Book _JP^5__ 11 '2-0 THE FOUNDER'S MANUAL A PRESENTATION OF MODERN FOUNDRY OPERATIONS FOR THE USE OF FOUNDRYMEN, FOREMEN, STUDENTS AND OTHERS BY DAVID W. PAYNE EDITOR OF " STEAM " 245 ILLUSTRATIONS SECOND PRINTING, CORRECTED NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 Park Place 1920 'S ^^^ Copyright, 1917, by D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY ?> 0-1 \ ey b ^3 ■'^<^6Z?^> Stanbopc jprcss F. H.GILSON COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A. PREFACE While there is li-ttle a foundryman needs to know which has not been fully treated by competent authori- ties, there is not, so far as I am aware, any summary of this great mass of publications. In a foundry experience covering many years, I have frequently spent hours at a time in searching for special information. Believing, therefore, that a compilation of this matter, with authoritative instruction for the solu- tion of the many problems which are continually pre- sented in the foundry, all properly arranged for ready reference, would receive a favorable reception, an attempt has been made to meet this need by the production of this book. The material for the Manual has been drawn from every available source. The proceedings of the American Foundrymen's Association have furnished no end of information. The publications of Professors Turner, Porter, Reis, Dr. Moldenke, Messrs. Keep, Longmuir, Outerbridge, West and others have been most carefully searched. Much has been taken from " The Foundry," " Castings " and " Iron Age." A great many of the " Foundry " records are given in full. Possibly, in some cases, special credit for extracts has not been accorded; for such omissions indulgence is asked, as there has been no intentional neglect or lack of courtesy. iv Preface In tlu- sck'ction of the iiKilcrial for the Ijook, i)ropcr consideration has Ijccn takt-n of Ix-Kinners and others who niay ha\e not gotten xcry far in their acfjuisition of foundry information. For such men, it is also hoped the bo(jk will be of good service. As regards the price lists and discounts which are given in connection with man)- ftjundry supplies, it should be stated that these are not quoted as current prices. They are olTered simply as furnishing a guide to close approximation of costs. The matter for the preliminary portion of the book relating to elementary Mathematics, Mechanics, etc., has been taken in large part from such authorities as Rankine, Bartlett, Wentworth, Trautwine, Kent, Jones and Laughlin, Carnegie Steel Co., and the Encyclopedia Britannica. D. W. P. New York, Jan., 1917. CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I Elementary Mathematics i Ratio and Proportion, i. Root of Numbers, 3. Percentage, 5. Algebra, 7. Equations, 11. Plane Geometry, 15. The Parabola, 22. The Hyperbola, 23. Properties of Plane Fig- ures, 24. Mensuration, Plane Surfaces, 26. Solids, 30. CHAPTER II Weights and Measures 35 Commercial Weights and Measures, 36. Metric Weights and Measures, 40. Measures of Work, Power and Duty, 45. Mathematical Tables, 46. CH.\PTER III Natural Sines, Tangents, Etc 107 Solution of the Right-angled Triangle, 109. Solution of Ob- lique-angled Triangles, 109. Tables of Sines, Tangents and Secants, no. Approximate Measurement of Angles, 115. Tapers per foot and Corresponding Angles, 117. CHAPTER IV Materials 119 Wire and Sheet Metal Gauges, 119. Weights of Iron and Steel, 122. Cold-rolled Steel Shafting, 140. Galvanized and Corrugated Sheet Iron, 141. Sheet Tin, 142. Copper and Brass, 143. Metal Fillets, 145. Iron Wire, 146. Nails and Tacks, 148. Threads, 149. Bolts, Nuts and Washers, 150. Set Screws, 160. Turnbuckles, 162. Cotters, 164. Thumb- screws, 165. Rivets, 166. Iron Pipe, 167. Tin and Zinc, 169. Lead Pipe, 171. Chains and Cables, 173. Sprocket- wheels, 176. Modulus of Elasticity, 181. Deflections, 184. Modulus of Rupture, 185. Moment of Inertia, 187. Strength of Beams, 188. V vi Contents PaKC CIIAITKR V Mk( nANics 191 Acceleration of Falling Bodies, igi. Center of Gravity, 194. Radius of Gyration, 197. Si>ccific Gravities, 108. Physical Constants, 202. Kxpansion of Solids, 205. Measurement of Heat, 207. Radialiun of Heat, 208. Equivalent Tem- IKTalurcs, 211. Strength of Materials, 213. Properties of Air, 215. Pressure of Water, 219. Electrical and Mechanical Units, 220. (IIAITKR \I Alloys 222 Alloys of Cop|)er, Tin and Zinc, 222. Aluminum bronze, 226. Bearing Metals, 226. Belting 227 Formulas for Width of Bells, 228. Speed of Belts, 229. Rules for Speeds and Diameters of Pulleys, 231. Formulas for Cast Iron Fittings, 232. CIL\PTER VII Useful Information 234 Shrinkage of Castings, 234. Window Glass, 236. Fire Clays, 236. Weight of Metals, 239. Iron Ores, 240. CHAPTER VIII Iron 241 Physical Properties of Iron, 241. Grading Pig Iron, 242. Standard Specifications for Pig Iron, 246. Machine-cast Pig Iron, 248. Charcoal Iron, 250. Grading Scrap Iron, 250. CH.\PTER IX Chemical Constituents of Cast Iron 252 Influence of Carbon, 252. Loss or Gain of Carbon in Re-, melting, 254. Influence of Silicon, 256. Influence of Sulphur, 260. Influence of Phosphorus, 263. Influence of Manganese, 265. Aluminum, 266. Nickel, 267. Titanium, 267. Vana- dium, 268. Thermit, 270. Oxygen, 270. Nitrogen, 271. CHAPTER X Mixing Iron 273 Mixing by Fracture, 273. Mixing Iron by Analysis, 274. Castings for Agricultural Machinery, Cylinders and Fly- wheels, 277. Castings for Chills, Motor Frames and Gas En- Contents vii Page gines, 278. Castings for Gears, Hydraulic Machinery and Locomotives, 280. Castings for Pulleys, Radiators and Heat- ers, 284. Castings for Weaving, Woodworking Machinery, etc., 287. CHAPTER XI Steel Scrap in Mixtures of Cast Iron 290 Recovering and Melting Shot Iron, 291. Burnt Iron, 293. Melting Borings and Turnings, 293. CHAPTER XII Test Bars 294 Report of Committee on Test Bars of American Foundry- man's Association, 294. Proposed Specifications for Gray Iron, 296. Patterns for Test Bars of Cast Iron, 297. Erratic Results, 298. Table of Moduli of Rupture, 299. Comparison of Test Bars, 302. Casting Defects, 304. Circular Test Bars, 304. Effect of Structure of Cast Iron Upon its Physical Prop- erties, 306. Mechanical Tests, 307. Chemical Analysis, 308. Chilled and Unchilled Bars, 310. Forms of Combination of Iron and Carbon, 313. CHAPTER XIII Chemical Analyses 315 Strength, 315. Elastip Properties, 322. Hardness, 324. Grain Structure, 329. Shrinkage, 329. Fusibility, 332. Fluidity, 334. Resistance to Heat, 335. Electrical Proper- ties, 338. Resistance to Corrosion, 340. Resistance to Wear, 342. Coefficient of Friction, 342. Casting Properties, 343. Micro-structure of Cast Iron, 345. CHAPTER XIV Standard Specifications for Cast Iron Car Wheels 350 Chemical Properties, 350. Drop Tests, 350. Marking, 351. Measures, 351. Finish, 351. Material and Chill, 351. In- spection and Shipping, 352. Retaping, 353. Thermal Test, 353. Storing and Shipping, 354. Rejections, 354. Standard Specifications for Locomotive Cylinders 355 Process of Manufacture, 355. Chemical Properties, 355. Physical Properties, 355. Test Pieces, 355. Character of Castings, 355. Inspector, 355. viii Contents Standard SPECiricATioNS for Cast Iron Pipe 356 Allowable Variations, 356. Defective SpJRots, 357. Si)ccial Castings, 357. Tables of (Jeneral Dimensions, 358. Marking, 360. Quality of Iron, 360. Tests, 361. Cleaning and Coat- ing, 301. Contractor, Engineer, Inspector, 362. Tables of Weight of I'ipc, 364. CHAPTER XV Mechanical Analysis 371 Shrinkage Chart, 372. Keep's Strength Table, 375. Stand- ard Methods for Determining the Constituents of Cast Iron, 377- CJLVPTER XVI Malleable Cast Iron 382 Black Heart, 382. Ordinary or Reaumur Malleable Iron, 385. Temperature Curve for Annealing Oven, 386. Analysis Be- fore and After Annealing, 387. American Practice, 389. Specifications, 392. Comparison of Tests, 392. CHAPTER XVII Steel Castings in the Foundry 394 Normal Steels, 396. Bessemer Process, 396. The Baby Con- verter, 397. Annealing, 400. Tropenas Process. 401. Chem- istry in the Process, 403. Converter Linings, 404. Standard Specifications, 409. Open Hearth Methods, 411. Compara- tive Cost of Steel Castings, 417. Basic Open Hearth, 418. Acid Open Hearth, 419. Converter, 420. Converter with Large Waste, 421. Crucible Castings, 423. Electric Fur- nace, 424. CHAPTER XVIII Foundry Fuels 425 Anthracite Coal, 425. Coke, 425. By-product Coke, 426. Effect of Atmospheric Moisture Upon Coke, 427. Specifica- tions for Foundry Coke, 428. Fluxes, 429. Comparison of Slags, 432. Fire Brick and Fire Clay, 434. Fire Sand, 435. Magnesite, 436. Bauxite, 436. CHAPTER XIX The Cltola 437 The Lining, 437. Tuyeres, 439. The Breast, 440. Sand Bottom, 441. Zones of Cupola, 442. Chemical Reaction in Contents ix Page Cupola, 443. Wind box, 445. The Blast, 446. Sturtevant Blowers, 448. Buffalo Blowers, 449. Root Blowers, 449. Diameter of Blast Pipe, 450. Dimensions of Cupolas, 451. Charging and Melting, 452. The Charging Floor, 453. Melt- ing Losses, 454. Melting Ratio, 461. Appliances About Cupola, 462. Ladles, 462. Tapping Bar, 463. Bod Stick, 463. Capacities of Ladles, 464. Applying Metalloids in La- dles, 465. Cranes, 466. Spill Bed, 466. Gagger Moulds, 467. CHAPTER XX Moulding Sand 468 Bonding Power, 468. Permeability and Porosity, 468. Re- fractoriness, 469. Durability, 469. Texture, 469. Grades, 470. Sand for Brass, 472. Testing Sand, 473. For Dry Sand Moulding, 477. Skin Drying, 469. Core Sand, 479. Core Mixtures, 480. Dry Binders, 481. Parting Sand, 486. Facings, 486. CHAPTER XXI The Core Room and Appurtenances 492 Core Oven Carriages, 496. Mixing Machines, 497. Sand Conveyors, 497. Rod Straighteners, 497. Wire Cutter, 497. Sand Driers, 49S. Core Plates, 498. Core Machines, 499. Cranes and Hoists, 499. CHAPTER XXII The Moulding Room 501 Cranes, 502. Hooks, Slings and Chains, 502. Lifting Beams, 503. Safe Loads, 504. Binder Bars, 505. Clamps, 506. Flasks, 506. Iron Flasks, 510. Sterling Steel Flasks, 515. Snap Flasks, 517. Slip Boxes, 519. Pins, Plates and Hinges, 519. Sweeps, 522. Anchors, Gaggers and Soldiers, 523. Sprues, Risers and Gates, 524. Top Pouring Gates, 526. Whirl Gates, 527. Skim Gates, 527. Horn Gates, 527. Strainers and Spindles, 528. Weights, 528. Chaplets, 528. Liquid Pressure on Moulds, 529. Nails, 536. Sprue Cutters, 537- CHAPTER XXIII Moulding Machines 538 Jigs, 540. Flasks, 547. Moulding Operations, 549. X Contents Pace cnAi'iik xxi\' CoNTiNLors .Mki.tin<; 551 Multiple Moulds, 555. iVrmancnt Moulds, 558. Centrif- ugal Castings, 561. Castings Under Pressure. 562. Direct Casting, 562. Car|K'ntiT Shoj) and Tool Room, 502. The Cleaning Room, 563. Tumbling Mills, 563. Chipping, 566. Grinding, 566. Sand Blast, 566. Pickling, 567. CHAPTER XXV IJktkrmination ov Weight ok Castings 56Q My Wci^hl of Patterns, 504. Weight of Pallern Lumber, 569. I'orniulas for Finding Weight of Castings, 570. Formulas for Weight on Cope, 575. CIIAl'TER XXVT Water, Lighting, Heating and Ventilation 577 Water Supply, 577. Lighting, 57S. Heating and Ventila- tion, 579. CHAPTER XXVn r'ouxDRv Accounts 587 Foundry Requisition, 588. Pattern Card, 589. Pig Iron Card, 590. Core Card, 591. Heat Book, 592. Cleaning Room Report, 597. Weekly Foundry Report, 600. Monthly Expenditure of Supplies, 601. Comparison of Accounts, 605. Transmission of Orders, 611. American Foundrymen's As- sociation Methods, 612. Cost of Metal, 617. Moulding, 619. Cleaning and Tumbling, 620. Pickling, 621. Sand Blast- ing, 622. Core Making, 623. A Successful Foundry Cost System, 625. Castings Returned, 629. CHAPTER XXVni Pig Iron Directory 633 Classification and Grades of Foundrj' Iron, 633. Coke and' Anthracite Irons, 635. Chnrcoal Irons, 655. Authorities 660 Index ? ; 663 Most readers of this book will, without doubt, be familiar with the ordinary mathematical processes; to them, such brief references as may- appear, will, perhaps, seem superfluous. There may be, however, those who, from disuse or otherwise, are not so circumstanced. For their convenience such information will be given as may facilitate the inter- pretation of the formulas and calculations herein. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS A prime mark ' above a number means minutes or linear feet; as lo' means ten minutes or ten linear feet. Two prime marks " likewise mean seconds; or linear inches; as lo" indicates lo seconds or lo linear inches. The sign D means square, as D' square foot, D " square inch. The sign O means round or cir- cular, as O" circular inch. The sign / means an angle. The sign L means a right angle. The sign J- means a perpendicular. The sign ir, called Pi, means the ratio of the circumference of a circle to the diameter, and is equal to 3.14159. The sign g means acceleration due to gravity and equals 32.16 foot pounds per second. The sign E indicates the coefl&cient of elasticity. The sign / indicates the coefficient of friction. The sign M indicates modulus of rupture. The sign log indicates the common logarithm. The sign log e ) hyperbolic or log hyp. ) logarithm. R.p.m. revolutions per minute. H.P. horse power. K.W. Hr. Kilowatt hours. A.W.G. American wire gauge. B.W.G. Birmingham wire gauge. A.S.M.E. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. A.F.A. American Foundrymen's Association. B. F. A. Birmingham Foundry- men's Association. I.S.I. Iron and Steel Institute. FOUNDERS MANUAL ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS CHAPTER I SECTION I ARITHMETIC It is deemed unnecessary to present anything under this branch of mathematics, except Ratio and Proportion, Square and Cube Roots, AUigation and Percentage. These operations are applied so frequently in the foundry that, it is believed, a simple explanation of them will not be out of place. Ratio and Proportion The ratio of two numbers is the relation which the first bears to the second and is equivalent to a fraction obtained by dividing the first number by the second. Thus: 5:7 = 5 or 7:5 = 1. When the first of four numbers is the same fraction of the second, as the third is of the fourth, the first has the same ratio to the second as the third has to the fourth, and the four numbers are in proportion. Pro- portion, therefore, is the equality of two ratios. Thus: I = T5 = I- The proportion is expressed, 4 : 6 :: 10 : 15, and is read, 4 is to 6 as 10 is to 15. The first and fourth terms are called the extremes; the second and third the means. The product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means; thus in the above proportion 4 X 15 = 6 X 10 = 60. Hence where three terms of the proportion are known the fourth can be found. , .1 c , BC „ BC „ AD ,. AD BC, — = T-, - = -^, D = —r, B = ,r, C = - ..- . ^' B D' D' .1 ' C ' B 2 Arithmclic Thus: Find the numlxir to which lo bears the same ratio as 4 does to 6. 4 : f) :: lo : re(iuired number. Required number e(|uals "/ = '5- Where one extreme and both means are known, to find the other extreme, divide the product of the means by the known extreme. Where Ijolh extremes ami one mean are known, to find the other mean, divide the prcKiuct of the extremes by the known mean. I'or the purpose of illustrating these rules replace the figures in a proportion, by the letters .1, B, C, D, and write .1 : B :: C : D; then, AD To state the terms of a simple proportion where three are given; l)lacc that as the third term which is of the same kind as the required lerm; then consider whether the required term should be greater or less than the third term; if greater, make the greater of the two remaining terms the second and the other the first term. But if the required term should be less than the third term, place the smaller of the first two as tiie second term and the greater as the first. Thus: What is the price, per net ton, of pig iron sold at $17.50 gross ton? .'Vs the price is required, Si 7.50 becomes the third term. Since the net price is less than the gross, 2000 is the second term and 2240 the first. Tlie proportion is then written: 2240 : 2000 :: Si 7.50 : answer. 2000 X Si 7.50 2240 Si 5. 62 = required price. .'\gain the ratio of net to gross is m^ = .892 +. Therefore, the net price is equal to the gross multiplied by 0.892 +; or Si 7.50 X .892 = S15.62; or the net price being known the gross is equal to the net miilli- ]jiied by UU; $15.62 X 1.12 = Si7-50- Compound Propojtion Where the ratio of two quantities depends upon a combination of other ratios, the proportion becomes a compound proportion. In this as in simple proportion, there is but one third term, and it is of the same kind as the required term; there may be two or more first and second terms. Set down the third term as in simple proportion; consider each pair of terms of the same kind separately and as terms of a simple pro- portion, and arrange them in the same manner, making the greater of Men 25 : 36:: Days 16 : 17 :: Fifths of work 3 : 2 36 X 17 X 2 X 10 25 X 16X3 Roots of Numbers 3 the pair the second term, if the answer considered with reference to this pair alone should be greater than the third term; or the reverse if it should be less. Set down the terms under each other in their order of first and second terms. Multiply the product of all the second terms by the third term and divide this product by that of all the first terms. Example. — If 36 men working 10 hours per day perform f of a piece of work in 17 days, how long must 25 men work daily to complete the work in 16 days? The length of the day will be greater the fewer the men, and the fewer the days are; and less, the less the work is; hence, the above problem is stated as follows: 5ji- = 10.2 hours per day. Roots of Numbers To Extract the Square Root of a Given Number Point off the number into periods of two figures each, beginning with units; if there are decimals, begin at the decimal point, separating the whole number to the left and the decimal to the right into such periods, supplying as many ciphers in groups of two, as may be desired. Find the greatest number whose square is less than the first left hand period and place this to the right of the given nvunber as the first figure of the root. Subtract its square from the first left hand period and to the remainder annex the second period for a dividend. Place before this as a partial divisor, double the root figure just found. Find how many times the dividend, exclusive of its right hand figure, contains the divisor, and place the quotient as the second figure of the root, and also at the right of the partial divisor. Multiply the divisor thus completed, by the second root figure and subtract the product from the dividend. To this remainder annex the next period for a new dividend, and double the two root figures for a new partial divisor. Proceed as before until all the periods have been brought down. Arithmetic Example. — Extract the s^iuarc root of 7840.2752 +• 78'40-27'52/88.S4S3 64 168)1440 1344 1765)9627 882s [7704)80252 70816 177085)943600 8S5425 1770903)5817500 5312709 To Extract the Square Root of a Fraction Find the roots of the numerator and denominator separately; or reduce to a decimal and take its root. * /Q "^9 3 9,- / Example.— \/^= —p^ = 7; "r r^ = 0.5625, V0.5625 = 0.75. T lb V16 4 10 To Extract the Cube Root of a Number Beginning; at the right, point off the number into periods of three figures each. If there are decimals, begin at the decimal point, separate the whole number to the left, and the decimal at the right into such periods; find the greatest cube conLained in the left-hand period, and write its root as the first figure of the root required. Subtract the cube of the first root figure from the left-hand period, and to the remainder annex the ne.\t period for a dividend. Then multiply the square of the first figure of the root by 300 and use the prod- uct as a trial divisor; write the quotient as the second root figure. Complete the trial divisor by adding to it 30 times the product of the first root figure by the second, and the square of the second; multiply the com[ileted divisor by the second root figure and subtract the product from the di\adend. To the remainder annex the next period and proceed as before, to find the third figure of the root, i.e., square the first two figures of the root and multiply by 300 for a trial divisor. To this add 30 times the product of the first two root figures by the third, and the square of the third for the completed divisor, etc. The cube root will always contain as many figures as there are periods in the given number. Percentage Example. — Extract the cube root of 78, 402, 752 78'402'752/428. 64 4^ X 300 = 4800 14402 4 X 2 X 30 = 240 5044 10088 42^ X 300 = 529200 4314752 42 X 8 X 30 = 10080 82 = 64 539344 4314752 Alligation Alligation is the process of determining the value of a mixture of different substances, when the quantity and value of each substance is known. * Ride. — Take the sum of all the products of the quantity of each substance by its respective price, and divide it by the total quantity; the result is the value of one unit of the mixture. Example. — What is the value per ton of a mixture containing 500 lbs. of pig iron at $18.00 per ton, 275 lbs. at $16.50 and 800 lbs. of scrap at $14.00? 500 X 18 = 9000 275 X 16.5 = 4537-5° 800 X 14 = 11200.00 1575 24737.50 = $15,706 per ton. 1575 Percentage Per cent means so many parts of 100, and is expressed decimally as three per cent .03, meaning yf q; one-fourth of one per cent .0025 = 2 5 lOCJOO- Percentage covers the operations of finding the part of a given number at a given rate per cent; as 6 per cent of 2750, 2750 X .06 = 165.00; of finding what per cent one number is of another as: WTiat per cent of 780 is 39? 39 -^ 780 = .05 per cent; of ascertaining a number when an amount is given, which is a given per cent of that number; as 62.5 is .04 per cent of what number? 62.5 -H .04 = 1562.5. Arithmclic Dkcimal EguivALENTs OF Parts of One Inch 1-64 .015635 17-64 .365625 33-64 .515625 49-64 57662s 1-32 .O.^Ii^O <)-32 .381250 17-32 .531250 25-32 781250 3-64 .' ■/ ^ ■ : ..,64 .29687s 35-64 .546875 51-° n-32 ..343750 19-32 .593750 27-32 843750 7-U . 109.173 2J 64 • 359.175 39-64 .609375 55-64 85937s 1-S .liSooo 3-8 .375000 5-8 .625000 7-8 875000 9-64 . 140625 25-64 .390625 41-64 .64062s 57-^4 89062s S-32 .156250 I.?-32 .406250 21-32 .656250 29-32 906350 11-64 .171875 27-64 .42187s 43-64 .671875 59-64 93187s 3-16 .187500 7-16 .437500 11-16 .687500 15-16 937SOO 13 64 .203125 29-64 4.53125 45-64 .703125 61-64 953125 7-32 .218750 15-32 .468750 23-32 .718750 31-32 968750 iS-64 .234375 31-64 .484375 47-64 .734375 63-64 98437s 1-4 .250000 I -a .500000 3-4 .750000 I I :ncues to Decimals OF A Foot I 2 3 4 5 6 7 % 9 10 II 0833 .1667 .2500 .3333 .4167 5000 .5833 .6667 7500 8333 9167 A .0026 .0859 .1693 .2526 3359 .4193 .5026 5859 ■ 6693 7526 8359 .9193 i\> 0052 .0885 .1719 .2552 .3385 4219 .5052 .5885 .6719 7552 838s .9219 A 0078 .0911 1745 .2578 3411 .4245 .5078 59" 6745 .7578 8411 9245 i 0104 .0938 I77I .2604 3138 .4271 .5104 5938 6771 7604 8438 .9271 A .0130 .0964 • 1797 .2630 .3464 4297 .5130 .5964 6797 76.30 8464 9297 A .0156 .0990 .1823 .2656 3490 .4323 .5156 5990 .6823 7656 8490 .9323 i. .0182 .1016 .1849 .2682 .3516 .4349 .5182 6016 .6849 7682 8516 9349 J .0208 .1042 .1875 .2708 3542 .4375 .5208 ■ 6042 .6875 7708 .8542 ■ 9375 31 0234 .1068 .1901 .2734 3568 4401 .5234 6068 .6901 7734 8568 9401 ft .0260 .1094 ■ 1927 .2760 3594 .4427 .5260 6094 .6927 7760 8594 .9427 a .0286 .1120 1953 .2786 3620 .4453 .5286 6120 6953 7786 8620 9453 i 0313 .1146 .1979 .2813 .3646 • 4479 .5313 6146 6979 ■ 7813 8646 9479 hi .0339 .1172 .2005 .2839 3672 .450s 5339 .6172 .7005 .7839 8672 9505 I'e .0365 .1198 2031 .2865 .3698 4531 .5365 ■ 6198 7031 ■ 7865 8698 9531 li .0391 .1224 2057 .2801 .3724 ■ 4557 5391 ■ 6224 7057 ■ 7891 8724 ■ 9557 i 0417 .1253 2083 .2917 3750 .4583 ■ 5417 ■ 6250 7083 ■ 7917 .8750 9583 a 0443 .1276 .2109 .2943 .3776 .4609 5443 .6276 7109 7943 .8776 .9600 i% .0469 .1302 2135 2969 .3802 ■ 463s .5469 .6302 7135 .7969 .8802 .963.=; is .0495 .1328 .2161 ■2995 .3828 .4661 .5495 .6328 ■ 7161 7995 .8828 .9661 8 0521 1354 .2188 3021 .3854 .46S8 .5521 .6354 .7188 .8021 8854 .96SS u 0547 .1380 .2214 ■ 3047 .3880 .4714 5547 .6380 7214 8047 .8880 .9714 u 0573 .1406 .2240 3073 .3906 .4740 5573 .6406 .7240 .8073 .8906 .9740 li 0599 1432 .2266 ■3099 .3932 .4766 .5599 .6432 .7266 .8099 .8932 9766 i 0625 1458 .2292 3125 .3958 .4792 .5625 ■ 6458 7292 8125 8958 9792 a .0651 .1484 .2318 31SI 3984 .4818 .5651 .6484 .7318 .8151 .8984 .9818 [i .0677 1510 .2344 3177 .4010 .4844 .5677 .6510 .7344 ■ 8177 .9010 ■ 9844 3i .0703 1536 .2370 3203 .4036 .4870 .5703 ■ 6536 .7370 ■ 8203 9036 .9870 I .0729 .1563 .2396 3229 .4063 .4896 ■ 5729 .6563 7396 .8229 9063 .9896 IS 0755 .1589 .2422 3255 4089 .4922 5755 ■ 6589 7422 .8255 .9089 .9922 \l .0781 .1615 2448 .3281 4115 4948 .5781 .661s .7448 .8281 .9115 .9948 a .0807 .1641 2474 3307 1 4141 4974 .5807 .6641 7474 8307 9141 9974 Algebra Products of Fractions Expressed in Decimals I i'b i « 1 i^e i /b h i^; .0625 .0039 k .1250 .0078 .0156 A .1875 .0117 .0234 .0352 i .2500 .0156 .0313 .0469 .0625 j% .3125 .0195 .0391 .0586 .0781 .0977 i .3750 .0234 .0169 .0703 .0937 .1172 .1406 i'b .4375 .0273 .0547 .0820 .1093 .1367 .1641 • I9I4 i .5000 .0313 .0625 .0938 .1250 .1562 .1875 .2188 .2500 Is .5625 .0352 .0703 .1055 .1406 .1758 .2109 .2461 .2813 1 .6250 .0391 .0781 .1172 .1562 .1953 .2344 .2734 • 3125 H .6875 .0430 .0859 .1289 .1719 .2148 .2578 .3008 .3438 i .7500 .0469 .0938 .1406 .1875 .2344 .2813 .3281 .3750 H .8125 .0508 .1016 .1523 .2031 .2539 .3047 .3555 .4036 i .8750 .0547 .1094 .1641 .2187 .2734 .3281 .3828 • 4375 il .9375 .0586 .1172 .1758 .2344 .2930 .3516 .4102 .4688 I I. 0000 .0625 .1250 .1875 .2500 .3125 .3750 .4375 .5000 1% 1 ih 3 s Ji I it I T% .3164 i .3516 .3906 H .3867 .4297 .4727 1 .4219 .4688 .5156 .5625 il .4570 .5078 .5586 .6094 .6601 i .4922 .5469 .6016 .6563 .7109 .7656 H .5273 .5859 .6445 .7031 .7617 .8203 .8789 I .5625 .6250 .6875 .7500 .8125 .8750 .9375 I. 0000 SECTION II ALGEBRA In algebra quantities of every kind are denoted by letters of the alphabet. The first letters of the alphabet are used to denote known quantities, and the last letters unknown quantities. The sign + (plns) denotes that the quantity before which it is placed is to be added to some other quantity. Thus: a + b denotes the sum of a and b. The sign — (minus) denotes that the quantity before which it is placed is to be subtracted from some other quantity. Thus: a — b denotes that b is to be subtracted from a. When no sign is prefixed to a quantity, + is always understood. Quantities are said to have like or unlike signs, according as their signs are like or unlike. 8 AlReljra A quantity which consists of one term is said to be simple; but if it consists of several terms connected ljy the signs + or — , it is said to be comjKJund. Thus: a or — b arc simple quantities; but — a — 6 is a compound <|uaiility. Addition of Like Quantities Add together the tocliiLicnts uf ihc c|uanlilies having like signs, and subtract the negative sum from the positive. Thus: Add 7 a + 2 a, ^a — a, and 60 — 40. 7 (i — a 2 a — 4 a 3a 6a 18a — 5 a = 13 o. Addition of Unlike Quantities If some of the quanlilics are unlike, proceed as before with each like quantity, and write down the algebraic sum of all the quantities. Thus: Add 70 + 26, 3 a — i, 66 — 4a and 50-46. 70-40 26— b Sa — 66 — 46 150- 40 86 — 56 -40 - 5 6 11 a 36 Ans'd'cr = 11 o + 3 6. The process is the same with compound quantities. Thus: Add 0-6 + 2 cd^ to - 2 a^b + c(P = 3cd"- - a^b. Subtraction Change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed as in addition. Thus: Subtract 3 0-6 — 9 c from 40^6 + c; changing the signs of the subtra- hend and adding, the expressions may be written 4 0^6 — 3 o''6 + f + 9 f or 0*6 -(- 10 c. Multiplication If the quantities to be multiplied have like signs, the sign of the product is +; if they have unlike signs, that of the jiroduct is — . Powers of Quantities 9 Of Simple Quantities Multiply the coefficients together and prefix the + or — sign, accord- ing as the signs of the quantities are like or unlike. Thus: Multiply + ahy + b. Product equals -{- ab. Multiply + 5 6 by — 4 c. Product equals — 20 be. Multiply — 3 ax by + 7 a&- Product equals — 21 a'bx. Of Compound Quantities Multiply each term of the multiplicand by all the terms of the multi- plier, one after the other as by former rule; collect their products into one sum for the required product. Example. — Multiply a — b + c by a -\- b — e -asc all the terms cuntaining the unknown quantity to unc side 'if the equation, and all llic other terms to the other side. Combine like terms, and divide both sides by the coefficient of the unknown quantity. Thus: 8 X- — 29 = 26 — 3 X, 1 1 jr = 55, x = $. Simple algebraic problems containing one unknown quantity, are solved by makinj^ x equal the unknown quantity, and stating the con- ditions of the problem in the form uf an algebraic equation, then solving the equation. Thus: What two numbers are those whose sum is 48 and difference 14? Let X = the smaller number. Then x -{- 14 = the greater number. a; + X + 14 = 48, 2 X = 34. Therefore x = 17, and X -f 14 = 31, 31 + 17 = 48. Find the number whose treble exceeds 50 by as much as its double falls short of 40. Let X = the number. Then 3 x — 50 = 40 — 2 x, 5 X = 90, X = 18. Equations Containing Two Unknown Quantities If one equation contains two unknown quantities, an indefinite number of pairs of values for them may be found, which will satisfy the equation; but if a second equation be given, only one pair of values can be found that will satisfy both equations. Simultaneous equations, or those which may be satisfied by the same values of the unknown quantity, are solved by combining the equations so as to obtain a single equation containing only one unknown quantity. This process is called elimination. Elimination by Addition or Subtraction Multiply the equations by such a number as will make the coefficients of one of the unknown quantities equal in both. Add or subtract according as they have like or unlike signs. Elimination by Comparison 13 Solve 2 a; + 3 3* = 7 4X- sy = 3 Multiply by 2 4^ + 6 y = 14 Subtract 4-*-— 5y= 3 II y = II y = I. Substituting the value of y in the first equation 2 a; + 3 = 7, .: X = 2. Elimination by Substitution From one of the equations obtain the value of one of the unknown quantities in terms of the other. Substitute this value of this unknown quantity for it, in the other equation, and reduce the resulting equations. Solve 2 re + 3 y = 8 (i) 3 A- + 7 y = 7 (2) From (i) X = ^~^^ 2 Substituting this value in (2) (8 — 3 3') 3 1-7 3' = 7, 24-9y + I4y = 14, .•- y = — 2. Substituting this value in (i); 2 a; — 6 = 8, .'. X = "/. Elimination by Comparison From each equation obtain the value of one of the unknown quantities, in terms of the other. Form an equation from these equal values of the same unknown quantity and reduce. Solve 2 .T — 9 y = II (i) Sx-4y= 7 (2) From (I) X = '-1±^ 2 From (2) X = ^±43: 3 Placing the values of a; in a new equation 11 + 93' 7 + 4y 2 3 Substituting this value of y in (i) 2x + g = II, I9y=-I9, A y=-i. 1 4 AlKfl)ra If three simultaneous equations are ^iven containinK three unknown f|uantilics, one of the unicnown quantities must he eliminated between two pairs of the ecjuations, then a second between the two resulting efjualions. Quadratic Equations or Equations of the Second Degree A quadratic equation contains the square of the unknown quantity, but no higher power. A i)urc quadratic contains the square only; an adfected quadratic contains both the square and the first power. To Solve a Pure Quadratic Collect the unknown (|uantities on one side, and the known quantities on the i)lher; divide by the coefl'icient of the unknown quantity and extract the square root of each side of the resulting equation. Solve 3r' — 15 = 0. 3A-= = i5. .-. X-' = 5, X = V5. A root which is indicated, but can only be found approximately is called a surd. Solve 3 a;^ + 15 = o. 3 .v2 = - 15, .v= = - 5, :.x = \/- 5. The square root of a negative quantity cannot be found even approxi- mately, for the square of any number is positive; therefore, a root which is indicated, but cannot be found approximately is called imaginary. To Solve an Adfected Quadratic First. — Carry all the terms invuhini^ the unknown (juantities to one side of the equation and the known quantities to the other side. Arrange the unknown quantities in the order of their exjxjnents, changing the signs of the equation if necessary, so that the sign of the term containing the square of the unknown quantity shall be positive. Second. — Divide both terms by the coefficient of the square -of the unknown quantit}'. Third. — To complete the square. Add to both sides of the equation, the square of half the coefficient of the unknown quantity. The side containing the unknown quantity will now be a perfect square. Fourth. — Extract the square root of both sides of the equation and solve the resulting simple equation. Example. — x^ -\- 2 x = 35. .Add the square of half the coefficient of .v, which is i, to both sides; then A-* + 2 x + I = 35 + I = 36. Plane Geometry 15 Extracting the square root X + I = ^36 = ± 6 X = 6 - I = s a;=— 6 — i = — 7. • Example: 3 .t^ — 4 .r = 32. Divide by the coeiEcieat of x- x^-^ = ^. 3 3 Add the square of half the coefScient of x, which equals (,f)^ = |; then .i;^-f^ + f = ¥ + !• Extracting the square root, the equation becomes 1- _ 2 _ -v/100 _ 10 -'- 3 — ^ 9 3 a-— 3-1-3 — 4, or:^-— s^T^a— 3~2 3. Since the square of a quantity has two roots ±, a quadratic equation has apparently two solutions. Both solutions may be correct; but in some cases one may be correct and the other inconsistent with the con- ditions of the problem. For the solution of quadratic equations containing two unknown quantities, or for that of equations of a higher order, a more extended treatment of the subject is required, than is permissible in a book of this character. SECTION III PLANE GEOMETRY Problem 1 To Bisect a Straight Line, or an Arc of a Circle With any radius greater than half AB and with A and B as centers, describe arcs cutting each other at C and D. Draw the line CD, which will bisect ^' the straight line at E and the arc at F. Problem 2 Fig. i. To Draw a Perpendicular to a Straight Line, or a Radial Line to the Arc of a Circle This is the same as Problem i, Fig. i. CD is perpendicular to AB, or is radial to the arc. i6 Plane (Icomctry Problem 3 To Draw a Perpendicular to a Stritifilil Line, from a Given Point on that Line to U Fig. 2. With any convenient radius and the given fxjint C, as a center, cut the line AB, at A and B. Then with a radius longer than AC, describe arcs from A and B intersecting each other at D and E. Draw DC, perpendicular to AB. In laying out work on the ground or in places where the straight edge and dividers are inapplicable: Set off six feet from .1 to B. Then with .1 , as a cen- ter and AC = 8' taken on a tape line, describe an arc at C; with B, as a center and a radius BC = lo', cut the other arc at C. A line through CA , will be perpendicu- lar to AB. 3, 4 and s may be used instead of 6, 8 and lo; or any multiples of 6, 8, lo will serve. \L '^ Fig. 3. Problem 4 From a Point at the End of a Given Line lo Draw a Perpendicular From any point C, above the line, with the radius AC, describe an arc, cutting the given line at B. Draw BC, and prolong until it intersects the arc at D. Then, DA will be perpendicular to .-IB, at .4. Fig. 4. Problem 5 From Any Point Without a Given Straight Line, to Draw a Perpendicular to the Line Let BC, be the given line; then from any point A, with any radius AB, describe arcs cutting the line at B and C. From B and C as centers and any radius greater than half of BC. describe arcs intersecting at D. Draw AD, perpendicular to BC. (Fig. 5.) ;:d Fig. s. Plane Geometry 17 Problem 6 To Draw a Straight Line Parallel to a Given Line at a Given Distance from That Line B D From any two points on the given line as — -y "y^ centers and the given distance as a radius, I ; ■describe the arcs B and D. Draw BD parallel A. c to AC. (Fig. 6.) Fig. 6. Problem 7 To Divide a Given Straight Line into Any Nnnher of Equal Parts Let AB he the given line. Draw any — c line AC, intersecting the given line and lay ofE on it, say, 5 equal parts. Join the last point 5 with B. Then through each of the Fig. 7. other divisions on AC, draw lines parallel to B 5, dividing y4B into 5 equal parts. (Fig. 7.) Problem 8 To Draw an Angle of 60°, also One of 30° From A with any radius describe the arc CB, then with the same radius and 5, as a center, cut the arc at C. Then the angle CAB = 60°. From C drop CD perpendicular io AB. The angle ACD = 30°. Problem 9 To Draw an Angle of 45° Draw BC, perpendicular to AB. Make BC = AB, and draw AC. The angle CAB = 45°. (Fig. 9.) Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Problem 10 To Bisect an Angle Let ABC be the given angle. With 5 as a center and any radius, draw the arc AC. Then with A and C as centers and a radius greater than one-half AC, describe arcs cutting each other at D. Draw BD, which will bisect the angle ABC. (Fig, 10.) Fig. 10. x8 Plane (icornctry Problem 11 Through Two Given Points and W ilh a Given Radius Describe I he Arc of a Circle Referring to I'ig. lo. Let .1 and C be the given jKiinls and a distance AB the given radius. From ,1 and C, with AB as a radius describe arcs cutting each other at B, then with B as a center strike AC. All Angles in a semicircle are Kiglit Angles. Problem 12 An Angle al the Center of a Circle is Twice the Angle at the Circumference when Both Slatul on the same Arc C Thus the angle BAC is equal to twice the angle BDC. (Fig. II.) Fig. II. Problem 13 All the Angles Between an Arc and its Chord, the Sides of the Angle Pass- ing Through the Extremities of t/ie Chord, are Equal. (Fig. 12.) Thus, the angle EFG = FJIG. Fig. 12. Problem 14 To Find the Center of a Circle or of an Arc. (Fig. 13.) Take an}' three convenient points on the circum- ference, and with anj' radius greater than half the distance between any two points, describe arcs cut- ting each other at d, c, f and g. Through d, f and e, g, draw the lines df and eg; the center is at their Fig. 13. intersection H. Problem 15 To Pass a Circle Through Three Given Points Referring to Problem 14, let a, b and c be the three given points. Proceed in the same way as to find the center H. Plane Geometry 19 Problem 16 To Describe an Arc of a Circle Passing Through Three Given Poitils when the Center is not Accessible. (Fig. 14.) Let A , B and C be the three given points. From A and B as centers and with AB a.s a, radius, describe the arcs AE and BD. Draw AD and BE through C. Lay ofi on the arc AE, any number of equal parts above E and on BD, the same number be- low D, numbering the points i, 2, 3, etc., in the order in which they are taken. Draw from A, lines through i, 2, 3, etc., on the arc BD; and from B, lines through i, 2, 3, etc., on the arc AE. The intersections of lines having corresponding numbers will be points on the required arc between C and B. Proceed in the same manner to find points between C and A. Then draw the arc through the points. Fig. 14. Problem 17 From a Point on the Circumference of a Circle Draw a Tangent to the Circle. (Fig. 15.) Through the given point A draw the radial line AC. Then on AC erect the perpendicular BE, as in Problem 3. Fig. is. Problem 18 From a Point Without a Circle Draw a Tangent to the Circle. (Fig. 16.) Let A be the center of the circle, and B the given point. Join A and B, and on the line AB describe a semicircle, with a radius equal to one- half oi AB. Through the intersection of the semicircle and the given circle draw the tangent BC. Fig. 16. 20 Plain- (icomclry Problem 19 Through a Point on a Line, liiurling the Anglf Betwern Two Lines, Draw a Circle Which Shall be Tangent to the Given Lines. (Fig. 17.) Fig. 17. Let A he the point on a line bisect- ing the angle between BC and DE. Through .1 draw CVipcrjjendicuIar to AF. Bisect the angles at C and E. The intersection G of the bisecting lines will be on AF and at the center of the required circle. Problem 20 Describe an Arc, Tangent to Two Given Arcs and at a Given Point on one of the Arcs. (Fig. 18.) Let A and B be the centers of the given arcs and C the point of tangency on the arc, whose center is B. Join A and B and draw BC through the given point. Make CE equal to the radius AD. Bisect AE, draw a perpendicular at its middle point and prolong to intersection with BC at F, which is the center of the arc required. Fig. 18. Problem 21 To Construct a Pentagon having a Given Side AB. (Fig. 19.) At B erect a perpendicular BC, equal to one-half AB. Draw AC and make CD equal BC. Then BD is the radius of the circle circumscribing a pentagon having sides equal to AB. The radius of a given circle is the side of an in- scribed he.xagon. The radius of a circle circumscribing a hexagon, is equal to the distance from the center of the hexa- gon to the e.xtremity of one of its sides. Fig. 19. Plane Geometry 21 Problem 22 To Construct an Ellipse ■when the Transverse attd Conjugate Axes are Given. (Fig. 20.) Draw the axes AB and CD intersecting at G. From C, with one- half ^jB as a radius, cut .45 at £ and F. Divide GB into any number of parts as at i, 2, 3, 4, 5. With £ as a center and 4 i as a radius, and with F as a center and radius B i, strike arcs cutting each other at i, i, above and below the transverse axis. Again with E and F as centers and A 2 and B 2, respectively as radii, describe arcs cutting each other at 2, 2. Find as many points as desired in the same way in both halves of the ellipse, then trace the curve. This construction depends on the property of an ellipse; that the sum of the distances from the foci to any point on the ellipse is equal to the transverse axis. Problem 23 To Describe an Ellipse Mechanically when the Transverse and Con- jugate Axes are Known. (Fig. 21.) Draw the axes and determine the foci as in Problem 22. Drive two pins at the foci E and F. Fasten to each of the pins one end of a cord whose length is equal to that of the transverse axis. Then with a pencil, so placed within the loop of the cord as always to keep it taut and uniformly strained, trace one-half of the curve, from one extremity of the trans- verse axis to the other. The other half of the curve is traced by chang- ing the cord and pencil to the oppo- site side of the transverse axis. This method is seldom satisfactory on account of the unequal stretching of the cord. A better mechanical method of describing an ellipse is to place a straight edge along and above the transverse axis and another along and 1° 0" 1 A B C Fig. 21. 22 I'laiii- (icomelry al one side of the ronjunate axis, as at AB and CD (Fig. 21), leaving a slight o|)cning belwctn llic end of the straightedge CZ^and the transverse axis. There must also Lc a tliin strip of wood with a hole for pencil |>oint al A and small pins at B and C; AB being equal to one-half of the conju- gate axis; and AC equal to one-half the transverse axis. By moving this strip so that the pin B is always in contact with AB and the pin C in like contact with CD the upper half of the ellipse may be de- scribed. The straight edges are placed in corresponding positions on the opposite side of the transverse axis to describe the other half of the ellipse. Except where extreme accuracy is required, it is more convenient to approximate the ellipse with circular arcs. Thus: Lay off AB and CD (Fig. 22) equal to the transverse and conjugate axes respectively. Make Oa and Oc equal to the difference between the semi-transverse and semi-conjugate axes, and ad equal to one-half ac. Set off Oe equal to Od. Draw di parallel to ac; join e and / and draw the parallel lines dm and em. From m, with a radius mC, strike an arc cutting jnd and me. From i, with iD as a radius, strike an arc cutting id and ie. Then from d and e, with radius Ad, strike arcs closing the figure. The Parabola A parabola is a curve every point of which is equidistant from a line called the directrix and from a point on its axis called the focus. The directrix is a line perpendicular to the axis and at the same distance as the focus from the apex of the curve. .'\ line perpendicular to the axis, drawn through the focus to the cur\e, is called the parameter. If a line be drawn from any point of the curve, perpendicular to the axis, the distance from the apex to the intersection of the perpendicular with the axis is called the abscissa of that point and the distance from the intersection at the axis to the curve is called the ordinate of that point. Abscissae of a parabola are as the squares of corresponding ordi- nates. The Hyperbola 23 Problem 24 To Construct a Parabola -when the Focus and Directrix are Given. (Fig. 23.) Let AB he the directrix, and C the focus of a parabola. Bisect CD at E, which point is the apex of the curve. Then with C as a center and any radii, as C I, C 2, etc., strike arcs at i, 2 and 3, etc. From D as a center and with the radii equal to C i, C 2, C 3, etc., cut the a.xis at i', 2', 3', etc. Through these points draw hnes parallel to AB. The intersection of corresponding parallels and arcs are points on the required curve. Problem 25 To Construct a Parabola when an Abscissa and Its Corre- sponding Ordinate are Given. (Fig. 24.) Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Let BA be the given abscissa and AD the ordinate. Bisect AD at E. Draw EB, and EF perpendicular to EB. Set off BG and BK, each equal to AF. Then will G be the focus and LM (through K) perpendicular to ^B, the directrix. Construct the curve as in Problem 24. The Hyperbola An hyperbola is a cur\'e, such that the difference of the distances from any point of it to two fixed points is always equal to a given distance. The two fixed points are called the foci and the given distance is the transverse axis. The conjugate axis is a line perpendicular to the trans- verse axis at its middle point; and its length is equal to the side of a rectangle, of which the transverse axis is the other side and the distance between the foci, the diagonal. Problem 26 To Construct an Hyperbola when the Foci and Transverse Axis are Given Let A and B be the foci and EF the transverse axis. From A set oflf AG equal to EF. Then, from .4 as a center and with any distance greater than AF as a radius, strike an arc CD, cutting the transverse 24 Plane CJcomelry axis (pri)IonKCe jxjints on the curve; in like manner any number of (joints arc determined, Uirough which the curve may be traced. Proceeding in the same way on the opposite side of the conjugate axis, the other branch of the curve is constructed. The diagonals of a rectangle constructed on the transverse and conjugate axes are called the asymptotes and are hnes to which the cur\'e is tangent at an infinite distance. When the asymp- totes are at right angles the cur\e is called an equi- lateral hjTJerbola. It is a property of the equilateral hyperbola, that if the asymptotes be taken as the co-ordinate axes the product of the abscissa and ordinate of an}- point of the curve is equal to the corresponding product of the co-ordinates at any other point; or that the diagonal of a rectangle con- structed by the ordinate and abscissa of any point of the curve passes tlirough the intersection of the axes. Fig. 25. Problem 27 Given the Asymptotes and any Point on lite Curve, to Construct the Curve. (Fig. 26.) Let AB and AG he. the asymptotes and D the given point. Multiply AB by AE and divide the product AB X AE by any other distance AF; then AG = ' ye ' and the intersection at / of lines through F and G, parallel to the axes, is another point on the cur\'e. / Fig. 26. Properties of Plane Figures (i) In a right angle triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. (2) In an equilateral triangle all the angles are equal. (3) In an isosceles triangle a line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to the base bisects the base and also the angle at the vertex. (4) An exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of the two opposite angles. (s) Similar triangles have equal angles and the sides opposite to corresponding angles are proportional. Properties of Plane Figures 25 (6) In any polygon, the sum of all the interior angles is equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, less four right angles. (7) In any polygon the sum of all the exterior angles is equal to four right angles, or 360°. (S) The diagonals of any regular polygon intersect at the center of the figure. (9) A circle may be passed through any three points, not on the same straight line. (10) In the same circle, arcs are proportional to the angles at the center. (11) Any two arcs having the same angle at the center are propor- tional to their radii. (12) Areas of circles are proportional to the squares of their diameters or the squares of the radii. (13) A radius perpendicular to the chord of an arc bisects the arc and its chord. (14) A straight line tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency. (15) An angle at the center of the circle is equal to twice the angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc. (16) Angles at the circumference of a circle, standing on the same arc, are equal. (17) Any triangle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angled tri- angle. (18) In any triangle inscribed in a segment of a circle, the angles at the circumference are equal. (19) Parallel chords or a chord and a parallel tangent intercept equal arcs. (20) If two chords of a circle intersect, the rectangles made by the segments of the respective chords are equal. (21) If one of the chords is a diameter of the circle and the other is perpendicular to it, then one-half of the chord is a mean proportional between the segments of the diameter. (22) In any circle, with the center as the origin of co-ordinates, the sum of the squares of the abscissa and ordinate of any point is equal to the square of the radius, or x^ + y^ = I^- (23) In any ellipse with same origin, the square of the abscissa of any point multiplied by the square of the semi-conjugate axis plus the square of the ordinate of same point multiplied by the square of the semi- transverse a.xis is .equal to the square of the product of the semi-axes. Thus: 5lv^ 4- A'^'f = A^B'^, where A and B are the semi- transverse and semi-conjugate axes. 26 Mensuration (j4) In an ellipse, lines drawn from any j)<)inl to the foci make equal angles with a LanKcnt at that [Kjint. (25) The sum of the distances from any f)»jint erimeler of its base liy its altitude; to this i)roduct add the areas of the ends. The volume of any prism is ecjual to the area of its base multiplied by its altitude, or perpendicular distance between the ends. The volume of any fruslum of a prism is equal to the product of the sum of all the edges (divided by their number;, and the area of the cross section perpendicular to those edges. The Pyramid A pyTamid is a solid having any jjolNgun for its base; and for its sides triangles, terminating at one point called the apex The a.xis of a pyramid is a straight line from the ape.x to the center of gravity of its base. A pyramid is right or oblique according as the a.xis is perpendicular or inclined to the base; regular or irregular, as the base is a regular or irregular figure. The slant height is the distance from the vertex of any of the tri- angular sides to the middle point of its base. The surface of any pjTamid is equal to the sum of the areas of all the triangles of which it is composed plus the area of the base. The surface of a right regular pyramid is equal to the perimeter of its base multiplied by half the slant height plus the area of the base. The volume of any pyramid is equal to the area of the base multiplictl by one-third of the altitude; or the perpendicular distance from the apex to the base. It is also equal to one-third the volume of a cylinder having the same base and altitude; or to one-half the volume of a hemisphere having the same base and altitude. The volumes of a pyramid, hemisphere and cylinder, having the same base and altitude are to each other as i, 2 and 3. Frustrum of a Pjrramid The frustrum of a pyramid is the section between two i)lanes which may or may not be parallel. Polyhedra 31 The slant height of any side of a frustrum of a pyramid is measured from the middle points of the top and bottom sides of the trapezium forming that side. To find the surface of any frustrum of apyramid, take the sum of the areas of all the trapeziums forming the sides, to which add the sum of the top and base. The surface of a frustrum of a right regular pyramid, where the top and base are parallel planes, is equal to one-half the sum of the perimeters of top and base multiplied by the slant height plus the sum of the areas of the top and base. The volume of any frustrum of any pyramid, with top and base parallel, is equal to one-third the perpendicular distance between top and base multiplied by the sums of the areas of top and base, and the square root of the product of those areas. Thus H, being the perpendicular and A and A' the areas of top and base, respectively, then the volume equals \ H X {A -\- A' -\- ^ A X A') or A" being equal to the area of a section midway between and parallel to base and top, the volume = V = I H {A +A' + 4A"). A prismoid is a solid having six sides, two of which are parallel but unequal' quadrangles, and the other sides trapeziums. To find the Volume of a Prismoid Let A = area of one of the parallel sides. a — area of the other parallel side. M = area of cross section midway between and parallel to the parallel sides. L = perpendicular distance between the two parallel sides. Then Volume^ £X ^4 + « + 4^/ j. The Wedge The wedge is a frustrum of a triangular prism. Its volume is equal to the area of a right section multiplied by one-third the sum of the lengths of the three parallel edges. Let A equal area of section perpendicular to the axis of the prism and BC, DE and FG, the lengths of the parallel edges respectively. Then Volume of wedge = A • 3 Polyhedra A polyhedron is a solid bounded by plane surfaces. A regular polyhedron is one whose bounding faces are all equal and regular polygons. 32 Mcii.suratiun There are five regular polyhcdra as follows: Name Bounded by Surface " sum of sur- faces of all the faces = square of the length of one edg«; by \'olume • tof Kth ,,. by Tetrahedron Cube or hexahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron 4 Equilateral trianRlcs.. . 6 squares 8 EquiLiteral trianRles.. 12 Equilateral pentagons. 20 Equilateral triangles. . 1.7320 6.000 3 4641 20.6458 8.6602 .1178 1.000 .4714 7.6631 2.1817 The Cylinder A cylinder may be delincd as u pri.-^m, oi which a section perpendicular to its axis is a circle. It may be right or oblique. The base of a right cylinder is a circle, that of an oblique cylinder an ellipse. The surface of any cylinder is ccjual to the product of the circumference of a circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, by the length of the axis, plus the area of the ends. The volume of a cylinder is equal to the area of a circle perpendicular to the axis multiplied by its altitude. The Cone A cone is a pyramid having an infinite number of sides. Cones are right or oblique according as their axes are perpendicular or inclined to their bases. The surface of a right cone is equal to the product of the perimeter of the base by half the slant height, plus the area of the base. The surface of an oblique cone, cut from a right cone having a circular base, is equal to the area of the base, multiplied by the altitude and divided by the perpendicular distance from the axis at the point where it pierces the base, to the surface of the cone, plus the area of the base; AH or the curv^ed surface of the cone equals -^ • Wherein A is the area K of the base, II the altitude and R the perpendicular. The volume of any cone is equal to the area of the base multiplied by one-third of the altitude. The volume of a cone is equal to one-third that of a cylinder, or one- half that of an hemisphere having same base and altitude. The Sphere 33 The surface of a right circular frustrum of a cone with top and base parallel is found by adding together the circumferences of top and base, multiplying this sum by one-half the slant height; to this product add the area of top and base to get the total surface. The volume of a frustrum of any cone, with top and base parallel, is equal to one-third of the altitude multiplied by the sum of the areas of top and base plus the square root of the product of those areas, or equals I the altitude X (area of top -\- area of base + v area of top X area of base). The Sphere A sphere is a solid generated by revolving a semicircle about its diameter. The intersection of a sphere with any plane is a circle. A circle cut by the intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane passing through its center is a great circle. The volume of a sphere is greater than that of any other solid having an equal-surface. The surface of a sphere equals that of four great circles. Surface = ^wr"^. = ttDK " = curved surface of a circumscribing cylinder. " = area of a circle having twice the diameter of the sphere. The surface of a sphere is equal to that of a circumscribing cube multiplied by 0.5236. Surfaces of spheres are to each other as the squares of their diameters. Volume of a Sphere Volume = ^irr^ = 4.1888 r'' " = lirD' = 0.5236 D^ " =1 volume of circumscribing cylinder. " = 0.5236 volume of circumscribing cube. Volumes of spheres are to each other as the cubes of their diameters. Radius of a sphere = 0.62035 v volume. Circumference of sphere = v 59.2176 volume. = V3.1416 X area of surface. _ Area of surface Diameter 34 Mfiisiiniiion I'hf urea of the rurvwl surface c)f a spherical segment is Cfjual to the l>r' the height of the scg- minl = rrDII , where I) is the diameter of the sjjhere and // the height of the spherical segment. The curved surface of a segment of a sphere is to the whole surface of the sjjhere as the height of the segment is to the diameter of the s|)heru. To Find the Volume of a Spherical Segment Let R = radius of base of segment. // = height. Then volume of segment = ^ nil (3 /?^ + //'). To tind the curved surface of a spherical zone, multiply the circum- ference of the sphere by the height of the zone. To find the volume of a spherical zone, let A and A' be the radii of tlic ends of the zone and // be the height and V the volume. Then K = i t// (jC-F + -'1=') + IP). Guldin's Theorems (i) If any plane curve be revolved about any external a.xis situated in its plane, the surface generated is equal to the product of the perimeter of the curs'c and the length of the path described by the center of gravity of that perimeter. (2) If any plane surface be revolved about any e.\ternal axis situated in its plane, the volume generated is equal to the area of the revolving surface multiplied by the path described by its center of gravity. CHAPTER II WEIGHTS AND MEASURES In the United States and Great Britain measures of length and weight are, for the same denomination, essentially equal; but liquid and dry measures for same denomination differ widely. The standard measure of length for both countries is that of the simple seconds pendulum, at the sea level, in the latitude of Greenwich; in vacuum and at a tem- perature of 62° F. The length of such a pendulum is 39.1393 inches; 36 of these inches constitute the standard British Imperial yard. This is also the stand- ard in the United States. The Troy pound at the U. S. Mint of Philadelphia is the legal standard of weight in the United States. It contains 5760 grains and is exactly the same as the Imperial Troy pound of Great Britain. The avoirdupois pound (commercial) of the United States contains 7000 grains, and agrees with the British avoirdupois pound within o.ooi of a grain. The metric system was legalized by the United States in 1866 but its use is not obligatory. The metre is the unit of the metric system of lengths and was supposed to be one ten millionth, , of that portion of a meridian between 10,000,000 either pole and the equator. The metric measures of surface and volume are the squares and cubes of the metre, and of its decimal fractions and multiples. The metric unit of weight is the gramme or grain, which is the weight of a cubic centimeter of pure water at a temperature of 40° F. The legal equivalent of the metre as established by Act of Congress is 39.37 inches = 3.28083 ft. = 1.093611 yards. The legal equivalent of the gramme is 15.432 grains. The systems of weights used for commercial purposes in the United States are as follows: 35 36 Weights aiul Mcxisurcs Troy Weight For Gold, Silver, Plalimim and Jewels, except Diamonds and Pearls 24 grains = i (x-nnyweight (dwt.). 20 pennyweights = i ounce = 480 grains. 12 ounces = i pound = 5760 grains. Apothecaries Weight {For I'nscriplions only.) 20 grains = i scruple O) 3 scruples = i drachm (3) = 60 grains. 8 drachms = i ounce (5) = 480 " 12 ounces = i pound (lb) = 5760 " Avoirdupois Weight For all Malcrials except those above named 16 drachms or 437.5 grains = i ounce (oz.). 16 ounces = i pound (lb.) = 7000 grains. 28 pounds = I quarter (qr.). 4 quarters =. i hundredweight (cwt.) = 112 lbs. 20 hundredweight = i long or gross ton = 2240 lb. 2000 pounds = I short or net ton. 2204.6 pounds = I metric ton. I stone = 14 pounds. I quintal = 100 pounds. The weight of the grain is the same for all systems of weights. A troy ounce = i .097 avoirdupois ounces. An avoirdupois ounce = .91146 troy or apoth. ounce. A troy pound = .822S6 avoirdupois pound. An avoirdupois pound = i . 21528 troy or apoth. pounds. The standard avoirdupois pound is equal to the weight of 27.7015 cu. in. distilled water at 39.2° F., at sea level and at the latitude of Green- wich. Long Measure 12 inches = i foot = .3047973 metre. 3 feet = I yard = 36 in. = .9143919 metre. S§ yards = i rod, pole, perch = i6i feet — 198 in. 40 rods = I furlong = 220 yards = 660 ft. 8 furlongs = i statute mile = 320 rods = 1760 yds. = 5280 ft. 3 miles = I league = 24 furlongs = 960 rods = 5 280 yds. Square Measure 37 Land Measure 7.92 inches = i Knk; 100 links (66 ft.) = i chain = 4 rods. 10 chains = i furlong; 8 furlongs (80 chains) = i mile. 10 square chains = i acre. Measures occasionally used y^5 inch = I point; 6 points-x\ in. = i line. 1000 mils = I inch; 3 in. = i palm; 4 in. = i hand; 9 in. = i span. 2 yards = i fathom = 6 feet; 120 fathoms = i cable length. A geographical (nautical) mile or knot = 6087.15 ft. = 1855.345 metres = 1.15287 statute miles. I knot = I minute of longitude or latitude at the equator. 1° latitude at the equator = 68. 70 statute miles. 1° " " latitude 20° =68.78 1° " " " 40° =69.00 " 1° " " " 60° =69.23 " 1° " " " 90° =69.41 " " Square Measure 144 square inches = i square foot. 9 " feet =1 " yard. 2,o\ " yards =1 " rod, perch or pole = 272^ sq. ft. 40 " rods = I rood = 1210 sq. yds. = 108,908 sq. ft. 4 roods (10 sq. chains) = i acre = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. yds = 43,560 sq. ft. 640 acres = i sq. mile = i section. An acre = a square whose side is 208.71 ft. A half acre = a square whose side is 147.581 ft. A quarter acre = a square whose side is 104.355 ^t. A circular inch is the area of a circle i inch in diameter and = .7854 sq. inches. I square inch = 1.2732 circular inches. A circular mil is the area of a circle i mil or .001 in. in diameter. looo^ mils or 1,000,000 circular mils = i circular inch. I square inch = 1,273,239 circular mils. A cylinder, i inch in diameter and i foot high, contains: 1 .3056 U. S. gills. .2805 U. S. dry pints. .3246 U. S. liquid pints. A cylinder, one foot in diameter and i foot high, contains: 1357. 1712 cubic inches. i-8§.oo64 U. S. liquid gills. .7854 " feet. 47.0016 U.S. " pints. .02909 " yards. 23.5008 U.S. " quarts. 38 \\ eights and Measures 5.8752 U. S. liquid gallons. 40.3916 U. S. dry pints. 20.1958 U.S. " quarts. 2.5254 U. S. dr)' pecks. 0.63112 U.S. " bushels. Liquid Measure [United Stdtrs only) 4 frills = I pint = 28.875 cubic inches. 2 pints = I quart = 57.75 cu. ins. = 8 gills. 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 231 cu. in. = 8 pts. = 32 gills. T,\\ gallons = I barrel = 126 quarts = 4. 2 11 cu. ft. 63 gallons = 1 hogshead. 2 hogsheads = i pipe or liull. 2 pipes = I tun. A puncheon contains 84 gallons. A tierce contains 42 gallons. A cube 1. 61 5 ft. on edge contains 3.384 U. S. struck bushels; or 31 J gallons = 1 bbl.; or 4. 211 cu. ft. Approximate measure Diameter Height iMiatc ;re Diameter Height I Gill J Pint I Pint I Quart Inches 1.75 2.25 3.50 3.50 Inches 3 3S 3 6 1 Gallon 2 Gallons 8 Gallons 10 Gallons Inches 7 7 14 14 Inches 6 12 12 IS The basis of this measure is the old British wine gallon of 231 cubic inches; or 8.3388 lbs. of distilled water at 39° F. and 30" barometer. A cubic foot contains 7.48 gallons. Apothecaries' or Wine Measure Measure Symbol Pints Fluid ounces Fluid drachms Minims Cubic inches Weight of water Ounces Grains I Minim I fluid drachm. I fluid ounce. . . I pint I gallon m Cong. I 8 I 16 138 I 8 128 1034 I 60 480 7680 61440 0.0038 0.2356 1.8047 28.87s 231 I 043 Pounds avoir. 1.043 8.345 0-95 57.05 456.4 7301.9 S84IS British Imperial Liquid and Dry Measures 39 Dry Measure {United Stales only) 2 pints = I quart = 67.2006 cubic inches = 1. 16365 liquid quarts. 4 quarts = i gallon = 8 pints = 268.80 cubic inches = 1. 16365 liq. gal. 2 gallons = I peck = i6 pints = 8 qts. = 537.60 cu. inches. 4 pecks = I struck bu. = 64 pints = 32 qts. = 8 gallons =21 50.42 cu. in. The old Winchester struck bushel containing 2150.42 cubic inches or 77.627 pounds, avoirdupois, of distilled water at its maximum density is the basis of this table. Its legal dimensions are those of a cylinder i8| inches in diameter and 8 inches deep. When heaped, the cone must not be less than 6 inches high; (the bushel) containing 1.5555 cubic feet and equal to ij struck bushels. Miscellaneous Measures 12 pieces = i dozen. 20 pieces = i score. 12 dozen = i gross. 24 sheets = i quire. T 2 gross = I great gross. 20 quires = i ream. 2 pieces = i pair. Weights of Given Volumes of Distilled Water at 70° F. United States Liquid Measure I gill = . 26005 lt)S. I pint = 1 . 1402 " I quart = 2 . 0804 " I gallon = 8 lbs. 55 oz. = 8.345 lbs. I barrel = 315 gals. = 262. 1310 lbs. United States Dry Measure I pint = I. 2104 lbs. I quart = 2 . 4208 " I gallon = 9.6834 " I peck = 19.3668 " I bushel (struck) = 77.4670 " British Imperial Liquid and Dry Measures Liquid and Dry Measures 31214 lbs. avoir, of distilled water. 24858 I gill I pint I quart I gallon I peck = 9 = 19 I bushel = 79 4971S 9772 40 Weights and Measures This system su|>crseiiremeiil i.^ ;i Ixiard i j Iik Ik> s(iii;irc by one inch thick. To ascertain the number of feel lM)ar(J measure in a plank or piece of square limber, multiply the length by the breadth in feet and by the thickness in inches. To fmd the cubic contents of a stick of limber (all the measurements beinK reduced to feet), lake one-fourth the product of the mean girth by the diameter and the length. To fmd tiie cubic contents of square limber, reduce all measurements to feel, then the product of the length by the breadth and thickness will be the volume in cuiiic feel. Miscellaneous Measures and Weights 1 barrel of 9our weighs 196 pounds. I barrel of salt weighs 280 " I barrel of beef or pork weighs 200 " I bushel of salt (Syracuse) weighs 56 " Anthracite coal (broken) averages 54 lbs. to the cubic foot. Bituminous coal (broken) averages 49 " " " '' " Cement (Portland) weighs 96 lbs. to the bushel. G\T3sum (ground) " 70 " " " Lime (loose) " 7° " Lime (well-shaken) " 80 " " " " Sand " 98 " " " cubic foot or 1.181 tons to the cu. yd. Useful Factors Inches X X 0.08333 0.02778 00001578 0.00695 0.0007716 0.00058 0000214 004.329 MM 0.00019 144 II12 1728 03704 7 48 = feet = vards .< X = miles Square Inches. . . . X . . . . X = square feet = square yards Cubic inches X X = cubic feet = cubic yards .< X = U. S. gallons Feet X X = yards = miles Square feet .... X X = square inches = square yards Cubic feet .. X X = cubic inches = cubic yards •. X = U. S. gallons Measures of Work, Power and Duty 45 Useful Factors — {Continued) Yards X 36 = inches •• X 3 = feet " X 0.0005681 = miles Square yards X i ,296 = square inches " " X 9 = square feet Cubic yards X 46,656 = cubic inches " X 27 = cubic feet Miles X 63,360 = inches " ; . . X S ,280 = feet " X 1,760 = yards Avoirdupois ounces X .0.0625 = pounds X 0.00003125 = tons " pounds X 16 = ounces " " X .001 = hundredweight " " X .0005 = tons " " 27.681 = cubic inches of water at 39.2° F " tons X 32,000 = ounces " " X 2,000 = pounds Watts X 0.00134 = horse power Horse power X 746 = watts Weight of round iron per fool = square of diameter in quarter inches -f- 6. Weight of flat iron per foot = width X thickness X io-3. Weight of flat plates per square foot = 5 pounds for each 1-8 inch thickness. Measures of Work, Power and Duty Work is the result of expenditure of energy in overcoming resistance. Tiie unit of work is tiie pressure of one pound exerted through a distance of one foot and is called one foot pound. Horse Power. — Term employed to measure the quantity of work. The unit is one horse power; or the quantity of work performed in raising 33,000 lbs., one foot in one minute = 33,000 foot pounds per minute = 550 foot pounds per second = 1,980,000 foot pounds per hour. A heat unit is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water at maximum density i° F., or i pound of water from 39° F. to 40° F. = 778 foot pounds. One horse power = 2545 heat units per hour 33,000 778 = 42.146 heat units per minute = .7021 heat units per second. .,6 Mathematical Tables Tadlk of SguAKKS, CuHKS, Sqi:akk Rocjts and Cube Ruurs OF Numbers fkou .i to io No. Square CulJc Square root Cube root No. Square Cube Square root Cube root .1 .01 .001 .3163 .4642 4.1 16.81 68 921 3.03S 1. 601 IS .0225 .0034 .3873 5313 4-2 17 64 74.088 3.049 1. 613 .3 04 .008 .4472 .58.18 4 3 18.49 79 S07 2 074 I 626 .25 .0635 .0156 ■ Soo .6300 4 4 19 36 85 184 2098 1 639 .3 09 •037 .5477 .66 iooo — {Continued) No. Square Cube Square root Cube root No. Square Cube Square root Cube root 99 9.801 970.299 9 9499 4 6261 152 23.104 3.S11.808 12 3288 5 3J68 loo 10,000 1.000.000 10 4 6416 I. S3 23.409 3.581. 577 >2 3fit 0788 .1050 1311 1572 1833 2094 23S4 2614 2873 3132 3391 3649 3907 416s 4422 4679 4936 5192 5448 9 5704 9 5959 9 6214 9 6469 9 6723 9 6977 19 7231 9 7484 9 7737 9 7990 9 8242 9 8494 9 8746 9 8997 9.9249 9 9499 9 9750 20 20 0250 20.0499 20.0749 20.0998 20.1246 20 1494 20.1742 20. 1990 20.2237 20.2485 20.2731 20.2978 20.3224 20.3470 20 371s 20 3961 Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots 51 Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots aistd Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to iooo — {Continued} No Square Cube Square root Cube root No. Square Cube Square root Cube root 417 173.889 72,511.713 20.4206 7.4710 470 220,900 103,823,000 21.679s 7.7750 418 174,724 73,034,632 20.4550 7.4770 471 221,841 104,487,111 21.7025 7.7805 419 175,561 73,560,059 20.4695 7.4829 472 222,784 105,154,048 21.7256 7.7860 420 176,400 74,088,000 20.4939 7.4889 473 223,729 105,823,817 21.7486 7.7915 421 177,241 74,618,461 20.5183 7.4948 474 224,676 106,496,424 21.7715 7-7970 422 178,084 75,151,448 20.5426 7.5007 475 225,625 107,171.875 21.7945 7 8025 423 178,929 75,686,967 20.5670 7 5067 476 226,576 107,850,176 21.8174 7.8079 424 179,776 76,225,024 20.5913 7.5126 477 227.529 108,531,333 21.8403 7-8134 425 180,625 76,765,625 20.6155 7.5185 478 228,484 109,215,352 21.8632 7.8188 426 181,476 77,308,776 20.6398 7.5244 479 229,441 109,902,239 21.8861 7.8243 427 182,329 77,854,483 20.6640 7.5302 480 230,400 110,592,000 21.9089 7-8297 428 183,184 78,402,752 20.6882 7.5361 481 231,361 111,284,641 21.9317 7.8362 429 184,041 78,953,589 20.7123 7.5420 482 232,324 111,980,168 21.9545 7.8406 430 184,900 79,507,000 20.7364 7.5478 483 233,289 112,678,587 21.9773 7.8460 431 185,761 80,062,991 20.7605 7.5537 484 234,256 113,379,904 22 7.8514 432 186,624 80,621,568 20.7846 7.5595 485 235,225 114,084,125 22.0227 7.8568 433 187,489 81,182,737- 20.8087 7.5654 486 236,196 114,791,256 22.0454 7-8622 434 188,356 81,746,504 20.8327 7.5712 487 237.169 115,501,303 22.0681 7.8676 435 189,225 82,312,875 20.8567 7.5770 488 238,144 116,214,272 22.0907 7-8730 436 190,096 82,881,856 20.8806 7.5828 489 2.39,121 116,930,169 22.1133 7.8784 437 190,969 83,453,453 20.9045 7.5886 490 240,100 117,649,000 22.1359 7.8837 438 191,844 84,027,672 20.9284 7.5944 491 241,081 118,370,771 22.1585 7-8891 439 192,721 84,604,519 20.9523 7.6001 492 242,064 119,095,488 22.1811 7.8944 440 193,600 85,184,000 20,9762 7.6059 493 243,049 119,823,157 22.2036 7-8998 441 194,481 85,766,121 21 7.6117 494 244.036 120,553,784 22.2261 7-9051 442 195,364 86,350,888 21.0238 7.6174 495 245,025 121,287,375 22.2486 7 -9105 443 196,249 86,938,307 21.0476 7.6232 496 246,016 122,023,936 22.2711 7-9158 444 197,136 87,528,384 21.0713 7.6289 497 247,009 122,763,473 22.2935 7.9211 445 198,025 88,121,125 21.0950 7.6346 498 248,004 123.505,992 22.3159 7-9264 446 198,916 88,716,536 21.1187 7.6403 499 249,001 124,251,499 22.3383 7.9317 447 199,809 89,314,623 21.1424 7.6460 500 250,000 125,000,000 22.3607 7-9370 448 200,704 89,915,392 21 . 1660 7.6517 501 251,001 125.751,501 22.3830 7.9423 449 201,601 90,518,849 21.1896 7.6574 502 252,004 126,506,008 22.4054 7.9476 450 202,500 91,125,000 21.2132 7.6631 S03 253,009 127,263,527 22.4277 7-9528 451 203,401 91,733,851 21.2368 7.6688 S04 254,016 128,024,064 22.4499 7.9581 452 204,304 92,345,408 21.2603 7.6744 505 255,025 128,787,625 22.4722 7-9634 453 205,209 92,959,677 21.2838 7.6801 506 256,036 129,554,216 22.4944 7.9686 454 206,116 93,576,664 21.3073 7.6857 507 257,049 130,323,843 22.5167 7-9739 455 207,02s 94,196,375 21.3307 7.6914 508 258,064 131,096,512 22.5389 7-9791 456 207,936 94,818,816 21.3542 7.6970 509 259,081 131,872,229 22.5610 7-9843 457 208,849 95,443,993 21.3776 7.7026 510 260,100 132,651,000 22.5832 7-9896 458 209,764 96,071,912 21.4009 7.7082 511 261,121 133,432,831 22.6053 7-9948 459 210,681 96,702,579 21.4243 7.7138 512 262,144 134,217,728 22 . 6274 8 460 211,600 97,336,000 21.4476 7.7194 513 263,169 135,005,697 22.6495 8-0052 461 212,521 97.972,181 21.4709 7 . 72.S0 514 264,196 135,796,744 22.6716 8 0104 462 213,444 98,611,128 21.4942 7.7306 515 265,225 136,590,875 22.6936 8.0156 463 214,369 99,252,847 21.5174 7.7362 516 266,256 137,388,096 22.7156 8.0208 464 215,296 99,897,344 21.5407 7.7418 517 267,289 138,188,413 22 7376 8.0260 465 216,225 100,544,625 21.5639 7.7473 518 268,324 138,991.832 22.7596 8.0311 466 217.156 101,194,696 21.5870 7.7529 519 269,361 139.798.359 22.7816 8.0363 467 218,089 101,847,563 21.6102 7.7584 520 270,400 140,608,000 22.8035 8.0415 468 219,024 102,503,232 21.6,333 7-7639 521 271,441 141,420,761 22.8254 8.0466 469 219,961 103,161,709 21.6564 7.7695 522 272.484 142,236,648 22.8473 8.0S17 52 Matliematical Tables Table op Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to iooo — {CotUinucd) No. Square Cube Square root Cube root N' . root Cube root S2i 273.529 143.oss.667 22.869a 8 0569 576 131.776 191,102.976 24 8 3203 524 274.576 143.877.824 22.8910 8 0620 577 332.929 192,100,033 24 oao8 8 3251 S2S 275.625 144.703.12s 22 9129 8.0671 578 334.084 193.100.ss2 24 0416 8 3J00 526 276,676 145.531.576 22 9347 8 0723 579 3.55.241 194.104 .539 24 0624 8 3348 527 277.729 146,363.183 22.9565 8 0774 .SKo .5.56.400 l9S,ll2/xx> 24 0832 8 .5396 528 278.781 '47.I97.9.S2 22 9783 H 0H25 .581 337.561 196,132,941 24 1039 8 .VW5 529 279.811 148.035.889 2i 8 0876 S82 338.724 197.137368 24 1247 8 .54QI 530 280,900 148.877,000 23.0217 8.0927 S8.» 339.889 198.155.287 24 1454 K .55.19 S3I 281. y6i 119.721,291 23 04.3.J 80978 584 341.056 199.176.704 24 1661 8 .5587 S.?2 2S,<.024 l.W.568,768 23 o''i5l 8.1028 58S 342.22s 200.2OI ,625 24 1868 83634 Si? 284.089 151.419.437 23.0S68 8.1079 586 343.396 201 ,230/556 24 2074 8 .3682 534 285.156 152.273.304 23.1084 8.11.50 587 344.569 202.262.003 24 2281 8 3730 S.V5 286.225 153. 130.375 23.1.501 8.1180 588 345.744 203.297.472 24 2487 8 3777 536 1 2S7.296 153.990.656 23.1517 8.1231 S89 346.921 204.336.469 24 2693 8 382s 537 J 288.369 154.854.153 23.1733 8.1281 590 348,100 20s .379.000 24.2899 8.3872 538 ! 289,441 155.720,872 23.1948 8.1332 591 349.281 206.425,071 24 310s 8 3919 S?9 , 290.521 1.56,590.819 23.2164 8.1382 592 350.464 207.474.688 24 33" 83967 540 291.600 157.464.000 23.2379 8.14.53 593 351.649 208.526.857 24.3516 8.4014 541 2y2.68i 158.3.10,421 23.2594 8.1483 594 352,836 209..584.584 24 3721 8.4061 542 293,764 l59.2JO,o88 23.2809 8. 1533 595 354 .02s 210,644.875 24. 5926 8.4108 543 294.819 160,103.007 23.3024 8.1583 596 355.216 211,708.7,56 24 4131 8 415s 544 295.936 160,989,184 23.3238 8.163.5 597 356.409 212,776,173 24 4536 8 4202 545 297.025 161.878,62s 23.3452 8.1683 598 357.604 213.847.192 24 4540 8 4249 546 298.116 162.771.336 23.3666 8.1733 599 358.801 214.921.799 24 4745 8 4296 547 293.209 163.667,323 23.3880 8.1783 600 360,000 216.000,000 24 4949 8.4343 548 300.304 164.566,592 23.4094 8. 1833 601 361,201 217.081 .801 24 5153 8.4390 549 301,401 165,469.149 23.4307 8.1882 602 362,404 218,167.208 24 5357 8.4437 550 ,502.500 166,375,000 23.4521 8.1932 603 363.609 219,256.227 24 5561 8 4484 551 .503.601 167,284,151 23 -4734 8.1982 604 364.816 220,348.864 24 5764 8.4530 552 304,704 168,196.608 23.4947 8 2031 60s 366.02s 221.445.125 24.5967 8.4577 553 305.809 169,112,377 23.5160 8.2081 606 367.236 222,545.016 24.6171 8 4623 554 306.916 I7o.o3l.46» 23.5272 8.2130 607 368.449 223.648,543 24 6374 8.4670 555 30S.025 170,953.875 23.5584 8.2180 608 369.664 224,755.712 24.6577 8.4716 556 .309,136 171,879.616 23.5797 8.2229 609 370.881 225,866,529 24.6779 8.4763 557 310,249 172,808,693 23.600S 8.2278 6io 372,100 226,981 ,000 24.6982 8.4809 558 311.364 173.741. 112 23.6220 8.2327 611 373.321 228.099.131 24.7184 8.4856 559 312.481 174.676,879 23.6432 •*. 2377 612 374.544 229.220,928 24.7386 8 4902 s6o 313.600 175,616,000 23.66.13 S.2426 613 375.769 230,346.397 24.7588 8.4948 561 314.721 176.s58.48l 23.6854 8.247s 614 376,996 231.475.544 24.7790 8.4994 562 315.844 177.504,328 23.7065 S.2524 615 378.22s 232,608,375 24 7992' 8.S040 563 316,969 178,453.547 23.7276 8.2573 616 379.456 233.744.896 24.8193 8 S086 564 318.096 179.406,144 23.7487 S.2621 617 380.689 234.885,113 24.8395 8.S132 565 319.225 180,362,12s 23.7697 8.2670 618 381,924 236,029,032 24.8596 8.5178 S66 320,356 181,321,496 23.7908 8.2719 619 383.161 237.176,659 24.8797 8.5224 567 321.489 182,284,263 23.8118 8.2768 620 384.40c 238.328.000 24.8998 8.5270 568 322,624 183.2.50,432 23.8328 8.2816 621 385.641 239.483.061 24.9199 8.5316 569 323.761 184,220,009 23.85,57 8 2865 622 386.884 240.641,848 24 9399 8.5362 S70 ,524.900 185,193.000 23 8747 8.2913 623 ,588,129 24 1, 804 .,567 24.9600 8.5408 571 326.041 186. 169.411 23 8956 8 2962 624 389.376 242.970,624 24.9800 8 5453 572 327,184 187,149,248 23 916s 8 3010 625 ,590.625 244.140,62s 25 8.5499 573 328.329 188,132.517 23 9374 8 ..5059 626 391.876 245.314.376 25 0200 8 5544 574 329.476 189,119.224 23 95«3 8.3107 627 .593.129 246.491,883 2S 0400 8 5590 575 330,625 190.109.375 23 9792 8.31SS 628 394.384 247.673.152 25.0590 8.5635 Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots 53 Table of Squares, Cubes, Squaije Roots and Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to iooo — {Continued) No. Square Cube Square root Cube root No. 682 Square Cube Square root Cube root 629 395,641 248,858,189 25.0799 8.5681 465,124 317,214,568 26.1151 8.8023 630 396,900 250,047.000 25.0998 8.5726 683 466,489 318.611.987 26.1343 8.8066 631 398,161 251.239,591 23.1197 8 5772 684 467,856 320,013,504 26.1534 8.8109 632 399.424 252,435,968 25.1396 8.5817 68s 469,225 321,419,125 26.1725 8.8152 633 400,689 253,636,137 25.1595 8.5862 686 470,596 322,828,856 26.1916 8.8194 634 401,956 254,840,104 25.1794 8.5907 687 471,969 324,242,703 26.2107 8.8237 635 403,225 256,047,875 25.1992 8.5952 688 473.344 325,660,672 26.229S 8.8280 636 404,496 257.259.456 25.2190 8.5997 689 474,721 327,082,769 26.2488 8.8323 637 40s. 769 258.474,853 25.2389 8.6043 690 476,100 328.509.000 26.2679 8.8366 638 407,044 259,694,072 25.2587 8.6088 691 477,481 329,939,371 26.2869 8.8408 639 408,321 260,917,119 25.2784 8.6132 692 478,864 331,373,888 26.3059 8.8451 640 409,600 262,144,000 25.2982 8.6177 693 480,249 332,812,557 26.3249 8.8493 641 410,881 263.374.721 25.3180 8.6222 694 481,636 334,255,384 26.3439 8.8536 642 412,164 264,609.288 25. 3377 8.6267 695 483,025 335.702,37s 26.3629 8.8578 643 413,449 265.847,707 25.3574 8.6312 696 484,416 337.153.536 26.3818 8.8621 644 414,736 267,089,984 25.3772 8.6357 697 485,809 338.608.873 26 . 4008 8.8663 645 416,025 268,336,12s 25.3969 8.6401 698 487,204 340,068.392 26.4197 8.8706 646 417.316 269,586,136 25.4165 8.6446 699 488,601 341. 532.099 26.4386 8.8748 647 418,609 270,840,023 25.4362 8.6490 700 490,000 J43.ooo.ooo 26.4575 8.8790 648 419,904 272,097,792 25.4558 8.65.35 701 491,401 344.472,101 26.4764 8.8833 649 421,201 273,359.449 25 4755 8.6579 702 492,804 345.948,408 26.4953 8,8875 650 422,500 274,625,000 25.4951 8.6624 703 494,209 347.428.927 26.SI41 8.8917 6sr 423,801 275,894.451 25.5147 8.6668 704 495,616 348.913,664 26.5330 8.8959 652 425,104 277,167,808 25-5343 8.6713 70s 497,025 .350.402.625 26.5518 8.9001 653 426,409 278,445,077 25 5539 8.6757 706 498,436 351.895,816 26.5707 8.9043 6S4 427,716 279,726,264 25.57.34 8.6801 707 499.849 353,393,243 26.5895 8.9085 6S5 429,025 281,011,375 25 5930 8.684s 708 501,264 354.894,912 26.6083 8.9127 656 430,336 282,300,416 25.6125 8.6890 709 502,681 356,400,829 26.6271 8.9169 657 431,649 283,593,393 25.6320 8.6934 710 504,100 357 .91 1. 000 26.6438 8.9211 658 432,964 284,890,312 25.6515 8.6978 711 505,521 359.425.431 26.6646 8 925. J 659 434,281 286,191,179 25.6710 8.7022 712 506,944 360.944.128 26.6833 8 9295 660 435,600 287,496,000 25.6905 8.7066 713 508,369 362.467.097 26.7021 8.9337 661 436,921 288,804,781 25.7099 8.7110 714 509,796 363.994.344 26.7208 8.9378 662 438,244 290,117,^28 25.7294 8.7154 715 511,225 365.525.87s 26.7395 8.9420 663 439,569 291,434,247 25.7488 8.7198 716 512,656 367.061,696 26.7582 8.9462 664 440,896 292.754.944 25.76S2 8.7241 717 514,089 368.601.813 26.7769 8.9503 66s 442,225 294,079,62s 25.7876 8.7285 718 515,524 370.146,232 26.7955 8.9545 666 443,556 295,408,296 25.8070 8.7329 719 516,961 371.694.939 26.8142 8.9587 667 444.889 296,740,963 25.8263 8.7373 720 518,400 373.248.000 26.8328 8.9628 668 446,224 298,077,632 25.8457 8.7416 721 519,841 374.805.361 26.8514 8.9670 669 447,561 299,418,309 25.8650 8.7460 722 521,284 375,367,048 26 . 8701 8. 971 I 670 448,900 300,763,000 25.8844 8.7503 723 522,729 377,933,067 26.8887 8.9752 671 450,241 302.111,711 25.9037 8.7547 724 524.176 379,503,424 26 . 9072 8.9794 672 451,584 303,464,448 25.92.50 8.7590 725 525,62s 381.078,12s 26.9258 8.9835 673 452,929 304,821,217 25.9422 8.7634 726 527,076 382,657.176 26.9444 8.9876 674 454,276 306,182.024 25.9615 8.7677 727 528.529 384,240,583 26.9629 8.9918 67s 455.625 307.546.875 25.9808 8.7721 728 529,984 385,828,352 26.981S 8.9959 676 456,976 308.915,776 26 8.7764' 729 531.441 387,420,489 27 9 677 458,329 310,288,733 26.0192 8.78071 730 532.900 389,017,000 27.0185 9.0041 678 459,684 311,6.65.752 26.0384 8.7850! 731 534,361 390,617,891 27.0370 9.0082 679 461,041 313.046.839 26.0576 8.7893' 732 535.824 392,223.168 27.0555 9.0123 680 462,400 314.432.000 26.0768 8. 7937 1 733 537.289 393,832,837 27.0740 9.0164 681 463,761 315.821. 241 26.0960 8.7980 734 1 538,756 395,446,904 27.0924 9.0205 54 Mallu-m;ilit;il luiilcs Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots avd Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to looo — (CotUinutd) Squnre Cube Square Cube No. Sc|uare Cube root root No. S(juarp Cube root root 135 540.225 397,065.375 27.1109 9.0246 788 620.944 489.303.872 28 0713 9 236s 736 541.696 398,688.256 27.1293 9 0287 789 622.521 491.169.069 28 0891 9 2404 737 543.169 400.315.553 27.1477 9 0328 790 624,100 493.039.000 28 1069 9 2443 738 544.644 401.947.272 27.1662 9 0369 791 625,681 494.913.671 28 1247 9 2482 739 546.121 403.583.4 19 27.1846 9 0410 792 627,264 496.793.088 28 142s 9 2521 740 547.600 405.224,0D0 27 . 2029 9 0450 793 628,849 498.677.257 28 1603 9.2560 741 549.081 406,869,021 27.2213 9 0491 794 630,436 500,566,184 28 1780 9 2599 742 550,564 408,518,488 27.2397 9 0532 795 632,025 502,459.875 28 1957 9.2638 743 552.019 410,172,407 27.2580 9 0572 796 63.},6i6 504 ,,3.58,336 28 2135 9 2677 744 553.536 411,8,50.784 27 2764 9 0613 797 6,55,209 506.261,573 28 2312 9 2716 745 555.025 413.493,625 27.2947 90654 798 636,804 508,169.592 28.2489 9 2754 746 556.516 415,160,936 27 31. JO 90694 799 638,401 5 10.082. ,599 28 2666 9 2793 747 558.009 416,832.723 27.3313 9 07.55 800 640,000 512.000.000 28 3843 9 2832 748 559.504 418.508.992 27.3496 9 077s' 801 641,601 513.922,401 28 3019 9.2870 749 561.001 420,189.749 27.3679 9.o8i6| 802 643.204 5iS.849.608 28 3196 9 2909 7SO 562.500 421,875.000 27.3861 9 0856 803 644.809 Si7.78l.627 28 3373 9 2948 751 564.001 423.564,751 27.4044 9.0896' [804 646.416 Si9.718.464 28 3549 9 2986 752 565.504 425.259,008 27.4226 9.0937 805 648,02s 52 1. 660. 125 28 3725 9 3025 753 567.009 426.957.777 27.4408 9.0977I 806 649.636 523.606.616 28 3901 9 3063 754 568.516 428.661.064 27.4591 9.1017 1807 651.249 525. 557. 943 28.4077 9 3102 755 570.025 430.368.875 27.4773 9.1057 1 808 652.864 527.514. 112 28 4253 9 3140 756 571.536 432.081,216 27. 4955 9.1098 809 654.481 529.475,129 28 4429 9 3179 757 573.049 433.798.093 27.5136 9 1 138 810 6.56.100 531.441.000 28 4605 9 3217 758 574.564 435.519.sl2 27.5318 9.1178 811 657.721 53,5,411,731 28.4781 9 32SS 759 576.081 437.245.479 27.5500 9.1218 812 659.344 535,387,328 28 4956 9 3294 760 577.600 438,976.000 27.5681 9.12581 813 660.969 537,-567.797 28 5132 9 3332 761 579.121 440.71 1. 081 27.5862 9.1298; 814 662.596 S.W.353.I44 28.5307 9 3370 762 580.644 442,450,728 27.6043 9.1338I 815 664.225 541.343.375 28.5482 9 3408 763 582.169 444.194,947 27.6225 9- 1378, 816 665.856 S43.338.496 28.5657 9 3447 764 583.696 445.943.744 27.6405 9.i4i8''8i7 667,489 545..538.513 28.5832 9 348s 765 585.225 447.697.125 27.6586 9. 1458'! 818 669,124 547.iJ3.432 28.6007 9 3523 766 586.756 449.455,096 27.6767 9.1498 819 670,761 549.353.259 28.6182 9 3561 767 588.289 451.217,663 27.6948 9-1537 820 672,400 551,368,000 28 6356 9 3599 768 589,824 452,984.832 27.7128 9- 1577 821 674.041 553,387.661 28.6531 9 3637 769 591.361 454.756,609 27.7308 9.1617 822 675.684 555.412.248 28 . 6705 9-3675 770 592,900 456,533.000 27.7489 9- 1657 823 677.329 557.441.767 28.6880 9 3713 771 594.441 458,314.011 27.7669 9.1696 824 678,976 559.476.224 28.7054 9 37SI 772 595.984 460,099,648 27.7849 9-1736 82s 680.625 561.515.625 28.7228 9 3789 773 597.529 461,889.917 27.8029 9-1775 826 682,276 563.5s9.976 28.7402 9 3827 774 599.076 463,684,824 27.8209 9-1815 827 683,929 S65.609.283 28.7576 9 386s 775 600,625 465,484.37s 27.8388 9-1855 828 685.584 !;67.6(>3.552 28.7750 9.3902 776 602,176 467.288.576 27.8568 9.1894 829 687.241 569.722,789 28.7924 9 3940 777 603,729 469.097.4.33 27.8747 9- 1933 830 688.900 571,787.000 28.8097 9 3978 778 605,284 470.910,952 27.8927 9-1973 831 690.561 573,856,191 28.8271 9.4016 779 606,841 472,729,139 27.9106 9.2012 832 692.224 573.930,368 28.8444 9 4053 780 608,400 474.5S2.ooo 27.9285 9-2052 833 693.889 578,009.5.57 28.8617 9 4091 781 609,961 476.379.541 27.9464 9.2091 834 695.556 580,093,704 28 . 8791 9 4129 782 611,524 478.211.768 27.9643 9 2130 835 697,225 582,182,87s 28.8964 9 4166 783 613,089 480.048.687 27.9821 9.2170 836 698,896 584,277,056 28 9137 9 4204 784 614,656 481.890.304 28 9.2209 837 700.569 S86,376,2.S3 28 9310 9 4241 78s 616,225 483.736.625 28.0179 9.2248 838 702.244 588.480.472 28.9482 9 4279 786 617.796 485.587.656 28.0357 9.2287 839 703.921 590.S89.719 28.9655 9 4316 787 619.369 487,443.403 28.0S3S 9.2326 840 705.600 592.704,000 26.9828 9 4354 Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots 55 Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to iooo — (Continued) No. Square Cube Square root Cube root No. 894 Square Cube Square root Cube root 841 707,281 594.823,321 29 J.439I 799,236 714.516,984 29.8998 9 6334 842 708,964 596,947,688 29.0172 J.4429 895 801,025 716,917.375 29.9166 9.6370 843 710,649 599,077,107 29-0345 J. 4466 896 802.816 719.323.136 29.9333 9.6406 844 712,336 601,211,584 290517 ).4503 897 804,609 721,734,273 29.9500 9.6442 84s 714,025 603,351,125 29.0689 )-454i 898 806,404 724.150.792 29.9666 9.6477 846 715.716 605,495.736 29.0861 ( ).4578 899 808,201 726,572,699 29-9833 9.6513 847 717.409 607,645,423 29.1033 < )-46i5 900 810,000 729,000,000 30 9-6549 848 719.104 609,800,192 29.1204 ( ).4652 901 811,801 731,432,701 30.0167 9.658s 849 720,801 611,960,049 29.1376 c ^.4690 902 813,604 733,870,808 30.0333 9.6620 850 722,500 614,125,000 29.1548 c )-4727 903 815,409 736,314.327 30.0500 9 6656 851 724,201 616,295,051 29.1719 c )-4764 904 817,216 738,763,264 30 0666 9.6692 852 725,904 618,470,208 29.1890 c ).48oi 905 819,025 741.217.625 30.0832 9.6727 8S3 727.609 620,650,477 29.2062 c .4838 906 820,836 743.677.416 30.0998 9 6763 8S4 729.316 622,835,864 29,2233 c .4875 907 822,649 746.142,643 30.1164 9 6799 8SS 731.025 625,026,375 29.2404 c .4912 908 824,464 748,613,312 30. 1330 9 6834 856 732,736 627,222,016 29.2575 c -4949 909 826,281 751,089,429 30.1496 9.6870 857 734,449 629,422,793 29.2746 c .4986 910 828,100 753,571,000 30.1662 9.6905 858 736,164 631,628.712 29.2916 c ■ 5023 911 829,921 756,058,031 30.1828 9 6941 859 737,881 633.839.779 29.30S7 c .5060 912 831.744 758,550,528 30.1993 9.6976 860 739.600 636.056,000 29 3258 c -5097 913 833.569 761,048,497 30.2159 9.7012 861 741,321 638,277.381 29.3428 c ■ 5134 914 8.?S.396 763.551,944 30.2324 9.7047 862 743.044 640,503,928 29.3598 c -5171 915 837.225 766.060,87s 30.2490 9.7082 863 744.769 642,735.647 29.3769 c -5207 916 8,?9.056 768,575,296 30.2655 9.7118 864 746.496 644,972,544 29-3939 g .5244 917 840,889 771,095.213 30.2820 9 7153 86s 748.225 647,214,625 29.4109 c -5281 918 842.724 773 620,632 30.2985 9.7188 866 749.956 649,461,896 29.4279 S -5317 919 844.561 776,151.559 30.3150 9.7224 867 751.689 651,714.363 29.4449 S -5354 920 846,400 778,688,000 30.3315 9.7259 868 753.424 653.972.032 29.4618 5 -5391 921 848,241 781,229.961 30.3480 9.7294 869 755.161 656,234.909 29.4788 g -5427 922 850,084 783.777.448 30.3645 9.7329 870 756,900 658,503.000 29.4958 s -5464 923 851,929 786,330,467 30.3809 9-7364 871 758,641 660,776,311 29.5127 5 -5501 924 853,776 788.889,024 30.3974 9.7400 872 760,384 663,054.848 29.5296 s -5537 925 855.625 791,453,125 30.4138 9-7435 873 762,129 665,338,617 29.5466 g -5574 926 857.476 794,022,776 30.4302 9.7470 874 763.876 667,627,624 29.563s c .5610 927 859.329 796,597.983 30.4467 9 -7505 875 765.625 669,921,875 29.5804 s -5647 928 861,184 799.178.752 30.4631 9-7540 876 767,376 672,221,376 29.5973 S -5683 929 863,041 801,765,089 30.4795 9-7575 877 769.129 674,526,133 29.6142 c -5719 930 864,900 804,357,000 30.4959 9.7610 878 770.884 676,836,152 29.6311 c -5756 931 866.761 806,954,491 30.5123 9 7645 879 772,641 679.151.439 29.6479 g -5792 932 868,624 809,557,568 30.5287 9.7680 880 774.400 681,472,000 29.6648 c .5828 933 870,489 812,166,237 30.5450 9-771S 881 776.161 683,797.841 29.6816 c -5865 934 872.356 814,780,504 30.5614 9-77SO 882 777.924 686,128,968 29.6985 g ■ 5901 935 874.225 817,400,375 30.5778 9.7785 883 779.689 688,465,387 29-7153 g .5937 936 876,096 820,025.856 30.5941 9 7819 884 781,456 690,807,104 29-7321 g 5973 937 877.969 822,656,953 30.6105 9.7854 885 783.225 693.154.125 29.7489 g .6010 938 879.844 825,293,672 30.6268 9.7889 886 784.996 69s. 506. 456 29.7658 c .6046 939 881,721 827.936.019 30.6431 9.7924 887 786,769 697.864,103 29.7825 c .6082 940 883,600 830.584,000 30.6594 9-7959 888 788.544 700,227,072 29-7993 g .6118 941 885,481 8,«.2.37,62l 30.6757 9.7993 889 790.321 702,595,369 29.8161 c .6154 942 887,364 8,?5 ,896,888 30 . 6920 9.8028 890 792,100 704,969,000 29.8329 g .6190 943 889.249 838,561,807 30.7083 9.8063 891 793.881 707,347,971 29.8496 f ).6226 944 891.136 841,232,384 ■?o 7246 9.8097 892 795.664 709,732,288 29.8664 c ).6262 945 893.025 843,908,625 30.7409 9.8132 893 797.449 712,121,957 29.8831 Ig (.6298 946 894,916 846,590,536 30.7571 9.8167 56 Mathcmalical Tal)les Table of Squares, Ci'bes, Square Roots avd Cube Roots OF Numbers from i to iooo (Continued) No. Square Cube Square root Cube root No. biiuiirr Cube Square root Cube 947 8y6.8o9 8.19,278,123 30.7734 9.8201 974 948,676 924/>lo.424 31 2090 9.9126 948 898,704 851,971,392 30.78969 82j6| 975 950,625 926.8s9.375 31 22SO 9.9160 949 900,601 854,670,3.19 30.80589.8270! 976 952.576 929.714.176 31-2410 9 9«94 9SO 902. soo 857,375,000 30.8221 9 830s 977 954.529 932.S74.833 31-2570 9 9227 9SI 904,401 860,085,351 30.83839 8339 978 956.484 935.441.352 31-2730 9 9261 952 906.304 862,801,408 30.85459 8374 979 958.441 938.313.73931-2890 9 929s 953 908,209 865,523,177 30.8707 9.8408 980 960.400 941.192.000 31. 30SO 9 9329 954 910,116 868,250,664 30.88699.8443 981 962.361 944,076, Ul'31. 3309 9 9363 955 912,025 870,983,875 30.9031 9 8477 982 964.324 916,966,168^31.3.369 9 9396 956 9«3.936 873,722,816 30.9192 9. 851! 983 966.289 949.862.087 31.3528 9 9430 957 915,849 876,467,493 30.93549 8546 984 968.256 952.763.904 31 3688 9.9464 9S8 917,764 879.217,912 30.95169.8580 985 970,225 955.671.62s 31.3847 9-9497 959 919.681 881,974,079 30.96779 8614 986 972.196 958.585. 256 31.4006 9 9531 960 921,600 884,736,000 30.98399 86.18 987 974,169 961.504.803 31.4166 9 956s 961 923,521 887.503,681 31 9-8683 988 976,144 964.4.^0,272 31.4.325 9 9598 962 925.444 890,277,128 31.0161 9 8717 989 978,121 967.361,66931.4484 9 9632 963 927,369 893,056,347 31.03229.8751 990 980,100 970.299,00031.4643 9.9666 964 929,296 895.841,344 31.04839 878s 991 982,081 973.242.271 31.4802 9 9699 965 931.22s 898.632.125 31.0644 9.8819 992 984.064 976.191.48831.4960 9-9733 966 933.156 901.428,696 31.0805 9 8854 993 986,049 979.146.657 31 -SI 19 9 9766 967 935.089 904,231,063 31.0966 9.8888 994 988.036 982,107.784 31.5278 9-9800 968 937.024 907.039.232 31.1127 9 8922 995 990.025 985.074,87531-5436 9 9833 969 938.961 909.853.209 31.1288 9 8956 996 992.016 988,047,93631.5595 9.9866 970 940,900 912.673,000 31.14489 8990 997 994,009 991,026,97331.5753 9.9900 971 942,841 915,498,611 31.16099 9024 998 996,004 994,011,99231.5911 9-9933 972 944,784 918,330,048 31.17699 9058 999 998.001 997,002,99931.6070 99967 973 946,729 921,167,317 31.19299-9092 IOOO 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 31.6228 10 To find the square or cube of any whole number ending with ciphers. First, omit all the final ciphers. Take from the table the sfiiKirc (ir tul)c (as the case may be) of the rest of the number. To this square add twice as many ciphers as there were final ciphers in the original number. To the cube add three times as many as in the original number. Thus, for 90,500^, 905* = 819,025. Add twice 2 ciphers, obtaining 8,i9o,2So,cxx). For 90,500', 905* = 741,217,625. Add 3 times 2 ci- phers, obtaining 741,217,625,000,000. Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers 57 Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers FROM 1000 TO 10,000 No errors No. Sq. Cube No. Sq. Cube No. Sq. Cube No. Sq. Cube root root root root root root root root IOCS 31-70 10.02 1270 35-64 10.83 1535 39-18 11.54 1 1800 42.43 12.16 lOIO 31.78 10.03 1275 35-71 10.84 1540 39-24 II. 55 180S 42 49 12.18 1015 31.86 10.05 1280 35-78 10.86 1545 39-31 11-56 1810 42 -54 12.19 1020 31.94 10.07 128S 35-85 10-87 1550 39-37 II. 57 181S 42 60 12.20 1025 32.02 10.08 1290 35-92 10.89 1555 39-43 11-59 1820 42 66 12.21 1030 32.09 10.10 1295 35-99 10.90 1560 39-50 II -60 1825 42 72 12.22 I03S 32.17 10.12 1300 36.06 10.91 1565 39-56 II. 61 1830 42 78 12.23 1040 32.25 10.13 1305 36.12 10.93 1570 29.62 11.62 1835 42 84 12.24 104s 32.33 10. IS 1310 36.19 10.94 1575 39.69 11.63 1840 42 90 12.25 1050 32.40 10.16 1315 36.26 10.96 1580 39.75 11-65 1845 42 95 12.26 1055 32.48 10.18 1320 36.33 10.97 158s 39-81 11.66 1850 43 01 12.28 1060 32.56 I0.20 1325 36.40 10.98 1590 39-87 11.67 i8S5 43 07 12.29 1065 32.63 10.21 1330 36.47 II 1595 39-94 11.68 i860 43 13 12.30 1070 32.71 10.23 1335 36.54 II. 01 1600 40 11-70 1865 43 19 12.31 1075 32.79 10.24 1340 36,61 11.02 160S 40.06 II. 71 1870 43 24 12.32 1080 32.86 10.26 1345 36.67 11.04 1610 40.12 11.72 187s 43 30 12,33 1085 32.94 10.28 1350 36.74 11.05 161S 40.19 11-73 1880 43 36 12.34 1090 33 02 10.29 1355 36.81 11.07 1620 40.25 11-74 188s 43 42 12 -3S 1095 33.09 10.31 1360 36.88 11.08 1625 40.31 11.76 1890 43 47 12-36 1 100 33.17 10.32 1365 36.95 11.09 1630 40.37 11.77 1895 43 53 12-37 1 105 33.24 10.34 1370 37.01 II. II 163s 40.44 11.78 1900 43 59 12.39 mo 33.32 10.35 1375 37.08 II. 12 1640 40.50 11-79 190S 43 65 12.40 iiiS 33.39 10.37 13S0 37.15 II. 13 164s 40.56 11.80 1910 43 70 12.41 1 120 33.47 10.38 1385 37.22 II. IS 1650 40.62 11.82 191S 43 76 12.42 II2S 33. 54 10.40 1390 37-28 II. 16 1655 40.68 11.83 1920 43 82 12-43 1 130 33.62 10.42 1395 37. 35 II. 17 1660 40.74 11.84 1925 43 87 12.44 1 135 33.69 10.43 1400 37.42 II. 19 1665 40.80 11.85 1930 43 93 12. 4S 1 140 33.76 10.45 1405 37.48 11. 20 1670 40.87 11.86 1935 43 99 12.46 1 145 33.84 10.46 1410 37-55 II. 21 167s 40.93 11.88 1940 44 OS 12.47 I ISO 33.91 10.48 1415 37-62 II -23 1680 40.99 11.89 1945 44 10 12.48 "55 33.99 10.49 1420 37-68 11-24 168S 41-05 11.90 1950 44 16 12.49 1 160 34.06 10.51 1425 37-75 II -25 1690 4I-II II. 91 I9S5 44 22 12.50 1165 34.13 10.52 1430 37-82 11.27 1695 4I-17 11.92 i960 44 27 12.51 1 170 34.21 10.54 1435 37-88 11.28 1700 41-23 11.93 1965 44 33 12.53 1175 34.28 10. 55 1440 37-95 11.29 170S 41-29 11-95 1970 44 38 12.54 1180 34.35 10.57 1445 38.01 II. 31 1710 41-35 11-96 1975 44- 44 12.55 1 185 34.42 10. sS 1450 38.08 11.32 1715 41-41 11-97 1980 44 SO 12.56 1190 34.50 10.60 I4SS 38.14 11-33 1720 41.47 11.98 1985 44- 55 12.57 1 195 34.57 10.61 1460 38.21 11-34 1725 41.53 11.99 1990 44 61 12.58 1200 34.64 10.63 146s 38.28 II -36 1730 41.59 12 199s 44 67 12.59 1 20s 34.71 10.64 1470 38.34 11-37 1735 41.6s 12.02 2000 44- 72 12.60 1210 34.79 10.66 1475 38.41 11-38 1740 41-71 12.03 200s 44- 78 12.61 1215 34.86 10.67 1480 38.47 11.40 •1745 41-77 12. 04 2010 44 83 12.62 1220 34.93 10.69 1485 38.54 II-4I 1750 41-83 12.05 201s 44 89 12.63 1225 35 10.70 1490 38.60 1I-42 1755 41-89 12.06 2020 44 94 12.64 1230 35.07 10.71 149s 38.67 11-43 1760 41.95 12.07 2025 45 12.65 1235 35.14 10-73 1500 38.73 11-45 1765 42.01 12.09 2030 45 06 12.66 1240 35.21 10.74 IS05 38.79 11.46 1770 42.07 12.10 2035 45 II 12.67 1245 35.28 10.76 1510 38.86 11-47 1775 42.13 12. II 2040 45 17 12.68 1250 35.36 10.77 1515 38.92 11-49 1780 42-19 12.12 2045 45 22 12.69 I2SS 35-43 10.79 1520 38.99 11-50 1785 42.25 12.13 2050 45 28 12.70 1260 35-50 10.80 1525 39.05 11-51 1790 42-31 12.14 2055 45 33 12.71 126s 35-57 10.82 1530 39-12 II-S2 1795 42-37 12.15 2060 45 39 12.72 S8 Mathematical Tallies Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers from looo to io,(x>o — {Conliitued) No. Sq. Cut* No. Sq. Cube No. Sq. Cube No. Sq. Cube root root root root root root root root 3o6s 45 44 13.73 2330 48.27 13.26 2740 52. 35 1399 3270 57 i« 14.84 3070 45.50 12.74 2335 48.32 13 27 2750 52.44 14 01 3280 57-27 14.86 ao7S 45 55 12.75 2340 48.37 13.28 2760 52.54 14 03 3290 57 36 14.87 3n8o 45 61 12.77 2345 48.43 13 29 2770 52 63 14 04 3300 57-45 14.89 ao8s 45.66 12.78 i 23SO 48,48 13.30 2780 52,73 14 06 3310 57-53 14.90 ao9o 45.72 12.79 2.555 48.53 13 30 2790 52.82 14.08 3330 57-62 14.93 2095 45.77 12.80 2j6o 48.58 13.31 2800 52,92 14.09 3330 57.71 14.93 3 100 45 83 12. 8i 236s 48.63 13 32 2810 S3. 01 14 11 3340 57-79 14 95 3I05 45.88 12.82 2370 48.68 13.33 2820 S3, 10 14.13 3.M0 57.88 14 96 31 10 45. 93 12.83 2375 48.73 13.34 2830 S3. 20 14 14 3360 57 97 14 98 3IIS 45.99 12.84 2380 48.79] 13 35 2840 53.29 14.16 3370 58.05 14.99 2120 46.04 12.8s 238s 48.84I 13.36 28,50 53 39 14.18 3380 58.14 15 01 21 25 46.10 12.86 2390 48.89 13.37 2860 53-48 14.19 3390 58.23 15.02 2130 46.15 12.87 2395 48.94 13.38 2870 53. 57 14.21 3400 58.31 15 C4 3135 46.21 12.88 2400 48.99 13.39 2880 53 67 14.23 ilio 58.40 IS 05 3140 46.26 12.89 2405 49 04 13 40 2890 53.76 14.24 3420 58.48 15.07 3I4S 46.31 12.90 2410 49.09 13 41 2900 S3 85 14.26 3430 58.57 15.08 3150 46.37 12.91 2415 49.14 13.42 2910 S3 94 14 28 3440 58.65 15.10 3ISS 46.42 12.92 2420 49.19 13 43 2920 54.04 14-29 3450 58.74 15.11 3i6o 46.48 12.93 3425 49.24 13.43 2930 54.13 14-31 3460 58.82 15.12 2i6s 46.53 12.94 2430 49.30 13.44 2940 54.22 14-33 3470 58.91 IS. 14 2170 46.58 12.95 2435 49.35 13.45 2950 54.31 14-34 3480 58.99 15 15 2175 46.64 12.96 2440 49.40 13.46 2960 54. 41 14 36 3490 59 08 IS. 17 3i8o 46.69 12.97 2445 49-45 13.47 2970 54.50 14-37 3500 59.16 IS 18 2185 46.74 12.98 24SO 49.50 13.48 2980 54. 59 14-39 3510 59.25 15.20 2190 46.80 12.99 2460 49.60 13.50 2990 54.68 14-41 3S20 59. 33 IS. 21 2195 46.8s 13 2470 49.70 13.52 3000 54. 77 14-42 3530 5941 15.23 2200 46.90 13 01 3480 49.80 13. 54 3010 54.86 14-44 3S40 5950 15.24 2205 46.96 13 02 2.190 49.90 13 55 3020 54. 95 14 45 35SO 59.58 15.25 2210 47.01 13.03 2500 50 13 57 3030 SS. 05 14.47 3560 59.67 15.27 22IS 47.06 13.04 1 2510 50- 10 13.59 3040 55.14 14.49 3570 59.75 15.28 2220 47.12 13 05 2520 SO. 20 13 61 3050 55.23 14 SO 3580 59.83 IS-30 2225 47.17 13 05 2530 50.30 13.63 3060 55 32 14. 52 3590 5992 IS. 31 2230 47.22 1306 2540 50.40 13 64 3070 55. 41 14.53 3600 60 IS 33 3235 47.28 13.07 2550 SO. 50 13.66 3080 55. SO 14 55 3610 60 08] 15.34 2240 47.33 13. oS 2.i6o SO. 60 13.68 3090 55.59 14,57 3620 60.17 15.35 3245 47.38 13.09 2570 SO. 70 13.70 3100 55.68 14 S8 3630 60.2s 15.37 3250 47.43 13 10 2580 SO. 79 13.72 3110 55-77 14 60 3640 60.33 15.38 2255 47-49 13.11 2590 50.89 13.73 3120 55-86 14.61 3650 60,42 15.40 2260 47.54 13.12 2600 50.99 13.75 3130 55.95 14,63 3660 60. so 15.41 2265 47.59 13 13 2610 SI. 09 13.77 3140 56,04 14.64 3670 60.58 15.42 3270 47.64 13.14 2620 SI. 19 13.79 3150 S6,l2 14.66 3680 60.66 15.44 3275 47.70 13.15 26.30 SI. 28 13.80 3160 56.21 14-67 3690 60.75 15.45 238o 47.75 13.16 2640 51.38 13.82 3170 56.30 14 69 3700 60.83 15.47 328s 47.80 13.17 2650 51.48 13.84 3180 56.39 14.71 3710 60.91 15.48 2290 47.85 13 18 2660 51.58 13.86 3190 56,48 14.72 3720 60.99 15.49 339s 47.91 13.19 2670 51.67 13.87 3200 S6,S7 14.74 3730 61.07 15.51 2300 47.96 13.20 2680 51.77 1389 3210 56.66 14.75 3740 61.16 15.52 2305 48.01 13.31 2690 SI. 87 13.91 3220 56.75 14.77 3750 61.24 15. 54 3310 48.06 13 22 2700 SI. 96 13 92 3230 56.83 14.78 3760 61.32 15-55 3315 48.11 13.23 2710 52.06 13.94 3240 56.92 14.80 3770 61.40 15.56 3330 48.17 13.24 2720 S2.I5 13.96 3250 57.01 14 81 3780 61.48 15 58 232s 48.22 13.25 3730 S2.2S 13.98 3260 57.10 14-83 3790 61.56 15. 59 Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots 59 Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers from looo TO 10,000 — {Continued) No. Sq. root Cube root IS. 60 No. Sq. root Cube root No. Sq. root Cube root No. Sq. root Cube root •3800 61.64 4330 65.80 16.30 4860 69.71 16-94 S390 73-42 17 -S3 3810 61.73 15.62 4340 65.88 16.31 4870 69.79 16.95 5400 73-48 17.54 3820 61.81 15.63 4350 65-95 16.32 4880 69.86 16.96 5410 73 -SS 17-55 3830 61.89 IS. 65 4360 66.03 16.34 4890 69.93 16-97 5420 73-62 17-57 3840 61.97 15.66 4370 66.11 16.35 4900 70 16.98 S430 73.69 17-58 3850 62.05 15.67 43S0 66.18 16.36 4910 70.07 17 5440 73-76 17-59 3860 62.13 15.69 4390 66.26 16.37 4920 70.14 I7-OI S450 73-82 17-60 3870 62.21 15.70 4400 66.33 16.39 4930 70.21 17.02 5460 73-89 17-61 3880 62.29 15.71 4410 66.41 16.40 4940 70.29 17-03 5470 73.96 17-62 3890 62.37 15-73 4420 66.48 16.41 49SO 70.36 17.04 5480 74-03 17-63 3900 62.45 15.74 4430 66.56 16.42 4960 70.43 17.05 S490 74-09 17-64 3910 62.53 15.75 4440 66.63 16.44 4970 70.50 17.07 SSoo 74-16 17-65 3920 62.61 15.77 44SO 66.71 16.45 4980 70.57 17.08 55 10 74-23 17-66 3930 62.69 15.78 4460 66.78 16.46 4990 70.64 17.09 5520 74.30 17-67 3940 62.77 IS. 79 4470 66.86 -16.47 Sooo 70.71 17.10 5530 74-36 17-68 3950 62.8s 15.81 4480 66.93 16.49 5010 70.78 17-11 S540 74-43 17-69 3960 62.93 15.82 4490 67.01 16.50 5020 70.85 17.12 5S50 74-50 17.71 3970 63.01 15.83 4500 67.08 16.51 5030 70.92 17.13 5560 74-57 17.72 3980 63.09 IS. 85 4510 67.16 16.52 5040 70.99 17 -IS S570 74-63 17.73 3990 63. 17 15.86 4520 67-23 16.53 S050 71.06 17- 16 5580 74-70 17-74 4000 63.2s 15.87 4530 67-31 16.5s 5060 71.13 17.17 5590 74-77 17-75 4010 63 32 IS. 89 4S40 67.38 16.56 5070 71.20 17.18 5600 74-83 17.76 4020 63.40 15.90 4S50 67.4s 16.57 5080 71.27 17-19 5610 74-90 17-77 4030 63.48 15.91 4560 67.53 16.58 5090 71.34 17 -20 5620 74-97 17.78 4040 63.56 15-93 4S70 67.60 16.59 5100 71.41 17-21 5630 75-03 17-79 4050 63.64 IS. 94 4580 67.68 16.61 Siio 71.48 17.22 5640 75-10 17.80 4060 63.72 15 -9S 4590 67 -75 16.62 5120 71-55 17.24 5650 75-17 17.81 4070 63.80 IS- 97 4600 67.82 16.63 5130 71.62 17.25 5660 75-23 17.82 4080 63.87 IS -98 4610 67.90 16.64 S140 71.69 17.26 5670 75.30 17.83 4090 63.95 15.99 4620 67.97 16.66 51S0 71.76 17.27 5680 75-37 17.84 4100 64.03 16.01 4630 68.04 16.67 5160 71.83 17.28 5690 75-43 17-85 41T0 64.11 16.02 4640 68.12 16.68 S170 71.90 17.29 5700 75.50 17.86 4I20 64.19 16.03 4650 68.19 16.69 S180 71-97 17.30 S7IO 75-56 17.87 4130 64.27 16.04 4660 68.26 16.70 S190 72-04 17. 31 5720 75-63 17-88 4140 64.34 16.06 4670 68.34 16.71 5200 72.11 17.32 5730 75-70 17-89 4150 64.42 16.07 4680 68.41 16.73 5210 72.18 17.34 5740 75.76 17-90 4160 64.50 16.08 4690 68.. 48 16.74 5220 72.25 17. 35 S750 75.83 17-92 4170 64.58 16.10 4700 68.56 16.7s 5230 72.32 17 36 5760 75-89 17.93 4180 64.65 16. II 4710 68.63 16.76 5240 72-39 17.37 S770 75-96 17-94 4190 64.73 16.12 4720 68.70 16.77 5250 72.46 17.38 5780 76.03 17 -9S 4200 64.81 16.13 4730 68.77 16.79 5260 72.53 17.39 5790 76.09 17-96 4210 64.88 16. IS 4740 68.85 16.80 5270 72.59 17.40 5800 76.16 17.97 4220 64.96 16.16 4750 68.92 16.81 5280 72.66 17.41 5810 76.22 17-98 4230 65.04 16.17 4760 68.99 16.82 5290 72.73 17.42 5820 76.29 17.99 4240 65.12 16.19 4770 69.07 16.83 5300 72.80 17-44 S830 76.35 18 4250 65.19 16.20 4780 69.14 16. 85 5310 72.87 17-45 5840 76.42 18.01 4260 65.27 16.21 4790 69.21 16.86 S320 72.94 17.46 5850 76.49 18.02 4270 6S.35 16.22 4800 69.28 16.87 5330 73.01 17-47 5860 76. 55 18.03 4280 65.42 16.24 4810 69.35 16.88 5340 73.08 17 -48 5870 76.62 18.04 4290 65.50 16.25 4820 69.43 16.89 S3SO 73-14 17-49 5880 76.68 18. OS 4300 65.57 16.26 4830 69.50 16.90 5360 73-21 17 -SO 5890 76.75 18.06 4310 65.65 16.27 4840 69.57 16.92 5370 73-28 17. SI 5900 76.81 18.07 4320 65.73 16.29 4850 69.64 16.93 5380 73-35 17-52 S9IO 76.88 18.08 6o Malhcmaticjil Tables Table of Square Roots ajo) Cuue Roots of Numbers from looo TO 10,000 — (CotUinued) Sq. Cube root root 76,94 18.09 77.01 18.10 77.07 18.11 77.14 18.12 77.20 18 13 77.27 18.14 77.. W 18. IS 77.40 18.16 77.46 18.17 77.52 18.18 77.59 18.19 77.65 18.20 77.72 18.21 77.78 18.22 77.85 18.23 77.91 18.24 77.97 18.2s 78.04 18.26 78.10 18.27 78.17 18.28 78.23 18.29 78.29 18.30 78.36 18.31 78.42 18.32 78.49 18.33 78.55 18.34 78.61 18.3s 78.68 18.36 78.74 18.37 78.80 18.38 78.87 18.39 78.93 18.40 78.99 18.41 79.06 18.42 79 12 18.43 79-18 18.44 79.25 18.45 79.31 18.46 79.37 18.47 79 44 18.48 79 50 18.49 79 56 18. so 79.62 18. SI 79- 69 18.52 79.75 18. S3 79.81 18.54 79.87 18. SS 79 94 18.56 80 18 .S7 80.06 18.58 80.12 18.59 80.19 18.60 80.2s 18.60 No. 6450 6460 6470 6480 6490 6500 6s«o 6520 6530 6540 6550 6560 6570 6580 6590 6600 66io 6620 6630 6640 6650 6660 6670 6680 6690 6700 6710 6720 6730 6740 6750 6760 6770 6780 6790 6800 6810 6820 6830 6840 6850 6860 6870 6880 6890 6900 6910 6920 6930 6940 6950 6960 6970 Sq. Cube root root 80.31 18 61 80.37 18 62 80.44 18 63 80.50 18 64 80.56 18.65 80.62 18.66 80. 68 18.67 80. 75 18.68 80.81 18.69 80.87 18.70 80.93 18.71 80.99 18.72 81.06 18.73 81.12 18.74 81.18 18.7s 81.24 18.76 81.30 18.77 81.36 18.78 81.42 18.79 81.49 18.80 81.55 18.81 81.61 18.81 81.67 18.82 81.73 18.83 81.79 18.84 81.85 18.8s 81.91 18.86 81.98 18.87 82.04 18.88 82.10 18.89 82.16 18.90 82.22 18.91 82.28 18.92 82.34 18.93 82.40 18.94 82.46 18.95 82.52 18.95 82.58 18.96 82.64 18.97 82.70 18.98 82.76 18.99 82.83 19 82.89 19.01 82.95 19.02 83.01 19.03 83.07 19.04 83.13 19.0s 83.19 19.06 83.25 19.07 83.31 19.07 83.37 19.08 83 43 19.09 83.49 19.10 No. 6980 6990 7000 7010 7020 70.50 7040 7050 7060 7070 7080 7090 7100 71 10 7120 7130 7140 7150 7160 7170 7180 7190 7200 7210 7220 7230 7240 7250 7260 7270 7280 7290 7300 7310 7320 7330 7340 73SO 7360 7370 7380 7390 7400 7410 7420 7430 7440 7450 7460 7470 7480 7490 7SOO Sq. root Cube root 83. SS 83.61 83.67 83 .73 83.79 83.85 83 90 83.96 84.02 84.08 84.14 84.20 84.26 84.32 84.38 84.44 84.50 84.56 84.62 84.68 84.73 84.79 84.85 84.91J 84.97 85.03' 85.09! 85.15; 85.21] 85.26; 85.32] 85.38' 85.44 85.S0I 85.56] 85.62 85.67 85.73 85.79J 85. 85 I 85.911 85.97 86.02 86.08 86.14 86.20 86.29 86.31 86.37 86.43 86.49 86.54 86.60 No. 7SIO 7S» 7S*> 7540 7SSO 7S6o 7S70 7580 759° 7600 7610 7620 7630 7640 7650 7660 7670 7680 7690 7700 7710 7720 7730 7740 7750 7760 7770 7780 7790 7800 7810 7820 7830 7840 7850 7860 7870 7880 7890 7900 7910 7920 7930 7940 7950 7960 7970 7980 7990 8000 8010 8020 8030 Sq. root Cube root 86.66 86.7a 86.78 86 83 86 89 869s 87.01 87.06 87.12 87.18 87.24 87.29 87.3s 87.41 87.46 87. S2 87.58 87.64 87.69 87.7s 87.81 87.86 87 92 87.98 88.03 88.09 88. IS 88.20 88.26 88.32 88.37 88.43 88.49 88.S4 88.60 88.66 88.71 88.77 88.83 88.88 88.94 88.99 89.0s 89.11 89.16 89.22 89.27 89 33 89 39 89.44 89. SO 89.55 89.61 Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots 6i Table of Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers from looo TO 10,000 — {Continued) No. Sq. root Cube root No. Sq. root Cube root No. Sq. root Cube root No. Sq. root Cube root 8040 89.67 20.03 8540 92.41 20.44 9040 95.08 20.83 9540 97.67 21.21 80S0 89 72 20.04 8550 92 47 20. 45 9050 95 14 20.84 9S50 97 72 21.22 8060 89 78 20.05 8560 92 52 20.46 9060 95 18 20.85 9560 97 78 21.22 8070 89 83 20.06 8570 92 57 20.46 9070 95 24 20.8s 9S70 97 83 21.23 8080 89 89 20.07 8580 92 63 20.47 9080 95 29 20.86 9580 97 88 21.24 8090 89 94 20.07 8590 92 68 20.48 9090 95 34 20,87 9590 97 93 21.25 8100 90 20.08 8600 92 74 20.49 9100 95 39 20.88 9600 97 98 21.25 81 10 90 06 20.09 8610 92 79 20.50 91 10 95 45 20.89 9610 98 03 21.26 8120 90 II 20.10 8620 92 84 20.50 9120 95 50 20.89 9620 98 08 21.27 8130 90 17 20.11 8630 92 90 20.51 9130 95 55 20.90 9630 98 13 21.28 8140 90 22 20.12 8640 92 95 20.52 9140 95 60 20.91 9640 98 18 21.28 8150 90 28 20.12 8650 93 01 20.53 9150 95 66 20.92 9650 98 23 21.29 8l6o 90 33 20.13 8660 93 06 20.54 9160 95 71 20.92 9660 98 29 21.30 8170 90 39 20.14 8670 93 II 20.54 9170 95 76 20.93 9670 98 34 21.30 8l8o 90 44 20.15 8680 93 17 20. 