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THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO 
 
 Blacksmithing 
 
 Horseshoeing^ Carriage and 
 
 Wagon Building and 
 
 Paintina: 
 
 Eased en the 
 
 Text Book on Hofseslioemg i 
 
 By 
 
 Professor A. Lung-wit^ a 
 
 Director of the Shoeing School of the Royal Veterinary College I 
 at Dresden \ 
 
 With Chapter3 on I 
 
 Cafria2:e-Iroaing, "^agon and Bwggy Painting, Var- \ 
 nishing. Ornamenting, Etc. 
 
 By ' i ' ; , ; i y ; i ; ' •! 
 
 Charles F. Adami : ! ; . . ',..;; 
 I L L U S T R A T &SJ ' ; ' ,'^\ >. 
 
 CHICAGO 
 M. A, DONOHUE &: CO. 
 
 407-429 Dearborn St. 
 
THE LIBRARY OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Two CopiEfe REceivEO 
 
 JUL. 10 1902 
 
 CoPVWtGHT ENTRY 
 
 Class c^xxc. no. 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 tt 
 
 /... 
 
 i-1 
 
 / 
 
 
 "!) 
 
 ^ 
 
Copyright 1902 
 M. A. DONOHUE & CO. 
 
 M, A. DONOHUE A CO. x PRINTERS AND BIH0ER8, CHICAGO, 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Part I. 
 
 GENERAL BLACKSMITHING. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chapter I. The Forge— Forga and Blast, Spring 
 Bellows, Care of Bellows, The Anvil, The Hammer, 
 Other Tools H 
 
 Chapter II. Operations in Forging — The Fire, Flux, 
 Degrees of Heat, Drawing Down, Set-ojEf, Jumping or 
 Up-setting, Shutting Together, Hardening Steel, Case- 
 Hardening 26 
 
 Part II. 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Chapter I. The Anatomy of the Horse's Foot — 
 The Hoof in General, The Wall, The Sole, The VvTiite 
 Line, The Frog, The Skin, The Coronary Band, The 
 Sensitive Structures 47 
 
 Chapter II. Growth and Condition of the Hoof — 
 Growth of the Hoof, Wearing of the Hoof Affected by 
 Position 01 Lcj^s, How to Judge a Hoof 57 
 
 Chapter HI. Shoeing Healthy Hoofs— The Pre- 
 liminary Examination, Raising and Holding the Foot, 
 Taking off the Old Shoes, Preparing the Hoof for 
 Shoes, Preparing the Hoof for Going Barefoot, 
 3 
 
4 Contents. 
 
 PASE 
 
 Making Shoes, Character of the Shoe, Heel Calks, Toe 
 and Heel Calks, Peculiarities of Shoes for DiiTerent 
 Kinds of Feet, The Choice of the Shoe, Fitting Shoes, 
 Shoeing Heavy Draught Horses, Concluding Direc- 
 tions, Nailing the Shoe 73 
 
 Chapter IV, Forging and Interfering 105 
 
 Chapter V. Winter Shoeing. Care of the Hoof — 
 Ice-nails, Sharp Calks, Screw Calks, To Prevent Ball- 
 ing with Snow, Care of Unshod Hoofs, Washing, 
 Time to Shoe, Hoofs of Older Horses, Care of Shod 
 Hoofs 110 
 
 Chapter VI. Shoeing^ Defective Hoofs — Lame- 
 ness, Inflammation of the Pododerm, Treatment, 
 The Bar-Shoe, "Nailing," Treatment for "Nailing," 
 Street Nail, Calking, Corns, Treatment of Corns, In- 
 flammation of the Bulbs of the Heels, Founder, Horn 
 Tumor 118 
 
 Chapter VII. Various Defects — Flat Hoof and 
 Dropping Sole, Stumpy Hoof, Contracted Hoof, Treat- 
 ment, Wry Hoofs, Crooked Hoofs, Side-Bone, Cracks, 
 Treatment of Cracks, Loose Wall, Hollow Wall, 
 Thrush of the Frog 135 
 
 Chapter VIII. Shoeing Mules and Oxen 150 
 
 Part III. 
 
 CARRIAGE BUILDING. 
 
 Chapter I. Carriage Ironing — Edge Plates, The 
 Wheel Plate, Bed Plates, Top Plate, The Transom 
 Plate, The Bottom Plate, Wheel Irons and Front 
 Bars, Head Irons, Hind Irons, Cross Spring, Branch 
 Steps, Steps with T-flap, The Wings, The Seat Rails, 
 Dash Iron, Boot Steps, Pole Socket, Springs, Tires. . 153 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 NO. CUT. PAGE 
 
 1. A Brick Forge 12 
 
 2. An Iron Forge with Fan Blower 13 
 
 3. Bellows with Spring Attachment 15 
 
 4. Anvil 17 
 
 5. Blacksmith's Hammers 21 
 
 6. The Proper Kind of Hammer Eye 22 
 
 7. A Pair of Tongs 23 
 
 8. Split Joint 41 
 
 9. Butt Joint 41 
 
 10. T Joint 42 
 
 11. Section of the Foot 47 
 
 12. External Appearance of Foot 48 
 
 13. Bottom of Foot 51 
 
 14. Normal Position of Front Feet 61 
 
 15. Base-wide Position 62 
 
 16. Out-toe Position 63 
 
 17. Base-narrow, In-toe Position 63 
 
 18. Correct Position as Viewed from Side 64 
 
 19. Position Too Far Forward 65 
 
 20. Sheep-kneed Position 65 
 
 21. Acute-angled Foot 66 
 
 22. Bear-Foot 68 
 
 23. Lines of Flight, Regular, Base- wide, and Base- 
 
 narrow 69 
 
 24. Untrimmed and Trimmed Hoofs 82 
 
 25. Both Sides of a Front Shoe, Showing Concaving 
 
 and Position of Nails 85 
 
 26. Front Shoe. Hind Shoe 87 
 
 27. Heel Calks 91 
 
 28. A Horseshoe Nail 101 
 
6 List of Illustrations. 
 
 CUT NO. PAGB 
 
 29. Interfering Shoe— Front 107 
 
 30 Dropped-Crease Interfering Hind Shoe 108 
 
 31. Hind Shoe for Toe-Cutters 109 
 
 32. An Ice-Nail 110 
 
 33. Inner Heel Calk Ill 
 
 34. Outer Heel Calk 112 
 
 35. Bar Shoe 121 
 
 36. Wide-Web Shoe for Foundered Hoof 134 
 
 37. Tip for Stumpy Hoof 137 
 
 38. Treatment of Cracks 144 
 
 39. Shoe for One Claw of an Ox 151 
 
 40. Key to Names of Carriage Irons 154 
 
 41. Bored Hubs 189 
 
 42. '-' Stagger" Mortised Hubs 190 
 
 43. Work Bench 193 
 
 44. Dished Spoke 197 
 
 45. Repairing Dished Wheel 197 
 
 46. Wheel for a Wheelbarrow 201 
 
 47. Modern Farm ¥/agon 203 
 
 48. Front Bolster 204 
 
 49. Back Bolster 205 
 
 50. Good Form of Hounds 206 
 
PUBLISflERS' PREFACE. 
 
 Without doubt the most thoroughly reliable 
 handbook of horseshoeing is the German text- 
 book of Professor Lungwitz, director x)f the 
 Shoeing School of the Royal Veterinary College 
 at Dresden. The conditions in Germany are 
 almost identical with those in this country, 
 and the Shoeing School superintended by Pro- 
 fessor Lungwitz may safely be regarded as the 
 best in the world. Certainly there is none 
 like it in the United States. 
 
 But Professor Lungwitz 's discussion of the 
 anatomy of the horse's foot is too technical for 
 the ordinary reader, and his book gives no sug- 
 gestions on the elementary principles of black- 
 smithing, which are prerequisites of any attempt 
 at shoeing a horse. To make the present hand- 
 book complete, these directions have been 
 added, and the text of Professor Lungwitz 's 
 book has been somewhat condensed and simpli- 
 fied. Moreover, a chapter on carriage-ironing, 
 with other general information, has been added. 
 
8 Publishers^ Preface. 
 
 that the manual may be thoroughly prac- 
 tical and as complete as possible. 
 
 It is certainly true that every owner and 
 driver of horses, as well as every person who 
 professes to be a horseshoer, should have a 
 thorough knowledge of the horse's foot and 
 the requirements in the way of shoeing. But 
 how many do! Even farriers know no more 
 of the horse's hoof, and the scientific require- 
 ments for obtaining the best results in any given 
 case, than they have been able to pick up in 
 the exercise of their trade. This kind of knowl- 
 edge is notoriously imperfect. It will never 
 improve. And owners and drivers are for the 
 most part so ignorant that they could not tell 
 a front foot from a hind foot, or tell the differ- 
 ence between a job of shoeing that would make 
 a horse lame in a week, and one that would cure 
 the same lameness in even less time. And 
 this ignorance costs the owner many a hard- 
 earned dollar. No better investment can be 
 made than a little time spent in the study of 
 the horse's feet, by the help of a really scientific 
 manual. But it is better not to study any book 
 at all than one that is unreliable. 
 
 It is believed that the present volume will 
 meet the popular need better than any other that 
 has yet been issued. The authoritativeness 
 
Pvhlishers' Preface. 9 
 
 of anything from the pens of Professor Lungwitz 
 and Mr. Adams is uiiimpeachable, while the 
 publishers have given the volume a practical 
 character which must inevitably appeal to the 
 common sense of the average reader. 
 
PART I. 
 
 GENERAL BLACKSMITHING, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FORGE. 
 
 The Forge and Blast. This is the term 
 usually applied to the blacksmith's open fire 
 or hearth, where iron is heated by agency of a 
 blast. Fig. 1 shows an elevation of a form 
 of hearth very common in this country. When 
 of the largest size, this hearth is a kind of trough 
 of brickwork, about six feet square, elevated 
 several inches from the floor of the shop. One 
 side is extended into a vertical wall leading 
 to the chimney, the lower end of which termi- 
 nates in a head, or hood of stout iron plates, 
 which catch the smoke from the open hearth 
 and guide it to the chimney. The back wall 
 of the forge is provided with a thick cast iron 
 plate, level with the hearth. This is called the 
 ''back," and has in its centre a thick projecting 
 
12 
 
 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 iron nozzle, perforated to allov/ the wind for 
 the blast to pass into the forge. This is termed 
 the 'Hue" or '' tuyere," French for a tube or 
 pipe. The large leathern bellows which supply 
 the blast are either actuated by a long handle, 
 or worked by a treadle as shown in the figure. 
 
 The bellows should be double, that is, divided 
 by a horizontal partition, which separates the 
 entire bellows into a working or under part, 
 and a regulating or upper part. By low^ering 
 the under- part after it has been raised, the 
 valve in its bottom will be forced open by the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, and the lower 
 compartment will fill with air. On raising 
 the bottom, the lower valve closes, and the air 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 13 
 
 in the under part is compressed and forced 
 through the valve in the partition, whence the 
 weight of the top drives it through the tuyere 
 or nozzle. The pressure may be increased by 
 putting weights upon the top. The bellovv's 
 may be driven b)^ machinery or power, where 
 such can be procured, quite as well as by hand. 
 Many prefer the circular bellows, or the fan; 
 and in large smithies air is supplied to a vast 
 number of forges through pipes fed by air-pumps. 
 
 Vi.^ 
 
 2^z^.2 . 
 
14 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 Fig. 2 shows a steel portable forge, composed 
 entirely of iron and steel, with a fan worked 
 by a crank, the air-pipe passing downward 
 and through a 'tuyere" into the coal-box. 
 
 In front of the hearth are usually two plate-iron 
 troughs, one to contain coal, the other (the 
 slake trough) being filled with water. 
 
 The tuyere or tue iron is generally a simple 
 block of cast iron six or eight inches long and 
 three inches square, with a tapered bore of one 
 inch at the sm.aller and three inches at the 
 larger end. The narrow part, which is directed 
 to the fire, can be made narrower by placing an 
 iron ring of more or less thickness within the 
 aperture. Tuyeres have been contrived of 
 various forms, but probably none will be found 
 superior to that just described. Hot-air 
 tuyeres have been used, but are now generally 
 abandoned. The water tuyere is, on account 
 of its durability, very valuable. Here the 
 cast iron forge back is made hollow so that a 
 stream of water may circulate through it from 
 a small cistern. The water back is, therefore, 
 kept from becoming intensely hot, and it and 
 the tuyere last much longer. 
 
 The Spring Belloios. A noted smith says, 
 ''Of all the bellows that I have seen or used, 
 one with the spring attached . beats them all 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 15 
 
 for a steady blast. You would be surprised 
 to see the difference there is in the blast of 
 these bellows when the spring is used and when 
 it is not. A, in Fig. 3, is the spring which is 
 bolted on to the piece B, with three carriage 
 
 J^2^' <? 
 
 bolts; then the ends CC are fastened to the 
 two posts XX. This shows spring applied 
 ready for use. At there is a square plate 
 fastened to the bellows with four screws; this 
 plate keeps the spring from wearing in the top 
 
16 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 board of the bellows. The spring A is made 
 from a piece of 1 by -} inch spring steel, the 
 crossbar B was made from an old tire^but could 
 be made of wood. In fastening the spring to 
 the posts XX, leave about J-ineh space between 
 it and the bellows when the bellows is down." 
 
 Care of Bellows. How many bellows have 
 been and are spoiled from negligence in cold 
 weather? They should be oiled tw^o or three 
 times a year to soften the leather, and when 
 not in use (over night) they should be hung up 
 by a chain as per line D (Fig. 3) so as to keep 
 the leather distended. But how many smiths 
 or helpers hang them up at night or when not 
 in use during the day? How many oil the 
 bellows at all? On a cold winter's morning, 
 start your fire and give the pole a jerk, and 
 crack, crack goes the leather. Of course then 
 you will hear some strong language about the 
 good-for-nothing leather, and what a poor bel- 
 lows you have. A schoolboy knows that when 
 leather is dry it will break like chips. So, clean 
 and oil your bellows before the cold weather 
 comes on. 
 
 The Anvil. The tool next in importance 
 to the forge is the anvil (Fig. 4). This is not 
 only of interest as a tool of the trade, but it 
 requires some investigation, since the steeling 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 17 
 
 of the anvil is a matter of importance. Anvils 
 for heavy work are generally square blocks of 
 iron, with steel faces. In many instances, how- 
 ever, it is merely a cast iron block with chilled 
 face. The common smith's anvil is made en- 
 tirely of wrought iron, and the upper part or face 
 is covered with hardened steel. The making 
 of an anvil is heavy work, as the whole of it is 
 
 ^z^. # . 
 
 performed by hand. Anvils vary in weight 
 from less than one hundred pounds to over five 
 hundred. For their manufacture two large 
 fires are required. The principal portion, or 
 core of the anvil — a large square block of iron — 
 is heated to the welding heat at a certain point 
 or corner in one of the fires, and the piece of iron 
 that is to form a projcting end is heated at 
 another fire. When the core and the corner 
 have both reached the welding heat, they are 
 
18 Blacks"mithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 wrought together upon an anvil and joined by 
 heavy swing hammers. In this way the four 
 corners of the base are welded to the body in 
 four heats. After this the projection for the 
 shank hole, and lastly the beak, are welded to 
 the core. The whole is then wrought into a 
 proper shape by paring and trimming for the 
 reception of the face. The steel used for this 
 purpose is, or ought to be, the best kind of 
 sheer steel ; blistered steel is, however, frequently 
 substituted. The anvil and steel are heated 
 in different fires until they attain the proper 
 temperature. The tv/o sides which are to be 
 welded are then sprinkled with calcined borax 
 and joined by quickly repeated blows of the hand 
 hammer. The steel generally used is half an 
 inch thick; but if it is only a quarter of an 
 inch in thickness the difference is unimportant 
 if the steel be good. Steel of an inferior quality 
 if too thick is apt to fly or crack in hardening. 
 
 The steeled anvil is next heated to redness, 
 and brought under a fall of water of at least the 
 size of its face and of three or four feet head. 
 After hardening, it is smoothed upon a grind- 
 stone, and finally polished Vv^ith emery. Small 
 anvils such as are used by silversmiths are 
 polished v/ith a crocus and have a mirror-like 
 face. 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 19 
 
 The expensiveness of wrought iron anvils 
 has induced their manufacture of cast iron. 
 The common anvil, however, cannot be made 
 cf cast iron, for the beak would not be strong 
 enough. None but anvils with full square 
 f'lces have been successfully made of cast iron. 
 These have either been simply chilled by castmg 
 the faces in iron molds, or the face is plated 
 with cast steel. Chilled cast iron anvils are 
 not much in use. They are too brittle and the 
 corners of the face will not stand. Cast iron 
 anvils with cast-steel faces, however, are a 
 superior article and in m.any respects prefer- 
 able to wrought iron. The face is harder and 
 stronger, though the beaks will not last as long. 
 For purposes where a good face is essen-tial, as 
 for copper and tin smiths, the cast iron anvil 
 with cast steel face will be found to answer 
 every purpose. 
 
 The anvil is generally set upon the butt-end 
 of a large block of wood, oak being preferred. 
 It is placed loosely upon it, being secured merely 
 by a few spikes or wedges driven into the wood. 
 Cutlers, filemakers, and those who manufacture 
 small articles cf steel, place their anvils upon 
 blocks of stone, in order to make their founaa- 
 tion firm, preventing recoil, and giving efficiency 
 to fight but quick blows with the hammer. 
 
20 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 In working soft metals, such as copper and its 
 compounds, a layer of felt between the anvil 
 and the block will be found of advantage. The 
 anvils upon which steel articles are to be forged 
 are generally fashioned at the bottom in the 
 form of cubes, for insertion by means of wedges 
 either in stone or wooden stocks. A black- 
 smith's anvil, on the contrary, is formed with 
 projecting corner bases, which are bolted down 
 to the stock. 
 
 The Hammer. Second only to the anvil 
 among smiths' tools comes the hammer. Prim- 
 itive man must have needed and used rude 
 stone hammers, such as are often unearthed 
 at the present day. These ancient stone ham- 
 mers had usually a groove round them for the 
 handle, which was probably of supple withes. 
 
 The more usual form of the ordinary smiths' 
 hammer generally weighs from one to two 
 pounds. Sometimes the handle is nearer to the 
 ''pane" or narrow end, the broad end being 
 known as the ''face." The ordinary smiths' 
 sledge weighs from five to eight pounds. A heavy 
 sledge weighs from twelve to fifteen pounds, 
 and a swing sledge from twenty-five to thirty 
 pounds. Cutlers and edge-tool makers gener- 
 ally prefer a hammer with the handle near the 
 pane side. The uphand sledge is used for 
 
Carriage andJVagon Building. 
 
 21 
 
 comparatively light work. The swing or 
 '^about" sledge is grasped by both hands at 
 the extremity of the handle, and swung at arm's 
 length over the head, giving the heaviest pos- 
 sible blow of which a hand-hammer is capable. 
 There are two forms of the ordinary clip- 
 
 ping hammer (Fig. 5), either with the pane 
 parallel with the handle as shown in the upper 
 figure, or with a ball pane or a pane elongated 
 at right angles with the handle. The pane 
 is mostly used for " riveting, and it is quite a 
 question which is the best form. The hammer 
 is one of these tools that the workman gets used 
 to, and '^gets the hang of," and there is a good 
 deal in this term as appUed to a ham.mer, as 
 will be seen presently. 
 
 It takes about a year to get thoroughly at 
 
22 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing 
 
 home with either after having become accus- 
 tomed to the other or either of them. 
 
 We now come to the proper shape for the 
 eye, to enable it to hold the hammer firmly 
 
 and not in time get loose. The best form is 
 that shown in Fig. 6, the handle end or bottom 
 of the eye being rounded out as at B, and the 
 top being rounded across the hammer, but not 
 lengthwise. The rounding out prevents the 
 handle from getting too far through the eye, 
 and when the eye is wedged at the top with a 
 single wedge, the spread across the eye prevents 
 the handle from coming loose. This locks the 
 handle firmly, while requiring one wedge only. 
 A wooden wedge is preferable to an iron one, 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 23 
 
 providing the handle and the wedge are of dry, 
 well seasoned wood. 
 
 The Tongs. These constitute a very indis- 
 pensable class of tools in the smithy. One of 
 the most useful kinds of modern tongs is known 
 as the ''flat-bit'' tongs (Fig. 7 A). They vary 
 in size from one to five feet in length, and from 
 half a pound to ten pounds in weight. The 
 fire end is made to fit very close for thin work, 
 or to stand more open for thick work, but always 
 parallel. An oval coupler or iron ring is 
 usually put upon the ''reins" or shanks of the 
 tongs to keep their hold upon the work (as 
 seen in Fig. 7). 
 
 
 
 
 Next in general utility are the pincer tongs 
 (Fig. 7B). These are sometimes made with 
 hollow, half round bits; but it is better that 
 
24 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 the bits be angular, as they are then equally 
 useful for round rods or for square bars held at 
 opposite angles. When the bits of these tongs 
 are made long and bowed behind they are ex- 
 tremely useful for holding bolts, etc., the heads 
 of which can be placed in the hollow portion. 
 
 These two varieties of tongs will serve most 
 purposes. 
 
 Other Tools. Among the numerous other 
 tools that prove useful to the blacksmith are 
 punches and chisels (which may be held by 
 twisted hazel rods or tongs); 'Hop and bottom 
 tools, ''used in pairs, one being set in the anvil 
 (the top and bottom ''fullers'' are used for 
 grooving in the hot iron around a horseshoe) ; 
 the set "hammer, "a small tool held against the 
 hot iron while its top is struck with the hammer, 
 thus rendering the blow more certain than if 
 made direct by the hammer; and "heading" 
 tools, employed in forging for swaging heads 
 on stems of bolts. Swages are of great utility. 
 They consist of tools having certain definite 
 shapes, so that the hot iron, being placed in or 
 below them, takes their shape when struck. 
 Sometimes they are used in pairs and sometimes 
 singly. 
 
 All smiths' tools are faced with steel, and 
 would in fact be cheaper in the end if they were 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 25 
 
 wholly made of that metal. Tongs made of 
 spring steel are by far the best in the end, al- 
 though costing more in the first instance. Tools 
 should never be heated red hot, and when they 
 have to be brought into contact with heated 
 iron they should be frequently cooled. Tools 
 are held by hazel rods soaked in water and 
 twisted to prevent hurting the hand by the 
 blow of the hammer. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 OPERATIONS IN FORGING. 
 
 The Fire. The coal employed in the smith's 
 forge is usually bituminous, anthracite not 
 being adapted to the purpose. No coals with 
 metallic mixtures are suitable, because these 
 are generally marked by the presence of sulphur 
 also, which is very detrimental. Charcoal 
 may be substituted for coal. 
 
 The smith's fire may be made either open or 
 hollow, the latter being generally preferred. 
 
 When about to light his fire, the smith scrapes 
 back the cinders and removes the used ashes 
 or slack to the ashpit. Some wood shavings 
 are then placed upon the nozzle of the tuyere 
 and lighted. When these are burning low 
 the cinders are raked back over them and the 
 bellows are set to work. In a short time a 
 white smoke rises, shortly aftervv^ard followed 
 by tongues of flame breaking forth. A thin 
 poker is now cautiously introduced as far as 
 the tuyere. Next the work is placed in the fire, 
 and fresh coal is laid on and over the fire and 
 
 28 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 27 
 
 patted down with the fire shovel. As the 
 process goes on, fresh coal is- continually added 
 to the margin of the fire and pushed forward into 
 the heart of it as is required. 
 
 In large hollow. fires, after a tolerable fire has 
 been obtained by lighting in the usual manner, 
 the live coal is drawn forward on the hearth 
 so as to expose the aperture of the tuyere. A 
 suitable sized piece of iron (or the poker) is put 
 into this aperture. Small coal vvell wetted is 
 now placed round this iron and v/eil beaten 
 together into a mass termed the ^^ stock," the 
 length of v/hich from the tuyere nozzle is regu- 
 lated by the distance which it is desired the fire 
 should stand off from the tuyere. Then more 
 small coal is heaped up for a second stock oppo- 
 site the first, but farther out on the hearth. 
 These stocks should both be well beaten down 
 which is sometimes aided by the sledge hammer. 
 The iron which was inserted in the tuyere is 
 drawn out before the second hill of stock is 
 built up, leaving a hole for the tuyere pipe. 
 The two heaps of stock appear with a gap be- 
 tween them where the fire lies. Into this gap 
 or hollow space the weld is laid.covered over with 
 two or three pieces of wood and a heap of wetted 
 coal carefully banked over it and beaten down 
 by the shovel. A gentle blast is kept up 
 
28 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 while these operations are going on, and the 
 work is not taken out till the pieces of wood are 
 consumed and the flames penetrate the coals at 
 each end, when the work can be taken out 
 without fear of disfiguring the fire. The instru- 
 ment generally employed to wet the coal is a 
 bundle of straw passed lightly through an iron 
 ring formed at the end of a rod and kept in 
 the slake trough. Damp, slack coal is thrown 
 on the fire in a layer two or three inches thick. 
 It will cake together, and after the loose coal is 
 burned out, form a hollow fire, the coke roof 
 reflecting an intense heat on the material be- 
 neath it. By no other means can a fire be made 
 to possess so intense a heat as by the method 
 we have described. 
 
 Flux. Sand or other material sprinkled upon 
 iron when near the welding heat serves to form 
 a flux or fluid glass with the iron. This flux 
 surrounds the hot iron or steel and protects it 
 against the impurities of the fuel, removing at 
 the same time the coating of dry scales from 
 the heated metals and greatly facilitating the 
 operation of welding. 
 
 For welding steel to steel and steel to iron, 
 we have a variety of degrees of heat to deal with 
 and the flux which serves to protect iron is insuf- 
 ficient to protect cast steel, just as, on the other 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 29 
 
 hand, the flux which fits cast steel for welding 
 would be useless on iron. Impure wrought iron 
 will form a slag of its own material, while good 
 iron is protected, as we have intimated above, 
 by sprinkling fine sand over it . But this method 
 will not answer with steel, or where steel and 
 iron are to be welded. For welding iron, clean 
 river sand, or powdered sandstone, make a good 
 flux; for steel, borax is generally used. With 
 common brine, clay makes a very fine flux and 
 clean surface to which steel readily adheres. 
 The material to be used as a flux is to be applied 
 shortly before the metal reaches the welding 
 heat, no matter how high or low that heat may 
 be. It will melt on the surface of the iron. 
 Borax in crystals as commonly sold is com- 
 posed of nearly one half water. On heating 
 these crystals in an iron pot they dissolve into 
 a clear liquid. On heating further, the v^ater 
 is evaporated and the residuum resumes the 
 appearance of a spongy mass, and by the con- 
 tinued application of heat this mass is converted 
 into a clear glass. This glass is what is called 
 calcined borax. It is entirely free from water 
 and not very likely to absorb it. It should be 
 prepared and powdered in advance, and be 
 always on hand for use. Borax thus prepared 
 is sufficient in nearly all cases. Still, some work- 
 
30 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 ers in steel prefer a mixture of two parts borax 
 with one of sal-ammoniac, or three parts of the 
 former with one of the latter article. This com- 
 pound is preferable for welding iron and steel. 
 Borax alone is rather too liquid for iron. Where 
 it is to be welded to steel, a more efficient flux 
 is well-dried and finely-powdered potters' clay — 
 not common loam — which has been moistened 
 with salt water; and it lasts long enough to be 
 brought to the anvil for welding. 
 
 The slag flows off or is forced out in bringing 
 the two surfaces together and pressing them 
 into close contact. If iron or steel is heated in 
 contact with air, it burns and forms a film of 
 infusible magnetic oxide, the metals cannot come 
 fairly into contact, and of course the welding is 
 imperfect. It cannot be sound. After the flux 
 is strewn on the iron, it is necessary to turn the 
 metal constantly in the fire, otherwise the flux 
 will flow to the lower parts and finally be lost. 
 A better method than that of sprinkling the sand 
 on the hot iron is to roll the metal in the pow- 
 dered flux, thus saving the latter and keeping 
 the fire more free from clinkers. 
 
 We do not advise mixing the sal-ammoniac 
 with borax, as the ammonia has a tendency to 
 convert the steel into iron. If pure borax is too 
 refractory, as is the case with some of the best 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 31 
 
 kinds of steel, an excellent flux may be produced 
 by melting potash, or pearlash, together with 
 pure dried clay, three parts of the former and 
 one of the latter, in an iron pot; adding to the 
 fluid mass gradually an equal weight of calcined 
 borax. This flux should be finely powdered and 
 used like the borax. It melts at a dark brown 
 heat, vitrifying the iron slag perfectly, and is 
 not injurious to steel. This metal rapidly dete- 
 riorates in quality if the atmosphere has access 
 to it while hot. A suitable flux, therefore, which 
 protects it, and at the same time purifies the sur- 
 face, is all important. 
 
