; 587 
 J7 
 :opy 1 
 
 fexmiMENTS AND INVESTTOATIONS 
 
 Office of 
 Experiment Stations, 
 
 CON DUCT KT) AT THE 
 
 Ar;i 
 
 I u 
 
 PENNS YLV ANI A 
 
 STATE COLLEGE, 
 
 1881-2, 
 
 By Prof. W. H. JORDAN, 
 
 Pennsylvania State College. 
 
 HAKRI8BURG, PA.: 
 
 LANE S. HART, PRINTER AND BINDER. 
 
 1882. 
 
EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 CONDUCTED AT THE 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 STATE COLLEGE, 
 
 1881-2. 
 
 By Prof. W. H. JORDAN, 
 
 Pennsylvania Slate College. 
 
 HARRISBURG, PA. : 
 
 LANE S. HART, PRINTER AND BINDER. 
 
 1882. 
 
<^ 
 
 (o^,^\ 
 
 ■VIAft 11 1905 
 0. of 0. 
 
EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 Effecp of Period of Cutting and of the Soil upon the Composition 
 
 OF Timothy Hay. 
 
 It is generally understood that hay varies in composition, and conse- 
 quently in value, according to the conditions under which it is grown, and 
 the time at which it is cut. Yery much has been learned concerning the 
 nature and causes of such variations, and of their effect upon the nutritive 
 value of hay ; but v;^e are still far from possessing the necessary amount of 
 information on some points. To aid in securing the desired knowledge 
 was the aim of this investigation. What is given in the following pages is 
 simply a report of progress, as other samples of hay are to be analyzed. Of 
 course all such work has for its object a better understanding of how to 
 secure the maximum nutritive value in the grass or hay used for feeding, 
 and in order that the utility of the analyses herewith reported, and of those 
 to follow, may be seen, there is given a brief statement of some of the main 
 facts concerning the ingredients of cattle foods, and their relation to animal 
 nutrition, followed by a resume of present knowledge pertaining to the main 
 points under consideration. 
 
 Tlie Ingredients of Plants and tlielr Office In Animal Nutrition. 
 
 All vegetable cattle foods are made up of four classes of substances, viz : 
 Nitrogenous organic substances^ (included, heretofore, under the general 
 names of albuminoids or protein,) carbo-hydroles, fats oro^7s,and mineral 
 substa7ices, and the value of any given food stuff depends upon the relative 
 percentage which it contains of these different ingredients. An animal 
 grows, exercises muscular force, produces milk and youns,", and keeps up a 
 supply of bodily heat, and these different food elements furnish the means 
 whereby this is done. Moreover, each of these different classes of sub- 
 stances has its own peculiar part to play in maintaining animal life. One 
 class may be able to do what another cannot. 
 
 Protein or Albuminoids. — These terms, sometimes one and sometimes 
 the other, have been used to designate the organic nitrogenous constituents 
 of plants as a class. It has been assumed, until lately, that essentially all 
 of the nitrogen of plants is combined to form true albuminoids, compounds 
 of which muscular tissue, (lean meat,) the white of an egg, the flesh of 
 
 * For the plans of the experiments and investigations herewith reported, and for the 
 accompanying analyses, I am responsible. For the c ireful and patient supervision 
 necessary to tiie successful prosecution of experimental work, credit belonijs to the 
 superintendents of the Central and Eastern Experimental Farms, Mr. W. C. Patter- 
 son and Mr. J. F. Hickman. The work was undertaken and will be continued in the 
 hofie that some conclusions will be reached that will prove to be oi advantage to the 
 farmer as a producer. The results here reported may serve possibly to give some idea 
 of what might be accomplished by a well equipped experiment station, where land, 
 means, and men should be centralized in one efficient organizition. 
 
 It is but fair to say that the analytical work has been possible through the great pro- 
 gress that has been made in tlie development at the College of a working chemical 
 laboratory within the past few years, so that analyses can now be executed with toler- 
 able rapidity and according to modern methods. 
 
 W. H. Jordan. 
 
fishes, and the gluten of wheat are good examples. It is now known that 
 a portion of the nitrogen may be combined to form compounds not al- 
 buminoid in their character, and to this latter class has been given the term 
 amides. As epecial interest attaches to the occurrence and properties of 
 these compounds, they will receive fuller mention later. The albuminoids 
 proper are considered to be the mostim[)ortaut ingredients of cattle foods. 
 From them alone can be i)rodnced the muscular tissue of the animal body, 
 as well as the casein and albumen of milk. Butter fat is, undoubtedly, 
 formed from them, and a portion cf the body fat, and muscular force is 
 somehow dependent upon tlieir presence in the food. 
 
 While the most important nutritive ot]lces of albuminoids are indicated 
 al)Ove, they probably, at all times, directly aid in keeping the animal warm, 
 and in case the ration is composed entirely of albuminoids, can be made 
 to furnish all the fuel for the mamtenance of bodily heat. In short, there 
 is nothing these compounds cannot do in sustaining life, unless it be the 
 supplying of mineral substances. A fter having gone through the digestive 
 processes, the products of their decomposition make up quite a portion of 
 the fertilizing value of farm manures. 
 
 Carbo-hydrates includes such compounds as crude fiber (cellulose and 
 lignose,) starch, sugar, gums, &c. j^hese bodies contain no nitrogen, and, 
 therefore, cannot serve as the source of llesh or the principal compounds 
 of milk. Just what their relation is to muscular force is not yet fully de- 
 tei'Vnined. Their chief office seems to be to supply fuel for keeping up 
 animal heat, though they undoubtedly' aid in the formation of fat in the 
 herbivora, but not in the carnivora. 
 
 The fats serve the purpose of storing animal fiit, and are also burned to 
 kee]) the animals warm, one pound of fat being worth, for fat and heat-form- 
 ing purposes, probably not far from two pounds of starch or sugar. 
 
 The percentages of tat, as given in fodder tables, are too large, owing to 
 the fact that the ether used in extracting them dissolves out other sub- 
 stances. Both the fats and carbo-hydrates have an indirect value in that 
 they serve to protect the albuminoids from destruction, and thus make 
 greater flesh or milk production possible. 
 
 luflneucc of Fertility. 
 
 Fodder manufactured from the same species of plant does not generally 
 have the same comi)osition in two cases where there has been a dilf.rence 
 in the conditicms of growth and treatment. Past investigations seem to 
 indicate that the state of fertility of the soil has a prominent influence in 
 determining not onl}^ the quantity, but the quality of farm crops. Shhes- 
 ing* found that the ash of tobacco varied greatly in composition, according 
 to the fertilizer applied. It is a well-known fact that the percentage of 
 sugar in sugar beets can be diminished or increased according to the method 
 of manuring. 
 
 Ritthausen and Pott, f Krenslcr and Kern,| and especially Lawes and 
 Gilbert, have found that the application of an abundance of nitrogenous 
 manures to wheat, causes an increased percentage of nitrogen in the grain. 
 EmmerlingS found that hay grown upon low land of good quality con- 
 tained nearly two per cent, more of protein than hay grown upon poor 
 land of the same general character. 
 
 Dr. Armsby T[ cites analyses of two samples of ha3% one being taken " from 
 
 * .TaVireshericht der Agr., Chem. IIT., p. 81. 
 
 t Ibid. XVI. I. p. 304. 
 
 t Iljid. XVIII, I, p. 253. 
 
 § Ibid., p. 2(59. 
 
 1 Manual of Cattle Feeding, pp. 289-290. 
 
a part of the field which was. in an ordinary state of fertility," and the other 
 " from spots where the exci'ement and urine of the grazino- animals had 
 caused an especial luxuriant growth." The former contained only eleven 
 per cent, of protein, the latter over twenty per cent. 
 
 There is found to be quite a difference between American and German 
 hays, the latter being the better. Below is a comparison of the average 
 composition of nine (9) samples of American timothy with the composition 
 of German timothy : 
 
 American timothy, 
 German timothj^, . 
 
 Water. 
 
 Per cent. 
 18.50 
 
 14.3 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Per cent. 
 6.16 
 
 9.7 
 
 Fiber. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 ^8.91 
 
 22.7 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 free ex- 
 tractive 
 matters. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 45.85 
 
 45.8 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Percent. 
 1.68 
 
 3.0 
 
 It is not improbable that the difference seen above is due to the more 
 thorough cultivation practiced in Germany, although a partial cause may 
 be found in climatic conditions. 
 
 Iiifliieuce of tlic Stage of Growtli. 
 
 Hay made from early cut grass differs from that made from late cut, in 
 the following particulars : 
 
 1. It contains a larger percentage of nitrogen. Whether this is due to 
 the presence of a greater percentage of albuminoids or not will be discussed 
 later. 
 
 2. It contains a smaller percentage of crude fiber. 
 
 3. It contains larger percentages of fat and of ash. 
 
 4. One effect of the above differences in the composition of early and late 
 cut hay, is to render the former more digeslible, which is certainly in favor 
 of the early cutting of hay. AVhether tliere are any compensating advan- 
 tages in late cutting remains to be seen. 
 
 The question of the relative values of earl^^ and late cut hay is. at pres- 
 ent, much discussed. The opinion has gained ground somewhat of late 
 that the value of early cut hay has been over-estimated. This opinion has 
 doubtless been strengthened by the claim that in the true grasses quite a 
 percentage of the nitrogen in the young plant is not in the albuminoid form, 
 and that the relative percentage of albuminoid nitrogen increases with age. 
 
 The Occurrence of Amides in Grass, and their Influence upon Nutritive Value. 
 
 The method which chemists have been forced to take for the estimation 
 Ol albuminoids, has been based upon an assumption, viz : That, essentiall3^ 
 all the nitrogen of plants exists in the albuminoid form. Acting on this 
 assumption, and knowing that the average percentage of nitrogen in the 
 various albuminoid substances is about sixteen (16) per cent, of the whole 
 substance, it has been customary to determine the amount of nitrogen and 
 multiply this by 6^ in order to obtain the amount of albuminoids. Were 
 there no nitrogenous substances in hay or other cattle foods, save albumi- 
 noids, such a method of determination would probably give quite a close 
 approximation to correct results. Later investigations show, however, that 
 our common fodder plants contain a variety of nitrogenous compounds, 
 some of which are not albuminoid, either in chemical form or in properties. 
 

 This renders the analj'sis of cattle foods, and the discussion of their values, 
 more complicated. 
 
 Dr. H. P. Armsby,* in connection with an investigation upon the non- 
 albuminoid nitrogen of hay and otiier food stuffs, has made an admirable 
 review of the whole question, and there is here presented a brief resume of 
 his very complete article, with an occasional comment. 
 
 Kluds and Occurrence of IVou-albutnluold Nltrosrenoua Substances. 
 
 1. Nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia salts occur in plants, most largely in 
 root crops. [These are in the form of mineral salts, which have no signifi- 
 cance in connection with animal nutrition, and they have to be considered 
 in the analysis of food stuffs.] 
 
 2. The only nitrogenous organic substances, not albuminoid, which oc- 
 cur in sufficient abundance in cattle foods to demand attention, are the so- 
 called amides, a. nameapjilied not only to amides proper, but to other bodies 
 closely resembling them. These substances are really organic combinations 
 of ammonia. [A mides cannot be considered so highly organized compounds 
 as are the albuminoids.] 
 
 Functions of Amides In the Plant. 
 