55 9180 95 81 20.94 9680 98 39 21.31 8190 90 SO 20.16 8690 93 22 20.56 9190 95 86 20.95 9690 98 44 21.32 8200 90 55 20.17 8700 93 27 20.57 9200 95 92 20.95 9700 98 49 21.33 8210 90 61 20.17 8710 93 33 20.57 9210 95 97 20.96 9710 98 54 21.33 8220 90 66 20.18 8720 93 38 20.58 9220 96 02 20.97 9720 98 59 21.34 8230 90 72 20.19 8730 93 43 20.59 9230 96 07 20.98 9730 98 64 21.3s 8240 90 77 20.20 8740 93 49 20.60 9240 96 12 20.98 9740 98 69 21.36 8250 90 83 20.21 8750 93 54 20.61 9250 96 18 20.99 9750 98 74 21.36 8260 90 88 20.21 8760 93 59 20.61 9260 96 23 21 9760 98 79 21.37 8270 90 94 20.22 8770 93 65 20.62 9270 96 28 21.01 9770 98 84 21.38 8280 90 99 20.23 8780 93 70 20.63 9280 96 33 21.01 9780 98 89 21.39 8290 91 OS 20.24 8790 93 75 20.64 9290 96 38 21.02 9790 98 94 21.39 8300 91 10 20.25 8800 93 81 20.65 9300 96 44 21.03 9800 98 99 21.40 8310 91 16 20.26 8810 93 86 20.65 9310 96 49 21.04 9810 99 05 21.41 8320 91 21 20.26 8820 93 91 20.66 9320 96 54 21.04 9820 99 10 21.41 8330 91 27 20.27 8830 93 97 20.67 9330 96 59 21.05 9830 99 IS 21.42 8340 91 32 20.28 8840 94 02 20.68 9340 96 64 21.06 9840 99 20 21.43 8350 91 38 20.29 8850 94 07 20.68 9350 96 70 21.07 9850 99 25 21.44 8360 91 43 20.30 8860 94 13 20.69 9360 96 75 21.07 9860 99 30 21.44 8370 91 49 20.30 8870 94 18 20.70 9370 96 80 21.08 9870 99 35 21.45 8380 91 54 20.31 8880 94 23 20.71 9380 96 85 21.09 9880 99 40 21.46 8390 91 60 20.32 8890 94 29 20.72 9390 96 90 21.10 9890 99 45 21.47 8400 91 6S 20.33 8900 94 34 20.72 9400 96 95 21.10 9900 99 50 21.47 8410 91 71 20.34 8910 94 39 20.73 9410 97 01 21. II 9910 99 55 21.48 8420 91 76 20.34 8920 94 45 20.74 9420 97 06 21.12 9920 99 60 21.49 8430 91 82 20. 35 8930 94 50 20.75 9430 97 II 21.13 9930 99 65 21.49 8440 91 87 20.36 8940 94 55 20.75 9440 97 16 21.13 9940 99 70 21.50 8450 91 92 20.37 8950 94 60 20.76 9450 97 21 21.14 9950 99 75 21.51 8460 91 98 20.38 8960 94 66 20.77 9460 97 26 21.15 9960 99 80 21.52 8470 92 03 20.38 8970 94 71 20.78 9470 97 31 21.16 9970 99 85 21.52 8480 92 09 20.39 8980 94 76 20.79 9480 97 37 21.16 9980 99 90 21.53 8490 92 14 20.40 8990 94 82 20.79 9490 97 42 21.17 9990 99-95 21.54 8500 92 20 20.41 9000 94 87 20. So 9500 97 47 21.18 lOOOO 100 1 21.54 8510 92 25 20.42 9010 94 92 20.81 9SIO 97 52 21.19 8520 92 30 20.42 9020 94 97 20.82 9520 97 57 21.19 8530 92 36 20.43 9030 95 03 20.82 9S30 97 62 21.20 '>2 iMalhciiKilicil I'aliles To find Square or Cube Roots of large numbers not con- tained in the column of numbers of the table Sinli routs may sDniclimcs Ijc taken at. ontc from llic taljlc, by mtrtly rcf^ardin^ ihc columns of |K)\vers as bfing columns of numbers; and tliosc of numljcrs as bein^ those of roots. Thus, if ihe si/iiiirc root of 25281 is required, first find thai number in the column of squares; and opix>silc to it, in the column of numbers, is its square root 159. For the cube root of 857375, find that number in the column of cubes; and opposite to it, ill the column of numbers, is its cube root 95. When the exact number is not contained in the column of squares, or cubes, as the case may be, \vc may use instead the number nearest to it, if no great accuracy is required. But when a considerable degree of accuracy is necessary, the following very correct methods ma>' be used. For the square root This rule applies both to whole numbers and to those which are parlly (not wholly) decimal. First, in the foregoing manner, take out the tabular nunil)cr, wliich is nearest to the gi\-en one; and also its tabular square root. Multiply this tabular numl)cr b}' 3; to the product add the given number. Call the sum A. Then multiply the given number l)y 3; to the product add the tabular number. Call the sum />. Then A : B :: Tabular root : Required root. Example. — Let the given number be 946.53. Here we find the nearest tabular number to be 947; and its tabular square root 30.7734. Hence, 947 = tabular numl)cr 3 2841 946.53 = given number 3787-53 = -•!• and 94*'^-53 = given number 3 2839-59 947 = tabular number I 3786.59 = B. A B Tab. root Req'd root Then 3787-53 : 3786.59 :: 30-7734 : 30-7657+- The root as found by actual matliematical process is also 30.76574-. For the cube root This rule api)lics lioth to wiiole nunil)crs and to those whicli are parlly decimal. First take out the tabular number which is nearest to the given one; and also its tabular cul)e root. ^lultiply this tabular number by 2; and to the product add the given number. Call the siun A. Then Cube Root 63 multiply the given number by 2; and to the product add the tabular number. Call the sum B. Then A : B :: Tabular root : Required root. Example. — Let the given number be 7368. Here we find the nearest tabular number (in the column of cubes) to be 6859; and its tabular cube root 19. Hence, 6859 = tabular number 13718 7368 = given number 21086 = A. and 7368 = given number 14736 6859 = tabular number I 21595 = B. B Tab. root Req'd root Then 21086 : 21595 " ^9 : I94585. The root as found by correct mathematical process is 19.4588. A 21086 64 Mallienuitical Tallies Areas and Circuukkkknces ok Circles for Diaueteks in Units and Eiciiths, etc., from ^4« to ioo. Uiam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- itLT ference eter 2H ference elcr ference Area 1. 7 26493 4 2000 H 17 671S 24 850 H« .147J62 .00173 H 7.46128 4 4.V3I 'M« 17 8678 25 406 M. .1963S0 .00307 lit 7.65763 46664 H 18 0642 25 967 9)3 .294524 .00690 W 7.85398 4.9087 '»i« 18. 260s 26 S3S ^ .392699 .01227 Wo 8 0S0.33 S-1S72 H 18.4.569 27 109 Ma .490874 .01917 H 8.2466K S.411 . 18 6532 27 688 ^0 •589049 .02761 '!ir> « 41P3 567.: 18 8496 28 274 li2 .687223 .03758 ^4 8.63938 5 g-v'' 19 2423 29 465 M .785398 .04909 '■dfl 8.83573 6 2126 1 ^* 19.6.V50 JO 680 Wj .883573 .06213 li 9 03208 6.4918 \ H ao.0277 31.919 M. .981748 .07670 '■''is 9 22843 6.7771 ' . 20.4204 33 183 >Hj 1.07992 .09281 3 9 42478 7.o«.- 20.8131 34 472 ^6 1.17810 .11045 Mo 9 62113 7-3'"- 21.2058 35 78s '?42 1.27627 .12962 '6 9 81748 7-6699 >H 21.5984 .37 122 ?<« I. 37445 .15033 9io 10.0138 7-9798 7 21.9911 38.48S 'Hi 1.47262 . 17257 M 10.2102 8,2958 yi 22.3838 39 871 )i 1.57080 . 1963.1 v'io 10.406s 8.6179 M 22.776s 41 282 '"^fc 1.66897 .22166 % 10.6029 8 01*^2 H 23.1692 42.718 9i« 1.7671S .24850 ?i» 10.7992 '•J 23 5619 44 179 >%•.■ 1.86532 .27688 !i 10.9956 ■4 23 9546 45664 H 1.96350 .30680 ?lo 11.1919 ■'•4 24 3473 47 173 2J.42 2.06167 .33824 56 11.3683 10.321 yi 24.7400 48.707 «H« 2.15984 .37122 'Ho 11.5846 10.680 8 25.1327 50.265 2^2 2.25802 .40574 ?1 I I. 7810 1I.04S W 25 5254 51 849 ^4 2. 35619 .44179 '?i6 11 9773 11.416 M 25.9'8i S3 4S6 *542 2.454.37 .47937 H 12.1737 11-793 94 26 3108 SS .088 '^6 2.55254 .51849 '■?io 12.3700 12.177 W 26.703s 56.745 "/42 2.65072 .55914 4 12.5664 12.566 94 27.0962 S8.426 % 2.74889 .60132 'io 12.7627 12.962 •M 27.4889 60.132 »H2 2.84707 .64504 'H 12.9591 13 364 ;8 27.8816 61.862 '^fl 2.94524 .69029 r»s 13 1554 13.772 9 28.2743 63 617 3)42 3.04342 .73708 H 13.3518 14.186 % 28.6670 65.397 I 3.14159 .78540 5ia 13.5481 14.607 li 290597 67.201 Mfl 3 33794 .88664 H 13-7445 15 0.33 9s 29.4524 69 039 !-4 3 53429 .99402 1U 13.9408 15466 ^4 29 8451 70.882 ?(« 3 7,?o64 I . 1075 H 14.1372 IS 904 H 30 2378 72.760 U 3.92699 I . 2272 ?1a 14.3335 16.349 94 30.6305 74662 ''10 4.12334 1.3530 5(i 14-5299 16.800 'A 31.0232 76589 ■'4 4.31969 1.4849 "16 14.7262 17.257 1 10 31.4159 78.540 ^io 4.S1604 1.6230 •M 14.9226 17.721 ' H 31.8086 80.SI6 ^^ 4-712.39 1.7671 ';'ifl 15-1189 18'. 190 M 32.2013 82.516 »io 4.90874 1.9175 H IS.3153 18.665 96 32.5940 84 -541 H 5.10509 2.07.39 'Mo 15.5116. 19 147 H 32.9867 86.590 '!i» 5.30144 2.236s S IS.70S0 19 63s 96 33 3794 88.664 ^4 5.49779 2.4053 Mo 15.9043 20.129 94 33 7721 90.763 '^i8 S. 69414 2.5802 H 16.1007 20.629 li 34.1648 92.886 ^/6 5.89049 2.7612 9io 16.2970 21. 135 II 34.5575 95 033 'Mo 6.08684 2.9483 M l6.49.i4 21.648 H 34 9.502 97.20s 2 6.28319 3.1416 ■Mo 16.6897 22.166 M 35.3429 99.402 H» 6.47953 3.3410 H l6.885l 22.691 96 35-7356 101.62 ^ 6.67588 3 5466 ■/i« 17.0824 23.221 W 36.1283 103.87 ^0 6.87223 3.7583 !'i 17.2788 23 758 H 36.5210 106.14 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 6S Areas and Circxjmterences of Circles for Diameters in Units and Eighths, etc. — {Continued) Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area eter ference eter ference eter ference iiH 36.9137 108.43 l8?i 57-7268 265.18 25 78.5398 490-87 'A 37.3064 no. 75 Vi 58.1195 268.80 A 78-9323 495.79 12 37.6991 113. 10 5i 58-5122 272.45 Vi 79.3252 500.74 H 38.0918 115.47 Vi 58.9049 276.12 ■H 79.7179 50s. 71 M 38.484s 117.86 li 59 2976 279.81 A 80.1106 510.71 % 38.8772 120.28 19 59-6903 283.53 H 80.5033 515.72 H 39.2699 122.72 H 60.0830 287.27 % 80.8960 520.77 •>i 39.6626 125.19 M 60.4757 291.04 A 81.2887 525-84 H 40.0553 127.68 5i 60.8684 294.83 26 81.6814 530.93 T^ 40.4480 130.19 Vi 61.2611 298.65 A 82.0741 536.0s 13 40.8407 132.73 % 61.6538 302.49 H 82.4668 541-19 H 41.2334 133.30 H 62.0465 306.35 % 82.8595 546.35 Vi 41.6261 137.89 'A 62.4392 310-24 A 83.2522 551-55 % 42.0188 140.50 20 62.8319 314.- 16 H 83.6449 556.76 '/^ 42.411S 143.14 A 63.2246 318.10 H 84.0376 562.00 % 42.8042 143.80 M 63.6173 322.06 A 84.4303 567.27 ?4 43.1969 148.49 % 64.0100 326.05 27 84.8230 572.56 'A 43.5896 151 . 20 M 64 . 4026 330.06 A 85.2157 577.87 14 43.9823 153.94 % 64.7953 334.10 H 85.6084 583.21 W 44.37SO 156.70 94 6S-1880 338.16 H 86.0011 588.57 Vi 44.7677 159.48 Ji 65-5807 342.2s A 86.3938 593 96 H 4S.1604 162.30 21 65-9734 346.36 ^A 86.7865 599.37 H 4S.5S3I 165.13 A 66.3661 350.50 % 87.1792 604.81 H 4S.94S8 167.99 \i 66.7588 354.66 A 87.5719 610.27 Vi 46.338s 170.87 H 67.151S 358.84 28 87.9646 615-75 •A 46.7312 173.78 \'i 67.5442 363.05 A 88.3573 621.26 IS 47.1239 176.71 H 67-9369 367.28 H 88.7500 626.80 H 47.S166 179.67 % 68.3296 371.54 H 89.1427 632.36 H 47-9093 182.6s 'A 68.7223 375.83 A 89-5354 637-94 % 48.3020 185-66 22 69.1150 380.13 H 89.9281 643-55 ^ 48.6947 188.69 A 69.5077 384.46 % 90.3208 649 18 ^6 49-0874 191-75 M 69.9004 388.82 A 90.713s 654.84 % 49-4801 194.83 ?i 70.2931 393-20 29 91 . 1062 660.52 -A 49.8728 197-93 y2 70.6858 397-61 A 91.4989 666.23 16 50.2655 201.06 A 71.0785 402.04 H 91.8916 671.96 H 50.6582 204.22 % 71.4712 406.49 H 92.2843 677.71 W 51-0509 207.39 A 71-8639 410.97 A 92.6770 683.49 ?i 51.4436 210.60 23 72.2566 415-48 H 93-0697 689.30 '/i 51.8363 213.82 A 72.6493 420.00 ?4 93-4624 695.13 5/i 52.2290 217.08 H 73.0420 424.56 A 93-8551 700.98 % 52.6217 220.3s % 73.4347 429.13 30 94.2478 706.86 ?6 53.0144 223.65 A 73-8274 433-74 A 94.6405 712.76 17 53.4071 226.98 A 74.2261 438.36 A 95-0332 718.69 A 53-7998 230.33 U 74-6128 443 01 3i 95-4259 724.64 H 54-1925 233.71 A 75.005s 447.69 A 95 -8186 730.62 ^ 54-5852 237.10 24 75.3982 452.39 ^A 96.2113 736.62 H 54-9779 240.53 A 75-7909 457.11 H 96.6040 742.64 H 55-3706 243.98 Vi 76-1836 461.86 A 96.9967 748.69 M 55-7633 247.45 H 76.5763 466.64 31 97-3894 754-77 5i 56.1560 250-95 A 76.9690 471.44 H 97-7821 760.87 18 56.5487 254-47 H 77.3617 476-26 H 98.1748 766.99 V6 56.9414 258.02 H 77-7544 481. II H 98.567s 773- 14 H 57-3341 261.59 A 78.1471 485.98 A 98.9602 779-31 60 Malhcm.ilic;il T.ildes ArF.AS and CiRClTMFERKNCKS OF CIRCLES FOR DIAMETERS IN Units and Kichtus, etc. — {Continued) Diam- Circuit IJiam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area cUt fcrcnu. ctcr ference eter ference 31H 99 3S29 785.51 H 120.166 "49 I aaH 140.979 1581.6 94 99 7456 791 73 H 120 559 1156.6 4S 141 372 1590 4 Th 100 1.38 797 98 W 120.951 1164.3 M 141 764 1599 3 32 100 531 804.2s H 121.344 "71. 7 M 142 157 i6og 3 H 100.924 810 54 94 121.737 "79 3 96 142 SSO 1617 U 101.316 816.86 J6 122.129 1186.9 ^6 142 942 1626 H loi . 709 823 21 39 122.522 1194.6 96 143 33S 1634 9 H 102.102 829.58 H 122.915 1202.3 94 143 728 1643 9 5i 102.494 83s 97 M 123. yjs 1210.0 H 144 121 1652 9 H 102.887 842.39 96 123 700 1217.7 46 144 S13 1661 9 % 103.280 848.83 H 124.093 1225.4 H 144 906 1670 9 33 103 673 855.30 96 124 486 1233.2 M 145 299 1680 H 10.J.065 861.79 94 124.878 1241.0 96 I4S 691 1689 I y* 104.458 868.31 Zi. 125.271 1248 8 W 146 084 1698 3 96 104.851 874.85 40 12s 664 1256.6 96 146 477 1707 4 H 105.243 881.41 H 126 056 1264.5 94 146 869 1716 5 fi 105.636 888.00 H 126 449 1272.4 "^6 147 262 1725 7 94 106.029 894.62 96 126.842 1280 3 47 147 65s 1734 9 ^ 106.421 901.26 V6 127.235 1288.2 H 148 048 1744 3 34 106.814 907.92 96 127.627 1296.2 H 148 440 1753 S H 107 . 207 914-61 94 128 020 1304.2 96 148 833 1762 7 y* 107.600 921.32 H 128.413 1312.2 '/4 149 226 1772 I 96 107.992 928.06 41 128. 80s 1320.3 H 149 618 1781 4 H 108.385 934-82 H 129.198 1328.3 94 150.011 1790 8 96 10S.778 941-61 H 129.591 1336.4 J6 150.404 1800 I 94 103.170 948-42 96 129.983 1344-S 48 ISO 796 1809 6 •yi 109.563 955-25 H 130.376 1352.7 W ISI 189 1819 35 109.956 962.11 96 130.769 1360.8 H 151 582 1828 S ^6 no. 348 969-00 94 131. 161 1369 96 151 975 1837 9 K4 no. 741 975-91 li 131 554 1377.2 H 152 367 1847 S 96 III. 134 982.84 42 131 947 1385.4 96 152 760 1857 H 111.527 989.80 ^6 132.340 1393 7 94 153 153 1866 s 96 111.919 996.78 H 132.732 1402.0 J6 153 545 1876 I 94 112.312 1003.8 96 133 125 1410.3 49 153 938 18S5 7 ^ 112.705 1010.8 \i 133 -Si8 1418.6 H 154.331 189s 4 36 113.097 1017-9 96 I33-9IO 1427.0 y* 154-723 190S H 113.490 1025.0 94 134-303 1435 4 96 ISS "6 1914 7 H 113.883 1032.1 ?6 134-696 1443 8 H 155-509 1924 4 96 114.275 1039.2 43 135 088 1452.2 96 155 902 f934 3 « 114.668 1046.3 H 135-481 1460.7 94 156.294 1943 9 96 115 061 IOS3-S H 135-874 1469.1 J6 156.687 1953 7 94 115.454 1060.7 96 136-267 1477.6 so 157 080 1963 S J6 US 846 1068.0 H 136.659 1486.2 H 157 472 1973 3 37 1 16. 2,39 1075.2 96 I37-OS2 1494.7 M IS7 86s 1983 3 H 116 632 1082.5 94 137-445 1503.3 ^8 158 258 1993 I M 117 024 1089.8 J6 137 837 15". 9 !4 158.650 2003 96 117.417 1097. I 44 138 230 1520.5 96 159 043 2012 9 H 117.810 II04.5 V6 138 623 1529-2 94 159 436 2022 8 96 118 202 nil. 8 H 139 ois 1537-9 //6 159 829 2032 8 94 118.596 1119.2 96 139 408 1546.6 SI 160.221 2042 8 J6 118.988 1126.7 H 139 801 I55S-3 M 160 614 2052 8 38 119 381 "34-1 96 140.194 1564 y* 161.007 2062 9 yi 119-773 1141 6 94 140 586 1572-8 96 161.399 3073.O Areas and Circumferences of Circles 67 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters in Units and Eighths, etc — {Continued) Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area eter ference eter ference eter ference Si!-^ 161.792 2083.1 58'/^ 182.605 2653.5 64?i 203.418 3292.8 H 162.185 2093.2 w 182.998 2664.9 % 203.811 3305.6 % 162.577 2103.3 3^ 183.390 2676.4 65 204 . 204 3318 3 ?i 162 970 2113 5 1 2 183.783 2687.8 M 204 596 3331 I 52 163 363 2123.7 5^ 184 . 176 2699.3 H 204.989 3343.9 M 163.756 2133 9 H 184.569 2710.9 H 205.382 3356 7 H 164.148 2144,2 k 184.961 2722.4 H 205.774 3369 6 ?i 164 541 2154-5 59 185.354 2734.0 H 206.167 3382.4 ^^ 164 934 2164.8 M 185.747 2745.6 H 206 . 560 3395 3 5i i6s 326 2I7S.I U 186.139 2757.2 I'i 206 . 952 3408.2 H 165.719 2185.4 % 186.532 2768.8 66 207.345 3421.2 li 166. 112 219s -8 H 186.925 2780.5 H 207.738 3434.2 53 166 504 2206.2 % 187.317 2792.2 H 208.131 3447.2 H 166 897 2216.6 Vi 187.710 2803.9 H 208.523 3460.2 H 167.290 2227.0 ^/i 188.103 281S.7 \i 208.916 3473.3 % 167.683 2237-5 60 188.496 2827.4 5i 209.309 3486.3 54 168.075 2248.0 H 188.888 2839.2 % 209.701 3499-4 ^i 168.468 2258.5 H 189.281 2851.0 'yi 210.094 3512. S H 168.861 2269.1 ?i 189.674 2862.9 67 210.487 3525.7 ^ 169.253 2279.6 I'i 190.066 2874.8 H 210.879 3538.8 54 169.646 2290.2 H 190.459 2886.6 H 211.272 3552. Iri 170.039 2300.8 % 190.852 2898.6 H 211.665 3565.2 H 170.431 2311.5 li 191.244 2910.5 H 212.058 3578. S H 170.824 2322.1 61 191.637 2922.5 H 212.450 3591. 7 H 171. 217 2332.8 H 192.030 2934.5 % 212.843 3605.0 % 171.609 2343 5 U 192.423 2946. 5 % 213.236 3618.3 % 172.002 2354. 3 H 192. 81S 2958.5 68 213.628 3631.7 % 172.395 2365.0 H 193.208 2970.6 H 214.021 3645.0 55 172.788 2375.8 H 193.601 2982.7 w 214.414 3658.4 H 173.180 2386.6 H 193.993 2994.8 H 214.806 3671.8 H 173-573 2397.5 ~A 194.386 3006.9 \i 215.199 3685.3 H 173.966 2408.3 62 194.779 3019. I H 215.592 3698.7 Vi 174.358 2419.2 H 195. 171 3031.3 H 215.984 3712.2 ^ 174.751 2430.1 M 195.564 3043.5 % 216.377 3725.7 H 175.144 2441. 1 % 195-957 3055.7 69 216.770 3739.3 ■'A 175.536 2452 \i 196.350 3068.0 M 217.163 3752.8 56 175.929 2463.0 ^A 196.742 3080.3 M 217.555 3766.4 H 176.322 2474.0 H 197.13s 3092.6 ^i 217.948 3780.0 H 176.715 2485.0 li 197.528 3104.9 ^^ 218.341 3793.7 H 177.107 2496.1 63 197.920 3117.2 H 218.733 3807.3 H 177. Soo 2507.2 H 198.313 3129.6 ?4 219.126 3821.0 5i 177.893 2518.3 H 198.706 3142.0 'A 219.519 3834.7 H 178.285 2529.4 % 199.098 ■ 3154.5 70 219.911 3848. 5 li 178.678 2540.6 Vi 199.491 3166.9 '/i 220.304 3862.2 57 179 071 2551. 8 r& 199.884 3179.4 M 220.697 3876.0 H 179.463 2563.0 H 200.277 3191.9 H 221.090 3889.8 H 179.856 2574.2 li 200.669 3204.4 'A 221.482 3903.6 % 180.249 2585.4 64 201.062 3217.0 ^A 221.875 3917. S V^ 180.642 2596.7 H 201.455 3229.6 ¥i 222 . 268 3931.4 H 181 .034 2608.0 H 201.847 3242.2 % 222 . 660 394S.3 ?4 181.427 2619.4 H 202.240 3254.8 71 223.053 3959.2 H 181.820 2630.7 Vi 202.633 3267.5 A 223.446 3973.1 58 182.212 2642 . I •>6 203.025 3280.1 Vi 223.838 3987.1 68 Mullu'malii;il Tables Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diaueters in Units and Kighths, etc. — {Conlimud) Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- Area Diam- Circum- elor ference eter ference eter ference Areft 7iH 224.231 4001. I 78 245 044 4778 4 84H 265.857 5634.5 W 224.624 4015.2 ^6 245 437 4793.7 ?4 266.350 5641 2 94 22S.OI7 4029.2 H 245 830 4809 56 266.643 56.57.8 94 225 409 4043.3 H 246 222 4824.4 85 267.03s 5674 5 J6 225.802 4057.4 M 246.615 4839 .8 H 367.438 S691 3 7a 226.195 4071.5 56 247.008 4855.2 5i 367.831 5707 9 ^6 226.587 4085.7 94 247 400 4870.7 96 368 213 5724 7 \i 226.980 4099 8 J6 247.793 4886.2 H 368 606 5741 5 9* 227.373 4114 79 248.186 4901.7 96 268.999 5758 3 W 227.76s 4128.2 H 248.579 4917.2 94 269.393 5775.1 H 228.158 4142.5 y* 248.971 4932.7 56 269.784 579« 9 94 228.551 4156.8 H 249 364 4948.3 86 270.177 5808.8 Ji 228.944 4171 1 M 249-757 4963.9 H 270 570 582s 7 73 229.336 4185.4 •?6 250.149 4979.5 y* 270.962 58.J2 6 '/6 229.729 4199 7 94 250.542 4995.2 H 271.355 5859 6 H 230.122 4214. I 56 250.935 5010.9 H 271.748 5876 5 % 230. SI4 4228,5 80 251 327 5026. 5 96 272.140 5893 5 Vi 230.907 4242.9 ^6 251.720 S042.3 94 272.533 59«o 6 56 231.300 4257.4 H 252.113 5058.0 56 272.926 5927 6 94 231.692 4271.8 96 252.506 5073-8 87 273 319 5944 7 56 232.08s 4286.3 H 252.898 5089.6 56 273.711 5961 8 74 232.478 4300.8 96 253.291 S105.4 y* 274.104 5978.9 yi 232.871 4315.4 94 253.684 5121.2 96 274.497 5996.0 M 233 263 4329.9 56 254.076 5137. I H 274.889 6013 2 9i 233.656 4344.5 8l 254.469 5153- 96 275.282 6030.4 ^ 234.049 4359.2 56 254.862 S168.9 94 275.675 6047.6 96 234 441 4373 8 54 255.254 S184.9 56 276.067 6064.9 94 234.834 4388.5 96 255.647 5200.8 88 276.460 6082 I J6 235.227 4403.1 ^ 256.040 5216.8 56 276.853 6099.4 75 235.619 4417.9 H 256.433 5232.8 H 277.246 6116.7 >6 236.012 4432.6 54 256.825 5248.9 96 277-638 6134-I M 236.40s 4447.4 ", 2=57.218 5264.9 H 278.031 615I-4 96 236.798 4462.2 S7.611 5281.0 96 278.424 6168.8 !^ 237.190 4477.0 ..-,8.003 5297.1 H 278.816 6186.2 96 237.583 4491.8 ■ 1 258.396 5313-3 56 279-209 6203-7 94 237.976 4506.7 H 258.789 5329.4 89 279.602 6221 . I T6 238.368 4S2I.S }4 259.181 5345.6 H 279.994 6238 6 76 238.761 4536. 5 H 259 574 5361.8 H 280.387 6256.1 !^ 239 154 4SSI.4 ?4 259.967 5378 -I 96 280.780 6273 7 5-4 239.546 4566.4 56 260.359 5394-3 H 281.173 6291.2 96 239-939 4581.3 83 260.752 5410.6 56 281.565 6308.8 « 240.332 4596.3 56 261 . 145 5426.9 94 281.958 6326.4 96 240.725 4611.4 '4 261.538 5443-3 56 282.351 6344. 1 94 241. 117 4626.4 1 H 261.930 5459-6 90 282.743 6361 . 7 56 241. Sio 4641.5 M' 262.323 5476.0 56 283.136 6379 4 77 241.903 4656.6 '•i 262.716 5492-4 54 283.529 6397.1 M 242.29s 4671.8 1 •?4 263.108 5508.8 96 283.921 6414.9 H 242.688 4686.9 56 263.501 5525-3 5i 284.314 6432.6 96 243081 4702.1 84 263.894 5541-8 96 284.707 6450.4 H 243.473 4717.3 56 264.286 5558.3 94 285.100 6468.2 96 243.866 4732.5 n 264.679 5574.8 56 285.492 6486.0 94 244.259 4747.8 H 265.072 5591 4 91 285.885 6503.9 56 244.652 4763.1 1 54 265.465 5607.9 56 286.278 6521.8 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 69 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for*Diameters in Units and Eighths, etc. — {Concluded) Diam- eter 91 54 Circum- ference 286 . 670 287.063 287.456 287.848 288.241 288.634 289.027 289.419 289.812 290.205 290.597 290.990 291.383 291.775 292 . 168 292 . 561 292.954 293 346 293 -739 294.132 294.524 294.917 295 -310 295.702 Area 6539.7 6557.6 6575.5 6593.5 6611.5 6629.6 6647.6 6665.7 6683.8 6701.9 6720.1 6738.2 6756.4 6774.7 6792.9 6811.2 6829.5 6847.8 6866.1 6884.5 6902.9 6921.3 6939.8 6958.2 Diam- eter 94'/4 96 Circum. ference 296.095 296.488 296.881 297.273 297 . 666 298.059 298.451 298.844 299 .237 299.629 300.022 300. 41S 300.807 301 . 200 301.593 301.986 302.378 302.771 303.164 303.556 303.949 304 -342 304.734 305.127 Area 6976.7 6995.3 7013 8 7032.4 7051.0 7069 . 6 7088.2 7106.9 7125.6 7144.3 7163.0 7181.8 7200.6 7219.4 7238.2 7257.1 7276.0 7294.9 7313.8 7332.8 7351.8 7370.8 7389.8 7408.9 Diam- Circum- eter ference 97W 305.520 H 305.913 H 306.305 % 306.698 H 307.091 I'i 307.483 98 307.876 yi 308.269 H 308.661 % 309 054 Vi 309.447 % 309.840 ?i 310.232 ■A 310.625 99 311. 018 M 311. 410 H 311.803 H 312.196 H 312.588 54 312.981 ?i 313.374 5i 313.767 100 314.159 Area 7428.0 7447.1 7466.2 7485.3 7504. S 7523.7 7543.0 7562.2 7581. 5 7600.8 7620.1 7639.5 7658.9 7678.3 7697.7 7717. I 7736.6 7756.1 7775.6 7795.2 7814.8 7834.4 7854.0 70 Mathematical TaMcs Areas and CiRciTMFERENrES of Circles for Diameters PROM !io TO loo Advancing by Tenths Diameter Area Circumfcrcnccll Diar netcr 3 Area Circumference S 32.0618 16.6S04 .1 .007854 .31416 4 22.9022 16.9646 .3 .031416 .62832 S 23 7583 17.3788 .3 .070686 .94248 .6 24.6301 17 S929 .4 .12566 1.2566 .7 25.5176 17 9071 .5 .196.JS 1.5708 8 26.4208 18 2313 .6 .2«27.» 1.8850 .9 27 3397 18 5354 .7 .38485 2.1991 6 28.2743 18.8496 .8 .50266 2.S133 I 29.2247 19 1637 •9 .63617 2.8274 .2 30.1907 19 4779 l.o .7854 3.1416 .3 31.172s 19.7920 .1 .9503 3 4558 4 32.1699 20 1062 .3 I.I3IO 3 7699 S 33.1831 30. 4204 3 I 3273 4.0841 6 34.2119 20.734S • 4 I. 5394 4.3982 7 35.2565 21.0487 .5 1-7671 4.7124 8 36.3168 31 3628 .6 2.0106 S.0265 9 37.3928 21 6770 • 7 2.2698 5.3407 7 38.4845 21 9911 .8 2.5447 5.6549 I 39 5919 22.3053 •9 2.8353 5.9690 2 40.7150 22.6195 2.0 3.1416 6.3832 •3 41.8539 22.9336 .1 3.4636 6.5973 4 43.0084 23 2478 .2 3.8013 6.911S 5 44.17S6 23 5619 •3 4.1548 7.2257 6 45.3646 23 8761 • 4 4 5239 7.5398 7 46.5663 24 1903 ■5 4.9087 7.8540 8 47.7836 24.5044 .6 5.3093 8.i68i 9 49.0167 24.8186 • 7 5. 7256 8.4823 8 50.2655 25.1327 .8 6.IS75 8.7965 I SI. 5300 25 4469 •9 6.6052 9.1106 2 52.8102 25.7611 3.0 7.0686 9.4248 3 54.1061 26.0752 .1 7.5477 9.7389 . 4 55.4177 26.3894 .3 8.042s 10.0531 5 56.7450 26.703s • 3 8.S530 10.3673 6 58.0880 27.0177 •4 9.0792 10.6814 7 59.4468 27.3319 .5 9.6211 10.9956 8 60.8212 27.6460 .6 10.1788 11.3097 9 62.2114 27.9602 .7 10.7521 11 6239 9 63.6173 28.2743 .8 11.3411 II. 9381 I 65.0388 28.5885 •9 11.9459 12.2522 2 66.4761 28.9027 4.0 12.5664 12.5664 3 67.9291 29.2168 .1 13.2025 12.8805 4 69.3978 29.5310 .2 13.8.S44 13.1947 5 70.8822 29.84SI .3 14 5220 13.5088 6 72.3823 30.1593 • 4 15 2053 13.8230 7 73.8981 30.4734 .5 15 9043 14.1372 8 75.4296 30.7876 .6 16.6190 14.4513 9 76.9769 31 . IOI8 .7 17.3494 14.7655 10 78.5398 31.4159 .8 18.0956 15.0796 j I 80.1185 31.7301 • 9 18.8574 IS. 3938 2 81.7128 32.0442 so 19.6350 15.7080 3 83.3229 32.3584 .1 20.4282 16.0221 |j 4 84.9487 32.6726 .2 21.2372 i6.,w63 1 5 86.5901 32.9867 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 71 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters FROM Mo TO 100 Advancing by Tenths — {Continued) Diameter Area Circumference Diameter Area Circumference 10.6 88.2473 33.3009 15.9 198.5565 49. 9513 .7 89 . 9202 33.6150 16.0 201.0619 50.2655 .8 91.6088 33.9292 .1 203.5831 50.5796 •9 93 3132 34.2434 .2 206.1199 so. 8938 II. 95.0332 34.5575 .3 208,6724 51.2080 .1 96.7689 34.8717 .4 211.2407 51 5221 .2 98.5203 35.1858 .5 213.8246 51.8363 • 3 100.287s 35.5000 .6 216.4243 52.1504 .4 102.0703 35.8142 ■ 7 219.0397 52.4646 • 5 103.8689 36.1283 .8 221.670S 52 . 7788 .6 10S.6832 36.4425 .9 224.3176 53 0929 .7 107.5132 36.7566 17.0 226.9801 53.4071 .8 109.3588 37.0708 .1 229.6583 53.7212 .9 III. 2202 37.3850 .2 232.3522 54.0354 12.0 113.0973 37.6991 .3 235.0618 54.3496 .1 I 14. 9901 38.0133 .4 237.7871 54 6637 .2 116.8987 38.3274 .5 240.5282 54.9779 .3 118.8229 38.6416 .6 243.2849 55 . 2920 • 4 120.7628 38.9557 .7 246.0574 55.6062 .5 122.7183 39.2699 .8 248.8456 55.9203 .6 124.6898 39.5841 .9 251.6494 56.234s • 7 126.6769 39.8982 18.0 254.4690 56.5486 .8 128.6796 40.2124 .1 257.3043 56.8628 .9 130.6981 40.5265 .2 260.1553 57.1770 13.0 132.7323 40.8407 .3 263.0220 57.4911 .1 134.7822 41 . 1549 .4 265.9044 57.8053 .2 136.8478 41.4690 .5 268.8025 58.119s .3 138.9291 41.7832 .6 271.7164 58.4336 • 4 141. 0261 42.0973 ■ 7 274.6459 58.7478 .5 143.1388 42.411S .8 277.5911 59.0619 .6 145.2672 42.7257 ■9 280.5521 59.3761 .7 147. 41 14 43.0398 19.0 283.5287 59.6903 .8 149.5712 43-3540 .1 286.52x1 60.0044 •9 151.7468 43.6681 .2 289.5292 60.3186 I4-0 153.9380 43.9823 .3 292.5530 60.6327 .1 156.1450 44.2965 .4 295.592s 60.9469 .2 158.3677 44.6106 .5 298.6477 61.2611 .•3 160.6061 44.9248 .6 301.7186 61.5752 .4 162.8602 45.2389 .7 304.8052 61.8894 •5 i6s . 1300 45.5531 .8 307.9075 62.2035 .6 167.4155 45.8673 .9 311.0255 62.5177 .7 169.7167 46.1814 20.0 314.1593 62.8319 .8 172.0336 46.4956 .1 317.3087 ■ 63.1460 •9 174.3662 46.8097 .2 320.4739 63.4602 iS.o 176.7146 47.1239 .3 323.6547 63.7743 .1 179 0786 47.4380 .4 326.8513 64.088s .2 181.4584 47.7522 .5 330.0636 64.4026 .3 183.8539 48.0664 .6 333.2916 64.7168 .4 186.2650 48.3805 .7 336.5353 65.0310 ■ 5 188.6919 48.6947 .8 339.7947 65.3451 .6 191 . 1345 49.0088 •9 343.0698 65.6593 .7 193.5928 49.3230 21.0 346.3606 65.9734 .8 196.0668 49.6372 .1 349.6671 66.2876 72 Muthcmalical Tallies Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters FROM Ho Tu loo Advancing by Tenths — (Contimud) Diameter Area Circumference IJiair cler 5 Area Circumference 21 . ■■ ' i.s 36 5SX.S4S9 83.3522 .3 350.3^73 06 y I 59 6 sss 7163 83 5664 4 3S9 6809 -67.2301 7 559 902s 83 880s 5 363 OS03 67.5442 8 564.1044 84 1947 6 366 43S4 67.8S84 9 S68 3220 84 S088 7 369 8361 68.1726 ' 27 572. 5553 84 8230 8 373 252C 68.4«''7 1 576 8043 85 1372 9 376 6848 68 80V 581.0690 8S 4513 23 o .^.1327 69.1150 i 585.3494 8s 765s I 383 S963 69.4292 4 589.6455 86 0796 2 387.0756 69 74.« 5 593 9574 86 .W38 3 390.5707 70.0575 6 598.2849 86 7080 4 394 0814 70.3717 7 602.6282 87 032I S 397.6078 70.6858 8 606 9871 87 3363 6 401 . 1500 71.0000 1 9 611. 3618 87 6504 7 404 . 7078 71.3142 28 615.7522 87 9646 8 408.2814 71.6283 I 620.1582 88 2788 9 411.8707 71.9425 2 624 5800 88 5929 23 o 415.4756 72.2566 3 629 017s 88 9071 I 419.0963 72.5708 4 633.4707 89 3212 .2 422.7327 72.8849 • 5 637 9397 89 5354 .3 426.3848 73.1991 .6 642.4243 89 849s .4 430.0526 73 5133 • 7 646 . 9246 90 1637 • S 433.7361 73.8274 .8 651.4407 90 4779 .6 437.4354 74.1416 9 655 9724 90 7930 •7 441.1503 74.4557 29 660.5199 91 1063 8 444.SR0O 74.7699 .1 665.0830 91 4303 9 44S 'i.-:-; 75.0841 .2 669.6619 91 734S 24 o 452 . .y^.l i 75.3892 ■ 3 674 256s 92 0487 I 456.1671 75.7124 4 678.8668 92 3628 2 459 9606 76.0265 5 683.4928 92 6770 3 463.7698 76.3407 6 688.1345 92 991 1 4 467.5947 76.6549 7 692.7919 93 3053 S 471.4352 76.9690 8 697.4650 93 619s 6 475.2916 77.2832 1 9 702.1538 93 9336 7 479 1636 77.5973 1 30 706.8583 94 2478 8 483.0513 77. 91 IS I 711.5786 94 5619 9 486.9547 78.2257 2 716.3145 94 8761 25 o 490.8739 78.5398 3 721 .0662 95 1903 I 494.8087 78.8540 4 725.8336 95 S044 2 498.7592 79.1681 5 730.6167 9S 8186 3 502,7255 79 4823 6 735.4154 96 1327 4 506.7075 79.7965 7 740.2299 96 4469 S 510.7052 80.1106 8 745.0601 96 761 1 6 514.7185 80.4248 9 749 9060 97 0752 7 518.7476 80.7389 ; 31 754 7676 97 3894 8 522.7924 81.0531 I 759 6450 97 703S 9 526.8529 81.3672 2 764..^38o 98 0177 26 o 530.9292 81.6814 3 769.4467 98 3319 I 535.0211 81.9956 4 774.3712 98 6460 2 539.1287 82.3097 5 779-3113 98 9602 3 543.2521 82.6239 6 784.2672 99 2743 4 547-39" 82.9380 7 789.2388 99 S88s Areas and Circumferences of Circles 73 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters FROM Ho TO loo Advancing by Tenths — {Continued) Diameter Area Circumference Diair leter Area Circumference . 31.8 794 2260 99.9026 37 I 1081.0299 116.5531 9 799-2290 100.2168 2 1086.8654 116.8672 32 o 804.2477 100.5310 3 1092 . 7166 117.1814 I 809.2821 100.8451 4 1098.5835 117.4956 2 814 3322 101 . 1593 5 I 104. 4662 117.8097 3 819.3980 101.4734 6 I no. 3645 118.1239 4 824.4796 101.7876 7 1116.2786 118.4380 S 829.3768 102.1018 8 1122.2083 118.7522 6 834.6898 102.4159 9 1128. 1538 119.0664 7 839.8185 102.7301 38 1134.1149 119.3805 8 844 . 9628 103.0442 I 1140.0918 119.6947 9 850.1229 103.3584 2 1146.0844 120 0088 33 o 855.2986 103.6726 3 1152.0927 120.3230 I 860.4902 103.9867 4 I 158. 1167 120.6372 2 865.6973 104.3009 5 1164.1564 120.9313 3 870 , 9202 104 . 6150 6 1170.2118 121.2653 4 876.1588 104.9292 7 I I 76. 2830 121.5796 5 881.4131 105 . 2434 8 1182.3698 121.8938 6 886 6831 105.5575 9 1188.4724 122 . 2080 7 891.9688 105.8717 39 1194.5906 122.5221 8 897.2703 106.1838 I 1200.7246 122.8363 9 902.5874 106 . 5000 2 1206.8742 123. 1504 34 o 907 . 9203 106.8142 3 1213.0396 123.4646 I 913.2688 107.1283 4 1219.2207 123.7788 2 918.6331 107 . 4425 5 1225. 4175 124.0929 3 924.0131 107 . 7566 6 1231.6300 124.4071 4 929.4088 108.0708 7 1237.8382 124.7212 5 934.8202 108 , 3849 8 1244. 1021 125.0354 6 940.2473 108 . 6991 9 1250.3617 125.3495 7 945.6901 109.0133 40 1256.6371 125.6637 8 951 . i486 109.3274 I 1262.9281 125.9779 9 956.6228 109.6416 2 1269.2348 126.2920 3S o 962.1128 109.9557 3 1275.5573 126.6062 1 967 . 6184 110.2699 4 1281.8955 126.9203 2 973.1397 110.5841 5 1288.2493 127.2345 3 978.6768 110.8982 6 1294.6189 127.5487 4 984 . 2296 111.2124 7 1301.0042 127.8628 S 989.7980 111.5265 8 1307.4052 128.1770 6 995 3822 111.8407 9 1313.8219 128.4911 7 1000. 9821 112.1349 41 1320.2543 128.8053 8 1006.5977 112.4690 I 1326.7024 129.1195 9 1012.2290 112.7832 2 1333. 1663 129.4336 36 o 1017.8760 113.0973 3 1339 6458 129.7478 I 1023.5387 113.4115 4 1346. 1410 130.0619 2 1029. 2172 113.7257 5 1352.6520 130.3761 3 1034. 91 13 114.0398 6 1359. 1786 130.6903 4 1040. 6212 114.3540 7 1365 . 7210 131.0044 S 1046.3467 114.6681 8 1372.2791 131. 3186 6 1052.0880 114.9823 9 1378.8529 131.6327 7 1057.8449 113.2965 42 1385.4424 131.9469 8 1063. 6176 115.6106 1 1392.0476 132.2611 9 1069 . 4060 115.9248 2 1398.6685 132.5752 37.0 1075. 2101 116.2389 3 1405. 3051 132.8894 74 Mallicmalical laljlcs Akeas and Circumferences of Circles for IJiameters FROM Ho TO loo Advancing by Tenths — {Continued) Diameter Area Circumference Diair ictcr Area Circumference 42.4 I4II.9S74 i33.ao3S 47 7 1787.0086 149 8540 S 1418.6254 Ii3.S«77 8 1794. S091 l.So itXl .6 1425.3092 133.8318 9 I802 02S4 ISO iHiJ .7 1432.0086 13.1.1460 48 1809 5574 ISO -,'/h .8 1438.7238 134.4602 I 1817.1050 ISI 1106 •9 I44S 4546 134 7743 2 1824.6684 IS« 4248 43 o 1452.2012 135.0885 ' 3 1832 2475 151 7389 .1 1458.9635 135 4026 4 1839 8423 152 0531 .2 1465.7415 135.7168 , 5 1847.4528 152 3672 ■ 3 1472.5352 136.0310 i 6 1855.0790 152 6814 ■4 1479 3446 136 3451 1 7 1862. 7210 152 9956 .5 i486. 1697 1366593 8 1870.3786 153 3097 .6 1493.0105 136.9734 9 1878.0519 153 6239 • 7 1499 8670 137.2876 49 1885.7409 153 9380 .8 1506.7393 137 6018 I 1893 4457 154 2S22 -9 1513 6272 137 9159 2 1901 1662 154 5664 440 1520.5308 138.2301 3 1908.9024 154 8805 .1 1527.4502 138.5442 4 1916.6543 155 1947 .2 1534.3853 138.8584 5 1924.4218 155 .5088 .3 1541.3360 139 1726 [ 6 1932.2051 155 8230 .4 1548.3025 139.4867 I 7 1940.0042 156.1372 • S 1555.2847 139 8009 8 1947.8189 156 4513 .6 1562.2826 140.1153 9 1955.6493 156 7653 .7 1569.2962 140.4292 50 1963 4954 157 0796 .8 1576.3255 140.7434 I 1971.3572 157 3938 •9 1583.3706 141.0575 2 1979 2348 157 7080 45. o 1590.4313 141. 3717 3 1987.1280 158 0221 .1 1597.5077 141.6858 4 1995.0370 IS8 3363 .2 1604.5999 142.0000 S 2002.9617 158.6504 • 3 161 I. 7077 142.3142 6 2010.9020 158.9646 4 1618. 8313 142.6283 7 2018.8581 159 2787 • 5 1625.9705 142.9425 8 2026.8299 159 5929 .6 1633. 1255 143.2566 9 2034.8174 159 9071 • 7 1640.2962 143.5708 51 2042.8206 160.2212 .8 1647.4826 143.8849 I 2050.8395 160 5354 9 1654.6847 144.1991 2 2058.8743 160 849s 46.0 1661.9025 144.5133 3 2066.924s 161 . 1637 .1 1669. 1360 144.8274 4 2074.9905 161.4779 .2 1676.3853 145.1416 S 2083.0723 161 . 7920 .3 1683.6502 145. 4557 6 2091.1697 162 . 1062 .4 1690.9308 145.7699 7 2099.2829 162.4203 • 5 1698.2272 146.0841 8 2107.4118 162.734s .6 1705.5392 146.3982 9 2115.5563 163.0487 .7 1712.8670 146.7124 52 2123. 7166 163.3628 .8 1720.2105 147.0265 I 2131.8926 163.6770 •9 1727.5697 147.3407 3 2140.0843 163.9911 47.0 1734.9445 147.6550 3 2148.2917 164.3053 .1 1742. 3351 147.9690 4 2156.5149 164.6195 .2 1749.7414 148.2832 5 2164.7537 164.9336 .3 1757.1635 148.5973 6 2173.0082 165.2479 • 4 1764.6012 148.9115 7 2181.2785 165.5619 • S 1772.0546 149.2257 1 8 2189.5644 165.8761 .6 1779.5237 149.. 5398 ! 1 9 2197. 8661 166.1903 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 75 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters FROM i-io to ioo .\dvancing BY TENTHS — {Continued) Diameter Area Circumference Diameter Area Circumference S3.0 2206.1834 166.5044 58.3 2669 . 4820 183.5914 .1 2214.516s 166.8186 .4 2678.6476 183.4690 .2 2222.8653 167.1327 .5 2687.8289 183.7832 .3 2231 . 2298 167.4469 6 2697.0259 184.0973 • 4 2239 . 6100 167.7610 .7 2706 . 2386 184. 41 IS .5 2248.0059 168.0752 .8 2715.4670 184.7256 .6 2256.417s 168.3894 • 9 2724. 7112 185.0398 • 7 2264.8448 168.7035 59.0 2733.9710 185.3540 .8 2273.2879 169.0177 .1 2743.2466 185.6681 •9 2281.7466 169.3318 .2 2752.5378 185.9823 540 2290.2210 169.6460 .3 2761.8448 186 . 2964 .1 2298. 7112 169 . 9602 .4 2771.167s 186.6106 .2 2307. 2171 170.2743 •5 2780.5058 186.9248 .3 2315.7386 170.5885 .6 2789.8599 187.2389 .4 2324.2759 170.9026 .7 2799.2297 187.5531 • 5 2332.8289 171. 2168 .8 2808.6152 187.8672 .6 2341-3976 171. 5310 .9 2818.016s 188.1814 • 7 2349.9820 171. 8451 60.0 2827.4334 188.4956 .8 2358.5821 172.1593 .1 2836.8660 188 . 8097 ■9 2367 . 1979 172.4735 .2 2846.3144 189.1239 55. o 2375.8294 172.7876 •3 2855.7784 189.4380 .1 2384.4767 173.1017 .4 2865.2582 189.7522 .2 2393.1396 173.4159 • 5 2874.7536 190.0664 ■ 3 2401. 8183 173.7301 .6 2884.2648 190.3805 ■ 4 2410. 5126 174.0442 .7 2893.7917 190.6947 • S 2419.2227 174.3584 .8 2903.3343 191.0088 .6 2427.9485 174.6726 .9 2912.8926 191.3230 ■ 7 2436.6899 174.9867 61.0 2922.4666 191.6372 .8 2445.4471 175.3009 .1 2932.0563 191. 9513 ■9 2454.2200 175.6150 .2 2941.6617 192.265s 56.0 2463.0086 175.9292 3 2931.2828 192.5796 .1 2471. 8130 176.2433 4 2960.9197 192.8938 .2 2480.6330 176.5575 5 2970.5722 193.2079 .3 2489.4687 176.8717 6 2980.2405 193 5221 .4 2498.3201 177.1858 .7 2989.9244 193.8363 • 5 2507.1873 _ 177.5000 .8 2999.6241 194.1504 .6 2516.0701 177.8141 .9 3009.3395 194.4646 ■ 7 2524.9687 178.1283 62.0 3019. 070s 194.7787 .8 2533.8830 178.4425 .1 3028.8173 195.0929 .9 2542.8129 178.7566 .2 3038.5798 195.4071 S7.0 2551.7586 179 0708 • 3 3048.3580 195.7212 .1 2560.7200 179.3849 .4 3058 . 1520 196.0354 .2 2569.6971 179.6991 .5 3067.9616 196.349s .3 2578.6899 180.0133 .6 3077.7869 196.6637 .4 2587.6985 180.3274 .7 3087.6279 196.9779 .5 2596.7227 180.6416 .8 3097.4847 197.2920 .6 2605.7626 180.9557 • 9 3107.3571 197.6062 ■ 7 2614. 8183 181.2699 63.0 3117.2453 197.9203 .8 2623.8896 181.5841 .1 3127.1492 198.234s .9 2632.9767 181 8982 .2 3x37.0688 198.5487 58.0 2642.0794 182.2124 .3 3147.0040 198.8628 .1 2651. 1979 182.526s .4 3156.9550 199.1770 •2 2660.3321 182.8407 .5 3166.9217 199. 49" 76 M.ithem:ili< :il 'I'aliles AkEAS ANU (.JKC TMl-KKKNCKS OV CiRCI-ES FOR DlAMl M FROM !io TO lOO AUVANI l\G HY TKNTHS — (Co////' Diiimetcr An-.-x Circumference Diameter Area CircumUTi-ncc 63.6 3176.9043 199 8oS3 68.9 3728. 4SC» 216.4556 .7 3186 9033 300 119s ' 69.0 3739 3807 216 7699 .8 3196.9161 aoo.4336 ! .1 37SO 1270 217 0841 ■ 9 3206 94S6 200.7478 .2 3760 9891 217 398» 64.0 3216.9909 201.0620 • 3 3771 8668 217 7124 .1 3227 651 » 201.3761 .4 3782 7603 218 0265 .2 3237 128s 201.6902 5 3793 669s 218 3407 ■ 3 3247 2222 202.0044 .6 3804 5944 318 6548 .4 3257 3289 202.3186 •7 3Sts S350 318 9690 S 3267.4527 202.6327 .8 3826 4913 219 2832 .6 3277.5922 202 . 9469 .9 3837 4633 219 5973 ■ 7 3287.7474 203.2610 70.0 ,3848 4510 219 9H 5 .8 3297 9183 203.5752 .1 .3859 4544 220 2256 •9 3308.1049 203.R894 .2 3870 4736 220 5398 6s.o 3318.3072 204 2035 • 3 3881 5084 220 8540 .1 3328.5253 204.5176 .4 3892 5S90 221.1581 .2 3338.7590 204.8318 ■ 5 3903 6252 221.4823 .3 3349 008s 205.1460 .6 3914 7072 221.7964 .4 3359.2736 205.4602 ■ 7 3925 8049 222.1106 • S 3369 5545 20s. 7743 1 .8 3936 9182 222 4248 .6 3379 8510 206.0S85 • 9 3948 0473 222 7389 .7 3390.1633 206.4026 71.0 3959 1921 223.0531 .8 3400.4913 206.7168 .1 3970 3526 223.3672 • 9 3410.8350 207.0310 .2 3981 5289 223.6814 66.0 3421. 1944 207.3451 .3 3992 7208 223 9956 .1 3431.5695 207.6593 .4 4003 9284 224 3097 .2 3441.9603 207.9734 •5 4015 1518 224.6239 .3 3452.3669 208.2876 .6 4026 3908 224 9380 .4 3462.7891 208.6017 .7 4037 6456 225 . 2522 .5 3473.2270 208.9159 .8 4048 9160 225.5664 .6 3483.6807 209.2301 •9 4060 2022 225 880s .7 3494.1500 209.5442 72.0 4071 5041 226 1947 .8 3504.6351 209.8584 .1 4082 8217 226 S088 •9 3515. 1359 210.1725 .2 1094 ISSO 226.8230 67.0 3525.6524 210.4867 .3 4105 5040 227.1371 .1 3536.1845 210.8009 ■4 4116 8687 227.4513 .2 3546.7324 211.1150 5 4128 2491 227.7655 .3 35S7 . 2960 211.4292 .6 4139 6452 228 0796 .4 3567.8754 211.7433 • 7 4151 0571 2?8 3938 .S 3578.4704 212.0575 .8 4162 4846 228.7079 .6 3589. 081 I 212.3717 • 9 4173 9279 229.0221 ■ 7 3599 7075 212.6858 73 4185 3868 229.3363 .8 3610.3497 213.0000 .1 4196 861S 229.6504 •9 3621 .0075 213.3141 .2 4208 3519 229.9646 68.0 3631. 681 I 213.6283 .3 4219 8579 230.3787 .1 3642.3704 213 9^25 .4 4231 3797 230.5929 .2 3653.0754 214.2566 .5 4242 9172 230.9071 .3 3663.7960 214 5708 1 -^ 4254 4704 231.2213 ■4 3674.5324 214.8849 1 .7 4266 0394 23I.S354 • S 3685.2845 215.1991 i •* 4277 6240 231.8495 .6 3696.0523 215 51.3.5 1 -9 4289 2243 232.1637 .7 3706.8359 215.8274 74.0 4300 8403 232.4779 .8 3717. 6.351 216.1416 i •* 4312 4721 232.7920 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 77 Areas and Circumferences of Circles for Diameters FROM Ho TO loo Advancing by Tenths — {Continued) Diameter Area Circumference Dian leter Area Circumference 74.2 4324 I 195 233.1062 79 5 4963.9127 249.7566 3 4335.7827 J33.4203 6 4976.4084 250.0708 4 4347.4616 233.7345 7 4988.9198 250.3850 5 4359 1562 234.0487 8 5001 . 4469 250.6991 6 4370.8664 234.3628 9 5013 . 9897 251 0133 7 4382.5924 234.6770 80 .S026.5482 251.3274 8 4394 3341 234.9911 I 5039.1225 251.6416 9 4406.0916 235.3053 2 5051. 7124 251.9557 75 o 4417.8647 235.6194 3 S064 . 3180 252 . 2699 I 4429.653s 235 9336 4 5076.9394 252 . 5840 2 4441.4580 236.2478 S 5089.5764 252.8982 3 4453.2783 236.5619 6 5102 . 2292 253.2124 4 4465.1142 236.8761 7 5114.8977 253 5265 5 4476.9659 237 . 1902 8 5127. 5819 253.8407 6 4488.8332 237.5044 9 5140. 2818 254.1548 7 4500.7163 237.8186 81 S152.9973 254 . 4690 8 4512.6151 238.1327 I 5165.7287 254.7832 9 4524 . 5296 238 . 4469 2 5178.4757 255.0973 76 o 4536.4598 238.7610 3 5191.2384 255.4115 I 4548.4057 239.0752 4 5204 0168 255 . 7256 2 4560.3673 239.3894 5 5216. 8110 256 0398 3 4572.3446 239.7035 6 5229 6208 256 . 3540 4 4584.3377 240.0177 7 5242.4463 256.6681 5 4596.3464 240.3318 8 5255 . 2876 256.9823 6 4608.3708 240.6460 9 5268.1446 257 . 2966 7 4620. 41 10 240.9602 82 5281. 0173 257 6106 8 4632 . 4669 241.2743 I 5293.9056 257.9247 9 4644.5384 241.588s 2 5306.8097 258.2389 77 o 4656.6257 241.9026 3 5319.729s 2S8 5531 I 4668.7287 242.2168 4 5332.6650 258 . 8672 2 4680.8474 242.5310 5 5345 . 6162 259.1814 3 4692 . 9818 242.8451 6 5358.5832 259.4956 4 4705. 1319 243.1592 7 5371.5658 259.8097 5 4717.2977 243.4734 8 5384 . 5641 260.1239 6 4729.4792 243.7876 9 5397.5782 260 4380 7 4741.6756 244.1017 83 5410.6079 260.7522 8 4753.8894 244.4159 I 5423.6534 261.0663 9 4766. 1181 244.7301 2 5436.7146 261 . 380s 78 o 4778.3624 245.0442 3 5449. 7915 261 . 6947 I 4790.6225 245.3584 4 5462.8840 262.0088 2 4802.8983 245.672s 5 5475.9923 262.3230 3 481S.1897 245.9867 6 5489. I 163 262.6371 4 4827.4969 246.3009 7 5502.2561 262.9513 5 4839.8198 246.6150 8 5515. 4115 263.265s 6 4852.1584 246.9292 9 5528.5826 263.5796 7 4864.5128 247.2433 84 5.S41.7694 263 8938 8 4876.8828 247.5575 I 55,54.9720 264.2079 9 4889.2685 247.8717 2 5568 . 1902 264 . 5221 79 o 4901.6699 248.1858 3 5581.4242 264.8363 I 4914. 0871 248.5000 4 5594.6739 265.1414 2 4926.5199 248.8141 5 5607.9392 265.4646 3 4938.9685 249.1283 6 5621 . 2203 265.7787 4 4951.4328 249.442s 7 5634.5171 266.0929 78 Matluinalical Tables Akkas and Circumferences of Cfrcles for Diameters FROM Ho TO loo Advancing by Tenths — (Continued) Diamt'tLT Area Circumference Diameter Area Circtimfcrcnco 84.8 S647.8.'. '. 4071 90.1 637s 8701 283.0575 9 seeiisTf^ .•'!<>. 7212 ■2 6390 0309 283 3717 85 5674 SOI? 267 03.54 3 6404 2073 283 6858 I 5687 8614 267.3495 .4 6418 3995 284 0000 3 5701 2367 267 6637 5 6432 6073 284 3«4I 3 S7«4 6277 267.9779 .6 6446 8309 284 6283 4 5728. oi4S 268 2920 7 6461 0701 284 9425 5 S741.4569 268.6062 6475 3251 285 2566 6 S7S4.89SI 268.9203 '.( 6489 5958 28s S7o8 7 5768.3490 269.2345 91.0 6503 8822 285 8849 8 5781 8l8s 269.5486 .1 6518 1843 386.1991 9 5795.3038 269.8628 .2 6532.5021 286 513.3 86 S808.8048 270.1770 .3 6546 8356 286.8274 I 5822.3215 270.4911 .4 656J . 1848 287.1416 3 583s 8539 . 270.8053 .5 6575.5498 287 4557 3 5849.4020 27I.II94 .6 6589 9304 287.7699 4 5862 9659 271.4336 .7 6604 3268 288 0840 S 5876.5454 271.7478 .8 6618.7388 288 3982 6 5890.1407 272.0619 ■ 9 6633.1666 288 7124 7 5903.7516 272.3761 92.0 6647. 6101 289.0265 8 5917 3783 272.6902 .1 6662.0692 289 3407 9 5931 0206 273.0044 .2 6676 5441 289.6548 87 5944 6787 273 3186 •3 6691.0347 289.9690 I 5958.352s 273.6327 .4 6705 5410 290.2832 3 5972.0420 273.9469 •5 6720.0630 290 5973 3 5985.7472 274 2610 .6 67^4.6008 290 9115 4 5999 4681 274.5752 .7 6749.1542 291.2256 5 6013.2047 274.8894 .8 6763 7233 291 5398 6 6026.9570 275.2035 • 9 6778.3082 291.8540 7 6040.7250 275.5177 93.0 6792.9087 292.1681 8 6054.5088 275.8318 .1 6807.5250 292 4823 9 6068.3082 276.1460 .2 6822.1569 292 7964 88 6082.1234 276.4602 •3 6836 8046 293.IT06 I 6095 9542 276.7743 • 4 6851.4680 293.4248 2 6109.8008 277.0885 5 6866.1471 293.7389 3 6123,6631 277.4026 6 6S80.8419 294.0531 4 6137. 54" 277.7168 ■ 7 6895.5524 294.3672 S 6151.4348 278.0309 .8 6910 2786 294.6814 6 6165.3442 278.3451 • 9 6925 020s 294.9956 7 6179.2693 278.6593 94.0 6939.7782 295 3097 8 6193. 2101 278.9740 .1 6954 5SI5 295.6239 9 6207.1666 279.2876 .2 6969.3106 295.9380 89 6221. 1389 279.6017 .3 6984.1453 296.2522 1 6235.1268 279 9159 4 6998.9658 296.5663 2 6249.1304 280.2301 5 7013. 8019 296.8805 3 6263.1498 280.5442 .6 7028.6538 297.1947 4 6277.1849 280.8584 .7 7043.5214 297.5088 S 6291 . 2356 281.1725 .8 7058.4047 297.8230 6 6305.3021 281.4867 .9 7073.3033 298.1371 7 6319.3843 281.8009 95. 7088 . 2184 298.4513 8 6333.4822 . 282. 1 ISO .1 7103.1488 298.7655 9 6347.5958 282.4292 .2 7118.1950 299 0796 90 6361. 7251 282.7433 1 ■' 7133.0568 299 3938 Areas and Circumferences of Circles 79 Areas and Circumperences of Circles for Diameters FROM Ho TO loo Advancing by Tenths — {Concluded) Diameter Area Circumference Diair later Area Circumference 95. 4 7148.0343 2997079 97 8 7512.2078 307.2478 • 5 7163 0276 300.0221 9 7527.5780 307.5619 .6 7178 0366 300.3363 98 7542.9640 307.8761 ■ 7 7193 0612 300.6504 I 7558.3656 308.1902 .8 7208 1016 300.9646 2 7573.7830 308.5044 •9 7223 1577 301.2787 3 7589. 2161 308.8186 96.0 723S 2295 301.5929 4 7604.6648 309.1327 .1 7253 3170 301.9071 5 7620.1293 309.4469 .2 7268 4202 302.2212 6 7635.6095 309.7610 .3 7283 5391 302.5354 7 7651 . 1054 310.0752 .4 7298 6737 302.8405 8 7666.6170 310.3894 •S 7313 8240 303.1637 9 7682.1444 310.7035 .G 7328 9901 303.4779 99 7697.6893 311. 0177 .7 7344 1718 303.7920 I 7713 2461 311. 3318 .8 73S9 3693 304 . 1062 2 7728.8206 311.6460 •9 7374 5824 304.4203 3 7744.4107 311.9602 97.0 7389 8113 304.7345 4 7760.0166 312.2743 .1 740s 0559 305.0486 5 7775.6382 312.5885 .2 7420 3162 305.3628 6 7791.2764 312.9026 .3 7435 5922 303.6770 7 7806.9284 313.2168 ■ 4 74SO 8839 305.9911 8 7822.5971 313.5309 .5 7466 1913 306.3053 9 7838. 281S 313.8451 .6 74S1 5144 306.6194 100 7853.9816 314.1593 .7 7496 8532 306.9336 To compute the area or circumference of a circle of a diameter greater than 100 and less than looi; Take out the area or circumference from table as though the number had one decimal, and move the decimal point two places to the right for the area, and one place for the circumference. Example. — Wanted the area and circumference of 567. The tabular area for 56.7 is 2524.9687, and circumference 178.1283. Therefore area for 567 = 252496.87 and circumference = 1781.283. To compute the area or circumference of a circle of a diameter greater than 1000, Di\ide by a factor, as 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., if practicable, that will leave a quotient to be found in table, then multiply the tabular area of the quotient by the square of the factor, or the tabular circumference by the factor. £a;am/>/e. — Wanted the area and circumference of 2109. Dividing by 3, the quotient is 703, for which the area is 388150.84 and the circum- ference 2208.54. Therefore area of 2109 = 388150.84 X 9 = 3493357-56 and circumference = 2208.54 X 3 = 6625.62. 8o Malhcmulical Tablci Table df CiRCirtAR Arcs Lenflli of circular arcs when the ihord and ihc heithi of the arc are [hen. Divide the hciKht by the chord. Find in the cfilumn of Heights the number equal to this quotient. Take out the correspondinR number from the column of IcnRtii Multiply this luit numlier by the length of the given chord. Heights Lengths Heights Lengths Heigh' HeighU Li •ngths .001 I.O0OO3 .049 1.00638 •097 I. 02491 US I 05516 .002 1.00002 .050 1.00665 .098 I.02S42 146 I OSS9I .003 I 00003 •OS I 1.00692 •099 I 02593 147 I 05667 .004 1.00004 .052 1.00720 .100 1.02646 148 1 OS743 .00s 1.00007 .053 1.00748 .101 1 .02698 149 » 05819 .006 i.oooto .054 1.00776 .102 1.02752 150 1 05896 .007 I. 00013 .05s 1.0080s .103 1 .02806 ISI 1 OS97.J .008 1.00017 .056 1.00834 .104 1 02860 152 I 06031 .009 1.00022 .057 1.00864 .105 1.02914 IS3 I 06130 .010 1.00027 .058 1.00895 .106 1.02970 1 IS4 I 06209 .011 1.00032 .059 1.00926 .107 1.03026 ll ISS 1 0628S .012 1 .00038 .060 1.00957 .loS I 03082 156 1 06368 .013 I. 0004s .061 1.00989 .109 I 031.39 IS7 » 06449 .014 1.00053 .062 1.01021 .110 1.03196 158 1 06530 .ois I. 00061 .063 1.01054 .111 I 03254 159 I 0661 1 .016 1.00069 .064 1.01088 .112 I. 03312 160 1 06693 .017 1.00078 .065 1.01123 .113 1.03371 161 1 06775 .018 1.00087 .066 1.01158 .114 1 03430 163 1 06858 .019 1.00097 .067 I. 01 103 .115 1.03490 163 1 06941 .020 1.00107 1 r l.'j-, .116 I. 03551 164 1 07025 .021 1.00117 1 I ■ : .117 1.03611 l6s I 07109 .022 1.00128 .-7- 1 .iij-J .113 1.03672 166 I 07194 •023 I. 00140 .071 1.01338 .119 1.03734 167 I 07279 .024 I. 00153 .072 I .01376 .120 1.03797 168 I 07365 .025 1.00167 .073 I.01414 .121 1.03860 169 1 074SI .026 I .00182 .074 I. 01453 .122 I 03923 170 I 07537 .027 I. 00196 ■075 I. 01493 .123 1.03987 171 1 07624 .028 I. 00210 .076 I 01533 .124 1.640SI 172 1 07711 .029 1.00225 ■077 1 01573 •125 I. 04116 173 I 07799 .030 I .00240 .078 I.01614 .126 I .04181 174 I 07888 ■031 1 .00256 .079 I .01656 .127 I .04247 173 I 07977 .032 I .00272 .080 1.01698 .128 I. 04313 176 1 08066 ■033 1.00289 .081 1.01741 .129 1.04380 177 I 08156 ■034 1.00307 .082 I. 01784 .130 1.04447 178 .1 08246 .035 1 .00327 .0S3 1 .01828 .131 I 04SIS 179 1 08337 .036 i.oo,W5 .0S4 I. 01872 .132 1.045S4 180 I 0847a ■037 I .00364 .085 I. 01916 .133 1 .04652 181 1 08519 .038 1.00384 .086 1.01961 .134 1 .04722 182 I 08611 .039 1.0040s .087 1.02006 .13s I .04792 183 1 08704 .040 1.00426 .088 1 .02052 .136 I .04862 184 I 08797 .041 I 00447 .089 1.02098 .137 I 049.32 185 1 08890 .042 I .00469 .090 1.02146 .138 1.05003 186 I 08984 •043 1 .00492 .091 1 .02192 ■139 I 0507s 187 1 09079 .044 1.0051S .092 1.02240 .140 1.0S147 188 1 09174 ■04S I .00539 .093 1.0x189 .141 1.05220 189 1 09269 .046 1 00563 .094 I 02339 .I.U 1.05293 190 I 09363 .047 1.00587 .095 I .02389 .143 1.05367 191 1 09461 .048 1.00612 .096 1 .02440 .144 I. 05441 192 I 09SS7 Table of Circular Arcs Table of Circular Arcs — {Continued) 8i Heights Lengths Heights Lengths Heights Lengths He ights L engths .193 1.09654 .24S 1 . 15670 .303 1 . 22920 358 1 31276 ■ .194 1.09752 .249 I . 15791 304 1 . 23063 359 1 31437 .195 1.09850 .250 1.15912 .305 1 . 23206 360 I 31599 .196 1.09949 .251 1.16034 \ .306 1 ■ 23349 361 1 31761 .197 I . 10048 .252 1.16156 • 307 1.23492 362 I 31923 .198 1.10147 .253 1 . 16279 .308 1.23636 363 1 32086 • 199 I. 10247 .254 1 . 16402 .309 1.23781 364 I 32249 .200 I. 10347 .255 1 . 16526 .310 I . 23926 365 1 32413 .201 I . 10447 .256 1 . 16650 .311 1 . 24070 366 1 32577 .202 I. 10548 .257 1.16774 .312 1.24216 357 1 32741 .203 I . 10650 .258 I . 16899 .313 1 . 24361 368 1 32905 .204 I. 10752 .259 1.17024 .314 1.24507 369 1 33069 .205 1.10855 .260 I. 17150 .315 1.24654 370 1 33234 .206 I. 10958 .261 I . 17276 .316 1 24801 371 I 33399 .207 1.11062 .262 1 . 17403 .317 I . 24948 372 1 33564 .20S 1.1116s .263 1.17530 .318 1.25095 373 1 33730 .209 1.11269 .264 1.17657 .319 1 . 25243 374 1 33896 .210 I. 11374 .265 1.17784 .320 I. 25391 375 1 34063 .211 1.11479 .266 1.17912 .321 I 25540 376 1 34229 .212 I. I 1584 .267 1 . 18040 .322 I . 25689 377 1 34396 ■ 213 1.11690 .268 1.18169 .323 1.25838 378 1 34563 .214 1.11796 .269 1.18299 ■ 324 1.25988 379 I 34731 .215 1.11904 .270 1.18429 .325 I . 26138 380 1 34899 .216 1.12011 .271 I. 18559 .326 I . 26288 381 1 35068 .217 1.12118 .272 1 . 18689 • 327 1.26437 382 1 35237 .218 1.12225 .273 1 . 18820 .32S I . 26588 383 1 35406 .219 1- 12334 .274 1 . 18951 .329 1 . 26740 384 I 35575 .220 1 . 12444 .275 1 . 19082 .330 1 . 26892 385 I 35744 .221 I. 12554 .276 1.19214 .331 1.27044 386 I 35914 .222 I . 12664 .277 1.19346 .332 1.37196 387 1 36084 .223 I. 12774 .278 1.19479 .333 1.27349 388 I 36254 .224 1 . 12885 .279 1.19612 • 334 1.27502 389 1 3642s .225 I. 12997 .280 I . 19746 .335 1.27656 390 1 36596 .226 1.13108 .281 1 . 19880 .336 1.27810 391 I 36767 .227 I. 13219 .282 1.20014 .337 1.27964 392 1 36939 .228 1.13331 .283 1.20149 .338 1.28118 393 I 37111 .229 I • 13444 .284 1.202S4 .339 1 . 28273 394 I 37283 .230 1.13557 .285 I. 20419 .340 1.28428 395 1 37455 .231 1.13671 .286 1.20555 .341 1.28583 396 1 37628 .232 1.13785 .287 1.20691 .342 1.28739 397 I 37801 ■ 233 1.13900 .288 1.20827 .343 1.28895 398 I 37974 .234 1 14015 .279 1.20964 .344 1.29052 399 I 38148 .235 1.14131 .290 1.21102 .345 1.29209 400 I 38322 .236 1.14247 .291 1 . 21239 .346 1.29366 401 1 38496 .237 1.14363 .292 1.21377 .347 1.29523 402 1 38671 .238 I . 14480 .293 1.2151S .348 1.29681 403 1 38846 .239 1.14597 .294 1.21654 .349 1.29839 404 1 39021 .240 I . 14714 .295 1.21794 .350 1.29997 40s I 39196 .241 1.14832 .296 1.21933 .351 1.30156 406 1 39372 .242 I . 149SI .297 1.22073 .352 I. 3031s 407 I 39548 .243 1.15070 .298 1.22213 .353 1.30474 408 I 39724 .244 1.15189 .299 1.22354 .354 1.30634 409 1 39900 .245 I. 15308 .300 1.22495 • 355 1.30794 410 1 40077 .246 1.15428 .301 1.22636 .356 1.30954 411 I 402S4 .247 I. 15549 .302 1.22778 .357 I.3111S 412 I 40432 Mallicm;ilic;il Tables Table op Circular Arcs — (Concluded) HeighU Lengthn t. 40610 Heights Lengths .457 'hs Heights Lengths .413 .435 1.44589 479 « S2931 .414 I. 40788 ' '.•>' I 44773 ' .458 480 1 53126 .41S 1.40966 I 449.S7 459 1.49079 481 1 53322 .416 1.41145 1 45142 .460 1.49269 482 I 53SI8 .417 1. 41324 , -M'J 1.45327 .461 1.49460 483 I 53714 .418 1.41S03 .440 I.4SSI2 .462 1.49651 484 I 53910 .419 1.41682 .441 1.45697 .463 1.49842 48s I 54106 .430 1.41861 .442 1.45883 .464 I S0033 486 I S4.*)2 .421 I. 42041 .443 1.46069 .46s 1.50224 487 « 54499 .422 1 .42221 .444 I.462SS .466 1.S0416 488 I 54696 .423 I . 42402 .445 I. 46441 .467 1.S0608 489 I 54893 .424 1.42583 .446 1.46628 ! .468 1.50800 490 1 55091 .42s 1.42764 .447 I. 46815 .469 1.50992 491 I 55289 .426 1.4294s .448 I . 47002 1 .470 1.51185 492 1 55487 .427 1. 431 27 .449 I. 47189 { .471 I S1378 493 1 55685 .428 1.43309 .450 1-47377 .472 ISIS7I 494 I 55884 .429 I. 43491 .451 1.47565 .473 I. 51764 49S I 56083 .430 1.43673 .452 1.47753 .474 1.51958 496 I S6282 .431 1.438S6 .453 1.47912 • 475 I. 52152 497 1 56481 .432 1.44039 .454 1.48131 .476 1.52346 498 I 56681 .433 1.44222 .455 1.48320 ' .477 1.52541 499 I 56881 .'434 I. 4440s .456 1.48509 .478 1.52736 500 I 57080 Lengths of Circular Arcs to Radius 1 To find the length of a circular arc by the following table Knowing the radius of the circle and the measure of the arc in deg., min., etc. Rule. — Add together the lengths in the table found respectively opposite to the deg., min., etc., of the arc. Multiply the sum by the radius of the circle. Example. — In a circle of 1 2.43 feet radius, is an arc of 13 deg., 27 min., 8 sec. How long is the arc? Here, opposite 13 deg. in the table, we find .2268928 " 27 min. " " " " .0078540 " 8 sec. " " " " .0000388 Sum = . 2347856 And .2347856 X 12.43, or radius = 2.918385 feet, the required length of arc. Lengths of Circular Arcs to Radius i 83 Lengths of Circular Arcs to Radius i Deg. Length Deg. Length Deg. Length Deg. Length I .0174533 46 .8028515 91 1.5882496 136 2.3736478 2 .0349066 47 .8203047 92 1.6057029 137 2. 391 101 I 3 .0523599 48 .8377580 93 I. 6231562 138 2.4085544 4 .0698132 49 .8552113 94 1.6406095 139 2 . 4260077 5 0872665 50 .872664() 95 1.6580628 140 2 . 4434610 6 .1047198 51 .8901179 96 1.6755161 141 2 . 4609142 7 .1221730 52 .9075712 97 I . 6929694 142 2 . 478367s 8 .1396263 53 .9250245 98 1.7104227 143 2 . 4958208 9 .1570796 54 .9424778 99 1.7278760 144 2.5132741 10 . 1745.329 55 .9593911 100 1.7453293 145 2 . 5307274 II . 1919862 56 9773844 lOI I . 7627825 146 2.5481807 12 .2094395 57 .9948377 102 1.7802358 147 2.5656340 13 . 2268928 58 1.0122910 103 I. 797689 I 148 2.5830873 14 .2443461 59 1.0297443 104 1.8151424 149 2 . 6005406 15 .2617994 60 I. 0471976 105 1.8325957 150 2.6179939 16 ■ 2792527 61 1.0646508 106 1.8500490 151 2.6354472 17 . 2967060 62 1.0821041 107 1.8675023 152 2 . 652900s 18 .3141593 63 I.0995S74 108 1.8849556 153 2.6703538 19 .3316126 64 1.1170107 109 1.9024089 154 2 . 6878070 20 .3490659 65 I. 1344640 no 1.9198622 155 2 . 7052603 21 .3665191 66 1.1519173 III I. 9373155 156 2.7227136 22 .3839724 67 I . 1693706 112 1.9547688 157 2.7401669 23 .4014257 68 I . 1868239 113 I. 9722221 158 2.7576202 24 .4188790 69 I . 2042772 114 1.9896753 159 2.7750735 25 ■4363323 70 I. 2217305 115 2.0071286 160 2.7925268 26 .4537856 71 I . 2391838 116 2.0245819 161 2.8099801 27 .4712389 72 1.2566371 117 2.0420352 162 2.8274334 28 .4886922 73 I . 2740904 118 2.0594885 163 2 . 8448867 29 .5061455 74 1.2915436 119 2.0769418 164 2 . 8623400 30 .5235988 75 1.3089969 120 2.0943951 165 2.8797933 31 .5410521 76 1.3264502 121 2. I I 18484 166 2.8972466 32 .5585054 77 1.3439035 122 2.1293017 167 2.9146999 33 .5759587 78 I. 3613568 123 2.1467550 168 2 932IS3I 34 .5934119 79 1.3788101 124 2 . 1642083 169 2.9496064 35 .6108652 80 1.3962634 125 2.1816616 170 2.9670597 36 .6283185 81 1.4137167 126 2.1991149 171 2.9845130 37 .6457718 82 1.4311700 127 2.2165682 172 3.0019663 38 .6632251 83 1,4486233 128 2.2340214 173 3.0194196 39 .6806784 84 I . 4660766 129 2.2514747 174 3.0368729 40 .6981317 85 1.4835299 130 2.2689280 175 3.0543262 41 .7155850 86 I . S009832 131 2.2863813 176 3.0717795 42 .7330383 87 I. 5 184364 132 2.3038346 177 3.0892328 43 .7504916 88 1.5358897 133 2.3212879 178 3.1066861 44 .7679449 89 1.5533430 134 2.3387412 179 3.1241394 45 .7853982 90 1.5707963 135 2.3561945 180 3.1415927 Min. Length Min. Length Min. Length Min. Length I .0002909 6 .0017453 II .0031998 16 .0046542 2 .0005818 7 .0020362 12 .0034907 17 .0049451 3 .0008727 8 .0023271 13 .0037815 18 .0052360 4 .0011636 9 .0026180 14 .0040724 19 .0055269 S ■0014544 10 .0029089 15 .0043633 20 .0058x78 84 Malhem.ilical Tallies Lkngths of Cikcular Arcs to Radius i — (Continued) Min. Length Min. 1 Length Min. Length Min. Length 21 .0061087 31 .009017s 0119264 1 SI 0148353 22 006399.'; 33 .009J084 0122173 S3 0151262 23 .0066904 33 .0095993 .0125082 53 0154171 34 0069813 34 .0098902 .0127991 54 0157080 2S 0072722 3S .0101811 .0130900 SS .0159989 36 0075631 36 .01047-^ 013.3809 S6 .0162897 27 0078540 37 .oioT'i-' 1 oi.}67l7 57 .0165806 38 00S1449 38 .01 lo.s c 0139626 S8 .016871S 29 .00S4.358 39 .01 1314'' 014253s 59 .0171624 30 .0087266 40 .OIl6.5Si 0145444 60 017453.3 Sec. Length Sec. Length Sec. Len^:: '. Length I .0000048 16 .0000776 31 0001503 46 .0002230 2 .0000097 17 .0000824 32 .0001 S51 47 .0002279 3 .0000145 18 .0000873 33 .0001600 48 .00O2,V7 4 .0000194 19 .0000921 34 .0001648 49 .0002376 S .0000242 20 .0000970 33 .0001697 : SO .0002424 6 .0000291 21 .0001018 36 .0001745 I SI .0002473 7 .0000339 22 .0001067 37 .0001794 52 .0002521 8 .0000388 23 .0001115 38 .0001842 1 S3 .0002570 9 .0000430 34 .0001164 39 .0001891 54 .0002618 10 .0000485 35 .0001212 40 .0001939 55 .0002666 II .0000533 36 .0001261 41 .0001988 56 .0002715 12 .0000582 27 .0001309 42 .0002036 57 .0002763 13 .0000630 38 .OOOI3S7 43 .0002085 S8 .0002812 14 .0000679 29 .0001406 44 .0002133 59 .0002860 IS .0000727 30 .00014.54 45 .0002182 60 .0002909 Table of Areas of Circular Segments If the segment exceeds a semicircle, its area = area of circle — area of a segment whose rise = (diam. of circle — rise of given segment). Diam. of circle = (square of half chord ^ rise) + rise, whether the segment exceeds a semicircle or not. Rise divided Vjy diam. of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by Rise divided by diam. of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by .001329 .001533 .001746 .001969 .002199 .002438 .002685 .002940 .003202 Rise divided by diam. of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by Rise divided by diam. of circle Area = (square o/diam.) muki- plicd by .001 .002 .003 .004 • 005 .006 007 .008 .009 .000042 .000119 .000219 .000337 .000471 .000619 .000779 .000952 .001135 .010 .on .012 .013 .014 .015 .016 .017 .018 .019 .020 .021 .022 .023 .024 .025 .026 .027 .003472 .003749 .004032 .004322 .004619 .004922 .005231 .005546 .005867 .028 .029 .030 .031 .032 .033 .034 .035 .036 .006194 .006527 .006866 .007209 .007SS9 .007913 .008273 .008638 .009008 Table of Areas of Circular Segments 8S Table of Areas OF Circular Segments — {Continued) Rise divided by diam of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by Rise divided by diam of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by Rise divided by diam of circle Area = (square of diam.) multi- plied by Rise divided by diam of circle Area= (square of diam.) multi- plied by • 037 .009383 .087 .033308 • 137 .064761 .187 .101553 .038 .009764 .088 •033873 .138 .065449 .188 102334 .039 ,010148 .089 •034441 • 139 .066140 .189 103116 .040 .010538 .090 .035012 .140 .066833 .190 .103900 .041 .010932 .091 .035586 .141 .067528 .191 • 104686 .042 .011331 .092 • 036162' .142 ,068225 .192 • 105472 •043 .011734 • 093 •036742 • 143 ,068924 .193 , 106261 .044 .012142 • 094 •037324 .144 ,069626 .194 • 10705 1 • 045 •012555 • 09s •037909 .145 •070329 ■195 • 107843 .046 .012971 .096 •03S497 .146 .071034 .196 • 108636 • 047 .013393 • 097 .039087 ■ 147 •071741 ■197 • 109431 .048 .013818 .098 .039681 .148 •072450 .198 .110227 .049 .014248 •099 .040277 .149 •073162 ■199 .III02S .050 .014681 • loo .040875 • ISO •073875 .200 .111824 .051 .015119 .101 •041477 .151 •074590 .201 .112625 .052 .015561 .102 .042081 .152 •075307 .202 •I 13427 ■OS3 .016008 .103 .042687 .153 .076026 .203 •II423I .054 .016458 .104 .043296 .154 •076747 .204 •I 15036 ■ 055 .016912 .105 .043908 .155 •077470 .205 .115842 ■ 056 .017369 .106 •044523 .156 .078194 .206 .116651 •057 .017831 .107 .045140 .157 .078921 .207 .117460 058 .018297 .108 •04S759 .158 •079650 .208 .118271 059 .018766 .109 .046381 •159 .080380 .209 .119084 .060 .019239 .110 .047006 .160 .081112 .210 .119898 .061 .019716 .III •047633 .161 ,081847 .211 .120713 .062 .020197 .112 .048262 .162 ,082582 .212 ■ I2I530 .063 .020681 ■ 113 .048894 .163 .083320 .213 .122348 .064 .021168 .114 .049529 .164 .084060 .214 .123167 .065 .021660 • 115 .050165 .165 .084801 .215 . 123988 .066 .022155 .116 • 050805 .166 •085545 .216 .124811 .067 •033653 .117 .051446 .167 .086290 ,217 • 125634 .068 .023155 .118 .052090 .168 •087037 .218 • 126459 .069 .023660 .119 .0527.37 .169 •087785 .219 . 127286 .070 .024168 .120 •053385 .170 •088536 .220 .128114 071 .024680 .121 •054037 .171 .089288 .221 .128943 .072 .025196 .122 .054690 .172 .090042 .222 • 129773 073 .025714 .123 .055346 .173 •090797 .223 • 130605 074 .026236 .124 .056004 .174 •091555 .224 • I31438 .075 .026761 .125 .056664 .175 .092314 .225 • 132273 .076 .027290 .126 .057327 .176 .093074 .226 •I33I09 .077 .027821 .127 .057991 .177 •093837 .227 .133946 .078 .028,356 .128 .058658 .178 • 094601 .228 .134784 .079 .028894 .129 .059328 .179 .095367 .229 • 135624 .080 .029435 ■ 130 •059999 .180 •096135 .230 . 13646s 081 .029979 .131 .060673 .181 .096904 • 231 .137307 .082 .030526 .132 .061349 .182 .097675 • 232 • I3815I .083 ■031077 .133 .062027 .183 .098447 .233 •138996 .084 .031630 .134 .062707 .184 .099221 .234 • 139842 .085 .032186 .1.35 .063389 .185 •099997 • 235 . 140689 .086 .032746 .136 .064074 .186 .100774 .236 • I4I538 86 Mallunialiial 'I'alilcs Table of Areas OF CiRCULAK SeCUENTS — (Coniinwd) Rise divided by diam. Area ■• (square of diam.) multi* Rise divided by diam. Area — (sfiuarc of dium.) Rise divided by diam. Area — (sc)uarc of diam.) Rise divided by diam. Area- (square of diam.) multi- plied by of circle plied by .I42.V-- of circle plied by of circle plied by of circle .237 .186339 .337 .232634 .387 .280669 .aj8 .143239 .jh-s .18723s .338 .233580 .388 .281643 .239 .144091 .289 .188141 .339 .234526 .389 .283618 .240 .144945 .290 .189048 .340 .235473 .390 283593 .a4i .145800 •291 .189956 .341 .236421 .391 •284569 .242 .146656 .292 .190865 .342 .237369 .392 •285545 .243 147513 .293 .191774 .343 .238319 .393 .286521 .244 .148371 .294 .192685 .344 .239268 .394 .287499 .245 .149231 1 .295 .193597 .345 .240219 .395 .288476 .246 .150091 : .296 .194509 .346 .241170 .396 .289454 .247 . 150953 .297 . 195423 .347 .243132 .397 .290432 .248 .151816 .298 .196337 .348 .343074 .398 291411 .249 .152681 .299 . 197252 .349 .344037 .399 .292390 .250 .153546 .300 .198168 .350 .244980 .400 .293370 .251 • 154413 .301 .199085 .351 .245935 ! .401 .294350 .253 .155281 .302 .200003 .352 .246890 .402 .295330 .253 .156149 .303 .200922 .353 .247845 .403 .296311 .254 .157019 .304 .201841 .354 .248801 .404 •297292 .255 . 157891 .305 .203762 .355 .249758 .405 .298274 .256 . 158763 .306 .203683 .356 .250715 .406 .299256 .257 .159636 .307 .204605 .357 .251673 .407 .300238 .258 .160511 .308 .205528 .358 .353632 .408 .301331 .259 .161386 I .309 .206452 .359 .253591 .409 .302304 .260 .162263 .310 .207376 .360 .254551 .410 .303187 .261 .163141 ' 3" .208302 1 .361 .255511 .411 .304171 .262 . 164020 .312 .209228 .362 .256472 .412 .305156 .263 .164900 .313 .210I5S .363 .257433 .413 .306140 .264 .165781 .314 .211083 .364 .258395 .414 .307125 .26s .166663 .31S .212011 .36s .259358 .415 .308110 .266 .167546 .316 .212941 .366 .260321 .416 .309096 .267 . 168431 .317 .213871 .367 .261285 .417 .310082 .268 . 169316 .318 .214802 .368 .262249 .418 .311068 .269 . 170202 .319 .215734 ■.369 .263214 .419 .312055 .270 .171090 .320 .216666 .370 .264179 .420 .313042 .271 .171978 • 321 .217600 .371 .265145 .421 .314029 .272 .172868 .322 .218534 .372 .266111 .422 .315017 .273 •173758 .323 .219469 .373 .267078 .423 .316005 .274 . 174650 .324 . 220404 .374 .268046 .424 .316993 .275 .175542 .325 .221341 .375 .269014 .425 .317981 .276 .176436 .326 .222278 .376 .269982 .426 .318970 .277 .177330 .327 .223216 .377 .270951 .427 .319959 .278 .178226 .328 .224154 .378 .271921 .428 .320949 .279 .179122 .329 .225094 .379 . 272891 .429 .321938 .280 .180020 .330 . 226o,i4 .380 .273861 .430 .322928 .281 .180918 .331 .226974 .381 .274832 .431 .323919 .282 .181818 .332 .227916 .382 .275804 .432 .324909 .283 .182718 .333 .228858 .383 .276776 .433 .325900 .284 .183619 .334 .229801 .384 .277748 .434 .326891 .285 . 184522 .335 .230745 .385 .278721 .435 .327883 .286 .185425 .336 .231689 .386 .279695 .436 .328874 Table of Areas of Circular Segments 87 Table of Areas of Circular Segments — (Continued) Rise Area = Rise Area= j .ise Area= j^;^^ Area = divided (square divided (square ^j^ ^ided (square ^^^-^^^^ (square by diam. of circle of diam.) multi- by diam. of circle of diam.) . multi- „t ,. , , 01 diam. ::ircle of diam.) by diam. ,n^"'*^- of circle of diam.) multi- plied by plied by plied by plied by .437 .329866 .453 .345768 469 .361719 485 .377701 .438 .330858 .454 .346764 470 .362717 486 .378701 .439 .331851 .455 .347760 471 .363715 487 .379701 .440 .332843 .456 .348756 472 .364714 488 .380700 .441 .333836 .457 .349752 473 .365712 489 .381700 .442 .334829 .458 .350749 474 .366711 490 .382700 • 443 .335823 ■ 459 .351745 475 .367710 491 .383700 .444 .336816 .460 .352742 476 .368708 492 .384699 .445 .337810 .461 .353739 477 .369707 493 .385699 .446 .338804 .462 .354736 478 .370706 494 .386699 .447 .339799 .463 .355733 479 ■371705 495 .387699 .448 .340793 .464 .356730 480 .372704 496 .388699 .449 .341788 • 46s .357728 481 ■373704 497 .389699 • 450 .342783 .466 .358725 482 ■374703 498 .390699 .451 .343778 .467 .359723 483 ■375702 499 .391699 .452 .344773 .468 .360721 484 .376702 500 •392699 88 Mathematical Tables Chords of Arcs from One to Ninety Decrees Dimensions given in inches. Ang. Dcg. l8-inch 36-inch 72-inch ,. iH-inch 36-inch 73inch radius radius radius r.'idiuR radius radius chord rhord chord (.hord chord chord I ••■.., iW 46 14H6 38 Vi ^■5i« 3756 7SW 19 5'M. 1X7,6 23*964 64 X9564 38562 765^6 20 6Vi 121/4 25 6S X9' '/62 38iH« 7756 21 6M«> I3V6 26>564 66 X93964 39^62 7827/64 22 6% I3*?64 2731-64 67 19^6 39*^4 79' 562 23 THi 142564 28*564 68 20I.6 401^ 8o«J62 24 73)44 143 '/62 29'5i« 69 202564 402562 8i91s 25 7«H4 153-^64 31' H4 70 20?64 322564 71 202962 4xi5i6 8356 27 8>?^2 X6>?i8 3356 72 2X562 4221 64 84*V64 38 8<564 17' 562 34>5i6 73 2x1562 425564 852^62 29 9V64 18I/62 36M8 74 2I2J62 432!'64 862^2 30 9^16 i8564 42 X 22 962 255 ".64 5X3964 87 242562 499i« 99H 43 X3?i» 262564 522562 88 25 50^4 looWa 44 133^4 263 ',62 53'5i« 89 25' 564 So«562 100' 5< 8 45 13*562 27^ H4 55?64 90 252964 502962 ioi»564 Chords 89 Fig. 35. To Find the Length of a Chord which will Divide the Circumference of a Circle into N Equal Parts Multiply S by the Diameter N s iV 5 N S N 5 I 26 .12054 SI .061560 76 04132s 2 27 .11609 52 .060379 .059240 77 78 040788 040267 3 .86603 28 .11197 53 4 .70711 29 .10812 54 .058145 79 0397S7 S .58779 30 . I04S3 55 .057090 80 039260 6 .50000 31 .10117 56 .056071 81 038775 7 .43388 32 .098018 57 .055089 82 038303 8 .38268 33 .095056 58 ■054139 83 037841 9 .34202 34 .092269 59 .053222 84 037391 10 .30902 35 .089640 60 •052336 85 036953 II * 28173 36 .087156 61 .051478 86 036522 12 .25882 37 .084804 62 .050649 87 036103 13 .23932 38 .082580 63 .049845 88 035692 14 .22252 39 .080466 64 .049068 89 035291 15 .20791 40 .078460 65 .048312 90 034899 16 .19509 41 .076549 66 .047582 91 034516 17 .18375 42 .074731 67 .046872 92 034141 18 .17365 43 .072995 68 .046184 93 033774 19 .16460 44 .071339 69 .045515 94 033415 20 .15643 45 .069756 70 .044865 95 033064 21 .14904 46 .06S243 71 .044232 96 032719 22 . 14232 47 .066793 72 .043619 97 032381 23 .13617 48 .065401 73 .043022 98 032051 24 .13053 49 .064073 74 .042441 99 031728 25 .12533 50 .062791 75 .041875 100 031411 go Mulhcmatiral Tallies Lengths of Chords foe Spacing Cikcle whose Diameter is i Por circles of other diameten multiply length given in table by diameter of circle. No. of Length of No. of Length of No. of Length of No. of Length of spaces chord spaces chord spaces chord spaces chord 26 .I305 51 .0616 76 .0413 27 .1161 52 .0604 77 .0408 3 .8660 38 .1120 S3 .0592 78 .0403 4 .7071 29 .1081 54 .0581 79 .0398 5 .5878 30 .1045 55 .0571 80 .0393 6 .5000 31 .1012 56 .0561 8t .0388 7 .4339 32 .0980 57 .0551 83 .0383 8 .3827 33 .0951 58 .0541 83 .0378 9 .3420 34 .0923 59 .0532 84 .0374 lo .3090 35 .0896 60 .0523 85 .0370 II .3817 36 .0872 61 .0515 86 .0365 13 .3588 37 .0848 62 .0507 87 .0361 13 .2393 38 .0826 63 .0499 88 .0357 14 .2225 39 .0805 64 .0491 89 ■ 03S3 IS ■ 2079 40 .0785 65 .0483 90 .0349 I6 .1951 41 .0765 66 .0476 91 .0345 17 .1838 42 .0747 67 .0469 92 .0341 I8 .1736 43 •0730 68 .0462 93 .0338 19 .1646 44 .0713 69 .0455 94 .0334 30 .1564 45 .0698 70 .0449 95 ■ 0331 31 .1490 46 .0682 71 .0442 96 .0327 33 .1423 47 .0668 72 .0436 97. 0324 33 .1362 48 .0654 73 .0430 98 .0331 24 .130S 49 .0641 74 .0424 99 .0317 35 .1253 SO .0628 75 .0419 100 .0314 Computed by W. I. Mann, Pittsburg, Pa. Supplement to Machinery, February, 1903. Board Measure 91 Board Measure Length in feet Size 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 Square feet IX 8 8 914 10% 12 13H 14% 16 17% IX 10 10 11% 13% 15 16% 185.6 20 21% 1X12 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 IX14 14 1614 18% 21 23^^ 25% 28 30% IX16 16 18% 21!-^ 24 26% 29% 32 34% 2X 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 2X 4 8 9H 10% 12 l3'/6 14% 16 17% 2X 6 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2X 8 16 18% 2114 24 26% 29% 32 34% 2X10 20 23'/^ 26% 30 33!/^ 36% 40 43% 2X12 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 2X14 28 32% 371-6 42 46?6 51% 56 60% 2x16 32 3714 422/6 48 53^ 58% 64 69% 3X 4 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 3X 6 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 3X 8 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 3X10 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 3X12 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 3X14 42 49 S6 63 70 77 84 91 3X16 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 4X 4 16 18% 21^ 24 26% 29% 32 34% 4X 6 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 4X 8 32 37^ 42% 48 S3H 58% 64 69% 4X10 40 46% 53^ 60 66% 73% 80 86% 4X12 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 4X14 56 65I4 74% 84 93% 102% 112 121% 4X16 64 74% 85!'6 96 106% 117% 128 138% 6X 6 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 6X 8 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 6X10 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 6x12 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 6X14 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 6X16 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 8X 8 64 74% 85^ 96 106% 117% 128 138% SXio 80 9M 106% 120 133% 146% 160 173% 8X12 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 8X14 112 130% 1495^ 168 186% 205% 224 242% 8X16 128 149'/^ 170% 192 213% 234% 2S6 277% 10X10 100 116% l33'/6 150 166% 183% 200 216% 10X12 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 10X14 140 163H 186% 210 233% 256% 280 303% 10X16 160 186% 21iM 240 266% 293% 320 346% 12X12 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 12x14 168 196 224 252 280 308 336 364 12X16 192 224 256 288 320 352 384 416 X4XI4 196 228% 261 H 294 326% 3S9V6 392 424% 14X16 224 261 '/5 298% 336 373% 410% 448 485% 16X16 256 298% 341'/^ 384 426^6 469% 512 554% 92 Mathematical Tables Hoard Measdre — (Continued) Size IX 8 IXIO IXI2 1X14 IXl6 2X 3 2X 4 2X 6 2X 8 2XIO 2X12 2X14 2Xl6 3X 4 3X 6 3X 8 3XIO 3X12 3X14 3Xl6 4X 4 4X 6 4X 8 4X10 4X12 4X14 4Xl6 6x 6 6X 8 6xio 6X12 6X14 6xi6 8X 8 8Xlo 8X12 8X14 8Xl6 lOXlO IOX12 10X14 10X16 12x12 12X14 12x16 14x14 14X16 16x16 38 Square foct i8?6 28 32?{. 37 W 14 18?^ 28 37^6 46?i S6 6S!^ 74^ 28 42 S6 70 84 98 112 37)-^ S6 74^4 93!^ 112 i3fm 84 112 140 168 196 224 149',-^ I862.S 224 261 V6 298?6 233'/^ 280 326H 373!6 336 392 4 18 457H S22'/6 S97W 20 , 1 25 26Ji 30 32 35 37^6 40 42^ IS 16 20 21 W 30 32 40 42^4 SO 53^4 60 64 70 72^6 80 85W 30 32 45 48 60 64 75 80 90 96 105 112 120 128 40 42H 60 64 80 »5M 100 io626 120 128 140 149W 160 17054 90 96 120 128 ISO 160 180 192 210 224 240 256 160 1707^ 200 213^6 240 256 280 298% 320 341 '6 250 266?^ 300 320 350 373' i 400 426? 6 360 384 420 448 480 S12 490 S22?6 s6o S97H 640 682?S 22W 28J.4 34 39^ 45^6 17 22^ 34 4SH 56W 68 79W 90^4 34 SI 68 8S 102 119 136 45 W 68 90^ 113^ 136 I58?6 i8m 102 136 170 204 238 272 181H 226?^ 272 317IS 362^3 283>4 340 396^6 453 !-6 408 476 544 SSSW 634% 725^4 24 asW 30 31^ 36 38 42 44W 48 SfM 18 19 24 2SW 36 38 48 So% 60 63W 72 76 84 88% 96 101 W 36 38 54 57 72 76 90 9S 108 114 126 133 144 152 48 50W 72 76 96 101 W 120 126% 144 152 16S 177W 192 ao2% 108 114 144 152 180 190 216 228 252 266 288 304 192 202?S 240 253^ 288 304 336 354% 384 40514 300 316% 360 380 410 443^4 480 506% 432 4S6 504 532 576 608 S88 620% 672 709H 768 810% Note. — By simply multiplying or dividing the above amounts, the number of feet contained in other dimensions can be obtained. Surface and Volumes of Spheres 93 Weight of Lumber per iooo Feet Board Measure Character of lumber Dry Partly seasoned Green ■ Pine and hemlock Norway and yellow pine Oak and walnut Ash and maple Pounds 2500 3000 4000 3500 Pounds 2750 4000 Sooo 4000 Pounds 3000 sooo Surface and Volumes of Spheres Spheres. (Original.) Trautwine. Some errors of i in the last figure only. Diam. S irface Solidity Diam. Surface Solidity Diam. Surface Solidity Hi 00077 I%2 3.7583 .68511 2^2 15.466 S.7190 H2 00307 .00002 '/i 3.9761 .74551 Vi 15.904 5.9641 %4 00690 .00005 5/fc 4.2000 .80939 %2 16.349 6.2161 He 01227 .00013 3/1 s 4.4301 .87681 Me 16.800 6.4751 H2 02761 .00043 J^2 4 . 6664 .94786 11/^2 17.258 6.7412 H 04909 .00102 1/4 4.9088 1.0227 % 17.721 7.0144 ^2 07670 .00200 %2 5.1573 1.1013 1%2 18.190 7.2949 Me 1 1045 .00345 Me 5.4119 I . 1839 Me 18.666 7.5829 ^2 1S033 .00548 ^^2 5. 6728 I . 2704 l=/^2 19.147 7.8783 H 19635 .00818 % 5 9396 1.3611 Vz 19-635 8.1813 %2 24851 .01165 l?i2 6.2126 I. 4561 ^2 20.129 8.4919 5/6 30680 .01598 Jie 6.4919 I. 5553 ?16 20 . 629 8.8103 1^2 37123 .02127 1532 6.7771 1.6590 ^%2 21 . 135 9.1366 ^ 44179 .02761 w 7.0686 I. 7671 n 21.648 9.4708 1%2 51848 .03511 1%2 7 3663 1.8799 2^2 22 . 166 9.8131 7l6 60132 .04385 ?l6 7.6699 1-9974 iMe 22.691 10.164 15^2 69028 .05393 1%2 7.9798 2.1196 25^2 23.222 10.522 H 78540 .06545 ?i 8.2957 2 , 2468 H 23.758 10.889 1%2 88664 .07850 21/32 8.6180 2.3789 2542 24.302 11.265 9i6 99403 .09319 iHe 8.9461 2.S161 IMe 24.850 11.649 1%2 I 1075 . 10960 2%2 9.280s 2.6586 "A2 25. 405 12.041 n I 2272 .12783 ?4 9.6211 2.8062 % 25.967 12.443 2'/i2 I 3530 . 14798 2=.^2 9.9678 2.9592 2%2 26.535 12.853 "/la I 4849 .17014 is/is 10.321 3.1177 >M6 27.109 13 . 272 2?^2 I 6230 ■ 19442 27^2 10.680 3.2818 3^2 27.688 13.700 H I 7671 . 22089 % 11.044 3.4514 3 28.274 14.137 2^2 I 9175 .24967 2%2 II. 416 3.6270 Ha 29.46s IS- 039 1^6 2 0739 . 28084 1516 11.793 3.8083 H 30.680 15-979 m2 2 236s .31451 31/i2 12.177 3.9956 Me 31.919 16-957 % 2 4053 .35077 2 12.566 4 . 1888 H 33.183 17.974 29^2 2 5802 .38971 1/^2 12.962 4.3882 Me 34.472 19.031 >M6 2 761 1 .43143 Me 13.364 4.5939 H 35.784 20.129 3>42 2 9483 .47603 %2 13.772 4.8060 Ma 37.122 21.268 I 3 1416 .52360 1/^ 14 . 186 5.0243 H 38.484 22.449 ^2 3 3410 .57424 %2 14.607 5-2493 Me 39.872 23-674 Me 3 5466 .62804 ?i6 15 033 5.4809 H 41 . 283 24.942 'A Mathematical Tables Spheres — (Continued) Diam. Surfoce Solidity Diam. Surfucc Solidity Diam. Surface Solidity 3'M« 42.719 26 2S4 8 aoi 06 368 08 MH 671 95 1637 9 ^ 44 179 27 6n Ml 207.39 280 8s 94 683 49 1680 3 'M« 45 664 29 016 M 213. 8j 294.01 H 69s 13 1733 3 H 47.173 30 466 9» 330.36 307.58 IS 706 8s 1767.2 '?1e 48 708 31 96s M2 326.98 321.56 M 718 69 1811 7 4 SO 26s 33.SIO H 333.71 335 9S ^4 730 63 i8S7 Mo SI 848 .« 106 94 240.53 3S0.77 96 743.6s 1903 Jh S.V4S6 36.751 H 347.4s 366.03 Mi 754 77 1949 8 •>16 55 089 38.448 9 254. 47 381.70 H 767 00 1997.4 y* S6 745 40.19s H 261.59 397.83 94 779 32 ao4S.7 M« 58.427 41 994 Vt 368.81 414.41 ?6 791 73 2094 8 9i 60 133 43.847 9i 376.12 431.44 16 804.2s 2144 7 Mb 61.863 45. 752 W 283.53 448.93 W 816.8s 2I9S 3 H 63.617 47.713 H 291 04 466.87 Vi 829 57 3346.8 9i» 65.397 49 729 % 298.65 485.31 96 842 40 3399 I 56 67.201 51.801 ~i 6503.9 49.321 M 8535.8 74.154 54 10.844 106.175 56 6539.7 49.729 W 8576.8 74.689 56 10.890 106.854 5^4 6575.5 50.139 56 8617.8 75.226 59 10.936 107.536 J6 6611.6 S0.551 Vi 8658.9 75.767 56 10.983 108.231 46 6647.6 S0.965 56 8700.4 76.309 54 11.029 108.909 H 6683.7 5 1. 382 54 8741.7 76.854 56 11.076 109,600 , ^« 6720.0 51.801 56 8783.2 77.401 54 11,122 110,294 56 6756.5 52,222 53 8824.8 77.952 56 11,169 110,990 Vi 6792.9 52.645 ).6 8866.4 78.505 54 11,216 111,690 56 6829.5 53.071 ^^ 8908.2 79.060 56 11,263 112.392 54 6866.1 53.499 56 8950.1 79.617 60 11,310 113.098 % 6902.9 53.929 Vi 8992.0 80.178 56 11.357 113.806 47 6939 9 54,362 56 9034.1 80.741 54 11.404 114.518 V6 6976.8 54.797 ^4 9076.4 81.308 56 11.452 115.232 H 7013 9 55.234 ' 56 9118.5 81.876 Vi 11.499 "5.949 56 7050.9 55,674 54 9160.8 82,448 56 11.547 116,669 H 7088.3 56.115 ^6 9203.3 83,021 54 11.595 I17J92 56 7125.6 56.559 M 9246.0 83.598 56 11.642 118,118 Spheres Spheres — (Continued) 97 Diam. Surface Solidity 118.847 Diam. Surface Solidity Diam. Surface Solidity 6i 11,690 6756 14.367 161,927 74H 17.320 Z14.333 H 11.738 119.579 H 14.420 162,827 56 17.379 215.417 H 11,786 120,31s li 14.474 163,731 H 17.437 216.50S H 11,834 121,053 68 14.527 164,637 56 17.496 217.597 H 11,882 121,794 '/6 14,580 165,547 H 17.554 218,693 H 11.931 122,538 Vi 14,634 166,460 J6 17.613 219,792 H 11,980 123,286 56 14,688 167,376 75 17,672 220,894 ■'A 12,028 124,036 5-i 14,741 168,29s ^6 17.731 222,001 62 12,076 124,789 56 14,795 169,218 M 17.790 223,111 \^ 12,126 125.545 54 14.849 170,145 56 17.849 224,224 H 12,174 126,30s J6 14.903 171,074 \i 17,908 225,341 H 12,223 127,067 69 14,957 172,007 56 17,968 226,463 }i 12,272 127,832 ^6 1S.012 172,944 H 18,027 227,588 56 12,322 128,601 H 15.066 173,883 % 18,087 228,716 H 12,371 129.373 56 15.120 174.828 76 18,146 229,848 li 12,420 130,147 H 15.175 175.774 % 18,206 230.984 63 12,469 130,92s 56 15.230 176.723 H 18,266 232.124 H 12,519 131,706 H 15.284 177.677 n 18,326 233.267 Vi I2,s68 132,490 n 15.339 178.635 H 18,386 234.414 % 12,618 133,277 70 15.394 179.59s 56 18,446 235.566 H 12,668 134.067 H 15.449 180,559 ¥i 18,506 236.719 6/i 12,718 134.860 H 15.504 181,525 % I8,s66 237.879 % 12,768 135.657 56 15.560 182,497 77 18,626 239.041 Ji 12,818 136,456 V2 15.615 183,471 'yi 18,687 240,206 64 12,868 137,259 56 15.670 184,449 H 18,748 241,376 H 12,918 138,065 % 15.726 185,430 56 18,809 242,551 H 12,969 138,874 J6 15.782 186,414 H 18,869 243,728 . ?6 13,019 139,686 71 15.837 187,402 56 18,930 244,908 J^ 13,070 140,501 W 15.893 188,394 H 18,992 246,093 56 13,121 141,320 H 15.949 189,389 'A 19.053 247.283 % 13,172 142,142 56 16,005 190,387 78 19,114 248.475 ^ 13,222 142,966 H 16,061 191.389 H 19.175 249.672 6s 13,273 143.794 56 16. 117 192,39s H 19.237 250.873 H 13,324 144.625 54 16.174 193,404 56 19.298 252.077 Vi 13,376 145.460 li 16,230 194,417 H 19.360 253.284 % 13.427 146,297 72 16,286 195.433 56 19,422 254.496 H 13.478 147.138 ^6 16,343 196,453 54 19.483 255.713 56 i3,S3o 147.982 H 16,400 197.476 A 19.545 256.932 54 13,582 148,828 56 16,456 198.502 79 19.607 258.155 % 13,633 149.680 H 16,513 199.532 H 19.669 259.383 66 13.685 150.533 56 16,570 200,566 H 19.732 260,613 H 13,737 151.390 H 16,628 201,604 56 19.794 261,848 H 13.789 152.251 J6 16,685 202,645 H 19.856 263,088 56 13,841 153. 114 73 16,742 203,689 56 19.919 264,330 H 13.893 153.980 1/6 16.799 204,737 54 19.981 265,577 56 13.946 154.850 W 16,857 205,789 J6 20,044 266,829 54 13.998 155.724 56 16,914 206,844 80 20,106 268,083 J6 14.050 156.600 H 16,972 207,903 '/6 20,170 269.342 67 14.103 157.480 56 17.030 208,966 H 20,232 270,604 ^6 14.156 158.363 H 17,088 210,032 56 20,296 271,871 H 14,208 159.250 li 17.146 211,102 H 20,358 273.141 56 14.261 160,139 74 17.204 212,17s 56 20,422 274.416 V6 14.314 161,032 '/6 17,262 213,252 H 20,485 275.694 98 Mulhcmulical Tahlcs Sphekes — {Continued) Surface ao.S49 30,6l2 20,676 20,740 20,804 20,867 20,932 20,996 21,060 21,124 21,189 21,253 21.318 21,382 21,448 21,512 21,578 21,642 21,708 21,773 21.839 21.904 21.970 22,036 22,102 22,167 22,234 22,300 22.366 22,432 22,499 22,565 22,632 22,698 22,765 22,832 22,899 22,966 23,034 23.101 23.168 23.235 23.303 23.371 23.439 23,So6 23.575 23.643 23.711 23.779 23.847 23.916 Solidity Diam. 276.977 278,263 279.553 280,847 282,145 283,447 284,754 286,064 287,378 288,696 290,019 291.345 292,674 294,010 295.347 296,691 298,036 299.388 300,743 302,100 303.463 304.831 306.201 307.576 308.957 310,340 311.728 313,118 314.S14 315.915 317.318 318.726 320,140 321,556 322,977 324,402 325.831 327.264 328,702 330,142 331.588 333.039 334.492 335.951 337.414 338.882 340.352 341.829 343.307 344.792 346.281 347.772 87H w 89 90 92 93 Surface Solidity Diam. 23.984 349.269 93J* 24.053 3S0.77I 94 24.122 3S2.277 H 24.191 353.78s H 24.260 355.301 H 24.328 356.819 W 24.398 358.342 H 24.467 359.869 W 24.536 .361.400 li 24,606 362.935 9S 24.676 364.476 Mi 24.745 366.019 H 24.815 367.568 H 24.885 369.122 W 24.955 370.678 H 25.025 372.240 H 25.095 373.806 H 25.165 375.378 96 25,236 376.954 W 25.306 378.531 M 25.376 380. 1 IS H 25.447 381.704 ^ 25.518 383.297 96 25.589 384.894 H 25.660 386.496 H 25.730 388.102 97 25,802 389.711 H 25.873 391.327 V* 25.944 392.945 H 26.016 394.570 H 26.087 396.197 H 26.159 397.831 H 26.230 399.468 Ji 26,302 401,109 98 26,374 402,756 W 26,446 404.406 y* 26,518 406,060 H 26,590 407,721 W 26.663 409,384 H 26.735 411.054 y* 26.808 412,726 H 26.880 414.405 99 26.953 416.086 !.6 27.026 417.774 y* 27.099 419.464 ?6 27.172 421. 161 w 27.245 422.862 H 27.318 424.567 y* 27.391 426.277 % 27.464 427.991 100 27.538 429.710 27.612 431.433 Surface 27.686 27.759 27.833 27.907 27.981 28,055 28,130 28.204 28.278 28.353 28.428 28.S03 28.S77 28.652 28.727 28.802 28,878 28,953 29.028 29.104 29.180 29.255 29.331 29,407 29.483 29.559 29.636 29.712 29.788 29.865 29,942 30.018 30.095 30,172 30,249 30,326 30,404 30,481 30,558 30,636 30,713 30.791 30.869 30.947 31.025 31.103 31.181 31.259 31.338 31.416 Capacity of Rectangular Tanks 99 Capacity of Rectangular Tanks in U. S. Gallons for Each Foot in Depth Width of tank Length of tank 2 feet 2 feet, 6 ins. 3 feet 3 feet, 6 ins. 4 feet 4 feet, 6 ins. 5 feet 5 feet, 6 ins. 6 feet Ft. Ins. 2 2 6 3 3 6 4 4 6 5 29.92 37.40 46.75 44 56 67 88 10 32 52.36 65.45 78.54 91.64 59 74 89 104 119 84 80 77 73 69 67.32 84.16 100.99 117.82 134.65 1SI.48 74. 8r 93.51 112.21 130.91 149 -61 168.31 187.01 82.29 102.86 123.43 144.00 164.57 185.14 205.71 226.28 89.77 112. 21 134.65 157.09 179-53 201.97 224.41 246.86 269.30 5 6 6 Width of Length of tank tank 6 feet, 6 ins. 7 feet 7 feet, 6 ins. 8 feet 8 feet, 6 ins. 9 feet Ft. Ins. 2 2 6 3 3 6 4 4 6 S 5 6 6 6 6 7 97.25 121.56 145-87 170,18 194-49 218.80 243.11 267.43 291.74 316.05 104.73 130.91 157-09 183-27 209.45 235.63 261.82 288.00 314.18 340.36 366.54 112. 21 140.26 168.31 196.36 224.41 252.47 280.52 308.57 336.62 364.67 392.72 420.78 119.69 149.61 179-53 209.45 239.37 269.30 299.22 329.14 359.06 388.98 418.91 448.83 478.7s 127.17 158.96 190.75 222.54 254-34 286.13 317.92 349.71 381.50 413.30 455.09 476.88 508.67 540.46 134.6s 168.31 202.97 235.63 269.30 302.96 336.62 370.28 403.94 437.60 471.27 504.93 538.59 572.2s 605.92 7 6 8 8 6 9 MallKiiialical Taljlcs C/VPACiTY OF Rectangular Tanks in U. S. Gallons fob Each Foot in Depth — {Continued) I.^n|{th of tank Width of Uiiik 9 feet. 6 ins. 10 feet 149 '" 187.01 224.41 261.82 299.22 336.62 374 03 411.43 448.83 486.23 523-64 561.04 598.44 635.84 673.25 710.65 748.05 10 fei't, 6 ins. .1709 196*36 235 68 374 90 314-18 3.53-45 392-72 432 00 471-27 510-54 549 81 .589.08 628.36 667-63 706.90 746.17 785.45 824-73 II feet II feet, 6 ins. 13 feet Ft. Ins. a 3 6 3 3 6 4 4 6 S 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 6 8 8 6 9 9 6 142.13 177.66 313.19 348.73 284 . 26 319-79 3SS 32 390-85 426.39 461.92 497-45 523-98 S68,st 604.05 639-58 675- n 164.57 205.71 346.86 28S.00 329.14 370.28 411 43 452.57 493 71 534.85 • 575. 99 617.14 658.28 699.42 740.56 781.71 822.86 864.00 905.14 172 OS 215 06 258 07 301.09 344 10 38s 10 430.13 473 14 S16.15 559 16 602.18 645 19 688.30 713 21 774.23 817.24 860.26 903-26 946.27 989-29 179 S3 224.41 269-03 314 18 .«9 06 403-94 448-83 493-71 538-59 583-47 638.36 673 24 718.13 763 00 807.89 852.77 897.66 942.56 987.43 1032 3 II 6 Number of Barrels (31.5 Gallons) in Cisterns and Tanks I Bbl. 31.S Gallons 4.2109 Cubic Feet. Diameter in feet Depth in feet 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 I 4-663 6.714 9.139 11-937 15.108 18.653 32.659 26.859 5 23.3 36.6 45-7 59-7 75.5 93 3 112. 8 134 3 6 28.0 40.3 54.8 71.6 90.6 III. 9 135 4 161. 2 7 32.6 47.0 64.0 83.6 105.10 130.6 158.0 188.0 8 37.3 53-7 73.1 955 120.9 149-2 180.6 214 9 9 42.0 60.4 82.3 107.4 136.0 167-9 203.1 341.7 10 46.6 67.1 91-4 119-4 151. 1 186.5 225.7 368.6 II 51.3 73.9 100. 5 131. 3 166.3 205.3 248.3 295.4 13 56.0 80.6 109.7 143-2 181. 3 333.8 270.8 322.3 13 60.6 87-3 118. 8 152. 2 196.4 242. 5 293-4 349 3 14 65.3 94-0 127.9 167. 1 211. S 261. 1 316.0 376.0 15 69.0 100.7 137. 1 179- 1 326.6 289.8 338.5 402.9 16 74.6 107.4 146.3 191. 241.7 298.4 361.1 4297 17 79.3 114. 1 155.4 202.9 256.8 317.1 383.7 456.6 18 83-9 120.9 164.5 214.9 271-9 335.7 406.2 483. S 19 88.6 127.6 173.6 226.8 387.1 354.4 438.8 SI0.3 30 93.3 134.3 182.8 238.7 302.3 373.0 451. 4 537.2 Number of Barrels in Cisterns and Tanks Number of Barrels (31.5 Gallons) ik Cisterns and Tanks — (Continued) Diameter in feet Depth in feet 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 I 31 522 36.557 41.9 47.7 53.9 60.4 67.3 74.6 82.2 5 157.6 182.8 209.8 238.7 269.5 203.2 336.7 373.0 441.3 6 199. 1 219.3 251.8 286.5 323.4 362.6 404.0 447.6 493.6 7 220.7 255.9 293.8 334.2 377.3 423.0 471.3 522.2 575.8 8 252 2 292.5 335.7 382.0 431.2 483.4 538.7 590.8 658.0 9 283.7 329 377.7 429.7 485.1 543-9 606.0 671.5 740.3 10 315.2 365.6 419.7 477-5 539.0 604.3 673.3 746.1 822. 5 II 346.7 402.1 461.6 525.2 592.9 664.7 740.7 820.7 904.8 12 378.3 438.7 503.6 573.0 646.8 725 2 808.0 895.3 987.0 13 409.8 475.2 545.6 620.7 700.7 785.6 875-3 969-9 1069.3 14 441.3 51I-8 587. 5 668.5 754.6 846.0 942-6 1044-5 iiSi.S 15 472.8 548.4 629.5 716.2 808.5 906.5 lOIO.O 1119.1 1223.8 16 504.4 584.9 671.5 764.0 862.4 966.9 1077 -3 1193. 7 1316.0 17 535 9 621. s 713.4 811. 7 916.4 1027.4 1144-6 1268.3 1398.3 18 567.4 658.0 755.4 859.5 970.3 1087.8 1212.0 1342.9 1480.6 19 598.9 694.6 797.4 907.2 1024.2 1148.2 1279-3 1417.S 1562.8 20 630.4 731. 1 839.3 955.0 1078. I 1208.6 1346-6 1492. I 1645.1 Diameter n feet Depth in feet 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 I 90.3 98.6 107.4 116. 6 126. 1 136.0 148.2 157. 9 167.9 5 451.4 483.3 537.2 582.9 630.4 679-8 731. 1 784.3 839.3 6 541.6 592. 644.6 699-4 756-5 815.8 877.4 941. 1 1007.2 7 631.9 690.7 752.0 816.0 882.6 951.8 1023.6 1098.0 II7S.O 8 722.2 789.3 859.5 932.6 1008.7 1087.7 1169.8 1254.9 1342.9 9 812.5 888.0 966.9 1049 -I 1134-7 1223-7 1316.0 1411.7 1510.8 10 902.7 986.7 1074.3 1165.7 1260.8 1359-7 1462 . 2 1568.6 1678.6 II 993-0 1085-3 1181.8 1282.3 1386.9 1495-6 i6o8.5 1725-4 1846.5 12 1083.3 1184.0 1289.2 1398.8 1513.0 1631.6 1764.7 1882.3 2014.0 13 1173.5 12S2.7 1396.6 1515-4 1639. I 1767.6 1900.9 2039-2 2182.2 14 1263-8 1381.3 1504 -O 1632.6 1765-2 1903-6 2047 2 2196.0 2350. I 15 1354 -I 1480.0 1611.5 1748.6 1891 . 2 20,39-5 2193 4 2352 9 2517.9 16 1444-4 1578.7 1718.9 1865. I 2017.3 2175-5 2339 6 2509.7 2685.8 17 1534-5 1677.3 1826.3 1981.7 2143.4 2311.5 2485.8 2666.6 2853.7 18 1624 . 9 1776.0 1933 8 2098.3 2269. 5 2447-4 2632 2823.4 3021. 5 19 1715- 2 1874.7 2041.2 2214.8 2395-6 2583-4 2778 3 2980.3 3189.4 20 180S-5 1973.3 2148.6 2321 4 2521.7 2719-4 2924 5 3137-2 3357.3 I02 Malhcmatical Tables Contents of Cylinders, or Pipes Contents for one foot in length, in cubic fc-ct, and in U. S. gallons of 231 cubic inches, or 7.4805 gallons to a cubic fool. A cubic foot of water weighs about 62^6 lbs.; and a gallon about 8M lbs. iJiams. 2, 3, or 10 times as great give 4, 9, or 100 times the content. Fori oot in Diam- iter in inches ctcr in decimals of a ioot Cubic feet. Also Gallons of 231 area in square feet cubic inches Va .0208 .0003 .0025 M« .0260 .0005 .0040 H .0313 .0008 .0057 lU .0365 .0010 .0078 W .0417 .0014 .0102 9i« .0469 .0017 .0129 H .0521 .002I ■01S9 • iM« .0573 .0026 .0193 ^4 .C5625 .0031 .0230 '^is .0677 .0036 .0269 li .0729 .0042 .0312 »M8 .0781 .0048 .0359 I .o8.?3 ■ 0055 .0408 H .1042 .0085 .0638 H .1250 .0123 .0918 H .1458 .0167 .1249 3 .1667 .0218 .1632 M .1875 .0276 .2066 ^^ .2083 .0341 .2550 H .2292 .0412 .3085 3 .2500 .0491 .3672 H .2708 .0576 .4309 H .2917 .0668 .4998 H .3125 -0767 .5738 4 .333,5 .0873 .6528 H .3542 .098s .7369 H .3750 .1104 .8263 H .3958 .1231 .9206 s .4167 .1364 1.020 y* .4375 . IS03 I. 125 w .4583 .1650 1.234 % .4792 .1803 1.349 6 .5000 .1963 1.469 y* .5208 .2131 I.S94 Vi .S4I7 .2304 1.724 H .5625 .2485 I 8S9 7 .5833 .2673 I 999 y* .6042 .2867 2.I4S For I foot in length Diam- eter in inches cter in decimals of a foot Cubic feet. Also Gallons of 331 area in square feet cubic inches W .6250 .3068 3 29s 94 .6458 ■ 3276 2 4SO 8 .6667 ■3491 2 611 H .6875 .3712 2 777 H .7083 .3941 2 948 ?i .7292 .4176 3 I2S 9 .7SCX3 .4418 3 30s M .7708 .4667 3 491 M .7917 .4922 3 683 % .8125 .5185 3 879 10 .8333 .5454 4 080 H .8542 .5730 4 286 H .8750 .6013 4 498 % .8958 .6303 4 71S II .9167 .6600 4 937 « 9375 .6903 S 164 W .9583 .7213 5 396 94 .9792 .7530 5 633 12 ifoot .7854 5 875 1,2 1.042 .8522 6 375 13 1.083 .9218 6 895 H 1. 125 .9940 7 436 14 1. 167 1.069 7 997 Vi 1.208 1.147 8 578 IS 1.250 1.227 9 180 'A. 1.292 1. 310 9 801 16 I 333 1.396 10 44 Vi 1. 375 1.485 II II 17 1. 417 1.576 II 79 yi 1.458 1,670 13 49 18 1.500 1.767 13 33 u I 542 1.867 13 96 19 1.583 1.969 14 73 '2 I 625 2.074 15 SI 20 1.667 2.182 16 32 y. 1.708 3.293 17 15 21 I.7SO 2.405 17 99 v^ 1.792 3.S3I 18 86 Contents of Cylinders, or Pipes 103 Contents of CylinderSj or Pipes — (Continued) For I foot in For I foot in length length Diam- eter in Diam- Diam- Diam- eter in inches decimals of a foot Cubic feet. Also Gallons of 231 eter in inches decimals of a foot Cubic feet. Also Gallons of 231 area in cubic area m cubic square feet inches square feet inches 22 1.833 2.640 19.75 35 2.917 6.681 49 98 l^ 1.87s 2.761 20.66 36 3 000 7.069 52.88 23 1. 917 2.885 21.58 37 3.083 7.467 55.86 ^ 1.958 3.012 22.53 38 3.167 7.876 58.92 24 2.000 3.142 23.50 39 3.250 8.296 62.06 25 2.083 3.409 25.50 40 3.333 8.727 65.28 26 2.1^7 3.687 27.58 41 3.417 9.168 68.58 27 2.250 3.976 29.74 42 3.S00 9.621 71.97 28 2.333 4.276 31.99 43 3.583 10.085 75.44 29 2.417 4.587 34.31 44 3.667 10.559 78.99 30 2.500 4.909 36.72 45 3.750 11.045 82.62 31 2.583 5.241 39 21 46 3.833 II. 541 86.33 32 2.667 5.585 41.78 47 3.917 12.048 90.13 33 2.750 5.9.40 44.43 48 4.000 12.566 94.00 34 2.833 6.305 47.16 Table Continued, but with the Diameters in Feet Diam., Cubic U.S. Diam., Cubic U.S. Diam., Cubic U.S. feet feet gallons feet feet gallons feet feet gallons 4 12.57 94.0 8 50.27 376.0 20 314.2 2350 y* 14.19 106. 1 H 56.75 424.5 21 346.4 2S9I H 15.90 119. 9 63.62 475. 9 22 380.1 2844 % 17.72 132.5 Vi 70.88 530.2 23 415.5 3108 5 19.64 146.9 10 78.54 587. 5 24 452.4 3384 H 21.65 161. 9 v^ 86.59 647.7 25 490.9 3672 H 23.76 177.7 II 95.03 710.9 26 530.9 3971 % 25. 97 194.3 Vz 103.90 777.0 27 572.6 4283 6 28.27 211. 5 12 113. 1 846.1 28 615.8 4606 H 30.68 229.5 13 132.7 992.8 29 660. S 4941 H 33.18 248.2 14 153.9 1152 30 706.9 5288 H 35.79 267.7 15 176.7 1322 31 754.8 5646 7 38.49 287.9 16 201. 1 1504 32 804.3 60x7 H 41.28 308.8 17 227.0 1698 33 855.3 6398 H 44.18 330.5 18 254. S 1904 34 907.9 6792 % 47.17 352. 9 19 283. S 2121 35 962.1 7197 I04 Miilljcnialical Tables Contents of Linings of Wells For (lianiclcrs Iwicc a.s j^rcal as ihubc in ihc UiIjIc, for the cuhic yards of digging, lake out those opjxjsitc one half ol the greater diameter; and multiply them by 4. Thus, for the cubic yards in each foot of depth of a well 31 feet in diameter, first take out from the table those opposite the diameter of 155.4 feet; namely, 6.989. Then 6.989 X 4 = 27.956 cubic yards required for the 31 feet diameter. But for the stone lining or walling, bricks or plastering, multiply the tabular quantity opp = Vi-cosM. ^°"*'- (9) Cos A = Vi — sine^^. Solution of Oblique-angled Triangles Fig. 38. Value of any side c is: _ a sin C _ b sin C sin A sin 5 * Value of any angle A : Sin .4 = Cosyl = Tan^ = a sin C _ a sin B b — a cos C c — a cos B c2 4. ^2 _ a2 2 be asinC asinB b — a cos C c — a cos B no Mallii-malical Taljics Natural Sinks, Tangents and Secants Advancing by lo min. Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant Oeg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant oo .0000 .0000 I. 0000 so .1536 .ISS4 i.oiao lO 0029 .0029 I. 0000 9 00 .1564 .1584 I. 0135 JO .oos8 .00S8 I. 0000 10 .1593 .1614 I. 0129 JO .0087 .0087 i.oocm ao .1623 .1644 1. 0134 40 .0116 .0116 I .0001 30 .1650 .1673 I. 0139 so .014s • 0«4S I. 0001 40 .1679 .1703 I. 0144 I 00 .OI7S .01 75 I. 0003 so .1708 .1733 I. 0149 10 .0204 .0204 I.0003 10 00 .1736 .1763 I.OIS4 20 .0233 .0233 I 0003 10 .1765 .1793 I 0160 30 .0262 .0262 1.0003 30 .1794 .1823 I 0165 40 .0291 .0291 1.0004 30 .1822 .1853 1.0170 50 .0320 .0320 1.0005 40 .1851 .1883 I. 0176 2 00 .0349 • 0349 1.0006 50 .1880 .1914 I 0181 10 .0378 .0378 1.0007 II 00 .1908 .1944 I. 0187 20 • 0407 .0407 1.0008 10 .1937 .1974 1.0193 30 .0436 .0437 1. 00 10 20 .1965 .2004 1.0199 40 .0465 .0466 I. 0011 30 ■ 1994 .303S 1.0305 so .0494 .0495 I. 0012 40 .3022 .ao6s 1.0211 3 00 .0523 .0524 1. 0014 SO .2051 .309s I. 0217 10 .OS52 .OSS3 1. 0015 12 00 .2079 .2136 1.0223 20 .0581 .0582 1. 0017 10 .2108 .2156 1.0230 30 .0610 .0612 1. 0019 20 .2136 .2186 1.0236 40 .0640 .0641 I. 0021 30 .2164 .2217 1.0243 SO .0669 .0670 1.0022 40 .2193 .2247 1.0249 4 00 .0698 .0699 1.0024 SO .3321 .2378 1.0256 10 .0727 .0729 1.0027 13 00 .3350 .3309 1.0263 20 .o7S6 .0758 1.0029 10 .2278 .23.W 1.0270 30 .078s .0787 1. 0031 20 .2306 .2370 1.0277 40 .0814 .0816 1.0033 30 .2334 .2401 1.0284 SO .0843 .0846 1.0036 40 .2363 .2432 I 0291 5 00 .0872 .0875 1.0038 50 .2391 .2462 1.0299 10 .0901 .0904 1.0041 14 00 .2419 .2493 1.0306 20 .0929 .0934 1.0043 10 .2447 .2524 I 0314 30 .0958 .0963 1.0046 20 .2476 .2555 I. 0321 40 .0987 .0992 1.0049 30 .2504 .2586 1.0329 SO .1016 .1022 I. 0052 40 .2532 .2617 1.0337 6 00 ' .1045 .losi i.ooss SO .2560 .2648 1.034s 10 .1074 .1080 1.0058 15 00 .3588 .2679 1.03S3 20 .1103 .1110 I. 0061 10 .3616 .2711- I. 0361 30 .1132 .1139 1.0065 20 .3644 .2742 1.0369 40 .1161 .1169 1.0068 30 .2672 .2773 1.0377 SO .1190 .1198 1.0072 40 .3700 .2805 1.0386 7 00 .1219 .1228 I. 007s SO .3728 .2836 1.0394 10 .1248 .1257 1.0079 16 00 .2756 .2867 1 0403 20 .1276 .1287 1.0082 10 .2784 .2899 1.0412 30 .130S .1317 1.0086 20 .3812 .2931 1.0421 40 .1334 .1346 1.0090 30 .2840 .2962 1.0429 SO . 1363 .1376 1.0094 40 .3868 .2994 1.0439 8 00 .1392 .140S 1.0098 SO .3896 .3026 I .0448 10 .1421 .I43S I. 0102 17 00 .2934 .3057 I 04S7 30 .1449 .1465 I. 0107 10 .2952 .3089 1.0466 30 .1478 .149s I.OIII 30 .2979 .3121 I .0476 40 .1507 .IS24 I.0II6 30 ■ 3007 .3153 1.0485 Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants Natural Sines, Tangents AND Secants — {Continued) Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant 40 ■ 303s .3185 1.049s so .4514 .5059 I. 1207 SO .3062 .3217 1.0505 27 00 .4540 ■ S095 I . 1223 l8 00 ■ 3090 ■ 3249 I. 0515 10 • 4566 .5132 I . 1240 10 .3118 .3281 I 0525 20 ■ 4592 ■ 5169 I. 1257 20 .3145 • 3314 1.0535 30 .4617 .5206 I. 1274 30 .3173 .3346 I.OS4S 40 .4643 .5243 1.1291 40 .3201 .3378 I 0555 SO .4669 .5280 I . 1308 SO .3228 .3411 1.0566 28 00 .4695 .5317 I . 1326 19 00 .3256 .3443 1.0576 10 .4720 • 5354 I • 1343 10 .3283 .3476 1.0587 20 .4746 5392 1.1361 20 .3311 .3508 1.0598 30 .4772 .5430 I ■ 1379 30 .3338 .3S4I 1.0608 40 .4797 .5467 I . 1397 40 .3365 .3S74 1.0619 SO .4823 .5505 1.1415 SO .3393 .3607 I. 0631 29 00 .4848 .5543 I -1434 20 00 .3420 .3640 1.0642 10 .4874 .5581 I. 1452 10 .3448 .3673 I 0653 20 .4899 .5619 1.1471 20 .3475 • 3706 1.0665 30 .4924 .5658 I . 1490 30 .3502 .3739 1.0676 40 .4950 .5696 I . 1509 40 .3S29 .3772 1.0688 50 .4975 .5735 I . 1528 SO .3SS7 .380s 1.0700 30 00 .5000 .5774 I . 1547 31 00 .3S84 .3839 1.0711 10 .5025 .5812 I . 1566 10 .3611 .3872 1.0723 20 .5050 .5851 I . 1586 20 .3638 .3906 1.0736 30 .5075 .5890 I. 1606 30 .3665 .3939 1.0748 40 .5100 .5930 I. 1626 40 .3692 .3973 1.0760 SO .5125 .5969 I. 1646 so .3719 .4006 1.0773 31 00 • 5150 .6009 I. 1666 32 00 .3746 .4040 1.0785 10 .5175 .6048 1 . 1687 10 .3773 .4074 1.0798 20 .5200 .6088 I. 1707 20 .3800 .4108 1.0811 30 .5225 .6128 I. 1728 30 .3827 .4142 1.0824 40 .5250 .6168 I. 1749 40 .38S4 .4176 1.0837 SO .5275 .6208 I. 1770 so .3881 .4210 1.0850 32 00 .5299 .6249 I . 1792 23 00 .3907 .424s r.0864 10 .5324 .6289 1.1813 10 .3934 .4279 1.0877 20 .5348 .6330 I. 1835 20 .3961 .4314 I. 0891 30 .5373 .6371 I. 1857 30 .3987 .4348 1.0904 40 5398 .6412 I. 1879 40 .4014 .4383 I. 0918 50 .5422 .6453 1.1901 so .4041 .4417 1.0932 33 00 .5446 .6494 I . 1924 24 00 .4067 .4452 1.0946 10 ■ 5471 .6536 I . 1946 10 .4094 .4487 I. 0961 20 .5495 .6577 I. 1969 20 .4120 • 4522 I 0975 30 • 5519 .6619 r.1992 30 .4147 .4557 1.0989 40 • 5544 .6661 I . 201S 40 .4173 .4592 I. 1004 SO .5568 .6703 I . 2039 SO .4200 .4628 1.1019 34 00 .5592 .6745 1.2062 25 00 .4226 .4663 I . 1034 10 .5616 .6787 I . 2086 10 • 4253 .4699 I . 1049 20 .5640 .6830 1.2110 20 .4279 .4734 I . 1064 30 .5664 .6873 I. 2134 30 .4305 .4770 I . 1079 40 .5688 .6916 I. 2158 40 .4331 .4806 I. 1095 SO .5712 .6959 I. 2183 50 .4358 .4841 I.IIIO 35 00 ■ 5736 .7002 I . 2208 36 00 .4384 .4877 1.1126 10 .5760 .7046 I . 2233 10 .4410 .4913 1.1142 20 .5783 .7089 1.2258 20 .4436 ■ 4950 1.1158 30 .5807 .7133 1.2283 30 .4462 .4986 1.1174 40 .5831 .7177 1.2309 40 .4488 .5022 1.1190 SO .5854 .7221 I. 2335 iia Matlicmatir.il 'I'aliles Natural Sines , Tangents AND Secants — (Continued] Deg. Min. Sine Pan- sent Secant Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant 36 00 .S878 7265 I . 2361 10 .7092 i.oosS I 4183 10 .S90I 7310 1.3387 30 .7112 1.0117 1.4225 20 .S92S 7355 1.2413 30 .7133 1.0176 1.4267 30 .5948 7400 1.2440 40 .7153 1.0335 I. 4310 40 .5972 7445 I . 2467 SO .7173 1.039s 1 4352 so •599S 7490 1.2494 46 00 .7193 I.03SS 1.4396 37 00 .6018 7536 I. 2521 10 .7214 I .0416 1.4439 10 .6041 7581 I. 2549 20 .7234 1.0477 1.4483 20 .6065 7627 I.2S77 30 .7254 1 0S.J8 1.4527 30 .6088 7673 1.2605 40 .7274 1.0S99 I. 4572 40 .6111 7720 1.26.33 so .7294 1. 0661 1.4617 SO .6134 7766 I. 2661 47 00 .7314 1.0724 1.4663 38 00 .6157 7813 1.2690 10 .7333 1.0786 1.4709 10 .6180 7860 1.2719 20 .7353 1.0850 1 4755 30 .6202 7907 1.2748 30 .7373 1 0913 1.4802 30 .6225 7954 1.2778 40 .7392 1 0977 1.4849 40 .6248 8002 1.2808 SO .7412 1.1041 1 4987 SO .6271 80S0 1.2837 48 00 .7431 I. 1106 1.4945 39 00 .6293 8098 1.2868 10 .7451 1.1171 I 4993 10 .6316 8146 1.2898 20 .7470 I. 1237 1.S042 20 .6338 8195 1.2929 30 .7490 I. 1303 I S092 30 .6361 8243 1.2960 40 .7509 1.1369 1 5141 40 .6383 8292 I. 2991 SO .7528 1.1436 1.5192 SO .6406 8342 1.3022 49 00 .7547 1. 1504 1.5243 40 00 .6428 8391 I 3054 10 .7566 I. 1571 1.5294 10 .6450 8441 1.3086 20 .7585 1 I. 1640 1 5345 20 .6472 8491 1.3118 30 .7604 1 1.1708 I 5398 30 .6494 8541 1.3151 40 .7623 I 17-8 1.5450 40 .6517 8391 I. 3184 50 .7642 I . 1847 I.S504 SO .6539 8642 I. 3217 50 00 .7660 1.1918 I.SS57 41 00 .6561 8693 1.3250 10 .7679 1.1988 1.5611 10 .6583 8744 1.3284 20 .7698 1.2059 1.5666 20 .6604 8796 I. 3318 30 .7716 1.2I3I 1.5721 30 .6626 8847 1.3352 40 .7735 1.2203 1.5777 40 .6648 8899 1.3386 50 .7753 I . 2276 1.5833 SO .6670 , 8932 I. 3421 1 51 00 .7771 1.2349 1.5890 42 00 .6691 ; 9004 1.3456 10 .7790 I 2423 1 5948 10 .6713 9057 1.3492 30 .7808 1.2497 1.6005 20 .6734 91 10 1.3527 30 .7826 1.2572 I 6064 30 .6756 9163 1.3563 40 .7844 1.2647. I. 6123 40 .6777 9217 1.3600 SO .7862 1 2723 1.6183 SO .6799 9271 I 3636 52 00 .7880 1 2799 1.6243 43 00 .6820 9325 1.3673 10 .7898 I . 2876 1.6303 10 .6841 9380 1.3711 20 .7916 1.2954 1.6365 20 .6862 9435 1.3748 30 .7934 1 3032 I 6427 30 .6884 9490 1.3786 40 .7951 1.1311 1.6489 40 .6905 9545 1.3824 50 .7969 1 3190 I 6553 so .6926 9601 1.3863 S3 00 .7986 1.3270 I. 6616 44 00 .6947 9657 1.3902 10 .8004 1 3351 I 6681 10 .6967 9713 I. 3941 20 .8021 1.3432 1.6746 20 .€988 9770 1.3980 30 .8039 1 3514 I 6812 30 .7009 9827 1.4020 40 .8056 I.3S97 1.6878 40 .7030 9884 I. 4061 50 .8073 1.3680 1.694s SO .7050 9942 1 . 4101 54 00 .8090 I 3764 1.7013 4S 00 .7071 I 0000 I. 4142 10 .8107 1.3848 I. 7081 Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants "3 Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants — (Conlinued) Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant 20 .8124 1.3924 1.7151 30 ■ 8949 2.00S7 2.2412 30 .8141 I . 4019 I. 7221 40 .8962 2.0204 2.2543 40 .8158 I. 4106 I. 7291 50 .8975 2.03S3 2.2677 50 .8175 1.4193 1.7362 64 00 .8988 2.0503 2.2812 55 00 .8192 r.4281 1.7434 10 .9001 2.o6s5 2.2949 10 .8208 I ■ 4370 I . 7507 20 .9013 2.0809 2.3088 20 .8225 I . 4460 I. 7581 30 .9026 2.096s 2.3228 30 .8241 I.4S50 1.765s 40 .9038 2.1123 2.3371 40 .82S8 I. 4641 I . 7730 SO .9051 2.1283 2.3515 SO .8274 I . 4733 I . 7806 6S 00 .9063 2.1445 2,3662 56 00 .8290 1.4826 1.7883 10 .9075 2. 1609 2.3811 10 .8307 1.4919 1.7960 20 .9088 2.177s 2.3961 20 .8323 I . S013 1.8039 30 .9100 2.1943 2.4114 30 .8339 1.S108 1.8118 40 .9112 2.2113 2.4269 40 .8355 I.S204 I. 8198 50 .9124 2 . 2286 2.4426 50 .8371 I. 5301 1.8279 66 00 .9135 2.2460 2.4586 57 00 .8387 1.5399 I. 8361 10 .9147 2.2637 2.4748 10 .8403 1.5497 1.8443 20 .9159 2.2817 2.4912 20 .8418 1-5597 1.8527 30 .9171 2 . 2998 2.5078 30 .8434 1.5697 I. 8612 40 .9182 2.3183 2.5247 40 .8450 1.5798 I . 8699 50 .9194 2.3369 2.5419 50 .8465 1.5900 1.8783 67 00 .920s 2. 3559 2.5593 58 00 .8480 1.6003 I. 8871 10 .9216 2.3750 2.5570 10 .8496 I. 6107 1.8959 20 .9228 2.3945 2.5949 20 .8511 I. 6213 1.9048 30 .9239 2.4141 2.6131 30 .8526 I. 6319 1.9139 40 .9250 2.4342 2.6316 40 .8542 1.6426 1.9230 SO .9261 2.4545 2.6504 50 .8557 1.6534 1.9323 68 00 .9272 2.4751 2.669s 59 00 .8572 I . 6643 I. 9416 10 .9283 2.4960 2,6888 10 .8587 1.6753 1.9511 20 .9293 2.5172 2,7085 20 .8601 1.6864 1.9606 30 .9304 2.5386 2.728s 30 .8616 1.6977 1 . 9703 40 .9315 2.560s 2.7488 40 .8631 1.7090 I . 9801 50 .9325 2.5826 2.769s 50 .8646 1.7205 1.9900 69 00 .9336 2.6051 2.7904 60 00 .8660 I. 7321 2.0000 10 .9346 2.6279 2.8117 10 .8675 1.7437 2.0101 20 .9356 2.6511 2.8334 20 .8689 1.7556 2.0204 30 .9367 2.6746 2.8555 30 .8704 1.7675 2.0308 40 .9377 2.698s 2.8779 40 .8718 r.7796 2.0413 50 .9387 2.7228 2.9006 SO .8732 I. 7917 2.0S19 70 00 .9397 2.7475 2.9238 61 00 .8746 I . 8040 2.0627 10 .9407 2.7725 2.9474 10 .8760 1.816s 2.0736 20 .9417 2.7980 2.9713 20 .8774 I. 8291 2.0846 30 .9426 2.8239 2.9957 30 .8788 I. 8418 2.0957 40 .9436 2.8502 3.0206 40 .8802 1.8546 2 . 1070 50 .9446 2,8770 3.0458 SO .8816 1.8676 2.1185 71 00 .9455 2.9042 3.0716 62 00 .8829 1.8807 2.1301 10 .9465 2.9319 3.0977 10 .8843 1.8940 2.1418 20 .9474 2.9600 3.1244 20 .8857 1.9074 2.1537 30 .9483 2.9887 3.151S 30 .8870 I. 9210 2.1657 40 .9492 3.0178 3.1792 40 .8884 1.9347 2.1786 50 .9502 3.047s 3.2074 50 .8897 1.9486 2.1902 72 00 9511 3.0777 3.2361 63 00 .8910 I . 9626 2 . 2027 10 .9520 3.1084 3.2653 10 .8923 1.9768 2.2IS3 20 .9528 3.1397 3.2951 20 .8936 I. 9912 2.2282 30 .9537 3.1716 3.3255 114 M;illKtii.ili(iil Tahles Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants — {Continued) Deg. Min. Sine Tan- gent 3.3041 Secant Dcg. Min. Sine Tan- gent Secant 40 .9540 3 3S6s 30 .9890 6 6913 6.76SS SO • 9SSS 3.2371 33881 40 .9894 6.8269 6.8998 73 oo .9563 3 2709 3.4303 SO ■ 9899 6 9683 70396 lO .957.2 3 3052 3 4532 83 00 .9903 7.IIS4 7 I8S3 ao .9580 3.3402 3.4867 10 .9907 7-2687 7.3372 *> .9588 3.37S9 3 5309 20 99" 7-4287 7 49S7 40 .9596 3.4124 3 5559 30 .9914 7 S9S8 76613 so .9605 3 4 195 3 5915 40 9918 7 7704 7 8344 74 00 .9613 3.4874 3.6280 SO .9922 7 9.530 8 0156 10 .9621 3.5261 3.6652 83 00 .9925 8.1443 8 30SS 30 .9628 3.5656 3.7032 10 .9929 8 J150 8 4047 30 .9636 3 6059 3.7420 30 .9933 8.5555 8 6138 40 .9644 3.6470 3 7817 30 • 9936 8.7769 8.8337 SO .9652 3.6891 3.8222 40 .9939 9.0098 9 0652 75 00 .9659 3.7321 38637 50 •9943 9 2SS3 9 3093 10 9667 3.7760 3.9061 84 00 9945 9 S144 9 5668 20 .9674 3 8208 3.9495 10 .9948 9 7882 9 8391 30 .9681 3.8667 3.9939 20 9951 10.0780 10.1275 40 .9689 3.9136 4 0394 30 • 9954 10 3854 10 4334 SO .9696 3.9617 4.0859 40 9957 10.7119 10 758s 76 00 .9703 4.0108 4.1336 50 -9959 1I.OS94 II 1045 10 .9710 4.0611 4 . 1824 85 00 -9963 "430 11.474 20 .9717 4.1126 4.2324 10 .9964 11.826 11 868 30 .9724 4.1653 4.2837 30 .9967 12.251 12.291 40 .9730 4.2193 4.3362 30 .9969 12 706 13.745 SO .9737 4.2747 4 3901 40 .9971 13 197 13.23s 77 00 .9744 4-3315 4. 4454 SO .9974 13 737 13 763 10 .9750 4 3897 4.S022 86 00 .9976 14 301 14 336 20 .9757 4 4494 4.5604 10 -9978 14 924 14 9S8 30 .9763 4.5107 4.6202 20 -9980 IS 605 15 637 40 .9769 4.5736 4.6817 30 .9981 16.350 16.380 50 .9775 4.6382 4-7448 40 .9983 17.169 17.198 78 00 .9781 4.7046 4-8097 50 .9985 18.07s 18.103 10 .9787 4.7729 4-8765 87 00 -9986 19 081 19.107 20 .9793 4.8430 4-9452 10 -9988 20.206 20 230 30 .9799 4.9152 S 0159 20 -9989 21.470 21.494 40 .980s 4.9894 S.0886 30 -9990 22.904 22 926 50 .9811 S.0658 5. 1636 40 -9992 24 543 24.562 79 00 .9816 5. 1446 5.2408 50 -9993 26 432 26.451 10 .9822 5-2257 s 320s 88 00 -9994 38.636 28.654 20 .9827 5 3093 5 - 4026 10 .9995 31.243 31 258 30 .9833 5. 3955 5.4874 20 -9996 34 368 34 382 40 .9838 5.484s 5.5749 30 -9997 38.188 38.203 50 .9843 5. 5764 5.6653 40 9997 42 964 42 976 8o 00 .9848 5.6713 5. 7588 50 -9998 49 104 49 "4 10 .9853 5. 7694 5.8554 89 00 -9998 57.290 57.299 20 .9858 5.8708 5. 9554 10 .9999 68.750 68.757 .30 .9863 5. 9758 5 0589 20 -9999 8S 940 85 946 40 .9868 6.0844 6 1661 30 I 0000 114 589 "4 593 SO .9872 6.1970 6.2772 40 1. 0000 171 885 171.888 8l 00 .9877 6.3138 6.3925 SO I .0000 343 774 343 775 10 .9881 6.4348 6.SI2I 90 00 I. 0000 Infi- Infi- 30 .9886 6.S606 6.6363 nite nite Approximate Measurement of Angles 115 Approximate Measurement of Angles (i) The four fingers of the hand, held at right angles to the arm and at arm's length from the eye, cover about 7 degrees; and an angle of 7 degrees corresponds to about 12.2 feet in 100 feet; or to 36.6 feet in 100 yards; or to 645 feet in a mile. (2) By means of a two-foot rule, either on a drawing or between distant objects in the field. If the inner edges of a common two-foot rule be opened to the extent shown in the column of inches, they will be inclined to each other at the angles shown in the column of angles. Since an opening of J'i inch (up to 19 inches or about 105 degrees) corre- sponds to from about 5^^ degree to i degree, no great accuracy is to be expected, and beyond 105 degrees still less, for the liability to error then increases very rapidly as the opening becomes greater. Thus, the last ^ inch corresponds to about 12 degrees. Angles for openings intermediate of those given may be calculated to the nearest minute or two, by simple proportion, up to 23 in-^hes of opening, or about 147 degrees. Table of Angles Corresponding to Openings of a 2-foot Rule. (Original.) Trautwine. Ins. Deg. Min. Ins. Deg. Min. Ins. Deg. Min. Ins. Deg. Min. H I 12 3'/^ 16 46 6H 32 40 10 49 IS I 48 17 22 33 17 49 54 H 2 24 % 17 59 7 33 54 M 50 34 3 00 18 35 34 33 51 13 % 3 36 4 19 12 H 35 10 '/i SI 53 4 II 19 48 35 47 52 33 I 4 47 H 20 24 H 36 25 % 53 13 S 23 21 37 3 S3 S3 H S S8 \'/i2 38 22 49 II 3% 17 45 40 8 52 50 ?^ 47 24 53 42 zH 18 20 34 9 10 17 13/^2 56 24 58 12 4 18 55 28 9 27 44 Me 2 5 18 2 39 4^6 19 30 18 9 45 9 15^2 2 14 16 7 8 4H 20 S 2 10 2 31 H 2 23 10 II 35 4?i 20 39 44 10 19 52 1%2 2 32 4 16 2 4'/^ 21 14 2 10 37 I . 916 2 41 4 20 32 45^ 21 48 54 10 54 27 1%2 2 50 2 25 I 4?4 22 23 22 II II 41 ^6 2 59 42 29 51 m 22 57 48 II 28 54 2)42 3 7 56 33 58 S 23 32 12 II 46 6 iHe 3 16 54 38 27 sH 24 6 28 12 3 14 m2 3 25 SO 42 SS sM 24 40 42 12 20 21 % 3 34 44 47 22 5?i 25 14 48 12 37 24 m2 3 43 44 SI 52 sH 25 48 48 12 54 24 Wi& 3 52 38 56 19 SH 26 22 52 13 II 26 n^2 4 I 36 2 48 SM 26 56 46 13 28 23 H 4 10 32 2 5 16 Sji 27 30 34 13 45 17 2%2 4 19 34 2 9 47 6 28 4 2 14 2 I 1^6 4 28 24 2 14 12 61/6 28 37 58 14 18 59 3^2 4 37 20 2 18 40 6W 29 II 34 14 35 47 I 4 46 18 2 23 9 6?i 29 45 18 14 52 39 iHe S 4 12 2 32 6 6H 30 18 26 15 9 13 l^ S 21 44 2 40 52 65 g 30 51 48 IS 2S 54 iMe S 39 54 2 49 57 6M 31 25 2 15 42 31 iVi 5 57 48 2 58 54 e;;^ 31 58 10 IS 59 5 lVi6 6 IS 38 3 7 49 7 32 31 12 16 IS 36 iH 6 33 26 3 16 43 7'/6 33 4 8 16 32 4 iMe 6 51 20 3 25 40 7'/4 33 36 40 16 48 20 iH 7 9 10 3 34 35 7?6 34 9 50 17 4 SS I9i6 7 26 58 3 43 29 7I/2 34 42 30 17 21 IS i5^ 7 44 48 3 52 24 75i 35 IS 2 17 37 31 I»H6 8 2 38 4 I 19 7?4 35 47 32 17 S3 46 1% 8 20 26 4 10 13 7^/i 36 19 54 18 9 57 I'Me 8 38 16 4 19 8 8 36 52 12 18 26 6 I'/i 8 S6 2 4 28 I %H 37 24 22 18 42 II I' 5^6 9 13 SO 4 36 55 8M 37 56 26 18 s8 13 2 9 31 36 4 45 48 8?i 38 28 16 19 14 8 2« 10 7 10 5 3 35 8J.i 39 16 19 30 8 2I4 10 42 42 5 21 21 8?i 39 31 52 19 45 S6 1 1 8 MatliL-maliciil I'ablcs Tapers per Foot and Corresponding Angles — (jContinued) Taper Includcfl Angle with Tupcr Included Angle with foot angle center line per foot angle center line Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. 8?4 40 3 42 20 I SI loM 46 45 24 23 22 42 VA 40 35 i6 20 17 38 10)^6 47 IS 32 23 37 46 9 41 6 44 20 33 22 io5h 47 45 30 23 52 45 9V6 41 38 28 20 49 14 IO?4 48 15 24 24 7 42 9W 42 9 18 21 4 39 ir,:^ 1« 15 10 24 22 35 m 42 40 26 21 20 13 1 1 II 48 24 37 24 9W 43 11 24 21 35 42 I i - ; . 14 20 24 52 10 9H 43 42 20 21 SI 10 II' 1 50 13 46 25 6 S3 9% 44 13 6 22 6 33 11% SO 43 4 25 21 32 9^/6 44 43 48 22 21 54 Il'-i SI 12 14 25 36 7 10 45 14 22 22 37 II n'-- SI 41 18 25 SO 39 10^ 45 44 52 22 52 26 III 52 10 16 26 5 8 loH 46 15 46 23 7 1 i'h 52 39 2 26 19 31 CHAPTER IV DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAUGES Different Standards for Wire Gauges in Use in the United States Dimensions of sizes in decimal parts of an inch 1^ H.. S. & Co. "F.&G." steel music wire gauge U.S. standard for plate American or Brown & Sharpe "III >J U3 m 3 M ^ a 2; & 000000 .46875 .464 . 000000 00000 .4375 .432 . 00000 0000 .40625 ;46"' .454 .3938 .400 0000 000 .375 .40964 .425 .3625 .372 000 00 .0087 .34375 .3648 .38 .3310 .348 . 