 Degrees of Heat. In all kinds of forging the 
 iron or steel must be lieated in the forge to a 
 greater or less degree of heat in order to lessen 
 the cohesion of its particles and render it more 
 malleable and pliable as well as more ready 
 to enter into cohesion with the particles of 
 another similarly heated piece when exposed 
 to the blows of the hammer. 
 
 ''Pure iron," says Holtzappel, 'Svill bear an 
 almost unlimited degree of heat, the hot-short 
 iron will bear much less, and is in fact very brit- 
 tle when heated; and of steel, the shear steel 
 will generally bear the highest temperature, 
 the blistered steel the next, and cast steel the 
 least of all; but all these kinds, and especially 
 
32 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 the cast steel, differ very much according to the 
 process of manufacture." 
 
 That iron is the best, all things being equal, 
 which will bear the highest degree of heat. The 
 usual degrees of temperature recognized are 
 five, viz.: ► 
 
 The black heat, just visible by daylight; 
 
 The low red or cherry red heat, appearing 
 crimson in daylight ; 
 
 The bright red or bright cherry red heat, in 
 which the black scales can be seen and look 
 black; 
 
 The white heat, when the scales are hardly 
 visible, or the scales and iron are nearly the same 
 color; 
 
 The welding heat, when the iron begins to 
 burn with vivid sparks. 
 
 The latter heat is very variable, pure fibrous 
 iron sustaining almost any degree of heat so 
 long as it is protected by a slag. 
 
 Steel does not bear the same degree of heat 
 without injury. The finest cast steel will hardly 
 sustain a bright red heat without falling to 
 pieces, rendering it imprudent to heat it higher 
 than a middling or cherry red. Blistered steel 
 will resist a far higher degree of heat than cast 
 steel, and good shear steel will endure a white 
 heat without much injury. German steel can 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 33 
 
 be heated to the welding heat of good iron. 
 Although very sensitive to heat, steel will bear 
 much more forging than iron, if not previously 
 injured by too great a heat. 
 
 In forging steel, no heavy tools, at least no 
 heavy sledge, should be used. A good-sized 
 hammer with a rapid succession of strokes will 
 be sufficient. This is, in fact, the best method 
 of forging steel. 
 
 Iron is usually worked at the cherry red or 
 white heat, the welding heat being alone reached 
 in cases where that operation is to be performed. 
 As, however, the working of the iron tends to 
 separate its fibres, it is sometimes brought to 
 the welding heat and well hammered to ensure 
 their reunion. 
 
 When iron is heated to a dull red heat its 
 defects and cracks become very visible, and this 
 expedient is frequently resorted to to test or 
 examine doubtful forgings. 
 
 When it is requisite that a forging be specially 
 sound, it is not uncommon to heat it and work 
 it well under the hammer. This process, which 
 is an imitation of that sustained in the original 
 manufacture, is termed 'taking a heat over 
 it." The "heat" is generally understood to 
 mean a welding heat. 
 
 The use of the sand, as we have already men- 
 
34 Blacksmifhing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 tioned, is to preserve the surface of the heated 
 metal from oxidization, which would prevent the 
 union of the metal. When the sand is sprinkled 
 on red hot iron it falls off, but when on iron at 
 the welding heat it fuses and covers the face of 
 the iron with a vitreous or glassy glaze, which 
 protects it from contact with the air. When 
 this point of heat has been slightly exceeded, 
 the iron begins to burn and throw off a shower 
 of vivid sparks, hissing sharply, meanwhile; in 
 fact, it looks like a snowball, as smiths some- 
 times say. 
 
 When two pieces of iron are to be welded 
 together,it is essential that both reach the proper 
 heat at the same moment. This must be man- 
 aged by arranging them in the fire in a suitable 
 manner. The most intensely heating part of 
 the fire is, of course, opposite the tuyere or 
 blast, and the most backward piece is put there. 
 In all cases it is necessary to allow sufficient 
 time for the heat to soak in, as it were. If the 
 blast is urged too rapidly or forcibly, the out- 
 side of the iron m_ay be burned away (especially 
 if the piece be large) before the centre has ex- 
 ceeded a red heat. The heating should proceed 
 smoothly and gradually. 
 
 As the work cools it is not well to continue 
 the hammering which is intended to leave a 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 35 
 
 smooth surface too long, as this may stretch 
 the outer surface more than the inner part, and 
 actually cause them to separate, leaving the 
 outer part quite distinct, as the bark of a tree 
 from its trunk. This has often been noticed 
 when bad forgings have been examined. Hence 
 the finishing, or '' battering off" as it is tech- 
 nically termed, should not be continued too 
 long. 
 
 Drawing Down. This is the usual term for 
 reducing the work. When the iron is to be 
 thinned in substance and expanded both in 
 length and breadth, the flat face of the hammer 
 is brought to bear upon it when at the proper 
 heat. If, however, it is to be stretched only 
 one way — either in length or breadth — the 
 pane of the hammer may be employed at right 
 angles to the direction in which the extension is 
 desired. Hammers are made with panes in 
 different directions for this purpose. Set ham- 
 mers are also used, being placed on the work 
 and their tops struck with the sledge. Tools 
 of tliis kind with very wide faces are sometimes 
 called ''flatters,'' and "fullers'' are also em- 
 ployed for this kind of work. 
 
 When the object to be drawn down, say a 
 square bar, is to have its sides kept parallel, 
 the flat face of the hamm^er is used, and great 
 
36 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 care must be taken that it fall parallel to the 
 anvil. If the object under the hammer be a 
 square bar, it should be turned a quarter round 
 at each stroke, which, if done accurately, will 
 draw down the bar perfectly square. 
 
 The art of tlius twisting the work a quarter 
 round is difficult to acquire, and the early efforts 
 of the young smith are almost sure to have a 
 lozenge or diamond shaped section; but when 
 the knack is once acquired, it is astonishing how 
 true the smith will keep his work. He seems 
 to secure its squareness almost by instinct. Of 
 course bar iron, originally square, helps to en- 
 sure the object, as only two sides of a square 
 object need to be exposed to the hammer stroke, 
 their opposite parallel sides being similarlystruck 
 by the anvil upon the well-known principle of 
 mechanics, that action and reaction are equal. 
 
 The smith usually holds the work or tongs 
 lightly, not with too constrained a grasp, and 
 allows the hammer to fall perfectly fiat and in 
 the centre of the bar. It is good practice for 
 the young smith to hammer a bar of cold iron 
 or steel and observe the indentations afterwards. 
 If he do not bring down his hammer flat, the 
 marks on the bar will soon tell their tale. 
 
 We will now suppose that the smith wishes 
 to draw down to a point six inches of the end 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 37 
 
 of a bar for a tongue or otherwise. When suf- 
 ficiently hot, the iron bar "is taken from the fire 
 and rested over the farther side of the anvil, 
 v/here the smith strikes it and turns it a quarter 
 round. He then gradually draws it toward 
 him, striking it each time he makes the quarter 
 turn, until he finishes off at the point. 
 
 In smoothing off the work, the hammer is 
 brought down at one spot on the centre of the 
 anvil with the*face parallel, and the v/ork is 
 gradually brought under it. 
 
 In using the chisel or punch, the hazel withe 
 well soaked in water is to be preferred as a handle 
 as it prevents the jar from hurting the hand. 
 When the anvil chisel has been set in the hole 
 in the anvil and used for cutting off a piece of iron 
 the blows should be made gradually lighter and 
 lighter as the cutting is nearly completed. In 
 the use of the punch, especially if the piece of 
 iron worked is thick, care should be taken that 
 the punch does not stick to the iron. To pre- 
 vent this, a little coal dust may be sprinkled in 
 the hole. When the punch gets red hot it 
 should be immediately cooled off. 
 
 Set-off. A set-off is a reduction from the 
 original size of the bar with a square shoulder 
 or two square shoulders. For this, the part 
 where the shoulder is to be is placed at the edge 
 
38 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 of the anvil, and then struck with the hammer. 
 When two shoulders are to be made, the work 
 may be held at the edge of the anvil, and a set 
 hammer held in the proper position and struck. 
 This ''sets'' the upper shoulder, the lower one 
 being made by the anvil. 
 
 Note that the edges of the set hammer, etc., 
 should not be too sharp, as they act partially 
 as chisels and injure the work. There is no 
 danger of this with the round-ended fullers, 
 which can be used in drawing down where a top 
 and bottom fuller are both employed. This latter 
 tool is also very handy when iron is to be set off 
 and extended laterally. Here the iron may first 
 be nicked across with the fuller, and then spread 
 out, the indentations being afterward smoothed 
 off with the hammer. 
 
 Jumping or Upsetting. This process is usu- 
 ally resorted to when it is required to render the 
 iron bar or whatever it may be a httle thicker 
 at some portion of its length, yet not so much 
 as to necessitate welding a collar on. For in- 
 stance, if the portion to be checked is at the 
 extreme end, a ''short heat'' is taken; that is 
 to say, the extreme end is made white hot, and 
 instantly thrust down or "jumped" several 
 times upon the anvil; or it is stood upon the 
 anvil with the cold end uppermost, and the lat- 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 39 
 
 ter is struck forcibly with a hammer until 
 the desired effect is produced at the heated end. 
 This makes a burr at the end suitable for turning 
 up into a head. When the heat is taken at a 
 point distant from the end, the same procedure 
 should be taken. Should the heat have been 
 taken too " long'' — that is, too much of the iron 
 have been heated — the adjacent portions should 
 be cooled down before the bar is " jumped." 
 
 Shutting Together. This is the welding of two 
 pieces of bar or rod together, sometimes called 
 '' shutting up." The simplest way of doing this 
 is to bring the ends to the form of a ''scarf" 
 (which is of much the same form as a carpenter's 
 scarf in wood). Each piece is then brought to 
 a welding heat, and a little sand strewed on 
 each. The smith then takes one piece, and his 
 assistant the other, placing them in position, 
 and the fireman then gives two or three blow^s 
 with his hammer, which unites them. The 
 assistant striker or smiter then joins in with 
 his sledge, and both hammers are kept swiftly 
 in operation until the work is finished. The 
 smith ''jumps" the joint on the anvil before 
 finally leaving it, both to test the soundness of 
 the joint and to thicken the iron at the place 
 in case the forging should have drawn it down 
 
40 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 a little. The scarfs, or flat edges, are bevelled 
 to render their union more easy. 
 
 In ordinary light work, the sledge hammer is 
 generally used ^^uphand," that is to say, the 
 right hand is slid up the handle toward the head 
 as the tool is lifted, and slipped down again as 
 it descends. ''About sledge'' signifies that the 
 striker is to swing the sledge in a circle between 
 each blow, when his hands slide down to the 
 end of the handle and the blow is much heavier. 
 When the fireman wishes his assistant to dis- 
 continue striking, it is usually the custom for 
 liim to tap the anvil with his own hammer. 
 The double or alternate hammering between the 
 forger or fireman and hammerman should at 
 first be gently done, to avoid danger to the arm 
 from not holding the work level on the anvil. 
 The hammerman should first begin and strike 
 at the rate of one blow a second; after a few 
 blows the smith begins, and both hammer the 
 work at times, and at other times the anvil. 
 
 Great care should be taken that no coal dust 
 gets on the surfaces to be welded, or the joint 
 will certainly be spoiled. 
 
 This scarf joint, just described, is the almost 
 universal method of uniting two small pieces of 
 iron, whether square, round, or flat. In large 
 pieces one end is generally drawn down and the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 41 
 
 J^iy . S . 
 
 other cleft (Fig. 8), or the ends are made to lit 
 each other square, a shallow slot made in each 
 and an iron tongue (called a charlin or stick-in 
 piece) laid in (Fig. 9). The first operation is 
 
 :F'i^,9 
 
 the tongue or split joint, the second the butt 
 joint, because the ends abut on each other. In 
 either case the ends are brought together in the 
 fire; the proper heat being attained, the joint 
 is jumped together by the end of each piece 
 being struck by heavy sledge hammers, the 
 heat being meanwhile kept up. Lastly, the 
 work is taken to the anvil and finished there. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows the T joint. In the first cut 
 the transverse bar is thinned down at this junc- 
 tion and the other chamfered or bevelled. When 
 the T is made of thick iron, it is well to upset 
 
42 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 the end of the stem piece and mold it with the 
 fuller to something the shape of the letter T. 
 A heat of both pieces is then taken and the full- 
 ered piece is welded to the bar, as shown. 
 
 Hardening Steel. The hardening of steel is 
 an operation which requires the exercise of some 
 judgment. The usual method is to heat the 
 steel to a certain point and then plunge it sud- 
 denly into cold water, tempering it afterwards. 
 This method is undoubtedly the correct one; 
 but the degree of heat to which the steel is to 
 be exposed before cooling is a matter of vast im- 
 portance. Some steel— the natural, for instance 
 — will bear a strong white heat and a plunge 
 into cold water before it assumes its greatest 
 hardness. Other steels, particularly the fine 
 cast steel, will not bear more than a brown or 
 cherry red heat; beyond that point it burns 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 43 
 
 and becomes brittle in hardening. It may 
 safely be concluded that steel that does not 
 bear heat in forging will not bear it in hardening 
 The heat at which steel falls to pieces or melts 
 is too high for hardening, as steel hardened in 
 such a heat will fly or crack. The alterations 
 manifest in steel after hardening, as compared 
 with annealed steel, are the following : Its volume 
 is a little increased; the black scales which ad- 
 here to its surface fly off, and the surface appears 
 clean, and of the color and lustre of iron; the 
 fracture is brighter, and crystals are visible. 
 Good steel as we have said before, is silver- 
 white, and is so hard that it will scratch pane 
 glass, and even a file. The cohesion, relative 
 and absolute, is increased if the heat has not 
 been too high before cooling. These are the 
 chief characteristics of good steel when hardened. 
 It is not possible to give any distinguishing 
 mark between steel, wrought iron, and cast 
 iron. As a general feature, however, w^e may 
 say that cast iron cannot be forged or welded, 
 or at least very perfectly; that wrought iron 
 feels softer under the hammer than steel in 
 forging; and that both impure wrought and 
 cast iron become very brittle in hardening. 
 The united hardness and tenacity of steel are 
 its chief characteristics. Good cast steel, or 
 
44 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 any other variety, if not freshly annealed or 
 hardened, and if free from fissures, will emit a 
 sonorous, silvery tone when a suspended bar is 
 struck. Iron, particularly if good, emits a dull 
 leaden sound, while cast iron gives out a tone 
 like that of a cracked instrument. 
 
 The surest test of the quality of steel is to 
 draw a rod into a tapered point, harden it by a 
 gentle heat, and break off pieces from the 
 point. The degree of resistance to the hammer, 
 which of course should be a very small one, is 
 the test of the value of the steel. The best 
 steel is that which, under this treatment, is 
 found to be toughest and strongest. 
 
 Case-Hardening is that process by which 
 the surface of iron is converted into steel. In 
 this process the surface of the iron may be made 
 harder than the finest steel and still retain all 
 its toughness and malleabihty. 
 
 The articles to be case-hardened are to be 
 well polished, and if the iron is not quite sound, 
 or shows ash-holes, it is hammered over and 
 polished again — the finer the polish the better. 
 The articles are then embedded in coarse char- 
 coal powder in a wrought iron box or pipe, 
 which should be air tight. A pipe is preferable, 
 because it can be turned and the heat applied 
 more uniformly. The whole is then exposed 
 
Carnage and Wagon Bmlding. 45 
 
 for twenty-four hours to a gentle cherry-red 
 heat in the flue of a steam boiler, or in some other 
 place where the heat is uniformly kept up. 
 This makes a very hard surface, and, on large 
 objects, one-eighth of an inch in depth may be 
 obtained. If so much time cannot be given to 
 the operation, and no deep hardening is re- 
 quired, the articles are embedded in animal 
 charcoal, or in a mixture of animal and coal. Four 
 or five hours, heat will make a good surface of 
 steel. If a single article, such as a small key 
 or other tool, is to be hardened, the coal must 
 be finely pulverized and mixed into a paste 
 with a saturated solution of salt: with this paste 
 the iron is well covered and dried. Over the 
 paste is laid a coating of clay, moistened with 
 salt water, which is also gently dried. The 
 whole is now exposed to a gradually increasing 
 heat up to a bright red, but not beyond it. 
 This will give a fine surface to small objects. 
 In all crises the article is plunged into cold 
 water when heated the proper time and up to 
 a proper degree. 
 
 A quick mode of case-hardening small objects 
 is to polish them well and heat to a dark red 
 heat; then roll in the powder of yellow prus- 
 siate of potash, and sprinkle the powder over. 
 The powder will melt on the surface, and the 
 
46 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 iron is then heated to a bright red and plunged 
 into cold water. The powder is obtained from 
 the crystal of prussiate of potash by gently 
 heating in an open pot to drive off the water. 
 The remaining powder is white. Close-fibred 
 pure iron should be selected. 
 
 For hardening, always use pure well water 
 fresh and cool from the well. 
 
PART II. 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 's FOOT. 
 
 It is evident that no intelligent work can be 
 done in shoeing a horse unless the structure 
 and method of growth of the foot are entirely 
 
 -^^.J?/ 
 
 47 
 
48 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 familiar. Professor juungwitz in his Germa:i 
 text-book devotes considerable space to a tech- 
 nical and somewhat full study of the anatomy 
 of the horse's foot — a study of course necessary 
 for all scientific students who must pass a gov- 
 ernment examination. The present edition is 
 
 j^T^. y^ 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 49 
 
 intended for the common reader and not the 
 scientific special student, however, and a sim- 
 pler exposition of the subject has been chosen. 
 
 The best way to study the structure of a 
 horse's foot is to get the foot of a dead horse 
 and soak it in water for a week or two, when 
 it may easily be taken apart. When the hard 
 outer shell has been removed, the sensitive 
 inner foot may be dissected by the aid of a sharp 
 knife. 
 
 By comparing Figs. 11 and 12 we may get a 
 good idea of the general structure of the foot. 
 In Fig. 11 the fetlock joint where the cannon- 
 bone meets the long pastern is not shown, as 
 in Fig. 12, where the cannon-bone is indicated 
 by A, the fetlock joint by B, and the long pas- 
 tern by C. This is the bone which appears in 
 Fig. 11 as I. 
 
 The hoof is not solid, though it appears so 
 from the outside. What we see is the hard 
 outer wall or crust AA (Fig. 11). Beneath 
 that are the insensitive laminae, or leaves, BB, 
 next to which, lying against the bone, are the 
 sensitive laminae CC, which are a mass of nerves 
 and blood-vessels. There is an insensitive sole, 
 D, which is a kind of horny substance, and the 
 insensitive frog FF. Above these lie the sensi- 
 tive sole E and the sensitive frog G. The prin- 
 
50 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 cipal bones of the foot are four in number, I 
 the long pastern, K the short pastern, L the 
 coffin bone, and M the navicular bone, over 
 which as a fulcrum works the flexor perforans 
 tendon NN. marks the seat of navicular 
 disease. 
 
 The Hoof in General. The hoof is not abso- 
 lutely regular in form, and each of the four feet 
 shows some peculiarity by which it is possible 
 to tell at a glance w^hether it is a fore foot or a 
 hind, a right or a left. 
 
 The fore feet are less pointed at the toe than 
 the hind, but more sloping. The two fore feet 
 and the two hind should be evenly balanced 
 and nearly alike . The right hoof is distinguished 
 from the left by the fact that the outer border 
 is higher and more prominent, while the inner 
 is more upright. 
 
 The Wall. This is the hard outer horn with 
 which the horseshoer has most to do. It is 
 more sloping in front than at the sides, and at 
 the back it turns in on itself to form the heels. 
 The turned in portions on either side the frog 
 are called the bars. The general shape of a fore 
 foot viewed from the bottom may be seen in 
 Fig. 13. It will be seen that the turned in por- 
 tions of the wall form the bars at a sharp angle. 
 
 Externally the wall is hard and smooth, being 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 51 
 
 covered by a varnish-like coating, often marked 
 by rings. On the inner side it is softer and 
 more elastic, and presents various irregularities 
 of surface (horny leaves) corresponding to the 
 irregularities in the surface of the sensitive hoof. 
 
 Fi^.lS 
 
 It is most elastic at the upper edge, in which on 
 the inner side is the coronary groove, into which 
 fits the coronary band of which we shall speak 
 presently. The lower edge is called the bearing 
 or plantar edge, as the weight of the horse falls 
 upon this portion, and it is to this that the shoe 
 is fixed. 
 
52 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing 
 
 The thickness of the wall is variable. In 
 front feet it is thickest at the toe, and becomes 
 thinner toward the heels. In general, the most 
 slanting portion is always the thickest. The 
 thickness varies at the toe from three to five 
 eighths of an inch, and at the heels from one to 
 two fifths of an inch. 
 
 The wall consists of three layers, the outer 
 layer, a thin varnish-like covering that is very 
 hard, the middle layer which is thickest and 
 strongest, and the inner layer lying in parallel 
 horn leaves .corresponding to the surface of the 
 sensitive hoof. This inner layer is always 
 white, even w^hen the rest of the hoof is dark. 
 
 The Sole. The horn sole is about as thick 
 as the wall, covering the bottom of the foot and 
 curving upward into a hollow of the coffin bone. 
 It does not touch the ground ordinarily, and 
 the lower side is rough and often covered with 
 loose scales of dead horn which peel off of them- 
 selves and fall away. The upper side is covered 
 with velvet-like tissue which secretes the horn 
 that goes to form the hard sole. 
 
 The White Line marking the junction of the 
 sole and the wall, is formed by the inner layer 
 of the wall, which we have spoken of as com- 
 posed of horn leaves that are always white. 
 This white line may be traced all around the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 53 
 
 hoof and even up along the bars to the frog 
 and is soft and crumbUng, so that in places it 
 may disappear. Usually it is of a dirty whixe 
 color, due to discoloration from manure, dirt, 
 and iron rust. It is very important, as it shows 
 the thickness of the wall, and marks the line to 
 which the horseshoe nails should penetrate. 
 
 The Frog. This portion of the sole is a pro- 
 jecting horny formation lying on a thick fleshy 
 cushion from which it is secreted. The frog lies 
 as a wedge between the outer edges of the bars 
 or turned in portion of the hoof, with both of 
 which it is united. The horn is very soft and 
 elastic, and is divided into two portions b}^ the 
 cleft in its middle. On the upper side, just 
 over the cleft, is a small projection called the 
 '' frog stay," since it fits into the plantar cushion 
 and steadies the frog. When the horse's feet are 
 unshod the frog, sole, bars, and bearing edge 
 of the wall are nearly on a level, so that the 
 lower side of the hoof is nearly flat. 
 
 The outer horny portions of the hoof, com- 
 posing everything except the white inner layer, 
 are fibrous in structure, or tubes which run 
 downward in a cUrection parallel with the general 
 direction of the hoof as a whole. The tubes 
 forming the sole are smaller than those in the 
 wall, and those in the frog are smaller still; but 
 
54 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 for all that, they are distinctly tubular in form. 
 
 There are two kinds of horn, soft horn as com- 
 posing the outer layer of the wall, the white 
 inner layer, and the frog; the rest of the hoof is 
 composed of hard horn. The soft horn easily 
 absorbs water, and quickly dries out again, 
 and grows brittle and cracks. In quality good 
 horn is fine and tough, bad horn coarse and 
 crumbling, often hard and brittle. All horn 
 is a poor conductor of heat, a most important 
 provision, since it serves to protect the horse's 
 feet alike in very hot countries and in very cold. 
 
 The Skin. The skin of the horse consists 
 of three layers, the epidermis, a hard surface of 
 horn-like cells which protects the true skin; 
 the dermis, or leather skin, and the subcuta- 
 neous tissue. The second layer or dermis ex- 
 tends over the entire hoof under the horny wall. 
 The epidermis comes to an end above the horny 
 wall in what is called the frog hand. This re- 
 sembles the extension of the skin at the base 
 of the human fingernails, and is a hard band 
 extending around the upper edge of the horny 
 hoof, ending in the fleshy frog. It serves to 
 protect the young horn beneath. It is a 
 fifth to a fourth of an inch wide. From this 
 band is secreted the varnish-like outer layer of 
 the wall. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 55 
 
 The Coronary Band. This lies under the 
 frog band but above the sensitive laminae. 
 It consists of a convex band four-fifths of an 
 inch wide extending entirely around the foot 
 from one heel to the other. It is more convex 
 in front than at the back, and at the heels is flat- 
 tened, and this part is called the bar portion. 
 The coronary band secrets the principal part 
 of the horny wall, namely, the thick middle 
 layer, and forms a cushion for its union with 
 the fleshy tissues. 
 
 A similar tissue at the bottom of the foot 
 secrets the horny sole and the frog. 
 
 The Sensitive Structures. A scientific stu- 
 dent should become familiar with the various 
 tendons, muscles, cartilages, arteries and nerves 
 which go to make up the sensitive hoof, but 
 for the purposes of this book a general descrip- 
 tion will suffice. 
 
 Every horseshoer will have noticed how very 
 sensitive the quick of a horse's foot is, and how 
 profusely it bleeds if cut, The outer tissue 
 (the middle skin described above) extends in 
 the general direction of the foot in the form of 
 fleshy leaves, not unlike the leaves of a book, 
 which lie between corresponding horny leaves, 
 each one having a horny leaf on either side. 
 This sensitive structure is a perfect network 
 
56 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 of blood— vessels and nerves, and the horse is 
 thus enabled to feel the slightest pressure or 
 touch on the outer horny covering. In disease 
 this sensitiveness causes a great deal of trouble. 
 
 In Fig. 11 we see the lines of the extensor 
 tendon, or front sinew, and the perforans ten- 
 don or back sinew, both attached to the coffin 
 bone. These work over cartilages, and the 
 perforans tendon works over the navicular bone 
 above the large cushion which the sensitive 
 frog forms. 
 
 In a thin-skinned, well bred horse the tendons 
 can be distinctly felt through the skin, and it 
 is even possible to see their outlines. Frequent- 
 ly, however, these tendons become thickened 
 from inflammation due to injury, and so they 
 shorten and draw back the hoof, making the 
 stubbby-toed animal. When the tendons are 
 not distended by inflammation and the sinews 
 and bones are free from all thickenings, we say 
 the horse has a clean leg. 
 
CHAPTER 11. 
 
 GROWTH AND CONDITION OF THE HOOF. 
 
 Growth of the Hoof. Like all parts of living 
 bodies, the hoof continually changes. The 
 horn grows like a fingernail, and unless it is 
 worn off at the bottom or bearing edge, it be- 
 comes too long; and if worn off too much, the 
 sensitive portions of the foot do not have suf- 
 ficient protection and the horse goes lame. 
 
 Moreover, when one portion grows unduly 
 it is at the expense of some other. If the heels 
 are too high, the frog diminishes until it is 
 insignificant. In a state of nature, however, 
 the horse's hoof keeps itself perfectly propor- 
 tioned. If the ground is hard, the horny por- 
 tion is worn away as fast as it grows; and if 
 the ground is soft, though the horny portion is 
 sometimes overgrown, it soon cracks and breaks 
 away. On cultivated ground, however, a horse 
 must have a very large range indeed if its feet 
 are to be left to take care of themselves. When 
 turned out in the ordinary enclosed pastures, 
 the horse should be brought in periodically to 
 
 57 
 
58 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 have its feet examined and the growth of horn 
 adjusted. 
 
 All shod hoofs become overgrown in from 
 four to fiTe weeks. In such cases there appears 
 to be an access of horn at the toe, since the 
 horny fibres do not grow straight down but 
 obliquely forward. Thus the plantar surface 
 of the foot is carried forward and is thrown out 
 of the proper relation with the rest of the foot, 
 injuriously affecting every part of the foot and 
 indeed the whole leg. 
 
 The rate of growth of the v/all varies greatly 
 in different horses, and under different surround- 
 ing conditions. On an average the wall will 
 grov7 an inch in three months, and the whole 
 hoof is replaced in from ten to fifteen months. 
 The more actively a horse is exercised, the 
 faster does the hoof grow. Inflammation checks 
 growth, and the effects of it may frequently be 
 seen in rings on the hoof. These rings in them- 
 selves are no detriment, but they show possible 
 lameness or illness. 
 
 When a hoof is shod, the bearing affects the 
 growth. If there is no bearing on a certain part, 
 it will grow more quickly, and so become even 
 with the portions on which there is bearing. 
 So if the hoof has been broken at the heels or 
 rasped away too much, or for the purpose of 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 59 
 
 removing pressure on any given spot, in a month's 
 time that part will be found, in all probability, 
 to be flush with the shoe. 
 
 The only way in which the growth of the 
 horn can be stimulated is by apphcation to 
 the coronary band, as by a mild blister. No 
 ointments applied to the wall will affect the 
 growth, though they may soften the horn a little. 
 The sole grows in the same way as the wall, 
 but it wears away quite differently. It never 
 becomes overgrown like the wall, for when 
 overgrown it has a tendency to become detached 
 in flakes due to dryness and brittleness. The 
 ordinary movements of the horse cause the dry 
 portions to break up and fall off. 
 