 1. It is pretty clearly shown that all transfer of albuminoids from one 
 *)art of a plant to another is accomplished by their being transformed into 
 amities, in which form the movement occurs, and from which albuminoids 
 are rebuilt where new plant substance is forming. [Inasmuch as amides 
 are soluble and easily diff'usible, and as albuminoids possess neitiier of these 
 properties to an}' great extent, there is every reason why some such -trans- 
 formations should occur. It is an undoubted fact that the albuminoids in 
 the seeds of grain and hay are formed from similar substances already ex- 
 isting in the plant, and it seems quite probable that nitrogenous substance 
 travels from the stalk to the seeds in the form of amides. | 
 
 2. A^nides have, in certain cases, been found to constitute a reserve of 
 nitrogenous plant food, as in the case of fodder beets which have been found 
 to contain quite a large quantity of these compounds. In the second year's 
 growth, these amides find their way into the stalks and leaves, and are there 
 converted into albuminoids. 
 
 Occurrence of Anildes. 
 
 From what has been said of the functions of amides, we should expect 
 to find them in greater abundance in young plants, which, according to the 
 results of the investigations of Kellner, seems to be the case. The riper 
 the plant, the larger the proportion of albuminoid nitrogen according to 
 Kelhier. 
 
 Dr. Armsby found amides in all of twenty-one samples of coarse fodder, 
 varying from 8.93 per cent, to 39.60 per cent, of total notrogen. [So far 
 as can be judged from the dates of cutting, the hays from the youngest 
 grass, do not, in Dr. Armsby's analyses, show a very much larger percent- 
 age of amides than does the later cut hay. Six samples cut before Julj'^ 1 
 gave an average of only two per cent, more of niti'ogen combined as amides 
 than the average of twelve samples cut after that time u{) to as late as Au- 
 gust 15. All the samples were cut in Connecticut and New Hampshire.] 
 
 Malt sprouts, wheat and rye bran, lupines and beans, roots, and ])otatoes, 
 have all been found to contain considerable non-albuminoid nitrogen. Only 
 a small portion of the nitrogen of cereal grains is in the amide form. 
 
 ♦Report of Conn. Expt. Station, 1879. 
 
Relation, of Amides to Aulmal Nutrition. 
 
 It is of course important to know what is the office of amides in sustain- 
 ing or building up the animal body. 
 
 1. Certain experiments ?eem to show that amides can cause an increase 
 of flesh in the animal, but this fact cannot be fully affirmed. 
 
 2. It is more probable that amides act as a protection to prevent albu- 
 minoids from oxidizing, thus allowing more of the latter to take part in 
 flesh formation, and so, in an indirect way, are as valuable as albuminoids. 
 
 The laws of nutrition and scientific feeding standards as experimentally 
 determined, are in no way invalidated by the discover}^ of this new class 
 of compounds in cattle food. 
 
 Comiiositiou of Samples of Hay Gro-wn on the Central Kxperimeutal Farm, 
 nuder Different Conditions of Fertility, and Cut at Different Periods of 
 Gro'wtli. 
 
 On the 10th of May there was applied to a few square feet of grass land 
 a mixture of dissolved bone, muriate of potash, and sulphate of ammonia, 
 a complete fertilizer, containing all the ingredients which any soil would 
 be likely to need in order to grow a luxui'iant crop of grass. The grass 
 growing on the spot fertilized was almost all timothy. The general condi- 
 tion of the land was such as to produce about one ton and a half of timothy 
 hay per acre, being the limestone clay so common in Centre county. 
 
 The fertilizers being ap])lied liberally, ^though but once,) the grass made 
 very luxuriant growth, certainly more than double that of the adjoining- 
 grass where no fertilizer was applied. In rapidity of development there 
 seemed to be very little difference, the period of bloom being reached at 
 about the same time in the two cases. Samples of both the grass fertilized 
 and that immediately adjoining which was not, were taken at three periods 
 of growth, as follows,* (all pure timothy :) 
 
 1. June 6. Heads just appearing. 
 
 2. June 23. Just beginning to bloom. 
 
 3. July 5. Somewhat past full blossom. . 
 
 The Samples were weighed green immediately on cutting, were quicklj^ 
 and carefully dried, and stored in paper bags. 
 
 In the following table are given the weights of the different samples when 
 green, and of the dry hay as analyzed, with the percentage of water dried 
 out : 
 
 
 With Fertilizers. 
 
 Without Fertilizers. 
 
 Period of 
 
 GUOWTII. 
 
 *Weight of 
 grass taken. 
 
 Weight of 
 air dry hay. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 water evap- 
 orated. 
 
 Weight of 
 grass taken. 
 
 Weight of 
 air dry hay. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 water evap- 
 orated. 
 
 First 
 
 Second, 
 
 Third, 
 
 grams. 
 598.4 
 241.5 
 151.8 
 
 grams. 
 136.5 
 79.5 
 63.3 
 
 77.2 
 67.1 
 58.3 
 
 grams. 
 723.4 
 295.1 
 132.7 
 
 grams. 
 
 1SS.8 
 98 7 
 57.2 
 
 73.9 
 66.6 
 56.9 
 
 * The weights of samples taken have no reference to the yields of grass in the several cases. 
 
 The hay was much drier when analyzed than it would have been if kept 
 under ordinary conditions, having been stored in a diy room for about 
 three mo nths. Two facts only are to be noticed in connection with the 
 ~above~tabTe7viz : (1.) The youngest samples of grass lost seventeen to 
 
 * Owing to absence ou a vacation, a fourth samiDle was not taken when the gra.ss yvas 
 nearly ripe. 
 
nineteen per cent, of water more than the oldest, and (2) the grass fertil- 
 ized, and making the largest growth, lost the most water in every case. 
 The relative yields of grass were not taken into account, as other investi- 
 gations on that point will be reported later. 
 
 The following table shows the composition of the several samples of hay, 
 the first column giving the water content when analyzed, the remaining 
 columns showing the composition of the water-free substance : 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 WiTH Fertilizers. 
 
 "Without FERTiLizERb 
 
 
 
 
 100 parts water-free sub- 
 
 
 100 parts water-free sub- 
 
 
 Period of Growth. 
 
 
 stance contained. 
 
 
 
 stance combined. 
 
 tab 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 U (A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a; 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 <i> 
 
 f.% 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <S 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 «3 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 t. 
 
 
 S 
 
 D 
 
 , ■° 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 H 
 
 Oi 
 
 , •» 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 ■a 
 
 r^ 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 •3 
 3 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 
 |S 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 'O 
 
 o 
 
 Ix, 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 b> 
 
 
 
 <^/r 
 
 % 
 
 ■ </. 
 
 c/c 
 
 % 
 
 '/« 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 (fc 
 
 ^h 
 
 9'f 
 
 <^lo 
 
 June 6, 
 
 Heads just appearing, 
 
 10.86 
 
 8.48 17.37 29 13 40 67 
 
 4.35 
 
 10.11 
 
 6.56 
 
 9.63 28.78 51.17 
 
 3.86 
 
 .;une23, 
 
 Just beginning to bloom 
 
 7.75 
 
 6.41 11.00 TA.Si 45.69 
 
 2.57 
 
 7.44 
 
 5.32 , 6.39 32.51 53.20 
 
 2 58 
 
 July 5, 
 
 Somewhat past full blos- 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 7.38 
 
 5.74 
 
 7.50 34 68 .SO. 10 
 
 1.98 
 
 6.89 
 
 5.19 ' 5.00 33.86 53.81 
 
 2.14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In the above tables, the albuminoids are estimated in the ordinary way, 
 x. e., by multiplying the total nitrogen by 6.25. As has before been stated, 
 not all the nitrogen of hay exists in the albuminoid form. An estimation 
 of the albuminoid and amide nitrogen, according to the method suggested 
 by Dr. H. P. Armsby,* gave the results that are seen in the next table : 
 
 
 
 With Fertilizers. 
 
 W^ithout Fertilizers. 
 
 
 fl 
 
 B 
 
 
 5-2 
 
 o 
 
 b' 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 «5 
 1 . 
 
 Time op 
 Cutting. 
 
 Period of Growth. 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 u 
 
 "3 
 
 0<l)t; 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 Be 
 
 n 
 
 <j.Ba 
 
 O V (< 
 
 
 
 
 5 M) 
 
 4) 
 
 a; (.-o 
 
 
 Ei 
 
 Q) 
 
 (U (-"O 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 £2 
 
 a 
 
 ShI 
 
 s 
 
 
 S 
 
 "-a 
 
 S C c« 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 Oh 
 
 tH 
 
 < 
 
 •< 
 
 U^ 
 
 
 
 1c 
 
 "lo 
 
 1o 
 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 Ok 
 
 
 June 6, . . 
 
 Heads just appearing, . . . 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.78 
 
 28.06 
 
 1.54 
 
 1 20 
 
 0.34 
 
 22.08 
 
 June 23, . . . 
 
 Just beginning to bloom, . . 
 
 1.76 
 
 1.34 
 
 0.42 
 
 23.86 
 
 1.023 
 
 1.835 
 
 0.188 
 
 18.38 
 
 July 5, . . . 
 
 Somewhat past full blossom, 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.883 
 
 0.317 
 
 26.41 
 
 0.801 
 
 0.612 
 
 0.189 
 
 23.37 
 
 Average, 
 
 1.91 
 
 1.41 
 
 0.50 
 
 26.11 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.24 
 
 21.28 
 
 
 
 ♦Calculated on a water-free basis. 
 
 Considering the percentages of the various forms of nitrogen of the 
 hay from grass not fertilized as each equal to 100, we have for the percent- 
 ages of nitrogen in the hay grown with fertilizers, the following relative 
 quantities : 
 
 Without With 
 
 Fertilizers. Fertilizers. 
 
 Total nitrogen 100 170 
 
 Albuminoid nitrogen, 100 160 
 
 Ainido nitrogen, 100 208 
 
 ♦Report Conn. Experimental Station, 1879, p. 109. 
 
The average percentages of total nitrogen, in the amide form, liave, for 
 the two cases, the following ratio : Without fertilizers, 100 ; with fertil- 
 izers, 141, 
 
 Additional Analyses.* 
 
 Since the piiljlication of the above, analyses have been made of four 
 other samples of hay cut at different periods of growth. On both the 
 Eastern and Central experimental farms experiments have been conducted 
 for the purpose of gaining more information as to the advisability of let- 
 ting grass stand much beyond the period of bloom before cutting. The 
 samples of hay analyzed in connection with these experiments, were cut at 
 the period of bloom, and when nearly ripe. They were pure timothy, as 
 were the fields of grass experimented upon. 
 
 Below is given the composition of four samples, two being taken from 
 one farm, and two from the other. They were selected in each case by taking 
 a little hay here and there from the loads at the time of weighing, and are 
 believed to be a fair average of the fields of grass from which they came. 
 At the time of analysis, the ha}^ had been stored for some time in paper 
 bags. 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 PARTS 
 
 AVATER-FREE, SUB- 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 STANCE CONTAIN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Time of Cutting. 
 
 Is 
 
 < 
 
 "o 
 
 u 
 
 03 
 U 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 CS 
 
 Em 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 Eastern farm, June 22, in bloom, . 
 