00 .0093 0578 .3125 .32486 .34 .3065 .324 . I .0098 0710 .28125 .2893 .3 .2830 .300 227 I 2 .0106 0842 .265625 .25763 .284 .2625 .276 219 2 3 .0114 0973 .25 .22942 .259 .2437 .252 212 3 4 .0122 1 105 .234375 .20431 .238 .2253 .232 207 4 5 .0138 1236 .21875 .18194 .22 .2070 .212 204 5 6 .0157 1368 . 20312s . 16202 .203 .1920 .192 201 6 7 .0177 isoo .1875 .14428 .18 .1770 .176 199 7 8 .0197 1631 .171875 .12849 .16s .1620 .160 197 8 9 .0216 1763 .15625 .11443 .148 .1483 .144 194 9 10 .0236 1894 . 140625 . IOI89 .134 .1350 .128 191 10 II .0260 2026 .125 .090742 .12 .1205 .116 188 II 12 .0283 2158 .I0937S .080808 .109 .loss .104 i8s 12 13 .0303 2289 .09375 .071961 .095 .091S .092 182 13 14 .0323 2421 .078125 .064084 .083 .0800 .080 180 14 15 .0342 2S52 .0703125 .057068 .072 .0720 .072 178 15 16 .0362 2684 .0625 .05082 .06s .0625 .064 175 16 17 .0382 2816 .05625 .045257 .058 .0540 .056 172 17 18 .04 2947 .05 .040303 .049 .0475 .048 168 18 19 .042 .04375 .03589 .042 .0410 .040 164 19 20 .044 3210 .0375 .031961 .035 .0348 .036 161 20 21 .046 .034375 .028462 .032 .03175 .032 157 21 22 .048 3474 .03125 .025347 .028 .0286 .028 155 22 23 .051 .028125 .022571 .025 .0258 .024 153 23 24 .oS!> 3737 .02s .0201 .022 .0230 .022 ISI 24 25 .OS9 .021875 .0179 .02 .0204 .020 148 25 26 .063 4000 .01875 .01594 .018 .0181 .018 146 26 27 .067 .0171875 .01419s .016 .0173 .0164 143 27 28 .071 4263 .015625 .012641 .014 .0162 .0149 139 28 119 I20 Materials Different Standards for Wirk Gauges in Use in thk United States — {/Continued) 29 30 31 32 33 34 3S 36 37 38 39 40 .074 .078 .082 .086 •1^ .0140625 01 25 0109375 .01015625 .009375 00859375 .0078125 0070312s .006640625 .00625 .011257 .0I002S .008928 •0079s .00708 .006304 .005614 •oos •004453 .003965 .003531 003144 .1"! .£fc i c !£ 3:5 0x50 0141 0132 0128 0118 0104 009s C090 .2 3 .0136 .0124 .0116 .0108 .0100 .00921 .0084I .0076 .0068J .0060 .0052 .0048 .134 .127 .120 • IIS .112 .110 .108 .106 .103 .101 099 097 •3 6 n BiRMINGH.AM GaUGE FOR ShEET BrASS, SiLVER, GoLD AXD ALL Metals except Steel and Iron Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- No. ness, No. ness, No. ness, No. ness, No. ness, No. ness, inch inch inch inch inch inch I .004 7 •ois 13 .036 19 .064 25 .095 31 .133 2 .005 8 .016 14 .041 20 .067 26 .103 32 143 3 .008 9 .019 ^S .047 21 .072 27 .113 33 .145 4 .010 10 .024 16 .051 22 •074 28 .120 34 .148 5 .012 II .029 19 ■OS7 23 .077 29 .124 35 .158 6 .013 12 .034 18 .061 24 .082 1 30_ .126 36 .167 C; auges Gener.ally used by Mills in the U. S. Rolling Sheet Iron. (Vary Slightly from Birmingham Gauge). No. Pounds per square foot No. Pounds per square foot No. Pounds per square foot No. Pounds per square foot I 12 50 8 6.86 IS 2.8r 22 I 25 2 12.00 9 6.24 16 2. so 23 1. 12 3 II 00 10 5.62 17 2.18 24 1. 00 4 10.00 11 5. 00 18 1.86 25 .90 S 8.75 12 4.38 19 1.70 26 .80 6 8 12 13 3.75 20 1.54 27 .72 7 7.50 14 3.12 21 1.40 28 .64 Band and Hoop Iron Weights per Lineal Foot Band and Hoop Iron Weights per Lineal Foot No. of Width ia inches gauge H % 'A I m iH m iVz m 6 8 10 lbs. 4231 3581 2929 lbs. .5078 .4296 .3515 .2734 .1953 .1562 .1367 .1171 .1074 .0976 .0877 .0781 .0705 bs. 5924 5013 4101 bs. 674 5729 4689 lbs. 762 64s 527 469 41 352 293 264 234 20s 176 161 146 bs. 846 716 S86 521 4S6 391 326 293 26 229 195 179 165 bs. 931 788 64s 573 501 430 358 322 286 251 21S 197 179 I lbs. 016 8S9 703 62s 547 469 391 352 313 273 234 215 19s lbs. 1. 10 .931 .762 .677 ■592 .508 .423 .381 .339 .269 ■ 254 12 13 2278 3190 3645 14 15 1628 2278 2604 i6 17 18 19 20 21 1302 1 139 0976 0895 0814 0731 0651 0588 1822 1595 1367 1253 1 139 1023 091 1 0822 2083 1822 1562 1432 1302 1 169 104 1 0939 23 No. of Width in inches gauge 1% 1% 2 2H 2I/4 2% 2^2 2% 2H 2^ 4 6 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 lbs. 1-367 1. 185 1.003 .914 .820 .729 .638 .547 .456 .410 .36s ■ 319 .273 lbs. 1.465 1.270 1.074 .977 .897 .781 .684 .586 .488 .439 .391 .342 .293 lbs. 1.562 1. 354 1. 146 1.042 .938 .833 .729 .62s .521 .469 .417 .365 .313 lbs. 1.660 1.439 1. 217 1. 107 .996 .88s • 775 .664 .553 .498 .443 lbs. 1.758 1.523 1.289 1. 172 1.055 .938 .820 .703 .586 .527 .469 lbs. 1.855 1.608 1. 361 1.237 1. 113 .990 .866 .742 .618 .557 .495 lbs. 1.953 1.693 1.432 1.302 1. 172 1.042 .911 .781 .651 .586 .521 lbs. 2.051 1.777 1.504 1.367 1. 231 1.094 .957 .820 .684 lbs. 2.148 1.862 1.576 1.423 1.289 1. 146 1.003 .859 .716 1 2 bs. 246 947 647 497 348 198 048 898 749 122 Materials Band and Hoop Iron Weights per Lineal Foot — {Continued) Width in inches No. o( I gauge lUS. IIJS. ItJS. liJS. IDS. IDS. IDS. 3.344 3.S39 2.734 2 930 3.12s 3.321 3Si6 a.l88 2 370 2552 2.734 2.917 3.099 3.281 3.031 2.201 2 370 2.539 2.708 2.878 3.047 1. 87s 2.031 2.188 2.344 2.SOO 2.6s6 2.813 1. 719 1.862 2.00S 2.148 2.292 2.435 2.578 1.563 1.693 1.823 1.953 2.083 2.214 2.344 1.406 1.523 1. 641 1.758 1.87s 1.992 2.109 1.250 1.354 1.458 1.563 1.667 1. 771 1.87s 1.094 1.18s 1.276 1.367 1.458 1.549 1. 641 ■ 938 1. 016 1.094 .781 .846 .911 lbs. 3.906 3.646 3 38s 3 I2S 2.864 2.604 2.344 2.083 1.823 54 lbs. 4 297 4. oil 3 724 3.437 3. 151 2.86s 2.578 3.292 2.005 Mba. 4.688 4. 375 4 063 3-750 3438 3-125 3.813 3.500 3.188 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot 123 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot For thicknesses from He inch to 2 inches and widths from i inch to 12J4 inches. Iron weighing 480 pounds per cubic foot. Thick- I i'/4 i>6 1% 2 2H 2H 3% 12 ness in inches inch inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches Ma .208 .260 .313 .36s .417 .469 .521 .573 2.50 ^ • 417 .521 .625 .729 .833 .938 1.04 I. IS 5-00 ViS .62s .781 .938 1.09 I. 25 1. 41 1.56 1.72 7-So H .833 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.67 1.88 2.08 2.29 10.00 Me 1.04 1.30 I.S6 1.82 2.08 2.34 2.60 2.86 12.50 H 1.25 1.56 1.88 2.19 2.50 2.81 3-13 3-44 15 00 Me 1.46 1.82 2.19 2.55 2.92 3.28 3-65 4.01 17 -SO H 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.92 3-33 3-75 4-17 4-58 20.00 ^e I 88 2.34 2.81 3.28 3-75 4.22 4-69 S-16 22.50 ^ 2.08 2.60 3-31 3.6s 4-17 4.69 5.21 S.73 25.00 iHe 2.29 2.86 3-44 4.01 4.58 5.i6 5.73 6.30 27.50 y* 2. so 3- 13 3-75 4.38 500 5.63 6.25 6.88 30.00 1^6 2.71 3-39 4.06 4-74 5.42 6.09 6.77 7-45 32-50 J6 2.92 3.6s 438 5.10 5.83 6.56 7.29 8.02 35 00 1^6 3- 13 3.91 4.69 S.47 6.2s 703 7.81 8.59 37.50 I 3 33 4.17 s-oo S.83 6.67 750 8.33 9-17 40.00 iHe 3-54 4-43 531 6.20 7.08 7-97 8.8s 9-74 42.50 If6 3.7s 4.69 S.63 6.56 750 8.44 9-38 10.31 45 -00 1^6 3.96 4.95 5. 94 6.93 7.92 8.91 9-90 10.89 47.50 iH 4 17 S.21 6.2s 7.29 8.33 9 38 10.42 11.46 50.00 iHe 4.37 5-47 6.56 7.66 8.75 984 10.94 12.03 52.50 m 4.S8 5. 73 6.88 8.02 9.17 10.31 11.46 12.60 55 -00 ij-ie 4.79 5.99 7.19 8.39 9S8 10.78 11.98 13-18 57-50 iH 5.00 6.25 7 so 8.75 10.00 11.25 12.50 13-75 60.00 me 5.21 6. SI 7.81 9-11 10.42 11.72 13 02 14-32 62.50 iH S.42 6.77 8.13 948 10.83 12.19 13-54 14-90 65.00 I'Me S.63 703 8.44 9.84 11.25 12.66 14.06 IS -47 67 -SO m 6.83 7.29 8.7S 10.21 11.67 13 13 14-58 16.04 70.00 Il?l6 6.04 7. 55 9.06 10. 57 12.08 13-59 IS 10 16.61 72.50 m 6.25 7.81 9.38 10.94 12.50 14.06 15-63 17.19 75-00 I>M6 6.46 8.07 9.69 11.30 12.92 14-53 16. IS 17.76 77.50 2 6.67 8.33 10.00 11.67 13 33 1500 16.67 18-33 80.00 1 24 Mutcriuls Weights of I'lat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot — (Conliitued) Thick- 3 3W 3W 3W 4M 4W 4M 13 ness in inches inches inches inches inches ItlLllCS inches inches inches inches M« .62s .677 .729 .781 .833 .885 .938 • 990 3. so \i I. 25 1.35 1.46 1.56 1.67 1-77 1.88 I 98 5 00 ?1« 1.88 2.03 3.19 3.34 2. so 3.66 3.81 3 97 7 SO H 3. so 2.71 2.92 3.13 3 33 3 S4 3.7s 3.96 10.00 ^« 3 13 3 39 3.65 3.91 4.17 4.43 4.69 4.9s 13.50 H 3-75 4.06 4.38 4.69 SCO s 31 S.63 S.94 15.00 lU 4.38 4.74 5. 10 5. 47 S.83 6.20 6 56 6.93 17. SO Vi S.oo 5.42 5.83 6.25 6.67 7.08 7.50 7.93 3O.0O 9<« S.63 6.09 6.56 7.03 7. SO 7.97 8.44 8.91 33.50 H 6.2s 6.77 7.29 7.81 8.33 8.85 9-38 9.90 35.00 •Me 6.88 7.45 8.02 8.59 917 9 74 10.31 10.89 37.50 % 7.50 8.13 8.75 9.38 10.00 10.63 11.35 11.88 30.00 »?^n 8.13 8.80 9.48 10.16 10.83 II. SI 13.19 12.86 33.SO ?6 8. 75 9.48 10.21 10.94 11.67 12.40 13 13 13.8s 35.00 >51o 9 38 10.16 10.94 11.72 12.50 13-38 14 06 14.84 37.50 I 10.00 10.83 11.67 12.50 13-33 14-17 15.00 15.83 40.00 iMe 10.63 II. SI 12.40 13.28 14.17 IS. OS IS. 94 16.82 42.50 iH 11.25 12.19 13.13 14.06 15.00 15-94 16.88 17.81 45 00 iMb 11.88 12.86 13.8s 14.84 15.83 16.82 17.81 18.80 47.50 iH 12.50 13.54 14.58 15.63 16.67 17.71 18.7s 19.79 SO. 00 151 8 13.13 14.22 15.31 16.41 17.50 18.59 19-69 20.78 52.50 i9i 13. 75 14.90 16.04 17.19 18.33 19.48 20.63 31.77 SS.oo i^« 14.38 15.57 16.77 17.97 19.17 20.36 21.56 22.76 57.50 i!^ 15.00 16.25 17.50 18.7s 20.00 21.25 22.50 23 75 60.00 19^0 15.63 16.93 18.23 19.53 20.83 22.14 33.44 24.74 63.50 15^ 16.25 17.60 18.96 20.31 21.67 23.02 34.38 35-73 65.00 I' Me 16.88 18.28 19.69 21.09 22.50 23.91 25.31 36.73 67.50 i?4 17.50 18.96 20.42 21.88 23-33 34.79 26.25 37.71 70.00 I'9<6 18.13 19.64 21.15 22.66 24.17 25.68 27.19 38 70 73.50 I'/i 18.75 20.31 21.88 23.44 25.00 26.56 28.13 39.69 75.00 i>5ie 19-38 20.99 22.60 24.22 25.83 27.45 29.06 30 68 77.50 3 20.00 21.67 23 33 25.00 36 67 28.33 30.00 31 67 80.00 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot 125 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot — {Continued) Thick- 5 5M s!-^ 5% 6 6H 6H 6% 12 ness in inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches He 1.04 1.09 I -IS 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.41 2.50 H 2.08 2.19 2.29 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.71 2.81 5.00 Me 3.13 3.28 3.44 3.59 3.75 3 91 4.06 4.22 7.50 y* 4.17 4.38 4.58 4.79 500 5. 21 5.42 5.63 10.00 9ie S.21 5.47 5.73 5.99 6.25 6.51 6.77 7 03 12.50 %, 6.2s 6.56 6.88 7.19 7-50 7.81 8.13 8.44 15 00 7/ie 7.29 7.66 8.02 8.39 8.75 9.11 9.48 9 84 1750 yi 8.33 8.75 9.17 9. 58 10.00 10.42 10.83 11.25 20.00 9?i6 30 21 31.72 33.23 34.74 36.25 37.76 39-27 40.78 72.50 I^ 31 25 32.81 34.38 35.94 37.50 39.06 40.63 42.19 75.00 I»5^6 32.29 33.91 35.52 37.14 38.75 40.36 41.98 43. 59 77. SO 2 33 33 35.00 36.67 38.33 40.00 41.67 43.33 45. 00 80.00 1 26 Matcri:il.s Weights of Flat Kulleu Ieon pek Lineal Foot — (Continued) Thick- 7 IM 74 IH 8 8^ 8li 8^4 13 ness in inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches Ma 1.46 1. 51 I.S6 1. 61 1.67 1.73 1.77 I 83 3. so H 3.93 3.03 3.13 3.23 3.33 3.44 3. 54 3.6s 5. 00 ?1. 4.38 4. S3 4.69 4.84 5.00 5.16 S.31 S.47 7 SO H S.83 6.04 6.2s 6.46 6.67 6.88 7.08 7.39 10.00 ?!« 7.39 7SS 7.81 8.07 8.33 8.59 8.85 9.11 13 SO ?i 8.7s 9.06 9.38 9.69 10.00 10.31 10.63 10 94 15 00 M« 10.21 10.57 10.94 11.30 11.67 13. 03 12.40 13.76 17 SO W 11.67 12.08 12.50 12.92 13.33 13. 75 14.17 14.58 30 00 9i« 13 13 13. 59 14.06 14 53 15 00 15.47 IS. 94 16.41 33.50 56 14 58 15 10 15 63 16 IS 16.67 17.19 17.71 18.33 35.00 >M. 16.04 16.61 17.19 17.76 18.33 18.91 19.48 20.05 27 50 ^4 17. SO 18.13 18.7s 19 38 20.00 20.63 21.25 31.88 30 00 >^« 18.96 19.64 20.31 20 99 21 67 22.24 23.02 33 70 32 so T6 20.42 21.15 21.88 22.60 23 33 24.06 24.79 35. 53 35 00 '5i8 21.88 22.66 23.44 24.22 25 00 25.78 26.56 37. 34 37 so I 23.33 24.17 25.00 25.83 26.67 27. SO 28.33 2917 40.00 iHo 24.79 25.68 26.56 27.45 28.33 29.22 30.10 30.99 42.50 1^6 26.25 27.19 28.13 29.06 30.00 30.94 31.88 33.81 45 00 i?^fl 27.71 28.70 29.69 30.68 31.67 32.66 33.65 34.64 47 50 l'/4 29.17 30.21 31.25 32.29 33.33 34.38 35.42 36.46 50.00 l^ia 30.62 31.72 32.81 33.91 3S-00 36.09 37.19 38.38 52.50 1?6 32.08 33.23 34.38 35. 52 36.67 37.81 38.96 40.10 55 00 1^6 33S4 34.74 35.94 37.14 38.33 39 53 40.73 41 93 57.50 m 35 00 36.25 37.50 38.75 40.00 41.25 42.50 43.75 60.00 191 B 36.46 37.76 39.06 40.36 41.67 42.97 44.27 45.57 62.50 iH 37 92 39.27 40.63 41.98 43.33 44.69 46.04 47.40 65.00 I' He 39- 38 40.78 42.19 43. 59 45. 00 46.41 47.81 49.22 67.50 i?4 40.83 42.29 43.75 45.21 46.67 48.13 49.58 51.04 70.00 i>5i« 42.29 43.80 45.31 46.82 48.33 49.84 51.35 52.86 73.50 iH 43.75 45.31 46.88 48.44 50.00 51.56 53.13 54.69 75.00 i>M() 45 21 46.82 48.44 50.05 51.67 53.28 54.90 56.51 77.50 3 46.67 48.33 50.00 51.67 53.33 55 00 56.67 58.33 80.00 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot 127 Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot — {Continued) Thick- 9 9Vi 9H 9% 10 loH loi/4 loH 12 ness in inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches He 1.88 1.93 1.98 2.03 2.08 2.14 2.19 2.24 2,50 H 3.75 3.85 3.96 4.06 4.17 4.27 4.38 4.48 5.00 Me S.63 5.78 5-94 6.09 6.2s 6.41 6.56 6.72 7.50 H 7-50 7.71 7.92 8.13 8.33 8.54 8.75 8.96 10.00 <>U. 938 9.64 9.90 10.16 10.42 10.68 10.94 11.20 12.50 % II. 25 11.56 11.88 12.19 12.50 12.81 13.13 13.44 15.00 7/6 13.13 13.49 13. S5 14.22 14.58 14.95 15.31 15.68 17.50 H 15.00 15.42 IS. 83 16.25 16.67 17.08 17.50 17.92 20,00 9ia 16.88 17.34 17.81 18.28 18.75 19.22 19.69 20.16 22.50 H 18.75 19.27 19.79 20.31 20.83 21.35 21.88 22,40 25.00 iMe 20.63 21.20 21.77 22.34 22.92 23.49 24.06 24.64 27.50 H 22.50 23.13 23.75 24.38 25.00 25.62 26.25 26.88 30.00 1^6 24.38 25.05 25.73 26.41 27.08 27.76 28.44 29.11 32.50 ?i 26.25 26.98 27.71 28.44 29.17 29.90 30.63 31.35 35.00 >M6 28.13 28.91 29.69 30.47 31.25 32.03 32.81 33.59 37. so I 30.00 30.83 31.67 32.50 33.33 34.17 35.00 35.83 40.00 iVie 31.88 32.76 33.65 34.53 35.42 36.30 37.19 38.07 42.50 iH 33 75 34.69 35.63 36.56 37.50 38.44 39.38 40.31 45.00 iHi 35.63 36.61 37.60 38.59 39.58 40.57 41.56 42.5s 47.50 i!4 37.50 38.54 39.58 40.63 41.67 42.71 43.75 44.79 SO. 00 me 39 38 40.47 41.56 42.66 43.75 44.84 45.94 47.03 52.50 i?i 41.25 42,40 43-54 44.69 45.83 46.98 48.13 49.27 55.00 iMe 43.13 44.32 45.52 46.72 47.92 49." 50.31 51. 51 57.50 m 45.00 46.25 47.50 48.75 50.00 51.25 52.50 53.75 60,00 l?i6 46.88 48.18 49.48 50.78 52.08 S3. 39 54.69 5599 62,50 i^i 48.75 50.10 51.46 52.81 54.17 55.52 56.88 58.23 65.00 iiMe 50.63 52.03 53.44 54.84 56.25 57.66 59.06 60.47 67.50 m 52.50 53.96 55.42 56.88 58.33 59.79 61.25 62.71 70.00 11^6 54.38 55.89 57.40 S8.91 60.42 61.93 63.44 64.95 72.50 i^/i 56.25 57.81 59.38 60.94 62.50 64.06 65.63 67.19 75.00 I'Me 58.13 59. 74 61.35 62.97 64.58 66.20 67.81 69.43 77.50 2 60.06 61.67 63.33 65.00 66.67 68.33 70.00 71.67 80.00 1 28 Mali-rials Weights of Flat Rolled Iron per Lineal Foot — {Continued) Thick- II iiW im ii?4 13 I3M I3^i 13)4 ness in inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches Mb 2.29 a. 34 2.40 2.45 3.50 2.SS 3 60 3.66 \i 458 4.69 4.79 4.90 5 00 S.io S 21 s 31 ■^u 6.88 7 03 7.19 7 34 7 so 7.66 7.81 7.97 W 9 17 9 38 958 9 79 10.00 10.21 10.43 10.63 5iB 11.46 11 72 11.98 12.24 12.50 13.76 13.03 13.38 H 13-75 14 06 14.38 14 69 15 00 IS. 31 IS. 63 IS 94 lU 16.04 16.41 16.77 17.14 17 50 17.86 18.33 18 59 Vi 18.33 18.75 19.17 19 58 30. 00 30.43 30.83 31.35 9<« 20.63 21.09 21.56 21.94 23 so 33.97 23.44 23 91 56 22.92 23-44 23 96 24.48 25.00 35.52 36.04 26 56 'Mb 25.21 25.78 26.35 26.93 37 50 38.07 28.65 29 33 % 27SO 28.13 28.7s 29.38 30.00 30.63 31.2s 31 88 >?k 29.79 30.47 31 -IS 31.82 32. so 33.18 33 85 34 53 ''A 32.08 32 81 33-54 34.27 3S.OO 35. 73 36.46 37.19 'Mb 34.38 35.16 35 94 36.72 37.50 38.28 3906 39 84 I 36.67 37.50 38-33 39.17 40.00 40.83 41.67 43 so iMb 38.96 39 84 40-73 41.61 43 50 43.39 44.37 45.16 I'i 41-25 42.19 43.13 44.06 45.00 45.94 46.88 47.81 I?i8 43-54 44.53 45 52 46 SI 47.50 48.49 49.48 so. 47 iM 45-83 46 88 47 92 48.96 so 00 SI 04 53.08 S3. 13 iMfl 48.13 49.22 50.31 SI. 41 53.50 53. 59 54.69 55. 78 iH 50 42 51.56 52 71 S3.8S 55 00 56.15 57 39 58.44 1^1 B 52.71 S3. 91 55. 10 56.30 57 SO 58.70 59 90 61.09 m 55 00 56.2s S7.SO 58.75 60.00 61. 35 62.50 63.7s 1?<8 57.29 58.59 59 90 61.20 62.50 63.80 65.10 66.41 iH 59-98 60.94 62.29 63.65 65.00 66.35 67.71 69.06 I' Ma 61.88 63.28 64.69 66 09 67.50 68.91 70.31 71.72 1^4 64.17 65.63 67.08 68. S4 70.00 71.46 72 92 74.38 !'»!« 66.46 67.97 69.48 70.99 72.50 74.01 75 53 77.03 iTi 68.75 70.31 71.88 73.44 75 00 76.56 78.13 79.69 I'^ie 71.04 72.66 74.27 75.89 77. SO 79.11 80 73 82.34 2 73.33 75. 00 76.67 78.33 80 00 81.67 83 33 85.00 The weights for 12-inch width are repeated on each page to facilitate making the additions necessary to obtain the weights of plates wider than 12 inches. Thus, to find the weight of is!4"X ;s", add the weights to be found in the same line for 3M Xji and i2Xji=9.48 + 35-00 = 44.48 pounds. Areas of Flat Rolled Iron 129 Areas of Flat Rolled Iron For thicknesses from Ms inch to 2 inches and widths from i inch to 125.1 inches. Thick- I . '^^ _ 1\*L I?4 2 2^4 . ^'•^ 2% 12 ness in inches inch inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches He .063 .078 .094 .109 .125 .141 .156 .172 .750 % .125 .156 .188 .219 .250 .281 .313 • 344 1.50 Me .188 .234 .281 .328 .375 .422 .469 .516 2.2s \i .250 .313 ■ 375 .438 .500 .563 .625 .688 3.00 Me .313 • 391 • 469 .547 .625 .703 .781 .859 3.75 % ■ 375 • 469 .563 .656 .750 .844 .938 1.03 4.50 Me .438 .547 .656 .766 .875 .984 1.09 1.20 5. 25 ¥t .500 .625 .750 .875 1. 00 1. 13 1. 25 1.38 6.00 9i6 .563 .703 .844 .984 1.13 1.27 1. 41 1.55 6.75 H .62s .781 .938 1.09 1.25 1. 41 1.56 1.72 7.50 iHe .688 .859 1.03 1.20 1.38 1.55 1.72 1.89 8.25 % .750 .938 1. 13 1. 31 1.50 1.69 1.88 2.06 9.00 1^6 .813 1.02 1.22 1.42 1.63 1.83 2.03 2.23 9-75 li .875 1.09 1. 31 1.53 1.75 1.97 2.19 2.41 10.50 me .938 1. 17 1. 41 1.64 1.88 2. II 2.34 2.58 11.25 I 1. 00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 12.00 iMe 1.06 1.33 1.59 1.86 2.13 2.39 2.66 2.92 12.75 m 1. 13 1. 41 1.69 1.97 2.25 2.53 2.81 3.09 13.50 iMe 1. 19 1.48 1.78 2.08 2.38 2.67 2.97 3.27 14.25 iH 1. 25 1.56 1.88 2.19 2.50 2.81 3.13 3-44 15.00 iMe 1. 31 1.64 1.97 2.30 2.63 2.95 3.28 3.61 15.7s iji 1.38 1.72 2.06 2.41 2.75 3.09 3.44 3.78 16.50 iMe 1.44 1.80 2.16 2.52 2.88 323 3.59 3.9s 17.2s i^^ 1.50 1.88 2.25 2.63 3-0O 3.38 3-75 4.13 18.00 i9ie 1.56 I 95 2.34 2.73 3.13 3. 52 3.91 4.30 18.7s i5i 1.63 2.03 2.44 2.84 3.25 3.66 4.06 4-47 19 50 I'He 1.69 2. II 2.53 2.95 3.38 3.80 4.22 4.64 20.25 1% 1. 75 2.19 2.63 3.06 3.50 3.94 4.38 4.81 21.00 I'Me 1. 81 2.27 2.72 3-17 3.63 4.08 4.53 4.98 21.75 l7/i 1.88 2.34 2.81 3.28 3.75 4.22 4.69 5.16 22.50 I»M6 1.94 2.42 2.91 3.39 3.88 436 4.84 5. 33 23.25 2 2.00 2. so 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 24.00 UO Malrrials WEiGirTs OF Flat Rollkd Stkel per Lineal Foot For thicknesses from ^U inch to 2 inches and widths from I inch to u?i inches. Thick- inches inches ness in inches I inch .638 ht .797 • 957 H .850 1.06 1.28 W« 1.06 1.33 1.59 H 1.28 I 59 1.92 M« 1.49 1.86 2.23 H 1.70 2.12 2.SS ?i. 1.92 2.39 2.87 H 2.12 2.6s 3.19 •Mo 2.34 2.92 3. SI ?4 2.55 3.19 3.83 "?i6 2.76 3.45 4.14 li 2.98 3-72 4.47 I .'. ; « T, to 3 99 478 I 4-25 5.10 i'i« 3.61 4-52 S.42 iH 3.83 4.78 5.74 iho 4.04 5.05 6.06 iH 4-25 5.31 6.38 iMo 4.46 558 6.69 iH 4.67 5.84 7.02 ilU 4.89 6. II 7.34 m 5. 10 6.38 7.65 I?<» S.32 6.64 7.97 iH 5.52 6.90 8.29 i>Me 5. 74 7.17 8.61 m 595 7-44 8.93 ll?16 6.16 7.70 9.24 r^6 6.38 7.97 9-57 I' Mo 6.59 8.24 9.88 3 6.80 8.S0 10.20 I}* inches 1.49 1.86 2.23 2.60 3 35 3.72 4.09 4-47 4.84 5.20 5. 58 5. 95 6.32 6.70 7.07 7-44 7.81 8.18 8.56 8.93 9 30 9.67 10.04 10.42 10.79 II. IS 11.53 11.90 3 2M inches inches 1.38 1.44 1.70 1. 91 2.12 2 39 2. 55 2.87 2.98 3.35 3.40 3.83 3 83 4.30 4.2s 4.78 4.67 5.26 5.10 5-75 5 53 6.21 5.95 6.69 6.38 7.18 6.80 7.6s 7.22 8.13 7.65 8.61 8.0S 909 8.50 9-57 8.93 10.04 9.35 10.52 9.78 11.00 10.20 11.48 10.63 11.95 II. OS 12.43 11.47 12.91 11.90 13.40 12.33 13.86 12.75 14.34 13.18 14.83 13 60 15.30 2H inches 1.59 3.13 3.65 3.19 3.72 4.25 4.78 5-31 5.84 6.38 6.90 7.44 7.97 8.50 9 03 9 57 10.10 10.63 11.16 11.69 12.22 12.75 13.28 13.81 14.34 14.88 15 40 15.94 16.47 17.00 2H inches 1-75 2-34 3.92 351 4.09 4.67 5.36 S.84 6.43 7.02 7.60 8.18 8.77 9 35 9 93 10.52 II. II 11.69 13.27 12.8s 13.44 14.03 14.61 15.19 15.78 16.37 16.95 17.53 18.13 18.70 13 inches 7.65 10. ao 13.75 15.30 17.85 20.40 22.95 25.50 28.0s 30.60 33.15 35.70 38.25 40.80 43 35 45 90 48 45 51 00 S3 55 56.10 58.6s 61.30 63.75 66.30 68.85 71.40 73. 95 76.50 .79 OS 81.60 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot 131 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot — {Continued) Thick- 3 3H 3H 3H 4 4H 4H Si 12 ness in inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches inches ?i6 1. 91 2.07 2.23 2.39 2.55 2.71 2.87 3.03 7.65 H 2.55 2.76 2.98 3.19 3.40 3.61 3.83 4.04 10.20 */i6 3 19 3. 45 3-72 3-99 4-25 4.52 4.78 5. 05 12.75 9i 3.83 4.15 4-47 478 5.10 5.42 5.74 6.06 IS. 30 lU 4.46 483 5.20 5.58 5.95 6.32 6.70 7.07 17.8s H 5.10 5.53 5.95 6.38 6.80 7.22 7-65 8.08 20.40 9i6 S-74 6.22 6.70 7- 17 7.65 8.13 8.61 9.09 22. 95 H 6.38 6.91 7.44 7-97 8.50 903 9-57 10.10 25 50 iMe 7.02 7.60 8.18 8.76 9-35 9-93 10.52 II. II 28.0s H 7.65 8.29 8.93 9-57 10.20 10.84 11.48 12.12 30.60 1^6 8.29 8.98 9.67 10.36 II. OS 11.74 12.43 13.12 33 IS ^ 8.93 967 10.41 II. 16 11.90 12.65 13.39 14.13 35.70 1^6 9-57 10.36 II. 16 11.95 12.75 13.55 14.34 15.14 38.2s I 10.20 II. OS 11.90 12.75 1360 14.45 15.30 16.15 40.80 1M6 10.84 11.74 12.65 13-55 14-45 15-35 16.26 17 16 43.35 iH 11.48 12.43 13.39 14.34 15-30 16.26 17.22 18.17 45.90 1^6 12.12 13 12 14.13 15.14 16.15 17.16 18.17 19.18 48.4s i34 12. 75 13.81 14.87 15-94 17.00 18.06 19.13 20.19 5100 i^Ae 13.39 14.50 15.62 16.74 17-85 18.96 20.08 21.20 53-55 iH 14 03 15 -20 16.36 17.53 18.70 19-87 21.04 22.21 s6.io ilU 14 66 15.88 17.10 18.33 19 55 20.77 21.99 23.22 58.65 iV^ 15.30 16.58 17.85 19-13 20.40 21.68 22.95 24.23 61.20 l9i6 15.94 17.27 18.60 19.92 21.25 22.58 23.91 25.24 63.75 i5.6 16.58 17.96 19 -34 20.72 22.10 23.48 24.87 26.25 66.30 liMe 17.22 18.65 20.08 21.51 22.95 24.38 25.82 27.26 68.85 i?4 17.85 19 -34 20.83 22.32 23.80 25.29 26.78 28.27 71.40 li^ie 18.49 20.03 21.57 23.11 24.65 26.19 27.73 29.27 73-95 I'/i 19- 13 20.72 22.31 23.91 25 SO 27.10 28.69 30.28 76 -SO iiS/ie 19.77 21.41 23.06 24.70 26.35 28.00 29.64 31.29 79-05 2 20.40 22.10 23.80 25.50 27.20 28.90 30.60 32.30 81.60 r.^2 Materials Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot — {Coniinurd) Thick- ness in inchi-s s inches SU inches inches inches 6 inches inches 6W inches inches 13 inches 3.19 435 3 35 4.46 3SI 4.67 3.67 4.89 3.83 S.io 3 99 5.31 4.14 4» 5 74 76s 10. 30 S.31 6.38 7.44 8.50 5-58 6.69 7.81 8-93 5. 84 7.02 8.18 935 6 II 7 34 8.56 9 77 6.38 7.6s 8.93 10.20 6.64 7-97 9 29 10.63 6.90 8.29 9.67 11. OS 7.17 8.61 10 04 11.48 12.75 is 30 17 8s 30 40 3\t f4 9- 57 10.63 11.69 12.75 10.04 II. 16 12.27 13-39 10.52 11.69 12.8s 14.03 11.00 12.22 13.44 14.67 11.48 12.75 14 03 15-30 11-95 13 28 14.61 15.94 12.43 13 81 IS. 20 16.58 13.91 14 34 15.78 17.122 32 95 25 so 38 05 30.60 I 13-81 14.87 15-94 17.CXD 14.50 15 62 16.74 17 -8S 15-19 16.36 17-53 18.70 15.88 17.10 18.33 19 55 16.58 17-85 19-13 20. 40 17.27 18.60 19.92 21.25 17 95 19 34 20.72 22.10 18.6s ao.o8 21.51 22.9s 33 IS 35 70 38.2s 40.80 I'-ifl i-Mb 18.06 19 13 20.19 21.25 18.96 20.08 21.20 22.32 19.87 21.04 22.21 23.38 20.77 21.99 23.22 24.44 21.68 22.9s 24.23 2S-SO 22.58 23.91 25.23 26.56 2348 24.87 26.24 27.62 24.39 25.82 27.25 28.69 43. 35 45 90 48.4s SI .00 m 22.32 23.38 24.44 25-50 23-43 24-54 25-66 26.78 24.54 25.71 26.88 28.0s 25.66 26.88 28.10 29.33 26.78 28. OS 29-33 30.60 27.90 29.22 30.55 31.88 29.01 30.39 31.77 33. IS 30.12 31.56 32.99 34.43 S3.SS s6.io S8.6S 61. 30 1% 26.57 27.63 28.69 29-75 27.89 29.01 30.12 31.24 29.22 30.39 31.55 32.73 30.5s 31.77 32.99 34.22 31.88 33.15 34.43 35.70 33.20 34. S3 35.86 37.19 34. S3 35. 91 37.30 38.68 35.86 37-29 38.73 40.17 63.7s 66.30 68.8s 71.40 i'Mb 3 30.81 31-87 32-94 3400 32.35 33.47 34. 59 35.70 33.89 35.06 36.23 37.40 35. 43 36.65 37.88 39.10 36.98 38.2s 39.53 40.80 38.52 39-85 41.17 42.50 40.0s 41.44 42.82 44.20 41.60 4303 44.46 45.90 73. 95 76.50 790s 81.60 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot 133 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel pee Lineal Foot — {Continued) Thick- ness in inches 7 inches 7H inches 7H inches 7M inches 8 inches 8H inches 8H inches inches 12 inches 3/^6 4.46 4.62 4.78 4.94 5.10 5.26. 5.42 5. 58 7.6s H 5-95 6.16 6.36 6.58 6.80 7.01 7.22 7.43 10.20 Vi6 7-44 7.70 7.97 8.23 8.50 8.76 9.03 9-29 12.75 % 8.93 9 25 9.57 9.88 10.20 10.52 10.84 11.16 iS-30 ^6 10.41 10.78 ir.i6 11.53 11.90 12.27 12.64 13 02 17.85 'A 11.90 12.32 12 75 13.18 13.60 14.03 14.44 14-87 20.40 918 13-39 13.86 14.34 14.82 15.30 IS. 78 16.27 16.74 22.95 % 14.87 IS -40 15.94 16.47 17.00 17.53 18.06 18.59 25.50 iMe 16.36 16.94 17. S3 18.12 18.70 19.28 19.86 20.45 28.0s H 17.8s 18.49 19.13 19.77 20.40 21.04 21.68 22.32 30.60 1^6 19-34 20.03 20.72 21.41 22.10 22.79 23.48 24.17 33.15 }i 20.83 21.57 22.32 23.05 23.80 24.55 25.30 26.04 35.70 me 22.32 23.11 23.91 24.70 25.50 26.30 27.10 27-89 38.25 I 23-80 24-65 25.50 26.35 27.20 28.05 28.90 29 75 40.80 iHe 25-29 26.19 27.10 28.00 28.90 29.80 30.70 31 -61 43. 35 1V6 26.78 27-73 28.68 29.64 30.60 31.56 32.52 33-47 45.90 1^6 28.26 29.27 30.28 31.29 32.30 33.31 34.32 35-33 48.45 iH 29.75 30.81 31.88 32.94 34.00 35.06 36.12 37-20 51.00 1^6 31-23 32.3s 33.48 34. 59 35.70 36.81 37.93 39 -OS 53.55 iH 32.72 33-89 35.06 36.23 37.40 38.57 39.74 40.91 56.10 iMe 34-21 35.44 36.66 37.88 39 10 40.32 41.54 42.77 58.6s iJ^ 35-70 36.98 38.26 39.53 40.80 42.08 43.35 44-63 61.20 I9i6 37-19 38.51 39.84 41.17 42.50 43.83 45.16 46-49 . 63.75 i^ 38.67 40.0s 41.44 42.82 44.20 45.58 46.96 48-34 66.30 1IM6 40.16 41-59 43.03 44.47 45.90 47.33 48.76 50.20 68.8s iH 41-65 43.14 44.63 46.12 47.60 49.09 50.58 52.07 71.40 Il?<6 43.14 44.68 46.22 47.76 49.30 50.84 52.38 53-92 73.95 1% 44-63 46.22 47.82 49-40 51.00 52.60 54.20 55-79 76.50 ii^-ia 46.12 47.76 49.41 SI. OS 52.70 54.35 56.00 57-64 79.0s 2 47-60 49.30 51 00 52.70 54.40 56.10 57.80 59 -50 81.60 1.34 Materials Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot — (Continued) Thick- ness in inches 9 9W 9W ^i 10 loM 10' 13 inches inches inches inches inches inches inch< ^U S.74 5 ' 6.22 6.38 6.54 6.70 6.86 7.6s y* 7.6s 7.>' 8.29 8. so 8.71 8.92 914 10. 20 9i« 9S6 9-83 10.10 10.36 10.62 10.89 II. 16 11.42 12 75 H 11.48 11.80 12.12 12.44 12. 7S 13 07 13 39 13 71 15.30 lu 13.40 13.76 14.14 14.51 14.88 15.25 IS. 62 IS 99 17 8S H 15.30 IS. 73 16.16 16.58 17.00 17.42 17.8s 18.28 20.40 9i« 17.22 17-69 18.18 18.65 19.14 19.61 30.08 20.56 22. 95 58 19 13 19-65 20.19 20.72 21.25 21.78 22.32 22.85 25 SO 'H6 21.04 21.62 22.21 22.79 23.38 23 96 24. 54 25.13 28. OS H 22.96 23-59 24.23 24.86 25.50 26.14 26.78 27.42 30.60 >^8 24.86 25-55 26.24 26.94 27.62 28.32 29.00 29 69 33 IS % 26.78 27-52 28.26 29. ox 29.75 30.50 31.24 31.98 35.70 mt 28.69 29.49 30.28 31.08 31.88 32.67 33.48 JJ.28 38.25 I 30.60 31-45 32.30 33. IS 34.00 34.8s 35.70 36-55 40.80 iM* 32.52 33.41 34.32 35.22 36.12 37.03 37.92 38-83 43 35 iV6 34.43 35. 38 36.34 37.29 38.25 39-21 40.17 41.12 45 90 i^« 36.34 37.35 38.36 39.37 40.38 41.39 42.40 43.40 48.4s iH 38.26 39 31 40.37 41.44 42.50 43.56 44.63 45.69 51.00 1^9 40.16 41.28 42.40 43 52 44.64 45.75 46.86 47.97 S3 55 iH 42.08 43.25 44.41 45.58 46.75 47.92 4908 50.2s 56.10 iM« 44.00 45-22 46.44 47:66 48.88 50.10 SI. 32 52.54 58.65 i^ 4590 47.18 48.45 49-73 51.00 52.28 5355 54.83 61 20 i9<« 47.82 49.14 so. 48 51.80 53.14 54.46 55. 78 57.11 63.7s 1^6 49-73 51.10 52.49 53.87 55.2s 56.63 58.02 59.40 66.30 i>Mb SI. 64 53 07 54. SI 55.94 57-38 58.81 60.24 61. 68 68.85 ly* 53 56 55.04 56.53 58.01 59.50 60.99 62.48 63.97 71.40 I'^6 55.46 57.00 58.54 60.09 61.62 63 17 64.70 66.24 7395 lu 57.38 58.97 60.56 62.16 63.7s 65.35 66.94 68.53 76.S0 v^u 59-29 60.94 62.58 64.23 65.88 67.52 69.18 70.83 790s 2 61.20 62.90 64.60 66.30 68.00 69.70 71.40 73.10 81.60 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot 135 Weights of Flat Rolled Steel per Lineal Foot — (Continued) Thick- ness in inches II inches iiM inches iiH inches liJ4 inches 12 inches I2'/4 inches 12!.^ inches 12% inches ?i6 7.02 7.17 7-32 7.49 7-6s 7.82 7-98 8.13 H 9-34 9S7 9-78 10.00 10.20 10.42 10.63 10.84 Me 11.68 11.95 12.22 12.49 12.75 13.01 13.28 13-55 H 14 03 14-35 14.68 14.99 15.30 IS -62 15-94 16.26 lU 16.36 16.74 17.12 17-49 17.85 18.23 18.60 18.97 M 18.70 19-13 19-55 19-67 20.40 20.82 21.25 21.67 9ifi 21.02 21.51 22.00 22.48 22.9s 23.43 23.90 24-39 56 23.38 23.91 24.44 24.97 25.50 26.03 26.56 27.09 >H6 25.70 26.30 26.88 27.47 28.05 28.64 29.22 29.80 % 28.0s 28.68 29-33 29.97 30.60 31.2s 31.88 32.52 1^6 30.40 31.08 31-76 32.46 33 IS 33-83 34.53 35.22 ■"A 32.72 33.47 34.21 34.95 35.70 36.44 37.19 37.93 1^6 35 06 35-86 36.66 37.46 38.25 39 05 39-84 40.64 I 37.40 38.2s 39 10 39-95 40.80 41.6s 42.50 43-35 iHe 39-74 40.64 41.54 42.45 43-35 44.25 45.16 46.06 ij-i 42.08 43-04 44.00 44.94 45.90 46.86 47.82 48.77 iMe 44.42 45-42 46.44 47-45 48.45 49.46 50.46 51.48 iH 46.76 47-82 48.88 49-94 5100 52.06 53-12 54.19 iM« 4908 50.20 SI. 32 52.44 53-55 54.67 55-78 56.90 i?6 SI. 42 52.59 53.76 54-93 56.10 57.27 58.44 59.60 iMe 53.76 54.99 56.21 57.43 S8.6s 59-87 6i.io 62.32 l!.2 56.10 57-37 58.65 59- 93 61.20 62. 48 63 .75 65. 03 i?i6 58.42 59-76 61.10 62.43 63.75 6S.08 66.40 67.74 i=/6 60.78 62.16 63.54 64.92 66.30 67.68 69.06 70.44 iiMe 63.10 64 -55 65-98 67.42 68.8s 70.29 71.72 73 IS i?i 65.4s 66.93 68.43 69.92 71.40 72.90 74.38 75.87 Il?l6 67.80 69-33 70.86 72.41 73.95 75.48 77 03 78.57 i56 70.12 71.72 73-31 74.90 76.50 78.09 79-69 81.28 ii^ie 72.46 74.11 75.76 77.41 79 05 80.70 82.34 83.99 2 74.80 76.50 78.20 79- 90 81.60 83.30 85.00 86.70 The weights for 12-inch width are repeated on each page to facilitate making the additions necessary to obtain the weights of plates wider than 12 inches. Thus to find the weight of is!'^" X^6", add the weights to be found in the same line for 3'/^ X^ and i2Xj6=io.4i -|- 35.70 = 46.11 pounds. ..i6 MaU-fials WlCIGHTS AND AREAS OK SqUAKK AND RoUNI) BaRS OF WROUGHT Iron and CiRCUUFERUNct of Round Bars. One cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. Weight of D bar I foot long .013 .052 .117 .208 .326 .469 .638 .833 LOSS 1.302 I.S76 1.87s 2.201 2.SS2 2.930 3 333 3.763 4.219 4.701 5. 208 5742 6.302 6.888 7.S00 8.138 8.802 9.492 10.21 10.9s 11.72 12.51 13. 33 14.18 IS OS IS. 95 16.88 17.83 18.80 19.80 20.83 21.89 22.97 24.08 25.21 26.37 27. S5 28.76 Weight of O bar I foot long .010 .041 .092 .164 .256 .368 .501 .654 .828 I 023 I 237 1 473 1.728 2.004 2.301 2.618 2. 955 3.313 3.692 4.091 4. 510 4.950 5.410 5. 890 6.392 6.913 7455 8.018 8.601 9.204 9.828 10.47 II. 14 11.82 12.53 13 2S 14.00 14.77 IS- 55 16.36 17.19 18.04 18.91 19.80 20.71 21.64 22. S9 Area of D bar in square inches .0039 .0156 .0352 .062s .0977 .1406 .1914 .2500 .3164 .3906 .4727 .5625 .6602 .7656 .8789 I. 0000 1.1289 1.2656 1.4102 1.562s 1.7227 1.8906 2.0664 2.2500 2.4414 2.6406 2.8477 3 0625 3 2852 3 S156 3.7539 4.0000 4 2539 4 5156 4.7852 5.062s 5 3477 5. 6406 s 9414 6.2500 6.5664 6.8906 7.2227 7.5625 7 . 9102 8.2656 8.6389 Area of Circum- bar ference of in square bar inches in inches .0031 1963 .0123 .3927 .0276 .5890 .0491 .7854 .0767 9817 .1104 1 . 1781 .1503 1.3744 .1963 I 5708 .2485 I. 7671 .3068 I 963s .3712 2.1598 • 4418 2.3562 .S183 2.SS2S .6013 2.7489 ■ 6903 2.9452 ■ 7854 3.I4I6 .8866 3.3379 • 9940 3 5343 I . I07S 37306 1.2272 3 9270 I. 3530 4.1233 1.4849 4.3197 1.6230 4 S160 I. 7671 4.7124 I. 9175 4.9087 2.0739 5.1051 2.2365 5.3014 2.4053 S.4978 2.5802 5 6941 2.7612 5.890s 2.9483 6.0868 3.1416 6.2832 3 3410 6 4795 3 5466 6 6759 3 7583 6.8723 3 9761 7.0686 4.2000 7 2649 4 4301 4.6664 4.9087 5.1572 5.4119 5.6727 S.9396 6.2126 6.4918 6.7771 Weight oi Square and Round Bars 137 Weight of Square and Round Bars — {Continued) Thickness Area of Area of Circum- or diam- Weight of □ bar I foot long Weight of bar I foot long D bar bar ference of eter in inches in square inches in square inches bar in inches 3 30 00 23 56 9.0000 7.0686 9.4248 He 31 26 24-55 9-3789 7-3662 9.6211 H 32 55 25.57 9.7656 7-6699 9-8175 •>i8 33.87 26.60 10.160 7-9798 10.014 Vi 35 21 27.65 10.563 8.2958 10.210 Me 3658 28.73 10.973 8.6179 10 . 407 % 37-97 29.82 II. 391 8.9462 10.603 yi6 39 39 30.94 II. 816 9.2806 10.799 Vi 40.83 32.07 12.250 9.6211 10.996 9i6 42.30 33 23 12.691 9.9678 II. 192 % 43.80 34.40 13- 141 10.321 11.388 iHe 45-33 35.60 13 598 10.680 11-585 M 46.88 36.82 14 -063 11.045 II. 781 l?i6 48.45 38.05 14-535 II. 416 11.977 J6 50.05 39.31 15.016 11-793 12.174 1^6 51.68 40.59 15.504 12.177 12.370 4 53-33 41.89 16.000 12.566 12.566 He 55 01 43.21 16.504 12.962 12.763 ^ 56.72 44.55 17.016 13-364 12.959 Ma 58.45 45.91 17-535 13-772 13- 155 ^ 60.21 47.29 18.063 14.186 13-352 Me 61.99 48.69 18.398 14.607 13-548 ?i 63.80 50.11 19 141 IS -033 13-744 ^6 65.64 51.55 19.691 IS -466 13-941 ^ 67.50 53.01 20.250 15-904 14-137 Me 69.39 54.50 20.816 16.349 14 334 5i 71 30 56.00 21.391 16.800 14-530 »H6 73-24 57-52 21.973 17-257 14-726 ?4 75-21 59 -07 22.563 17.721 14-923 »M6 77-20 60.63 23.160 18.190 15 -119 % 79.22 _ 62.22 23-766 18.665 15-31S 1^6 81.26 63.82 24.379 19.147 15 512 s 83.33 6545 25.000 19 63s IS -708 Me 85.43 67.10 25.629 20.129 15-904 M 87.55 68.76 26.266 20.629 16.101 Me 89.70 70.45 26.910 21.135 16.297 M 91.88 72.16 27.563 21.648 16.493 Me 94.08 73-89 28.223 22.166 16.690 ?6 96.30 75.64 28.891 22.691 16.886 ^6 98-55 77.40 29.566 23.221 17.082 H 100.8 79-19 30.250 23-758 17-279 Me 103. 1 81.00 30.941 24.301 17-475 ^ 105.5 82.83 31.641 24.850 17.671 iMe 107.8 84-69 32.348 25.406 17.868 M no. 2 86.56 33-063 25.967 18.064 »Me 112. 6 88.45 33 -78s 26.535 18 . 261 ^ 115-I 90.36 34-516 27.109 18.457 iMe 117-S 92.29 35 254 27.688 18.653 6 120.0 94.25 36.000 28.274 18.850 Me 122.5 96.22 36.754 28.866 19.046 H 125. 1 98.22 37-516 29.465 19.242 ^e 127.6 100.2 38.28s 30.069 19-439 138 MaUri lis Weight of Square and Round Bars — (.Continuei) Thickness Area of Area of Circum- or diam- Wcisht of WfiKht of »J:ir I foot tonx D bar bar ference o( eter in D bar in square in square bar incli' l.iu J inches inches in inches 6h 102.3 39 063 30.680 19.63s 9i» 132.8 104.3 39 848 31.296 19 831 n 135. 5 106.4 40.641 31.919 ao 038 lit IJ8.1 108. s 41 441 32.548 30. 224 W 140.8 110.6 42 250 33.183 ao.420 ^« M3 6 112,7 43.066 33 824 ao.617 96 146.3 114. 9 43.891 34.472 20.813 'HMa 197.0 154.7 59.098 46.415 24.151 % 200.2 157.2 60.063 47.173 24-347 >9^8 203. S 159.8 61.035 47.937 24 544 ^/6 206.7 162.4 62.016 48.707 24.740 »M« 210.0 164.9 63 004 49.483 24.936 8 213 3 167.6 64.000 50.265 25.133 Mb 216.7 170.2 65.004 51 oS4 25.329 ^ 220.1 172.8 66.016 51.849 25 52s ?i. 223. 5 175. 5 67.03s • 52.649 25.722 V4 226.9 178.2 68.063 53.456 25.918 M» 230.3 180.9 69.098 54.269 26.114 H 2.« 8 183.6 70.141 55.088 26.311 Mb 237.3 186.4 71.191 55.914 26.S07 H 240.8 189.2 72.250 56.745 26.704 ?<• 244.4 191.9 73.316 57.583 26.900 96 248.0 194.8 74.391 58.426 27.096 »M8 251.6 197.6 75.473 59.276 27.293 94 255.2 200.4 76.563 60.132 27.489 '9i6 258.9 203.3 77.660 60.994 27.685 7/6 262,6 206.2 78.766 61.862 27.882 »9i« 266.3 209.1 79.879 62.737 28.078 9 270.0 212. 1 81.000 63.617 28.274 M. 273.8 215.0 82.129 64. 504 28.471 H 277.6 218.0 83.266 65-397 28.667 M« 281.4 221.0 84.410 66.296 28.863 M 285.2 224.0 85 563 67.201 29.060 M« 289 I 227.0 86,723 68.112 29.256 96 293.0 230.1 87.891 69.029 29.452 M« 296.9 233-2 89.066 69 953 29.649 Weight of Square and Round Bars 139 Weight of Square and Round Bars — {Continued) Thickness or diam- Weight of n bar Weight of bar Area of n bar Area of bar Circum- ference of eter in I foot long I foot long in square in square bar inches inches inches in inches 9}^ 300.8 236.3 90.250 70.882 • • 29.845 9i6 304.8 239.4 91.441 71.818 30.041 5/i 308.8 242.5 92.641 72.760 30.238 >M6 312.8 245.7 93.848 73.708 30.434 % 316.9 248.9 95.063 74.662 30.631 >%6 321.0 252.1 96.285 75.622 30.827 % 32s. I 255.3 97.516 76.589 31 023 15/15 329.2 258. 5 98.754 77.561 31.200 10 333.3 261.8 100.00 78.540 31.416 He 337. 5 265.1 loi . 25 79-525 31.612 W 341.7 268.4 102.52 80.516 31.809 fi6 346.0 271.7 103.79 81.513 32.00s H 3S0.2 275.1 105.06 82.516 32.201 Ma 354.5 278.4 106.3s 83 525 32.398 % 358.8 281.8 107.64 84-541 32.594 Me 363.1 285.2 108.94 85-562 32.790 V^ 367.5 288.6 110.25 86.590 32.987 9ia 371.9 292.1 III. 57 87.624 33.183 96 376.3 29s. 5 112.89 88.664 33-379 •He 380.7 299.0 114.22 89.710 33 576 % 385.2 302.5 115.56 90.763 33-772 1^6 389.7 306.1 116. 91 91.821 33.968 J6 394.2 309.6 118.27 92.886 34.16s 1^6 398.8 313.2 119.63 93 956 34 361 II 403 -3 316.8 121.00 95 033 34.558 He 407.9 320.4 122.38 96.116 34.754 V6 412.6 324.0 123.77 97.205 34.950 Me 417.2 327.7 125.16 98.301 35.147 H 421.9 331.3 126.56 99.402 35.343 Me 426.6 335.0 127.97 100.51 35.539 96 431.3 338.7 129.39 101.62 35.736 Me 436.1 342.5 130.82 102.74 35.932 ^^ 440.8 346.2 132.25 103.87 36.128 «/i6 445.6 350.0 133.69 105.00 36.32s 96 4S0.5 353.8 135.14 106.14 36.521 >He 455. 3 357.6 136.60 107.28 36.717 M 460.2 .361.4 138.06 108.43 36.914 iMe 465.1 365.3 139-54 109.59 37.110 J6 470.1 369.2 141.02 no. 75 37.306 iMe 475. 373.1 142.50 III. 92 37 503 14© Mati'ri.ils Weights and Areas of Cold Rolled Steel Shafting Uiam- Area, Circum- Weight Diam- Area, Circum- Weight eter, square ference, per fool. eter. square ference, per foot. inches inches inches pounds 2*18 inches inches pounds M« .0276 .5890 .09s 3-7S«3 6.8722 12.80 M .0491 .7854 .167 2M 3.9761 7.0686 13 S3 9i. .0767 .9817 .260 2^8 4.2000 7.2749 14 35 H .1104 1.1781 -375 2H 4-4301 7-4613 IS 07 lit .IS03 I 3744 -5" 2ji« 4.6664 7-6576 IS.89 H .1963 1.5708 .667 2^ 4-9087 7.8540 16.70 ^6 .2485 I. 7671 -84s 2?l8 S-1572 8. 0503 17. 55 H .3068 1.963s I. OS aH S-4119 8.2467 18.41 >H« .3712 2.1598 1.26 2>H8 S-6727 8.4430 19.31 y* .4418 2.3562 I. SO 2H S-9396 8.6394 20.21 i^ie .5185 2.552s 1.77 2'M8 6.2126 8.8357 21.15 % .6013 2.7489 2.0S 2li 6.4918 9.0321 22.09 >?io .6903 2.9452 2.3s 2l$'i8 6.7771 9.2284 23.06 1 .7854 3.1416 2.68 3 7.0686 9.4248 240s iM. .8866 3.3379 3.02 M 7-6699 9-8I7S 26.09 iH .9940 3-5343 3.38 3^8 7-9798 10.014 37.16 1^8 I . I07S 3.7306 3-77 3'/4 8.2958 10.210 38.23 iV* I . 2272 3 9270 4-17 3H 8.9462 10.603 30.43 iMb I.3S30 4.1233 .4-61 3lU 9.2806 10.799 31.58 iW 1.4849 4.3197 S-OS 3W 9.6211 10.996 32.73 iM« 1.6230 4.S160 552 3H 10.321 11.388 35.20 m I. 7671 4.7124 6.0I 3' Ms 10.680 11.585 36.40 iMb 1.917s 4.9087 6.52 3?4 II. 04s ■ II. 781 37.57 iW 2.0739 S.iosi 7.06 3'/6 11.793 12.174 39.40 1>H8 2.236s S.3014 7.61 3>^8 12.177 12.370 41.04 i?4 2.40S3 S.4978 8.18 4 12.566 12.566 43.75 I'Me 2.5802 5-6941 8.78 4H 14.186 13-352 48.26 1% 2.7612 5 -890s 9-39 4?i8 15-466 13-941 52.62 ima 2.9483 6.0868 10.03 4!^ IS -904 14.137 54." 2 3.1416 6.2832 10.69 4H 17.728 14.923 60.88 2H8 3-34IO 6.4793 11-35 4'M8 19.147 15.512 65.50 2H 3.5466 6. 6759 12.07 S 19.635 15.708 67.45 Corrugated Iron Roofing 141 Sheet Iron Weight of a superficial foot. Number of Weight per Number of Weight per gauge foot gauge foot I II. 25 16= He 2.5 2 10,62s 17 2.1875 3=W 10.00 18 1.875 4 9.37s 19 1. 7188 5 8.7SO 20 1.5625 6 8. 125 21 I . 4063 7 7SO 22=!'^2 1.2500 8 6.875 23 1. 120 9 6.250 24 1. 000 10 S.62S 25 .900 11 = 5-8 S-ooo 26 .800 12 4-375 27 .720 13 3.750 28 .640 14 3- 125 29 .560 IS 2.8125 30 .500 Galvanized Sheet Iron Am. Galv. Iron Ass'n. B. W. G. No. Ounces avoir. per square foot Square feet per 2240 pounds No. Ounces avoir. per square foot Square feet per 2240 pounds No. Ounces avoir. per square foot Square feet per 2240 pounds 29 28 27 26 25 12 13 14 IS 16 2987 2757 2560 2389 2240 24 23 22 21 20 17 19 21 24 28 2108 1886 1706 1493 1280 19 18 17 16 14 33 38 43 48 60 1084 943 833 • 746 597 Corrugated Iron Roofing B. W. gauge Weight per square (100 square feet). Plain Galvanized Number 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 Pounds 97 los 128 ISO 185 270 340 Weighs from 5 to is per cent heavier than plain, accord- ing to the number B. W. G. Allow one-third the net width for lapping and for corrugations. 2^ to 3!^ pounds for rivets will be required per square. From 142 Malcriiils Sizes and Weight of Sheet Tin Mark iC iiC mC iX iXX iXXX... iXXXX DC DX DXX ... DXXX . DXXXX SDC SDX SDXX... SDXXX. iCW Number of sheets in box 22S 225 225 22s 225 22s 225 100 100 100 IOC 100 200 200 200 200 225 Dimension Length, inches 13W iM 1294 I3?4 I3?4 1394 13?4 mi mi mi mi mi IS 15 IS IS I3?4 Breadth, inches 94 10 10 I2>^ I2W 12!.^ 125.4 I2!-i Weight of box. pounds lOS 98 140 161 182 203 los 126 147 168 189 168 189 210 231 112 A bo.x containing 225 sheets, 1354 by 10, contains 214.84 square feet; but allowing for seams it will cover only 150 square feet of roof. A roof covered with metal should slope not less than i inch to the foot. Weights of Sheet Metals per Square Foot Thick- Wrought Cast Steel, Copper, Brass, Lead, Zinc. ness, inches iron, pounds iron, pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds Me 2.53 2.34 2.5s 2.89 2.73 3.71 2.34 H 5 OS 4.69 S.io 5-78 5.47 7-42 4-69 ^0 7.58 7.03 7.66 8.67 8.20 II -13 7-03 H 10.10 938 10.21 11.56 10:94 14-83 938 M. 12.63 11.72 12.76 14-45 13-67 18-54 11.72 H 15 l6 14.06 15-31 17-34 16.41 22.25 14.06 Ht 17.68 16.41 17.87 20.23 19- 14 25-96 16.41 H 20.21 18.75 20.42 23 13 21.88 29.67 18.7s H 25 27 23 44 25. S2 28.91 27.34 37-08 23.44 H 30.31 28.13 30.63 34 69 32.81 44 SO 28.13 Ji 35-37 32. 8l 35-73 40.47 38.28 SI 92 32.81 I 40.42 37. SO 40.83 46.25 43-75 59-33 37.50 Weight of Copper and Brass Wire and Plates 143 Weight of Copper and Brass Wire and Plates Brown and Sharpe Gauge. Weight of wire per Weight of plates per No. of Size of 1000 lineal feet square foot each no., gauge inch Copper, Brass, Copper, Brass, pounds pounds pounds pounds 0000 I .46000 640.5 605.28 20.84 19-69 000 .40964 508.0 479.91 18.55 17 S3 00 . 36480 402.0 380.77 16.52 IS 61 .32476 319-5 301.82 14-72 13 90 I .28930 253-3 239 45 13.10 12 38 2 .25763 200.9 189.82 11.67 II 03 3 .22942 159 3 150 .-52 10.39 9 82 4 .20431 126.4 119.48 9-25 8 74 5 .18194 100.2 94.67 8.24 7 79 6 . 16202 79-46 75.08 7.34 6 93 7 .14428 63.01 59-55 6.54 6 18 8 . 12849 49 98 47.22 5-82 5 SO 9 .11443 39-64 37-44 5-18 4 90 10 . 10189 31 43 29.69 4.62 4 36 II .090742 24.92 23.55 4-11 3 88 12 .080808 19.77 18.68 3.66 3 46 13 .071961 15-65 14.81 3.26 3 08 14 .064084 12.44 11-75 2.90 2 74 IS .057068 9.86 9-32 2.59 2 44 16 .050820 7-82 7.59 2.30 2 18 17 .045257 6.20 5.86 2.05 94 18 .040303 4-92 4-65 1.83 72 19 .035890 3-90 3.68 1.63 54 20 .031961 3 09 2.92 1.45 37 21 .028462 2.45 2.317 1.29 22 22 .025347 1.94 1.838 I. IS 08 23 .022571 1.54 1.457 1.02 966 24 .020100 1.22 1. 155 .911 860 25 .017900 • 699 .916 .811 766 26 .01494 .769 .727 .722 682 27 .014195 .610 .576 .643 608 28 .012641 .484 .457 .573 541 29 .011257 .383 .362 .510 482 30 .010025 .304 .287 .454 429 31 .008928 .241 .228 .404 382 32 .007950 .191 .181 .360 340 . 33 .007080 .152 .143 .321 303 34 .006304 .120 .114 .286 270 35 .005614 .096 .0915 .254 240 36 .005000 .0757 .0715 .226 214 37 .004453 .0600 .0567 .202 191 38 .003965 .0467 .0450 .180 170 39 .003531 .0375 ■ 0357 .160 ISI 40 .003144 .0299 .0283 .142 .I3S Specific gravity 8.880 8.386 8 698 8.218 Weight per cubic foot 555 524-16 543.6 S13.6 144 Mutcriak Weight of Sueet and Bar Brass Sheets Round 1 Sheets Square Round Thick- per bars Thick- per bars bars ness. square I foot ness, square 1 foot 1 fool inches foot, loHK, inches foot. long, Ions, pounds ■ Ol.s ;K^un(ls .01 1 i' 11 pounds pounds pounds M« 3.7 4S 95 4.08 3 ao H 5-41 .05.S .o.|5 1 I'h 48.69 4. 55 3 S7 ^9 8.12 .125 .1 l')i4 1.086 3.695 .3079 3.399 .2832 3.806 .3172 2% 1. 210 4. IIS .3429 3.786 .3155 4.238 .3532 2H 1. 341 4.560 .3800 4.19s .3496 4.697 .3014 2H 1.478 5.030 .4192 4.628 .3857 5. 181 .4317 2% 1.623 5.S07 .4589 5 066 .4222 S.672 .4727 2H 1.774 6.027 .5022 5.545 .4621 6.208 .5017 3 1. 931 6.56s .S47I S.940 .4950 6.762 .5635 3H 2.096 7 123 .5937 6.555 .5462 7.339 .6116 3H 2.267 7.700 .6417 7.084 .5903 7-931 .6609 3% 2.444 8.300 .6917 7.636 .6363 8.549 7124 ZVi 2.629 8.92s .7438 8. 211 .6926 9.193 .7661 35i 2.820 9.575 .7979 8.809 .7341 9.862 .8220 3% 3.018 10.27 .8523 9.448 .7873 10.58 .8817 3l/^ 19 19 20 20 * Coppered Market Wire and Coppered Bessemer Spring Wire take same list prices as Bright Market Wire. 148 Ma(cri;il.s Nails and Tacks < oiiuii'jii Wire N.u! Measured by \S'ashburn & Mocn Gauge Size Length and gauge Approx. , Inch No. pound 2d I IS 876 3d lU 14 S68 4d iMi I2!i 316 Sd m 12h 271 6d 2 11! -J 281 7d 2W n!-v 161 8d 2\i loU 106 9d 2H loU 96 lod 3 9 69 1 2d iV* 9 63 i6d SH 8 49 20d 4 6 31 3od 4'A 5 24 4od 5 4 18 sod sH 3 14 6oH» 1600 iM ^. 10,666 12 H 1333 2 M 8,000 14 '^« 1143 2\.\ M. 6,400 16 % 1000 3 H S.333 18 >M« 888 4 Mo 40,000 20 I 800 6 ^a 2,666 22 iMb 727 8 % 2,000 24 1^ 666 United States Standard Threads United States Standard Threads 149 Nominal diameter of screw, inches No. of threads per inch Diameter of tap at root of thread Size of tap drill, giving a clearance of i-i the height of the original thread triangle Area at root of thread, square inches Safe load on threaded bolt on basis of 6000 pounds stress per sq. in. of section at Inches Nearest 64ths Inches Nearest 64ths root of thread, pounds H .250 20 .185 ?16 - .196 '3/64- .027 162 Me .312 18 .240 15-64 + .252 1/4 + .045 270 % .375 16 .294 1^64- .307 Via — .068 408 •'M .437 14 .345 M42 + .360 2%4 + .093 558 H .500 13 .400 1?42- .417 2J64- .126 756 ^Ae .562 12 .454 2?64 + .472 1542 + .162 997 n .62s II .507 1/i + .527 ^%2- .202 1,210 iMe .687 II .569 ?i5 + .589 l?i2- .254 1,520 H .750 10 .620 % - .642 *Hi + .302 1,810 1^6 .812 10 .683 iHe- .704 *%4 + .366 2,190 ■'A .875 9 .731 *'Ai- .755 3/4 + .420 2,520 1^6 .937 9 .793 5^4- .817 13/'16 + .494 2,960 I 1. 000 8 .838 21:^2- .865 55/64 + .551 3.300 iHe 1.062 8 .900 2932- .927 5?64 + .636 3,810 iH 1. 125 7 .939 1^6 + .970 31/^2 + .694 4,160 . 1^6 1. 187 7 1.002 I + 1.032 l!'^2 + .788 4,720 iH 1.250 7 1.064 1M5 + 1.095 l3/fe + .893 5,350 iH 1.375 6 1. 158 I5i2 + I. 215 ij;i2 - I.OS7 6,340 i\i l.Soo 6 1.283 l%2 + 1.345 lH/i2 + 1.295 7.770 iH 1.625 5'/-2 1.389 125/64- 1.428 I2%4 + 1.51S 9,090 m 1.750 5 1.490 13164 + 1.534 117/^2 + 1.746 10,470 1% 1.87s 5 1. 615 13 964 + 1.659 l2I/^2 + 2.051 12,300 2 2.000 4H 1. 711 12 3/^2- 1.760 l*%i- 2.302 13,800 214 2.250 Ali 1. 961 16I/64 + 2.010 21-64 - 3.023 18,100 2H 2.500 4 2.175 211/64 + 2.230 215.64- 3.719 22,300 2% 2.750 4 2.425 22%4 + 2.480 231/64- 4.620 27,700 3 3-000 3I/6 2.629 2H + 2.691 211/16 + 5.428 32,500 354 3-250 3M2 2.879 2^/8 + 2.941 21^6 + 6.510 39.000 3H 3- 500 3H 3.100 33/^2 + 3.167 3i'/64- 7.548 45,300 3% 3 750 3 3.317 3^6 + 3.389 325/64- 8.641 SI. 800 4 4.000 3 3.567 3^6 + 3.639 3*'/64- 9.963 59.700 I50 Materials JB CO 1 1 •UI -bs jod •sqi OOO'OI )v » M ri "^ ■* "^ **> * O « JO 1^ O jj Q t "O •UI -b* iad 'sqi ooSi IV 1 •UI 'Ijs »d' -sqi ooo'oi ^v •UI -bs JDd* •sqi ooSi JV «• - « c, -^ ^ « r: rf. -■ ;j uj« Jj 5 g.^ 5 a s •ui -bs jad •sqi ooS'ii IV •UI -bs J3d •sqi ooS'zi IV •UI -bs J3d ■sqi ooo'oi ;v < JO uiOMOg S i>8 8- 2 "S 8 ft ^ K^'g g S" « ? ? ft S ;i5 ««MM««.^r^* v.og ?&s:?2'S^ft?5'SS;S's^'&&%'R^s;S.5 «««•«■«■« r^ r^ ^ « \ri \n \fi Nioi>. dio »o »o tn tn m 1 s pKJjqi JO uio;;oa liirillBlilfllllilsl -;»;„„«»-■«•«« ^|gis = sii^?^SH'Ss^i§i: iHM»i-i»i-ir4NnnMr>jrofO-0«'*<000 >-if»)l/5t~O>i->IO00C1 Mi-Jl-jMMCIM'citiNcifOfOW'T 1 qoui jad sprajqx Ifl lO lO oco^ -j-roM M o o>oo t-t- lo in m in in iflKii^ro vontnt^ Mil-. r~ r»iot~ xn m Nr*)ro.tti/5io(or-oo HI n r.i « « « ei M United States Standard Bolts and Nuts 151 ^ioiovo"difOt~*Nr*ioN N 10 "O t-- 00 c^ I w -^ 10 t>- a» M 00 o^oo o*r*r^"^'*^o%c?*»oo Oi-.i-i5-<3-t^ioiO'^" «.«.. t*-Q000CTtlOi-i o »-< ^fONMrfoCNodlOt^t^N-^ C^M roiOt-*O^N ^r^Qf^t^O wi-iMM(NC(C»rorOfO'^ VO lO^lOMOO^OO ^t-tOO lOT rMO^O M i-H (N loiot^oo -^OOO tCi-r^QO-rtM(^fClCo%dlOOO ^OOO 0*0 - Ttioio*ooifOt^ofrCiocf<>Jo iot-t cs -^lot^o^M ro MMMihMMWN r*w M n o^N lotoo^iooo o t* t>-OiO*MW do 0»OTtt^NTl- WO '*^0*rO'^N»0 r>-tO lOQ^ ':flOlOVOO>rot-(S t~*lON « O 10*0 r*0O 0»M N Tfiot-^crkt-i fO MI-IIHI-tlHI-t(N(N ^00 t-c t-^TTPOroioOior^N fO 00 lOM ^VOO -rfO »Ot-00 t--'^ ^O^ri rj-^ooo O f^ roi-iO>Ot^ t^coo»M w Tj-ior^o^M fvjiooo l-lOC^ t-lON l>.lON M QOt^^DlOrO(NM OOt^tO rOlOvOOOON'ttOOO MfOiO W N N ci POrorOfOrO'^'^Tt-'^ N10t>> MIOt>> MIOt* fOfO(OrO'^^Tf'*tio»o»oio*o 00 ^ fO IN lO ^_^ X ,« « Ht ro t^ ts 1- t- 01 ^ n M fO CO PO to -* Tf "i- T •* 10 10 <) M ^J „ M -N M » t^ r^ r^oo n VO t^ t~ 00 00 cr> 01 " M M M 2 N m IS „ ^ ^ 0 >£> «^ r~ r~oo 00 o> o> <0 fOt^-MloOOtN^ fOt^iH -<3-io»oio^ioio t^t^ooodod 0% lo »o 10 10 »o t^ 10 (s t^ r-^ to >otoc< oot^^ioiOfOroN f^ fo po fo r*^ M f? cT'8 5^ s" I^ !^;? 0000 cr>b o «-• ci ^^-rlot*odc^p^J jj ;?s'!^2.!55 8a^&^8sia^8 foftvS SvN'S ^IS2 iC^lJooRS lOioi/^u^O'O t^t^oooo a>o O ^ N OO OOOiOi'JOi^OO"^ OJ3 & •s-fi R g s.s 5 ti 3 bj H O O O w^ w^ i/^ o% pcaq jspun (saqon;) q;3aaq •€ -^ Cap Screws i6i Fig. 46. On all screws of one inch and less in diameter, and less than four inches long, threads are cut f of the length. Beyond four inches, threads are cut half the length. Regular cap screws are soft and have ground heads. Special prices on black heads, extra finished and case hardened screws. Cap screws with over-sized heads take the list of regular cap screws with the same-sized heads. Price of steel screws will be 25 per cent above the price of iron. U)2 Materials Drop-Fokged Turn-Buckles yYithOft Stubs Fig. 47. With right and left U. S. Standard thread. List prices with and without stubs. Diameter of stub, inches Inside opening Length over all of buckle. (including Each inches stubs), inches y* 3 14 $0.36 ^. 3 14 .38 H S jgH • 40 lU S 19H .42 Vi 6 21 • 45 Vi 9 24 .56 9^« 6 22 .48 5i 6 23 • SO 5i 9 26 .63 % 6 23 .63 H 9 26 ■79 ?6 6 23 ■ 75 ^i 9 26 ■94 I 6 23 .88 I 9 26 1. 10 i\i 6 24 1.00 iH 9 27 I2S iH 6 25 I 25 iM 9 28 I^S6 iH 6 26 1.38 iH 9 29 I 73 iH 6 26 i^So lyi 9 29 1.88 iH 6 26 1.75 iH 6 27 2.00 1% 6 28 2.25 2 6 29 2.6s Drop-Forged Turn-Buckles Drop-Forged Turn-Buckles 163 With One Eye anal One Hook W!ih Two Eyes (6)^^^^ Q •£ OC lO ; N f^ f^ T'O v; : : : : :^8Ra8 ^ :::::: J?«S?,S u -J' : :c2 8 8 %<8 8 8 8 8 8 •c : : s ^-SS S"8 Sf, ^^"ft J3 N : :S!8'(?288RRa C : :2 S;i?£:8 ^^ foR N ^8 2 8&i6 H 5/16 H Vts H 9l6 % H Threads per inch 40 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 II 10 f H $3.20 1- 5.60 $4.10 $4.80 Ss.go H 3. 40 J. 80 4 30 S.oo 6.10 $7.60 S9.50 811.70 ?4 3- 5o too 4 so S.20 6.40 8.00 10.00 12.40 OJ I 3. So t.2o 4 70 5.50 6.80 8.50 10.60 13.10 $16.00 $23. 10 X iV4 4- XI »-4o 4 90 5. 80 7.20 9.00 11.20 13.80 16.80 24.40 C i!-^ 4- 20 t.6o s 10 6.20 7.60 9.50 11.90 14.60 17.80 23.80 •d 1% 1.80 5 40 6.60 8.10 10.10 12.60 15.50 18.80 27.20 g 2 >oo 5 70 7.00 8.60 10.70 1.^.30 16.40 19.90 28.60 J3 •0 2H ... 6 10 7.40 9.20 11.40 14.10 17.30 21.00 30.10 2H ... 6 so 7.90 9.80 12.10 14.90 18.30 22.10 31.60 a ;3 2% ... 6 90 8.40 10.40 12.80 15.80 19.30 23.30 33.10 X 3 ... 7 40 8.90 11.00 13 so 16.70 20.30 24.50 34.70 ti 3H 10.00 12.30 IS- 10 18.50 22.50 27.00 38.10 c 4 11.20 13.80 16.90 20.50 24.80 29.70 41.50 hJ 4V4 15-40 18.70 22.70 27.40 32.70 45 .20 5 17.00 20.70 25.20 30.. 30 36.00 49.60 S^ 18.80 22.90 27.80 3330 3960 S4-30 L6 30.40 36.60 43.60 60.00 i66 Materials Round Ukau Ikon Rivets Approximate number in one pound. Diameter of wire Length, inches W o ^io I 2 3 y* 4 5 6 %e 7 8 9 H 154 188 221 2S6 3.M M 32 42 SI 57 6s' 7S 80 89 108 131 IS9 I8S 21S 278 H 29 37 4S SO S7 67 70 78 94 114 138 158 I8S 238 H 26 33 41 4S SI S9 63 70 84 lOI 123 139 163 ao8 H 24 30 37 41 46 S4 S7 63 75 91 109 123 I4S 185 I 23 28 34 39 42 49 S2 57 68 82 98 III 131 166 iH 20 26 31 34 39 4S 47 S3 63 75 90 101 119 151 m 19 24 29 32 36 42 44 49 58 69 83 93 109 138 iH i8 33 37 29 33 39 41 45 54 64 76 86 lOI 127 IW 17 31 3S 38 31 37 38 42 51 59 71 80 94 119 iH IS I8 33 24 27 33 34 40 44 55 63 70 83 104 3 13 17 30 22 2S 29 30 35 40 47 S6 62 73 92 2H 12 15 i8 19 22 37 28 33 36 42 SO S6 66 83 2W II 14 17 18 20 24 2S 39 33 39 46 SO 60 75 2?< lO 13 IS 17 19 22 23 36 30 36 43 46 55 67 3 9 13 14 IS 17 21 23 24 28 33 39 43 SI 64 3M m II 13 14 16 19 30 33 26 31 36 40 47 59 zVi 8 loH 12 13Vi' IS 18 19 21 24 29 34 38 44 55 3?4 7H 9?i 11% 12% 14 17 18 20 23 27 32 35 41 52 4 7H 9H II 12 13 16 17 18 21 25 30 33 38 49 4H 7 8^ I0V2 iiH 12% IS 16 17 20 24 4V^ 6)^ 8^4 10 10% 12 14 IS 16 19 23 4% 6M 8 9V4 10 IlH 13% 14% 15% 18 23 5 6 7H 9 9% II 13 14 15 17 21 SH 5^4 7K4 SH 9H loV^ I2H i3Vi I4V^ 16H 20 SW SH 7 8M 9 10 12 13 14 16 19 5^4 sH 6^ 7^4 8H 9H iiV^ I2Vi 13H 15 18 6 5 6H 7V^ m 9H II 12 13 14 17 3VS cents per pound, net. Dimensions of Standard Wrot Pipe 167 Dimensions of Standard Wrot Pipe (U x: "O CL-rl ."2 -1 0) 3 u •0.2 ^ (U Oi 1 "0 J3 XI 2 c "3 fe 11 r 1 .2 IS ^ p. H ■So ° .ill Q ^ t; "o 1 „ E ■§ £ 6 a S 1 < J3 "! p. Qo Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. H .269 • 40s H + W2 .068 27 • 334 21/^4 • 19 •393 .27 H .364 .54 >/^ + H2 .088 18 .433 Me • 29 • 522 .36 H .493 .675 'Me .091 18 .567 ?i6 • 3 • 658 .49 H .622 .84 1 fie +1^2 .109 14 .701 1Mb • 39 • 81S .62 % .824 105 iHe • 113 14 .911 2%2 • 4 1.025 .82 I 1.047 I.31S iMe .134 Il'/4 1. 144 15^2 • SI 1.283 I OS iM 1.38 1.66 iiHe .140 III,^ 1.488 I>%2 .54 1.627 1^38 ij^ 1. 61 1.90 I»5i6 ■ 145 \\Vi 1.727 I^H2 .55 1.866 1. 61 2 2.067 2.375 2% .154 iiVi 2.2 2%2 • S8 2.339 2.07 2^ 2.467 2.87s 2li .204 8 2.62 2H .89 2.82 2.47 3 3.066 3SO zVi .217 8 3-24 3M •95 3.441 3 07 M 3.548 4.00 4 .226 8 3.738 32J^2 I 3.938 3^55 4 4.026 4.50 4Vi .237 8 4.233 4M I •OS 4-434 4.07 4H 4.508 5. 00 5 .246 8 4.733 4?i I.I 4.931 4. SI S 5.04s 5.563 S^-ie .259 8 5 289 S%2 i.i5 5.489 S 04 6 6.06s 6.62s 65^ .280 8 6 347 61^2 1.26 6.547 6.06 7 7.023 7.62s 7H .301 8 734 7"/i2 1.36 7.54 7.02 8 7.981 8.62s 85i .322 8 8^332 81^2 1.46 8^534 7.98 9 8.937 9.62s 956 • 344 8 9.324 9?i 156 9 527 8.93 10 10.018 10.75 10% .366 8 10.445 loMs 1.68 10.645 10.02 II II 11.75 iiM .375 8 II 439 iiMe 1.80 11.639 11 12 12 12.75 12% ■ 375 8 12.433 I22%4 1.90 12.633 12 13 13.25 14 14 375 8 13 675 13* %4 1.98 13.875 13.25 14 14.2s 15 15 .375 8 14^668 142^^2 2. IS 14.869 14.2s IS 15.2s 16 16 • 375 8 15 662 152^2 2.21 15.863 15 25 16 16.25 17 17 .375 8 16.656 162^2 2.30 16.856 16.25 17 17.25 18 18 .375 8 17 65 1721/^2 2.40 17.85 17-25 18 18.25 19 19 • 375 8 18.644 18* •^4 2.50 18.844 18.25 19 19.25 20 20 .375 8 19 637 19?6 2.59 19 837 19 .25 20 20.25 21 21 • 375 8 20.631 20H 2.72 20.831 20.25 Taper of conical tube ends ^4 inch in diameter in 12 inches. Contributed by Louis H. Frick. No. 74, Extra Data Sheet, Machinery, October, 1907. Seamless drawn brass and copper tubes are made by American Tube Works, Boston, Mass.; Ansonia Brass and Copper Co., Ansonia, Conn., office 19 and 21 Cliff St., New York; Benedict & Burnham Mfg. Co., Waterbury, Conn., oflSce 13 Murray St., New York; Randolph & Clowes, Waterbury, Conn., and Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport, Conn. The following sizes are kept in stock, in 12 feet lengths, by Merchant & Co., 517 Arch St., Philadelphia. The five columns signify as follows: A = outside diameter of tube in inches. i6S Mali-rials B = thickness of side by Stubs' (or Birmingham) gauge. When seamless tubes are ordered to gauge number, it is un w i8 .049 .11 m 13 09s 1.68 13 J. 03 ^u i8 .049 IS iH II 120 2.10 2',i 10 .134 3.68 96 17 .058 .23 i9< IS 072 1.40 2H 14 083 2 44 ''M 17 .058 ■25 l94 14 083 1. 61 2H 13 .109 3.18 W 17 .058 • 29 I?4 13 09s 1.82 2H 10 ■ 134 3.87 Mo 17 .058 •34 iVa II 120 2.27 294 14 .083 2 57 H i6 .06s ■ 42 m IS 072 I so 29« 12 .109 3 37 ?4 i6 .06s • SI m 14 083 I 72 294 10 • 134 4 07 76 i6 .06s .61 m 13 09s 1.96 2>A 12 .109 3. SO I i6 .06s • 70 1-6 II 120 2 41 2% 10 ■ 134 4.26 i>4 i6 .065 • 70 ^ M 3 10 .134 4.46 iW l6 .06s .88 1 i .?M 10 ■ 134 4 8s iW 14 .083 1. 12 -' 10 I 3'/4 10 • 134 S.24 I'/i II .120 1.S7 21,6 14 0S3 1-97 1 394 10 ■ 134 S.63 i}6 15 .072 1.08 2H 13 09s 2.23 4 10 .134 6.00 m 14 .083 I 25 2H 10 134 3 10 4^ 10 ■ 134 6.39 iH II .120 1.76 2\\ 14 083 2.08 ' 4^^ TO .134 G.78 iVi IS .072 1. 19 2\\ 13 09s 2.38 1 494 10 ■ 134 717 i4 14 .083 1.36 2M 10 134 3 29 5 10 • 134 756 i5^ 13 .09s l.SS 2?i 14 083 2.20 sH 10 -134 7.94 iH II .120 1,92 2?6 13 09s 2. SI Slri 10 ■ 134 8.33 i-H IS .072 1.29 2ji 10 134 3-49 S94 10 .134 8.72 1^8 14 .083 1.48 2).^ 14 083 2.33 6 10 ■ 134 9.11 Merchant & Co. supply sizes up to 7 inchis ouij-idc <>r inside diameter, and up to 16 inches inside diameter, of other gauges as well as those given in the table; also tubes of special shapes, such as square, triangular, octagonal, etc.; and bronze tubes. They also have in stock, in lengths of 12 feet, the following sizes of seamless brass and copper tubing, made of same outside diameter as standard sizes of iron piping, so as to be used with the same fittings as the iron pipe. A = nominal inside diameter of iron pipe, in inches. For actual inside diameters. B = outside diameter of iron pipe and of seamless tube, in inches. C = inside diameter of seamless tube, in inches. D = weight per foot of bra^s pipe. cols. B and C. For copper, add one-nineteenth. Tin and Zinc 169 A B C D A jB C £> A B C D H 1%2 M .28 % iHe 27/^2 1. 15 2 2^ 2M6 4. IS V* 1^^2 >)^2 .43 I 1^6 \%2 I 50 2V2. 2ji 2^8 4. SO H ni2 15^2 .58 iM iH lH/^2 2.25 3 3H 3Ma 8.00 Vi 1^6 ?i .80 1K2 I7,^ I'%2 2.55 4 4!^ 45^ 12.24 TIN AND ZINC The pure metal is called block tin, — When perfectly pure (which it rarely is, being purposely adulterated, frequently to a large proportion, with the cheaper metals lead or zinc), its specific gravity is 7.29; and its weight per cubic foot is 455 pounds. It is sufficiently malleable to be beaten into tin foil, only Hooo of in inch thick. Its tensile strength is but about 4600 pounds per square inch; or about 7000 pounds when made into wire. It melts at the moderate temperature of 442° F. Pure block tin is not used for common building purposes; but thin plates of sheet iron covered with it on both sides constitute the tinned plates, or, as they are called, the tin, used for covering roofs, rain pipes and many domestic utensils. For roofs it is laid on boards. The sheets of tin are united as shown in this Fig. First, several sheets are joined together in the shop, end for end, as at tt, by being first bent over, then hammered flat, and then soldered. ^t These are then formed into a roll to be carried to the roof, a roll being long enough to reach from the peak to the eaves. Dif- FiG. 51. ferent rolls being spread up and down the roof are then united along their sides by simply being bent as at a and s, by a tool for that purpose. The roofers call the bending at .y a double groove, or double lock; and the more simple ones at t, a single groove, or lock. To hold the tin securelj^ to the sheeting boards, pieces of the tin 3 or 4 inches long, by 2 inches wide, called cleats, are nailed to the boards at about every 18 inches along the joints of the rolls that are to be united, and are bent over with the double groove 5. This will be understood from y, where the middle piece is the cleat, before being bent over. The nails should be 4-penny slating nails, which have broader heads than common ones. As they are not exposed to the weather, they may be of plain iron. lyo MaU-riaLs Miidi use is made of what is called leaded tin, or terncs, for roofing. It i.i simply sheet iron coated with lead, instead of the more costly metal I in. It is not Jis durable as the tinned sheets, but is somewhat cheaper. The best plates, Iwth for tinning and for terncs, are made of charcoal iron, which, being tough, bears bending better. Coke is used for I hcaper plates, but inferior as regards bending. In giving orders, it is inii>ortant to specify whether charcoal plates or coke ones are required; also whether liniicd plates, or tcriics. Tinned and leaded sheets of IJesscmcr and other cheap steel are now much used. They are sold at ai>out the price of charcoal tin and teme plates. There are also in use for roofing, certain compound metals which resist tarnish better than either lead, tin, or zinc but which are so fusible as to be liable to be melted by large burning cinders falling on the roof from a neighboring conflagration. A roof covered with tin or other metal should, if possible, slope not much less than five degrees, or about an inch to a foot; and at the eaves there should be a sudden fall into the rain-gutter, to prevent rain from backing up so as to overtop the double-groove joint s, and thus cause leaks. When coal is used for fuel, tin roofs should receive two coats of paint when first put up, and a coat at every 2 or 3 years after. Where wood only is used, this is not necessary; and a tin roof, with a good pitch, will last 20 or 30 years. Two good workmen can put on, and paint outside, from 250 to 300 square feet of tin roof, per day of 8 hours. Tinned iron plates are sold by the box. These boxes, unlike glass, have not equal areas of contents. They may be designated or ordered either by their names or sizes. Many makers, however, have their private brands in addition; and some of these have a much higher reputation than others. Sizes and Weights of Lead Pipes Sizes and Weights of Lead Pipes 171 Inner diameter. Thickness, Weight per Inner diameter. Thickness, Weight per inches inches foot, ounces inches inches foot, pounds H .08 .10 Pounds m .14 3.5 % .12 1.00 m .17 4.2s % .16 1. 25 iH .19 5. 00 % •19 1-5 iV^ .23 6.5 Vi .09 .75 iw .27 8.0 Vi .11 I.O l3/4 .13 4.0 Vi .13 1.25 l3/4 .17 5.0 Vi. .16 1.75 l3/4 .21 6.5 Vi • 19 2.0 1% .27 8.5 Vi .25 3.0 2 ■ IS 4.75 H .09 1.0 2 .18 6.0 H • 13 IS 2 .22 7.0 5i .16 2.0 2 .27 9.0 H .20 2.5 2I/2 ?i6 8.0 H .22 2.75 21.^2 W II. W .25 35 2^2 M6 14.0 ¥* .10 1.25 2\^. 3/^ 17.0 % .12 1-75 3 ^/-ie 9.0 H .16 2.25 3 H 12.0 H .20 3.0 3 Me 16.0 % .23 3.5 3 % 20.0 H ■ 30 4.75 3'/2 Me 95 I .11 2.0 3^2 H iS.o I .14 2.5 3\'i Me 18.S I ■ 17 3.25 Z\j 8 e < & - « « « S) 2;r.;. .• ■ ' T (» to -«»-»• sM .«t s«« -^r ^m ~t> r>>cor0v><0<0a00>0000 it 8 « « « « « - rt- _-» 0» - B rr _-. rt. o « « « « •^ >» «(T^ ^* ^r- 2* N- -*- f?" vff* -.^ 1 X o " * * "t.^ "^~ M ^ 'm *« "ri" n "i^ « or^ •!»» M (-X .>\ -^ .(jv n rt^ md^ w*\ MMMf«r«f«r«}^ :?: :? c* « • M M M M M >~i « e « « > « — rt .-WN 1,-. p-s or- t«.v w- o"-^ r-^ ofs -^. •^ i?t ^oe rt""vflo nJ2 V— ^ sf* ^ saD s^ M |»N M rt^ O^ wv (•js .^s. ^ ,iX ^yv MMN«ciMnrorO'^ "^ o i S (3 a: vt^ «f3N fct^ c^ r-"^ *.r- rt^ r»x to^ r*N v^ .^ o ts. ^,2 sS nC NT? -^ v« >3 ^ s« r-N CN r-."^ rts f,^ ^N MS r^ Ks .Js fej • « ■* <« <« -• -rfvv*rtsvfSrtNvp«r-N-Js^r-*« M e^« »(rse« -^lo — K^i -^Js. ,-,MMMMC«T*f*5ro Q U rfs. -sM -^ «iT^ ^ *49 r-'s V* -Jv V- ■^ cJ^ CQ %40 .^ s^ t*N. V- •''^ N-* '^ o^* "^ **^ f*^ «9S ^ f^ M W3^ M KS «JS ^ MT^> C« *■ '^ i 250 500 I.OOO 2,0O0 3.0CX) 4.000 6,ooo 8,ooo 12,000 i6,ooo 3O.0OO 1 w M ^8 aM 496 4H 3 3H 3H 1^8 V4 1J6 Mn 3 3H 2H 1^18 y* i^ Mb 3^i 3Mi 2' Mb iH 191 8 Vi 7V4 7'^ Mb 34 4 7/6 I 2J6 sM 3% iH 191 8 91 8 2H 2!^ Mb 3M i4 ^V* s94 4V6 iV* 1>H8 9l8 2^ 296 M 44 496 96 34 'M« lH8 3918 6 496 iH i'Mb 91 8 2V^ 296 V4 44 s 96 394 I iH ,3^4 6H 496 iH 2M8 96 3 294 M 4H 596 96 3J4 iM«i 1^8 374 674 47/6 iV4 2H8 96 3 294 y* S S96 96 4 iH iM 4Vi 7J^ .s'/6 i94 2516 7/1* 3W 3M 9l8 54 6 94 44 1^. lM8 4% 7H .■596 i94 2918 7/1 • 3W 3H 9l8 594 64 94 aH iW m 4918 8V6 .s94 l7/6 27/8 7/l8 394 34 9l8 6 696 94 494 1^8 iMb 4% 8% .s74 l7/6 2^6 w 394 3V^ 91 8 6K4 694 94 4'/* 1% iV^ 5 8% 6H 2 2«H8 H 4 34 91b 64 74 7/6 sH I^/iB l9i8 s9l6 9 6H 2 2lM« H 4 34 9l8 694 796 7/6 S94 IH l54 $H 44 96 74 84 64 I'Me i'Mb 6 io9i 794 2^ 37/18 96 5 44 96 794 894 64 1^4 I'/i 6K4 ii96 8 294 ,3'M8 >M6 sVi S 7/1* 8 94 696 I>M6 I«M8 6^8 11^ 8M 294 .3' Mb >Mb ■SW $ 7.1 8 84 996 64 1^4 2 6>Me iiH 8^ 294 .3' Mb 'Mb .s!^ 5 7/1* 84 996 i4 694 i»5<« 2M« 67/6 12 894 294 3' Mb >Mb SW 5 7/1* 894 gi'A i4 674 No. 33, Supplement to Machinery, June, 1904. Table for Eye Bolts 175 Table for Eye Bolts (Contributed by H. A. H.) / ..-^ ::^ J3 T3 01 g (i "£ B ■3 •W N •a '5 ^ v^ -^. lU ^ 3 r» £ M^ 1 r-^ ' ^S| J3 S §i 1 ^SJ 1 ^i t -^ •^ S- i^p "o u 4) 4J J3 II o>§ 5-a Fig. ss. J3 B 3 lU a; 2; A B c D E F G W C/3 .375 2 .75 .625 .1875 .375 .25 16 677 750 .5 2.125 I .75 .25 .5 .3125 13 1.257 1. 172 .62s 2.25 1. 25 I .3125 .625 .4375 II 2,018 2,296 ■ 75 2.375 I 4375 1. 125 .3125 .6875 .5 10 3.020 3.000 .875 2.5 1.6875 1.375 .375 .75 .62s 9 4.194 4.687 I 2.75 1.875 1.5 .4875 .875 .75 8 5.509 6,7So 1. 125 2.875 2. 125 1.625 .5 I .8125 7 6,931 7.921 1.25 3 2.375 1.75 ■ 5 I.I2S .875 7 8,899 9.188 1. 375 3.125 2.62s 1.87s .5625 I. 1875 I 6 10,541 12,000 i-S 3-25 2.75 2 .625 1.25 1.062s 6 12,938 13.546 1.625 3.375 3 2.125 .6825 1-375 1. 125 5.5 15,149 IS.187 1-75 35 3.23 2.25 .75 1.5 1.25 5 17.441 I8.7SO I 875 3.625 35 2.375 .8125 1.62s I. 3125 5 20.490 20,671 2 3-75 3.75 2.5 ■ 875 1.75 1.375 4-5 23,001 22,686 176 Materials SrROf-Ki T WiiKi i.s loK Okuinary Link Chains ff-4 Section E-F. Pitch Chain Sheave. a" =,33. (HOtte Pag.S02-I) di-y.. i^y--:, Fig. 56. Sprocket Wheels for Ordinary Link Chains 177 ^^ c;S;S;;S;SjS:5:5xxx:5ss :::::: 1— 1 K Si^;S;§;i;:^;S3J2^:S:i^:S:S:S:SS;f:l.f;f r* CJ a! s .2 •0 II OONro■^^DQO'-'^o■rJ-l/l^^ooa^lOI>•0 • • w OOt^'OroOiO'HC^t^'^'NOOOoOrOt^ • • NW'<4-I>0fO00"<1-^O^-it-*C0 • • ^ ioint^CT.i-irot^Hifouor-a»MroMii^a^^ • IH Ss 00000 •-< N rOiOt^oo M (Nro-^O^IHrot;!-. ro 5= O^O^rOoO IH ION l/lOO NO "^CTiO ^O^t-t OOOOOiO •-< N "^^O t^OOOvO M NtOOMlOOO Mi-iHiMMMMMMNNOiNrOrorO 2 0° t^t^OO 00 t-t "^tOO t-00 OiO '-' "^"OOO N 10 h^Mt-IMIHMMMWod >- N n' ro-^o t-^cr»i-< fo MMMMI-lMlHMMtHOIW t^ 10 O^'^OO'ClOO MOO ■*!-< t^'d-O'^00 M»C»0 loioO'O t-< r^oo lOMt-Moo ^*o c^aifoo ^■^loio^o t^o»o%o '-' *-• N 'Tj- in^o a>o -" O<7.»OU0(r)M OCTiOOi-10000%10 0000 rooo r^oo t^r-C4 i>.(n t--i-i^D'0 lou^ta-o^ POrOTfrriOlTO t^OOoO C". O^O O M ioc>iorrNoo fCron-'a-'^'VioO'O t^t^oooooo m n fO^o II II d Z II 3 < J5 M MMi-iMMi-iNNCtNconcororo-a-ioin l-(i-iMi-(NNNPlfOCOn'»-!)--*-»lO<0 Materials K jg »t^ « f*' pf ■■#♦■•■ w- -rf\ w- w^, ws .rfv .x •rf^ M S J- ^ ;r ;? J' .? :2t ;f :;, 31 31 :?, i". 3J * 5 f J :g U V B s •5 u 'S, II - n as JJS 5i?.8 2 S S"*^ 35i4 ::::::::: : ff l-I^O0CO'-'«T'»O T-TOOO'^I^'^. 0»r< ■S-iS 8 5i?Sra,'fti^ :::!:::::: « «ooo«>ni~«? • MiNX««e«r<5!«jr>>§ & J % 88aR<^52 giSRi? J:J:?S ff!?ft5?'ft?ig :::::::: ■8 5" V, 'ft o*o*o»ovcSoooooowwoooo J? •* % g'S'g = S S"^ ■!?,?:; ft SI? t?;Jd?S ?!"8 ^i^%^i :::::: ff 00 gS?ft:?^5"SS'§'8 !? .... o> pj Mi-ii-ii-iiH«M«cic*Nr^r*5<*5ro • • • • 00 "b iHMi-ii-ii-iMf^ciCinNCir^rjrO'^ • • • n II J3 1 6 ■z J) C < « « to J2 P«JS X-- NflC NT- v^ ttf^ >^ ^r* xfl -Js v« ^ ^ Vf N^ S?P N.« J3 c .S II "o -J C (!?l ^ p^s ^ -5^ h.'^ ^ 2v rt^ —N ^jv ^ iJv ^ .Js Sx II II " e e o B Pf\ ■Ws. 10V ev^' K\ P^ OTv w^ M n^ M Ks M *^ ^^ (4^ i^v ^ Transmission or vStanding Cables Pliable Hoisting Rope With 6 strands of 19 wires each. 179 Trade num- ber Diam- eter Cir- cum- ference in inches Weight per foot in lbs. with hemp center Breaking strain in tons of 2000 pounds Proper working load in tons of 2000 pounds Circumfer- ence of Manila rope of equal strength Minimum size of drum or sheave in feet Iron Steel Iron Steel Iron Steel Iron Steel I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 loH 10!.^ loH loa 10J6 2H 2 m i^ m m 1 H H 9ia H Me H 6?^ 6.0 S-S S.o 4-75 4.38 4.0 3.S 3.13 2. 75 2.25 2.0 1.63 1.5 1.38 1-25 8.00 6.3 5.25 4.10 3.65 3.00 2.5 2.0 1. 58 1.20 0.88 0.60 0.44 0.35 0.29 0,26 74.0 65.0 54.0 44 -o 39.0 33.0 27.0 20.0 16.0 11.5 8.64 5.13 4.27 3.48 3.00 2.50 155. 125.0 106.0 86.0 77.0 63.0 52.0 42.0 33.0 25. 18.0 12,0 9.0 7.0 5.5 4-5 15.0 13.0 no 9.0 8.0 6.5 55 4.0 3.0 2.5 1.75 1.25 0.7s 0.5 0.38 0.25 31.0 25.0 21.0 17.0 15.0 12.0 10. 8.0 6.0 5.0 35 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.7S 0.5 14.0 13.0 12.0 II. 10. 9-5 8.5 7-5 6.5 5. 5 4.75 3.7s 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.5 15.0 14.0 13.0 12.0 II. 9.5 8.S 7.0 5.7s 5.0 4.5 3-75 3.5 13.0 12.0 10.0 8.5 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5 25 4.5 4.0 35 2.75 2.25 2.0 IS 8.S 8.0 7 25 6.25 5.75 55 5.0 45 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.2s 1. 75 IS I 25 1.0 Transmission or Standing Cables With 6 strands of 7 wires each. II 1.5 4.63 3.37 36.0 62.0 9-0 13.0 10. 13.0 13.0 8.5 12 1.38 4.25 2.77 30.0 52.0 7.5 10. 9.0 12.0 12.0 8.0 13 1. 25 3.75 2.28 25.0 44.0 6.25 9.0 8.5 II. 10. 75 7.2s 14 T.I3 3.37 1.82 20.0 36.0 5.0 7-5 7.5 10. 95 6.25 IS I.O 3.0 1.5 16.0 30.0 4.0 6.0 6.5 9.0 8.5 5-75 16 0.88 2.62 1. 12 12.3 22.0 3.0 4-5 5. 75 8.0 7.S SO 17 0.75 2.38 0.88 8.8 17.0 2.25 3.5 4.75 7.0 6.75 4.S 18 0.69 2.13 0.70 7.6 14.0 2.0 3.0 4-S 6.0 6.0 4.0 19 0.63 1.88 0-57 5.8 II. 1.5 2.25 4.0 5.5 5. 25 35 20 0.55 1.63 0.41 41 8.0 I.O 1.75 3.25 4.7s 4.5 3.0 ai o.S 1.38 0.31 2.83 6.0 0.75 1.5 2.75 4.0 4.0 2.5 23 0.44 1. 25 0.23 2.13 4.5 0.50 1. 25 2.5 35 3.2s 3.35 23 0.38 1. 13 0.9 1. 65 4.0 I.O 2.25 3-25 2.75 3.0 24 0.31 1.0 16 1.38 3.0 0.75 2.0 2.75 2.5 1.75 25 0.28 0.88 0.13 1.03 2.0 0.5 1. 75 3.35 2.25 1.5 I So Materials locofion /&/■ Mor/murn Aiomtnf. « <■ If ■Dc- 9 i'i ••vf. +ft^ ■i" ■i- \ CS eknofts ctnltr of span, [ CH dtnofts ctnftrof^arifi/of looKtt. I Iff, dtnofti fifariet f Joa€i txfjactnf to CO. ft lY- tofal load and f1 - momtnf. For rf a /vatifnt/rn p/art cs m/drrat/ bffirft" IT/, and CO and /r'nd M untttr HTf,. ror reactions, Pfl^ and ftr' tV' Rj. For maximum moment ff'/fj l>h-(»'il,* '^U), or s!n diagrams dotted maximum \~~asff sfo-r confiruatioa,^ Shear otant/ point of beam.\ For B- or exceeds O.SBSSL, /^' ^■ and /fr' Z ^Orfj)- .notation: >lll yo/ues ini/xtus ondpovnas. IV- fata/ food. >^ - /oadon one xrf>»t/. I • /engfffi of Sflon. B • tr/ni/ ^se. K Rj • left reaction. />r ' rignf reactior). If- irrfica/jfiear -reaction rteartsf fo file pair} f under cortsiderafior}. Df'disfance to front xrfreet i ^^ Or • distance fo rear rrfiet/ ' . "^ coming on from tfit /eft ftff -nioment under front whei/, one rrtreel on ffit span, lifl' moment under frcnf irfieef xriffi boffi tvneels on the sparj. ft^/ " moment undkr rwar trheel, one t*fieel on the span, firt - momen f under rear nfieef, boffi fhee/s on the span. JC " ralue of Or for Mrt " maximum. M- maximum momerrf, Z- section modu/t)S. Si, • stress due fo bertdirxf. Mf,-^'a-Of). >iri-'^[a-Dr). fff!- fri^§ia-^¥). MiTX'^(i.-Dr-§) For ralues of S /ess fhan O.SeS8L. x-^.^a„dM.Vj^(,-A)^. Z.gors,.^. ^ For both rrhee/s on the span, ^ - £■ U'£tr-j) Jrm Hfhee/s E ( ^uall t / Loac^d, Ob/r^ue ffeacf/'orr. i ! flotation: Same asabore trith addition of; a 'ong/t of ff>e rrocfion nith team, /i- cross sec fionat area of beam. 7' thrust or ! ""j^ mfh Deam. />• cross secr/onaf area or oeam. r-rnrvsr , Y~A — ^ l^^-^V'^yf P"" "''* '" obUque reaction. S- direct s/ress At fo T ^ M; -_;■'/- ■^'^■^l (tension or compression). n =tt^ l-f,(Dr * |;, or 7' = (Or * f ; cot a S-Jl-fi^(Orf§), or S-z^(Orr§)cota. fiff, ffr,, 3C, M and So - soma as abort. SfS^.wi^;^ ^ ^(^-PliiS I), or , , W , (Drf''iB)cot ex . Dr(L-Dr-''iB /. StS^'lf -j^ -e 2L '' SfSi,-amaximi/mHher7/:^-£^r^-Jl-^cofat^-£. ~For light xreighf T- beams j • about j depth efbeorn. Figs. 57, 58, 59. Modulus of Elasticity i8i Modulus of Elasticity The modulus of elasticity of any body is the ratio, within the elastic limit, of the stress per unit of area to the stretch per unit of length. . Let S = stress per square inch, and L = elongation per unit of length. S' = total stress. L' = total elongation. O = original length. A = area of cross section in square inches. E = modulus of elasticity. Then E = j, which is found to be practically constant, and is a measure of the resistance which a body can oppose to change of shape. S' -J = 5 = stress per square inch, (i) jr = L = elongation per unit of length A S S'O ^ , , Hence the modulus of elasticity is equal to the total stress, multipHed by the original length, divided by the area in square inches, multiplied by the total elongation. From equation (2), and since 5' = ^, (3) ^ = S and ^ = L, then 5 = EL; (4) A or the stress per vmit of area is equal to the modulus multiplied by the elongation per unit of length. * From (3), ^ EA E ^^^ 5 and ^ ^ E' ^^^ or the elongation per unit of length equals the stress per unit of area divided by the modidus. 1 82 Materials Table of Moduli of Elasticity and of Elastic Limits for Different Materials The values here given are approximate averages compiled from many sources. Authorities differ considerably in their data on this subject. Material Modulus or coefficiency of elasticity Stretch or compression in a length of lo feet, under a load of 1000 lbs. per sq. in. I ton per sq. in. Ash Beech Birch Brass, cast Brass wire Chestnut Copper, cast Copper wire Elm Glass Iron, cast Iron, cast, average Iron, wrought, in either bars sheets or plates Iron bars, sheets, average Iron wire, hard Iron wire ropes Larch Lead, sheet Lead wire Mahogany Oak Oak, average Pine, white or yellow Slate Spruce Steel bars Steel bars, average Sycamore Teak Tin, cast Lbs. per sq. in. 1,600,000 1,300,000 1,400,000 9,200,000 14,200,000 1,000,000 18,000.000 18,000,000 1,000,000 8,000,000 12,000,000 to 23,000,000 17,500,000 18,000,000 to 40,000,000 29,000,000 26,000,000 15,000,000 1,100,000 720,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,600,000 14,500,000 1,600,000 29,000,000 to 42,000,000 35,500,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 4,600,000 Ins. .07s .092 .086 .013 .009 .120 .007 .007 .120 .015 .010 to .005- .007 .006 to .003 .004 .005 .008 .109 .167 .120 .085 .120 to .060 .080 .075 .008 ■07s .004 to .003 .003 .120 .060 .026 Ins. .168 .207 .192 .029 .019 .269 .015 .015 .269 .034 .022 to .012 ■ 015 .015 to .007 .009 .010 .018 .244 .192 .269 to .154 .179 .168 .018 .168 .009 to .006 .007 .269 .134 Table of Deflections 183 Table of Deflections The formulae are based on the assumplion that the increase of deflec- tion is proportional to the increase of load. The values of the letters in the table are as follows: d = deflection of beam in inches. W = weight of extraneous load in pounds. w = weight of clear span of beam in pounds. I = clear span of beam in inches. E = modulus of elasticity in pounds per square inch. / = moment of inertia of cross section of beam in inches. Moduli of Elasticity of Various Materials Materials Brass, cast . . . Brass wire Copper Lead Tin, cast Iron , cast .... Iron, wrought Steel Marble , Slate Glass Ash Beech Oak Pine, longleaf. Walnut Moduli 9,170,000 14,230,000 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 1,000,000 4,600.000 12,000.000 to 27,000,000 (?) 22,000,000 to 29,000,000 26,000,000 to 32,000,000 25,000,000 14,500,000 8,000,000 1,600,000 1,300,000 974.000 to 2,283,000 1,119,000 to 3,117,000, 1,926,000 306,000 1 84 Materials ►• o c it a y =• yk y «=• y K + ^ u] + si ft + -I'S ^ 2* ^ H^ llui 115 I|13 112 112 115 -1^ ? i'S m £ e-? lis ||5 lis lis ""^ -'« -1^ "^1^ £ i k--^-^ K^^ >! '^■^k >|-TS4< j(.-«j|« ^•^It Modulus of Rupture 185 From the table, it is found that for beams of similar cross section and of same material, and within the elastic limit, the load and deflections (neglecting the weight of the beam itself) are as follows: Deflections Under Given Extraneous Loads With same span . With same span and breadth . . . With same span and depth With same breadth and depth. . Inversely as the breadths and as the cubes of the depths Inversely as the cubes of the depths Inversely as the breadths Directly as the cube of the span Extraneous Loads for a Given Deflection With the same span . With the same span and breadth . With the same span and depth With the same breadth and depth. Directly as the breadths and as the cubes of the depths Directly as the cubes of the depths Directly as the breadth Inversely as the cubes of the spans Modulus of Rupture The modulus of rupture is the total resistance, in pounds per square inch, of the fibres of a beam farthest from the neutral axis; and is 18 times the center breaking load in pounds, of a beam of the given material, I inch square by i foot span. The values of the modulus of rupture, which is usually denoted by "C," may be obtained from the following table of transverse strengths, by multiplying the values therein by 18. One-third part of any of these constants (except those for wrought iron and steel) may be taken in ordinary practice as about the average constant for the greatest center load within the elastic limit. The loads here given for wrought iron and steel are already the greatest within elastic limits. Transverse strengths, in pounds &SS 6^ ^3 WOODS Ash: English Amer. White (Traut.)... Swamp Black Arbor VtUe, Amer Balsam, Canada Beech, Amer Birch: Amer. Black Amer. Yellow Cedar: Bermuda Guadaloupe Amer. White or Arbor Vitae Chestnut Elm: Amer. White Rock, Canada Hemlock 650 650 400 600 250 350 850 S50 850 400 600 250 4SO 650 800 Soo Hickory: Amer Amer. Bitter nut Iron Wood, Canada Locust Lignum Vita Larch Mahogany Mangrove: White Black Maple: Black Soft Oak: English Amer. White (by Traut. ) . . . Amer. Red, Black, Basket. Live Pine: Amer. White (by Traut.). . . Amer. Yellow* (by Traut.). 800 800 600 700 650 400 7SO 650 SSO 750 7SO SSO 600 850 600 450 soo i86 Malrri.ils Transverse slrengths, in ptjunds — {Continued) Pine: Amer. Pitch* (by Traut.) Clcornia* I'oplar I'oon .Spruce: (By Traut.) Black Sycamore Tamarack leak Walnul Willow Metals Brass Iron, cast: 1500 to 2700. average Common pig Castings from pig Employed in our tables For castings 2'/^ or 3 ins. thick. . Iron, wrought, 1900 to 2600, average Wrought iron does not break; but at about the average of 2250 pounds its elastic limit is reached. Steel, hammered or rolled; elas- ticity destroyed by 3000 to 7000. Under heavy loads hard steel snaps like cast iron, and soft steel bends like wrought iron. Stones, etc. Blue stone flagging, Hudson River. Brick: Common, 10 to 30, average Good Amer. pressed, 30 to so, average Caen Stone Cement, Hydraulic: English Portland, artificial, 7 days in water 1 year in water Portland, Kingston, N. Y., 7 days in water SSO 8so 5SO 700 4SO SSO Soo 400 750 S.SO 350 8so 2100 2000 2300 2025 1800? 2250 Cement Hydraulic: Saylor's Portland, 7 days in water Common U. S. ccmcnti, 7 days in water The following hydraulic ce- ments were made into prisms, in vertical mould.s, under a pressure of 32 pounds per .square inch, and were kept in sea water for I year. Portland Cement, English, pure, I year old Roman Cement, Scotch, pure American Cements, pure, average about Granite: so to ISO, average Quincy Glass, Millville, New Jersey, thick flooring (by Traut.) Mortar: Of lime alone, 60 days old I measure of slacked lime in powder, i sand I measure of slacked lime in powder, 2 sand \farble: Italian, White Manchester, Vt., White East Dorset, Vt.. White Lee. Mass., W'hite Montgomery Co., Pa., Gray. . . . Montgomery Co., Pa., Clouded. Rutland, Vt., Gray Glenn's Falls, N. Y., Black. . . . Baltimore, Md., White coarse . . Oolites, 20 to so Sandstones: 20 to 70, average Red of Connecticut and New Jersey Slate, laid on its bed, 200 to 450, average 100 100 116 95 III 86 103 14a 70 I5S 103 35 45 45 • Trautwine. Moment of Inertia 187 Moment of Inertia The moment of inertia of the weight of a body, with respect to any axis, is the algebraic sum of the products obtained by multiplying the weight of each elementary particle by the square of its distance from the axis. If the moment of inertia with respect to any axis be denoted by /; the weight of any elementary particle by w; and its distance from the axis by r; the sum of all the particles by S, then / = X{wr^). The moment of inertia of a rod or bar of uniform thickness, with respect to an axis perpendicular to the length of the rod, is W (?-) in which W equals the weight of rod, 2 / equals length and d equals the distance of the center of gravity of the section from the axis. For thin circular plates with the axis in its own plane, when r equals the radius of the plate, For circular plate, axis perpendicular to the plate, / = wl-+d^ Circular ring, axis perpendicular to its own plane, 'r^ + r" = w{^- + d^ r and r' being the exterior and interior radii of the ring. Cylinder, axis perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, r = radius of base and 2 / = length of the cylinder. By making d equal to o in any of the above formulae, the moment of inertia for a parallel axis passing through the center of gravity is found. The term moment of inertia is also used in respect to areas, as the cross section of beams under strain. In this case, / = 2(ar)^, in which a is the elementary area and r its distance from the center. i88 Materials "iiS >> >. c £1 is ■0( 00 «.I3 c|5 1 c •n -1 fO -I 00 -19 H^ + o,|a fe|? a|5 cly Q 0. a.|S' • 1 1^ — 1 ^ c .2 -19 1 1 1 >, s § § Si _ 3 E o s. 51 o 5|o 2|o 21^ 51o 51 o 2 o 5|o 21 u 2|o "o 1 2 a 1 n ^ a. E 1 ^ 5; ;; -1 oe s; s : S 1 g E tt E ° a< t-"r « m| ^ ill 00 + 0. -1 00 M| « -1 2 -100 m\ n a ' ■ tm 00 ^^ a. 3 ^fc , 1 1 s:IS «l X + £|1 -IS 00 § y 1 "8 1 S 01 O Q, XI Q- a •^1 ^ •D ^ - a: 1 bs a IS "1 " § ~* as 1 •>TI f^ § n. fe fl ^ + a. a ^ & m 0, M S9 "i '■ J2 E d ■ 1 o « : v 1 c 3 "e jc ; o ■ : t ^ u ■^ j3 x: : a 1 A •o 4J 1 1 1 1 •o : 4) 1; ^ to 1 ^ w 4 a 1 1 3 ■ m J C 3 i : 1 V u 4J Is « J S "O § i •o S s ) i ? §1 *g ^ ■% CJ ^ S a a 1 3 «1 3 o Q w V •o i u "O K «J E a E P S E E H ° E eg CO (g 1 J £ 1 c? CO 1 .9 ~ S 1 Formula; for Transverse Strength of Beams 189 Formulae for Transverse Strength of Beams P = load at middle. W = total load distributed uniformly. I = length, b = breadth, d = depth in inches. E = modulus of elasticity. R = stress per square inch of extreme fibre. / = moment of inertia. C = distance between neutral axis and extreme fibre. For breaking load of circular section replace bd- by 0.59 d^. For good wrought iron the value of R is about 80,000; for steel about 120,000. For cast iron the value of R varies greatly. Thurston found 45,740 for No. 2 and 67,980 for No. i. IQO Miilcrials General Formulie for TranBverae Strength, Etc. The following table gives the values (jf H', etc., without introducing the modulus of elasticity or the moment of inertia. Formulae for Round anu Rectangular Solid Beams t^2 1^^ c.s; •^I§ F •b^ J^R. ON -^Is li ■I J; 558 11^ ^1^ Til •ft T<3-' -FH-.- * CHAPTER V ACCELERATION OF FALLING BODIES The change in velocity of a falling body which occurs in a unit of time is its acceleration. That due to gravity is 32.16 feet per second, in one second and is denoted by g. Let t = number of seconds during which a body falls. V = velocity acquired in feet per second at the expiration of / seconds. u = space fallen through in each second. h = total space fallen through in t seconds. 2k Then 32.16, t = V2 gh = 8.02V/J = « = - = 2- = 16.08, P = = ;: , 2 2 2 g 64.32 t =-= =y-^ = ^r = 0.24938 Vh. g 32.16 T 8 V The table below gives the values of ft, v and », for values of / up to ten seconds. Space fallen Velocity Space fallen Time in through in acquired in through in seconds. feet in feet per feet in I time t. second at end each second, h of time /, V u I 16 32 16 2 64 64 48 3 I4S 96 80 4 257 129 113 5 402 161 145 6 S8o 193 177 7 789 22s 209 8 1030 257 241 9 1303 290 273 10 1609 322 306 191 102 Mechanics The Rraphicil method of ascertaining the values of /, r, 14 aner of seconds through which the body falls = /. Lei the base of each small triangle equal the velocity at the end of the first second = 32.16. Then the number of bases on each of the horizontal lines at I, 2, 3, etc., multiplied by 32.16 will equal the ac- quired velocity for the corresponding time = v. Let the area of each small triangle = 16.08. Then the number of such areas between o and any hori- zontal line multiplied by 16.08 will equal the height in feet fallen through in the number of seconds corresponding to that line = //. And the number of small triangles between each pair of horizontal lines, multiplied by 16.08 will equal the number of feet fallen through io each second = 11. t = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. V = 32.16 X I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. h = 16.08 X I, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36. « = 16.08 X I, 3, 5, 7, 9, II. Fig. 61. Thus: Fig. 62. Parallelogram of Forces If two forces are applied to the same point, their resultant will be represented in intensity and direction by the diagonal of a [jarallelo- gram of which the adjacent sides represent the intensities and directions of the given forces. Let AB and AC represent, in intensity and direction, any two forces applied to the point A; then AD will correspondingly represent their resultant. Conversely, if AD be the known force acting at i4, it may be resolved into two components, in any direction in the same plane; which com- ponents will be the adjacent sides of a parallelogram having AD for its diagonal. Parallelopipedon of Forces If three forces, not in the same jjlane, act on the same p>oint, they may be represented by the edges of a parallelopipedon and the diagonal through the point of application is their resultant. Height Corresponding to a Given Acquired Velocity 193 Height Corresponding to a Given Acquired Velocity Velocity, Height, Velocity, Height, Velocity, Height, V h V h V h Feet per second Feet Feet per second Feet Feet per second Feet ■25 .0010 34 17.9 76 89.8 • SO .0039 35 19.0 77 92.2 .75 .0087 36 20.1 78 94.6 1. 00 .016 37 21.3 79 97.0 1.25 .024 38 22.4 80 99.5 I. so -03S 39 23.6 81 102.0 I-7S .048 40 24.9 82 104.5 2.0 .062 41 26.1 83 107. 1 2.5 .097 42 27.4 84 109.7 30 .140 43 28.7 85 112.3 35 .190 44 30.1 86 1150 4.0 .248 45 31.4 87 H77 4.S .314 46 32.9 88 120.4 S-O .388 47 34.3 89 123.2 6.0 ■ 559 48 35.8 90 125 9 7.0 .761 49 37.3 91 128.7 8.0 •994 so 38.9 92 131 .6 9.0 1.26 51 40.4 93 134.5 10. 1^55 52 42.0 94 137.4 II. 1.88 53 43.7 95 140.3 12.0 2.24 54 45.3 96 143 3 130 2.62 55 47 ■© 97 146.0 14.0 3.04 56 48.8 98 149.0 iS-o 3.49 57 50.5 99 152.0 16.0 3.98 58 52.3 100 155 17.0 4.49 59 54.1 105 171. 18.0 5.03 60 56.0 no 188.0 19.0 5.61 61 579 "5 205.0 20.0 6.22 62 59 8 120 224.0 21.0 6.85 63 61.7 130 263.0 22.0 7.52 64 63.7 140 3040 23.0 8.21 65 65.7 ISO 350.0 24.0 8.94 66 67.7 175 476.0 25. 9.71 67 69.8 200 622.0 26.0 10. 5 68 71-9 300 1.399 27.0 11.3 69 74.0 400 2,488.0 28.0 12.2 70 76.2 500 3.887.0 29.0 13. 1 71 78.4 600 5.597 -o 30.0 14.0 72 80.6 700 7,618.0 31 14.9 73 82.9 800 9.952. 32.0 159 74 85^i 900 12.593. 330 16.9 75 87.5 1000 IS. 547.0 194 Mechanics The Lever f^ The lever is a solid bar of any form, siipixjrled at a fixwi point, alx)Ut which it may turn freely. I ^ -] The fixed point is the fulcrum. There arc |f| r pi three orders of levers. In those of the first order the j)oints of applicaticm of the |X)\ver and resistance are on opposite sides of the fulcrum. In the second order the resistance is ap- plied between the fulcrum and the power. In the third order the power is applied l)ctwcen the fulcrum and the resistance. « In any order ^'''- ^4- j- ^ "^ _—_ , ^^^ weight IF multiplied by the distance '^ >L WF from the fulcrum must equal the ^Ll power P multiplied by PF, to establish Fig. 65. .1., • ■^ equilibrium. Whatever may be the shape of the lever, the power or resistance acts at the end of a line drawn through the fulcrum and perpendicular to the line of direction of the power or resistance. This perpendicular is called the lever arm of its corresponding force, and the product of the lever arm and its force is called the moment of that force. When the moments are equal the forces are in equilibrium. If one moment exceeds the other, rotation will occur about the ful- crum in the direction of the force having the greater moment. The Wheel and Axle This is simply such an application of the lever of the first order, that the power and resistance may act through greater distances; the radius of the wheel is the lever arm of the power and that of the drum the lever arm of the resistance. When the resistance is a weight, it will be raised if the moment of the power is the greater and vice versa. The Inclined Plane If a force P acts in the direction of AB, to overcome the resistance R, then P :R::a -.b. • • " = -r- and K = — .^.^ ,, b a Fig- 60. Center of Gravity 195 The Wedge The wedge is simply a double inclined plane, placed !„ back to back. k-- a --m If the force applied to a wedge be represented by P ■ \ 1 / and the resistance to be overcome by R, the base of the \ 1 / wedge by a and its length by 6; then b \ ; / P : R : : a : b P = -7- and R = — •. V/ Center of Gravity The center of gravity of a body is that point through which the effort of its weight always passes. If a body be suspended from any point, the direction of the line of suspension will pass tlirough its center of gravity. Therefore, the center of gravity of any body may be determined by finding the intersection of the hnes of suspension passing through points not on the same vertical hne. The center of gravity of two bodies is on a line joining their respective centers of gravity and the distances from the center of gravity of either body to that of both of them (combined) are inversely proportional to the weights of the bodies respectively. To find the center of gravity of any irregular plane surface, divide it into triangles of any convenient areas. Find the center of gravity and the area of each triangle. Then assuming any coordinate axes X and Y, multiply the area of each triangle by the abscissa of its center of gravity and divide the product by the sum of the areas of all the triangles. The quotient is the abscissa of the center of gravity of the entire figure. Find its ordinate in the same way; then the point determined by this abscissa and ordinate is the center of gravity of the figure. This method is precisely that shown by Fig. 61, Machinery Supplement No. 5. In addition to the formulae taken from Machinery Supplement No. 5, others are given as follows: Semiellipse The center of gravity of a semiellipse is on the semiaxis perpendicular to the base and at a distance from the base equal to the product of that semiaxis and the decimal 0.4244. iq6 Mrclianics The Center of Gravity of Solids of Uniform Density Throughout Sphere and spheroid at center of the l)ody. Hemisi)hcrc on the radius perpendicular to the base and at W its ienplh from the base. Spherical Sector. — On the radius passing through the center of the circle cut from llic sjihere by the sector and at a distance from the center of the sphere, eciual to three-f(jurths of the diiTerence between the radius, and one-half the rise of the sector. Or G. representing the distance from center of sphere to center of gravity, R = radius of sphere and // the rise of the sector; then G = ^ilR )• Spherical Segment ,, (.2 K - II)- ^-^' zR-n Spherical Zone Take the difference between ihc two segments whose difference is the zone. Find the center of gravity of each segment; then, by inverse proportion, find that of their difference. Frustrum of a Cone Let G = distance from base to center of gravity measured on the axis. A = area of large end. a = area of small end. H = height of frustrum measured on the axis. Aa + 3a \ Aa + a J Then c^nfA + ^^^+sa 4 V ^ + VAa + , The center of grav-ity of a paraboloid is on the axis and at a distance from the vertex ecjual to two-thirds that from vertex to base. A body suspended from center of gravit)^ has no tendency to rotate. Center of gravity of regular figures is at geometrical center; of a triangle two-thirds distance from any angle to middle of opposite side; of semicircle 2 CT on middle radius, 4244 r from center; of sector — j- from center; of seg- 3* c3 ment, from center (where c = chord and a = area); of cone or 12 a pyramid, V* distance from center of base to apex a, a^, at = areas of respective triangles. Center of gra\ity of two bodies, x = — r— r^ W + W Radius of Gyration 197 General formulae x = y = aiXi + OiOCi + 03^:3 ^1 + 02 + fls Oiyi + (Jiji + flays fli + (h + fls .— /-.. 0- \L1 Pt. 1994' P. 20IS° P. 225* P. I9oo'-279o'' P. 6i7°-588'' P. 1139° P- 2240° P. 39° P- 26io» P. lis" F. 3150° P. 144 5°- I 36° P. 2574° P. 1732° P. 207 7°-i9o° P. 226" P. 700° P. 4000° P. 442°-4I7* F. >Mn 4300° P. 773"-754'' P. Latent heat of fusion 28s 40.0 33. as 43 o 16.0 88 69 II. o 509 68.0 9.06 24.00 16.0 128.0 23.0 32.0 16.86 19.0 25 6s 48.36 Cast iron specific heat at 212° F. is .109. " " " 572° F. is .140. " " " 2150° F. is .190. Table of Physical Constants Table of Physical Constants 203 Substances Air Ox^'gen Nitrogen Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Marsh gas defiant gas (ethylene) . . . Aqueous vapor Ammonia Nitrous monoxide Nitrous dioxide Sulph. hydrogen Sulph. dioxide Chlorine Bromine vapor Carbon bisulphide vapor . Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid Alcohol Glycerine Turpentine, oil Air = I Specific gravity 1 . 1056 .4713 .0692 .9670 1.5210 .5527 .9672 .6220 .5894 1. 5241 1.0384 I . 1746 2.2112 2.4S02 5. 4772 2.6258 I . 2596 Specific heat at constant pressure For equal weight, water = 1 .2377 .2175 .2438 3.4090 .2450 .2169 • 5929 .4040 .4805 .5084 .2262 .2317 .2432 .1544 .1210 .0555 .1569 .1882 ■ 335 .700 .450 .426 For equal volumes .2377 • 2405 .2368 .2359 .2370 .3307 .3277 .4106 .2989 .2996 .0447 .2406 .2857 .3414 .2965 .3040 .4122 .2333 Specific heat at constant volume Pounds per cubic foot .1689 .1550 .1730 2.4060 .1730 .1710 .4670 .3320 .080728 .089210 .078420 .005610 .078100 .123430 .044880 .079490 Cubic feet per pound 12.387 11.209 12.752 178.230 12.804 8.102 22.301 12.580 204 Mechanics Weight oi Air Ki-.QtTRi.D for Combustion of Coal Substances Pounds of air B.t.u. from combustion of one pound 12.30 JS.oo 18.00 15.60 14.500 61.524 24.021 21.524 18,260 defiant gas Boiling Points at Sea Level Water 100 Alcohol 78. Ether 34- Carbon bisulphide 46. Nitric acid (strong) 120. Sulphuric acid 326. Oil turpentine 157. Mercury 350. Aldehyde 20. Combining Equivalents Oxygen 8.0 "C. Hydrogen i .0 Nitrogen 140 Carbon 6.0 Sulphur 8.0 Phosphorus 10.33 Chlorine 35 . 5 Iodine 25.4 Potassium 39-1 Iron 28.0 Copper 31.7 Lead 103. S Silver 108.0 Bromine 80 o Sodium 23.0 Fluorine 190 Lithium 70 Rubidium 85.4 Lineal Expansion for Solids 205 Lineal Expansion for Solids at Ordinary Temperature FOR 1° F. Solids Aluminum, cast Antimony, cryst Brass, cast Brass, plate Brick Bronze (copper, 17; tin, 2H; zinc, i). . Bismuth Cement, Portland (mixed), pure Concrete: cement, mortar and pebbles Copper Ebonite Glass, English flint Glass, hard Glass, thermometer Granite (gray, dry) Granite (red, dry) Gold, pure Iron (wrought) Iron (cast) Lead Marbles, various J . Masonry, brick w Mercury (cubic expansion) Nickel Pewter Plaster, white Platinum Porcelain Silver, pure Slate Steel, cast Steel, tempered Stone, sand, dry Tin Wedgewood (ware) Wood, pine Zinc Zinc 8 \ Tin I From 1° F. Length 00001234 00000627 00000957 0OOOIOS2 00000306 00000975 00000594 0000079s 00000887 00004278 00000451 00000397 00000499 00000438 00000498 00000786 00000648 00000556 00001571 00000308 00000786 00000256 00000494 00009984 00000695 00001129 00000922 00000479 00000200 00001079 00000577 00000636 00000689 00000652 00001163 00000489 00000276 00001407 00001496 Coefficient of expansion from 32° to 212° F. .002221 .001129 .001722 .001894 .000550 .001774 .001755 .001070 .001430 .001596 .007700 .000812 .000714 .000897 .000789 .000897 001415 .001166 .001001 . 002828 .000554 .00141S .000460 .000890 .017971 .001251 .002033 .001660 .000863 .000360 .001943 .001038 .001144 .001240 .001174 .002094 .000881 .000496 .002532 .002692 Cubical expansion or expansion of volume equals lineal expansion multiplied by 3. The coefficient of expansion from 32° to 212° F. divided by 100 gives the lineal expansion for corresponding solid for 1° C. The expansion of metals above 212° F. is irregular and more rapid. 2o6 Mechunics Furnace Temperatures M. Lc C'hatclicr finds ihc mcllinj; heal of while cast iron 2075" F., and ihal of gray cast iron al 2226° V. Mil7S 1247 83s 1 535 995 1823 360 680 S20 968 680 1256 840 1544 IQOO 1833 36s 689 52s 977 68s 126s 845 1553 1005 1841 370 698 530 986 690 1274 8so 1562 lOIO 1850 37S 707 535 995 695 1283 855 1571 lois i8S9 380 716 540 1004 700 1292 860 IS80 1020 1868 38s 725 545 1013 70s 1 301 86s 1589 1025 1877 390 734 5SO 1022 710 1310 870 1598 1030 1886 395 743 555 1031 7IS 1319 875 1607 1035 189s 400 752 560 1040 720 1328 880 1616 1040 1904 40s 761 565 1049 725 1337 88s 1625 I04S 1913 410 770 570 1058 730 1346 890 1634 1050 1933 41S 779 S7S 1067 735 1355 89s 1643 loss 1931 420 788 580 1076 740 1364 900 l6s2 1060 1940 425 797 58s 1085 745 1373 905 1661 106s 1949 430 806 S90 1094 750 1382 910 1670 1070 1958 435 81S 595 1 103 755 1391 915 1679 I07S 1967 440 824 600 1112 760 1400 920 1688 1080 1976 445 833 605 1121 765 1409 925 1697 1085 198s 450 842 610 1130 770 1418 930 1706 1090 1994 455 851 615 1139 775 1427 935 1715 1095 2003 460 860 620 1148 780 1436 940 1724 1 100 30I2 465 869 62s "57 78s 1445 945 1733 lios 2021 470 878 630 1166 790 1454 9SO 1742 IIIO 2030 475 887 635 1175 795 1463 955 I7SI 1115 2039 480 896 640 1 184 800 1472 960 1760 1 120 2048 485 905 645 1 193 80s 1481 96s 1769 1125 20S7 490 914 650 1202 810 1490 970 1778 1 130 2066 495 923 655 J2II 815 1499 975 1787 1I3S 2075 Soo 932 660 1220 820 1508 980 1796 1 140 20S4 S05 941 66s 1229 82s 1517 98s 180S "45 1 1 50 2093 2102 Data Sheet No. 54. The Foundry, November, 1909. Strength of Materials Comparison of Thermometer Scales 213 Centi- grade Reaumur Fahren- .heit Centi- grade Reaumur Fahren- heit Centi- grade Reaumur Fahren- heit -30 —24.0 —22.0 14 II. 2 57.2 58 46.4 136.4 -28 -22.4 -18.4 16 12.8 60.8 60 48.0 140.0 -26 —20.8 -14.8 18 14.4 64.4 62 49.6 143.6 -24 —19.2 — II. 2 20 16.0 68.0 64 51.2 147-2 —22 -17.6 - 7.6 22 17.6 71.6 66 52.8 150.8 —20 — 16.0 - 4.0 24 19.2 75.2 68 54-4 154-4 -18 -14.4 - 0.4 26 20.8 78.8 70 56.0 158-0 -16 -12.8 3-2 28 22.4 82.4 72 57.6 161. 6 -14 — II. 2 6.8 30 24.0 86.0 74 59 2 l6s-2 — 12 - 9-6 10.4 32 25.6 89.6 76 60.8 168.8 -10 - 8.0 14.0 34 27.2 93-2 78 62.4 172.4 - 8 - 6.4 17.6 36 28.8 96.8 80 64.0 176.0 - 6 - 4.8 21.2 38 30.4 100.4 82 65.6 179.6 - 4 - 3.2 24.8 40 32.0 104.0 84 67.2 183.2 — 2 - 1.6 28.4 42 33.6 107.6 86 68.8 186.8 0.0 32.0 44 35.2 III. 2 88 70.4 190.4 2 1.6 35.6 46 36.8 II4.8 90 72.0 194.0 4 3.2 39-2 48 38.4 118. 4 92 73.6 197.6 6 4.8 42.8 50 40.0 122.0 94 75-2 201.2 8 6.4 46.4 52 41.6 125.6 96 76.8 204.8 10 8.0 50.0 54 43.2 129.2 98 78.4 208.4 12 9.6 53.6 S6 44.8 132.8 100 80.0 212.0 No. 21, Supplement to Machinery, June, 1903. Strength of Materials (From notes on Machine Design, by permission of the author, Prof. Chas. H. Benjamin, Cleveland, O.) Kind of metal Ultimate strength Elastic limit, tension Modu- lus of rupture, trans- Ten- Com- Shear- sile pression ing verse 55, 000 38,000 45,ooo 28,000 40,000 50,000 40,000 25,000 45.000 35.000 22,500 30,000 60,000 100,000 50,000 32,000 90,000 90,000 80,000 50,000 120,000 60,000 Un- 18,000 75.000 25,000 certain 36,000 36,000 42,000 16,000 38,000 125,000 18,000 18,000 12,000 24,000 75,000 24,000 30,000 36,000 100,000 85,000 132,000 58,000 43,000 20,000 28,000 13,000 14,000 Modu- lus of elastic- ity, tension Wrought iron, small bars Wrought iron, plates Wrought iron, large forgings. . Steel, O. H. plate Steel, Bessemer Steel, machinery Steel, crucible or tool Cast iron Malleable castings Steel castings Brass castings Copper castings Bronze, gun metal Bronze, 10 Al, 90 Cu Bronze, phosphor Aluminum castings 20,000,000 25,000,000 25,000,000 28,000,000 29,000,000 40,000,000 18,000,000 30,000,000 9.000,000 15,000,000 10,000,000 14,000,000 11,000,000 214 StrcnKlh of Malrriuls Mauri.il Steel wire. . . Iron wire... . Copper wire . Brass wire Bronze wire ... German silver. Woods: Ash Beech .... Elm Hemlock. Hickory Maple Oak (white) . . . . Oak aive) Pine (white) . . . Pine (yellow)... Spruce Walnut (black). Tension | Comprcs- per srjuarc sion per inch square inch Brick (pressed). Granite Limestone 318.823 S9.246 97.908 ^-.'Kl^ 46.494 81,114 98.578 78.049 81. 735 92,224 11,000 17.207 ii.Soo 18,000 13.500 8,700 12.800 18,000 10,500 10,250 19.500 11.000 IS.900 14.500 I2,S0O 6S0O 7700 S300 8000 6800 7000 6850 S40O 8500 5700 8000 Tons per square foot 40 300 30O 1200 250 1000 Shear per square inch 6280 S223 2750 604s 728s' 4425 8480 24SO S73S S25S Also Properties of Air 21$ Strength of Lime and Cement Mortar Tensile Strength, Pounds per Square Inch Age 7 days. Lime mortar 8 2o per cent Rosendale 8.5 ^ 20 per cent Roseland 8.5 30 per cent Rosendale 11 30 per cent Portland 16 40 per cent Rosendale 12 40 per cent Portland 39 60 per cent Rosendale 13 60 per cent Portland 58 80 per cent Rosendale 18.5 80 per cent Portland 91 100 per cent Rosendale 23 100 per cent Portland 120 Coefficient of Friction If two bodies have plane surfaces in contact and the plane of contact be inclined so that one body just begins to slide upon the other, the angle made by this plane with a horizontal plane is called the angle of repose. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the ultimate friction to the pressure perpendicular to the plane of contact, and is equal to the tangent of the angle of repose. Thus, if R denotes the friction between the surfaces, Q the perpendicu- lar pressure and F the coefficient of friction. Then F = ^ and i? = FQ. Centrifugal Force In a revolving body the force expended to deflect it from a rectilinear to a curved path is called centrifugal force and is equal to the weight of the body multiplied by the square of its velocity in feet per second, divided by 32.6 times the radius; or, if F equals centrifugal force, W equals weight of body, V equals velocity in feet per second and R equals the radius, then F = ^r^. If N equals the number of revolutions 32.10 K per minute, the formula is reduced to F = .000341 WN^R. Properties of Air Air is a mechanical mixture of the gases, oxygen and nitrogen; 21 parts oxygen and 79 parts nitrogen by volume, or 23 parts oxygen and 77 parts nitrogen by weight. The weight of pure air at 32° F. and 29.9 barometer, or 14.6963 pounds per square inch; or 21 16.3 pounds per 2l6 Air square foot is .0807^8 pouiuis. The volume of one pound is 12.387 cubic feet. Air e-xjiands 1/41JI.2 of its volume for every increase of 1° I"., and its volume varies inversely as the pressure. Volume, Density and Pressure of Air at \'mi r Temperatures (D. K.Clark.) Volume at atmospheric Pressure at constant pressure Density, lbs. vol umc per cubic foot at atmospherii Fahr. Cubic feet Comparative pressure 1 iJUllilM ji'-I * ■Jln)MIiillVe in I pound volume square inch pressure 11.583 .086331 13.96 .881 32 12.387 '.M.5 .080728 13 86 943 40 12.S86 .958 .079439 14 08 938 SO 12.840 .977 .077884 14 36 ■ 977 62 13.141 1. 000 .076097 14.70 1. 000 70 13.342 l.ois .074950 14.92 i.ois 80 13. 593 1.0.34 .073565 IS. 21 1.034 90 13 845 1.054 .072230 IS 49 I 054 100 14.096 I 073 .070942 IS. 77 1.073 no 14 344 1.092 .069721 16.05 1.093 120 14.592 I. Ill .068500 16.33 I. Ill 130 14.846 1. 130 .067361 16 61 1. 130 140 IS 100 I 149 .066221 16.89 1. 149 ISO 15. 351 1. 168 .065155 17.19 1. 168 160 IS 603 1. 187 .064088 17. SO 1. 187 170 15.854 1.206 .063089 17.76 i.ao6 180 16.106 1.226 .062090 18.02 t.236 2CX3 16.606 1.264 .060210 18.58 1.264 210 16.860 1.283 .O.S93I3 1S.86 1.283 212 16.910 1.287 .059135 18.92 1.287 Pressure of the Atmosphere per Square Inch and per Square Foot at Various Readings of the Barometer Rule. — Barometer in inches X .4908 = pressure per square inch; square inch X 144 = pressure per square foot. pressure per Barometer, inches Pressure per square inch, Pressure per square foot. Barometer, inches Pressure per square inch, Pressure per square foot. pounds pounds pounds pounds 28.00 13.74 1978 29.75 14.60 2102 28.25 13.86 1995 30.00 14 72 2119 28.50 13.98 2013 30.25 14 84 2136 28.75 14. II 2031 30.50 14.96 2154 29.00 14.23 2049 30.75 IS. 09 2172 29.25 14. 35 2066 31 00 15.21 2190 29.50 14-47 2083 Properties of Air 217 Babometric Readings Corresponding with Different Altitudes ( Kent.) Altitude, feet Reading of barometer, inches Altitude, feet Reading of barometer, inches 68.9 416.7 767.7 1 122 I 1486.2 1850.4 2224.5 2599-7 2962.1 3369-5 30-00 29.92 29.52 29-13 28.74 28.35 27-95 27-55 27.16 26.77 26.38 3763.2 4163-3 4568.3 4983.1 5403.2 5830.2 6243.0 6702.9 7152.4 7605.1 8071.0 25.98 25.59 25.19 24.80 24.41 24.01 23.62 23.22 22.83 22.44 22 04 Horse Power Required to Compress One Cubic Foot of Free Air per Minute to a Given Pressure (Richards.) Air not cooled during compression; also the horse power required, supposing the air to be maintained at constant temperature during the compression. Gauge Air not Air at pressure cooled constant temperature 100 .22183 ■14578 90 .20896 .13954 80 .19521 •13251 70 .17989 .12606 60 .164 .11558 50 .14607 .10565 40 .12433 .093667 30 . 10346 .079219 20 076808 .061188 10 .044108 .036944 5 .024007 .020848 3l8 Air Horse Power Required to Deliver One Cubic Foot of Air per Minute at a Given Pressure (Richard*.) Air not cooled during compression; also the horse power required, supposing the air to be maintained at constant temperature during the compression. GauRc prcssiiri' Air not Air at coolcl constant temperature loo t 7.517 I i.}8oi 9° 1.4883 99387 80 1.25779 8S28 70 1 03683 72651 60 .83J44 S8729 so .64291 46s 40 .46271 34859 30 .31456 24086 20 .181279 14441 10 .074106 06069 -^ .032172 027938 In computing the above tables an allowance of 10 per cent has been made for friction of the compressor. Pressure of Water 219 Pressure of Water Pressure in Pounds per Square Inch for Different Heads of Water (Kent.) At 62° F. I foot head 0.433 pound per square inch, 0.433 X 144 = 62.352 pounds per cubic foot. Head. feet I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 0.433 0.866 1,299 1-732 2.165 2.598 3.031 3 464 3.897 10 4330 4.763 5.196 5. 629 6.062 6.495 6.928 7.361 7-794 8 227 20 8,660 9 093 9.526 9 959 10.392 10.825 11.258 I I. 691 12.124 12.557 30 12.990 13.423 13.856 14.298 14.722 15 155 15.588 16.021 16.454 16.887 40 17320 17 . 753 18.186 18.619 19 052 19 485 19.918 20.351 20.784 21.217 50 21.650 22.083 22.516 22.949 23.382 23.819 24 . 248 24 . 681 25.114 25.547 60 25.980 26.413 26 . 846 27 279 27.712 28.145 28.578 29 on 29.444 29.877 70 30.310 30.743 31.176 31.609 32.042 32.47s 32.908 33.341 33.774 34.207 80 34 640 35 073 35 506 35 939 36.372 36.805 37.238 37.671 38 . 104 38.537 90 38.970 39 403 39 836 40.269 40.702 41.13s 41 568 42.001 42.436 42 867 Head in Feet of Water, Corresponding to Pressures in Pounds per Square Inch (Kent.) I pound per square inch 2.30947 feet head, i atmosphere 14.71 pounds per square inch 33.94 foot head. Pres- sure 3 4 5 7 8 9 2.309 4-619 6.928 9-238 11.547 13.857 16.166 18.476 20.78s 10 23-0947 25.404 27-714 30.023 32-333 34.642 36.952 39.261 4I-S70 43.880 20 46- 1894 48-499 50,808 53.118 55.427 57.737 60.046 62.356 64-665 66.975 30 69.2841 71-594 73 903 76.213 78.522 80.831 83-141 85 . 450 87.760 90.069 40 92.3788 94.688 96.998 99 307 101.62 103.93 106 . 24 108.55 110.85 113 16 50 IIS. 4735 117-78 120.09 122.40 124.71 126.02 129.33 131-64 133-95 136.26 60 138.5682 140.88 143.19 145.50 147.81 150.12 152.42 154-73 157 04 159 35 70 161.6629 163.97 166.28 168.59 170.90 173.21 175.52 177-83 180.14 182.45 80 184.7576 187.07 189.38 191.69 194.00 196.31 198.61 200.92 203.23 205.54 90 207.8523 210.16 212.47 214.78 217.09 219.40 221.71 224.02 226.33 228.64 Electrical and Mechanical Units Equivalent Values of Electrical and Mechanical Untis Uniu Equivalent value in other uoita I kilowatt hour - i.ooo watt hours. 1 . 34 horsc-powcr hours. 2,654,200 (I. lbs. 3,600,000 joules. 3.412 heal units. 367,000 kilogram metres. .23s lb. carbon, oxidized with perfect efficiency. 3.53 lbs. water cvap. from and at 21a" F. 22.75 lbs. of water raised from 62* P., to 3I2* F. I horse-power hour = .746 K.W. hours. 1.980,000 ft. lbs. 2,545 heat units. 273,000 kilogram metres. .175 lb. carbon oxidized with perfect efficiency. 2.64 lbs. water evap. from and at 212° F. 17 lbs. of water raised from 62° F. to 212* F. I kilowatt = 1,000 watts. 1.34 horse power. 2,654,200 ft. lbs. per hour. 44.240 ft. lbs. per minute. 737-3 ft. lbs. per second. 3,412 heat units per hour. 56.9 heat units per minute. .948 heat unit per second. .2275 lb. carbon oxidized per hour. 3.53 lbs. water evap. per hour from and at 212" F. I horse power = 746 watts. .746 K.W. 33,000 ft. lbs. per minute. 550 ft. lbs. per second. 2,545 heat units per hour. 42.4 heat units per minute. .707 heat unit per second. .175 lb. carbon oxidized per hour. 2.64 lbs. water evap. per hour from and at 212" F. I joule = I watt second. .000000278 K.W. hour. .102 k.R.m. .0009477 heat units. .7373 ft. lbs. 1 foot pound = 1.356 joules. .I383k.g.m. .000000377 K.W. hour. .001285 heat unit. .0000005 H.P. hour. Equivalent Values of Electrical and Mechanical Units 221 Equivalent Values of Electrical and Mechanical Units — {Continued) Units I watt per square inch = Equivalent Value in Other Units I joule per second. .00134 H.P. 3.412 heat units per hour. ■ 7373 ft. lb. per second. .003s lb. of water evap. per hour. 44.24 ft. lbs. per minute. 8.19 heat units per sq. ft. per minute. 6,371 ft. lbs. per sq. ft. per minute. .193 H.P. per sq. ft. I heat unit = I. OSS watt seconds. 778 ft. lbs. 107.6 kilogram metres. .000293 K.W. hour. ,000393 H.P. hour. .0000688 lb. of carbon oxidized. .001036 lb. water evap. from and at 212° I heat unit per square foot per minute = . 122 watts per square inch. .0176 K.W. per sq. ft. .0236 H.P. per sq. ft. I kilogram metre = .233 ft. lbs. .0000036s H.P. hour. .00000272 K.W. hour. .0093 heat unit. I pound carbon oxidized with perfect efficiency = 14,544 heat units. I . II lbs. of anthracite coal oxidized. 2.5 lbs. dry wood, oxidized. 21 cubic ft. illuminating gas. 4.26 K.W. hours. 5.71 H.P. hours. 11,315,000 ft. lbs. 15 lbs. water evap. from and at 212° F. I pound water evaporated from and at 212° F. = .283 K.W. hour. .379 H.P. hour. 965.7 heat units. 103,900 k.g.m. 1,019,000 joules. 751,300 ft. lbs. .0664 lb. of carbon oxidized. CHAPTER \1 ALLOYS An alloy is a combination \)y fusion of two or more metals. The com- l)ination may be a chemical one; generally, however, there is an excess of one or more of the constituents. Metals do not unite indiCferently, but have certain affinities; thus zinc ;ind lead do not unite, but either will mi.x with silver in any pro- portion. Alloys arc generally harder, less ductile and have greater tenacity than the mean of their components. The melting point of an alloy is as a rule below that of any of its components, and it is more easily o.xidized. The specific gravity of an alloy may be greater, equal to, or less than the mean of its components. In alloys of copper and tin the maximum tensile and compressive strength is afforded by a mixture containing 82.7 per cent copper and 17.3 per cent tin. The minimum strength is shown by a composition of 62.5 per cent copper and 37.5 per cent tin. Alloys of Copper axd Tin Mean composition by analysis Tensile strength in pounds per square inch Elastic limit in pounds per square inch Crushing strength in Copper Tin pounds per ... .n inch 12.760 24.580 28.540 29.430 32.980 22,010 5.585 2,201 1. 455 3.010 6.775 6.390 6.450 4.780 •^.soi; 11.000 10.000 19.000 20.000 97.89 92.11 87. IS 80.95 76.63 69.84 65.34 56.70 44.52 23.35 11.49 8.57 3 72 1.90 7.80 12.75 18.84 23 24 29.88 34.47 43.17 55.28 76.29 88.47 91 39 96 31 34.000 42.000 53.000 78.000 22.010 S.S85 2.201 1.455 3.010 6.775 3.500 3.500 2.750 144.000 147.000 84.700 35.800 10,100 9.800 9.800 6,400 Composition of Alloys in Common Use in Brass Foundries 223 Alloys of Copper and Zinc Mean composition by analysis Copper Zinc 97.83 1.88 82.93 16.98 76.6s 23.08 71.20 28.54 66.27 33.50 60.94 38.65 55. IS 44.44 49.66 SO. 14 47.56 52.28 43-36 56.22 32.94 66.23 20.81 77.63 12.12 86.67 4.35 94-59 100.00 Tensile strength in pounds per square inch 27,240 32,600 30,520 30,510 37.800 41,065 44,280 30,990 24,150 9,170 1.774 9,000 12.413 18,06s 5.400 Elastic limit per cent of breaking load in pounds per square inch 26.1 84.6 29.5 25. r 40.1 44.00 54 5 100. o 100. o 100. o 100. o 100. o 100. o 75 o Crushing strength in pounds per square inch 75.000 78,000 117,400 121,000 Composition of Alloys in Common Use in Brass Foundries (American Machinist.) Alloys Admiralty metal Bell metal Brass (yellow)! . . Bush metal Gun metal Steam metal. . . . Hard gun metal. Muntz metal. . . . Phosphor bronze _ j metal. B"2'"g solder. Copper, Zinc, Tin, Lead, lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 87 S 8 16 4 16 8 5 64 8 4 4 32 I 3 20 I 1.5 I 16 2.5 60 40 92 8.0 90 10. 