 When the frog comes in contact with the 
 ground, it comes off in shreds. If it does not 
 touch the ground, it dries up and sometimes 
 sheds a large outer layer. Though the horn 
 of the frog is softer than that of the wall or the 
 sole, it stands wear as well as either of the other 
 parts, since it is so elastic and rests upon a still 
 more elastic cushion. Under any great pressure, 
 therefore, it yields, and leaves the wall and sole 
 to bear the strain. The growth of the frog 
 depends largely upon the condition of the bars. 
 If they are overgrown, the frog is removed 
 from bearing, and wastes away. High heels 
 
60 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 are always accompanied by a small frog, and 
 low heels have a large frog. 
 
 Horn is porous and absorbs water readily. 
 If too much water is absorbed, the horn is, of 
 course, weakened. The natural protection to 
 this is the varnish-like outer wall, and when this 
 is removed by rasping, moisture is more easily 
 absorbed until the horn beneath beomes hard 
 and dry from exposure and friction. As we have 
 already said, horn is a poor conductor of heat, 
 and therefore if the horn is thick, fitting a hot 
 shoe for a reasonably short time does no harm; 
 but if the horn is thin, fitting a hot shoe must 
 be done quickly or the soft tissue beneath may 
 be damaged. 
 
 Although there is always a tendency on the 
 part of nature to correct errors, errors invariably 
 have their penalty. It is very important in shoe- 
 ing a horse that the bearing surface of the foot 
 on which the shoe is placed is perfectly even 
 and that the horn is equally high on both sides. 
 If one side is trimmed off more than another, 
 in time the side of the wall left too high will 
 become bent, and a crooked hoof results, in 
 which the rings are placed nearer together on 
 the low or concave side than on the high or 
 convex side. So, too, the toe, if left too long, 
 will in time become bent ; and heels which are 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 61 
 
 left too long will in two or three months con- 
 tract just under the coronary band, or curl in- 
 ward at their lower borders. 
 
 Wear of the hoof Affected by Position of 
 Legs. As there are badly formed bodies, so 
 
 n^.i4. 
 
 there are badly formed hoofs. The form of 
 the hoof depends largely upon the condition of 
 the limb. A straight limb has, as a rule, a 
 well-balanced, regular hoof, while a crooked 
 limb has a hoof to match. Some consideration 
 of limbs is therefore necessary to a true under- 
 standing of the wear of hoofs. 
 
 To judge the standing position of the fore 
 limbs, one must stand squarely in front of a 
 
62 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 horse, and for hind hmbs squarely behind; or 
 for backward and forward deviations, stand at 
 right angles at the side. Usually a horse moves 
 according to the way in which he stands, but 
 not always, and the moving position of the 
 horse should also be observed. 
 
 If viewed from the front, the limbs when 
 standing should appear perfectly perpendicular 
 
 JFigr.lff, 
 
 and a plumb line dropped from the shoulder 
 should pass down the middle of the limb, divid- 
 ing it equally, and meet the ground at the centre 
 of the toe. 
 
 In Figs. 15, 16 and 17 we see various abnormal 
 positions. In Fig. 15 is represented the base- 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 63 
 
 wide position of the legs, in which the plumb- 
 Hne would fall inside the limb and entirely 
 inside the position of the hoof. A variation of 
 
 the same position is shown in Fig. 16, where 
 the knees are knocked in. Fig. 17 shows the 
 in-toe position of the feet, a condition in which 
 the plumb line would fall entirely outside the 
 hoofs. 
 
 The in-toe or base-narrow position is to be 
 observed not infrequently in horses with wide 
 breasts. In the bandy-legged position we see 
 the same narrow base, but the knees are wide 
 apart. 
 
64 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 Fi^,ia . 
 
 In Fig. 18 we may see the normal position of 
 the Hmbs as viewed from the side. A plumb 
 line dropped from the middle of the shoulder 
 blade divides the foreleg into equal parts above 
 the fetlock, and touches the ground just back 
 of the heels. The line formed by the three 
 phalanges of the foot should form an angle of 
 forty-five to fifty degrees with the ground. 
 
 In Fig. 19 we see an illustration of the leg 
 that stands too far forward. In Fig. 20 we have 
 the sheep-kneed position, in which the foot 
 stands in about its normal position, but the knee 
 is knocked back and the perpendicular line does 
 not divide the leg in half. In Fig. 21 we see 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 65 
 
 the effect of a weak knee, which allows the foot 
 to rest at too small an angle with the ground, 
 since it is placed too far in front though the 
 limb to the fetlock retains its proper position. 
 
 ^/c$?. J^^,£^, 
 
 Similar deviations of the fore foot backward 
 are also frequent; and corresponding to the 
 sheep-kneed position we have the goat-kneed, 
 in which a bulging knee throws the entire hoof 
 behind the perpendicular. 
 
 A hind leg is said to be normal when a perpen- 
 dicular dropped from the bony protuberance 
 of the hip passes through the foot half way be- 
 
66 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 tween the point of the toe and the heel. The 
 hind Umbs as viewed from behind may be base- 
 wide and base-narrow, and even cow-hocked 
 in position, corresponding to the knock-kneed 
 position of the fore hmbs, and at the side the 
 foot may be seen to stand considerably back or 
 forward of the perpendicular dropped from the 
 hip joint. 
 
 ^iy,21. 
 
 It is even possible that each limb of the same 
 horse may assume different positions. For 
 instance, the fore-limbs may be base-wide, and 
 the back base-narrow, or the reverse. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 67 
 
 In all positions of the limbs we will find the 
 feet assuming one of three forms very nearly. 
 By knowledge of these three forms it is possible 
 to judge the flight of the foot in traveling, and 
 accordingly the preparation of the shoe. These 
 three forms are the normal, the hase-wide, and 
 the hase-narrow. By the hoof axis (that is, an 
 imaginary line running from the fetlock joint 
 in the general direction of the foot), we may 
 judge the angle at which the hoof meets the 
 ground. In the normal position of the foot 
 the axis of the foot runs straight down and 
 forward at an angle of about forty-five degrees. 
 In the base-wide position it runs obliquely 
 downward and outward, and in the base-narrow 
 it runs obliquely inward. We also have the 
 acute-angled and the obtuse-angled bearing of 
 the hoof. Moreover, the bones below the fet- 
 lock and the wall of the hoof should have exactly 
 the same slant. In the so-called '^ bear-foot" 
 position, the wall of the hoof runs downward 
 at a much more obtuse angle than the pastern 
 bones (Fig. 22). 
 
 If we observe a horse moving freely over 
 level ground, we may see the difference in the 
 carriage of the feet corresponding to the posi- 
 tion of the limbs. When the limbs are normal 
 throughout, the flight of the hoofs is along a 
 
m 
 
 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 I 
 
 ^igr. 22 
 
 perfectly straight line, as represented in the 
 first diagram in Fig. 23. The toes point straight 
 forward, and the hoofs alight flat on the ground. 
 
 When the limbs stand in the base-wide posi- 
 tion, the flight of the hoofs is on the arc of a 
 circle bowing inward, and the hoof touches 
 the ground chiefly upon the outer toe. The 
 toes may point directly forward, or outward 
 as in the out-toe position. 
 
 The flight of the hoofs from the base-narrow 
 standing position is just the reverse, namely 
 in the arc of a circle bowing outward. 
 
 There are many variations due to different 
 conditions. For instance, a horse pulling a 
 heavy load, carrying its feet irregularly touches 
 the ground with the toe first. Irregular car- 
 riage of the feet is not a serious objection to a 
 horse unless it result in interference or disease 
 of the joints. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 69 
 
 The hoof of the normal position and straight- 
 forward flight has the inner' and the outer wall 
 about the same, though the outer may be a little 
 thicker, and somewhat more slanting, describ- 
 ing a slightly larger circle. The height of the 
 wall at the heels, the side, and the toe should 
 be nearly in the proportion of 1 :2 :3. 
 
 The hoof of the base-wide position is always 
 irregular, the outer wall being longer and decid- 
 edly more slanting than the inner. The bear- 
 ing edge of the outer wall describes a circle 
 considerably larger, with the sharpest curva- 
 ture near the heels. If the foot is healthy the 
 
70 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 frog should be equally developed. As the irreg- 
 ularity of the hoof is due to the position of the 
 limbs, we should regard it as a normally irreg- 
 ular hoof, to distinguish it from one irregular 
 from disease. 
 
 The out-toe position of the feet is marked by 
 a curvature of the outer toe of the bearing-edge, 
 and an inner heel less developed than the inner 
 toe. The inner toe and outer heel, lying oppo- 
 site each other, are much less sharply curved. 
 The feet meet the ground with the outer toe 
 first. 
 
 The hoof of the base-narrow position is never 
 so irregular as that of the base-wide. The 
 inner wall is but little more oblique than the 
 outer, the most difference being observed at 
 the heels. The curve of the bearing-edge of 
 the wall is similar to that of the normal hoof, 
 except that the inner side wall and heel are a 
 little more sharply curved. Now and then the 
 outer heel is somewhat drawn in under the 
 foot. The form is most pronounced in bandy- 
 legged animals. 
 
 The hind hoof is affected in much the same 
 way as the fore hoof. It is, however, more 
 oval or pointed at the toe, while the fore hoof 
 is round, and it has a very, concave sole and a 
 steeper toe. The angle cf the toe with the 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 71 
 
 ground in a hind hoof should be from fifty to 
 fifty-five degrees. 
 
 How to Judge a Hoof. Suppose we have a 
 hoof before us and wish to judge it. First 
 we should determine whether it is perfectly 
 healthy or not. A really healthy hoof is not easy 
 to find; but we may recognize a healthy hoof 
 by the following signs : 
 
 Looked at as it rests on the ground, either 
 from the front or the side, the course of the 
 wall from the coronet to the ground should 
 be perfectly straight, bent neither in nor out. 
 A straight edge may be placed on^the wall, 
 and it should touch at every point. There 
 should be no cracks either up and down or 
 crosswise. 
 
 Rings which pass regularly around the hoof 
 parallel to the coronet show nothing more than 
 a little irregularity in the nutrition of the hoof; 
 but if the rings are irregular in any way, even 
 if they are simply more marked at one point 
 than another, though they are parallel to the 
 coronet all the way around, the hoof cannot 
 pass for sound. Marked rings on the hoof of a 
 horse that is well and regularly fed and properly 
 cared for show a weak hoof. 
 
 Viewed from the lower side, the bulbs of the 
 
72 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 heels should be well rounded and well devel- 
 oped, and in no way displaced. 
 
 There should be no separation of the sole along 
 the white line. 
 
 The frog should be strong and well devel- 
 oped, equal on both sides, and showing a broad, 
 shallow, dry cleft. 
 
 The bars should pass straight inward toward 
 the point of the frog. Any bending outward 
 toward the branches of the sole indicate a nar- 
 rowing of the space belonging to the frog, or a 
 contraction of the heels. 
 
 There should be no red staining of the branch- 
 es of the sole at the heels. The cartilages above 
 the heels should be elastic, and no part of the 
 hoof should be weakened at the expense of any 
 other portion. 
 
 Never judge the form or condition of a hoof 
 without also observing the entire limb. 
 
 In order to maintain the hoof in a healthy 
 condition, abundant exercise is indispensable. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS. 
 
 The Preliminary Examination. The ani- 
 mal should be examined first at rest and later 
 while in motion. The object is to get an accu- 
 rate knowledge of the peculiarities of the 
 movements of the limbs, and of the general 
 form and character of the feet and hoofs. It 
 is important to know how the hoof touches 
 and leaves the ground, and the general shape 
 and wear of the shoe, the distribution of nails, 
 etc. At the next shoeing further observations 
 may be made, the original ones being kept in 
 mind, and errors may be corrected. 
 
 In examining a horse, first let it be led on a 
 straight line from the observer. The ground 
 over which it passes should be as level as possi- 
 ble. Then have it led back toward the ob- 
 server, that he may see how the limbs move 
 and how the feet are set on the ground. A few 
 steps taken at a trot will show if the horse is 
 lame, and will also remove any doubt that may 
 exist' as to the general and predominating posi- 
 
 73 
 
74 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 tion of the legs. The general object is to deter- 
 mine whether the movements and position of 
 the feet are normal and regular. If they are 
 not, they may be classed as base-wide or base- 
 narrow. 
 
 When this matter has been settled, the ob- 
 server places him.self in front and first of all 
 fixes clearly in mind the direction of the foot- 
 axis and notes the general character of the 
 fore hoofs. It is particularly desirable to note 
 if the wall of the hoof has the same slant as the 
 pastern bones, or the leg from the fetlock to 
 the hoof, and v/hether the wall from the coronet 
 to the bearing-edge is perfectly straight. If 
 there is a curve from top to bottom, it is cer- 
 tain that some part of the wall is unnaturally 
 high, and the base of support is in some way 
 displaced. 
 
 In order to gain a complete knowledge of 
 the lines of flight of the hoofs and the positions 
 of the limbs, the horse must be led back and 
 forth a considerable number of times, and this 
 is the more necessary when the standing posi- 
 tion is not in every respect normal and the hoofs 
 are different. 
 
 Next examine the position of the limbs and 
 the shape of the feet in profile, or from the side. 
 A glance at the whole body will give an idea of 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 75 
 
 the animaFs weight, height and length. Then 
 turn to the hmbs and hoofs. Especially take note 
 if the form of the hoof corresponds to the posi- 
 tion of the limb ; then, whether the slant of the 
 fetlock is the same as the wall of the toe, or if 
 the axis of the foot is straight or broken. Also 
 note if the toe is parallel with the heels, for some- 
 times the toe is bulging and sometimes hollowed 
 out between the coronet and bearing-edge, and 
 the lower edges of the heels may be drawn under 
 the foot. 
 
 If there are rings on the wall, their position 
 should be carefully noted. If they cross in 
 any way, thrush of the frog is indicated. At 
 the same time note particularly the length of 
 the shoes. 
 
 Next, raise the feet and notice the width of 
 the hoof, the arch of the sole, and the character 
 of the frog. Observe the position of the bulbs 
 of the heels, and see if there are any cracks 
 in the wall. Then look at the old shoes, noting 
 their form, age, position of nailholes and the 
 direction they take, and the general wear the 
 shoes have had. Particularly note if the old 
 shoe corresponds to the form of the hoof, if it 
 entirely covers the wall of the hoof, and if it 
 extends beyond the hoof and in any way has 
 caused interference or irregular wear. 
 
76 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 In examining the wear of the shoe, particu- 
 larly note unusual wear on one side, indicating 
 an irregular way of setting down the foot. If 
 the wear is uneven, an unnatural extension or 
 form of the wall is almost always found, too, 
 especially when the uneven wear has contin- 
 ued for some time. In most cases of that sort 
 it will be found that the worn branch of the 
 shoe is too near the centre of the foot, and the 
 other branch too far. Besides, increased wear 
 indicates that the portion of the wall above it 
 is too high, or that the wall on the opposite side 
 is too low\ The twisting movement of many 
 hind feet, for obvious physiological reasons, 
 should not be hindered in the shoeing. 
 
 Raising and Holding the Foot. It is well to 
 observe the following directions in raising a 
 foot, though usually no trouble will be experi- 
 enced if the horse has been accustomed to it. 
 
 Never take hold of a foot suddenly or with 
 both hands. See that the horse is standing so 
 that he can easily bear his weight on three legs, 
 and in raising the foot prepare the horse for 
 the act. If the horse does not take a suitable posi- 
 tion, move him about a little till his feet are 
 w^ell under his body. 
 
 For instance, in raising the left fore foot, 
 stand on the left side facing the animal, speak 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 77 
 
 gently to him, place the right hand on the ani- 
 mal's shoulder, and with the left rub down the limb 
 at the front. Gently press the horse over toward 
 the right side, and as soon as the weight has 
 been shifted on to the other side, the animal 
 naturally lifts his foot from the ground. Now 
 grasp the foot from the inside below the fetlock 
 v/ith the right hand, following with the left upon 
 the outside, turn partly to the right, and support 
 the horse's foot upon the left leg, standing as 
 quietly and firmly as possible. Never hold 
 the foot higher than the elbow joint, and usually 
 somewhat lower. 
 
 In hfting the left hind foot, stroke the animal 
 back to the hip with the left hand, supporting 
 the hand upon it while the right strokes the 
 limb downward, grasping it behind. Press 
 the animal over toward the right side with the 
 left hand, and with the right hand loosen the 
 foot and carry it forward and outward so that 
 it is bent at the hock. Then turn your body 
 toward the right and bring the left leg against 
 the outer side of the fetlock joint, carry the 
 foot backward, and pass the left arm over the 
 croup to the inner side of the hock. Finally 
 the pastern is held in both hands. 
 
 Be careful in Hfting a foot not to pinch or 
 squeeze a foot or lift it so high as to give unneces- 
 
78 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 sary pain. Work quietly, rapidly, causing 
 as little pain as possible, and the results will 
 be correspondingly more satisfactory. Espe- 
 cially be careful not to lift the foot of a young 
 horse too high, and from time to time let the 
 foot down to rest. Also in the case of 
 old and stiff horses, beware of lifting the feet 
 too high, especially when beginning work. 
 
 Vicious horses must be handled severely in 
 many cases. Watch the ears and eyes, and 
 immediately punish any symptom of temper. 
 This may be done by loud words or by jerking 
 the halter. If this does not do any good, make 
 the horse back rapidly over a piece of soft 
 ground till he is tired out. 
 
 To help in supporting the hind foot, a leather 
 band or plaited rope may be fastened into the 
 tail and passed around the foot below the fet- 
 lock, the lower end being held by the hand. 
 This compels the horse to support a part of 
 the weight of the limb, and prevents damage 
 from kicking. Before placing this band around 
 the fetlock, the front foot on the same side 
 should be raised. 
 
 Before casting a refractory horse or placing 
 it in stocks, an experienced man should hold it 
 by the bridle and attempt to soothe it by gentle 
 words and caresses till he gains its confidence. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 79 
 
 Ticklish horses must be taken hold of firmly, 
 for light touches are to such animals more un- 
 pleasant than rougher handling. In the case 
 of many ticklish horses, the feet may be raised 
 if taken hold of suddenly without any prepara- 
 tory movements. 
 
 Taking Off the Old Shoes. If a horse's hoofs 
 are healthy, all the old shoes may be taken off 
 at the same time ; but there are cases in which 
 this is not advisable. 
 
 In taking off the shoe, do not wrench it vio- 
 lently, but draw it off cautiously and slowly. 
 Dirty hoofs should first be cleaned with a stiff 
 brush. Lift the clinch with a rather dull clinch- 
 cutter, and take pains not to injure the horn of 
 the wall. Next, lift the entire shoe slightly, 
 either with broad-billed pincers, or by driving the 
 nail-cutter between the shoe and the hoof. In 
 the first case the branches of a shoe should be 
 well circled, and the pincers moved only in the 
 direction of the branches. 
 
 Much twisting of the hoof is Hable to strain 
 the ligaments, and to guard against this the hoof 
 should be supported with the left hand or with 
 the leg just above the knee. 
 
 Preparing the Hoof for Shoes. The prepa- 
 ration of the hoof for the shoe, usually spoken 
 of as paring or trimming, is a most important 
 
80 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 matter. Its object is to shorten the hoof, 
 which has grown too long under the shoe. The 
 tools needed are the rasp and the hoof-knife. 
 On large or hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers 
 or a sharp hewing knife with flat, smooth sides 
 may be used to hasten the work. 
 
 The hoof is first cleansed and the stubs of old 
 nails are removed. Bearing in mind the exami- 
 nation of the hoof and limb previously made 
 ask yourself how much horn is to be removed 
 and just where. In any case, remove loose or 
 detached portions of the wall, and scrape off the 
 flakes of dead horn from the sole. Then run 
 the rasp around the wall and break it off to the 
 depth to which it should be shortened. 
 
 Rule. Cut the wall down to the sole so that 
 not less than one-tenth of an inch of the surface 
 of the sole comes into the level of the bottom 
 edge of the wall. 
 
 The whole bearing surface, including the 
 edge of the sole and the white line, may be 
 rasped until horizontal. The point of the toe 
 may be turned up a little, however. 
 
 In dressing the frog, always leave it so that 
 it will project beyond the bearing surface about 
 the thickness of a flat shoe. Do not weaken it 
 by paring, else it will lose its activity and 
 shrink, and the hoof will become narrow. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 81 
 
 Never trim the frog at all unless it is too promi- 
 nent, except to remove loose or diseased portions 
 when the frog is affected by thrush. 
 
 Never shorten the bars except when too long. 
 In no case weaken their union with the sole. 
 They should be left nearly as high as the walls 
 at the heels, and the branches of the sole should 
 lie about a twelfth of an inch lower. 
 
 The angles of the bars with the wall require 
 attention. In unshod hoofs the bars run 
 straight back, but in shod hoofs the buttresses 
 (as the angles are called) curl inward and press 
 upon the frog, causing it to shrink. In such 
 cases the elongated pieces of horn should be re- 
 moved so as to make the bars straight. 
 
 Rule. The sharp edge of the lower side of 
 the wall should be rasped until the bearing sur- 
 face of the wall is no wider, than the actual thick- 
 ness of the wall along a Hne perpendicular to the 
 outer face. 
 
 In healthy hoofs, however, when the w^all is 
 straight from the coronet to the bearing surface, 
 the varnish-like outer surface should never be 
 rasped much above the bearing-edge. The only 
 exception is when there is an outward bending 
 of the lower edge of the wall, usually on the 
 inner side wall and heel. 
 
 In regard to the inclination of the plantar 
 
82 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 plane to the foot axis, note that in the regular 
 position of the limbs, the inner and outer walls 
 should be of about the same height ; in the base- 
 wide position, the outer wall is higher than the 
 inner, and in the base-narrow position, the in- 
 ner wall is higher. Observation from the side 
 will show the relative elevation of the toe in 
 regard to the heels. The wall of the hoof and 
 the long pastern should have the same slope. 
 If, however, the hoof has become too long under 
 the shoe, the axis of the foot will be broken at 
 the coronet and the wall and the long pastern 
 will not have the same slant. (See Fig. 24.) 
 
 Fiff.2^. 
 
 Rule. The bearing surface of the foot should 
 be so corrected that as the horse moves it will 
 be placed flat upon the ground, and the walls 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 83 
 
 of the hoof, in whatever direction they are 
 viev.ed, will be parallel with the axis of the 
 bones. 
 
 Great care must be taken in changing from 
 flat shoes to those w^ith calks or the reverse, 
 that the foot be so treated that it will set flat 
 on the ground w^hen the new shoes are on. Each 
 foot should be set down on the ground and care- 
 fully observed after it has been trimmed before 
 the nev/ shoe is put on. It should also be 
 compared carefully with the opposite hoof. 
 Until such an examination has been made, can 
 the hoof be said to be properly prepared for 
 shoeing? Each pair of hoofs (fore and hind) 
 should not only be equal, but also in proper 
 proportion to the weight of the body. 
 
 Preparing the Hoof for Going Barefoot. 
 Observe first, that to go barefoot the hoof 
 must have plenty of horn. 
 
 After the shoe has been removed the frog 
 should be pared dov/n nearly even with the wall, 
 and the sharp edge of the wail should be rounded 
 off, in some cases as far as the white line. If 
 this is not done, large pieces of the wall will 
 break away. The more slanting the w^all, the 
 more must a hoof be rounded. Going barefoot 
 strengthens the hoof, but hoofs without shoes 
 should be examined from time to time and any 
 
84 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 growing fault in the shape or direction of the 
 horn corrected without delay. The sharp edge 
 of the wall will in many cases have to be rounded 
 again and again, especially if the walls are very 
 oblique, and the heels may be shortened, since 
 they are not always worn away as rapidly as 
 the toe. 
 
 Making Shoes. Besides a good, tough iron, 
 the following tools are required : An anvil with 
 a round horn and a hole at one end, a round- 
 headed hammer, a round sledge, a stamping 
 hammer, a reliable steel pritchel, and a round 
 fuller. The workman must be quick and have 
 a good eye. A shoe should be made with care, 
 yet quickly enough to take advantage of the 
 heat. 
 
 To make a flat shoe, find the length of the 
 hoof from the angles of the heels to the toe and 
 the greatest width. These two measurements 
 added together give the length of the bar re- 
 quired. The bar selected should be one which 
 will require the least amount of working. Of 
 course in case heel calks are required, the bar 
 must be proportionately longer. 
 
 In making a front shoe (Fig. 25) the bar 
 should be heated to a white heat just beyond 
 the middle. Run over it lightly with the 
 hammer, turn it on edge, v/ork it down a trifle, 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 85 
 
 make a quarter turn to the right and hammer 
 the entire half to a diamond shape. With a 
 half turn to the left, flatten the right edge to 
 within three' quarters of an inch of the end, 
 hammer smooth, turn the ground face up and 
 gently bend the branch. Holding the branch 
 
86 Blacksmithing and Horseshoieing. 
 
 by the outer edge, bend it into a semicircle with 
 the round head of the hammer. The sledge 
 may be used in concaving it, which should be 
 done immediately. The concaving should ter- 
 minate three-fourths of an inch from the end. 
 
 Next fuller the branch, setting the fuller 
 about a twelfth of an inch from the edge for 
 small shoes, a little more for large shoes, and 
 proceeding toward the toe. Do this twice to 
 make the fullering deep enough. Next stamp 
 the holes and punch them through with the 
 pritchel, run over the surfaces and edges, fin- 
 ishing the outer edge upon the horn, and finally 
 hammer the bearing side perfectly smooth and 
 horizontal. Treat the left branch the same, 
 but carry the fullering from the toe to the heel. 
 An ordinary shoe should be completed in two 
 heats, and a pair of shoes in from eight to fif- 
 teen minutes. 
 
 The hind shoe is made like the front shoe, 
 except that it is curved as shown in Fig. 26, 
 and concaving is unnecessary, though the inner 
 edge of the hoof surface should be rounded. 
 As the inner side of the shoe is thickened in 
 bending in proportion as the outer edge is 
 stretched, care miust be taken to even the side 
 up by hammering the shoe smooth. 
 
 The Character of a Shoe. Every peculiarity 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 87 
 
 of the hoof or the position of the hmbs and man- 
 ner of wear requires a corresponding shoe. The 
 character of the shoe is of the utmost impor- 
 
88 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 tance if we wish to preserve the soundness of 
 the feet and legs of an animal. 
 
 First, it is indispensable that the form of the 
 shoe correspond to the shape of the hoof. It 
 should be possible at a glance to tell a front and 
 a hind shoe, a right and a left apart. Front 
 shoes must he round at the toe; hind shoes must 
 he pointed at the toe, though not too much pointed. 
 
 Second, all shoes should be wider webbed 
 at the toe than at the heels, averaging about 
 twice the thickness of the wall of the hoof. 
 
 Third, the thickness of the shoe must corre- 
 spond to the wear, and must be thick enough 
 not to require renewing under a month. The 
 average required thickness is perhaps seven- 
 sixteenths of an inch, though the thickness 
 should be lessened if the wear is to be less than 
 the average. Ordinarily, all shoes without 
 calks should be of uniform thickness. 
 
 Fourth, in all cases the length of the shoe 
 should be great enough to cover the entire 
 bearing-surface of the hoof, and in draught 
 horses the branches should reach the bulbs of 
 the heels. 
 
 Fifth, the bearing portion of the upper side 
 of the shoe should be wide enough to cover 
 the wall, the white line, and from a twelfth to 
 an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 89 
 
 The concaving is intended to prevent interfer- 
 ence with the concave portion of the sole, and 
 if the sole is very concave so that there is no 
 danger of its touching the shoe, concaving of 
 the shoe is not necessary. The ground side of 
 the shoe should be perfectly smooth and hori- 
 zontal, except for the rolling up of the toe. 
 
 Sixth, the outer edge of the shoe should 
 slope gently under the hoof, so that the ground 
 surface will be smaller than the hoof surface. 
 This tends to prevent interfering, or loosening of 
 the shoe from knocking against outside objects. 
 The inner border should be slightly rounded. 
 
 Seventh, the depth of the fullering should 
 be about two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, 
 uniform in width, and clean. The object of it 
 is to make the shoe lighter in proportion to its 
 size. Besides, it aids in making the nailholes 
 uniform, and gives the shoe a rougher ground 
 surface. 
 
 Eighth, the nailholes have an importance that 
 can hardly be overstated, for upon their char- 
 acter, distribution, etc., depends the stability 
 of the shoe, as well as the avoidance of injuring 
 the sensitive foot, or splitting or breaking the 
 horn, and interference with the elasticity of 
 the foot. 
 
