, and in part by tuition fees. They were not free schools in the truest sense, as they were free only to the contributors to their support, and to them only in part. Still tliey were a beginning, and from the foundation thus laid sprang the free public school, which is of New England origin. It was the determination of the fathers of New England that knowledge should be restricted to no l;ivored class, but should be accessible to every child, without other payment than the tax imposed upon the parent. Every citizen was to be taxed for the support of the free schools, and was thus to be given a direct interest in their proper conduct. The first free public school was established by the town of Hartford, in Connecticut, prior to the year 1642. The funds for its foundation and support were supplied by the town treasury. In 1643 the authorities of Hartford passed a resolution providing "that the town shall pay for the schooling of the poor and for all deficiencies." In 1647 the colony of Massachusetts Bay enacted the first general law upon the subject to be found on our statute books. It was in the following words : " It is therefore ordered yt every towneship in this jurisdiction, after ye Lord hath increased you to ye number of fifty householders, shall tlien forthwith appoint one within the town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and reade, whose wages shall be paid either by ye parents or masters of such children, or by ye inhabitants in generall by way of supply, as ye maior part of those yt order ye pruden- tials of ye town shall appoint, provided those yt send their children be not oppressed by paying much more yn they can have ym taught for in other towns." 1130 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOUFwCES. The example of Massachusetts and Connectiait was followed by New Hampshire and Vermont, and free schools were established in everj- colony in which there were children enough. These old-time common schools were largely religions in their character. Dr. Kit's says of iliem : '"At first the common school was a strictly church school, a school under the special charge and oversight of the clergyman of the parish or township, and where the children were carefully instructed in the orthodox faith. In the earlr Puritan settlements the schoolmaster, if at all competent, was verv highlv thought of. . . . . The highly educated schoolmaster ranked next to the mimster. It is not imlikely, indeed, that the great rtspcct which, coupled often with very inadequate pay. is found still to attach throughout the States to the office of public school teacher, is derived in part from the old Puritan and Presbvterian feeling in regard to the schoolmaster as a sort of church officer, ranking often, if he were bat learned, not far behind the minister in the ctmsidenition of the parishioners. Be thL<, however, as it may, it is certain that in all the earlier period of the history of the States the school was a strictly religious institution. Ihe schoolmaster in the Presbyterian settlements taught not only the Scripttires, but the Asembly's Catechism ; in the Episcopal settle- ments he taught the Bible and the Church Catechism ; among the Independents and the Quakers he, at least, closely instructed the children out of the Scriptures for generations after the Eastern States were senled." This will be readily tmdetstood when it is remembered that for several generations after the States were settled the clergy represented the best culture to be found among the people of America. Our people have always yielded a willing homage to inteUectual ability, and when the clergy were their most capable guides folk wed them in matters of education as thev did in mo>t tilings else. As the country increased in prosperity and population, and in intelligence, the people began more and more to take their matters into their own hands, and finally, profiting by the lesK>ns of other lands, assumed the control of their 8chooK and made them in the strictest s«ise of the word non-sectarian. The records of the New England colonies show that the public schools were faith- fully and liberally supported. In 1670 the Government of Connecticut could say. in answer to an official inquiry : ■" One-fourth of the annual revenue of the colony is laid out in maintaining the free (common) schools for the education of our children." The Middle and Southern colonies were not so careful of this great catL^e, and as a consequence failed to reap the benefits derived by their Eastern sisters from their fostering care of their schools. The records show that Xew England never murmured at the burdens necessary to the support of these schooL;. The colonies were heavily taxed for the ordinary purposes of government and for the costly wars against the French and the Indians : but however great their bnrdeiL* they never forgot the public schools or failed to provide liberally for them. We have seen that the Thirty Yearr" War broke up the German schools founded by Luther. The New England schools grew up in the midst of constant war, and grew stronger and more prosperous everv year in spite of their daily exposure to the dangers by which they were surrounded. Throughout the Revolution, when the whole country was staggering tmder its load of debt, the public schools were maintained, and the taxes neceseary to their support paid promptly. At the close of the Bevolution the rich western lands of Connecticut came into the market. The sale of these lands by the State would have placed large sums of moneT in the treasury. Connecticut had suffered heavily during the war. She had main- tained a larger number of troop? in the field, in proportion to her poptiLiiion. than any other State, and the return of peace found her poor and with a heavy debt. The THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1131 sale of her^vestem lands offered her a readv means of relief and would have greatly- lightened the load of taxation borne by her people. In this hour of her sorest financial distress she gave a noble proof of her wise care for her children. By a solemn vote of the State Legislature the western lands of Connecticut were dedicated to the cause of education, and a law was enacted providing that the proceeds of the sales of these lands should constitute a permanent school fund ; thus securing a liberal provision for the free schools in the future. The fund now amounts to $2,044,190. The interest on this amount is annually devoted to educational purposes. The example of Connecticut was followed by Massachusetts, which State set apart for educational purposes a part of her wild lands in Maine, which then formed a portion of her territory. At the opening of the nineteenth century the New England school system was arranged as follows : The leading principle was the instruction of all the children in the State in the rudiments of an English education, namely, reading, writing, elemen- tary arithmetic, elementary geography, and grammar. It was sought to accomplish this by the establishment of one or more common schools in every precinct or district containing fifty householders, or even a smaller number. Each district was made independent of the others in the management of its financial affairs, in the hiring of a teacher, the provision of school-houses, text-books, etc. The schools of each town or district were placed under the charge of a superintendent or board of visitors, gener- ally consisting of professional men, and almost invariably including the clergy. These examined the teachers, engaged them, inspected the schools, and selected the text- books. The schools were supported by a general taxation and by rate bills. The poor were expressly exempted from the payment of rate bills, the system being based upon the Connecticut maxim, that " the town shall pay for the schooling of the poor." The town authorities had power to compel the attendance of children of a school age, and to prevent and punish truancy. This system gradually spread into New York and Pennsylvania, and was established in Ohio and the other Western States settled principally by New England emigrants. It was very defective, and failed entirely to make provision for the wants of those pupils who wished to advance beyond the simpler studies of the common school. The charters of the colonies had left their boundaries vague and undefined. Previous to 1781 only six of the original States could determine their boundaries with accuracy. The limits allowed them by their charters extended far beyond the mountains, and embraced large regions which offered many inducements to emigrants from the older communities. One after another the States ceded these lands to the General Government, establishing exactly defined borders for their own territory. It was resolved by the General Government, upon its first acceptance of these lands, that they should " be disposed of for the common benefit of the United States." It was the general desire of the country that the Government should use these lands to assist the cause of education, and in accordance with this feeling the General Government began a generous and liberal policy of assistance to the schools, which it has since steadily carried out. The ordinance of 1785 for the government of the Northwest Territory, and the second ordinance for the same purpose, passed in 1787, set apart "section 16 of every township" for the express purpose of maintaining the public schools. The latter act contained this memorable clause, setting forth the purpose of the General Government in making this donation : "Relicjion, morality, and knowledge being necessanj to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged." Under this law the States of Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, 1132 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. t Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, and "Wisconsin have each received the 16:li section of each township of the lands within their limits. The ordinance was renewed in 1789, after the adoption of the Constitution of tlie United States. In 1848 the General Government decided to increase the amount of assistance extended by it to tlie schools, and the 36th section of every township was set apart, in addition to the 16th section, for school purposes. Tlie States which have received these two sections — the 16th and 36th — are Cali- fornia, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado. Every Territory organized since 1848 has also received these sections. In addition to the grants of these sections to the States, sixteen States have received, in accordance with an Act passed in 1841, 500,000 acres of land each, which some have added to their school fund. These lands were not specially dedicated to educa- tional purposes. The States receiving them were Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oi-egon, Wisconsin. By the Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860 the General Government donated to fourteen States certain lands, generally known as " swamj) lands," embracing an aggregate of 62,428,413 acres. A considerable portion of this grant has been used by some of the recipients for school purposes. Tlie States receiving it were Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis- sippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. The total amount of lands granted by the General Government to the public schools reaches the enormous extent of about 140,000,000 acres. The permanent school fund of the States that have received lands from this source amounts to the sum of $43,866,787, an average of over $2,000,000 apiece. " Nor was tlie fostering care of the Government restricted to the common schools. The men who laid the foundations of our institutions were not guilty of the absurdity of supposing that any system of elementary education, however excellent, could long thrive unless there were vitally joined with it, as a part of the same system, provisions for a broad and generous higher education. They believed and acted upon tlie belief, that a Government established ' to promote the public welfare,' and so constructed as to reflect public opinion, might as wisely and legitimately bestow attention upon advanced education as upon primary; and they would have observed with incredulity, if with no stronger feeling, the painful eflbrts of those philosophers in our own day who labor to show that Government surely ought to promote instruction in the three R's, and just as surely ought not to go a step further. They regarded higher and lower education as equally important, each in its own place, and equally worthy of the patronage and assistance of the General Government. "Accordingly the ordinance of 1787, which has been already referred to, besides its provisions for schools, set apart 'not more than two complete townships of land, to be given perpetually for the purposes of a university.' The two townships thus desig- nated for the support of a university have accordingly been given to every State that has been organized since the becinning of the present century, and Ohio was fortunate enough to receive three — one while a Territory, and two on being admitted into the Union. Florida and Wisconsin appear to have received four each. This was the extent of the aid rendered by the Government to higher education previous to 1862. The 'university' lands thus donated amount to only $1,119,440 acres, and the benefit derived from them has been exceedingly small. In three or four States the fund has been so administered as to produce good results, but in most cases it has profited a small number of individuals rather than the entire community. The State of Ohio, THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1133 for example, so disposed of her three townships that tliey now contribute only $10,000 annually to the support of two ' universities,' while the lands themselves have been rendered forever tax free to the fortunate lessees. " It is a noteworthy circumstance, and, as the result has proved, a grave oversight, that the United States Government, until 1862, attached no conditions to its liberal grants. In that year the Government may be said to have made a distinct and important advance in its method of donating lands for the support of education, by attaching a condition to its gifts. By the Act then passed, as is well known, Congress appropriated to the several States 30,000 acres of the public lands for each Senator and Representative in Congress ; the amount accruing from the sale of such lands to be invested as a perpetual fimd for the maintenance of at least one college in each State, where the principal object should be, ' without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the Legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.' This grant has been extended by supplementary Acts, so as to apply to the States that were in rebellion when the original Act was passed ; and on this basis have been established the institutions which have come to be generally, but not very correctly, known as 'Agricultural Colleges.' A few of the States have not completed the establishment of these institutions, and in some others they have not been long enough in operation to enable them to state results ; but sufficient has been done to furnish the means of estimating their general working, and especially of answering the question how far they have fulfilled and are fulfilling the expectations of Congress in establishing them. " Some apprehension has arisen 'on this point, owing, apparently, to a failure to notice the terms of the law in which the design of the institutions is expressed. A moment's observation will show that the words of the Act, as quoted in the preceding paragraph, are the statement of a comprehensive scheme for promoting the advanced education of the people. The broad purpose is to provide for the 'liberal' as well as the ' practical education of the industrial classes,' and that not in any single direction, but 'in the several pursuits and professions in life.' The 'leading object' is to be the promotion of ' agriculture and the mechanic arts,' not necessarily by training a body of apprentices in manual practice, which experience generally shows to be attended with too many drawbacks in an educational institution, but by teaching ' such branches of education as are related to ' those subjects ; that is, in short, the whole range of the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, with special reference to their applica- tions in those great branches of human industry. " The whole amount of land liable to issue under the Act of 1862 and the Acts supplementary to it is 9,600,000 acres. This land, so far as it has been disposed of, has been sold for an average price of seventy cents per acre, and if the entire amount be reckoned at the same price, the total proceeds will be $6,720,000. This grant of less than $7,000,000 is the sum total of what the Government has done for the institu- tions referred to. "On this basis thirty-five of the States have located institutions, and as four of them have divided the fund, the number of institutions thus established is thirty -nine. Of these thirty-six have been opened, but some of them only a few months. The returns from them are necessarily imperfect, both in respect to material values and internal working. The average value of the Congres.sional endowment of the institutions, as 1134 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. far as ascertained, is $179,645. The maximum endowment is $630,000, and the minimvim $50,000." * Such is the liistory of the aid rendered by the General Government to the common schools and to the liigher institutions of learning. We have deemed it best to present this portion of our narrative entire here, and must now return to the point at which we left the common schools in the earlier years of this century. The defects of the common school system, as it existed at the opening of the century, were evident to all interested in it. But a limited amount of instruction was furnished, and this deteriorated in character, as the routine system of teaching had the effect, in the course of time, of lowering the standard of the schools. In consequence of this they began to suffer in the public estimation. It was evident to the earnest men engaged in the cause that the common school system must end in an ignominious failure unless the evils from which it was suffering could be checked and removed. In 1817 these persons inaugurated a reform movement, which was carried on with great vigor, and which may be said to be still in progress. Between 1821 and 1828 the school systems of most of the New England States were subjected to a careful revision. From 1826 to 1830 conventions were held in nearly all the principal towns of New England, at which the evils from which the common schools were suffering were elaborately discussed and measures proposed for the reme- dying of them. The interest of the people was thoroughly aroused and was kept alive by these meetings, and the press gave its aid and encouragement to the good work of reform. Horace Mann, Henry Barnard and others labored actively to bring about a reform ; teachers' institutes were established, normal schools were founded, and at length a beneficent and sweeping change was effected. A better and more vigorous system took the place of the old one, and the good work embraced not only New England, but all the Northern and most of the Western States. The work of improve- ment has gone on steadily since then, and scarcely a year has rolled by but lias wit- nessed some gain in this respect. There is no national system of free public education in the Union, each State reserving to itself the management of its free schools. However they may differ as to details, the systems of the various States are founded upon a series of fundamental principles common to all, and which may be briefly stated as follows : There is a system of graded schools for each town or district, embracing, 1st. Primary schools for the younger pupils. 2d. Grammar schools for those of more advanced age, in which are taught, in addition to the ordinary branches, philosophy, chemistry, history, and frequently drawing, vocal music, algebra, geometry, and French. 3d. High schools for the still more advanced, in which are taught the studies necessary for a business education, and in most cases the languages and higher mathematics. These schools are placed under the supervision of one or more efficient visitors, who are paid for their services. They ascertain by a thorough examination the qualifications of the teachers, who are employed or dismissed npon their recommendation. In each town or district these visitors, or " Boards of Education," have power to enforce uniformity of text-books, and in most of the States are forbidden by law to change the text-books in use under a given period. Some of the States enforce uniformity of text-books in all the schools within their limits. The local boards have also authority to compel regularity and punctuality of attendance. Provision is made for the establishment of school libraries in connection with the free schools. The local boards select black- boards, maps, charts, globes and other apparatus for instruction, a liberal sum being * "American Educational Encyclopa?dia " for 1875, pp. 15, 17. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1135 allowed for the purchase of these. They are also required to secure the erection of suitable school-houses, arranged in such a manner as to receive proper warmth and ventilation, and constructed so as to promote convenience of instruction. Normal schools are established in every State for the instruction and training of teachers. Teachers' institutes are also held at stated times and places for the exercise and drill of those already engaged in the work of their profession. Teachers' State associatit)ns are organized for the comparison of metliods of teaching and tlie establishment of periodicals devoted to education. In some of the States the schools are absolutely free to all, and are supported entirely by taxation and the interest upon their perinaneiu educational funds ; in others they are supported in part by taxation and in part bv small rate bills, which are abated where the parents of the child are unable to paN'. In such cases the text-books needed, as well as instruction, are furnished to the pupil without cost; so that the schools are practically free even in the States where rate hills exist. This practice, however, is rapidly disappearing. The schools are now abso- lutely free in most of the States and will soon be in all. One great defect of the system is the isolation of the local Boards of Education. Except in Massachusetts and New York there is hardly a shadow of a State system, so called. Even in Massachusetts the State has no power to enforce any regulation concerning the management of the schools in the towns. It can only advise. In some of the States attendance upon school is compulsory. The compiilsory education law of New York, which went into effect on the 1st of January, 1875, is a fair speci- men of the legislation on tliis subject. Its leading provisions are as follows: "All parents and guardians are required to instruct children in their charg?, .or cause them to be instructed, in spelling, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic. All children not physically or mentally incapacitated, between the ages of eight and fourteen years, must attend some public or private day school at least fourteen weeks each year, eight of which shall be consecutive, or they nuist be taught at home fully fourteen weeks each year in the branches named above. ■'No person shall employ any child under fourteen years of age during the estab- lished school hours of the locality, unless such child shall have attended some publiii or private day school fourteen weeks of the fifty -two weeks next preceding any and every year in Avhich such child shall be employed, or shall have been instructed pi home during the time above mentioned, and in the branches above specified. The ■child must deliver to his employer a certificate to this effect in the handwriting of his teacher. The penalty for disobeying this provision of the bill is fifty dollars, to ho paid into the school fund by tlie employer for each offence. "Trustees are required to inspect the situation of all cliildren employed in the manufacturing establishments, in February and September of each year, and to report all violations. Manufacturers are compelled to furnish correct lists of the children in their employ between the ages of eight and fourteen years. "For violating any provisions of this bill one dollar fine shall be paid. For each succeeding violation, after having been properly notified, the offender shall pay five dollars for each and every week's continuance, not exceeding thirteen weeks in any one year. All these penalties are to be devoted to school purposes. " Trustees are required to furnish text-books for the cliildren on the written sl3.lx- ment of parents or guardians that they are unable to do so. " On the statement of any parent or guardian that he or she cannot compel a child to conform to this Act, the latter shall be regarded as an habitual truant and so dealt with. "Boards of Trustees and Instruction arc authorized and directed to make all needful 69 IVM OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. proviidons, arrangementfi, and regulaticiM for the discipline, inslruci^ioa, and confine- ment of habittial truant children found in the streets, Hubject to the approval of the Juinice of the Supreme Court of the district. Two weeks' attendance at a half-term or evening school shall, for all purposes of this Act, which takes effect on the firfet day of January, be counted as one week at a day school." Previous to the war the Southern States, as a rule, were careleas of their public schools. In some of them a system of free common schools could scarcely be said to exist. Many of the larger towns and cities of the South supported excellent free achools, but no such provision was made for the children of the country district'". Apart from its apathy on this subject, the Sknith had a great difficulty to contend with in iti: sparsely settled country, which rendered it impossible in some localities to conduct a school with succeas. At the close of the civil war, when the various State Governments of the South were undergoing the process of reconstruction, advantage was taken of the opportunity to establish in each State a system of free public educa- tion suited to its want«. The embarrassed financial condition of these States made ii impoeoible to carry out the new laws respecting education as promptly or as thor- oughly as was desired, V>ut a fair bejanning was made, which gives promise of great results in the future. In Arkansas and Texa* education is c-ompuL^ory. The black population I* nc* neglected. Some of the Southern States have made lil>eral provision for colored -rchools. Some of these are among the best schools in tlie South. There has been no effort to mingle the two races in the schools, but a generous and far-sighted policy has secured to the colored schools all the advantages enjoyed by the white. In 1874 an effort was made in G>Dgreae to secure the paseage of a measure known an the Civil Eights Bill, which provided, among other things, for the mingling of the two races in the common schools. The bill passed the Senate, but could not command 3 sufficient vote in the House, and so was lost. It was bitterly opposed by the Hfiuthem people, whoee sentiments were condensed as follows by the Memphis Appeal : " ft Ls evident the public school systems of the Southern States cannot survive the enactment of this bill." It was declare^! by many of the best friends of the black race t!iat an attempt to establLsh mixed schfjols in the South would utterly defeat itself. The whites c-ould not be compelled to send their children to such schools, and would he rendered bitterly hor^tiio to all schemes of free public education. Many of the most earnest members of the RepuVjlican party opposed the bill because of this conviction. The educational press of the North and West a-s a nile regarded the bill with extreme disfavor, and urged its withdrawal. The Iowa Scfiool Journal expressed the views of its fellow-workers in the caase of free education, as well as its own, in the following : " In our opinion the bill, should it become a law, will greatly annoy the caase of aJucation in certain parts of the Union. If the law shall be so worded or interpreted as to demand that a school system supported by general taxation shall provide as good schools for the blacks as for the whites, leaving it with the boards and school officers, or the localities, to determine wheiher or not the blacks shall be entitled to seats in the schools provided for the whites, and rice verga, it would meet everj- demand of justice and equality. In Keokuk, in our own State, the Board of Education has provided for a ' colored scrhool,' with suitable buildings and competent teachers. We can see that a law which would step in and break up this distinction, under the plea that the Board has made a discrimination on account of color, would be absurd and foolish in the extreme." The measure having failed, there is good reason to believe that it will not be attempted again. Race prejudices cannot be overcome by Con- gressional enactments, and the fairest and most friendly course to the blacks is to THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1137 secure for them what the whites of the South are willing to concede— equal advan- tages in separate schools. In the South at large there is a very decided willingness t(. give the negroes these advantages, for the whites are now convinced that the prosperity of their States depends upon the education of all their citizens. There will hardly bo another effort made to array the race prejudice of the Southern people against tht system of public education, and we may therefore hope that the progress of education among the negroes will be rapid and satisfactory in the future. The general advance made by the common school system in the past eight or ten years has been very great. The extent and character of it cannot be shown better than by the following statistics of several of the principal States, which we take from the "American Educational Encyclopaedia " for 1875 : " In the State of California the number of school districts in 1864 was G84 ; in 1874 it was 1462. In 1864 the whole number of schools was 754; in 1874 it had increased to 1868. The number of pupils in the public schools in 1864 was 29,416 ; in 1874 it was 97,681. In the former year the sum of $328,338 was paid to teachers; in the latter year these salaries amounted to $1,434,366. In 1864 the sum of $2271 was hpent for school libraries and apparatus; in 1874 the amount spent for this purpose was $29,245. In 1864 the total expenditure for scliool purposes was $483,407 ; in 1874 it was $2,113,356. " In the State of Illinois the progress of eight years is shown by the following figures: In 1865 the number of districts in the State was 10,062; in 1873 it was 11,231. In the former year the number of schools was 10,291; in the latter 11,396. In 1865 the total number of teachers was 17,015 ; in 1873 it was 20,924. In 1865 the number of pupils was 580,304 ; in 1873 it was 662,049. The average monthly salaries of teachers in 1865 were as follows : males $38.09 ; females $24.96. In 1873 they had increased to the following monthly average : males $50 ; females $39. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1865 was $3,193,636; in 1873 it wa.s $7,480,889. "In Iowa the number of schools in 1864 was 6237 ; in 1874 it was 8816. In the former year the total average attendance of pupils was 111,185; in the latter year it was 204,204. In 1864 the amount paid to teachers was $570,115; in 1874 it wai* $2,248,667. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1864 was $761,537 ; in 1874 it was $4,229,455. " In the State of Maryland the comparison extends over but eight years. In 1866 the number of schools in the State was 1219 ; in 1874 it was 1742. The number of teachers in 1866 was 1533 ; it had increased to 2555 in 1874. The total number of pupils in 1866 was 64,793 ; in 1874 it was 130,234. In 1866 tlie sum of $356,680 was paid for teachers' salaries; in 1874 the sum of $889,486 was paid for the same purpose. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1866 was $477,425 ; in 1874 the amount expended for this purpose was $1,354,066. " In Massachusetts the number of schools in the State in 1863 was 4626 ; in 1873 it was 5305. The number of teachers in 1863 was 10,753; in 1873 it was 8449. The average attendance was 181,381 in 1863 ; and was 202,882 in 1873. In the former year the amount of money raised by taxation for the support of common schools was $1,434,015 ; in 1873 this amount was $3,889,053. " The State of Michigan shows a notable improvement in the past ten years. In 1864 there were 4426 school districts in the State. In 1874 the number had increased to 5521. In the former year the whole number of children attending school was 215,736 ; in the latter year it was 324,615. In 1864 the number of teachers was 8816 ; in 1874 it was 11,950. In 1864 the amount paid for teachers' salaries was $591,335 :; 1138 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. in 1874 it was $1,765,068. In 1864 the total amount expended for purposes of educa- tion was $871,671 ; in 1874 it was $3,148,885. " The ten years' progress of Nevada covers the whole period of her existence as a State, the date of her admission into the Union being 1864. In 1864 there were 34 school districts in the State, in which the estimated value of school-houses was $34,733; in 1874 the number of school districts was 62, the vahie of school-houses $69,413. In 1864 there were 1524 pupils in attendance upon the public schools, which employed the services of 37 teachers ; in 1874 the number of pupils was 3372, the number of teachers 76. In 1864 the total school expenditures were $50,732; in 1874 they were $98,468. "In the State of New York the number of school districts in 1864 was 11,717, the number of school-houses 11,712 ; in 1874 the number of school districts was 11,995, the number of school-houses 11,739. In the former year the number of children attending school was 881,184; in the latter year it was 1,030,779. In 1864 the number of teachers employed was 26,888 ; in 1874 it was 29,464. In 1864 the amount paid as teachers' salaries was $3,093,460; in 1874 it was $7,415,181. In 1864 the State paid the sum of $30,468 for the support of colored schools ; in 1874 the amount expended for this purpose Avas $74,611. The total expenditures for school purposes in 1864 amounted to $5,069,250; in 1874 they were $12,088,762. "In the State of Ohio, in 1864, there were 11,810 public schools; in 1874 the number was 14,543. In the former year the number of teachers employed was 20,108 ; in the latter year it was 21,899. In 1864 the amount expended for tuition and incidental expenses was $2,420,940 ; in 1874 it was $5,535,747. The total expen- ditures for educational purposes in 1864 were $2,738,124; in 1874 they amounted to $7,431,975. " In the State of Pennsylvania there were 1825 school districts and 12,566 schools in 1864; in 1874 the number of school districts was 2050, the number of schools 16,305. The number of pupils in the former year was 637,785; in the latter year it was 834,020. The number of teachers in 1864 was 14,688 ; in 1874 it was 19,089. In 1864 the total amount expended for school purposes was $2,218,355 ; in 1874 it was $8,345,836. " In the State of Vermont there were 2682 school districts in 1864, and 2754 in 1874. In the former year there were 76,021 pupils enrolled in the schools ; in the latter year 78,139. The number of teachers emj^loyed in 1864 was 4341 ; in 1874 it was 4406. The total amount expended for school purposes in 1864 was $327,249; in 1874 it was $622,227. " The following figures show the progress of six years in the new State of West Virginia: In 1868 there were 1517 school districts and 1140 schools in that State; in 1874 the number of school districts was 2411, the number of schools 2857. In the former year there were 35,304 pupils attending the public schools ; in the latter year the attendance was 81,100. In 1864 the total expenditures for school purposes were $167,130; in 1874 these expenditures amounted to $748,064." The following table, which is taken from the same source as the above figures, will show the financial resources of the various States at the beginning of 1874, witii respect to the common schools : THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1139 RECEIPTS OF SCHOOLS AND STATE SCHOOL FUNDS. STATES. Alabama Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massaclmsetts Michigan' I Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina. Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin TERKITOBIES. Arizona Dakota District of Columbia Idaho Indian Montana New Mexico Utah Washington Wyoming Income from Total income taxation for •"rora all School Fund. l»7:J. siiurces. $490,604 '«;>67,378 405,404 $55,000 1,4-23,719 2,551,279 1,417,500 137,557 257,557 137,507 1,203,842 1,442,667 2,04:3,375 163,-284 192,397 75,000 116,219 £81,785 108,992 260,432 6,075,097 9,259,441 6,382,000 1,482,279 3,081,773 8,395,1 o5 3,898,702 4,519,088 3,294,742 931,958 1,863,098 3,017,589 838,000 963,121 1,628,123 493,845 67S,373 849,775 1,179,712 312,975 1,0J3,721 1,398,607 315,370 3,889,053 4,206,054 2,127,653 2,.^ 61 ,133 3,939,528 3,124,471 814,891 1,093,706 2,907,624 1,089,685 1,242,308 1,9.50,<'00 1,145,384 1,790,314 7,273,882 111,018 798,660 104,00''( 434,150 502,527 47,192 2,426,705 2,947,068 805,033 10,305,397 11,2.56,895 3,029,5 3 212,-363 408,794 2,187,564 6,739,344 7,705,603 3,562,992 71,152 230,611 452,724 7,548,149 8,248.119 556,250 601,361 45,666 449,968 449,968 1,092,915 1,144,534 415,432 532,110 850,000 1,023,000 1,500,660 693,059 778.991 305,849 1,810,096 2,628,027 2,389,488 4,942 5,849 22,000 22,000 220,514 220,514 20,129 33,013 31,350 33,161 58,621 12,885 127,447 12,000 17,C00 41,180 69.474 From what has been written the reader will be able to trace the rise and progress of the free school system from its birth down to its grand development in the American schools of to-day. We have shown that the free school was the outgrowth of the Christian Church, and was for a long period entirely under the control of the clergy. We have pointed out the evils which arose from such a connection, and have shown, in an imperfect way, it is true, the gradual secularization of the schools. As men have become advanced in wisdom and experience, they have become convinced that the task of conducting the general education of the masses of the people belongs properly to the State. In this country this conviction has led to the withdrawal of the common schools from the hands of the church, and the experiment of making thera strictly secular institutions has been tried and has demonstrated that upon no other basis can the schools be properly or successfully conducted. In our own free land the State does not concern itself with the religiouB beliefs of 1140 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. its citizens, except to secure to each and all full protection and equality under the law. It gathers together in the public schools children of every shade of religious belief. Its object is not to make religious converts — it leaves that ta^^k to the various cliurohei* and to the religious and home influences by which the child is surrounded in its private life — but to fit the young pupil for the exercise of the important duties of a free citizen of a free Republic. It aims simply to give him as good an education a.-* the means at hand will permit, and to save him from the sorrow and degradation of ignorance. It aims to train up an intelligent community as the only means of pre- serving its free institutions. It has no right to attempt the religious training of its children, and it would be a great wrong to them to do so. Such training they ma=»t receive from the religious organizations to which they belong. It cannot undertake to teach all creeds in the public schools, and to attempt to enforce any particular religious tenets in those institutions would be a cruel wrong to the community. Therefore the American people have wisely determined that their public schools shall concern themselves only with the business of secular education. For some years pa.st there has been a persistent effort in certain quarters to force upon the public schools a semi-religious or sectarian character. The sentiment of the nation has set so strongly against this that the advocates of the scheme have been forced to change their mode of attack. It is now proposed that the State shall assume the support of the sectarian schools by appropriating to them the taxes levied upon and collected from the whole people, or by using for this purpose a part of the public school funds, which are the property of the people of each State without respect to religious belief. The American people have learned too well the lessons of the past to listen for a moment to such a demand. They will maintain their noble system of public education imimpaired, and will resist and defeat all attempts to give to it a sectarian character, or to divert its means of support to objects foreign to its design. They are convinced tliat it is the only means of training up an intelligent body of citizens, and that as such it is the very comer-stone and foundation of their liberties and prosperity, and must be maintained in all its vigor and purity, be the cost what it may. THE AMERICAN FLAG. 1141 WONDERS OF NATURE AND ART IN AMERICA. OUR OLDEST INHABITANT. It is believed that the oldest man living within the territory of the Union is Mr. Lomer Griffin, of Lodi, Medina county, Ohio. He is nearly one hundred and seventeen years old. He was born at Granby, Litchfield county, Connecticut, on the 22d of April, 1759. In spite of his advanced age he is hale and intelligent, and rememberH the events of his early life with distinctness. He can recall with ease the incidents connected with the excitement produced in his native town by the breaking out of the American Revolution. Among these he mentions the departure of his brothers from home to enlist in the army, while he remained behind to take care of the farm. He cast his first vote for John Adams for President, having failed for some reason which he does not remember to vote for Washington. Since then he has voted at every Presidential election. His life has been simple and uneventful, having been pissed in plain farmer style. He has never used tobacco in any shape, but until a short while jigo has taken his " bitters " regularly. About forty years ago he lost his right arm by the fall of a tree, but is quite expert with his left. " He dislikes to be bothered by inquiries about his age," says a writer in Harpertf Weekly, " and when a newspaper interviewer questioned him too closely a short time since about Noah's Ark, and the Tower of Babel, the old gentleman quite testily re- sented the impertinence, and advised the interviewer to 'go AVest and kill grasshoppers.' But after a little persuasion and coaxing he became quite communicative, and talked without reserve of his early days and experiences, of the times when only a narrow strip of territory along our eastern seaboard was inhabited, and the greater part of our country was still in the hands of the dusky and savage aborigines. What wonderful changes have taken place all over the world in politics, science and the industrial art« since he was old enough to take an interest in the progress of public affairs! He has lived through changes which we know only from books, and with his own eyes has witnessed the growth of America from its colonial state to its present commanding position among the nations of the world." Mr. Griffin was alive at the close of the year 1875, and his friends were hopeful that he would be spared to witness the Centen- nial of the independence of his country. THE AMERICAN FLAG. There has been much controversy as to the date of the adoption of the Stars and Stripes as the national ensign of the United States. The facts in the case are simply these: A number of flags had been used by the Americans previous to the Declaration of Independence, none of which could be called national. On the 14th of June, 1777, Congress ordered " that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alter- nate red and white ; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, represent- ing a new constellation." The design is supposed to have been suggested by John Adims, who was then Chairman of the Board of War; and it is believed that he ob- tained the idea from the arms of the Wa.shington family, the shield of which represente a white field traversed by two red bars, with three spur rowels or stars in the upper portion. The resolution of June 14th was not made public until September 3d, 1777, and the Stars and Stripes were first displayed conspicuously at the surrender of Bur- 1142 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. goyne in October of the same year. No attempt was made to alter the flag mitil 1794, when it was resolved by Congress that it should consist of fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. The addition of a star and a stripe for each new State was found to be exceed- ingly inconvenient, as it would soon enlarge the flag to ridiculous proportions. In 1817, Captain Eeid of the navy, who had commanded the famous privateer General Armstrong, during the second war witli England, suggested that the number of stripes Ix; fixed at thirteen, in commemoration of the thirteen original colonies, and that a new star be added to the cluster in the Union on the 4th day of July next succeeding the admission of any new State. The suggestion was adopted by Congress, and on the 4(h of April, 1818, became a law. The first flag made under this law was made by the wife of Captain Reid. This lady died in Baltimore, Maryland, about the year 1857. THE ASTOR LIBRARY. On the east side of Lafayette Place, in the city of New York, stands one of the noblest institutions in America — the Library given by the Astors to the city of New York. The library owes its existence to the late John Jacob Astor. For many years he carefully considered the subject, and at his death bequeathed the sum of four hun- dred thousand dollars " for the establishment of a public library in the city of New York." The will provided that the management of the affairs of the institution should be confided to a board of eleven trustees. The building was completed a few years after Mr. Astor's death, and the library was opened in January, 1854. The edifice is ill the Byzantine style of architecture, and is one of the handsomest of its kind in the country. The library room is one hundred feet in length by sixty-four in width, and fifty in height, and is reached by a flight of thirty-six marble steps leading from the iVont entrance. The lower rooms are used for the deposit of public documents and other purposes. The growth of the library was so rapid that in January, 1856, Mr. William B. Astor, perceiving that the original building was not large enough for the purpose contemplated by his father, made a donation of an adjacent piece of land eighty feet wide and one hundred feet deep, and upon tliis erected at his own cost an additional building of the same size and in the same style as the original edifice. As early as the year 1839 Mr. Astor, aided by Dr. Joseph G. Cogswell, Jifttrwanls the first Superintendent of the library, purchased a number of books as the basis of tlie collection he intended to establish. In May, 1848, Dr. Cogswell was appointed Superintendent of the library, in accordance with the known wishes of Mr. Astor. In tiie fall of the same year he visited Europe, authorized to purchase books to the amount of $20,000. He was absent about four months, during which time he collected about 20,000 volumes. These were placed in a building temporarily rented for tlie [)iirpose. By the time the present library building was opened the number of books liad increased to 70,000. The full capacity of the buildings is over 200,000 volumes, and has been nearly reached at the present time. In the selection of books particular care wa.s given to tliose which it was believid would be most useful to a young and growing country. The departments of technoloi; y and bibliography are unusually rich, and that of American history is designed to be one of the chief features of the collection. In linguistics, particularly Oriental, the Astor Library is the most valuable in America. Great care has also been given to natural science, the works on this branch numbering about 7000 volumes, and many of these are rare and castly. Every facility is oflfered to visitors who desire to avail themselves of the advantages OPERATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES MINT. 1143 of the library. A systematic and excellent mode of government has been adopted, which is satisfactory to both officers and visitors. The catalogue of the library will be, when completed, the most perfectly arranged catalogue ever published. It will consist of eight octavo volumes, numbering upward of 500 printed pages each. The first four volumes will be devoted to an alphabetical index of authors' name?, and the remaining four to a systematically arranged catalogue of subjects. A portion of the work has been printed. OPERATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES MINT. The process of coining money, as practised in the United States Mint at Philadel^ phia, and its branches, is deeply interesting. Each deposit of gold and silver is received and receipted for by the Treasurer of the Mint. It is weighed and numbered and sent to the melting room, where it is melted and cast into bars. The object of this process is to convert the mass into a homoge- neous state, so that by an assay piece taken from it the condition of the whole may be a.scertained. After the melting the deposit is returned to the Treasurer, and the assayer, taking a small but stated quantity, ascertained by woiglit, subjects it to an exceedingly delicate chemical test, by wliich he ascertains the proportion of gold or silver which it contains, and thus determines the fineness of the whole. The result is reported to the Treasurer and carefully registered. The fine gold is parted from the mass by dissolving the silver which it contains by means of nitric acid, and precipi- tating it by a solution of common salt. This gives chloride of silver, which is reduced to fine silver by the action of sulphuric acid and granulated zinc. After the separa- tion both the gold and the silver remain in the form of fine powders, and are entirely unlike those metals as ordinarily seen. Upon being melted, however, they as.sume their proper form. The fine gold thus obtained is now mixed with , a stated proportion of copper for alloy, and after being melted is cast into ingots of the sizes suitable for coins. These ingots are examined by the assayer, who certifies to such as are of the standard fine- ness, after which they are delivered by the melter and refiner to the Treasurer. As the metals pass from hand to hand they are charged or credited to the official receiving or returning them, and these accounts are adjusted every year. The Treasurer delivers the certified ingots to the coiner. These ingots are flat metal bars about twelve inches long, one-third of an inch thick, and from three- quarters to one and a half inches in width. The bars are passed through a powerful .steam press, which accurately flattens them into strips of the thickness required for the coins for which they are designed. After being brought to the proper condition the bars are cut by a vertical punch into planchets of the size wanted. The planchets are carefully weighed before being coined. This is done by females, whose delicacy of touch renders them the best persons for this service. The women are seated at a long table, and each one is provided witli a pair of balances and a flat file. If, upon weighing them, the planchets are found to be too heavy, they are brought to the proper weight by drawing the file lightly around the edge, while those that are too light are thrown aside to be remelted. After being thus adjusted the planchets are placed in the milling machine, the effect of which is to crowd up the edge of each piece evenly into a border or rim. Upon being taken out they are annealed and cleaned or whitened. They are now ready for coining. The planchets are a little smaller than the space in which they 1144 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. are placed in the coining press. The force of the die causes them to expand into the collar of the machine and take from it a fluted edge. The completed coins are care- fully examined bj the coiner for the purpose of detecting the imperfect pieces, after which they are counted, put into bags, and finally delivered to the Treasurer. The process of counting is very greatly simplified by means of a counting board invented by an officer of the Mint. Nearly all the machinery used in the Mint is of American invention and manufacture. The steam engine in the coining room is noted as one of the most perfect and beautiful machines ever made. The greatest care is taken to hold all the individuals connected with the Mint to a strict accountability for the metals and coins which pass through their hands, and it is highly gratifying to know that these officials have always been found faithful to their trust. Indeed, the wastage of the metals in melting and refining is generally, for gold, about one-thirteenth, and for silver one-eighth of the amount allowed by law for that purpose. During the year 1874 the operations of the mint and its branches were as follows : Gold coinage, $50,442,690 ; silver coinage, $5,983,601 ; gold bars stamped, $31,485,818 ; silver bars stamped, $6,847,799.18. THE PINY WOODS. In the far Southern States of the Union there are large districts known by this name. They extend generally from sixty to one hundred miles inland from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico through the States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and a part of Louisiana. The region occupied by them is but little cleared or cultivated. The surface is varied, but is barren and sandy throughout. Almost the entire growth is pine. The woods are very dense and in many places majestic, though one soon becomes tired of the sameness of the scene. The borders of the streams are fringed with a thick growth of magnolia, bay, laurel, and other evergreens. The absence of undergrowth allows the eye a wide range through the trees. The smaller swamps or thickets, which are numerous, are known by the inhabitants of the region as " Bay- galls," and these are often the sources of large streams. Here the deer and other game, which desert the open woods, are found in large numbers. A singular feature of these woods consists of circles of trees, of an acre or less in extent, entirely dead, without any apparent cause. This is variously attributed to the ravages of insects or the effects of lightning. The brooks and rivulets of the piny woods consist of the purest and most limpid water, and the atmosphere of the region is singularly healthful and exhilarating. The exhalations from the pine trees are believed to possess properties positively curative of incipient pulmonary disease. THE INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE. America, and especially that portion of it included within the limits of the United States, has made the most extraordinary advance in the great work of civilization ; but there are still large portions of the continent as wild, and peopled by races as barbarous, as when Columbus first set foot upon our shores. On our own western frontier there are races of Indians who are still untamed and dangerous, and who hold the white man their greatest enemy, and prize his scalp as their proudest ornament. These people are not only distinct from the white race, but they are separated from each other by lines as strongly drawn and by customs as varied as those which divide the various nations of Europe. By these customs they can at a glance distinguish THE ICE TRADE. 1145 each other when a white man would fail to perceive any difference. For instance, in order to enable parties roaming across the prairies to distinguish friends from enemies, they have adopted a general system of signs. When two parties of Indians meet on the prairie they halt and commence signalling. The signal to halt is given by raising the right hand with the palm in front, and gradually moving it forward and back several times. When this command has been obeyed, one of the parties will raise the right hand again and move it slowly to the right and left. This means, " Who are you? I do not know you." The other party will then reply by giving the peculiar signal of the tribe to which they belong, and if this be not understood the questioning party will ask if they are friends by raising both hands grasped in the manner of shaking hands, or by locking the two forefingers firmly while the hands are held up. If friendly the other party will respond with the same signal, but if enemies they will probably disregard the command to halt, or will give the signal of anger by closing the hand, placing it against the forehead, and turning it back and forth while in that position. The nationality of a party is signalled as follows, which will be better imderstood by the reader when it is remembered that the name of each Indian tribe has a par- ticular signification. The Comanche, or " Snake," is indicated by making with the hand a waving motion in the air in imitation of the crawling of a snake. The Cheyenne, or " Cut Arm," by drawing the hand across the arm to imitate the cutting it with a knife. The Arapahoes, or "Smellers," by seizing the nose with the thumb and forefinger. The Sioux, or " Cut-throats," by drawing the hand across the throat. The Pawnees, or " Wolves," by placing a hand on each side of the forehead, with two fingers pointing to the front, to represent the narrow, sharp ears of the wolf. The Crows by imitating the flapping of the bird's wings with the palms of the hands. The Indians do not confine themselves to these purposes in their sign language. They have a pantomimic vocabulary which is exceedingly graceful and simple, and which is understood and used with great facility and accuracy by all the tribes from the Gila to the Columbia, the motions and signs to express ideas being common to all. It is a singular fact that this Indian sign language bears a striking resemblance to that used by the deaf mutes in our public institutions. General Marcy, of the United States army, states that he described a buffalo hunt to the pupils of one of these insti- tutions, using the Indian sign language, and that the pupils understood him perfectly, with the exception of mistaking a buffalo for a deer. By means of these signs the Indians, whose sight is keen and practised, can com- municate with each other at considerable distances and in the presence of an enemy. Indeed, the closer we study their customs the more we are impressed with the fact that necessity, " the mother of invention," has supplied them with expedients which equal many of our own in ingenuity. THE ICE TRADE. The business of gathering, storing, and selling ice has become such a commonplace affair in our country that our readers may be surprised to find it included among the remarkable things of this wonderful land. But as such, indeed, it deserves to rank. The principal supplies of ice are collected in the Northern States, and are obtained from the fresh-water rivers, the smaller lakes, and the New England "pond"," from the upper Mississippi to the Canada line. The more important firms engaged in the business pursue a uniform and exact system, which is very interesting and admirably adapted to the purpose. When the ice has reached a thickness of nine or ten inches 1146 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. for home use, or twenty inches for exportation, the snow, or rough upper crust, is shaved off by means of a metal scraper which is drawn over it by a single horse. An instrument, or plow, armed with several sharp blades placed at regular distances from each other, is drawn over the ice, and then drawn over it a second time at right angles to the tirst lines, dividing the field into small blocks twenty-two inches square. In some cases the size of the blocks is twenty-two by thirty-six inches. A plow of deeper blade is then drawn over the ice in the lines made by the first plow, sinking just deep enough to leave the ice adhering firmly together until the final operation. In the smaller establishments the final cutting is done by means of a hand-saw. An ice- spade completes the final separation of the blocks, and they are pushed by means of a pike into the open water and conveyed to the shore. Here the blocks are carried by the aid of steam power up an inclined plane to a gallery, from which they are lowered into the ice-house in regular rows. The ice-houses are situated immediately on the shore of the water where the "harvest" is made. They are substantially constructed, and are very large and spacious, frequently exceeding 20,000 tons in capacity. There is an ice-house at Athens, on the Hudson, which holds 58,000 tons, and there are two at Rockland Lake, New York, holding 40,000 tons each. There are about fifty of these huge buildings around Fresh Pond, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The cutting season is very short, and all hands are kept busy. The work is carried on day and nighl, and the number of men engaged often amounts to several hundred. These, aided by the steam power employed in lifting the ice from the water to the houses, cut and pack about 600 tons in an hour. The scene is animated and exhil- arating, and never fails to draw large crowds of spectators to witness it. The first attempt to make American ice an article of commerce was made by Mr. Fredez'ic Tudor, of Boston, who, in 1805, sailed from that port in his own brig for Martinique, with a cargo of 130 tons of ice, which he obtained from that part of Lynn which was then called Saugus. Mr. Tudor derived no profit from this business until the close of the second war with England, when he obtained the monopoly of the Havana trade. In 1817 he introduced his business into Charleston, South Carolina ; in 1818 into Savannah, Georgia ; and in 1S20 into New Orleans. About 200,000 tons of ice are annually shipped from the port of Boston alone at present. About one-half of this amount is sent to the Southern States. Besides this. New York and several other cities are engaged in exporting ice. A great quantity of ice is also obtained from the great lakes and shipped down the Mississippi. The ice-boats ascend to the vicinity of Peru, Illinois, in the autumn, where they are filled during the winter, and allowed to freeze up in the river. They are released by the spring thaw, and float down the river into the Mississippi with their freight. A large part of the Southern States draws its ice supply from this source. AN AMERICAN ENTERPRISE. The Express system, now so necessary to the wants of our country, is decidedly an American institution. It was begun, like many great enterprises, in a very modest and unassuming way. On the 4th of March, 1839, Mr. William F. Harnden, of Boston, made his first trip from that city to New York as a public messenger. His route was from Boston to Providence by railroad, and thence by steamer, via Long Island Sound, to New York. He had charge of a few booksellers' bundles and orders, and some packages belonging to brokers, containing Southern and Western bank notes to deliver or exchange. For these services he charged a moderate compensation. THE CHICAGO LAKE TUNNEL. 