16 3 50 50 For parts of engines on naval vessels. Bells for ships and factories. For plumbers, ship and house work. Bearing bushes for shafting. For pumps and hydraulic work. Casting subjected to steam pres- sure. For heavy bearings. For bolts and nuts, forged. Valve spindles, etc. Phos. tin for valves, pumps and general work. Phos. tin for cog and worm wheels, bushes and bearings. Flanges for copper pipe. Solder for above flanges. 2 24 Alloys Alu)ys of Coppeh, Tin and Zinc : ii{inal mixture Tensile strength per Cu Sn ' Zn iquare inch yo 5 S 23.660 fis 5 10 28.840 85 10 5 35.680 Ho 5 15 37.560 80 10 10 32. 8 JO 75 5 20 34.960 75 7-5 17 5 39.300 75 10.0 15.0 Mfioo 75 15.0 10.0 28/XX3 75 20.0 50 27.660 70 SO 25 32.940 70 7.5 22.5 32.400 70 10. 20 26.300 70 ISO 15.0 27.800 70 20.0 10. 12,900 67.5 2.5 30.0 45.850 67.5 50 27. 5 34.460 67.5 7.5 25.0 30.000 65.0 2.5 32.5 38.300 65.0 50 30.0 36.000 65.0 10. 25.0 22.500 65.0 15.0 20.0 7.231 65.0 20.0 IS.o 2.665 60.0 2.5 375 57.400 60.0 S-O 35.0 41.160 60.0 10. 300 21.780 60.0 iS.o 25.0 18.020 58.22 2.3 39 48 66,500 55.0 0.5 44. 5 68.500 55 5.0 40.0 27.000 55 10. 35.0 25,460 50.0 50 45.0 23,000 Above tables from report of U. S. Test Board. Vol. II, 1881. Copper-Nickel Alloys (German Silver.) Constituents German silver. Nickel silver. . Copper, lbs. SI. 6 50.2 75.0 Nickel, lbs. 25.8 14.8 Tin. lbs. 22.6 31 25.0 Zinc, lbs. 31.9 Delta Metal Useful Alloys of Copper, Tin and Zinc 225 Alloys U. S. Navy Dept., journal boxes, and guide gibs Tobin bronze Naval brass Composition, U.S. Navy Gun metal Tough brass for engines Bronze for rod boxes Bronze subject to shock Bronze for pump castings Red brass Bronze, steam whistles Bearing metal Gold bronze Copper, Tin, Zinc, lbs. lbs. lbs. 6 I .25 82.8 13.8 3-4 58.22 2.3 29.48 62.0 I.O 37 88.0 lO.O 2.0 92.S S.o 2.5 91.0 7.0 2.0 85.0 SO 10,0 83.0 2.0 ISO 76. 5 II. 8 II. 7 82.0 16.0 2.0 83.0 iS.o IS 88.0 10. 2.0 87.0 4.4 4.3 81.0 17.0 89.0 8.0 30 86.0 14.0 74.0 9.5 9S 98. S 2.1 S.6 Other Metals .S lead. 4.3 lead. 2.0 antimony. 7.0 lead. 2.8 lead. Tobin Bronze Constituents Pig metal, per cent Copper Zinc 59.00 38.40 2.16 .11 .31 Tin Tensile strength (cast) 66,000 pounds. Delta Metal Constituents Per cent Constituents Per cent .1 to 5 So.oto6s 49.9 to 30 .1 to 5 Tin Zinc Zinc 1.8 to 45 Copper This metal is said to be very strong and tough. 236 Alloys Aluuinum Bronze Aluminum, per cent Copper, per cent Tensile strcnifth, pounds per square inch 11 lo 75 5.0 89 90 92 S 9S o 89,600 lo 100,800 73,930 to 89,600 s6floo to 67,200 33.600 lo 40.3» Analysis ok Bearing-Metal Alloys Metal Camelia metal Anti-friction metal White metal Salgee anti-friction Graphite bearing metal Antimonial lead Cornish bronze Delta metal Magnolia metal American anti-friction metal Tobin bronze Graney bronze Damascus bronze Manganese bronze Ajax metal Anti-friction metal Harrington bronze Hard lead Phosphor bronze Extra box metal Copper 70. ao 1.60 77.83 92 39 Trace 59 00 7S.80 76.41 90.52 81.24 5573 97.72 76.80 Tin 4 25 98 13 9 91 14 38 9 60 2 37 2 16 9 20 10 60 9 58 10 98 97 10 92 8 00 Lead Zinc 14-75 87 92 I. IS 67-73 80.69 12.40 S-io 83 55 78.44 .31 15 06 12.52 7.27 88.32 94.40 9.61 IS 00 85. 57 Tr.ce .98 38.44 42.67 Anti- mony 16.72 id.83 16.45 18.60 11.93 6.03 IlTMl .07 Trace .65 68 Phos. ■94 .20 Results of Tests for Wear Metal Standard Copper-tin Copper-tin, second experiment, same metal Copper-tin, third experiment, same metal Arsenic bronze { Copper Tin Lead Phos. Arsenic 79.70 87.50 89.20 79.20 Composition 10.00 12. so 10.00 10.00 Rate of Wear 100 148 147 143 IIS Belting 227 Concerning the preceding table Dr. Dudley remarks: "We began to find evidences that wear of bearing metal alloys varied in accordance with the following law. That alloy which has the greatest power of dis- tortion without rupture will best resist wear." Alloys Contalning Antimony Various analyses of Babbitt metal. Metal Babbitt metal Babbitt metal for light duty Babbitt, hard -j Britannia i White metal Parson's metal Richard's metal Penton's metal French Navy German Navy Tin so 89.3 96.0 88.9 4S-S 8S.7 81.0 22.0 85.0 86.0 70.0 16.0 7-S 85.0 Copper 1.8 4.0 3.7 15 i.o 2.0 10. o SO 2.0 4-5 so 7.0 7-5 Anti- mony S 8.9 8.0 7-4 13.0 10. 1 16.0 62.0 lo.o 1.0 15.0 Zinc 2.9 1.0 6.0 79.0 87. S Lead 2.0 10. 5 Belting Trautwine gives the ultimate strength of good leather belting at 3000 pounds per square inch. Jones and Laughlin give the breaking strength per inch of width, Me thick, of good leather belting as follows: In the solid leather 675 pounds. At the rivet holes of splices 362 pounds. At the lacing holes 210 pounds. Safe working load 45 pounds per inch of width for single belts, equiva- lent to speed for each inch of width of 720 feet per minute per horse power. The efficiency of the double belt compared to that of a single belt is as 10 is to 7. Making D = diameter of pulley in inches. R = number of revolutions per minute. W = width of belt in inches. H = horse power that can be transmitted by the belt; then for single belts, „ D X RXW. u = » 2750 228 an| ^ K— -J -•:>1 Fig. 70. Diameter of opening A ^, . , , . r, A (pressure in lbs. per sq. inch) , Thickness of pipe B= -^^ — ^ ■ + .1325 '"• 3(X30 - B C Thickness of flange C= - — Radius of fillet Z) = -approximately. Center to face of flange, tee and cross E= — f- 2 C, or next half-inch. 2 Center to face of flange; -f 2 C, or next bends, up to 90° F and G = tang. ( ' ' j ( ~ ) half inch. Center to face of flange, 45° Y H = tang. 67^" X (H + 2C, or next half-inch. Face to face of flange, 45° Y / = tang. 22^° X (^l + 2 C + //, or next half inch. Diameter of flange /= standard. Number and size of bolts.. . . A' = standard. Formulae for Dimensions of Cast Iron, Flanged Fittings 233 Diameter of bolt circle . . . L = standard. Radius on center line of {Fo.a-i^) bends, up to 90° M and A'' = —f r — Use first quar- tang.-^-j ter inch below. Note. — J and L are alike for 50 and 100 lbs., as both are computed for 100 lbs. Con- tributed. No. 43, Data Sheet, Machinery, April, 1905. CHAPTKR \'II USEFUL INFORMATION Shrinkage of Castings vlh Foot (By F. G. Walker.) Metals Pure aluminum NickeJ aluminum casting alloy ■' Special Casting Alloy," made by the Pittsburg Reduo tion Co Iron, small cylinders Iron, pipes Iron, girders, beams, etc Iron, large cylinders, contraction of diameter at top Iron, Large cylinders, contraction of diameter at bottom. Iron, large cylinders, contraction in length Cast iron Steel Malleable iron , Tin Britannia , Thin brass castings Thifk brass castings Zinc Lead Copper Bismuth Fractions Decimals of an inch of an inch >W4 .3031 9io .1875 'W« .1718 H« .0625 H .I3S0 H* .1000 Vu .312s H* .7813 Wa .0940 H .1350 M .3500 H .1350 Ma .0833 W2 .03135 >M4 .1670 ?fc .1500 M. .3135 Ho .3x25 M« .1875 Hi .1563 Data Sheet, No. 34, The Foundry, January, 1909. 234 Rapid Conversion of Gross Tons 235 This Table Has Been Arranged for the Rapid Conversion or Gross Tons and Fractions Thereof into Pounds Equivalent of gross tons (2240 pounds) in pounds. Tons Pounds Tons Pounds Tons Pounds Tons Pounds 15 33.600 24 53.760 33 73.920 42 94,080 I5>/4 34,i6o 24^4 54,32° 33'/4 74,480 42H 94.640 I5'-2 34.720 24W 54 ,880 33i4 75,040 42)-^ 9S,2oo 15^-4 35,280 24^4 55,440 33% 75,600 42H 95,760 16 35,840 25 56,000 34 76,160 43 96,320 l6'/4 36,400 25)4 56,560 341/4 76,720 43)4 96,880 leyz 36,960 25H 57.120 34I/4 77,280 43)'^ 97,440 16M 37.S20 25?4 57.680 34% 77.840 43?4 98,000 17 38,080 26 58,240 35 78,400 44 98,560 nV* 38,640 261.4 58,800 35H 78,960 44 H 99,120 nH 39,200 26K2 59,360 35H 79,520 44 V^ 99.680 i7?4 39,760 26?4 59,920 35?4 80,080 44% 100,240 18 40,320 27 60,480 36 80,640 45 100.800 isyi 40,880 27!'4 61,040 361/4 81,200 451/4 Toi,36o 181/4 41,440 27K2 61,600 361/^ 81,760 45^4 101,920 i8?4 42,000 27?4 62,160 36% 82,320 45% 102,480 19 42,560 28 62,720 37 82,880 46 103,040 195 -i 43,120 281.4 63,280 37)4 83,440 46)4 103,600 19'^ 43,680 28M2 63,840 37H 84,000 46V4 104,160 19U 44,240 28?4 64,400 37?4 84,560 46% 104,720 20 44,800 29 64,960 38 85,120 47 105,280 20^ 45,360 295-4 65,520 381/4 85,680 47)'4 105,840 20l/^ 45,920 29'/4 66,080 381/4 86,240 47)4 106,400 20^4 46,480 29M 66,640 38?4 86,800 47?4 106,960 21 47,040 30 67,200 39 87,360 48 107,520 21 W 47,600 30 M 67,760 39V4 87,920 48)-4 108 .oSo 211.4 48,160 301/4 68,320 39V4 88,480 48)-4 108,640 2I?4 48,720 30?4 68,880 39?4 89,040 48% 109,200 22 49,280 31 69,440 40 89,600 49 109,760 22I.4 49,840 31 « 70,000 40 1/4 90,160 491/4 110,320 22M2 50,400 31 H 70,560 40)4 90,720 49'/^ 110,880 22?4 50,960 31 ?4 71,120 4o?4 91,280 49% 111,440 23 51,520 32 71,680 41 91,840 SO 112,000 23I4 52,080 32 H 72.240 41)4 92,400 SoVi 112,560 2M 52,640 32).4 72,800 4I>/2 92,960 5oi/^ 113.120 23% 53,200 32% 73.360 41% 93,520 50% 113.680 Data Sheet No. 2, The Foundry, September, 1907. 236 Useful In forma I ion Window Glass Table of NuMutK of Panes in a Box Size- Panes Size Panes Size Panes Size Panes Size Panes in tea in to a in to n. in ton in toa inches box inches box inches 9 inches box 8XIO 90 14X20 26 20X42 34X48 5 8X12 7S 14x24 22 20x48 8 34x60 4 9x13 67 14x36 14 22XJO 11 -•H • (Ij 7 36x40 5 9x14 S7 16x18 25 22x36 9 28X42 6 36x44 S 10X12 60 16x20 23 22X42 8 28X56 S 36x48 4 10X16 AS 16x24 19 22X48 7 30X34 7 36x54 4 12x14 43 16x36 13 24X30 10 30X42 6 36x60 3 12x18 34 18X20 20 24X36 9 30X48 5 40x54 3 12X20 30 18X24 17 24X42 7 30X60 4 40x72 3 12X24 25 18x36 11 24X48 6 32X42 6 44x50 3 14X16 32 20x24 IS 26x36 8 32X48 S 44X56 3 14X18 29 20X30 12 26x42 7 32X60 4 Box Strapping i Fig. 71. Improved Trojan Box Strapping A soft steel continuous band, without rivets, which allows the nail to be driven anywhere. The surface is studded or embossed, as illustrated, which not only protects the head of the nail, but stiffens and strengthens the strap. Edges are perfectly smooth. Put up in reels of 300 feet. Width W H Per reel $x.oo 1.25 150 I m. 2.00 Fire Brick axid Fire Clay An ordinary fire i)ritk measures 9 by 4'i by 2^^ inches, contains 101.25 cubic inches and weighs 7 pounds. Specific gravity, 1.93. From 650 to 700 pounds of fire clay are required to lay 1000 bricks. The clay should be used as a thin paste and the joints made as thin as possible. Fire Clays 237 Analysis of Fire Clays New Jersey Clays: Per cent Silica 56 . 80 Alumina 30 . 08 Peroxide of iron i . 12 Titanic acid i • iS Potash o . 80 Water and organic matter 10. 50 100.4s Pennsylvania Clays: Silica 44-395 Alumina 33-558 Lime trace Peroxide of iron i . 080 Magnesia o. io8 Alkalies o. 247 Titanic acid i . 530 Water and organic matter 14-575 95-493 Stourbridge Clays: Silica 40 . 00 Alumina 37- 00 Magnesia 2 . 00 Potash 9 . 00 Water 12. 00 100.00 Stourbridge Clays: Silica 70 . 00 Alumina 26.60 Oxide of iron 2 . 00 Lime i . 00 Magnesia trace 100.00 Fire brick should have a light buff color and when broken present an imiform shade throughout the fracture. Bricks weighing over 7 to 7.5 pounds each contain too large a percentage of iron. Useful Information Velocity of light is 185,844 miles per second. Velocity of sound at 60° F. is 11 20 feet per second. The semiaxis of the earth at the poles is 3949.555 miles. The terrestrial radius at 45° latitude is equal to 3936.245 miles. Radius of a sphere equal to that of the earth is 3958.412 miles. Quadrant of the equator is equal to 6224.413 miles. 238 Useful Information Quudrani of llic meridian 6214.413 miles. One (icK'rcc of the Icrrcslriai meridian is 69.049 miles. One degree of longitude on the e(|uator equals 69.164 miles. .\ degree of longitude upon i)arailel 45 c(|uals 48.988 miles. A nautical mile e(|uals 1.153 statute miles and is equal to one minute of longitude uiK)n the ec|uator. Length of a pendulum Ijeating seconds in vacuum at sea level al New York is 39.1012 inches. Length of a pendulum beating seconds in vacuum at the equator is 39.01817 inches. Mean distance of the earth from the sun is 95,364,768 miles. Time occupied in transmission of light from the sun to the earth is 8 minutes, 13.2 seconds. Force Required to Pull Nails from Various Woods Kind of wood White pine . Yellow pine. White oak. Chestnut.. Laurel .... Size of nail 8d 9d 2od sod 6od 8d 10 d sod 6od 8d 20 d 6od sod 6od 9d 20 d Holding-power per square inch of surface in wood, pounds Wire nail Cut nail 167 318 940 6si 450 455 477 347 363 340 69s 755 596 604 1340 1292 1018 664 1179 1221 Mean 662 1216 683 Trautwine gives the holding power of 6 d nail driven one inch into oak as 507 pounds; beech, 667 pounds; elm, 327 pounds; pine (whito), 187 pounds; ?6 inch square spikf driven 4'/^ inches into yellow pine, 2000 pounds; oak, 4000 pounds; locust, 6000 pounds; I'i inch square spike in yellow pine. 3000 pounds; 9)6 square spike six inches in yellow pine, 4873 pounds. In all cases the nails or spikes were driven across the grain. When driven with the grain the resistance is about one half. Weights per Cubic Inch of Metals 239 Weights per Cubic Inch of Metals Lbs. Cast iron o. 263 Wrought iron o. 281 Cast steel o. 283 Copper 0.3225 Brass o-3037 Zinc 0.26 Lead 0.4103 Mercury o . 4908 Temperatures Corresponding to Various Colors (Taylor & White.) Color Dark blood red, black red Dark red, blood red, low red Dark cherry red Medium cherry red Cherry, full red Light cherry red, bright cherry red Scaling heat,* light red Salmon, orange, free scaling heat . . Light salmon, light orange Yellow Light yellow White Temperature, degrees F. 990 1050 1 175 1250 1375 ISSO 1650 172s 182s 1975 2200 * Heat at which scale forms and adheres, i.e., does not fall away from the piece when allowed to cool in air. 240 Useful Information Iron Ores Iron is usually found as an ore in one of the following classifications, oxides, carbonates and sulphides. The following table gives the subdivisions of these classes and an idea of the general composition and character of the different varieties. Oxides Carbonates Sulphides Component parts Anhy- drous: Red hematite Hy- d rated: Brown hematite Magnetic 30-70 I5-5S 0- I 0- 2 O-IO 0- 5 0-2S 0- 5 0- 2 0- 2 0- 5 Includes: f rank- Unite or spiegel- eisenand load stone. o-so 20-60 1-25 O-IO 0- 5 0-2S 0- 5 35-40 Usually absent 0- 5 Clay iron stone O-IO .V-4S 0- 2 I -10 I-IO I-IO 2-25 20-3S 0- 3 0- 2 0- 4 Black- band Pyrites S0-90 Usually absent 0- 2 0- 2 I-IO 0- 5 1-30 0- 5 0- 3 0- I S-20 Includes: bog iron ore, lake ore and limonite 44 28 Ferric oxide Ferrous oxides Manganese oxide . . . 60-95 0- 5 0- 2 0- I 0- 5 0-3 I-2S 0- 2 0- 3 0- I 0- S 1. 18 3.34 Carbon dioxide Phosphoric anhy- dride. 4907 Water 2.75 .38 Zinc .22 Includes: specular micace- ous and kidney ores. CHAPTER VIII IRON Physical Properties Atomic weight 55.9 Specific gravity 7 . 80 Specific heat o.ii Melting point 2600° F. Coefficient of Hnear expansion o. 0000065 per 0° F. Thermal conductivity 11. 9 Silver 100 Electric " 8.34 Mercury i Latent heat of fusion 88 B.t.u. Pure iron is termed ferrite. In the presence of manganese, chromium, etc., hard carbides (double carbides) are formed, known as cementite. A mixture of ferrite and cementite is called pearlite. PearUte often consists of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite and in this condition, from its peculiar iridescence, is termed pearlite. As carbon increases, ferrite is replaced by pearlite. Pearlite is not found in hardened steels. In steels saturated with carbon, a point fixed by Professor Arnold as .89 per cent carbon, the whole structure is represented by pearlite. Steels containing less than .89 per cent carbon are known as unsatu- rated; those having over .89 per cent carbon as supersaturated. These degrees refer distinctly to iron-carbon steels; for the double carbides the point of saturation is slightly lowered. Cementite is a hard and brittle compound, but when interspersed with ferrite in the form of pearlite, its brittleness is somewhat neutralized by the adjacent ferrite. A steel containing well laminated pearlite possesses high ductility but less tenacity than when found unsegregated. Pig Iron Pig iron contains from 92 to 96 per cent metallic iron; the remainder is mostly composed of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese in greatly varying amounts. Cobalt, copper, chromium, aluminum, nickel, sodium, titanium and tungsten appear in some brands in minute quan- tities. 241 242 Iron Specific gravity of cast irf)n is variously given at 7.08, 7.15 and 7.40. Atomic weight of iron, 55.84. Specific heat from 32° to 212° F., 0.129 Bystrom. " " " " at 572° !•'., 0.1407 " " " " " at 2150° r., 0.190 Oberhoffer. Latent heat of fusion, 88 B.l.u.* Total heat in melted iron, 450 B.t.u. Critical temperature, 1382° F., StupakofT. Coeflicienl of linear expansion for 32° F., 0.000006. " " " " at 1400° F., 0.0000 1 00. Weight per cubic foot, 450 pounds. Weight per cubic inch, 0.2604 pounds. 3.84 cubic inches, i pound. Grading Pig Iron The usual practice of furnaces has l>een to grade by fracture. The grades are designated, Nos. i, 2, 3, 4 or gray forge; mottled and white. No. I. — Soft; open grain; dark in color. Used for thin, light castings. Does not possess much strength; has great softening properties; is mixed advantageously with harder grades; carries large percentage of scrap. No. 2. — Harder, closer, stronger and color somewhat lighter than No. i . No. 3. — Harder, closer, stronger and lighter in color than No. 2; and inclines to gray. No. 4 (Gray forge). — Hard, strong, fine grained and light gray color. Mottled. — Hard, verj' strong and close grained. Color presents mot- tled or imperfectly mingled gray and white colors. U7///e. — Hard and brittle, breaks easily under sledge but has high tensile strength; color white. No. I iron running in the spout of the cupola displays few sparks. In the ladle its surface is lively and broken, sometimes flowery. Nos. 2 and 3 present similar appearances but less marked. Hard irons running from the cupola throw out innumerable sparks; in the ladle the surface is dull and unbroken; if disturbed the reaction is sluggish. One cannot safely be guided by the appearance of the fracture of the pig; as when melted it may produce a casting of an entirely different character than that indicated. • Harker and Oberhoffer have found that the specific heat of iron increases in about the same ratio up to within the region of the critical point (1382° F.). After this it remains practically constant. Grading Pig Iron 243 This method of grading is entirely unreliable as to chemical constit- uents (and physical characteristics) ; the degree of coarseness of fracture, which affects the grade more than any other property, may be due entirely to the rate of cooling. Two pigs from the same cast may produce two grades; pigs from different beds of the same cast may vary as much as i per cent in silicon and .05 in sulphur. The character of pig iron is often greatly affected by the accidents of the furnace. Irons produced from the same furnace at different times, from identical mixtures, may differ greatly in their constituents, by reason of different thermal conditions existing in the furnace at the time the ores were melted. Grading by fracture is so unreliable that most foundrymen specify the characteristics required. The following specifications are from Mr. W. G. Scott of the J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis. No. Si, not less than s, not over P, not over Mn, not less Total carbon 2.50 1.95 1.35 .03 .04 .05 .60 .70 .80 • 50 .70 90 Below these figures for silicon, or .005 above for sulphur means re- jection. Special pig irons Silver gray Ferro-silicon Manganese pig 3.00 to 5 SO .04 .90 .30 2.50 7.00 to 12.50 .04 Over 2.50 .04 .70 .goto 2.50 In calling for charcoal irons, silicon is asked for from .30 to 2.75; sulphur not over .025; phosphorus not over .250; manganese not over .70; carbon with range of from 2.50 to 4.50. Phosphoric pig irons, for small thin castings, silicon not under 1.50; phosphorus not under i.oo; sulphur not over .055; manganese from .30 to .90; carbon not under 3.00. 244 Iron Duscd on a sliding scale for silicon and sulphur and a minimum (or carbon. ( Mar- shall.) No. I Foundry Pig Iron Carbon content Total carbon over 3.20 Graphitic carbon over 2.7s < An increase of .lo silicon for every .003 sulphur. .Silicon with sulphur 1.70 .010 1.80 .013 1.90 .016 2.00 .019 2.10 .02a 2.20 .oas 2.30 .038 2.40 .031 2. SO .034 2.60 .037 2.70 .040 2.80 043 2.90 .046 3.00 .050 No. 2 Foundry Pig Iron Silicon with sulphur 1.20 .005 to to 2.20 .055 Carbon content Total carbon over 3 00 Graphitic carbon over 2 . so ■ An increase of .10 silicon for every .005 sulphur. Silicon with sulphur 1.20 .cos 1 30 .010 1.40 .015 ISO .oao 1.60 .02s 1.70 .030 1.80 .03s 1.90 .040 2.00 .045 2.10 .oso 3.20 •OSS Foundry Pig Iron No. 3 Foundry Pig Iron 245 Silicon with sulphur .70 .005 to to 1.70 .055 Carbon content Total carbon over 2 . 75 Graphitic carbon over 2.00 -^ An increase of . 10 silicon for every .005 sulphur. Silicon with sulphur .70 .005 80 .010 90 •CIS 00 .020 10 .02s 20 .030 30 .035 40 .040 so • 045 60 .050 70 ■05s No. 4 Foundry Pig Iron — (Gray Forge) Silicon with sulphur .50 .025 to to 1.50 • 07S Carbon content Silicon with sulphur Total carbon over 2.00 Graphitic carbon over i . 25 •' An increase of .10 silicon for every .005 sulphur. 246 Iron The wide variation in silicon and sulphur which may occur in irons graded by fracture is shown in the Transactions of the American Foundry- mcn's /Vssocialion, Cleveland Convention; wherein appears a statement as to the ran^e of those elements, in the same grades of iron, made by . the same furnace. No. I X varies in silicon from 1.13 to 3.40 per tent. " " " sulphur " 0.013 to 0.053 per cent. No. ;! X " " silicon " 0.67 to 3.30 per cent. " " " sulphur " o.oi to 0.049 P*^"" cent. No. 3 Plain " " silicon " 1.05 to 3.21 per cent. " " " sul|)hur " o.oi to 0.069 per cent After long consideration, a committee of the .\merican Foundrymen's Association, appointed to suggest a uniform system of grading, submitted the following report, which was adopted at the Cincinnati Convention, May, 1909. AMERICAN FOUNDRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION Standard Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron Adopted by tlie American Foutidry men's Association in Convention, Cincinnati, May 20, igog. It is recommended that foundry pig iron be bought by analysis, and that when so bought these standard specifications be used. Percentages and Variations In order that there may be uniformity in quotations, the following percentages and variations shall be used. (These specifications do nc^t advise that all five elements be specified in all contracts for pig iron, but do recommend that when these elements are specified that the following percentages be used.) Silicon Sulphur Total carbon (.25 allowed either way) (maximum) (minimum) 1 .00 (La) Code. 0.04 (Sa) Code. 3.00 (Ca) Code. I. so (Lc) 0.0s (Se) 3.20 (Ce) 2.00 (Li) 0.06 (Si) 3-40 (Ci) J. SO (Lo) 0.07 (So) 3.60 (Co) 3.00 (Lu) 0.08 (Su) 3.80 (Cu) 0.09 (Sy) O.IO (Sh) Standard Specifications for Foundry Pig Iron 247 Manganese Phosphorus (.20 either way) (.ISO either way) .20 (Ma) Code. .20 (Pa) Code. .40 (Me) .40 (Pe) .60 (Mi) .60 (Pi) .80 (Mo) .80 (Po) 1.00 (Mu) 1. 00 (Pu) 1. 25 (My) 1. 25 (Py) I. SO (Mh) I. so (Ph) Percentages of any element specified half way between the above shall be designated by addition of letter "X" to next lower symbol. In case of phosphorus and manganese, the percentages may be used as maximum or minimum figures, but unless so specified they will be considered to include the variation above given. Sampling and Analysis Each car load, or its equivalent, shall be considered as a unit in sampling. One pig of machine-cast, or one-half pig of sand-cast iron shall be taken to every four tons in the car, and shall be so chosen from different parts of the car, as to represent as nearly as possible the average quality of the iron. An equal weight of the drilUngs from each pig shall be thoroughly mixed to make up the sample for analysis. In case of dispute, the sample and analysis shall be made by an inde- pendent chemist, mutually agreed upon, if practicable, at the time the contract is made. It is recommended that the standard methods of the American Foundrymen's Association be used for analysis. Gravimetric methods shall be used for sulphur analysis, unless otherwise specified in the contract. The cost of the resampling and reanalysis shall be borne by the party Base or Quoting Price The accompanying table may be filled out and may become a part of the contract: "B," or base, represents the price agreed upon for a pig iron running 2.00 in silicon (with allowed variation 0.25 either way), and under 0.05 sulphur. "C" is a constant differential to be determined upon at the time the contract is made. 248 Iron Silicon percentages allow .2S variation cither way. Sulphur percentages are maxi- inuiii. B+6C < 00 13 + 5 < B+4C B + jC Sulphur— .04 B + 2C Sulphur — .OS B+sC B + 4 ( ■ B + 3C B + 2C B + C Sulphur — .06 B4-4C B + V- M i . (■ n-i-r B Sulphur — .07 B+3C B + -- B-C Sulphur — .08 B + 2C B + ( B-2C Sulphur — .09 B + C B 15 - r n - J c B-3C Sulphur — .10 B B-C B-2r D-3C B-4C Silicon 2.00 I -75 I. so 1 -'S I 00 Sulphur — .04 B + C B B-C B-2C B-aC Sulphur — .05 Base B-C B-2C B-3C B-4C Sulphur — .06 B-C B-2C B-3C B-4C B-sC Sulphur — .07 B-2C B-3C B-4C B-sC B-6C Sulphur — .08 B-3C B-4C B-sC B-6C B-7C Sulphur — .09 B-4C B-sC B-6C B-7C B-8C Sulphur — .10 B-sC B-6C B-7C B-8C B-9C (This table is for settling any differences which may arise in filling a contract, as explained under Penalties and Allowances, and may be used to regulate the price of a grade of pig iron which the purchaser desires, and the seller agrees to substitute for the one originally specified.) Penalties In case the iron, when delivered, does not conform to the specifications, the buyer shall have the option of either refusing the iron, or accepting it on the basis as shown in the table, which must be filled out at the time the contract is made. Allowances In case the furnace cannot for any good reason deliver the iron as specified, the purchaser may at his option accept any other analysis which the furnace can deliver. The price to be determined by the Base Table herewith, which must be filled in at the time the contract is made. Machine- Cast Pig Iron Pig iron is usually cast in sand beds. The casting machine has of late years been adopted by some furnaces and the statement is made that machine-cast pig, aside from the freedom from sand, possesses other important advantages. That it is more uniform in character; affords Machine-Cast Pig Iron 249 greater certainty as to its chemical composition; is cleaner and melts more readily. Machine-cast pig presents a closer grain and is harder than iron cast in sand, by reason of the greater percentage of combined carbon. Upon remelting, this difference disappears and the castings show the same analysis. Mr. A. L. Colby, chemist of the Bethlehem Iron Co., gives the follow- ing statement regarding an experiment, made to determine the influence of the mould upon pig iron. "One half of a cast was poured into sand moulds and the other half into iron. Equal quantities of drillings from six pigs, selected from different parts of that portion of the cast which had been cast in sand were taken; and similar drillings were obtained from that portion of the cast which had been taken to the casting machine; and each was care- fully analyzed, with the following results: Cast No. 7602 Silicon Manganese Phosphorus Sulphur Total carbon Combined carbon Graphitic carbon Tensile strength per square inch Sand-cast, Machine- cast, per cent per cent 3.00 2.99 ■ 95 95 • 770 773 .041 041 3.460 3 380 .250 920 3 210 2 460 15,000 41 .000 "The high tensile strength of the machine-cast iron is due almost entirely to the higher percentage of its combined carbon. Some of the sand-cast portion of this cast, and some of the machine-cast portion were melted separately in the same cupola, keeping all smelting conditions as nearly uniform as possible; and castings from each melt were made, which were proved by analysis, tensile strength, ability to machine and appearance of fracture to be as nearly alike as different things, made from the same iron, ever are." Regarding this experiment, Mr. W. J. Keep in a communication to "The Foundry," remarks: "The experiment shows that a pig iron cast in iron moulds with a very close grain and high combined carbon and the same iron cast in a sand pig mould with open grain and low combined carbon, will each, when remelted in a cupola, make castings exactly alike." 250 Iron The following report on the test ingots. c;ist with the cxixrimcntal castings, supports this statement. Constituents Sand-cost pig iron ingot 3)^ inches square and I W feet long Machine-cast pig iron ingot 3]ri inches square and I ^ (cct long Cast horizontally, per cent Cast vertically. per cent Cast horizontally, percent Cast vertically. per cent Silicon -• <.'3 .84 .766 .071 3.40 .470 2.9.50 18,000 G2 Fi 2.91 ] .85 K; »9S 34 Phosphorus .769 .064 3.390 .368 3022 16,300 G2 El 077 3.364 .336 3 028 17.000 Gi Fi 764 071 3357 Combined carbon Graphitic carbon .357 3 100 17,000 Gi Fi The coarse open fracture presented by some pig irons, and which under the old system might cause them to be graded as No. i, may be due to an excessive amount of manganese and the iron will be hard upon re- melting. On the other hand, an iron may have a close grain, by reason of the graphitic carbon occurring in a finely divided condition and be graded low; when, since it is soft, it should have a much higher grading. Charcoal Iron Charcoal iron is graded according to fracture. The grades are desig- nated by numbers and also as soft foimdrj'; low carbon, 2.5 per cent total carbon; medium carbon, 3.5 per cent total carbon; and high car- bon, 4.5 per cent carbon. Purchases are usually made on specifications. Comparatively little charcoal iron is now used, since its valuable properties as regards chill and strength may be imparted to coke irons by use of the ferrometalloids and scrap steel. Grading Scrap Iron Machincr}' scrap should be free from burnt iron, wrought iron, steel, plow points, brake shoes, sash weights, sleigh shoes, chilled iron, stove l)late and fine scrap; should be broken, into pieces weighing not over 4CX) pounds. .Approximately, scrap iron varying in thickness from V* inch to i inch, may be compared with pig iron carrjn'ng from 1.5 per cent to 2 per cent silicon and .oS per cent sulphur. Grading Scrap Iron 251 From I inch to 3 inches thick, as compared with pig iron carrying from I per cent to 1.75 per cent silicon and .08 per cent sulphur. Above 3 inches thick, with an open gray fracture, as ranging in sihcon from .75 to 2 per cent. In white scrap, silicon is usually very low and sulphur very high. Burnt iron is worthless except for sash weights and similar castings. The successful grading of scrap iron can only be accomplished by experience. niAP'IKR IX INFLUENCE OF THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CAST IRON Carbon CoMBiNiiD carbon increases strength, shrinkage, chill and hTdness, and closes the gram. Graphitic carbon reduces strength, shrinkage, chill, hardness, and tends to produce an open grain. Silicon softens iron by promoting the formation of graphitic carbon. It decreases shrinkage and strength; increases fluidity and opens the grain. Sulphur hardens iron, increases shrinkage and chill; causes it to set quickly in the ladle ("lose its life"); produces blow holes, shrinkage cracks and dirty iron. Phosphorus weakens iron, imparts fluidity, decreases shrinkage and lowers the melting point. Manganese in large percentages hardens cast iron. It increases shrinkage and chill, reduces deflection and tends to convert graphitic into combined carbon. In small amounts by reason of its power to remove sulphur and occluded gases, its tendency is to produce sound, dense castings, without increased hardness or shrinkage. To raise the strength of castings, increase manganese and reduce silicon and phosphorus. To soften iron, increase silicon and phosphorus. To reduce shrinkage, increase silicon and phosphorus and reduce sulphur. To prevent blow holes, reduce sulphur and increase manganese. To prevent kish (e.\cessivc amount of free carbon), increase scrap or increase manganese. [W. G. Scott.] Properties of the Usual Constituents of Cast Iron Carbon Specific gravity (diamond) 3 . 55 (graphite) 2.35 Atomic weight 12. 252 Properties of the Usual Constituents of Cast Iron 253 Specific heat at 212° F 0.198 " " " 1800° F 0-459 " " " 3000° F 0-525 Carbon exists in cast iron as combined and graphitic. Professor Turner recognizes two different varieties under each of the general subdivisions, as follows: I Coarse-grained carbon or graphite. Fine-grained carbon, called amorphous carbon, or temper graphite. „ , . , f Combined carbon. Combmed ;,,,..,, , , . , „ . , , J Missmg carbon, which usually occurs m rela- carbon | .7 ,, ... [ tively small quantities in cast iron. The amount of carbon which may be absorbed by pure iron at high temperatures is stated differently by different authorities. Turner places the limit of saturation at 4.25 per cent, and cites Saniter's experiments as follows: "At cementation, heat about 1650° F., 2 per cent; by fusion, about 2550° F., 4.00 per cent." Field states that pure iron at maximum temperatures absorbs 6h per cent carbon. Keep gives the saturation of charcoal iron when cold as 4 per cent and that of anthracite or coke irons as 3.50 per cent to 3.75 per cent. The saturation point varies according to the temperature. As iron cools below the temperature of saturation, carbon separates out in the form of graphitic carbon. At just what temperature this separation ceases is not definitely known; it is variously stated at 1300° F., 1650° F., and as high as 1800° F. Since the specific heat of carbon is much greater than that of iron, it delays the rate of cooling as the temperature falls. In a mixture containing 96 per cent of iron and 4 per cent of carbon, the heat evolved by the carbon, during the process of cooling, retards the rate of cooling one-seventh. According to Field, an iron containing 6]/^ per cent carbon will dis- solve no silicon; and one containing 23 per cent of silicon dissolves no carbon. Iron having 3 per cent silicon contains approximately 0.3 per cent combined carbon. With 2 per cent silicon the combined carbon is 0.6 per cent and with I per cent silicon 0.9 per cent. As the carbon separates out in cooling, it changes from combined to graphitic, producing a softer, weaker iron and one having less shrinkage. 254 Inlliuiuc of the Chemical Const it ucn Is of Cast Iron Tla- liital rarhon in cast iron varies from :? |>er leiil to 4>i per cent, a\era^;iiig alioul j.4 i>er leiil. With silicon as high as S to 10 |>cr cent, the total carbon falls to 2 per cent. Under the same conditions, the higher the total carlxjn, the s: 2?/^/ ^ °^:~ '•j'-^ ICZ percentage of silicon (the cooling being normal, i.e., the castings being neither chilled nor annealed). " The calculations are made on the theory that I per cent of silicon precipitates from solution .45 per cent carbon as graphitic carbon. 25^ Influence of the Chemical Constituents of Cast Iron Tor specified purposes Vroi. Turner gives the following percentages of combined carbon. Character o( iron • .juiwuieU carbon • Extra soft siliceous gray iron .08 Soft cast iron Cast iron of maximum tensile strenijth .47 Cast iron of maximum transverse strength ■ 47 Cast iron of maximum crushing strength Over 1 .00 Silicon Full lines show approximately the relation existing Ijetween the thickness of section, per cent of silicon and per cent of combined carbon, and are plotted from the actual data there given. Atomic weight 28 . 4 Specific gravity 2 . 49 Specific heat .20 B.t.u. Pig iron takes up its silicon in the furnace, and the amount so absorbed depends largely upon the working temperatures. Pure iron dissolves about 23 per cent of silicon. By means of the electric furnace iron is made to absorb as much as 80 per cent. Those irons containing over 20 per cent are called ferrosilicons; where the silicon content runs from 5 to 10 per cent they are called high silicon irons. Iron always loses silicon in passing through the cupola, and the amount lost depends upon three conditions. First. — The amoimt of oxygen coming in contact with the metal in melting; oxidation increases with the blast. Second. — Upon the composition of the iron as it is charged into the cupola, the loss being greater in irons having a high percentage of siUcon than in those where the silicon content is low. An iron with 4 per cent silicon may lose as much as 2 per cent in melting, while with one verj- low in silicon, the loss may be inappreciable. The afiinity of iron for silicon decreases as the latter increases, hence the amount oxidized increases with increased silicon. Third. — The loss of silicon varies also with the percentage of carbon present, being greater in high than in low carbon irons. Silicon lowers the solvent power of cast iron for carbon, thereby reducing the amount of combined carbon and increasing the graphitic. This influence is the more powerful with the lower percentages of silicon; the decrease in combined carbon being particidarly rapid as Silicon 257 the silicon rises from o to .75 per cent; then as the silicon continues to rise, the decrease in combined carbon grows less and less. Silicon and carbon each reduce the solubiHty of iron for the other. The influence of silicon is sometimes rendered less apparent by that of other variable elements. Silicon is not of itself a softener of cast iron, nor does it, per se, lessen shrinkage; but it produces a softening effect and reduces shrinkage by changing combined into graphitic carbon; the amount used should be just sufficient to force from solution the amount of carbon desired in the free state for any particular mixture and to furnish the requisite fluidity. For every rise of i per cent silicon in cast iron there will be a corre- sponding drop of .45 per cent in combined carbon and vice versa. Where iron is melted, very hot sihcon unites to some extent with sulphur, forming a very volatile sub-sulphide of silicon, thereby re- ducing the amount of sulphur absorbed by the iron. By reason of its specific heat, silicon retards the cooling of iron to a certain extent. It can be made to overcome many difficulties in castings, and to control the quality and cost of mixtures, where scrap iron is largely used. An increase of .2 per cent in silicon decreases shrinkage about .01 inch per foot. Very high percentages of silicon decrease the fusibility of iron. When the percentage of silicon in the casting is above 2 per cent, it has a weakening influence. Ferrosilicon is mixed with iron in the ladle for softening and reducing shrinkage. Carbide of silicon is sometimes charged with the iron in the cupola. Regarding the use of silicon. Prof. Turner says: "That at one time its presence in cast iron, in all proportions, was regarded as injurious; that there was no accurate knowledge of its influence prior to 1885, when my first paper on 'The Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Cast Iron' was published in the 'Journal of the Chemical Society.'" Summary of Prof. Turner's experiments in the use of silicon. Characteristics Per cent silicon Cast iron yielding maximum hardness Cast iron yielding maximum crushing strength Cast iron yielding maximum density in mass Cast iron yielding maximum crushing tensile and transverse strength Cast iron yielding maximum tensile strength Cast iron yielding maximum softness and general working qualities -'5^ Inllucncc ul tin (iRniicai i.'uiistitucnts of Cast Iron The siil)j< lined (hart and table giving the cfTect of silicon on ihe proi)cr- lies of cast iron taken from I'rof. Turner, show that the influence of silicon is of a uniform cliaracter as respects crushing, transverse and tensile strength. 2 3 4 5 6 7 Silicon, percent. Fig. 73. 2 4 6 Silicon, percent. Fig. 74. Chart No. II, showing the hardness of the same series of test bars, was determined by the "Sclerometer." The hardness decreased continuously with the additions of silicon until 2.5 per cent was reached, when further additions caused an increase of hardness. Tlic addition of silicon to iron free from carbon increases the tensile strength and hardness. The influence resembles that of combined car- bon on iron or steel, but is less energetic. Silicon 259 Effects of Silicon on the Properties of Cast Iron ■4J Cylin- ders -s a! Modulus of elasticity u a .s § 3 (-. 1"" 1 Chemical a nalysis c s ■a 2 c ■d a g c in S v., 0. s Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 7.560 72 22,720 25,790,000 168,700 2702 1.98 .38 1.60 .19 ■ 32 .14 .05 .5 7.510 52 27.580 28,670,000 204,800 3280 2.00 10 I 90 45 .33 .21 .03 I.O 7.641 42 28,490 31,180,000 207,300 3370 2.09 24 I 85 96 .33 .26 .04 1-4 7. 555 3i.i^o 23,500,00c 183,900 3498 2.21 50 I 71 I 37 .30 .05 2.0 7.518 22 3S,i8o 23,560,000 137,300 3446 2.18 62 S6 I 96 .28 .60 .03 2.5 7.422 22 32,760 25,450,000 172,900 3534 1.87 19 68 2 51 .26 .75 .05 3.0 7.258 22 27,390 21,150,000 128,700 2850 2.23 43 80 2 96 .34 .70 .04 4.0 7.183 27 25,280 15,640,000 105,900 2543 2.01 81 20 3 92 .33 .84 ■ 03 S.o 7.167 32 22,750 18,720,000 103,400 2342 2.03 6b 37 4 74 .30 • 95 .05 7.5 7.128 42 11,950 14,750,000 111,000 150S 1.86 48 38 7 33 ,29 1.36 .03 10. 6.978 57 10,630 13,930,000 76,380 1252 1. 81 12 69 9 80 .21 1.9s .04 * Bars one foot long, one inch square, loaded in the center. Silicon added to hard iron affects the size of the graphite, since the freshly precipitated graphite resulting from such addition is smaller than that found in ordinary soft foundry irons. Consequently, the metal is closer and stronger. Prof. Turner favors increasing silicon in a mi.xture of cast iron by the use of high silicon pig iron, rather than by that of ferrosilicon, as the latter differs both in fusibility and density from the iron, rendering the product of the mixture uncertain and irregular. "The ideal method is for the founder to have a fairly large stock, including several kinds of iron, each separate kind being a little too hard or a little too soft for the general run of work, but still not very different from what is required. By mixing these irons in suitable proportions, it is then easy to obtain any composition which may be desired, it being assumed, of course, that the composition of each variety is already kno\vn." During the period from 1886 to 1888, Mr. Keep made an exhaustive study of the influence of silicon on cast iron. The results of his researches as summarized in "Cast Iron" are: Silicon added to white iron changes it to gray; added to gray iron, low in silicon, makes the mixture darker. It is the influence of silicon, not the percentage, which produces desir- able qualities; and that influence is indirect, acting through the carbon which the iron contains. j6o Inllucncc of ihc Chcmiral Conslituenls of Cast Iron The saturation |Kjint of iron for curljon is lowered hy the addition of silicn, as the carbon is expelled in the graphitic form and caught between the grains of the iron prcxlucing a grayer color. If the total carbon is high, or the combined carbon low, the amount (if silicon required to produce a particular effect will be torresjxjndingiy low. Similar cITecLs are produced by a small amount of silicon acting through a prolonged perio'man more difficulty than any other element. It makes iron hard and brittle, increases shrinkage and chill, causes iron to congeal quickly and by preventing the ready escape of gases, makes blow holes and pin holes. It increases the combined carbon and reduces silicon. Sulphur 261 When pig iron is remelted, the percentage of sulphur is always in- creased, as it takes up from 20 to 40 per cent of the sulphur in the fuel. Mr. J. B. Neu found in some experiments that as much as 66 per cent of the sulphur in the fuel was absorbed by the iron in melting. The sulphur content of the iron at each of three remeltings is given by Mr. Percy Longmuir as follows: First melt Second melt Third melt Percent sulphur .04 .10 .20 The proportion between the total amount of sulphur present in the fuel, to that absorbed by the iron, is dependent on three conditions. First. — The quaUty and quantity of flux used. Second. — The temperature of the melted iron. Third. — The composition of the fuel and iron. In a hot working cupola, the proper quantity of flux will remove much of the sulphur. That present in the fuel as a sulphuretted hydrocarbon has no appreciable effect upon the percentage retained in the melted iron. As sulphur combines with iron at low temperatures, a hot cupola tends to increase the amount carried away by the slag. Where the fuel contains I per cent or over of sulphur, it may add from .04 per cent to .06 per cent to the iron and a casting made from iron having only 2 per cent of sulphur may, when the iron is melted with high sulphur coke, show from .06 to .08 per cent. A slow melting cupola with low temperature favors the absorption of sulphur. An increase of sulphur, the other elements and the rate of coohng remaining constant, hardens iron by increasing the combined carbon and also causes greater shrinkage, contraction and chill. Less change in the percentage of sulphur present is required to harden or soften cast iron than in that of any other element. Sulphur shortens the time that iron will remain fluid in the ladle, "destroj's the life of the iron," and if present to a large extent, makes the production of sound castings verj^ difficult. The molten iron is sluggish and sets quickly, thereby enclosing escaping gases, dross, kish, etc., which cause blow holes and dirty castings. Where sulphur is present to any considerable extent, the iron must be poured very hot. Iron will absorb as much as .3 per cent sulphur with increasing fusi- bility and decreasing fluidity. 262 Intlui'iKv of tlu- Clu-mu.il Constituents of Cast Iron An increase ni .01 per tcril of sul|)liur lan neutralize the eflecl of from .08 to .10 per cent silicon. In coke irons, usually, as the silicon decreases ihc suljihur increases. To maintain a uniform degree of hardness in castings the increase of silicon corresi)onding to successive increases of .01 per cent sulphur should be about as follows: Sulphur, per cent 01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 Silicon, per cent 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 Sulphur may be largely expelled from cast iron l)y the use of man- ganese, passing olT in the slag as suljjhide of manganese; the greater the amount of manganese present, the less sulphur will the iron absorb and, il is possible, where the manganese is very high, for the iron to lose sulphur in melting. From I to 2 per cent manganese, in addition to that carried by the pig iron, is sometimes used in the ladle, to elTect the removal of sulphur; care must be e.xercised in this respect, however, as manganese in excess of that taken up by the sulphur tends to harden the iron. When the fuel does not contain more than .08 per cent sulphur and the iron has about .5 per cent manganese, the sulphur in ordinan.- gray irons will increase about .025 per cent in melting. The injurious effects of sulphur are largely counteracted by the use of phosphorus. Other elements remaining constant, an increase of .1 per cent phosphorus produces about the same results in counteracting the effects of sulphur as does an increase of .25 per cent silicon. By the use of phosphorus instead of silicon for this purpose, the fluidity of the iron is greatly increased; gases, dross, etc., can come to the surface and greater freedom from blow holes, shrink holes, etc., results. Irons with high combined carbon are usually high in sulphur. Long- muir gives the following as the result of e.xaminations of the sulphur content for different amounts of combined carbon. Grade I 2 3 4 5 Mottled White Combined carbon • SO .02 2. so .60 .02 2.30 .80 .04 1.80 1. 10 .08 1 50 1.30 .10 1.20 1.80 • IS .70 3.00 .20 .30 The sulphur content of pig iron usually runs from .01 to .08 and some- times higher. Prof. J. J. Porter concludes his remarks on the effects of sulphur upon the physical properties of cast iron as follows: "Through the formation Phosphorus 263 in the iron sulphide of eutectic films, it causes brittleness and weak- ness, especially to shock. Through its action on the carbon it increases hardness and may either increase or decrease strength according as the combined carbon is already too low or too high. It has a great tendency to cause blow holes, especially near the upper surface of thick castings. So marked is this effect in pig iron that high sulphur pig may nearly always be spotted by the presence of blow holes in the top surfaces. "Sulphur probably has a more detrimental effect on low silicon, or chill iron, than on the ordinary foundry grades. All of these effects of sulphur are considerably lessened by the presence of sufficient manganese to insure its being in the form of MnS, but on the other hand, the segre- gation of MnS may cause bad places in the casting, apparently due to dirty iron." The statements given above are those generally entertained as regards the deleterious influence of sulphur. They are not, however, entirely confirmed by the investigations of Prof. Turner and Mr. Keep. The former remarks that: "We are still in need of exact information as to the influence of sulphur in cast iron." After a long series of experiments to determine the injurious effect of sulphur on cast iron, Mr. Keep con- cludes that the presence of .05 per cent of that element will not exert any appreciable deleterious influence, and that what little ill effect results is corrected by a slight increase of siHcon. Such small percentage of sulphur does not seem to influence the depth of chill, nor does there appear to exist any relation between the sulphur content and the strength of an ordinary casting. "While there is no indication that sulphur is in any way beneficial, on the other hand, evidence is lacking to show that its influence is ever any- thing but injurious; and the suggestion arises from the records, that the prevaiUng opinions regarding the deleterious effects of sulphur are partly superstitious, due, largely, to laboratory experiments made under con- ditions never met with in the foundry." Phosphorus Atomic weight 3100 Specific gravity i . 83 Specific heat o. 189 Melting point 112° F. Latent heat of fusion 9 . 06 B.t.u. Weight per cubic inch . 066 The phosphorus content in pig iron comes mostly from the ore, but also in part from the fuel and flux. 264 Infliuncc of ihe Chemical Constituents of Cast Iron Phosphorus weakens cast iron, lowers its melting point, imparts fluidity, tends to soften and decreases shrinkage. It has no direct elTect on carbon, but since it prolongs the cooling of meilcd iron it gives more lime for graphitic carbon to separate out. Its influence in imparting fluidity is greater than that of any other element, hence its presence within moderate limits (i to 1.25 per cent) is especially desirable for light, thin castings. After it is once taken up by the iron very little of it escapes, but its percentage is frequently increased if it exists to any extent in the fuel or flux used in melting. Phosphorus largely counteracts the influence of sulphur to increase combined carbon, shrinkage, contraction and chill. \n increase of .1 per cent phosphorus in the iron will produce about the same physical results in counteracting the effects of sulphur, as an increase of .2$ per cent silicon, all other elements remaining constant. Where over .7 per cent phosphorus is present in the iron it tends to make the latter cold short and unless there is necessity for extreme fluidity the phosphorus content should not exceed i per cent. By reason of its tendency to increase fusibility, it should be kept as low as possible in castings required to stand high temperatures. In machinery castings containing 1.5 per cent phosphorus, the tools are quickly heated and worn. Where great strength is required of castings, the phosphorus content should not exceed .02 per cent. Where blow-holes are formed in castings, by reason of occluded gases, phosphide of iron is frequently extruded into them in the shape of globular masses or shot. Ferrophosphorus may contain from 20 to 25 per cent phosphorus and is sometimes used in the ladle where prolonged fluidity is desired. Prof. Turner states that the presence of 0.5 phosphorus in cast iron produces excellent results and that where fluidity and soundness are more important than strength, from i to 1.5 per cent may be permitted; it should not be allowed in excess of the higher limit. According to Prof. Porter, the addition of i per cent phosphorus to iron containing 3.5 per cent carbon and 2 per cent silicon approximately: Lowers the temperature at which freezing begins from 2200° to 2150° F., or 50° F. Lowers the temperature at which freezing ends from 2165° to 1740° F., or 425° F. Increases the temperature range of soUdification from 50° to 375° F. Manganese 265 Manganese Atomic weight 55 ■ 00 Specific gravity 8.1 Specific heat .12 Melting point 2250° F. Latent heat of fusion Weight per cubic foot 506 . 25 pounds Manganese is a white metal, having a brilliant crystalline fracture. It has a strong affinity for oxygen and sulphur, but none for iron; alloys with iron in all proportions. The manganese in pig iron comes from the ores. Foundry irons contain from .2 to 2 per cent manganese. Manganese pig from 2 to 10 per cent; spiegeleisen from 15 to 40 per cent; ferromanganese from 50 to 90 per cent. There is always a loss of manganese in remelting. It escapes by volatilization; by oxidation, and if sulphur is present, by uniting with it to a greater or less extent. The amount of loss depends on the amount of blast and percentage of sulphur present in the fuel. With I per cent manganese present in the iron the loss of Mn in re- melting varies from .2 to .3 per cent. A peculiarity of manganese is that it may impart to pig iron, or castings, a very open grain, rendering them apparently soft, even though they are quite hard. It greatly afifects the capacity of iron to retain carbon; where only .75 per cent Mn is present in the iron the carbon content may be as high as 4 per cent. It decreases the magnetism of cast iron and when present to the extent of 25 per cent the magnetism disappears. As the percentage of manganese in iron increases, that of sulphur decreases. On the other hand, the higher the manganese, the greater the combined carbon. Manganese hardens cast iron, promotes shrinkage, contraction and chill; but by reason of its affinity for sulphur and its removal of this element, it may produce effects precisely the opposite of those above stated. However, if the amount of manganese is greater than that required for the removal of the sulphur present, the excess causes the iron to take up more carbon in combination, and hardness results. Increasing manganese above .75 per cent, the other elements remaining constant, causes greater contraction and chill on account of its hardening influence. These effects may be very pronounced in light castings. 266 Inllucnrc of the Chemical Constituents of Cast Iron On account of its strong alTinity for oxygen it tends greatly to the removal of oxides and occluded gases, thereby preventing blow-holes. Manganese pig iron is an ordinary iron, carrying somewhat more manganese than the ordinary foundry irons. It is used to raise the coml)ined carbon, to add strength U) the mixture, to fjrcvcnl blow-holes, to give life to the iron and for the removal of kish. I'errumanganese comes to the foundry in a fine powder. It is used in the ladle in the proportion of about i pound to Goo pounds of iron and acts as a puritier, driving out sulphur, softening the iron where hardness is due to sulphur and reducing the chance of blow-holes. WTien used in this way the iron must be very hot, as with dull iron it does little good. It should be thoroughly incorporated with the iron Ijy stirring. It must be used with caution, as irons with low silicon and carbon and high manganese are hard and shrinky. The use of manganese pig iron in the cupola gives better results, and is less expensive than that of ferromanganese in the ladles. It is claimed for manganese that it makes hard iron soft and soft iron hard. With respect to the influence of Mn upon chill, Mr. Keep's views are at variance with those above given. He states that manganese does not increase chill, but under certain conditions may aid in removing it. Aluminum • Atomic weight 27.1 Specific gravity 2 . 65 Specific heat 0.212 Melting point 1 182° F. Latent heat of fusion 28 . 5 B.t.u. Weight per cubic foot 165 . 6 pounds Aluminum is a white metal, resembling silver; very soft and malleable; has a great affinity for oxj'gen; alloys with iron to an unlimited extent. It does not occur in pig iron, ^^'hen added to iron in the ladle it should be thoroughly mixed by stirring. Its influence on cast iron resembles that of silicon, in producing a softening effect by the conversion of combined into graphitic carbon. A white iron to which from .5 to .75 per cent of aluminum has been added becomes gray. Aluminum decreases shrinkage and chill, and increases fluidity. By reason of its aflinity for oxygen it tends to prevent the formation of blow-holes. It closes the grain of irons high in graphitic carbon, but may render them sluggish and dirty. When used in amounts exceeding 1.5 to 2 Titanium 267 per cent it has a weakening influence. Hard irons containing from 1.25 to 1.4 per cent combined carbon are made stronger by the addition of aluminum. The amount of aluminum wliich may be used varies from .25 to 1.25 per cent; its action is somewhat uncertain and its alloys with iron are erratic at times, producing results the reverse of those anticipated. Nickel Atomic weight 58.7 Specific gravity 8.8 Specific heat .11 Melting point 2610° F. Latent heat of fusion Weight per cubic foot 550 pounds Nickel is a white metal having a silvery color; it is highly ductile and does not oxidize readily. Alloys with iron in all proportions. When used in quantities varying from .5 to 5 per cent, its tendency is to harden, render more dense and increase the tensile strength of cast iron. In large amounts it is said to have a softening influence. Mr. A. McWilliams found that an alloy of white Sweeds iron with 50 per cent nickel gave a soft fine gray metal, even when cast in sections from I to 3 inches thick, in chills. Cast iron containing from 25 to 30 per cent nickel resists corrosion. Nickel is little used in cast iron, except where great strength is re- quired. It imparts most valuable properties to steel. Titanium Atomic weight 48 . 00 Specific gravity 5.3 Specific heat Melting point 4000° F. Latent heat of fusion Weight per cubic foot 330 pounds Titanium is found in many brands of foundry and Bessemer irons, running in percentages from a trace to i per cent. It increases the strength of cast iron to a marked degree. An addition of from .01 to .06 per cent titanium has shown in test bars an increase of 40 per cent in transverse strength. It has a strong affinity for oxygen and nitrogen. Ferroalloys are made to contain from 10 to 30 per cent titanium. When ferrotitanium is added to iron in the ladle, it unites with the oxygen and nitrogen, the resulting oxides and nitrides passing oflE in the 268 Inllucncc of llu- Clumical Conslituenls of Cant Iron slag; none of llie titanium remains in the iron, except when used in large quantities; its elTect then is to harden the iron. I'omicrly titanic irons were carefully avoided and it docs not appear that fcrrotilanium has as yet been used to any great extent by foundrj'- mcn. Investigations by Dr. Richard Moidenke and Mr. G. A. Rossi indicate, however, that the use of ferrotitanium promises a marked improvement as regards strength and the removal of nitrogen and oxygen from cast iron. Mr. Rossi found as the result of his experiments that the addition of 4 per cent of a lo per cent ferrotitanium to cast iron increased the transverse and tensile strength from 25 to 30 per cent. Dr. Moidenke gives the following summary of results obtained by him. Mixtures Original iron plus .05 T " .loT " .OS T. and carb. " .10 ' " .15 Average Gray White Tests 9 4 3 6 6 4 3100 3030 3070 2990 3190 3070 1 «-sts Lbs. 8 ao3o II 2400 9 2430 10 2400 10 2520 2430 Increase of strength of treated iron over original 52 per cent — 18 per cent. From the above summary it appears that the greatest increase in strength was found in gray iron. With vanadium and cast iron the Doctor found results directly con- trary to the above. He calls attention to the fact that the improve- ment in strength is almost as marked with .05 per cent to .1 per cent titanium as with .15 per cent, showing that any excess of titanium over that required to produce oxidation is wasted; hence .05 per cent will be sufticient for foundry practice. He found that titanium reduces chill but the chill produced is very much harder than that made in the usual way. Titanium is of value as preventing blow-holes and producing sound castings. Vanadium Atomic weight 51.2 Specific gra\'ity 5.5 Specific heat Melting point 4300° F- Latent heat of fusion Weight per cubic foot 344 pounds Vanadium 269 As a merchantable product this is obtained as ferrovanadium, con- taining from 10 to 15 per cent vanadium. The investigations of Dr. Richard Moldenke furnish about all that is so far known as to the action of this element on cast iron. The follow- ing table gives a summary of his experiments. B gT3 >T3 1-^ Analyses 01 test bars gj i2 J3 _o 3 (U S 3 a -d T3 "! ^n-^ c g 1 >-d 0. "J a 11 % •d en (a Q 3 hJ tfi ^ eu % ^ 2 .2 ta s; 5 Burnt gray iron 5 3 .05 2.13 2.03 .094 .095 .638 35 370 2 7 1310 2220 .090 .100 70 Burnt iron, white 3 12 OS • SO .41 .146 .423 .43 .65 II 16 1440 1910 .050 OSS 33 Machinery iron, gray. Melted pig iron. No scrap 2 72 065 668 S4 24 1980 ■ 105 •OS 2070 • los .10 .T. . 2200 .115 IS 2740 .130 OS .05 .10 .10 .15 SO 50 50 ' S4 66 59 59 S6 33 25 36 25 27 61 66 70 75 78 1970 1980 2130 2372 2S30 2360 .100 .100 .100 .090 .120 .100 Remelted car wheels, white. No pig iron ■ 53 122 399 38 • 82 .60 138 374 44 85 1470 • 050 .05 2190 • 050 .10 2050 .050 .15 2264 .060 2790 .070 .05 .00 .45 096 423 40 36 113 3020 .060 OS • OS .50 .66 no 591 I ISO 25 117 2970 .090 .10 • 45 119 414 500 31 123 2800 • 055 .10 .05 .S3 084 431 74 27 128 3030 .090 15 .42 112 417 40 45 133 2950 .070 ■ IS .SO • 50 082 374 54 22 137 3920 • 095 SO 40 54 90 105 100 91 106 100 166 270 Inllucnce of ihc Chirnical Conslilucnls of Cast Iron I lie vimadium alloy used conlaincd: Nanadium 14. G7 pur cent; (.arbuii 4.36 per cent; silicon 0.18 fwr cent. The analyses of the lest bars show much more vanadium than was used. This is attriliutcd to errors arising from the difliculties exijcrienced in making the experiments on too small a scale. Dr. Moldenke ci includes: "The results shown in the tabic sjieak for themselves, and the averages tallied ofT for each table show a remarkable progression of values. To increase the breaking strength of a test bar from 2000 up to 2500 for gray iron and 1500 up to 3900 for white iron, is sufficient to warrant further investigation on the part of every foundry- man, who has special problems in strength to master." Thermit Thermit is a mi.xturc of oxide of iron and aluminum, which when ignited burns at an intense heat (resulting temperature is said to be 5400° F.) in consequence of the great affinity of aluminum for o.xygen. This compound is made by the Goldschmidt Thermit Co. Its use in the foundry is to raise the temperature of dull iron; to keep the iron in risers fluid, and for the mending of broken castings. A titanium thermit is also made by same company. This is used for the introduction of titanium, to remove nitrogen and oxygen, as well as for its heating eCfect. The claim is made, that cast iron can be advantageously used in place of steel castings, if titanium thermit is employed in connection with it. Nickel thermit is used for the introduction of nickel. Oxygen Atomic weight 1 5 96 Speciflc gravity (compared to atmos- pheric air 3 2 T. and one atmosphere) i 1 056 Weight per cubic foot 624.8 grains No element, perhaps, causes the foundryman more trouble than o.xygen. Iron oxidizes very rapidly at high temperatures, in presence of air. The oxides are readily dissolved in molten iron and the gases liberated from them in the castings are the frequent cause of cavities and blow-holes. Ferrous oxides, produced in the process of smelting, are found to a greater or less extent in all pig irons. Those irons in which mill cinder heis been largely used, often contain high percentages of dissolved oxides. Nitrogen 271 Frequently the ends of broken pigs present blow-holes in body of the pig, or worm-holes toward the upper surface. These are certain indi- cations of the presence of oxygen or sulphur and such iron should be used carefully. In remelting in the cupola, as the molten iron passes through the tuyere zone, more or less oxidation occurs, especially if the bed is high and the blast strong. Rusty scrap (fine scrap particularly) furnishes ferrous oxides in large amounts. The removal of ferrous oxides may be largely effected in the cupola by an abundance of hot slag. Ferromanganese and aluminum are used in the ladle for same pur- pose. The most effective deoxidizers are the metals in the order named below : Titanium Aluminum Vanadium Sodium Magnesium Manganese Calcium Silicon Nitrogen Atomic weight 14.01 Specific gravity (air i) -9713 Specific heat . 244 Weight per cubic foot 548.8 grains Nitrogen is absorbed from the blast as a nitride, by iron in melting; and as the metal cools, the gas is liberated. Very little is known as to the influence of nitrogen upon cast iron; its effect upon steel is very injurious; as little as .03 per cent causing a great loss in tensile strength and nearly eliminating ductility. Gray pig irons show only a trace of nitrogen from .007 to .009 per cent; in white iron it sometimes runs as high as .035 per cent. So far as tests have been made it does not appear that, in gray iron, any relation exists between the quality of the iron and the nitrogen content. It has a remarkably strong affinity for titanium, combining with it to form a nitride, which is insoluble in molten iron and passes off in the slag. Ground ferrotitanium previously heated is used in the ladle for removal of nitrogen. Arsenic and copper are sometimes found in pig iron, but in amounts so small that the effects produced by them are inappreciable. 272 Inllui-ncc of the Chemical Constituents of C;ist Iron In concludinK the subject of metalloids, the statement made by Prof. I'orter ;is to the ;ii)|)ri)ximale intlucncc of the more important ones on combined carljon must not be omitted. I [)cr cent silicon decreases combined carbon 45 per cent. I per rent sulphur increases " " .... 4 . 50 |)cr cent. I per cent mimnancse " " " 40 per cent. I per cent phosphorus " " " 17 per cent. CHAPTER X MIXING IRON The mixing of iron for the cupola is done either by fracture or by chemical analysis. Mixing by Fracture The fracture of the freshly broken pig is taken as the index of its com- position. A dark gray color, with coarse open crystalline grain indicates a soft iron, and, as a rule, one capable of carrying a large percentage of scrap. As the color becomes lighter and the grain closer, hardness increases and less scrap can be used. Very hard irons are mottled or white and are used for special work. A broken pig may present a dark fracture with open grain, but with a fine white streak showing at the outer edges of the fracture. Such an iron will make hard castings, owing to the presence of too much man- ganese. Blow holes and worm holes indicate sulphur or ferrous oxides. Iron showing these with frequency should be used carefully. Segregations, much lighter in appearance than the rest of the fracture, frequently appear. These indicate higher percentages of carbon, sulphur or manganese at those particular spots and the iron should be used with care. Mixing by fracture is uncertain and is liable to produce irregular and unsatisfactory results. The foundryman must always proceed cautiously and can only arrive at the results desired by careful trial. The following mixtures are taken from West's " Foundry Practice." Locomotive Cylinders 2600 pounds car wheel scrap. 600 pounds soft pig. Marine and Stationary Cylifiders 50 per cent No. i charcoal. 50 per cent good machinery scrap. 33 per cent car wheel scrap. 33 per cent good machinery scrap. 33 per cent No. i soft pig. 273 274 Mixing,' Iron Rolling Mill Rolls 50 pcT cent car wheel scrap. 25 per cent No. i charcoal. 25 per cent No. 2 charcoal. Smtill Chilled Rolls 1300 pounds old car wheels. 100 pounds No. I charcoal. 300 jjounds steel rail butts. Killles to Stand Red Heat 1300 pounds No. I charcoal pig. 800 pounds car wheel scrap. 700 pounds good machinery scrap. Chilled Castings to Stand friction {no strain) 200 pounds white iron. 200 pounds plow points. 1 00 pounds No. 2 charcoal. 100 pounds car wheel scrap. Ordinary Castings 33 per cent No. i soft pig. 67 per cent scrap. Tliin Pulleys 66 per cent No. i soft pig. 34 per cent scrap. Sash Weight 67 per cent scrap tin. ^:i per cent stove scrap. The advent of the chemist into the foundry offers means to avoid many of the uncertainties coming from the selection of irons by fracture, and the more advanced foundrymcn are now mixing their irons by analysis. Mixing Iron by Analysis This method of mixing iron is by no means entirely removed from uncertainties. The chemist is not yet able to insure the production, from irons of known chemical composition, of castings of defmite physical characteristics. Analysis should be supplemented by physical tests. -Again, while the foundryman may have correct analysis of his pig iron, if scrap is used to any extent, especially foreign scrap, he must approxi- mate the elements contained therein. Mixing Iron by Analysis 275 The statements made on page 307 offer some little assistance, but, in general, reliance must be placed on experience in this respect. Where the scrap comes entirely from previous casts, one can readily arrive at its constituents and much uncertainty is removed. The qualities necessary for different grades of castings may be sum- marized as follows: 1. Hollow Ware, Stove Plate, Sanitary Ware. — Require fluidity, softness; must be high in silicon and phosphorus; low in combined carbon. 2. Light Machinery Castings. — Require fluidity, softness, strength and absence of shrinkage. Must be high in total carbon and manganese; low in sulphur and contain less silicon and phosphorus than grade No. i. 3. Heavy Machinery Castings. — Require softness, strength and low shrinkage. Should be lower in silicon, phosphorus and graphitic carbon than No. 2. Higher in combined carbon and manganese; low in sulphur. 4. Castings requiring great strength should be low in silicon, graphitic carbon, sulphur and phosphorus. Combined carbon should be about .50 per cent; manganese .8 per cent to i.o per cent. 5. Car Wheels and Chilled Castings. — Require low silicon, phosphorus, graphitic carbon and sulphur. High combined carbon and manganese. 6. Chilled Rolls. — Require low silicon, graphitic carbon and phos- phorus. High combined carbon. The following table is abstracted from "Proceedings of the American Foundrymen's Association," Vol. X, Part II, which contains the results of a long series of tests made by their committee to standardize test bars. The mixtures are not given as being recommended by the committee for the several purposes, but simply to indicate the practice of some of the larger American foundries. Table II Character of work Silicon Sulph. Phos. Mang. Graph, carb. Total carb Remarks Ingot moulds Dynamo frames Light machinery Chilled rolls 1.67 1.95 2.04 .85 .72 ■97 3.19 1.96 2.49 4.19 2.32 0.91 .032 .042 .044 .070 .070 .060 .084 .081 .084 .080 .044 .218 .095 .405 • 578 .482 • 454 .301 1. 160 .522 .839 1.236 .675 .441 !o6 .00 3.43 3.08 2.99 2.99 .03 2.62 2.36 3.04 4.17 3.41 3.32 3.39 2.88 3-12 Ton heat 60 60 40 15 17 40 38 48 47 67 43 30 30 Car wheel iron 15 20 Heavy machinery . . . Cylinder iron Novelty iron 30 10 5 10 Sash weights . IS 276 Mixing Iron Table III Automobile cylinders Silicon Sulph. PhoB. Mn. Graph, carb. Total carb. as per cent chan , a. 46 .063 -m .061 Transverse strength. 2901 At a laler period Pnjf. J. J. Porter, at the request of the .American Foundrymen's Association, undert- . "70 Percent .24 Percent 3.18 Avcr.iKi- Suggested . Housings for Rolling Mills I.13S I.OO-I 25 .08s under .08 .6s .20-30 .7S .80-1.0 low low Hydraulic Cylinders, Heavy Average Suggested — I 19 .80-1.20 .084 under .10 39 .20-. 40 .82 .80-1.0 99 3 13 low Hydraulic Cylinders, Medium 1.67 .071 375 55 .30-. SO .70-90 I 20-1.60 under .09 low Ingot Moulds and Stools 1.43 ! 046 1 .095 .345 1.2S-1.5O; under .06 under .20 , .60-1.0 i 1 Locomotive Castings, Heavy Average Suggested 1 55 I. 25-1. SO .oSi .50 under .08 .30-. so 56 .70-. 90 .60 3 so Locomotive Castings, Ligiti Average Suggested 1.72s 07S 1.50-2.00 under .08 .53 .40-60 ss .60-.80 .50 3SO Locomotive Cylinders Average 1.457 i.oo-iso .084 .58 .60 .08-10 .TO- TO 80-1 .60 3 SO Mixing Iron by Analysis 283 Locks and Hinges (see Hardware, Light) Machinery Castings, Heavy Mixture Average . . . Suggested . Silicon Per cent 1. 335 I. 00-1.50 Sulphur Per cent .084 under .10 Phosphorus Per cent ■ 43 .30-50 Manganese Per cent .58 .80-1.0 Combined carbon Per cent .33 Total carbon Per cent 3.21 low Machinery Castings, Medium Average Suggested 1.932 1.50-2.00 .078 under .09 .61 .40-. 60 .53 .60-. 80 .47 3-33 Machinery Castings, Light Average Suggested .... 2.57 2.00-2.50 .069 under .08 .74 .SO-. 70 .52 .50-. 70 • 27 3.49 Machine Tool Castings (see Machinery Castings) Motor Frames, Bases and Spiders (see Dynamo) Molding Machines (see Machinery Castings) Mowers (see Agricultural Castings) Niter Pots (see Acid-resisting Castings and Heat-resisting Castings) Ornamental Work Average Suggested . . . 2.9s 2.25-2.75 .09s under .08 .54 .50-. 70 Permanent Moulds Average Suggested. . . 2.085 2.00-2.25 .078 under .07 I 075 .20-. 40 .35 .60-1.0 .485 Permanent Mould Castings 2.5 1.50-3.00 3.50 under .06 under .40 Piano Plates Average . . Suggested. 2.00 2.00-2.25 low under .07 .40 .40-. 60 .60 .60-.80 284 Mixing Iron Pillow Blocks Mixture Silicon Sulphur Phosphoru-s ., 1 Combined Manganese ^^^j^„ Tot*l carbon Average SuRKcsted Per cent 1.60 I SO-I.7S Per cent .04 under .08 Per cent .55 .4»-.SO Per cent SS .60-.80 Per cent .30 Percent 3. so Pipe 3.00 1.50-2.00 under .10 .60 .50-80 .60 .60-80 Suggested. . . . Pipe Fittings Average 2.36 I.7S-2.SO .084 under .08 51 .50-80 .74 .60-80 .70 368 Pipe Fittings for Superlieated Steam Lines Average 1. 57 1.50-1.75 .078 under .08 • 49 .20-. 40 .56 .70-90 .17 2.90 low Piston Rings Average 1.61 1.50-2.00 .073 under .08 • 72 .30-. 50 .45 .40-. 60 .53 low Plow Points, Chilled Average I. IS .75-1.25 .086 under .08 ..30 .20-. 30 .68 .80-1.0 2.10 3.30 Printing Presses (see Machinery Casting) Propeller Wheels Average Suggested.... 1. 28 I. 00-1.75 low under .10 ■26 .455 .20-. 40 .60-1.0 .60 low Pulleys, Heavy Average 2.07 1.75-2.25 .05 under .09 .575 .50-70 575 .60-. 80 .30 3.66 Mixing Iron by Analysis Pulleys, Light 28s Mixture Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese Combined carbon Total carbon Average Suggested Per cent 2.55 2.25-2.75 Per cent .069 under .08 Per cent .695 .60-. 80 Per cent .62 •SO-. 70 Per cent • 35 Per cent 3.48 Pumps, Hand Average 2.52 2.00-2.25 under .08 under .08 .80 .60-. 80 .40 .50.-70 Suggested Radiators Average Suggested. . . . 2.30 2.00-2.25 low under .08 .62 .60-. 80 • 42s .50-. 70 .425 .50- 60 3.45 Railroad Castings Average Suggested — 2.03 1.50-2.25 .065 under .08 .69 .40-. 60 .64 .60-. 80 .525 3.50 Retorts (see Heat-resisting Castings) Rolls, Chilled Average .73 .60-. 80 .055 .06-. 08 • 534 .20-. 40 .74 I. 0-1.2 1.75 3.12 3.00-3.23 Rolls, Unchilled {Sand Cast) Average .75 .03 .25 .66 1.20 4.10 Scales 1.83 2.00-2.30 I. OS .60-1.0 1.43 under .08 Slag Car Castings Average Suggested .... 1.88 1.75-2.0 .058 under .07 .67 under .30 • 79 .70-. 90 .56 3.6!J 286 Mixing Iron Smoke Stacks, Locomotive (sec Locomotive Castings) Soil Pipe and Fittings Mixture Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Per cent 1.00 .50-. 80 Manganese Combined carbon Total carbon Average Suggested — Per cent 3.0O I. 75-2 -25 Per cent .060 under .09 Percent .60 .60-80 Per cent Percent Steam Cylinders, Heavy Average Suggested 1.20 I.0O-I.2S .091 under . 10 .36 .20-. 40 .50 .80-1.0 .81 3.3s low Steam Cylinders, Medium Average Suggested — 1.658 I. 25-1. 75 .082 under .09 .30-. so 61 .62 3.43 ■^■^ 1 Steam Chests (see Locomotive Castings Stove Plate and Machiner>' Castings) Average Suggested 2.77 2.25-2.75 .076 under oS .82 .60-. 90 • 59 .60-80 .28 3.33 Valves, Large Average Suggested 1.34 .095 .43 .20-40 .64 .80-1.0 Valves, Sfnall Average Suggested 1.96 1.75-2.25 .067 under .08 .585 .30-. 50 .70s .60-.80 1. 16 4.18 low Valve Bushings (see Loconioti\-e Casting Water Heaters 5 and Machineo' Castings) Average Suggested 2. IS 2.00-2.25 .050 under .08 .40 .30-50 .50 .60-80 Mixing Iron by Analysis 287 Weaving Machinery (see Machinery Castings) Wheels, Large Mixture Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese Combined carbon Total carbon Average Suggested Per cent 2.10 1.50-2.00 Per cent .04 under .09 Per cent .40 .30-. 40 Per cent .70 .60-.80 Per cent Per cent Wheels, Small I. 8s .0665 1.75-2.00 under .08 .50 .40-. 50 • 45 .50-. 70 Suggested Wheel Centers (see Locomotive Castings) White Iron Castings Average. 2.90 Wood Working Machinery (see Machinery Castings) Brake Shoes Average Suggested. . . 1.94 I . 40-1 . 90 .125 .08-. 10 .67s .556 .50-. 70 3.16 low Knowing the desired analysis for any class of casting to be made, the simplest way to arrive at the amounts of the different irons to be used is by percentage. For example, let the requirements be for an iron to produce machinery castings of which the analysis shall be : Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese 2.00 .084 .350 .625 As previously stated, the loss in silicon in remelting will be from 10 to 20 per cent, the same for manganese, and a gain of .03 in sulphur, phosphorus remaining constant. The mixture then must contain: Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese 2.22 .054 • 350 .687 s88 Mixing Iron The irons then availaliie arc: No. 2 Southern No. 3 Northern Silver gray Scrap Silicon 4.20 1.90 Sulphur 02s .080 Phosphorus 280 3SO .830 .284 Manganete 735 940 820 S40 After two or three trials it is found that the desired mi.xture may be obtamed from Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese ao per cent No. 2 Southern, giving 20 per cent No. 2 Northern, giving 10 per cent silver gray, giving . . . • 45° .420 420 .950 2.240 .008 004 .0025 .0400 ■ 054S .056 .070 .082 142 .350 147 188 082 .687 Example 2. — Required an iron for pulleys and light castings of following analysis: Silicon, 2.40; sulphur, .09; phosphorus, .700; manganese, .52, and to carr>' 50 per cent scrap. Avaflable irons: No. 2 Southern No. 2 Northern Silver gray Scrap Silicon 2.72 2.40 s-oo 2.20 Sulphur .070 .020 .024 .080 Phosphorus Manganese .750 .48 .600 56 .960 S3 .660 62 Correcting for losses of silicon and manganese and gain of sulphur the mixtiffe must contain silicon, 2.66, sulphur, .06, phosphorus, .70, man- ganese, .577. For reasons of economy no more than 10 per cent of the silver gray iron should be used. This with the 50 per cent scrap supplies: 10 per cent silver gray 50 per cent scrap To be supplied by remaining pig iron Silicon ■ SO 1. 10 iTfo 1.066 Sulphiu" .0024 .040 .0424 .0176 Phosphorus .096 ■ 330 .426 Manganese .053 ■ 310 .363 Mixing Iron by Analysis 289 By txial it is found that the remaining amounts of the different elements may be obtained by using: Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese 25 per cent No. 2 Southern IS per cent No. 2 Northern Giving .68 1.04 .0175 .0030 .0205 .1875 .0900 .2775 .13 .084 .204 The slight discrepancies of .02 silicon, .0029 sulphur, .0035 phosphorus and .01 manganese may be neglected. Where the scrap is very nearly of uniform quality, the analysis of the castings from any given heat furnishes data from which a very close approximation can be made of the scrap used in the previous heat. Assuming such character of scrap, and knowing the mixture used in any heat as well as the analysis of the castings, compute the analysis of scrap used in previous heat. Let the castings show the analysis of example 2, viz.: Si, 2.40, S, .09, P, .70, Mn, .52. Then the] mixture must have been as before. Si, 2.66, S, .06, P, .70, Mn, .577. The irons having the assumed analysis of example 2, then: 25 per cent No. 2 Southern gives. IS per cent No. 2 Northern gives. 10 per cent silver gray gives Which subtracted from the mix- ture leaves Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese .36 ■ 50 1-54 1. 12 .0175 .0030 .0024 .0229 .0371 .1875 .0900 .0960 .3735 .3265 .084 053 .257 As 50 per cent scrap was used, the analysis of scrap from previous heat is Si, 2.24, S, .0742, P, .653, Mn, .64, giving a very close approxima- tion. CHAPTER XT USE OF STEEL SCRAP IN MIXTURES OF CAST IRON Steix scrap, when added to mixtures of cast iron in quantities varying from lo to 40 per cent, closes the grain, increases the toughness and adds greatly to the tensile strength of the castings made from such mixture. The steel should be low in carbon, such as boiler i)lalc scrap, machine steel, rail ends, etc. Turnings from machine steel are frequently used in the ladle. In this case the steel should be heated quite hot, placed in the ladle and the iron tapped out on it. The mixture should be thoroughly stirred until the steel is melted. In aU cases the iron must be very hot. Mixing steel in the ladle does not give as satisfactory results as mixing in the cupola. .\s the steel is low in carbon the iron used should be high in total carbon, otherwise the castings will be hard with over 10 per cent steel scrap. The following table by Mr. 11. E. Diller presents the results of a scries of tests, with mixtures made by varying in percentages of steel scrap from I2V4 to 37!^ per cent: No. Sili- con Sul- I phur 'hos- hor- \ us ga lan- nese Comb, carbon Graph- itic carbon Total carbon Tensile strength Trans- verse strength Per cent steel I I 43 .047 564 82 .670 3.14 3.81 23,060 25SO 2 I. SO .065 532 33 .640 3 44 3 08 30.500 2840 2S 3 1.76 .062 488 53 510 3.12 3 63 22.180 2440 4 1.76 • 139 515 57 .430 2.94 3 37 37.090 2770 • I2'i S 1.77 .069 339 49 .560 2.87 3 43 32.500 3120 124 6 1.83 .100 610 55 510 2.44 2 9S 36.860 3280 25 7 1.75 .089 598 35 .740 2 12 2 86 30,160 3130 31^i 8 1.96 .104 446 44 .630 3.18 3 81 21 ,950 2230 9 2.12 .037 410 26 .380 326 3 64 21,890 3470 124 10 2.16 .060 31S 20 1.060 2.30 3 36 26,310 2670 124 II I 97 .093 470 48 .S70 283 3 40 32,.S3o 3050 37I4 12 2. 35 .061 51S 56 .540 3 40 3 94 21.990 2200 13 2.53 .104 490 54 .600 2S6 3 16 33..390 2850 2S 14 2.36 .064 327 24 1.080 2. IS 3 23 31.560 3200 35 These tests were made with pig iron, ferrosilicon and steel scrap. No cast iron scrap was used. Mr. Diller concludes: "The tests given seem 290 Recovering and Melting Shot Iron 2gi to indicate that 25 per cent of steel will add 50 per cent to the strength of the iron, and i2>^ per cent of steel, approximately 25 per cent." The tests containing 37'/^ per cent steel were hardly as much im- proved in strength as those with 25 per cent of steel; from which we may infer that the limit of the amount of steel it is beneficial to melt with iron in a cupola is between 25 and 371^ per cent. Results of experiments made by Mr. C. B. McGahey are embodied below. Mr. McGahey used test bars i in. by i in. by 24 in. (distance between supports not stated). No. Sili- con Sul- phur Phos- phor- us Man- ganese Per cent steel Depth of chill Trans- verse strength Remarks I 2 3 4 .82 .88 .58 ■ 79 .097 .081 .097 .o8i .23 .24 .25 .239 • 54 .67 • 44 • 64 7 20 23 21.50 In. • 38 .40 • 48 1800 2200 2250 Entirely gray when cast in sand. Depth of chill ?4 in. Steel scrap (struc- tural shapes). "I find that to get the strongest bars I have to keep pretty close to these analyses and have made my strongest bar at 2350 pounds with .55 inch deflection. The iron had a fine grain, was low in graphite, but machined nicely. When ferromanganese was used, about i per cent was found to be best. The above resulting compositions (the silicons of the mixtures being calculated to bring them about right) are intended for castings ranging from i inch to 2H inches in section. Should heavier work be required it is better to run the silicon in the pig up to 2.75 and manganese up to 2.00 and use $3^^ per cent of steel scrap." An addition of 10 per cent steel scrap to mixtures for engine cylinders gives excellent results affording a close-grained tough iron. Steel scrap increases shrinkage and causes the iron to set quickly; hence the irons used should be high in total carbon and must be melted and poured very hot. Steel scrap promotes chill and is largely used with coke irons in making car wheels, obviating the use of the expensive charcoal mixtures. The charges containing steel should be melted during the first part of the heat, and in each charge the steel should precede the iron. Recovering and Melting Shot Iron The shot from gangways and cupola bottom is usually recovered by riddling the gangway sand; picking over the dump and by grinding the 2Q2 Use of Steel Scrap in Mixtures of Cast Iron hollnm in the i indcr mill. Tliis is also done by magnetic or hydraulic sci)aratt>rs. The amount recovered by machines is much greater than that obtainecl by hand. After charging of the cujxila is completed, the shot should Ijc thrown on toil of the last charge, using with it some of the coke picked from the (lumj). Kach heat should take care of the shot from the previous one. The melted iron coming from the shot can be poured into grate bars, sash weights, or other coarse castings; or it may fjc run into pigs and used as scrap. Mr. \V. J. Keep describes his method of recovery as f(;llows: "After the blast has been shut ofT and all of the melted iron has been drained from the cupola, make a dam on the floor in front of the cupola spout about 4 inches high, enclosing a semicircular space, having a radius of about 4 fe«t. Let the melter lay a tapping bar across the spout and have three or four laborers with a piece of old iVi inch shafting about 8 feet l Tensile Test Fig. 76. h2i"H l--± z> K- //4 - -'< Steel Socket for Tensile Test of Cast Iron. — Two required Tp^--yf' r --- '^'-"-w- j-w k J3" >l Standard Test Bar for Cast-iron Tensile Test. — Cross section equals 3^ sq. in. ; test piece should fit loosely in socket Fig. 77. 2y8 I'tsl Uars Modulus of Ruplurc in I'ouuds Per Square huh Tlie rtport of the committee is accompanie M a .0 t u " 1 3 w m 1^ Nov. 21, 1907.... 3580 2.830 .75 • 79 .48s .081 1. 59 24.900 2440 49 Nov. 26, 1907.... 3.396 2.736 .66 .38 ■ 459 .124 1.91 22.000 2075 .40 From Aug. 5, 1907 to April 4, 1908 there were made 67 single tensile bars, and the same number of pairs of transverse bars; and the average of the latter was used in this record. From April 4 to Dec. 19, 1908, there were made 91 pairs of tensile bars and an equal number of transverse bars and each piece of the pair is recorded instead of the average. Of these 249 tensile bars and their corresponding transverse bars, 32 sets — 26 flat and 6 round — ^were rejected for defects due to blow-holes and four tensile bars were too hard to bear threading, but the companion pieces were used in this record. Of the 217 specimens here recorded, 42 were designated as abnormal; that is, the ratio between the tensile and the transverse bars was either considerably greater or smaller than the average. 302 Tesl Hars By referring to Table II it will be seen that of the 175 specimens of cast iron runninj^ from 20,000 l^ 60 78 561/4 64 M 56 15 10 12% 44 16 II Average No test taken . . 13W 39 Each tensile test bar was i inch square and transverse and hardness bars were cast relatively of the same size, and on the casting they were to represent; while the 54-inch transverse bars, which were also used for the shrinkage test, were cast separately by Keep's method. The transverse bars were cast iH inch square, machined down to I inch square and tested on 12-inch centers. Referring to Table I, it will be seen that the results of the transverse tests on the i inch square bars also show a marked difference, as do the tensile tests. It will be noted, however, that the average result of the transverse test on the ^4-inch square bars is slightly in favor of the series which gave the weakest tensile, and with the i-inch square bar opposite results. This point will be referred to later. As the method of manipulation and the chemical composition of the two series were the same, it was thought that a microscopical analysis would reveal a cause for the vast difference. For the first investigation a low bar of the A series, and the highest bar of the B series were ex- amined. The chemical analysis of the two bars was first taken as shown in Table II. 30« Tcsl liars Table II, — Comi'arative Cukuical Analysis of the Two Series Schc. ., B 9.1 tons per Tensile test ] square inch, I)er cent 18.3 tons per square inch, per cent 3.250 2.397 3092 3 2K0 •8S3 90J 1.328 I 314 .095 1 lOI .923 ■290 94 "4 .909 .335 94 149 Chemical Analyses These analyses will be seen to he practically identical, even to the amount of the combined and graphitic carbon. To insure the results being absolutely comparative, a number of micrographs were each taken from the same position at the center of the bars. Fig. 79 shows the polished, but unetched section of the low bar from the .1 series. Fig. 80 the high bar from the B series. These show the size of the graphite in each case, the one having it in the form of long flakes, the other in very small flakes. Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Figs. Si and 82 show the same surfaces etched with iodine and magni- fied 1 20 diameters. In the one case the large flakes of graphite are plainly seen in a matrix of cementite, phosphorus eutectic, peariitc and ferrite; while in the other, the graphitic carbon is scarcely visible and a closer structure is observed. Otherwise, there is nothing very remarkable to account for such widely different physical results. Chemical Analyses 309 The same surfaces were then treated on the lines laid down by Mr. Stead at the 1909 convention, to bring into prominence the phosphorus eutectic. Fig. 83 shows the 9.1 ton bar, and Fig. 84 the 18.3 ton bar. In both cases not only is the phosphorus shown but the cementite as . well. In Fig. 83 the phosphorus and cementite are evenly distributed, and have not taken up any definite form of structure, the graphite being also shown intermixed with them, but in Fig. 84 a very remarkable arrange- ment of a net-like formation of phosphorus and cementite is shown. As Fig. 81. — A Series; tensile strength 18,200 pounds per sq. inch; mag- nification 120 diameters. Fig. 83. — A Series; tensile strength 18,200 pounds per sq. inch; mag- nification 30 diameters. Fig. 82. — B Series; tensile strength 36,600 pounds per sq. inch; mag- nification 120 diameters. Fig. 84. — B Series; tensile strength 36,600 pounds per sq. inch; mag- nification 30 diameters. it had been noticed with bars previously examined that those giving high test had also been associated with this particular net-like structure, we were lead to the conclusion that probably strength was associated with this structure independently of what the chemical composition might be; we, therefore, examined a series of bars made by one of the authors a few years ago to show the effect on strength of different rates of cooling. For this experiment four bars had been made in one box, cast from the same ladle of metal, which was ordinary No. 3 foundry pig iron. Taken from " castings," Aug. 1909. 3IO Tc-si Hars The rale of cooling was re^ulalt-d \)y means of cast iron chills of (lidercnt thicknesses placed in the moulds for three of the bars, the other having no iron chill. The bar without the chill gave a tensile test result of 8.1 tons per stjuarc inch, while the bar at the other end of the series broke at 15.2 tons per s(|uare inch. These two bars were selected, the chemical analyses of which are given in Tabic III. Table III. — Analysis of MEOiini Bar Tensile- strength 13.9 per cent 3 J7a 2.740 532 1.307 III .948 .330 94 032 Graphitic carbon Silicon Phosphorus Iron by difference Chilled and Unchilled Bars These results are identical, and as there is practically no combined (arbon present, there must be an absence of cementite. The bars are also totally diCfcrent in chemical composition from those previously examined. Figs. 85 and 86 show unetched sections from the two bars, with the difference in the formation of the graphite as previously pointed out in Fig. 85. Fig. 86. connection with the other bars; that is, elongated flakes of graphite in the unchilled bar, and finely divided graphite in that of the chilled one. Figs. 87 and 88 show the formation of the phosphorus eutectic in the case of the weak bar to be broken up and ha^^ng no distinct pattern, while in the case of the strong bar there is dearly shown that net-Uke Chilled aixl Unchilled Bars 311 formation which was the distinguishing feature of the strong bar from the B series, but with this difference, tliat the structure was rather smaller. As there is no cementite present in this specimen, it is proof that the particular formation is not dependent upon cementite. Fig. 87. There was next examined another bar from B series. This had a tensile strength about half way between the two bars previously selected, and had given a tensile test result of 13.9 tons per square inch. The analysis of this bar is shown in Table III. This showed that while the total carbon and other elements were practically the same as the two bars previously taken, the graphitic carbon was higher by 0.35 per cent, and the combined carbon lower by 0.35 per cent. This was probably due to the fact that this bar had been cast on a much larger casting than the previous two. The size of the graphite in this bar is illustrated by an unetched section in Fig. 89 which shows that although it is smaller than that shown in Fig. 79 of the 9.1 ton bar, it is larger and more elongated than that contained in the 18.3 bar, Fig. 80. Fig. 89. Fig. go. The phosphorus eutectic which is shown in Fig. 90 is the same net-like formation as associated with the previous strong bars, though rather less dearly defined and appears to be getting into the transition stage between the two. 312 Test Bars The foregoing results, we think, have been sufficient to show that in each case, physical properties ha\e been associated with this net-Uke formation of the phosphorus, also that the graphite, when in the elongated form, appears to split up phosphorus eutectic and prevent this formation, as clearly shown in F'ig. 83. The question of the tendency of the graphite to take either an elongated or finely divided form, we think, is more a question of the way in which the pig iron has been made than of its subsequent treatment in the foundry. The statement of Mr. Pilkington in this respect is very interesting: "Furnace men have always been conversant with the fact that the temperature at which pig iron leaves the tapping hole of the furnace has a powerful effect on its physical characteristics. The temperature of a large modern blast furnace is very much higher and the metal, therefore, takes very much longer to cool than that which leaves the tapping hole of the smaller furnaces. Pig iron from the extreme types could be made practically in a different manner altogether, and would show very different grades, grains and degrees of hardness. On referring again to the sunmiary of tests taken with the A and B series it will be seen that the results of the ,' 2-inch transverse bars of the A series, which gave weak tensile results, are slightly higher than those of the B series, and from this, together with the evidence of the chilled and unchilled bars made from low grade iron, we are of the opinion that no matter what their chemical compositions may be, there is a rate of cooling which will give high physical properties; the structure of the iron then being associated with the net-like formation of the phosphorus eutectic and the cementite when present. Tests reported to the International Association for Testing Materials show: Circular bars showed greater bending and tensile strength than those of rectangular section. Test pieces taken from castings showed lower strength figures than bars separately cast. Extracts from Prof. Porter's Report Prof. Porter's report contains so much information of value to the foundryman, that extensive extracts are made from those parts relating to the properties and mixtures of cast iron, notwithstanding they may comprise much which has already been considered. In treating of the different forms of iron as occurring at differ- ent temperatures, they are designated as the "alpha," "beta" and "gamma." The "alpha" form in the ordinary iron as known in unhardened steel Chilled and Unchilled Bars 313 at ordinary temperatures, is one of the constituents of slowly cooled gray pig iron, and is formed below 1140° F. The "beta" form is that between 1440° F. and 1680° F.; it is harder than the "gamma." Prof. Howe suggests its identity with martensite, the chief constituent of hardened tool steels. It is non-magnetic and diflfers from "alpha" iron in specific heat and density. The "gamma" form is the stable one above 1680° F., is very hard, non-magnetic, and differs in specific heat and density from both the "alpha" and "beta." It is held that the "gamma" and "beta" forms may be preserved at ordinary temperatures by verj^ rapid cooling, especially in the presence of carbon which is supposed to retard the change from one form into another. Table I. — Forms of Combination of Iron anb Carbon Name Synonyms Physical characteristics Graphite Very soft dark flakes of variable size. No strength. Kish Graphite in very large flakes. Graphite in form of very fine powder. Temper carbon . . . Free carbon Ferrite Iron Soft, very ductile, low strength. Very hard and brittle, high static Cementite Combined carbon. Iron car- bide. FeC. strength, no ductility. Austenite Solution carbon in "gamma" Slightly softer than martensite. iron. Also weaker and more brittle. Martensite Solution carbon in "beta" Hard, but less brittle than ce- iron. Transition product mentite. Chief constituent of austenite to pearlite. hardened tool steels. Troostite Transition product marten- Softer than martensite, less site to sorbite. brittle and more ductile. Sorbite Transition product. Troost- ite to pearlite. Softer than troostite and more ductile. Strongest form. Pearlite An intimate mechanical mix- Very strong. Harder than fer- ture of cementite and fer- rite. rite. Prof. Porter classifies the more important physical properties of cast iron as follows: Static strength, including: Tensile strength; compressive strength; transverse strength; torsional strength; shearing strength. Dynamic strength, embracing: Resistance to repeated stress; resist- ance to alternating stresses; resistance to shock. Elastic properties, embracing: Elastic Hmit; resilience or elasticity; rigidity; toughness; malleability. 314 Test Bars Hardness, embracing: Hardness *>{ mass; ability to chill; hardness of chill. Grain slruclurc, including: I-ractiirc or grain size; f>orosity; specific gravity. 5Artnitagc, embracing: Shrinkage of the liquid mass; shrinkage of the solid mass; stretch. Fluid properties, embracing: Fusibility; fluidity. Resistance to Ileal, embracing: Resistance to continued heat; resist- ance to alternate healing and cooling; resistance to very low temjjcratures. FJectrical properties, including: Electrical conductivity; magnetJc permeability; hysteresis. Miscellaneous properties, including: Resistance to various corrosive agencies; resistance to wear; coetTicient of friction. Properties of the mass: Soundness, or freedom from blow-holes and shrinkage cavities; cleanness, or freedom from inclusions of dross, etc.; freedom from pin-holes and porous places; homogeneity, or lack of segregation; crystallization; freedom from shrinkage strains; tendency to peel off sand and scale. CHAPTER XIII CHEMICAL ANALYSES Strength As regards chemical composition there are nine factors which influence strength of cast iron: (i) Per cent graphite; (2) size of individual graphite flakes; (3) per cent combined carbon; (4) size of primary crystals of solid solution Fe-C-Si; (5) amount of dissolved oxide; (6) per cent phosphorus; (7) per cent sulphur; (8) per cent silicon; (9) per cent manganese. 1. "Per cent graphite. — The weakening effect of graphite is due to its own extreme softness and weakness, and to the fact that it occurs in small flakes or plates and hence affords a multitude of cleavage planes through the metal. The size of the graphite particles is evidently important as well as the amount but this factor will be discussed under another head. Theoretically, the simplest method of decreasing graphite is to lower the silicon, each decrease on i per cent in silicon lessening the graphite by 0.45 per cent, provided the total carbon remains the same. Practi- cally, however, the fact that all the carbon not graphite becomes combined is an important objection, for when we lower the silicon too much the resulting increase in combined carbon increases the hardness and, beyond a certain point, decreases the strength. The minimum permissible silicon will depend chiefly on the hardness allowable. The same objection applies to decreasing the graphite by increas- ing the sulphur and manganese, and in the case of sulphur there is also the objection that its direct effects are injurious. The rate of cooling is, of course, beyond the control of the foundryman in the majority of cases, while even if it were not, the graphite could not be reduced by rapid cooling without a corresponding increase in com- bined carbon. Coming finally to the total carbon, we find here a means of reducing graphite without in any way affecting carbon, and hence, hardness. The only limitation to this is that as total carbon and graphite are reduced, shrinkage is increased and the metal becomes more liable to oxidation, blow-holes and other defects. 31S 3i6 Chemical Analyses There are three ways of reducing total carbon in castings; first, by ihc use of low carbon pig iron; second, by melting in the air furnace; tliird, by the use of steel scrap in the cupola mixture. In air furnace melting it is easy to reduce total carbon to almost any U^UTC within reason. 2.75 per cent is commonly obtained in melting for malleable castings. Of course the silicon is also burnt out during this l)rocess, but were it desired, this could be readily replaced by suitable additions of ferrosilicon. From the standpoint of quality the air furnace is certainly the ideal method of melting, and hence, we find that many lines of castings which must be of particularly high quality are invariably made from air furnace metal. The addition of steel scrap to the cupola has now become common practice, the product obtained being known as semi-steel and differing chemically from ordinary cast iron only in being somewhat lower in total carbon and graphite. Physically the metal so made is characterized by greater strength and total shrinkage, hardness remaining about the same. ..." The chief points to be watched in melting steel scrap in the cupola mixture are as follows: " Trouble with hlow-hohs. — This is due to the fact that semi-steel being lower in carbon oxidizes more readily than cast iron. The trouble may usually be overcome by correct cupola practice and the use of ferro- manganese or other deoxidizers in the ladle. Owing to the higher melting point of semi-steel mixtures, ferromanganese is much more efficient as a deo.xidizer here than in the case of cast iron. . . . Tligh shrinkage. — This is due to the decrease in graphite and is hence inevitable. On work where this is an important factor a proper balance must be struck between shrinkage and strength. . . . Imperfect mixture of steel and iron resulting in irregular quality of casting, hard spots, etc. — This results from the higher melting point of steel and consequent difficulty of getting perfect solution in the cast iron. It ma)' be largely overcome by careful attention to the charging of the cupola, placing the steel scrap on the coke and the iron on top of the steel (so that the steel will reach the melting zone first and the molten pig wall run down over the heated steel instead of away from it as would happen if the order were re\'ersed). \ large recei^^ng ladle should, of course, be used also. Another point to be obser\'ed is in regard to the size of the steel scrap. Too large scrap is difticult to melt, but, on the other hand, very small scrap is also objectionable as being an abundant source of hard sjiots in the castings. .Apparently very small pieces of steel are liable to be washed down through the coke bed and out of the cupola spout without being completely melted. Strength 317 Regarding the amount of steel scrap to use, it has been found by trial that the best results are obtainable with about 25 per cent. Increase to 33 '4 per cent caused a slight falling off in strength. Probably these figures would not hold for every condition of practice, but, in general, 20 to 30 per cent steel is a sufficient amount to give the maximum results. 2. Size of graphite flakes. — The size of the graphite flakes is prob- ably the most important factor of all those which influence strength, and is the one which most frequently upsets our calculations as to the rela- tion between chemical composition and strength. . . . Recently, how- ever, Messrs. F. J. Cook and G. Hailstone have brought out in a striking manner the great difference in irons in this respect. They give data showing that of two mixtures practically identical in composition the one was invariably much lower in strength (usually about one-half) than the other, this being the case for a great many heats extending over a long period of time." Analyses and tests are given as typical of the series. "Messrs. Cook and Hailstone have investigated and compared the micro-structure of the strong and weak bars and record two interesting facts: First, that the graphite flakes are invariably much larger in the weak bars; second, that when the polished specimens are treated so as to bring out the phosphide eutectic this eutectic is seen to be arranged in the customary heterogeneous manner in the weak bars but in a dis- tinct meshwork structure in the strong iron. These authors draw the conclusion that it is this meshwork structure which gives great strength to cast iron, but with this conclusion the writer cannot entirel}^ agree. It seems more probable that the increase in strength is caused by the fine state of division of the graphite and that the same influences which have caused this have also caused the meshwork structure. We may get some idea of the quantitative relationship between strength and size of graphite by considering the relative strength of malleable cast iron and a very open gray cast iron representing the smallest and largest graphite respectively. Malleable cast iron has a tensile strength of 40,000 poimds and upwards per square inch; open gray iron about 20,000 pounds per square inch. Apparentl}', then, the increase in the size of the graphite has caused a loss of at least 20,000 pounds in tensile strength. It is one thing to find that to get strong iron we must have the graphite in finely divided state and another and much more diflicult matter to formulate rules whereby we may secure this desired condition. . . . 3i8 Chemical Analyses The factors which inlluciuc the size of the graphite flakes in cast iron are as follows: A. Factors which certainly exert an influence. a. Rate of cooling. b. Pouring tempgrature. B. Factors which may possibly exert an influence. c. Time which iron has remained in the molten state. d. Presence of dissolved oxide. e. Presence of steel scrap in the mixture. /. Mixture of difl'ercnt brands. g. Nature of ore from which iron is made and treatment in the blast furnace. h. Per cent metalloids. a. The influence of rate of cooling is undoubted, and an example showing its effect on strength and structure is given by Cook and Hail- stone. We have to distinguish here, however, between the rates of cooling through different ranges of temperature. Evidently the graphite which is separated within the semi-Uquid iron will have a much better chance to grow large cr>'stals owing to the greater mobihty of the medium in which it is formed, while that graphite formed within the solid metal will necessarily be in small particles. Hence, we see that it is the rate of cooling through the soHdification range 2200° to 2000° F., which is of prime importance, and if we can check the formation of graphite through this range and then allow it to form in the solid metal at lower temperatures we will have all the conditions for both the soft and strong iron. This is the principle of Custer's process of casting in permanent moulds and the making of malleable castings is based on the same theory." b. The pouring temperature also undoubtedly exerts an influence on the size of the graphite flakes, and hence, on the strength. ..." Longmuir finds that iron poured at a medium temperature is stronger than when poured either very hot or very cold. Longmuir's e.xperi- ments, b}' the way, are the only ones in which a pyrometer was used and the temperatures of pouring measured in degrees. . . . For this reason we may place the greatest faith in Longmuir's results. It is probable that the pouring temperature affects the size of the graphite flakes indircctlj' through changing the rate of cooling through the solidification range. On this assumption the best results should be obtained from metal poured at as low a temperature as will suflSce to give sound castings. c. Time uhicli iron has remained in the vwUoi stale. This might tunceivably have an effect in the case of cast iron high in total carbon, Strength 319 since graphite separating in the liquid metal would remain in the metal if poured at once, and this graphite is in the form of large flakes known as kish. d. Presence of dissolved . oxide. — There is no direct proof that this affects the size of the graphite flakes. However, it is well known that addition of deoxidizing agents almost invariably improves the strength and it is barely possible that a portion of this may be due to change in the size of the graphite. e. Presence of steel scrap in the mixture. — Although no exact data are at hand it is the common impression that the addition of steel scrap 'closes the grain,' which is equivalent to saying that it reduces the size of the graphite. . . . /. Mixture of irons. — It is firmly believed by many foundrymen of the old school that a mixture of brands gives better results than a single brand of the same chemical composition as the average of the mixture. . . . g. Cook and Hailstone believe that the difference in strength of the two mixtiures quoted by them is due to some inherent quality of the pig iron derived from the ores used or their manner of treatment in the blast furnace. This inherent quality may have some connection with the presence of oxygen or nitrogen in the metal. ..." h. Per cent metalloids. — This, we know, has a certain effect. For example, high silicon is likely to, cause larger graphite as well as more of it. Phosphorus should, theoretically, cause larger graphite since it prolongs the solidification period in which large flakes are free to separate. . . . Sulphiur and manganese . . . close the grain, and probably diminish the size of the graphite, as well as its amount. 