 9.53 
 
 5.03 
 
 8.06 
 
 36.89 
 
 M .hi 
 
 2.48 
 
 9 
 
 July 14, nearly ripe, 
 
 Central farm, June 30, in bloom, . . 
 
 9.46 
 10.27 
 
 3.68 
 4.80 
 
 5.68 
 5.83 
 
 35.73 
 37.71 
 
 52.54 
 49.39 
 
 2.37 
 
 2.27 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Juh^ 13, nearly ripe, 
 
 10.00 
 
 4.08 
 
 4.74 
 
 35.58 
 
 53.37 
 
 2.23 
 
 8 
 
 In the above table the " protein" represents the sum of the albuminoid 
 and amide nitrogen multiplied by the factor 6.25. A determination of the 
 albuminoid nitrogen gave the following results : 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 total 
 n in 
 lide 
 
 Time of Cutting. 
 
 O G 
 9. ^ 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 ent. of 
 troge 
 an 
 m. 
 
 
 
 
 u "A 
 
 q; ^ 
 
 53c5=2 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 Cu, 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 Eastern farm, in bloom, 
 
 1.289 
 
 .942 
 
 .347 
 
 26.93 
 
 Nearly ripe, ... ... 
 
 .909 
 
 .668 
 
 .241 
 
 26.51 
 
 Central farm, in bloom, . . 
 
 .933 
 
 .691 
 
 .242 
 
 .25.94 
 
 Nearly ripe, 
 
 .758 
 
 .567 
 
 .191 
 
 .25.19 
 
 The anal3^ses of the ten samples of timothy hay as stated in the previous 
 tables, simply gives the water content, and the percentage composition of 
 
 * All that precedes was published in the college report for 1881. 
 
10 
 
 the dry substance of the hay. In the following table is shown the compo- 
 sition of the ten samples calculated with a uniform percentage of water, 
 such as ajiproximates very closely to the average water content of hay as 
 stored in Itarns. 
 
 Stage of Guowtii. 
 
 With/Krtilizers. 
 Heads just appearing, . 
 Just bettliinlng to bloom. 
 Past full blossom, . . . 
 
 Without fertilizers. 
 Heads just appearing, . 
 Just beginning to bloom, 
 I'ast full blossom, . . . . 
 
 In bloom, 
 
 Nearly ripe, 
 
 In bloom, 
 
 Nearly ripe, 
 
 
 
 ° ? to 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 2-ao 
 
 •o 
 
 
 tJ 
 
 u ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ii V a 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = o a 
 
 
 
 <a 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 rs 
 
 
 uV 
 
 
 
 
 ■« S'* 
 
 
 •o 
 
 o -^ 
 
 OQ 
 
 * 
 
 m 
 
 ISi-s 
 
 XI 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 A — 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■< 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 < ' 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 12.5 
 
 7.42 
 
 15.20 
 
 10.94 
 
 4.26 
 
 25.49 
 
 35.. 59 
 
 3.80 
 
 12.5 
 
 5.61 
 
 9.63 
 
 7.33 
 
 2.30 
 
 30.04 
 
 39.97 
 
 2.25 
 
 12.5 
 
 5.02 
 
 6.57 
 
 4.83 
 
 1.74 
 
 30.34 
 
 43.84 
 
 1.73 
 
 12.5 
 
 5.74 
 
 8.43 
 
 6.56 
 
 1.87 
 
 25.18 
 
 44.77 
 
 3.. 38 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.«5 
 
 5.59 
 
 4.57 
 
 1.02 
 
 28.45 
 
 46.55 
 
 2.26 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.54 
 
 4.38 
 
 3.35 
 
 1.03 
 
 29.63 
 
 47.08 
 
 1.87 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.37 
 
 7.06 
 
 5.16 
 
 1.90 
 
 32.28 
 
 41.62 
 
 2.17 
 
 12.5 
 
 3.22 
 
 4. 97 
 
 3.65 
 
 1.32 
 
 31.27 
 
 45.97 
 
 2.08 
 
 12.5 
 
 4.20, 
 
 5.10 
 
 3.78 
 
 1.32 
 
 33.00 
 
 43.19 
 
 2.01 
 
 12.5 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.05 
 
 31.13 
 
 46.70 
 
 1.98 1 
 
 55 
 
 The last table gives simply the total quantities of the various ingredients 
 in a hundred pounds of the diflferent kinds of hay. Only certain percent- 
 ages of these ingredients are digested. Moreover, the percentages that are 
 digestible vary with the quality of the ha}^, the better ha3-s being more di- 
 gestible than the poorer. 
 
 The following table shows the digestion percentages that have been as- 
 sumed for the various grades of hay, the llgures being taken from the re- 
 sults of German investigation. The numbers in the left liand column refer 
 to those given in the right hand column of the previous table. 
 
 
 PARTS IN ONE HUNDRED DIGESTED OP 
 
 
 THE 
 
 VARIOUS INGREDIENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 >? 
 
 
 Laboratory Number. 
 
 
 U 
 
 X2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 C 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 S32 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 ^ 
 
 Srs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 Oh 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 fe 
 
 1,2, and 3. 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 48 
 
 4, 5, 7, and 9, 
 
 56 
 52 
 
 57 
 57 
 
 63 
 61 
 
 48 
 
 6, 8, and 10, 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 *It should be reuienibered that the term 
 total noii-albuiiiinoids nitrogenous matter. 
 
 "amides" is used here to represent the 
 
11 
 
 Using these percentages, we have the following quantities of digestible 
 nutrients in one hundred pounds of the hays analyzed : 
 
 Labokatory Number. 
 
 0) 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 JS 
 
 
 > 
 
 6 
 
 
 ."m 
 
 X2 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 P^ 
 
 5^ 
 
 & 
 
 5, 
 2, 
 4, 
 6, 
 9, 
 10, 
 7, 
 8, 
 
 9.72 
 6.16 
 8.68 
 5.40 
 3.13 
 2.28 
 3.95 
 2.58 
 2.86 
 2.16 
 
 40.10 
 45.98 
 44.91 
 46.11 
 45.53 
 45.60 
 44.62 
 45.86 
 46.02 
 46.23 
 
 1.82 
 1.08 
 0.83 
 1.62 
 1.08 
 92 
 1.04 
 1.02 
 0.96 
 0.97 
 
 1: 4 
 1: 7 
 1:12 
 1: 9 
 1:15 
 1:21 
 1:11 
 1:18 
 1:16 
 1 :22 
 
 Extra, . . 
 Very good, 
 
 Average, . 
 Good, 
 
 Average, . 
 
 Poor, . . . 
 
 Good, . . 
 
 Poor, . . . 
 
 Average, . 
 
 Poor, . . . 
 
 Heading out. 
 In early bloom. 
 Past blossom. 
 Heading out. 
 In early bloom. 
 Past blossom. 
 In bloom. 
 Nearly ripe. 
 In bloom. 
 Nearly ripe. 
 
 The " nutritive ratio " is the relation of the quantity of digestible nitro- 
 genous material to the quantity of digestible carbo-h^-drates, the latter in- 
 cluding two and one half times the fats. 
 
 The extent to which hay is nitrogenous, is not only an indication of its 
 capacity for milk and meat production, but also gives some idea as to the 
 proper kind and amounts of bye fodder that should be fed with it. There 
 is here inserted, for purposes of comparison, a table giving the content of 
 total and digestible ingredients of various grades of German hays : 
 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 Digestible 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NUTRIENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 .= 
 
 
 ■O 
 
 ^■3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 3 
 
 ■°sc 
 
 _ 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j= 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 pR 
 
 o 
 
 Pm 
 
 <1 
 
 ©■=« 
 
 ^ 
 
 Meadow hay, poor, . . . 
 Do. fair, . . . 
 
 Do. medium, . 
 
 Do. very good. 
 
 Do. extra, . . 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 '^/r, 
 
 % 
 
 ^n 
 
 ^/^ 
 
 </. 
 
 14.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 33.5 
 
 38.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 34.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 5.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 29.2 
 
 39.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 36.4 
 
 0.6 
 
 14.3 
 
 6 2 
 
 9.7 
 
 26.3 
 
 41 4 
 
 2.5 
 
 54 
 
 41.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 ■/.o 
 
 11.7 
 
 21.9 
 
 41.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 41.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 16.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 13.5 
 
 19.3 
 
 40 4 
 
 3.0 
 
 9.2 
 
 42.8 
 
 1.5 
 
 1 : 10.6 
 1 : 8.3 
 1 : 8.0 
 1:61 
 1 : 5.1 
 
 General Coiieliisious. 
 
 1. The hay cut at a late period of growth differs in composition from that 
 cut at an early period, mainly in accordance with the statements previously 
 made concerning other observations ; the late cut hay containing less ni- 
 trogen, less ash and fats, and more crude fiber and other carbo-hydrates. 
 
 The effect of this change is to render the late cut hay much less nitro- 
 genous than early cut, and the digestibilit}'^ is also less in the case of the 
 former. 
 
 2. In the ten samples of hay analyzed, an average of 26.16 per cent, of 
 the nitrogen was found to exist in the non-albuminoid form, and what was 
 to the writer a somewhat surprising result, is that the later cut, even the 
 " nearly ripe " grass, contained as large a percentage of the nitrogen in the 
 
12 
 
 " amide " form as did that cut in the early stages of growth. (For remarks 
 on correctness of results, see '' Methods of Analysis.") Other analysts have 
 readied essentially the same results.* 
 
 8. Tlie effect of an abundant supply of plant food seems to have been 
 the increasing of the percentage of nitrogen very largely, and also of the 
 crude fiber to a limited extent. The hay grown under conditions of fertil- 
 ity, took up more mineral matters also. The fertilizers caused a somewhat 
 larger percentage of nitrogen to exist in the amide form. 
 
 The largely increased percentage of albuminoids in the hay grown under 
 conditions of great fertility, show that a high state of cultivation effects 
 the production, not only of a greater quantity, but of a better quality of 
 hay. 
 
 4. So far as composition is any indication of value, the hay from early 
 cut' grass is more valuable, pound for pound, than that from late cut grass. 
 (See " Experiments on Feeding.") Notice that in No. 1 there is contained 
 in one hundred pounds of hay, nearly ten pounds of digestible protein, 
 accomi)anying each pound of which (digestible protein) is found the equiva- 
 lent of less than five pounds of digestible carbo-hydrates. In No. 5, which 
 is from a sample of the same grass only cut much later, one hundred pounds 
 of hay would contain less than four pounds of digestible protein, but in 
 this case each pound of digestible protein is accompanied by nearly thirteen 
 pounds of digestible carbo-hydrates. Whatever ma}^ be demonstrated in 
 thCfuture as to the relative value of early and late cut hay, there is no sort 
 of doubt but that as foods, the two are very different. (See " Experiments 
 on Feeding.") It seems doubtful if the effect of age upon the existence of 
 true albuminoids in grass, is a matter of so much importance as at first be- 
 lieved. Further investigation will decide. 
 
 Amount and Character of tlic Growtli of Grass subsequent to the period of Bloom 
 
 It is not enough to knoAv that a hundred pounds of hay made from early 
 cut grass is more valuable than the same weight of ha}' from grass that is 
 more mature. The question of the amount of yield must be considered, 
 for it is impoi'tant to know whether the increase of dry material harvested, 
 would more than counter balance the decrease in quality, when grass is not 
 cut until quite a late, instead of at an earlier, period. The decision of the 
 question involves many difficulties, and a single experiment will only serve 
 to add a few facts to the many that are needed l)efore we can reach certain 
 conclusions. 
 