1147 and his enterprise soon grew so popular that he proposed to take charge of freight, the speedy delivery of which lie guaranteed. For this purpose he made a contract with the Providence Railroad and the steamers connecting with it, which enabled him to make four trips per week. His scheme offered so many advantages to business men and others that it soon became firmly established. This was the origin of the express system, which, commencing thirty-six years ago with a capital of about five dollars, employing one man, and embracing but one route of less than 200 miles, now commands over $20,000,000 of capital, employs about 10,000 men, and traverses each day nearly 40,000 miles of railroad, besides the steamboat routes. Besides the home traffic, some of the companies send out expresses by every steamer to Europe, and receive them from the Old World with equal regularity. The advantages of the system are incalculable, and it may be safely asserted that the business of the country could not be transacted without it. A merchant sending goods to a distant buyer may ship them by an express, the proprietors of which will guarantee their safe delivery far in advance of the time that would be consumed by the ordinary freight lines; be responsible for any loss or injury of goods; and, should the merchant desire it, will collect the amount of his bill on the delivery of the goods, and remit it to him within a few days, at a moderate charge and without trouble to him. The business of the express companies is conducted with the most perfect order and precision. Each man has his place and separate specified duties. There is no conflict of authority, no confusion ; everything goes on with clock-like regularity. Every charge made by the company for transportation is entered, with the date, upon the way bill, at the office or station from which it is forwarded. The address of each package is entered in full, with the value of the package and the sum charged by the company for transporting it. ICach agent retains copies of his way bills, which copies are carefully preserved, and after a certain time forwarded to the main office of the division, where they are filed away. Every package received by an agent is compared with its appropriate entry in the way bill accompanying it. If correct, it is checked off; if wrong, information of the error is sent to the office from which it was shipped, and the mistake promptly rectified. The companies transport their freight in their own cars, paying the various roads a stated sum per annum for this privilege, and these cars form a part of each fast express or mail train. Every express car or train is accompanied by a " messenger." To the agent of every station he delivers what the way bill calls for, and receives the freight to be forwarded from that point to the stations further on. All this is done at the stations during the ordinary pauses of the trains. The main ofiices of the various companies are located in New York. Their routes extend throughout the Union, every railway station being an express office. When we consider the vast amount of energy and executive ability and tact engaged in the management of the tremendous business of the various express companies we may well be proud of an institution which reflects so much credit upon ihe mercantile community of the Union, and which has done so much to develop the industry and wealth of the country. THE CHICAGO LAKE TUNNEL. One of the most remarkable public works in this or any other country is the great tunnel under Lake Michigan, by means of which the city of Chicago is supplied with pure water. It is a tiiumph of engineering skill of which any country might be 1148 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. proud, and will always remain a noble monument to the intelligence and enterprise of the great West. For many years Chicago labored under a serious disadvantage with regard to its supply of drinking water, which retarded the growth of the city and impaired its healthfulness. The drinking water of the city was obtained from sources which were poisoned by the drainage of its sewers. There was but one way to remedy this evil, and that was to obtam pure water from the lake at a distance too far from the city to admit of the liquid being rendered impure by contact with the drainage of the city. The municipal authorities set to work in concert with competent engineers to accom- plish this, and the result of their efforts is the wonderful lake tunnel. It was resolved to sink a shaft into the bed of the lake at a distance of two miles from the city, and to connect this shaft with the water-works by means of a tunnel under the bed of the lake. The lake bed was carefully examined, and it was ascer- tained that underneath the top layer of soft mud was a continuous stratum of hard blue clay, which would give a firm and solid support to the proposed tunnel. Ground was broken on the 17th of March, 1864. A shaft was sunk at each end, on shore and in the lake. The work on shore was easy enough, but the lake shaft required all the skill and courage of the engineers in charge. A huge wooden crib or coffer dam was built on shore and towed to its destination. It was heavily armored with iron, and was built as strong as human ingenuity could make it, and was provided with water tight compartments which could be filled with stone in order to steady it in itfl place in the lake. It was sunk in about thirty-five feet of water, which left about five feet of the structure above the surface of the waves. It was then fastened securely to huge screws driven ten feet into the bed of the lake. In the centre of this crib was a well or open space, twenty-five feet in diameter, tlirough which the shaft was to be sunk. The shaft was to be driven through the well of the crib thirty feet into the bed of the lake, making the depth in all sixty-six feet below the surface of the water. Seven cast-iron cylinders, each nine feet long, nine feet in diameter, and weighing about thirty thousand pounds each, were prepared for this purpose. One of these cylinders was suspended in the well, another was bolted on to it with a water-tight joint, and the cylinder was lowered and another fastened in the same way. The process was continued until the shaft, a solid iron tube, sixty-four feet deep, rested on the bottom, and forced its way by its own weight through the soft mud down to the hard blue clay beneath. Then the water was pumped out, the top closed, the air exhausted by a powerful steam engine, and the tube driven by atmospheric pressure down to the desired depth in the lake bed. The shore end shaft was easily sunk. A cast-iron tube, similar to that used in the lake, was sunk to a distance of twenty-seven feet, making it lower than the lake shaft, causing a descent of two feet to the mile in tlie tunnel. The work of excavating the tunnel was then begun at both ends. The tunnel is nearly a true cylinder of five feet diameter. It is walled up with the best of brick, and lined with cement eight inches thick. "A narrow railway was laid from the foot of each shaft as the work progressed, with turn-out chambers for the passage of meet ing trains ; and small cars, drawn by mules, conveyed the excavated earth to the hoisting apparatus, and brought back at every trip a load of brick and cement. The men worked in gangs of five at the excavation ; the foremost removing a drift in the centre of the tunnel, about two and a half feet wide, the second breaking down the sides of the drift, the third trimming up the work to the proper shape and size, and the last two loading the earth into the cars. The bricklayers followed closely, only a few feet behind the miners. About one hundred and twenty-five men were employed, THE MOUNT WASHINGTON RAILWAY. 1149 in three relays, working about eight hours each, the only cessation being from twelve o'clock Saturday night to twelve o'clock Sunday night. A current of fresh air was constantly forced through the tube by machinery. It is remarkable that no accident from earth, gas, or water, occurred in the whole course of the work, sufficient to inter- rupt its progress." The mining parties joined their work on the 17th of November, 1866. The accuracy with which the two lines of excavation met is something remarkable in the annals of engineering. The centre lines coincided within nine and a half inches, and the floors were joined with a difference of only one inch. Water is let into the lake shaft by three gates. These are situated at different heights and on different sides of the shaft. The lowest is five feet from the bottom of the lake, the next ten, and the third fifteen feet. These gates can be opened or shut at pleasure. A solid granite structure will eventually enclose the lake shaft to protect it from the violence of storms, and the whole will be crowned with a light-hou?e. The water enters the lake shaft and flows through the tunnel into the shaft at the shore end, from which it is raised to the distributing reservoir by the pumping engines of the water-works. By means of this great work an unlimited supply of the purest water is furnished to the city. The great fire of 1871 destroyed the water-works, but did not injure the shaft or the tunnel, and the supply of water was interrupted only during the time occupied in restoring the water-works to their proper condition. The cost of the entire work was about one million of dollars, but its real value to the city cannot be estimated in figures. THE MOUNT WASHINGTON RAILWAY. Mount Washington is the highest of the White Mountain range, its summit being 6226 feet above the level of the sea. It has long been a favorite resort for tourists, as from its highest point may be obtained a view embracing in its extensive range the better part of New England. Formerly the long and difficult ascent was made on horseback. The summit is now more easily and agreeably reached by the Mount VV'ashington Railway. This road is a triumph of engineering skill. It was designed by Sylvester Marsh, an American engineer, and was built under his superintendence. The work was begun in 1866, and the road was completed and opened to the public in the summer of 1869. It has proved a complete success, and has revolutionized mountain travel in many parts of Europe. It was the model of the road up the Rhigi, in Switzerland, which is now patronized by nine-tenths of the visitors to that region. The railroad is nearly three miles in length. It starts from the base of the moun- tain at a point about 2668 feet above tidewater, and ascends 3625 feet, to the summit of the mountain. For a considerable part of the way the road ascends the side of the mountain in a straight line from the starting point, and then winds around the side in a zigzag until the summit is reached. The maximum grade is 1980 feet to the mile, or a little more than one foot in three, and the average is nearly one foot in four. The road is built in the most substantial manner of massive timbers, interlaced and bolted, and resting on the solid rock of the mountain side. It is a model of strength and careful workmanship, and it is difficult to imagine how it could give way. It seems to every test almost as firm as the rocks upon which it rests. The track consists of the usual rails, and of a centre rail of peculiar construction, designed to receive the motive power. It consists of two bars of iron with connecting cross pieces at a distance of every four inches. A centre cog wheel on the locomotive 1150 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. plays into this rail, and secures a sure and steady mode of ascent and descent. The teeth of the cogwheel fit so closely and firmly into the centre rail that it is impossible for the locomotive to move without a revolution of this wheel. In case the machinery of the locomotive should break down, the brakes which connect with the cogwheel are so constructed as to hold it firm and enable it to retain its grip on the centre rail. The driving wheel of the locomotive is geared directly into a smaller wheel, whicii connects directly with the crank. Four revolutions of the engine are required to make one of the driving wheel, thus sacrificing speed to power. The engine is not connected to the car, but simply pushes the car up the track. On the return it allows the car to follow it at a slow rate of speed. The ascent is slow and gradual, occupying about two hours, and affording ample time to enjoy the magnificent view, which in fair weather spreads out before the rtjurist, growing wider and grander at every successive stage of the ascent. Few who have made the ascent will ever forget the peculiar sensations experienced in this almost perpendicular climb. The engines and cars used are of peculiar construction. Strength and safety are the chief considerations, and to these objects mere beauty and comfort are sacrificed. THE NEW YORK CLEARING HOUSE. The intricate and gigantic financial operations of the great monetary centre of the Union have been greatly simplified by an institution known as the " Clearing House," which fairly merits a place in this collection of remarkable things. The building used and owned by the Clearing House stands at the corner of Nassau and Pine streets. Its exterior is of brownstone. It is five stories in height, having a frontage of thirty-seven feet on Nassau street, and a depth of eighty feet on Pine street. The first floor is leased to the Tenth National Bank, but the remainder of the building is used for Clearing House purposes. The interior decorations are very handsome, the rooms are large, lofty, and elegantly furnished. A spacious stone stairway on Pine street leads from the entrance to the upper stories. The first room on the right on the second floor as the visitor enters is the settling room. Next to this is the bank officers' parlor, where the meetings of the association are held. In front of this room are two smaller ones overlooking Nassau street, the corner room is a library and reading room, and the one adjoining is the manager's room. From this last a private stairway leads to the clearing room, which extends the entire length of the building, being lighted by numerous windows opening upon Nassau and Pine streets, and by a handsomely decorated skylight overhead. The gallery at the rear is set apart for the proof clerks. From this gallery the manager, whose desk is located there, gives the signal to begin the operation of exchange. Before the New York Clearing House was established, the business of presentation was done by messengers. One bank would send to another its daily accumulation of drafts, and it, in return, would deliver whatever checks it held, which were due at the counter of the sending bank. Instead of settling daily, the account was allowed to run for a week, when the creditor bank drew its check upon the debtor hank, and the latter paid the amount in coin. By way of adjusting accounts a creditor bank would endorse a settlement check over to one to which it was indebted, thus transmitting as little bullion as possible. The time of many messengers was wasted by this unsys- tematic practice, and an intricacy of accounts was the inevitable result. Hence the dawning of the Friday settlement day invariably discovered all bank officers in a state of fear and trembling, an indisposition which was only relieved by the knowledge, at THE NEW YORK CLEARING HOUSE. 1151 the close of business, that their affairs were still prosperous, and that there was now another week before them in which to eat, drink, and be merry. At length an organization was devised, pondered, and finally adopted, the workings of which amply equalled the fondest hopes of its projectors. This society was called the New York Clearing House Association. Now, instead of employing an army of messengers to scour all parts of the city, eacli bank sends two clerks to a stated place of meeting, where are assembled an equal number of clerks from every associated bank. One of these clerks attends to the settling, that is to say, he receives from the delivery clerks of the other banks the debits which have accumulated against his own. Tlu-. other, wlio is intrusted with all the debits held by his bank against each of its a8.«o- ciates (which debits are made up into separate packets, one packet for every bank), makes the delivery ; in other words, he places the packets containing checks against bank number one into the hands of number one's receiving clerk, and so with number two and number tliree, until all his packets have been distributed. Each bank knows the total amount of checks against other banks which it sends to the Clearing House, it only remains for the settling clerk to ascertain how much shall be taken away. The amount of checks one bank produces against all the others is credited to it on the books in the Clearing House ; the amount all the others produce against it is charged to it. If the amount brought by any bank is in excess of the amount taken away, the balance resulting from sucli exchange, which is manifestly hi its favor, is paid to it by the Cleai'ing House. In a reversal of the case, the latter would collect from the former. This association was established and its constitution adopted more than twenty years ago, and consisted of fifty-one banks as associate members. At present the number is fifty-nine. During the intervening time fourteen of the banks have failed, or otlier- wise liquidated their business. Of the banks and banking institutions in New York and its suburbs, possessing no membership in the Clearing House, forty-seven partici- pate in its benefits by having their redemptions made through some one of tlie asso- ciate members. A Chairman and Secretary of the association are elected annually, also a standing committee, composed of five bank officers, whose duties are to guard the interests of the banks, appoint a manager, and engage the requisite clerical force, all of which latter, as well as tlie clerks sent from the banks, being, while at the Clear- ing House, under the manager's control. Three long counters, four feet high, extend nearly the entire length of the room, leaving a space in front for a passage-way. These counters are divided by iron railings into spaces wide enough to allow standing room for the per-son who receives the packets, and in front of each desk is the name and number of the bank whose clerk is the occupant. Each bank is assigned a certain desk or division of counter, wliich it retains during its membership. The hour of ten A. M. is the time for making the exchange. Before that time eveiy bank must have sent two clerks to the Clearing House. Wlien the volume of busine.>-s is large, a tliird accompanies them to receive the packets, while the actual settlinff clerk, whose duty that usually is, puts the amount upon its balance sheet. The exchanges, or packets for delivery, are made up in each bank the day previous, by clerks of the second and third teller's departments, and the total amount of each is written on the outside of the packet. The settling clerk brings with him to the Clearing House a sheet of paper called a statement, which contains a list of the banks with the amount of the packets which the delivery clerk is to hand to the other banks. Upon entry, the footing of this statement is handed to one of the proof clerks, so that, before the work of exchange has been completed, part of the proof may be ready, 70 1152 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. This proof consists of a list of total amounts sent by each bank, set against the total amounts taken away by them. If the work has been done correctly, these debtor and creditor columns will agree, and the debtor and creditor balance columns also. THE OIL REGIONS. About the close of the civil war it was discovered that certain portions of the United States were rich in petroleum oil, or, as it is more commonly called, coal oil. The discovery created an excitement which can be compared only with that occasioned bv the discovery of gold in California. Thousands flocked to the oil regions ; lands that were before considered almost worthless were sold for large sums if they were found to contain the precious deposit ; and vast amounts of money were invested in operat- ing the wells that were sunk for the collection of the oil. The excitement has long- since subsided, and the oil regions have passed out of the period of feverish specula- tion into the calm and settled repose of legitimate and steady industry. Their business has not fallen off, however, but has grown in bulk and value every year. Many parts of the country contain petroleum wells, but the true oil regions are situated in the northwestern corner of Pennsylvania, towards the shores of Lake Erie. They lie mainly in Venango and Crawford counties, beyond the Allegheny river. This region, at the time of the discovery of its oil wells, was comparatively unsettled -.ind unimportant. It is now the centre of a large and active population, and new towns, some of them of considerable importance, have sprung up in it. Corry and Oil City have grown up in the last ten years, and are thriving towns, and Meadeville and Franklin, places of older date, have become centres of large and profitable business operations. Corry is a place of 4000 inhabitants, and is almost entirely devoted to the oil business. Long before reaching the oil regions, the traveller encounters evidences of his approach to them in the long trains of cars bearing the oil to the markets of the Union. As he continues on his way, the whole country assumes a greasy appearance, and is redolent with the odor of petroleum. Once in the oil regions he hears nothing dis- cussed but " wells," " oil," and " oil stocks," smells nothing but petroleum, the scent of which pervades everything, and seems to cling to every person and object in the whole district. Franklin, built on the site of the old French Fort Venango, Corry, and Oil City are the principal centres of the trade of the region, but the wells are scattered through the country, lying chiefly along French, Sugar, and Oil creeks. Whichever way one turns he may see the large cone-like structures for the pumping machinery of the wells rising against the sky, singly in some places, in groups in others. The wells are sunk by means of boring machinery to a considerable depth, until the stream of oil is reached. During the first years of the business some of the wells were so active that the oil spouted a few feet above the surfece of the ground, like the stream of an artesian well. This extraordinary activity has ceased, and the oil now lies in a thick crude state at the bottom of the wells, from which it is raised by steam pumps, and conveyed into tanks prepared for its reception. It is then subjected to a process of. refining by which the pure oil is freed from the coarser mixture. It is then drawn off into barrels and shipped to the market. Some of the refineries are very extensive, and refine about 300 barrels of oil per day. All the oil, however, is not refined in the oil regions. The crude petroleum is shipped in bulk to Pittsburg, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and other large cities and there refined. The city of Pitts- burg turns out about $11,000,000 worth of refined oil every year. AMERICAN GLASSWARE. 11.03 AMERICAN GLASSWARE. Our country has become famous for its glass manufactories, which turn out in great quantities every species of glassware from the coarse green bottle to the most delicate and costly articles of table use or ornament. In the year 1870 there were 201 estab- lishments in the United States engaged in the manufacture of glass, employing 15 812 hands and a capital of $14,111,642, and producing annually wares" valued at $19,235,862. In the manufacture of glass the highest skill and the utmost care are necessary. The furnace must be constructed with the greatest precision and of the best materials. The crucibles are made of clay, and must be prepared witli care, must be without a flaw, and must be set in the furnace in the most exact manner. One of the principal materials used in the manufacture of glass is kelp, or the calcined ashes of sea-weed. It is first put into a calcining furnace, where it is kept for twenty-four hours at a red heat, and then into cold water. After tliis it is sent to the mixing room and mixed with carbonate of soda and either lime or sand. The mixture is tlien placed in the crucible, which has been brought to an intense decree of heat. As it melts more is added to it until the crucible is tilled. The heat is then increased and the mixture brought to a liquid state. It is then clear gla.ss. This process is termed " founding," and occupies from twenty-four to thirty hours. At the end of this time the fire is slackened for two hours to enable the skimmer to clear or clean the surface, after which the mass is ready for the workmen. The gatherer takes a hollow tube of iron about five or six feet in length, and having heated one end of it, gathers thereon a quantity of the melted glass sufficient for the use that is to be made of it. He works this and expands it by drawing it out and blowing through the tube, and then passes it to the blower, who fashions it by blowing through the tube and forcing out the soft metal into a hollow mass, and bv shaping it with the instruments provided for that purpose, turning the tube and with it the mass rapidly all the while. In this way the soft hot glass is formed into the myriad shapes that delight the eye. Until within a period not many years back, and within the memory of the majority of workers in glass of to-day, the finest vases, goblets, decanters, and the most delicate-stemmed wine-glasses were blown by a workman who afterwards shaped them by rolling tlie blow-pipe holding the heated mass alternately to and from him rapidly, and applying to the hot metal a tool not unlike a pair of shears. The workman generally sat on a stool between two rails, known as the bullion bars, upon which he rolled his blow-pipe, passing it rapi'D ITS RESOURCES. proper shape, or a mass of melted glass is placed in the mould and pre:>ped into shape by an iron in.-irument made to fit in the mould. The re!?uiL= of the new procea?, embracing as thev do evervthing from plain to the DKkit delicate and intricate desigits in foliage and figtnres, are pre*ed in moulds made of iron, the prodnction of which involves the expe^iditure of much labor and nionev. The moold for the goblet, 5rraw-*tem wine-glass, or rambler, that maj be procnred for the merest trifle, cot^t* from S-50 to $150. The cost of mooldi: for a fuU set of glaasware is sometimes as much as $3000. American ingenuity has fumUhed ns the means of decorating our tables, at a trifling ouilaj, with articles any one of which the sovereigns of the ancient world would have regarded as a great treasure. The tools in general u=e in the glass factories are very few and are simple in con- »fruc-iion. They consLn, in the main, of the blow-pipe, of wrought iron, four or five feet in length, by which the molten mass is caught up from the pots : a pnnty. or rod of iron, which receives the article on its end when knocked from the pipe : spring tongs used to fashion ribbons of glass into handles : pucellas, or heavy spring shears, which are employed to give shape to the articles ; the battledores of wood to assist in wiaping ; compares, measuring stick and caliper?. When a piece has been nearly fiRLshed on the pipe, a little red-hot lump of glass is dropped on the end an3 the punty applied. A slight blow on the pipe releases the vessel, and it is afterwards handled by the punty until that, in turn, is no longer necessary. When the various article* are finished as to shape and size, they are put into the annealing ovens for a few hours, tr.er which all the rougline^ is filed or rubbed off. The delicate engravuig and the mughness of surface so much admired in glassware are done by means of a water or sand wheel, the figures having been previously traced on the surface. This is a very delicate operation, requiring great delicacy of touch as well as skilful workmanship, a? the slightest slip of the hand or inequality of pressure may shaner the glass into a thoa^nd pieces. The manniactDre of glas in this country was begun in Xew England. In 179<» Robert Hewes. a citizen of Boston, built a factory in a forest of New Hampshire, clr>se to the Massachusetts line. HLs only production was window glass of a poor quality, aad his enterprise resulted in failure. In 1800 another factory for the prodnction of crown window jlass was started, but it, like its predecessor, was imsuccessfal. It wa> not until 1803. when a German named Lint undertook the manufacture, that it proved guccessfhl, the State of Massachusetts paying a bounty for every plate manufactured. Since then the business ha= grown rapidly, and has spread into other parts of the C'Xmtry. THE NEW YORK POST-OFFICE. The massive granite edifice now occupied by the New York Poet-Office and the Ignited States Courts is by far the finest building in the metropolis of the Unicm. The eicavations for the for.ndations were begim on the 9th of August, 1369, and the edifice wxs completed in the autumn of 1875. The work was delayed very greatly during its first years for want of funds, CongresB being very slow in making the necessary appropriations. The total cost of the building was §8,000,000, which Ls reasonable enough considering its immense size, its beauty, and strength, and the magnificence of its internal decorations. The building is a triangular structure, the three sides of which front on the City Hall Park. Broadway, and Park Row, respectively. The Park Row front is 278 feet long, and the other two fronts are 280 feet each in length. The extreme length of the THE NEW YORK POST-OFFICE. ll^JS building from the Park front to the opposite extremity is 286 feet. The height from the sidewalk to the lantern on the south end of the building is 195 feet, to the pavilion 1 40 feet, and to the dome 182 feet Below the sidewalk are a basement and a cellar, tlie cellar being 7 feet and the basement 14 feet high. Above these are five stories, t!ie first, second, and fifth of which are set apart for the Post-Office, and the third and fourth for the Courts and offices connected with them. The first story is 29 feet high ; all the other stories are 22 feet, with the exception of the District and Circuit Com: rooms, which rise from the second to the fourth floor. The portion of the building devoted to the Post-Office is admirably arranged for the transaction of the immense business of the department and for the accommodation of the public. The ba-sement is the large working room of the Post-Office, where the mails are opened and packed, newspapers assorted, and all other work of that nature performed. A number of semicircular frames called "ovens," filled with pigeon holes — 200 to 250 pigeon holes being in each "oven" — are among the principal features of this portion of the building. The pigeon holes are made unusually lai^e, so that letters and packages can be thrown in with the greatest possible rapidity. Twenty large tables are also placed here for the purpose of emptying the mails upon them. On the southwest side of the basement is a large iron storeroom for the purpowe «>f holding all the mail bags in the United States not in use. Wardrobe and other accommodations for the employes are also liberally provided in this portion of the building. The floor on the street level is divided into corridors for the accommodation of the public and a large hall for the work of the office. The boxes and windows for the delivery of mail matter and for the sale of stamps and envelopes are on this floor. Partitions fifteen feet high divide the working space for the clerks from the wide cor- ridors for the accommodation of the public. On the Broadway side are the receptacles for drop letters, where a new feature has been introduced which will, if properly carried out, greatly facilitate the business of despatching the mails and serve as a .school of geography for those who daily post a great number of letters. The openings for the reception of mail matter are labelled with the names of the various States of the Union, and special drops arc provided for the principal cities. By means of these drops persons mailing letters assist in assorting the immense mail that daily passes Ihrouo-h the New York office. Some idea of the size of this mail may be gained from the following statement: The average number of domestic letters received and distributed daily by the New York office is 300,000 ; the number of foreign letters received 30,000; the number despatched 35,000; and the number of local letters received and distributed 120,000. The Postmaster's private office is in the second story. He occupies a large room in the southwest front and a smaller one on the same side near tiie Park Row front. The office of the Assistant Postmaster is also on this floor. These offices are finely decorated. The rooms facing Broadway on this floor are occupied by the Post-Office Money Order Department. One of these rooms— 100 feet in length by 20 feet in width- contains a handsome mahogany screen counter, similar to those constructed in banks, with windows for lourteen clerks. Besides this, there are fourteen desks for receiving clerks and thirty desks for the other clerks of the department. The rooms are other- wise handsomely furnished. The rooms in the Broadway wing, facing the light court, are used by searchers and money order clerks. In the opposite wing the rooms fticing Park Row are occupied by the Post>Office Ca-shier's Department, the offices beiii-^of the same size and furnished in the same manner as those of the Money Order 1156 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Department. The apartment on this side, which is nearest the southwest front, is occupied by the Auditor, and is subdivided into two rooms by an ornamental counter Hiid screen. The rooms in this wing looking upon the light court are used bv the General Mail Agent. On the side of the second story, facing City Hall Park, the room nearest Broadway is the United States District Court Koom, measuring 36 by 60 feet. Its height is 40 feet, extending through the third story. The centre room on this side is for the United States Circuit Court, being 45 by 60 feet, and of the same height as the District Court Room. The room nearest Park Row is the Equity Term Room, 25 feet square and 20 feet in height. Between the courts are the private rooms of the judges, toilette rooms, etc. The walls and ceilings of the court rooms are in ornamented white, " hard finish." Opening upon the light court on this side are two rooms for male and female witnesses. On the City Hall front of the third story, the room above the Equity Term Room, extending also over the judges' private rooms on the floor below, is used for the United States Criminal Terra Room. It is of about the same size as the District Court, and extends in height through the fourth story. In the Park Row wing the room nearest City Hall Park is occupied as the oiSce of the Judge of the Circuit Court. The rooms adjoining this are used for the Clerk of the Circuit Court. The rooms on the southwest front, and two rooms on Park Row, are used as the District Attorney's office. A circular room at the corner of the southwest and Broad- way fronts is used by the United States Marshal, together with two rooms facing Hroadway. The other rooms on Broadway are occupied by the Clerk of the District Court, with the exception of one which is used by the Judge of that court. The rooms facing the light court include waiting rooms and the office of one of the judges. The fourth story contains the Law Library and offices for the District Court clerks :md United States Marshals, the Circuit Court and District Attorney's clerks, and the Chief Supervisor of Elections and his clerks. The Law Library fills two magnified. t rooms, with a small committee room between. The library consists of 18,000 volume.s, nearly all of which are arranged on the shelves. Whatever of value is published in tiiis country or Great Britain, bearing on legal subjects, is purchased for tiie library, which also contains a fine collection of about 600 volumes of French law boo'.vs, with a lesser number of Spanish, Italian, and German works. The only libraries in this country which can compare favorably with it in its special scope are the Library of Congress at Washington, and the New Ycrk State Library at Albany. The fifth story is used for the safe-keeping of the documents of the Post-Office Department. The building