3. Per cent combined carbon. — According to Professor Howe the properties of cast iron are the properties of the metallic matrix modified by the presence of the graphite, but since this metallic matrix may be considered as a steel of carbon content equal to the combined carbon of the cast iron, we can predict accurately the effects of combined carbon by the use of the data on steel. In the case of steel it is found that the strength increases regularly with the carbon up to about 0.9 per cent, then remains nearly stationary up to about 1.2 per cent, above which it falls off slowly. In the case of cast iron the strength is dependent upon so many factors besides combined carbon that it is almost impossible to determine by direct experiment the percentage of combined carbon giving the maximum strength. All indications, however, are that the highest strength is obtained with somewhere between o. 7 per cent and i per cent combined carbon which is in sufficiently close accord with the corre- 320 Chemical Analyses sjxjnding value for stccl. \Vc may, therefore, stale tentatively that the maximum strength is obtained with 0.9 per cent carbon, all other factors remaining constant. Tliis applies only to tensile strength (and approximately to transverse). I or lompressivc strength a somewhat higher value, probably alxjut 1.5 l>cr cent combined carljon, would be found to give Ijellcr results. 4. Size of primary crystals 0/ solid solution Fe-C-Si. — There is absolutely no data as to the cflcct of this factor on the strength of cast iron and it is only from analog)- with steel that we give it a place in the list of actors influencing strength. ..." 5. Ejfect oj dissolved oxide. — ... It is j)robabIy a much more important factor than is generally supposed, but there is absolutely no data on which to base a quantitative estimate of its effect." To reduce o.xide in cast iron to the minimum, the following points may be obscr\ed : First, get the best brands of pig iron. It i.s probable that pig made with charcoal fuel contains less o.vygen than that made with coke fuel. Cold blast pig is better than hot blast. Pig iron made from easily reducible browTi or carbonate ores is lower in oxygen than the pig made from red hematite or magnetic ores, whih iron made from mill cinder should never be used in foundries 'uliere strength is a prime consideration. Moreover, a pig iron high in manganese is apt to be comparatively free from oxide because of the deoxidizing power of manganese at the high temperature of the blast furnace. It is noteworthy as confirming these obserx'ations that most brands of iron which have achieved a reputation for strength are high in manganese and many of them are charcoal irons. The Muirkirk and Salisbury brands wloich have been knowTi for years as among the strongest irons made in this country answer to every one of these conditions. They are made from readily reducible ores using cold blast and charcoal fuel and contain from i to 2 per cent manganese." Second, avoid oxidizing conditions in the cupola, particularly high- blast pressures and wrong methods of charging. Dr. Moldenke's system of using small charges is to be higldy recommended in this connection." Third, deoxidizing agents may be used, added either to the cupola or to the metal in the ladle. Of the commercially available deoxidizers, ferrotitanium, ferrosilicon and ferromanganese are, perhaps, the most successful, all things considered. Titanium thermite is also extremely valuable in this connection. ..." 6. Per cent phosphorus. — Phosphorus lessens both the djTiamic and static strength, but the former more than the latter. It weakens be- Strength 321 cause it forms with iron a hard and brittle compound which has but little resistance to shock. The weakness produced is in nearly direct proportion to the amount of this compound present. The efifects of •phosphorus on strength do not become marked until upward of i per cent is present, but for great strength and particularly strength to shock it should be much lower. Ordinary strong irons may have up to 0.75 per cent, while iron which is to withstand shock should not exceed 0.50 per cent and is better even lower. ..." 7. Per cent sulphur. — The action of sulphur in decreasing the strength of iron is explained in Chap. IX, page 261, and it is also explained there why it is so much less harmful in the presence of manganese. Many tests have been made showing that sulphur has no marked effect on strength and many foundrymen will use sulphur to harden iron and close the grain. It is true that an indirect strengthening effect can be obtained through the use of sulphur in some cases, i.e., if too soft an iron is being used the strength will be increased by the addition of any element which will lessen the graphite, but the hardening is usually better obtained through decrease in silicon than through increase in sulphur. While increased sulphur may not always show in decreased strength of test bars, yet it is a frequent source of blow-holes, dirty iron and various defects caused by high shrinkage, hence, it often causes an indirect weakness in the iron. 8-9. Per cent silicon and manganese. — These elements act chiefly in an indirect manner and because of their effects on the condition of the carbon; their direct influence in the strength of the metallic matrix is unimportant. From analogy with steel it is probable that sihcon in amounts of over i per cent causes weakness and brittleness in the metal. Similarly, manganese has probably a weakening effect due to its direct action when present in amounts of more than 1.5 per cent. The preceding discussion is summarized in the following practical rules for making strong castings: Use strong brands of iron. . . . Charcoal irons if cost will permit; irons made from easily reducible ores; irons high in manganese. Avoid oxidation in melting. Look carefully after the details of cupola practice; avoid oxidized scrap; use deoxidizing agents in ladle if practicable. . . . Keep the silicon down as low as possible and still have the necessary softness. About 1.50 per cent will be right for the ordinary run of medium castings; higher for small castings and lower for heavy ones. With low total carbon high sihcon has less effect. Keep the phosphorus low, especially when sulphur is high. 0.50 per cent or under is best. 322 Chemical Analyses Keep ihc sulphur low, especially if phosphorus is high. Unrler o.io per tenl is all right for most castings." Keep manganese high, i per cent for large castings, 0.7 per cent for medium, 0.5 per cent for small castings. Use from 10 to ^5 jkt lent steel ^crap in the mixture. Mk. Ki:t;p recommends using 10 per cent cast iron Iwrings charged in wooden Ixjxes. He states that this is very effective in closing the grain and strengthening the castings. For iron which is required to have the greatest possible resistance to shock, the points to be especially observed are as follows: Keep the phosphorus as low as practicable, still having the necessary fluidity. It should best be below 0.30 per cent. Keep the sulphur as low as possible. If practicable add vanadium or titanium to the ladle either in the form of ferroalloy or as thermite. . . . Elastic Properties Of the elastic properties of metals, only toughness and its opposite, brittlcness, and elasticity and its opposite, rigidity, are ordinarily con- sidered in cast iron. Toughness is defined as resistance to breaking after the elastic limit is passed. Elasticity is the amount of yield under any stress up to the elastic hmit. It is unusual for these properties to be determined separately in cast iron, but their sum is given by the deflection which is determined in transverse testing. It is probably true that they nearly always vary together, and, hence, that deflection is a fairly good measure of either one as well as both. Toughness is practically always a desirable quality in cast iron, but the same is not true of elasticity since in many machines great rigidity is a i)rime requisite. The factors influencing toughness and elasticity are about the same as those influencing strength, i.e., the chemical composition, presence of oxide and size of graphite. ... In general, to get a tough elastic iron we should keep sulphur, phosphorus and combined carbon low; manganese, no higher than is necessar>' to take care of the sulphur; graphite and silicon, the less the better, providing that the combined carljon is not increased; and finally, use metal of good quality, melted carefully so as to be free from oxide. In ordinar>' gray iron castings it is not practicable to attempt to control the graphite, since the combined carbon needs first attention and Elastic Properties 323 the graphite will necessarily be the difference between total carbon and combined carbon. The silicon also must be adjusted with a view to regulating the combined carbon. Practical rules for getting the maxi- mum toughness and elasticity will then be about as follows: SiHcon, 1.5 to 2.0 per cent for castings of average thickness, more or less for very light and very heavy castings respectively. Sulphur as low as practicable, best under 0.08 per cent. Phosphorus as low as practicable considering the necessity for fluidity. Best under 0.50 per cent. Manganese from three to five times the sulphur. Use good irons and good cupola practice to insure freedom from dissolved oxide. . . . "In case steel scrap can be used, i.e., semi-steel made, the toughness may be considerably increased through decrease in the amount of graphite and in the size of the grain. The other elements may remain about as before except that it may be necessary to run the manganese a httle higher to counteract the greater tendency of the semi-steel to become oxidized. As previously noted, rigidity is desirable in some cases. This is the converse of elasticity and may be obtained by the direct opposite of the rules given for obtaining elasticity. However, to get rigidity with the least sacrifice of strength and toughness it is desirable to use manganese and combined carbon rather than to increase phosphorus and sulphur. That is, we would lower silicon as much as necessity for softness will allow and raise manganese to about i per cent (or less in very light work). It should be noted that manganese is particularly efficient in increasing rigidity since it accomplishes this end with comparatively little sacrifice of strength and toughness. A few examples of very tough and elastic iron are as follows: No. Silicon Sulphur Phos- phorus Manga- nese Com- bined carbon Graphite carbon Total carbon I 2.50-2.75 .80 2.45 1. 18 2.36 .050 .092 .084 .064 30 ■ 43 ■ 30 .24 '"'87" I 08 2.34 2.15 3.21 3 4 S 063 27 33 3.23 No. I represents iron which in thin sections can be punched and bent. No. 2 is an analysis of a gray cast iron which is exceedingly malleable. Nos. 3, 4 and 5 are gray irons showing deflections for the transverse test bars rather higher than usual. 324 Chemical Analyses Hardness . . . It is generally stated that hardness in cast iron is due chiefly to the presence of combined carlxm and is only indirectly or to a less extent caused by other elements. The writer believes that this is not altogether true and that there is another factor causing hardness which has not heretofore been generally considered in the case of cast iron." It is well known that when steel is hardened by quenching from a temperature above its critical point its carbon is not in the combined state l)ut rather in a form known as hardening or solution carbon, while the iron is retained in the 'gamma' allotropic form. It is the bcUef of the present wTiter that the same is true of cast iron and that many cases of hardness are to be explained in this way. For example, Keep de- scribes a sample of cast iron which was too hard to drill and yet containetl only 0.60 per cent combined carbon, and many analyses are on record of irons which have been quenched from comparatively low temperatures and are almost glass hard in spite of the fact that the combined carbons are under i per cent. I think it probable that the hardness of high manganese irons is due chiefly to this same cause since manganese is known to favor the retention of 'gamma' iron. Granting for the present the truth of this theory, the presence of the 'gamma' or hard form of iron is controlled by the rate of cooUng and the percentages of metalloids present; so that for all practical purposes we can say that there are six factors which influence hardness, i.e.. the rate and manner of cooling, the combined carbon, silicon, sulphur, man- ganese and phosphorus. The first two of these are of the greatest importance and we will then take up in reverse order, leaWng the most important till the last. Phosphorus has a slight hardening eCfect in large quantities but in amounts less than i per cent its eCfects are nearly unperceptible, and it does not become important until the amount exceeds commercial Umits, or, say, 1.5 per cent. We may, therefore, usually neglect the efJects of phosphorus in considering hardness. Manganese, although usuallj- regarded as a hardening agent may sometimes soften iron. This anomalous result is cxplaincil l)y the action of manganese on sulphur. If the iron is high in sulphiu- and low in manganese the first additions of manganese will unite with the sulphur forming the comparatively inert manganese sulphide and thus softening the iron. If, however, the manganese be increased beyond the amount necessary to care for the sulphur, increased hardness will result. ... A pig iron containing 3 per cent manganese may ha\e a beautiful open gray fracture and yet be so hard as to be drilled only Hardness 325 vnth great difficulty. In addition, the presence of manganese sometimes produces a peculiar kind of gritty hardness, the iron acting as if contain- ing small hard grains. With regard to the amount of manganese re- . quired to produce hardness it will be evident that this depends largely on the per cent of sulphur present and also on the rate of cooling. In general, heavy castings will stand up to i per cent of manganese without noticeable increase of hardness, medium castings about 0.75 per cent and Hght castings 0.50 per cent. Sulphur is an exceedingly energetic hardening agent acting, however, chiefly through the carbon. That is, sulphur has a strong tendency to keep the carbon in combined form and in that way to harden Each o.oi per cent sulphur will increase the combined carbon by about 0.045 P^r cent, other things being equal. It must be remembered, how- ever, that this applies only to sulphur in the form of iron sulphide, and that in the form of manganese sulphide, i.e., in the presence of about three times its weight of manganese, it acts much less energetically. Sulphur also has a direct action in hardening, iron sulphide and manganese sulphide being quite hard substances. Usually this action is imperceptible, but occasionally one meets with hard spots which are due to the segregation of these sulphides. Silicon is generally known as a softening agent and, within reasonable Umits, has this effect due to its action in decreasing the combined carbon. The direct effect of silicon, however, is to harden since it forms with iron a compound which is harder than the iron itself. When silicon is added to cast iron its first effect, as before stated, is to decrease the combined carbon. This, it does, at the rate of about 0.45 per cent for each per cent of silicon added. Actually the rate of decrease is more rapid than this, and, in consequence, by the time we have from 2 to 3 per cent silicon present (depending on the rate of cooling) we have practically all the combined carbon precipitated out as graphite and, hence, there is no further possibility of softening in this way. Now, any increase in silicon only increases the amount of the hard iron-silicon alloy, there is no more combined carbon to be decreased, and, hence, the hardness will now be increased again. In other words, it is possible to have too much of a good thing, the good thing in this case being silicon. The actual percentage of silicon which is necessary to secure any given degree of softness will depend upon the size of the casting, the nature of the mold and the amount of sulphur and manganese present. It is, therefore, impossible to give definite silicon standards unless each of these factors is known. . . . Combined carbon (or solution carbon) is the chief hardening agent of cast iron, and, under ordinary conditions, the hardness of the metal 326 Chemical Analyses will be cl<3scly profMjrlional to the i)erccntai,'c present. Of such relative unimportance are the efTects of the other elements that it has been found practicable to use the amount of combined carlx)n as a measure of the hardness of castings and as a means of predicting their liehavior in the machine shop. . . . "To machine easily, cast iron should not contain over 0.75 \ycT cent combined carbon, i.oo per cent combined carbon gives a pretty hard casting and 1.50 jjcr cent is about the upper limit for iron to be machined. The rate and manner of cooling of the casting are usually supposed to influence its hardness only as it affects the percentage of combined carbon. That it does affect the amount of combined carbon is a well- established fact. . . . However, we sometimes get hardness in the absence of any considerable amount of combined carbon. Hence, there must be some other factor at work, wiiich, in the writer's opinion, is a solution of carbon in 'gamma' iron, the hard constituent of tool steel. According to this theory, combined carbon disappears in the tem- perature range 2200° F. to 1500° F., while 'gamma' or hard iron is not transformed into the 'alpha' or soft variety until the casting has cooled to about 1300° F. Evidently, then, ordinary rapid cooling of castings from the melted state results in both high combined carbon and high 'gamma' iron, and hence we have hardness due to both of these causes. The more rapid the cooling, the higher the combined carbon and the higher also the 'gamma' iron, therefore, since both var>' together, the percentage of combined carbon is a satisfactor\' measure of the hardness produced by both factors. "If, now, the conditions of cooling are changed, this need no longer be the case. For example, suppose we cool the casting slowly from the molten state down to 1600° and then quench it in water. In this case we would get nearly all combined carbon changed to graphite during the slow cooling through the upper range, while the rapid cooling through 1300° preserves the 'gamma' iron solution and hence gives hardness due to this cause. Some of the peculiar things noted in connection with Custer's process of casting in permanent moulds are to be explained on this basis. Also, the much greater softness of castings which have been allowed to cool in sand and thereby anneal themselves over those shaken out soon after being poured. "Chilled iron is simply while iron, that is, iron in which graphite is absent and the carbon all in the combined or solution state. The same iron may be both gray and white, depending on rate of cooling and hence the exterior of the casting, if rapidly cooled, may be white while the interior which cools more slowly remains gray. Usually there is an Hardness 327 intermediate zone having a mottled structure formed through the inter- lacing and the gradual merging of the gray and white. A chilling iron, then, is one which when rapidly cooled contains all of its carbon in the •combined state. The factors which influence the depth and quaUty of chill are the temperature at which the iron is poured, and the amounts of siUcon, sulphur and phosphorus, manganese and total carbon, besides some of the elements which are not normally present in cast iron, but which are occasionally added. The higher the temperature at which iron is poured the deeper the chill, other things being equal, and it is usually considered advisable to pour chilled castings from hot iron. The quantitative effects of pouring temperature have been studied by Adamson, and while there are some conflicting results, it is in general indicated that in the case of the strongly chifling irons an increase of 50° in the pouring temperature causes an increase of from J-i to H inch in the depth of the chill. The most important element in its effects on chill is silicon, which has the strongest action in precipitating graphite. For chilling iron, silicon should be low, but how low depends on the thickness of the casting, the temperature of pouring and the depth of chill desired as well as on the percentage of other elements in the iron. Table I gives a very approx- imate relationship between the percentage of silicon and depth of chill, other elements being about normal. Table I. — Approximate Relation Between Per Cent Silicon and Depth of Chill Silicon, per cent Depth of chill, inch Silicon, per cent Depth of chill, inch % H I 1.50 1.25 1. 00 Ma Ma ■ 75 .50 .40 Sulphur tends to increase the combined carbon, and, hence, the chill. So marked is its influence in this respect that it is sometimes added to cast iron to increase the depth of the chill. This, however, is not usually good practice since the chill imparted by sulphur is lacking in toughness and strength as well as in resistance to heat strains. Scott cites the case of stamp shoes for mining machinery where sulphur was used to increase the chill. The shoes were very hard at first, but soon went to pieces under the repeated blows. Johnson, also, has noted the great difference between high and low sulphur chilled iron as regards 328 Chemical Analyses ubilily lu withstand the strains of sud the life of castings which are subject to abrasion. It has been stated that the presence of a small amount of sulphur is essential in order to get the best results in chilled rolls. This, however, is doubtful and it is believed that it is only rarely that sulphur is desirable in chilled castings. The presence of a moderate amount of manganese in cast iron greatly lessens the bad effects of sulphur in chilled as well aii in gray iron castings. "Phosphorus in the amounts ordinarily present in commercial cast iron has but slight influence on the depth of the chill but does have a more or less injurious effect on its strength. It is generally stated that high phosphorus has the effect of causing a sharp line of demarkation between the gray and chilled portions of the casting. . . . It is beheved that it is best to limit the phosphorus in chilled iron to about 0.4 per cent. Manganese, since it tends to increase the combined carbon, also tends to increase the chill. However, it must be remembered that the first effect of manganese is to neutralize sulphur, and, therefore, in small amounts it may indirectly decrease the chill. Manganese very greatly increases the hardness of the chill, and, to a less extent, its strength. It also increases the resistance of the chill to heat strain and hence di- minishes the danger of surface cracks in such castings as chilled rolls and car wheels. Still another effect is the promotion of a more gradual merging of the gray and chilled portions of the castings. Manganese is usually considered a desirable constituent of chilled iron and the amounts used var>^ all the way from 0.40 up to 3.0 per cent. . . . Of late years, semi-steel mi.xtures have been used to some extent for chilled castings, the total carbon being considerably lower than in the ordinary mixture. The effect of low total carbon is to give a deep and comparatively soft chill as compared with the shallow, hard chill obtained with high total carbon. "It has been proposed to use nickel as a means of controlUng chill, this clement having an effect somewhat similar to silicon. Hence, by starting with a strong chilling iron and adding nickel, the depth of the chill would be lessened in some ratio to the amount of nickel added. Since the same results may be oljlained by the use of less expensive silicon it is difficult to see any advantage in adding nickel. The quality of chilled iron may be very greatly improved by the addition of small amounts of titanium or vanadium. The beneficial effects of these elements are probably due chiefly to their deo.vidizing power. . . . Shrinkage 329 Grain Structxire "The fracture or grain size and the porosity are closely related and are both dependent primarily on the size of the graphite particles, and, to a less extent, on the percentage of graphite.. . . . Silicon should be kept just as low as possible and still have the cast- ings soft enough to machine. The exact percentage will depend on the thickness of the casting, the character of the mould and whether the casting is allowed to anneal itself or is quickly shaken out after pouring. It may range from 0.75 per cent for very heavy work up to 2.0 per cent for small valves, etc. It is believed that the majority of founders use more silicon than is best in work of this character." Combined carbon has a powerful action in closing the grain and giving a dense iron and should be just as high as possible and still have the iron machinable. . . . Manganese had best be kept moderately high since it appears to have some beneficial effect in closing the grain. Sulphur is a powerful agent in closing the grain and is frequently made purposely high for this end. It is, however, a dangerous agent since it may cause trouble in other directions, and as a general proposi- tion it is better to keep the sulphur low and get necessary density by a proper regulation of silicon and manganese. Finally, one of the best, if not the best, means of closing the grain of cast iron and securing the maximmn density is by means of steel scrap in the mixture. This is now common practice with makers of hydraulic castings, and is very effective. . . . Shrinkage In considering the shrinkage of cast iron it is necessary to distinguish between the contraction of the fluid mass previous to and during the act of sohdifjang and the contraction of the solid mass. The first is that form of shrinkage which necessitates feeding in heavy castings, and which so often results in shrink holes or spongy places in hea\'y sections of castings which are not fed. West calls this contraction of the fluid mass ' shrinkage. ' "The contraction of the solid mass represents more nearly what is generally called shrinkage, this term as ordinarily used meaning the difference in size between the casting and its pattern. This contraction of the solid mass West calls 'contraction.' "... It seems necessary to make some distinction between the total amount of fluid contraction and the tendency to form shrink holes in the heavy sections of small castings. At least there seems to be no 33° ("Inmical Analyst's very (Icfinilc relation liclwccn clicmiial lomiMKiilion and this latter projKJrty and it is often the case that an iron low in graphite and, there- fore, having a high fluid contraction, will give sounder castings than another iron high in graphite and which would, therefore, require less fecfling in a large casting: ..." "Cook has found that two irons (A practically identii^l chemical composition may give very dilTcrent results as regards sjjundncss when poured into small castings of heavy section and the writer can confirm this fact from his own experience. A convenient test has been developed by Cook to show the tendency of any particular brand of iron to trouble of this sort. This test consists in making a casting in the shape of a K, the branches having a cross section of one inch square. On breaking off the oblique branches any tendency to sponginess or shrink holes will at once be evident in the fracture." "As before stated there has thus far been discovered no important relationship between this property and chemical composition. It rather appears to be something inherent in the brand of iron. . . . It is a curious fact that, in some instances at least, the addition of a small amoimt of steel scrap to the mixture will act as a partial corrective." "The contraction of the solid mass does not take place uniformly as the casting cools but in stages which are separated by periods of less contraction or even of actual expansion. The total shrinkage which perhaps includes also a portion of the shrinkage in the fluid mass is conveniently obtained by Keep's test or by casting a test bar between iron yokes and determining the space between the end of the bar and the yoke after cooling." "This, however, tells nothing as to the manner of shrinkage or the temperature at which it takes place. To get this latter information we must determine the shrinkage curve, or in other words, the length of the test bar at each instant of time during cooling, starting from the instant when the bar has solidified just enough to have some slight strength. West, Keep and Turner have described forms of apparatus for making these curves. Fig. 91 shows some t>T)ical shrinkage curs-cs and illus- trates the relationship between chemical composition and the form of these curves." "It will be noted that there are three periods of expansion separated by intervals during which the shrinkage takes place. The first of these periods of expansion is due to the separation of graphite and hence is greatest in the softest irons. Note that in the case .1 , which is a white iron and contains no graphite, this expansion is entirely lacking. This expansion takes place within the temperature range 2200° to 1800° F., or immediately after the iron has solidified." Shrinkage 331 "The second expansion is due to the solidification of the phosphide eutectic with a consequent secondary precipitation of graphite at that time. Evidently, this expansion is only to be expected in high phos- phorus irons and it will be noted that it is lacking in C, which is low in phosphorus, and is well marked in D, which is high in phosphorus. This expansion takes place within the temperature range 1800° to 1500° F." "The third expansion is, in the writer's opinion, due to the change of the iron from the 'alpha' to the 'gamma' form, since it takes place &Z0 5)0 •4--0 20 X £30 o iO -|2 50 c ■"60 01 o> S 70 lO J X%. jnci ^■Hk *P % ■^ X - — -. -A. %. ■n. \ ^K^ C '^ 9"^ \ 'con S.OI 1.41 3.4/ 3.9S Sulphur tr. .01 .OS .03 - Phos. 0.01 .95 .04 .25- Mang. tr .43 .55 .50 (orf^ f '•!'>' ^7? -"> ■"• i"^ '\ 6rc iph.Car 1 b. 2J3 1 2.55 1 , 2.60 I _ 50 100 150 Time- Seconds. Fig. gi. 200 within the temperature range 1400° to 1200° F., or about where this change would be expected to take place. Note that this expansion is greatest in high silicon irons C and D, silicon having the effect of acceler- ating the 'gamma' to 'alpha' change. The point at which this third expansion occurs probably marks the lower limit below which iron cannot be hardened by quenching." "The study of these curves is very interesting to the experimenter and it is believed that when we understand them better they may become of practical value to the foundryman. At present, however, 333 Chimiral Analyses ihc (Ictcrminalion of total shrinkage gives infcjrnialion which is of more immidiatc value." "The effect of composition on total shrinkage is given in concise- form !)>• the following tabular statement: I'cr cent Silicon Decreases by about . oi inch per fo° to 1200° F. Fusibility Fusibility, or the melting point of cast iron, must not be confounded with its fluidity, or ease of flow when molten. Fluidity is much the more important of these two properties, but fusibility is of some interest, particularly as it gives us a means of deciding intelligently in what order to charge metals in the cupola. The investigations of Dr. Moldenke have shown that the fusibility of cast iron depends primarily on its combined carbon content, and, to a less extent, on the amount of phosphorus present. . . . We find that cast iron has a melting range wiPiTng from 2000° F. for a white iron up to 2300° F. for gray iron containing practically no combined carbon, this Fusibility 333 difference being due probably to the presence of silicon, sulphur, phos- phorus and manganese. Since the graphite in gray iron is only in mechanical mixture with the iron we should, perhaps, expect it to have no effect on the melting point. Moreover, it combines with the iron at temperatures below the melting point thus increasing the combined carbon and lowering the melting point. For this reason gray iron melts at a lower temperature than steel having the same percentage of combined carbon. 2300 2250 2200 2150 E £ 2100 2050 2000 x = ffesj/ tsof Drfli 7Mer /ce. s s V >t %f X PI.6 , \ ■ 2200 1.69 2.40 2210 1.48 2.30 2230 1. 12 2.66 2210 .84 307 2250 .80 3.16 2280 .13 3 43 2350 1.32 2210 6.48 (carbon) 2255 S.02 (carbon) 2190 3.38 ■ 37 2040 1.82 • 47 2400 6.80 (carbon) 2280 Silicon, per cent .14 •47 • 4S • 52 1. 81 1. 41 1. 13 2.58 1.29 2.40 . .21 .14 i.6s 12.30 12.01 (chromium 62.70) (tungsten 39^02) Man- Phos- ganese, phorus. per cent percent .10 .22 .20 .20 1. 10 1.46 .16 .76 • 49 1.60 1.39 • 17 .24 .089 .47 2.12 • so .22 ■90 .oS .49 (?) 4459 (?) 81.40 (?) 16.98 (?) 1.38 (?) Sulphur, per cent 037 pig iron .036 " " .032 " •• .036 " " .060 " '• .033 " ■* .027 " ■' .osi '• " .020 " " .032 (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) steel ferromang. ferromang. silicospiegel. ferrosilicon ferrochrome (?) ferrotungsten Fluidity "Fluidity may be defined as ease of flow. It is sjTionymoiis with mobility and opposed to viscosity. It is a property of far-reaching importance to the foundr>'man and especially to the manufacturer of small and intricate castings. Unfortunately, our means of measuring fluidity arc not very satisfactory', and this makes it dillicult to determine quantitatively the eflect of composition upon this property. .Xbout the most satisfactory method is to pour fluidity strips or long strips of perhaps one square inch section (at one end) and tapering to nothing at the other. The distance which the iron runs in a mold of this form is a rough measure of its fluidity." "The factors which govern fluidity are percentage of silicon, percent- age of phosphorus, freedom from dissolved oxide and temperature above the melting point." "Silicon perhaps aids fluidity by causing a separation of graphite at the moment of solidification, thus, according to Field, liberating latent Resistance to Heat 335 heat and prolonging the Hfe of the metal. On this basis, high total carbon would also aid fluidity by increasing the amount of graphite separated." "Phosphorus is probably the most important element as regards fluidity, high phosphorus causing a marked increase in this property. The best results are obtained with about 1.5 per cent phosphorus, although for other reasons it is seldom desirable to use as much as that." "Freedom from oxide is a very important point as its presence makes the metal sluggish and causes it to set quickly. It is a frequent and often unsuspected source of trouble. Dissolved oxide may be eliminated by any of the methods described." "The temperature above the freezing point is probably the most important factor of all in connection with fluidity, and it should here be noted that a distinction is made between freezing point and melting point. The two may coincide in the case of white iron, but will not usually, especially with gray iron. This is because, as we have already seen, gray irons have a melting temperature corresponding to their per- centage of combined carbon rather than total carbon. After they are in the molten state, however, all the carbon is in solution (combined as far as melting points are concerned), hence, the freezing point will corre- spond more nearly to the melting point of a white iron having the per- centage of combined carbon equal to the total carbon of the original gray iron. This wiU be in general from 100° to 300° lower than its melting point. For this reason when gray irons are melted they are always considerably superheated above their sohdifying points, and the greater this superheat, the more fluid the iron. Evidently, the superheat due to this cause will be the greater the lower the combined carbon in the iron going into the cupola." Practical rules for getting fluid iron are as follows: "Keep the phosphorus high, — up to i.oo to 1.25 if possible." "If the work will permit, use a soft iron of 2 per cent or over in silicon, and low in combined carbon." "Avoid oxidizing conditions in melting and, if necessary, use deoxidiz- ing agents." "Use plenty of coke and good cupola practice." Resistance to Heat "Ability to withstand high temperatures is of paramount importance in several classes of castings such as grate bars, ingot moulds, annealing boxes, etc., and the factors which affect this ability are, the percentage of phosphorus, sulphur and combined carbon, and the density or close- ness of grain." 336 Chemical Analyses "Phosphorus forms with iron an alloy which melts at only 1740° F.,or about 400° lower than cast iron free from phosphorus, and each per cent of phosphorus present gives rise to 15 per cent of this easily fusible con- stituent. Now, it will be evident that the [iresence of a molten con- stituent in a piece of iron must greatly weaken it, and hence it is that the presence of much phosi)horus decreases the resistance of cast iron to heat." "Sulphur acts in a similar manner to phosphorus since it also form.s with iron a constituent of low melting point (1780° F.). It is, therefore, detrimental to castings which have to stand high temperatures." "As prexnously noted, combined carbon is the element which more than any other determines the melting point of cast iron, this melting point becoming lower with increase in this element. It would seem then, that combined carbon must be very detrimental in this class of castings. However, it should be remembered that the condition of the carbon in the solid iron changes readily at high temperatures, and, hence, after the casting has been in use for a while its combined carbon content will not in general be the same as when cast. This fact makes the question of combined carbon of much less practical importance than either phos- phorus or sulphur." "Density or close grain is commonly stated to render cast iron con- siderably more resistant to the effects of heat. ..." "One feature of the effect of heat on cast iron which deserves especial mention is the permanent expansion which it undergoes on repeated heatings. This peculiar behavior was first discovered by Outerbridge and has since been also investigated by Rugan and Carpenter." "The extent to which this growth may take place is certainly sur- prising, the increase being in some cases as high as 46 per cent by volume and i?4 inches in the length of a 15-inch bar. The strength of the metal is decreased proportionately to the expansion or to about one-half of the original strength. Both the e.xpansion and the decrease in strength are explained by microscopic examination, which shows minute cracks throughout the interior of the metal. ..." "Two conditions are necessary for this growth. First, repeated heatings, and second, a proper composition of the metal." "With regard to the heating, a minimum temperature of 1200" F. is necessary. At 1400° to i6oo° the rate of growth is more rapid and an increase in temperature beyond 1700° produces no additional effect. Both heating and cooling are necessary to procure the growth, and the time of heating makes very little difference. No greater growth was produced by 17 hours continuous healing than by 4 hours. The num- ber of heatings required to produce the maximum amount of growth Resistance to Heat 337 varies with different irons, but usually lies somewhere between 50 and 100." "Regarding the effects of composition, it appears that the growth is favored bj- the presence of graphite and silicon, and also by a large grain or open structure. \Yhite iron containing no graphite expands slightly when subjected to this treatment but not sufficiently to overcome its original shrinkage. In this case the expansion is due to the conversion of the combined carbon into the temper form, or in other words, to the malleableizing of the casting. Soft irons low in combined carbon and high in silicon show the greatest increase in volume. The effects of sulphur, manganese and phosphorus have not been investigated. Steel and wrought iron are not subject to this growth, but on the contrary undergo a slight permanent contraction when repeatedly heated." "It is evident that this property of cast iron is of great importance in many of the applications of the metal and limits its use for many pur- poses. It is, no doubt, the reason why a close-grained iron gives better results when exposed to high temperatures and affords an explanation for the warping of grate bars, annealing boxes and similar castings. It also shows why chills and permanent molds must not be allowed to be heated to redness, such a degree of heat resulting in permanent expansion and the loss of their original dimensions." The following is a summary of some of the published statements regarding the proper composition for castings exposed to high tempera- tvires: "Cast iron to withstand high temperatiures should be low in phos- phorus and combined carbon." "In car wheels manganese increases the resistance to heat strain." "For refractory castings choose a fine grained cast iron, best contain- ing about 2 per cent manganese to retard the separation of amorphous carbon." "Castings to resist heat should contain about 1.80 per cent silicon, 0.03 per cent sulphur, 0.70 per cent phosphorus, 0.60 per cent manganese and 2.90 per cent total carbon. Low sulphur is of chief importance, low silicon, carbon and manganese are also advisable." "Close-grained cast iron having the greatest density will invariably be found best to withstand chemical influences and high temperatures." "A chill which had given excellent service had the following composi- tion: silicon, 2.07 per cent; sulphur, 0.073 P^r cent; phosphorus, 0.03 per cent; manganese, 0.48 per cent; combined carbon, 0.23 per cent; graphite carbon, 2.41 per cent; total carbon, 2.64 per cent. "Two permanent mo vilds which had given excellent service analyzed as follows: 338 Chemical Analyses Silicon, per cent Sulphur, per cent .oS6 .070 Phosphorus, per cent Mancancae, per cent Combined carbon, per cent Graphite, per cent carbon, percent a. IS a.oa I 26 .89 • 41 29 .13 .84 3.17 2.76 3. 30 3.60 "Ingot moulds and stools are best made from medium soft iron low in phosphorus, or what is termed a regular Hessemcr iron. ..." Electrical Properties "Of the three electrical properties, conductivity, permeability and hysteresis, the second only is of importance in connection with cast iron. B 12.000 10,000 .,^- ^ e,ooo *, \%^- '^ ^ ■^ -- ^' >^ K- ^'' ^ 6,000 • ,y '7 y 4,000 / Ij / if / 2,000 1 / if / 1/ EO 40 60 Fig. 93. Little is known regarding the relation between chemical composition and conductivity of cast iron. In the case of steel it has been found that manganese is the element most injurious to this property with carbon a close second. Hence, by analogy, we may infer that to make iron castings of high conductiNTty we should keep both the manganese and combined carbon as low as possible. Electrical Properties 339 Permeability may be defined as magnetic conductivity and is of importance in many castings used in the construction of electrical machinery. Permeability data are generally given in the form of a curve expressing the relation between the magnetizing force H and the resulting field strength or number of lines of magnetic force per unit area B. This is known as the permeability curve. The permeabihty is the ratio — and it will be noted that it is different for each value of the D magnetizing force, H, but approaches a constant or saturation value for high values of H. See Fig. 93. 160 024 r>'2 M i 7 \ T le /' 13. 140 ^^ --^ f^ ^J^' k- / / 10-^ L^ 19 ^7 ■^ M n 120 4 \ N 3. Sil. Phos. Mang. 1.79 .75 .19 -^ Z I.8J .75 .75 3 1.76 .75 1.73 ♦ 1.81 .75 1.05 100 >' & 1.76 .75 ^.46 1 I.7i .75 .35 5 ?7n 7? .-^f, N \ 3 2.K .75 .35 IM .75 .36 1 3.67 .76 .36 80 \ 5 1.49 .03 .75 .46 4 1.49 .16 .75 .49 \ 6 im.ajs Ai 7 5.08 1.35 .75 .43 8 2.M3.I8.75 .43 60 e' 9 I.6Z .91 .47 1,69 l.n .49 U 1.63 1.75 .49 It 1.79 2.57 .5! Vi 1.84 2.55 .52 24 1.76 2.61 .54 1.0 2.0 3.0 Fig. 94. 4.0 6.0 The effects of the various elements on permeability are not yet entirely clear although there are some published data along this line. The writer has recently done considerable work on the relation between permeabihty and chemical composition of cast iron, and the results, as yet vmpublished, are surmnarized in Fig. 94. It will be noted that the effects of silicon, phosphorus and aluminum are not well marked and are probably not of 340 Chemical Analyses any very great importance. On the other hand, manganese has a very (Iclrinicntal ciTicl on lliis prupirly. Sihcon has the oppobitu ellccl from manganese in that it accelerates this change in the form of the iron, and we would, therefore, expect it to have a more or less beneficial influence. Silicon steel has achieved a wide rc|jutation as a high permeability material for use in the construction of tran former cores, etc. .\ccording to tlic author's results high silicon is particularly effective in increasing B for low values of//. An important clement nf)t considered in the diagram. Fig. 94, is carbon. l"or high permeability the lower the carbon the better, and excellent results are now being obtained through the use of semi-steel for electrical castings. In this connection, however, it must be remembered that manganese is undesirable and hence must be used cautiously as a deoxidizer in this class of work. Some practical rules for obtaining high permeability iron are given herewith. Keep the silicon high, best in the neighborhood of 3 per cent. Keep the manganese low, preferably below 0.5 per cent. If practicable keep the carbon low by the use of steel scrap or air furnace iron. Allow the castings to anneal themselves, i.e., cool completely in the sand before shaking out. Hysteresis, like conductivity, is seldom or never of importance in cast iron. The property may be defined as the loss of energy due to molecular friction when magnetic polarity is reversed. The effect of composition upon hysteresis is in general about the same as in the case of permeability. Resistance to Corrosion Although there are a great many corrosive agencies it is not practicable, because of lack of information, to treat of each separately, and so far as we know the effects of composition would be relatively the same for the various corroding agents. The following is a summarj' of most of the published information along this line: Pig iron which best resists acids contains silicon, i.o per cent; phos- phorus, 0.5 per cent; sulphur, 0.05 per cent; carbon, 3.0 per cent. Excellent results wnth respect to resistance to corrosion by acids were obtained through the use of a mixture of three brands of pig iron A, B and C in the proportion, two parts of .1, one part B and one part C. The analysis of the pig irons is thus given : Resistance to Corrosion 341 Fracture Silicon, per cent Manganese, per cent Phosphorus, per cent Total carbon, per cent A Dark gray . , B Light Gray C Mottled.... 3. so I so .70 3.80 3.50 3.50 The composition of acid-resistant castings should be about as follows: Silicon, per cent Sulphur, per cent Phosphorus, per cent Manganese, per cent Total carbon, per cent .8 to 2.0 .02 to .03 .40 to .60 I to 2.0 30 to 3.5 and in addition, the metal should be as free as possible from oxide. Cast iron to withstand the corrosive action of molten chemicals should be close grained and dense. The iron having the greatest den- sity will invariably be found to best withstand chemical influences and high temperatures. The addition of deoxidizing agents is of great benefit. Gray iron is attacked by acids about three times as fast as white iron. In cases where it is not practicable to use white iron castings it is some- times possible to cast against chills in such a manner as to form a white iron surface to resist corrosion and still leave the body of the casting gray. In a series of tests on the acid-resisting properties of some well-known Enghsh brands of iron, the No. i iron, presumably high in silicon, and the "hematite," low in phosphorus and probably high in silicon, gave the best results. Ferrosilicons with high percentages of silicon, 20 per cent and over, are remarkably resistant to the effects of acids and are being made into vessels for use in the chemical industries. Sulphur has been found to be a source of corrosion in steel in some instances, causing pitting at points where manganese sulphide has segregated. It has been shown that the presence of small amounts of copper in steel and puddled iron diminish their tendency to rust. Some practical rules for obtaining castings resistant to corrosion are as follows: Use white iron if practicable. 342 Chemicul Analyses If not practicable to use white iron oistinK, chill those surfaces which are to be in contact with the c (/rrosive substances. If gray iron must be used get dense, close-grained castings through the use of steel scrap or otherwise. Avoid oxidized metal, use good cupola prai lice and good pig irons. If possible use deoxidizing agents. Keep the sulphur just as low as jwssiblc. Resistance to Wear We must first make some distinction between two cases of wear typified by a grinding roll and a brake shoe. The first case may be dismissed by the simple statement that the greater the hardness the better the wear, providing at the same time that the iron is sufliciently strong. In the second case, however, it is necessary that the casting should not be so hard as to unduly wear the material with which it comes in contact. For example, the brake shoe must be softer than the tread of the car wheel. There is no theory to guide us in the matter and the rules given are the results of experiment chiefly with brake shoes. Too much silicon gives an open, soft iron which does not wear well. The best results are obtained with silicon about ils per cent in castings of medium thickness. Sulphur is claimed by many to be advantageous in castings for fric- tional wear because it closes the grain and hardens somewhat. Diller records a pecuUar occurrence of a hard spot which could not be machined, a smooth surface being formed which wore the drill although it could be dented with a center punch, .\nalysis showed 0.20 per cent sulphur and 0.50 per cent combined carbon. Phosphorus is best kept moderately low. Most specifications call for 0.75 per cent or under. It is injurious probably because it weakens the iron at the high temperature sometimes produced by friction. - Manganese is best kept moderately high to take care of the sulphur. Most brake shoe specifications call for under 0.70 per cent. The addition of steel scrap to the mixture has been found to give excellent results for this class of work, probably owing to the reduction in the total carbon and to its action in closing the grain. CoeflEicient of Friction There are no data as to the relation between the composition of cast iron and its coeflicient of friction. Since graphite is an excellent lubri- cant it is probable that the percentage of graphite is the controlling factor here, the friction decreasing with increase in this element. From Casting Properties 343 theoretical considerations we should expect the best results to be obtained \vith a very soft iron low in sulphur, manganese and combined carbon and high in graphite. Casting Properties The properties which remain to be considered pertain more par- ticularly to the casting as a whole and are chiefly influenced by the design, moulding and pouring of the casting, and to a very much less extent, by the composition of the metal. Unsoundness due to the presence of blow-holes and shrinkage cavities, while usually resulting from bad practice in moulding may also be caused by poor quality of metal. Blowholes may be caused by oxidized metal or by excessive sulphur. . . . When caused by sulphur the remedy is to decrease this element. Raising the manganese is often effective in preventing blowholes since it acts both as a deoxidizer and desulphiurizer. Scott states that manganese below 0.25 per cent often results in blow- holes. High phosphorus sometimes acts as a corrective of blowholes due to its prolonging the fluidity, thus giving the iron more chance to release the dissolved gases. Dirty castings are also caused chiefly by poor moulding, pouring or cupola practice. Occasionally, however, it may result from wrong composition of the metal, and the points chiefly to be watched are to keep the sulphur low; to avoid kish or segregated graphite and to avoid oxidized metal. Sulphur tends to cause dirty castings because it makes the iron congeal more quickly, and hence any dirt present has less chance to separate. In addition, the sulphides of iron and manganese themselves form dirt spots when segregated. Kish is usually caused by too much silicon, or sometimes by too much total carbon. Oxidized metal is a prolific source of dirty castings, but the oxidization is usually due to bad cupola practice, or to the use of oxidized scrap. IModerately high manganese and phos- phorus are conducive to clean castings, the first because it takes care of sulphur and oxidation, and the second because it increases the fluidity of the metal and thus gives the dirt a better chance to float out. Porosity is usually caused by the presence of kish (see preceding paragraph). Pinholes, another form of porosity, are usually due to excessive sulphur in the form of iron sulphide. This compound retains gases in solution until the metal is partially frozen and then releases them in the form of tiny bubbles which give rise to this defect. Decrease in sulphur or increase in manganese or both is the remedy. Segregation proper is caused by the difference in melting point and specific gravity of the several constituents of cast iron. The constit- 344 Chemical Analyses ucnls of lowest melting point arc the phosphorus ami sulphur compounds, and it is, therefore, in these cases that we find the greatest tendency towards segregation. It is not unusual to find hard s[xjts in heavy castings high in phos|)h<)rus which are caused Ijy the phosphide lx:ing squeezed out into blow-hulcs formed during solidification. Frequently the phosphide does not completely fill the cavity, or fills it as a loose globule. The sulphides, owing to their low specific gravity, usually segregate in the top of the casting and it is not infrequent to find sev- eral times the normal amount of sulphur in the upper part of heavy castings. Manganese sulphide segregates more readily than iron sul- phide. Besides segregation proper we sometimes find cases of non-homo- gencily due to other causes. Occasionally spots of white iron are found in the interior of castings. It has always been diflicult to account for these but the clew is given by the fact that they are invariably found in castings poured from the first metal tapped. Undoubtedly they are caused by the iron boiling on the sand bed and are connected in some way with the partial Bessemerizing of the metal. Again, hard spots in castings are sometimes due to small pieces of metal (for example, small steel scrap and shot iron) being incompletely melted in their passage through the cupola. Ferromanganese and other ferro- alloys may give rise to this same trouble through incomplete solution when stirred into the ladle. Shrinkage strains are caused primarily by ^vTongly designed castings, but the trouble may be aggravated by the composition of the metal. High sulphur is a particularly prolific source of internal stresses, and, in general, the greater the total shrinkage, the greater the strains due to this cause. As all foundr>'men know, the fineness of finish and smoothness of skin of a casting depend chiefly on the sands and facings used and the skill of the moulder. High phosphorus in the iron, however, is a consider- able aid in getting the fine skin desired in ornamental work, .\nother element affecting the skin is manganese which has the rather peculiar action of causing the sand to peel from the castings with extreme readi- ness. With I per cent manganese this tendency is CNident and with 2 per cent it is verj' marked. Bars, plates and hollow castings were treated, which were permitted to cool in the moulds. The plates cooled more slowly than the bar samples and the material proved somcv.'hat softer, givnng smaller values for the bending, tensile and compressive strength, but was better as regards flexiu-e and strength to resist impact. Tests reported to the Iron and Steel Institute showed: Notes on the Micro-structure of Cast Iron 345 The best tensile and transverse tests are obtained from bars which have been machined. Transverse test bars cast on edge and tested with the "fin" in com- pression give the best results. The transverse test is not so reliable or helpful as that of the moment of resistance. Cast iron gives the best results when poured as hot as possible. As in some measure explanatory of the conflicting results obtained in testing bars of precisely the same chemical combination, and as showing the importance of microscopical examinations of the structure of cast iron in pointing out the causes of difference in its physical properties, the paper of Mr. Percy Longmuir published in the Journal of the American Foundrymen's Association, June, 1903 is given in full. Notes on the Micro-structure of Cast Iron By Percy Longmtjir, Sheffield, England Journal of the American Foundrymen's Association, Vol. XII, June, IQ03. Instances are occasionally found where metal of the right chemical composition goes wrong in practice. It is in cases of this kind that the real value of microscopical examination is most evident, for very often such an examination will locate the trouble and at the same time suggest a remedy. Naturally an examination of diseased samples can only be undertaken after a thorough study of healthy ones, hence a foundation for the study of abnormal samples must necessarily be based on the, knowledge gained from a wide series of normal ones, that is, samples of knowTi chemical composition and known physical conditions. The structure of cast iron is very complex — far more so than that of steel — a fact readily shown by the high content of elements present other than iron. By polishing and etching a sample of cast iron, several of the compounds of the elements with iron are, under suitable magni- fication, rendered visible. The structural features, such as the arrange- ment and distribution of the various compounds and their relationship to each other, can then be readily noted and the effect of this combination on the mass then becomes an estimable quantity. If the metal under examination contain no impurities it is evident that its mass will be built up of pure crystals. A section cut from such a pvure metal will, after polishing and etching, show only the crystal junctions. Crystal junctions of this type are shown in Fig. 95 , which represents the structure of almost pure iron. Even here, although the metal is so pure, the very minute trace of carbon present can be readily detected in the dark knots of which about a dozen are to be seen. As foreign elements 346 Chemical Analyses arc added to pure iron the structure becomes more complex and a point is reached when all the pure crystals are rejilaced by more complex ones. It is to be remembered that all Kt^ay irons contain appreciable amounts of two varieties of carbon, silicon, manKancse, sulphur and phosphonis. Fig. gs. — Magnified 360 diameters. Carbon 0.03 Sulphur o.oi Silicon 0.02 Phosphorus o.oi Manganese 0.07 Iron 99.86 Of these elements graphite is present m its elementary form, that is, as free carbon. The remaining constituents are present in compound form associated either with iron or with other elements. Thus sulphur may occur as sulphide of manganese or as iron sulphide. Carbon occurring Fig. g6. — Magnified 60 diameters. Combined Carbon 0.54 Manganese 0.63 Graphite 3. 11 Sulphur 0.04 Silicon 1.77 Phosphorus 1.34 in the combined form is present as a definite carbide of iron; or under certain conditions as a double carbide of iron and manganese. Phos- phorus is associated with iron as a definite phosphide. These compounds are all distinguisliable under suitable magnification, but the association of silicon and iron is, so far as present knowledge goes, unrecognizable. Notes on the Micro-structure of Cast Iron 347 Microscopically these constituents have received other names — for instance pmre iron is known as "ferrite," hence a structure similar to that of Fig. 96 consists almost entirely of ferrite. Combined carbon .receives the term "cementite" and a mixture of cementite and ferrite Fig. 97. — Magnified 460 diameters. Fig. 98. — Magnified 360 diameters. is known as "pearlite." Pearlite often consists of alternate striae of cementite and ferrite and in such a form gives a magnificent play of colors resembling those of mother-of-pearl , consequently this constituent was named by its discoverer, Dr. Sorby, the "pearly constituent," a term now contracted to "pearlite." Fig. 99. — Magnified 50 diameters. Combined Carbon 3.25 Sulphur 0.41 Silicon 0.78 Phosphorus 0.06 Manganese o . 09 The classical researches of Professor Arnold have conclusively shown that iron containing 0.89 per cent carbon consists entirely of pearlite. As the content of carbon increases above 0.89 per cent, structurally free cementite appears increasing in quantity with each increment of carbon. It therefore follows that a white cast iron will consist essentially of 34^ Chemical Analyst's rcmunlitc and pcarlilc. in llie miijorily of gray irons used in the found- ries the a)ml)incd carbon is well below 0.89 per cent — cementite is, therefore, only present as a constituent of pcarlitc. Suli^hide kIoIjuIcs when in the form of manganese sulphide show a light gray color, while iron sulphide shows a hght brown tint. In high sulphur irons the sulphide lends to envelop the crystals; a section cut fmm sucii an iron would show a network of sulphide following the crystal junctions and destroying their continuity. These sulphides have been thoroughl>' in\x'stigatcd by Professor Arnold whose researches have thrown much light on the behaviour of both iron and manganese sulphide. The relations ol iron and phosphorus have been very thoroughly studied by Mr. J. E. Stead. In September, 1900, Mr. Stead presented Fig. ICX5. — Magnified 50 diameters. Combined Carbon 0.82 Manganese 0.09 Graphite 2.07 Sulphur 0.37 Silicon 0.75 Phosphorus 0.07 before the Iron and Steel Institute a most exhaustive research on this subject. With ordinarj' pig irons the phosphide of iron appears to be rejected to a eutectic of uncertain composition. Eutectic may for our purpose be defined as that portion last to soUdify. This phosphide eutectic may be readily distinguished in all gray irons by an ordinary etching medium, but in while irons containing structurally free cementite, Mr. Stead's "heat tinting" process becomes necessary to distinguish the eutectic from the cementite. Fig. 96 reproduces a photo-microscope of an unetched section of gray iron at a magnification of 60 diameters. This magnification gives, as it were, a general view only — to get at the ultimate structure higher powers must be used. Fig. 97 represents the structure of an ordinary gray iron magnified 460 diameters. The larger Notes on the Micro-structure of Cast Iron 349 portion of this field consists of pearlite embedded in which are irregular areas of the phosphide eutectic and several notable black plates of graphite. The, phosphide eutectic is recognizable by its irregular shape and broken up structure; an area in the center of the photograph enclos- ing an area of pearlite is worthy of notice. Fig. 98 reproduces an area of phosphide eutectic from the same section as Fig. 96. A tj^ical .white cast iron consisting essentially of pearlite and cementite is shown in Fig. 99. This is a type of iron used as a base for the production of malleable cast iron. The influences of annealing are shown in Fig. 100, which represents the same iron as Fig. 99, after going through the ordinary malleable iron Fig. Magnified 60 diameters. annealing in ore. This section consists essentially of pearlite and graphite — the analyses appended to each figure showing the change in carbon condition. For the loan of the negatives illustrating Figs. 99 and 100, the writer is indebted to the courtesy of Mr. T. Baker, B. Sc. Quite apart from the clear light thrown on what has been aptly termed the internal architecture of a metal, microscopical examination reveals many other features of profitable interest, one notable feature being the examination of minute flaws. Space will not permit of many illustra- tions under this head, but Fig. loi, reproduced from a photo-micrograph of a pin-hole in the same section as Fig. 96, will show the range of possi- bility in this direction. Obviously, a study of flaws of this character offers much to the founder producing castings which have to meet a hydraulic or high steam pressure test. (11 AI'IKk XIV Standard Specifications for Cast Iron Car Wheels Chemical Properties Tin: wheels furnished under this specification must liC mudc from the best materials and in accordance with the best foundry methods. The following pattern analysis is given for information, as representing the chemical properties of a good cast iron wheel. Successful wheels, var\-ing in some of the constituents quite considerably from the figures given, may be made: Analysis Per cent Analysis Per cent 3. SO 2.90 .60 .70 Manganese Phosphorus Sulphur Graphitic carbon oS 1. Wheels will be inspected and tested at the place of manufacture. 2. All wheels must conform in general design and in measurements to drawings which will be furnished, and any departure from the stand- ard drawing must be by special permission in writing. Manufacturers wishing to deviate from the standard dimensions must submit duplicate drawings showing the proposed changes, which must be approved. Drop Tests 3. The following table gives data as to weight and tests of various kinds of wheels for different kinds of cars and service: Wheel 33-inch diameter freight and pas- senger cars 36-inch diameter Kind of service... j 60.000 lbs. capacity and less I 600 70,000 lbs. capacity 2 650 100,000 lbs. capacity 3 700 Passenger cars A 700 lbs. Locomotive tenders s f Desired . . . Weight ] [ Variation . 7Solbs. Two per cent either way Height of drop. feet. Number of blows .. 9 12 12 10 10 12 12 12 la 14 35° Material and Chill 351 Marking 4. Each wheel must have plainly cast on the outside plate the name of the maker and place of manufacture. Each wheel must also have cast on the inside double plate the date of casting and a serial foimdry nimiber. The manufacturer must also provide for the guarantee mark, if so required by the contract. No wheel bearing a duplicate number, or a number which has once been passed upon, will be considered. Num- bers of wheels once rejected will remain uniilled. No wheel bearing an indistinct number or date, or any evidence of an altered or defaced number will be considered. Measures 5. All wheels offered for inspection must have been measured with a standard tape measure and must have the shrinkage number stenciled in plain figures on the inside of the wheel. The standard tape measure must correspond in form and construction to the "Wheel Circumference Measure" established by the Master Car Builders' Association in 1900. The nomenclature of that measure need not, however, be followed, it being sufficient if the graduating marks indicating tape sizes are one- eighth of an inch apart. Any convenient method of showing the shrink- age or stencil number may be employed. Experience shows that standard tape measures elongate a little with use, and it is essential to have them frequently compared and rectified. When ready for inspec- tion, the wheels must be arranged in rows according to shrinkage numbers, all wheels of the same date being grouped together. Wheels bearing dates more than thirty days prior to the date of inspection will not be accepted for test, except by permission. For any single inspection and test, only wheels having three consecutive shrinkage or stencil numbers will be considered. The manufacturer will, of course, decide what three shrinkage or stencil numbers he will submit in any given lot of 103 wheels offered, and the same three shrinkage or stencil numbers need not be offered each time. Finish 6. The body of the wheels must be smooth and free from slag and blowholes, and the hubs must be solid. Wheels will not be rejected because of drawing around the center core. The tread and throat of the wheels must be smooth, free from deep and irregular wrinkles, slag, sand wash, chill cracks or swollen rims, and be free from any evidence of hollow rims, and the throat and tread must be practically free from sweat. Material and Chill 7. Wheels tested must show soft, clean, gray iron, free from defects, such as holes containing slag or dirt more than one-quarter of an inch in 352 Slundard Specifications for Cast Iron Car \\ beds di;imclcr, or clusters of such holes, honeycombing of iron in the hub, while iron in the |)lales or hub, or clear white iron around the anchors of chaplcls at a greater distance than one-half of an inch in any direction. The dc|)th of the clear white iron must not exceed seven-eighths of an indi at the throat anc fillud l<) the toj) from <»nc ladle with molten cast iron, which must he jKiuretl direi tly into the channel way without previous cooling or stirring, and this iron must be so hot, when |)ourcd, that the ring which is formed when the metal is cold shall be solid or free from wrinkles or layers. Iron at this temperature will usually cut a hole at the jjoint of impact with the flange. In order to avoid spitting during the pouring, the tread and inside of the flange during the thermal test should be covered with a coat of shellac; wheels which are wet or which have been exposed to snow or frost maybe warmed sufficiently to dry them or remove the frost before testing, but under no circumstances must the thermal test be applied to a wheel that in any part feels warm tn th<-' liand. The time when pouring ceases must be noted, and two minutes later an examination of the wheel under test must be made. If the wheel is found broken in pieces, or if any crack in the plates extends through or into the tread, the test wheel will be regarded as having failed. If both wheels stand, the whole hundred will be accepted as to this test. If both fail, the whole hundred will be rejected. If one only of the ther- mal lest wheels fails, all of the lot under test of the same shrinkage or stencil number will be rejected, and the test will be regarded as finished, so far as this lot of wheels is concerned. The manufacturer may, however, offer the wheels of the other two shrinkage or stencil numbers, provided I hey are acceptable in other respects, as constituents of another 103 wheels for a subsequent test. Storing and Shipping 13. All wheels which pass inspection and test will be regarded as accepted, and may be either shipped or stored for future shipment, as arranged. It is desired that shipments should be, as far as possible, in lots of 100 wheels. In all cases the inspector must witness the shipment, and he must give, in his report, the. numbers of all wheels inspected and I he disposition made of them. Rejections 14. Individual wheels will be considered to have failed and will not !)c accepted or further considered, which. First. Do not conform to standard design and measurement. Second. Are under or over weight. Third. Have the physical defects described in Section 6. 15. Each 103 wheels submitted for test will be considered to have failed and will not be accepted or considered further, if, First. The test wheels do not conform to Section 7, especially as to limits of white iron in the throat and tread and around chaplets. Standard Specifications for Locomotive Cylinders 355 Second. One of the test wheels does not stand the drop test as de scribed in Section 11. Third. Both of the two test wheels do not stand the thermal test as described in Section 12. Standard Specifications for Locomotive Cylinders Process of Manufacture Locomotive cylinders shall be made from a good quahty of close-grained gray iron cast in a dry sand mould. Chemical Properties Drillings taken from test pieces cast as hereafter mentioned shall conform to the following limits in chemical composition: Silicon from 1.25 to i . 75 per cent Phosphorus not over o . 90 per cent Sulphur not over o. 10 per cent Physical Properties The minimum physical qualities for cylinder iron shall be as follows: The "Arbitration Test Bar," i!4 inches in diameter, with supports 12 inches apart, shall have a transverse strength not less than 3000 pounds, centrally applied, and a deflection not less than o.io of an inch. Test Pieces and Method of Testing The standard test-bar shall be iV* inches in diameter, about 14 inches long, cast on end in dry sand. The drillings for analysis shall be taken from this test piece, but in case of rejection the manufacturer shall have the option of analyzing drilhngs from the bore of the cylinder, upon which analysis the acceptance or rejection of the cylinder shall be based. One test piece for each cylinder shall be required. Character of Castings Castings shall be smooth, well cleaned, free from blow-holes, shrinkage cracks or other defects, and must finish to blue-print size. Each cylinder shall have cast on each side of saddle, the manufacturer's mark, serial number, date made and mark showing order number. Inspector The inspector representing the purchaser shall have all reasonable facihties afforded to him bj^ the manufacturer to satisfy himself that the finished material is furnished in accordance with these specifications. All tests and inspections shall be made at the place of the manufacturer. 3s6 Stanthird SiK'cificaliuns for Cast Iron \'\\>c Standard Specifications for Cast-Iron Pipe and Special Castings Drs(rif>li(in of Pipes The pipes shall be made with hub and spigot joints, and shall accurately conform to the dimensions given in tablas Xos. I and II. They shall be straight and shall be true circles in section, with their inner and outer surfaces concentric, and shall be of the specified dimensions in outside diameter. They shall be at least 12 feet in length, exclusive of socket. For pipes of each size from 4-inch to 24-inch, inclusive, there shall be two standards of outside diameter, and for pipes from 30-inch to 60-inch, inclusive, there shall be four standards of outside diameter, as shown by table No. II. All pipes having the same outside diameter shall have the same inside diameter at both ends. The inside diameter of the lighter pipes of each standard outside diameter shall be gradually increased for a distance of about 6 inches from each end of the pipe so as to obtain the required standard thickness and weight for each size and class of pipe. Pipes whose standard thickness and weight are intermediate between the classes in table No. II shall be made of the same outside diameter as the next heavier class. Pipes whose standard thickness and weight are less than shown by table No. II shall be made of the same outside diam- eter as the class A pipes, and pipes whose thickness and weight are more than shown by table No. II shall be made of the same outside diameter as the class D pipes. For 4-inch to 12-inch pipes, inclusive, one class of special castings shall be furnished, made from class D pattern. Those having spigot ends shall have outside diameters of spigot ends midwaj- between the two standards of outside diameters as shown by table No. II, and shall be tapered back for a distance of 6 inches. For 14-inch to 24-inch pipes, inclusive, two classes of special castings shall be furnished, class B spe- cial castings with classes A and B pipes, and class D special castings with classes C and D pipes, the former to be stamped "AB" and the latter to be stamped "CD." For 30-inch to 60-inch pipes, inclusive, four classes of special castings shall be furnished, one for each class of pipe, and shall be stamped with the letter of the class to which they belong. Allowable Variation in Diameter of Pipes and Sockets Especial care shall be taken to have the sockets of the required size. The sockets and spigots will be tested by circular gauges, and no pipe will be received which is defective in joint room from any cause. The diam- eters of the sockets and the outside diameters of the bead ends of the Special Castings 357 pipes shall not vary from the standard dimensions by more than 0.06 of an inch for pipes 16 inches or less in diameter; 0.08 of an inch for 18-inch, 20-inch and 24-inch pipes; o.io of an inch for 30-inch, 36-inch and 42-inch pipes; 0.12 of an inch for 48-inch, and 0.15 of an inch for 54-inch and 60-inch pipes. Allowable Variation in Thickness For pipes whose standard thickness is less than i inch, the thickness of metal in the body of the pipe shall not be more than 0.08 of an inch less than the standard thickness, and for pipes whose standard thickness is I inch or more, the variation shall not exceed o.io of an inch, except that for spaces not exceeding 8 inches in length in any direction, variations from the standard thickness of 0.02 of an inch in excess of the allowance above given shall be permitted. For special castings of standard patterns a variation of 50 per cent greater than allowed for straight pipe shall be permitted. Defective Spigots may be Cut Defective spigot ends on pipes 12 inches or more in diameter may be cut off in a lathe and a half-round wrought-iron band shrunk into a groove cut in the end of the pipe. Not more than 1 2 per cent of the total number of accepted pipes of each size shall be cut and banded, and no pipe shall be banded which is less than 1 1 feet in length, exclusive of the socket. In case the length of a pipe differs from 12 feet, the standard weight of the pipe given in table No. II shall be modified in accordance therewith. Special Castings All special castings shall be made in accordance with the cuts and the dimensions given in the table forming a part of these specifications. The diameters of the sockets and the external diameters of the bead ends of the special castings shall not vary from the standard dimensions by more than 0.12 of an inch for castings 16 inches or less in diameter; 0.15 of an inch for 18-inch, 20-inch and 24-inch castings; 0.20 of an inch for 30-inch, 36-inch and 42-inch castings; and 0.24 of an inch for 48- inch, S4-inch and 60-inch castings. These variations apply only to special castings made from standard patterns. The flanges on all manhole castings and manhole covers shall be faced true and smooth, and drilled to receive bolts of the sizes given in the tables. The manufacturer shall furnish and deliver all bolts for bolting on the manhole covers, the bolts to be of the sizes shown on plans and made of the best quality of mild steel, with hexagonal heads and nuts and sound, well-fitting threads. 35^ Suindurd SjKJcifications for Cast Iron I'iix; Table No. I. — Gkneral Dimensions ok I'ipes Classes A-B C-D A-B C-D c-b A-B C-D A-B C-D A-B C-D A-B C- A-B C-D A-B C-D A-B C-D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D Actual outside diam., inches 4.80 S 00 6.90 7.10 9 05 9.30 II. 10 11.40 13.20 13. so 15 30 15.65 17.40 17.80 19-50 19.92 21.60 22.06 25.80 26.32 31.74 32.00 32.40 32.74 37.96 38.30 38.70 39-16 44.20 44.50 45. 10 45.58 50.50 50.80 51 .10 SI. 08 56.66 57.10 57.80 58.40 62.80 63.40 64.20 64.82 Diameter of sockets Pipe, inches 5. 60 5.80 7.70 7.90 9.8s 10.10 11.90 12.20 14.00 14.30 16.10 16.4s 18.40 18.80 20.50 20.92 22.60 23.06 26.80 27.32 32.74 33.00 33-4J 33-74 38.96 39.30 39.70 40.16 45.20 45.50 46.10 46.58 51.50 51.80 52.. JO 52.98 57.66 58.10 58.80 59 40 63.80 64.40 65.20 65 82 Special castings, inches 5.70 5.70 7.80 7.80 10.00 10.00 12.10 12.10 14.20 14.20 16.10 16.4s 18.40 18.80 20.50 20.92 22.60 23.06 26.80 27.32 32.74 33.00 33.40 33.74 38.96 39 30 39.70 40.16 45 20 45.50 46.10 46.58 51.50 51 80 52.40 52.98 57.66 S8.10 58.80 59 40 63.80 64.40 65 20 65 82 Depth of sockets Pipe, inches 3. so 3 50 3.50 3 SO 4.00 4.00 4.00 4. CO 4.00 4.00 4.00 4 00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4 SO 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 5. 00 5 00 5.00 5.00 5 00 5. SO 5 50 5 .so 5 50 S 50 5 50 S SO S 50 Special castings inches 4.00 4.00 4 00 4 00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4 00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4 00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4 so 4.50 4.50 4.50 5 00 5.00 5.00 5 00 5. 00 5.00 5.00 5 00 S.so SSo 5 50 5. SO 5. 50 5. 50 5.50 5.50 A B 15 1 30 1.5 1.30 IS 1.40 IS 1.40 IS I-So IS I. SO I-S I SO 1.5 1.60 I-S 1.60 I.S 1.70 IS 1.70 IS 1.80 1.7s 1.80 I-7S 1-90 1. 75 I 90 I.7S 3.10 I.7S 2.00 1. 75 2.30 2 00 3 10 3.00 3. SO 2.00 2-SO 2.00 2.30 3.00 2.60 2.00 3 00 2.00 3. SO 2.00 3. 80 2.00 3.10 2.00 3 40 2 00 3.80 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.40 2.00 380 2.00 3.00 2.00 3 30 2.00 3.80 2.00 4.20 2.25 3 20 2.25 3.60 2 23 4 00 2 25 4 40 2.25 3 40 2 25 3 70 2.25 4 20 2-25 4-70 Standard Specifications for Cast Iron Pipe 359 Table No. II. — Standard Thicknesses and Weights of Cast Iron Pipe Class A Class B 'Nominal 100 ft. head. 43 lbs. pressure 200 ft. head. 86 lbs. pressure inside diameter, . inches Thickness, inches Weight per Thickness, inches Weight per Foot Length Foot Length 4 .42 20.0 240 .45 21.7 260 6 .44 30.8 370 .48 33.3 400 8 .46 42.9 515 51 47-5 570 lO .50 57.1 685 .57 63-8 765 12 .54 72.5 870 .62 82.1 98s 14 .57 89.6 1.075 .66 102. s 1.230 i6 .60 108.3 1,300 .70 125.0 1.500 i8 .64 129.2 1.550 -75 150.0 1,800 20 .67 150.0 1,800 .80 175.0 2,100 24 .76 204.2 2,450 89 233.3 2,800 30 .88 291.7 3.500 1.03 333.3 4,000 36 ■99 391-7 4.700 I -15 454.2 5.450 42 1. 10 512.5 6,150 1.28 591 7 7,100 48 1.26 666.7 8,000 1.42 750.0 9,000 54 1 . 35 800.0 9,600 1. 55 933.3 11,200 60 1-39 916.7 11,000 1.67 1,104.2 13.250 Class C Class D Nominal inside 300 ft. head. 130 lbs pressure 400 ft. he ad. 173 lbs. pressure diameter, inches Thickness, inches Weig it per Thickness, inches Weight per Foot Length Foot Length 4 .48 23.3 280 .52 25. 300 6 51 35.8 430 .55 38.3 460 8 56 52.1 625 .60 55.8 670 10 62 70.8 850 .68 76.7 920 12 68 91-7 1,100 .75 100.0 1,200 14 74 116.7 1,400 .82 129.2 I.5SO 16 80 143.8 1.72s .89 158.3 1,900 18 87 175.0 2,100 .96 191 -7 2,300 20 92 20S.3 2,500 1.03 229.2 2.7SO 24 04 279.2 3„3So 1. 16 306.7 3.680 30 20 400.0 4,800 1.37 4SO.O 5.400 36 36 545.8 6,550 1. 58 625.0 7.S0O 42 54 716.7 8,600 1.78 825.0 9.9CO 48 71 908 3 10,900 1.96 1050.0 12,600 54 90 1,141.7 13.700 2.23 1341.7 16,100 60 2 00 1.341-7 16,100 2.38 1583.3 19,000 The above weights are for 12-feet laying lengths and standard sockets; propor- tionate allowance to be made for any variation therefrom. 360 Stundurd Specificutions for Cast Iron I'ipc Marking Evcrj' pipe and special casting shall have distinctly cast upon it the initials of the maker's name. When cast especially to order, each pipe and special casting larger than 4-inch may alsccificalions /or Cast Iron I'i|>c Volume and Wiiioux ok Piled, Bell and Simcot Cast Iron Pipe Size of pipe, inches Head in feet Thiclc- ness of metal, inches Weight of one pipe in pounds No. of pipes in one ton of 2240 pounds Cubic feet in one ton of 2240 pounds pipes in 40 cubic feet o( pipe in 40 cubic feci . ublc feet In one pipe 3 loo .38 167 1341 21.414 ; 104. 121 1.604 3 200 .42 I8S 12. 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'■ '. *. ^OM t--rOcorO Ot^ "-"^ I-.10 :! %:2 ^2 o ^r- CCN ^ \6oi t^N OOf^O^PO — T u C o a o 8 ; ll li J3 : -S-o . a II V 1 •^ : ll u B S : si : S* : S3 : JS ; 8 ; 8 : 8 • S • S • S : S : 8 : S : j= ,c • jn -c .c .^ -js -x -^ -js --c -x ••c -a- .S-S .E-S .5-0 .S-S .S-o .5-S .S-S .E-o .E-3 .E-3 .E-a .E-3 .E-S .E-o -C -C -C -C -C .C -C -C -C -C -C -C -C -c «3 0)3 Jja U3 J;3 li3 03 g3 oB S3 ^3 &=> fe= Ji3 E£ Ei Ei Ei Ei Ei Ei Ei Si Ei Ei Ei Ei S^ rt J laj rt;3 -g^ -^ « -^'Z -SIS -s;! -s;! -gio -^-^ -^-B %■£ ^-z (X& cus: cu^ curs p,:s cug: pus: eu^ cuS fcs: o.^ &,& 0,3: Q.& 1^ 11 ;Sa: .££ .Eit -SS -SS •?£ .Ss |it .e| .£;! •?£ •££ -Sfi -SS Pattern Size and Weight of Cast Iron Pipe 367 to v> ;s -. m K^GO K^ t- M M " to u- CO 00 8f5, SS ^'?s (N -^ ro 10 ro\0 "V ■* ihX CS H 1^00 00 CTl tJiM M M IH M M M Pioj (NO! csrooPOrO'^roml a « - N «5 W to (O to to :si Nr-lON--OVNXoO MiCOO ^i*' 0^ X— ^JN t-* MX a> t-x 5^ — \ 00 t^ r^ 00 cm oi - M M M IH IH M t— Ci ro CO -^ ro ■<*■ CO (O M to ' ro to M «N >- ,:s?! r- r- 0000 M M IH IH M N N PO ro fO CO "S- W tn-- ro «xqo I t-t M M M H M 01 01 01 01 01 M IN ro ro ro ^-^ H .S .2 So > .2 c .ii C .i:i c .ii c .2 c 2 c .H c .2 c .2 .2 .2 c ui u w c li w C - M C 1. m P< M p. S e a H-" c , c^ 1= ^ - ^ ■ c , c *- ^i ' ^ ^- ■ C J. " C 4J" P .^^" C 4J ■ p^ G^s c^r Ip-fl !ii-c Sn-^ fr.-c STi-^ Vi-^ !n-^ t -C fc-^ ^-a ^-a ^i fc^ fc^ ^J5 1 -l-l c ^^ 1^ II 0.^ B II 0.^ "S'5 td!^ "S3 Oh^ fl,^ Ph^ ^1 ^1 «ll Oh^ CU^ Ch^ •^ fl •fi 1 ■c n ■^ 1 -^ 1 ^0^ ^ •^ 11 x: aj -^ n J2 -fi 1 368 SUindard Specifications for Cubl Iron I'ijx; %% r^.3 S'S s^^C -^^ ^ '■r' t^ »-■' o -^ a *• ft KT*- O •'^ ©» W- 5 »^ ^ irt IT) t^oo f^ O Ov -* -^ ° -f O -^ » 5^ Q *^ 5 N'^ M-^ «^ f*5ic f*3F- V- -r *^ r* ^^/S c*:»0 MPO «P0«^ N^ r^ n «d^vo ro >^aO c; '. u s ; 8 i 8 ■O .-"O .-"O .S"0 n . c - e - c 3 C 3 GJ 3 O 3 - C . c - c . n r-a .s-a .s'^s •-•u .s-o .s-a ^S SS st3 .: rr? ^c! rr^ V-.c t"_c iJMiiM^SM^a (xis cu-s a.& cu^ 0(3 us 03 tJ3 c J c ^- fj CJ cj pj pj t;j= J;j= J;^ J;j: S-S S-5 &•£> ■S;f a'^ a'.S i«5 i'i^ ^J Ou& D-:S a.:S ft.:5 G.? 0-? c-r C-- c-s C-? C-- c.- c-S C-- c-,- C-- C-- C-- C-- c-- c-r c-- c-S •TPu ■?> -TO, lid, -tc, -ja. -xa. -lO- -to^ -t^ -.t^ 'l^ 'X^ '^i^ -tb. -jQ. -tO. =i' Ofc^ Pattern Size and Weight of Cast Iron Pipe 369 Pattern Size and Weight of Cast Iron Pipe, % to ii?^2 Inches Thick 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches, pounds 42 3910 25^3 42M6 4075 4240 44!-i 4440 2^62 42^6 4405 44? 16 4615 42>4 4737 44H 4790 2?i2 42M6 4903 44^6 496s i^ie A2% 4903 44?8 SI40 5969 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches, pounds 31.^2 42^6 S070 44i^1 6 5316 501/2 6068 42^2 5237 44H 5492 So9i6 6267 1 1/62 42?^6 S404 44?i6 5668 So'Js 6467 5572 445& 5844 6667 62j;8 8282 l9^2 42' Hf 5740 44' '/'h 6021 50% 6867 621^1 e 8532 ij-i 42^4 5908 44^4 6198 5o'?i6 7067 63 I?^2 42i?'i6 6077 44' ^i 6 6375 5o?i 7268 63H6 9032 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern size, inches Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches Weight, pounds I?i6 I?^2 tH I%2 1^6 ll!-^2 A2% 42lfi6 43 43M6 43'/^ 43?'! 6 6246 6415 6585 6755 692s 7096 ^A'A 44*^6 45 45 He 45^6 4S?i6 6552 6730 6908 7086 7264 7443 50' fie 51 51 Vis SiH 5I?'18 5lH 7469 7670 7871 8073 8275 8477 63'/6 63^16 63I/4 63M6 63?S 63^6 9282 9S32 9782 10,032 10,283 10,534 m 43M 7267 45 H 762 SiMe 8679 63;-^ 10,785 40-inch Pipe 42-Lnch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern size, inches . Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds I>?^2 43?i6 7438 45916 7801 ^1% 8882 63?i6 11,086 43?i 7610 45?^ 7980 51M6 9083 639i 11.337 ll^fc 43^6 7782 45^/16 8160 9288 63IH6 I I, 588 ii/i 43}^ 7954 45 K2 8340 Si^ie 9491 63?i n.839 1^2 439'i6 8127 45?-! 6 8520 51?^ 969s 63'?'! 6 12,091 iyi% 8300 45?€ 8700 511 He 9899 633;^ 12,343 i^%2 43IH6 8473 451 He 8881 5i?4 10,103 6315,^6 12,545 370 SUndard SiMJcilicalions for Cast Iron ri|)C Pattern" Size and Weight of Cast Iron Pipe, ih tj 2Wi Inches Thick 40-inch Pipe 4J-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern size, inches i.vli Weight, pounds I 8647 Pattern size, inches. . Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches.. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. . Weight, pounds 1 iH inia I'M. AM 43' 5i. iJ4 l.vli 43'?. 44 8647 8831 899s 9170 934S 4S>i 4S'?i» 4SJi 4S'^i« 46 9062 9243 9424 9606 9788 Si'^io Si^i Si'Mo 52 S2H0 10.307 IO,SI2 10,717 10,922 II. 127 64 64M6 64^6 64? i 8 64M 12,847 13.099 I3JS7 13.603 13.856 i*»4j 44H* 9S» 46H« 9970 52W "033 64Ma 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, size, inches. pounds size, inches. . pounds size, inches.. pounds size, inches., pounds I'^-iu i2;62 44H i»%t i«M« 44 '/6 44'?io 9688 9862 10,048 46!-6 46?! 6 46M 46518 46H 10,152 10,335 10,518 10,700 10.885 S2?i6 52! 4 525iB 52H S2'/(» 1 1. 539 11,745 I I. 951 12,158 12.365 6498 64^16 64 Mo 64? i 8 64''8 14.362 14.615 14.868 15.121 15.374 I»^J 52^ 12.573 64' H« 15.638 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe 48-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds Pattern size, inches. Weight, pounds 5291 8 12,779 64?4 15.882 52H 12.987 64'?<6 16.136 2M8 S3'H« 13.19s 6aH 16,390 2942 5294 13443 641518 16.644 2H 52' 91 8 13.611 65 16.898 40-inch Pipe 42-inch Pipe ,»o<-inch Pipe 60-inch Pipe Thickness, inches Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, Pattern Weight, size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches. pounds size, inches, pounds 29^2 65H8 17.152 29^8 65Vi 17.407 6s9i« 17.662 2M 6sM 17.917 39^2 659I8 18.172 CHAPTER XV MECHANICAL ANALYSIS While chemical analysis is absolutely necessary for the determination of the constituents of iron and the fuels, and is of greatest importance to the foundryman as a guide in their purchase, chemists cannot, however, as yet predict with certainty the physical properties which will result from the mixture of irons possessing identical composition. Test bars have shown, that of two irons, precisely the same in their chemical constituents, one may exceed the other in tensile strength by as much as 50 per cent. No satisfactory explanation of the discrepancy has been made. Various suggestions, attributing the cause to the ores, changes of temperatvure in the furnace, to difference in cooling, etc., are offered, but the problem is still unsolved. Whatever may be the cause of these differences, the foundryman needs some means of quickly detecting and correcting them. He should have prompt information as to shrinkage, softness and strength of his castings. During 1885, Mr. Keep made the important discovery that the shrink- age of test bars varied inversely as the silicon content, and that by measurement of shrinkage the silicon is practically determined. His investigations resulted in pointing out the intimate relations which exist between shrinkage and the other properties of cast iron, both chemical and physical. Mr. Keep's conclusions as to the importance of mechanical analysis are summarized as follows: The physical properties of the casting are not wholly dependent upon its chemical composition. Mechanical analysis measures the physical properties of the iron, which are, shrinkage, strength, deflection, set and depth of chill. The measure of these properties shows the combined influen^ce of each element in the chemical composition, and in addition thereto, it shows the in- fluence of fuel and every varying condition attending melting. These influences, particularly that of sulphur, are counteracted by the use of silicon. The measurement of shrinkage tells whether more or less silicon is needed to bring the quality of the casting to an accepted standard of excellence. 371 372 Mechanical Analysis Instead of calculating the chemical c<)mpf>silion and predictinR the pliysi(al properties, mechanical analysis ascertains the physical jiropcr- ties first, and determines from the shrinkage whether more or less silicon is reciuired to protluce castings of a given standard. Measurement of shrinkage is made quickly at a nominal cost and alone gives all necessary information. It tells the founder exactly what physical properties his castings have and exactly what to do to bring each of those properties to standard. By this method a founder can determine whether a low-priced iron is suitable for his use. Having fixed upon a standard, he can ascertain during the heat whether the mixture is of the desired quality, and if necessar>' can increase or decrease the silicon, according as the shrinkage should be reduced or increased. Mechanical analysis answers all the requirements of the ordinary founder. Its simplicity renders the emplojTnent of an expert unneces- sary. Pig iron and coke, having been purchased upon guaranteed analysis, an occasional analysis of the castings is only required. In a report to The American Society oi Mechanical Engineers, Mr. Keep presents a Shrinkage Chart and Strength Table, which are given below with his directions for using them. Shrinkage Chart W. J. Ki:i:i' While the tensile tests show an increase of strength with an increase of phosphorus, yet the transverse tests seem to show that phosphorus reduces strength. This is also general shop experience. Sulphur. — There is not in these tests enough uniformity between the percentage of sulphur and the strength to show any decided influence, but the indication is that sulphur dccrciises strength. In .some cases sulphur might add to strength by causing the grain to be closer. Manganese. — The percentage is too nearly the same in these series to show any influence on strength. By comparing strengths and chemical composition of the irons nearest alike, with all chemical elements nearly alike, and no scrap, but with quite different strengths, it is very evident that strength is dependent upon something outside of the ordinary- chemical composition. Slow cooUng decreases strength by making the grain of a casting coarse and more open. The larger the casting the weaker it become*" per square inch of section. The weakness is not caused by a decrease in combined carbon because a complete analysis of each size of test bar Shrinkage Chart 373 (Transactions, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XVI, p. hoc) shows the same combined carbon in all sizes of many series, but in all cases the strength per unit of section decreased as the size increased. Strength of any size of test bar cannot be calculated by any mathe- matical formula from the measured strength of another size, because the grain changes by slow cooling. 1.00 l.'ZS 1.50 1.75 2.00 E.25 ?.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 425 400 375 350 325 300 275 250 225 200 175 5400 3200 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 '■ ^ ^ %^ ^ ^ y y y / ^ ■ 2'k /" 2000 1 ^i', .. 1800 - — 2 ■ ■ ... 2 4" ■ -^ 1600 3 '~!.^___ ~ ' 1400 1 ^ 4 r^. Hi;^ . [i;;;;^ :^ — ■ IX I.? 5 I.E 1.7 5 2 00 2.' 5 Ih 2.- 5 3. DO 3. E5 3.5 Percent Silicon. Fig. 104. Tensile Strength Chart. — Fig. 105 shows this chart. The dotted line estimated. "Table for Obtaining the Strength of any Size of Test Bar from the Measured Strength of the Standard Test Bar. — Table on p. 375 is cal- culated for a standard i-inch square test bar. Measure the shrinkage per foot of the standard test bar, then on the shrinkage chart, Fig. 105, find this shrinkage on the left-hand margin and follow horizontally imtil you intersect the line of the measured test bar. Follow the vertical line at the intersection to the top of the chart, and you find the percentage of silicon that is expected to produce the shrinkage. Find this same percentage at the top of Table i , and follow down to the size of test bar that you wish the strengths of. If you wish the actual 374 Mechanical Analysis strength use the lower figures as mullij)lier of the measured strength of the standard i-inch bar. If you wish the strength of a section i inch square by 12 inches long of the rc- X N V \ s ^ N, N, 'x X -^ 5 ^ 1 'n ^ "N K — - ^ \ s X s ^ % X N, s \ \ N, "*\ h s. X •v \ N X < ^ N, <. -<5 ^s X \ [^ k^ N < \ N, s ^ S sl \ N, N X <: N, \ X \: \ \ X X ^ I. m 1.50 t75 2.00 Z.ZS ?.50 a75 3100 5.25 350 Percent. Fig. 105. number for the bar, or if you have the strength of a section of the re- quired test bar i inch square by 12 inches long, divide by the upper number, and the result in either case is the strength of the standard I-inch bar." " To find the Strength of any Casting. — Divide the cubic contents of the casting by the square inches of cooling surface, and the quotient is the cooling ratio. If the casting has a large flat surface the edges may be neglected; for example, a casting i inch thick and 24 inches square. Keep's Strength Table 375 O O in o 00 o> Tj- 00 lo o 00 00 t- O Si N .S. S~^ J:8 ?38 ■=* ■^ M 00 ;s 376 Mechanical Analysis A strip one inch wide and 24 inches lonj; would have 24 cubic inches contents and 48 sfjuarc inches of cooling surface. 24 -^ 48 = 0.5 ratio. Find this ratio at the top of the chart, Fig. 105, and follow down to the •*!'' Iron fol low-board with yokes and brass pastums for test bars ^i in. square X 12 in. long. Fig. 106. Iron Flask. Taper steel scale which measures shrinkage. Fig. 107. diagonal and we find that a 2-inch square test bar represents the strength of the casting." "With the shrinkage of a standard i-inch test bar, cast at the same time as the casting, find on the shrinkage chart the percentage of silicon in the casting. Then in the Table find the upper multipUer for a 2-inch test bar. This multiplied by the measured strength of the standard test bar gives the strength of a sec- tion of the casting i inch square and 12 inches long." Mechanical analysis covers tests for shrinkage, strength and hard- ness. Figs. 1 06 and 107 show a de\nce designed by Mr. Keep for determin- ing shrinkage. Determinations for strength are generally made by taking the trans- verse strength and deflection. The Riehle Machine as shown in Fig. 108 is in common use for this purpose. This illustration represents faith- fully the general appearance of this machine. The specimen is shown in position. The weighing-beams and levers are all carefully sealed to the standard of the United States, Government, and guaranteed to be accurate and reliable. Fig. 108. Constituents of Cast Iron 377 Operation The weighing-beam must be balanced before the specimen is arranged for testing. The wheel shown must be moved from left to right, and, as the beam rises, the poise must be moved out to restore the equipoise. If more strain is required to break the specimen than can be weighed by the poise, move the poise back to zero and place the loose weight on the weight dish shown at the extreme left (small end) of weighing-beam, and move the poise out as before, until the test is completed. The calcula- tions are made so that the beam registers the center load. Dimensions Extreme length 3 ft. 2 in. Extreme height 3 ft. i in. Extreme width i ft. 4 in. Weight 200 lbs. Shipping weight 230 lbs. Adaptation Transverse specimens 1 2 in. long Hardness This property may be measured by embedding steel balls in the casting to be tested, by Turner's Scleroscope (see cut, page 114, Turner's Lec- tures on " Founding "); or by Keep's Machine (see cut, page 187, " Cast Iron "). The latter method is the more simple and gives accurate results. A small high speed drill may be used for this purpose, but it must be so arranged that the load on the spindle will be constant. Standard Methods for Determining the Constituents of Cast Iron As reported by the Committee of the American Foundrymen's Association, Phila- delphia Convention, May 21-24, ^907. Determination of Silicon Weigh one gram of sample, add 30 c.c. nitric acid (1.13 sp. gr.); then 5 c.c. sulphuric acid (cone). Evaporate on hot plate xintil all fumes are driven off. Take up in water and boil until all ferrous sul- phate is dissolved. Filter on an ashless filter, with or without suction pump, using a cone. Wash once with hot water, once with hydrochloric acid, and three or four times with hot water. Ignite, weigh and evapo- 378 Chemical Analysis rale with a few drops of sulphuric acid and 4 or s c.c. of hydrofluoric acid. Ignite slowly and weigh. Mullii)ly the difference in weight by 0.4702, which equals the per cent of silicon. Determination of Sulphur Dissolve slowly a three-gram sample of drillings in concentrated nitric acid in a platinum dish covered with an inverted watch glass. After the iron is completely dissolved, add two grams of potassium nitrate, evapx)rate to dryness and ignite over an alcohol lamp at red heat. Add 50 c.c. of a one per cent solution of sodium carbonate, boil for a few minutes, filter, using a little paper pulp in the filter if desired, and wash with a hot one per cent sodium carbonate solution. Acidify the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, evaporate to drj-ness, take up with 50 c.c. of water and 2 c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, filter, wash and after diluting the filtrate to about 100 c.c. cool and precipitate with barium chloride. Filter, wash well with hot water, ignite and weigh as barium sulphate, which contains 13.733 per cent of sulphur. Determination of Pliosplioriis Dissolve 2 grams sample in 50 c.c. nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.13), add 10 c.c. hydrochloric acid and evaporate to dryness. In case the sample contains a fairly high percentage of phosphorus it is better to use half the above quantities. Bake until free from acid, redissolving in 25 to 30 c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid; dilute to about 60 c.c, filter and wash. Evaporate to about 25 c.c, add 20 c.c. concentrated nitric acid, evapo- rate until a film begins to form, add 30 c.c. of nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.20) and again evaporate until a film begins to form. Dilute to about 150 c.c. with hot water and allow it to cool. WTien the solution is between 70 degrees and 80 degrees C. add 50 c.c. of molybdate solution, .\gitate the solution a few minutes, then filter on a tarred Gooch crucible having a paper disc at the bottom. Wash three times with a 3 per cent nitric acid solution and twice with alcohol. Dr>' at 100 degrees to 105 degrees C. to constant weight. The weight multiplied b}- 0.0163 equals thef>er cent of phosphorus in a i-gram sample. To make the molj'bdate solution add loo grams molybdic acid to 250 c.c. water, and to this add 150 c.c. ammonia, then stir until all is dissolved and add 65 c.c. nitric acid (1.42 sp. gr.). Make another solu- tion by adding 400 c.c. concentrated nitric acid to 1100 c.c. water, and when the solutions are cool, pour the first slowly into the second wnth constant stirring and add a couple of drops of ammonium phosphate. Determination of Total Carbon 379 Determination of Manganese Dissolve one and one- tenth grams of drillings in 25 c.c. nitric acid (1.13 sp. gr.), filter into an Erlenmeyer flask and wash with 30 c.c. of the same acid. Then cool and add about one-half gram of bismuthate until a permanent pink color forms. Heat until the color has disappeared, with or without the precipitation of manganese dioxide, and then add either sulphtu-ous acid or a solution of ferrous sulphate until the solution is clear. Heat until all nitrous oxide fumes have been driven off, cool to about fifteen degrees C; add an excess of sodium bismuthate — about one gram — and agitate for two or three minutes. Add 50 c.c. water containing 30 c.c. nitric acid to the Htre, filter on an asbestos filter into an Erlenmeyer flask, and wash with fifty to one hundred c.c. of the nitric acid solution. Run in an excess of ferrous sulphate and titrate back with potassium permanganate solution of equal strength. Each c.c. of N-io ferrous sulphate used is equal to o.io per cent of manganese. Determination of Total Carbon This determination requires considerable apparatus; so in view of putting as many obstacles out of the way of its general adoption in cases of dispute, your committee has left optional several points which were felt to bring no chance of error into the method. The train shall consist of a pre-heating furnace, containing copper oxide (Option No. i) followed by caustic potash (1.20 sp. gr.), then calcium chloride, following which shall be the combustion furnace in which either a porcelain or platinum tube may be used (Option No. 2). The tube shall contain four or five inches of copper oxide between plugs of platinum gauze, the plug to the rear of the tube to be at about the point where the tube extends from the furnace. A roll of silver foil about two inches long shall be placed in the tube after the last plug of platinum gauze. The train after the combustion tube shall be anhydrous cupric sulphate, anhydrous cuprous chloride, calcium chloride, and the absorp- tion bulb of potassium hydrate (sp. gr., 1.27) with prolong filled with calcium chloride. A calcium chloride tube attached to the aspirator bottle shall be connected to the prolong. In this method a single potash bulb shall be used. A second bulb is sometimes used for a counterpoise being more liable to introduce error than correct error in weight of the bulb in use, due to change of tempera- ture or moisture in the atmosphere. The operation shall be as follows: To i gram of well-mixed drillings add 100 c.c. of potassium copper chloride solution and 7.5 c.c. of hydro- chloric acid (cone). As soon as dissolved, as shown by the disappearance 3So Chemical Analysis of all copper, filter on previously washefl and ignited asbestos. Wash thorouglily the beaker in which the solution was made with 20 c.c. of dilute hydrochloric acid [i to 1 ], [xjur this on the filter and wash the carbon out of the beaker by means of a wash bottle containinjj dilute hydro- chloric acid [i to i] and then wash with warm water out of the filter. Dry the carbon at a temperature between 95 and 100 de- grees C. Before using the apparatus a blank shall be run and if the bulb does not gain in weight more than 0.5 milligram, put the drictl filter into the ignition tube and heat the pre-heating furnace and the part of the com- bustion furnace containing the copper oxide, .\fter this is heated start the aspiration of oxygen or air at the rate of three bubbles per second, to show in the potash bulb. Continue slowly heating the combustion tube by turning on two burners at a time, and continue the combustion for 30 minutes if air is used; 20 minutes if oxygen is used. (The Shimer crucible is to be heated with a blast lamp for the same length of time.) When the ignition is finished turn off the gas supply gradually so as to allow the combustion tube to cool off slowly and then shut off the oxygen supply and aspirate with air for 10 minutes. Detach the potash bulb and prolong, close the ends with rubber caps and allow it to stand for 5 minutes, then weigh. The increase in weight multiplied by 0.27273 equals the percentage of carbon. The potassium copper chloride shall be made by dissolving one pound of the salt in one litre of water and filtering through an asbestos filter. Option No. I. — \Miile a pre-heater is greatly to be desired, as only a small percentage of laboratories at present use them, it was decided not to make the use of one essential to this method; subtraction of the weight of the blank to a great extent eliminating any error which might arise from not using a~ pre-heater. Option No. 2. — The Shimer and similar crucibles are largely used as combustion furnaces and for this reason it was decided to make optional the use of either the tube furnace or one of the standard crucibles. In case the crucible is used it shall be followed by a copper tube fi« inch inside diameter and ten inches long, with its ends cooled by water jackets. In the center of the tube shall be placed a disk of platinum gauze, and for three or four inches in the side towards the crucible shall be silver foil and for the same distance on the other side shall be copper oxide. The ends shall be plugged with glass wool, and the tube heated wnth a fish tail burner before the aspiration of the air is started. Graphite 381 Graphite Dissolve one-gram sample in 35 c.c. nitric acid [1.13 sp. gr.], filter on asbestos, wash with hot water, then with potassium hydrate [i.i sp. gr.] and finally with hot water. The graphite is then ignited as specified in the determination of total carbon. CIIAPTKR XVI MALLEABLE CAST IRON Thk process of rendering iron castings malleable was discovered by Reaumur in 1722 and is essentially the same as that pursued at the present day. McWilliams and Longmuir divide malleable castings into two classes. 