 The experiments conducted at the Eastern and Central Farms, have been 
 mentioned previously. At each fjxrm, a field of two acres of as pure, and 
 as nearly uniform timothy as could be selected, was accurately measured 
 off, and divided into eight e^ual plots. In each case alternate plots were 
 cut while in bloom, while the grass on the remaining plots stood until it 
 was quite ripe. The hay was weighed when put in the barn, and after lying 
 in the barn for some months, was re-weighed. 
 
 On the Central Farm the water content of the ha}' was determined at the 
 time of the second weighing. The analyses of the several hays are given 
 previously. With the data thus obtained, we are able to calculate the ap- 
 proximate uicrease of the dry substance of the hay, and we can also deter- 
 mine to what ingredients this increase, if any, is due : 
 
 *See Department of Agriculture report for 1880. 
 
Time of cutting, 
 
 Weiftht of hay when put 
 in barn, 
 
 Weight of hay when re- 
 weif?lied in winter, 
 
 Decrease in weight by ly- 
 ing in barn. 
 
 Per ernt. of decrease in 
 weight by lying in barn, 
 
 Amount of water — free 
 substance, 
 
 Amount of ash, . . 
 
 Amount of protein. 
 
 Amount of albuminoids. 
 
 Amount of amides. 
 
 Amount of crude liber, . 
 
 Amount of extractive 
 matters, . . . . . 
 
 Amount of fat, 
 
 13 
 
 Hay Cut in Bloom. 
 
 <u 8 
 
 H 
 
 June 22. 
 *3, 634 lbs, 
 
 2,307 lbs. 
 
 1,^7 lbs. 
 
 36.51 prct. 
 
 2,031 lbs. 
 101.« lbs. 
 163 7 lbs. 
 119 6 Itis. 
 44.1 lbs. 
 749 lbs. 
 
 966 lbs. 
 50 lbs. 
 
 2a 
 
 June 30. 
 5,000 lbs. 
 3,922 lbs. 
 1,078 lbs. 
 21.56 prct. 29.04 prct, 
 
 4,317 lbs. 
 3,115 lbs. 
 1,202 lbs. 
 
 3,481 lbs. 
 
 167 lbs. 
 
 203 lbs. 
 150.4 lbs. 
 .52.6 lbs 
 1,313 lbs. 
 
 1,720 lbs. 
 79 lbs. 
 
 2,756 lbs. 
 134 3 lbs. 
 183.4 lb5. 
 135 lbs. 
 48.4 lbs. 
 1,031 lbs. 
 
 1,343 lbs. 
 ,65;lbs. 
 
 Hay Cut when N early Ripb 
 
 H 
 
 July 14. 
 
 4 234 lbs. 
 
 3,390 lbs. 
 
 844 lbs. 
 
 19.93 prct. 
 
 2 966 lbs. 
 109.1 lbs. 
 168 5 lbs. 
 124 lbs. 
 44.5 lbs. 
 1,060 lbs. 
 
 1,558 lbs. 
 70 lbs. 
 
 July 13. 
 5,270 lbs. 
 4, 035 lbs. 
 l,2a5 1t)S. 
 23. 43 prct. 
 
 3,581 lbs. 
 
 146 lbs. 
 
 170 lb5. 
 126 6 lbs. 
 43.4 lbs. 
 1,274 lbs. 
 
 1,911 It) 3. 
 80 lbs. 
 
 4,7-52 lbs. 
 
 3,713 lbs. 
 
 1,039 lbs. 
 
 21.68 prct, 
 
 3,274 lbs. 
 127.6 lbs. 
 169 3 lbs. 
 125.3 lbs. 
 44 lbs. 
 1,167 lbs. 
 
 1,735 lbs. 
 75 lbs. 
 
 
 435 lbs. 
 598 lbs. 
 
 518 lbs. 
 
 - 8.7 lbs. 
 -14.1 lbs. 
 
 - 9.7 lbs. 
 
 - 4 4 lbs. 
 136 lbs. 
 
 391 lbs. 
 10 lbs. 
 
 * The figures In the table have reference to pounds per acre. 
 
 There is a seeming decrease of mineral matter and protein in the late 
 cut hay. This is due probably to errors, or to lack of uniformity in the 
 fields of grass selected. At the same time the amount of decrease is not 
 too great to have resulted from loss or decay of the finer parts of the 
 plant, or from loss of seeds. It at least seems that there could liave been 
 no very great increase of .either nitrogenous or mineral substances, but 
 that the growth was almost entirely confined to the nou-nitrogenous parts 
 of the plant, or the parts that, for the purposes of milk or flesh pro- 
 duction have least value. Moreover, unless future investigation proves 
 present methods of analysis to be faulty, the increased age of the grass did 
 not in these cases have the effect of converting non -albuminoid nitrogen 
 into albuminoid form. 
 
 Loss OF Water from Hay after Storing in the Barn. 
 
 It is often the case that farmers can dispose of hay by weight at the 
 time it is harvested. Hay usually is sold at lower rates when hauled di- 
 rectly from the field, than after it has been stored for some time. It is 
 doubtful, however, if the true difl^erence in value is generally appreciated. 
 
 It may not be amiss to present a summary of such observations as are 
 at hand with reference to this point. While there would be more w^ater in 
 hay some seasons than in others, the average of quite a number of trials 
 may serve as a pretty fair basis of estimation. 
 
14 
 
 1879, 
 1879, 
 1880, 
 
 ■1880, 
 1880, 
 1880, 
 1880, 
 1880, 
 1880, 
 1879, 
 
 1879, 
 
 1879, 
 
 1879, 
 
 -1881, 
 1881, 
 1881, 
 1881, 
 
 July 1, 
 July 11, 
 June 30, 
 
 July 9, 
 July 1!) 
 Julv 9 
 July 19 
 July 1 
 July 9 
 June 14 
 
 June 19, 
 
 June 24, 
 
 June 30, 
 
 June 22, 
 July 14, 
 June 30, 
 July 13, 
 
 Stage of growth. 
 
 Beginning to Mooin. 
 Seed began to mature, 
 Headed out, 
 
 Fall bloom, . . 
 Seeds forming. 
 In bloom, . . . 
 Seeds forming. 
 
 Timothy shooting. Clo- 
 ver full head, . . . 
 
 Timothy, half blossom. 
 Clover not half dead, 
 
 Timothy, full blossom. 
 Clover half (lead, . . 
 
 Timothy out of blossom , 
 Clover nearly dead, . 
 
 In bloom, 
 
 Nearly ripe, 
 
 In bloom, 
 
 Nearly ripe, 
 
 Lbs. 
 3,444 
 4,263 
 3,035 
 
 3, 585 
 4,555 
 3,470 
 4,530 
 4, 875 
 4,825 
 
 800 
 
 800 
 
 800 
 3,034 
 4,234 
 5,000 
 5,270 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 AVinter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Dec. 31, . 
 
 Dec. 31, . 
 
 Dec. 31, . 
 
 Dec. 31, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 
 Winter, . 
 December 
 December 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2,760 
 3, 538 
 2,351 
 
 2,673 
 3,386 
 2. 324 
 2,928 
 3,600 
 3,707 
 
 680 
 
 630 
 
 704 
 2,307 
 3,390 
 3,922 
 4,035 
 
 Average* loss by drying iu barn, (17 trials, ) 
 
 Kind of grass. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 19.6 
 17.0 
 
 25.4 
 
 25. G 
 
 33. 
 
 35.3 
 
 26.1 
 
 22.9 
 
 15. 
 
 c 
 
 12. 
 
 36.5 
 
 19.9 
 
 21.6 
 
 23.4 
 
 24.1 
 
 Timothy. 
 Timothy. 
 Timothy, (some 
 
 clover. ) 
 Timothy. 
 Timothy. 
 Timothy. 
 Timothy. 
 Clover mostly. 
 Clover mostly. 
 
 Timothy and clover. 
 
 Timothy and clover. 
 
 Timothy and clover. 
 
 Timothy and clover. 
 
 Timothy. 
 
 Timothy. 
 
 Timothy. 
 
 Timothy. 
 
 On the basis of the above figures, haj that could be sold for ten dollars, 
 when taken from the field, should bear a price of nearly twelve and one 
 half dolhirs the following winter, provided no conditions had changed, save 
 the weiglit of the hay. We can, also, get some idea of the amount of water 
 in hay when housed. It is probably fair to assume that hay that has been 
 lying in the barn for some time contains about 12.5 per cent., or one eighth 
 its Aveiglit of water. If such hay is assumed to have lost 24 per cent, of 
 its weight, since the cime of storing, a little calculation shows that when 
 taken from the field, one third (about) its weight was water. Freshly-cured 
 ha.y is not generally stated to contain as much water, but other observations 
 have been made with small samples rather than b^^ re-weighing large quan- 
 tities, and the latter method is the one more to be relied upon. 
 
 The work undertaken on ensilage, the results of which are contained iu 
 the following, was entered upon not to show that corn fodder can be pre- 
 served in pits, nor to demonstrate that fodder thus treated is nutritious 
 and readily eaten, for these facts are acknowledged. The principal object 
 of the investigation w^as to ascertain the extent of the changes and loss 
 wdiich the fodder suffers from the fermentation. It was, of course, deemed 
 desirable to obtain accurate data as to the cost and feeding value of the 
 fermented materials, but circumstances were such as to prevent reliable 
 results being reached in these directions. It is hoped that the work of 
 another year can be niado more comprehensive, so as to include all the 
 factors involved in the question of profit. 
 
 Cultlvatlou of the Crop. 
 
 The corn was planted the last week in May, on land producing a small 
 crop of wheat the previous year. Manure was ai)plied at the rate of about 
 
 * The fuHt nine cases are taken from " P'arin Experiments," by Prof. J. W. Sanbor 
 and the next four from Pennsylvania State College Report 1879-80. 
 
 « 
 
15 
 
 eight cords per acre. One bushel of seed was planted per acre, the variety 
 being Southern White corn. 
 
 It was expected that the two acres of land planted would produce at 
 least thirty tons of green fodder, but owing to the exceptionally severe 
 drought the crop was considerably less than half that amount. The corn 
 received about the same cultivation as ordinary field corn. 
 
 Preservation of tlie Fodder liy Ensilage. 
 
 In order to avoid the cost of an expensive silo, an old root cellar was 
 made to answer every purpose. The cellar was of masonry, cemented air 
 tight. As it was too large, a partition was thrown across midway, so that 
 the silo was really built of masonry on three sides, and of wood on the 
 fourth. 
 
 The fodder was cut into pieces about three quarters of an inch long, by 
 one of Hauck & Comstock's fodder cutters,* smallest size, which was found 
 to do etlicient work, cutting the fodder at the rate of thirty tons per day. 
 The chopped fodder was pushed through a trap-door in the barn floor into 
 the silo below, where it was tramped down by mules. After being thor- 
 oughly tramped down the compact mass was covered with a layer of straw 
 about eight inches deep, then two layers of boards, and upon the boards was 
 piled stone at the rate of half a ton to every square yard. The silo was 
 filled during the second week in September, and was not opened until De- 
 cember. 
 
 Character aud Appearance of tlie Ensilage. 
 