 A proper nailhole should taper evenly from 
 
90 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 the ground surface to the hoof surface, like a 
 tunnel. For a medium shoe, six nailholes 
 should be sufficient; but for a heavy shoe, es- 
 pecially one with heel and toe calks, eight 
 holes are required. In the latter case it is not 
 absolutely necessary that every nailhole should 
 contain a nail. Hind shoes usually require 
 one more nailhole than front shoes, though 
 seldom more than eight. In front shoes the 
 nailholes ma}^ extend back to the middle of 
 each branch, while in hind shoes they may ex- 
 tend two-thirds of the way back; but nails 
 should never be put in the toes. The distance 
 of the nailholes from the outer border will de- 
 pend upon the thickness of the v/all of the hoof, 
 and should be equal to the perpendicular thick- 
 ness of the wall (not the slanting thickness on 
 the ground surface of the hoof). It is clear, 
 therefore, that the distance of the nailholes from 
 the border will vary as the thickness of the 
 v/all of the hoof varies. 
 
 The direction of the nailholes m.iist correspond 
 to the slant of the wall. Nailholes near the 
 toes should usually incline somewhat inward, 
 those on the sides should incline les5, and those 
 tovv^ard the heels should be perpendicular to 
 the bearing surface of the shoe. 
 
 Ninth, clips are the small ears drawn upward 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 91 
 
 from the outer edge of the shoe. All shoes 
 should have clips at the toes, and a side clip 
 should be drawn up on that side of a shoe 
 which first meets the ground as the animal 
 moves. The clips prevent shifting or slipping 
 of the shoe, and should be higher and thicker 
 on the hind than on the front shoes. They 
 should be about as high (on a flat shoe) as the 
 thickness of the shoe, while on shoes with calks 
 they should be somewhat higher. They should 
 be strong and without flaw where they leave 
 the shoe. 
 
 Heel Calks. All calks on normal hoofs should 
 be so adjusted as to interfere as little as possible 
 with the setting down of the foot, and so that 
 the wear will be uniform. The branches, 
 therefore, should be a little thinner just in front 
 
 ^£^, 27. 
 
 of the calks than is the toe. A front shoe with 
 heel calks must be comparatively long, and 
 should be rolled considerably at the toe, the 
 upward turn beginning at the inner border. 
 Heel calks may be three or four cornered and 
 
92 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 somewhat conical, and should not be higher 
 than the thickness of the shoe. The branches 
 should not rise excessively, but assume about 
 the direction shown in Fig. 27. 
 
 Toe and Heel calks. If there are to be both 
 toe and heel calks, the thickness of the shoe 
 should be uniform, and the calks should be 
 somewhat longer than if there are to be only 
 heel calks. 
 
 The toe calks should never be higher than 
 the heel calks. 
 
 Toe calks are formed by welding a piece of 
 steel to the toe. They may be of three kinds: 
 
 1 Sharp Toe Calks. One corner of a rather 
 wide piece of toe steel is drawn to a sharp point, 
 and when the shoe has been heated to a white 
 heat this sharp point is driven into the middle 
 of the toe. At the first heat, this piece of steel 
 standing upon one of its corners is driven down 
 and welded from the centre to the right and 
 left corners. A second heat will be required to 
 complete the work. 
 
 2 Blunt Toe Calk. This is a somewhat long, 
 four-cornered piece of steel with an ear on one 
 edge. It is welded on in one heat. 
 
 3 Coffin-Lid Toe Calk. This is like the blunt 
 calk, but the side that is to be welded to the 
 shoe is broader and longer than the ground side. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 93 
 
 They may be put on at one heat. This kind 
 can be more securely welded to the shoe and is 
 suitable for winter, as is the first kind. 
 
 Calks injure the elasticity of the foot and the 
 joints, since they raise the frog off the ground, 
 and furnish a smaller base of support than a 
 flat shoe. They are, nevertheless, indispensable 
 on slippery roads, especially in winter. When 
 conditions will permit they should be dispensed 
 with, especially on the front feet. 
 
 Peculiarities of shoes for Different Kinds of 
 Hoofs. 1. Shoe for a Normal Hoof. For a 
 normal foot a shoe should be moderately bev- 
 elled under the foot all around, and should be 
 longer than the hoof by about the thickness of 
 the shoe. 
 
 2. 'Shoe for a very Sloping or Acute- Angled 
 Hoof. Such a shoe should be strongly bevelled 
 under near the toe on the outer edge, but grad- 
 ually becoming perpendicular near the ends of 
 the branches. The nailholes at the toe should 
 incline inward somewhat more than usual, but 
 otherwise should be regular. The length should 
 be somewhat greater than in the case of a shoe 
 for the normal hoof. 
 
 3. Shoe for Bear-Shaped or Stumpy Hoof. 
 The outer edge should be perpendicular at the 
 toe, or even bevelled slightly outward if the 
 
94 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 hoof is very upright. The last nail should be 
 placed just beyond the middle of the shoe. 
 The shoe should be short, not over a tenth of an 
 inch longer than the hoof. In the case of a 
 hoof not only stumpy but ''bear-foot/' the 
 shoe should be long, however. 
 
 4. Shoe for Base-wide Hoof . The outer branch 
 should have the outer edge bevelled inward, 
 the inner branch nearly perpendicular. The 
 holes in the outer branch of the shoe should 
 extend well back, while on the inner branch 
 they are to be crowded forward toward the 
 toe. The length will depend upon the slope of 
 the foot, the more sloping hoof requiring the 
 longer shoe. 
 
 5. Shoe for Base-narrow Hoof. The outer 
 edge of the outer branch should be bevelled 
 outward, the inner branch should be bevelled 
 strongly inv/ard. The nailholes in the outer 
 branch should be crowded toward the toe, and 
 on acount of the greater width of this branch, 
 may be punched farther in than the wall is 
 thick. On the inner branch, the nailholes are 
 to be distributed farther back and punched light. 
 The length will depend upon the slant of the 
 hoof. The outer branch should be an eighth of 
 an inch longer than the inner. 
 
 On a wide hoof the web of the shoe should be 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 95 
 
 wider than usual, and bevelled under the hoof 
 all around, while the nailholes should be carried 
 well back. On a narrow hoof the outer edge 
 should be bevelled somewhat under the toe, but 
 should be nearly perpendicular elsewhere, and 
 the nailholes distributed as usual but nearly 
 perpendicular, inclining somewhat outward near 
 the heels, and near the toe inclining somewhat 
 inward. On narrow hoofs concaving is usually 
 unnecessary. 
 
 The Choice of the Shoe. This is not at all dif- 
 ficult after we have taken into account the 
 weight, kind of work, standing position, gait, 
 form of hoofs, and quality of horn. We usually 
 choose a shoe longer than the hoof, because in 
 growing the hoof carries the shoe forward with 
 it, and because the heels gradually wear away 
 by rubbing and become lower. For heavy 
 hauling, shoes with toe and heel calks should 
 extend back to support the bulbs of the heels; 
 but trotting or riding horses require shorter 
 shoes. 
 
 In deciding the weight of the shoe, consider 
 whether the legs are used up by work or not, 
 and the general character of the work for which 
 the horse is used. The shoes should also be 
 heavy enough to wear a month. Hard roads 
 and a heavy gait require strong, durable shoes, 
 
96 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 and in some cases they may be made durable 
 by welding in steel. For light work and soft 
 roads, use light shoes. Running horses require 
 very thin, narrow shoes made of steel. 
 
 Fitting Shoes. The circumference of the hoof 
 side of a shoe should always correspond exactly 
 to the circumference of the hoof itself when 
 dressed, and should fit the bearing-side of the 
 hoof air tight. All defects in the surface of the 
 hoof and the shoe, and in the nailholes, must 
 be carefully remedied during the fitting process. 
 A perfectly horizontal bearing surface is very 
 important, especially at the heels, and the bear- 
 ing surface should be quite smooth. Entirely 
 uniform heating is absolutely necessary in shap- 
 ing shoes, because with an irregular heat the 
 shoe is likely to get twisted at the warm spots. 
 The shoe should be perfectly straight, and 
 should be held up before the eye edgewise to see 
 that one side just covers the view of the other. 
 Flat shoes should be laid upon a level surface to 
 see that they touch at every point, except at 
 the rolling toe. 
 
 Front shoes should be slightly rolled up at the 
 toe. In most cases the roll should begin about 
 the middle of the web, and should extend up 
 about half the thickness of the iron. The roll 
 ensures a uniform wear of the shoe. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 97 
 
 The shoe, fairly hot, should be placed on the 
 foot so that the toe clip will come directly in 
 front of the point of the frog, and the scorched 
 horn should be repeatedly removed with the 
 rasp until a perfect-fitting bed for the shoe has 
 been made. The horn sole should not be burnt, 
 because the velvety tissue of the sole lies directly 
 above it. The nailholes must under all circum- 
 stances cover the white line. 
 
 The shoes should correspond with the outer 
 edge of the wall of the hoof near the nailholes, 
 but farther back toward the heels the shoe 
 should widen until at the extremities it is a 
 twenty-fifth to a twelfth of an inch beyond the 
 hoof. This makes the shoes wear longer. In 
 hind shoes, however, the inner branch should 
 cbsely follow the wall, to prevent interfering 
 and loosening the shoe with the other foot. 
 
 Between the ends of the branches and the 
 frog there should be room enough to pass a 
 toothpick. 
 
 Important Rule. If the form of the hoof is 
 natural, and has not been altered by artificial 
 treatment, the shoe should in every case have 
 the form of the hoof; but if the hoof has been 
 changed, we should try to give the shoe the 
 form that the hoof had before the change took 
 place. Such treatment cannot injure the hoof, 
 
98 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 and in time it will bring the hoof back to its 
 original form. 
 
 In a regular foot we have seen that the shoe 
 should fit the foot, the nailholes come directly 
 over the white line, and there should be a little 
 space between the frog and the branches . 
 
 In irregularly shaped hoofs we must consider 
 not only the form of the hoof, but the position 
 of the limbs and the distribution of bearing. 
 Where the most weight falls the' supporting sur- 
 face must he broader, and where the least weight 
 falls, the hearing surface shoidd he narrower. 
 Thus the irregular distribution of weight in an 
 abnorm^al hoof is regulated. The way in which 
 this is done in the various kinds of hoofs is as 
 follows : 
 
 In an acute-angled hoof the shoes must be 
 long, because most of the weight comes at the 
 back, v/hile the toe may be made narrow by 
 turning in or bevelling under. 
 
 In an obtuse-angled hoof the conditions are 
 reversed, and the surface of support should be 
 increased at the toe and lessened toward the 
 heels, the nailholes being directed straight or 
 slightly outward. 
 
 A base-wide hoof requires most support upon 
 the inner side, which should be widened while 
 the outer side is narrowed. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 99 
 
 The base-narrow hoof requires just the re- 
 verse. 
 
 In the normal foot the ends of the branches 
 should be equally distant from the cleft of the 
 frog; but this is not the case in base-wide and 
 base-narrow hoofs. In the base-wide the outer 
 and in the base-narrow the inner branch should 
 be farther from the cleft. 
 
 The wide hoof has too large a base of support, 
 and so should be narrowed by bevelling the shoe 
 under. 
 
 The narrow hoof has too small a base of sup- 
 port, and it must not be made smaller, and the 
 outer border should be perpendicular. 
 
 Shoeing Heavy Draught Horses, If the hoofs 
 have become injured or distorted, shoes in the 
 case of heavy draught horses must be slightly 
 modified. The following points should espe- 
 cially be noted. Every one of them is important. 
 
 If the hoof is out of shape, the shoe must be 
 so set as to come directly beneath every point 
 of the coronet, even if it projects somewhat 
 beyond the wall at the heels. The opposite 
 branch may usually follow the wall closely. 
 
 The new should be made fuller and wider 
 where the old shoe shows m.ost wear. 
 
 Especially remember, the shoe should be set 
 farther toward the most worn side. This 
 
 L.oFC. 
 
100 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 renders unnecessary the common practice of 
 bending out the outer branch and heel calks of 
 hind shoes. 
 
 Concluding Directions as to Fitting. When 
 the shoer is satisfied with the fit of the shoe, 
 it should be cooled, and brightened with a file, 
 and the nailholes opened with an oiled pritchel. 
 All sharp edges should be carefully filed down. 
 In filing the outer border, file lengthwise, not 
 crosswise. Care must be taken not to bend the 
 shoe by improperly clamping it in the vise. 
 
 Nailing the Shoe. This is the process of 
 fastening the shoes on by special nails known 
 as horseshoe nails. 
 
 The nails whether made by hand or machine 
 should be of the best wrought iron, slender^ 
 wedge-shaped, and twice as wide as they are 
 thick. The thickness must correspond to the 
 length. Never should the nail be longer than 
 is absolutely necessary in fastening the shoe. 
 Six to nine sizes are required. 
 
 The rough nails must go through a process 
 of shaping and bevelling to prepare them for 
 the hoof. While being made smooth and even 
 they should he hammered as lightly as possible. 
 
 The nails must also be so shaped that they 
 will go through the horn straight and not curved. 
 A perfectly straight nail will pass through the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 101 
 
 horn in a curve, and not only does not hold well, 
 but is liable to injure the sensitive tissues. 
 Therefore curve the nail a little so that the concave 
 side will be toward the frog. 
 
 The nail is to be bevelled at the point so that 
 it will form a one-sided wedge, with the slanting 
 side on the inside (Fig. 28). Nails driven low 
 
 should have a short bevel, nails driven high a 
 longer bevel. Never allow the bevel to form 
 a hook, and make it sharp but not thin, and 
 under no conditions imperfect. Machine-made 
 nails, ready for use, are to be preferred, though 
 hand-made nails are tougher. 
 Be perfectly certain the shoe is absolutely 
 
102 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 perfect in shape and fit before beginning to 
 nail. In nailing the horn should be spared as 
 much as possible, and never should the sensi- 
 tive tissue be injured. 
 
 The nails should always pass through the 
 white lines, and thence straight through the 
 wall, neither too high nor too low. If too high, 
 there is danger of pricking, if too low the nail- 
 holes will tear out easily when being clinched. 
 
 In driving a nail, hold it in the fingers as long 
 as possible in order to preserve the correct direc- 
 tion. At each stroke of the hammer the nail 
 should penetrate one-fifth to one-fourth of an 
 inch. Hard driving and light tapping should 
 never be permitted. 
 
 When at a depth of five-eighths of an inch 
 nails are going soft, bending, giving a dull 
 sound, or causing pain, they should at once be 
 withdrawn. 
 
 Nails should be driven from five-eighths to 
 an inch and five-eighths high, according to the 
 size of the horse and the hoof. 
 
 As soon as the nail has been driven in, its 
 point should be bent down toward the shoe, to 
 avoid possible injuries. The nails should then 
 be gone over with the hammer till they are 
 driven well down into their holes, the hoof being 
 supported with the left hand. Pincers should 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 103 
 
 then be held under the bent nails and they should 
 be bent still more by sharp blows on the heads 
 of the nails. 
 
 Nip off the points near the hoof, the horn 
 that has been broken out by bending the nails 
 down is to be rasped off, and the ends of the 
 nails bent still more, but not quite even with the 
 wall. A clinching block is now placed under 
 the nails and they are clinched still closer to 
 the walls, care being taken not to bend them 
 within the wall. Finally, with the edge of the 
 hammer the nail is driven down flush with the 
 wall. 
 
 Of course all the nails should be driven in 
 and turned down before clinching begins. 
 
 On the inner wall, the clinches should be so 
 smooth they cannot be felt when the finger is 
 passed over them. 
 
 If any horn projects beyond the shoe around 
 the toe, it should be rasped away carefully in 
 the direction in which the wall slants, but never 
 higher than the clinches. Finally, remove the 
 sharp lower edge of the wall by running the rasp 
 around between the shoe and the horn. 
 
 A clinch is said to be long enough when it is 
 equal to the width of the nail at the point where 
 it occurs. 
 
 A shoeing stool is useful in clinching the nails 
 
104 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs can be 
 dinched in the hand. 
 
 When the shoeing is finished, the horse 
 should be led out to see if the new shoeing has 
 accomplished the purpose assumed at the 
 start. 
 
 Last of all, cover the entire hoof with a thin 
 layer of hoof-salve. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FORGING AND INTERFERING. 
 
 Forging is that peculiarity of gait in a horse 
 by which the toe of the hind foot strikes the 
 branches of the front shoe at the heels. It 
 makes an unpleasant noise, and is dangerous 
 to the horse. It may result in wounding the 
 heels of the fore feet, and damages the toes of 
 the hind, besides often pulling off the front 
 shoes. 
 
 The causes for forging may be: 1. because 
 the horse stands higher at the croup than at the 
 withers, or has a short body and long legs, or 
 '^stands under ^' in front or behind (that is, the 
 feet come inside the perpendicular from shoul- 
 der or hip joint); or 2. because of unskilful 
 driving over heavy ground, or riding a horse 
 without holding him down at the mouth and 
 by pressing his sides with the knees; or again 
 
 3. because of simple fatigue, which may cause 
 interfering even in well built horses; or, finally, 
 
 4. because of poor shoeing, such as long toes 
 behind, or shoes in front that are too long. 
 
 105 
 
106 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 To correct forging it is necessary to use front 
 shoes that are no longer and no wider than the 
 hoof. The ends of the branches backward 
 should be bevelled down, and forward under the 
 foot, even when heel calks are used. If the 
 horse forges upon the lower surface of the 
 branches at the heels, this surface may be con- 
 caved. The hind shoes are to be shortened at 
 the toe, and the lower edges at the toe well 
 rounded. In place of a toe clip, substitute two side 
 clips, and so fit the shoe that three-fourths of 
 the thickness of the wall, of course with the 
 edge well rounded, will extend beyond the shoe. 
 
 Interfering describes the condition in which 
 one hoof in motion strikes the adjoining leg. 
 It is liable to injure the coronary band, the fet- 
 lock, or even the cannon bone as high as the 
 knee, and lameness often results. 
 
 The causes of interfering lie either in the 
 shoeing, in the position of the limbs, or the 
 w^ay in which the animal is worked. Well shod 
 horses never interfere when their standing posi- 
 tion is correct. Horses that stand base-wide 
 interfere sometimes, and interfering is often 
 found in horses whose legs narrow into the fet- 
 lock while their toes turn out. Traces of une- 
 qual length, delay in shoeing, and fatigue are 
 also frequent causes. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 107 
 
 When a horse is found to interfere, he should 
 first be carefully examined to determine the 
 cause. If it is due to a twisted position of the 
 shoe, hoofs too v/ide, or raised clinches, the 
 remedy is obvious. If it is due to the position 
 of the limbs, we must first find the exact part 
 of the foot that does the striking. Carefully 
 regulating the bearing surface, the shoe may 
 be made straight along the place where inter- 
 fering occurs and the hoof narrowed at this 
 point. Also in fitting the shoe, one-third of 
 the thickness of the wall may extend beyond 
 the border of the shoe. In serious cases we may 
 use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch. 
 
 :Fi^.29, 
 
108 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 Fig. 29 shows the so-called 'interfering" 
 shoe, the inner branch of which is higher than 
 the outer, and it is so shaped that the hoof will 
 project somewhat beyond it. It may be re- 
 commended for use when the limbs stand base- 
 narrow. Each shoe must be carefully shaped 
 to meet each individual case, and the nailholes 
 on the inner branch should be punched some- 
 what nearer the edge than usual. 
 
 J^^. 3(?. 
 
 ' ''The dropped-crease " interfering shoe is 
 shown in Fig. 30. The only nailhole in the inner 
 branch is at the toe. Such a shoe is valuable 
 for a hind hoof on a foot in which the toe turns 
 out, but better results may be obtained by using 
 a shoe whose inner branch is straight and with- 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 109 
 
 out nails at the striking place. Such a shoe 
 may be fitted wide at the heels, and the inner 
 heel calk should be higher than the outer, 
 while the outer branch should be as narrow as 
 
 FijSl 
 
 it can be made (Fig. 31). To prevent shifting 
 on such a shoe, a side clip should be drawn up 
 on the outside. 
 
 The simpler and lighter the shoe, the less will 
 horses interfere. No shoeing will prevent inter- 
 fering in case of fatigue or bad harnessing. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 WINTER SHOEING. CARE OF THE HOOF. 
 
 What is called winter shoeing consists in pro- 
 viding the bearing surface of shoes with some 
 means to prevent slipping on ice and snow. 
 Sharp projections are supplied, and the prob- 
 lem is to keep these projections sharp. When 
 the ground is well covered with snow, all sharp 
 shoes will remain sharp; and when the ground 
 
 MgrSl. 
 
 110 
 
Carriage and Wagon Buiding. Ill 
 
 is open and only partially covered with snow^ 
 no shoes will remain sharp. No entirely satis- 
 factory method of sharpening has yet been 
 discovered. 
 
 Ice-Nails. The simplest method of sharp- 
 ening is to replace one or two nails on each 
 branch with ice-nails, as shown in Fig. 32. This 
 method of sharpening is also the least durable. 
 
 Sharp Calks. These are made by welding 
 a sharp steel wedge into the outer calks when 
 they have been spht. The shoe is laid on the 
 edge of the anvil and sharpened from within 
 outward, so that the calk shall be thin from 
 the branch to the ground, and the outer side be 
 in a straight line with the border. If the calk 
 is narrow all the way, a sharp edge is not needed. 
 Never sharpen the inner calk unless the ground 
 is unusually slippery. The inner calk should 
 be sharpened at right angles to the direction of 
 the branch, as shown in Fig. 33, and the outer 
 
 J^£ff.33. 
 
112 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 corner rounded. The calk on the outer branch 
 is shown in Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig,3^. 
 
 For heavy draught horses a toe calk is re- 
 quired. This consists of toe-steel welded firmly 
 to the shoe. All calks should be tempered in 
 order as much as possible to increase their dura- 
 bility. This may be done by sticking into 
 moist sand as far as the tap and allowing to 
 cool slowly from a cherry-red heat. 
 
 ^crew Calks. Various machine-made screw 
 calks may be had, and should always be made 
 of steel. Any ordinary shoe may be fitted with 
 them by making holes in the ends of the branches 
 with a cylindrical hammer punch and cutting a 
 thread. The hole should be moderately counter- 
 sunk on the lower side, and the shoulder of the 
 calk should rest in the counter-sinking. The 
 thread should be clean and deep, but not too 
 coarse, and all calks should have the same sized 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 113 
 
 thread and tap. A tap of one-half inch in diam- 
 eter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. Screw 
 toe-calks are liable to become loose. The 
 great advantage of screw heel calks is that they 
 can be changed while the shoe is on the hoof, 
 and blunt or sharp calks may be put on as the 
 work requires. They have a tendency to 
 loosen and break off unless well made and of 
 the best material; but if care is taken they are 
 the best heel calks that can be used. Square 
 and round peg calks are cheaper and more easily 
 made, but are not so satisfactory as screw 
 calks. 
 
 Removable heel calks that do not need sharp- 
 ening have been invented and are to be recom- 
 mended for city use where horses must often 
 travel upon bare pavements even when the snow 
 lies on the ground. They have sharpened faces 
 of various shapes, such as that of an H or an 
 X. The wider and more extensive the wearing 
 surface presented by the calk the more dura- 
 ble will it prove. Calks with narrow edges 
 and few surfaces presented to the ground be- 
 come dull most quickly. Such calks are not 
 required in the country. 
 
 To Prevent Balling ivith Snow use shoes with 
 narrow web concave upon the ground surface, 
 and keep the frog and sole well oiled. S ole 
 
114 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 pads of leather, felt, or straw serve the same 
 end. The best method is to use a rubber sole 
 and frog pad. There is also a patent hoof cement 
 which is to be recommended. 
 
 Care of Unshod Hoofs. The care of the 
 hoofs of colts is very important. Abundant 
 exercise on dry ground free from stones is the 
 first requirement. Such exercise will cause the 
 hoofs to wear in a regular manner. Care should 
 be taken, however, to see from time to time if 
 the wear is uniform, and if it is not it should be 
 corrected by the rasp. 
 
 If colts are reared in the barn the hoof does 
 not receive sufficient v/ear and 'various difficul- 
 ties are sure to result. The wall becomes too 
 long and sometimes separates from the sole, and 
 the wall bends. Weak heels bend inw^ard upon 
 the frog; the toe becomes much too long, and 
 this affects the pastern, throwing it out of posi- 
 tion and spoiHng the gait. Therefore hoofs 
 should be shortened from time to time. The 
 heels which curve in should be pared with the 
 hoof-knife, and the outer edge of the bearing 
 wall rounded. Sometimes the hoof must be 
 readjusted in bearing level to prevent distortion, 
 and by this means the position of the limbs may 
 be corrected if bad. If taken in time, a good 
 hoof can be produced. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 115 
 
 Washing. It is highly desirable to preserve 
 cleanliness in all stable-reared colts by frequently 
 and thoroughly washing the hoofs and taking 
 care there is a good bedding of straw. 
 
 Tvne to Shoe. Too earl}^ shoeing is very in- 
 jurious, as it interferes with the development 
 of the hoof. When shod too soon, colts are 
 often overworked and thereby ruined. Moder- 
 ate work in the fields does not harm your 
 horses, but for this shoes are not required. 
 
 Hoofs of Older Horses. The unshod hoofs 
 of older horses should be rounded at regular 
 intervals and the length of the walls regulated 
 when proper wear has not taken place. 
 
 Care of Shod Hoofs. Though shoeing is abso- 
 lutely necessary, shod hoofs are more liable to 
 injury than unshod. Shoeing prevents the 
 natural movements of the foot, interferes with 
 circulation, hinders the growth of horn, and 
 finally causes a gradual shrinking of the hoof. 
 Keeping horses in stables is also injurious, 
 since it prevents free movemxcnt, is unclean 
 when the floors are bad and the bedding filthy, 
 and causes dryness of the hoof. Continual 
 standing invariaby makes the hoofs contract, 
 and dryness adds to the evil, more especially 
 in the front hoofs. Hind hoofs receive suf- 
 ficient moisture from the manure. Uneven 
 
116^ Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 floors tire the limbs. Accumulation of manure 
 and stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the 
 frog. 
 
 With proper care these evils may be lessened 
 or entirely removed. Not only should the hoofs 
 be shortened every four or five weeks, but prop- 
 er attention should be given to cleanliness and 
 moisture. These require dry straw and daily 
 picking out and washing of the feet. Such 
 measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet, and 
 daily washing will give the front feet the neces- 
 sary moisture. Washing adds greatly to the 
 elasticity of the shod hoof. To keep the mois- 
 ture in, the entire hoof should be oiled or coated 
 with hoof -salve. Patent salves are not needed. 
 Melted horse-grease,^ pork fat, or any other fat 
 that is not rancid will answer. 
 
 Abundant (but not excessive) exercise is espe- 
 cially necessary to keep the hoof healthy. By 
 keeping up the circulation of blood it stimu- 
 lates the growth of horn. Horses which work 
 regularly have better hoofs, as a rule, than 
 those which stand in the stable. A poultice 
 of clay, bran, sawdust, or linseed meal is never 
 necessary if the hoofs have proper care; but 
 there are times when this is useful on front feet. 
 The feet may even be stood in pails of water. 
 Front hoofs are much more subject to dryness 
 
Carriage and Wagon. Building. 117 
 
 than hind, and the shoe aids in this as it keeps 
 the foot off the ground. Oiling alone will not 
 soften horn. It must always be accompanied 
 by washing in water, and it is the water which 
 softens. Oiling before a hoof has been cleaned 
 is decidedly injurious, as it produces a greasy 
 ' 'trust under which the horn becomes brittle. 
 
 The surest sign of a clean hoof is the color of 
 the horn. It will appear translucent even after 
 it has been covered with ointment. Black- 
 ened ointments should never be used, as they 
 prevent properly judging the condition of the 
 hoof. When the roads are wet and muddy, a 
 little wax or rosin may be added to the ointment, 
 as it prevents too great softening of the horn. 
 
 As all shoeing, even the best, injures the hoof 
 more or less, horses should occasionally be al- 
 lowed to go barefoot, and the more the better. 
 This appUes especially to horses out of service, 
 provided the nature of the hoof permits going 
 barefoot. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SHOEING DEFECTIVE HOOFS. 
 
 Lameness. Usually we do not consider a 
 hoof defective unless there is lameness; but 
 there may be disease, and we must consider that 
 there is whenever the appearance of the hoof 
 deviates from the normal as previously described. 
 Front hoofs are more easily affected than hind 
 hoofs, because they bear greater weight and 
 have more slanting walls. All sound hoofs 
 varying in shape from the normal or regular 
 are more liable to disease when the wall is slant- 
 ing or distorted than when stumpy or obtuse- 
 angled. 
 
 Inflammation of the Pododerm. The Podo- 
 derm is the sensitive skin under the horny wall 
 and sole. It shows itself in nearly every case 
 by lameness, and on close examination it will 
 be found that there is increased heat in the hoof, 
 and a stronger pulsation in the arteries, to- 
 gether with pain. The pain gives a timid, 
 shortened gait, especially on hard ground; 
 and sensitiveness may be detected b}^ pressing 
 on the hoof with the pincers, or lightly tapping 
 
 118 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 119 
 
 the hoof. The increased heat may be detected 
 by touch of the hand. Intense pain and great 
 heat between the hoof and the fetlock indicate 
 suppuration. 
 