1. Black Heart Black heart has a silvery outside and black inside, with a silky lustre. This is made of a hard white iron, containing from 3 to 4 per cent carbon, as hard carbide of iron. By the process of annealing, to be described later, the carbide of iron is decomposed into free carbon (annealing carbon) and iron; leaving a soft malleable iron, which contains nearly all of the initial carbon but in the free state finely divided and intermixed with the iron. Black heart is mostly made in America. The process is conducted much more rapidly than that of the ordinary (or Reaumur process), but requires more skill and scientific information. The iron used must be low in silicon and sulphur but need not necessarily be a while iron. The analysis should appro.ximate to, silicon, i per cent to 0.5 per cent; sulphur, .05 per cent as a maximum; phosphorus, .1 per cent maximum; manganese, .5 per cent maximum and carbon 3 per cent. The principle involved is that of taking white iron castings of suitable composition, heating them to high temperature and converting them to the malleable condition by precipitating the carbon in a fine state of division, as annealing carbon. High temperature shortens the process, i)ut it has been found more desirable to use a lower temperature and longer anneal, as the desired change is more readily secured. The method of molding is the same as for gray iron, with same allow- ance for shrinkage. The amount of feeder required varies from 12.5 to 25 per cent of the weight of casting. Skill is required to make solid castings with minimum amount of metal. .Vfter cleaning in the usual manner the castings are packed in cast iron boxes of varynng sizxs to suit their character, with iron scale or sand, bone dust or fire clav; the boxes are covered with lids and luted, then 3S2 Black Heart 383 stacked in the annealing oven (to be described later). The temperature of the oven is gradually raised to about 1 100° C, maintained at that point for two days and then allowed to drop slowly until sufficiently cool to permit removal of the boxes. The composition of the castings after annealing is only altered in the carbon, the total amount being somewhat less but practically all present in the free state. The composition of castings made by one of the largest English makers is as follows: Si 0.5; S 0.04; P. 0.07; Mn 0.4; graphitic carbon 2.5; combined carbon 0.05. A test piece u-inch square bent 180° — -cold; tensile strength 40,000 pounds per square inch, elongation 6 per cent in 2 inches, reduction of area 9 per cent. Black heart is more reliable for light than for heavy work. To avoid the introduction of sulphur, the pig iron is usually melted in an air furnace. Messrs. Charpy & Grenet's experiments on irons of the following compositions are given herewith. No. Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese Carbon I .70 .01 trace .03 3.60 2 .27 .02 .02 trace 3.40 3 .80 .02 .03 trace 3.2s 4 I. 25 .01 .01 .12 3- 20 5 2.10 .02 .01 .12 3.30 These irons were poured into cold water and contained no appreciable amount of graphite, excepting the last which had 20 per cent. Samples of these were subjected to various reheatings and to ascertain as nearly as practicable the condition at any one temperature, the samples were quenched at that temperature and then analyzed. 1. Heated at 1100° C. or any low temperature for long periods gave no graphitic carbon; but at 1150° C. the separation.of graphitic carbon was produced. 2. Heated for four hours each at 700°, 800°, 900° and 1000° C. showed no free carbon; but it appeared in heating to 1100° C. 3. Showed traces at 800° C. 4. 5. Showed traces at 650° C. In the case of No. 5, after heating at 650° C. for 6 hours, the content of graphitic carbon had increased from o.io to 2.83 per cent. The separation of graphite, once commenced, continues at tempera- tures inferior to those at which the action begins. Thus: A sample of No. i, heated at 1170° C. and quenched, contained 384 Malleable Cast Iron only 0.50 graphitic carlKin and 2.t"> combined corlxin, while another sample of the same cast iron, heateon and 0.43 comljincd larhoii. Again a fragment of No. 3, heated to 1 170° C. and quenched, contained 1.42 graphitic carbon and 1.69 combined carbon, while another fragment heated to 1170° C. cooled slowly to 700° C. and then quenched ct)nlaine' little change occurred. The center showed pearlite, with a little cementite and containing temper carbon, merging gradually into the skin of ferrite. During the following 72 hours, the temperature was dropped to 140° C, resulting in the production of a really good sample of English malleable cast iron of the following analysis: Constituents Per cent Constituents Percent .65 1. 10 Sulphur 35 The author's conclusion is, that carbon is eliminated while still in combination with the iron. It (the elimination) begins to take place at the comparatively low temperature of 750° C, and increases in activity with the temperature until such a temperature is reached that free or temper carbon is pre- cipitated. Previous to this change the interior consists of white iron, with the original quantity of combined carbon. As the operation proceeds the temper carbon is gradually takiu back into combination to replace that removed by the oxidizing influences. American Practice 389 American Practice The rmxtures of iron vary as the castings are thick or thin. The iron is melted either in the cupola, the air furnace or the open hearth furnace. The latter produces the best castings, but can only be used advanta- geously where the output is large enough to permit of running the fur- nace continuously. The air furnace is most frequently used. The castings may or may not be packed in an oxidizing material. Sand or fire clay are frequently used. Dr. Moldenke, who is recognized as an authority on malleable cast iron, states: "That it is absolutely necessary to have the hard castings free from graphite." He advises the following: Contents: Per Cent Carbon 3 -3.5 Silicon, heavy work, not over 0.45 SiUcon, ordinary work, not over 0.65 Silicon, agricultural work, not over 0.80-1 . 25 Sulphiu:, not over o . 05 Phosphorus, not over 0.225 Manganese, not over o . 40 "In anneaUng, the temperature of the furnace should be run up to ' heat' in the shortest safe time possible; the limit is the danger of injury to furnace. Then the dampers should be closed and the temperature evenly maintained for 48 hours. The furnace should then be gradually cooled to a black heat before dumping. 36 hours are usually required to bring the oven up to heat. The entire process occupies about seven days. The annealing tem- perature is 1350° F. and this must obtain at the coldest part of the fiu:- nace, usually the lower part of the middle of the front row of pots. A difference of 200° F. in temperature is often found at different parts of the furnace. Cupola iron requires an annealing temperatvure 200° F. higher than that from an air furnace. The fuel ratio of an air furnace runs from i to 2 to i to 4. Loss in silicon about 35 points. Temperatures should be carefully watched and measured with a Le Chatelier pyrometer." The Doctor has much to say about the danger of injury to the melted iron in the bath, from oxidation. His practice was to have three tapping spouts at different levels, so that for an 18-ton furnace, three taps of 6 tons each may be made at intervals, tapping at the upper hole first and then in order from upper to bottom hole. 3<)o Malleable Cast Iron Mr. II. i:. Dillcr, in the Journal of The American Foundrymen's Association, Vol. XI, Dec, iyo2, says: The hard casting should have its carbon practically all in the com- bined state, while the annealing process should convert this to the so- called temper, or annealing carbon. In the manufacture of malleable castings the special make of iron called '.Malleable Bessemer' or 'Malleable Coke Iron' is the principal material used. The charcoal irons, while unequalled for value, arc con- fined to the regions where they can compete with the cheaper coke irons. The composition required is as follows: Per cent Silicon o . 75 to I . so Sulphur, below 0.04, if possible Phosphorus, under. . . .0. 20 With the pig iron, hard sprues funannealcd scrap), steel and also malle- able scrap are charged. The latter two materials are very good to add to the mixture, as they raise the strength of the casting very consider- ably. Too much must not be added, as it would reduce the carbon to a point where fluidity and life in the melted metal is sacrificed. The most serious objection to cupola iron is its poor behavior under bending test, the deflection being very slight. Test bars from this (lass of iron seldom run above 40,000 pounds per square inch in tensile strength, while with furnace iron, there is no dilViculty in getting a few th:)usand pounds more. The metal may be tapped from the furnaces into hand ladles; or it may be caught in crane ladles, carried to the distributing point and there emptied into the hand ladles. When tapped into hand ladles, time is a serious item, for the begin- ning and the end of the heat will be two diCferent things.- The latter iron will be inferior as it was subjected to the oxidizing efTect of the flame much longer than the first part. This difiiculty is some- what remedied by pouring the light work first, the heavier pieces coming later, when the silicon has been lowered too much for good light castings. The gating should be done to avoid the shrinkage effects as much as may be. The little tricks that can be applied make a surprising difference in the molding loss. Some malleable works seldom lose more than 10 per cent, while in others 20 per cent and over is the rule. After the castings have been tumbled they go to the annealing room, American Practice 391 where they are packed in mill cinder or iron ore, in cast-iron boxes. These are carefully luted up and heated in suitably constructed ovens, foir five or six days. • It usually takes from 36 hours to 48 hours to get the oven up to heat, the temperature ranging from 1600° to 1800° F. in the oven, the boxes having a somewhat lower temperature at the coldest point. When the fires are extinguished, the dampers are closed tight, all air excluded, and the oven allowed to cool very gradually; often only 400" F. the first day. After the castings come from the annealing oven, they are again tumbled to remove the burnt scale; then chipped and ground for ship- ment. A well-annealed casting should not have much over o.o5 to 0.12 per cent combined carbon remaining in it. There is a material difference between the strength of an over-annealed casting and a normal one. Fig. iio. - 36'/0" X ff'4" ^ d'O" -Typical American Air Furnace. Two bars were taken from each of five heats. One from each set was given the usual anneal and the others reannealed. The average tensile strength of those annealed as usual, was 50,520 pounds 'per square inch, and the average elongation 6M per cent in six inches. The reannealed set had an average tensile strength of 43,510 pounds per square inch; the average elongation was 6h per cent in six inches. Over annealing had therefore cost the metal some 7000 pounds of its strength. 'Malleable' can be made up to 60,000 pounds per square inch, though this is not advisable as the shock resisting qualities are sacrificed. Prof. Ledebur determined by experiment that the higher the silicon the lower the annealing temperature required, and the higher the tem- perature and silicon the quicker the change. He used five samples: 1 with 0.07 silicon. Could not be annealed. 2 with 0.27 silicon. Required temperature almost at melting point. 3 with 0.80 silicon. Began to anneal at 1675° F- 4 with 1.25 siHcon. Began to anneal at 1200° F. 5 with 2.10 silicon. Began to anneal at 1200° F. 393 Malleable Cast Iron Specificalions for Malleable Castings of J. I. Case Co. Tensile strength per s(|. in., 35.CXX) to 50,000. Hi(jngation, 1.5 in 4 in. Transverse test for O bar .8 inch diameter on supports 12 inches ai)art, must show 1750 pounds to 2,400 pounds Ijreaking strength and dcQection of not less than 0.31 inch. Drop Test. — A bar .8 inch diameter on supports 12 inches apart must not break under less than 1650 inch pounds, the drop being 22 pounds and the first drop through 3 inches, second 4 inches and so on until rupture occurs. Torlional lest should closely approximate the tensile strength. Bending Test. — Pieces from :>ia to 9i8 inch thick and from i to 3 inches wide, should bend over on themselves, around a circle equal Fig. III. — .^nnealing-Ovcn equipped for Gas. in diameter to twice the thickness of the piece and bend back again without break. The anneal is specified at not less than 72 hours for light and 120 hours for heavy work. Comparison of Tests made in iSSj wilh those made in igo8 jS8j By Prof. Ricketts ?4-inch D bar, tensile strength, 30,970 to 44,290 per square inch. Elongation, 1.8 inches in 5 inches. Bars I by .33, tensile strength, 32,750 to 36,990 per square inch. Round bars, 'A inch diameter, tensile strength, 36,200 to 44,680 per square inch. Round bars, ?< inch diameter, tensile strength, 26,430 to 34,600 pet square inch. Compression, 108,900 to 160,950 pounds per square inch. American Practice 393 igoS Bars ,l2-inch D, tensile strength, 52,000 to 59,000 per square inch. Larger sections, tensile strength, 42,000 to 47,000 per square inch. Dr. Moldenke states that the tensile strength should run from 40,000 to 44,000. The Iron Trade ReNaew gives the production of malleable castings in 1903 for the United States and Canada as 750,000 tons. Combined output of the rest of the world 50,000 tons. rilAP'IKK X\II STEEL CASTINGS IN THE FOUNDRY There is a great demand on ihe part of foundr>Tncn for an appliance to successfully melt steel in small quantities; permitting small steel castings, or castings for which the demand is immediate, to be made in the gray iron foundrj'. Many eCforts have been made to realize this desire, but so far have met with indiflerent success. There are several appliances offered to manufacturers, some emploj'ing the Bessemer converter, others the electric furnace in connection with the cupola. Men cspeciall}- skilled are required to manipulate steel furnaces. The processes of mixing and melting the metal and annealing castings differ so radically from those of the gray iron foundry, that in the present undeveloped state of steel founding on a small scale, steps on the part of the foundryman in that direction should be taken with extreme caution. Mr. Percy Longmuir defines ordinarj'^ steel "as iron containing from O.I to 2 per cent of carbon in the combined form, which has been sub- mitted to complete fusion and poured into an ingot, or mould, for the production of a malleable or forgeable metal." " Mild steel contains about 0.2 per cent carbon; the element increasing as the harder varieties are approached, being highest of all in the tool steels." "The mechanical eflect of this carbon is shown in the following table." Material Mild steel. . Tool steel . . , Carbon Silicon Sulphur Phos- phorus .02 .02 Tenacity in tons per square inch 20.00 60.00 Extension per cent on two inches 50.0 SO Contrac- tion percent of area 70.0 10. o "Within Hmits, an increase of carbon is accompanied by an increase in tenacity and a decrease in ductility, each increment of carbon showing distinctly these increases." "The following classification embraces the most familiar tempers of Bessemer, Siemens and crucible steel." 394 Steel Castings in the Foundry 395 Class of steel Bessemer steel ■{ Siemens or open hearth. Crucible steel . Content of carbon Purpose .20 Ship and boiler plates, sheets, etc. .25 Axle steel. .03 Tire steel. .03 Rail steel. • SO Spring steel. .20 Boiler plate. .65 Spring steel. I 30 Tool steel. .90 Chisel steel. 1. 10 Large files, drills and similar tool steels. 1.20 Turning tool steels. 1.40 Saw file steels. I. SO Razor steels. A steel containing o.io per cent carbon is unaffected in hardness by quenching, while one containing i per cent carbon becomes so hard under same conditions that it will scratch glass. Manganese is present in all commercial steels, varying from traces up to I per cent. It promotes soundness and neutralizes the effect of sulphur. SiHcon tends to the production of sound metal; while it is present in insignificant quantity in forging steel, in casting steels it may exist to the extent of 0.3 per cent. Phosphorus produces an exceedingly brittle, cold short metal. Pure steels contain 0.02 to 0.03 per cent. Usual specifications limit the phosphorus content to 0.06; at o.i the danger limit is reached. Steels containing appreciable amounts of sulphur are red short. In high quality of steels the sulphur content runs about o.oi per cent. Ordinary specifications place the limit at 0.04 per cent. The variations in the carbon content to suit various requirements are showTi in the following table: Purpose for which the steel, in the form of a hardened or steel tempered tool, is suitable .50 Springs. 60 Stamping dies. 65 Clock springs. 75 Hammers, shear blades, axes, mint dies. 80 Boiler punches, screw dies, cold sets. 90 Edge tools, slate saws. 95 Circular saws, pins. 00 Cold chisels, cross-cut saws. 10 Drills, large files, hand saws, mill picks. 20 Granite and marble saws, mill chisels. 30 Harder files, cutters, spindles, turning tools. 40 Saw files. 50 Turning tools for chilled rolls, razors and surgical instruments. .V)6 Steel Castings in ihc- Foundry Tlic follnwiii)^ tabic is taken from I'ruf. J. (J. Arnold'b "Influence of C"arl)iin nii Iron." MiiCHANicAL Properties " Normal Steels " Carbon Elastic limit, tons per square inch Maximum stress, tons per square inch Elongation Reduction of area 08 12.19 21.39 46 6 7.«.8 .21 17.08 25 39 42.1 67.8 .38 17. 95 29.94 34. 5 S6.3 ■ 59 19.82 42.82 19.9 22.7 •89 24.80 52.40 13 15 4 1.20 35-72 61.64 8.0 7-8 1.47 32.27 55-71 2.8 3 3 "Normal steels" represent the rolled bars heated to 1000" C. and cooled in air. "Comparing this table with the foregoing statements, it appears that as pearlite replaces ferrite, the maximum stress increases, continuing lo do so until a structure consisting of pearlite and very thin meshes of cementite is reached. Further increase in carbon resulting in greater dispersal of free cementite is associated with a decrease in maximum stress." Bessemer Process The Bessemer process consists in l)lowing a large volume of compressed air through a bath of molten pig iron; the oxygen of the air combining with carbon, silicon and manganese to form oxides. That combined with carbon passes off as gas while with silicon and manganese slags are formed. On removal of carbon, silicon and manganese, assuming that sulphur and phosphorus are low, a product resembling wrought iron is obtained. Meantime during the process of o.xidation, there is a rise in temperature sufficient to maintain mild steel in a fluid condition. The oxidation of silicon has the greatest effect in producing the rise in temperature. The irons must be low in sulphur and phosphorus, as these elements are not removed. An average content of 2.5 per cent silicon in the pig iron gives the best results. Higher than this, the heats are liable to require scrap- ping; while with a lower content of silicon there is danger of "cold blows." The melted metal is taken directly from the cupola, led by runners to the converter. The Baby Converter 397 The Baby Converter (Robert) This consists of a steel shell mounted on trunnions, so that it may be properly rotated. It is flattened on the back and lined with siUca brick or ganister. On the flattened side the tuyeres are introduced horizontally. The surface of the metal lies approximately at the bottom of the tuyeres so that the blast may impinge upon it. The blast is from 3 to 4 poimds per square inch and means are provided for regulating it. The tuyeres being inchned radially, a rotary motion is imparted to the molten metal by the blast. In some cases the surface of the metal may be above the tuyere level, but seldom exceeds that by more than three or four inches. The high tuyere level permits some of the air to escape and burn on the surface of the bath ; carbon monoxide is formed in the bath by the oxidation of the carbon. The combustion of carbon monoxide gives rise to considerable heat, which is absorbed by the bath. To this reaction is due the higher tem- perature of the side blow converter. The Tropenas converter has a double row of tuyeres which are hori- zontal when the converter is vertical. They are not radially inclined as in the Robert. The surface of the metal is at the bottom edge of the lower row of tuyeres; the blast is always on the surface of the metal. When blowng the converter is slightly inchned, causing the direction of the tuyeres to slope towards the surface of the metal. During the early stage of the blow the lower tuyeres only are used; but on the appearance of the carbon flame the upper row is opened. The carbon monoxide, partly consumed by air from the lower tuyeres, is supplied with sufficient oxygen for complete combustion by that from the upper row, generating additional heat. Recarbonization is effected in the converter or in the ladles according to the character of the composition required. The chemical changes taking place in a two ton Tropenas converter are given as follows : Constituents Cupola metal Afters minutes blowing After 12 minutes blowing After 14 minutes blowing After 18 minutes blowing End of blow Fin- ished metal Graphite Combined car- bon Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese 3.180 .350 2.310 .037 .054 610 2.920 • 340 1.620 .037 .053 .600 2.900 .466 ■ 03S 054 .101 2.300 .382 .036 .054 .040 .860 .084 .038 .051 .040 .100 .074 .038 .050 .042 .240 .326 037 .058 1.080 398 Steel (astinps in the Foundry Theoretically the feeder on a steel casting should sink due to shrinkage. If, however, instead of sinking, a rise is shown, this is clear evidence of internal unsoundncas or sponginess. To prevent this result one of the first essentials lies in having the steel thoroughly dead melted or " killed" before casting. A properly "killed" steel pours quietly and settles down gently in the mould. " Wild metal " acts in the opposite way and in some cases is rejjrescnted by an over-o.xidized metal. A distinction must l>c drawn between a "pipe" and a blow hole. The former is due entirely to contraction or shrinkage in passing from the liquid to the solid state and must be obviated by feeding. "Blow-holes" are entirely diiTerent from "pi{>es" and are formed by the liberation of gases absorbed during the melting process. In considering the character of these gases, ox>gcn naturally arises first, owing to the strong atTmity between iron and o.xygen. There is every reason to suppose, however, that the oxygen absorbed when the iron is molten, remains stable at low temperatures as an o.vide, and in the absence of a deoxidizing agent this ferrous o.xide is intermingled with the iron. O.xygenated steel is "dr>'" under the hammer and this con- dition is not necessarily due to blow-holes, but to "red-short" metal. Further, if free oxj-gen were present in ciuantitj' in the gas contained in a blow-hole, its skin would show an oxide film. The majority of blow-holes have bright surfaces; comparatively few show colored tints, ranging from a straw to a blue, due to oxidation. These colored blow-holes owe their o.xidized film, not to free oxygen liberated by the iron, but to air mechanically trapped during casting. Analyses of the gases seldom show more than traces of oxygen. Mr. E, Munker reports sixty-seven analyses of gases evolved by molten pig iron; the highest content of oxygen in the series is found at 0.8 per cent. Average analyses of gases in blow-holes give results of the following order: Percent Hydrogen 75 ' Nitrogen 23 Carbon monoxide 2 The actual amount of these gases absorbed depends to some extent on the temperature and composition of the bath. While fluid the gases are retained; but with a fall in temperature after casting they are evolved. Those set free by a fall in temperature bubble through the pasty mass, the trapped bubbles representing blow-holes in the casting. As the tem- perature continues to fall less movement is offered and the gases cannot force passages through the stiffening metal. Hence more bubbles are trapped. Finally a stage is reached at which the mass becomes rigid and the further formation of blow-holes becomes impossible. The Baby Converter 399 The author's conclusions from the investigations of Wahlberg are: "i. If no internal movement is possible in the soHdifying steel, the gas cannot disengage itself and so leads to the formation of blow-holes." . "2. The presence of silicon and manganese lead to the retention of the gases until sohdification is complete, hence preventing the formation of blow-holes." Methods of prevention include: "i. Liquid compression. "2. Additions to the steel of silicon, manganese or aluminum. Each of these elements acts powerfully on the oxygen or the oxides of iron, combining \vith the o.xygen to form slag." " Aluminum will remove carbonic oxide. There is, however, no reason to suppose that it will remove either hydrogen or nitrogen." "There are grounds for the belief that silicon, manganese and alum- inum increase the solvent power of the steel for hydrogen and nitrogen and that these gases remain dissolved." Brinell found that to produce an ingot of perfect density in the absence of sihcon, 1.66 per cent of manganese is necessary. In the absence of manganese 0.32 per cent silicon is required; and with no manganese or sihcon 0.0184 per cent of aluminum is sufficient to produce a perfectly sound ingot. Or e.xpressed in another way he states that aluminum is 90 times as effectiv'e as manganese and 17.3 times as much so as sihcon, in removal of gases. Metalhc borides are suggested by Weber for removal of oxygen; these in conjunction with ferrotitanium tend to removal of nitrogen. The casting temperature exercises a great influence upon the properties of the metal. These are found to rise and fall with the temperature above and below the casting heat, as shown by the foUowing table: Analyses Maximum stress, tons per square inch Elonga- tion, per cent in 2 inches Reduc- tion of No. Carbon Si Mn S P per cent 80 A.... 81 A.... 82 A.... 83 A.... • 29 .29 .29 .29 .07 .07 .07 .07 .16 .16 .16 .16 .07 .07 .07 .07 .06 .06 .06 .06 24.2 27,2 27.0 25.5 9-5 24.0 12.5 8.0 18.0 32.3 17. 5 12.0 These steels were poured from one large ladle at intervals of a few minutes. They are exactly of the same analysis; the bars were annealed together, each bar receiving exactly the same treatment, and apart from variation of casting temperatures, the conditions were the same for all. These results have been repeated many times. WTien the steel is poured at an excessive temperature, similar ones are always obtained. 400 Steel Castings in the Foundry Annealing The following is extracted from McWilliams and Longmuir's "Gen- eral Foundry Practice." Steel castings are usually annealed in the rcverbcratory gas furnace. The annealing recommended by Prof. Arnold for general work is to heat the castings up to about 950° C. keeping them at that temperature for about 70 hours, then luting the furnace and allowing them to cool slowly for 100 hours. The Clinch-Jones annealing furnace is highly spoken of, the controlling idea being that while the castings arc heated in a mufHe, by keen flames outside the walls of the muffle, virgin gas from the producer is allowed to come into the muffle and combine with all the oxygen that may enter, thus preventing it from getting to the castings to scale them by oxidizing at their surfaces. A cut of this oven is shown on page 266 (McW. & L.). The micrographs (McW. & L.) show the structural changes produced by aimealing. It should be remarked that the unannealed bar. Fig. 112, (McW. & L.) ?4-inch diameter when bent over a -^s-inch radius broke at 43°. After annealing, same bar bent double without fracture. after annealing Fig. 112. Fig. 113. Fig. 113 (McW. & L.) shows the structure of a portion of a large open hearth casting, having originaUy the same structure as the unan- nealed part of Fig. 112 after insuflicient annealing. When thoroughly annealed the structure was as shown in Fig. 114. A test bar i inch square as shown in Fig. 113 broke at 40°; while one ft Tropenas Process 401 as per Fig. 114 bent at 101° without fracture, showing tensile strength of T,^ tons per square inch; elongation 30 per cent; reduction of area 41 per cent. The composition of the casting was C.C. 0.24, Si 0.15, Mn 0.8, P 0.04, S 0.05. Fig. 114. Other micrographs of most interesting character are shown on pages 293 to 297 and 338 to 354 (McW. & L.). The process of annealing must be varied to suit different compositions and purposes for which the steel is provided. Tropenas Process This process was patented by Alex. Tropenas of Paris in 1891; the first converter, 800 pounds capacity, was erected at the woriis of Edgar Allen & Co., Ltd., Shefi&eld, Eng., and introduced into the United States It produces hotter steel than any other process. The steel may be carried for considerable distances in hand ladles or shanks and poured into small castings. The Tropenas process consists in melting a calculated mixture in the cupola, transferring the metal to a special type of converter and its conversion to steel therein. The reactions are identical with those of the Bessemer and open hearth furnaces; the difference lies in the manner of producing these reactions. The converter is designed to conserve and increase the heat as much as possible and by preventing evolution in the bath, to keep out any gases not necessary for or caused by the 403 Stcfl Castings in the Foundry (Iccarburization, mechanical disturbance, gyration or ebullition of the luith is reduced to a minimum. The converter is in general similar to the Hcsscmcr converter, the particular difference lacing in the location and construction of the tuyeres. Figs. 215 and 216, pages 307 and 308 McW. & L. give fair illustra- tions of the device. The operation consists in melting the iron in the cupola precisely as for gray iron castings, except that enough for the charge must be gathered at the first lapping. The melted iron is then transferred to the con\crter and skimmed clear of slag. The converter is so adjusted that the \v\v\ of the metal reaches exactly to the lower edge Fig. 1 15. Fig. 116. of the bottom tuj'cres, so thai the blast will strike exactly upon the surface of the metal. The longitudinal axis of the converter should make an angle of from 5° to 8° with the vertical. This is a matter of importance and extreme care must be taken to obtain the correct position before applying the blast. The upper tuyeres are closed and the blast turned on with about 3 pounds pressure. If the composition of the iron is correct and it has been melted hot, sparks and smoke will be emitted from the con\'erter for about four minutes, then flame appears which gradually' increases in volume and brilliancy. After about ten minutes, what is known as "the boil" appears. In a few minutes this dies down considerably, and the blow remains quiescent for a time. Then the flame increases again, attains the maximum briihancy and finally dies down for the last time. Chemistry of the Process 403 This is the end of the blow, the carbon, sihcon and manganese having been reduced to the lowest limits. The converter is now turned down, the blast shut off and a weighed amount of ferrosilicon, ferromanganese or silicon speigel added to recarbonize the steel to the desired point. The steel is now ready for casting. On account of its great fluidity and thin slag it may be poured over the lip of an ordinary ladle, instead of from one with a bottom pour. Claims made for this process. 1. The form of the bottom of the converter gives a greater depth in proportion to the surface area and cubic contents than any other pneu- matic process, preventing the disturbance of the bath when blowing. 2. The sjonmetrical position of the tuyeres with respect to the center tuyere prevents any gyrating or churning of the bath. This is directly opposed to all other processes. 3. The special position of the bottom tuyeres during blowing, so that they are never below the surface of the bath, reduces the power necessary for blowing; as only enough air is introduced to make the combustion and not to support or agitate the bath. 4. The oxidation of the metalloids takes place at the surface only, the reaction being transmitted from molecule to molecule without any mechanical disturbance. 5. The addition of a second row of tuyeres completely burns the CO and H produced by the partial combustion of carbon and the decomposi- tion of moisture introduced with the blast and this increases the tem- perature of the bath by radiation. 6. Very pure steel is obtained, as the slag and the iron are not mixed together. 7. There is a minimum of waste on account of the bath being kept comparatively quiet. 8. Less final addition is required on account of the purity of the steel and its freedom from oxides. Chemistry of the Process No fuel is needed in the converter. The increase in temperature after the melted metal is introduced is occasioned by the combustion of the metalloids during their removal. These elements are carbon, silicon and manganese. The oxidation of the silicon furnishes by far the greatest part of the useful heat. Prof. Ledebur has calculated that the rise in temperature of the bath due to the combustion of i per cent of each of the constituents is as follows: Silicon 300° C; phosphorus 183° C; manganese 69° C; iron 44° C; carbon 6° C. 404 SfccI Castings in ihc I'oundry It is ncccssar)' that liie composition of the bath before blowing should be that which has been found to give the best rc-sulLs. Sulphur and phosphorus are as unaffected here as in any other add- lined furnace and the content of those elements in the finished steel will depend on how much the stock melted contained. The cupola mixture generally consists of low phosphorus pig iron and steel scrap, composed of runners, risers and waste from previous heats. As much as 50 per cent scrap may be carried successfully. The mixture must be made in such [iroportions that the analysis after melting will be: Per cent Silicon 1 . 90-2 . 25 Manganese o. 60-1 . 00 Carbon, about 3 00 The result of low silicon is to make the blows colder; that of high silicon to make the blows unduly long and to increase the wear on the lining. Manganese should be kept within the limits specified. Low man- ganese tends to make the slag thick. High manganese makes the blow sloppy and corrodes the lining. During the first period of the blow, the silicon chiefly is oxidized and the carbon changed from graphitic to combined. The manganese is the most active clement in the middle of the blow, being most rapidly eliminated at the boil. The last period brings the carbon flame, and the indications are so plain that it is feasible to stop the blow before all the carbon is burned out, thereby reducing the amount of carburiser needed. In addition to these elements a certain amount of iron is unavoidably oxidized and the total loss of all elements included is about 12 per cent. Converter Linings The converter is generally lined with an acid or silica lining. ' Success- ful experiments have been made with a basic lining (dolomite), but it has not been developed commercially. Special shaped blocks to fit the converter or the regular standard shapes may be used. The material must be of the highest grade silica stock, burnt at the highest possible kiln temperature. It usually contains from 95 to 97 per cent SiO.>, and is practically free from lime and magnesia. Another method in frequent use is to run ground ganister around a collapsible form. This probably is the cheapest method. Before making the first blow, the converter is made white hot by a coke or oil fire. Mr. J. S. Whitehouse of Columbus, Ohio, in a paper read before the American Foundrymen's Association, states that the claims which were Converter Linings 405 made for the side blow converter, when first introduced into America were, to say the least, absurd. Many failures were made by employ- ing inexperienced workmen, who had only limited instructions from experts sent out with the apparatus and the results were frequently disastrous. A year's experience, at least, under proper instruction is required before a man can become a competent blower. He must be able to tell the temperature of the metal soon after the flame starts and to judge the silicon by the first period. He must tell when the blow is iinished from the slag as well as by the flame. He must know how to keep the lining in the best shape to get all the heat possible from the process, and the hundred little kinks of the trade, which, as a rule, the expert will never impart, but are obtained only from experience. A man with the above qualifications will blow with a loss of less than 17 per cent — about 15 per cent. With proper blowing the main loss comes from the silicon in the charge, usually 2 per cent, which is oxidized together with iron and manganese to form the slag. Mr. Whitehouse learned to blow with 2 per cent sihcon, but for the past few years has been blowing iron, analyzing from 0.90 to 1.25 per cent silicon from the cupola, and often has been obliged to use scrap while blowing. There is an advantage in the increased amount of scrap which can be carried, as it cuts down the cupola' loss by increasing the amount of carbon in the charge. For example : He charges 50 per cent pig carrying about 3.75 per cent carbon and 50 per cent scrap having 0.25 per cent carbon. Tests from such iron from the cupola give 3.25 to 3.50 per cent carbon, showing a gain of 1.25 to 1.50 per cent carbon, taken from the coke, instead of purchased in the pig iron. 50 per cent scrap can be melted in the cupola, using only i2i/i per cent coke, but the blower must have a complete knowledge of cupola practice. Most blowers use too much volume and too high pressure of blast to get the best results. With low silicon the volume and pressure of blast must be low. No two blows will act ahke and require different treatment, which can be determined by the flame, but which he is unable to describe. It is as necessary for the blower to regulate the air valve to get proper combustion as it is for the melter to adjust air and gas valves. With ordinary care the steel produced in a converter is very uniform in carbon and silicon; ihore so, he thinks, than in the open hearth. The greatest variation seems to be in manganese. The temperature of the metal and the condition of the slag cause more variation in the converter than in the acid open hearth. It is possible to run several weeks without 4o6 Steel Castings in ilic I'liundry taking an analysis and find at the end of the run very little variation in tlif dements. While tliis is jjossible with the open hearth, it is not |)ratticed on account of the risk. It is, however, frequently done in converter practice. The method of making the molds is identical with that followed in the open-hearth practice. Fig. 117. — .*\rrangement of the Cupola and Converter. The Metal is Handled by a Four-ton Pneunaatic Jib Crane. An ordinary converter shop, with one two-ton converter is capable of producing between 100 and 150 tons of good castings per month, blowing three times a week. He concludes with saying that the management must be good and the salaries paid the officers as reasonable as possible, otherwise the shop is fore-doomed to failure, regardless of the quaUty of the product. At the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Foundrv-men's Associa- tion, Mr. Whitehouse, in reply to various inquiries, made the following statements: Converter Linings 407 When the flames show that the blow is getting very hot, scrap is thrown in at the top of the converter until it cools down. The scrap is as small as can be conveniently handled and is not preheated. . The blast pressure averages from 2.25 to 2.50 pounds. Fig. 118. — Pouring the Iron into the Converter before the Blow. Sometimes, after the silicon is reduced and during the blow, steel scrap is thrown into the converter. The carbon can be varied by the final additions. It is usual and customary to blow the heat down till the flame drops; the carbon is then about o.io per cent. The carbon is then raised by the addition of melted pig iron or pulverized coke. The carbon can be raised as much as desired. If more than 0.40 or 0.50 per cent carbon is 4o8 Steel Castings in the Foundry required, the blow is stoppcfl before completion. It is nistoraary to blow down to .o<_t ur o.io per cent carbon, then to recarbonize with ferro- mangancse, melted pig iron and s|)iegcleisen. I usually use coke. If ferromanganesc is melted in a small cuix)la, as has been done in the East, the loss is very heavy. The most economical practice is to throw the ferromanganesc into the converter at the end of the blow. The usual custom is to add ferromanganesc and then pig iron. "My practice is never to reline entirely. .\t the end of the heat day, the converter is cooled off, patched up, dried out and is then ready for the next day. Where the converter is ed until it is cut out, the lining re- moved and then renewed, there is a great loss of iron." The practice is to blow just at the sur- face, with the blast impinging slightly on he metal. During the blow the tuyeres arc submerged, and if the pressure is sud- ilcnly stopped for any cause the iron will run into the wind box. The converter is so placed that the blast will strike the surface of the metal at an angle of 175° to 171°. He does not use a second row of tuyeres. Upon starting to use the converter, there was an upper row of tuyeres, but they were subsequently dis- carded. The lower tuyeres furnish all the blast required. Formerly he used bull ladles in pour- ing small castings and experienced no trouble. At the present time, the entire heat, sometimes consisting of castings weighing less than thirty pounds, is poured with a thousand-pound ladle. The following extract is from the Foundry, Jan., 1910, describing the equipment of the recently erected steel foundry of the Vancouver En- gineering Works, Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. The cupola is the Standard Whiting t\pe, having a rated capacity of six to seven tons per hour. Iron is tapped from the cupola into a six-thousand-pound ladle, carried by a pneumatic crane. Two taps are made to obtain a full charge for the converter. The composition of the iron is as follows: Si. 1.80 to 2.00; S. 0.04; 1 ill ffi J Fig. 119. — View of One End cif the Foundry, Showing the Con- verter Discharging Steel into a Ladle. Standard Specifications for Steel Castings 409 Phos. 0.04; Mn. 0.60 to 1.50. The cupola charge is so proportioned as to give about one per cent manganese. Steel scrap is available as desired. The converter, of two-tons capacity, is of the standard Whiting type (Tro- penas) and is lined with ganister, sand and fireclay. This lining, if cared for, will give from 180 to 200 blows. The air pressure of blast to converter ranges from three to five pounds per square inch, regulated by valve on operator's platform. The blowing operation requires from 15 [to 20 minutes, varying with the percentage of metalloids in the iron. The temperature of the bath depends upon the rapidity of the blow. Reduction in the weight of metal is about 18 per cent. The steel comes from the converter at 1700° C, insiuring sufficient fluidity to give sharp, sound castings of light section. Fig. 120. — The Converter in Operation. Standard Specifications for Steel Castings Adopted BY American Association for Testing Materials Process of Manufacture 1. Steel for castings may be made by the open hearth, crucible or Bessemer process. Castings to be annealed or unannealed as specified. Chemical Properties 2. Ordinary castings, those in which no physical requirements are specified, shall contain not over 0.40 per cent carbon, nor over 0.08 per cent of phosphorus. 3. Castings which are subject to physical test shall contain not over 0.05 per cent of phosphorus, nor over 0.05 per cent of sulphur. Physical Properties 4. Tested castings shall be of three classes, hard, medium and soft. The minimum physical qualities required in each class shall be as follows: Properties Hard castings Medium castings Soft castings Tensile strength, pounds per inch 8S.000 38,250 15 20 70,000 31,500 18 25 60,000 27,000 Elongation per cent in 2 inches 22 30 4IO Steel CastiiiRS in the Foundry 5. A test to destruction may Ix; substituted for tensile test in the case of small or unimportant castings, Ijy selecting three castings from a lot. This test shall show the material to be ductile, free from injurious defects, and suitable for the purjioscs intended. A lot shall consist of all castings from the same melt, or blow annealed in the same furnace charge. 6. Large castings are to be suspended and hammered all over. No cracks, flaws, defects, nor weakness shall appear after such treatment. 7. A si)ccimcn one inch by one-half inch (i " X y/') shall bend cold around a diameter of one inch (1") without fracture on outside of Ijent portion, through an angle of 120° for the "soft," and 90° for "medium" castings. Test Pieces and Methods of Testing 8. The standard turned test specimen, one-half inch (W) diameter and two inch (2") gauged length, shall be used to determine the phj-sical properties specified in paragraph No. 4. It is shown in the following sketch. ^ 9. The number of standard hgl*' — 2 ■■-->^8'^ -XT i I ■ Fig ?4" ;^4'>*- V--i J test specimens shall depend upon the character and im- "^^ portance of the castings. A ±. test piece shall be cut cold from j^" -^ "^41 a coupon to be molded and cast on some portion of one or more castings from each blow or melt, or from the sink heads (in case heads of sufl'icient size are used). The coupon, or sink head, must receive the same treatment as the casting, or castings, before the specimen is cut out and before the coupon, or sink head, is removed from the casting. 10. One specimen for bending test, one inch by one-half inch (i" X >/i") shall be cut cold from the coupon, or sink head, of the casting, or castings, as specified in paragraph No. 9. The bending test may be made by pressure or by blows. 11. The yield point specified in paragraph No. 4 shall be determined by careful observation of the drop of the beam, or halt in the gauge of the testing machine. 12. Turnings from the tensile specimen, drillings from the bending specimen or drillings from the small test ingot, if preferred by the in- spector, shall be used to determine whether or not the steel is within the limits, in phosphonxs and sulphur, specified in paragraphs Nos. 2 and 3. Open-Hearth Methods for Steel Castings 411 Finish 13. Castings shall be true to pattern, free from blemishes, flaws or shrinkage cracks. Bearing surfaces shall be solid, and no porosity shall be allowed in positions where the resistance and value of the casting for the purpose intended will be seriously affected thereby. Inspection 14. The inspector, representing the purchaser, shall have all reasonable faciUties afforded him by the manufacturer to satisfy himself that the finished material is furnished in accordance with these specifications. All tests and inspections shall be made at the place of manufacture, prior to shipment. The following paper, by Mr. W. M. Carr, on the manufacture of steel castings in small quantities by the open-hearth process is given herewith in full. Open-Hearth Methods for Steel Castings With Remarks on the Small Open-Hearth Furnace By W. M. Care, New York City It is a fact that the open-hearth process for the manufacture of steel is gradually gaining ground, as can be proved by statistics. The reason for its supplanting other methods is mainly one of quahty. Further, the basic open-hearth process permits a mixture of pig iron and miscellaneous steel scrap of a lower grade and cheaper price than raw material necessary to other processes. With the foregoing facts in mind the author presents this article for the consideration of prospective investors in the manufacture of steel castings in small, moderate and large tonnages; to be more explicit, small tonnages are capacities of melting units in one-half, one and two tons per heat. ISIoderate tonnages are capacities of furnaces of two to five tons per heat, and large tonnages are capacities from ten to twenty- five tons per heat. There are thus offered possible outputs to meet almost any requirements. In presenting the claims, it is with the recognition of the following advantages : 1. The small capacity furnaces cost less to install than any other steel making devices excepting only crucible melting furnaces. 2. The economy in operation of open-hearth furnaces in any capacity over that of any other steel-making process. 3. The certainty of results, the greater degree of control in operation and the reduction of the personal equation to the lowest possible expres- 412 Slccl Castings in the Foundry It is generally known to the foundrymcn that the largest production of steel castings comes through oj^-n-hearth fumacxs of capacities uf five to twenty-five tons per heat. Such practice is established and retjuires constant demand to be profital^le, and investment of consider- al;lc capital varying with the size of the plant. It has Ijcen thought that capacities of less than five tons per heat arc not j>ossible by open-luarlh methods, and engineers generally have dissuaded those who wish to engage in the manufacture of steel castings either for their own con- sumption or the trade from using open-hearth methods, since up till quite recently the tendency has been rather to increase the capacity of the open hearth, supposedly for economical reasons rather than to build small units with less capacities. The author, however, has had the opportunity to demonstrate the possibilities of the miniature open hearth and has found from actual practice that it is economical, and comparing operation costs with stand- Open-Hearth Methods for Steel Castings 413 ard capacity furnaces, bears equally well in economy. This fact is somewhat of an innovation, but nevertheless true, and it can be said that the operating cost of the miniature open hearth is less than that of any tyj^e of steel-producing unit or process, making steel in equal quantity. To assist those who may not be familiar with an open-hearth furnace and its operation, a study of the diagram herewith, (Fig. 122) given may be instructive. The upper part of the furnace is represented in sectional elevation. The structure is built of refractory bricks and bound se- curely with structural steel beams and plates at certain points not shown in the diagram. The lower part of the furnace, usually below the charging floor level or carried below the shop level, consists of the chambers, connecting flues leading to a reversing valve and thence to a regenerator stack. Referring again to the main body of the furnace it will be noticed that the hearth, which is practically a shallow dish Uned with "silica" sand is fused into one solid mass at a high temperature at the time of what is known as "making bottom." This is the laboratory where the raw material is melted and refined to steel of any desired composition. In outline the practice is as follows and refers to the opera- tion of a miniature open hearth fired with fuel-oil being recommended in preference to producer gas in capacities of less than five tons per heat. After the furnace has been brought up to a working temperature — • white heat — a mi.xture of acid pig iron and low phosphorus steel scrap usually in the projjortions, one-third pig and two-thirds scrap, is charged into the furnace, adding the pig iron first, and when that becomes molten, following with the scrap. The whole mass subsequently becomes liquid by means of the oil flame passing above it. At this stage the temperature of the furnace has been lessened through the addition of the cold stock, but it will still be at a temperature above that required to melt pig-iron. But in order to elevate the temperature above that required to melt steel and have it in condition to pour, the advantage of the principle of regeneration is available. This consists in returning to the furnace waste heat which in other types of furnaces escapes to the stack. Without a system of regeneration it is not possible to reach a proper steel casting temperature; that is to say, a reverberatory furnace without regeneration gives a temperature, (where the combustion of the fuel is supported by cold air) , less than that required to properly liquefy steel, but with the principle of regeneration applied to such a furnace, high temperatures are readily reached. To understand this principle we will follow the course of the flame of the burning oil as indicated by the arrows in the diagram. Beginning 414 Steel CaslinRs in ihv Foundn' 111 the rinht liand end oil is delivered to the burner which is shown surrounded witii a water tooled casing It) protect the burner fittings. The oil is delivered cither by gravity or pump pressure, but Ixiforc reaching the end of the burner it is atomized or vaporized by air under pressure. This air is designated as primary air and ix;rfomi.s liltle or no j)arl in supporting combustion of the oil vapor, and the quantity of air delivered in excess above the amount necessary to promote combus- tion of the oil is known as secondary air. The secondary air enters the reversing valve shown at the stack connection, passes through the right luind regenerator, enters the uptakes below the water cc massive, in large pieces and as free as possible from black ends and cinders. Samplitig Each carload or its equivalent shall be considered as a unit, and sampled by taking from the exposed surface at least one piece for each ton, so as to fairly represent the shipment. These samples, properly broken down and ground to the fineness of coarse sawdust, well mixed and dried before analysis, shall be used as a basis for the payment of the shipment. In case of disagreement between buyer and seller an indepen- dent chemist, mutually agreed upon, shall be employed to sample and analyze the coke, the cost to be Ijorne by the parly at fault. Base Analysis The following analysis, representing an average grade of foundry coke capable of being made in any of the districts supplying foundries, shall be considered the base, premiums and penalties to be calculated thereon as determined by the analysis on an agreed base price: Volatile matter r . 00 Ash 12. 00 Fi.xed carbon 85 . 50 Sulphur i . 10 Penalties and Bonuses Moisture. — Payment shall be made on shipments on the basis of "dry coke." The weight received shall, therefore, be corrected by deducting the water contained. (Note. — Coke producers should add sufficient coke to their tonnage shipments to make up for the water included, as shown by their own determinations.) Volatile Matter. — For every 0.50 or fraction thereof, above the i.oo allowed, deduct . . cents from the price. Over 2.50 rejects the shipment at the option of the purchaser. Fixed Carbon. — For every i.oo or fraction thereof, above 85.50 add, and for every i.oo or fraction thereof below 85.50, deduct . . cents. Below 78.50 rejects the shipment at the option of the purchaser. Ash. — For every 0.50 or fraction thereof below 12.00, add, and for every 0.50 or fraction thereof above 12.00 deduct . . cents from the price. Above 15.00 rejects the shipment at the option of the purchaser. Sulphur. — For every o.io or fraction thereof below i.io add, and for ever>' o.io or fraction thereof above, deduct . . cents from the price. Above 1.30 rejects the shipment at the option of the purchaser. Fluxes 429 Shatter Test On arrival of the shipment the coke shall be subjected to a shatter .test, as described below. The percentage of fine coke thus determined, above 5 per cent of the coke, shall be deducted from the amount of coke to be paid for (after allowing for the water) , and paid at fine coke prices previously agreed upon. Above 25 per cent fine coke rejects the ship- ment at the option of the purchaser. Fine coke shall be coke that passes through a wire screen with square holes 2 inches in the clear. The apparatus for making the shatter test should be a box capable of holding at least 100 pounds coke, supported with the bottom 6 feet above a cast-iron plate. The doors on the bottom of the box shall be so hinged and latched that they will swing freely away when opened and will not impede the fall of the coke. Boards shall be put around the cast iron plate so that no coke may be lost. A sample of approximately 50 pounds is taken at random from the car, using a iH inch tine fork, and placed in the box without attempt to arrange it therein. The entire material shall be dropped four times upon the cast iron plate, the small material and the dust being returned with the large coke each time. After the fourth drop the material is screened as above given, the screen to be in horizontal position, shaken once only, and no attempt made to put the small pieces through specially. The coke remaining shall be weighed and the percentage of the fine coke determined. If the sum of the weights indicates a loss of over i per cent the test shall be rejected and a new one made. Rejection by reason of failure to pass the shatter test shall not take place until at least two check tests have been made. Fluxes The object of a flux is to render fusible the ash from the fuel, sand and rust from the iron, and dirt of any sort, found in the cupola, into slag and to put it in condition for easy removal. ■ Slag always forms to a greater or less extent where iron is melted, but unless a flux is present, it will not be sufficient in volume to give clean iron. Limestone and fluor spar are the most common fluxes in use. There are many compounds furnished for the purpose, but a limestone containing 90 per cent or more carbonate of lime, or oyster shells, furnish as good fluxing material as can be procured. The following is copied from a paper by Mr. N. W. Shed, presented to the Cleveland meeting of the American Foundrymen's Association at June, 1906. 430 Foundry Fuels "The value of fluxes in llie cujxila is not generally appreciated by foundrymen. Hundreds of cupolas are not slagged at all and the cinder dumps show an immense amount of iron actually wasted. Not only is iron lost by the large amount combined with the cinders, but the more or less variable cinder encloses small masses and shots of iron which cannot be se{)aralcd. It is a fact that the cinder dumps of many foundries contain more iron than many workable deposits of iron ore, and if these accumulations could be obtained by the German blast fur- naces they would be quickly utilized. Another value of flu.xcs is their cleansing action on the cujxila. A well slagged cupola has no hanging masses of iron and cinder which require laborious chipping out. The time and labor saved in conse- quence is an item that is well worth considering. In the running of heavy tonnage from a single cupola, fluxes are indispensable. It would be well nigh impossible to run large heats in the same cupolas without using a good flux. The value of fluxes being generally admitted, the question arises, what flux is best to use and how much? There are two available fluxes for the cupola. These are limestone and fluor spar. Fluor spar is much advertised as a flux and the promoters claim that it gives marvellous properties to the iron. The glowing advertisements have evidently deceived the U. S. Geological Survey, for the reports of the Survey speak of its great use and value in foundr>' practice." The practical test of fluor spar, made by the writer showed it to be an inferior flux. It did not remove sulphur and the properties of the iron were not improved in the least by its use. There is no doubt of the value of fluor spar in certain branches of metallurgy, but the writer has failed to find a single supporter of its value in the foundry. Limestone is far cheaper than fluor spar and far better as a flux. It makes little difference what form the limestone has so long as it is pure. It ma)' be marble, soft limestone, hard limestone, oyster shells, or mussel shells, but it must be good. A limestone containing over 3 per cent silica is poor stuff, and one containing any considerable amount of clay should be rejected. There should be at least 51 per cent of lime present. The sulphur should be below i to 2 per cent. The phosphorus is unimportant. .\ magncsian limestone would do as well as an ordinarj' limestone for the cupola. The amount of limestone to be used is variable, depending: First: on the amount of silica in the coke ash. Second: on the amount of silica or sand adhering to the pig or scrap. Third: on the amount of silica to be carried by the slag. Fluxes 431 The amount of limestone required to flux the coke ash can be figured according to the ordinary method of calculating blast furnace charges. The amount of sand on the pig and scrap is so variable that it is difficult to know just the additional amount of limestone to add. The most practical and easily fusible slag has been found to be a monosilicate, which means having equal amounts of silica and alkaline bases. Having these variables in mind, we find it a good rule to figure the limestone on the weight of the coke, using 25 per cent limestone. For example, if the charge of coke on the bed is 4000 pounds, we use looc pounds of limestone. If the next charge of coke is 1000 pounds, we would use 250 pounds of limestone. This amount of limestone will flux any ordinary coke ash with the average amount of sand on pig and scrap. If we know the amoimt of sand on the pig to be excessive we figure 30 per cent limestone on the weight of the coke. With a low coke ash, machine pig and clean scrap, the limestone may be reduced to 20 per cent and make a good cinder. Many foundr>'- men are afraid to use limestone, fearing some injury to the iron. This is a superstition for lime has no effect on the iron. There is usually a slight reduction in the amount of sulphur, but owing to the great amount of iron present, the iron absorbs a large amount of sulphur from the coke. If more than 30 per cent is required to make a good cinder and clear the cupola it is evident that either the coke is very high in ash, or else the limestone is high in silica. In the latter case a large amount of lime is used in fluxing its own silica. On account of the frequent variations in the stock, it is a good plan to have coke, limestone and cinder analyzed occasionally. The cinder usually tells about the condition of the furnace. A light brown indicates a small amount of iron and the iron unoxidized. A black cinder indicates a large amount of iron and some oxidation. A shiny metallic lustre shows an excess of oxide of iron due to over-blow- ing or lack of coke. Practically all the lime cinders from a cupola are glossy in appearance, while the cinders with no lime are usually dull and earthy. Occasionally a cinder is found full of bubbles, the color is usually black and shots of iron are found through the frothy slag. This is called foaming cinder, and is made when the last few charges are at the bottom of the cupola. This cinder often rises to the charging door and flows out over the floor. The iron cast at this time is hard and is low in manganese, silica and carbon. With foaming slag a dense smoke of reddish brown color pours out of the stack. 432 Foundry lucls Analysis of the foaming slag shows the iron to be in an oxidized condition and in large amount. Sometimes the iron will run 30 per cent in frothy cinder, sometimes t)nly 12 per rent. The oxidizetl cinder and the red smoke show that iron is being rapidly burned in the cupola, and the action going on is very much like the action in a Bessemer con- verter when it is tilted back a little and IjJown to gain heat by burning the iron. The cinder is oxidized and the red smoke is produced in the same way. In both cases the iron is burnt to oxide, which is cjuickly taken up by the slag. The oxide in the slag acts upon the carlxjn in the iron forming a large amount of carbonic oxide, which rises through the cinder blowing it to a frothy condition. There are two ways of avoiding this troublesome condition. If possible, reduce the blast. If the blast cannot be reduced, add more coke. The presence of a good body of coke will stop the burning of the iron, and frothing does not take place. In some cases the loss of sili- con is very serious, and to insure good castings it is necessary to add crushed silicon metal and ferro-manganese to the stream of iron as it runs from the spout. Analysis of cupola slags where no flux is used show from 14 to 28 per cent ferrous oxide. These slags contain 2 to 4 per cent of shot iron mingled with the cinder. This proves that some of the iron must be lost in order to flux the coke ash and sand. If we use limestone as a flux the amount of iron in the cinder is rarely over 3 per cent, showing that the lime fluxes the ash and sand leaxing the iron for the ladle. And the question is simplj' whether we will use iron as a flux at ?i8.oo per ton or limestone at $1.50 per ton. Another point in favor of the limestone is the clean cupola men- tioned in the first part of this paper. Following will be found an analysis of cupola cinder using lime." Comparison of Analyses of Slags, Made With and Without Lime Constituents Using lime 34.60 4.10 11.02 4S.20 1.40 .20 99 52 Without lime CaO 6.60 21.76 ti 80 58.44 1 FeO AKOf SiO, MnO ;. 1.30 ' S .10 100 00 Total Slags 433 The following analyses are extracted from " The Foundry," Dec. 1909. . Analysis of Slag from a Cupola Melting Car Wheel Iron, in the South Per cent Per cent Silica 48 . 77 Oxide of iron 13.18 Aluminum 10.90 Metallic iron 9.23 Lime 13-79 Manganese 4 . 84 Magnesia 6.05 Sulphur 0.81 Analysis of Slag from a Cupola Melting Gray Iron, No Fluor spar Being Used Per cent Per cent Silica 42 . 84 Magnesia 13 • 28 Alumina Manganese 2 . 34 Oxide of iron 21 .32 Manganese oxide. ... 3.01 Lime 21.16 Analysis of Slagfrofn a Cupola Melting Gray Iron, Fluor spar Being Used Per cent Per cent Silica 39 5° Magnesia 1 1 . 05 Alumina Manganese 2 . 24 Oxide of iron 22 .82 Manganese oxide. ... 2 .89 Lime 24.50 Analysis of Slagfrofn a Cupola Melting Malleable Iron Per cent Per cent Silica 41 • 72 Magnesia 15 .06 Oxide of iron Manganese 3 • 20 Alumina 22.24 Metallic iron 5.82 Lime 17-84 Manganese oxide ... . 4.12 Analysis of Slag from a Cupola Melting Car Wheel Iron, in the North Per cent Per cent Silica 44.00 Magnesia 7.27 Oxide of iron 13- 16 Metallic iron 9.21 Alumina 9 . 76 Manganese 5 . 70 Lime 1 5 - 99 Sulphur 0.78 Cupola Slag from a Western Foundry Per cent Per cent Silica 37- 16 Oxide of iron 13-73 Alumina 9.16 Metallic iron 9.61 Lime 8.98 Manganese oxide. ... 2 . 77 Magnesia 8.44 Sulphur 0.36 434 Foundry I-'ucls Sufl'icient flux must be usc'l to obUiin a fluid slag to carry off the silica from the iron and ashes and to reduce the oxidation as much as possible. With low blast pressure the slag must be thin, to run off readily. When slag wool is frcelj' produced, the indication is that the slagging is satisfactory. A good slag contains approximately 40 per cent of silica and from 28 to 30 per cent lime. If the slag is thin, the metallic iron will fall through it readily and an increase of lime tends to decrease the oxide of iron. Rusty scrap produces a dark-colored slag caused by the oxide of iron. A large body of slag is favorable to desulphurization, as the amount of sulphur which can be taken up by the slag is limited. At high tem{H;r- aturcs sulphur tends to combine with the slag and under these conditions it has not its greatest affinity for iron. Fire Brick and Fire Clay A good brick has a light yellow color, a coarse and open structure, uniform throughout. It should be burned to the limit of contractility. The clay from which it is made should contain as little iron, lime, potash and soda as possible. Analyses of Fire Cl.ws Used for M.^vking Fire Brick Clay loses its plasticity at a temperature above 100° C, and it cannot again be restored. Localities a .e V a E £ 7.72 .47 I. so .13 .20 .40 .10 2.0s • SS .40 .37 417 .24 .24 .95 4.43 .36 • 29 .99 Stourbridge. Eng Mt. Savage, Md Mineral Point. Ohio. . . . Port Washington, Ohio. Springfield, Ohio Springfield, Pa Springfield, Pa 17 34 12.74 11.70 534 5.45 45-25 50.45 49.20 59 95 70.70 55.62 56.12 28.77 35.90 27.80 33 85 21.70 38.5s 37.48 Pure silicate of alumina mclls at 1830° C. Fire bricks should stand continuous exposure to high temperatures of the furnace without decomposition or softening; should stand up under considerable pressure without distortion or fracture; should be unaffected by sudden and considerable variations of temperature; should not be affected by contact with heated fuel. Fire Sand 435 Fire brick should be regular in shape and uniform in character. The size of the ordinary straight fire brick is 9 by 4I/2 by 21/2 inches, and the weight is 7 pounds. Cupola brick are usually 4 inches thick and 6 inches wide radially. Slabs and blocks are made in sizes up to 12 by 48 by 6 inches. Silica Brick Silica brick are used for resisting very high temperatures. They are composed mostly of silica in combination with alkaline matter. They are somewhat fragile and need careful handling. Analysis of Silica Brick Silica Alumina Ferric oxide Lime Magnesia Potash 97.5 90.0 14 30 • 55 .80 .15 .20 .10 .10 .6 Canister Canister is made from an argillaceous sandstone, is a close-grained dark-colored rock containing no mica. There is present sufficient clay to cause the particles to become adherent under ramming, after the rock has been ground. The rock is ground to a coarse powder and some- times if the binding properties are insufficient a little milk of lime is added during the grinding process. The composition of ganister will fall in the limits as given below. Constituents Per cent From To 87.00 4.00 95.00 5. 00 I 50 .75 1. 00 .25 Alkalies Fire Sand An exceedingly refractory sand containing sometimes as much as 97 per cent silica. It is used in the setting of silica brick and in making the hearths of furnaces. Pure silica melts at 1830° C. 436 Foundry I ucls MagttcsiU Magncsite contains a small percentage of lime and ferrous silioites with seqicntinc. The ferrous silicates are separated out; thereupon calcining, magnesia is obtained. The calcined material is then mixed with from 15 to 30 per cent of the raw material, and from 10 to 15 per cent water, then moulded into bricks, dried and burned in the ordinary manner. Bauxite This is a hydrated aluminous ferric o.xidc, containing usually about 60 per cent of alumina, i to 3 per cent of silica, 20 per cent ferrous oxide and from 15 to 20 per cent water. It is very refractory and, notwith- standing the large amount of ferrous oxide contained, is practically infusible. Calcined bauxite is mixed with from 6 to 8 per cent of clay, or other binding material and plumbago, then molded into bricks. WTien heated the plumbago reduces the iron of the bauxite, producing a most refractory substance. Such bricks are far more durable than the best fire bricks. They resist the action of the basic slags, as well as that of intense heat. They become extremely hard after exposure to continued heat. CHAPTER XIX THE CUPOLA The cupola is used in ordinary foundry practice in preference to the air furnace, not only on account of its simplicity, but because it melts more rapidly and economically. There are many forms manufactured. All of them are good, but it is doubtful if any furnishes better results than have been obtained from the ordinary old-fashioned cupola so commonly in use, such as is shown in the sketch below. For the advantages of the various styles offered for sale, the reader is referred to the manufacturers' catalogues. The cupola is essentially a vertical hollow cylinder, lined with refrac- tory material, having the top open and the bottom closed, with pro- vision for admission of the charges of fuel and iron part way up on the side, also for admission of air below the charges and for drawing off the melted metal at the bottom. The cupola is divided into five zones. First: The Crucible, extending from sand bottom to the tuyeres. Second: The Tuyere Zone, extending from the crucible to melting zone. Third: The Melting Zone, reaching from the tuyere zone to a point about 20 inches above the tuyeres. Fourth: The Charging Zone, extending from melting zone to charging door. Fifth: Stack, from charging door to top of furnace. The Lining The lining is usually made of two thicknesses of arch brick placed on end with the flat sides in radial planes. Several standard rectangular brick are placed in each ring or course to facilitate the removal of the rings when necessary. Angle iron rings are riveted to the shell at intervals of about six feet, to support the upper sections, when a lower one is removed for repairs. The outer lining is kept about 34 inch away from the shell to pro- vide for expansion, and the interval is filled in loosely with sand and broken brick. 437 4i8 The Cupola The distance from the sand bottom to the charging door should be about 3!v to 4 times the inside diameter of the lining. For cupolas ""TT^TT^^^^T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^!^ Fig. 123. under 48 inches, one door is sutTicient; for larger sizes two are more convenient. The doors may be hung on hinges or shde on a circular track above the openings. It is not necessary that they should be lined. Tuyeres 439 At the level of the charging door the lining should be covered with a cast-iron ring to protect it during the charging. The bricks are laid with very close joints in mortar composed of fire clay and sand. The interior lining is daubed with a mixture of one- half fire clay and three-fourths sharp sand for a thickness of three- fourths inch. Any joints are well filled. A handful of salt to a pail of daubing will cause the interior of the shell to be glazed over and will reduce the amount of chipping required. Washing the daubing with strong brine and iire clay serves the same purpose. Tuyeres The tuyeres may be circular or rectangular in section with the bottoms inclining slightly toward the interior of the shell so that the drippings may not run into the wind box. Castings for tuyeres should not be over ^8 inch thick. The area of the tuyeres is made from lo to 25 per cent that of the inside lining at the tuyeres; 20 per cent gives good results. As a matter of fact the tuyeres cannot be made too large. A continuous tuyere having an opening about 2 inches in height and extending all around the lining is frequently used. An excellent plan is to have an air chamber all around the outer lining and inside of the shell in the vicinity of the tuyeres; at the level of the bottom of the tuyeres place a cast-iron ring, in sections, on top of the double lining. On this, at intervals of from 7 to 10 inches, so as to divide the circum- ference of the interior of the lining into equal parts, place hollow iron blocks 2 inches wide, 3 inches high and 7 inches long. On top of the blocks place another segmental ring, which should be kept 3 or more inches away from the interior of the shell. Upon this ring the upper courses of the lining are built. This forms a nearly continuous tuyere, broken only by the iron blocks. This construction involves a contraction of the lining at the tuyeres of about 8 inches. The bottom of the tuyeres should be from 10 to 20 inches above the sand bottom, depending upon the quantity of melted iron to be collected before tapping. \\^here the iron is allowed to run continuously from the spout, as in stove and other foundries doing light work, the tuyeres may be even lower than 10 inches. Frequently an additional row of tuyeres, having about one-eighth of the main row in area, is placed just below the melting zone. These upper Fig. 124. 440 riu- Cu[M)la tuyeres should be arranRcd so ih.il the admission of air through them ma,\' be regulated. The object is to supply the necessary air to convert \vhatc\er carbonic oxide is formed in the tuyere zone into carlwnic acid at the melting zone. The heat de\eloped at these upper tuyeres is such that the lining near them is often badly cut, therefore, care must be exercised as to the admission of air at this point. A row of adjustaljle tuyeres about lo inches above the melting zone is most effective in producing the combustion within the charges of carbonic o.xide, forced above that zone, effecting thereby not only a saving of fuel, but the suppression of flame at the charging doors. The admission of air above the melting zone must be carefully regulated so that only enough will enter to burn the carbonic oxide. The "Castings" for September, iyo8, illustrates a cupola designed by Mr. J. C. Knoeppel, which presents an admirable arrangement of tuyeres and provides for the object above outlined. Two or more of the lower tuyeres, should have slight depressions in the bottoms, to permit the slag or iron, should either reach that level, to run out upon sheet lead plates placed in the wind box in the line of these depressions. By the melting of these plates, and the discharge through the resulting holes, warning is given to the cupola tender, and the accumulation of slag or iron in the wind box avoided. Unless the blast is much higher than good management permits, it will not penetrate the fuel in the cupola for more than 30 inches radially. Therefore, where the inside diameter of the cupola is over 6c inches, it should be contracted at the tuyeres to 60 inches or less diameter; or in place of this a center blast may be used. Large cupolas are fre- quently made oval in section with the same object in view. In the wind box directly opposite each tuyere there should be a small door 5 inches in diameter, fastened with a thumb screw, for access to the tuyeres, to remove any stoppages in front of them; each door should be provided with a peek hole 1'.. inches in diameter covered with mica. The Breast The breast is made by taking a mixture of one-half fire clay and one- half molding sand, thoroughly mixed and just moist enough to be kneaded. A quantity of this is placed around a bar lU inches in diam- eter and made into cylindrical shape, 4 or 5 inches in diameter and about 6 inches long. This is placed in the opening for the breast, and the bar, while held in a nearly horizontal position, forced down until its bottom is on a line with the sand bottom, and ^i inch above the upper side of Sand Bottom 441 lining to trough. The inner end of the clay cylinder should be flush with the inside of the cupola lining. Ram hard around this cylinder with molding sand and fill opening for breast completely. Care must be taken that this clay cylinder is well secured in place. Remove the forming bar and enlarge the hole toward inside of cupola, leaving only about 3 inches in length of the original diameter from the front. The slag hole is made up in same way, but should be only one and a half inches long. A core about 2H inches in diameter may be inserted for the slag hole, and this dug out, when tapping for slag, until opening is sufficiently large, say about i inch diameter. It sometimes happens that the breast gives way during the heat. In such an event, the blast is shut off and the cupola drained of iron and slag. The defective part of the breast is removed, and replaced with stopping clay, which is hammered with the side of a bar, well against the surrounding portion of the breast. The remaining hole is then filled with clay, carefully packed so as not to be driven to the interior of the cupola. Through this clay a tap hole is made by gently inserting the tapping bar and enlarging the hole after the ball of clay has been pene- trated. In from fifteen to twenty minutes the clay will have been baked hard. The blast can then be turned on and melting resumed. This operation must be conducted with great care, as the operator is in danger of being severely burned. Swab the lining from the bottom to 2 feet above the tuyeres with clay wash and salt, and black wash the tapping hole formed as above described. Sand Bottom The sand bottom is made from gangway sand passed through a No. 4 riddle. This bottom should be about 8 inches thick. It must be well rammed, especially next to the lining, where it should join with a liberal fillet. It must not be too wet. Care must be taken not to ram the bottom so hard that the iron will not lie on it quietly. The bottom should slope in all directions towards the tapping hole, the slope being one inch in four feet, and it should reach the tapping hole exactly on a level with its lower surface. Black wash the bottom, build a light wood fire and dry out the lining thoroughly. The bottom doors should have a dozen or more %-inch holes drilled through them to allow any moisture in the bottom to escape. The doors are held in place by an iron post under the center, which can readily be knocked out to drop the bottom. The breast should be made up before the bottom. 443 Till' ("uiKila Zones of Cupola The crucible zone extends from the s;in(l lx»Uom to the tuyeres. The object of this zone is to hold the melted iron and slag. If the tap hole is kept open continuously, this zone may not be over 4 to 6 inches in depth from sand bottom to bottom of tuyeres. If it is to hold a large quantity of melted iron, the tuyeres must be correspondingly high. Metal can be melted at a higher temperature with low tuyeres, (collecting it in a ladlcj, than by holding it in the cupola. Tuyere Zone This is where the blast enters in contact with the fuel. Here com- bustion begins. This zone is confined to the area of the tuyeres. The combined area of the tuyeres should be about one-fifth that of a section of the cupola at this point, and should also largely exceed that of the outlet of the blower. It is important to keep the tuyeres as low as the condi- tions of the foundry, as to amount of melted iron to be collected at one tap, will permit. With low tuyeres the iron is hotter, there is less oxida- tion and the fuel required on the bed is less. Melting Zone The melting zone is the space immediately above the tuyeres. It extends upward from 20 to 30 inches, depending upon the pressure and volume of the blast, increasing in height with increased pressure. No iron is melted above or below it. The melting occurs through the upper 4 to 6 inches of that zone. Charging Zone This zone is that part containing the charges of iron and coke, and extends from the melting zone to charging door. The stack is the continuation of the cupola from charging door through the roof. Contracting the stack above the charging door has no influ- ence upon the elTicicncy of the cupola. The spouts should be lined with fire brick. Above the fire brick bottom at center of trough, there should be iM inches of moulding sand. From the center the sand should slope rapidly each way to sides. The sand lining of trough at center should be ?4 inch below the tap hole. After lining, trough should be black washed and dried. Stopping material is made of one-half fire clay and one-half moulding sand. It is the common practice to leave the top hole open until iron begins Chemical Reactions in Cupola 443 to run freely, in order to prevent freezing at the hole. This causes the oxidizing of considerable metal, and is unnecessary. The following method may be pursued. Just before the blast goes on, close up the inner end of the tap hole with a ball of greasy waste, then ram the remainder of the hole full of moulding sand. This is easily removed with the tapping bar, and does away with all the annoyance of escaping blast and sparks. Chemical Reactions in the Ordinary Cupola with Single Row of Tuyeres When the air blast comes in contact with the burning coke, its oxygen unites with the carbon of the coke to form carbonic acid (CO2), as the result of complete combustion. As the temperature above the tuyeres increases to that necessary for melting iron, part of the CO2 seizes upon the incandescent coke, takes up another equivalent of carbon and is converted into carbonic oxide (CO). If the supply of air is in excess of that required, the CO, being combustible gas, takes up another equivalent of oxygen and is burned to CO2. Again some of the CO2, parting with an equivalent of oxygen to the iron for such oxidation as occurs, or by the acquisition of another equiva- lent of carbon from the coke; or by both, is reconverted into CO. These reactions take place at or near the melting zone. After passing that zone, no more air is supplied, and the products of combustion, consisting of CO and CO2 pass up the stack without further change until reaching the charging door. Here air is admitted, the CO is supplied with oxygen and is burned to CO2. If the air supplied at the tuyeres is insufficient for complete combus- tion, the evolution of CO is increased and the efi5ciency of the furnace reduced. On the other hand, an excessive supply of air is objectionable, as a reducing flame (that from CO) is desirable to prevent oxidation of the metal. For the complete combustion of one pound of carbon, there is required 12 pounds, or about 150 cubic feet of air, developing 14,500 B.t.u.; but the combustion of one pound of carbon to CO requires only one-half the air, and the resulting heat is 4500 B.t.u.; hence for whatever portion of the fuel is burned to CO, there is a loss of over two-thirds its heat- producing value. For the purpose of saving this waste heat, an upper row of tuyeres, just below the melting zone, is employed; and to utilize the heat which escapes above the melting zone, tuyeres have bee;n introduced with good results, at from 5 to 10 inches above that zone. By the use of 444 'Jhc CujKilu ihu latter tuyeres the heat developed is al>sorbed by the charRCs in the stack, and the flames at charging dcK)r are suppressed. Where such tuyeres arc used, they must be provided with means for easily regulating the admission of air. The following table taken from West's Moulders' Te.xt Hook gives the quantity of air required for the combustion of one pound each of coke and coal. Combustibles, I pound weight I'.iii.i.L of oxy- gen consumed per pound of combustible, pounds Quantity of air con- sumed per pound of combustible Total heat of combustion of I pound of Pounds Cubic feet at 62" F. combustible, units of heat Coke, desiccated 2.51 2.46 10.9 10.7 143 141 13.5SO 14.133 By reason of the contact of the molten iron with the fuel, changes in atmospheric conditions, the amount of air used, and other conditions, the same mixture may produce different kinds of castings at different times; and there may also be variations in the same heat. Chemical Reactions in the Cupola The complete combustion of one pound of carbon to COj requires: 2.66 pounds of oxygen or 12.05 pounds of air and develops 14,500 B.t.u. The burning of one pound of carbon to CO requires: 1.33 pounds of oxygen or 6.00 pounds of air and develops 4500 B.t.u. Therefore one pound of coke, having 86 per cent fixed carbon requires for complete combustion 2.66 X 0.86 = 2.29 pounds o.xygen or 12.00 X 0.86 = 10.32 pounds air and develops 14,500 X 0.86 = 12,470 B.t.u. The 10.32 pounds of air less 2.29 pounds oxygen leave 8.03 nitro- gen. Wind Box 445 Taking the specific heat of oxygen at 0.218, carbon at 0.217, nitrogen at 0.244. The temperature resulting from the complete combustion of one pound of coke to CO2 is ^^'^70 -47i8°F. 0.217 X 0.86 + 0.218 X 2.28 + 0.244 X 8.03 That resulting from the combustion of one pound of coke to CO is 3870 ^ O p 0.217 X 0.86 + 0.218 X 1. 15 + 0.244 X 4.015 Hence for every pound of coke burned to CO, instead of CO2, there is a loss of 8600 B.t.u., and a reduction of the resulting temperature of 1983° F. Taking the specific heat of cast iron at the average of temper- atures between 2120° and 2650° F. as 0.169, ^■nd the latent heat of fusion as 88 B.t.u., and assuming the temperature of the escaping gases at 1330°, then the heat wasted is (i33o°-7o°) X (0.217 X 0.86 + 0.218 X 2.28 + 0.244 X 8.03) equals 3330 B.t.u.; and the heat available for melting iron is 12,470 — 3330 = 9140 B.t.u. for each pound of coke having 86 per cent fixed carbon. For I pound of iron melted at 2650° F. (or 2580° F. above atmosphere) the number of heat units required is 2580 X 0.17 = 439 to which must be added the latent heat of fusion giving 439 + 88 = 527 B.t.u. Therefore, = 17.34 pounds of iron, which should be melted by one pound of coke, if all the carbon was converted into CO2 and the gases escaped at 1330° F.; also neglecting the heat lost in the slag and by radiation. Wind Box The area of cross section of the wind box should be three or four times that of the combined area of the tuyeres, in order that there may be sufficient air reservoir to permit a steady pressure. There should be two or more doors in the box for ready access in cleaning out when necessary; and also for admission of air when the wood fire is started. As before stated, there should be small doors opposite each tuyere. The blast pipe ought, if the situation will permit, to enter the box on a tangent, and box should be continuous. If it is necessary to divide it into two boxes, on account of the tapping or slag holes, there must, then, of comse, be a blast pipe for each box and they should enter the boxes vertically. The bottom of the box should be provided with at least two small openings opposite the alarm tuyeres, which are covered with sheet lead. These should be so placed that slag or iron running through them will be at once seen by the tapper. 146 The Cupola The manufacturing of cuixjlas for the trade has become an important industry, and although the designs of the various makers diflcr largely in details, the essential features in all are the same. Perhaps the names best known to the foundry industry are: CoUiau, Calumet, Newtcn, Whiting. All of these give good results. Tor special information reference should be made to the manufacturers' catalogues. The melting capacities based on 30,000 cubic feet of air per ton of iron are given in the following table. BuiLUKRs' Rating Diameter inside of lining, inches 1 Colliau Calumet Newten 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 Melting capacity, tons per hour I- i!i 3- 4 4- 6 6- 8 8-10 10-11 12-14 IS-16 17-20 25-27 I 2- 3 4- S &-7 8-9 lo-il 12-14 13-17 18-20 21-24 24-27 iM- aH 3 - S 4 -6 8 -9 9 -II 11 -12 12 -14 14 -18 18 -30 20 -24 A wind gauge should be attached to the wind lx)x at a convenient place. The charging platform should not be more than 24 inches below the bottom of charging door for sizes up to the 48 inch; for the larger sizes not over 6 to 8 inches. The Blast The air for the blast is supplied Ijy centrifugal blowers of the Sturte- vant type, or by Positive Pressure Blowers of the Root t^pe. Both are cfi'icicnt, and it does not appear that either has any special advantage not possessed by the other. T'or successful melting a large volume of air at low pressure is required. I'rom 8 to 10 ounces pressure will usually be found sulTicient; in no case should it be allowed to exceed 14 ounces. As a rule 30,000 cubic feet of air per ton of iron are allowed. This is somewhat too small, especially if the air contains much moisture; 35,000 cubic feet per ton is better practice. \\'ith blast at low pressure and with high temperature in the furnace, iron may gain in carbon during the process of melting. The reverse may occur, however, under contrary conditions. O.xidation increases with the intensity of the blast. The Blast 447 The castings produced by low blast pressure are softer and stronger, the loss by oxidation is less, there is less slag, less expenditure of power and less injiu-y to the lining of the cupola. Coke requires less pressure and more volume of air, as well as greater tuyere area than coal. Low pressure, large volume, large tuyere area and good fluxing tend to prevent choking at the tuyeres. However, too much air must be avoided as it reduces the temperature of the furnace and may produce dull iron. The main blast pipe should be as short, and the tuyeres as few as possible. Its diameter should be greater than the outlet of the blower. For each turn allow three feet in length of pipe. The minimum radius of the turn should not be less than the diameter of the pipe. It should be provided with a wind gate, and, where a pressure blower is used, an escape valve, both under control of the melter. The wind gate should be kept closed until after the blower is started to prevent gas from collecting in the blast pipe. For the same reason, the blower should, if possible, be located lower than the wind box. At the commencement, the blast should be low, and gradually in- creased to the maximum as the heat progresses, then dropped toward its close. The friction of air in pipes varies inversely as their diameters, directly as the squares of the velocities, and as the lengths. The table below shows the loss in pressure and the loss in horse power by friction of air in pipes loo feet long; corresponding losses for other lengths can readily be calculated therefrom. Loss IN Pressure in Ounces and Horse Power in Friction OF Air in Pipes ioo Feet Long Diam- eter of cupola inside of lining, inches Tons of iron melted per hour Cubic feet of air per minute Velocity of air in feet per minute Diam- eter of blast pipe, inches Diam- eter of outlet of blower Loss of pressure in ounces per square inch fiorse power lost In friction 24 IS 87s 1600 10 8 .313 .099 30 3.0 1.750 2200 12 9 448 .311 36 4-5 2,600 2400 14 II 457 .320 42 6.0 3.300 2S0O 16 12 434 .40s 48 8.0 4,700 2600 18 14 417 .523 54 10. 5, 800 2700 20 IS 406 .653 60 12. S 7.300 2300 22 18 246 .48s 66 IS.O 8,750 2400 24 20 246 ■ S94 72 18.0 10,500 2500 26 22 231 .582 78 22.0 12,800 2500 28 23 202 .507 84 25.0 14,560 2600 30 24 190 .498 Computed from catalogue of B. F. Sturtevant & Co., and from Foundry Data Sheet No. 5- .,48 The ('u[x)la The following tables give the rapacities of centrifugal and pressure Mowers. .Vs these are based on 36,000 cubic feet oi air [)cr ton of iron, the selection of sizes somewhat larger than those given in the tables is desirable, as the allowance of air is too small. The Sturtevant Steel Pressure Bixiwer Appued to Cupolas Diam- Melting No. of Cubic No. of blower eter of inside of cupola lining capacity per hour in pounds 1.200 square inches of blast feet of air per minute Pressure m ounces of blast Horse power required I 32 4.0 324 4135 5 OS 3 36 1.900 5.7 S07 3756 6 10 3 30 2.880 8.0 768 3250 7 18 4 35 4,130 10.7 1 102 3100 8 30 S 40 6.178 14-3 1646 2900 19 5 5 6 46 8.900 18.7 3375 2820 12 9 7 7 53 12,500 24.3 3353 2600 14 16.0 8 60 16.560 32 4416 3370 14 22 9 72 23.800 43.0 6364 2100 16 35 10 84 33.300 60.0 8880 I8I5 16 48.0 The Sturtev/Vnt Steel Pressure Blo\\t:r Applied To Cupolas (Power saved by reducing the speed and pressure of blast.) Speed Pressure, Horse Speed Pressure. Horse ounces power ounces power 3445 5 .8 3100 4 .6 3000 6 15 2750 5 I.I 2900 7 2-5 3700 6 20 3560 8 4.0 2390 7 3 3 3550 10 7.4 3360 8 5.3 3380 13 12.7 21S0 10 9 4 2100 12 16.7 1900 10 13.7 i960 14 28.4 1800 12 22 s 1700 14 39 6 1566 12 31.7 Kent, page 519. Pressure and Rotary Blowers 449 Buffalo Steel Pressure Blowers Speeds and Capacities as .Applied to Cupolas Square inches in blast No. of blower Diam- eter inside of cupola, inches Pressure in ounces Speed, No. of revs. per min. Melting capacity, pounds per hour Cubic feet of air required per min. Horse power required 4 6 8 II 14 i8 26 46 68 4 S 6 7 8 9 lo II 12 20 25 30 35 40 45 55 73 88 8 8 8 8 8 10 10 12 12 4793 391 1 3456 3092 2702 2617 2139 1639 1639 1,545 2,321 3,093 4,218 5,42s 7.818 11,295 21,978 32,395 412 619 825 1125 1444 2085 3012 5861 8626 l.o 1.2 2.05 3.1 3.9 7-1 10.2 23.9 36.2 Speed, Melting Cubic feet Pressure in no. of revs. capacity in of air re- Horse power ounces per min. pounds per hour quired per minute required 9 5095 1,647 438 1.3 10 4509 2,600 694 2.2 10 3974 3,671 926 3.1 10 3476 4,777 1274 4.25 10 3034 6,082 1622 5.52 12 2916 8,598 2293 9 36 12 2353 12,378 3301 12.0 14 1777 23,838 6357 30.3 14 1777 35,190 6384 43.7 Kent, page 950. The Root Positive Rotary Blowers Size number Cubic feet per revo- lution Revolutions per minute for cupola melting iron Size of cupola, inches inside lining Will melt iron per hour, tons Horse power required 2 3 4 5 6 7 5 8 13 23 42 65 275-325 200-300 185-275 170-250 150-200 137-175 24-30 30-36 36-42 42-50 50-60 72 or %5 2!'^-3 3-4^3 42/^-7 8-12 I2H-l6% I7?^-22% 8 II ^^2 nH 27 40 Kent, page 526 45° The Cupf)^ Diameter of Blast Pipes for Pressure Blowers for Cupolaa li. ]•'. Sturlevant & Co. The following tabic has been constructed on this basis, namely, allow- ing a loss of pressure of one-half ounce in the process of transmission tiirough any length of pipe of any si/c as a standard; the increased fric- tion due to lengthening the pipe has been compensated for by an enlargement of the pipe, sufficient to keep the Ijss still at ',i ounce. TaE Blast i;;-...w ;.... . feet Cubic feet of Lengths of blast pipe in feet Cubic feet of air Lengths of blast pipe in air trans- SO 100 150 200 300 trans- SO 100 ISO 30O JOO mitted mitted per per minute Diameter in inches minute Diameter in inches 360 sH 6H m 7W 7^i 1.872 loH i2!-i I3U nl^ IS S15 6% 7^i 7?4 8^ m 2.679 I2'4 14 is! 6 16 i7!4 63s 6% 7?4 8W 9 9H 3.302 I3U is'/i i6'/i i7'/i 18-^6 740 7'/4 8Mi 9 9'A io'/4 3.848 li% 16!^ 17^^ i8Ji 20^ Blower No. 2 Blower No. 7 504 6« 7H 7% 8!4 8;-i 2.592 12 I3?4 IS iS^/i 17H 721 7M 8K4 9 9!-^ 10! 1 3.708 13^/i i5'/6 I7» i8H I9?4 889 7l^ 9 9M loH II 4.572 I5I6 I7-H i8Ti I9'^6 21H 1036 SH 9^6 io?6 II 11% S.238 16 18,4 20 21 H 23 Blower No. 3 Blower No. 8 720 1% 8M 9 9V^ loM 3.312 I3M 15H 16! i I7^i 1876 1030 m 9H 10^ II II?4 4.738 IS'/4 17H 19I* 20^^ 21-^ 1270 PV^ 10% II !i 11% 12^4 S.842 i656 igJ^i 20^4 22 23?6 1480 9H II 12 12H 13W 6.808 17H 20M 22^6 22H 25H Blower No. 4 Blower No. 9 1008 8V4 m loVi 10^6 ii5i 4.320 14?4 17 i8->6 1954 21 W 1442 914 loH iili. I2'/2 13^6 6.180 17 19H 21 U 22 1 4 24% 1778 \oH liji 1274 13^6 i45i 7.620 18?^ 21 Vi 23 V« 24H 26Vi 2072 II 12^6 izV* I4W ISV4 8.880 I9!'2 22>6 24W 26 38W 1 Blower No. s ! Blower No. 10 1440 qV^ I07^ 11T6 12^6 i3?i 5.760 I612 19 205fe 21^6 23M 2060 II 1256 I.^?4 I4'/6 15^4 8.240 l8Ti 2I?4 23^4 2S16 27H 2S40 ii?i I3H I4Ti i.S^i 16^8 10.160 205i 23?4 25"i 27?i 29H 2960 I2?i I4V4 IS?i i656 18 11,840 22^ 2SH 27 V4 29S^ 3m Kent, page 520. Dimensions, Etc., of Cupolas 451 The quantities of air in the left-hand column of each division indicate the capacity of the given blower when working under pressures of 4, 8, 12 and 16 ounces. Thus a No. 6 blower will force 2678 cubic feet of air at 8 ounces pressure through 50 feet of i2;i-inch pipe with a loss of H ounce pressure. If it is desired to force the air 300 feet without an increased loss by friction, the pipe must be enlarged to 17H inches diameter. The table below gives the important dimensions, distribution of charges and melting capacities of cupolas from 24 inches to 84 inches diameter inside of lining. The table is based upon the consumption of 35,000 cubic feet of air per ton of iron and represents the best aver- age practice. Higher fuel ratios are frequently realized and the foundrymen must vary the fuel and air supply as the conditions indicate. It is unwise, however, to strive for high fuel ratio at the risk of a dull heat. The loss on castings from one melt may far outweigh the saving on coke, as between the ratios of 10 to i and 9 to i, for many heats. Coke is one of the cheapest articles about the foundry; while hot, clean iron is an item of the highest importance. In general the cupola should furnish 20 pounds of melted iron per minute per square foot of area of the melting zone. Dimensions, Etc., of Cupolas Height Diameter of cupola inside of lining, inches Height from bot- tom-plate to charg- ing door, feet from sand bot- tom to underside of tu- yeres, inches Area of tuyeres, sq. in. Pounds of coke on bed, ]pounds First charge of iron, pounds Suc- ceeding charges of coke, pounds Suc- ceeding charges of iron, pounds Pres- sure of blast, ounces 24 9.0 8-10 90 225 320 40 320 5- 7 30 10. 8-10 142 370 s6o 62 560 6- 8 36 10.6 8-12 204 460 850 85 850 6- 8 42 10.5 10-12 277 530 1200 no 1200 6- 8 48 12.0 10-12 362 820 1500 140 iSoo 8-10 54 13.0 10-15 458 1 100 1900 180 1900 8-10 60 is-o 10-18 565 1400 2500 225 2500 10-12 66 16 10-18 684 1900 3000 275 3000 10-12 72 18.0 10-20 814 2400 4000 320 4000 12-14 78 19.0 10-20 955 3000 5000 400 5000 12-14 84 19.0 10-22 1 108 3600 6000 500 6000 14-16 45-2 The Cupola Dimensions, Etc.. of Citolas. — {ConlinunD Size of Num- Volume UiametiT of blast Siicof Root .Num- ber of I^Iorse Sturte- vant ber of revolu- Hone power Melting capac- of air per pipe not blower revolu- power blower tions re- ity per minute, cu. ft. over 100 feet long, inches required, no. tions per minute, revs. required H.P. re- quired, no. per minute. revs. quired, H.P. hour, pounds 875 10 I 300 2 3 3S0O 2 3.000 1. 750 12 2 300 5 > 2900 SS 6.000 2.600 14 4 175 8 ('i 2800 10 9.000 3.S00 16 4 230 12 7 2600 IS I3.000 4.700 18 S 200 20 8 2300 33 16.000 S,8oo 20 SVi 190 25 8 2500 2S 30.000 7.300 22 6 180 33 9 2200 35 25.000 8.700 24 6],i 170 4S 10 1800 45 30.000 lo.soo 26 7 ISO 55 10 2000 SS 36.000 12.800 28 7Kj ISO 70 2-8 2500 60 44.000 14.S00 30 7H 170 80 2-9 2200 70 S0.000 Charging and Melting In preparing the cupwla for raclLing, a bed of shavings is spread evenly over the bottom; on this a layer of kindling wood; then enough cord wood cut in short lengths to come well abo\e the tuyeres. The doors in the wind box or, two or more of those covering the tuyeres, should be left open to admit air to the fire. The wood should be covered with coke for a depth of from 12 to 15 inches. Where wood is scarce or expensive, the coke may be lighted directly with a kerosene oil blow torch. To use the torch place two strips of boards 3" X i" on edge from the tap hole to center of cupola. Then place other strips of same size crosswise of the bottom forming a shallow trough about 6 inches wide in the shape of a T. Large pieces of coke are placed over the trough to form a cover, and on top of this coke is spread uniformly for a depth of about 15 inches. The torch is then applied at the tap hole. After the fire is lighted and the top of the coke bed becomes red, enough coke is added to bring the top of the bed 20 inches abo\-c the tuyeres when the wood has burned out. The necessary amount of coke for bottom is determined by gauging from the charging door. The proper depth of bed is a matter of great importance. Too much is as bad as too little. With too much coke, the melting will be slow and dull; with too little the iron after commence- ment of heat becomes dull, the cupola is bunged up and the bottom may have to be dropped. The Charging Floor 453 There should be sufficient coke to locate the top of the melting zone about 20 inches above the tuyeres, and the subsequent charges of coke should be just enough to maintain this position. With proper depth of bed, the molten iron will appear at the spout in from 8 to 10 minutes after the commencement of the blast. The first and subsequent charges of iron should be of the same weight, and these should be small. The amount of coke between each charge of the iron and the preceding one should be 10 per cent of the iron. In many foundries the coke between the charges is made less than this, but 10 per cent is good practice. It is not the best policy to run the risk of making a poor heat by cutting down the coke. The charges should be continued as indi- cated until the cupola is filled to the charging door. In charging care must be taken to distribute both iron and coke uni- formly. The pig iron (broken) should be charged first, beginning at the lining and proceeding toward the center, pigs should be placed sidewise to the lining. Next comes the scrap; if there are large pieces, they should be placed in the center of the cupola with the pig surrounding them. The iron must be kept well around the lining and care exercised to avoid cavities. If the scrap is fine, it must not be charged so closely as to impede the blast. After the iron comes the coke, which must be evenly distributed throughout. After the second or third charge, hme- stone, broken into pieces about iH cube, is added. From 25 to 40 pounds of limestone per ton of iron is used according to the character of pig and scrap as to sand and rust, and to that of coke as to ash. The top of the bed should not be permitted to drop more than 6 or 8 inches during the heat. This determines the weight of iron for each charge as well as that of the coke, the latter having a depth of 6 or 8 inches. The weights of all the materials going into the cupola should be kept separately. The melter should be furnished each day with a charging schedule giving the composition and the weight of each charge. The fire should be started about two hours before the blast is put on, to allow the charges in the stack to become well heated. The openings in the wind box are closed immediately after starting the blast. The egg-shaped section at the melting zone, which the cupola gradually assumes by use, should be maintained. The Charging Floor The charging floor should be large enough, if circumstances permit, to accommodate all the materials for the heat. Each charge of pig iron and scrap, after weighing, should be piled by itself and in the order in 454 The Cu[K;I;i wliicli it is to be used. The proj)cr amount of coke for each charge is placed in oins or baskets. In larger works where the material is brought to the platform on charging cars, the cars are arranged so as to reach the cupola in pro[)cr order. The cuts show two different meth- ods of charging at large foundries. .At one the charging is done by hand and at the other by machine. While the material is handled more ra|)idly and at less expense by the latter method, it is doubtful if the saving effected compensates for irregular melting and lack of uniformity in product, which is likely to result from unequal distribution of the charges. i IG. 125. — Charging Floor. Fig. 126. — Cupola Charging Machine in Normal Position. Fig. 127. — Cuixila Charging Machine in Charging Position. Melting Losses Melting losses in a well-managed cupola should not exceed 4 per cent for the annual average. Instances are known where the losses for long periods were not over 2 per cent. The following records are taken from the report of the secretary' of the American Foundry men's .Association, and cover the results from 41 cupolas. The percentage of castings made and the returns are calculated from the quantities given and added to each table. Light Jobbing Table I. — General Jobbing 455 Numbers Usual tonnage Time melting Blast pressure Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used, lbs Scrap bought Pig iron used Scrap used Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting lost Per cent melt in returns. . . . Per cent in good castings. . . 10 I hr. 15 m, 80Z. Fan Coke None Coke Mach. 10,400 9, 600 16,49s 1. 352 10.7 66 82.4 3 I hr. Fan Coke Coke Med. mach 3200 3200 SS04 620 4-3 97 I hr. 15 m. Fan Coke None Coke Mach. 2657 2886 3916 872 13.6 IS. 7 70.6 3 2 hrs. 80Z. Blower Coke None Coke Stove 268s 388S 4057 1873 9-7 28.5 61.7 80Z. Fan Mach. 20,000 20,000 3S.20O 2,200 6.5 6.5 Average melting loss 7.6 per cent Average of melt in returns 8.8 per cent Average of melt in good castings 83 .0 per cent Table II. — Light Jobblng Numbers . Usual tonnage Time of melting Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scrap used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns . . Per cent in good castings . 72 3 hrs. 30 m. 13 Blower Coke None Coke 102,000 42,000 108,300 27,500 57 19.1 75.2 I hr. 30 m. 6.5 Fan Coke None Coke & coal Stove 4.S00 7,Soo 10,300 1,200 4.2 10 85.8 16 . 2 hrs. 30 m. Fan Coke None Coke Lt. mach. 19,200 12,800 21,000 9,100 6 28.4 65.6 2.S ihr. Fan Coke None Coke Med. mach. 3200 1800 4000 800 4 16 80 Average melting loss 25 . s per cent Average of melt in returns 20.8 per cent Average of melt in good castings 73-6 per cent 45^ The ("iii)<)hi Taui-i; III. - I.r'.MT Macuineky Numbers. Usual tonnage Time of melting Blast pressure, 02 Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used . lbs Scrap iron used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings. I hr. 10 m. Fan Coke Coke & coal None 16,000 4,000 13.220 4.500 6.5? 22.6 66.1 2 hrs. Fan Coke & ch. coal Coke Med. mach. 6,000 6,000 10,000 900 9.2 7.5 83 3 Numbers. 3 S I hr. 30 m. 7 Blower Coke None Coke Lt. mach. 3900 27SO 3738 2762 2 3 41 S 56.20 Usual tonnage I S Time of melting I hr. 30 m. Blast pressure, oz 1 5 Fan or blower Fan Pig iron Coke Per cent southern So Fuel used Coke & coal Scrap bought | Med. mach. 4500 4280 7640 800 3 9 91 87 Pig iron used, lbs Scrap iron used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings. 15 2 hr. 7 Blower Coke 35 Coke Lt. mach. 14,000 16,000 20,500 6,000 II. 6 20 68.3 40 6 hrs. 40 m. Fan Coke 50 Coke Stove 56*00 24,000 60,000 16,000 5 2,000 75 There is an error in this record. The loss should be 11.3 if the statement as to castings and scrap are correct. Average melting loss 7-33 per cent Average of melt in returns 19-55 per cent Average of melt in good castings 73o per cent Stove Plate Table IV. — Heavy Machinery 457 Numbers. Usual tonnage Time of melt Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scrap used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings i6 13 2 hrs. 6 Blower Coke SO Coke Mach. 14,720 11,130 18,845 4,870 8.4 18.8 72.9 15 2 hrs. 10 Blower Coke 70 Coke H'vy mach. 20,000 10,000 21,300 7,200 5 24 71 21 4 hrs. 9 Blower Coke & coal 17 Coke Mach. 25,740 16,270 37.760 7,560 4 18 78 IS 2 hrs. 14 Blower Coke 20 Coke 15.S00 ll.Soo 19,000 6,000 7-4 22.2 70.4 Average melting loss 5.8 per cent Average of melt in returns 20.6 per cent Average of melt in good castings 73.6 per cent Table V. — Stove Plate Numbers. Usual tonnage Time of melt Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scrap used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings. 20 2 hrs. IS min. 14 Blower Coke 100 Coke and coal Stove 20,000 20,000 24,000 14,200 4.5 35. 5 60 15 I hr. 30 min. II Coke SO Coke Stove 18,000 12,000 20,192 9,000 2.7 30 67.3 10 13 Blower Coke 25 Coke and coal 11,863 7,906 11.750 7,624 38.5 59-4 Average melting loss 3.3 per cent Average of melt in returns 34.3 per cent Average of melt in good castings 62.3 per cent 458 The Cupola Taiii.k VI. — Sanitary Ware N'umbcrs. 36 L su;il tonnage Time of heat Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used , lbs Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scr.ip used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent in melt good castings 2 hrs. S Fan Coke None Coal and coke Medium 11,800 12,200 17,228 6,048 3 25 4 71.7 W 3 hr. 15 m. 14 Blower Coke Coke 411, wx> 12,234 65 19.4 74 38 3 h. 15 m 14 Blower Coke 60 Coke None 56.000 20.000 51.61.: 18,38'. 24.1 67.9 16 2 h. 30 m. SO Fan Coke Coal and coke Med. macb. 9.87s 22.625 - • .