 When the silo was opened, it was found that at the surfaces and sides 
 the fodder was blackened and somewhat decayed to the depth of a few 
 inches. 
 
 The remaining portion of the very compact material was darker in color 
 than when it was put in. had the characteristic odor and slightly acid taste 
 noticed in all ensilage, but, on the whole, seemed to be nicely preserved. 
 Nearly all of the animals to which it was oflfered, ate it at once quite 
 heartily. 
 
 The description of the practical details of constructing and filling the 
 silo are made brief, because they are matters about which any intelligent, 
 reading farmer need have no lack of reliable information ; and, as before 
 stated, it is not the possibility of ensilage that needs discussion. 
 
 Character and Extent of the Changes that Occur In the Fodder During Ensilage. 
 
 No one has attempted to dispute the fact that fermentation takes place 
 in the silo to a greater or less extent, according to the manner of filling, 
 but which no amount of care can entirely prevent. Fermentation must re- 
 sult in certain changes in the composition of the fodder, which must affect 
 the nutritive value of the material fermented. Tlie character of these 
 changes has been better understood than their extent. 
 
 While it has been well known that the alcoholic and lactic fermentations 
 must go on largely at the expense of the carbo-hydrates (sugar, starch, &c.,) 
 there has been no ver}^ definite knowledge as to the quantity of these in- 
 gredients thus destroyed, or the accompanying changes experienced by 
 other and more valuable compounds. With a view to obtaining more in- 
 formation on these points, the fodder that was packed in the silo was care- 
 fully weighed at the time it was cut, and several samples were also selected 
 for analysis in such a manner as to render it quite certain that the average 
 composition of the fodder at time of cutting would be correctl_y ascer- 
 
 * Purchased of Alexander & Co., Bellefonte, Pennsylvania. 
 
16 
 
 taiiicd. The eiisilasje as taken from the silo was also carefully weighed and 
 sampled. It should be stated that the sami)ling of the ensilage was such 
 as to exclude those portions on the surface and sides of the silo that were 
 much decayed, all the material that was taken for analysis being such as 
 was in the ordinary state of preservation. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Green fodder. EnsiJafie. 
 
 Total weight, 22,535 pounds. 19,116 pounds. 
 
 "Water content, 71.68 per cent. 73.61 per cent.* 
 
 Weight of water-free substance, . . 6,404 pounds. 5,045 pounds. 
 
 Per cent, of water-free substance lost, . 21.22 per cent. 
 
 The quantity of water-free substance calculated for the ensilage is un- 
 doubtedly too'small, owing to the method of sampling referred to above. 
 The outer portions of the ensilage did not contain as much water probably 
 as those portions taken for analysis, which would cause an error in the 
 above method of estimating the water-free substance in the whole mass of 
 material. A more accurate way of ascertaining the real loss from the well- 
 preserved ensilage is based upon the fact that one part of the fodder would 
 not be affected in quantity at all by fermentation, viz : The ash or mineral 
 substances. The organic substances only would be decomposed and pass 
 off, so that one pound of ash would be found in less water-free substance in 
 the ensilage than in the corn fodder before fermentation. 
 
 The next table gives the composition of the water-free substance in the 
 two cases. 
 
 Table II. 
 
 Green stalks. Ensilage. 
 
 Ash, 5.04 5.51 
 
 Protein, 6.54 7.18 
 
 Crude fiber, 24.22 27.43 
 
 Other carbo-hydrates, 62.31 56.98 
 
 Ether extract,! 1.89 2.90 
 
 The preceding figures show that one hundred pounds of water-free sub 
 stance in the fodder as taken from tiie field contained 5.04 pounds of min- 
 eral matters, while owing to a destruction of other material one hundred 
 pounds of dry material in the ensilage contained 5.51 pounds of ash. By 
 calculation we find that 91.47 pounds of water-free substance in the ensi- 
 lage contain the same quantity of ash as one hundred pounds of water-free 
 sul)stance in the fodder before fermentation. In other words, the green 
 fodder lost in the silo 8.63 pounds out of every one hundred pounds of 
 water-free substance put in, or a loss of 8.5S per cent, of dry subs'ance. 
 As B,4' 4 pounds of dry substance were put into the silo, the total loss of 
 water-free material would be 54h pounds. Practically the loss is more ow- 
 ing to the decay on the surface and sides, but the last estimate corresponds 
 more nearly to what is correct than do the figures given in Table I.J 
 
 Now, u)>on what ingredients of the fodder does this loss fall ? KnoAving 
 the percentage composition of the water-free substance in the two cases, 
 we can calculate the amount of each class of ingredients in 100 pounds of 
 dry substance in the corn as taken from the field, and in 91.47 pounds, as 
 
 1 
 
 * Water and other volatile substances, 
 t Fat, chlorophyl, <tc. 
 
 % Snice begnming to write out the results given here, I have received the Second 
 nnual Report of tiie New Jersey Experiment Station; also a bulletin giving results 
 accordant witli those presented here, onlv the investigation was much more compre- 
 hensive. It was lound at the New Jersey Station that 100 pounds of dry substance lost 
 ui the silo 17J pounds. 
 
17 
 
 found in the ensilage, the latter being what remained of each 100 pounds 
 put into the silo. 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Green stalks. Ensilage. 
 
 In 100 pounds of water- In 91.1,7 pounds of water- 
 free substance. free substance. 
 
 Pounds. Pounds. 
 
 Ash, -5.04 5.05 
 
 Protein, 6.54 6.57 
 
 Fiber, 24.22 25.09 
 
 Other carbo-hydrates, 62.31 52.12 
 
 Ether extract, 1.89 2.65* 
 
 100.0 91.47 
 
 A glance at the above table shows that the loss has fallen entirely upon 
 the carbo-hydrates, about sixteen (16) per cent, of this class of compounds 
 having been used up during the process of fermentation. "f 
 
 The percentages of protein in the previous tables were obtained in the 
 usual way, by multiplying the total nitrogen by the factor 6.25. Nothing 
 is learned in this way as to the forms of the nitrogen compounds, either in 
 the green fodder or in the ensilage. Determinations of albuminoid and 
 non-albumiuoid nitrogen by Stutzer's method, (see methods of analysis,) 
 gave the following results for water-free substance : 
 
 Green stalks. Ensilage. 
 
 Total nitrogen, 1.047 per cent. 1.149 per cent. 
 
 Albuminoid nitrogen, 914 per cent. .567 per cent. 
 
 "Amide " nitrogen, '. . .133 per cent. .582 per cent. 
 
 Per cent, of total nitrogen in the non- 
 albuminoid form, 12.70 50.66 
 
 The above figures are the averages of closely accordant parallel deter- 
 minations. While no conclusions should be drawn from them, they indicate 
 that there may possibly be a breaking up of albuminoid compounds, at the 
 same time that there is no actual loss of nitrogen. If such be the case the 
 nutritive value of the fodder would probably be affected. 
 
 There follows a table showing the composition of the green corn stalks, 
 and the same after undergoing changes in the silo : 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 <s 
 
 . 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 C3 
 
 ji 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 ^ J5 
 
 si 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 Pm 
 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 Green stalks, 
 
 71.58 
 73.61 
 
 1.43 
 1.45 
 
 1.86 
 1.90 
 
 6.88 
 7.24 
 
 17.71 
 15.03 
 
 0.54 
 
 Ensilage, 
 
 0.77 
 
 Results of Feeding the Susllage. 
 
 All the ensilage was fed to a herd of milch cows. Owing to u^tter lack 
 of time no accurate data were obtained as to the results. It can be said , 
 
 * The ether extracted nearly six per cent, of material from tlie ensilage, only about 
 one half of which was found to be soluble in benzine, and the figures given in the ta- 
 bles for percent, of fat in the ensilage represent what was soluble in benzine. All the 
 ether extract from the fodder before fermentation was found to be soluble in benzine. 
 
 t This result agrees with that arrived at by the New Jersey Experiment Station, 
 viz: That there was no loss of nitrogen, crude fiber, or fat from the fermentation in 
 the silo. 
 
18 
 
 however, that no marked benefit could be noted by any ordinary method of 
 observation. Previous to being fed on ensilage, the cows had been eating 
 all the. dried corn-fodder (stover) they would consume in connection with 
 corn-meal and wheat bran. The amount of meal and bran fed was not 
 changed, and all the ensilage was given that the animals would take ; but 
 in passing from one ration to the other there appeared to be no change 
 either way in the amount of milk produced. As the milk was sold daily 
 by the quart any marked decrease or increase would have been noted, 
 especially as attention was directed to the matter. Neither is there any 
 good reason for thinking that the milk improved in quality because of tiie 
 ensilage. It is expected that more accurate observations will be made next 
 winter" on the comparative value of corn-fodder dried in the field, and the 
 same preserved in a silo.* 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 One thing is certain, viz : Nothing came out of the silo that was of value, 
 that did not go in, in an equally valuable form. It is quite absurd with 
 our present state of knowledge to claim that green corn-fodder increases in 
 value by being allowed to lie in a large mass and undergo a partial decom- 
 position. It may be safelv affirmed that to the extent that such decompo- 
 sition goes on with any cattle food, to that extent is its capacity decreased 
 for running or building up the animal machine. Careful investigation has 
 al^o shown that fermented fodder has not an increased digestibility over 
 unfermented, neither is there much reason why we should expect such a 
 result. The experience of many years shows that ensilage is not a necessity 
 for securing the healthfulness or vigor of animals, for a variety of food can 
 be obtained more cheaply in other ways. Then why all this excitement 
 over silos, and why call an " ensilage congress " any more than a " cotton 
 seed meal " congress ? Certainly the farmer who preserves grass in silos, 
 and so handles three tons of water several times in order to feed his cattle 
 one ton of dry substance, has lost his judgment, for grass can be cured to 
 perfection by the old-fashioned method. 
 
 And as for preserving green corn-fodder, the only peg the ensilage en- 
 thusiast has to hold to, is his ability to show that by the use of the silo 
 greater nutritive value is secured than by drying and stacking the fodder. 
 In the careful investigation made at the New Jersej^ Experiment Station 
 the results did not differ materially with the two methods, save that the 
 expense must have been greater in the case of the ensilage. 
 
 The alcove is not meant for a general condemnation of ensilage, as it may 
 have its advantages for a certain class of farmers, but there seem to be no 
 good reasons why farmers should get excited over it, or expect from it any 
 remarkable results. 
 
 Methods of Analysis. 
 
 The analj'tical methods adopted in the execution of the analysis here- 
 with reported, are those in common use for the determination of the prox- 
 imate composition of plants. No attempt was made to determine anything 
 more than the amounts of each of the four general classes of organic in- 
 gredients, viz : albuminoids, amides, carbo-hydrates and fats, excepting 
 the usual estimation of crude fiber. Anything beyond this is of little use 
 with our present knowledge of digestion and nutrition. 
 
 Dktermination of Nitrogen, — This was accomplished by the usual soda- 
 lime metliod, both ordinary soda-lime and Johnson's being used, Some- 
 
 * It is but justice to say that such work had been phmned previous to receiving the 
 report of the investigation at the New Jersey Experiment Station. 
 
19 
 
 tiling more than .5 of a gram of hay was usually ignited in a tube, from fif- 
 teen to eighteen inches long. The results with the two kinds of soda-lime 
 did not differ, only that it seemed to take a longer tube to secure complete 
 combustion with Johnson's, than with the ordinaiy soda-lime. The stand- 
 ard solutions used were sulphuric acid and ammonia, cochineal being used 
 as an indicator. 
 