 A lame horse should be systematically exam- 
 ined as previously described in the judging of 
 a horse for shoeing. Usually there will be no 
 doubt whether the lameness is in the hoof or 
 in other joints, but in cases of doubt all the 
 joints and tendons of the foot may be exam- 
 ined. 
 
 The old shoe should be removed with the great- 
 est caution. Sometimes the second shoe must 
 not be removed till the first has been replaced. 
 Equal caution should be observed in paring, 
 which may be looked on as a part of the exami- 
 nation. Paring for the shoeing of a lame hoof 
 often differs from paring under normal condi- 
 tions, but it often leads to exact knowledge of 
 the source of the trouble. 
 
 The causes of disease of the hoof are various, 
 but arise from bruising of the tender parts shut 
 up within the horny cover, for the most part. 
 This arises from unskilful dressing of the feet, 
 bad shoeing, overwork in the case of a young 
 horse, too great dryness, etc. 
 
 Treatment. First, the cause should be dis- 
 covered and removed as far as possible. Often 
 
120 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 lameness may be removed by proper shoeing, 
 change in the work done, and better care of the 
 feet. When the inflammation is intense, the 
 shoe should be removed for a few days. When 
 the inflammation is moderate, and confined to 
 some particular spot, it is sufficient to alter the 
 shoeing so as to regulate the distribution of 
 weight, and removing all superfluous horn, 
 especially from the wall and sole, in order to 
 make the horn more yielding and the poultices 
 more effective. The shoe should then be so 
 fitted that the diseased portion will be relieved 
 of the weight of the body and remain free from 
 all pressure. This can be done partly by 
 making the branch covering the affected por- 
 tion longer and wider, partly by cutting down 
 the bearing edge of the wall where this can 
 be done without weakening the wall and also by 
 concaving the upper surface of the shoe. As 
 difficulties are more usual in the back part of 
 the hoof, it is advisable to put the nailholes as 
 far front as practicable. 
 
 The Bar-Shoe. This form of shoe (shown in 
 Fig. 35) holds the first place among special 
 shoes for lame feet, and in many cases is to be 
 preferred to the large number of special kinds 
 that may be recommended. It is made like 
 an ordinary flat shoe, but requires a longer 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 121 
 
 piece of iron. The ends of the branches are 
 bent inward over a dull corner of the anvil, are 
 bevelled, laid one over the other, and welded to 
 form the bar. The bar should be as wide and 
 thick as the rest of the shoe, but slightly con- 
 caved on the side of the frog. 
 
 Ti'p^SS. 
 
 This form of shoe is valuable for the reason 
 that it protects certain sections of the wall from 
 pressure, permits part of the body weight to be 
 borne by the frog, and restores activity to dis- 
 used parts of the foot. It may give a larger 
 bearing surface for the hoof. By adding a 
 leather sole to the bar shoe we may distribute 
 the weight over the entire base of the foot, and 
 
122 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 this is desirable whenever the wall is not strong 
 enough to bear the weight alone. 
 
 To make the leather sole and fasten it in 
 place there must be holes in the ends of the 
 branches, to which the leather is firmly riveted 
 with small nails. The shoe should be wider 
 than the hoof, and the cHps higher than usual. 
 The shoe is first fitted. Then the grooves for 
 the clips are cut out of the leather, and the 
 leather is riveted to the shoe, all projecting 
 portions being cut away. The cleft of the frog 
 and other cavities of the sole are then smeared 
 thick with wood-tar and filled with oakum in 
 such a way that the packing will bear part of 
 the weight. The packing is of importance 
 because it prevents slime and sand from filter- 
 ing in, and preserves the horn, breaks the shock, 
 and produces a gradual expansion of the back 
 of the foot. Before the shoe is nailed on the 
 leather sole should be soaked in water. 
 
 ''Nailing.'' Wounds to the sensitive tissue 
 caused by nails driven into the hoof for fasten- 
 ing shoes are usually spoken of under the gen- 
 eral term ''nailing." We distinguish direct 
 and indirect nailing, according as the eft^ects 
 are felt at the time or later. 
 
 In direct nailing the nail penetrates the tender 
 inner skin and akfays causes bleeding, even if 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 123 
 
 blood is not observed. In extreme cases the 
 coffin bone is chipped. 
 
 In the case of indirect nailing, the nail does 
 not puncture the tender skin but passes very 
 near to it and crowds the soft horn against the 
 velvety tissue. This bulging presses on the 
 pododerm and causes inflammation and lame- 
 ness, which may not develop for several days. 
 
 Direct nailing causes instant pain, shown by 
 jerking the limb, etc., and then more or less 
 bleeding. Usually the blood flows from the nail- 
 hole, or blood may be seen on the point of the 
 nail ; but internal bleeding may take place with- 
 out any sign. In indirect nailing there is no imme- 
 diate pain, often not for a day or tv^^o, but some- 
 times as soon as the horse bears his weight on 
 the foot. In the latter case, when the other 
 foot is raised the animal will throw his weight 
 on the workman, or become restless. But 
 usually pain does not develop for two or three 
 days, and sometimes not for a week or two. 
 In cases of that kind a careful examination 
 will reveal internal inflammation of the hoof, 
 increased warmth, some swelling of the hoof, 
 and pain when the hoof is tapped or pressed 
 with the pincers. Nailing may be suspected 
 in all cases if the shoeing has been recent, if 
 the hoof is small and narrow for the weight, 
 
124 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 if the walls have been thinned, or the nails driven 
 very high or irregularly.' 
 
 The most usual cause is an error in shoeing, 
 chiefly a disregard of the rule that nails should 
 penetrate the white line. Leading causes are: 
 1. Using badly punched shoes; 2. excessive 
 paring and shortening of the hoof; 3. weak- 
 ening the lower border too much by paring away 
 on the outside; 4. mistakes in fitting the shoe, 
 such as using shoes too narrow, letting the toe- 
 clips penetrate the horn too far (by which the 
 nailing around the toe, instead of penetrating 
 the white line, is carried back to the sole), or 
 using shoes in which the nailholes are improperly 
 directed; 5. using nails that are split, or badly 
 formed or bevelled, or that are too large; 6. 
 starting nails with the bevel on {he outside, or 
 drawing them too tight. Sometimes the cause 
 is old nail stubs in the horn, thin or broken 
 walls, or a soft and crumbling wall which makes 
 it difficult to know how the nail is being driven, 
 or restlessness of the animal while being shod. 
 
 When nailing is suspected, tap the clinches, 
 or press upon the sole and clinches with the 
 hoof-testers, and if this causes pain there can 
 be little doubt that ''nailing" is the trouble. 
 
 Carefully draw each nail separately till the 
 shoe can be removed, and examine each nail 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 125 
 
 for blood stains or marks of pus, etc. Then 
 look on the sole for the nailholes, and if one be 
 found inside the white line, it is very probable 
 that the nail driven there has caused the injury. 
 Test every nailhole by passing a clean, new nail 
 into it and pressing the point toward the soft 
 tissues from time to time. Any sign of pain is 
 a good indication of ''nailing.'' Of course the 
 nailholes in the shoe should be carefully exam- 
 ined. 
 
 Treatment for Nailing. In case of an ordi- 
 nary prick with a nail, leave the nailhole empty 
 and fill with wax. In most cases no serious 
 trouble will follow. In case of serious direct 
 nailing, a most careful examination of the entire 
 shoeing should be made, especially noting if 
 any nail passes inside the white line. More or 
 less inflammation is to be expected, and this 
 should be provided for by resting the animal and 
 cooling the foot. 
 
 A clean recent wound can never be helped by 
 enlarging the opening, or cutting or boring the 
 horn. On the contrary, this will produce 
 further injury. 
 
 In cases of indirect nailing, the results of 
 which are not observed for some days, it will 
 be observed when the injurious nail is with- 
 drawn that it is covered with pus or a dark, thin, 
 
126 Blacksmifhing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 bad-smelling liquid. In all such cases the 
 liquid must be allowed to escape freely. To do 
 this it is usually sufficient to cut away a portion 
 of the wall about the nailhole, not more than the 
 thickness of the little finger, and then place the 
 foot in a warm bath to assist in the discharge. 
 It is a great mistake to remove all the loosened 
 horn. After the liquids have passed away, the 
 old horn will form the best dressing for the dis- 
 eased region till new horn is formed. 
 
 If when the nail and pus have been removed, 
 the pain does not cease, the foot should be placed 
 in a bath about 90° in temperature, with an in- 
 fusion of hayseed and a three to five per cent 
 solution of carbolic acid in water. The bath 
 must be kept really warm. 
 
 If the pain has been alleviated by two or three 
 hot baths, a few drops of tincture of myrrh 
 may be placed on the wound and the opening 
 closed with carbolized oakum or cotton. 
 
 A horse that has been nailed will be ready 
 for service again in a few days if he is provided 
 with a shoe which does not press upon the in- 
 flamed region. The shoe does not press when 
 it rests only upon the hearing edge of the wall, 
 while the white line and sole are entirely free. 
 Of course no nails can be driven near the in- 
 flammation. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. V2!7 
 
 Though usually not serious, nailing may pro- 
 duce lock-jaw which is nearly always fatal to a 
 horse. It is always possible that nailing, how- 
 ever insignificant, may cause death. 
 
 Street Nail. When any sharp object in the 
 street causes injury to the sole or frog, or lower 
 bones or articulations, it is spoken of under the 
 general name '^street nail." Hind hoofs are 
 most frequently affected. The chief point of 
 entrance is the cleft of the frog, and is usually 
 the result of thinning the sole or frog excessively. 
 
 The first symptom is usually sudden pain and 
 lameness. If the cause proves to be a nail, 
 piece of glass, or other object, it must be care- 
 fully drawn out, care being taken to leave no 
 broken pieces in the foot. Always preserve the 
 object drawn out, in case the doctor may wish 
 to see it (if a doctor is called). 
 
 The sole may be thinned for au' inch or so 
 around the wound, but the opening would not 
 be opened farther. Then cooling applications 
 should be made. Deep, painful wounds re- 
 quire the attention of a doctor. 
 
 Usually a dressing of some kind is required, 
 and this is to be held in place by a special shoe 
 In most cases a simple splint dressing is sufficient 
 The hoof side of an ordinary shoe is well concaved, 
 and splints of tough wood firmly wedged between 
 
128 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 the hoof and the shoe. In special cases a cov- 
 ered shoe may be required. This has a sheet- 
 iron cover, with a projection at the toe fitting 
 into a corresponding indenture in the shoe, 
 while at the heels it is fastened by screw heel 
 calks. 
 
 Calking. This is the usual name for wounds 
 to the coronet caused by the calks on the oppo- 
 site foot, or by the shoes of other horses. A 
 bruise on the coronet results in an interruption 
 of the formation of horn at that point, making 
 a cleft in the wall. The resulting lameness can 
 be affected in shoeing only by shortening the 
 wall under the affected part so that it will not 
 press upon the shoe. 
 
 Corns. All bruises of the sole are usually 
 spoken of as ''corns,'' and appear as yellowish 
 or reddish discolorations of the horn or white 
 line. In most cases there is a rupture of the 
 small blood vessels, causing a sort of blood 
 bUster under the horn. The staining of the 
 horn is due to the blood penetrating the horn 
 tubes. As the horn grows these patches are 
 carried downward, and finally come to view on 
 paring the hoof. 
 
 The usual place where corns appear is near 
 the heels, often in the angles between the bars 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 129 
 
 and the wall, or in the bars themselves. We 
 distinguish corns of the sole, wall, and bars. 
 
 Corns chiefly affect the front hoofs, most often 
 the inner half. Unshod feet are seldom affected. 
 There are three kinds of corns: 1. Dry, in 
 which the red-stained horn is dry, seldom ac- 
 companied by lameness; 2. Suppurating Corns, 
 the result of a serious bruise followed by the 
 formation of pus which is either thin and dark 
 gray in color, indicating superficial inflamma- 
 tion of the pododerm, or thick and yellow indi- 
 cating a deep inflammation causing lameness; 
 3. Chronic Corns, causing discoloration in all 
 possible hues. The horn is soft and moist or 
 crumbling and sometimes bloody. The inner 
 surface of the horn is covered with horny swell- 
 ings, and sometimes the coffin bone becomes 
 enlarged and loosened. The gait is short and 
 cautious ; but when the shoe presses on the corn 
 or the hoof gets dry, lameness follows. 
 
 The causes of corns are bad dressing of the 
 hoof and faulty shoes. If wide, flat hoofs are too 
 much trimmed, or the heels or bars or frog of 
 other hoofs are weakened, the toe is usually 
 left too long and corns follow. Shortening one 
 heel more than the other, thus unbalancing the 
 foot, is a frequent cause,. Hollowing the sole 
 excessively and thinning the heels are also often 
 
130 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 to blame. So, too, shoes not level on the hoof 
 surface, shoes too short in the branches, or 
 shoes which do not cover the bearing surface 
 of the wall, result in corns in many cases. Anoth- 
 er fault tending in the same direction is insuffi- 
 cient concaving; and shoes that become loose 
 and get shifted produce similar injuries. In 
 rare cases corns result from stones wedged be- 
 tween the frog and the branches of the shoe. 
 
 Dryness particularly favors the formation of 
 corns and first shows itself by a short, cautious 
 gait when the horse is put to work. 
 
 Treatment of Corns. First remove the cause. 
 In an acute-angled hoof the toe is likely to be 
 too long and should be shortened. If the quar- 
 ters are too high they should be shortened, and 
 care should be taken that the shoe that is fitted 
 does not interfere with the elasticity of any part 
 of the foot. Special care should be taken that 
 the ends of the branches do not rise, and that in 
 no case does the shoe press upon the sole. 
 
 In case of a suppurating corn, the shoe should 
 be left off for a few days, and then a bar-shoe 
 put on, as this best protects the bruised parts 
 from being pinched. 
 
 Chronic corns should be permanently pro- 
 tected from any pressure from the shoe by using 
 a leather sole on a bar-shoe. Blood-stained 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 131 
 
 horn should not be dug out, but the whole region 
 thinned, avoiding injuring the sensitive tissue 
 or drawing blood. The hoof should be kept 
 cool and moist. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bulbs of the Heels. This 
 is due to external bruising, and may occur 
 on shod or uns'liod feet. We will find sweUing 
 and increased warmth, sometimes signs of 
 blood, and a short cautious gait or well marked 
 lameness in case only one foot is affected. 
 
 Such inflammation is due to going barefoot 
 on hard ground, shoeing feet with low heel bulbs 
 with shoes that are too short, too much pres- 
 sure on the frog by the bar of a bar-shoe, or 
 forging and grabbing. 
 
 First, cool by applying an ice poultice or 
 soak in cold water. Later drying applications 
 will help, especially if the frog-band has been 
 loosened from the bulbs of the heels, as for in- 
 stance a weak solution of sulphate of copper 
 (one part sulphate to twenty of water) and 
 fitting shoes with heel calks and making them 
 long in the branches and without pressure on 
 the walls at the heels. 
 
 Founder. This is inflammation of the podo- 
 derm due to chilling as a direct result of excess- 
 ive work or long standing in the stable. Often 
 the entire shape of the hoof is changed, and 
 
132 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 the disease is very painful. In most cases both 
 fore feet are affected — very rarely only one foot 
 or all four feet. When all the feet are affected, 
 traveling is nearly impossible, and there is a 
 high fever of the whole body. 
 
 The disease usually finds its seat in the fleshy 
 leaves of the toe, sometimes on the side walls 
 toward the heels. As the inflammation pro- 
 ceeds the fleshy leaves are separated from the 
 horny leaves, the position of the coffin bone 
 changes, and the coronet of the toe sinks, and 
 the form of the hoof is changed. It becomes 
 too high at the heels, rings form upon the walls, 
 and these rings show the course of the disease.' 
 At the toe they are close together, gradually 
 separating toward the heels. The wall of the 
 toe is sunken under the coronet, and the toe 
 itself is pushed forward. In time the white 
 line is widened, and becomes dry and crumbling 
 so that a crack is Hable to form between the 
 sole and the wall, leading to the formation of a 
 hollow wall. 
 
 If the inflammation does not occur too often 
 and disappears, no unnatural result follows 
 except that the horn remains rather brittle 
 afterward. If the inflammation is severe or 
 often repeated, the sole is flattened just in front 
 of the frog as a result of the sinking of the 
 
Oarriage and Wagon Building. 133 
 
 coffin bone, and may even drop below the level 
 of the wall. In some cases the coffin bone will 
 even penetrate the sole in front of the point of 
 the frog, and the wall of the toe becomes per- 
 manently deformed. Skilful veterinary care 
 may remove the inflammation and prevent the 
 results described; but if this is not accom- 
 plished permanent deformity of the horny hoof 
 is inevitable. 
 
 A foundered horse can be used, but its gait 
 is extremely stiff and short, and the heels touch 
 the ground before the toe. This manner of 
 travelling wears off the branches of the shoe 
 with great rapidity. 
 
 In dressing such a foot, the thick projecting 
 wall at the toe may be removed without injur- 
 ing the hoof; the sole may be pared, and the 
 whole hoof trimmed to give a correct bearing 
 on the ground. 
 
 If the sole is still concave, the regular shoe will 
 answer; but if it is flat or dropping, it should 
 be protected by a shoe with a broad web and a 
 bar, as shown in Fig. 36. This kind of shoe 
 is especially useful when the bearing surface of 
 the wall is broken or weak. 
 
 As long as the toe is affected, there should 
 be no toe clip, but two side clips, as shown in 
 Fig. 36. The wall between these clips should 
 
134 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 be lower, not over an eighth of an inch, to 
 prevent pressure on the sensitive parts. To 
 prevent the shoe from working forward, as it 
 often does in cases of this kind, clips should be 
 raised at the ends of the branches or in the 
 middle of the bar. 
 
 Horn Tumor. This is of rare occurrence, and 
 is not certainly indicated unless it extends down 
 to the edge of the wall and causes a half moon- 
 like bending inward of the white line that is 
 waxen color, followed by crumbling of the wall. 
 It may not cause lameness, and can be removed 
 only by a veterinary doctor. In shoeing, care- 
 fully concave the shoe so as to remove all pres- 
 sure from the inflamed region. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 VARIOUS DEFECTS. 
 
 Flat Hoof and Dropping Sole. Horses bred 
 on marshy ground are likely to have hoofs of 
 which the side walls and toe are very oblique 
 to the ground, while the sole is level with the 
 bearing surface of the wall and the frog is highly 
 developed. The branches of the sole sink even 
 beyond the level of the wall. 
 
 In shoeing, remove the loose horn and level 
 the deficient bearing surface of the wall, strong- 
 ly rounding off the outer border, shortening 
 the toe, and removing outward bendings of the 
 lower border. The shoe should be of wide web 
 and thick, with a bearing surface just corre- 
 sponding to the edge of the wall, and sloping 
 inward, while the shoe is well concaved, espe- 
 cially on the inner branch. The bearing sur- 
 face of the branches must, however, be hori- 
 zontal. If the hoof is otherwise defective, a 
 bar-shoe will be required. 
 
 If the sole bulges beyond the edges of the 
 wall, the only preparation needed for shoeing 
 will be removal of loose horn. In some cases 
 the bearing surface of the wall may be built up 
 
 135 
 
136 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 with hoof cement. The shoe should be Ught 
 and broad in the web, with deep concaving (as 
 circumstances require), extending from the 
 inner edge of the web to the outer edge of the 
 shoe and corresponding in shape to the bulge 
 of the sole. A bar-shoe is to be preferred, and 
 toe and heel calks are to be used to remove the 
 sole sufficiently from the ground. The nails 
 should be thin and long, and two side clips 
 make the shoe more firm. 
 
 Flat and dropping soles cannot be cured, 
 and shoeing can do nothing more than render 
 such horses serviceable. Sensitive soles should 
 be smeared with crude turpentine or pine tar. 
 In cases of unusual sensitiveness, a leather sole 
 should be fitted. 
 
 Never drive a horse with dropping soles 
 faster than a walk over rough roads. During 
 wet weather the soles should be smeared with 
 hoof-ointment containing rosin to prevent soft- 
 ening. 
 
 Stumpy Hoof. In a hoof of this character 
 the wall at the heels is too high for the toe, and 
 the toe stands very steep. It arises from various 
 affections (such as spavin) which tend to re- 
 move the heels from contact with the ground, 
 or from neglect of horses running barefoot, or 
 from shortening the toe too much. 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 137 
 
 If the position comes from the natural shape 
 of the Hmbs, the hoofs should not be altered; 
 but if from disease of the flexor tendons, etc., 
 causing drawing up of the heels, the hoof should 
 be properly treated until the heels are brought 
 down. This may be done by sparing the wall 
 at the heels, as by the use of thickened branches 
 or calks. There is a tendency to wear off the 
 toe, and if the work is hard on trying streets, a 
 steel plate may be welded on the toe, especially 
 of the hind hoofs. The shoe' should also be 
 bevelled outward a little making a wide base 
 at the toe, have a strong toe clip, and be well 
 concaved and rolled at the toe. 
 
 J^z^. 32. 
 
 In case the stumpiness is from neglect, the 
 hoofs may be dressed in the ordinary way, and 
 if the w^ork is not heavy, the hoofs may be shod 
 with tips as shown in Fig. 37, or with shoes of 
 which the shanks have been thinned. 
 
 Contracted Hoof. The term contracted hoof 
 
138 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 indicates a hoof which for any reason is too nar- 
 row toward the heels. The wall runs obhquely 
 downward and inward. Sometimes only one 
 side is contracted. Usually the angles are 
 much prolonged and press on the frog, which 
 shrinks, and the bars run in outward circles. 
 Contraction is most often found on front feet, 
 especially those with acute-angled toe. If the 
 frog is found to be narrow and the fissures nar- 
 row and deep, there can be no doubt that the 
 hoof is contracted. 
 
 The causes of contraction are lack of exercise, 
 weakening the hoof toward the heels and leaving 
 the toe too long, or neglecting to remove spurs 
 of horn that press upon the frog. It is also 
 caused by using shoes with branches wide apart, 
 or inclined downward and inward so that the 
 weight of the body squeezes the heels to- 
 gether. 
 
 Treatment. Remember that anything that 
 exercises a moderate pressure on frog, sole, or 
 bars tends to expand he hoof; hence frog 
 and sole pads are to be recommended. Con- 
 tracted hoofs cause nearly all the diseases of 
 the foot, such as corns, thrush, bar-cracks, etc., 
 and therefore every effort should be made to 
 prevent them. Use flat shoes with a perfectly 
 horizontal bearing surface in the branches, 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 139 
 
 and give abundant exercise, allowing the horse 
 to go barefoot as often as possible. 
 
 In very severe cases of contraction, if the 
 feet are not acute-angled, an expansive shoe, 
 with clips at the ends of the branches to press 
 upon the angles, is to be recommended. Under 
 no conditions use the expanding-screw except 
 under the advice of a doctor. 
 
 If the hoof is acute-angled, use the bar-shoe, 
 and if necessary even leather sole and foot- 
 packing. If the frog is foul it should be well 
 cleansed and disinfected with pine tar thinned 
 with alcohol or crude wood vinegar. 
 
 In addition we would recommend applying 
 tips, using shoes the bearing surface of whose 
 branches inclines downward and outward (or 
 if the contraction is on only one side, but a 
 single branch may be thus inclined); using 
 hoof-pads of rubber, straw, rope, cork, or hoof- 
 cement. 
 
 Sometimes wide hoofs are contracted, and 
 the contraction shows in a groove just under 
 the coronet, especially near the heels, but some- 
 times extending all around the hoof. Pain 
 is produced by tapping the contracted portion.s 
 Horses fresh from the pasture are very Hable to 
 this form of contraction, and as a rule lameness 
 does not disappear entirely until the wall has re- 
 
140 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 sumed its natural position once more. The wall 
 under the contracted portion should be lowered 
 so that it will not receive direct pressure, and 
 the bar-shoe should be used. 
 
 Sometimes the contraction is of the sole, and 
 the hoof curves from the coronet outward 
 and then inward, like a clav/. The sole is ex- 
 ceedingly concave, and the bearing surface of 
 the wall is lessened from toe to heel. The cause 
 is usually dryness and lack of exercise, and 
 shoes whose bearing surface is not horizontal. 
 Flat shoes perfectly horizontal should be used, 
 with strong clips at the ends of the branches. 
 
 In all forms of contraction abundant exer- 
 cise and daily washing are a necessary part of 
 the treatmicnt. 
 
 Wry Hoofs. These are hoofs of which one 
 side is slanting and the other steep. We have 
 already considered those forms of wry hoofs 
 resulting from the position of the limbs as base- 
 wide or base-narrow, and contraction of one 
 side from disease. We will here consider wry 
 hoofs caused by shortening one wall too much 
 in shoeing. 
 
 The general rule is, cut down the oblique 
 wall and spare the steep wall. This is just the 
 reverse of the treatment of wry hoofs due to 
 misshapen limbs, for in this case the wryness of 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 141 
 
 the hoof does not correspond to the limb. To 
 take the weight from the steep wall we may use 
 a bar-shoe and concave the upper surface of the 
 bar under the outer branch of the frog. The 
 steep wall should not even rest upon the shoe, 
 or in any way be attached to it. It should be 
 left entirely free, either by cutting down the 
 wall itself, or beating dow^n the upper surface 
 of the shoe. 
 
 Any sort of shoe may be used, though a flat 
 shoe is best. If the foot has been improperly 
 pared and we cannot rectify this at once, we 
 may use a shoe with a thicker branch for the 
 steep side. Colts with wry hoofs can often be 
 cured by the simple process of correct shoeing. 
 We use a shoe thick beneath the contracted 
 wall, but gradually growing thinner around 
 the toe to the end of the other branch. In 
 some cases the branch may even end at the 
 middle or the side wall. This shifts the weight 
 of the body to the slanting wall and corrects 
 the bad shape in three or four months. 
 
 Crooked Hoofs are such as are so bent that 
 the bearing surface does not lie in proper rela- 
 tion to the coronet. They are caused by leaving 
 one half of the wall too high, or by using normal 
 shoes on hoofs of horses whose legs have the 
 base-wide position. 
 
142 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 The hoof should be so pared as to remedy 
 this defect as much as possible, and then the 
 shoe set out beyond the wall that is curved in 
 so that a straight edge from the coronet will 
 pass the curvature and touch the edge of the 
 shoe. The opposite wall that is curved inward 
 should be rasped down at the bearing edge until 
 a straight line will touch all the way from the 
 coronet to the shoe. Several shoeings will be 
 required to rectify the shape of the hoof. 
 
 Side-bone (ossification of the lateral cartilage) 
 is hardening of the cartilage under the bulbs 
 of the heels into bone, and the disease is incura- 
 ble. It is found most often in heavy horses, 
 and causes lameness due to interference with 
 the free movements of the foot. When ad- 
 vanced it causes a marked bulging of the coronet 
 near the heels, and the protuberance is hard. 
 The gait is short, and lameness follows hard 
 work. 
 
 Special shoeing is helpful only when the outer 
 cartilage is ossified and the hoof is contracted 
 on that side. It will usually be found that the 
 outer branch of the old shoe is more worn than 
 the inner, and the outer wall will be found too 
 high. This is due to the fact that the horn of 
 the wall does not wear against the shoe, expan- 
 sion and contraction having been interfered 
 
Oarriage and Wagon Building. 143 
 
 with. A flat shoe is preferable, and the outer 
 branch should be wider than the inner. The 
 inner branch should follow the wall of the hoof 
 closely, w^hile the outer branch is full, toward 
 the heels extending beyond the hoof. The shoe 
 must of course be punched deep on the outer 
 and fine on the inner branch, and a side clip 
 should be placed on the outer branch. Bar- 
 shoes are injurious in a case of this kind. 
 
 Cracks. We distinguish toe-cracks, side- 
 cracks, bar-cracks, and heel-cracks. In the 
 upper border of the hoof we find coronary 
 cracks, while the cracks lower down are called 
 low cracks; and the cracks may be deep, pass- 
 ing through the wall, or superficial. 
 
 Cracks are due largely to dryness and over- 
 work on hard streets. Coronary cracks are the 
 most serious and often cause lameness. The 
 borders of the cracks never grow together, and 
 are to be remedied only by healthy horn grow- 
 ing down from the coronary band. 
 
 Treatment of Cracks. In case of serious coro- 
 nary cracks the horse should be allowed to go 
 barefoot. The use of the bar-shoe (if shoes are 
 necessary) is advised for all forms of crack, 
 since it protects the diseased portion of the 
 wall from pressure. If other diseases are pres- 
 ent, the leather sole may be added. Coronary 
 
144 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 cracks should be fastened together by various 
 means, such as, 1. Nails which rivet the crack 
 together, the holes for the nails having been 
 previously drilled; 2. Clamps forced into pock- 
 ets burnt into the horn on opposite sides of the 
 crack; 3. A thin plate of iron placed over the 
 crack and secured by small wood screws; 4. 
 wood screws screwed at right angles through 
 the crack; 5. A strap buckled round the hoof. 
 In all cases care should be taken that the 
 foot is so dressed that the shoe fits air-tight; 
 but before the shoe is nailed on pressure on 
 certain portions of the wall should be removed. 
 In case of toe-cracks we may raise clips to press 
 against the angles of the heels. Two side toe- 
 clips may be drawn up, and the wall between 
 them pared down. 
 