is fire-proof throughout, and all the window-shntters, which are of iron two inches thick, are so arranged that in case of a fire from without threatening the building, they can be easily closed by persons within. Each floor is lighted by .sixty large windows from the outside, and every floor, except the first, by twenty-one windows from the inside, the light coming to these latter by the open central spaces of the building. There are ten elevators in the building for mail matter, and four for passengers and general freight. Twelve of the elevators are worked by hydraulic pressure. The four passenger elevators run to the top of the building ; the other ten from the basement to the first floor and gallery. Seven principal staircases rise from the first to the fiftii story, and there are about twenty smaller ones to various points in the building. All the staircases are spiral and constructed of iron. There is a heatei beneath each window, a fanlight over every door, and ventilators in every room THE SALMON NURSERY IN CALIFORNIA. II57 connecting with the top of the building. The cellar is occupied by heating apparatus for the whole building, by boilers and engines for running the elevators, and by other machinery. In short, the building is one of the most complete in all its arrangements, as well as one of the most magnificent in the Union. It is one of the chief ornaments of the great city for the convenience of which it is intended, and is a model Post-Office in every respect, and as such worthy of the admiration of the whole country. THE SALMON NURSERY IN CALIFORNIA. The work of the United States Fish Commission is deeply interesting. We propose to present to the reader in this place some of the results accomplished in the culture of salmon on the Pacific coast. The United States Fish Commission for that region selected in 1872 a point on the McCloud river, in Sliasta county, California, for the great salmon nursery. It is about twenty miles from the terminus of the Oregon & California Railroad, and about three miles from its junction with Pitt river, one of the largest tributaries of the Sacramento •. and among all the beautiful spots in California, none more lovely or more grandly picturesque than this could have been chosen. It is peculiarly eligible from the fact that it is the best of the few water sites in California not injured for hatching purposes by the operations of the miner. Almost overhanging the bank of the river a plain, substantial building about fifty feet in length has been erected, and divided into kitchen, dining-room, and sleeping apartments, for the accommodation of the large force employed during the hatching season. Immediately below this building a canvas tent, one hundred feet in length and thirty feet wide, is stretched, covering the hatching trough and supply reservoir. Here the river, about two hundred feet wide, sweeps over a natural bar with a strong, heavy current, falling into a large, deep pool below, where most of the salmon are taken. Across the former Mr. Stone, the Deputy Commissioner, and his men, have, with great labor, stretched a fence of willow poles reaching from bank to bank, safely anchored among the heavy boulders of the riffle, and presenting an almost impassable barrier to the salmon on their way to the spawning grounds c f the upper stream. At the foot of the riffle an undershot wheel, twelve feet in diameter, furnished with long buckets on the inner periphery, and capable of lifting 12,000 gallons per hour, is set deeply and securely in the swift current. At the lower end of the tent are two large receiving tanks or reservoirs, into which the water is led from the wheel by a flume. The fish are caught at night with the seine. They are then put into a crib floating at the side of the river, and secured by lines to the shore. The next day they are taken out, one by one, and gently pressed by hand until the eggs and milt are deposited in a vessel made for the purpose. The eggs of a health)' female will average 6000. When the eggs become impregnated they are placed in a trough, through which a stream of water is caused to run by the wheel referred to above. Experience has demonstrated that no matter how pure the water of the river may seem, it is not sufficiently so to insure complete success in salmon hatcliing. Accord- ingly three flannel screens are placed in each of the tanks to prevent the passage of fungus, which gathers on the egg and prevents the egress of the young salmon, and every drop of water passing into the batching troughs is filtered through these screens. From the tanks are led the hatching troughs, in eight strings of five each, making forty in all. An incline of one inch to each trough gives free circulation to the water, and a drop of three inclies at tJie lower end serves to aerate it before passing through 1158 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. iJie next. Siwjjended in every trough are seven trays, eleven inches wide, two feet long, and six inches deej), constructed of No. 5 wire cloth, and each capable of con- taining 30,000 eggH, thus plaf,ing the hatching capacity of the eiitablLshment at over 8,000,WX) of young ealmon in a Keaiwn. At the commencement of the Hpawning 8ea»ou there is no perceptible difference between the male and female head. As the season advances the upper jaw of the male protrudes over the under, and the enout forms an eagle-«haped beak, the under jaw fitting cloi*ely into the upper. A marked peculiarity of the California salmon is the brevity of its life. It is esti- mated by Mr. .Stone that "not one out of a hundred ever returns to the sea after •spawning." Myriads of the dead fish line the Vjanks of the Mc-Cloud in the months of October and November, after having completed their mission in life. The salmon of the Atlantic returns, season after season, to its early spawning ground. This, too, is the case with the salmon of the Danube, and of Great Britain generally. The bridge or fence across the river, to which we have alluded, answers two pur- poses. It increases the pfjwer of the water at the wheel, and prevents the fish from ascending the river. Myriads of them may hie seen below, anxiously searching for a place of escape. As they increa.se in numbers the agility of the fish Is remarkable. Jumping from two to three feet in the air, turning somersault-, and cutting up all norts of antics generally, they afford a very singular sjx;ctacle to the traveller. While in this state of excitement they will perform some of the most wonderful feats, as well as inflict upon themselves the greatest bodily torture. A fish from two to three feet long will often force himself out of the water, perfectly upright, and by a rapid undu- lation of the tail support himself from one to three minutes, surveying tlie surroundings for an opening in the fence to escape through. When unsuccessful it will often fall back, and then, with one tremendous leap, jump clear over the top of the fence, which is about two feet above the water's edge. The question arises whether the bridge, in preventing the salmon from ascending the river and spawn, will not tend to depopu- late tlie river ; it being remembered that the fish always return Ut spawn in the place where they were hatched. This is offset by putting a certain portion of the artificially hatched salmon back into the river. The advantage of this station may be estimated by kxjking at the cost of the eggs as heretofore purchased. Until the establishment of the works on the Penobscot river, the Government paid Canarla forty dollars i>er thousand for the eggs. The works on the Penobscot reduced the cost to about three dollars ; while the establishment on the Mc striking as to be almost incredible. Tlien lumbering wagons, stage coaches, slow-sailing vc-ssels, horse- back riders, and sometimes i>edestrians were the means used to carry the mails from place to place ; and what with the delay of transportation and the lack of system in the whole management of the Post-Office, our worthy ancestors must have had but a faint gleam of the inestimable value of the system that in our day works so smoothly uiul effectively, and makes the mail our most aseful and trusted servant. Step by step THE FAST MAIL SERVICE. 1169 postal reform and improvement have been advancing, until perfection has almost been reached. The railway mail service began in 1836, but it was not until 1864 that Colonel Oeorge B. Armstrong suggested the plan, which was subsequently adopted, of putting " post-office cars " on the railway lines. On the 28th day of August, 1864, the first postal car left Chicago for Clinton on a trial trip, and on the Slst of the same month it began running regularly. In October, 1864, improvements were made in the postal car, and a force of expert clerks from the Department at Washington was placed in the cars running between New York and that city. On the 9th of November post- office cars were placed upon the lines between Chicago and Davenport, Iowa, and Chicago and Dunleith, Illinois. On the 17th of January, 1865, the Chicago, Burling- ton, & Galesburg-Quincy lines were established, and on May 22d the first railway post-office service was put in operation on the Philadelphia-Pittsburgh line. About t le same time, or a little later, postal cars were placed upon all the principal lines hading out of Chicago, and also upon the Hudson Piiver & New York Central Railroads, between New York, Albany, and Buffiilo, carrying and distributing along the line Northern and Western mails. The establishing of fast mail trains has been a pet scheme of the Post-Office Department for several years, and Colonel George S. Bangs, General Superintendent of Mail Routes, has worked industriously to perfect the system. He met with much opposition from railroad officials, who complained that the compensation for running postal cars was insufficient. So strong was the dissatisfaction of the companies that in the summer of 1873 the Presidents of some of the leading lines threatened to withdraw the postal cars. The grievance of the railroad companies was tlie law which limited tlie compensation of mail carriers to $375 per mile per annum, no matter how much weight of mail matter was carried. By talking with the various representatives of the dissatisfied roads Mr. Bangs became instrumental in averting the calamity which such a withdrawal ()i the postal cars would certainly have been. Subsequently, after a great deal of legislation, the basis of payment for the transportation of mails was changed by Congress to something more equitable, and the new law rendered a con- centration of mail matter on any one line mutually profital)le to the line and to the ilepartment. This is easily understood. This settlement opened the way for pushing the subject of fast mails, and after long discussions with railroad officials a plan for lightning postal trains between the East and the West was perfected. .\bout the 1st of July, 1875, tlie officers of the New York Central Railroad announced their willingness to run a mail train from New York to Cliicago in twenty- six hours. The proposition from the Central road was at once accepted by the Department, and almost immediately afterwards came a similar proposal from the Pennsylvania Railroad, which was also gladly accepted. Specifications and plans for the new equipment necessary to carry out this undertaking were furnished each road, and the construction of postal cars was immediately begun. The 16th of September was fixed upon as the date for the inauguration of the new enterprise, and on tliat day the two special trains started from New York, each carrying a large mail, Post-Office officials, and invited guests. Tiie New York Central train left the Grand Central Depot, in New York, at 4.15 A. M., and the Pennsylvania train started from Jersey City at 4..'i0 A. M. Previous to this the rivalry between the two roads had led to some little dissension, and had resulted in the Pennsylvania Company despatching a "limited mail" on September 13th. The officers of that company state that when they offered to run a fast mail and fast newspaper train to Cincinnati and St. Louis, the Post-Office authori- 1160 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. ties accepted the offer, and requested the company to have its cars ready by September 12th. This gave the company only thirteen days in wliich to build the cars. The work was accomplished by the prescribed time; but the Post-Office authorities, on being informed that the New York Central Railroad cars were not ready, declined to send any mail matter until the 16th. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company was not willing to wait until the New York Central Railroad should be ready, and accordingly sent out its first train on the 13th. This train left Jei'sey City at 4.45 A. m., and arrived at its destination on time. The postal car used on these fast trains is of peculiar construction. It is of ordinay width, but sixty feet in length. It is built of white pine wood, and is painted wliile inside and out. Internally the car is divided into three compartments. The first of these contains 975 pigeon holes, each of them representing a station. A shelf sur- rounding the holes is used for the purpose of sorting the letters. Letter drops, with their apertures to the outside of the car, are in this compartment, and may be used by persons just as the ordinary drops are. The next compartment of the car is fitted up with boxes and hooks for the reception of mail bags and newspapers destined for the way stations. Behind this, and in the last compartment, are a number of boxes arranged in rows. One side of these boxes is open, while the opposite side is closed by a door on hinges. From hooks in these boxes the mail bags are suspended, and the newspapers, as fast as sorted, are tlirown through the boxes into the bags, each of which represents a station. The cars are well heated, ventilated, and lighted, and are provided with all the new arrangements for keeping out sparks of fire from the loco- motives. Each car is accompanied by a tender, which is simply an ordinary express car, and is used for storing the mail bags not in use. Each train is in cliarge of a Chief Clerk, who has a private office in the car provided with desk and other con- veniences. The trains stop only at the principal stations. At the others the mail is delivered and received by means of the patent "catchers" with which each car is provided. By means of these the bags are hung o\it from the car and thrown off at the proper station. The bags to be taken on board are suspended from a post at the station provided for the purpose, and are caught by the iron arm or ''catcher" attached to the car, and thrown into it without damaging the bag or causing any slackening in the speed of the train. The fast mail trains have proved of the greatest benefit to the community, and it would now be difficult to dispense with them. THE MANUFACTURE OF TOBACCO. This is such a strictly American industry, and has attained such an important rank among our manufactures, that it merits a place in this record. The principal tobacco factories are located in Richmond, Lynchburg, Petersburg, and Danville, in Virginia, and these turn out the bulk of the chewing tobacco used in commerce. The factories are large buildings, generally constructed of brick, and are often five or six stories in height, with flat roofs surrounded by a wooden railing. On the first floor is located the steam engine, which not only supplies the motive power for the machinery employed in the establishment, but warms the whole building, and furnishes the amount of heat necessary for the various stages of the process of manufacture. All the tobacco sent to Richmond for sale is stored in the immense warehouses provided by the State for its reception, where it is inspected, properly graded, and THE MAITOFACTURE OF TOBACCO. 1161 finally sold. The sales are by sample. Each sample is ticketed and marked with the name of the planter by whom the crop of which it forms a part was grown, the gross and net weight of the hogshead from which it was taken, the warehouse where it was inspected, the merchant who sold it, and the price paid by tlie manufacturer. Thus the whole history of the hogshead from which the .-ample wa.s taken is written upon the ticket, and should the manufacturer find the hogshead to fail to correspond with the representations upon which he purchased it, he can trace the responsibility to the proper party. Upon being conveyed to the factory the hogsheads are raised by an elevator to the "stemming room," where the ca.sing of the hogshead is removed and the tobacco exposed to a steam bath. The room is air-tight, and the steam is forced into it and permeates every particle of the tobacco. This renders it soft and fit for stemming. It is then placed in bulk and carefully covered with blankets in order to enable it to retain the moisture until the process of "stemming" can be accomplished. The stemmers are usually negro women and children. It may be here stated that the majority of the hands engaged in the Southern tobacco factories are negroes. The stemmers take the leaves, which the steaming has rendered as soft as the finest kid, and strip them of the "stem." They are then tied in bundles, tlie inferior quality of stems being used to bind them. The best stems are laid aside and are packed in hogsheads and shipped to Bremen, where they are made into snnflT. The stemmers are paid so much per pound for the tobacco they stem. This is weighed by the super- intendent of the stemming room, who keeps the accounts of the hands in his depart- ment with scrupulous exactness. The bundles of stemmed leaves are then hung on stick.s, and are suspended in the drying room until they become perfectly dry. When dry they are ready to receive the " flavoring mixture " of syrup and licorice, which gives to chewing tobacco the sweetness and flavor so much appreciated by the users of that article. The mixture is prepared in huge iron kettles. A good article of sugar-house molasses is cooked to a candy and Ls mixed with Spanish licorice, which has been previously dissolved in water. The mixture is then brought to the proper consistency by boiling, being stirred all the while by men with large wooden paddles to prevent its burning. In some of the factories as much as two hundred gallons of molasses are used daily for this purpose. As soon as the mixture is prepared it is poured boiling hot into a large trough. The dried bundles of tobacco are then dipped into the steaming fluid. If the leaves are not perfectly dry when subjected to this immersion they will mould rapidly and become hopelessly ruined. The heat of the bath causes the pores of the leaf to expand, and every particle of the tobacco absorbs the sweet syrup and becomes thor- oughly saturated with it. Besides the leaves, there are a lot of odds and ends of tobacco, termed "clippings," which are too small to be dipped in the bath. The mixture is applied to these by sprinkling it from a watering-pot. The bundles, dripping witii the liquid, are carried from the bath to the flat roof of the building and there exposed to the sun. Manufacturers declare that one day's sunshine is worth all the artificial heat they can command, as it gives to the tobacco a sweetness which nothing else will. Should a rain come on all hands are ordered to the roof and tJie tobacco is taken into the house at once. A drenching with water would ruin it at this stage. After being exposed to the sun for a day, the leaves are taken to the second drying room and subjected to a heat of ninety degrees during the day, and at night the heat 1162 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. is increased to such a degree that the room is so hot in the morning that the workmen cannot enter it until it has been cooled. This process is continued until the tobacco is perfectly dry. The tobacco is then sprinkled plentifully with the best New England rum, which has been flavored with certain essential oils. It thus receives an additional flavor and is rendered damp and pliable for the final working. It is now covered carefully with blankets, and as soon as possible is delivered to the " lumpers and twisters " in the twist room. The twist room generally occupies the length of the whole building, and is arranged with the utmost exactness. At the upper end stands the desk of the Superintendent. The tall work-benches of the operatives are arranged in parallel rows down the long room. The benches are double, being divided by a partition down the middle, and the workmen are placed at opposite sides, facing each other. They stand during tiieir work. Each man is furnished with a gauge for regulating the length of his lump or twist, aud a scale in which to verify its weight. Perfect exactness is necessary in size and weight, in order that the lumps may fit exactly into the shapes in which they are to be pressed. Indeed, throughout the whole process of manufacture every- thing is done by an invariable rule, and no one is allowed to leave anything to chance or guesswork. Every process is carefully tested. A supply of the prepared leaves is placed upon the lumper's bench. He takes them and works them with his fingers into the proper shape, and around the lump thus formed wraps a leaf of the virgin tobacco which has been stripped of its stems, but has undergone no drying or flavoring. This forms the outside wrapper, and prevents the lump from sticking to the press in the final process. As the lumps are completed the lumper slips them into his gauge, and cuts off the ends which project with a " tobacco cutter," and then weighs the lump in his scale, taking from or adding to the filling until the exact weight desired is obtained. When the lumps are correct they are placed in a box provided for that purpose on the bench in front of the worker. Every lumper has an assistant. This individual is a boy, whose principal duty it is to stem and hand him the leaves for his outside wrappers. This boy waits on his lumper exclusively. The lumpers pay their assistants out of their own wages, giving them from one to two dollars per week ; the boy, if intelligent, having the advantage of learning the trade of his employer. The most expert "lumpers^' earn from twelve to fifteen dollars per week. The lumpers in regular rotation carry their work to the Superintendent of the twisting room for inspection. He examines and weighs each lump separately, and throws out all which vary in the least degree from the standard. Those which are found correct are then weighed collectively, and the lumper is credited with the weight. The defective lumps are thrown back upon the workman's hands to be remade until they conform to the standard. The lumps having been inspected by the Superintendent, are packed by the lumper or his assistant into boxes furnished for the purpose. These boxes, when full, are taken to the press room, where the lumps are fitted into the " shapes," which are large shallow pans of sheet-iron, subdivided into compartments the exact size of the " plugs " that are to be made. Over each shape is placed a cover of thick wood, faced with sheet-iron, and intersected by grooves which fit the lines of the sheet-iron subdivisions which separate the shape itself. When the shapes are filled they are placed under hydraulic presses, of which each factory has a number, and are subjected to a pressure of three hundred and twenty-five tons. The cover of the shape is forced down upon it, and the lumps of tobacco are pressed firml} and evenly into tlie flat plugs of commerce with which every one is familiar. Upon being removed from the presses the plugs are found a little ragged at the THE ICE MOUNTAIN. 1163 edges. Every piece is therefore turned and put under the press again so that all the sides may be uniform and smooth. The moulds are carefully oiled with the best olive oil every time the tobacco is placed in them, to prevent its sticking to them. The plugs are now taken to a second row of presses, and after having been fitted together exactly on sheets of tin — witli one sheet of tin between every two sheets of tobacco — they are pressed a third time. This gives the sheets of tobacco the exact length and width of the box in which they are to be packed for shipping. After coming out of these presses the sheets will fit in the boxes, which are made of regular specified sizes, as evenly as the most intricate machinery is joined together. The packing boxes are made of buttonwood, or sycamore, imported from Canada. A single factory will use as much as 30,000 feet per week. The plugs are packed in the cases, which are then placed in a third row of presses for the final compressure. In order to prevent the bursting of the boxes by the immense pressure to which they are subjected, they are placed in stout frames called '' billies," which protect the wood and save it from the force of the strain. After being removed from the press the cases are closed and nailed, and after the revenue stamps and the brand of the manufacturer are affixed, the tobacco is ready for the market. Smoking tobacco is manufactured with less labor and expense. The tobacco, after being removed from the hogshead, is dried to the utmost, and is passed through a mill in which a revolving cylinder, armed with short blunt teeth, grates it into tiny particles. The same machine then passes it through a series of sieves similar to those of a wheat fan. The coarser particles which are left on the upper sieve are passed and repa.ssed through the mill until all is ground to the required fineness. The leaves are not stemmed for this purpose, the stems which are too coarse to pass through the finer sieves being used to make an inferior article of smoking tobacco. Smoking tobacco is generally put up in bags holding from two ounces to one pound each, the Government fixing one pound as the maximum weight for a single package. ♦ The bags are drawn tightly over hollow iron cylinders, and into these the tobacco is packed by forcing upon it a wooden mallet worked by a treadle. When the cylinder is packed tight and fulU it is withdrawn, leaving the closely-packed tobacco in the bags. An immense number of bags are used in this business. THE ICE MOUNTAIN. In Hampshire county, West Virgiiua, there is a remarkable natural curiosity known as the Ice Mountain. It is situated on the eastern bank of the North river, a branch of the Capon, and is about twenty-six miles northwest of Winchester, and sixteen miles east of Romney. It is between four and five hundred feet in height. For about a quarter of a mile the west side of the mountain is covered with a mass of stones very loose and of a light color, which reaches down to the bank of the river. By removing the loose stone, pure cry.stal ice can always be found in the warmest days of summer. It has been discovered even as late as the loth of September, but never in October, although it may exist throughout the entire year, and be found if the rocks were excavated to a sufficient depth. The body of the rocks where the ice Ls found is subject to the full rays of the sun from nine o'clock in the mornmguntil sunset. The sun does not have the effect of melting the ice as raucli as continued rains At the base of the mountain is a spring of water colder by many degrees than spring water usually is. The owner of the property has removed the stone not far from the spring, and has erected a small log dairy for the preservation of his milk, 1164 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. butter, and fresh meats. Kercheval states that when he saw this building, "which was late in the month of April, the openings between the logs (on the side next the cavity from which the stone had been taken out), for eighteen inches or two feet from the floor, were completely filled with ice, and about one-half the floor was covered with ice several inches thick." Mr. Deevers, who was at that time the owner of the property, informed him " that milk, butter, or fresh meats of every kind are perfectly safe from injury for almost any length of time in the hottest weather. If a fly venture in he is immediately stiffened with the cold and becomes torpid. If a snake in his ra iibles happens to pass over the rocks covering the ice he soon loses all motion awd dies." Keliable persons assert that several instances have occurred of snakes being found frozen to death among the rocks covering the ice. " Mr. Deevers stated that he had several times removed torpid flies from his dairy into a more temperate atmos- phere, when they soon recovered life and motion and flew off'." Mr. C. B. Ilayden, in a communication to "Silliman's Journal," some forty years ago, thus endeavored to account for tlie phenomenon of the preservation of ice in this mountain: "Tiie solution, I conceive, is to be found in the large and unusual collec- tion of rocks, which from their porous, homogeneous texture are extremely poor conductors of heat. One side of the mountain consists of a massive wall many hun- dred feet in thickness, and heaped up against this as an abutment is a mass of rocks containing several thousand cubic feet. As the mountain has a general direction from N. E. to S. W., the talus heap containing the ice has a N. W. exposure. The cavernous nature of tiiis heap would admit the free entrance of atmospheric waters, which during the winter wonld form ice in the interior of the mass. The ice thus situated would be protected from external heat by the surrounding rocks, as ice in a refrigerator is isolated and protected from the external temperature by the non- conducting sides of the refrigerator. The Ice Mountain only requires for the explan- ation of its phenomenon the application of the familiar principle upon which is constructed the common refrigerator, which temporarily effects what the Ice Mountain* permanently does — a temperature independent of external causes. The Ice Mountain is, in fact, a huge sandstone refrigerator, whose increased a«id unusual effects beyond those of the ordinary refrigerator are due to the increased and unusual collection of poor-conducting materials which form its sides." THE NATURAL BRIDGE. This remarkable formation of the natural rock has long been known as one of the principal curiosities of the many to be found in the State of Virginia. It is situated in the county of Rockbridge, about fourteen miles southwest of Lexington. It consists of an immense mass of rock which spans the deep ravine through which flows a little stream called Cedar Creek. The sides of the ravine are of massive rock rising perpendicularly from the bed of the stream. The rock structure which forms the bridge is flung across the ravine in a missive but graceful arch, seeming more the work of art than of nature. The mean lieight of the bridge is 215 feet from the stream below to the roadway ; its average width is 80 feet, its length 93 feet, and its thickness 55 feet. The arch constituting the bridge is of limestone rock, covered to the depth of from four to six feet with alluvial and clayey earth, and based upon huge rocks of the same geological character, the summits of which are ninety feet and their bases fifty feet apart. The county road leads over the bridge, and the structure has been used since n TWi THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE. 1167 the settlement of the region for the ordinary purposes of travel. A natural parapet of rock extends along the sides of the bridge, which are still further protected by a thick growth of trees and shrubbery. So perfectly do these screen the ravine from view that visitors constantly pass over the bridge without being aware that they have reached it. The only satisfactory view of the bridge is obtained from the bed of the ravine below. Looking up to the dizzy height at which the gigantic arch springs across the abyss, it is hard to believe that the structure is not the work of a race of giants. Tlie arch is elliptical in form, and the whole structure has a picturesque appearance impossible to describe in words. The lines of masonry seem perfectly defined, and the piers appear to be laid in gigantic blocks. The rocks have a soft, pleasant hue which harmonizes well with the beauty of the surrounding landscape. "A hot and brilliant day," says a traveller, " is, of all otiiers, the time to enjoy this object. To escape from a sun which scorches you, into these verdant and cool bottoms, is a luxury of itself which disposes you to relish everything else. When down I was very careful of the first impression, and did not venture to look steadily on the objects about me until I had selected my station. At length I placed myself about one hundred feet from the bridge, on some masses of rock which were washed by the running waters and ornamented by the slender trees which were springing from its fissures. At my feet was the soothing melody of the rippling, gushing waters. Behind me, and in the distance, the river and the hills were expanding themselves to the light and splendor of day. Before me, and all around, everything was reposing in the most delightful shade, set off by the streaming rays of the sun, which shot across the head of the picture far above you, and sweetened the solitude below. On the right and left the majestic rocks arose with the decision of a wall, but witliout its uniformity ; massive, broken, beautiful, and supplying a most admirable foreground ; and every- where the most delicate stems were planted in their crevices and waving their heads in the soft breeze which occasionally came over them. The eye now ran through the bridge and