 Determination of Albuminoid and Amide Nitrogen. — Considerable in- 
 terest is attached to the method of analysis used here, more than in the 
 case of other determinations where old, long tried, and accurate methods 
 are at hand. So scanty, in fact, is our knowledge of the nitrogenous bodies 
 in grass, that more or less uncertaint}^ accompanies any method of separa- 
 tion of amide from albuminoid nitrogen. A very common method of sep- 
 aration has been to extract the hay or other substance with boiling water, 
 generally made slightly acid with some organic acid, adding at last some 
 precipitant to throw down any albuminoids that might be in solution. The 
 amide nitrogen has been considered to be found wholly in the extract, and 
 the albuminoid nitrogen, in the residue. The precipitants used have been 
 acetate of lead, sulphate of copper, hydrate of copper, acetate of iron, car- 
 bolic acid, &c. Experiments made with- known compounds have shown the 
 results by the above general method to be reliable, when some of the pre- 
 ciptants at least were used. 
 
 Dr. Armsby, formerly of the Connecticut Experiment Station, made some 
 comparative determinations* which seem to show that no precipitant is ne- 
 cessary in the case of hays, but that simple extraction of water acidified 
 with lactic acid, effects complete separation of albuminoid and non-albu- 
 minoid compounds, or at least as complete as when a precipitant is used. 
 In the separation of albuminoid and non-albuminoid nitrogen in the first 
 six samples of hay analyzed, Dr. Armsby 's modification was adopted, but 
 as the results were unexpected, it was deemed wise in the analysis of the 
 remaining hays to make comparative determinations witli some method in- 
 volving the use of a precipitant. This was done, using Stiitzer's method,f 
 the precipitant being copper hydrate. The process followed, was to boil 
 the hay, (.5 of a gram about.) in water slightly acidified with lactic acid, for 
 three quarters of an hour, then add a sufficient amount of copper hydrate,| 
 boil a few minutes longer, and filter. This differs from Dr. Armsby 's 
 method, only in the addition of copper hydrate. The nitrogen was deter- 
 mined in the residue after washing with hot water, and dr^ ing. The ex- 
 tract was in all cases filtered through a very compact asbestos filter, with 
 the aid of a strong filter pump, anil the filtrate obtained was alwa^'S per- 
 fectly clear. 
 
 In igniting the extracted hay, both filter and hay were mixed with soda- 
 lime. By using ignited asbestos for the filters no correction of the results 
 was necessary. In order that but little asbestos should be used, the filter was 
 constructed by plugging the upper part of the neck of an ordinary funnel, 
 the asbestos being sustained by a plug of perforated cork. The filters 
 were usuallj' not more than three quarters of an inch in depth. In remov- 
 ing the hay from the funnel, the asbestos was pushed out by means of a 
 small glass rod that could be inserted in the neck of the funnel, and any 
 material that adhered closely to the funnel was wiped off with a little >noist- 
 ened asbestos. This method seemed to secure convenience and accuracy. 
 
 * See report of Connecticut Experiment Station, for 1879, p. 109. 
 fSee Beiderman's Central-blatt ftir Agr. Cham. Jahr. 9, Heft XII, S. 875. Ibid, 
 Jahr. 10, Heft II, S. 134. 
 X For preparation of copper hydrate, see last reference. 
 
20 
 
 Parallel determinations were made in all cases. Comparative results ob- 
 tained with and without the use of copper hydrate are as follows : 
 
 Water, 
 
 Total nitrogen, 
 
 Albuminoid nitrogen : 
 Arm8by's method, 
 
 Stutzer's method, 
 
 Amide nitrogen : 
 
 Armsby's method, 
 
 Stutzer's method, 
 
 Percent, total nitrogen inaraide form . 
 
 Armsby's method, 
 
 Stutzer's method, 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 .81 ; 
 
 .S49 
 . 857 ' 
 
 .608 i 
 .632 < 
 .605 j 
 .65 ( 
 
 10.27 
 .838 
 
 .62. 
 
 .628 
 
 .218 
 .210 
 
 25.94 
 25.06 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 .673; 
 
 .674 
 . 699 ' 
 
 .518 I 
 .502 I 
 .493 ! 
 .517 I 
 
 10.00 
 .682 
 
 .51 
 .505 
 
 .172 
 .177 
 
 25.19 
 25.98 
 
 1.145 I 
 
 1.187 I 
 
 .83 i 
 .874 < 
 .858 i 
 .858 1 
 
 .852 
 
 ,314 
 
 .308 
 
 26.93 
 26.46 
 
 .595 I 
 .614 I 
 .649 ( 
 . 625 I 
 
 9.46 
 .823 
 
 .218 
 .186 
 
 26.51 
 22.66 
 
 The results given are all that were obtained and are not selected. There 
 seems to be no doubt that with hays the use of a p/ecipitant for the albu- 
 minoids is unnecessary. The average percentage of nitrogen in the amide 
 form was found to be only about one per cent, less when copper hydrate 
 was used than when it was not, and as .01 per cent, error in the determina- 
 tion of the nitrogen would be enough to account for this difference, we may 
 regard it as insignificant. 
 
 As to the absolute accuracy of either method we cannot speak with cer- 
 tainty. It seems more probable that the albuminoid nitrogen is less than 
 what these analyses show than that it is greater, for the reason that it 
 seems more likely that non-albuminoid nitrogenous compounds would re- 
 main in the extracted hay than that any albuminoids should remain in so- 
 lution. 
 
 Feeding Experiments. 
 
 Feeding trials have been made with the eai'l^^ and late cut hay referred 
 to in previous pages, also with cotton seed and corn meal. At both the 
 Eastern and Central Farms, the animals fed have been fattening steers. 
 Tlie trials were conducted with the utmost care, observing the methods and 
 precautions indicated below. 
 
 At each farm for each trial, four steers were selected, two being fed after 
 one method, aud the other two after the method with waich it was desired 
 to make comparison. The steers were selected so that in each lot of four, 
 one pair should be as nearly like the other pair in size, weight, form, gen- 
 eral ai)pearance and habit, as it was possible. The selection at the Central 
 Farm of eight steers, was out of a lot of twenty-five. 
 
 The rations that it was desired to test were weighed to the animals each 
 day, any material they did not eat being also weighed. 
 
 The weight of the steers was in no case recorded until the animals had 
 been eating their rations for one week, fhe weighings were made weekly, 
 at the" same hour in the day, alwa3^s before taking water. In all things ex- 
 cept in wiiat they ate, the steers were treated as nearly alike as possible. 
 
 Experiments In Feedluf? Early aud Late Cut Hay. 
 
 As before stated, one lot (»f hay was cut while in bloom, and the other 
 lot when approaching ripeness. At the Eastern Farm the hay was chopped 
 
21 
 
 before feeding for convenience in weighing, and was fed with a small quan- 
 tity of corn meal. After feeding two steers on early cut hay and two on 
 late cut for a period of four weeks, the rations were changed about so that 
 those getting early cut haj^ during the first period of four weeks, got late 
 cut hay for an equally long period, and those getting late cut hay at first, 
 got early cut for the last period. Below are the results : 
 
 Tables sliowlug results of Experiment at the Eastern Farm. 
 
 First Period, {S8 days.) 
 
 Steers No. 1 and 2,* Steers No. 3 and 4, * 
 early cut hay. late cut hay. 
 
 Date of bep;inning, Dec. 22. Dec. 22. 
 
 Date of ending-, Jan. 19. Jan. 19. 
 
 Weight of steers December 22, 2,142 lbs. 2,150 lbs. 
 
 Weight of steers January 19, 2,208 lbs. 2,158 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 66 lbs. 8 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of hay eaten, 883.5 lbs. 816 lbs. 
 
 Hay eaten per day, 31 .7 lbs. 29.1 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of corn meal eaten, 336 lbs. 336 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 12 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 Second Period^ {28 days.) 
 
 steers No. 1 and 2, Steers No. 3 and 4, 
 late cut hay. early cut hay. 
 
 Date of beginning, Jan. 26. Jan. 26. 
 
 Date of ending, . Fel). 23. Feb. 23. 
 
 Weight of steers January 26, 2,230 lbs. 2,180 lbs. 
 
 Weight of steers February 23, 2,356 lbs. 2,290 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 126 lbs. 110 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of hay eaten, 818 lbs. 812.5 lbs. 
 
 Hay eaten per day, 29.2 lbs. 29 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of corn meal eaten, 336 lbs. 336 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 12 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 The following is a summary of the two periods : 
 
 Early cut hay. Late cut hay. 
 
 Total quantity of hay eaten, . . . .' 1,696 lbs. 1,634 lbs. 
 
 Hay eaten per day, (during 56 days,) 30.3 lbs. 29.2 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity corn meal eaten, 672 lbs. 672 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 12 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 176 lbs. 134 lbs. 
 
 Gain of two steers per day, 3.14 lbs. 2.4 lbs. 
 
 Gain per pound of hay fed 104 lbs. .082 lbs. 
 
 Relative value of each kind of hay as per experiment, is seen to be : Earlv cut : late 
 cut :: 100 : 79. 
 
 At the Central Farm, the steers were not fed at two periods, but the lots 
 of two steers each, were fed for a while on the same ration, in order to 
 ascertain the relative gain under similar conditions, so as to determine 
 whether any difference in gain of weight when fed on" different rations 
 would be due to differences in the animals. The hay was not chopped, and 
 a smaller quantity of meal was fed than at the Eastern Farm. 
 
 * The quantities given in the tables refer to the amounts fed to two steers. 
 
22 
 
 Tal)le Sho^vlug Result of fixperlineiit at the Central Farm. 
 
 Steers No. 1 and 2, Steers No. 2 and 3, 
 early cut hay. late cut hay. 
 
 Date of befiinning, Dec. 1. Dec. 1. 
 
 Date of ending Feb. 25. Feb. 25. 
 
 Weight of steers, December 1 n, 750 lbs. *1, 630 lbs. 
 
 Weight of steers, February 25, i, 922 lbs. 1,702 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 172 lbs. 72 lbs. 
 
 Total quantitj' of hay eaten, 2,924 lbs. 2,234 lbs. 
 
 Hay eaten per daj', (for 86 days,) 34 lbs. 26 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of corn meal eaten, 602 lbs. 602 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per daj'^, 7 lbs. 7 lbs. 
 
 Gain per pound of hay fed, 059 lbs. .032 lbs. 
 
 Gain of two steers per dav, 2 lbs. .84 lbs. 
 
 Relative value of each kind of hay as per experiment : Early cut : late cut :: 100 : 55. 
 