 J'^. JS 
 
 In case of side-cracks, the portion of the wall 
 between the extension of the horn tubes to the 
 bearing surface and a perpendicular let down 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 145 
 
 from the crack to the bearing surface should 
 be lowered (Fig. 38). 
 
 In case of cracks toward the heels, use a bar- 
 shoe and proceed as with side-cracks, even when 
 the perpendicular line falls beyond the angles. 
 
 Hoof pads are of great value, since they dis- 
 tribute a part of the weight over the frog and 
 sole. 
 
 When the crack is wide and the frog small, 
 shoes with bar-clips may be used. If the edges 
 of the crack are ragged and overlapping, the 
 overlapping horn should be trimmed away. The 
 horn over the coronary band on both sides of the 
 crack should be thinned, and the coronet should 
 frequently be moistened with laurel oil to guard 
 against renewal of the crack. 
 
 In case of inflammation, poultices are recom- 
 mended for several days. Fast trotting should 
 be avoided till the sound horn has grown down 
 at least two-fifths of an inch from the coronary 
 band. 
 
 Bar-cracks occur only on the fore hoofs, and 
 are due to contraction of the walls near the 
 heels, or leaving the wall too high. They are 
 usually accompanied by corns. If the crack 
 extends to the pododerm, lameness will result 
 and inflammation will set in which will extend to 
 other parts of the foot unless promptly treated. 
 
146 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 The portion of the hoof where the bars lie is so 
 elastic that the cracks open and close with each 
 step, and thus healing is made difficult. 
 
 Bar-cracks are usually not seen till the shoe 
 is removed, and they then appear as dark streaks 
 sometimes bloody or marked with hoof pus. 
 
 The horn in the vicinity of the crack should 
 be pared very thin, and the edges of the crack 
 cut away, and pressure on this part of the wall 
 should be removed. The wall near the heel 
 should be lowered and a bar-shoe used. When 
 the crack has been pared down, a deep groove will 
 appear, and if this is moist at the bottom the 
 crack should be packed with oakum wet with 
 myrrh or tincture of aloes, while the oakum 
 should be sealed over with grafting wax. 
 
 Low cracks are usually caused by insufficient 
 rounding of the bearing edge of the w^all, in case 
 of barefoot horses. They may also be caused by 
 too large nails in shoes punched too near the edge. 
 All that is necessary by w^ay of treatment is 
 proper shoeing. The bearing edge of the horn 
 under the crack may be cut away in a half moon, 
 and to prevent the crack from extending higher, 
 the upper end of the fissure should be burnt 
 out hollow or cut out with a hoof knife nearly 
 to the inner leafy layer of horn. 
 
 Clefts are cracks at right angles to the horn 
 
Carriage and Wagon Budding. 147 
 
 tubes, and are most frequent on the inner toe and 
 side as a result of injury from sharp heel calks 
 improperly placed, though they may come from 
 suppuration. The shoer can do nothing in cases 
 of this kind, except to drive no nails in the horn 
 below the cleft (to avoid breaking it off), and by 
 shortening the wall below. If, however, the 
 horn is loose, it should be removed and the fissure 
 filled with grafting v/ax or horn cement. 
 
 Loose Wall is separation of the wall from the 
 sole along the white line. It is most frequent 
 on fore hoofs and on the inner side, especially 
 when the foot is wide and flat. 
 
 Loose wall is caused by very slanting walls, 
 outward bending of the bearing edge of the 
 wall, burning the horn wih hot shoes, dryness, 
 neglect of shoeing, excessive poulticing with cow 
 dung, carelessness in preparing the bearing sur- 
 faces of the shoe^ and uneven fitting of the shoe. 
 
 The causes of the looseness should of course 
 be entirely removed and the vv^all properly short- 
 ened. Then we may use a shoe with the bear- 
 ing surface inclined downward and inward. It 
 should be smooth and wide enough to cover 
 the bearing surface of the hoof as far in as the 
 border of the sole. In case of lameness, we should 
 use a bar-shoe or a leather sole. If the separa- 
 tion of the wall extends far, the wall should not 
 
148 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 be lowered, but the crack should be filled with 
 wood tar, crude turpentine, or soft grafting 
 wax. In case loose wall occurs on an unshod 
 hoof, the loose portion should be entirely re- 
 moved if possible; else the hoof should be shod. 
 The hoof should be cared for by shoeing at least 
 once a month and judicious moistening. 
 
 Hollow Wall may be suspected when a bulging 
 outward of the wall is observed, which sounds 
 hollow when tapped. It consists in separation 
 of the wall from the sensitive tissues, and is quite 
 rare. A crack will be seen in the white line, 
 though the separation of the wall may be less in 
 extent than the length of the crack. The cavity 
 frequently extends to the coronet, and is filled 
 with crumbling horn. Pain is not usual, but 
 lameness may in some cases result. It is caused 
 by chronic inflammation of the fleshy leaves. A 
 cure is possible, but requires time. In shoeing, 
 pressure should be removed from the hollow 
 section of wall, the cavity cleansed and filled 
 with tar, crude turpentine, or wax. If the 
 cavity is extensive, a bar-shoe should be used. 
 
 Thrush of the Frog makes the horn of the frog 
 ragged, and a bad-smelling, dark liquid collects 
 in the cleft. In the course of several months 
 the frog-band will be affected and irregular rings 
 and cross rings will be formed on the wall. The 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 149 
 
 cause is lack of exercise in the fresh air, or too 
 great paring of the frog, removing the frog from 
 the ground by heel calks, or the use of frog pads 
 for several months in succession. 
 
 All the greasy horn of the frog should be re- 
 moved, as well as the overgrown angles. The 
 frog should be washed once or twice a day, exer- 
 cise should be abundant, and shoes without 
 aclks. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SHOEING MULES AND OXEN. 
 
 The hoofs of mules and asses are similar to 
 those of horses, but the hoof of a mule is longer, 
 narrower, and round at the toe, the sole is well 
 arched, and the side walls steep. The hoofs 
 of asses are narrower and the wall relatively 
 thicker, while the frog is well developed, making 
 the hoof v/ide toward the heels. The horn of the 
 hoofs of mules and ass is tough. 
 
 Shoes should be light and narrow. Four 
 nails will hold on an ass's shos, five or six, a 
 mule's. The nails should be short, but strong 
 in the shank to prevent their bending. 
 
 Oxen require very different shoes from horses 
 on account of the cloven hoof. The two pasterns 
 and the hoof bone are double, one bone for each 
 claw; and there is no frog. The wall and sole 
 are thin, the bulbs of the heels low. A thin, wide 
 shoe is therefore required, and there must be a 
 separate shoe for each claw. 
 
 The holes must be punched near the edge and 
 the nails should be short and strong. The shoe 
 for each claw has a long tongue on the inner 
 
 150 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 151 
 
 side that is turned upward and around the toe, 
 and a small clip should be raised on the outer 
 edge for further stabiHty(Fig. 39). 
 
 An undivided or ''close-claw" shoe is useful 
 only for heavy work over rough roads where 
 there is danger of straining the fetlock and coro- 
 nary joints. 
 
 rig - 'SB 
 
 There is always great difficulty in holding 
 the feet of oxen while they are being shod. The 
 head should be fastened to a tree, post, or wall, 
 and a front foot may be held up by a shp-noose 
 passed over the back at the withers and held 
 
152 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 by an assistant on the opposite side. In case 
 of a hind limb, a pole may be placed in front 
 of the hock and a man at each end of the pole 
 may carry the leg back and up, where it should 
 be held in place. Obstinate oxen naay some- 
 times be controlled by giving a light blow with 
 a stick at the base of the horns. If many 
 oxen are to be shod, stocks will be found neces- 
 sary. When no stocks are available we may 
 use an ordinary farm wagon. Tie the ox with 
 head between front and hind wheels. Fasten 
 the large end of a binding pole to the spokes of 
 the front wheel, letting it rest on the hub. Swing 
 the pole to the side of the ox and under one 
 hind leg, bringing it around to the side of the 
 wagon and drawing it up till the leg swings 
 nearly free. The pole may be fastened to the 
 rack or other support. The most refractory 
 oxen may be controlled in this way by two 
 persons. 
 
PART III, 
 
 CARRIAGE BUILDING 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CARRIAGE IRONING. 
 
 Carriage building is divided into three branches, 
 to each of which one man usually devotes his 
 attention. These are carriage-ironing, spring- 
 making, and tire-welding; but a good smith 
 should be master of all three or, in other words, 
 he should be able to iron a carriage complete. 
 (See Fig. 40). 
 
 Edge Plates. The first pieces of iron-work 
 that are made for a carriage are edge plates. 
 These consist of two flat iron plates from two 
 to four inches in width, and from three-eighths 
 to five-eighths of an inch thick, according to 
 the size and description of the carriage, and 
 they extend from the front to the back of the 
 body. It is always the best plan to have the 
 sides of the body in the shop to fit the plates 
 
 153 
 
154 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 J^^:r^ot 
 
 to. Some of the corners may be turned, but 
 where extra strength is required, they should 
 be v/elded. The plates should be well fitted 
 down to the wood without burning. They are 
 best fitted in two or three pieces, and then 
 welded together, the length being taken with 
 a pair of compasses. If the plate is straight 
 edgewise over the weld, one mark on each piece 
 will be sufficient to take the length with; but 
 if the plate is convex or concave edgewise, then 
 two marks are necessary, one on either side of 
 the plate. Before the last weld is made — that 
 is, when the plate is in two pieces — the plate 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 155 
 
 should be perfectly fitted to within four inches 
 of the place where it is to be welded, and should 
 never be altered again after it is welded, except 
 the few inches left unfitted over the shut. The 
 holes which of necessity must be drilled should 
 not be too far apart, but close enough to hold 
 the plate firmly to the wood; yet they should 
 not be so close as to weaken the plate. 
 
 The Wheel Plate. The edge plates disposed 
 of, the next piece of iron-work that will be 
 wanted is the wheel plate; and if the carriage 
 is to be of modern design, the iron futchel and 
 cap, or middle of front bar, and the perch-bolt. 
 The dimensions of these must correspond to the 
 CLirriage. The wheel plate is made in two pieces, 
 and unless the bearings come very close together, 
 it should be made of half-round iron, with a small 
 flat edge, and upset to form the bearings; but 
 if the bearings come close together then flat 
 iron should be used, the space betv/een the 
 bearings being made half-round with a top tool. 
 The bearings should be left one inch longer 
 than they are required to be when finished, 
 and one-sixteenth inch thicker on the intended 
 outside than on the inside when the iron is in the 
 straight, as in compassing they always draw on 
 the outside edge and contract on the inside. A 
 circle should be drawn in chalk on the fitting- 
 
156 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 plate, the diameter of the intended wheel plate, so 
 as not to burn the pattern when compassing the 
 half-round iron. Do not bruise the edges of the 
 half-round iron any more than you can possibly 
 help, or you will soon get into trouble with the 
 viceman. The wheel plate when made should 
 be a perfect circle, and perfectly flat on the 
 flat side. If there is a sway-bar, it is usually 
 made with the wheel plate of the same iron, 
 and is about one-third of a circle of a much larger 
 diameter than the wheel plate, behind which 
 it is fixed, to give a larger bearing surface. 
 
 The futchel may be made in various forms 
 and shapes, and nearly every firm of co^ch- 
 buildcrs has a different style, hence it would 
 be impossible to lay down any definite rule for 
 making this piece of iron-work. 
 
 The perch-bolt is so simple that it needs no 
 description. 
 
 Bed Plates. While the carriage-maker is 
 making the carriage, the springs should be made, 
 a description of which will be given later on, 
 and Vv^e will proceed with our ironing. The 
 bed plates are next on the list. These consist, 
 of five plates, mostly half-round, and fitted to 
 three peculiarly-shaped pieces of timber, the 
 horn-bar, top bed, and bottom bed. The horn- 
 bar plate is sometimes made flat and sometimes 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 157 
 
 • 
 
 half-round. If of the former style, it is of the 
 same width as the wood, and from a quarter 
 to three-eighths of an inch thick, drawn off to 
 one-eighth of an inch at the ends and fitted to 
 the back side of the horn-bar. If of the latter 
 style, it is usually one inch or one and one-eighth 
 wide, with a feather edge drawn off a little at 
 the end. 
 
 Top Plate. The top plate fits on the top 
 side of the top bed. It is half round with a 
 feather edge when finished, with fiat bearings 
 on each end which support the body, and 
 a fiat boss in the centre, with a square hole to 
 take the head of the perch-bolt. This plate 
 is best made of flat iron from an inch and a 
 half to two inches in width, and from one-half 
 to five-eighths of an inch thick, according to 
 the size of the carriage, upset in the middle to 
 form the boss, which should be one-eighth of an 
 inch thicker than the half-round when finished. 
 When the iron is upset, punch the square hole 
 and cut a little with a fuller to form the boss. 
 Next proceed to make the flat iron half round 
 with top tools, between the boss and the bear- 
 ings, compassing edgewise as you proceed if 
 necessary. This, like all other plates, should 
 be well fitted down to the wood without burn- 
 ing. When finished the plate should be a little 
 
158 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 under the width of the wood, except at the 
 bearings, which should be the exact width of 
 the wood. 
 
 The Transom Plate. The socket transom, 
 or transom plate, is fitted on the top side of the 
 bottom bed. It is somewhat shorter than the 
 top plate, having bearings on each end on which 
 the wheel-plate works. There is a socket weld- 
 ed in the centre in which works the perch-bolt. 
 The socket is first made of a piece of flat iron 
 2J inches byiinch, the ends are scarfed, bent 
 round, and welded on a small beak-iron, or 
 mandrel. When both ends of the socket are 
 welded, form a scarf like the brim of a hat-box 
 by hammering one end on the beak-iron, or on 
 the back edge of the anvil, with a bob punch 
 from the inside. Put a mandrel in the hole and 
 round up in the tools and the socket is finished. 
 Get a piece of flat iron a little heavier than that 
 used for the top plate, upset in the middle where 
 the socket is to be welded, punch a hole large 
 enough to admit the socket, which must drive 
 in tight, and it is then ready for welding. Have 
 a bolster in which the socket fits nicely greased, 
 and a mandrel that fits into the socket also 
 greased. Get the heat well, but without burn- 
 ing the top of the socket. This heat must be 
 worked very quickly, as there is a lot to do. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 159 
 
 First, upset the end lightly; next, narrow in on 
 the edge and compass if necessary; put the 
 socket in the bolster and have a light, quick 
 blow on the scarf, and, while it is still welding 
 hot, insert the mandrel, knock off the bolster, 
 and narrow in on theedge ; knock out the man- 
 drel, and form a boss around the socket with a 
 fuller, like the top plate; then put the socket 
 into the bolster again, and clean up with the 
 flatter and set the mandrel square in the socket. 
 This can all be done in one heat if worked quick- 
 ly, and it is ready to be tooled like the top 
 plate. 
 
 The boss plate is fitted on the bottom side of 
 the top bed. It has no bearings except the 
 boss in the centre, which works on the boss of the 
 transom plate, the hole being left a little smaller 
 than the diameter of the socket, to allow for 
 fitting up by the viceman. This plate is also 
 made of flat iron, the ends being drawn off thin 
 and made half round with top tools. 
 
 The Bottom Plate. This plate is fitted on 
 the bottom side of the bottom bed. It is gen- 
 erally made of very stiff half-round iron, ordered 
 expressly for the purpose, and left much stronger 
 than the other plates, this being the main sup- 
 port of the front part of the body, commonly 
 called the "boot.'' It has a boss in the centre 
 
160 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 like the other plates, to receive the nut of the 
 perch-bolt, and bearings at the ends to take the 
 springs. Sometimes there is a T-flap welded 
 on each end, that fits between the spring-block 
 and the wheel-iron head. At other times there 
 are butterfly flaps with holes to receive the spring 
 clips. The iron used for these flaps should be 
 twice the thickness the flaps are required to be 
 when finished. The beds and bed-plates are 
 concentric to each other, the perch-bolt passing 
 through the whole. 
 
 Wheel Irons and Front Bars. When the car- 
 riage-maker has got the carriage ready, the 
 wheel irons and front bar (if there be one) 
 may be made. These are the irons with a bolt 
 through the ends, which connect the shafts to 
 the carriage, and are made in a variety of dif- 
 ferent styles to suit the taste of the coach- 
 builder. The part which lips the bottom bed 
 on the spring bearing is termed the ''head.'' 
 Some of these are made of flat iron, and the 
 round or oval iron welded on with a mitre, the 
 corners being turned. Others are made of 
 half-round iron, the round or oval iron being 
 drawn out of the half-round, and the corners 
 turned. Others, commonly called the ''sugar- 
 loaf head," are made out of the solid of square 
 iron, in which cases the corners are not turned, 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 161 
 
 but the head is formed first by being cut in with 
 a fuller and then worked up square with a top 
 and bottom set. The back end of a wheel iron 
 is termed the 'Hail'' or ''stag/' and is made 
 either round or oval, and is connected to the 
 hind end of the futchel with a small boss or L- 
 flap. If it is an iron futchel, the wheel irons 
 are connected to the front bar, either with a 
 spUce or wood block, the splices being made 
 separate and fitted up by the viceman before 
 they are welded to the wheel-irons and front 
 bar or cap, In the case of wooden futchels, 
 the front bar is dispensed with, the futchel 
 plates taking its place, and the front ends of 
 the futchel connect it to the wheel-iron in the 
 place of a block or sphce. The wheels are shod 
 next, a description of which is given farther on. 
 
 Thus far the carriage may be ironed while 
 the body is being made. If the carriage is a 
 landau, victoria, or phaeton, a set of head props 
 will be required, and they are made after pat- 
 terns furnished by the body-maker. 
 
 Head Irons. The head joints that Hft the 
 head up and down are usually patented and 
 self-acting, and are made and fitted by work- 
 men employed by the patentee. 
 . Hind Irons. In the first place the carriage- 
 maker, when the body is finished, makes the 
 
162 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 patterns of the piunp -handles or hind irons 
 which connect the hind springs and wheels to 
 the body. These, like the wheel irons, are made 
 in a variety of shapes. They are mostly made 
 of square iron, from IJ inch to IJ inch; some- 
 times they are made of Bessemer steel, to admit 
 of their being made very light. They take a 
 bearing on the top of the spring about six inches 
 long; this bearing is mostly half-round at the 
 top, whilst the bearing that takes the body is 
 half-round at the bottom; the space in between 
 and the ends are oval. Sometimes, to prevent 
 the pump-handles being cranked edgewise, a 
 flap is welded on the inside to take the 
 spring bearing. The flap is v/elded on while 
 the iron is square, and should be five-eighths 
 of an inch thick before being welded; this 
 should clean up nicely to seven-sixteenths of 
 an inch thick when finished. Weld this flap 
 on soundly, and while still welding hot, apply 
 the half-round or oval tools, as the case may 
 be. Both flaps on, proceed to draw the ends 
 off, and finish. Sometimes this style of pump- 
 handle has a wooden casing on the top, which 
 is artistically carved, in which case the top of 
 the pump-handle is left flat and the bottom 
 half-round. 
 
 Cross Spring. If the hind part of the car- 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 163 
 
 "% 
 
 riage is to be hung on the side springs and top 
 halves, a cross spring and span-iron will be re- 
 quired. The latter spans the hind part of the 
 body above the cross spring. There is a T or 
 L-flap on each end, which fits on the front ends 
 of the pump-handles, for which purpose the ends 
 of the span iron often have to be cranked. The 
 iron between the centre bearing — which is about 
 six inches long and takes the cross spring — 
 and the flaps are mostly oval, and is made out 
 of one inch square iron, tooled on the angle. 
 The bearing is made separate, off a piece of flat 
 iron the width of the spring and about three 
 quarters of an inch thick, about three inches at 
 each end being made oval and welded on to 
 the other pieces when the ends are finished. 
 When the crank is very short (say one to two 
 inches deep) it is best turned before the flaps 
 are welded on; but when the cranks are deep 
 they may be turned afterwards. Although 
 the oval part of the span-iron is often very 
 much compassed and twisted, it will seldom 
 want any fitting in the wood-shop if it is set 
 true to the pattern when in the smith's shop, 
 provided, of course, the pattern is true to the 
 body. 
 
 Sometimes the span-iron is dispensed with, 
 and a small stay or bracket substituted, which 
 
164 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 consists of a short piece of oval iron with a T- 
 flap at each end, one to take the top of the 
 cross-spring, while the other is bolted on the 
 bottom of the body. 
 
 The axle-trees arrived from the makers, the 
 spHngs made and fixed to the axle-trees, the 
 carriage put together, and the wheels ready, 
 the body may be now what is technically termed 
 ''hung" or mounted. The body steps may 
 nov/ be made. These also may be made in a 
 number of different styles. They may be either 
 branch tops or T-flaps, with plain treads or 
 gridirons for the steps, or they may be self- 
 acting, that is, opening and shutting with the 
 door. This class of step has the advantage of 
 being ahvays clean for the person to tread on, 
 and being self-acting, requires no folding up 
 when the door is closed. But they are seldom 
 used for any carriages except landaus, as they 
 are expensive to make and finish. 
 
 Branch Steps. The branch steps are made 
 of flat iron one inch by one-half or five-eighths, 
 each step being made in one piece. The iron 
 is cut off the required length and ovaled. The 
 ends of both pieces are then put into the fire, 
 and drawn off to form the flaps, which are half- 
 round, about one and three-eighths inches wide, 
 one foot, more or less, being left flat between the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 165 
 
 ovals. One piece may now be dropped, as one 
 heat will require all the attention. The one 
 piece is heated in the middle between the ovals ; 
 it is then bent double, the fiat sides of both flaps 
 coming together. The joint here — the flat iron 
 — ^is made perfectly close, so as to be proof against 
 the admission of dirt. Some smiths put a small 
 piece of hoop iron in the joint at the crotch to 
 strengthen it, but this is to be avoided, as it is 
 very apt to fall out in the fire and give place to 
 dirt. But a shoulder may be formed on the in- 
 side when tooling in the. first place, which is al- 
 ways preferable. A good welding heat is now 
 taken on the flat iron at the crotch, care bemg 
 taken not to burn the oval. When on the anvil 
 it is first welded up square, then the corners are 
 worked in, and then it is ovaled. The flap to 
 hold the tread is now made, or the gridiron weld- 
 ed on, as the case may be. This step is now 
 laid aside, and the other treated in the same 
 manner. When the latter is made like the for- 
 mer, it is bent out at the bottom, and then the 
 branch opened out as near as possible to the pat- 
 tern while the iron is hot. This is then laid aside 
 while the other is bent and opened out in the 
 same manner. This one, in its turn, is laid aside 
 to cool, while the other, — which by this time is 
 cold enough to handle— is set true to the pattern. 
 
166 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 This done, the other is also set true. They are 
 then ready to be fitted to the body. 
 
 Stej)s with T-Flaps. Steps with T-flaps are 
 somewhat plainer. A stump of inch or inch and a 
 quarter round iron is jumped onto a piece of fiat 
 or half-round iron about an inch and a half wide 
 by five-eighths of an inch thick, about five inches 
 from the end, and welded in a bolster. It is cut 
 off five inches the other side of the stump and 
 another made in the same manner. The ends 
 are then drawn off half-round. These form the 
 flaps or top of steps. If the steps are to have 
 plain treads, the stump may be left long enough 
 to form the spade or flap to hold the tread; 
 but if the steps are to be very deep, and require 
 a long stem, it is advisable to weld on only a short 
 stump, and have a shut in the middle of the 
 stem, which may be either round or oval to order. 
 If the steps are to have gridiron treads, the frame 
 of the gridiron is, of course, made separate, the 
 bars being riveted in afterwards by the viceman. 
 A smaller stump is v/elded on a smaller piece of 
 iron than that used for the flaps, but in the same 
 manner. The iron intended for the frame is 
 drawn out half-round, one inch v/ide, and long 
 enough to make the whole frame. The corners 
 are then turned and the frame v/elded up, the 
 sides where the bars are to be riveted in being 
 
Garriage and Wagon Building. 167 
 
 left one inch wide, while the front and back are 
 narrowed in to seven-eighths of an inch wide. 
 When the frame is set square it is ready to be 
 welded on the top part. These, like all other 
 body steps, should be set true to the pattern, 
 but they will always require a little fitting to 
 the body afterwards. 
 
 The Wings are fitted over the wheels and 
 covered with leather to catch the mud splashes. 
 A hint or two on the forging will be sufficient. 
 Have as few shuts as possible, upset the iron 
 as little as possible, and never get into the habit 
 of taking two v/elding heats to one shut. To 
 this end the scarfs should be small and narrow. 
 
 The Seat Rails are made of round iron about 
 one-half inch, and shaped to a pattern. Great 
 care should be taken to get both sides the same 
 height, and the back perfectly true with the 
 seat board, so when it is fixed it is just a con- 
 venient height to catch the eye, and any little 
 deviation from the square would be immediately 
 detected, and if not altered would be a black 
 mark against the smith who made it. 
 
 The Dash Iron is made of the same sort of oval 
 iron as the wings, and is comparatively simple, 
 the most difficult part being the flaps. A piece 
 of flat iron about an inch and a quarter by half 
 an inch is upset at one end, and split up edgewise 
 
168 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 and scarfed. It is then jumped on a piece of 
 five-eighths or three-quarters inch round, about 
 two inches from the end. This should be welded 
 in one heat, and squared up v/ith the set hammer 
 and scarfed in the place where the upright over 
 is wanted, then cut off about three inches the 
 other side of the flap, and hold in a pair of tongs. 
 The oval iron, having been cut off and upset, is 
 welded on in one heat, and cleaned up in the 
 oval tools. The three inches of round iron in the 
 tongs is now made oval, and the two inches of 
 the other side of the flap is drawn down to one 
 half inch round, and a corner turned to form 
 the bottom part of the handle. It is then laid 
 aside, and the other made in the same manner. 
 The middle is best made separate and welded to 
 the sides after. The top piece of oval is next 
 welded about two inches from the end onto the 
 upright oval of one of the sides. A piece of seven- 
 sixteenths inch round is now welded to the 
 end of the top piece of oval, and the corner 
 turned to form the handle. The top is now 
 held in a pair of tongs, while the handle is weld- 
 ed at the bottom, the flap drawn off half round, 
 and turned to the required angle. The other 
 side is treated in the same manner, the middle is 
 made and welded to the sides, and set true. A 
 dash iron should not require any fitting, but 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 169 
 
 when fixed it should be perfectly square with the 
 seat rail. The boot-steps, bracket plates, front 
 stays, hind pole socket, and lamp irons all follow 
 in their turn, and are, of course, made to pattern. 
 
 The Boot Steps are somewhat smaller than 
 the body steps, and are fixed on the side of the 
 body just above the front wheels, and should 
 always match the body steps. 
 
 The hind Pole Socket is merely a socket with 
 two small stays to connect it to the carriage, to 
 support the hind end of the pole when the car- 
 riage is drawn by a pair of horses. The lamp 
 irons are two T-flaps welded to the sockets sup- 
 plied with the lamps. The splint-bar and shaft 
 plates are the only pieces of importance that re- 
 main to be made. The splint-bar plate is fitted 
 on the bottom side of the bar. It is sometimes 
 flat and sometimes half round. A front pole 
 socket is fitted in the centre, and takes the two 
 middle roller bolts. Sometimes the socket is 
 made in the solid w^ith the plate. In that case 
 it is made separate and welded in. The two 
 shaft plates are fitted on the bottom side of the 
 shafts, and are made of half-round iron, flat- 
 tened out and bent round the hind end that 
 works in the futchel ends. They are drawn off 
 thin at the front ends, and all the holes punched. 
 
 Springs. Carriage springs are usually made 
 
170 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 in pairs, the front pair being made first. The 
 smith must know: 1. The description of the 
 spring; 2. the length of the spring and the com- 
 pass: 3. the number of plates and the gauge 
 number of steel to be used, the number of holes, 
 and if more than one, the size and centres. The 
 dimensions obtained, proceed to make out the 
 measures in chalk on a piece of flat iron. Car- 
 riage springs are mostly elliptical, and when oth- 
 erwise are made by the same rule, except the 
 old-fashioned C springs, which are made to a 
 pattern. 
 
 Suppose the order is for a pair of elliptical 
 springs with cup heads, three feet three inches 
 long, nine inches span, six plates, Nos. 2, 3, and 
 4 steel. These springs are suitable for the 
 fronts of broughams, landaus, etc. It must be 
 borne in mind that three feet three inches is to 
 be the length of the springs when finished, so we 
 must allow an inch and a quarter in our measure 
 for what the steel will contract in compassing. 
 Thus our measure must be three feet and four 
 and a quarter inches. This is to be the length 
 of the backs in the straight, to and from the cen- 
 tre of the holes in the eye or head. The next 
 thing is to arrange the lengths of the various 
 plates. The ends of the long plates should 
 reach to the centres of the holes in the head, the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 171 
 
 next plate two and a half inches above that, the 
 next plate two and seven-eighths inches above 
 that, the next plate three and three-eighths 
 inches higher, and the short plate four inches 
 higher still. This will give you a short plate 
 about 15 i inches long. 
 