>r6 ] 6 24 7 71.6 Numbers -•- JH 29 30 25 3 h. 45 m. 14 Blower Coke 3 h. 45 m. 40 3 h. 45 m. 5 Fan Coke None Coal and coke Medium 35.560 47.210 59.400 21,960 1.7 26.5 71-7 23 3h. Blower Coke Blower Pig iron Coke Coke None 31.470 17.960 35.956 11.270 4.1 22.9 73 Coke Coke None 33.000 19.850 37.250 11.300 8.1 21.3 70 29,000 17.SOO 33.38s Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Percent melt in good castings ii.Soo 3 5 24 7 71.8 Average melting loss Average of melt in returns . Average of melt in good castings. 4.84 per cent 23.60 per cent 71 . 50 per cent Railroad Castings Table VII. — Agricultural 459 Numbers Usual tonnage Time of heat Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scrap used, lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss . . . Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings 80 45 4 h. 20 m.|3 h. IS m. 15 Blower Coke 50 Coke Ag. No. I 80,000 80,000 108,800 42,700 5-3 26.7 67. S Blower Coke Coke Ag. No. I 45 ,000 45,000 61,200 24,300 5.2 27 67.7 41 3 h. 30 m. 13 Blower Coke so Coke Med. Mach. 45,700 35,800 62,960 15,600 3.6 19.2 77.2 9 2 hrs. 12 Blower Coke so Coke & coal Stove 7,071 10,674 11,845 5,200 4 29.3 67 95 I h. 20 m. 9 Blower Coke None Coke & coal Stove 7.500 11,600 7,450 10,650 53 55.7 39 Average loss in melt 4. 77 per cent Average of melt in returns 26. 73 per cent Average of melt in good castings 68 . 4 per cent Table VIII. — Railroad Castings Numbers. 38 Usual tonnage Time of heat Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used Scrap used Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent of melt in returns .... Per cent melt in good castings . 47 5 hrs. 20 m. 16 Blower Coke None Coke None 66,500 28,500 60,400 28,900 6.1 30.3 63. 5 32 6.5 3 hrs. 45 m. 2 hrs. 4 9 Fan Ch. , coal and coke Coke 60 None Coke and coal Coke None 25,000 6,765 39,000 6,23s 54 ,000 10,000 7,500 2,38s 3.9 4.7 II. 7 18.3 84.3 76.9 Note. — No. 37 is an average of 27 heats. No. 38 is an average of 25 heats. Average melting loss S . 64 per cent Average of melt in returns 22 . 43 per cent Average of melt in good castings 72 . 22 per cent 4^>o Tllc ClifM)!;! Tahi.i; IX. — Floor Platks. Grate Bars, i.tc. Numbers... Usual tonnage Time of heat Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Pig iron Per cent southern Fuel used Scrap bought Pig iron used, lbs Scrap used , lbs Castings made Scrap made Per cent melting loss Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings. 30 3 hrs. 40 m. 16 Blower Coke None Coke Med. mach. 20,000 40,000 47.400 8,200 7 3 13.7 79 3 ihr. Pan Coke Coke and coal Light mach. None 6,000 5. 100 S2S 6.2 8.8 8S Average melting loss Average of melt in returns Average of melt in good castings. 7 . 23 per cent 8.88 per cent 8s per cent Table X. — Car Wheels 41 200 7 hrs. 10 Blower Wheel 2.1 Blast pressure, oz Fan or blower Per cent melt in returns Per cent melt in good castings. From the above tables, the following table showing the average results for each class of work is compiled. Table XI Percentage o.a >> ill E >> >> b > a 1 0. a > Co h 3 ■1 < "0 is" 8 5 Number of records. Per cent melt in 4 83.9 8.2 77 4 73.6 20.8 S-S 6 73 01 19 SS ,33 4 73.6 20 6 5.8 3 62.3 34 3 3-3 8 71. S 23.6 4.84 s 68.S 26.7 4.77 3 72-3 22.43 S.24 2 79-S 13.2 7.2 1 Per cent melt in Per cent melt lost . Note. No. 12 was omitted in obtaining these averages. Evidently there was something wrong about this heat as shown by the excessive returns. Melting Ratio 461 The figures in the preceding table are to be taken as approximations. The loss may be reduced in practice by careful management. When the weight of the coke on the bed, and the weights of the iron ' and coke in each charge are known, to determine the necessary amount of iron which must be melted to produce a desired melting ratio: Let X = the total iron; Y = the total coke; A = weight of coke on bed; B = weight of coke in each charge; C = weight of iron in each charge; D = the desired melting ratio. (i) Then j? = ^, ^ ^ D *°^^^ ^°^^ ^^^ (3) and -p; = the number of charges. The total coke is found in equation (4) (4) F = (|-i)5+4. From equations (2) and (4) X = -—^ :f—--^ . (5) Having found the total amount of iron, the total coke and number of charges are found from (2) and (3). By applying these formulas to a 54-inch cupola as given in table on pp. 451-2 the required weight of iron to be melted to produce a melting ratio of 9 to I may be found. Melting Ratio Weight of coke on bed ^ = 1100 poimds Weight of coke to each charge B = 180 pounds Weight of iron to each charge C = 1900 pounds Required melting ratio D = 9 to i pounds From equation (5) 1900X9(1100-180) 1900 — 9 X 180 0,0, Y == — '- = 6243 pounds. 9 And the number of charges 56,185 ^-^ — ^ = 29.57. 1900 ^^' Coke may be charged from dumps, as it lan be uniformly spread. 462 The Cuf)ola The cupola should be kept full to the charging door until all the iron is in. J.atcT the sweepings from the charging platform may be thrown on. The platform should, if possible, be large enough to accommo- supply houses. It is usually best to tap into a fore ladle. This is kept under the spout, and has sufficient capacity to hold one entire charge. From it 2) c The Bod Stick 463 the smaller ladles are filled. By making large tappings, the various grades of iron in the cupola become thoroughly mixed in the fore ladle. The iron in the ladle is kept hot by covering the surface with charcoal or slacked lime. In English practice the Fore Hearth is largely used instead of the fore ladle, but its use has not met with favor in the United States. An illus- tration of this arrangement is shown on page 248 of McWilliams and Longmuir's General Foundry Practice. Lining of Ladles The ladles are lined with a mixture of one-half fire clay and one-half sharp sand. With small ladles the lining is from •% inch to 114 inches thick on the bottom and gradually tapers to yi to % inch thick at the top. Large ladles have first a lining of fire brick, then the clay daubing. After the linings are completed they must be thoroughly baked either by placing the ladles in an oven or by building wood fires in them. It is customary to reline the small ladles after each heat. The larger ones, if completely drained of iron, may, by chipping out and patching, be made to last over many heats. The skulls from ladles are rattled with the cinders. Shanks for ladles holding 100 pounds and upwards are commonly made with single and double ends. The better practice is to make both ends double, the helper's end having a swivel joint. With this type of shank the helper can use both hands in carrying and two men can handle a 200-pound ladle easily. The iron bottoms of the larger ladles should have 10 or i2-?i-inch holes through them to permit the escape of moisture. Tapping Bar The tapping bar is usually made of i-inch gas pipe, having a long tapered point (24 inches in length) welded to it at one end. Frequently the tapper stands along one side of the spout, and opens the tap hole with a single-handed bar. He carefully picks away the center of the bod, imtil a hole is made through it, then enlarges the hole to % inch, or an inch, according to the stream desired. The Bod Stick The bod stick is an iron bar about i inch in diameter, having at one end a flat disc 2 k' inches in diameter. To this disc is attached the clay bod, used in stopping up the tap hole. In stopping the stream of iron, the bod, placed above the stream at the tap hole, is forced down- 464 riic Cupola Table Showing Capacities of LAni.rs wirn Rottom Diaueteks Depth Diami-tir of 1 30 22 -'I Vj '-■ 34 36 Ins. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 157 318 483 652 825 1002 1 183 1368 1557 1749 1946 2149 191 334 58S 788 997 1210 1427 1648 1873 2102 2337 2576 2821 227 459 696 938 I185 1436 1693 1954 2221 2492 2769 3050 3337 3630 267 538 815 1096 1383 1676 1973 2276 2585 2900 3221 3548 3880 4218 4560 309 624 945 1272 1604 1942 2286 2606 2992 3353 3720 4093 4472 4807 5248 5645 356 717 1084 1457 1836 2221 2612 3009 3412 3821 4237 4660 5089 5525 5968 6417 6871 7329 403 812 1228 1651 2080 2516 3142 3408 3863 432s 4793 5268 5750 6238 6734 7237 7747 8261 8781 1.860 2,342 2,830 3.326 3.829 4J39 4.8SS S.378 5.9" 6.451 6.998 7.552 8.114 9.6S2 9.258 9.840 10.428 510 1.026 I.S50 2.085 2.62s 3.172 3.726 4.288 4.856 5.432 6.016 6.608 7.208 7.816 8.432 9.054 9.694 10.332 10.978 11,630 12.288 48 For steel add 5% SO 52 54 56 S8 60 62 64 66 68 wards into the hole squeezing off the stream. Many severe burns have been caused by stopping directly against the stream. The spout is sometimes made with a side opening to carr>- off slag running on the stream of iron. This opening is made about the middle of the spout, and the trough in that vicinit)' is somewhat increased in width. About 2 inches below the side opening a fire brick is placed across the trough, leaving room below it for the iron to pass, but being low enough to skim off the slag, which runs out of the side at the opening. A swinging spout is occasionally used. This is himg on a pivot below the spout proper, and in a transverse direction- Capacities of Ladles 46s Varying from 20 to 54 Inches, Slope of Sides i^^ to i Foot Diameter of ladle at bottom, inches Depth 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 Ins. 2 568 630 694 762 832 906 984 1,064 1,146 4 1,144 1,268 1,396 1,600 1,672 1,820 1,978 2.138 2,302 6 1,728 1,914 2,106 2.310 2,522 2.774 2,982 3.222 3.469 8 2,330 2,568 2,824 3.096 3.380 3,678 3,996 4.316 4.829 10 2,930 3,330 3,552 3.892 4,248 4,622 5,019 5.420 6.063 12 3.538 3,900 4,288 4.696 5,124 S.576 6,052 6.334 7.308 14 4.154 4,578 5,032 S.510 6,012 6,540 7,09s 7.6S9 8.564 16 4.776 5,264 5,784 6.332 6,910 7,514 8,149 8,784 9.831 18 5,406 5,958 6,546 7.154 7,816 8,498 9.213 9,930 10,711 20 6,044 6,660 7.316 7,994 8,730 9,492 10,287 11,086 11.936 22 6,690 7,370 8,094 8.844 9.654 10,496 II. 371 12,253 13.212 24 7,344 8,088 8,880 9,702 10.588 11,510 12,465 13,422 14,479 26 8,006 8,816 9,676 10,570 11,532 12.533 13,569 14,623 15,757 28 8,676 9,552 10,480 11,446 12,486 13.566 14,683 15,826 17,046 30 9,354 10,296 11,294 12,334 13,450 I4.6c9 15,808 17,038 18,346 32 10.040 11,048 12,116 13,232 14.424 15.663 16.943 18,261 19,657 34 10.734 11,810 13.943 14,140 15.408 16,727 18,089 19,495 20,979 36 11,436 13,580 13.788 15,059 16,402 17,801 19.249 20,740 22,312 38 12,146 13,358 14,618 15,988 17.406 18,885 20,412 21,996 23,657 40 12.864 14,144 15.496 16,927 18,420 19.998 21.591 23,263 25,014 42 13.590 14,940 16,364 17,876 19.443 21,083 22,782 24,541 27,070 44 14,322 15,712 17,240 18,835 20,476 22,197 23.985 25,830 27,761 46 16,550 18,122 19,014 19,802 20,776 22,198 21.519 22,573 23,637 23,322 24,557 25,703 25.197 26,420 27.654 27.130 28,441 29,763 29,152 48 For steel add 5% 30,555 SO 31.920 52 24,711 26,859 28,899 31,096 33.397 S4 28,032 30.155 32,441 34.336 S6 29,223 31.422 33,798 36,287 S8 30,256 32.690 35, 166 37,750 60 33.979 36,545 39,225 62 35.279 37,941 39.343 42,312 40,712 64 66 The foundry 42,211 43,729 68 1 1 46,011 While the stream is running it can be tipped so as to let the iron run into a ladle at either side. In rapid melting this obviates stop- ping up when ladles are changed. Applying Metalloids in Ladle Where metalloids are added to the iron, if the amount to be used is sprinkled into the stream as it flows through the spout, a more intimate mixture is obtained than results from placing the material in the ladle and drawing the iron on to it. 466 The C'u|)olu Cranes The e/->^W/?/////W//^/WW//.>/W^-^^/J''/^//^///^^y>///^///. I 1 Fig. 129. Gagger Mould Gagger Mould 467 Fig. 130. By a little care all the excess iron may be put through beds as above and sent to the cupola in good shape for melting. The usual practice is to allow the bottom to remain where it drops until the next morning, simply wetting it thoroughly. Below is shown a sketch of a large rake. If the bottom is dropped on this and the mass pulled out from under the cupola (by means of a Fig. 131. chain passing through a snatch block to the crane) and then wetted down, it will be found in much better shape for picking over in the morning. The pieces of unconsumed coke should be picked out and used in core ovens, or as part of the last charge of coke, in the cupola. Little savings of this kind, although small of themselves, amount to an impor- tant item in the course of the year, particularly if the operations are extensive. CHArTKR XX MOULDING SAND MouLDiNr. sand contains from 75 to 85 i)er cent silica, with varying proportions of alumina, magnesia, lime and iron. The essential properties arc: Cohesion, Refractoriness, Permeability, Durability, Porosity, Texture. Cohesion or Bonding Power Moulding sand must possess suflkient cohesion, not only to remain in position after ramming, but to resist the pressure of the molten metal, and its abraiding action while being poured. Pure sand has no cohesive strength, but clay (double silicate of alumina) has, and as moist sands cohere more strongly than dr>', the bonding power must depend on the amount of clayey matter and water contained. The moisture must not be in excess, otherwise the sand will pack too densely. Permeability and Porosity Permeability is the yirojurty which sand possesses of allowing liquids or gases to filter through it, and depends on the size of the pores. By porosity is meant the volume of pore space. These properties are not the same. A sand may contain a few large openings through which the liquids or gases may readily escape and yet have a small pore space. On the other hand, the total pore sjjace may be large, but by reason of the small size of the pores, permeability by either liquids or gases might be dilTicult. The permeability of sand may be influenced: By the tightness of packing; By the size of the grains; By the fluxing elements in the sand. By tamping or packing, the space occupied by a given weight of sand may be reduced, as the grains are forced into their closest arrange- ment producing the minimum pore space. Fine-grained sands have larger pore space than coarse-grained. 468 Texture 469 If silt or clay are present, and segregated, the sand will pack more closely than if the grains are cemented together in the form of com- poimd grains. In the latter case the permeability and porosity would be larger than if the grains were separate. The decreased permeability under increased tamping explains why some good sands behave badly. Permeability of sand is also influenced by the amount of water present. The relation between permeability and fluxing impurities is shown in the process of casting. If the clayey particles filling the interstices of the sand fuse when heated by the metal, their coalescence in melting will close up the pores to some extent. For this reason, in part, a high percentage of fluxing impurities is undesirable. The proper permeability of a moulding sand is a matter of vital importance. A pathway must be opened for the escape of the gases to avoid blowing. The finer the sand the lower its permeability. Refractoriness A moulding sand must be sufficiently refractory to prevent complete fusion in contact with molten metal. Highly siliceous sands are, there- fore, the more desirable. At the same time a high percentage of silica is gained at the expense of alumina and a consequent loss of bonding power. Generally silica should not exceed 85 per cent. Silica is refractory, does not shrink when heated, but has no cohesive nor bonding power. Alumina, a most important component, is present in moulding sands in amounts varying from 4 to 12 per cent. It is refractory, has great bonding power, but shrinks greatly when heated. Too high a percentage of alumina makes the sand impermeable. Durability Sands begin to lose some of their desirable qualities after one or more heats and become dead or rotten. The injury to the sand arises from its dehydration, or loss of combined water by the heat of the molten metal, whereby its bonding power is destroyed. The water of com- bination cannot be restored. The amoimt of sand burned is a layer of varying thickness next to the casting. Texture By texture is meant the percentage of grains of different sizes. This is determined by passing the sand through a series of sieves of decreas- ing mesh and noting the percentage remaining on each sieve. Mr. W. G. Scott pursues the following method: "Ten grams of sand are placed on the 100- mesh sieve, together with ten Me steel balls, and shaken with a circular motion for one minute. Modeling Sand ?S ^ C> PO t>. t e • O O '^ O '^ C.O "P P< ^ VJ^O I vo r*r»rooo rOfON rO'^-r^l'-— ^*yf*)06»O i/)O<)0 ■ o»QNi-it^a»PO»oo>Nvc*^Nt>.a.NoO'^iONM ^-^o t^'O i oo « *o rn rPtMM M Hiiro u^NWMrOi-f':oovo r*io r*cnw t^o -r-rrot^ir M*fOdw«t^'*l-«M PO M O-^ MW MVJM *0 MMMNPOM ir MM 88" "as. : :§ r<5vO -^ 2 . o 0.2 ?-- o a a> o ■5 ^t":::'^^ ■Q2>iS i-i -o c" £ o l- is ' .a u 3 2: owwOtjJ ai So5a3a;4 Texture 471 The sand passing through is weighed and credited to the loo-mesh sieve. That which remains, together with the balls, is emptied on the 80-mesh sieve and the operation repeated. In like manner sieves of varying size up to 20 mesh are used. The preceding table shows the texture or sand from different localities." Lime is a fluxing element. If present as a carbonate, it loses its carbonic acid under heat, and in excessive amount the gas causes the mould to flake or crumble. Caustic lime fluxes and forms slag on sur- face of castings. Magnesia is also a flux, and to a modified extent has the effect of lime. Iron, as a carbonate or an oxide, if present in the mould near the casting, is converted into ferrous oxide, which is a flux. Combined water is present in all sands containing clay, carbonate of lime or gypsum. It is driven off at a low red heat and increases the porosity of the sand. Moulding sands are not always used alone. One or more grades are frequently mixed together. Blending is extensively practiced at the pit as well as at the foundry. In addition to blending to increase cer- tain physical properties, foreign substances, such as ground coal, graph- ite, molasses, flour, beer, linseed oil or cinders are used, either to increase the bonding power or permeability of the material. A sand deficient in its natural condition may be greatly improved by "doctoring." The sand from any one deposit does not always run uniformly, and with- out previous careful examination of the shipments, unfavorable results may appear in the foundry. The following table, taken from "The Iron Age," gives the analysis of eight different samples. Constituents Silica Alumina Ferric oxide .... Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Water Organic matter. 92.08 5.41 2.49 91.90 5.68 17 41 92 90 81. so 9.88 3.14 1.04 .65 85 Sands which contain the largest percentage of silica, suflScient alumina to impart cohesiveness and plasticity, with from i to 3 per cent of magnesia are the best for facing. Such sand should be entirely free from lime. 472 Moulding Sand Spcdfications of \V. G. Scotl, Racine, Wis. "Moulding sand for iron work generally conUiins from 75 to 85 per cent of silica; 5 to 13 per cent of alumina; less than 2.5 per cent lime and magnesia; not over 0.75 per cent soda and potash and generally less than 5 per cent oxide of iron; not more than 4 per cent of water." Sand for Brass Sand for brass may contain a much higher percentage of iron and lime without detriment. .\11 moulding sands contain more or less organic matter. Carbonate of lime must not exceed 1.5 per cent for iron sands, nor 2U per cent for brass. Iron oxide must not exceed 5.5 per cent for iron nor 7 per cent for brass sand; organic matter not to exceed i per cent. Any sand showing an excess of 13 per cent alumina will be rejected. Analysis Constituents Silica Alumina Iron oxide Lime Lime carbonate . . Magnesia Soda Potash Manganese Combined water. Organic matter. . . Specific gravity.. Fineness For light iron work 82.21 9.48 4-25 2.64 .28 2.652 85.18 For medium iron work 85. 85 8.27 2.32 • SO .29 .81 .10 .03 Trace 1.68 • IS 2.6S4 66.01 For hea\*y iron work 88.40 6.30 2.00 .78 .50 .25 1.73 .04 2.63 46.86 For light brass 78.86 7.89 S.4S .50 1.46 1.18 .13 09 Trace 3.80 .64 2.64 94.88 .\ny of these sands would answer very well so far as their chemical composition is concerned, for any class of work; but it is absolutely necessary that they should possess the proper degree of fineness. The finer sands are less siliceous and as a rule carrj' higher percentages of alumina and fluxes than coarser grades, as shown by the following table. Size 60 80 TOO 100 Silica 95.92 1.29 .56 .10 2.13 97.87 94. 35 1.47 .56 .04 3J? 96.42 94.66 1.47 .40 ■ 34 3.13 96.87 91.06 4 57 .80 .72 2.8s Total 97 IS Testing Moulding Sand 473 The greater the average fineness, the lower the permeability. Prof. Ries, from whose paper the above notes are e.xtracted, concludes that the chemical analysis of moulding sands are not of as much impor- tance as their physical properties. To test the "temper" and strength of sand, the moulder squeezes a handful into a ball. If it takes the impression of his hand readily and leaves the hand clean, it is considered sufi&ciently damp. Its strength or binding power is tested by lifting the lump from one end, or by carefully breaking it apart; or he may squeeze a ball of sand about a little stick or nail and see if it can be lifted by the stick. He then blows through it to test its porosity. Such crude tests are in constant use and, conducted by experienced moulders, serve the purpose. A. E. Outerbridge instituted a series of experiments to determine these characteristics more definitely. The following is extracted from a paper read before A.S.M.E., at their New York meeting in 1907. "A number of test bars of green sand 6" X i" X i" were made under uniform conditions of pressure, dampness and quality of material used in forming the ordinary mould. These little test bars were placed upon a smooth metal plate with sharp square edges. The bars were then pushed over the edge of the plate until they broke, when the amount of the overhang was measured. It was soon found that there was a great difference in the length of the overhang, which was regarded as a quantitative measure of the toughness of the sand. These differences were not even noticeable in the crude ball test. Samples taken from different parts of a small sand heap that had been uniformly dampened, or tempered, varied greatly in this respect, owing no doubt to the irregular distribution of the alumina or clay binder; and the correctness of this inference was subsequently confirmed by simple analytical tests. After a sufiicient number of these test bars had been made and broken to prove the reliability of the method, further tests were devised to ascertain whether the usual methods of riddling and mixing the sand for the moulder's use affected its quality either by increasing or decreasing its toughness, as shown by the amount of over- hang of similar test bars of green sand. It was proved that the more thoroughly the sand was worked, the greater the overhang, due, as al- ready stated to the more uniform distribution of the binder. "The ideal moulding sand is a material in which the individual grains of silex, constituting approximately 90 per cent of the mass, are com- pletely covered with an overcoat of alumina or clay and the more uniform the grains are in size and shape, the better is the sand with respect to porosity in relation to the average size of the grain. " It was found on passing a sample of sand a number of times through 474 Moulding Sand a haiidriddle, and making test bars from the sample after each riddling, that the overhang was increased measurably. Thus, a sample of sand, which, after tempering and mixing by hand with a shovel, showed an overhang of less than two inches of the test bar, increased to nearly three inches after a dozen riddlings. It would not be practicable to treat large masses of sand in this manner, nevertheless, the informa- tion thus obtained was (4uite valuable and led to imjwrtant practical results. "Another novel observation was concurrently made, viz., that the increased toughness and porosity noticed in these tests might be partly due to "aeration" or to the separation of the grains of sand when falling from the sieve to the floor. In order to discover the truth or falsity of this view, a quantity of sand was shaken in a box with a closed lid for several minutes and test bars were made before and after shaking. The correctness of the theory was quickly shown, for the shaking with- out sieving proved to be more effective than the sieving without shaking. Tests for porosity were also made, but these were not ver>- satisfactory owing possibly to lack of suitable means of controlling and measuring the compressed air." Using one of Wm. Seller's & Co. 's centrifugal sand mixers, the develop- ment of which was largely due to Mr. Outerbridge's experiments, a series of tests were made with facing sand prepared as follows : Strong Sand Parts Strong Lumberton sand (new) 14 Gravel (new) 7 Flour sand (old) 6 Coal dust 2 fe-^'^M?^^^-'^/f:";^'T ''"'¥'■ ''■P?! --H-i-r: ■rt-->M-;i-v-',t..;-' |-v. h-.--p':i Fig. CrL'cn Sand Test Bars made from One Sample of Sand. "Fig. 132 is from a photograph showing eleven bars 6" X i" X i", made from strong sand under uniform conditions of quantity, temper (dampness) and pressure. Testing Moulding Sand 475' "The bar labeled o was pressed from a sample of the sand after having been dampened and turned over several times, with a shovel, and only partly mixed. The object of such preHminary mixing is simply to prevent the coal dust from flying out of the centrifugal ma- chine on subsequent treatment. "The other bars were made from the same pile of strong sand, after passing through the centrifugal machine from one to ten times. These bars were laid side by side upon the smooth metal plate, resting upon a table, and were slowly pushed over the edge of the plate until they broke. " The following table gives the measurements of the overhang of each bar as nearly as the somewhat irregular shape of the break permitted. Inches No. o length of overhang 2H No. I No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 3 SV* 3^ 3^ 3H 3V^ 3'^ 3% 3H "It will be observed that the first treatment increased the overhang H inch, the subsequent treatments increased the overhang in some cases H inch, and in some cases not measurably. The first treatment was, therefore, the most effective, and for practicable purposes one treatment is often sufficient to insure good mixing of the materials and thorough disintegration of any lumps. "The strain tending to break the sand beam is increased by the additional weight of the increasing length of the overhanging portion, and also Uy the increased moment of its center gravity. It is readily seen, therefore, that an increase in length of the overhang of % inch on the first treatment in the centrifugal machine means an increased tenacity of 75 per cent. In like manner an increase in overhang of 50 per cent means an increase in strength of sand of 225 per cent. The illustration, Fig. 133, shows the fractured surfaces of the same bars. " Bar No. o shows the heterogeneous components of the partly mixed sand, while the other fractures show increasing uniformity due to more thorough mixing, and disintegration of lumps up to No. 3, after which no further increase in uniformity is observable to the eye. 476 Moulding Sand .. ijj. — Lnd V lew uf the Test Bars in Fig. 132. The illustrations convey a very fair impression of the actual appearance of the bars. The appearance of the fractured surfaces coincides with the tests for ovcrhanp, and shows that a single treatment in this machine is in many cases sutVicicnt, and two treatments are all that are usually needed with any sand mixtures. In mixing core sand containing flour, the efTectivcness of this method is still more strikingly evident, owing to the almost total disappearance of the white flour, due to its thorough commingling with the sand and coal in one treat- ment. The centrifugal machine is especially efficient in mixing sharp sand with lin- seed oil for cores. When so used it is run at a lower speed than when used for tempering and mixing moulding sand. Two treatments are sufficient to insure thorough mixing of sharp sand and oil for cores. There are many other devices for tempering and mixing sand mechan- ically, such as, shakers, revolving reels, etc., which are effective. The amount of cohesive matter, or binder, in moulding sand should be limited to that which will permit good ramming, without destroying its porosity, so that the gases will escape readil}-, without allowing the iron to penetrate. The sand in a mould next to the casting is burned and loses much or all of its cohesion. This is due to driving off the water of combination in the alumina which cannot be restored. The thickness of the layer of burned sand depends upon the size of the casting and temperature of same. It is impossible to separate all of this burned sand after the removal of the castings. Much of it gets mixed in the sand heaps, which must be strengthened from time to time with new sand. Aside from the loss of combined water and increase in iron content, chemical analysis shows little difference in the composition of new and burned sand. This is shown in the table on page 457, made by analyz- ing the same sand before and after using. Tn general, moulding sand must possess the following requirements. It must be sufTiciently porous to allow the free passage of air and the gases generated in casting. It must resist high temperature without fusing. Moulding Sand Requirements 477 It must permit of easy removal from the cold castings. When rammed into shape it must be firm and sufficiently compact to resist the pressure of the liquid metal. It must be strong enough to resist the abraiding action of the stream of metal entering the mould. Constituents New Burned Silica 83.49 7.25 4-71 .36 .35 1.30 .41 ■ 30 1.66 82.32 7.80 3.98 .54 .41 1.64 .81 .22 ■ 19 2.38 100.28 60.80 Alumina Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Water Total 99.86 64.50 For Dry Saiid Moulding Any sand which, when rammed, will permit of drying into a compact, coherent but porous mass, will answer the purpose of a dry sand mix- ture. Many green sands dry into friable masses. Such sands must be mixed with some substance to give them strength. For such purpose, flour, stale beer, molasses-water, or clay-wash may be usid. When flour is used, it is mixed in the proportion of one to twenty or thirty, depending upon the character of the sand. With some sands the flour may be dispensed with and the sand strengthened sufficiently with molasses-water or clay wash. In dry sand moulds, only one or two inches of the sand next the pattesn are of the prepared mixture. The remainder of the flask is filled with ordinary heap sand. This should be as open as possible to permit the ready escape of the gases. The facing should likewise be as open as can be safely worked. The amount of moisture should be about the same as is used in green sand. Dry sand facings must be thoroughly well mixed. Mr. West gives the following mixtures for dry sand facings. For Large Spur Gears Parts Lake sand 12 Strong loam, sand 12 Moulding sand 4 Coke, amount i-io Flour iM Wet with water. 47^ Moulding Sand Ur Pari Moulding sand i Jersey sand i Fire s;ind i Sen coal 1-16 Wet with thin clay wash. I'or Close Facing p^^ Moulding sand 6 Lake or bank sand i "-i Flour i-so Wet with clay wash. This mixture may be used for blacking, using ilour 1-40. For Cylinders p^^ Fair loam 4 Lake sand i Sea coal or coal dust 1-14 Wet with clay wash. General Work _ _^ Part Moulding sand i Bank sand i Flour 1-30 Sea coal 1-20 Wet with clay wash. Or Parts Strong loam sand 6 Lake sand 6 Old drj' sand :; Flour 1-40 Sea coal 1-14 Wet with water. For Rolls n . Parts Dry sand 2 Lake sand i Sea coal 1-12 Flour 1-18 Wet with clay wash. For Renewing Old Dry Sand for Body of MoMs ^ Old sand 16 Lake sand 8 New loam 4 Wet with water. Core Sand 479 Dry Sand Moulds Old dry sand becomes very close. It should be passed through a No. 8 riddle to remove the dust and very fine particles, material mixed with new sand works well. The coarse Skin Drying Instead of making dry sand moulds which are baked in the oven, moulds are more frequently "skin dried." Skin dried moulds are essentially the same as "dry sand" except that the drying does not extend to as great depths and the facing is not as strong. For skin dried moulds mix with ordinary heap sand about i to 30 flour. After the mould is finished sprinkle with molasses water. The mould is dried either with the kerosene blow torch, or fire of wood, coke or char- coal, built in iron baskets which are placed in the mould. Often the mould is covered with sheet iron and fires are built on top of the iron. In drying copes, they are suspended and fires built under them. Before drying, the moulds are brushed with black wash, made of plum- bago and water, to which a little molasses water or clay wash is added. Sometimes moulds are black washed after drying. Core Sand Core sand should be high in silica and low in alumina. A sand con- taining much alumina does not permit the ready escape of gases after baking. Analyses of Core Sands (W. G. Scott) Constituents Good quality core sand Fair quality- core sand Silica 94.30 1. 95 .33 1.63 69.31 4.76 1. 58 3.50 8.19 7.77 .12 2.95 1.82 Lime carbonate .54 .05 1.05 .15 Alkalies Combined water Organic matter "Since the greater portion of a core is to be entirely surrounded by metal, the sand of which it is composed encounters conditions much 4S0 Moulding Sand more st-verc than lliosc mul wiili l)y facing siinds. Three conditions must be noted. First. — The core is subjected to much handling. Second. — The gases generated in casting must find egress through the core and not through the metal. Third. — The core has fmally to be removed from the casting. "All cores, before entering the mould, are dried, and in this condition must be hard enough to permit handling, and porous enough to admit the free escape of gases. Yet the sand must not be burned or converted into a compact mass by the heat; if so, it will be e.xtrcmely dilDcult t<3 remove from the casting. "A sand high in silica should yield the best results. To such a sand the necessary bond must be added. An ideal core sand is one in which the silica is given bond by the addition of an organic substance, which produces a firm core, capable of withstanding high temperatures and resisting the penetrating action of fluid metal. Such a core is friable in tlie cold casting, and is, therefore, easily removed. "If bond is given to silica by clayey matter alone, then the metal bakes the cores hard, and renders their removal dilUcult. "A hard surface imparted to the sand by ramming is fatal, as fluid metal will not lie on it, but a hard surface resulting from the binder does not necessarily represent an impervious one, and fluid metal will usually lie quietly on it. Heat tends to loosen a sand made hard in this way, instead of fusing it. Core Mixtures "There should be just enough bonding material in a core mixture to coat each individual grain of sand, without filling the interstices between the grains, and the value of the core depends greatly upon the tliorough- ness with which the mixture is incorporated. Too much attention cannot be given to this feature. As a rule mechanical mi.xers give the best results. The binders in common use are Flour. Linseed oil. Glue, Rosin, Molasses, Rosin oil. In addition to these there are many commercial binders of more or less value, all of them designed to offer a binder cheaper than those above mentioned. Cores made with flour, glue or molasses soften quickly when exposed to dampness. Therefore they must be kept in a dry place, or used soon after they are made. The moulds in which they are placed should be Dry Binders 481 poured shortly after the cores are set. If allowed to stand for a period of 24 hours, the cores should be taken out and dried. Cores made with glue are very friable when hot and must be handled with great care. Less gas is given off by them than by those made with any other binder. Glue cores leave a smoother hole and do not require to be blackened as do flour cores. Flour is mixed with sand in proportions varying from i to 18, to i to 30, depending upon the strain which the core is to resist. The weaker the mixture, the more readily the gas escapes. Glue is first soaked in warm water and then boiled until entirely dis- solved. Glue water should consist of 2 pounds of glue to 3 gallons of water. This mixture is sufficient to treat 100 pounds sand. Rosin must be first pulverized; it is then mixed with sand in propor- tions of I to 20, or I to 30, as required. Rosin oil is used i to 18, or i to 24 as the requirements of the case indicate. Molasses, mixed i to 20 water is used more for spraying cores to give a hard surface, than for entire mixtures. Linseed oil with sharp sand, mixed about i to 30 furnishes the best core of all binders. It is strong, porous and is easily removed from the casting. For light, delicate cores, such as gas engine and automobile work it is unequaled. Large percentages of old cores, gangway sand and moulding sand may be used in the core mixtures. Core sand should be quite damp for use, but not so wet as to adhere to the core box. Wet sands require much less binder than dry. A saving may be made in the use of flour by boiling it thoroughly and then using the paste (very thin) to wet the sand. As already mentioned, the more thoroughly the binder is incorporated with the sand, the better will be the cores. Mr. A. M. Loudon made an extensive series of experiments to deter- mine the comparative values of various core binders, and published the results in a most interesting paper presented to the American Foundry- men's Association at the Cleveland meeting 1906. From it the follow- ing extensive extracts are made. Dry Binders Test No. I. — Flour sand core mixture. p New moulding sand 2 New fire sand i Flour I to 12 and i to 18 Wet down with thick clay wash. 4S2 Moulding Sand Cures from this mixture are usually very strong. If not thoroughly dried or if slightly burned or scorched, cause great trouble by blowing or scabbing. Cores were removed from castings with difficulty. Be- came damp in mould quickly, especially small cores. Test No. 2. — Syracuse dry core compound mixture. Old flour sand V4 New moulding ^ Sharp or beach V^ One part binder to 35 parts sand thoroughly tempered with water. Cores made from this mi.xturc dried quickly, were clean and sharp and left good surface on castings. Resisted dampness well. Mr. Loudon states that the dampness test for each mixture was to dij) a core partly in water, allowing it to stand after removal from the water for two or three days to air dry only. Iron was then cast in an open mould around the end which had been immersed. Test No. 2. — Included the water test as did all the other tests for dry and oil binders, the conditions being the same for all. The binder used in Test No. 2 stood the water test in a manner en- tirely satisfactory. The hot iron came in contact with the core without any disturbance. This binder in Mr. Loudon's judgment is best suited to large plain work, or small round and square cores. Test No. 3. — Dextrin or British gum mixture. Per cent Old flour sand 5° New moulding sand 25 Beach or sharp sand 25 I part binder to 150 parts sand, tempered with water. This mixture was valuable for large cores, strong, with sharp edges and easily dried. If the cores are burned in the oven, wash with some of the binder dissolved in water, and dry in oven for ten minutes. They are thus completely restored. For small intricate cores the following mbcture was used. Per cent Old sand 33 New moulding sand 33 Sharp sand 33 1 part dextrin to 100 parts sand. \ core from this mixture was treated by the water test, and allowed lo stand for two days. It resisted the action of melted iron better than cores from many nuxtures, when fresh from the oven. Dry Binders 483 Test No. 4. — Wago core-compound mixture. Per cent Old sand 33 New moulding sand 33 Sharp sand 33 I part Wago to 30 parts sand. Made a good core; did not gum the box, and gave off very little smoke. A second mixture made from Wago: Per cent New moulding sand 50 Sharp sand 50 I part Wago to 35 parts sand. Unusually strong, true and sharp, but not as easily removed from casting as the first mixture with Wago. One of these cores was dipped in water and left for two days to air dry. The melted iron was perfectly quiet when poured around it. Test No. 5. — Cleveland core-compound mixture. Per cent Old sand 33 Sharp sand 33 New moulding sand 33 I part binder to 30 parts sand tempered with warer. Strong core, easily removed from casting, very satisfactory for general use. A mixture i part binder to 40 sand was tried, but cores were too soft. Cores from the i to 30 mixture when submitted to the water test gave excellent results. Test No. 6. — Peerless core-compound mixture. Per cent Old sand 33 Sharp sand 33 New moulding 33 I part binder to 30 parts sand. The mixture as above given was unsatisfactory, therefore, the follow- ing mixture was tried. I part binder to 20 parts sand. This was satisfactory, being strong and true to box, but harder to remove from castings than most of those previously tested. It gave good results when submitted to the water test. The iron showed no signs of blowing. 4S4 Moulding Sand Tests Nos. 7, 8, 9 were made from sam|)lcs of flour submitted. Sand mixed in same proportions as before. Thus, tiic first sample of Hour was mixed with 15 sand, the second sample of flour was mixed with 18 sand, the third sample of flour was mixed with 20 sand. These were made as comparative tests of the diflcrent samples of flour. 1. Made tlie strongest core, but was the most difficult to remove from the casting. 2. Good for general work. 3. Was too soft. A mixture of i to 18 from 3 to 9 was good, better than Nos. 2 to 8 in same proportion. Each of the above mixtures was subjected to water test and failed. When withdrawn from the water and held in hori- zontal position, thej' broke at the line of submersion. Nos. 2 and 3 were not as good in this respect as No. i. The cores from the peerless compound and most of the others resisted the water so that it could be wiped off with a rag without injuring the cores. Test No. 10. — Paxton dry compound mixture. Percent Sharp sand 33 New moulding sand 33 Old sand 33 I part compound to 30 parts sand, made a very soft core. When mixed i to 20 it made a very strong core. One of these when subjected to the water test went to pieces, while the last mixture made a strong open core. It is readily affected by moisture. Liquid Core Binders Test No. II. — Holland linseed mixture. Parts Sharp sand 30 Oil I Made a strong core for small and medium shapes, but required vent- ing. A core from this mixture immersed in water for half an hour was returned to the oven and dried. It was then as good as any which had not been immersed. Test No. 12. — Syracuse core oil mixture. Parts Sharpsand 35 Oil I Moulding Sand Mixtures 485 Tempered with water and well mixed. These cores were excellent; without vents were not satisfactory. A core from this mixture was immersed for 15 hours, taken out and dried in the oven for 15 minutes. Molten iron when cast about it showed no disturbance. Tests Nos. 13, 14, 15. — Sterling oil samples from each of above were mixed at same time. Mixture Parts Sand 3S Oil I Nos. I and 2 of these samples showed too much oil. No. 3 was about right. Another mixture was then made. Parts Sand 45 Oil I Nos. I and 2 dried out quickly and made good strong cores, but when subjected to the water test the moisture acted quickly upon them, more so than on the other sand and oil mixtures. The cores were strong and were easily cleaned from the castings, but moulds which were left over night, and poured the next day blew very badly. Test No. 16. — Gluten or Esso mixture. Percent New sand 33 Sharp sand 3^ Old sand 33 Gluten I part to 30 parts sand Cores were so hard that the iron would not lay to them. One part gluten to 50 parts sand, — cores were good, sharp and strong. Iron somewhat disturbed. The gluten was mixed with water and the sand tempered with water. One part gluten to 70 parts sand. These cores were soft and did not stand the fire as well as the others. When subjected to water as before I to 30 stood very well, I to 50 became soft, I to 70 melted like sugar, showing that for a free core, one not inclined to blow, i to 70 took moisture very quickly. Test No. 17. — Glue melted in hot water mixture. p^j. ^^^^^ New moulding sand 25 Sharp sand 4. 25 Old sand 50 I pound of glue to 100 pounds of sand for small cores. I pound of glue to 150 pounds of sand for large cores. 486 Moulding Sand Lump or granulated glue, llic ( hcajK-r llie IjcUcr. The glue water was made by dissolving two pounds of glue in three gallons of water. Cores from the first of the glue mixture when submitted to the water test absorbed water but hold their shajjc. After redrj'ing were as g(xxl as when first made. Should such cores be burned in the oven, washing them with a mixture of plumbago and glue water restores them. Mr. Loudon highly recommends the first of the above glue mixtures, using it for cores without vents for small port cores. Cores made from it can safely be used for all purposes, taking care to iiave them thoroughly dried. Cores for large beds have remained in the mould three and four days without causing trouble. Test No. 18. — Glucose melted with hot water mi.xture. „ Per cent Sharp sand 33 New moulding sand ^^ Old sand ^^ I pound of glucose to 100 pounds of sand. Cores of every description were first class, easily dried, easily cleaned from casting, emitting no smoke. They acted like green sand cores, dried and gave good results in every respect. Parting Sand The particles of burned sand, having been deprived of combined mois- ture will not cohere. Such sand, taken from the cleaning room, is used to separate the parts of the moulds and is also dusted on patterns to prevent the moulding sand from adhering to them. A most excellent parting sand for intricate work is made by saturat- ing very fine burned sand with kerosene or crude oil, and setting fire to the mixture. Lycopodium is also used for parting in particular work, but the high price subjects it to adulteration. Facings When molten iron comes in contact with a sand mould it tends to penetrate the pores of the sand and to fuse the particles in immediate contact, leaving a rough surface or scale, varying in thickness from H* to H of an inch, depending on the weight of the casting. Facing sands containing large p#rcentages of carbonaceous material are used to prevent this difficult}' and to lea\'e smooth surfaces on the castings. The carbon of the facing is decomposed by the heat, and the Facings 487 gases generated prevent the hot iron from attacking the sand. Facing sand which is composed of ground coal (sea coal), and sand in the pro- portions of from I coal to 8 sand, and i coal to 20 sand, depending upon the character of the work, is placed next to the pattern in a layer from H to i^^ inches in thickness. Back of this and completely filling the flask is the heap, or floor sand. By the continued use of facing the floor sand becomes black with it. The term facing includes Sea coal, Coal dust, Plumbago, Charcoal. Talc (or soapstone) , It must adhere to the surface of the mould and cause the casting to peel when shaken out. Sea coal is a ground bituminous gas coal, free from sulphur and slate. It is mixed mechanically with new moulding sand in the proportion of I to 10, usually, and used generally on all work. For the purpose of obtaining smoother and brighter surfaces than result from the use of sea coal alone as a facing, the moulds are finished with plumbago or some mixture of which plumbago is the base. Plumbago is the best of all materials for this purpose. Soapstone is used largely in connection with plumbago as an adulter- ant, as also are coke dust and the dust of anthracite coal. The facing is applied to the mould either by hand, with a camel's hair brush, or it is mixed with molasses water and applied by a spray or with a brush. The latter method is usually used on dry sand moulds. Mr. W. G. Scott gives the analysis of Yougheogheny gas coal, from which the best "sea coal" facing is made as follows: Per cent Moisture i . 00 Sulphur 0.33 Volatile matter 35 • 00 Ash 5 ■ 60 Fixed carbon 58 07 Specific gravity i . 28 Cannel coal is also used as facing and analyzes as follows: Moisture 3 . 30 Sulphur o. 20 Volatile matter 48 . 50 Ash 6 . 00 Fixed carbon 42.00 Specific gravity 1.229 "Sulphur and ash are the two constituents of sea coal to be guarded against. If sulphur exceeds 0.75 the coal is inferior, and if sulphur is in excess of 1.5, the coal is unsuitable for facing. "Facing containing over 11 per cent ash ought not to be used. "Slack and culm are often ground and used as adulterants, but are readily detected by the amount of ash present. 488 Moulding St.uifl Graphite Facing "Pure gr;ii)hile contains al)oui <)') per on them and do no harm; and the comljined area of the tops makes a splendid store- room for systematically keeping foundry tools." " .'Vltogether the ovens are a success, and a credit to their designer, the late Mr. Halloway. " Note. — Only one of the ovens is shown in the sketch. The other two are in all respects the same as the one shown. Another excellent design for a large oven is shown on page 129, West's "American Foundry- Practice." A description of one good oven is all that can be permitted here. The essential requirements for an oven are good draught and means for regulating it. Where the fire is made directly in the oven, as is frequently the case, there should be openings into the chimney at the top and bottom, with dampers for changing the direction and regulating the draught. There should also be a damper on top of the chimney so as to retain the heal when the fire is not urged. Aside from coal and coke, crude oil and natural gas are used for heating. The temperature of the ovens should range from 450° to 900° F. and must be varied somewhat according to the core sand mi.xtures. Flour sand requires a higher temperature than rosin or oil. The workmen soon learn the part of the oven in which the drying is most rapid and place the cores where they will dry quickly or slowly as re- quired. A pyrometer is a most valuable attachment and will often prevent the destruction of cores by overheating. The doors to these ovens are usually made in one piece of sheet iron and arc provided with counter weights, so as to permit of being raised or lowered easily. In some cases they are made of overlapping, plain or corrugated strips, which are wound upon rollers. Core Oven Carriages These are mounted on wheels having anti-friction bearings. The top of the carriage extends over on each side as far us convenient. The carriages have usually three or more decks as required. The whole Wire Cutter 497 is made up of bars and angles properly trussed, and left as open as possible, for the passage of hot air to the cores. The track should be evenly laid, so that there may be no jarring as the car passes over it. Mixing Machines Machines for this purpose are of greatest value to the core room. The worth of a binder and that of a core depends largely upon the thorough incorporation of the components of the core. Each individual grain of sand should receive a coating of the binding material, but the latter should not be present in such quantity as to fill up the pores of the sand. To accomplish this result requires long-continued manipu- lation. The best results are obtained by a mechanical mixer, driven by power or by hand, as the conditions permit. A machine of this sort is indispensable in a well-appointed core room. There are many different kinds on the market. The centrifugal machine is, perhaps, the most desirable. Sand Conveyors Many of the large foundries are provided with sand elevators and conveyors, whereby the sand after mixing is carried to the bench of each core maker and delivered through spouts. The necessity for appliances of this sort will be indicated by the extent and character of the work, simply bearing in mind that the core maker should have the sand delivered to him. Rod Straighteners Core wires and rods by use become crystallized, and bent in all manner of shapes; so that it is not unusual to find about core rooms, large heaps of material of this kind, which are picked over by the core maker in search of what he requires. In this condition it is practically worth- less; therefore the expense for wire and rods is not inconsiderable. By annealing they may be softened, and if then passed through a straight- ener are rendered serviceable. Both hand and power machines for this purpose are made. Wire Cutter A. machine for this purpose is very useful where there are many small cores of a kind to be made. Otherwise the common hand cutter serves the purpose. 408 Tin- Core Room Jind Appurtenances Sand Driers A SJind drit-r is frequently very e made by taking a sheet-iron cylinder from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, and say 5 feet long. Surround this by an inverted sheet-iron frustum of a cone, having a diameter at the base sudi that the space Ijetween it and the cylinder may contain any desired amount of sand. Near the intersection of the cone and cylinder there should be two or more small sliding doors. Mount the cylinder on a grate for coke; provide a cover for the top for checking the fire. This costs little and will dry sand very rapidly. The cut below shows a drier in freciuenl use. The Champion Sand Dryer Capacity, 20 tons dail)-. Reciuires less fuel and has greater capacity than any of the dr>'ers now in use, and being made of cast iron throughout, will outlast any _^_, made partially of sheet iron. The parts, being made interchangeable, can be replaced at any time. Set the dryer upon a solid foundation, and first placing casting No. i. in position, follow up with the other casting as numbered. No. .Vsh pan and base. Flat rings, with slides. Wide ring of outside casing. Fire box. Rings with which to form casing. Center pipe. Outside pipes. Plates to secure top of pipes. Cover for pipes and seat for stove pipe. Flaring ring. '■ II. Slide. " 12. Door. Nos. 13 and 14. Grates. Fire lightly, being careful not to get the dryer too hot. Never leave the dryer full of sand with a lire in it; and do not attempt to use it for heating purposes, as it radiates no heat outside the casing. Core Plates and Driers \ great variety of core plates, varying in sizes, is required. These plates are usually rectangular and for sizes less than 12 X 20 are it inch Cranes and Hoists 499 thick. Larger plates are thicker. Each must be smooth and true on one side; on the opposite side are cast stiffening strips. Larger plates are of sizes and shapes required. For work of extreme accuracy, the plates should be planed on one side. The exposure of these plates to frequent heating and cooling finally warps them to such an extent that they become unserviceable. There should be racks for the storage of these plates so that any size desired may be quickly found. Irregular shaped cores which cannot be turned out on flat plates, or which must be supported in drying, require iron shapes made to conform to one of the surfaces of the core. The shapes are in reality portions of the core boxes. The cores are baked on them, thereby retaining the original form when dried. The expense for driers is often great, therefore they should be handled carefully, and put away with the core boxes to which they belong. Core Machines Wliere great numbers of small cores of uniform cross section, round, square, oval, polygonal or rectangular are used, a core machine is of the greatest value. One of these machines will make 200 or 300 linear feet of small core in an hour. The cores are pushed out of a former as sausage from a sausage machine, on to metal drying trays. The cores are cut up into lengths as required and pointed to fit the prints. There are several different machines of this kind made, but the differences are not important. Machines Moulding machines are used in making cores for plain work, where the demand for the product warrants. Machines for making straw rope. These are little used except in pipe foundries. It occasionally happens in a jobbing foundry that a rope body for a core is required. In such a case the rope is made by hand. Straw rope is furnished by supply houses at low cost. Cranes and Hoists The requirements and location of these implements are regulated by the character of, and demand for, the work. Where the work is large there should be a traveling crane covering the track and the "big floor. " Circumstances will dictate in such cases. 500 The Core Room and Appurtenances Oilier ai)i)lianccs arc screw clamps, spike claws, glue heaters, clay tubs, horses, etc. In view of the great number of implemenlii nccdetl about a core room, the necessity for adequate room, that the place may be kept neatly, orderly, and as cleanly as possible, will be apparent; and as the production of good castings depends upon the character of the cores, as well as upon that of the moulds, the neglect to provide proper facilities for the core maker is inexcusable. CHAPTER XXII THE MOULDING ROOM Too much attention cannot be given, in selecting a location for a foundry, to the character of the ground; good drainage is a primary requisite. Gravelly subsoil is altogether desirable. If the natural features of the situation do not permit proper drainage, the surface should be raised b}' proper filling so that the floor may be at least one foot above the ground exterior to the foundry. Much damage often results from the flooding of the floor during severe storms. Pits of greater or less depth have frequently to be made in the floor for heavy castings, and if the ground is not well drained great expense may be involved in keeping the pits dry. In preparing the moulding floor the surface soil should be removed and replaced with coarse sandj'^ loam. After this is leveled it should be covered with from 2 to 3 inches of moulding sand, rammed and leveled. Provide gangways of liberal width, one leading from the cupola and others perpendicular to it. The number and location of the gangways and the subdivisions of the floor are dependent on the character of the business. The main gangways, particularly the one leading out of the foundry, should be supplied with railroad tracks of standard gauge, connected to the switching sj'stem. Where it will best serve the purpose, ample space should be set aside for the Foundry Oflice and Pattern Loft. In the selection of this space regard should be had for access to the pattern storage. If at one end of the shop, it may be overhead. The proper lighting of a foundry is a matter of the greatest impor- tance. The windows should be large and close together, and all light possible admitted through the roof. The monitor roof is generally adopted, but the saw tooth or weaving shed roof serves well. What- ever style is adopted, it should carry provisior for good ventilation. No investment can make larger returns than that expended in procuring a well lighted foundry floor. Lavatories and closets are located where most convenient. SOI 502 'I'lic Moulding Room Cranes Unless the shop is small, or all the work light, a traveling crane is indispensable. The capacity and span of the ciane is governe} No. 2 is an unattached hook which is often found very convenient. Nos. 3, 3, 3 show different forms of change hooks. They are used in shifting a load from one crane to another. Fig. 137. Lifting Beams 503 Nos. 4 and 5 "S. & C. " hooks, made very heavy, are in frequent demand in connection with heavy lifting. No. 6 is the form of hook usually attached to slings for lifting iron flasks. They are made with flat or chisel points from ili to 3 inches wide. No. 7 is the ordinary chain hook. No. 8 is a claw hook for shortening hitches and adjusting chain lengths. No. 9 represents beam slings for hoisting copes, rolling flasks, etc. The hooks should be flat and thin, so as to engage easily in the long links A, A. There should be two or more of these long links in each chain, spaced at equal distances. Several pairs of these slings about every foundry where the lifting is by cranes are most convenient. No. 10 shows a most serviceable sUng. It is usually fitted with grab hooks like No. 6. No. 1 1 is a rigid beam sling used on flasks with trunnions. There should be two or more pairs of this type of sling. Another form of trunnion sling is made of a large strap ring to which is attached a short chain with hook or ring for engaging the crane chains. No. 12 is the ordinary turn- buckle, an invaluable implement; of which there should be several pairs of varying strength. Fig. 138. Lifting Beams No. 13 shows a light forged beam, or spreader. This is most con- venient especially for light work. The usual lifting beam is made of cast iron with notches for slings. While such a beam is very serviceable, it is too heavy to handle for moderate weights and unsafe for heavy loads. No. 14 shows a beam made of oak reinforced with iron straps. Such a beam is light and may be used for moderately heavy loads. S04 The Moulding Room Fig. 139. No. 15 for licavy loads. The fjeam should be made of steel I beams, or chan- neb, and to carrj' any load to the full capacity of the crane. Where very large and heavy cojjcs are to be lifted, the beam is frequently made in the form of a cross, so that attachment can be made in four or more places, dis- tributing the strain on the cope as desired. The following table gives the dimensions of I beams and loads they may safely carry. The tabic is calcu- lated for an extreme fibre stress of 12,000 pounds per square inch. Safe Loads for Lifting Beams Safe load for Depth of Weight Area of Width of extreme fibre between slings I beam, per foot. section, square Thickness of web flange. stress of 12,000 pounds inches pounds inches per square inch, pounds 8 6 16 4.7 .26 363 4.772 10 6 16 4.7 .26 3.63 3.818 8 8 22 6.S .27 4.S 8.983 10 8 22 6.S .27 4S 7.18s 10 10 33 9-7 .37 5.0 I2.goo 12 10 33 9-7 .37 SO I0.7S0 10 12 40 II. 7 .39 S.SO I8.7S3 13 12 40 II. 7 .39 S-SO IS.627 14 IS 80 23.S .77 6.41 29.937 16 IS 80 23. S .77 6.41 26,aoo 16 20 80 23. S .60 7.00 36.22s 18 20 80 23. S .60 7.00 32.200 18 24 80 23. S •SO 6.9s 38.136 20 24 80 23. S .SO 6.9S 34.323 Binder Bars S05 No. 16 shows a cross with detachable arms. This is frequently used for large copes or rings, where the points of attachment must be dis- tributed equally. It does not answer for very great weights. Crosses with shorter arms cast in one piece are often of great service. The foundry supplies itself with such appliances as occasion requires. n Fig. 140. Binder Bars Binder bars are usually made of cast iron, except for very heavy work, when steel beams are used. The binders are ordinarily made in open sand with the ends slotted for bolts. For heavy work holes are made in the ends instead of slots. .. ■- upper Rib for Heavy Sars Fig. 141. The binders are held by bolts to similar bars under the bottom board of flask, or are fastened to anchors in the floor. For safe loads on steel I beams employed as binders, multiply the loads given in the table on page 504. Binder bars for supporting sides of flasks are of same character as those for holding down copes, except that they are shorter and not as heavy. 5o6 The Moulding Room Clamps There arc many types of clamps on the market. Adjustable, steel and malleable iron, but it is extremely doubtful if anything has lx^cn found to take the place of the common, old fashioned, cast-iron cUimp and wooden wedge. A large assortment of the sizes in ordinar>' u.sc should l>e kept on hand. Where vcr>' long ones are required D wrought iron bars arc bent to shape. It is the better practice, howe\er, to use binders in place of exceedingly long clamps. ^ i7 ^ Fig. 142. Fig. 145. Iron flasks are frequently held together by short clamps on tie flanges. Flasks The wood flask has been used for ages and has served its purpose most admirably. Wood, however, is becoming so ex-pensive that the iron or steel flask is rapidly superseding it. Cast-iron flasks arc so durable and so easily made, that an assortment covering the ordinary range of work is almost indispensable. The ordinary wooden flask is nothing more than a plain box. For light work it is made of 2-inch plank, of width and other dimensions to suit the requirements. Fig. 144 shows the ordinar}- wood flask for light work; the ends are gained into the sides ]n inch and spiked. The upper part is called the cope and the bottom the nowel or drag. The depth of these parts depends entirely on the pattern. It is essential that the joint at "A" should be a plane surface. or as the workmen say, "out of wind. " Fig. 144. £.j(,], f\^^ jg provided with a bottom board B. This is made of boards one inch thick, nailed to battens. The limit for copes made with no support for the sand except that of Nowel oFDrscj^^^ I [ fmmmW}w/////////W^ 77m7m Flasks 507 the wood sides is about 20 X 20 depending largely upon the character of the moulding sand. For larger flask-bars, boards iV4 inch thick are placed crosswise of the cope and about 6 or 8 inches apart. The cope is also strengthened by rods at the end .r running from side to side. The rods should have large washers under the nuts. There should be one or more rods at each. end depending upon the depth of the cope. The lower edges of the bars are chamfered to sharp edges, and the edges are kept from ?4 to I inch away from the pattern, the bars having been cut to con- form to the general shape of the pattern. Where the distance between the edges of the bars and the surface of the pattern is more than ?4 inch, nails are driven slantwise into the bars so that their heads may come within three-quarters inch of pattern. The cope is coated with thick clay wash before placing it in position to receive the sand. The ordinary medium-sized wood cope is gener- ally made as shown in sketch below. (t ^ui -M^ < ■^^ -•^^ °) Fig. 145. H^l ^ The short bars A, A are used where the copes are over 24 inches wide. The following table showing the thickness of plank desirable for flasks of different dimensions is copied from the Transactions of the American Foundrymen's Association. The table is based on a depth of 6 inches for copes and drags. For each additional depth of 6 inches, the thickness should be increased 25 per cent. 5o8 'I'hc Moulding Rckjiti Square flasks. Sides, Bars. inches inches inches 34 and under jH I 24-36 2 1^4 36-48 24 ll-i 48-60 3 l''i Rectangular flasks 18x48 3 I 18x60 2 I 18x72 2]^ I 18x84 2]ri I 24X48 2 iH 24x60 2 iM 24x72 2!^ 1K4 24x84 2M iW 36x48 2\U iL up edgewise like troughs, so that the °~^{| [7"° greatest length and breadth will be at the middle of the section. These arc more expensive to mould and present no advantages over the flask with flat sides as shown in fjg. 148. Fig. 148. Fig. 149. An assortment of small flasks of this description, ranging from 12 X 14 to 16 X i8 is of great value to any foundr>-. Iron flasks of medium and large sizes are best made in sections and bolted together. Flasks of this stjde are made and fitted up very quickly. .\ few [)attcrns answer for a large assortment. With proper stop-ofi's, the ends and sides can be lengthened or shortened as desired. Where the copes are too large to be lifted off by hand, bosses are cast on the end. These arc drilled to receive a yoke and the cope may then be lifted by crane and turned. If the flask is heavier than can be safely lifted with such a yoke, trunnions may be made on the ends and heavier lifting gear emplojxd. The requirements for hea\"y flasks are so varied that it is impossible to specify any general type. By making them in standard sections as much as possible, having Iron Flasks 511 the parts interchangeable, a rectangular flask of almost any required dimensions may be constructed. By so doing the number of flasks is greatly reduced. Section A-B 15 a goolpogj 1 0^1^ j3 00 ,£1,0 a 1 m a o'T'o 0' 'H'o 00 00 000 0000 ooooo 9y Fig. 150. Care must be taken to number and store the parts systematically so that they may be readily accessible. It is seldom that a large flask will need to be less than 6 feet by 8 feet, and 12 inches deep. Starting with the end pieces 6 feet X i foot, and having four distance pieces, each i, 2, 3 and 4 feet long, ends can be assembled 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 feet long; by duplicating the parts, the depth of cope or drag can be made any number of even feet. Where the depth of cope or drag is over one foot, it is desirable to break joints in lapping the sections. It is better to have the trunnion plates loose, so that they may be bolted to any of the 4 or 6 feet lengths. o C Fig. 151. The top and bottom edges must be planed and the holes in ends and sides drilled to templets. Flanges top and bottom must be from $H to 4 inches wide, and the 4 and 6 feet sections drilled at the center of flanges for pins. The si; 'I'hc MouMiiiK Room pl:ine> iiicii thicii and the flanges i ' < inches. Tlic lifting is in most cases done by attaching to the flanges, but wiierc the weight is loo great to be -;ifely borne by these flanges, heavy wrought-iron loops are bolted to the sections, for points of attach- ment. On page gS, "American Foundr>- Practice," Mr. West shows an admirable form of extension flask for moderate sizes. "The handles W, W, are of wrought iron cast into the flask. They are placed on a slant so as to be in line with the chains when lifting. Guides A", A' should be cast on for driving stakes along the side. The plate Y forms the end of flask. Should it be desired to make the flask longer, distance pieces may be bolted in between the flask proper and the plate Y. TI a ! i Fig. 152. ^ r N» I :>0_ .J afJ 1 TT X" I. ^r Lim ToTy ■oi) "Tjo Fig. 153. "To accomplish the same purpose, the whole flask may be cast in one piece, and the bottom edge of Y cut out ^i of an inch so there may be no bearing on the joints. When a longer flask is wanted a section may be bolted to it. Tliis is not as desirable as the form shown in sketch. " Flasks of this style are commonly used as copes to cover bedded work. Iron Flasks 513 Where the conditions do not warrant the extension flask as above described special flasks are more or less in demand. 30 Jo 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 or [_ Jo -.00 ->o 000 000 000 000 000 000 000] 1 o[; ,- oL Jo -,00 Jo 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 or ° ° r oL Fig. 154. The above sketch represents an ordinary heavy flask (cope) say 6' X 12' X 3'. In making large door frames, where the interior of the flask is not used, or for similar work, it is customary to have the flask follow the outline of the pattern and leave the interior vacant as shown in sketch below. , , "^ T1 ^3 t=^ Fig. 155. Flasks are made in all sorts of irregular shapes both in plan and eleva- tion, as necessitated by the patterns. The bottom plates of heavy flasks are made of cast iron. These are fastened to the bottom flange of the drag by short heavy clamps. Thus. Circular flasks are in common use. They serve as copes to wheels cast in the floor and for other purposes. For large wheels which are swept up, instead of sweeping out the face in a pit, large rings are used for the cheek. The arms and hub are made with ^^^- ^5^' cores and interior of wheel swept up and not disturbed subsequently. 514 The Moulding Room The check is rammed up against segments, and when hfled gives free access to all parts for finishing. Fig. 157 For wheels 16 to 18 feet in diameter the cheeks are commonly made in si.\ segments, which are bolted together. Fig. 158 Flasks made of sheet steel pressed to shape are light and convenient. They are, however, mudi more expensive. They are not as durable as cast-iron flasks, and when worn out are of no value; whereas with the cast flasks, noth- ing is lost but the labor. The cuts following from a manufacturer's catalogue show standard tj-pes of light and heavy flasks. ^l. ^fil Fig. 159. Sterling Steel Flasks 515 Sterling Steel Flasks The scarcity and increased cost of good flask lumber is making it necessary for foundrymen to consider other flasks than wooden ones. The line of steel flasks shown herewith combine strength, durability, lightness and efficiency. They will give splendid service. They have in many instances entirely supplanted wooden flasks, to the advantage of the user in every instance. Style "A" Square Ribbed Tight Flask Sheet Steel with Malleable Trimmings Slock Sizes Height cope and drag, 2H, 3, ^M, 4, 4H and 5 inches. Length cope and drag, 12, 14, 16 and 18 inches. Width cope and drag, 12, 14 and 16 inches. Weight less than one-half as much as cast flasks and practically indestructible. A complete small square-ribbed steel flask for general work in all foundries, made in above standard sizes, from which innumerable combinations can be made. Can be made in special sizes when it is required and a suflacient num- ber ordered to warrant the extra work in manufacturing. Fig. 160. Style "B" Round Ribbed Tight Flask Sheet Steel with Malleable Trimmings Slock Sizes Height cope or drag, 2H, 3, 3H, 4, /^H, and 5 inches. Diameter, 12, 14, 16, and 18 inches. From the above dimensions many com- binations can be made. The illustration gives a clear idea of round-ribbed steel flask for general cir- cular work, when the snap flask is not desirable. Weighs less than half as much as a cast flask, and is unbreakable. 5i6 The Moulding Room Stvlk "C" Square Convkx Tight Flask Sheet Steel with M;illcai>li- Trimmings Slock Sizes Height cojK- ot drag, 2'i, 3, 3)4, 4, 44 and 5 inches. Length cope or drag, 12, 14, 16 and 18 inches. Width cojx- or drag, 12, 14 and 16 inches. Tig. 162. Made in the above stock sizes, which admit of countless combinations of sizes. This flask is particularly adapted to brass, bronze, or any special metal foundry work. It is a new departure, having conve.x sides and ends for holding the sand. It does nice work, and while not half as heavy as the cast flask, is much more durable. Style "F" Channel Iron Floor Flask Fig. 163. Slock Sizes Size, inches Depth, inches Cope, inches Drag, inches Price 20X24 20x28 24x30 24X36 30X36 30X42 10 10 12 12 14 14 5 S 6 6 7 7 S 5 6 6 7 7 Snap Flasks 517 This is a decided departure in flask manufacture. It is constructed of structural channel steel with flanges to the outside, having a smooth wall on the inside. The interior is provided with staples arranged at intervals to permit of inserting corrugated swivel gaggers for sand supports. This type of flask does away \vith the flask maker entirely, as each moulder arranges his gaggers or sand supports to suit the necessity. An equipment of these flasks is an excellent investment. 1. They cut out the use of expensive material (lumber). 2. They practically do away with the flask maker. 3. They eliminate expense of handling flasks. 4. They will remain in foundry and save storage. 5. And the most important feature to be considered is the increased output, better castings, less scrap, all of which will appeal directly to the proprietor. These floor flasks are furnished with a complete equipment of corru- gated swivel gaggers for sand supports which the moulder arranges easily to suit requirements. Snap Flasks Snap flasks are used by bench molders for light work. They must be easily and quickly handled, although snaps are sometimes made so large as to require two men. The flask is removed from the mould, hence one flask serves for an entire floor. They are usually made of cherry or mahogany; the hinges should lock and unlock quickly and be rigid when locked. The corners are strengthened with iron comer bands, and the cope is faced on top with 5i8 The Moulding Room iri)n. For special work ihe joint may be made to conform with the parting. Rectangular snap llasks 3 feet long by 14 to 16 inches wide are not uncommon. For some classes of work round snaps are required. In the hands of a rapid, skillful moulder the snap flask is an indispen- sable implement for a foundry ha\ing large quantities of small work. I'ieces weighing as much as 100 pounds may be made in the snap nask. The cuts herewith illustrate the construction of the different kinds of snaps referred to. Snap flasks of standard dimensions from 1 2 X 1 2 to 1 2 X 20 can be purchased of most of the foundry supply houses. Where many moulds are to be made from one pattern, a match board, on which the patterns arc placed, and upon which the parting is made, is practically a necessity. If these matches are not to be preser\'ed, and are on!)' to be used for a moderate number of moulds, they are made of moulding sand and fine sharp sand, half and half, stiffened with molasses water, or linseed oil, and dried; but if a permanent match board is desired, a mixture composed of one-half new moulding sand, one-half parting sand, '10 litharge, mixed with linseed oil and thoroughly dried will serve admirably. The match should be varnished with shellac and kept with the pattern. Such a match board is shown in Fig. 165.. Fig. 165. Fig. 166. The moulds made in snap flasks must be covered with weights before they are poured. The w-eight should be about I'i inches thick and should cover the cope entirely. Where the contents of the flask arc quite heavy, or where the patterns approach the sides of the flask closely, the moulds require to be sup- ported by boxes, as well as to be weighted. For this purpose wood boxes of i-inch lumber are made so that the interior shall have the same dimensions as the interior of the whole flask (cope and drag); this is shoved down over the mould and supports it against lateral pressure. Care must be taken that the boxes are not so small as to shave the mould nor so large as not to support it; they should just fit all around. These boxes are sometimes made of cast iron. Very serviceable ones made of sheet iron can be purchased at moderate prices. Pins, Plates and Hinges S19 Galvanized Iron Slip Boxes Straight Taper Fig. 167. The above are undoubtedly the best slip boxes on the market. They are more durable than wood or cast-iron boxes, are lighter and will not break by falling. They are made either straight or tapered, of No. 22 iron with a No. 9 wire in top and bottom and creased. In ordering, state whether straight or tapered and give the exact size of inside of flasks. These boxes are for light handling and will not stand careless run-outs, as the hot iron will warp them. They are very rigid, however, and with the ordinary one-inch margin outside of pattern there will be no run- outs. When ordering taper jackets, give taper or degree per foot on side, or make sketch giving size of top and bottom, also depth of drag. Pins, Plates and Hinges In order that the cope of a flask, when hfted from the drag after ramming, may be returned exactly to its original position, so that the two parts of the mould may match perfectly, guides must be provided which will insure correct closing. These are frequently made of wood, and if kept in good shape, serve the purpose admirably. Wooden guides are especially advantageous for long lifts. Fig. 1 68 shows a wood guide, of which there should be at least three on the flask. The moulder must exercise care when preparing to ram up a flask, to see that the guides and pins are securely nailed, that there is no lateral play and that the cope may be lifted and returned to its place with- out sticking at the pins. Guides of this kind, while chiefly in use on wood, are sometimes employed on large iron flasks. In the latter case wooden blocks are J ioU Fig. 168. 520 The Moulding Room securely fastened in the potkcts between flanges, and the guides nailed tt> the blocks. The usual guide for the ordinary wood llask is a common cast-iron |)late and pin. These are continually getting loose and furnish no end of trouble to the moulder Fig. 170. as well as causing many castings to be scrapped. It is the most worth- less appliance of its kind. A very good iron guide may be made as per sketch. (I'ig. 170.) 7: m m ®r, ^ u HEAVY HIMGE Fig. 171. ! I Such a guide may be fastened /\ ] to the flask with very little i]|| more work, and the flanges give 1 good support. An e.xccllent pin and guide is made tri- angular in shape. Cast-iron flasks either have lugs to receive the pins and holes, or where the flanges are wide, pin holes are put in ' ■■ — . . J ^jjp^ Fig. 172. — Light Hinges. p-^^^ f^^ iro^ flasks should be accurately turned, the sizes should be standard, and those of each -- VB. Pins, Plates and Hinges 521 size interchangeable. An assortment of such pins should always be kept on hand. Fig. 173 . — Ball and Socket Hinge, Fig. 174. — Heavy Hinge. Standard Iron Flask Pin No. 2 For Iron Flasks Fig. 175. This is a nicely turned pin, with thread chased and hexagon nut. designed especially for cast-iron flasks. 522 Tlie Moulding Room Sweeps Fig. 176. ' The above sketch shows the ordinary sweep used for making large pulleys, fly wheels, etc. A large chiss of work, circular in horizontal section, can be made with the sweep, thereby saving largely in the expense for patterns. To obtain accurate work by the use of tlie sweep, the stepping .4 must be firmly placed, so that the axis of tlic spindle B shall be vertical. The upper support D must be held rigidly, either by braces to wall of foundry or otherwise as most convenient. The box D may be made with a flange surrounding it from which three or four rods lead away to any suitable anchorages. These rods are provided with tumbuckles so that the spindle may be held rigidly in a vertical position. £ is an adjustable collar fasloncxi in position by a set screw. C is an iron arm carrying the wood strikes. The bearings by which this arm is supported should be farther apart tlian the width of the arm, so as to avoid any sagging of tlie latter. If these bearings are split in a direction parallel to the spindle and drawn up witli clamp screws, lost motion can be taken up at any time. Any play in the supports for the arm, or neglect to maintain the spindle in a vertical position, will result in a distorted casting. Sweeps are Aiu-hors, dascors and Soldiers 533 often wnstructed with olabvirate mediauical attachinoiits for making gears, spiral wheels, spinil cones, ele. Sometimes the steppinirs are placed permanenll}' on concrete piers, where there are many wheels, etc.. to be made. The strikes arc cut in aii\' desireil shape and are used for inside or outside sweeping. Swept moulds arc usuall\- skin dried. Anchors, Gaggers and Soldiers These devices arc used for sui>- IHKting the sand where tlic ordinar\- bars ;ire insutVicicnt or inapplicable. Fig. 177 sJiows an anchor used for making pulleys. It txinsists of six cast-iron segmental plates about in inch thick, which aa^ so placed between the arms of the pulley as to leave a space for s;md, -^4 inch wide, all iux)und tliem. The upper sides of the plates are on the parting line of the arms. The pUues are held together by wrought iron loops, passing over the arms, and cast in place. All the plates are poured at once, and in open s;uul. "■'• '"7- Instead of wrought-imn loops, these cX)nneclions may be made bj' c;\st-iron loops, furnishing a much stilTer anchor. On the under side of each plate are east one or more long conical pn.ij\vt ions, which serve as guides by which to replace the anchor. Each [liate is provided with an eye bolt long enough to reach to the joint of flask. The interior parting is maile on center line of « |-j arms, s;ind is rammetl on toji of the anchor ami , . 1 ■ I — , another parting made flush with the rim upon LT 11 U which the cope is rammed. .Vfter the cope is removed, the saml iwering the arms is lifted out by hooking to the eye biilts in anchor. Fig. 17S shows an anchor for lifting out a ir= Fig. 17S. deep pocket. 524 The Moulding Room W'luTc the aiuliur cannot rest on ll>c bottom, IjuI must permit iron to run under it, il is boiled to ihc cope and lifted out with it. The necessities of the situation indicate the size and shape ot anchors. !■ requentiy, the ixjcket is such that the anchor must be broken to remove it from the casting. It is well to keejj down the weight of the anchors as much as possible, relieving the cope to that extent. \'er>- many cores, as well as moulds, require to be supported in this manner. Gaggers Tn the use of gaggers it should be borne in mind, that they are heavier than the sand; it is simply due to the cohesion of the sand, holding Uiem up to the sides of the flask or bars, that they are of assistance in supporting' the cope. The gagger is of use just in proportion to the length that is surrounded with packed sand. All that part which pro- jects above the cope is a detriment. They are first immersed in thick clay wash, and placed flat up against the bars or sides of flask, having about /» inch sand under them. They are made in the gagger mould, already described, which is kept near the cupola. Costing practically nothing, thcj' may be used freely. A good supply should always be kept on hand. Many shops use gaggers made of '^2 inch square bar iron bent to shape. They are not as serviceable, however, as they do not ofTer as good a surface to which the sand can adhere, and are more expensive. Soldiers Soldiers are simi)Iy jiicccs of wood about one inch square, cut from boards, with clay washed and placed around the mould instead of gag- gers, where the latter cannot be used; or to assist the gaggers in deep lifts. The sand adheres to soldiers better than to gaggers. The free use of either gaggers or soldiers is to be encouraged, as it is better to place too many of them in a mould than to have a drop. At the same time care must be exercised to have the ends well protected by sand, so that the hot iron will not come in contact witli them, as there will surely be a "blow" in that event. Sprues, Risers and Gates The following tables, giving the equivalent areas of round gates, also of square and rectangular gates as compared with round ones, are taken from West's "Moulder's Text Book," pp. 245 and 246. Table of Equivalent Areas of Gates 525 Table of Equivalent Areas of Round Gates One iJ'i inch is equal in area to two il lU 2H 2^ " 2H 3 3K. ". " 3^ " " 3^4 " 4 4V4 " " 4H " " 4% « - 5 fe, three J^, or four j4-inch gate iM I " % I J 16 I?'16 " 1 iJi lVi6 " i^ i?4 1^6 " iH 115/16 1^4 " i^ 2 '4 1% " iH 2^16 1^/6 " iH 2^ 2 " iM 2IH6 2?16 " iJi 2' Me 2^/16 " 2 3 2^15 " 2% 3?i6 2?^ " 2K 3?8 2 54 " 2?^ 3?i6 25i " 2H Note. " The fractional parts of an inch as seen by the table are not carried out any further than He, for the reason that the subject does not call for any closer figiu-es. Therefore, the figures given will be understood as being ' nearly ' equal in area. As given, the sizes can be readily discerned, and are also applicable to measurements by the shop pocket rules commonly used." Table of Equivalent Areas in Square and Rectangular Gates to That of Round Gates (See note above) Round Square gates Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular gates, gates gates gates gates inches I inch thick iH inch thick 2 inches thick 2],i ins. thick I iH m 1^6 I?i6 I?4 2 2?'i6 iH m IX 2% IX 3!'^ IX 4 IX s 2 I'/iX 2M6 I'/iX 2iMc i5^X 3Ms 2'/4 2H 2% 2^18 IX 6 I'/iX 4 2x3 3 2IH6 IX 7H6 i!^x 4?4 2X39i8 3'/4 2ji IX &V16 Ij-^X S'/^ 2X4?i6 21-6X3946 3H 3'/i IX 9^ IJ^X 6^8 2X456 2iiX3'/i 3% 3M6 iXilMe iJ-iX 1% 2X5!^ i2 2i^X4M« 4 3? 16 IXI29'{6 iHX 89^ 2X61/4 21-^X5 4H 3?4 IXI4?^6 iV^x 9'/^ 2X7'/^ 2^X556 4H 4 iXiS'Me ii/iXio5i 2X8 2!.iix69i 4% 4^8 IXI7?4 iJ^Xll'Ms 2X8^8 2KiX7!4 S 4^8 IX19H 1HX13H6 2x91946 2i.iX7ji "The term 'equivalent' used does not imply that two or more small gates having a combined area equal to one large gate, all having like 'head pressure,' will deliver the same amount of metal per second." 526 The Moulding Room "The flow of metal is retarded by friction in proportion to the surface area with whicli it comes in contact. Now although four 2^i-inch round gates are of ecjuai area to one 5-inch round gate, we find the frictional resistance to tiie flow of a Hke 'head pressure' through four 2!i-inclf round gates to be douljle that generated in one 5-inch round gate, simply because the comiiined circumferences of four 2J'i-inch round gates are 31.416 inches, whereas the circumference of one 5-inch round gate is 15.708 inches. As gates are generally combined under varying compli- cated conditions, the tables as given can be better practically used than where they arc lumbered with the question of frictional resistance." Risers are generally double the diameter of the pKJuring sprue. The function of the riser is twofold. It serves to catch and carry away any dirt entering the mould from the pour- ing sprue and also to furnish a supply of liquid metal to provide for shrink- age. Risers are placed either in con- nection with the gate, or on some part of the mould whence the deficiency from shrinkage can be most readily supplied. When located on the gate the latter is usually so cut as to impart a whirling motion to the metal ascend- ing the riser. The metal enters the riser near the bottom and flows to the mould through a channel opened above the entrance. In the sketch A represents the pouring sprue, B is the riser, C the gate from sprue to riser which is cut tangential to B. D is the gate from riser to casting. The gates should be somewhat smaller in area than the pouring sprue so that the pouring basin E may always be kept fuU. Top Pouring Gates The advantage of this form of gate for large castings is that the dirt is kept at the top of the pouring basin, allowing the clean iron to flow into the mould from beneath. The first dash of iron may carry some dirt, but the greater portion of it will flow with the stream over the gates; the runner being quickly filled, no dirt can enter subsequently if kept full Text Books," page 129. 179. Fig. 180. See West's "Moulder's Horn Gates 527 Whirl Gates The object of the whirl gate is to impart a rotary motion to the iron in the basin and riser B, B. By centrifugal force the metal is kept in contact with the exterior of the riser, and the dirt is carried up in the middle of it. . c-^ C . Fig. 181. The riser B should be larger than the pouring sprue A , and A should be larger than C, in order that the pouring basin may be kept full. It is best to have patterns made for whirl gates; they can be used in either cope or drag. The "Cross" Skim Gate This as shown in Fig. 182 is an excellent device and is largely used. A is the gate leading from pouring sprue to basin B, C is a core in which is the gate D, leading to casting. The iron enters B, tangen- tially, a whirling motion is imparted to it carry- ing the dirt to the riser, while the clean iron flows out through D. Another form of same gate is made as shown in fig. 183. It differs from the first form simply in having a flat core E placed across the gate D, instead Fig. 182. Fig. 183. of forming a part of it Horn Gates These are principally used for bottom pouring, leading from the parting of flask to the casting below. They are made smaller at the point joining the casting to permit of easy removal and to choke the stream of metal. Fig. 184. The Moulding Room Pouring liasins have 'rcqucntly skimming corc^ f)laccd between the basin and the down sprue to iiold the dirt in basin. A pattern is usually made for them. Strainers and Spindles Fig. 185. Thin perforated plates from 'm to h^ inch thick, and wide enough to cover the entrance to pouring gate arc fre- quently placed in the runner basin over the gate. When the iron strikes the strainer it is held back until the latter is melted allowing the basin to fill partly, raising the dirt to the surface and furnishing clean iron to the gate purpose. Weights For medium castings, weighting the copes will be found more con- venient than the use of binding bars. There should be about every foundry a large assortment of weights depending on the class of work. Weights to be handled by the crane will be found more convenient, if made square in cross section and of whatever length desired. Holes are cast in the ends into which bars are inserted for lifting. Weights made in this way are more readily piled than if pro\ided with eye bolts. Chaplets Chaplets are properly anchors, and should come under that heading. They are used mostly for securing cores in place in moulds. E.xcept for special requirements the foundryman can procure chaplets from the supply houses far cheaper than he can make them. Cuts and sizes of the various chaplets in use are given below. The Peerless Perforated Chaplet Fig. 186. Spindle gate Spindle gates consisting of many small gates serve the same Fig. 187. Liquid Pressure on Moulds 529 Manufacturers of all classes of castings requiring small cores will readil}' observe the advantage in using a chaplet, such as is illustrated above. Made from perforated tin-plated sheet metal, insuring perfect ven- tilation of the chaplet, eliminating all possibilities of blow holes, air pockets, chills, etc., forming a perfect union with the molten metal, thereby insuring an absolute pressure tight joint; something not ob- tained with any. other chaplet on thin work. Through its use, not only are time and labor of the workman saved in adjusting the cores to the matrix of the mould, particularly on water backs or fronts, radiators, gas burners, pipe fittings, gas and gasoline engine work, and similar castings, but it also greatly lessens the liability of flaws, defects and consequent losses in castings, such as commonly result from the ordinary chaplets or anchors now in use. Liquid Pressure on Moulds The pressure of the Hquid metal at any point of the mould is deter- mined by multiplying the distance in inches from that point to the top of the metal in pouring basin by .26 pounds. The product is the pressure in pounds per square inch. To overcome this pressure laterally, reliance is placed on the rigidity of the flask, supported, if necessary, in deep castings by binding bars. The binding bars are of same character as those already described for holding down copes. They are tied across top and bottom of flask by rods, or otherwise. The static pressure on the cope is ascertained by multiplying the area of the casting in square inches, at the joint of the flask by the height in inches from the joint of the flask to level of iron in pouring basin and by .26 pounds. In addition to this there is the pressure due to resistance in overcoming the velocity of the rising iron, which pressure is measured by one-half the product of the weight of the rising iron by the square of the velocity. While this pressure may be accurately calculated with suflacient data, it is usually difiicult to get them, and the results are, therefore, only approximate. However, when the mould is nearly full, the pouring is slackened as much as possible without letting the dirt into the sprue, thereby reduc- ing the head and velocity, and greatly lessening the shock as the iron reaches the cope. The formulae given for determining holding down weights for copes are empirical. The moulder will not be led astray by calculating the lifting area of the mould in square inches, multiplying this by the head 530 The Moulding Room measured to pouring basin, in inches, and this product by .26 pounds. .\(ld .;o per cent to the result, this will make ample provision for the lift due to the blow of the rising iron. The Peerless Perforated Chaplet The following list will give an idea of the approximate number of the various sized chaplets required to make a pound. Length Brciidth Thickness No. to the % poun^i y* W ;.<, W H 1400 h ^4 H 1200 '4 H 9i8 1 100 y* ?4 ^U 600 I I y* 300 94 V* V* 2SO I I % 130 I I H 100 iH l'/4 H 80 I I Vz 90 iH I" 4 H 80 I I ■)4 45 2V* I I 35 I I 1 40 I'/l lU I 30 Over two thousand difTerent shapes, sizes and styles of these chaplets are made. Many hundred standard sizes and shapes are kept in stock. The prices depend upon the sizes and number required to make a pound. The Peerless Perfor.vted Chaplet. — {Continued) (Net prices per pound.) No. to the Price per No. to the Price per pound pound pound pound 20- .(0 1 So 35 200- 250 So. 8s 40- 50 .35 250- .}oo 90 So- 60 .40 300- 3SO 95 60- 70 .45 350- 400 00 70- 80 ■ SO 400- soo 05 3o- 90 .55 500- 600 10 90-100 .60 600- 700 15 100-125 .65 700- 800 20 125-150 .70 I 800- 900 25 ISO-I75 .75 900-1000 30 I7S-200 .80 lOOO-IIOO 35 Chaplets 531 Double Head Chaplet Stems Plain or Tinned • Made of ?i-inch round iron, 5^ to ili inches long (measur- ing from face to shoulder). Price per hundred, from H to i5s inches ... $4.00 Price per hundred, from iH to 2^6 inches. . . 5.00 Fig. iSS. Fig. 189. Double Head Chaplets with Forged Heads Plain or Tinned Made of ?s-inch round iron, from H to 2H inches long, with head above Ji-inch diameter. Price per hundred, from H to 1% inches. . $5 .00 Price per hundred, from il'^ to 2^^ inches. 6.00 With Square or Round Plates Fitted Plain or Tinned Fig. 190. Square plates always furnished unless otherwise ordered. Stems made of Me inch round iron from ?^ to i!'^ inches long. Price per hundred, ?6 to % inch with plates any size $4 . 00 Price per hundred, ¥i to i inch with plates any size 4.50 Price per hundred, iH to iH inch with plates any size. . . 5 .00 Stems made from H-inch round iron from H to 2H inches long. Price per hundred, H to i inch with plate any size $6 Price per hundred, i to i)'^ inches with plate any size. . . Price per hundred, iJ^ to 2 inches with plate any size.. . . Price per hundred, 2 to 2 J^^ inches with plate any size. . . . 532 I'lic Moulding Room Price List ok Doui'le Head Ciiaplet Stems (Plain or tinned with sriuare plates fitted, heavy «tfm and plate.) Diameter Diameter of stem Length I'er loo of stem Length Pm- 100 W ?H $8.oo « H Sio.oo H I 8. CO ■ ^4 I 10.00 Vi iW 9.00 ( iH 11.00 Vi \\^" In these three operations lie the basic principles of all moulding ma- chines: all subsequent improvements and additions have been matters of detail; but to these improvements and to superior workmanship is due the real success of the modern moulding machine. In the chart (p. 549), given by Mr. Stupakofif, moulding machines are divided into two classes — hand and power machines. The chart gives the variations of each class. The selection and arrangement of machines, etc., is a matter governed entirely by the specific circumstances. Only hand machines are portable. They effect a great saving in the cost of carrying sand, but their use is limited by their size and weight. Mr. Stupakofif discusses the advan- tages and use of pattern plates as follows: "At first sight it may appear that the construction and manipulation of pattern plates has but little connection with moulding machines, but I hope that I will succeed in showing in the course of this work, that they are not only intimately cormected with each other, but that they are in fact the principal parts of all moulding machines. The lack of intimate knowledge of how to make use of them to the best advantage, the want of proper means to efifect this purpose and the wretchedly vio MouldinK Machines little effort which is made to calrh the right spirit of their nature, is gtru-nilly the reason why a moulding machine jjccomes an elephant on the hands of the moulder and an eyesore to its owner." The recommendations given by Mr. Stupakoff for the adoption of plate moulding by hand apply equally well to machine moulding. 1. Plated patterns give the best ser\ice when used continuously. 2. Castings which are to be produced in quantities are perferably moulded with plated patterns. 3. Standard patterns are preferably plated for economic production in the foundrj'. 4. Plated patterns should be made of metal to give good scr\-ice." 5. When plated patterns are used good flasks only will insure good castings. 6. .Vccurate workmanship is one of the main requisites in plated patterns. 7. The use of wood patterns on plates is not excluded. 8. AH patterns when placed on plates should be provided with plenty of draft. 9. Plated metal patterns are preferably made hollow. 10. Rapping is destructive of plates and patterns." The chapter on jigs is regarded of such importance that it is given here in full. The Moulding Machine By S. H. Stupakoff, Pittsburgh, Pa. Journal of llie American Foundrymcn's Association, Vol. XI, June, igo2. Part 1. Jigs The deduction arrived at in the foregoing chapter might make it appear that plated patterns are not likely to find extensive use in jobbing foundries, whereas this is really not altogether the case. There is no doubt that plate moulding as now practiced, or rather as ordi- narily applied, is practically excluded from jobbing shops. But, if a plate is used in connection with a suitable jig, specially' prepared for the purjjose, objections are not only overcome, but the application and use of plates offer excellent advantages, even in such cases where only a small number of castings of the same pattern are required at one time. At best, the economic use of plated patterns is limited by the shape anrl size of the castings. The fundamental principle involved in their construction and application must be fully understood by the user, if satisfactory results are expected. Jigs 541 Irrespective of its relation to the moulding machine, it would seem that this subject — on its own merits — is of such importance, that it should be investigated by all fouiadrymen. It should specially interest the ma- jority of our members. I have therefore somewhat enlarged the scope of this treatise on the moulding machine by including a detailed study of the construction and modus operandi of this particular contrivance. To begin with, it should be understood that all plates are provided with guide-pin holes, which are accurately fitted to corresponding guide pins forming part of the flasks. Unless special flasks are used in con- nection with such plates the customary flask pins should not be con- founded with these guide pins, as they will never answer the purpose. In order that misconceptions in this respect may be avoided, this term will be adhered to in what follows, and strict distinction will be made between flask pins and guide pins wher- aver they may be mentioned in the course of this work. The guide-pin holes, G and G' , Fig. 205, are preferably arranged on opposite ends of the plate, in even multiples of an inch, and equidistant from its center and on a line dividing the plate into two equal rectangles. There are exceptional cases, in which three or four guide pins must be used. The most serious objec- ^*^ ^°^' tion against this arrangement is the greater difiaculty experienced in locating the patterns correctly. Accuracy in preparing the plates becomes of the utmost importance, as the magnitude of all errors occurring in the original laying out is doubled by each subsequent operation. The guide-pin holes should be drilled and reamed out at right angles to the surface of the plate, and it is advisable to provide them with hardened and ground steel bushings. All guide pins should be of uniform diameter irrespective of the size of the plate. A pair of test pins should be kept on hand, which snugly fit the guide-pin holes; one-half of one of their ends should have been cut down to about Vi inch in length, leaving as remainder exactly one-half of the cylindrical portion (Fig. 204). If these test pins are inserted into their respective holes and a straight edge is placed against their „ flattened faces, it will serve for locating the base or the cen- A* IP 2 O A ter line of the plate, for marking off and laying out the dowel pin holes, arranging the patterns and checking off all work relating to it. 542 Moulding Machines The exact location of the center of the plate, and likewise the center of the llask, is found by dividing the base line from center to center guide- pin hole into two equal parts. Let us drill a hole C in this place (Fig. 205), and let this hole serve as the starling jjoint for future oiHirations. Now we will assume that we have procured a tri-squarc with a row of holes drilled in each of its legs; these holes are spaced equally — say Fig. 205. I inch apart — care being taken that each row stand.s exactly in a straight line, and that both rows include an exact angle of 90 degrees. We place this square in such a manner on our plate that the hole in its apex corresponds with the center hole C of our plate, and insert a good fitting dowel pin through both. Thus we arc able to shift the square over the whole surface of the plate by turning it around the center pin. Next we bring one leg of the square over the base line of the plate and insert a second dowel pin (which may be shouldered if necessar>-) through G into the corresponding hole of our .square. Secured in this manner the square sliould be absolutely rigid and .should not shake to right or left on the surface of the plate. We now drill one hole each into the plate through the guides // and / of the square, then we remove the pin from G, turn the scjuarc around the center pin over 90 degrees, so that one of its legs points upward and the other one to the left, insert a dowel through the hole in the leg pointing upward into the top hole /' of the plate, and drill the hole IP; finally we turn it again over 90 degrees, secure it in the same manner as before, and drill the hole P. Fig. 205 Jigs 543 illustrates the square in the first position as located on the plate; the holes H'^ and /-, which are drilled subsequently, are shown in faint lines. In the future, we shall call these holes "pilot holes," in order to dis- tinguish them from others in the same plate. These four pilot holes include an exact rectangle or square, and each opposite pair is located at uniform distances from the center of plate and flask. It will be under- stood that it is not absolutely necessary to employ the square for drilling the pilot holes. For instance, after one plate has been prepared in this manner, this plate can serve as a jig for drilling any number of additional plates in the same manner by a single setting. Such an original or master plate is especially serviceable, if all holes are provided with good steel bushings. The pilot holes in connection with the center hole will serve us hereafter as guides for locating pattern dowels. Our object in view is to use this plate as a base for any and all suit- able patterns, and as an illustration we will arrange it for the reception of patterns of a globe valve and a bib cock. We will assume that the patterns are all in good shape and properly parted. However, they shall originally not have been intended for use with either moulding ma- chine or drawplate. Our plate and flasks are of a suitable size, but the job is in a hurry — as all jobs are — and we must get out quite a num- ber of these castings to-day. What are we going to do about it? Take my advice and make it in the old fashioned way, unless you are pro- vided with a suitable jig plate and an inexpensive, but a good small drill press, which was never used by your blacksmiths or yard laborers, but was expressly reserved for this purpose only, was always under the care of a mechanic who understood how to handle it, and who took pride in keeping it in good shape. This jig plate (Fig. 205) should be provided with a number of holes, two rows of which, at least, are drilled exactly in the same manner as those in the above-mentioned square; the balance is laid out prefer- ably, but not necessarily so, in straight and parallel hues, all equidistant from each other. Its dimensions should be sufficient to cover one corner, or one-fourth of your pattern plate. If these things are part of your equipment you will have easy sailing, and you will be better fitted to tackle the job than your competitor. Place this jig in such a manner in one corner of your draw plate that the hole (Fig. 205) corresponds with the hole C in its center; hold both together with dowel pins inserted into the pilot holes, and drill the holes through the jig into your plate, which are required for securing the patterns in the predetermined places. To avoid mistakes be sure that the hole in that particular corner of the jig, which corresponds to the one described as located in the apex of the square is distinctly marked 544 Moulding Machines on both sides of the jig plate — in our figure marked O — and note carefully which h' dowel pin or screw holes in the pattern plate are indicated by circles drawn in heavy. Thus, the holes // X and 8* are used for securing the globe valve body pattern, // -|- and Jigs 545 /// II for the body of the bib cock, and so forth. By placing the onion skin in such a manner over the drawing of the pattern plate, that its hole corresponds with the center hole C of the latter, and 01 and OH respectively with /' and //', it will be noticed that the outlines repre- senting the patterns cover each other in both cuts. The jig placed in this position over the pattern plate, and secured to it by the pilot pins at 0, 01 and OH is used in this manner for drilling all dark lined holes in the right-hand upper corner of the draw plate. This being done, the pilot pins are withdrawn and the jig plate is reversed and turned into the upper left-hand corner of the pattern plate, just as if it were hinged at the line 01; the pilot pins are replaced into the same holes of the jig as before and in this position they will secure it to the pattern plate by entering its pilot holes C, I' and H'^. It will be observed that in this position also, and equally well, the outlines of the patterns in both cuts fall exactly together. The jig is used in this position as before, the same guide holes which were used in the first position in the upper right hand corner serve again as guides for drilling the second quarter of the pattern plate. Identically the same process is then repeated at the lower left hand and lower right-hand corners of the plate, by first turning the jig plate aroimd the imaginary hinge center OH, and then around 01. In order to prepare the patterns to suit the above conditions, we pro- ceed exactly in the same manner, by securing one-half of each separately, and always the one which has the dowel holes, at the previously deter- mined place on the jig plate and drilling clear through them the holes which coincide with those drilled previously into the pattern plate. The second halves of these patterns are then placed in position against the first (drilled) halves; they are prevented from moving sideways by their original dowel pins, and they may be held together by suitable clamps. These clamps are preferably made of a universal type which adapts them for use with all kinds of patterns, their lower portion being constructed in the shape of a frame which rests on the table of the drill press without rocking and which is adapted for fastening the patterns in such a manner that their parting faces stand parallel to the drill table. The half of the pattern which has been drilled first with the aid of the jig occupies the upper position in this clamp or drill frame, and the holes in this one will now serve as guides for the drill to drill the holes in the second half which stands directly underneath. Finally, have the original dowel pins of the patterns removed and fasten all parts separately in place on the pattern plate by either dowels or screws, or both, whichever may be preferable and most convenient in your particular case. If I may call your attention again to the drawings, you will observe 546 Moulding Machines that \vc have prepared the pattern plate in tliis manner with four com- plete sets of patterns; yet we have used only two. The castings result- ing from the use of these plates should be jx-Tfcct as to match. The amount of labor required to withdraw the patterns from the sand is reduced to a minimum; additional time is saved by the use of a station- ary gate or runner on the plate, and double the quantity of castings can be produced in this manner with the same number of patterns and in the same number of flasks. .Ml this can be accomplished by making an effort of no lonj^cr duration than it took to describe. If you have followed the above description carefully, you may have noticed that it is not necessary to have an individual plate prepared for each set of patterns. Yet I thought it better to describe this method of preparing pattern plates and patterns for plate moulding in detail, than to leave room for any doubt or error. You can easily see that much of the time which it apparently took to get the plate and patterns ready for the moulder, can be saved by providing the entire surface of the plate with dowel holes before putting it into use. This should be done with the aid of the jig and in identicall)' the siime manner as has been suflfi- ciently explained in the foregoing. Thus, only new patterns have to be prepared for the purpose, and all others, which once have been fitted, are easily replaced and secured to their correct positions on the plate, providing their dowel holes were promptly provided with specific num- bers, letters or identification marks. The additional holes in the plate will not impair its working qualities, but they could be easily closed up with bees-wax if ol)jectionable. Finally, it is well to note that each plate can be used in connection with all patterns within its range, and that it can be kept in continuous service, while the patterns may be changed at will, and as often as desirable. While the above description may appear somewhat too e.xtended, I assure you that a serious mistake would have been made had the sub- ject been slighted merely for the sake of brevity. At the same time I will siiy in justification of my apparent digression, that my original sul)ject has not been sidetracked. .