 The method of comparison here adopted is for the last experiment hardly 
 fair, because of the fact of a greater quantity of early cut hay being fed 
 than of late cut. It would be fairer perhaps to determine whether the ex- 
 cess of early cut hay fed is sufficient to account for the difference in gain, 
 or whether something must be allowed for a difference in the quality of the 
 two kinds of hay. The steers receiving early cut hay ate 690 pounds of 
 hay more than did the others, and gained 100 pounds more, a gain of one 
 pound for every 6.9 pounds of hay consumed. In other words, three 
 pounds of haj'^ added to the daily ration of a single steer caused him to 
 gain nearly one half pound per day more than he otherwise would have 
 done. It is possible that we need seek for no other explanation for the 
 better gain* of steers Nos. I and 2. It is but fair to say, however, that 
 more early cut hay was consumed than of late cut, because of the greater 
 palatableness of the former. In both cases all the hay was consumed that 
 the steers would take. The steers have been sokl for six and a half cents 
 per pound, giving a value of $6 50 to the 100 pounds excess of gain. This 
 would make the excess of hay fed worth $18 80 per ton. Certainly the 
 profits are greater from the early cut hay compared pound for pound with 
 the late cut, and for thic- the greater palatableness of the former may fairly 
 receive credit. 
 
 As to the question of a difference in the capacities for growth of the two 
 lots of animals, they Avere fed alike for a period of five weeks subsequent 
 to the feeding on the two kinds of hay, and steers 1 and 2 gained 143 
 pounds, and steers 3 and 4 gained 173 pounds, showing that if either lot 
 possessed a superior capacity for growth the advantage was with those fed 
 on late cut hay. Let it be remembered in regard to all these results that 
 they are the work of but a single year, and have value accordingly. So 
 far, however, as any value attaches to the outcome of the experiments, the 
 earlj' cut hay has the advantage. 
 
 Experiments In Feeding Corn Meal and Cotton Seed Meal. 
 
 The farmers of Pennsylvania fatten annually a large number of cattle. 
 The principal food made use of for this purpose, beside coarse fodder, is 
 cornmeal. Some farmers feed the cornmeal nearly pure, others mix with 
 it considerable oatmeal, wheat bran to a limited extent, cotton seed and 
 linseed meal. Opinions differ as to what food or mixture of foods is wisest. 
 So far we have ver}^ little but opinion, if we except the experimental work 
 of the Germans. 
 
 Leaving the presentation of the scientific side of the question until later, 
 it can be said that one practical inquiry is of great importance, viz : Can 
 
 * The figures given refer to food and gain of two Bteers. 
 
23 
 
 farmers profitably purchase the highly nitrogenous cattle foods that are for 
 sale in our markets in order to combine them with the corn and coarse fodder 
 produced on the farm ? Theories based on scientific investigation would 
 answer the inquiry in the affirmative, so far as it is a question of proper 
 combination of food ingredients, and so of an economical use of the ma- 
 terial consumed. Of course the variable relative prices of these various 
 food stuffs is something of which science can take no account, and the 
 farmer must decide, from year to year, what he can or cannot afford to 
 purchase. The great underlying principles in all practice in cattle feeding 
 are those that determine the proper amounts and relation of nutrients in 
 the ration, and these principles once understood it only remains for the 
 farmer to purchase or produce these nutrients in the cheapest possible 
 form. 
 
 As in the case of early and late-cut hay, experiments have been con- 
 ducted at both the Eastern and Central Experimental Farms. The num- 
 ber of steers fed, and the precautions in feeding and weighing were the 
 same as in tfie experiments on hay. A ration of corn meal and cornfodder 
 has in each case been compared with one composed of corn meal, cotton 
 seed meal, and cornfodder. In the latter ration the corn meal and cotton 
 seed meal were mixed in the proportion of one hundred pounds of the 
 former to forty pounds of the latter. 
 
 The results of the experiment at the Eastern Farm are as follows : 
 
 Tables Showing Results of Experiment at the Eastern Farm on Feeding Fattening 
 
 Steers. 
 
 First Period^ (56 days.) 
 
 o*«>^^= K.«xi c steers 7 and 8, 
 
 steers & ana b, Mixture of corn meal 
 
 Corn meal alone. ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 Date of beginning, December 15 December 15 
 
 Date of ending, February 9 February 9 
 
 Weight of steers, December 15, 2,110 lbs.* 2,110 lbs,* 
 
 Weight of steers, February 9, 2,220 lbs. 2,336 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 110 lbs. 226 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of cornfodder eaten, . . 674 lbs. 883 lbs. 
 
 Cornfodder eaten per day, 12.3 lbs. 15.1 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity cornmeal eaten, 1,660 lbs. 1,078 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 80.2 lbs. 19.6 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity cotton seed meal eaten, . 481 lbs. 
 
 Cotton seed meal eaten per day 7.8 lbs. 
 
 Second Period^ {^2 days.) 
 
 steers 5 and 6. Steers 7 and 8. 
 
 Mixture of corn meal Corn meal alone, 
 and cotton seed. 
 
 Date of beginning, Feb. 16. Feb. 16. 
 
 Date of ending, March 30. March 30. 
 
 Weight of steers February 16, 2,254 pounds. 2,368 pounds. 
 
 Weight of steers March 30 2,404 pounds. 1,510 pounds. 
 
 Total gain in weight 120 pounds. 152 pounds. 
 
 Total quantity of cornfodder eaten, . . 419 pounds. 524 pounds. 
 
 Cornfodder eaten per day, 10 pounds. 12.5 pounds. 
 
 Total quantity of corn meal eaten, . . . 830 pounds. 1,245 pounds. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 19.8 pounds. 29.7 pounds. 
 
 Total quantity cotton seed eaten, .... 333 pounds. 
 Cotton seed eaten per day, 7.9 pounds. 
 
 A summary of the two periods shows the results to be as follows : 
 * All the weights given in these tables refer to two steers. 
 
24 
 
 Corn meal alone. Mixture of corn meal 
 and cotton seed. 
 
 Total quantity cornfodder eaten, .... 1,198 pounds. 1,252 pounds. 
 
 Cornfodder eaten per daj^, (97 days,) . . 12.3 pounds. 13 pounds. 
 
 Total quantity corn meal eaten, 2,905 pounds. 1,908 pounds. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 30 pounds. 19.7 pounds. 
 
 Total quantity cotton seed eaten, 764 pounds. 
 
 Cotton seed eaten per day, 7.9 pounds. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 262 pounds. 376 pounds. 
 
 Cost of food,* $46 57 |47 04 
 
 Cost of food per pound of increase, . . . 17.7 cents. 12.5 cents. 
 
 The superintendent of the Eastern Farm states in his report that steers 
 five and six were inferior in growing capacity to steers seven and eight. 
 During the " first period," when the former lot was fed on the corn meal 
 ration, their gain was very unsatisfactory, and much inferior to the gain of 
 steers seven and eight that ate the mixture containing cotton seed. When, 
 however, the rations were changed about so that the poorer steers received 
 the cotton seed and corn meal, their increase in weight was equal to that 
 of the better lot of steers that was given pure corn meal. 
 
 The next table shows the results of the experiment at the Central Farm. 
 
 Table Sbo^vliig Results of Experiment at Central Farm In Feeding^ Fattening 
 
 Steers. 
 
 Steers No. 5 and 6, Steers No. 7 and 8, 
 corn meal alone, mixture of corn meal 
 « and cottom seed. 
 
 Date of beginning, Jan. 7. Jan. 7. 
 
 Date of ending, . . ... April 1. April 1. 
 
 Weight of steers, January 7, 1,835 lbs. 1,9.39 lbs. 
 
 Weight of steers, April 1, 2,010 lbs. 2,200 lbs. 
 
 Total gain in weight, 175 lbs. 261 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of cornfodder eaten, .... 840 lbs. 1,436 lbs. 
 
 Cornfodder eaten per day, (84 da^'s,) .... 10 lbs. 17 lbs. 
 
 Total quantity of corn meal eaten, 2.626 lbs. 1,344 lbs. 
 
 Corn meal eaten per day, 31.3 lbs. 16 lbs. 
 
 Total quantitj^ of cotton seed eaten, 672 lbs. 
 
 Cotton seed eaten per day, 8 lbs. 
 
 Cost of food, $43 37 ?38 15 
 
 Cost of ration per day, 52^ 45/5 
 
 In this case the rations were not changed about, so as to give the mix- 
 ture of corn meal and cotton seed to Nos. 5 and 6. But in order to deter- 
 mine the amount of error introduced by the different capacities for rrowth 
 of the two lots of animals, the steers were fed alike for four weeks previous 
 to beginning the experimental rations. Steers Xos. 5 and 6, gained 135 
 pounds during the four weeks, and steers Nos. 7 and 8, gained 194 pounds, 
 or the two lots gained in the ratio of 100 to 144. While the experimental 
 rations were fed, the gain of steers 5 and 6, was to the gain of steers 7 and 
 8, as 100 to 149. Or the relative gain of the two lots was the same when 
 fed alike, and when fed the rations that were put to a comparative test. 
 Now one lot ate about 32 pounds of corn meal per day, and the other lot 
 only 16 pounds of corn meal, and 8 pounds of cotton seed ; that is, 1 pound 
 of cotton seed when combined with the other foods was able to replace 2 
 pounds of corn meal. 
 
 The superintendents of both farms report themselves as favorably im- 
 pressed by the practical results of adding cotton seed meal to the ration 
 of the steers that were being fattened. Looked at from the stand-point of 
 profit, the outcome with the particular animals fed, and wuth relative prices 
 as they are at present, was favorable to the use of the cotton seed. 
 
 * In estimating the cost of the food, the fodder is valued at $5 per ton, the meal at one 
 and one half cents per pound, and the cotton seed at $40 per ton. 
 
25 
 
 The Scientific Side of Cattle Feeding. 
 
 To show that with the particular circumstances and conditions involved 
 in the experiments here reported, one method ^f feeding was productive of 
 more satisfactory results than another, would amount to very little. Like 
 circumstances and conditions may never occur again at the college farms 
 or elsewhere. The relative supply of cattle foods and their relative prices 
 change from year to year. 
 
 To establish a fact with regard to the laws of animal nutrition, or some 
 principle involved in all practice, would be to secure a lasting benefit. We 
 need not so much to know that under certain conditions of practice certain 
 results follow as to know the reasons why, or the principles involved. For 
 instance, granting that a m xture of corn meal and cotton seed as fed in 
 these experiments produced as much growth as a larger amount of pure 
 corn meal, this may not be true simply because cotton seed and corn 
 meal were fed together, but because the mixture furnished a more efficient 
 combination of food ingredients than was the case with corn meal alone. 
 It may be a question of the economical use by the animal organism of cer- 
 tain quantities of protein and carbo-hydrates mixed in certain proportions 
 rather than of cattle foods having certain names. If this be true, then we 
 are not shut up to corn meal and cotton seed as the only means of securing 
 the desirable combination, but can use an}' cattle foods that will furnish 
 the ingredients we desire in the proper quantities and proportions. It 
 must be remembered that protein, for instance, is a constituent of all cattle 
 foods, and that it may be of more importance that we give an animal a 
 certain quantity of it in a digestible form accompanied by proper amounts 
 of other compounds, than that we supply it in any particular kind of food, 
 whether it be hay, corn meal, wheat bran, or cotton seed. From the data 
 given on previous pages, let us see what were the real differences between 
 the rations fed in the experiments reported. 
 
 Composition, of tlie Various Food Stuffs used. 
 