 Next cut down the steel No. 2 for the backs 
 and short plates. No. 3 for the long plates, and 
 No. 4 for all the other plates. The plates should 
 draw about two and a half inches each end, 
 therefore cut them down that much shorter. 
 Allow tw^o and a half inches for each eye and 
 an inch and a half for each head. 
 
 Now that all is ready, proceed to roll the eyes. 
 These may be made in one heat if worked quickly. 
 Thin out the end of the steel on the front edge 
 of the anvil, and roll a small, close eye. Insert 
 a mandrel slightly tapered, and insert another 
 the required size and quite parallel. Then with 
 a punch that fits the eye, make the hole perfectly 
 round by a light blow with the hand hammer. 
 While these ends are cooling, make two of the 
 heads. 
 
 The heads may be made in a number of differ- 
 ent ways, the simplest and quickest being the 
 best. This is as follows : Make a double clip off 
 a piece of inch and an eighth or inch and a quar- 
 ter half-round iron feather edge. Upset the 
 
172 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 steel well, not too close to the end, the clip being 
 cold and the steel hot. Thin the end of the steel 
 a little, put on the clip, and drive the fangs well 
 into the hot steel. Then, with a nice clean, clear 
 fire, take a good welding heat, without burning 
 the steel. The feather edge of the half-round 
 iron will form a good scarf, and should weld up 
 quite sound and clean the first heat. Square it 
 up with the set hammer, round the ends of the 
 iron, and punch the holes, one square and the 
 other round, little more than half way through 
 from the inside. Now take another welding 
 heat, and work quickly with the hand hammer 
 on the anvil, and while it is still welding hot, 
 turn the lugs in the vice with a light, quick blow. 
 The corners turned, pinch one of the lugs in the 
 vice and draw the front of the head over the end 
 of the vice with the hand hammer. Serve 
 the other lug the same. Now take another 
 welding heat, and put a fuller, the width of the 
 steel and about half an inch thick, in the head, 
 and with a light, quick blow, form the cup in 
 which the eye is to fit. The holes are now 
 punched through from the outside. A tempo- 
 rary eye, the width of the spring, is put into the 
 head, and the lugs closed. A mandrel, square 
 at the top and round at the bottom, is driven 
 through the hole. It is then put in the vice, 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 173 
 
 and the top of the head worked up square with 
 the hand hammer. The steel behind the head 
 is cleaned up with a flatter. It may now be got 
 hot and filed on the top with a rasp or coarse- 
 cut file, and the head is finished. The other is 
 made in the same manner. 
 
 While these two heads are cooling, roll the 
 other two eyes. Apply the measure first to see 
 how much steel the first two eyes have taken 
 up; then allow the same amount for the other 
 two. 
 
 Open heads are made in a somewhat different 
 style. A piece of flat iron an inch by three- 
 quarters or seven-eighths square, is bent round 
 about three inches from the end in the shape of 
 a hook. The end at the bend is then scarfed 
 with a fuller and welded onto the steel, which 
 has previously been upset and scarfed. The 
 iron is then cut off the length of the end that 
 has been turned, and the corners and inside of 
 the head worked up square with a small set. 
 Another welding heat is taken to secure any 
 Httle scarf that may have been opened in the 
 working up, and the lugs are finished to the 
 shape required. The holes in these heads are 
 best drilled, as they may then be placed to a 
 nicety. 
 
 The heads and eyes finished, proceed to build 
 
174 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 a hollow fire with wet small coal, and when 
 ready, commence to draw the plates. 
 
 The points of the plates should not be welding 
 hot when taken out of the fire, but a nice white 
 heat. A plate should be drawn from just above 
 where the point of the next plate will come, 
 and drawn out very thin at the points. The 
 slits for the studs to work in should be punched 
 in such a position that the points of the next 
 plate come one inch past it. Each point should 
 be drawn and finished in one heat. Draw one 
 end of all the plates first; then apply the meas- 
 ure, cut off any superfluous steel, and mark the 
 plates Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 with a centre punch or 
 the corner of the cold chisel. Then draw the 
 other ends. 
 
 When all the backs and plates are studded, 
 the backs are hardened and tempered in the 
 following manner: Heat No. 1 bottom back 
 from end to end to a light red heat. Compass 
 on the anvil a httle more than is actually needed, 
 so that, in setting, as few blows as possible may 
 be struck on the face side, which has to be filed 
 bright. Then plunge it in clean water. Now 
 proceed to temper for let down the hardened 
 back by drawing it slowly through the fire till 
 a piece of dry stick will blaze freely when rubbed 
 on the hot part. An old hammer shaft answers 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 175 
 
 very well for this purpose. The other backs 
 are tempered and hardened in the same manner 
 when required. The heads and eyes need not 
 be hardened at all, or if hardened, should be an- 
 nealed after. Next set the back straight edge- 
 wise, if necessary, by holding it flat on the anvil 
 and drawing v/ith the hand hammer on the con- 
 tracted edge. The blows must not be struck too 
 near the edge to damage it, but close enough 
 to have the desired effect. Now set the back 
 to the proper compass over the vice, and 
 take out the flat places in the sweep. The com- 
 pass of the back when finished should be about 
 two and a half inches, and the plates should 
 spring enough when finished to bring it up to 
 four and a half inches, the required compass. 
 
 The backs must be set square with a pair of 
 steel squares or winding sticks. Great care 
 should be taken in this operation. 
 
 The viceman should file out the slits to fit 
 the studs so that the plates will lay true on each 
 other. We next proceed to harden and fit the 
 plates. Three pairs of spring pliers will now be 
 required for the purpose of pinching m, as it is 
 technically termed. Heat the long plate marked 
 No. 1 to a red heat — a little hotter than the 
 backs— the back also marked No. 1 being ready 
 on the fitting plate. Place the hot plate in posi- 
 
176 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing 
 
 tion, and pinch it in close to the back, as quickly 
 as possible. With one pair of pliers in each 
 hand, Hft the back with the plate upon end, and 
 pinch the lower end in the vice. The blow-boy 
 holds the two together at the top with one pair 
 of phers, while the smith and viceman, each 
 with a pair of pliers, pinch the hot plate well 
 into the back, beginning at the top and work- 
 ing downward. This should be repeated twice, 
 and the plate immediately released and cooled 
 quickly. In short, the whole must be done very 
 rapidly, or the plate will be too cold when dipped 
 to harden. Temper the plate in the same man- 
 ner as the back, and fit it to the back both flat 
 and edgewise. 
 
 It is advisable to finish one half of one spring 
 first, and put it together and try the compass. 
 If it is right, the spring may be taken apart to 
 make the others by. The long plate should 
 have more spring than any of the others, the 
 spring getting less and less as the plates get 
 shorter. The last should not have more than 
 a quarter of an inch. When finished, the spring 
 should be a perfect sweep on top, without a 
 break. 
 
 Tires. The only information needed by a 
 smith about to shoe a set of wheels is the size 
 of the iron for the tires and the stock-hoops. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 177 
 
 The wheels arc marked No. 1 and No. 2, the 
 iron for the tires laid flat on the ground, one 
 wheel placed on one end of the iron, and a chalk 
 mark put on the wheel where the end of the iron 
 comes. The wheel is then rolled along the iron 
 and the holes marked, one on each side of the 
 felloe joints, till the chalk mark on the wheel 
 comes round to the bar again. A mark is made 
 at this point. This is the dead length, so three- 
 quarters of an inch to an inch, according to the 
 size of the tire, must be allowed beyond this for 
 what the iron will contract in bending. The tire 
 is marked the same number as the wheel, and 
 the others treated in the same manner. The ends 
 of the bars are cut off, the holes centre punched, 
 and the ends bent a little about one foot over 
 the beak iron. They are then taken to the bend- 
 ing machine. This, in most shops, is merely a 
 piece of stiff, flat iron bent convex, with a piece 
 of small flat iron about one inch by half an inch 
 welded over the end in the form of a bridge about 
 one inch high. This is fixed by two or three 
 suitable stays to a wall or pillar, about five or 
 six feet from the ground. 
 
 The end of one of the bars is put on the com- 
 passed iron, the end catching under the bridge. 
 The other end is pulled down, hfted again, and 
 pushed farther through the bridge, and pulled 
 
178 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 down again; and so on to the end. When the 
 end gets too short to be pulled down by the 
 hand, a wrench or lever is applied. The front 
 tires being smaller than the hind, a wedge piece 
 is put on the top of the convex iron and the tire 
 bent over that, thus making a smaller circle. 
 
 This done, one of the tires is laid flat on the 
 wheel plate, which should always be perfectly 
 level. The flat or quick places are taken out of 
 the circle with a quarter hammer and dolly, 
 and the tire is set flat or edgewise to the wheel 
 plate. 
 
 When the wheels have all been treated in this 
 manner, the two front wheels are run with a 
 traveler. This is a circle cut out of a piece of 
 flat sheet iron about six inches in diameter with 
 a hole in the centre for a rivet to hold the handle, 
 which should clip the traveler on each side like 
 a fork, as closely as possible, to admit of the 
 traveler working freely and true. 
 
 The wheel marked No. 1 is laid on the anvil 
 and a large bolt or mandrel put through the hole 
 in the wheel and the hole in the anvil. A chalk 
 mark is put on the edge of the wheel, and a notch 
 for a starting point cut in the traveler with a 
 file. The traveler is then applied to the wheel, 
 the marks being opposite each other, and the 
 wheel turned round with the left hand, while 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 179 
 
 the traveler is held to the wheel with the right. 
 Vv^hen the wheel is turned round once, a chalk 
 mark is put on the traveler corresponding with 
 the mark on the wheel. This side of the trav- 
 eler is marked No. 1. The other front wheel 
 is run in the same manner, the mark being put 
 on the other side of the traveler. The front tire 
 marked No. 1 is now lodged on the anvil and forge. 
 The smith gets inside, and having set the notch 
 to the right end, runs the traveler round the tire. 
 The chalk mark on the traveler should come to 
 the other end of the tire. This will admit of one- 
 half inch being cut off each of the four corners 
 before scarfing. If the chalk mark on the trav- 
 eler runs short of the end, the tire is too long, 
 so must ha.ve a piece cut off. If, on the other 
 hand, the chalk mark runs beyond the end, the 
 tire is too short, so must not be further short- 
 ened. 
 
 Now put the ends of the tire into a clean fire, 
 and v/hen hot cut what may be necessary off the 
 corners. Scarf the ends with a fuller, and close 
 them. Bend the tire to give a little spring to 
 hold the scarf together. Now take a good weld- 
 ing heat and finish the shut. This done, put a 
 chalk mark on the tire and run round with the 
 traveler. 
 
 If the tire is, say, an inch and a half by half 
 
180 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 an inch, and the joints in the felloes are closed 
 up, the tire should be left half an inch smaller 
 than the wheel; but if the joints are left open 
 at all, the tire should be left from five-eighths to 
 seven-eighths of an inch smaller than the wheel. 
 The hind tires are left five-eighths to an inch 
 smaller than the wheel. 
 
 The holes are now drilled not quite through with 
 a taper drill, just so that the drill pricks through. 
 The hole is then punched through with a small 
 hand punch. Sometimes the holes are not 
 drilled till the tires are on the wheels. 
 
 The tires are now ready for the furnace, 
 where they are heated all over to a blood heat. 
 While the tires are heating, one of the wheels is 
 screwed down to the wheel plate, the back side 
 uppermost, and some thin wedges are put under 
 the felloes on the outside to keep the tire from 
 dropping too far on the wheel. 
 
 Two dogs or wrenches are required to pull the 
 tire on with, and a quarter hammer to give a 
 blow if necessary, and two water buckets filled 
 with water to cool the tire as quickly as possible. 
 A sinking platform permitting the whole wheel 
 to be lowered into a tank of water is better. 
 
 The tire should be blood hot all over, not 
 black in places. When taken out of the furnace 
 it is picked up by the smith and hammerman 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 181 
 
 with two pairs of tongs. One side is put on the 
 wheel, while the hammerman pulls the other 
 over with the dogs, and the smith taps it on 
 with the hammer. It is then cooled, and when 
 nearly cold is taken up off the wheel plate and 
 set to the wheel or rather the wheel is set to the 
 tire with a wooden mallet. 
 
 When putting the tire on, be sure the holes 
 are in their right position. The tire should not 
 require much hammering on, as it is very apt to 
 split the felloes. If it will not go on and it is the 
 right size, it must be because it is not hot enough, 
 so it should be made hotter. 
 
 If there is no furnace in the shop, the tires 
 have to be blown hot on the forge, which is very 
 inconvenient and takes much more time. In 
 that case the tire is laid on the forge so that one 
 part is in the fire. The fire is then covered up 
 with coal, and the tire is covered up with bricks, 
 wood, and shavings. The tire is blown hot, 
 and continually turned round with a wrench 
 till it is hot all over. 
 
 If there is more than one set of tires to be put 
 on, they should all be welded up first, so that 
 once heating the furnace will do for the lot. 
 
 The stock hoops are next made. The length 
 of iron required may be got by multiplying the 
 diameter of the stock by three and adding one- 
 
182 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 seventh. Thus if the diameter of the stock 
 was seven inches, 7x3= 21x1 -=22 inches. 
 Again, if the diameter of the stock is six inches, 
 6x3=18xJinch=18J, which is near enough 
 for all practical purposes. Greater accuracy 
 may be obtained by multiplying the diameter 
 by 3.1416, the relation between the diameter 
 and circumference of all circles. 
 
 A smith accustomed to the work will not 
 need to upset the ends ; but one not accustomed 
 to the work will require a half inch beyond the 
 dead length to upset. The back hoops are easy 
 enough, but the front hoops require a little skill 
 and attention when in the fire or a piece will be 
 burnt out of one edge before the middle is 
 red hot. They must be worked very quickly 
 when hot, as the heat is soon lost. They always 
 have a tendency to turn up on the edges and 
 leave a hollow place in the middle. This 
 should be carefully avoided, as it is almost im- 
 possible to get rid of this hollov/ place once it 
 appears, and to this end draw it more in the 
 middle than on the edges. When they are 
 welded sound, round them up on a mandrel or 
 beak-iron. Put the back hoops on warm and 
 file them. File the front hoops before putting 
 them on, and drive them on cold, as they have 
 two nails to hold them. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 BODY AND GEAR BUILDING. TOOLS REQUIRED. 
 
 As this is primarily a book on blacksmithing, 
 we will not go into elementary carpentry, and 
 it is assumed that any one who attempts to 
 build the woodwork of a carriage will be to some 
 extent a practical carpenter, and will be well 
 supplied with all the usual tools of a carpenter. 
 The following tools, however, are especially re- 
 quired by the carriage body-maker. 
 
 First, the workman will require a variety of 
 draw knives, of different lengths and different 
 bevels. For hard wood a short bevel is pre- 
 ferred, and for soft wood a long bevel. A me- 
 dium bevel may be made to answer for both. 
 
 Second, a full set of framing chisels, one dozen 
 in all, graded from a width of one-eighth of an 
 inch to two inches wide. A dozen socket chisels 
 for mortising will also be needed. 
 
 Third, several planes, with convex and con- 
 cave surfaces, as well as perfectly straight 
 planes. 
 
 Fourth, a variety of bits. You also want a 
 hollow auger that can be set in a frame and used 
 
184 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 for cutting the tenons at the ends of spokes. 
 There are hollow augers that are adjustable and 
 will turn a tenon of the exact size required. 
 
 Fifth, a variety of rabbet knives, panel rout- 
 ers, rasps, and files. 
 
 Sixth, a good compass. 
 
 Seventh, hammers, screwdrivers, etc., etc- 
 the tools common to all carpenter shops. 
 
 The Wheel Bench, Of course, the carriage 
 bodymaker must be provided with the ordinary 
 carpenter's bench, with vises, etc. But in addi- 
 tion to that he must have a special wheel bench, 
 which may be arranged with devices for driving 
 spokes, boring tenons, driving on felloes, etc. 
 The best bench would doubtless be the solid 
 section of a tree, if one could be found as large 
 in diameter as the largest wheel to be made, 
 and if possible six inches larger, measuring from 
 the centre out. A hole large enough to take 
 the largest hub can be made in the centre, and 
 at the bottom of this hole an upright bolt about 
 an inch in diameter may be fixed securely, the 
 upper end being provided with a square thread 
 (or this bolt may be passed up from beneath). 
 This serves as an axle. Blocks may be placed 
 in the bottom of the hole to support the hub at 
 the right height, and when the hub has been 
 placed on the axle a plate with an inch hole in it 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 185 
 
 may be laid over the top and screwed down by 
 a thumb screw on the bolt. The opening in the 
 hub for the box and axle should be filled at 
 point and butt with solid blocks bored in the 
 exact centre, the hole being just large enough 
 to allow the upright bolt to pass. If this does 
 not hold the hub firmly enough to allow of driv- 
 ing in spokes, a wedge may be placed at the 
 side of the hub opposite the end of the spoke, 
 so that the driving will come against the side of 
 the solid block. 
 
 If such a trunk cannot be found, a bench may 
 be made as follows: Get a hollow tree or log 
 twenty inches in diameter, with a rim of two 
 or three inches of solid wood under the bark. 
 The log may be cut eighteen inches long, dressed, 
 mortised like the hub of a wheel, (fourteen spokes 
 are required), and heavy spokes driven in. A 
 thick oak felloe is put on, and an iron tire two 
 inches wide. On the upper sides of the spokes 
 solid square oak pieces may be bolted, coming 
 out to the rim of the wheel and extending to 
 within a quarter of an inch of the hub. These 
 should be made true and level, and plated on 
 top with quarter inch iron. The wheel should 
 be given a dish, the spokes rising upward, so 
 that heavy pounding on the top may not make 
 the wheel dish the other way, that is, the felloe 
 
186 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 sink below the level of the hub. This bench 
 should be given several good coats of paint, and 
 set up a firm base. The bolt with a thumb 
 screw in the middle will be as in the preceding 
 bench. 
 
 Attachments of the Bench. The bench should 
 have a place especially arranged to give a grip 
 below for a clam.p to hold spokes down when 
 being driven in. This might be, say, fifteen to 
 eighteen inches from the hub. The clamp 
 might be a simple affair, and a slit in the bench 
 might allow it to be dropped down out of the way 
 when not in use. If, now, a block of the proper 
 height is placed under the spoke, and the spoke 
 clamped lightly down upon it, it will be driven 
 in at just the right angle. 
 
 At one side of the bench where it will not be 
 in the way, there should be firmly fixed a sort 
 of slide in which the frame of the hollow auger 
 may be placed. A thumb screw below will 
 permit of the frame being moved backward or 
 forward, so that the auger may be brought up 
 to the end of the spoke, whatever length it may 
 be. At the same time, it should be arranged 
 so that the auger may be taken out of the way 
 when not in use, as it would interfere with set- 
 ting the tire and similar operations. 
 
 Wheel Making. Much the most important 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 187 
 
 part of carriage building is the making of the 
 wheels. More depends on the wheels than on 
 any other single part, and to be of any value 
 whatever they must be well made. At the 
 same time, it is the wheel that most often needs 
 repairing, and this cannot be done successfully 
 except by some one who knows how to build a 
 wheel. 
 
 The Material. The best wood for spokes, 
 felloes, whiffletrees, neck-yokes, shafts, and sim- 
 ilar parts is hickory. In case hickory is not 
 available, ash may be used for spokes,and locust 
 is even recommended. The hub should be of 
 oak if the wheel is heavy, or elm if the w^heel is 
 light. In all cases the best wood, perfectly sea- 
 soned, is not only desirable, but almost abso- 
 lutely necessary in wheel making. If the wood 
 is not well seasoned it will shrink, and the mo- 
 ment it does the wheel comes to pieces. It is 
 not quite so important that the hub be perfectly 
 seasoned, as in shrinking it contracts and holds 
 the spokes tighter; but the bands and similar 
 irons are pretty sure to come loose in a short 
 time if the hub is not well seasoned. 
 
 In these days spokes, hubs, and felloes are 
 turned out in quantity at factories much cheap- 
 er than they can possibly be made, and maich 
 more neatly. Felloes may be bent cr sav.ed, 
 
188 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 the bent ones being preferred. Hubs should 
 not be mortised long before they are used, since 
 the sides of the mortise will dry out a little even 
 in the best seasoned wood, and shrink, causing 
 the sides of the mortise to concave, and so give 
 an imperfect surface for the spokes to adhere to. 
 
 Peculiarities of Wheels. The first thing to be 
 noted about a wheel is what is called its '' dish." 
 If a wheel is so built that the spokes run at an 
 exact right angle to the centre of the hub,there 
 is danger that under strain they will work back 
 and forth, and under heavy strain of some kind 
 the wheel ''dish'' inward. The spokes should 
 turn outward from the hub very slightly, 
 the amount varying from a quarter of an inch 
 to three quarters, according to the size and char- 
 acter of the wheel. Wheelmakers have a variety 
 of ideas about the proper dish a wheel should 
 have; but the novice should in all cases follow 
 his pattern. If the dish is too great, it is obvi- 
 ous that with wear it will become greater. At 
 the same time there should be as little danger 
 as possible of the wheel being turned inside out, 
 so to speak, when it goes into a rut or runs 
 against a rock, or comes into collision with 
 another wagon. 
 
 A wheel must be set on the axle so that the 
 spokes will run perpendicularly down to the 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 189 
 
 ground (or very nearly so) and the tread of the 
 tire will come flat and even on the ground. 
 This of course throws all the dish of the wheel 
 to the top, and at the top a pair of wheels is 
 often two inches or more farther apart than at 
 the bottom. 
 
 At the same time, the front wheels especially 
 are given a slight ''gather." The axle is so 
 bent that the wheels have a tendency to come 
 together. They are usually from a half to 
 three quarters of an inch nearer together in 
 front than behind. It is obvious that this 
 makes the wheel wear toward the shoulder of 
 axle, in spite of the taper of the axle spindle. 
 When wheels are put on in this way, they do 
 not necessarily come off if the nut works loose 
 and drops off. The ''gather'' should be very 
 slight, since it makes the wheels drag a little on 
 the ground, and so run harder. A quarter of 
 
 B. 
 
 1^^.41 
 
190 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 an inch gather will not be noticed, however, 
 and will often be of great value. 
 
 Hubs. Hubs should be bored very accu- 
 rately through the centre, with a taper from 
 the shoulder of the axle toward the nut, as 
 shown in Fig. 41. The longer the spindle, the 
 less the taper, of course. The hub is fitted in- 
 side with an iron ''box," which is driven into 
 the boring from the large end, and in this the 
 spindle works. All hubs have an iron band 
 fitted around the outer end, and most hubs 
 have another around the end toward the axle. 
 Large hubs hable to split have bands around 
 the middle near the spokes, as shown by Fig. 42. 
 
 I^iff.^Z. 
 
 In all light wheels the mortises are set in at 
 perfectly straight row around the middle of the 
 hub; but in very heavy hubs they are arranged 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 191 
 
 as shown in Fig. 42. This is called the '' stagger'' 
 mortise. 
 
 It is extremely necessary that the mortises 
 be cut very true, for a shght displacement of 
 the mortise might throw the spoke an inch out 
 of place. A straight edge of sheet iron, form- 
 a band about half an inch wide, may be put 
 around the middle of the hub, and with the di- 
 viders it will be possible to see that the straight 
 edge is all at points the same distance from 
 the end of the hub, Then a line may be drawn 
 around the hub where the mortises are to be 
 placed. The exact outer circumference of the 
 hub may be measured on this strip of sheet 
 iron, and when this is laid out straight on the 
 work bench it will be possible to divide it 
 equally into twelve or fourteen parts, according 
 to the number of spokes the wheel is to have. 
 Then the places for the mortises may be accu- 
 rately marked on the hub. 
 
 The spoke is slightly bevelled on the all four 
 sides, and the mortise must have a correspond- 
 ing inward bevel. It will be observed in Fig. 
 41 that the spoke has a very decided bevel on the 
 side toward the axle, or the inward side. This 
 has an important relation to the dish of the 
 wheel. Usually this bevelled side will be nearly 
 perpendicular to the axis of the hub, and accord- 
 
192 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 ingly the spoke will be thrown slightly outward, 
 to form the dish. The mortises should be cut 
 a little smaller than the spokes, so that when 
 the spokes are driven in they will not quite 
 reach the iron box within the hub. 
 
 The Spokes. When the hub is ready, and the 
 spokes are found to fit the mortises in the hub, 
 the hub should be screwed firmly on the bench. 
 Blocks with an inch hole in their centres for the 
 bolt should be fitted into each end of the bore 
 of the hub, and if necessary, the hub may be 
 firmly supported by a block or wedge on the 
 side opposite to which the spokes are to be driv- 
 en. The mortises should be an inch or two 
 above the level of the bench. A spoke may be 
 put in its place, and six or eight inches from 
 the outer end a block may be placed under it of 
 just the right height to give the wheel the de- 
 sired dish. Then the spoke may be held lightly 
 on the block by means of the clamp already 
 described. 
 
 It is a good idea to round off the corners of 
 the tenons of the spokes with the hammer, and 
 heat spoke ends and hub as much as possible 
 without scorching, before dishing. 
 
 When all is ready for driving the spokes in, 
 the insides of the mortises should be smeared 
 with glue. Then the spokes may be driven in 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 193 
 
 with sharp blows of a heavy mallet. A light 
 hand hammer is not heavy enough. The wheel 
 must now be left for the glue to dry, say a day 
 or two, before further work. 
 
 For the next steps a bench such as that shown 
 in Fig. 43 will be found useful. 
 
 First, the ends of the spokes must be sawed 
 off at an even distance from the centre of the 
 
 jBY^.^a^ 
 
194 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 hub, about a sixteenth of an inch less than the 
 diameter of the wheel is to be under the tire. 
 The right length may be found by means of a sim- 
 ple gauge. A strip of wood a quarter of an inch 
 thick and two inches wide may have an inch 
 hole bored near one end, and this may be slipped 
 over the bolt which serves as axle of the wheel 
 on the bench. A smaller hole may be bored 
 in which a pencil may be fixed at just the right 
 distance from the central hole. With the gauge 
 the workman may easily mark the ends of the 
 spokes where he wishes to saw them off. 
 
 When they have been sawed off even, they 
 should be tapered off to a blunt point, with the 
 draw knife, thus preparing them for the boring 
 of the hollow auger. 
 
 When the tenons have been bored so that 
 the shoulder will just fit up against the inside 
 of the felloe, the felloe pieces may be laid on the 
 bench and marked for the holes to correspond 
 to the tenons on the spokes. The diameter of 
 these tenons and the corresponding holes in the 
 felloe should be about a sixteenth less than half 
 the width of the felloe. 
 
 The Felloes. Care should be taken to see 
 that the felloes form a perfect circle. They are 
 liable to get warped to one side or the other, 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 195 
 
 and if they are out of gear it will be hard to get 
 a true wheel. 
 
 The ends of the felloes where they come to- 
 gether to form the joints should be bevelled out- 
 ward a little, so that the ends meet on the inside 
 when in place (driven on the spokes), but do not 
 quite meet on the outside. This will prevent 
 the wheel from sagging at the joints. Also a 
 sixteenth of an nich of extra wood should be 
 allowed, so that if it is necessary to pass the saw 
 between any two pieces to make the joints fit, 
 the wheel will not be made too small. 
 
 The holes in the felloe should be small enough 
 so that when the tenons of the spokes are driven 
 into them, the felloe will stay in place securely 
 without wedges; but in some cases it will be 
 necessary to drive wedges Ughtly into the ends 
 of the tenons. The end of the spoke should not 
 come quite out to the outer edge of the rim, for 
 if the spoke presses on the tire it is Hkely to 
 cause the spoke to bend out of shape. 
 
 The joints of the felloes may be held securely 
 by dowels, or wooden pegs passing through the 
 ends which come together to form the joint, or 
 by iron clamps fitting over the inside of the fel- 
 loe. The latter are less hkely to split the felloe, 
 and in the hands of any but an expert workman 
 are safer on that account. 
 
196 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 When the felloe has been driven on, the gauge 
 will be required to mark on the felloe the exact 
 circumference of the circle which its outer edge 
 should form. When this mark has been made 
 all around the wheel, the outer side of the rim may 
 be planed off to the line with a concave plane. 
 
 Then the side of the felloe should be even up, 
 and then by means of a suitable gauge, the outer 
 side of the felloe should be made exactly per- 
 pendicular to the spokes. One end of the gauge 
 should touch the spokes at the hub, and the 
 square should come true across the outer side 
 of the felloe. Owing to the dish of the wheel, 
 and the subsequent plumbing of the spokes, 
 this will make the edge not quite parallel with 
 the central line of the hub, but when the wheel 
 is on, the spokes will go straight down on a 
 plumb line to the ground, and the tire will tread 
 perfectly fiat on the ground. 
 