was gratified with a lovely vista. The blue mountains stood out in the background ; beneath them the hills and woods gathered together so as to enclose the dell below ; while the river, which was coursing away from them, seemed to have its well-hidden head in their recesses. Then there is the arch, distinct from everything and above everything ! jMassIvc as it is, it is light and boautiful by its height, and the fine trees on its height seem now only like a garland of evergreens ; and, elevated as it is, its apparent elevation is wonderfully increased by the narrowness of its piers, and by its outline being drawn on the blue sky, which appears beneath and above it." THE ST. LOUIS BRIDGE. The bridge over the Mississippi river at St. Louis is one of the most superb structures in the world, and the costliest of its kind in this country. It was built under the superintendence of Captain James B. Eads, and is owned by a stock company. The bridge rests upon four immense piers built in the river. The portion of the piers whichlies under water is composed of a firm, magnesian limestone, yellowish in color, taken from the quarries at Grafton, Illinois. From two feet below low-water mark to two feet above high-water mark the exterior of the piers, including those on the wharves and abutments, is of the best quality of granite. Above the granite the exterior is entirely of cut sandstone. A granite course eight feet in thickness is laid through the channel piers and in the abutments, to receive the heavy cast-iron plates against which the ends of the arches rest. 1168 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RP:SOURCES. The bridge has three spans, each formed witli four ribbed arches made of cast-steel. The central span is 520 feet, and the end spans each 500 feet in the clear. The four arches forming these spans consist each of an upper and lower curved rib, extending from pier to pier, and a horizontal system of bracing extends between these ribs for the purpose of securing the arches in their relative distances from each other. Tiie two centre arches of each span are thirteen feet nine and a half inches apart from centre to centre, and the upper member of one arch is secured to the lower one of tlie other by a system of diagonal bracing. The roadways are formed by transverse iron l)eams twelve inches in depth, suitably separated. From the opposite ends of the iron beams forming the roadways a double system of diagonal, horizontal iron bracing binds the whole together. The bridge is a double structure. The upper portion is for vehicles and pedestrians, and is fifty-four feet two inches in width. The roadway is thirty-four feet wide between the footwalks, which are eight feet in width. The sides are protected by a handsome iron balustrade ornamented with gas lamps. Below this floor of the bridge are the railway passages, eiich fourteen feet six inches in the clear and eighteen feet high. At each end of the bridge the road and railways are carried over the wharves on five stone arches, each twenty-six feet wide. The railway passages are enclosed throughout the whole length of these arches by a cut stone arcade of twenty arches, supporting the upper roadway. On the St. Louis side the railway is carried on brick arches from the end of these passage-ways into the tunnel on Third street. On the Illinois shore the railways descend to the level of the East St. Louis railways by a descending grade of one and a half feet in one hundred for a distance of 3000 feet. The carriage-way on the Illinois side descends with a grade of four feet in one hundred, and on the Mississippi side the grade is nearly level. The bridge accommodates two double tracks of steam railways in the lower story, and above there is space for street railways, vehicles of all styles, and pedestrians ; and the plan is so arranged that none of these interfere with each other. The bridge is so constructed as not to be an obstacle to the navigation of the river. The strength of the bridge is enormous. Tlie three arches are capable of sustaining 28,972 tons before giving way — a much greater load than will ever be placed upon it. If the bridge were loaded with people from one end to the other, the strain upon tlie arches would be less than one-sixth of what they are capable of sustaining. The piers and abutments were designed with a view to sustain either span when thus loaded, even if the others were entirely unloaded, and to sustain either span entire if, from any cause, the adjoining ones should be destroyed. On the 2d of July, 1874, the formal test of the strength of the bridge was made. Two trains of locomotives, weighing 560 tons altogether, fourteen in all, were moved out abreast, and simultaneously over each one of the three spans. The deflection of the middle span was three and a half inches ; of each side span three inches. The two trains moving abreast upon each arch was the severest possible test to produce distortion of the curve of each arch. Ten locomotives were then coupled together, and these were run over each track on each side of each arch of the entire bridge, covering the entire track of each span, and throwing the whole weight of the train — 400 tons — on one side of each span. This test was applied to each side of the bridge, and produced the severest twisting strain to which each arch can be subjected. Tlie vertical deflection produced by this test on the centre span was two and one-half inches. The locomotives thus coupled were run at a speed of ten miles per hour. The local traflic on the upper roadway of the bridge was uninterrupted during the MUSIC BY TELEGRAPH. 11 09 progress of the tests. The instruments failed to detect any side motion whatever during the test. The bridge is one of the most useful as well as one of the most magnificent public works in the Union. It brings St. Louis in direct communication with the States east of the Mississippi, and must unquestionably contribute in a marked degree to the advancement and growth of the prosperity and wealth of the metropolis of the Southwest. MUSIC BY TELEGRAPH. Mr. Elisha Gray, of Chicago, a gentleman who has already become famous in the electric telegraph world a.s an inventor and maker of telegraphic apparatus, perfected during the year 1874 an instrument whicli will convey sound by electricity over an unbroken current of an extraordinary length ; that is, without the aid of automatic repeaters. In the ordinary transmission of messages over the telegraph wires to points at long distances, a message is generally repeated by automatic working instruments about every five hundred miles, in order to renew the current oi electricity. Mr. Gray has succeeded in transmitting sounds which are distinctly audible at the receiving point, over an unbroken circuit of 2400 miles. This is more properly speaking a discovery and not an invention. The invention merely consists in adapting certain appliances to tiie discovery for the purposes of its practical illustra- tion. Music played on a small melodeon or piano key-board, transmitted through an unbroken circuit of 2400 miles, is reproduced on a violin attached to the receiving end of the wire. Mr. Gray played "Hail Columbia," "The Star Spangled Banner," " God Save the Queen," " Yankee Doodle," and other well-known airs, and they were unmistakably repeated, note for note, on the violin which lay on a table near at hand. The apparatus by means of which this extraordinary feat in telegraphy is accom- plished has been named by Mr. Gray the " Telephone," or an instrument designed for the purpose of transmitting sound to a distance. It consists of three general parts: First. The transmitting instrument. Second. The conducting wire, running to a distant point. Tliird. The apparatus for receiving the sound at that distant point. The transmitting apparatus consists of a key-board having a number of electro- magnets corresponding with the number of keys on the board, to which are attached vibrating tongues or reeds tuned to a musical scale. Any one of these tongues can be separately set in motion by depressing the key corresponding to it. Thus a tune may be played by manipulating the keys in the same way as those of an ordinary piano or melodeon. The music — produced entirely by electricity — of these notes is so dis- tinctly audible in the next room that, in spite of much talking, there is no difficulty in determining what tune the manipulator is playing. To this transmitting instru- ment the conducting wire is attached, the other end being attached to the receiving apparatus, which may be anything that is sonorous, so long as it is in some degree a conductor of electricity. A violin, with a thin strip of metal stretched between the strings at a point where the bridge of the instrument is ordinarily placed, will, on receiving the sound transmitted through the conducting wire from the piano, give out a tone very similar in quality to that of a violin. If, then, the metallic strip is elec- trically connected with a wire, say 500 or 1000 miles long, which lias its distant end properly connected with the transmitting instrument, any one at the receiving end can distinctly hear, without the aid of electro-magnetism, the tune or air which is being played 500 or 1000 miles away from him, if he properly manipulate the receiving apparatus. 71 1170 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. The length of the wire connecting the transmitting with the receiving apparatus may be one mile or ten thousand miles, provided that the isolation is sufficiently good to prevent the escape of the electric current before it reaches its destination. In fact, there seems no limit to the distance to which sound of any desired pitch may be thus conveyed with from two to five cells of battery, all the conditions being proper. The quality or timbre of the tones depends upon the character of the receiving apparatus, which may be a violin prepared as described above ; a tin hoop, with foil paper heads stretched over it after the fashion of a baby's rattle ; a nickel five-cent piece ; an old oyster can, and a thousand other things. A sound sufficiently loud to read Morse's telegraphic characters — made by interrupting, with the common telegraphic key, one sustained note — has been obtained under favorable circumstances at the receiving end of the wire without any more scientific sounding apparatus than that of a piece of common tissue paper. THE CROTON WATER-WORKS. The rapid growth of the city of New York made the question of supplying it with pure water one of the greatest importance. It was believed at one time that an adequate supply could be drawn from the Bronx river, which stream was thought capable of furnishing 3,000,000 gallons daily. The prevalence of Asiatic cholera in 1832 impressed upon the people the necessity of a supply of pure drinking water ; and the great fire of 1835 convinced them that an abundant supply of water for all purposes was indispensable. It was resolved to obtain this supply from the head-waters of the Croton river, and in May, 1837, the work on the aqueduct whicli was to convey it to the city was actually begun. On the 4th of July, 1842, the Croton water was dis- tributed through the city. The first step in the great work was to throw a massive dam across the Croton river, by means of which the Croton lake was formed, the water being raised to a depth of forty feet by the obstruction. From this dam an aqueduct, constructed of brick, stone, and cement, was built to convey the water to the reservoirs prepared for it ou Man- hattan island. The aqueduct is nearly forty miles in length. It is arched above and below, forming a hollow cylinder seven and a half feet wide and eight and a half feet high, with an inclination of thirteen inches to the mile. It rests upon the ground for a portion of its course, and in other parts is supported by a series of stone arches. It crosses twenty- five streams in Westchester county, besides numerous brooks which flow under it through culverts. It is conveyed across the Harlem river by means of the High Bridge, the water flowing through vast iron pipes the size of the aqueduct, wliich rest upon the bridge. The bridge itself is a magnificent structure of stone, 1450 feet in length, with fifteen arches, the highest of which is one hundred feet above high-water mark. Its great height prevents it from interfering with the navigation of the stream. The High Bridge is one of the principal pleasure resorts in the suburbs of New York. The bridge itself is a noble work of art, and the surrounding scenery is exceedingly beautiful. There are two large reservoirs at the city end of the bridge — the "Storage Reservoir" and the "High Service" — the latter of which is designed for supplying the elevated section of Washington Heights. From here to the distributing reservoirs in the Central Park the distance is two and a quarter miles. There are two of these reservoirs in the Park. The old, or lower one, is a parallelogram in form, covering an area of thirty-one acres, and with a capacity for 150,000,000 gallons of water. The THE BRONZE DOORS OF THE CAPITOL. 1171 new reservoir lies to the north of the old one, and is separated from it by a sunken road which traverses the Park. It is a massive structure of granite, irregular in form, and occupying almost the eiitire width of the Park. It covers an area of 106 acreaj and will hold 1,000,000,000 gallons of water. The two reservoirs thus cover an area of 137 acres and hold 1,150,000,000 gallons of water. They are among the finest specimens of the engineer's work in this country. Tlie gate houses are elegant granite buildings, and are among the notable ornaments of the Park. The distributing reservoir for the lower part of the city is on Fifth avenue between Fortieth and Forty-second streets. It is built above the level of the street, of granite, is lined with cement, cove^ about four acres of ground, and will hold about 20,000,000 gallons of water. It is exactly forty-one miles from the Croton lake. The daily flow of water tlirough the aqueduct is 60,000,000 gallons, its full capacity. The reservoirs at the High Bridge, in the Park, and at Forty-second street hold over 2,000,000,000 gallons, or about fifteen days' supply at the present rate of consumption. About 400 miles of main pipes distribute the water through the city, distributing it to over 68,000 dwelling-houses and stores, about 1700 manufactories, about 300 hos- pitals, prisons, schools, and other public buildings, over 300 churches, and 14 markets. There are over 100 public drinking hydrants and a number of ornamental fountains in the city. The lakes and fountains in the Central Park are all supplied with Croton water, which is also furnished to the State Prison at Sing Sing and the institutions on Blackwell's, Randall's, and Ward's islands. The Croton river is one of the purest streams in the world. The water is bright and sparkling, and there is no sediment perceptible to the naked eye. Actual analysis has shown that the amount of impurity during an entire summer was but 4.45 grains in a gallon, or 7.63 parts in 100,000 parts. The original cost of the aqueduct and reservoirs was about $9,000,000. Since then the increased supply, the new reservoirs, pipes, etc., have made the total amount upward of $40,000,000. The total receipts from the water tax since the opening of the aqueduct have amounted to about $30,000,000. The tax at present amounts to something less than $1,500,000 annually. THE BRONZE DOORS OF THE CAPITOL. The main entrance from the central portico of the National Capitol at Washington is provided with doors of bronze which constitute the most superb and beautiful work of art of this character in existence. The doors were designed and modelled in Rome, in 1858, by Randolph Rogers, an American sculptor, and were cast at the Royal Foundry, at Munich, by F. Von Muller, and completed in 1861. The whole work weighs 20,000 pounds, and cost the nation $30,000. The doors, with the frame or ca-sing, which is also of bronze, are seventeen feet high, nine feet wide, and are folding or double. The casing is semicircular at the top, and projects about a foot in fiont of the leaves of the door. Around the casing extends a handsome border emblematic of conquest and navigation. The key of the arch of the casing is orna- mented with a fine head of Columbus, beneath which is the American eagle with outspread wings. Four figures, representing Asia, Africa, Europe, and America, stand at the top and bottom of the casing. The upper right-hand figure represents Asia, the lower right-hand figure Europe, the upper left-hand figure Africa, and the lower left-hand figure America. There are eight square panels in the doors besides the semicircular transom panel. 1172 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Between these panels are ten heads, five on each leaf of the door, "representing liistorians who liave written on Columbus' voyages, from his own time down to the present day, ending with Irving and Prescott." On the right and left panels are sixteen statuettes, set in niches, representing the most eminent of the contemporaries of the great discoverer. The names of these worthies are marked on the door, and tlie figures can be easily recognized. Commencing with the lower right-hand figure, which is opposite the panel which begins the story told by the door, they are as follows : Juan Perez, Prior of the Convent of La Eabida, the most faithful of all Columbus' friends, through whose efforts the Spanish queen was at last induced to grant the explorer the assistance which enabled him to undertake his first voyage. The next above is Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico. The third is Don Alonzo de Ojeda, a distinguished but unfaithful follower of Columbus. The top figure is Amerigo Vespucci, whose name is borne by the continent. At the top of the double row, between the two leaves of the door, are Pedro Gonzales de Mendoza, Archbishop of Toledo and Grand Cardinal of Spain ; sometimes called, on account of his immense influence, the " third King of Spain," and Pope Alexander VI. The cardinal, who was an early patron of Columbus, stands on the right ; the Pope is on the left. The figures immediately below them are Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Spain ; the queen being placed on the right. Below these are Donna Beatriz de Bobadilla, Marchioness of Moya, one of the fast friends of Columbus, and Charles VIII., King of France. The artist was unable to find a likeness of tlie lady, and gave her the features of Mrs. Rogers, his wife. Henry VII., of England, and John II., of Portugal, form the lowest pair, the English monarch being on the right. Both of these sovereigns declined to employ the great discoverer, and so lost the opportunity he offered them. At the bottom of tlie left row stands Martin Alonzo Pinzon. He was the captain of the "Pinta," and one of the first to see the land of the new world. Eventually he betrayed his friend and commander, and died of grief and mortification. Above him is Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the great man, and appointed by him Lieutenant-Governor of the Indies. This figure wears the face of the artist, Mr. Rogers, as it was impossible to find a likeness of the subject. Above him is Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who, crossing the Isthmus of Darien with his followers, discovered the Pacific Ocean on the 29th of September, 1510. Francisco Pizarro, the cruel conqueror of Peru, fills the topmost niche, and com- pletes the group. We come now to the exquisite pictures embraced in the panels of the door. The work is in cdto relievo, the figures standing out boldly from the surface. Every detail is perfect, and the gazer's emotions of admiration are strongly mingled with wonder that so elaborate a design lias been so faithfully and minutely executed. An oil painting or steel engraving could not more forcibly or perfectly tell the story. The lowest right-hand panel begins the tale, the transom panel being the central scene. Panel I. Columbus is expanding to the Council of Salamanca his theory of finding the Indies by sailing due west from Europe. This Council gravely deliberated tlie .subject, and solemnly concluded that the project was " vain and impossible, and not becoming great princes to engage in on such slender grounds as had been adduced." The calm confidence and the eagerness of the discoverer, and the cold, half-pitying incredulity of the monks is admirably depicted in the figures of the group. THE BRONZE DOOB IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, COMMEMORATING THE EVENTS OF THE LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMRUS. THE BKONZE BOOR IN THE NATIONAL, CAPITOL, COMMEMORATING THE EVENTS ( THE LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. THE BRONZE DOORS OF THE CAPITOL. 1175 Panel II. Weary and heartsick, on foot, and leadbg his son Diego, a mere lad, by the hand, Columbus set out on his departure from Spain. He was without money and without friends, and was in despair of having his great scheme adopted by any of the potentates of the old world. On his journey he stopped at the Convent of La Rabida, near Palos, and was kindly received by tlie monks, who induced him to remain with thetn a long time. While there he stated hLs plans and hopes to the Prior, Juan Perez, who had been the Confessor of Queen Isabella. Here, also, he met Martin A lonzo Pinzon, who accompanied him in his subsequent voyage. The prior became warmly interested in the scheme, and mentioned it to Donna Beatriz de Bobadilla, an attendant and favorite of the queen. The two brought the matter to the queen's notice, and urged it upon her so warmly that her majesty sent Columbus a sum of money Knfficient to enable him to appear at court and plead iiis cause in person. The scene icted in the panel represents him setting off from the convent to wait upon tli€ queen. Panel III. Columbus having been presented at court is represented as laying his plan before the King and Queen of Spain. The queen leans forward with eagernesti, but the king holds back coldly and doubtingly. The courtiers in the background regard the bold adventurer with looks of mingled scorn and incredulity. Panel IV. This panel is at the top of the right leaf of the door, and represents "The Departure from Palos." The admiral's ships lie waiting in the harbor, while he is standing on the shore bidding farewell to his son and confiding him to the care of his friend the prior. The Transom Panel. This panel extends over both leaves of the door, is semicir- cular in form, and represents the admiral and his companions landing at San Salvador, and taking formal possession of the island. The banner of Spain is borne aloft by Columbus, who grasps a sword in his right hand. Boats are coming ashore from the ships in the offing, and a group of natives crouch at the foot of a large tree, gazing at the new-comers with wonder and fear. Panel V. is at the top of the left leaf of the door, and represents the first intercourse between the Indians and the discoverers. One of the sailors is seen approaching the admiral bearing on his shoulders an Indian girl whom he has captured and bound. Columbus sternly rebukes him for his cruelty and orders the instant release of tlie girl. Panel VI. represents "The Triumphal Entry into Barcelona." Columbus having returned from the New World, bringing with him the proofs of liis discoveries, is entering the city of Barcelona amid the cheers of the assembled multitude. The admiral is represented on horseback in the foreground. Panel VII. represents the wrongs of Columbus. Don Francisco de Bobadilla, having been sent to the New World to investigate the charges brought against the admiral by his enemies, decided against him without investigation, and sent him back to Spain in chains. The panel represents the arrival of the chained admiral on board the vessel that was to convey him to Europe. The officers of the ship, filled with generous indignation at the outrage, desired to relieve him of his fetters, but he replied, "No; I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of princes." Panel VIII. represents the death of Columbus. Upon his return from his last voyage the admiral met with a cold welcome in Spain. The queen, his benefactress, was dead, and the selfish Ferdinand was ungrateful to the man who had given a new world to Spain, and refused to grant him the rewards that had been promised him. The admiral was without friends at court, his great fame having excited the hostile jealousy of the courtiers. Landing near San Lucas, Colimibus ]iroceeded to Seville. He was poor in purse, feeble from age, and broken down in health. He made 1176 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. repeated efforts to obtain redress for the wrongs done him, but failed. Broken-hearted, he died at Valladolid on the 20th of May, 1506, being about seventy years old. The panel represents the chamber in which he died. His friends are gathered around his bed, the last rites of the church have been administered, and a priest holds aloft a crucifix, in order that his last earthly glance may be fixed upon the symbol of Iiis redemption. The world fast recedes from the dying eyes, the weak lips murmur, " In Manua tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum." " Into thy Hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit," and the great, grand soul passes into a blessed eternity. The door forms one of the richest and most beautiful ornaments of the Capitol, and is an object of pride to the whole nation. It is a grand achievement of American genius, and is worthy of the high praise it has received from lovers of art on both sides of the Atlantic. THE WASHINGTON DOORS. The main entrance to the Senate wing of the Capitol is adorned with a second door of bronze, commemorative of the events in the life of George Washington. It is not a!B elaborate as the Columbus door, but has been considered by some critics a belter work of art. It was designed by Thomas Crawford, the sculptor of the magnificent group in marble which adorns the pediment of the Senate portico, and the colossal statue of Liberty which looks down from the summit of the great dome. The door contains but six panels, illustrative of scenes in tiie life of the father of his country. The upper panel of each leaf of the door is occupied with a five-pointed star, enclosed in a laurel wreath. The lowest panel on the right represents two angels holding joined wreaths of laurel. Below these figures, enclosed in a circle, is a scene representing an American defending his wife and child against a Hessian Grenadier. The wife crouches to the floor, with her babe clasped in one arm, while the other hand holds a rifle, which she has in readiness for her husband. The husband has seized the musket of the Hessian, and is in the act of discharging his pistol at his breast. The lowest panel on the left represents Cincinnatus called from his plough to assume the command of the armies of Rome. He stands with his hand on the plough, and is surrounded by his family. The group is enclosed in a circle, over which hover two angels with suspended laurel wreaths. The second panel from the top, on the right, represents the death of General Brad- dock. He is supported by Washington, and the Virginia Rangers are seen hotly engaged with the enemy. The third panel on the right represents the meeting of W^ashington and General Charles Lee at the battle of Monmouth. The scene is spirited, and the overwhelming anger of Washington, and the guilty hesitation of Lee are depicted in a masterly manner. The fourth panel on the right represents the battle of Trenton. Washington is rfiown leading the final charge upon the Hessian Grenadiers. The fourth panel on the left, immediately adjoining the one just described, reprt.- Hents the reception of Washington at Trenton, on his journey to New York, to assunu- tiie duties of the Presidency. He is passing under a triumphal arch, amid the joyti.l acclamations of the citizens. The third panel on the left represents Washington taking the oath of office as Prcsi- AN AMERICAN PICTURE. 1177 dent of the United States. He stands with his hand resting on an open Bible, while Chancellor Livingston administers to him the oatli of oflBce. The second, or highest of the panels on the left, represents Washington laying the corner-stone of the Capitol of the United States, at the city of Washington. The corner-stone was laid on the 18th of September, 1793, and the ceremonies were per- formed in accordance with the ritual of the Masonic order. Washington is represented with the Masonic apron, and the various personages attending him wear similar apron.-^. The door is rectangular in shape, and is enclosed in a massive frame of bronze. It is a noble work, fully sustains the great fame of the artist, and is a worthy companion of the central door. The two form the most notable ornaments of the Capitol. AN AMERICAN PICTURE. At the north end of the west corridor of the House of Representatives wing of the Capitol at Washington is a splendid marble stairway leading to the second floor and the galleries of the House. The wall at the end of the stairwa}', from the first landing to the ceiling, is ornamented with Leutze's great painting, " Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way." It is lighted from a skylight in the roof, and is seen to the best advantage from the upper corridor. The picture is painted on the wall by a process known as "Stereochrome,^' or, as it is sometimes called, " Water-glass painting." "The wall is coated with a preparation of clean quartz sand, mixed with the least possible quantity of lime ; and after the appli- cation of this, the surface is scraped to remove the outer coating in contact with the atmosphere. It is then washed with a solution of silesia, soda, potash, and water. As the painter applies his colors he moistens his work by squirting distilled water upon it. When finished it is washed over with the silesia solution. The picture, also, in its progress is washed with the same solution, and the colors thus becoming incorporated in the flinty coating, the picture is rendered hard and durable as stone itself." The coloring of the picture is very rich, but is softer and more natural than is often seen in mural paintings. The work has been done with a master hand, and the scene is lifelike and exhilarating. However minute the details may be, each is produced with the utmost fidelity. Gaze at it for hours, and the eye will all the while discover some new beauty. The scene represents a train of emigrants crossing the Rocky Mountains. They have reached the summit of' the range, from which a glorious view stretches before them to the westward. The adventurers consist of the usual class of emigrants— men, women, and children. There are several wagons and a number of horses in the train. The. faces of the emigrants express the various emotions which fill their hearts as they gaze uiwn the glorious scene before them. Some are full of life and vigor, and hope beams in every feature ; whilst others are struggling with sickness and despair. The advance of the train has been momentarily checked by a huge tree which has fallen across the path, and two stout men, under the direction of the leader of the party, who is sitting on his horae, are engaged in hewing it away with axes. Two men have climbed^'to the summit of a neighboring rocky crag, on which they have planted the banner of the Republic, which is seen flapping out proudly from its lofty perch. In the foreground stands a manly youth, clasping his father's long rifle with a firm grasp, and gazing towards the promised land with a countenance glowing with hope 1178 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. and energy. His sister, hopeful as himself, is seated by her mother's side on a buffalo robe which has been thrown over a rock. The mother's face is sad but patient. She knows well the privation?, toil, and hardships which await them in the new home land, but she tries to share the enthusiasm and hope of her children. She clasps her nursing infant to her breast, and listens to her husband, who stands by and points her to the new country where they will build np a home of her own. Her face is very beautiful — such a face as only a true"" artist could depict. The rich, warm light of the rising sun streams brightly over the whole scene and gives to it a magical glow. The legend, " Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way," is inscribed over the painting in letters of gold. An illuminated border, illustrative of the advance of civilization in the West, surrounds the painting. This border is in itself one of the most elaborate works of art in the Capitol. Beneath the painting, and detached from it, the artist has given a view of "The Golden Gate," the entrance to the harbor of San Francisco. On the right of the picture is a portrait of Daniel Boone, below which are the lines : "The Spirit grows with its allotted spaces; The mind is narrowed in a narrow sphere." On the left of the painting is a portrait of Captain William Clark, and the lines : " No pent-up TJtica contracts our powers ; But the whole boundless continent is ours." Leutze was paid by Congress the sum of $20,000 for this magnificent work. THE UNITED STATES OBSERVATORY. The United States Observatory is located at Washington, and is situated upon an elevated site, southwest of the President's house. It is near the Georgetown line, and commands a fine view of the city and the Potomac river as far down as Fort Wash- ington and Mount Vernon. It is in charge of a corps of officers of the United States Navy, being a branch of the Navy Department. The officers in charge are selected for their scientific knowledge and skill, the duties required of them being of the most difficult and intricate nature. The institution holds a high rank among the observ" atories of the world. It is said that it is excelled in completeness and excellence only by tliat of Russia. Besides discharging the usual astronomical duties of such an establishment, the officers of the Observatory are the ke^ers of all the nautical books» maps, charts and instruments belonging to the navy. Principal among these are the chronometers belonging to the Government, which are kept in a room set apart for that purpose. These instruments are purchased by the Navy Department witli the understanding that they are to be tested in the Observatory for one year. They are placed in the chronometer room and are carefully wound and regulated. Each day they are examined and are compared with the great Astronom- ical Clock of the Observatory, and an accurate record of the movements of each one is kept in a book prepared for that purpose. The temperature of the room is examined daily and recorded. These minute records enable the officers of the Observatory to point out the exact fault of each imperfect clironometer. Thanks to this system, the maker of the instrument is enabled to remedy the defect, and to render it perfect. At the end of the year the instruments found to be un.