 The composition of the hays fed can be seen on previous pages. The 
 composition of the corn fodder, corn meal, and cotton seed, can be safely 
 assumed from the average of a number of analyses of these food stuffs. 
 No analyses were made of the particular samples used, because of entire 
 lack of time. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 .D CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 u a> 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 '^ 
 
 O c5 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 2^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 f 
 
 02 
 
 t-i 
 
 
 '2 ja 
 
 cS 
 
 
 < 
 
 P- 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 ^c 
 
 <fo 
 
 ^0 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 <7o 
 
 Corn fodder, (stover,)* 
 
 15 
 
 4.2 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 36.7 
 
 1 
 
 Corn ineal. ( Dent corn, ) av 19 analyses 
 
 11.13 
 
 1.48 
 
 10.49 
 
 1.86 
 
 70.20 
 
 4.84 
 
 Cotton seed meal,t decorticated, av. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 analyses, 
 
 7.70 
 
 7.04 
 
 42.79 
 
 6.36 
 
 19.76 
 
 16.35 
 
 The above table shows, that if a hundred pounds of cotton seed be fed 
 to an animal, there would be given 42.79 pounds of protein. Not all of 
 this protein could be used, as only a certain percentage of it would be di- 
 gested. A cattle food is valuable, not because of what it contains, but be- 
 
 * From Mentzei u. Lengerke's laodw. Kalender, 1882. 
 
 t The sample fed was a fine one, procured from Alexander & Co., Bellefoute, Pa. 
 
26 
 
 cause of what can be digested from it. Very careful and elaborate inves- 
 tigation has shown that, with the exception of roots, no ingredient of any 
 cattle food is ever completely digested. Moreover, by a large amount of 
 experimenting, it has been ascertained what are the approximate percentages 
 of the constituents of the various foods that are digested, these digestion 
 coefticients varying with the kind and quality of the fodder. The following 
 table shows those applying to corn fodder, corn meal, and cotton seed : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 o . 
 
 
 
 
 
 <s 
 
 ^ 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 £2 
 
 U ® 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 tC 
 
 gg 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 05 
 
 73 J 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 p4 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 fe 
 
 
 37 
 
 79 
 
 '62' 
 
 '9l' 
 
 30 
 
 
 85 
 
 Cotton seed meal, 
 
 (decorticated,) J 
 
 85 
 
 
 95 
 
 88 
 
 By multiplying the total quantities of the several ingredients of the cat- 
 tle foods, with which we are dealing, by the percentages given in the last 
 table, we get the following results for the percentages of digestible nutrients. 
 The figures previously given for the hay, are brought forward for the sake 
 of convenience. 
 
 Corn fodder, . . . 
 
 Corn meal, . . . . 
 Cotton seed meal, 
 
 Timothy hay, . , 
 
 Timothy hay, . , 
 
 Timothy hay, . . 
 
 Timothy hay, . , 
 
 IN 100 PARTS DRY SUBSTANCE 
 THERE ARE DIGESTED OF 
 
 1.1 
 8.33 
 
 36.37 
 3.95 
 
 2.58 
 2.86 
 2.16 
 
 
 
 §37 
 65 
 
 18.77 
 44.62 
 45.86 
 46.02 
 46.23 
 
 .3 
 
 4.11 
 
 14.38 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.02 
 
 .96 
 
 .97 
 
 *The digestion coefficient of the " crude fiber " and " other carbo-hydrates " are not 
 given, for it has been found that in coarse fodder, what is digested out of both of these 
 is about equal to the total quantity of carbo-hydrates, excludmg the crude fiber, or 
 what is giv'eu in the table as "other carbo-hydrates." 
 
 t From averages given in Armsby's Manual of cattle feeding. 
 
 X From Biederman's Centralblatt Jahr. 10, page 32. 
 
 § The figures in this column equal the sum of the digestible crude fiber and other 
 carbo-hydrates. 
 
2t 
 
 "We are now prepared to calculate the quantities of digestible nutrients 
 actuallj' consumed by the steers when fed on the experimental rations. 
 
 Early and Iiate Cut Hay. 
 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 <B 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 Digestible. 
 
 
 Kind and Quantity op Ration Fed a 
 Single Animal. 
 
 CO 
 
 B 
 
 "53 
 o 
 
 
 
 6 
 I 
 
 4) 
 
 > 
 
 •a 
 
 Eastern Farm. 
 , J Early cut hay, (No. 9,) • . . . 15.2 ibs. 
 } Corn meal, 6 lbs. 
 
 13.3 
 5.34 
 
 18.64 
 
 .60 
 .50 
 
 6.78 
 3.9 
 
 .16 
 .25 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 1.10 
 
 10.68 
 
 .41 
 
 1:10.6 
 
 2 J Late cut hay, (No. 10,) . . . . 14.6 lbs. 
 \ Corn meal, 6 lbs. 
 
 12.8 
 5.34 
 
 .38 
 .50 
 
 6.70 
 3.9 
 
 .15 
 .25 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 18.14 
 
 .88 
 
 10.60 
 
 .40 
 
 1:13.2 
 
 Central Farm. 
 „ < Early cut hay, (No. 7,) . . . .17 lbs. 
 \ Corn meal, 3.5 ibs. 
 
 14.9 
 3.11 
 
 18.01 
 
 .49 
 
 .29 
 
 7.82 
 2.27 
 
 .16 
 .15 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 .78 
 
 10.09 
 
 .31 
 
 1:13.9 
 
 . ^ Late cut hay, (No. 8,) .... 13 lbs. 
 I Corn meal, 3.5 lbs. 
 
 11.4 
 3.11 
 
 14.51 
 
 .28 
 .29 
 
 6.00 
 2.27 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 .57 
 
 8.27 
 
 .28 
 
 1 : 15 8 
 
 
 
28 
 
 Com Meal and Cotton Seed Meal. 
 
 Kind and Quantity of Ration Fed a 
 Single Animal. 
 
 Eastern Farm. 
 
 Cornfodder, 6.2 lbs., 
 
 Corn meal, 15 lbs., 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 Cornfodder, 6.5 lbs , 
 
 Corn meal, 9.9 lbs.. 
 
 Cotton seed meal, 4 lbs.. 
 
 Total, . 
 
 Central Farm. 
 
 Cornfodder, 5 lbs.. 
 
 Corn meal, 15.7 lbs., 
 
 fotal, 
 
 Cornfodder, 8.5 lbs.. 
 
 Corn meal, 8 lbs.. 
 
 Cotton seed meal, 4 lbs.. 
 
 Total, 
 
 
 Digestible 
 
 d 
 
 e3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 *S 
 
 S 
 
 1 m 
 
 St 
 
 > K 
 
 
 > 
 
 s 
 
 5.27 
 
 .07 
 
 2.29 
 
 .02 
 
 
 13.34 
 
 1.25 
 
 9.75 
 
 .62 
 
 
 18.59 
 
 1.32 
 
 12.04 
 
 .64 
 
 1:10.3 
 
 5.52 
 
 .072 
 
 2.40 
 
 .02 
 
 
 8.80 
 
 .72 
 
 6.44 
 
 .41 
 
 
 3 60 
 
 1.46 
 
 .75 
 
 .58 
 
 
 18.01 
 
 2.25 
 
 9.59 
 
 1.01 
 
 1: 5.4 
 
 4.25 
 
 .06 
 
 1.85 
 
 .02 
 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.31 
 
 10.2 
 
 .64 
 
 
 18.25 
 
 1.37 
 
 12.05 
 
 .66 
 
 1:10. 
 
 7.03 
 
 .09 
 
 3.14 
 
 .03 
 
 
 7.11 
 
 .67 
 
 5.20 
 
 .33 
 
 
 3.69 
 
 1.46 
 
 0.75 
 
 .58 
 
 
 17.83 
 
 2.22 
 
 9.09 
 
 .94 
 
 1: 5.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In another table let us place together the total quantities of digestible 
 nutrients fed per day and per animal to each of the eight lots of steers, as 
 shown in the two previous tables ; also the nutritive ratios and the gain 
 per day, so that we ma^^ discover, if possible, what the relation is between 
 gain and food. 
 
 1. Ration containing early cut hay, 
 
 2. Ration containing late cut hay, . 
 
 3. Ration containing early cut liay, 
 
 4. Ration containing lale cut hay, 
 
 5. Corn meal witliout cotton seed, 
 
 6. Corn meal with cotton seed, . 
 
 7. Corn meal without cotton seed, 
 
 8. Corn meal with cotton seed, . 
 The German standard, per 1,000 pounds 
 
 live weight, 
 
 
 Digestible. 
 
 ■ 6 
 
 Is 
 
 S 
 b 
 
 
 
 > 
 3 
 
 2 di 
 P-i 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 yd rates, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 18.64 
 
 1.10 
 
 10.68 
 
 .41 
 
 1:10.6 
 
 18.14 
 
 .88 
 
 10.60 
 
 .40 
 
 1:13.2 
 
 18.01 
 
 .77 
 
 10.09 
 
 .31 
 
 1:13.9 
 
 14.51 
 
 .57 
 
 8.27 
 
 .28 
 
 1:15.8 
 
 18.59 
 
 1.32 
 
 12.04 
 
 .64 
 
 1:10.3 
 
 18.01 
 
 2.25 
 
 9.59 
 
 1.01 
 
 1: 5.4 
 
 18.25 
 
 1.37 
 
 12.05 
 
 .66 
 
 1:10 
 
 17.83 
 
 2.22 
 
 9.09 
 
 .94 
 
 1: 5.1 
 
 26.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.50 
 
 1: 6.5 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.57 
 1.20 
 1.0 
 0.42 
 1.35 
 1.95 
 1.04 
 1.55 
 
 * These figures refer to the gain of single animals weighing throughout the experi- 
 ments an average of about a thousand pounds, the first two lots weighing a little less, 
 and the last two a little more. 
 
29 
 
 One main and important difference to be noted in the above rations, is 
 the relation between the quantity of digestible protein, and of the digesti- 
 ble carbo-hydrates. It is seen that in rations six and eight, there is only 
 the equivalent of a little over five pounds of digestible carbo-hydrates to 
 each pound of digestible protein, while in rations two, three, and four, the 
 ratio is very different, the digestible carbo-hydrates being present in nearly 
 three times as large a relative quantity. Not only the relative but the ab- 
 solute quantities of digestible nutrients differ very much in the various 
 methods of feeding in the experiments, in one ration there being only about 
 0.6 pounds of digestible protein, and in others as much as 2.25 pounds. 
 The variations in the amounts of digestible carbo-hydrates are very much 
 less. It remains for future investigation to determine whether the increase 
 in gain, that in these experiments has accompanied an increase of nitro- 
 genous material in the food, is accidental or not. All present well-sub- 
 stantied theories indicate that production, whether of meat, milk, or work, 
 is largely dependent upon the so-called protein of the food, and that the 
 relation in amount of this protein to the amount of other nutrients deter- 
 mines largely the profits of feeding. The position taken is, that if too lit- 
 tle nitrogenous material is contained in the combination of food stuflTs used, 
 it would be necessar}^ to feed more than the animals could possibly consume 
 in order to furnish suflicient protein to do the desired work, while if the 
 ration be too highly nitrogenous, a waste of material occurs, and the ani- 
 mal fails to use the nutrients given for the purposes of growth or produc- 
 tion of milk. In the rations discussed here there is in no case, probabl}', 
 an excess of protein, while in some cases it seems as if there was a defi- 
 ciency. 
 
 We believe that the question of the use of the nitrogenous waste pro- 
 ducts, offered for sale in our markets, is one of great importance. It would 
 be well for farmers to consider whether they cannot often realize a greater 
 profit by purchasing these and selling the products of the farm, than by 
 feeding the latter. 
 
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