 (It may be said that in practice, it is best that 
 instead of having the spokes exactly plumb, 
 they should turn in a little, say a quarter of an 
 inch, on the ground, since under a heavy load 
 the axles will spring a little, and that v/ill bring 
 the wheels to a true plumb. It is under a heavy 
 load that there is most need for the wheels to 
 be exactly plumb.) 
 
 The wheels are now ready for the tires and 
 
(Jarriage and Wagon Building. 197 
 
 other irons, the putting on of which has already 
 been described under '' Carriage Ironing." 
 
 Repairing Wheels. If a wheel is dished a 
 little too much when it is built, it will gradually 
 become dished a great deal too much, the tire 
 will become loose, and if not cared for the wheel 
 will soon go to pieces. It is therefore an impor- 
 tant matter to know how to take the dish out of 
 a badly dished wheel. 
 
 J^i^,4f4f. 
 
 Fig. 44 shows the appearance of the end of 
 the spokes of such a wheel. Not only is there 
 a decided bevel on the side on which a bevel is 
 expected, but the opposite side slants outward. 
 
 J!i'^,4^5, 
 
 Take off the tire of the wheel, carefully remove 
 the rim in such a way as not to split it, and re- 
 move the spokes, working them back and forth 
 till they come loose. Trim the upper side of 
 the spoke as shown in Fig. 44, or the side that 
 
198 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 comes away from the wagon, perfectly straight, 
 as shown in Fig. 45. Then carefully split the 
 end and insert a wedge as close to the bevelled 
 side as possible. This will throw the bevelled 
 side otit so as to fill up the mortise. Do not let 
 the end of the wedge come against the box in- 
 side the hub. 
 
 In driving the spokes in again, if grease has 
 accumulated in the mortises, wet the end of the 
 spoke and dip in wood ashes. 
 
 If a wheel gets turned inside out by an acci- 
 dent, two or three strong men can usually pull 
 it back so that it will dish the right way, and it 
 can be tightened up by wedges in the mortises. 
 Some of the wedges should be on the outside, 
 though most should be on the inside. Those 
 on the outside will prevent the wheel going to 
 the opposite extreme and becoming too much 
 dished. 
 
 In respoking old wheels, some have recom- 
 mended boiling the hub in water containing sal- 
 eratus, the saleratus to remove the grease. 
 Boiling hubs is not to be recommended, since 
 water is absorbed, the hub swells, and when it 
 dries out again the spokes become loose and the 
 irons come off. It is better to scrape out the 
 mortises thoroughly with a knife, till the wood 
 is well exposed. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 199 
 
 If the mortises do not have to be recui, the 
 spoke may simply be trimmed nicely so as to 
 get the right angle, with very little dish, and 
 the corners of the tenon that goes into the mor- 
 tise rounded over by hammering. If this is not 
 done the corners may prevent the sides of the 
 tenon from taking a good grip on the wood of 
 the hub. 
 
 Care should also be taken to see that the spoke 
 will not touch the box of the hub when it is 
 driven in. It is better to have it a little short. 
 
 Tires should always be reset as soon as they 
 get loose. If the tire is allowed to run loose, 
 sand will work in between it and the felloe and 
 wear off the felloe till it becomes nearly ruined. 
 Bent felloes can sometimes be straightened by 
 soaking and bending them, allowing them to 
 dry while held in position. They should be 
 thoroughly dry before being put on. 
 
 It is a good plan to heat the ends of spokes 
 before driving them in, as well as hubs, as much 
 as can be done without scorching them. The 
 spokes will then be held more tightly. 
 
 To remove boxes which stick, an old box that 
 will fit inside may be heated red hot and dropped 
 into the axle opening for a few minutes. This 
 melts the grease and loosens the box, which may 
 easily be driven out from the nut end. 
 
200 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing, 
 
 If a box gets loose, some heavy manila paper 
 may be cut in the form of a cross of Malta, the 
 round centre being left just large enough to cover 
 the end of the box, while some of the super- 
 fluous paper has been removed from the sides 
 which hang down. Enough thicknesses of 
 paper should be used to fill up the free space. 
 Then the box is driven into place, and the large 
 end is securely wedged. Of course the paper 
 that may remain about the small end may be 
 nicely trimmed away. 
 
 Something about Good Glue. Glue should not 
 be allowed to stand more than twenty-four 
 hours after it is mixed, or it will lose its power 
 and decompose. The moment a bad odor is 
 observed, a good workman will know that his 
 glue-pot should be cleaned out and fresh glue 
 prepared. The scum or skin that forms on the 
 top of glue is worthless, and should in all cases 
 be removed; and this must be done repeatedly. 
 Only freshly melted glue has good adhesive 
 properties. 
 
 Good glue is to be judged simply by its clear- 
 ness. If glue as it comes from the factory is 
 full of specks, it may be known that it is filled 
 with foreign material, or has begun to decom- 
 pose. It should be kept as nearly air-tight as 
 
Gdrriage and Wagon Building. 201 
 
 possible, to prevent decomposition from the 
 moisture in the air. 
 
 Use the glue very thin— the thinner the better. 
 It should soak into the wood, and the faces of 
 the wood come close together with no layer of 
 glue between. 
 
 A Wheel for a Wheelbarrow. Making a wheel 
 for a wheelbarrow is not difficult. Of course, 
 the axle is fixed in the wheel, and runs in sockets 
 on the barrow at each end. Three quarters of 
 an inch is in most cases large enough. Any 
 solid piece of wood, nicely rounded, may be used 
 
 I^/^. 4f6 . 
 
 for the hub, which should be bound with an iron 
 band on each side of the spokes. It will proba- 
 bly be best to arrange the mortises for the 
 spokes in the stagger style (see Fig. 42), and 
 
202 Blacks miihing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 instead of being squared they may be round. 
 They should be bored as carefully and as evenly 
 as possible, one inch for v/ooden spokes, half an 
 inch (usually) for iron spokes. Iron spokes 
 will be most convenient, if the iron can be han- 
 dled. Eight spokes will usually be sufficient. 
 A good arrangement is shown in Fig. 46. It 
 will be seen that the spokes are bevelled off at 
 the end where they come together inside the 
 hub. For iron hubs, half-inch iron rods will do 
 very well. A tenon is made on the rim end of 
 the spokes, v/hich should set into a quarter or 
 three-eighths inch iron tire properly drilled. 
 The tenon ends should be a trifle smaller than 
 the spoke itself,— say three eighths of an inch, 
 if the spoke is iron and half an inch. If wooden 
 spokes are used, a felloe must be put on and 
 the wheel tired in the usual way. If iron spokes 
 are used, the spokes may run through the iron, 
 the tire being welded after the spokes are in 
 place and the tire set. The ends of the tenons 
 may then be filed off. Care should be taken 
 in rounding the tire, for any depression will make 
 the wheelbarrow run hard. If the rim is bent 
 over a model, the best results will be obtained. 
 Such a model may be made of w^ood and plated 
 with iron. 
 Making the Body of a Farm Wagon. It h 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 203 
 
 supposed in all cases of body making that the 
 workman will have a pattern before him, either 
 a complete wagon constructed nearly as he 
 wishes, or something that will serve the purpose. 
 It is not the aim of this book to go into wagon 
 drafting, and it is not supposed that the user of 
 this book will care to make landaus, victorias, 
 etc. The following hints on making a farm 
 wagon may prove useful. 
 
 lFMi^.^2. 
 
 Fig. 47 will show the side, woodwork only, 
 of a modern farm wagon. The body should be 
 eleven to twelve feet long, thirty-eight to forty- 
 two inches wide, and seven eighths of an inch 
 thick. The lower sides may be twelve to four- 
 teen inches high, the upper sides six to nine 
 inches. The upper boards should be good Nor- 
 way pine, the cleats that hold them in place of 
 ash. There is a toe-board at the top of the 
 end piece of the lower sides, supported by iron 
 braces. The end piece should be stiffened by 
 
204 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 cleats and fastened to the bottom by strap 
 bolts. 
 
 The bolster in front (Fig. 48) should be a little 
 over three inches wide and four and a half inches 
 high in the middle. About twelve inches are 
 allowed for the bearing surface. At the ends 
 three inches will be high enough. The stakes 
 taper up from three inches to an inch and a half 
 at the top. They are mortised into the bolster 
 with a tenon three quarters of an inch to an 
 inch thick. The largest shoulder should be on 
 the outside, say half an inch. 
 
 J^^. ^S . 
 
 The sandboard should be a little wider than 
 the bolster, and, say, three inches deep. On 
 each side of the reach it must be boxed a little 
 for the hounds. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 205 
 
 The hounds are cut out of two-inch stuff, cut 
 to a pattern. Sometimes they are bent round 
 at the back, sometimes united at the back by a 
 sawed cross-piece, or they may even be attached 
 to the reach. They are boxed out for the sand- 
 board and axle so as to leave a clear space be- 
 tween the two of an inch and a half. 
 
 The axle beds are of hickory or maple — 
 oak is sometimes used — and are four and a half 
 by three or three and a quarter inches. Some 
 form of steel or other thimble skein must be used, 
 and the manufacturers of the skeins will give 
 full details as to fitting the axle bed to the 
 skein. 
 
 jp'iff.^a 
 
 The back bolster is about the same, or a little 
 larger, than the front, and sets on the axle on 
 the ends of the hounds on either side of the 
 reach, as shown in Fig. 49. • 
 
206 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 There are two forms of pole used — the still 
 and the drop — and the hounds must correspond. 
 A good form of hounds, both back and front, 
 is shown in Fig. 50. The back hounds lie above 
 the reach (or better, in the same plane with it). 
 The cross-bar of the front hounds lies on top of 
 the ends of the hounds, but runs under the 
 reach. The ends which meet the pole are five 
 inches apart, and plated with iron, which re- 
 duces the opening to the size of the pole. The 
 pole should be four inches square at the back, 
 tapering to two inches, and twelve feet long. 
 The back hounds are united by a plate of metal 
 where they m^eet the reach, and through this 
 plate a bolt passes. The reach pole should 
 work freely, so that it may be pushed back or 
 drawn in, allowing adjusting the length of the 
 wagon. 
 
 -^1^. SO. 
 
 The reach is two inches thick and four and a 
 half inches wide, and there should be half a 
 dozen holes which may be used for the bolt, in 
 varying the length of the wagon, the holes not 
 
Carnage and Wago7i Buildirig. 207 
 
 more than eight inches apart. The hounds 
 should extend three feet forward of the back 
 axle. 
 
 Prime white oak is best for most of the run- 
 ning gear, including bolsters, stakes, reach, etc. 
 Black New York mountain birch is used for 
 hubs in some cases, white ash or black oak for 
 pole. All adjoining pieces should be put to- 
 gether with laps, leaving shouldets of one to 
 three eighths of an inch. Glue is used to attach 
 the cleats on the sides and endboards. When 
 all the parts are shaped and ready, they should 
 be dipped in warm raw linseed oil and put away 
 for the oil to dry in. This makes a good foun- 
 dation for paint, and preserves the wood where 
 iron is joined on. 
 
 Ends of bolsters, etc., are bound with iron, 
 but matters of this kind may be judged from 
 the patterns followed. 
 
 Dimensions for wheels are as follows: Hubs, 
 nine by ten and a half, outer end four and a half 
 inches; spokes two. and a half inches; pillars, 
 one and three eighths; tread two and a half 
 inches; wheels three feet eight inches and four 
 feet six inches. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CARRIAGE AND WAGON PAINTING. 
 
 In order to make a good job in painting a car- 
 riage or wagon, a place for doing the work is 
 required which is free from all dust. A little 
 dust will roll up under the brush and make no 
 end of bad work. This is especially true when 
 it comes to the varnish coats. In most build- 
 ings dust will accumulate on the rafters, and 
 when the wind blows it will shake down a great 
 deal of the dust. Before painting begins, such 
 a room should be well dusted throughout several 
 times, and a large canvas may be stretched 
 over the wagon or carriage, care being taken to 
 avoid canvas which will shed lint. Usually 
 varnishing is done in a small, closely-ceiled var- 
 nish room, that may be heated, but a ventilator 
 running up from the centre is desirable in order 
 to secure a circulation of air for drying. 
 
 It is also very important that special care be 
 used in removing all dirt, dust, or the like, which 
 may get on the carriage in the natural order 
 of the work. Carriages or wagons being repaint- 
 ed must be cleaned most thoroughly, even down 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 209 
 
 into the smallest crevice or corner (also scraped 
 vnth glass and sandpaper) ; and when pumice 
 stone or the like is used, the corners must be 
 well cleaned out with a dry brush, the ends of 
 which have been moistened in varnish (but 
 not enough to stick to the v/ork). The little 
 varnish will pick up the dust in corners where 
 nothing else will. If the wagon is washed, 
 it should be allowed to dry thoroughly before 
 any attempt at painting is made, and then it 
 should be dusted all over carefully with a proper 
 duster. Just before each coat, also, the work 
 should be most thoroughly dusted. It takes 
 much longer to clean and dust than it does to 
 lay on the paint or varnish. 
 
 Brushes. The first brush required is the 
 round bristle brush, No. 0000 (four noughts). 
 It is used for putting the priming on the body, 
 etc. As the bristles are too long as they come 
 from the store, they must be ''bridled,'' or 
 bound round with twine about half their length. 
 A leather binding securely sewed is good. As 
 the brush gets worn down the ''bridle'' maybe 
 removed and the brush is as good as ever. 
 
 A small round bristle brush or " sash tool" No. 
 8 is required to clean up around panels, be- 
 tween spokes, etc. 
 
 A flat camel's hair brush is best for laying 
 
210 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 on color. Different widths will be required, 
 according to the character of the work, from 
 three-eighths to two inches. For laying color 
 on small panels, or any very fine work, or for 
 laying varnish, the fiat or flowing badger hair 
 brush is considered best, though camel's hair 
 will answer every purpose. 
 
 For laying varnish on the body, or where it 
 is desirable to have a brush that will carry a 
 good deal of varnish, the oval chiseled brush, 
 made of all white French bristles, is usually 
 preferred. To accompany this, for cleaning 
 up, a small flattened chisel brush is desirable. 
 
 Paints. A paint mill for grinding paints is 
 almost a necessity. 
 
 For white lead in oil, only the very best can 
 be considered even economical. 
 
 Raw linseed oil is the only oil used (boiled 
 oil is not suitable). 
 
 Two kinds of varnishes are required, rubbing 
 and finishing; the first for the coats that are to 
 be rubbed, the latter for the final coat.. 
 
 We also need brown japan and turpentine, 
 and whatever colors may be desired. You will 
 find it costs about half for paint if you mix your 
 own colors, but it requires some skill to do it 
 properly. 
 
 Always mix fresh paint for every job. Paint 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 211 
 
 that has stood exposed to the air becomes fatty, 
 or oily, as the painters say. It sticks, and is 
 unsuitable for carriage or wagon painting. 
 
 In mixing colors, always use a very little raw 
 linseed oil to make the color elastic. If none 
 is used the paint will crack and chip. A test 
 may be made by putting a little on a piece of 
 tin, and bending the tin when the paint is dry. 
 The paint should bend with the tin, and not fly 
 and crack in every direction. But the chief 
 ingredients for mixing colors are usually japan 
 and |turpentine, about two tablespoonfuls of 
 japan to a pint of the paint when mixed. 
 
 The paint should always be mixed in a per- 
 fectly clean dish, and if any skin appears, the 
 paint should be strained through cheese cloth 
 or muslin. Wire netting makes too coarse a 
 sieve for carriage paint. 
 
 To mix colors, lay out the dry color on a prop- 
 er stone and moisten with japan to a mush, 
 mixing with a palette knife. Then add turpen- 
 tine and grind through the mill with the mill 
 screwed up as fine as possible. If too thin, the 
 paint will not go through. When the paint is 
 ground, add about a tablespoonful of raw oil to 
 a pint of paint. Try the paint on the thumb 
 nail, blowing it to hasten drying. It should 
 have what is called an ''egg-shell" gloss, not 
 
212 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 too bright or too dull. If it dries dull, add a 
 trifle more oil; if too bright, add turpentine. 
 The proportions of oil and turpentine vary with 
 the color. Umber takes more oil, lampblack 
 less, etc. Vermilion should be mixed with 
 quick rubbing varnish, and no oil added, as oil 
 darkens it. Glazing colors should also be mixed 
 in varnish instead of oil and japan. 
 
 Great care should be used in selecting japan. 
 Good japan does not curdle when mixed with 
 raw linseed oil. 
 
 Prepared black should be thinned with tur- 
 pentine to a cream-like consistency, and a very 
 little raw oil added, until it dries with the egg- 
 shell gloss. Too much oil is a detriment. 
 
 Putty is made by working whiting and dry 
 lead into keg lead to a suitable consistency, and 
 then adding a little brown japan to make the 
 putty dry quickly. 
 
 Black putty for filling in around iron work 
 which does not fit exactly, is made of three- 
 fourths lamp black and one-fourth dry lead, 
 mixed with japan. For putting in glass, equal 
 parts of lamp-black and whiting mixed with 
 equal parts of rubbing varnish and japan will 
 be best. If the fibres of black velvet or plush 
 are mixed with it, no rattling of a vehicle will 
 jar the putty out. Usually putty should be 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 213 
 
 colored to the color of the job. Common putty, 
 hke common paint, should never be used on a 
 wagon. 
 
 One Method of Carriage Painting. As soon as 
 the woodvv^ork is ready, before the irons are put 
 on, cover the wood with a coat of priming made 
 of oil and a little white lead, with a small amount 
 of japan if it is desired that the job dry in a hur- 
 ry. The oil is the main thing, and soaks into 
 the wood, including all parts to be covered with 
 the irons, and the lead fills up some of the pores. 
 When it has stood two days or thereabouts, 
 sandpaper with No. 2 paper, and fill up the larg- 
 est nailholes with white putty, or putty made 
 according to the first recipe, and colored. 
 
 Next put on the body (but not on the gears) 
 the first coat of lead. A suitable amount of 
 keg lead, say two pounds, is worked soft with 
 oil, and an equal amount of japan added. This 
 is thinned to the proper consistency with tur- 
 pentine. A rather light coat that will cover 
 the ground is all that is needed. It is well when 
 this coat is dry to go over all hardwood parts 
 and fill the seams with a putty made of equal 
 parts of dry lead and whiting, mixed with equal 
 parts of japan and rubbing varnish. This will 
 dry in a couple of hours, and the whole may be 
 sandpapered with the paper used on the priming 
 
214 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 coat. All that is necessary is to smooth the 
 paint, not to scour it all off. 
 
 For fine work we now follow with from two 
 to five coats of ''rough stuff." Fireproof 
 paint, Ohio paint, Grafton paint, and Enghsh 
 filling are one and the same, though Enghsh 
 filling costs much more than the others. Mix 
 either of these with an equal weight of keg lead, 
 and add equal parts of brown japan and rubbing 
 varnish. When run through the mill loosely it 
 should be thinned to good working consistency 
 with turpentine. Dust the job carefully and 
 apply one coat after the other without sandpa- 
 pering. Apply only to the larger panels. 
 
 The wagon now receives the irons, the gears 
 having had only the priming. 
 
 If the gears are to be vermilion or any other 
 bright color, the first lead coat (put on after iron- 
 ing) should be slightly colored with the same color. 
 This lead coat consists of keg lead mixed with 
 enough oil to permit its being worked up. Half 
 as much japan as oil is added, and the whole run 
 through the mill, when the paint is thin with 
 turpentine so that it will spread 'easily. Care 
 should be taken to cover the gears below as well 
 as on top, and finish up all bolts, nuts, etc,, 
 perfectly. 
 
 While the gear is drying, we may proceed to 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building, 215 
 
 rub out the rough stuff on the panels. For this 
 purpose we need pumice stone (cut across the 
 grain with an old saw), a pail of water, sponge 
 and chamois skin. Light, open-grained pumice 
 is the best. Its grain may be seen if it is dipped 
 in water. When the pumice lump has been 
 sawed through so as to give an even surface, it 
 is smoothed by being rubbed on a smooth stone. 
 The panel is rubbed in a circular movement, or 
 lengthwise of the panel, not too hard so as to 
 tear the paint, and with plenty of water to keep 
 the heat down. A very light dark coat is some- 
 times put on top of the rough stuff. When this 
 is all rubbed off even it is supposed that the sur- 
 face is smooth. It is now well washed, cor- 
 ners, etc., being washed out with a small brush 
 or ''water tool," and all dried with chamois. 
 
 Next let us putty up the gears with equal 
 bulk of keg lead and whiting beaten together 
 with a mallet and thinned a trifle with japan. 
 All holes and imperfections should be carefully 
 filled. In an hour or two rub down the putty 
 with used sandpaper and carefully dust off. 
 
 The upper and exposed parts of the gear may 
 now be covered with paint made of keg lead 
 mixed soft with turpentine, with a gill of japan 
 to a pint of paint, and, if time Jor drying can be 
 allowed, a tablespoonful of raw oil. The whole 
 
216 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 should be colored as before, and the paint laid 
 on smoothly and evenly. 
 
 We are now ready to paint the body. The 
 whole should be sandpapered with the finest 
 sandpaper. Sometimes a body color is laid on; 
 but in most cases the final color may be laid di- 
 rectly on the rough stuff. The color is mixed 
 with turpentine, and about two tablespoonfuls 
 of japan to a pint, with one tablespoonful of raw 
 oil. 
 
 A coat of color may be laid on the gears in 
 the same way. A second coat of color will fol- 
 low in a few hours, on both gear and body. 
 
 We nov/ rub the surface of the paint with 
 moss or curled hair, and apply a coat of rubbing 
 varnish mixed with the color. This coat should 
 not be slapped on, though it is to be rubbed 
 down. 
 
 The gears should be rubbed well before put- 
 ting on the first coat of color. Usually one 
 coat is sufficient, and when it has dried two or 
 three hours we may put on a heavy coat of rub- 
 bing varnish mixed with a little, color. 
 
 Allow the varnish coats two days to dry. 
 
 When the varnish coat is dry, it should be 
 rubbed with pulverized pumice, on the body, 
 while rubbing with curled hair will do for the 
 gears. 
 
Carriage and Wagon Building. 217 
 
 To rub the body nicely, begin at the top and 
 work down. No. 12 or No. 14 pulverized pumice 
 is required, with woolen rags, water, sponge, 
 and chamois. Double the rag up, wet it, and 
 dip it in the pumice, and begin rubbing, bearing 
 on rather hard. You can tell by the touch 
 when the surface has been made sufficiently 
 smooth. When you have rubbed sufficiently, 
 wash well, and rub dry with the chamois. As 
 before, a small brush will be needed to get the 
 stone all out of corners, etc. 
 
 The gears are rubbed in the same way with 
 curled hair or moss. 
 
 Body and gears are now ready for striping. 
 The painting is complete, and varnishing alone 
 remains. 
 
 The Putty Method of Painting. A cheaper 
 method of painting is by what is called the '' put- 
 ty" process, which takes the place of rough 
 stuffing. 
 
 Apply the priming and the first coat of lead 
 as already described. Then mix keg lead v/ith 
 turpentine and japan to the consistency of a 
 stiff paste, adding a little of the color the vehicle 
 is to be painted. Put this onto a small portion 
 of the body (three or four panels) with a stiff 
 brush, and then, when the turpentine has evap- 
 orated and the color is quite dead, work it into 
 
218 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 all the pores of the wood with a broad-bladed 
 putty knife. Then scrape off clean all that has 
 not been taken up by the pores. When the 
 whole job has been covered, it may be set aside 
 to dry. 
 
 The gears may be treated in the same man- 
 ner. A piece of stout leather will serve for rub- 
 bing the putty coat into the spokes, etc. 
 
 When dry, sandpaper down nicely and apply 
 the color at once. 
 
 The Wood Filler Method. The wood filler 
 takes the place of the priming. It is put on the 
 framework before the panels are put in, and then 
 on the panels. Then the usual rough stuff is 
 put on, mixing it as follows: 3 parts Grafton 
 paint, 2 parts keg lead, 2 parts oil japan, 1 part 
 rubbing varnish. This is also put on the panels 
 before they are fitted. It makes a nicer job 
 around the fitting, and requires less labor. 
 
 After the filling, the gears are ironed, and all 
 rubbed down with No. 3 sandpaper. We then 
 put on a lead coat of keg lead, oil, japan, and 
 turpentine, and putty up all openings. Two 
 coats of lead with color in it should follow, and 
 then the color coat and color varnish, ready to 
 be mossed off. 
 
 Varnishing. To get a good varnish finish, a 
 uniform degree of heat should be maintained, 
 
Carnage and Wagon Building. 2l9 
 
 which requires a heating apparatus in the var- 
 nish room. A self-feeding coal stove may be 
 set up near the partition outside of the varnish 
 room, the partition at that place being sheet iron. 
 All the rubbing with water, etc., should be done 
 in the paint room, for no dust and no water 
 should ever be allowed on the floor of the var- 
 nish room. 
 
 The striping and lettering is done over the 
 first and only color varnish coat. Then comes a 
 coat of clear rubbing varnish, which must be 
 rubbed in the paint room with pulverized pumice 
 and water, as before described. When the body 
 has been returned to the varnish room, it should 
 be dusted, the ends of the duster being dipped 
 lightly in a little varnish held in the hand and 
 then rubbed off so it will not stick. 
 
 For ordinary w^ork the flat bristle brush is 
 best. 
 
 In rubbing varnish, great care must be taken 
 that the pumice has no sand or grit in it; the 
 pail, water, rub-rags, chamois, etc., must be 
 perfectly clean, and of course the hands of the 
 varnishers must be thoroughly washed,— and 
 not in the pail, either. The pumice should not 
 be allowed to dry on the surface, but should be 
 washed off frequently till the surface is quite 
 clean. 
 
220 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 As the varnisher lays on the varnish, he first 
 passes the wet sponge lightly over the work to 
 take off any remaining dust, and then does the 
 rough portions of a panel or the like first. 
 
 In rubbing, corners, angles, etc., need not be 
 touched, as there is danger of cutting through 
 the paint, and nothing is gained. 
 
 Put on plenty of varnish, and pick out any 
 specks that may appear, with sharpened whale- 
 bone. 
 
 The first coat should stand at least two days, 
 and if possible four days, before being rubbed. 
 The rubbing is directed chiefly to getting out all 
 specks, etc. If the job is not a particular one, 
 curled hair rubbing will do. A second coat of 
 rubbing varnish is now added. 
 
 The third coat (of finish varnish) will be the 
 finishing coat. When it has been laid on nicely 
 the job is done. 
 
 Ornamenting. As we nave already stated, 
 the ornamenting goes over the color varnish 
 coat. 
 
 For striping, small round brushes, known as 
 striping pencils, are used. These are commonly 
 of camel's hair, though ox-hair brushes are good 
 for rough wagon striping. They range in size 
 from one-eighth inch up, and should be at least 
 two and a quarter 'inches long. If shorter. 
 
Carriage arid Wagon Building. 221 
 
 it will be hard to make the stripe straight. 
 
 Striping is an art that must be learned, and 
 little can be said here which will help the ama- 
 teur. The pencil is held between the thumb 
 and forefinger, the other fingers being used to 
 steady the hand. The main thing is a good eye, 
 and plenty of practice. 
 
 A zinc palette is probably the best, as it can 
 easily be kept clean. It may be cut from any 
 smooth piece of zinc. 
 
 Small tin cups will do to hold the color. 
 
 After use, the pencils should be well cleaned 
 in turpentine, and they should be kept in a dust- 
 tight box with a piece of glass at the bottom on 
 which to spread the pencils. It is a good idea 
 to grease them with sweet oil after cleaning. 
 
 Colors for striping may be m^ixed the same as 
 body colors. Tube colors are not recommended, 
 as they are too '^ short ^' — do not flow readily 
 from the brush. 
 
 Ornamental striping, or fancy striping requir- 
 ing turns, etc., must be done with a short brush, 
 say half an inch long. 
 
 Nowadays it is hardly worth while to attempt 
 any lettering or ornamenting other than striping, 
 since it is posssible to purchase transfers or decal- 
 comaniawith all kinds of lettering, pictures, etc., 
 most perfectly executed and easily varnished 
 
222 Blacksmithing and Horseshoeing. 
 
 on; or patterns, stencils, etc., may be used 
 with far better results than can be secured by 
 handwork. 
 
 A homemade transfer may be made as follows : 
 Paint the design on the gummed side of a sheet 
 of gummed paper, hke that used for postage 
 stamps. When dry, press down upon this another 
 gummed sheet that has been evenly moistened 
 and let it dry between the leaves of a book. 
 When dry, dampen the back of the sheet on 
 which the drawing was made, and when soft 
 enough remove it. The design is transferred to 
 the panel by transfer varnish or rubbing var- 
 nish, and when dry, the paper dampened and 
 removed as before. This is much easier than 
 trying to do the work on the panel, and you can 
 experiment till you get a good drawing. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 H 52-79 
 

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