«atisfactory are returned to their makers, and those which pass the test are paid for. The returned instruments are usually over- THE UNITED STATES OBSERVATORY. 1179 hauled by the makers, and the defects remedied. Thev are then sent back for another .Year's trial, and rarely fall to pass the test at the end of this time. There are usually tr,nii sixty to one hundred chronometers on trial at the Observatory, and the apart- ment in which they are kept is one of the most interesting in the establishment. The researches connected with the famous " Wind and Current Charts," begun and prosecuted so successfully by the late Lieutenant Matthew F. Maury, whose services were unfortunately lost to the country by his participation in the rebellion, are con- ducted here, as are those relating to "The Habits of the Whale," and other ocean plienomena. The Equatorial, which is the largest telescope in the Observatory, is mounted in the revolving dome which rises above the main building. It has a fourteen feet refractor, and an object glass nine inches in diameter. Its movements are most ingenious, being regulated by machinery and clock work. Its powers are so great that it renders Ktars visible at midday ; and, if directed to a given star in the morning, its machinery will work so accurately that it will follow with perfect exactness the path of the star which will be visible through it as long as the star is above the horizon. The Meridian and Mural Circles are in one of the rooms below. The Transit instrument is placed in the west wing of the building, under a slit twenty inches wide, extending across the room and down the wall of the apartment on each side, to within four or five feet of the floor. It was made by Ertel & Son, of Munich, and is a seven foot achromatic, with a clear aperture of 5.3 inches. The mounting consists of two granite piers, seven feet high, each formed of a solid block of that stone, let down below the floor, and imbedded in a stone foundation eight feet deep, and completely isolated from the building. Midway between the piers, and running north and south, is the artificial horizon, composed of a slab of granite ten feet long, nineteen inches deep, and thirteen inches broad ; it rests on the foundation, and is isolated from the floor, with the level of which the top of it is even, with a space all around it of half an inch ; in the middle of this slab, and in the nadir of the telescope, there is a mortise, nine inches square and ten inches deep, in which the artificial hori- zon is placed to protect it from the wind during the adjustment for collimation, or the determination of the error of collimation of level, and the adjustment for stellar focus, verticality of wires, and the other uses of the collimating eye-piece. The great Astronomical Clock, or " Electro-Chronograph," is placed in the same room with the Transit Instrument, and is used in connection with it to denote sidereal time. It was invented by Professor John Locke, of Cincinnati, and is one of the most remarkable instruments in the world. By means of an electrical battery in the build- ing, the movements of this clock can be repeated by telegraph in any city or town in the land to which the wires extend. With the wires properly connected with it its ticks may be heard in any part of the country, and it will record the time so accu- rately that an astronomer in Portland or New Orleans can tell with exactness the true time of day by this clock. The clock also regulates the time for the city. There is a flagstaff" on top of the dome, upon which a large black ball is hoisted at ten minutes before noon every day. This is to warn persons desiring to know the exact time to examine their watches and clocks. Just as the hands of the great clock point the hour of twelve the ball drops, and the city is thus informed that it is high noon. The Observatory is open to visitors every day between the hours of 9 A. m. and 3 p. M. ; and an accomplished and genial oflScer is in readiness to explain the mysteries of the establishment. 1180 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. The " Big Trees " of California are among the most remarkable specimens of gigantic vegetable growth in existence. They are situated in Calaveras and Mariposa counties, on the sides of the Sierra Nevada, at a height of 4500 feet above the level of the sea. They were unknown to the whites until 1852, but are now among the besi known and most constantly visited natural curiosities of the State. For fully twenty miles before reaching "The Grove," as the forest containing the " Big Trees" of Cala- veras is called, the size of the timber begins to increase, and grows larger at every mile until it attains its maximum size in the " Big Trees." " The Grove " of Calaveras county covers a space of about 50 acres, and contains about 92 of the big trees. Another grove in Mariposa county contains 134 trees ovci- 15 feet in diameter. These giant trees stand sometimes in groups, and sometimes singly and apart. Some are low and stumpy, but others rear their heads to such a height that they appear to touch the clouds. This vast height has tlie effect of dwarf- ing the immense proportions of the trees, and it is not until one examines them more closely that their gigantic size is seen. The Calaveras Grove contains the largest specimens, and we shall confine our description to these. A comfortable hotel hiis been erected in the Grove for the accommodation of tourists. Near to the hotel is one of the largest of the trees, which lies prone upon the ground. The stump has been trimmed away, and is covered over with a handsome summer- house, and fitted up as a pavillion for dancing. On a Fourth of July occasion a cotillon party of thirty-two persons danced upon the stump, and had abundant room for the musicans and a dozen spectators. The stump has a surface 25 feet in diameter. While standing, the bark, which was 18 inches thick, added 3 feet more to this, making the total diameter of the tree in a state of nature 28 feet. It was 302 feet in height, and 96 feet in circumference three feet from the ground. The tree was cut down, and five men were twenty days in felling it. The work was done witli long augurs, boring it off little by little ; but when entirely severed, such was the perfect plumb of trunk and branches, that, to the amazement of the spectators, the tree merely settled down, and still stood, as if refusing, conscious of its majesty, to bow to human endeavon . Vast wedges were then inserted on the northern side, and driven little by little, till, heaved beyond the line of gravity, the mighty tree came crashing to the ground. Sec- tions of the tree and bark were sent to the Eastern States and to Europe to convince tho world of the truth of the reports concerning the trees. The largest of all the trees is called " The Father of the Forest." It lies upon the ground, and evidently fell many years before the Grove was discovered. It is 110 feet in circumference at its base, and the distance from this point to the first branch is 200 feet. The tree is hollow for this distance, and through this hollow part a tall man can easily walk erect. The tree, when standing, was at least 420 feet high, and may have been higher. The largest of the trees now standing is "The Mother of the Forest," sn called from two round protuberances on one side. The bark has been removed for a height of 116 feet, but without it the tree is 84 feet in circumference at its base. Twenty feet from the base its circumference is 69 feet, from which point it decreast s with elegant regularity to the height of 321 feet. It is the most regrilarly proportioned of all the large trees. For this reason its immense size is seldom appreciated at the first view. It is not until one has examined it closely and viewed it from different points that its grandeur is properly appreciated. The bark was from ten to twenty- four inches thick, bulging outwardly in a succession of ellipsoids around the trunk. " Ten feet from the base," says a visitor^ " this tree would ' square ' twenty feet, to use "BIC IKLLs, MAKIIObA AND CALVERAS GROVES, CALIFORNIA. (First tree, 350 feet high and 28 feet in diameter; Second tree 386 feet high and 31 feet in diameter.) THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA. 118^> a sawyer's phrase ; and taking this with a length of 320 feet, gradual decline, a prac- tical lumberman of our party estimates that it must contain at least five hundred and twenty thousand feet of sound inch lumber ! This seems incredible, but the rules of mensuration show it beyond a doubt." The " Husband and Wife " are the names given to two immense trees of younger growth, each 60 feet around the base and 250 feet in height. They grow very near and bend lovingly to each other, their upper branches meeting in a dense mass of foliage. The " Burnt Tree " is another of the fallen monarchs of the forest. Its fall was pro- duced by natural caut^cs. It measures over 39 feet in diameter across the roots, and is believed to luive been over 300 feet high. It is hollow, and one can ride into it on horsebacii for a distance of 60 feet. Another tree, known as " The Horseback Ride," is hollow its entire length. The narrowest part of the interior is twelve feet wide. One of the stumps is hollow, and will comfortably seat twenty-five persons. It is called " Uncle Tom's Cabin." Three magnificent trees, known as the " Tiiree Sisters," stand side by side in graceful amplitude, each 20 feet thick and 200 feet high, of exact pro- portions and equidistant from base to crown. The trees are mammoth redwoods, and are placed by botanists among the class known as Sequoia gigantea. They belong to the Tazodium genus, and, like all of this race, are but little subject to decay. The fallen trunks, which are believed to have lain prostrate for many hundred years, fully prove this. The great lieight at which they stand above the sea level, the dry, balmy air, and the summer droughts and winter snows, with but light rains in the spring and autumn, expose them to but a slight risk of decay, and exempt them from the causes of death to which the timber of the lowlands is exposed. The age of the trees is very great, and sets our mere human periods at naught. It requires twenty years for the trees of this genus to increase one inch in diameter, and forty years for the bark to gain the thickness of a knife blade. By these evidences, and those afforded by the number of annular rings, it is made clear that the largest of these standing trees must be at least three thousand years old. The fallen ones are probably a thousand years older. " When our forefathers landed on Plymouth Eock (he largest of these had long attained its growth, and was hardening into solid maturity. For how many centinits did the Indian contend with the grizzly bear and mountain lion tlirough these shades, before the pale-face came to gaze with the enlightened wonder of a superior race? Could these whispering boughs but drop intelligible words, what of primeval history might they not tell— of combats of savage beasts, or equally savage men? When Magna Charta was signed, these giants were already of size sufficient to have astonislicd all the barons at Runnymede, familiar as they doubtless were with the great oaks of Boscobel and Epping Forest. When Rome yielded to the Goth, the ' Father of the Forest,' grown old and decrepit, was tottering to his fall. When Rome was founded, the ' Burnt Tree ' was still a vigorous sapling, rearing his head two hundred feet upon a body of ten feet diameter, and when the Saviour bowed his head on Calvary, we may well believe that here a mighty forest groaned and shuddered in the tliroes of universal nature. Nay, when Solomon sent to Lebanon for cedars, and Iliram rafted him curious woods from Tyre, had navigation so far extended he miglit here have foimd solid redwoods of size sufficient for the heaviest beams of the House of God. When Homer sung of Troy, this Grove was already a wonder ; and when Horace delighted himself in the Sabine woods, here were trunks to put to shame the largest oaks of the Apennines." 1184 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. THE HOOSAC TUNNEL. The great Hoosac Tunnel, which, after so many yeara of labor, was completed in 1874, is one of the noblest monuments of engineering skill and work in the world. For half a century the four great Atlantic cities of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore have been engaged in a vigorous rivalry to secure the trade of the great West. The rivalry between New York and Boston has been the most marked and zealously prosecuted. The effort of the former city to reach the West wa.s com- paratively easy, as its natural route lay along the valley of the Hudson, but from tlie tirst the question how Boston should reach the upper Hudson on an equality with New York has constituted one of the most difficult problems that has been offered to the fertile genius of New England for solution. Riglit across the western part of the State of Massachusetts stretches the Hoosac Mountain, a spur of the Green Mountain range, forming a natural barrier between New England and New York, cutting off the former from the direct route to the West, and forcing it to seek an outlet by the valley of the Hudson. The problem for New England has been how to overcome this barrier to her communication with the West. There seemed but one way to accomplish this, and that was to tunnel the mountain. In 1825 it was proposed to tunnel it for the passage of a canal from Boston to the Hudson river, and the project was discussed for many years without any conclusion being reached. In the meantime the Boston & Albany Railway was constructed over the mountain in 1841, and the tunnel project was abandoned. The new railway thus enjoyed a monopoly of the trade between New England and the West, and in the natural order of things, the necessity for a competing line was soon felt. In 1845 the Fitchburg Railway, from Boston to the northern part of the State of Massachusetts, was built to Fitchburg, and soon afterwards the Vermont & Massa- chusetts Railway, a continuation of the Fitchburg line, was built to Greenfield. In 1848 the Troy & Greenfield Railway was chartered, with authority to build a road from the terminus of the Vermont & Massachusetts Railroad at Greenfield, through the valleys of the Deerfield and Hoosac rivers, to the State line, where it should unite with a railway leading to Troy. This charter revived the project of tunnelling the Hoosac Mountain, the tunnel to be for the railway this time, and not as formerly for a canal. It was found that the only part of the mountain that could be tunnelled was in the northern part of the State, near the town of Adams. The top of the mountain at the point selected for the tunnel is 2500 feet above tidewater. The mountain is approached on the east by the deep and well-marked valley of the Deerfield, a tributary of the Connecticut river, and on the west by the Hoosac, a tributary of the Hudson. The mountain consists mainly of a mass of mica slate, with occasional veins of quartz, except on the western side, where a secondary formation overlaps the primary. The rock in some places is scarcely to be distinguished from granite, and is much harder. Except where the quartz seams occur the work of drilling the rock is companitively easy, but it is difficult to remove by blasting. The project of tunnelling the mountain Iiaving been thus revived, it was the general desire that it should be pushed through to* completion, without delay. The act of incorporation of the Troy & Greenfield road requii-ed the road to be built within seven years; and in 1854 the Legislature authorized the loan of the credit of the State to the Troy & Greenfield Company to the amount of $2,000,000 for the purpose of constructing the tunnel through the Hoosac Mountain. In 1855 authority was given by the Legislature to certain towns on the line of the road to take stock in the tunnel to a certain fixed amount. In spite of the THE HOOSAC TUNNEL. nsr, great desire for the tunnel, and the belief that it could be built, capital held aloof from It, and the early years of the enterprise were full of difficulties and failures. In 1855 a contract was made with W. E. Serrel & Co. of Philadelphia, to build the tunnel and road for $3,500,000, the contractors to take $440,000 of the stock of the company. This agreement resulted in failure, and a second contract was made with the same parties in January, 1856. The State was a.sked to subscribe $150,000 to the stock, but refused, and the company was not able to raise the necessary funds, so the Serrel contract was abandoned. In July, 1856, tlie company entered into a contract with Herman Haupt & Co., by which the latter agreed to build the road and tunnel for $3,880,000. The company was again unable to raise the necessary sum, and this contract failed. The difficulty of attracting capital was so great that in 1857 the Legislature modified in a very great degree the conditions of the assistance of the State, but the bill for this purpose was vetoed by the Governor. By this time— the latter part of the spring of 1857— the tunnel had been pierced for a distance of 621 feet from the western end, of which 274 feet had been excavated full size; and 185 feet from the eastern end; making the whole distance pierced 806 feet. In February, 1858, a new contract was made with Haupt & Co. to finish the tunnel for $4,000,000, and it was stipulated that the $2,000,000 of bonds to be issued by the State should be used exclusively for the work on the tunnel. The work was now resumed with vigor, and by September, 1858, the mountain had been pierced for a distance of 1291 feet. Shortly after this the company obtained a modification of tin.- Loan Act, and the work was prosecuted up to July, 1861. By this time the advances of the State amounted to $778,695. About the same time the State Engineer refused to approve the work of the contractors, or to certify their bills. Operations were at once suspended in consequence of this refusal, and the enterprise was abandoned by the Troy & Greenfield Company, The project had taken too deep a hold upon the people of the State to be allowed to fail at this stage, and in 1862 the State assumed the entire control of the enterprise, and resolved to complete it at its own expense. Three Commissioners were therefore appointed, and were placed in charge of the affiiirs of the tunnel. Up to this time a great deal of work had been done on the turmel at both approaches to the mountain. The east end heading had been driven nearly 2400 feet, 2130 being of the full size prescribed by the State ; a shaft, located 3000 feet from the west end, had been sunk 325 feet to grade, while the west end had been excavated 610 feet. Serious defects were found to exist in the tunnel as constructed. It had been planned to be only fourteen feet wide, with a total height of eighteen feet, while the western shaft was found to be ten feet north of a .straight line between the two portals. The Commissioners recommended that the work should be done over upon an entirely different plan ; that the tunnel should be twenty-two feet wide at the grade line, twenty-four feet at the widest point, twenty-one feet high above the track, with a circular roof. They estimated the cost of completing the tunnel, including inti rest and the advances already made by the State, at $5,719,930. A bill was passed by the Legislature appropriating $3,800,000 to the work. In October, 1863, over two years after the abandonment of the enterprise by Haupi & Co., work was resumed on the tunnel under the direction of the State Commissioners. An entirely new line was now established, following the axis between the centre of the western shaft and the centre of the work at the east end, bringing the line out eighteen feet north of the old western portal. At the east end the old bore was used and 1186 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. enlarged, but at the west end an entirely new bore was begun. It was resolved to sink but a single shaft — a central one — and the position of this was selected. Work was begun on it in December, 1863. The work was prosecuted under the direction of the Commissioners until 1868, when the State, after much public discussion, determined to have the tunnel completed on contract. At this period the eastern heading had been driven 5282 feet, and 4056 feet in various stages of advancement had been cut from the western end eastward. The central shaft had been sunk 583 feet. There remained 15,693 feet of tunnel and 457 feet of the central shaft to be excavated. In December, 1868, the contract was awarded to Walter and Francis Shanly, of (.' inada, for $4,623,069, and it was stipulated that the work should be completed by March, 1874. The tunnel was to be 24 feet wide and 24 feet high in the clear ; while wliere arching was required it was to be 26 feet wide in the clear and 21.} feet high above the rails. Under this contract the work was pushed forward with vigor and success by day and night. On November 27th, 1873 — Thanksgiving Day — the work- men advancing from both ends met, and light was admitted through the entire tunnel. The work was completed in 1874, within a short period of the stipulated time, and was turned over to the State by the contractors. The whole tunnel is 25,031 feet, or four and three-quarter miles long. It is 26 feet wide, with a varying height of from 23 to 26 feet wherever brick arch is used. Where the excavation is through solid rock the section is reduced to 24 feet wide by 20 feet high. The tunnel has a capacity for a double track. The open space cut of the new tunnel at the west end extends into a portion of the old Ilaupt tunnel, which strikes it diagonally. It is probable that the old tunnel will be used as a culvert to carry off the water from the west end. The grade of the tunnel is 26 feet to the mile for nearly the whole distance, rising from each portal towards the central shaft, and leaving a short length of level imme- diately under the shaft. The height of the interior summit over the portals will be something over 60 feet. The dip in the grade each way from the centre was made to secure good drainage. The grade in the tunnel necessitated some very difficult work in carrying the eleva- tions. The main difficulty of the engineers was to establish the three tunnel points of the east and west ends and the foot of the central shaft in proper relations to each other. To accomplish this the engineers carefully went over the mountain with their levelling instruments, and determined the relative positions of the portals and the depth of the shaft which should be sunk to reach the proper grade at its bottom in the tunnel. The tunnel has two shafts. One of these is near the western end and is but 318 feet deep. The other, the central shaft, is nearly in the middle of the tunnel. It is elliptical in shape, 27 feet long by 15 feet wide, and is sunk to a depth of 1028 feet. The western shaft is to be closed up, if it has not already been, in order to increase the draught of the central shaft. The central shaft was sunk for two purposes : first to secure two facings, one to the east and the other to the west, from which the work on the tunnel could be driven to meet the work advancing from the eastern and western ends, and thus greatly expe- dited ; and secondly to aflbrd proper ventilation to the ttmnel. It is a matter of great doubt whether the tunnel, constructed, as it is, with a grade from each end, would ventilate itself at all. Since the shaft was completed and connection made with tl)e east end, a strong draft is obtained from it, and the tunnel is thus readily cleared of smoke and gases. THE VALLEY OF YOSEMITE. 1187 The rails have been laid through the tunnel, and it is now in working order and affords direct and uninterrupted communication with the West. The total cost of the work, including all the failures, up to January, 1875, has been $12,973,822. Tlie State of Massachusetts retains its ownership of the tunnel, and will prevent it from being used for the benefit of any railway monopoly and the injury of the people. The Hoosac Tunnel, as has been said, is one of tiie noblest public works in exist- ence. It is surpassed only by the Mt. Cenis Tunnel through the Swiss Alps. The latter work was opened on the 17th of September, 1871, and is seven and four-fifths miles long. It was completed after fourteen years' labor, at a cost of about $13,000,000. THE VALLEY OF YOSEMITE. The Valley of Yosemite lies in Mariposa county, California. It is a gigantic cleft in the Sierra Nevada, between five and six miles long and nearly two miles wide, and is bounded on all sides by walls of yellowish granite from 2000 to 4000 feet in height. It is the most sublime valley in the world, and its beauties yearly attract an increasing number of visitors. It lies so high up on the side of the Sierras, and is so difl5cult of accass, that it is cut off almost entirely from the world around it, and constitutes a world of its own. The visitor is transported from the last station of the stage in a stout mountain wagon to a point within five miles of the valley. From this point to the bed of the valley, nearly 3000 feet below, the descent must be made on horseback or on foot. It is so precipitous and formidable looking that many persons, despite the assurances of the guide, prefer to make the descent on foot. Several comfortable hotels have been established in the valley for the entertainment of visitors, and are so located that all the prominent points of interest can be easily reached from them. The valley is watered by the main fork of the Merced river, which pours down into it over lofty crags from its .source, 8000 feet higher up on the Sierras. The sides of the valley rise up almost perpendicular to the height of 3000 feet, and are impassable save at a few points. The Merced, as it enters, forms one of these places, and the rocky outlet of this stream constitutes another. The walls of the valley bear upon their sides the record of the geological changes to which they have been subjected, and tell of the ancient glaciers and waves that have worn smooth their rocky faces. The bed of the valley is thickly strewn with huge boulders, and the central part is filled with a forest of pines and firs. Above the cliffs which shut in the valley a number of noble and majestic peaks rise to a still greater height, varying from 2000 to 4000 feet, and add inexpressibly to the grandeur of the scene. From one of these, called " Cloud's Kest," a grand view of the entire valley and the surrounding peaks is obtained. Almost every object of interest is in sight. To the left is the South or Half Dome. Above it, on the same side, is Sentinel Eock, sloping down to Glacier Point. Farther away are the Cathedral Rocks and Spires, and beyond them the valley runs off into the mountain side. On the right, at the upper end, nearly opposite Cathedral Rocks, rises the bold head of El Capitan • lower down is the majestic North Dome sweeping down to Washington Column and separated from the Half Dome by Tenaya Cnnon. Back of the North Dome lies the Yosemite Fall, while to the left and back of the Half Dome are the Gorge of the Merced and Nevada and Vernal Falls. The distant spires of the Cathedral Rocks hide the beautiful Bridal Veil Fall. 1188 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. "To the north," says a writer describing the scene from Cloud's Kest, "over inter- vening cafions and gorges, tlie Sierra peaks rose grandly desolate, pale and delicately tinted with many tones, warm and cool, against the cloudless vacuum of the sky beyond, that by contrast wore a strangely sombre hue. Their shoulders were robed with snow and ice, and their flanks were grooved and scarred by glaciers long since extinct. Upon the lower levels a sparse growth of evergreens hardly served to cover the naked appearance of the landscape, and bald spots showed almost as white as the snow beyond. This peculiar appearance of sterility, and meagre, patchy forest growth, characterizes all the surrounding country when seen from such a height. Turning from the Sierras, that were from 3000 to 5000 feet above our level, we looked down 6000 feet into the Yosemite, whose peculiar trough-like formation was readily recog- nizable, running almost at right angles to the regular trend of the mountains, and fully 4000 feet below the average level of the surrounding country. The familiar forms of the enclosing walls, and the green groves and meadows of the valley floor upon which the Merced sparkled, could be plainly seen, but angles of rock hid each waterfall." A pleasant excursion is made from the original hotel, across the Merced — a fine mountain stream ten feet deep and abounding in trout — to the head or eastei'n end of the valley. On the left as the visitor ascends the valley are the "Eoyal Arches," on the north side. The granite has fallen in some previous convulsion in such shape as to form five gigantic arches, one within the other, half a mile in length, and rising in the centre 1500 feet. In the npper part of the valley lies Mirror Lake, a pretty mountain tarn of clear water, in which, when the day is clear, the whole valley and the surrounding peaks are reflected as in a mirror. When the sky is cloudless and the sunlight imobstructed, the picture reflected in the lake is dazzlingly brilliant. Continuing up the valley one may visit the Cathedral Eocks, two sharp, lofty pinnacles, rising like the spires of a Gothic cathedral for a height of 2000 feet. At their feet the river crowds so close that the trail is forced to find its way through a wilderness of great granite blocks that lie embowered in a forest that has grown up since they were hurled from their places on the cliflfs above. Beyond these is the exquisite Bridal Veil Fall, which leaps from a rocky height of 900 feet. Its upper part sparkles a moment in the sunlight, a solid body ; then sweeps down in a wild whirl of spray which breaks into a thousand lighter showers before it reaches the ba.sin below. There are several other falls by which the Merced flows into the valley. The river enters it in two brai c'.ies, which unite in the valley. The smaller branch comes in from the northenst, under the shadow of the North Dome and the Cap of Liberty — the last a wondrous cone rising directly from the north cliff — 1000 feet of beautiful yellow and smooth rock, completely inaccessible. The main branch enters behind the Soutli or Half Dome, in two magnificent cataracts called Nevada and Vernal Falls, and a series of beautiful rapids and cascades between them. A hard climb of over two hours brings the traveller to the foot of the Nevada Falls, 2000 feet above the level of the valley. This is the most superb fall in the Yosemite. The Merced comes rushing down the mountain side in a deep trough from its source among the ice peaks, hurrying on in a clear crystal stream, and leaps at a single bound 400 feet, and then rushes down into the valley below in a series of rapids broken by the rocks, scattering itself at times in clouds of thin .spray, and then re-collecting its waters again and pouring them over the rocks in a single stream. The Vernal Fall is so called because of the exquisite emerald tints it displays. It THE VALLEY OF YOSEMITE. 1189 was called by the Indians the "Cataract of Diamonds." It is accessible from more points than any other fail in the valley, but can be reached onlv on foot. It consist^ of one clear fall of 350 feet. The water starts from the cliff in two great rocky flumes twenty feet wide and perhaps a foot in depth, but long before reaching the bottom is utterly broken into the minutest fragments and rolled into one great airv sheet of foam, snow-white and dazzling, bordered apparently by pearl dust, it seems a column ot cloud breaking upon the rocks to light surf and stony crystals. A series of stairways^ has been constructed to enable visitors to reach the various points from which the fall may be viewed to advantage. The clififs are so gigantic and majestic that it is impossible to repress a feeling of awe while standing in the valley and gazing up to them. The huge peaks or " domes " which rise still higher are inexpressibly beautiful. The coloring of the whole scene is brilliant and striking, varying from the richest hues to the softest tints. A solemn silence broods over the whole valley, save Avhere it is broken by the sighing of the wind or the noise of the waterfalls. On the north side of the valley the Yosemite Creek flows into it by the beautiful Yosemite Falls. The immense wall of the northern cliff gives back, leaving an inlet into the mountain, the sides of which, like buttresses, approach each other at a sharp angle, and down one side of this inlet pours Yosemite, in summer a mere rill, but in the rainy season a fiei-ce, swollen mountain torrent. Then great liquid volumes fall from the first height 1600 feet, strike and break to a thousand splintered streams, lacing all the second fall fur 400 feet with dazzling lines of foam ; then gather in another flume, take another plunge, and rebounding from cliff to cliff in a million comminuted streams, roar into the basin below. Large logs from the mountain forests plunge a thousand feet without check and splinter to fragments, but .sometimes pass entire, and with myriad tumblings are drifted far down the plain. The three divisions of the fall measure respectively 1600, 434, and 633 feet, making a total fall of 2G67 feet. The name of the valley is an Anglicized or corrupted form of the Indian A-hom-e-tfe, Avhich means Great Grizzly Bear, supposed to be the title of a chief, ami applied generally to a tribe that held possession of the region from the valley to the plains on the west. That name, however, was never given to it by the Indians. They called it A-walvnee, Mdiich finds its equivalent in the Spanish c:ifiyon or the English chasm. The valley was discovered in 1851. The miners and early settlei.- on the Mariposa estate were greatly annoyed by the depredations of the thieving Indians. A military company was organized to punish the savages, and guided by Tenaya, a friendly Indian, this force pursued the astonished redskins into their inner- most hiding-place, the now famous Yosemite Valley, which the savages had supposi'd was inaccessible to the whites. The pursuers were astounded at the magnificence of the scenerv, and their accounts of it upon their return were set down by their com- rades as pure exaggeration. Other visitors confirmed the first reports, and the region soon attained the celebrity it has since possessed. The valley is now under the control of a Commission appointed by the State of California. The Commissioners appoint a guardian of the valley, who resides on the spot, and whose duty it is to see that the rules for the preservation of the trees and the prevention of wanton deface- ment are properly carried out. New roads are being opened into the valley, and the luimber of visitors is annually incresising. It would be impossible to present to the reader a full description of this wonderful valley in an article as brief as this. We have tried to draw the attention to the most prominent characteristics and most interesting abjects, and have been obliged to omit 1190 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. a minute description of the wonderful domes and a score of other objects of beauty and grandeur. Indeed, no words can adequately describe such a scene. Even the pencil of the greatest artist fails to do it justice. Nature has made this wonderful valley her master-work, and it must be seen to be appreciated. THE SIGNAL SERVICE. One of the best arranged, though one of the most recent, branches of the general Government is that section of the War Department known as the Signal Bureau. Tlio chief of this bureau has been humorously termed "Old Probabilities," in consequence of his daily prognostications of the state of the weatlier for the next twenty-four hours. "Old Probabilities" is at present Brigadier-General Albert J. Meyer, one of the most thorouglily competent and accomplished officers on duty at Washington. The opera- tions of the bureau are conducted under his immediate and constant supervision. He is assisted by a corps of trained and well-qualified subordinates, and has brouglit the : Signal Service to a state of efficiency and usefulness of which the whole country is proud. Tlie Signal Service is charged with a double duty. In time of war its members accompany the army, and transmit messages from point to point by means of a system of fliig telegraphing. In peace their duties consist in observing and transmitting to 'AVashington accurate reports of the condition of the weather. The Signal Corps is < composed of a commanding officer, with the rank of Brigadier-General, several com- ;missioned officers, and a certain number of sergeants and enlisted men. The sergeants .are required to be proficient in spelling, the ground rules of aritlimetic, including ■ decimal fractions, and the geography of the United States, and must write a legible hand. They must pass an examination in these branches before being admitted into the service. They are also subjected to a searching medical examination, and only men of sound physical condition are accepted. They are regularly enlisted into tlie military service of the United States, and are subject to the regulations for the govern- ment of the army. Immediately upon admission into the corps each sergeant is sent to Fort Whipple, in Virginia, opposite Wasliington, where he is taught the duties of his profession, which are "chiefly those pertaining to the observation, record, and proper publication and report, at such times as may be required, of the state of the barometer, thermom- eter, hygrometer, and rain-gauge, or other instruments, and the report by telegraph or signal at such times as indicated, and to such places as may be designated by the chief signal officer, of the observations as made, or such other information as may be required." The text-books used in the school at Fort Whipple are Loomis's "Text- Book of Meteorology," Buchan's "Hand-Book of Meteorology," Pope's "Practical Telegraphy," and the " Manual of Signals for the United Slates Army." Instruction in the use of the instruments is also given, and the sergeant is taught to operate the telegraph. He is required to make daily recitations, and when he is considered prepared by his instructor, he is ordered before an examining board, and is subjected to a rigid examination. If he is found properly qualified, he is assigned to a signal station in some part of the country, and is allowed an enlisted man to assist him in his duties. There are about fifty signal stations located in various parts of the Union, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from British America to the Gulf of Mexico. Each of theseis supplied with a full set of the instruments necessary for ascertaining the con- THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 1191 dltion of the weather, etc., and is in charge of an observer sergeant, who is required to make observations three times a day by means of his instruments, which are adjnstt-d to a standard at Washington. These observations are made at 8 A. M., at 4 p. m., aiid at midniglit. Each post of observation is provided with a clock which is regulated by the standard of Washington time, so that the observations are taken precisely at the .same moment all over the United States. The result of each observation is imme- diately telegraphed to the Signal Office at Washington, the Government having made arrangements with the telegraph companies to secure the instant transmission of the^e messages. The reports are limited to a fixed number of words, and the time of theii- transmission to a fixed number of seconds. The signal stations, as at present located throughout the country, "have been cho.sen or located at points from wiiich reports of observations will be most useful as indicating the general barometric pressure, or the approach and force of storms, and from whicli storm warnings, as tiie atmospheric indications arise, may be forwarded with greatest despatch to imperilled port«." The work of the observers at the stations is simple. It is limited to a reading of their instruments at stated times, the transmission to Washington of the results of these observations, and of information of any meteorological facts existing at the station when their tri-daily report is telegraphed to Washington. The work of the officers on duty at the Signal Office in Washington is of a higher character, and demands great skill and perfect accuracy. The reports from tiie various stations are read and recorded as they come in, and from them the officer charged with this duty prepares a statement of the condition of the weather during the past twenty-four hours, and indicates the changes most likely to occur within the next twenty-four hours. These statements are prepared shortly after midnight, and are at once telegraphed to the various cities and important ports of the Union in time for their publication in the newspapers the next morning. Professor Maury, of the Signal Office, thus sums up the workings of the service : "Each observer ''at the stations writes his report on manifold paper. One copy he preserves, another he gives to the telegraph operator, who telegraphs the contents to Washington. The preserved copy is a voucher for the report actually sent by the observer; and if the operator is careless and makes a mistake, he cannot lay the blame on the observer, who has a copy of his report, whin, the mouth of which defile constitutes one of the chief marvels of this marvellous region. The Grand Cafijn is twenty miles in length, and extends from the mouth of Tower Creek to the foot of the Great Fall. It is impassable throughout its entire length, and accessible to the water's edge only at a few points and by dint of severe labor. The road leads over the country to the left of the canon, by way of Mount Washburn, to the falls of the river. "No language," says Professor Hayden, "can do justice to the wonderful beauty and grandeur of the Grand Canon." There is nothing like it on the globe. It is from 1500 to 2500 feet deep, " and from the bed of the river," says Lieutenant Doane, who descended to the stream, " the stars could be distinctly seen " at three o'clock on a clear afternoon. The sides of the cafljn have been carved by the waiers that have flowed through it into fantastic resemblances to massive columns and Gothic pinnacles. "The basis material of the old hot-spring deposits in silica, originally as white as snow, are now stained by mineral Avaters with every shade of red and yellow, from scarlet to rose color, from bright sulphur to the daintiest tint of cream. When the light falls favorably on these blended tints, the Grand Canon presents a more enchant- ing and bewildering variety of forms and colors than human artist ever conceived." The river rushes down the descent of the can-)n with a hoarse roar, but tlie gazer peering down from the lofty cliffs can hear nothing. A deep and even painful silence fills the whole chasm as he gazes into it. A mile above the head of the Grand Canon is the Lower Fall of the Yellowstone. The river, 150 feet in width, leaps at a single bound over a smooth rocky precipice 350 feet in height, and rushes down to the Grand Canon, a mile below, in which it disappears. The fall is superb. Half a mile above is the Upper Fall, the river '"iilMI^* NEAR VIEW OF YOSEMITE FALLS. THE GREAT GEYSER OF THE FIRE-HOLE BASIN. THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 1199 between the two flowing through a canon from 200 to 400 feet deep. The Upper Fall is 140 feet in height, and the precipice over which the stream plunges in a sheet of snow-white foam is perpendicular like that of the Lower Fall. Above the Upper Fall the Yellowstone flows through a peaceful and grassy meadow-like valley. A mile or two above the falls a small stream known as Alum Creek flows into the Yellowstone. It rises in a group of alum and sulphur springs about ten miles above the falls. These springs are boiling actively, and emit clouds of steam and vapor. Steaming vapor also rushes from the crevices in the surface of the surrounding country, and deposits of pure crystallized sulphur are scattered about near them. The crust of the ground is treacherous in the vicinity of the springs, and a man's weight may easily break through it in some places. Professor Hayden thinks these springs and steam vents the remains of a series of once powerful but now slowly dying geysers. A couple of miles above these springs, near the banks of the Y'^ellowstone, is a not less remarkable group of sulphur and mud springs, and the country around them for some distance bears witness to having been covered with similar springs long since extinct. " The contents of most of them," says Mr. Langford, " were of the consistency of thick paint, which they greatly resembled, some being yellow, others pink, and others dark brown. This semifluid was boiling at a fearful rate The bubbles, often two feet in height, would explode with a pufi', emitting each time a villanous smell of sulphuretted vapor.' Not far from this <;roup of springs is the Muddy Geyser, which has a funnel-shaped orifice in the midst of a basin 150 feet in diameter, with sloping sides of clay and sand. The crater or orifice is about thirty feet in diameter. The flow of this geyser is regular every six hours. The water rises gradually, commencing to boil when about half way to the surface, and occasionally breaking forth in great violence. When the crater is filled it is expelled from it in a splashing, scattered mass, ten or fifteen feet in thickness, to a height of forty feet. At the distance of a mile, perhaps, from the Muddy Geyser is the " Mud Volcano." It is situated in the midst of a grove of pines on the slope of a small lull. At irregu- lar intervals it discharges through a crater thirty feet in diameter dense volumes of Bteam, with a loud, thundering report. " The reports," says Mr. Langford, " though irreo-uhir, occurred as often as every five seconds, and could be distinctly heard half a mile. Each alternate report shook the ground a distance of 200 yards or more, and the massive jets of vapor which accompanied them burst forth like the smoke of burning gunpowder." Discharges of mud are mingled with the steam, and are scat- tered for as nmch as 200 feet around the opening. Professor Hayden considers this the most important mud spring yet discovered in the West. The steam rising from it can be seen for many miles in every direction. A few miles further up is Yellowstone Lake. The river leaves it in a clmnnel a quarter of a mile wide, and is here a calm, deep stream. The lake itself is irregular in form, and is over twenty miles long and fifteen miles broad. It covers a superficial area of about 300 square miles. Its greatest depth is 300 feet, and its elevation above the sea 7427 feet. In its lofty position it has but one rival— Lake Titicaca in South America. It has no tributaries of any considerable size, and receives its clear, cold waters solely from the snows of the lofty mountain ranges that hem it in on every side. Its shores are paved with volcanic rocks, sometimes in ma-sses, sometimes broken and worn into pebbles of trachyte, obsidian, chalcedony, cornelians, agsites, and bits of agatized wood ; and again, ground to obsidian sand .ind sprinkled with crystals of California diamonds. Vegetation is abundant both in and around the lake. The 1200 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. waters swarm with trout, but no other fish of any kuid exirtt in them. Water-fowl of various kinds are found about the lake in groat numbers. The surrounding country is rich in game, from the muskrat to the elk, the grizzly bear, and the California lion. The beauty of the lake has aroused the enthusiasm of all who have seen it. Even the cautious Hayden declares that "such a vision is worth a lifetime, and otily one of sucii marvellous beauty will ever greet Imman eyes." " It is a fitting climax to all the wonders we had seen," says Mr. Langford, "and we gazed upon it for liours, entranced with its increasing attractions." Hot springs strongly impregnated with mineral deposits are .scattered around the lake on all sides. Some of these are large and important, but we have not the space to describe them liere. The eastern rim of the Yellowstone basin is formed by one of the grandest volcanic ranges in the world. The general level of the summits of these mountains is about 10,000 feet above the sea, wliile numerous peaks thrust their heads a thousand feet higher still. The three highest bear the names of Langford, Doane, and Stephenson, after the first explorers who ascended them. Between the lake and this group of mountains is Brimstone Basin. The ground for several miles around is impregnated with sulphur and the air is tainted with sul- phurous exhalations. The s{)rings which occur in this tract are of the ordinary temperature, though the basin was evidently the scene of thermal activity within a comparatively recent period. The upper Yellowstone rises in the high volcanic range wl»ich shuts oflFthe Yellow- stone basin from the Wind River drainage, and constitutes the great water-shed of the continent. It flows north into Yellowstone Lake. About eight or ten miles south of Yellowstone Lake is a smaller body of water called Heart Lake, which is one of the sources of Snake River. Ten miles northwest of this is Madison Lake, the source of Madison River. The main fork of the Madison River, from the lake to its junction with the South Fork, is known as the Firehole River. About ten miles below the lake it flows through a deep canon, and as it emerges from this it falls over two ledges of rock, one twenty and the other fifty feet in height. A short distance below these fiills the canon widens, and both banks of the river are lined with a considerable number of hot springs in active operation. Two miles below the stream enters the Upj)er Geyser basin, the most wonderful portion of this whole region. It is an open, rolling valley, two miles wide and three miles long, the mountains on either side rising 1500 feet above the valley, with steep, heavily-timbered ledges of dark rock. Scattered through this valley are a large runnber of powerful geysers. The principal of these are known as "Old Faithful," "The Beehive," "The Giantess," "Castle Geyser," "The Grand Geyser," "The Saw Mill," "The Giant," "The Grotto," "The Riverside," " The Fan Geyser," and " The Sentinels." These are all among the most powerful spouting springs in the world, sending up, when in action, vast columns of water fiom 50 to over 200 feet, and emitting dense clouds of steam. The exact number of geysers is not known. There are about 1500 hot springs in the upper basin, many of which Professor Hayden thinks may be geysers whose periods of activity have never been observed. " We could not distinguish," says Lieutenant Doane, " the geysers from the other hot springs, except by seeing them play, and doubtless there are many besides in the valley of great size, which we saw when quiet and chv-ssed as boiling springs Taken as an aggregate, the Firehole basin 8urpa.sseH all the other great wonders of the continent. It produces an effect on the mind of the beholder utterly staggering and overpowering. During the night we CUATEK OF UIANT ^ upon which the Republic was founded in the first instance. The anxiety which he shared with his compatriots manifests itself through all his hopefulness : " It appears to me," he writes, " little short of a miracle that the delegates from so many States, different from each other, as you know, in their manners, circumstances, and prejudices, should unite in forming a system of national government so little liable to well-founded objections. Nor am I such an enthusiastic, partial, or undiscriminating admirer of it as not to perceive it is tinctured with some real, though not radical, defects. With regard to the two great points— the pivots upon which the whole machine must move — mv creed is simply, First. That the General Government is not invested with more powers than are indispensably necessary to perform the functions of a good govern- ment ; and consequently that no objection ought to be made against the quantity of power delegated to it. " Secondlv. That these powers, as the appointment of all rulers will forever arise 1212 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. from, and at short, stated intervals recur to, the free suffrages of the people, are so dis- tributed among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches into which the General Government is arranged, that it can never be in danger of degenerating into a monarchy, an oligarchy, an aristocracy, or any other despotic or oppressive form, so long as there shall remain any virtue in the body of the people. " It will at least be a recommendation to the proposed Constitution, that it is pro- vided with more checks and barriers against the introduction of tyranny, and those of a nature less liable to be surmounted, than any government liitherto instituted among mortals. " We are not to expect perfection in this world ; but mankind, in modern times, have apparently made some progress in the science of government. Should that which is now offered to the people of America be found on experiment less perfect than it can be made, a constitutional door is left open for its amelioration." Looking back now over the century which has elapsed since the great work was begun, we may fairly inquire whether the fears of the founders or the unfriendly asser- tions of Europe have been realized. The experiment was begun, it must be remembered, by a young and feeble country, already involved in a difficult and burdensome struggle with one of the first military and naval powers of Europe. It was an open question whether the effort for inde- pendence could succeed. The States had few interests in common besides their endan- gered liberties, and it was confidently predicted that they would never hang together, but would either separate in a few years and return to the protection of England, or that the republican system would give way to a great monarchy or a number of separate monarchies. In any event republicanism was doomed to run its usual course and end in failure. To the astonishment of Europe the Republic survived its early trials and conquered its independence ; but upon the return of peace it found itself face to face with numerous serious difficulties, many of which threatened to rend it into fragments. The predic- tions which had greeted the commencement of its existence seemed nearer their realization than ever, and it was confidently believed that the end was close at hand. Let us examine the prophecies of Europe for the future of the Republic, and see how far they have been fulfilled during the hundred years that have tested the stability and virtues of our institutions. L It was predicted that the Americans, as republicans, would be unstable, visionary, given to change ; that instead of striving after a possible system of government, and seeking to secure its permanence, they would exhaust their energies in attempting to set up wild and impracticable systems. II. It was predicted that the personal independence and the freedom of speech secured to every man would result in general insubordination ; that men would be led to think their own ideas supreme, and would thus be unwilling to submit to any defined standard, and that the body politic thus becoming unmanageable, the country would be so beset with insubordination and rebellion that it would welcome a mon- archy or even a despotism as the only escape from anarchy. III. It was predicted that the Republic, even if it escaped or survived these troubles, would be constantly involved in wars with other nations, and so prevented from enjoying the peace necessary to the development of its resources ; that foreign nations would take advantage of its weakness to wrest its territory from it whenever the oppor- tunity offered itself. IV. It was predicted that the Government, being republican in form, could not be made strong enough to offer adequate protection to industry ; that in the unhappy A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1213 state of affairs which Avould ensue men would not seek to accumulate property which might be swept away from them by some disturbance, and the country would thus remain poor. Time, the great trier of all men's work, has tested the system founded by our lathers, and the results of the century have vindicated their wisdom and refuted the assertions of the unfriendly prophets of ruin, whose predictions we have recorded. The century has shown a wonderful increase in the extent, population, prosperity, and power of the Republic, and has witnessed no change in its form of government. It has shown that a republican form of government can develop both the resources and the power of a country. So far from being visionary, given to change, or to lollowing wild and impracticable fancies, the American people have devoted tliem- selves to the perfection and consolidation of the system with which they began tlieir national existence. The wise founders of that system, appreciating the future growth of the country, and believing that that growth would reveal defects in their work, placed it in the power of their children to remedy them by constitutional amendments. Thus during the century there have been changes made in the fundamental law of the land, modifying or enlarging the powers of the Government, securing the rights of the governed, and stating more clearly the principles of the Constitution ; but no radical or even trivial change has been made in the character of our system. It is still the same, except that it has been made more perfect. Believing that its princi- ples are eternal, the American people have cherished as their most precious possession the system of free republican government bequeathed to them by their fathers, and have always resented the slightest attempt to interfere with or change its principles. We have shown that republican institutions are strong enough to deal with the questions that have perplexed monarchical Europe, and to settle them on a safe and satisfactory basis. We have dispensed witii large standing armies, and yet we are strong at home and feared and respected abroad. The defence of the country is intrusted to the whole body of citizens, and we have shown that a citizen army and navy capable of contending with the strongest powers, and of waging one of the most formidable wars of history, can be raised at the moment of need. We have no class interests to array our people in hostile divisions. Each man is the equal before the law of all his fellow-citizens, and the highest places in the State are open to the humblest who by force of his own genius can rise to them. The welfore of the State is the direct concern of every citizen. We have shown that the education of the masses is the bulwark of popular liberty. We have separated Ciiurch and State, and permit neither to intrude upon the domain of the other, and we have sliown this to be to the advantage of both. We have given men the largest liberty in every relation of life, and have shown that this is perfectly compatible with a sound and vigorous political and social system. Nor has the large liberty of the people been found inconsistent with the firm exer- cise of a strong government. Men have become free in America, and have become settled in the opinion that their freedom rests upon a prompt and willing obedience to the law The happy arrangement of our confederated system, by which each State char-es itself with the administration of its own local affairs, leaving the care for the general welfare to the Federal Government, renders easy the direct and vigilant enforcement of the law. There is no dispute as to the powers of the State ami 1- ederal Governments. Each is submitted to cheerfully, and neither conflicts with the other. So far from having become visionary and unstable, the American people are known as the most thoroughly wedded to their system, and the most determined to maintain it, of anv nation upon the globe. They are not blindly wedded to it, nor do they think 1214 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. it lias yet attained its highest development. They are prepared to accept any improvements which the future may show to be necessary ; and fortunately for them their fundamental law provides for the peaceful and ready accomplishment of this. But they believe that the principles of equality and of civil and religious freedom upon which their system is founded are eternal, and can never be lost by a virtuous people. The assertion that the personal independence and the freedom of speech secured to every citizen of the Eepublic would result in general insubordination ; that men would be led to tliink their own ideas supreme ; tiiat the minority would never submit to the majority, and that the body politic, being thus unmanageable, the country would be so given over to insubordination and rebellion that a monarchy would be indispensable ;i3 the only refuge from anarchy — this assertion has likewise been refuted by the events of the century. Republican government has been found strong enough to per- petuate itself. There is no country in the world where a more willing obedience to the law is rendered by its citizens. In this country the obedience is voluntary, and we are saved the necessity of enforcing the law by means of vast standing armies and large police forces, such as those which eat up the strength of European countries. The minority have been found to yield cheerfully to the majority, as is witnessed every four years in the choice of the Chief Magistrate of the nation, and in the more frequent elections of the officers of the Federal, State, and municipal governments. Parties the most antagonistic in political beliefs — yet agreeing on the great questions of free governnint— yield their places and power to their successful opponents with promptness and without for a moment entertaining a thought of seeking to retain them by force ; trusting for their restoration to power only to the free expression of the will of the people at the polls. During the whole century we have had but one rebellion, and but five or six riots of importance. Even the rebellion was not an effort to break up the system of government, but merely an attempt on the part of certain States to withdraw from the Union. They gave the highest testimony in their power to the excellence of the sijstem by seeking to perpetuate it in a new confederacy. As for the system, its proudest triumph has been won in the successful reconstruction of the Union. But ten years have elapsed since the close of our civil war, and yet the con- quered States are again members of the Eepublic, in full fellowship with their trium- phant sisters ; enjoying every right guaranteed by the Constitution, and in the full exercise of free republican government. The supremacy of the Constitution has been maintained, a great war has been waged, and the result has been to enlarge the liberties of the nation and to ground them more solidly in the hearts of the people. There have been no attainders for treason, no executions or confiscations. The victors have treated the vanquished as brothers, and the vanquished, on their part, have reassumed their places within the Union, frankly accepting the results of the war, and firmly resolved to maintain the system which has been so fairly and terribly tested. He who would undertake to propose a monarchy on the American continent to-day would be regarded as an idiot. It was predicted that the Republic, even if it escaped or survived the intestine troubles prophesied for it, would be constantly involved in wars with other countries, and so prevented from enjoying the peace necessary to the development of its resources ; that foreign nations would take advantage of its weakness to wre.st its terri- tory from it whenever the opportunity offered itself. Our history during the century has shown that we are not an aggressive people. We went to war with Great Britain for the preservation of our liberties and the estab- lishment of our independence. The struggle lasted eight years. It was followed, after A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1215 an interval of fifteen years of peace, by hostilities with France, into which the Republic was dragged by the efforts of the French Government to destroy our com- merce. The outrages of the Barbary States of Africa drew us into war, in 1803, with Tripoli and Algiers. It was a naval warfare only, and was maintained with credit, 3000 miles from home, for nearly five years. Seven years more of peace followed. In 1812 the Republic was forced to take up arms to defend its commerce and sailors against its old enemy, Great Britain. Peace was made at the close of 1814. The next year the Republic compelled the African pirates to respect its commerce, and so rendered a service to mankind. Thirty -one years of peace followed. TJien came the war with Mexico, lasting about two years. Tliis was our last foreign war. In neither of those we have mentioned was the Republic the aggressor. It took up the sword simply to defend its rights, which had been assailed, and laid it down an soon as pro- tection for those rights had been secured. Including the War of Independence, but twenty years of the whole century have been passed by this country in foreign wars, and between each of the more important of these wars there has been a long interval of peace. The country has found ample time for the development of its resources, as its condi- tion to-day proves. Our energies have been turned in the direction of peace, and we liave found time to settle our quarrels with other nations without sacrificing our liome interests. The prediction that our weakness would expose us to the attacks of foreign powers has never been fulfilled. We have never been weak enough for this since the declar- ation of our independence. We successfully resisted Great Britain in the Revolution, compelled France and the Barbary powers to respect our commerce, and wrung from Great Britain, in our second struggle with her, the protection we claimed for our seamen and commerce. Thus, while the Republic was still weak and struggling with its early difficulties, it proved itself too strong to be assailed by any foreign power. Since the close of tlie second war with England it has occupied a position of such growing strength and prosperity that, so far from seeking to molest it, foreign powers have sought its friendship, and have cordially recognized its importance in tlie political system of the world. To-day it takes rank with the great powers of the world. It is regarded by European nations as a valuable friend or a dangerous foe. From the date of its formation the Republic has never lost a foot of its territory by conquest or by sale. On the contrary, the Republic has grown steadily in territorial extent by purcliase, cession, and conquest. In 1775 the area of tlie United Colonies was about 1,000,000 of square miles, embracing only a narrow strip of coimtry along the Atlantic from Canada to Florida. It has grown by successive additions until its total area is now nearlv 4,000,000 square miles. Its eastern and western boundaries are the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and it stretches from the forty-ninth almost to the twentv-fiftli parallel of north latitude. In 1776 tlie population of tlie Republic was about 3,000,000. In 1870 it was 38,547,229, and in 1870 it is believed by Professor E B Elliott, of AVashington City, will be 45,027,000. Looking back over the centurv we cannot help smiling at the la-st prediction we have related liere— tliat the Government, being rppublican in form, could not be made strong enough to offer adequate protection to industry; that in the unhappy state of affairs which would ensue men would not seek to accumulate property. We cannot better show the failure of tliis prophecy than by contrasting the condition of the country a centurv ago with its condition to-day. , , ^ , ,. In 1776 but a few wretched roads connected the distant parts of the Republic, ^ow all parts are brought into close and intimate relations with each other by lines of 73 1216 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. railway and canals. Splendid steamers navigate our bays, lakes, and rivers, and the feeble and precarious trade of colonial days has expanded into a mighty and growing system of commerce which has made America one of the first commercial nations on the globe. In 1874 there were about 64,000 miles of railway in operation in the United States. The telegraph was unknown at the commencement of our national existence. There are now about 60,000 miles of wire in operation in this country. In 1776 the manufactures of the country were few and limited to articles of prime necessity. In 1870 there were 252,148 manufacturing establishments in the United States, employing a capital of $2,118,208,769, and producing manufactured articles to the value of $4,232,325,442 annually. In 1790 the tonnage of the United States engaged in foreign trade was only a little over half a million. In 1860 it exceeded six millions. It decreased during the civil war in consequence of the depredations of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers, but it is now rapidly reviving, and ranks next to that of Great Britain. In 1875 the total value of goods imported into the United States from foreign countries was $533,005,436. The total value of exports for the same year was $513,442,711. In 1790 the cultivation of cotton was in its infancy. In 1860 the crop amounted to 5,198,077 bales, and in 1870 to 3,011,996 bales. Besides the larger crops, the value of orchard and market garden products in 1870 was $68,054,418. In the same year the value of home-made articles was $23,433,332 ; the value of slaughtered animals $398,956,376. The cash value of farms was $9,262,803,861 ; the value of farming implements and machinery $336,878,429. The inventive genius of the country has supplied every demand which its rapid development has created. To Americans the world owes the application of steam to navigation, the invention of the electric telegraph, the sewing machine, the cotton gin, the reaping machine, and the great improvements in the steam engine and the printing press. " The States were behind us," says Mr. Charles Reade. " They soon advanced upon us and caught us, and now they head us far Europe teems with the material products of American genius In a word, America is the leading nation in all matters of material invention and construction, and no other nation rivals nor approaches her." No man feels that he is accumulating wealth here at the risk of losing it by civil disturbances. Property is held here by as secure a tenure as in any country in Europe. So far from being timid in the pursuit of wealth, Americans are noted for the boldness and magnitude of their financial operations. They have the reputation of caring quite as much for money as the most ardent monarchist, and of having more money than any other nation. Tiiere can be no question that wealth is more generally distributed in the United States than in European countries. We have few colossal fortunes, though in that respect we have some men who could rival the " money kings" of the old world ; but our people, as a whole and as individuals, are more comfortable, are better oflT, and live better and dress better than those of European countries. This is especially true of the M'orking class. As a rule our people live in separate houses, and these are generally the property of their occupants. Even among tlie working class the number of persons owning their dwellings is greater than in European States. Not only are the American people as a general rule better off in purse than Euro- peans, they are cleaner and neater in their persons, homes, and habits. This comparison of course does not apply to persons in the better walks of life, for that class in all countries is careful as to its mode of life. The mass of the people in the A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1217 Eepublic are better dressed, cleaner in their homps and personal habits, bathe oftener, and are possessed of more refinement than the same class of people in Europe. Fortunately for the Republic it has as yet no pauper class to be supported out of the earnings of the industrious population. The pauper class, as it exists among us, is small and may be divided into two portions — those receiving assistance in established institutions, and those leading a vagrant life, supporting themselves by begging. It is not possible to obtain any estimate of the latter, but it is generally admitted that it is made up chiefly of foreigners. In 1870 the total native population of the Union was 32,991,142 ; the total foreign population 5,567,229. In the same year the number of persons receiving assistance in public institutions was 76,737. Of these 53,939 were natives ; 22,798 foreigners. The foreign population is between one-seventh and one- eighth of the whole number of our people. It furnished over one-fourth of the paupers in 1870. The ratio was about one pauper to every 610 native inhabitants, and about one pauper to every 245 foreigners. So too with crime. It is a well-known fact that our prisons are filled chiefly with foreign criminals. The graver offences are confined almost entirely to this class. In 1870 the ratio of persons in prison was one prisoner to every 1365 native inhabitants, and one prisoner to every 623 foreigners. But it is not only in material wealth that our country has improved in such a marked degree. In the higher departments of intellectual progress its development has kept pace with its growth in riches. In 1800 there were but 200 newspapers published in the United States. In 1870 the number of newspapers and periodicals was 5871 ; their aggregate circulation 20,842,475 copies ; and the number annually printed 1,508,548,250. At the opening of the century there were few libraries in this country, and these were chiefly in the hands of private individuals. In 1870 there were in the United States 164,815 public and private libraries, containing 45,528,938 volumes. In 1790 there were not more than a dozen colleges in the Union, and the common schools were confined to the New England States. In 1870, according to the ninth census there were 2454 colleges and professional and scientific schools in the United States,' with an attendance of 255,190 pupils. The private schools in the same year numbered 14,025, with 726,688 pupils; and the free public schools 125,059, with an attendance of 6,228,060 pupils. The total income of all these establishments during that year was $95,402,726. In the same year there were but 748,970 white males, and 1,145,718 white females of twenty-one years and over among the inhabitants of the United States who could not write. The total number of persons of ten years and over who could not read was 4,528,084. Our people are just as moral as those of any other land. We have more churches than anv country in Europe, and our people take more interest in religion than any other bur benevolent institutions compare favorably with those of any European countrv, and are as well supported. Foreigners have often given us the credit of being the only religious nation in the world ; yet we have no State church or estab- lished religion, and no laws compelling confo;-mity to religious customs. In fine it mav be said that the condition of our country at the close of its first centurv of existence shows that a republic is as well adapted to the ta.sk of developing and braiding up the prosperity, power, and morality of a country as a nionarchy ; and comparing our rate of growth with that of the old wor d, we are justified in believing that a republic is the best system for the accomplishment of such a task. There is not an instance in history of such a wonderful growth as ours in the short space of a century. 1218 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. Having thus stated the results of our first century as concerns ourselves alone, let us glance at the course of events in the old world, and contrast the history of European nations during this period with our own. Such a task will be both interesting and profitable, and will convey many useful lessons which we will do well to ponder. We have shown that during the century we have had, apart from the Revolution, but two foreign wars of importance — the brief contests with France and Algiers being mere episodes in our history. But even including these, the whole period of foreign war has been but twenty years. The two important contests — the second war with England and the Mexican war — covered a period of but six years. Our first century has been a period of almost unbroken peace — the longest period of protracted peace known in all history. Prior to the commencement of our century the history of Europe is a record of almost constant war. During the period we are considering we have enjoyed a greater degree of peace than any of the nations of Europe. During this period England has liad eight foreign wars (besides her Indian, Persian, and Chinese wars), covering a period of twenty-eight years. These were: 1. The war with France on account of the aid rendered to the Americans by that power, which lasted from 1778 to 1783. 2. A war with Spain, extending from 1780 to 1783. 3. A war with Holland at the same time. 4. A war with France growing out of the French Revolution, and lasting from 1793 to 1802. 5. A war with the Confederation of the North in 1801. G. The war against Napoleon I., extending from 1803 to 1815. 7. The war with the United States, from 1812 to 1815. 8. The Crimean war with Russia, from 1854 to 1856. Besides these European conflicts, England has had nine wars in India, two with China, one with Persia, and one with Abyssinia. France has spent forty years out of the century in foreign wars. These conflicts were : 1. A war with England in 1778, growing out of the alliance with the United States, and lasting until 1783. 2. The wars of the Revolution and of Napoleon, com- mencing in 1792 and lasting until 1815. Some of these wars were aggressive on the part of France. In 1793 she made war upon England ; in 1812 against Russia; and in 1813 against Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 3. The Crimean war against Russia — fought in alliance with England, Turkey, and Sardinia — from 1854 to 1856. 4. The war against Austria, in behalf of Sardinia, in 1859. 5. The Mexican war, from 1862 to 1864. 6. The war with Germany, in 1870. Prussia — one of the strongest of monarchies — cannot compare with us in our record of peace, although its boast is that its policy is peaceful. In 1792 she made war upon France for the purpose of undoing the work of the Revolution. Peace was made in 1795. In 1806 Prussia again made war upon France, and continued it with but a slight interval of peace until 1815. In 1848 she made Avar upon Denmark, in aid of the Duchies, continuing the struggle until 1850. In December, 1863, she again assailed Denmark in the Schleswig-IIolstein war, wliifh continued until November, 1864. In 1866 occurred the "seven weeks' war" with Austria, and in 1870 the war with France. Russia has been almost constantly at war during the century. In 1793 she had war with Poland, growing out of the partition of that country, and lasting several years. The war for the conquest of the Crimea, Vt^hich began in 1769, was continued until 1784. In 1796 there was war between Russia and Persia, and in 1798 Russia joined the alliance of England and Austria against revolutionary France. In 1805 she joined the coalition against Napoleon. Peace was made with France in 1807. In 1809 she declared war with Turkey; and in 1812 war again broke out between Russia and France. In 1826 war was begun with Persia, and was continued until 1828. In 1828 A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1219 another war "began with Turkey. In 1840 a new war broke out with Persia. In 1849 Russia took part in the Hungarian war in support o*" Austria. In 1853 Russia began tiie war with Turkey, which resulted, in 1854, in the Crimean war. In 1S72 war was declared against Khiva. Austria is perhaps the most peaceful of the nations of continental Europe, and has not infrequently submitted to dishonor and loss of territory in order to indulge her love of peace. Yet even Austria cannot compare with us in the enjoyment of peace during the century. In 1777 she made war upon Bavaria. Peace was made in 1779. In 1788 she engaged in a war with the Turks, whicli lasted until 1780. In 1792 Austria joined the coalition against the French Republic, and from this time until the downfall of Napoleon, in 1815, was almost constantly engaged in war with France. In 1848 she was engaged in the fierce struggle with Hungary, which was decided only by the intervention of Russia. In the same year war broke out between Austria and Sardinia. In 1859 there was war between Austria, France, and Sardinia. In 1864 she engaged with Prussia against Denmark, in the Schleswig-Holstein war ; and in 1866 fought Prussia in the " seven weeks' war," which resulted in her expulsion from Germany. Neither Spain nor Italy can compare with us in immunity from foreign war. The former has had twice as many wars as the American Republic, and the latter has been drawn into every European struggle of importance during the period we are con- sidering. The history of the century shows, then, that the only important nation of the civil- ized world that has been comparatively free from foreign war, and has remained at peace with its neighbors, is the United States of America. Monarchical governnieni has not saved Europe from almost constant war, while republican institutions have preserved for this country an almost unbroken peace with all the world. It would seem a fair inference, then, that a free republican government is more calculated lo keep peace with other nations than a monarciiy. As our /country has been freer from foreign war during the century, so also has it been safer from defeat. In all our foreign wars we have been success^iul. England has been defeated several times— in the American Revolution and in the first war of the French Revolution. France was defeated and crushed at the end of Napoleon's wars, and again in the war with Germany, in 1870-71. Prussia was beaten in the first war of the French Revolution, and again by Napoleon in 1806. Russia was defeated in ^he Crimean war. Austria was conquered in her wars with Napoleon ; in the Italian war of 1859, and in the war with Prussia in 1866. Italy was repeatedly conquered during the wars of the French Revolution and of Napoleon, and in 1866 was beaten by Austria and saved onlv by Prussia. Spain was defeated in her war with En-land in 1796, and was conquered by Napoleon in 1808-09. Thus it would seem that a republic is as well fitted as a monarchy to conduct successful foreign wars, and to preserve the inlegritv of its territory. We have not lost a foot of groinul by foreign war, but on the contrary have gained a vast extent of country by it. There is not a European power that has not been compelled to part with some of its possessions during the past centurv as the price of peace. The only civilized power that has never experienced this humiliation is the American Republic, which, it was predicted at the opening of the century, would be torn to pieces by the stronger nations of W^have had lint one civil war or rebellion during the century. It was predicted at the outset that we would be constantly exposed to such struggles, and that our Government would not possess sufiicient strength to quell them and preserve domestic 1220 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. peace by force. Our civil war lasted four years, and was one of the most formidable known to history. It was conducted, however, with less brutality, less violence and pillage than any internecine struggle the world has sver known. Our Government was found amply sufficient to maintain its authority, to conquer the most formidable revolt ever known, and yet to remain true to its constitutional obligations, and to respect the rights and liberties of its people. Nay, more, as we have said elsewhere, it was strong enough also to treat the conquered people as citizens of a free country, and to restore them to the enjoyment of their citizenship within a few years after the return of peace. England has had her Irish rebellion of 1798, and her Sepoy revolt of 1857. France was plunged into civil war almost immediately upon the breaking out of the Revolution in 1789, and in 1793 the terrible struggle in La Vendee began. She has had since then the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848; the Coup d'Etat and civil war of 1851 ; and the rebellion of the Commune in 1871. Nor has Prussia, with all her strength and admirable administration, been free from civil war. The liberal rebellion of 1848 was a short but severe struggle, and extended over all Germany. The war of 1866 was in many respects a civil war as regards the Prussian territory of to-day. Russia had just quelled the great rebellion of the Cossacks, and was engaged in suppressing a similar revolt in the Crimea at the opening of our century. In 1795 the tirst revolt of the Poles took place, and required a bloody struggle to suppress it. In 1830 Poland again revolted and was crushed with merciless severity. In 1861 a new insurrection broke out in Poland and continued until the next year. In 1840, and again in 1872, there were severe outbreaks in the Russian dominions in Asia. Austria has suffered severely from the same cause. In 1797 a revolt in Lombardy cost her that province. In 1848 there were outbreaks in Milan, Venice, and her other Italian possessions. In the same year a formidable outbreak at Vienna compelled the emperor to fly from his capital. In 1848 Plungary rose in revolt, and the insur- rection was quelled only by the intervention of Russia, who feared the disturbance would extend to her own dominions. Spain has been almost constantly engaged in civil war. In 1808 there was the outbreak in the Asturias. In 1820 the Revolution began in January, and lasted until the middle of the year 1823. In 1834 the first Carlist war began, lasting imtil 1839. In 1841 an uprising was made by the friends of Queen Christina against the Regent Espartero. He crushed it, but a new outbreak began at Barcelona the next year, only to be quelled. In 1843 a general uprising took place throughout the kingdom, result- ing in the banishment of Espartero. In 1851 Cuba rebelled against Spain. In 1854 Espartero, by a successful military insurrection, made himself prime minister. In 1856 there was a new insurrection at Valencia, Madrid, Barcelona, and Saragossa. In 1866 an insurrection under General Prim took place. In 1868 Prim and Serrano led another revolution which overthrew the monarchy, drove the queen from the country, and resulted in the formation of a provisional government under Prim. In 1SG9 there was an outbreak of the Carlists and Republicans against the provisional govern- ment. In 1873, Amadeus having resigned tlic Spanish crown, a revolt ensued, which resulted in the establishment of the Republic. Another revolt overthrew this govern- ment in 1874 and restored the monarchy. In 1872 the Carlist war began in the northern provinces, and at the close of 1875 is still going on, without any immediate prospect of peace. Italy has been the home of revolution and civil war during our century. The wars which, followed the French Revolution were largely civil. In 1820 there was civil A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1221 war in the kingdom of Naples, followed by an insurrection th'j next year in the kingdom of Sardinia. In 1831 there was an outbreak in central Italy. In 1848 almost the whole of Italy was engaged in civil war. In 1859, upon the commence- ment of the final efforts for Italian freedom and unity, civil war again began and continued for several years until the kingdom of Italy was formed, and included in its limits all Italy. From this survey it will appear that a free republic is less inclined to civil war and rebellion than a monarchy, is equally capable of dealing with and settling sucli troubles when they do come, and is able to settle them upon better and more patriotic terms than a monarchy. With regard to minor insurrections and riots, our country has been singularly free from such disturbances. We have had but seven worth mentioning in all our history. These were : 1. Tlie whiskey rebellion. 2. Shays' rebellion. 3. The Kansas troubles. 4. The Mormon insurrection. 5. The John Brown raid. 6. The draft riots in New York in 1863. 7. The Orange riot in New York in 1871. Eiots and local insurrections are of common occurrence in Europe, and European governments are obliged to keep strong forces of military and police in readiness for instant service in suppressing them. England suffers greatly from the periodical disturbances in her mining districts. In Ireland riots between the Orangemen and the Koman Catholics, or between the Fenians and the royal police, are well known. France suffers from the same cause, lier riots being largely due to political causes, and being of a very desperate and brutal character. Prussia has had a large number of riots during the century, many of them arising from socialistic causes, or being due to the high price of bread or beer. In Russia political and religious causes have pro- duced a number of riots and local insurrections, some of which have been quite formidable. We might extend these remarks to Austria, Italy, and Spain, and to the little kingdom of Belgium, which has given some very marked specimens of disturb- ance of this kind since its foundation, less than half a century ago. From -what we have shown it seems clear that a free republic is less liable to insur- rections and riots than a monarchy. The reason is evident. The discontent which l)revails among the less favored classes of Europe does not exist here, where all men are secured equality before the law, and full protection of their liberties and privileges, and where each one may rise to the highest point of wealth or distinction to which his individual genius will carry him. During the century we are considering our Government has stood unchanged. As we have stated elsewhere, the secession of the Southern States in 1860-61 was not an effort to destroy the Government, but merely an attempt on the part of those States to withdraw from the Union. The Government of the Union was not even attacked by any one. We have had no revolution nor attempt at revolution since the formation of our Government. Since our century began there have been many changes in monarchical Europe. England and Russia alone have avoided an overthrow of government. France has had ten revolutions, Prussia one, Austria one, Spain fifteen, and Italy five. Although England has had no violent revolution, the Government luis been com- pelled by its opponents to make great and important changes. In 1801 the British Empire was formally reconstructed. Ireland was included in it, and the title of the State was changed to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." The Kin- of England dropped his title of King of France at the same time. A series of refor^m measures has been steadily forced upon the Government during the past fifty years, which have made England a better, Jiappier, and freer country. Still, while 1222 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES. there have been these changes, it must be admitted that England has not experienced a revolution in the fullest sense of the word. England and Kussia, therefore, are the only Governments of Europe which can compare with that of the United States in stability. The Government of Prussia was forcibly overthrown by the insurgents in 1848, and the king was obliged to accept a new Constitution at their dictation. In 1848, also, the Kings of Bavaria and Greece were compelled by the insurgents to abdicate their thrones. In Austria there have been several changes. In 1806 the Holy Roman Empire came to an end, and Francis II. formally resigned the imperial crown. Upon the ruins of this ancient establishment was erected the Hereditary Empire of Austria. In 1848 the Emperor Ferdinand I. Avas driven from his capital, and was finally obliged to abdicate his throne in favor of his nephew, the present Emperor Francis Joseph, who came to the throne with a new Constitution and new dynastic jjrinciples. By the treaty of Prague, in 1866, Austria was forever excluded from Germany, and this change was soon followed by another, in 1867, by which the entire Austrian Empire was remodelled. A new and liberal Constitution was adopted ; Hungary was made an independent kingdom, with the Austrian Emperor as king. In 1870 the ofiicial title of the State was changed to " The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." In France the era of change began with the great Revolution of 1789. In 1792 the Republic was established. In 1795 the Directory and Council of Five Hundred were overthrown and the Consulate established. In 1804 the Empire was established upon the ruins of the Consulate. In 1814 the Kingdom of the Bourbons was restored. In 1815 the Empire was re-established. In the same year the Kingdom was again set up after Waterloo. In 1830 the Liberal Monarchy was established under Louis Philippe. It was overthrown in 1848 ^nd succeeded by the Republic. In 1851 this was over- thrown by Louis Napoleon, and in 1853 the Second Empire was established. In 1870 the Empire was overthrown and the Republic set up. If we turn to Spain the record of revolution and change is bewildering. In 1808 Charles IV. abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand, Avho was overthrown by Napoleon, who in the same year made his brother Joseph King of Spain. Before the close of the year Joseph was driven from Madrid and was restored by the French arm\'. In 1814 the Government of Joseph was overturned and Ferdinand was restored to his throne. In 1820 a successful revolution compelled the king to accept a new Constitu- tion, and placed a new Cortes in power. In 1823, by the aid of the Holy Alliance, constitutional government was overturned in Spain and despotism was re-established. In 1833, at the death of Ferdinand, the Infanta Isabella was placed on the throne. In 1840 the Queen Regent abdicated and left Spain, Espartero becoming Regent. In 1843 Espartero was driven from Spain, and the young queen, Isabella, was declared of age. In 1854, by a new revolution, Espartero made himself Prime Minister and actual ruler of Spain. In 1856 he was forced to resign. In the same year the dis- turbances were so great that dictatorial powers were conferred upon Marshal O'Donnell, the Prime Minister. He was compelled to resign, and Narvaez succeeded him as Prime Minister. In 1868 a successful revolution drove Queen Isabella out of Spain, and placed Prim and Serrano at the head of affiiirs. In 1870 Amadeus of Savoy became king, but resigned a year or two later. In 1873 the Republic was estab- lished. In 1874 it was overthrown and the monarchy restored under the present king, Alfonso XII. Italy, besides her minor revolutions, has experienced several great changes in her form of government. The wars which grew out of the French Revolution changed A CENTURY OF FREE GOVERNMENT. 1223 the entire political system of Italy, and in place of the old Germanic Italian Empire estabhshed a senes of republics, which, in 1802, were consolidated into the iXn K pubhc wuh Napoleon Bonaparte as President. In 1805 the Republic was ch ng d into the Kingdom of Italy. In 1814 the Austrian rule was restored. In miZ Sjof My '"'' ''''^"'^'^ ""'^'^ ^"'^'^ Emmanuel, and has rapidly absorbed It appears, then, that a free republic is as apt to avoid revolutions and changes of government as a monarchy. "The map of Europe has been all changed over and over again, and European history, instead of being fixed like the mountains, is changeable like the sea. While, therefore, our Republic has stood like a house founded upon a rock, without being so much as shaken by the storms of surrounding wars and revolutions, the European monarchies have yielded to every popular wave and been often swept away by the slightest gusts." ' If it is said that our comparison is unfair, inasmuch as the European monarchies are single States and our own a confederation, we answer that our own confederacy has remained unshaken while Europe has witnessed the downfall of several of her own of a monarchical character. The German Empire or Confederation has been overthrown four times. The Confederacy of Italian States has been broken up four times. The Austrian Empire has been overturned three times. The little Republic of Switzerland is the only European confederacy that can, during the p;ist century, in the least degree compare with our own in stability. During the century we are considering our Republic has not lost a foot of its terri- tory, but has steadily increased in its territorial area. There is scarcely an important power in Europe but has met with some loss of this kind, either in actual territory or authority over it. England opened the century with the loss of her American colonies. France has lost Hayti and her provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, and has parted with her vast American territory of Louisiana. Prussia has lost all control over Denmark and over Bohemia. Italy has lost Savoy and Nice. Austria has lost her Italian possessions, and has been driven out of Germany. Spain has lost Mexico and her South American colonies. Comparing our acquisitions with the losses of Europe, we are justified in the con- clusion that a free republic is better qualified to retain and enlarge its territory than a monarchy. It would seem, then, that in all the essentials of a free, firm Government, in its capacity for conducting its affairs upon a safe and solid basis, in its freedom from violence and change, in its ability to secure protection and happiness to its citizens, and to preserve their freedom and advance their interests in those relations of life over which the legitimate powers of government extend, our free Republic is in all things the equal of any monarchical system of Europe, and in many the superior. Such, then, is one great lesson of the century. Our whole history and that of other lands urge us to cherish our free republican system as our most precious possession, as the basis and prime cause of our greatness and prosperity as a people ; and to frown indig- nantly upon the first dawning of an attempt to inaugurate changes in its vital princi- ples. Let us keep it pure and undefiled as it cam© down to us from our fathers, and so transmit it to our children. 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