\t first sight, it may appear, that the con- struction and the manipulation of pattern plates has but little connection with moulding machines, but I hope that I will succeed in showing in the course of this work, that they arc not only intimately connected with each other, but that they arc in fact the principal parts of all moulding machines. The lack of intimate knowledge of how to make use of them to the best advantage, the want of proper means to effect this purpose and the wretchedly little effort which is made to catch the right spirit of their nature is generally the reason why a moulding machine becomes an elephant on the hands of a moulder and an eyesore to its owner. Flasks 547 Flasks Good flasks are especially important in machine or plate moulding. To insure good results from moulding machines the flasks must be prac- ticaUy perfect. They must be constructed to insure firm holding of the moulding sand; must be stiff, light and durable. "The pins must be accurately fitted. The flasks, if made in sets, must be absolutely interchangeable. The pins should be square with the flask surface, must not bind and still must not fit too loosely. Copes and drags when assembled, must not rock or shake sideways. Wooden flasks, such as are used in most foundries, are not likely to give good results in moulding machine practice. However, if carefully and substantially made, there is no reason why their application in machine moulding should be absolutely condemned. ' Iron flasks are always preferable, especially since they do not shrink, warp or get out of joint." Pressed steel flasks are still more desirable. If wooden flasks are used they should be faced with an iron ring, this ring serving not only to maintain alignment, but also as a base for securing flask pins. Taper steel pins secured to lugs by nuts give best satisfaction. The holes in lugs on drags may be reamed tapering and the lower ends of pins turned to fit, and tapped lightly into place. After the flask is closed and clamped these pins may be removed, thus making a few pins serve for any number of flasks. When not in use they should be removed from the flasks and properly taken care of. The pins are sometimes cut away so as ig. 20 . to give them a triangular cross section, so that sand adhering to them may not interfere with readily inserting them in the holes. By continued use the pins and sockets are so worn as to be unservice- able. The pins, of course, are replaced by new ones, but the sockets must be bushed by sleel thimbles. The old holes are drilled out to standard size, so that the thimbles may be interchangeable. It is advisable to have the pin holes bushed when the flasks are made, so as to avoid subsequent annoyance. "The makers of moulding machines are undoubtedly very well aware of all the requirements which are covered by the observance of these little details. They will appreciate their importance and must admit that they are essential to make their machines a success. Yet to my knowledge these facts have never been mentioned. Is this information kept from the foundryman purposely, that he may not be scared from the purchase of machines? If he should be told all this he might in the first place think of the expense, and next that his moulders cannot get 54^ Moulding Machines used to refinement of this kiml, which hy the way is not a very creditable opinion. lUil if lie i)uys one or more of the machines olTercd, he cannot help hndinj; all this out lieforc lon^;, to his own chagrin. He may throw the machines away, or persist in the use of them and pay dearly for his experience. .\11 this vexation could have been prevented in the first place and at a reasonable cost, had he been furnished in connection with the machine, with jigs, sample flasks, pins, etc., and above all with the necessary information to which he was entitled." Many failures to introduce and maintain labor-saving devices can be traced to the lack of intelligent instructions sent with them. Mr. StupakofI further discusses in detail the dilTercnt kinds of ma- chines remarking: "It is a grievous mistake to think that a moulding machine of any description will replace a skilled moulder. There is no less ingenuity required to produce good castings on a machine than to make them by hand. "A moulder is aided by his experience and bj' his good judgment. A machine hand (customarily selected from unskilled labor) has nothing to offer but his muscle and good will. These qualities . . . are but poor substitutes for the dexterity of an e.vpert. Therefore, under ordinary circumstances the chances are but slight to obtain good cast- ings and good results by mechanical means which are imperfectly under- stood and subject to reckless abuse by hands which are unquestionably green in the business. Owners of moulding machines should not e.xpect mar\-el3 from an inert piece of mechanism, but it is safe to say they will seldom fail in their calculations if they are satisfied with a reasonable increased pro- duction, provided they are willing to pay the best possible attention to their manipulation." Messrs. McWilliams and Longmuir in discussing the advantages of moulding machines conclude their remarks as follows: "With ordinary small work, such as is usually included in boxes up to 14 inches by i5 inches, the greatest time consumers are (i) ramming, (2) jointing , and (3) setting cores. Jointing is largely obviated with a good odd-side, and altogether so with a plate. Ramming by the aid of a press reduces the time occupied to that required for the pulling forward of a lever. Obviously, then, the greatest time consumers, wnth one exception, Tna.y be very considerably reduced by the simple and inexpensive aid offered by plate moulding and the hand press. " The exception referred to is that of setting cores, which holds good with all forms of mechanical moulding. Pattern drawing does not take up so much time as is usually supposed. With machines, jointing and I I i I LQ E-k- e o g S £ -c o > .5 BUB EH 6 .S — <_ ?1 CJ — I TO T- t-" O* J2 bO so c'> Sg< S ^ o c "S , .s. S;e^ J 2 7f^ ?^ g" ; " ^ c 3 ! (D Q g O ' ^ -g ^ g ; u O 3 u. ; JO nJ o ^ ' 3 O i2 S "" S >| i^lg .g . 60 -C-^ w g ID J- O gssg O T) 3 -c ^ a! -►^ C g. t3 2 .- E e 2 o M s, m >■ t 2 nj ■2 S? £: fc t 2 »i-2 g § "* rt "I -2 5 S o ni S ) •d oard boar aped i=3 ■" fe-^ ressei press and ird. & & o o, ■a 3 ' — i O.T3 c 6 c K a -^ c c-S o ,e plai e sha ble, pi resser lll^l ithdr ithdr fting appin jmbi be be 3 o* ceo M OT Q 1 1 1 Mill (S49) 55© Moulding Machines IKiUcrn drawing arc eliminated and in certain cases, the initial outlay is comparatively small. On standard, but changing work, our Ijcst results in machine prac- tice have Ijccn obtained from the hand j)ress sup|)lemcnted. in case of deep patterns, such as flanged \alve Ixxlics, etc., by the hand rammed pattern ckawing machine. Accessories in cither case are not costly; the output is high and the quality good. Our best results on standard work, in which one plate could be run for at least 300 moulds, have been obtained from a pneumatic vibrator machine. If the same plate could be run over a period of four or five days without changing, then production costs fall very con.sidcrably. . . . Whatever may be said to the contrary, stripping plate machines involve costly accessories, but this outlay is warranted if the patterns are of a sufliciently standard character. These machines are esi)ecially good on intricate patterns, such as small spur wheels or others having little or no taper on the sides. While hand machines of any type represent a low first cost, the cost of subsequent accessories must not be forgotten. Power machines represent a higher initial and maintenance cost, but if they can be maintained in constant operation, they give a low production cost. Finally, the chief drawback to the further develop>- ment of machine moulding of any t>-pe occurs in core making and core setting. An improvement in the mechanical production of irregular cores will result in a very considerable advance in machine practice." The following remark is quoted from page 131, same book: "As a rule we have found that while the initial cost of the machine is not considered, the after cost of the accessories is cut down to the narrowest possible margin. This is short sighted for if mechanical aids are adopted, there must be no half measures, or failure will inevitably follow. It cannot be too strongly urged that the cost of a machine represents only the beginning of expenditure." CHAPTER XXIV CONTINUOUS MELTING There are some large shops where the processes of melting and mould- ing are carried on continuously. In some instances the moulds are made in one department, taken on trucks to the neighborhood of cupola, where they are filled; then to the dumping floor where the flasks are knocked out, and sent along on same truck to moulding floor. The manner of conducting this operation at the Westinghouse Foundry is described by Mr. Sheath, and is given in substance further on. In other shops, where work of the character of iron bedsteads is produced, the operation is also continuous, but the pouring is done in the ordinary way. The management of the cupola is practically the same as in the ordi- nary foundry, except that the melter must have means for controlling the blast, so that he may increase or decrease the supply of air as the demand for melted iron may be greater or less. The cupola is run con- tinuously from 7 A.M. to 6 p.m. with an interval of one hour at noon. In respect to the cupola Mr. Sheath's advice is: "See that the coke bed is burning evenly all around, then charge just as you would for an ordinary run, allowing an extra amount of coke for the dinner hour. After running about an hour open the slag hole and keep it open, except during the dinner hour. Use about 40 to 50 pounds of limestone to the ton of molten metal — better use too much than too httle. Have the cupola shell large enough, as it is easy to put in an extra hning for smaller heats." "The Westinghouse Company have in their foundry at Wilmerding, Pa., three cupolas, one 60 inches, two 70 inches, inside lining. When running full, i.e., night and day, we melt 280 tons, running each cupola about ten hours. We have operated one cupola from Friday night at 6 o'clock, until Saturday noon the following day, closing down at 1 1 P.M. for one-half hour for lunch, and again at 6.30 in the morning for three-quarters of an hour for breakfast. This is rather hard on the lining so we do not make a practice of it. We have tried a great many experiments with cupolas, but as yet have been imable to find any that will give better results than the double row of tuyeres. It is not neces- sary^ to keep the upper ones open all the time. Our blast pressure is 551 552 Continuous Melting about II ounces in the cupola l)ustle. When running full we melt ten to eleven pounds of iron to one pound of coke. . . . All charges are the same from beginning to the end of the heat. As the iron must come very soft and uniform we do not charge more than 4000 pounds at one time. In the discussion of his paper at the Cincinnati meeting of the Amer- ican Foundrymcn's Association, May, 1910, Mr. Sheath gave much interesting information, which is summarized briefly. Blast pressure, 1 1 ounces. Little metal is held in cupola, consequently tuyeres are ver>' low. We are ready to tap almost after the whistle blows in the morning. The melting is fast or slow as the moulds appear for jwuring. More coke is used for a small heat and slow melting, than with a large heat and rapid melting." The sand is conveyed to the moulding machines by overhead redpro- cating conveyors. Mr. Sheath's description of the pouring table is as follows: "I might describe how we handle what we call our No. 2 table for No. 2 work. On that table there are castings, a great many of them measuring only a few inches. Notwithstanding the small size of the castings, we were running 52 tons ofif that table alone on a lo-hours run, showing what a great amount of metal can be used up under the con- tinuous process in pouring small castings. We move the table at the rate of 20 feet per minute. .\ drag is put on. There are cores in it. As it passes up the core setters set the cores. Then the cope is put on. It then goes around to the casters in front of the cupola, which is connected with an endless control system. The casters ha\e a ladle which can be raised or lowered by hand. They step on the table and travel with it, pouring anywhere from two moulds to a half dozen or a dozen, and by the time they are poured ofif, they are off at that end, and they can ride back to the cupola." They do that all day long. The table is not supposed to stop, but just goes right straight ahead. It moves at the rate of about 21 feet a minute, which allows them to core up, cast, cover down and all. The core-setters walk with the platform and become very e.xpert. In some moulds we put in eight cores and two or three anchors at the same time, and it would take more than one man to do the coring. Sometimes one man will core it, sometimes it takes two. The casters move right along with the table, take their ladle, and travel with it, the same as if they were on the floor. One man handles a ladle that holds from 60 to 70 pounds. Continuous Melting 553 The sand does not ball up, because we do not carry it very far with the conveyor. In the iron foundry from the time we make the mould and pour, until the mould is shalien out, that same sand is back again in twenty minutes. The sand is not touched by the men in any way. It simply goes down through the conveyor. The sand drops through the grating and is wet there and then taken overhead to the machine. The lowest we have ever run was 40 to 50 tons. We have run as low as 5 tons an hour. This takes a little more lining up. The economy comes in the room occupied by the moulds and the handling of the sand. The sand that we pour into, is back to the ma- chine again in twenty minutes. We get the sand, the flasks and every- thing back empty every twenty minutes. There is a very little jarring about the platform. We have rebuilt one after running it nineteen years. There is very little shake to it if it is working right. We use both the hydraulic and pneumatic moulding machines. . . . The cutting of the cupola lining as compared with ordinary practice varies in proportion to the length of time in blast. We do not have any trouble from slag. At 12 o'clock all the metal is tapped out. We tap for slag twenty minutes before twelve and run it all out. The blast is shut off and metal run out before twelve. All the openings are stopped up. Very little iron comes down after the blast is stopped. The cupola is drained before starting to work again and the blast put on at full pressure so as to heat up quickly. Perhaps 300 pounds metal is pigged before operations are resumed. The smallest output any one day was 50 tons. I do not consider that the continuous process would pay if the production was as low as 20 or 30 tons per day. If there were no moulding machines the process would be economical upon a basis of two tons per hour." When asked as to injury from jarring, Mr. Sheath replied: "We make some moulds that have thirteen pockets hanging down in our smooth moulds; but there are much larger moulds which we have not put on the table at all, because our green sand cores are just held by a few fingers, and we would not risk putting them on. But we make lots of moulds that have quite deep pockets hanging down, and there is very little jarring to it. The table has a slow movement which elimi- nates jarring. The displacing of the sand in the mould gives very little trouble. The continuous system is adapted only for heats where the metal is of same character throughout. If two grades of metal are used they should be melted in separate cupolas. 554 Continuous Moiling The moulds may l)c m.idc by machine or on the floor, and the table used for pouring anything j)laccd on it. Our conveyor makes a complete revolution in twenty minutes. We find in our line of work that the moulds and oistings will be cold enough by the time they travel to the shaking out end. The flasks are all iron and when shaken out arc immediately put back on the tabic and carried to the moulding machine. They are carried entirely by the conveyor. Our castings are not hcaxy. The sand is hot when it is shaken out, but when it is wet and elevated and shaken back and forward in the reciprocating conveyor, by the time it gels to the machine and iron patterns it is all right. We have to keep the patterns warm to prevent the sand from slicking to them. Cores placed in hot sand will draw dampness. This feature was provided for. Our heaviest work is with flasks containing two castings which together weigh 45 pounds. Other flasks contain from thirty- two to forty castings, weighing a few ounces each. I am familiar with a foundry where the cupola is 36 inches inside the lining. It is run from 7 a.m. to 5.30 p.m., continuously. The product is 60 tons per day. The sand is conveyed from the shaking out stand to the machines. Casting is continuous. I am unable to say how small an output could be economically' pro- duced by this system. My experience is on a production from 50 to 280 tons. With us the casters do nothing but cast, the machine men do nothing but mould and the shakers-out do nothing but shake out. We have had no trouble with freezing at the tap hole during the noon shut down. " As regards melting losses, Mr. Sheath was uncertain whether there were records or not. His opinion was that it runs from three to four per cent. The gates and sprues are returned to the cupola without cleaning. "The pouring is done by a man moving with the table. The table is large enough for a man to stay on it with the mould. There is an overhead traveler, which travels with him as he is pouring. As soon as he has poured off and is at the end of his trolley line, he steps off the table and comes right back to the cupola. The coring is done by men standing and dropping in the cores as the moulds pass, or maybe taking a couple of steps, depending on the number of cores. The table does not stop from 7.15 a.m. until 12 M. unless for some special cause." Mr. G. K. Hooper, in the discussion on Mr. Sheath's paper, remarked in response to the inquirj* as to the minimum production for which the continuous process can be economically employed: Multiple Moulds 555 "That it was not so much a question of tonnage as of the number of moulds to be poured." The handling of a smaller tonnage than that mentioned by Mr. Sheath, if distributed over a large number of moulds would unquestionably be productive of great economy if performed mechanically and continuously. The mould is the unit which must be employed in determining whether the continuous system can be applied to any particular production." Mr. Hooper also states that 20 minutes are not necessary for the manipulation and cooling of the sand. He had experience with a plant where the sand was returned in six minutes. His further experience is that the foundry losses are less than are met with in the same class of work made on the floor. Belts are more desirable than conveyors for moving sand. Rubber belts are better suited for the purpose^than canvas. Flat belts are better than those which are troughed, and wide belts moving slowly are better than narrow ones at high speed. A drag or scraper conveyor is the best for distributing sand to the hoppers over the moulding machines. It is preferably made of wooden troughs and flights. Nettings, riddles, sieves, bolts and nuts are best made of phosphor bronze. It is possible to handle all the sand required by productions up to 100 tons of castings per day, or more, with two men; even though as much as 100 tons of sand per hour may be passing through the system. He has subjected moiflds to very rough treatment to determine the liability of injury from jarring and confirms Mr. Sheath's statement that no trouble arises from this cause. Mr. Hooper commends a system wherein the moulds are carried by an overhead trolley and allowed to swing freely except at the point where the pouring was done. Less power is required, less wear entailed, and the expense is less. The continuous system is in no sense experimental. Its worth is demon- strated by use through many years in many large shops. . . . By means of mechanical handling systems in the foundry, the eSiciency of the workman is increased from 10 to 50 per cent. The average wage can often be re- duced somewhat; the foundry loss is decreased; the floor space reduced; in fact by such appliances only can the full capacity of moulding machin- ery be realized. Multiple Moulds When several moulds are stacked one on top of another and poured from a common sprue connecting to each mould, the process is styled multiple moulding. 5S6 Continuous Melting The top and bottom sections arc like the coikj and drag of the ordinary mould; each intcrmcdiule section forms the drag for that immediately above and the cope for the one directly below. A numljcr of these sections, perhaps ei^hl or even nine, are piled on top of each other and the ixjuring gate extends from the top coi^c to the jS Fig. 209. — Ralhbone Multiple Moulding Machine, bottom drag. The special advantages of the sj^stem result from the reduction of floor space, the amount of sand used; the nimiber of flasks required, and the labor of pouring off. Mr. E. H. INIumford, in a paper presented to the American Foundry- men's Association, stated: "That the reduction in the amoimt of sand used and in the number of flasks is 37 per cent; and in floor space 88 per cent below that required for ordinary floor moulding. " Multiple Moulds 557 The pouring may be done with a crane ladle; therefore, one of the great difficulties encountered in pouring off machine floors is eliminated. The great weight of sand, together with good clamping overcomes the tendency of straining. Fig. 2IO. Fig. 211. Fig. 212. Fig. 213. Fig. 214. Fig. 215. As originally practiced this method of moulding covered the piling of ordinary moulds, one above the other, and pouring from a common gate. The advantages were confined to reduced floor space and reduction of pouring difficulties. Subsequently each intermediate section was made to serve as a cope and drag; but the process was confined to pat- 558 Coiilinuous Melting Icnis having |)lanc bases, lljc drag having simply a flat surface. Thb limilaliun arose from the diflkully entountcretl in obtaining good moulds by pressing the patterns into the sand to form the drag. Later it was found that by bringing the drag up suddenly against the prcsscr head, the sand was made by its inertia to take the imi)ression of the pattern equally as well as when pressed from above. The scope of the process was immediately enlarged and although the method is not as yet c.\tensi\cly emjjloyed there seems to be a reasonable jirobability that it may be extended to cover the range of moderately small work now made by mechanical processes. The cut above (Fig. 209) shows a machine of this character designed for making chilled plow points. The moulds in jwsition for clamping, and samples of castings made are shown in cuts above (Tig. 210-215). Permanent Moulds Moulds of more or less pcrniancnc^- made in loam, and moulds for chilled work, such as car wheels, etc., have long been in use, but moulds of a permanent character have only recently been used for extended lines of castings which are not chilled. The management of the cupola, melting and pouring are ver>' much the same as pursued in the continuous process already described. The moulds are either mounted on frames near the cupola or are placed on revolving tables. The iron from which the moulds are made must be soft enough for machining; it must be strong and of suitable composition to stand repeated heating without warping; it must also have a close structure to withstand the abraiding action of hot metal. The moulds are very heavy so that the mass of iron may carry away the heat rapidly from the casting and at the same time not permit its temperature to rise above 300° or 400° F. Keeping the temperature within these limits reduces the frequenc>' with which the mould may be used. The moulds are machined at the joints and preferably hinged; the outside of the lower half of mould is also machined on the bottom. Mr. Richard H. Probcrt of Louisville, Ky., in a paper read at the Cincinnati meeting of the .A.mcrican F"oundr\Tnen's Association gave the following analysis for moulds which had gi\cn good results: Si s Phos. Mn C. C. G. C. 2.02 .07 .89 • 29 .84 2.76 Permanent Moulds 559 He also states that he had used moulds made from high carbon steels for castings having sharp thin projections. In constant use these moulds become roughened, but are not burnt or eaten away, as with cast-iron moulds. He likewise suggests that pressure applied to the moulds immediately after pouring would result in castings presenting sharp clean lines of great density and strength. Mr. Edgar A. Custer of Tacony, Pa., presented at the same meeting a most interesting paper on the same subject and also submitted many sample castings, made by this process. Without giving definite informa- tion as to sizes of moulds with respect to patterns, he impressed the necessity for great mass in them. For instance, a mould for a 2-inch soil pipe T, weighs 500 pounds; one for a 3-inch trap 1700 pounds. In a mould for 4-inch soil pipe weighing 65 pounds, there were 6500 pounds iron. Castings were made in this mould every seven minutes without raising its temperatiu^e over 300° F. He found that it is unnecessary to coat the moulds, but that their temperature must be sufficiently high to prevent the condensation of moisture before casting. If the castings are removed from the moulds immediately upon setting, there is little trouble about sticking after 60 to ICO castings have been made. The moulds improve by continued use, but how long they will last is imknown. He has now in use a mould in which 6000 castings have been made and it shows no signs of deterio- ration. The life of a mould depends not so much on the number of cast- ings made in it as upon the number of times it has been allowed to become entirely cold and then reheated. Continuous pouring, when correctly timed so as to preserve a generally even temperature, has but very slight tendency to crack the mould. If the castings are removed from the mould as soon as they have set sufiiciently to handle, there is with proper mixture no appearance of chill when cold. This was shown by a number of samples which had been machined. The iron was soft, and was readily filed on the parts not machined. Cores are made of cast iron, and if straight, or curved in circular shape, can easily be removed from the castings, if taken out quickly while the casting is at a bright red. It is altogether probable that the time to remove the castings is at any period after setting and prior to the third expansion, and that the core should be removed during the third expansion. See Keep's "Cast Iron," Chapter VIII. The iron must be melted very hot. ]\Ir. Custer's view is that the percentage of silicon may range between 1.75 and 3 per cent. The mixture in use by him is as follows: 56o ("onlinuous Melting Si ' Pho8. . 1 s Mn G. C. C. C. 2 2i I IJ .01 ^ 30a I 54 Mr. Custer summarizes as follows: "Any casting that can be poured in a sand mould can be poured in an iron mould. If the iron is hot enough to run in green sand mould it will surely run in an iron mould. Iron that is suitable for radiator fittings, or brake shoes, or any other class of duplicate work that is made in sand, will be suitable for the use of permanent moulds. The same e.xperience that shows the foundryman what is best for sand moulding can be applied in |)ermanent mould work. It is true that a somewhat wider range of iron can be used in per- manent moulds for the same class of work than is the case in sand mould- ing, but any change from the general practice in selecting irons for any particular class of work must be made with a great deal of care. It is of course a subject that demands close and incessant study, and every manufacturer who wishes to use permanent moulds must give the same care and thought to this method that he has given to those previously employed. " Interesting information was brought out in the discussion of Mr. Custer's paper which is summarized below. Temperature of moulds is not allowed to exceed 300° F.; the pouring is proportioned at intervals so as not to exceed that temperature. It takes 25 seconds to make a 4-inch soil pipe T. No sand used in the core. The core for this mould was shown, which had been in con- stant use for thirteen months. The mould for a 2-inch T weighed 500 pounds, the T itself weighs 8! J pounds. The core with which the T was made was shown. It had been in use seven months during which i>eriod 3500 castings were made. A casting can be made from it e\cr)- forty-five seconds throughout the day. No precaution is taken against shrinkage. Chilling quicklj- to point of set makes castings homogeneous, reducing shrinkage strains to a min- imum. A trap weighing 42 pounds made on a sand core was shown. One is made every seven minutes. The mould weighs 1900 pounds. The casting is taken out within four seconds after pouring. No special care is taken to keeji the moulds from dampness. They are simply \snped out carefully before using. The core, upon which a Centrifugal Castings 561 four-inch pipe, 5 feet 3 inches long was made, was shown. The pipe was H inch thick and weighed 65 pounds. The core had Me inch taper in the whole length. The pouring table revolves once in yii minutes. There are on it 35 pipe moulds, and a casting is produced every fifteen seconds. In a ten-hour run at this rate of production, the temperature of the moulds never exceeds 250° F. The operations are automatic. With a 2-inch pipe, the casting can be taken from the mould within three seconds; it must not be allowed to remain in mould over six seconds. With a six-inch pipe, the time of removal is from five to sixteen seconds. One man operates the table, pouring and removing the pipe, cleaning out the moulds, and setting the cores. The iron is white hot as it comes from the cupola. No attention is paid to coating the moulds; they are wiped out from time to time with a greasy rag if any dirt is present. The heaviest castings made are 6-inch pipes weighing no pounds each. Gates are made larger than in green sand practice. JMr. Custer did not consider the phosphorus content of importance. He prefers iron 0.5 to i.o per cent phosphorus on account of fluidity. Chilling occurs so quickly that there is no segregation. The tensile strength of castings made in iron moulds is about 30 per cent greater than that of same character made in sand. Brake shoes are left in the mould seven seconds. It takes about a minute to make a brake shoe. The castings do not warp. Six-inch pipes can be laid on the pile within 20 seconds after casting. The silicon content should not be lower than 1.75 per cent, sulphur should be below 0.05 per cent, total carbon high as possible not below 2.65. Has used 70 per cent scrap with pig carrying 3 per cent silicon. Centrifugal Castings In 1809, Anthony Eckhardt of Soho, England, was granted a patent for making castings in rotating moulds, procuring in this manner either hoUow or solid castings. Nothing favorable seems to have resulted from the scheme. In 1848, Mr. Lovegrove attempted to make pipes in this manner. Subsequently a Mr. Shanks patented the same method in England. Sir Henry Bessemer endeavored to remove the gases from steel castings by a similar process. About the same time a Mr. Needham endeavored to apply the method to making car wheels. So far as can be learned nothing of practical value resulted from these efforts. It is said that car wheels are now made in Germany in this way using a high carbon steel for the rim and 562 Continuous Melting soft material for the rciiler. The moulfJ is made to revolve about 120 times |)er minute while jwuring. The (irinciple is use' emer>' wheel, the portable wheel driven by a flexible shaft is employed advantageously. The Sand Blast This appliance is of the greatest importance. More surface can be cleaned with it in a given time than by any other means except the rattler. The use of the other appliances above mentioned is not dis- placed by it, however, as there are many recesses about castings wliich are protected from the blast, and which must be cleaned by hand. The importance of properly cleaning castings should not be over- looked. No matter how well made or how good in respect of material, if ihcy are sent from the cleaner in a slovenly condition, their commercial value is greatly impaired. Pickling 567 Pickling Formerly pickling castings was largely employed, but of recent years, by reason of the improved facings used, the practice is not so much followed. Nevertheless there are places about castings from which the sand is not properly removed by the ordinary processes, and again some machine shops prefer pickled castings, as the cutting edges of their tools are not injured so quickly, by reason of the entire removal of the sand. This process is also followed where the castings are to be galvanized or tinned, as it leaves clean metallic surfaces. For pickling, either sulphuric or hydrofluoric acid is used, the former more commonly. The acid solution must be weak ; one part of ordinary vitriol to four or six parts of water attacks the iron rapidly, whereas the undiluted acid has no effect. In diluting the acid, care must be taken to pour the acid into the water, and not the water into the acid. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves the iron in contact, thereby loosening the sand. The action is more rapid with warm than with hot solution. This solution, when applied to castings, will loosen the sand scale in from one to twelve hours, depending upon the thickness of the scale. The acid solution is kept in a lead-Uned wood vat. The vat should be about two feet deep, the other dimensions varying with the amount of castings to be treated. At the bottom of the vat is a wooden grating fastened together by wood dowels. The grating is held down by lead weights. It must be high enough above the bottom of the vat for the sand to drop through. Upon this grating the castings rest as they are immersed. After remaining in the bath the requisite length of time, they are removed and thoroughly washed with hot water. The acid must be completely removed or they will rust. It is a good plan to dip them in a strong solution of lye or soda before washing. Another practice is to place a lead-hned platform so that one edge may overhang one end of the vat; the platform incUning a couple of inches toward the vat, and having the remaining edges raised two inches, so that all the drainage may be into the vat. Upon this platform is placed a wood grating, and the castings on the grating. The pickle is then dipped from vat with an iron bucket and poured over the castings. They are washed thoroughly with the pickle, so that there may be no sand surface which has not been saturated. It may be necessary to repeat the operation more than once. When the sand scale begins to loosen, the castings are removed and washed as before. The washing may be done with a hose while the castings are on the bed, but in such 568 Continuous Melting case [wovision must be made to ( arr)' off the water in a trough so that it may not enter the vat. The strength of the solution must l>e ke|)t up Ijy addition of fresh acid from lime to time. Hydrofluoric Acid Where this acid is used for pickHng, the solution should \ie one part of 48 per cent acid to 30 parts of water. Hydrofluoric acid dissolves the sand instead of acting on the iron. The treatment of the castings is the same as with the \itriol, l)ut the sand must be removed from below the grating, otherwise the acid will be rapidly neutralized. The workmen should be cautioned in handling cither of these acids as they cause severe bums, if they come in contact with the flesh. Where acid is spilled on the flesh or clothing, wash the parts freely with water and then with dilute ammonia. Raw linseed oil applied to bums produces a soothing effect. Hydrofluoric acid leaves the surface of the castings bright and clean, and is, therefore, best for electroplating. CHAPTER XXV Method of Ascertaining the Weight of Castings from the Weight of Patterns Pattern weighing one pound Weight when cast in Cast iron, pounds Yellow brass, pounds Gun metal, pounds Zinc, pounds Alumi- num, pounds Copper, pounds Bay wood . . . Beech Cedar Cherry Linden Mahogany. . Maple Oak Pear Pine, white. Pine, yellow Whitewood . . 16.1 10.7 12.0 8.5 9.2 9-4 10.9 14.7 13. 1 16.4 9-9 9-5 18.0 12.0 13. 5 9-5 10.3 10.5 12.2 16. 5 14.7 18.4 10.3 10.0 18.9 12.6 14. 1 10.0 10.8 II. o 12.8 17-3 IS. 4 193 8.5 8.2 IS. 6 10.4 II. 6 8.2 8.9 91 10.6 14 3 12.7 IS. 9 10.5 10. 1 19.2 12.8 14.3 10 I II. o 11. 2 13.0 17. S 15.6 19s Allowance should be made for any metal in the pattern. Specific Gravity and Average Weight per Cubic Foot of Pattern Lumber Wood Beech Cedar Cherry Linden Mahogany . . , Maple Oak, white. . Oak, red . . . . Pine, white. Pine, yellow Walnut. Average weight per cubic foot, pounds 46 39 41 37 SI 42 48 46 28 38 38 569 570 Dftcrminalion of Wci^lit of Ca.sting.s Weight of Casti.sgs Determined from Weight of Patterns (By F. G. Walker.) ''■■" '■'• ••■• 1 in A p.ittem Wfighirn; one pound made of iron, pounds Zinc, pounds Copper, pounds Yellow brass, pounds Gun metal, pounds 1 Alumi- , . num, ^ pounds , J"^*^ 1 Mahogany, Nassau. . . . Mahogany, Honduras. Mahogany, Spanish — 10.7 12.9 8.5 12. S 16.7 14. 1 9.0 10.4 12.7 8.2 12. 1 16.1 136 8.6 12.8 15 3 10. 1 14.9 19.8 16.7 10.4 12.2 14.6 9 7 14.2 19.0 16.0 10.4 12 S ISO 9 9 14.6 19 S 16.S 10.9 so 32.0 Pine, yellow Oak Weight of a Superficial Foot of Cast Iron Thick- ness, inches Weight, pounds Thick- ness, Weight, pounds Thick- ness, inch.,.s I'i Weight, pounds 46.87 51.56 56.25 60.93 Thick- ness, inches Weight, pounds y* 9 37 14.06 18.75 23.43 I 28.12 32.81 37.50 42.18 i i"s 2 65.62 70.31 75 00 Formulas for Finding the Weight of Iron Castings To find the weight of sfiuare or rectangular castings, multi- ply the length by the breadth, "" ~ "L " — ^ by the thickness, by 0.26: Fig. 221. W = LBTX 0.26. To find the weight of solid cylinders, the weight equals the outside diameter squared, multiplied by the length, multiplied by 0.204: If D-L X 0.204. Determination of Weight of Castings 571 W = weight of casting in pounds; L = length of casting in inches; T = thickness of casting in inches; B = breadth of casting in inches; D = outside or large diameter in inches. To find the weight of hol- low cylinders, multiply the small or inside diameter plus the thickness, by the length, by the thickness, by 0.817: W=[d + T)TLXo.Si7. Fig. K- L- FiG. 224. W = DdL X 0.204. W = weight of casting in pounds; L = length of casting in inches; T = thickness of casting in inches; D = large diameter in inches; d = small diameter in inches. To find the weight of a hollow hemisphere, multiply the thickness by the small radius plus the thickness divided by 2, squared, by 1.652: To find the weight of a solid ellipse, mul- tiply the large diam- eter by the small di- ameter, by the length, by 0.204: To find the weight of a solid sphere, mul- tiply the diameter cubed by 0.1365 : W = D3 X 0.1365. Fig. 226. W = weight of casting in pounds; R = outside or large radius in inches; r = insidv or small radius in inches; T = thickness in inches; D = outside or large diameter in inches. S7^ Determination of WciRhl of Caslings Formulas for Finding the Weight of a Hollow Iron Sphere and a Body of Rammed Sand To find the weight of a hollow sphere mul- I \]. tiply ihc outside diameter cubed, minus the inside diameter culled, by 10.365: D---> W = {D*-d') 0.1365. Fig. 227. W = weight of casting in pounds; D = outside or large diameter in inches; d = inside or small diameter in indies. Fig. 228. To find the weight of a body of rammed sand, multiply the length by the breadth, by the height in feet, by 87: W = LBH X 87. W = weight of body of sand in p)Ounds; L = length of body of sand in feet; B = breadth of body of sand in feet; H = height of bodj' of sand in feet. Formulas for Finding the Weight of Iron Castings To find the weight of a triangular casting, multiply the length by the breadth, by the thickness, by 0.13: TT' = LBT X 0.13. Fig. ■-L- 229. To find the weight of a flywheel, 11 feel in diameter, having elliptical arms. The first operation is to find the weight of the hub; second, the rim; and third, the arms. The sum of these gives the weight of the wheel. To find the weight of the hub: W = id + T)TLX 0.817. To find the weight of the rim, the same formula as above is used. To find the weight of one arm: /fO -J Fig. 230. W DdL X 0.24. Determination of Weight of Castings 573 Multiply by six to find the weight of the six arms. W = weight of casting in pounds; D = outside or large diameter in inches; d = inside or small diameter in inches; L = length in inches; T = thickness in inches; B = breadtli in inches. To find the weight of a spherical segment of one base, multiply the square of the height by the difference between the radius of the sphere and one-third of the height, by 0.818; or, to the radius of the base squared, multiplied by the height by 0.409, add the height cubed multiplied by 0.136: W = H^-(r--\ X 0.818, TT' = r"H X 0.409 + ^^ X 0.136. TI' = weight of casting in poimds; R = radius of sphere in inches; H = height of segment in inches; f = radius of base in inches. Fig. 231. To find the weight of a spherical segment of two bases, from the radius of the sphere multipUed by the difference between the squares of the distances from the bases to the poles by 0.818, subtract the difference between the cubes of the distances from the bases to the pole, multiphed by 0.273, or* To the sum of the squares of the radii of the bases, multiplied by the height by 0.409, add the height cubed, multipUed bj' 0.136: Fig. 232. TT' = R (.42 - 52) X 0.818 - (.43 - B^) X 0.^273, W = H{r'^ + s^) X 0.409 + ^ X 0.136. W = weight of casting in pounds; R = radius of sphere in inches; T = radius of large base of segment in inches; 5 = radius of small base of segment in inches; A = distance from large base to pole in inches; B = distance from small ba.se to pole in inches; E = height of segment in inches. 574 Determination of Weight of Castings 1 the o find the wcisht of a ring made by ( uiting a cylindrical hole through center of a sphere, muluply ihc chord cul>ed by 0.136: W = C X 0.136. The chord is equal to the srjuare root of the result obtained by subtracting the square of the diameter of the hole from the square of the diameter of the sphere: C = VlP-^. Fig. 233. W = weight of casting in pounds; D = diameter of sphere in inches; d = diameter of hole in inches. To find the weight of a ring of circular cross section, multiply the radius of the cross section ^?qua^ed by the radius of the circle passing through the center of the cross section, by 5.140: y^^ W = r-R X 5.140. TF = weight of casting in pounds; r = radius of cross section in inches; R = radius of circle passing through cen- ter of cross section in inches. To find the weight of a frustrum of a hexagonal pyramid, multiply the siun of the side of the large base squared, the side of the small base squared and the product of the two sides, by the length, by 0.226, or mul- tiply the sum of the dis- tance across the flats of the large base squared, the distance across the ->l Fig. 235. flats of the small base squared and the product of these two distances, by the length, by 0.075. !26, ;F = (5^ + j2 + Ss) LXo. To find the weight of a straight fillet, multiply the radius squared by the length, by 0.0559. w = r:^lx 0.0559. ]V=^{r-+f + Ff)Lx 0.075. 71" Fig. 236. Weight Required on Copes 575 W = weight of casting in pounds; L = length of casting in inches; S = side of large base in inches; 5 = side of small base in inches; F = distance across the flats of large base in inches; / = distance across the flats of small base in inches; R = radius of fillet in inches. Formulas for Finding the Weight Required on a Cope to Resist the Pressure of Molten Metal ; and the Pres- sure Exerted on the Mould To find the weight required on a cope to resist the pressiu'e of molten iron, multiply the cope area of the casting in p — "j square inches by the height of the riser top 1 above the casting in inches, by 0.21 : v.^-=r^=r -mi^ W = AH X 0.21. Fig. 237. W = weight to be placed on a flask in pounds; A = cope area of casting in square inches; H = height of riser top above casting in inches. To find the pressure exerted on a mold by molten iron multiply the height in inches from the point of pressure to the top of the riser by 0.26: P = H X 0.26. ■:.-;^^;::;-::>:".:-.^:S.:V.:0 p _ pressure in pounds per square Fig. 238. inch; H = height from point of pressure to the top of the riser in inches. To find the weight of an inside circular fillet, multiply the difference between the diameter of the cyUnder made by the side of the fillet and the product of the radius and 0.446, by the radius squared, by 0.176, or, from the diameter of the cyUnder made by the side of the fillet, multipHed by the radius squared, by 0.176, sub- tract the radius cubed multiplied by 0.0784. W = (D- 0.446 R) /?2 X 0.176, or W = DR' X 0.176 - R^ X o.oyS4. Fig. 239. 576 I )il(rrniii;iti()n of Weight of Castings To find the weight of an outside circular fillet, multiply the sum of ihe diameter of the cylinder made by the side of the fillet and the product of the radius and 0.446, by the radius s<|uarcl Fig. 240. II' = weight of casting in pounds; R = radius of fillet in inches; D = diameter of cylinder made or generated by the side of fillet in inches. CHAPTER XXVI WATER SUPPLY, LIGHTING, HEATING AND VENTILATION Water Supply Provision for water supply to the foundry is a matter of the first importance. If water cannot be obtained from the pubUc mains, facil- ities for pumping and distributing must be provided. The system must be so arranged, either by elevated tanks or otherwise, as to fiu'nish water under a pressure of from 25 to 30 pounds. While the supply must be abundant, the natural tendency to its wasteful use must be suppressed. Fig. 241. — Water Box and Hose Connection. Conveniently located near the cupola for ciuenching the dump, should be a hydrant with hose attached, ready for immediate use. Pipes should be so run about the foundry that taps may be conveniently distributed for wetting down the floors and sprinkling the sand heaps; each floor must have easy access to the sprinkling hose. Ample provision should be made for drinking; basins near the drinking fountains, in which to bathe their arms and faces, add greatly to the comfort of the workmen. The illustrations herewith, taken from the Iron Age, show provisions 577 57S Water Supply, Light in^, Heating and \'entilation made fi)r this purpose and for lavatories, clc, in a large Cleveland foundry Running water should be supplied at the closets. In many foundries of recent construction, wash basins, shower baths and lockers arc pro- vided, enabling the men to wash and change their clothes before leaving the works. The free use of water implies, of course, a system of sewer- age. Care must be taken to avoid puddles or wet six)ts about the floors. The matter of water supply for fire protection is entirely indefjendenl of that for foundry purposes, and should be provided for separately. Fig. 242. — Porcelain Washbowls and Sled Lockers in Lavatory. Lighting Next to water supply in importance is the matter of lighting. Many foundries are deficient in this respect and sufTer either in the character or quantity of product from improper lighting. Daylight is invaluable, and should he utilized to the fullest extent. In the construction of foundry buildings, the windows should be tall and as close together as the character of the structure will permit; they should not e.xtend lower than four feet from the floor. A modern construction showing the sides of the building made almost entirely of glass is showni in the engraving below. Windows in the moniter should be swi\-eled and arranged to op>en easily for ventilation. Skylights are to be avoided if possible, as they cause no end of annoyance. The weaxnng-shed roof gives excellent results, and is frequently used in foundr>' construction. The glazing should be of a character to prevent the direct admission of sunlight. Ground glass, wire glas.'^ or glass wnth horizontal ribs afford a mellow light, relieving the eyes from the glare of direct sunUght. Heating and Ventilating 579 Artificial light for the early morning and late evening hours, during the season of short days, is best afforded by some adaptation of the electric lamp. Tungsten lamps in groups of four, distributed at inter- vals of about 40 feet are largely used. Such lamps are provided with reflectors to direct the rays downwards and diffuse them. The lamps must be placed so as to clear the crane ways, and should be elevated about 20 feet from the floor. The Cooper-Hewett mercury lamps, placed about 50 feet apart and covered with reflectors, are very satis- factory. The flaming arc lamps, similarly placed, furnish the greatest illumination for a given expenditure of current. Fig. 243. A recent type of kerosene burner, the Kauffman, having a mantel somewhat similar to the Wellsbach, is said to furnish a given candle power at less cost than any lamp known. With anj' system of hghting, care must be taken to keep the lamps clean and in good order, otherwise their efficiency is soon greatly im- paired. Where electric lights are used, the generators should be inde- pendent of those which furnish current to the motors. Power for fans, elevators, cranes, sand mixers, etc., is most conveniently supplied by electricity. Each machine should have an independent motor. Elec- tric trucks, operated by storage batteries, and magnetic hoists, for service in the foundry and yard are almost indispensable. In fact the introduction of electricity has so simplified foundry operations that its use is imperative. Heating and Ventilating Heating and ventilating the foundry are subjects which formerly received little attention. A few stoves or open fires in iron rings, placed where they would be least in the way, constituted the usual equipment; foundries fitted with steam heating or hot-air systems were exceptional. 580 Water Supply, Lighting, Heating and Ventilation Gradually foundrymen have learned to appreciate the advantages of a n)mfi)rl;il)le working; lcmi)cralure and good ventilation, xs shown by increased output. A cold shop and chilled or jiarlly frozen sand heaps may easily reduce the value of a morning's work from 20 to 25 per cent. .\s foundry oix;rations re(juire active physical exertion, the temperature of the shop should not e.xceed 50° to 55" F. At 7 o'clock in the morning the building should be warm tluoughout. For this purix)se direct and vacuum steam heating systems are used with gcKxl results. Both are open to objections. The warm air is not evenly distributed; much of it is sent to the u()[)cr part of the building, where it docs no good. With either system several hours are required in extremely cold weather to produce a comfortable temperature in the morning. Cold air enters through the windows and doors, causing drafts and an uneven distribu- tion of heat. More satisfactory results are furnished by the fan and hot-blast system. This consists of a sheet-iron chamber, in which are placed the requisite number of coils heated cither Ijy direct or exhaust steam, if the latter is available, an exhaust fan and the distributing pipes. The fan draws the air over the coils and from the chamber and forces it about the build- ing through large ducts, from which branch pipes are taken at proper intervals; through these branches the warm air is discharged at the desired spots within the shop. This system is largely used and possesses advantages over those having direct radiation. The amount of heat absorbed by air flowing over pipes increases rapidly with the velocity of the air. When the velocity' of the air current flowing over the pipes in the heating chamber is about 1500 feet per minute (the usual velocity) the area of the heating surface required to accomplish a given heating effect is only about one-fifth that for direct radiation. With the fan and hot-blast system the building is filled with air under slight pressure, termed a plenum, which prevents cold air from entering; warm air flows out through all leaks. The warm air is discharged from the pipes near the floor, and uniformly distributed through the low,er part of the building. By reason of such distribution and the great volume of air discharged, the shop may be quickly warmed in the morning. If the fan is driven by an independent engine, the exhaust steam is sent directly to the coils, thereby making tlic expendi- ture for power nominal. Where live steam is not available for an engine the fan may be driven by a motor. With the motor-driven fan, the watchman can start the apparatus during exceedingly cold nights, anfl thereby prevent the sand heaps from freezing. The ducts are usually circular in section, made of galvanized iron and supported by the chords of the building so as to clear the crane way. Heating and Ventilating S8r The sketch below shows the usual arrangement for fans and ducts. In shops of moderate size, where but one fan is required, the ducts, of course, must run all around the building. Fig. 244. — Typical Arrangement of Heating and Ventilating System for Foundry with Unobstructed Craneway. From the ducts, discharge pipes are dropped at intervals of from 30 to 40 feet. These usually terminate about 8 feet above the floor line, and leave the ducts at an angle of about 45°, inclined in the direction of the 5S2 Water Supply, Lighting, Healing and N'cntilaiion air currents. Where the discharges are dropped as alx)ve slated, ihe open ends should incline about 20° from ihc vertical; they should alternately face the walls and the center bay. Six square inches of Tnen's Association, that advantage is taken of the opportunity presented through the courtesy of the Buffalo Forge Company to make extensive extracts therefrom: "The proper distribution of heat in the foundry is comparatively difficult. In general the problem is that of a large open space, affording little opportunity for efficient placing of direct radiation. On account ol the monitor type of building usually employed, there is relatively a great height. The hot air rises up into the lantern and passes out through the ventilators, if fans are not provided to deUver it near the floor. The heated column of air in the building serves to draw cold air from with- out at every opening. This inward leakage of cold air, not only de- mands a great amount of heat, but makes a thorough distribution of heat at the floor line most essential for comfort and economy of opera- tion. A sUght plenum, or outward leakage, of air at the doors and openings, caused by the delivery and proper distribution of sufficient heated air into the building is the only solution of the difficulty. Ample ventilation is at times most necessary. The lantern type of build- ing is best adapted to quickly ventilate, since the ventilators simply have to be opened to permit the hotter and Ughter gases and vapors Heating and Ventilating 583 to pass out. External air must enter the building to replace that escaping through the ventilators. Cold air entering the doors and openings tends to cool and condense the rising vapors. It is there- fore essential that a system be installed which will deliver warmed fresh air during the pouring periods, when ventilation is of first im- portance. Rapid heating of the building in the morning means that the best efficiency from the men will be obtained over the entire working period. A system which is elastic, and which may be rapidly varied to suit the requirements is to be favored. Coke or gas fired salamanders are appar- ently the most economical means of heating, as all the heat goes directly into the building. The atmosphere in a tightly closed building heated by this method becomes intolerable, and if sufficient ventilation is provided to make conditions healthful, the amount of heat required is greater than with other systems. The grade of fuel used is also con- siderably more expensive than that used in other systems of heating, to say nothing of the care of a large number of separate fires scattered about the building. In heating with direct radiation, steam is usually employed, although hot-water systems with forced circulation have been successfully oper- ated. Unless there is a large amount of hot water available, it is not an economical system to employ, on" account of the greatly increased amount of radiating surface required at the lower temperature. In steam heating, the high pressure, the low pressure or the vacuum system of distribution may be used; the selection of the particular sj-stem depends on load conditions. Where high-pressure steam is available, and there is no exhaust steam, it should of course, be used. If, however, there is no high pressure or exhaust steam available from the power plant, then an independent low-pressure boiler should be installed, fur- nishing steam at from 5 pounds to 10 pounds pressure. For low-pressure work cast-iron boilers may be used; no boiler feed pumps are required. The boiler should be placed at a level low enough for the condensation to drain back by gravity. If this is impracticable, then a centrifugal pump may be employed to return the condensed water to the boiler. A vacuum system should always be used when exhaust steam from the power plant is available. In a vacuum system of distribution, the back pressure should not exceed i pound, as otherwise the losses will outweigh the gain. The fan sj'stem is undoubtedly the best for foundry heating and ventilating, and it is particularly adapted to the severe requirements of foundries, and other buildings of this construction, where there are large open spaces to be heated. The principal advantages of the fan system over direct radiation are: 584 Water Supply, Lighting, Heating and \'enlilation 1. The thorough distribution of heat secured by discharging the air under pressure through suitable outlets, wnth suflicicnt velocity to ciirry the heat to the jxjints where it is most needed without causing jicrceptiblc draughts. 2. No hc;it is wasted as in direct radiation, where a large part is sent directly through the walls, with slight effect upon the temiK-rature of the building. The fan system affords means of supplying heat directly to the interior of the building. 3. No heat is wasted by heating unoccupied spaces, as along the roof and in the monitor. Tests of the fan system installed in foundries have, in certain instances, sho\vn lower temperatures in the monitors than at 5 feet above the floor line. 4. Fan systems heat up very much more rapidly in the morning, when it is desirable to bring up the temperature in as short time as IKJssible. 5. It gives a rapid warm air change, which effectually removes smoke, steam and dust during pouring time; an effect possible only with a fan system. During such periods, when ventilation is required, the fresh and return air dampers should be adjusted to take all the air from out of doors. During the remainder of the day, however, the greater part of the air should be returned from the building to the apparatus, so that the heat required for ventilation may be the least possible. Precaution should always be taken to see that this feature is provided for. 6. Fan systems cost less to install properh-, since the apparatus is centrally located, and it is not necessary to pipe the steam to all parts of the building as in direct radiation. 7. The cost of maintenance is less, since the radiating surface of a direct system along the walls is frequentlj' damaged, while in the cen- trally-located fan apparatus, it is thoroughly protected. As in direct radiation, steam or hot water can be used in the fan system heater coils; but as the cool air is drawn over these coiLs by the fan, a great deal more heat is obtained from the same amount of heating surface. This permits the square feet of radiation to be re- duced about two-thirds. The fan is often driven by a direct -connected steam engine, the e.xhaust from which is used in the heater coils. This is an exceedingly economical method, as practically all of the heat of the steam is utilized. A new t>pe of fan heating system, which is ginng the highest degree of satisfaction, has been developed by the Buffalo Forge Company; this is the direct air furnace system. Instead of burning fuel under boilers, generatmg steam, transferring steam from boilers to heater coils through Heating and Ventilating 585 a long riin of pipe, and finally giving up heat to air from the heater coils, this system transfers the heat of the burning fuel directly to the air for distribution. An efficiency of 85 to 90 per cent has actually been attained, as against the usual efficiency of 50 to 60 per cent derived from steam service. The Buffalo Forge Company has made many installations using gas for fuel, and recently erected one in which pow- dered coal was used. Fuel oil can also be employed. The construc- tion of the furnace is similar to that for a water tube boiler. The hot gasses pass through the tubes, a fan draws the circulating air around the tubes, by which it is heated, and then distributes it through the building. Fig. 244 shows one of these furnaces recently installed in an important factory in the West. The main hot air ducts from the fan are usually made of galvanized iron, and are carried in the roof trusses. When these ducts are placed at a height not exceeding 20 .feet, the air may be delivered directly into the building through short outlets. The design of these outlets is of particular importance to the success of the sj'stem. The velocity must be properly proportioned to the height, to the size of the outlet and to the horizontal distance which the air is to be blown. The greater the distance and height above the floor, and the smaller the outlets, the higher the velocity must be to obtain the proper distribution. On the other hand, if the velocity is exces- sive for these conditions, objectionable draughts will be produced. In some cases the main pipe has to be placed too far above the floor to permit good distribution of heat at the floor line with short outlets. In such cases it is usual to provide drop pipes from the main at the columns or along the side walls. Where the drop pipes are placed at the columns, each pipe is usually provided with two branches; one blowing toward the base of the windows at the side walls, the other blowing toward the center of the building. Where the drop pipes are extended downward at the side walls, it is usual to provide three outlets to each pipe, two blowing sidewise along the walls, and the third out- ward toward the center of the building. In wide buildings it is customary to run two lines of pipes along the columns on each side; while in narrower buildings it is possible to obtain an entirely satisfactory distribution of heat with one line of main pipe, having outlets so proportioned as to blow across the building to the further side. A very neat, though more expensive system of distribution is with underground main ducts, with galvanized iron vertical risers, arranged along the columns or side walls; or in some instances, as in particularly wide buildings, at both places. The system of outlets in this case will be practically the same as where drop pipes are used. Fans may be either motor or engine driven. When an s86 Water Supply, Lighting, Heating and Ventilation ul)undancc of exhaust steam is available for use in the heater coils, the molor- N ^^ V M « 1-1 Ci N « > « « « M M « O On back of this card the withdrawals and corresponding dates are entered and balance cast up on face. The cards for sand, fire clay, etc., are the same as for coke, without the analysis. It is advisable, howe\er, to have these supplies analyzed ocaibionally. Pig Iron COKE CARD 591 Coke Form 5. Car No. 7482, N. Y. C. Received, 2/7/10. Ovens, Hamilton by-product. Weight, 32,600. S4.8S Deld. A nalysis Per cent 85 8 Ash II I As a matter of convenience to the foreman in making up the mixture, it is desirable to enter the pig iron in a special book, as per diagram below as well as to keep the cards. PIG IRON Form 6. Sample Page of Pig Iron Book. Date re- ceived Car No. Brand Net weight Ex- pended Analysis 12/9/09 12/9/09 12/15/09 1/7/10 2/10/10 132,568 35,689 46,351 25,135 439.827 No. 2S No. 2S No. 2 N No. 3 N No. 2 S 78,594 76.432 69,496 58,439 54.282 12/20 12/27 1/14/10 2/8/10 3/2/10 I* Si 3.2s S .03 P .89 Mn .82 2* Si 3.09 S .032 P .85 Mn .75 1 Si 2.84 S .038 P .76 Mn .68 2 Si 2.80 S .040 P .74 Mn .66 1 Si 2.19 S .027 P .29 Mn .75 2 Si 2.10 S .026 P .27 Mn .74 1 Si 1.67 S .024 P .26 Mn .69 2 Si 1. 65 S .023 P .24 Mn .67 1 Si 2.38 S .032 P .43 Mn .54 2 Si 2.25 S .036 P .48 Mn .52 I 2 I 2 * No. I is the furnace analysis; No. 2, that of the foundry chemist. The Heat Book is given on page 592. In this book the foreman enters for the coming heat the irons which are to be used and the mixture. The remainder of the account may be filled out later by the clerk after returns are made. This book is of the greatest importance as it enables 592 Foundry Accounts the foreman to repeal at once any mixture lused at any time, or for any particular purjiosc. The sheet shown is for the Iicat of 2/22/ from which 4 cylinders arc to be poured and a special charge (the first) containing 10 per cent steel scrap is made. The cylinders weigh al>out 500 pounds each, and as there arc crank disc and other castings requiring strong iron, the entire first charge will contain steel. The charges arc 4000 pounds each, and the mi.vturc is uniform through- out the heat, except for first and last charges. Turning to the Pig Iron Book, the foreman selects such iron as will furnish the desired mi.xture for cylinders, also those for the remaining charges and enters them on the heat book. A memorandum is given the boss of the yard gang, showing the car numbers and the amount of iron from each car for each charge. The number of charges for the ordinarj- mixture is left blank until later in the day, when the total amount to be melted is ascertained. The weighman has a pad of forms upon which he prepares a slip for each charge giving the car number, weight of iron from each car, weight of coke and lime. Each charge of iron is piled by itself on cupola platform in regular order. The coke with limestone is sent up in cars as the charging of cupola proceeds. SAMPLE SHEET FROM HEAT BOOK WiLLi.wis & Jones Fouxdry Form 7. Heat of 3/m/io. Pig iron C-ar No. Weight per charge, pounds No. of charges Analysis Remarks Silvery No. 2 Sou . No. 2 Sou. . No. 2 Nor. . No. 2 Nor.. Scrap Steel scrap . No. 2 Sou. . No. 2 Nor. . No. 2 Nor.. Scrap Clean-up... 8,296 439.827 46,351 328,503 27.935 328,503 45,541 200 400 400 800 • 1800 400 800 -) 6col 200 1 2400 ) 1050 I 20 I Si 4.20 S .03 P .72 Mn .68 Si 2.25 S .036 P .48 Mn .52 Si 2.10 S .026 P .27 Mn .74 Si 2.29 S .023 P .24 Mn .67 Si 2.10 S .084 P .63 Mn .63 Si 3.75 S .017 P .86 Mn .36 Si 2.29 S .023 P .24 Mn .67 Si 1.92 S .024 P 28 Mn .63 Si 2.10 S .084 P .68 Mn .63 First charge ! » 1 charges Last charge Sample Sheet From Heat Book 593 Amount Charged Pig iron. 33,8oo Scrap. 49.800 Steel scrap. 400 Clean-up. 1,050 Total. 85,050 Coke. 10,950. Returned 320. 10,630 Flux. 1,600 Production Good castings. Bad castings. Gates and sprues. Over iron. Shot. Clean-up. Total accounted for. Lost in melt. Per cent melt in good castings. Per cent castings good. Per cent castings bad. Per cent melt in returns. Per cent loss in melt. Iron melted per pound coke. 66.466 2,708 6,106 5,143 650 1,670 82,743 2,307 78.2 96.1 3.9 (19.0 ' 2.7 8 lbs. to I Mixtures 1st charge special. Regular charges. 5% car 8296. 20% car 328,503. 20% car 27,935. 60% scrap. 10% car 439.827. 10% steel. 15% car 328,503. 10% car 46,351. 45% scrap. 5% car 45,541. Analysis Computed. 1st charge. Si 1.66 S .075 p .42 Mn .46 Have analyses Computed. Regular. Si 2.21 s .088 p .63 Mn 47 made as re- Actual. 1st charge. Si 1.64 s .080 p .43 Mn 45 quired Actual. Regular. Si 2.23 s .092 p .6s Mn .44 594 Foundry Accounts Prtxluctivc Non- productive Total* Av. , per hour 32.60 Hours 1133-6 113. 6 Cost Hours Cost Hours c:ost $383.38 Foundry GDre room Cleaning room $274.90 34.08 180 36 234 $28.80 S.76 39 84 $74.20 1697-2 Total 1247-2 $308.98 4SO Helper* arc included in foundry as productive. Blast on. 1:50 p.m. First tap, 2:13 P.M. Test bar special. Test bar regiUar. Pressure, 9 ounces. Bottom dropped, 4:45 P..M. Transverse, 2800. Transverse, 2200. First iron, 2 p.m. The meller and boss of the yard gang are each furnished with a copy of charging schedule. '.Vfter the charges are all up, the wcighman turns in to foundry ollice, slips for the bottom coke, and one for each charge gixnng complete weights of everything entering the cupola. Form 9. Charging Schedule Date, 3/22/10. Charges 1st charge . 20 charges . Last charge. Materials Bottom coke Steel scrap Car 8296 Car 439.827 Car 46,351 Car 328,503 Scrap (selected) Coke Car 27.935 Car 328,503 Car 45.541 Scrap Returned coke Clean-up Use 80 pounds limestone from third to nineteenth charge inclusive. WeighU 3850 400 300 400 400 800 1800 400 800 6co 200 2400 100 loso Weigh Slips 595 Weigh Ticket Form 10. Charge No. i. Date, 3/22/10. Coke bottom 2850 Steel scrap 400 Car 8296 200 Car 439.827 400 Car 46,351 400 Car 328,503 800 Scrap 1800 Limestone. Weigh Ticket Form 10. Charge No. 2. Date, 3/23/10. Coke 400 Car 27,935 800 Car 328.503 600 Car 45,541 200 Scrap 2400 Limestone. On the day following the heat, after recovering the iron from the gangways, cinders, etc., the yard foreman turns the weight into the ofSce. Returns from Foundry Form II. 3/23/10. Heat of 3/22/10. Bad castings 650 Over iron S143 Shot 650 Clean-up 1670 Returned coke 320 The bad castings on above slip are those thrown out in the foundry, to which are subsequently added those rejected in the cleaning room. 590 Foundry Accounts I'rom the moulder's tags, turned in on the zand, and from information oblaini'd from the floor concerning work on lag-, which luivc uot lux-n turned in, the clerk |>rci)ares in part, du|,>licate cleaning rcxim reix)rts. He enters the shop order nimilR-rs, pattern numl)ers, names of parLs and numljer of |)arts made. Tliis re|>ort then goes to forcm;in of clean- in>^ room, who com|>letes it, sending one copy to the foundry oflicc and tlie other to the work's olTice. The form is given on page 597. As many sheets as are necessary are used for each heat. The Time Book, Weigh Tickets, Foundry Returns and Cleaning Room Report furnish all the data, except analysis and test, for completion of entrj' in heat book for 3 22 10. Information as to the last two items is obtained from time to time iis required. The heat report is made out in duplicate; original sent to Works Ofl'ice and du[)licate filed in Foundrj'. This is followed by a weekly summary. At the end of each month an inventory is taken of all supplies; and their cost, jjer hunflred pounds good castings, is determined for the month passed. This cost is used in making out foundry reports for the succeeding month. All supplies except the bulky materials, such as sand, fire clay, etc. are kept in store room and are issued upon requisition from foremen or clerk, upon blanks as per sketch. Requisition on Dale, 3/21/10. Store Keeper, Issue to Jno. SULLrV'AN, 5 Pounds Silver Lead. W.M. Wilson. Foreman. These requisitions, together with tallies of sand, fire clay, etc., are turned into office by store keeper at end of month. Careful scrutiny and comparison of these monthly statements and expenditures result in marked savings. They promote among the departments a strife for the lowest record. The reduction in the amount of core supplies, nails, rods and sand is especially noticeable. As regards iron flasks and other castings made for the foundrj-, if they are for permanent equipment, ihcy are so charged. If on the other hand they are for temporary service, they are charged to foundr>- at cost of labor, plus the difference between the cost of good castings and scrap. Monthly comparisons, or more frequent if desired, are made with statements from the works office. Comparisons arc likewise made at the end of the fiscal year. Cleaning Room Report 597 5 "O H B fOC^ TtfON tM*© M 0»OoO O OO-^OO"^ "S s rON-^roo»TfN(0 f^W '^fO'N '^(N'O S ^c M -^ t^ -^ O r^ i/i N a> w M w o o M ►"! o) f^ w w w §"3 w 6^ fi ^e^ ^ lO li^ l/l in 1 S I § S gg : -g ■ x: bo cj 00 cij f^ j^ i W c/5 c/i 02 U E S m to t^ a^ O tH 5 -O "O to ^o ■^ '«3- -^ -^ ■^ tOtOvOtOtOtOtOtOvO OOOOOOCOQOOOOOOOOO ioioio»o»oioioioio 598 Foundry .\ccouiiis Form 14. FOUNDRY AlU.IAMS 6i Heat ol Grade No. I No. 2 Car No. Sou. 439.827 46.351 27.93S No. 3 No. 4 Weight... Cost Car No. Silvery 8296 Weight 200 200 $1.49 Weight No. 2 N. 400 400 16,000 16.800 I123.73 Car No. 328.S03 45.541 Weight 12,800 4.000 16,800 $127.51 Car No. Weight ^ "?;c_. a & «^ a e B& Cost Iron i good castin "S-S CO "S "3 Returns includ bad castin S'3 1^ < m oca V 8.5 "S 04 Weight... 85,050 66.466 2708 13.569 2307 82.743 78.2 96.1 Cost $634.66 J520.73 Costs «>& ^ <» ^ m « a 2 "3 BO si J2 8 1 BtJ ►S3 •a •0 c lie ill C-.S C-3 2 founc St per pound castin S S" 1 §1 a 0T3 380 "8s 5 8 81 M ilO H <« Hours 1133.6 H3-6 450 1697.2 2.55 Cost $274.98 $34.08 $74-40 $383.38 $0.5765 $00396 $0,783 $1,399 Foundry Reports 599 REPORTS Jones Co. 3/22/IO. a a t.'O wa *^ 0. ^ IS DM 3 Iron pe 100 poun coke Cost pe 100 poun melted ir a 400 49,800 1050 85.050 10,630 1600 8-1 $300 $348.60 $4.20 $608.53 $25.53 $0.60 $0,746 gg U. 4J O ^j Total cost of melt . . Cr. Returns 16,275 pounds ( .70 Cost of iron in good casting $634.66 113.93 520.73 S«.S O-tS I0.783 I 6oo Foundry Arcounts WEEKLY FOUNDRY REPORT Williams & iosvs Pounuky Form IS. HeaU o( 3/23-a5 and a6/io. Date of Consumplion Product heat February S.8oo 0. 2 •3 H 0) M u 1 250 Is 4 IP 14 ii "a (2 23 36,500 32,98o| s.ooo 80,360 11,250 57.8592703 16.172 3626 80.360 25 27.720 3,6oo 23.880 s.ooo 60,200 9.540 900 43..M4 1340 1J.244 2272 60.200 28 27.S20 7.800 26.800 .... 62,200 9.930 9SO 45.406 1900 12.4062488 62.200 Totals. . 91.740 17,280 83,740 10,000 202,760 30,730 3100 146,6095943 41,822 8386202,760 Summary Total iron melted Total coke used Total flu.x used Total cost melt Credit Returns (including bad castings) 70^ per 100 pounds Total loss Total good castings Total bad castings Total productive labor Total non-productive labor Total labor Total cost of supplies Total foundry cost of good castings. Per cent of melt in good castings Per cent of melt in bad castings Per cent of melt in bad return (including bad cast- ings) Per cent of melt in loss Per cent of castings good Per cent of castings bad Average cost of labor per hour Cost of iron per loo pounds Cost of iron melted per 100 pounds Cost of iron in good castings ix.-r 100 pounds Cost of labor, good castings per 100 pounds Cost of supplies, good castings per 100 pounds ' Total foundry cost, good castings per 100 pounds.. . Iron melted per pound of coke 6.6 lbs. Pounds 20,7260 30,720 3,100 47,76s 8,386 146,609 5,943 Hours 2,482 1,490 3,97a $1476.09 74 so 1. 17 1551.76 334.60 615.72 246.29 Per cent 72.3 2.93 23. S 4.1 96.1 3.9 Cents 21.7 0.728 o 76s 1217.16 826.01 58.05 2137.32 0.830 0.S88 0.0396 I.4S76 Monthly Expenditure of Supplies 6oi Form i6. MONTHLY EXPENDITURE OF SUPPLIES Williams & Jones Foundry February, 1910. Materials Quantity o 9 o a Si 3 p Anchors Belting Belt lacing Bellows Beeswax. .■ Bolts Brick, red Brick, fire Brick, block Brooms Barrows, wheel Barrows, pig iron Brushes, soft Brushes, hard Brushes, core Brushes, casting Brushes, camel's hair. . Brushes, paint Brushes, white wash. . Brushes, wheel Blocks, chain Candles Cable wire Carbons Castings Cans, blow Chisels, cold Chaplets Charcoal Chain Chain links Chalk Chalk, line Clay Clay, fire Clamps Clamps, spike Clamps, screw Core, compound dry. . Core, compound liquid Core vent, metallic Coke forks Coke baskets 6oa Founflry Arrounts Monthly Expenditure of Supplies Continued) Materials Coke scoops Crow bars Crucibles Cloth wire Cups, tin Cutter's emery Facing mineral . . . Flour Fuel Gauges, wind .... Gauges, air Globes, electric. .. Globes, lantern... Glue Glutrin Grease Hammers Handles, hammer Handles, sledge... Hose, air Hose, water Hose, couplings . . Hose, nozzles Iron bar Iron, sheet Irons, draw Irons, flasks Jackscrew Jack-bolts Levels, spirit Lead, bar Lead, sheet Lead, pipe Lead, red Lead, white Lead, silver Lime Lumber Litharge Lycopodium Mallets Mauls Quantity u u I Monthly Expenditure of Supplies 603 Monthly Expenditure of Supplies (Continued) Materials Quantity Manganese, ferro Mercury Molasses Nails Nuts Oil, core Oil, coal Oil. belt Oil, lard Oil, linseed Oil, hard OU, black Oil, machine. ... Oil, rosin Oil, cans Pails, iron Pails, wood Pencils, lead Pipe, iron Pipe, fittings Picks, cupola Pliers Pliers, cutting Pots, sprinkling . . Paper, sand Paper, toilet Paper, emery Paper, wrapping . . Rammers Rammers, bench. Riddles Riddles, brass . . . . Rivets, copper.. . . Rivets, iron Rosin Rope Saws, hand Saws, hack Screws Screws, drivers. . . Stationary Scrapers Silicon, ferro Straps, lifting. . . . Stars, tumbler. . . Sand, moulding . 26 ° 9 02 S .0 0O4 Foiimlrv Aiiounts MontlUy Expenditure of Supplies Continued) Materials Sand, lake Sand, bank Sand, fire Shovels, moulders' . Shovels, laborers' . . Sprayers, blacking. Sponges Smooth-on. . .' Swabs Sledges Stone, emery Salt Sulphur Sea coal Talc Tacks Torches, blow Twine Straw Vitriol Wire, iron Wire, copper Wire, wax vent Wire, cable Washers Wheels, emery Wheels, sheave Wheels, barrow Wrenches, open Wrenches, monkey. Wrenches, pipe QuAntity 2 ! KE & o o ■■vB Total $284.56 Good castings for month 718.37; Cost of supplies for 100 good castings for February, 1910 So. 0396 Use this price for the month of March, 1910. Monthly Comparisons of Foundry Accounts 60s ^ ^ CO M ft M fO ■iS § 000 5 CT) S 8 8 00 Q »o •^ 10 00 00 10 n 00 >o ^S i M 0^ a> N o^ 00 t^ M 00 10 in (N 6" ..1 00 t- §8 0) a8 8 8 S to ^ 000 W M ■«:f 00 ■«* ro ^O 00 ro W 00 =i 5i rt lu 1; _ 6o6 Foun(lr>' Accounts o o o OQ < o P s. s 3 u 1 ■\\om 0< 0. -r M " "i -C '\ ■^^ *■ SSUllSUO pvq iluipnioui - vn «f - t r~ eh •« « "T 1 .• lA «■ «i iij 0' ui cr. ^ 2 >£ 2 2 1 "R " s8ansB3 pobo c g a e a a U ""Id 2 $s^8 siaast,sRa i-_00O>0. t~Nt~C»*.M_9.CT,v6 310D 52^.2 R8 ^^^ :^aS9i m' w en d go d r^ cr. m « o. <^ s F^oX ro %©" ^ rl d Q d *^" -T d d M ^ loqs €•8888 i§i§§ ^€ TT (MfiMM -Fommv) ■ a dBJOs noji Sij foN noji 8id z osi Xjeiuqaj 2 f2 Monthly Comparison of Foundry Accounts 607 ro 00 l^ M 00 ■O- f0>O 01 lo 1^1 a> -^ V 8g ir, lo t^ « IT) M « S O t- w « '"8 8 a o E < rn PO fO t^ 3S> *0 O 00 Ov II c i3 II 8.h o o 5 o o o c3e - 2 .5 • •= « u -9 j: c/3 " £ p->- Eojo, ;= r u u- C -g a^ o o o ii a. -' ^ J3 J3 •- a ,o rt rt o s ^•ii:5^ 2 S iS &, iJ 8 •3'«^^Si 1^ S'Q 2g: M n M m r* "^ -r »© 8 8 8'S -sS -r -T -t r- 2?i2 ,2 si B > O a. S c o rt S ■•-•.SB. . M o 2. " t? U . -3 -3 . rt o o 5 o o iS P Annual Comparison of Foundry Accounts 609 5 5 M w M CoooO-*OMr~t~Ht~(»r»;ir! o> OrOMair^f^tNWQOMC^TfrT CTi '^. Flox a3O100 d rt m Cl.-l.^OOOVOOt^rOOOWMCl ut ssoq OO^ronoo^oO inrrjtc N (MO»^ >o j_,Mtr)oororoo^M6o%ni/:w ■5 3 2 " sSuT^SBo pnq ^'OOuocOcOmONOrowQ 00 Oir)(N<:na»oooir)u^-^Mooo 1 Suip'npui lou +J ■ ■^jO ^-oo^^o u-i^o b-sro^ooo w fj 2 'sujn;a-a fi SSU^SXiO Oi:y»c?>OiO ■^o%>r!0 POM r>-o ■MTtrO(N'*'*ino p^a "t^oo M(Ncr>coiot^>r)'^ouTO ^-^ ^z;n(Nf^c^cjMi-iOMvO -^fOoOOO "(ijrOiO'^fOCOW fON -*-rroi «r MW Tt-rl-I>0 Tt'3-lOOt^'^ OtO'^Tl-OOCh ■53 "«*yD lO^xrJ-NrOClMTt TJO M ^ 10 cJooa^-^O M r-t^M i>ooroio UOJI roi:^aifo<^N woo M r^rr-^ o> i^^oi J, c^•n■«oo M T:fr-iocnoo M N roToo M MO%iincri r^ CO c fo '€ ^ roiOO t-O^O (Noovcin 10 E :3 00 NOO M-C") cr. 00 100 (N r^ t^ lOMS 0%0^ roi>^C-. rfirit^iO u-.o^ or. ■g M ro N M M C ^ " 1 S rooo N -^M 0^ -^ (y^ a-^ ^ 01 OrooiroroOMc--NiriO0Mr3- n dBJOg ■4^ ■g fOiO MfOt^M-^WNOOM^ 00 0010MM00Tf 00 UOJI Sid t.'M ino^oo w Ttr^Moo a>cn >o z -ON ■g(N^~ln ■ £ > "1 cr c c 2 Q H 6io Foundry Accounts \n \nyo f^ &0, cQ •X3 '^ S'^ a ■" •- c i-52 c i- 3 81 :-3 9 SI c c "a U 2 i". s SL a^ •28 •gi ■Oca ^^E E E E c c rt t! S $ ci E.£ ° '- o o o o o o OCJCJUOL-,^^ '^^ 8 = |l "0*0 §, i) a "3 a 6C c rt 19 C > oj 3 _ _ - - V CJ OJ u 8 8 8 5: li ^ g Transmission of Orders 6ii Chart Showing Direction of Transmission of Shop and Foundry Orders, Together With That of Return Reports 1 jSupcrlntendeni- Drawing Room ( Cleanino) Yard Cupola Room Mouldina Floor "^ Core Room Fig. 245. The chart above shows the direction of transmission of orders from the superintendent to the foundry office, and thence, with supplementary orders, to the delivery of the completed product at the cleaning room; as also that of return reports to foundry office, works office, and superin- tendent. Full lines indicate the course of orders outward; dotted lines that of the return reports. From Superintendent (i) to From Drawing Room .... (2) to From Foundry (4) to From Foundry Office . (4) to Works Office (3) I Drawing Room (2) Foundry (4) Works Office (3) Pattern Shop (5) Pattern Shop (5) Core Room (6) Floor (7) Cupola (8) Yard (9) Cleaning Room. . . . (10) 6i2 Foundry Accounts From Pattern Shop (5) lo \ ;"r"''^> ^^""'^'^ J^) ' -" I Core Room (6) From Core Room (6) lo Moulding Floor. .. . (7) From Cupola (8) to Moulding Floor. ... (7) From Moulding Floor. ... (7) to Cleaning Room. . . .(10) RETUitN Reports From Moulding Floor. ... (7)1 From Core Room (6 ) . r- j /-vn- / » From Cupola (sj f ^° ^^^""^'■y O^"^'^- ^^^ From Cleaning Room. . . .(io)j ,, „ T^ 1 r^tr I \ ^ /Superintendent (i) I-roml-oundryOmce (4) to { ^irks Onice (3) From Works OflSce (3) to Su|)erintendent (i) The system of accounting as above described has been followed for some years by one of the western foundries, with excellent results. It involves considerable clerical work, but one clerk can handle it. Some modifications are required to adapt it to a jobbing foundry. These arc indicated at once and are readily made. As showing different methods of foundry accounting, each having its advantages and disadvantages, papers presented on the subject to the .American Foundrymen's .Association by Mr. B. A. Franklin and Mr. J. P. Golden are given. . . One can be developed from the lot which will meet any requirement. AMERICAN FOUNDRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION Foundry Costs By B. a. Franklin, Boston, Mass. "... Form I illustrates the first method of foundry cost showing: The operations are divided into the elements of Melting. Moulding Section A I. Metal. 2. Fuel. 3. Melting E.xpense. Section B 4. Moulding Labor. 5. Moulding Expense — Floor and Bench separately Section C 6. Cleaning Labor. 10. Pickling. 7. Cleaning Expense. 11. Picklinp Expense. 8. Tumbling Labor. 12. Sand Blasting Labor. 9. Tumbling Expense. 13. Sand Blasting Expense. Foundry Costs 613 Section D 14. Core Labor. 15. Core Expense. Section E 16. General Expense. "In discussing this system no attempt is made to discuss the method of getting the information because such methods are simple and easily worked out." "The Basic Costs are illustrated in Form i, which shows the weekly operation of the foundry as a whole, and Form 2 represents the cost of an actual casting. Form 3 represents the monthly foundry showing of profit and loss, offering means of proof of the foundry cost and show- ing the net result. " ". . .As nearly as possible foundry shop economy demands, and foundry work permits a daily clean-up, though, of course, some oper- ations happen one day after the beginning. " "A foundry cost might then be a daily record sheet. Weekly records, however, are sufficient generally, and the one presented is on this basis. " Form i "Section A. Deals with metal." "Here is shown, separately for each different mixture, of which one foundry might generally employ two or three, the weights and value of iron charged. These weights may readily be proved by checking as each car or lot of scrap is used up. In the case of scrap made in the foundry or 'own scrap' no value is put on this since it is put into the heat in an iron foundry, on the basis that scrap made on each heat will be approximately the same per cent, and what is made one day is gathered up and used the next day. The exception to this is in the case of 'bad castings,' charged at scrap value, and, as seen later, accounted for in casting cost." "In a Steel Foundry it would be necessary to change all scrap at scrap value and credit same to particular castings. " "The 'metal-used' value is shown and the pounds melted, but the 'metal cost' is obtained by dividing, not by poimds melted, but by pounds of 'castings made'^ — i.e., good and bad castings. The bad castings are to be charged to the particular order as will be seen later. We thus arrive at a weekly metal cost for each mixture. " "Likewise for purposes of general guidance, there is shown weekly the 'per cent, of good castings to melt,' the 'per cent of bad castings 6i4 Foundry Accounts to castings made,' and the per cent of metal disappearance or 'per cent of loss.' " "Now for management guidance toward general shop economy, these figures present standards and bases for striving for lower costs — viz., to make the percentage of good castings to the melt as high as possible, to make the |)ercenlagc of bad castings to castings made as low as i>ossible, and the record will cjuickly show that the cost fluctuates with these conditions. " "And it will be found that melting and handling of metal and fuel can be done on piece work to bring best economy in metal-cost." "A definite and valuable i)oint to note is that in addition to the weekly figure of cost per pound, there is carried along the average or 'period cost per j)ound. ' This is the figure to be used in cost work. "... The weekly figures are constantly compared with the i)eriod figures showing whether the weekly result is belter or worse than the average, and an observation of the detail shows why. ..." "In each section it will be noted that the costs are brought down to a few \-ital imits or percentages, and when these vary, they are significant of a gain or loss in economy of production, the reason for which can be readily observed by casting the eye up the details and observing the comparison of them." "... Section B. Moulding. — Here are two elements to be con- sidered — productive labor and expense. The expense is shown in relation to productive labor. It may be sho\\Ti in relation to hours if desired, but in each class of moulding labor there is generally no great fluctuation of rate per hour. ..." "The productive labor and expense should be kept separately as to class of moulding, as floor, bench, machine, etc., since the expense varies considerably with the class. " " . . .A little thought and experiment would seem to show that on the whole the expenses approximately vary according to time spent in productive labor rather than by the pound." "In the matter of productive labor it is to be understood that money paid for moulding each job, whether day work or piece work, is to be known and used in figuring definite casting, as shown in Form 2." "It is in this productive labor cost that the first element of variation in casting costs is to be found, the expense percentage being the same or taken as the same, except in the matter of certain direct charges or expenses to be discussed later. " Foundry Costs 615 "Section C. Cleaning Castings. — In the matter of cleaning castings there must be some division. Tumbling, pickling, and sand blasting are taken separately as shown below. This leaves for consideration here the cleaning of castings by other than these three methods and applies mainly to large castings. ..." ". . . In Timibling the labor can best be put on piece work and will generally be done by the pound, and expenses will be shown by the pound. ..." "In Sand Blasting and Pickling the expenses are shown in relation to productive labor, and the work can be put on piece work. ..." "Section D. Core Room. — Here the labor can in the main be put on f)iece work and the expenses shown in detail. ..." "Section E. . . . General Expenses. — This is shown in relation to productive labor, the items of productive labor being those of Moulding, Core Making and Cleaning operations. "... Thus we arrive at certain weekly and period basic figures of cost in the main elements in the foundry of Metal. Core Making. Moulding. General Expenses. Cleaning. "The items of metal and expense are easily provable with the books monthly, and the labor with the pay roll weekly, so that we get a proved weekly picture of the foundry situation as compared with average or period, and we get it in such detail as will show the reasons of all varia- tions of operation. ..." "Consideration of Casting Cost. The first element to consider is that of direct charges. In many jobs, but by no means all of them, are certain charges which it seems desirable should be charged directly to the particular order. They need in most foundry work be very small in number. These charges must essentially be gathered and held until the job is shipped and cost ready to work out. " Form 2 "Form 2 illustrates this final casting cost." "In all castings finished in a given period, the varying elements of unit cost would be purely the productive labor items of moulding and cleaning and direct charges, the metal, fuel, melting, moulding, cleaning and general expense charges being taken from the period figures on the weekly cost sheet." "Therefore, in working out the cost of a finished casting, it is essential to know of it as a particular job; the weight — and the shipping slip (h6 Foundry Arcniinls Rives that ; the moiikiinR and core making lalwr and the cleaning labor, where average rates |)er ]M)und are not ased. " "... Direct charges are added and also loss on bad castings. A record of bad ca.stings is necessary and sim|)le." "On bad castings the loss would dei)cnd on how far the work had [)rogrcsscd when discovered as bad, and what work on them had been paid for. The metal, of course, would be credited at scrap value." " By this method then it will be obser\'ed that with very small clerical labor, the practical foundryman or manager gets a weekly, or daily, if he so designs, view of his foundry costs and their fluctuations which form a definite and correct basis for accurate estimate, and he can very quickly get a particular job or casting cost by having the money sjxjnt on moulding and cleaning, etc., gathered." "The Cost System settled, the bookkeeping should l)c made to parallel the cost system, in which case the monthly showing would be made to show as per Form 3." "Thus is obtained a complete monthly analj'sis. In most foundries one clerk and almost invariably two, can operate the system as far as costs are concerned." Cost of Metal 617 Metal — Section A. No. i. Form i Mixture No. i Pig Grade i '. Pig Grade 2 Pig Grade 3 Pig Grade 4 Pig Grade 5 Bought scrap Own scrap chillers Own scrap floor scrap Own scrap bad castings Own scrap gates Weekly totals metal used. . . Period totals metal used Weekly total pounds castings made Period total pounds castings made Good castings made Period castings made Per cent good castings to melt Period per cent castings made Bad castings Per cent bad castings to castings made Shop scrap Per cent shop scrap. Total pounds (weekly) Total pounds (period) . Pounds lost Period pounds lost Per cent lost. Perio'^ per cent lost Weekly metal cost per 100 pounds Period metal cost per 100 pounds Oct. 9 Pounds 34.240 32,270 S,68o 36.310 31.500 15,900 1.275 7.300 10.000 36,100 210,575 149,280 140,125 66. s 9.155 6.1 51.800 210,080 9.495 4-5 Amount 252.22 234-10 38.67 259 -35 249 . 61 106.47 Oct. 16 Pounds 33,950 33.290 14,270 32,070 32,720 17,000 1.420 9.000 9.000 34.800 217,520 428,095 150,441 299,721 139.867 279.992 64.3 10,574 7 54.400 204,841 12,679 22,174 S.8 Amount 253.87 249.68 97. IS 232.65 259.28 113.84 63.00 o 1269.47 2479.89 Oct. 23 Pounds 25,620 25,440 6,010 30.150 25,080 11,900 1,13 7.700 10,000 26,500 169,535 597.630 n6,45i 416,172 109,069 389,061 643 65.1 7,382 6.3 43,700 160,151 9.384 31.558 5-5 5.3 .85 .83 Amount 191 58 187-39 40.92 218,72 198.74 79-68 987.03 3466.92 6i8 Foundry Accounts Mi.TAi, — Si ( rioN A — No. 2. Form i Fuel and melting expense Labor (cupola men) Labor (handling coke and coal) Labor (miscellaneous) Labor (handling iron) Coke Coal Wood. Fire brick. Fire clay Oyster shells Mica sand Chg. from other depts. Analysis of iron Rclining cupola and repairs.. Tumbling cupola bottom. . . . Crane labor Elevator labor Blower labor Handling oyster shells. Bituminous facing. Interest on investment Heat, light and power Taxes, insurance and depre- ciation Weekly expense Period expense Weekly pounds castings made Period pounds castings made. Weekly cost per loo pounds. . Period cost per loo pounds. . . Weekly pounds melted to pounds fuel Period pounds melted to pounds fuel '•■9 Oct. 16 Oc, Pounds Amount Pounds Amount Pounds AS-Os 44 70 1.80 573 S3 50 1.82 18.51 SS. 97 3-20 1.64 2.63 ■ 90 2.00 2.63 30.00 2.00 2.90 10 95 8.66 .53 30.00 10. 7S 8.52 .80 10.20 6. IS 10.20 6.IS 149,280 12.42 199.78 .134 8.7 150,441 299,721 12.42 203. SS 403.33 .135 .135 8.4 8.5 1 16.451 416.172 9 M 44 08 82s I S3 2.63 9 30 6.93 -44 10.20 6.IS 12.42 174. 8S 578.18 IS .139 8.3 8.S Moulding Expense 619 Moulding — Section B. Form i Oct. 9 Oct. 16 Oct. 23 Pounds Amount Pounds Amount Pounds Amount Bench Moulding 884.80 10.00 6-58 2.42 7-50 2.60 23.16 46.37 6.30 .47 2.30 30.58 41-94 192.22 21.8 858.80 1743.60 10.00 6.88 2.80 10.48 23-54 SO. 83 6.88 .40 1.65 30.58 41.94 185.98 387.20 21.7 21. 1 Period productive labor Moulding Expense on Productive Labor Non-productive labor Flasks, snap boards and 2459 -00 5-00 I- 15 Miscellaneous supplies 1.09 Shovels and screens Rammers. Charges from other depts — Making bottom boards for moulding machines 1.60 8.19 Sand 37-77 6.10 Handling weights and bands. .62 Parting sand. Interest on investment Heat, light and power. Taxes, insurance and depre- 30.58 41.94 134 04 512.24 Per cent moulding expense to 18.7 Period per cent moidding expense to prod, labor 20.8 630 Foundry Accounts C"l i; ANINC, ANU TUMUUNU — SECTION C. FORM I Productive labor Number of pounds cleaned and tumbled Period pounds cleaned and tumbled Cost per 100 pounds (if day work) Period cost per loo pounds (if day work) Cleaning and Tumbling Expense Supplies. Overseeing Non-productive labor Charges from other depts. . . . Tumblers Stars for tumbling Interest on investment Heat, light and power Taxes, insurance and depre- ciation Weekly gross expense Stars used in Xo. 3. Weekly expense Period expense Weekly expense cost per 100 lbs Period expense cost per 100 pounds Weekly total cleaning and tumbling cost Period total cleaning and tumbling cost Oct. 9 Pounds 154,462 Amount 74.62 .056 544 55. 44 8.40 71.73 71.73 .053 .109 Oct. 16 Pounds 139.089 273.S5I Amount 70.92 .053 .054 .40 • 40 .6s 4.00 S.44 55.44 8.40 74.73 74.73 146.46 • 053 .053 .106 Oct. as Pounds 105.203 .T78.7S4 Amount ST. 14 .054 0S3 I 93 • 75 2.03 10.00 S-44 55-44 8.40 73.98 73.98 220.44 .07 .058 .124 III Pickling Expense 621 Pickling — Section C — No. 2. Form i Oct. 9 Oct. 16 Oct. 23 Pounds Amount Pounds Amount Pounds Amount Weekly prod, labor Period prod, labor Weekly pounds pickled Period pounds pickled Weekly cost per loo pounds 62,818 20.70 .033 1.75 2.06 23.92 3.40 3.08 2.53 36.74 177. S 65,600 128,418 19.82 40.52 .030 .032 .75 15.28 1.88 3.40 3.08 2.53 26.92 63.66 135.8 , 155. 8 36,220 164,638 13-10 53.62 .036 .034 1. 10 Period cost per lOO pounds Pickling Expense Non-productive labor Oil of vitriol Acid spigots. Charges from other depts. . . . Interest on investment Heat, light and power Taxes, insurance and depre- ciation Total weekly expense Total period expense Per cent dept. expense to 1.48 3.40 3.08 2.53 22.10 85.76 168.7 Period per cent dept. expense 160 622 l''(jiiiiort consists of a sheet, with columns for name of moulder, hour or piece rate, number of moulds, numl)er of castings, time of helper, pattern description with columns for weights of the various classes of work, as pulleys, sheaves, hangers, hanger boxes, pillow blocks, couplings, cane mills, factories, miscellaneous, etc. Also column for number of pieces lost, total weight of each kind of piece lost, and a cause column for same, showing if it did not run, if it was crushed, blowed, or whatever cause of defect. There is a line at bottom of sheet for weekly totals to be used in weekly report. The daily foundry report furnishes a ready means of comparison of each moulder's record, with his own, or with other moulders as to quantitj* of good castings, castings lost, weight and cost of same. This reix)rt also shows the amount of good and bad castings for each day, in each class, with the weekly total for each. "Third: There is a book for defective and other castings returned from shop and customers, in which is the following rule: 'All castings returned by machine shop and cxistomers, before being made over, must be entered in this book, gi\nng cause for making over. Castings returned to foundry' from shop or cus- tomers, through no fault of foimdry, must not be deducted from net foundry castings, and should be considered as foreign scrap. If fault of foundry, they are charged back to foundry and are con- sidered as foundry return scrap.' This book has columns for showing date returned, by whom, descrif>- tion, cause and weight. Without this book, there could be returned defective castings, which were the foundry's fault and made over with- out the superintendent's knowledge. With the "to be made over" casting book, all castings returned are specified therein. If the fault of the machine shop, it is so stated. If returned from customers, this is noted with date, description, cause and weight. No casting is made over without being recorded in this book. This book, being always open to superintendent and foreman, saves inquiries and explanations. . . . "Fourth: The Weekly Foundr>' Report Sheet. This sheet is made up from the daily foundr>' report, and cupola sheets and the book (to be made over castings). On this sheet, provision is made for record of bad castings returned from foundry, shop or customer, by classes, as well as the good castings made. The total of good castings minus defective castings gives net good castings for week. The average per cent of all castings lost is given, with the per cent loss in each class, with the total pounds pig and foreign scrap charged in cupola, and the net A Successful Foundry Cost System 627 good castings deducted therefrom, we find the per cent lost in remelt, cupola droppings, gangways, etc. The weekly foundry report also has a record of total melt taken from daily cupola sheet, which with net good castings deducted gives per cent, bad castings, gates, etc., of total melt, including foreign scrap, returns and pig. In a division headed cupola charge is given the number of pounds pig iron, foreign scrap and coke, with current price of each and total cost per week. To these amoimts are added the total wages, giving a total of material and wages for week, which divided by the net good castings gives the cost per 100 pounds, net castings, including pig iron, scrap, coke, wages. "The weekly report also has separate divisions for non-producers, rumbling department, moulding department, core shop, day and night cleaning gangs, in which the wages of each class of men in each division are given separately, by total, and the wage cost per hundred pounds. . . . The weekly report also embodies the grand total wages cost per 100 poimds, and this is the most important item, for both foreman and superintendent, for this item is one which the foreman can control to the greatest extent, and which speaks the loudest in favor of the system. " "... In connection with the weekly report is a detailed report of the pounds of good castings, to whom sold or charged, and price for each lot, and from this sheet is prepared, on the back of the weekly report, a statement giving the estimated profit or loss for week." "And lastly, there is a ready reference sheet (headed Comparison of Per cents, Wages Cost per 100 Pounds in Different Departments of Foundry from Weekly Foundry Report) giving the comparison by weeks and the average comparison at the end of each year of the fol- lo\ving items after date. Net good castings for week, castings killed, in machine shop with columns for the per cent loss of each of the several classes of castings, each class in a separate column, gives a ready means of comparison in that class for all of its weeks. "There are also columns for the cost per week per 100 pounds, net castings including pig iron, scrap, coke and wages, the wage cost per 100 pounds, in the non-producers, rumbling and moulding departments, also the core shop, day and night cleaning gangs with a colimin for grand total wage cost per 100 pounds. "Both the superintendent and foreman have access to the several reports giving each the means of knowdng the actual conditions in all departments of the foundry at all times. "This system gives the foreman the means of remedying a small or defective output by the knowledge of the cause producing it, and to place each moulder upon the class of work to which he is best fitted to increase the general output." 6a8 I'ouiidrv Aciouiils O Hi Q 2 Q O O '1«!3A\ ISOJ S330UI sncouB] ^lO^DBJ sniuuxni SIlllU 3UB3 s3uiidno3 s^tooiq saxoq i33UEJJ sjaSuBjj soAsaqg sXaiinj a a •o 1 dpH }o jaqiunfi spinoui |0 J3quint»i a}t3J oDaid JO Jnojj Name Castings To Be Made Over 629 "... The system furnishes a basis for closer estimates than formerly upon work a little out of the usual run, bj'' knowing exactly what prices can be accepted for the regular work. The foundry foreman in this case is allowed nominal control of the foundry, hiring and discharging his men, fixing their wages, and increases in pay for his men are by his recommendations subject to approval of superintendent. ..." SAMPLE SHEET FROM "CASTINGS RETURNED FROM SHOP AND CUSTOMERS, TO BE MADE OVER." Note: All castings returned by machine shop and customers, before being made over, must be entered in this book, stating cause for being made over. Castings returned to foundry from shop or customers, through no fault of foundry, must not be deducted from net foundry castings, but should be considered as foreign scrap; but if fault of foundry, they should be charged back to foundry, and considered as foundry return scrap. All castings returned by shop or customers, in excess of number ordered, will be charged to foundry the same as defective castings, and placed in foundry return scrap, unless otherwise ordered by superin- tendent. Sample of Entry Date returned By whom returned Description Cause Whose fault Weight, pounds April 26, 1909 Our Mach. shop I S. B. pulley aexS-aJie in. bore Bored too large Mach. shop 240 April 29, 1909 Our Mach. shop I split pulley 24X6 — 2?i6 in. bore Broke lug in split- ting Mach. shop 120 May 3, 1909 Customer 12 gear castings P. 2 Cored too large Foundry 14 May 5, 1909 Foundry I D. B. pulley 36X8-21^6 in. bore Blow hole in face Foundry 260 630 Foundry Accounts WEEKLY FOUNDRY GoLDENS' Foundry and Machine Co., Columbus, Ga. For Week Ending Friday, 19 Bad castings returned from foundry. Total pounds good castings made. Defective castings returned from shop and customers Net good castings for week. Total amount ( ) Total pounds pig and foreign scrap charged in cupola. Net good castings for week. Per cent lost in renielt, cupola droppings, gangways, etc. Per cent bad castings, gates, etc., of total melt. Including foreign scrap, returns and pig. Average per cent of ca*t- ings lost. Remainder. Total melt. Net good castings. Proportionate Wage Cost Per Hundred No. Non-producers Wages Foundry foreman. $ Foundry assistant. Pulley man. Crane man. Wages cost per 1 f hundred pounds | S Clerk. net c£istings. ) Cupola tender. Cupola helpers. Carpenters. Watchman. Total $ J No. Rumbling Department Wages Foreman. $ 1 Wages cost per Assistant. hundred pounds Men. J net castings, $ Total $ chipped, cleaned, and ready to ship. Grand Total Kage Cost Note. — Castings returned to foundry from our shop and customers, through no fault of loundo'. must not be deducted from net foundry castings, and should be Weekly Foundry Report 631 REPORT ■3 C ca t-l 1^ p. ai BO c3;S c31 3 S 1 h 3-1 CUPOL A Charge Pounds pig iron @ per hundred $ i Cost per hundred ■» Pounds foreign scrap @ per hundred 1 pounds net castings 1 . Pounds coke @ per hundred | including pig iron, | Total wages $ > scrap, coke, wages. J Total $ Material cost per hundred pounds net castings made as per sheet. $ Total cost per hundred pounds net castings made as per sheet. $ Poiinds in Different Departments No. Moulding Department Wages Moulders (white). Helpers (white). Helpers (black). $ Total $ Wages cost per hundred pounds net castings. ' No. Core Shop Wages Foreman. Core makers. Help. S Total $ Wages cost per hundred pounds net castings. • No. Night Cleaning Gang Wages Headman. Men. $ Total $ Wages cost per hundred pounds net castings. $ No. Day Cleaning Gang Wages Headman. Men. * $ Total $ Wages cost per' hundred pounds , net castings. S per Hundred Pounds $ put in foreign scrap pile. Weekly foundry report, made up from daily foundry re- port and cupola sheet. Pounds castings " killed " in machine shop. u M ^ P^ Q >< A Oj O 8 PU p o q p^ S >< y d p u W ^t PLI o (4 O U w w o cponod 001 Md IBO.T ^..;■lI.■.v. Ii.|. .1 I.IIVJ/-) 1 sou •rpunrxl c- i 1 i^av/A Joljl. OJOJ SaUI)St23 13U Bpunod ooiJad ^sod sd8bm luaiuvicdop iluipino|^ diqs oj Xpcoj puc p'oucap 'poddiijD 's8ui5SB3 5.5U spunod ooi j:xl ^so3 aScM luouivicdap auiiqiun-^ saupsBs 53U spunod OOI jad isoa saSBM sjoonpojd-uox , v S.iacM pUB 3^103 'dBJOS 'UOJI 8id Suipnput "auiisca }3U spunod OOI J3d ^so;^ •Di3 "uxniaj -g -J Suipnpui | •%pm pjo; JO ' ■ 3}3 • S3}t33 ■ 1 •sSuiisBO pcq ;h30 j3J •Djo "sAbm -SubS 'sSuiddojp B]OdnD Ijauiaj ut '-jsoi ^uao aaj 5S0[ s3ui;sB0 snoau-Biiaosiui luao jaj , ?soi s3ui;sED 1 ^so( sSuijstra 1 }SOl S3Ul}SB3 1 snuiuini 1U3D jaj | linu 3UBD :;U30 ja^j | gUlldnOO 1U3D J3J 1 Jisoiq -J aU3D JSJ 1 ;so] SHUIISBD 1 xoq aaSuttii luaD J3,j | ^soj SSUllSBO 1 ISOl SSUIJSBD 1 3AB3qS ;U33 J3^ 1 jsoi sSuiisea 1 Xajind 1U33 J3j | ^soi s3ui;sB3 1U03 J3d 33rjbAE l^aOX doqs ourqDTJUi , ut panil s8ut'iSE3 jjaoM JO} S8UI}SB0 p008 53NJ 19 . Goldens" Foundry & Machine Co. Week ending CHAPTER XXVIII PIG IRON DIRECTORY The Classification and Directory of Pig Iron Brands given herewith are taken from Professor Porter's Report. "Pig Iron is classified as: First. — Cold, Warm or Hot Blast. Second. — Coke, Anthracite or Charcoal. Third. — Sand or Machine. Fourth. — Basic, Bessemer, Malleable, Foundry or Forge. "It is only necessary to define the fourth classification as the others are self-explanatory. " " Basic iron means primarily one with low silicon. The standard for this grade having silicon under i per cent and sulphur under 0.05 per cent." "Bessemer iron means primarily phosphorus under i per cent. Stand- ard Bessemer contains from i to 1.25 per cent silicon with sulphur under 0.05, but the grade is essentially based on low phosphorus. Irons with extra low phosphorus and variable silicon are sometimes designated as low phosphorus irons." " Foundry and Forge Irons embrace practically everything in the way of ordinary iron, these grades being subdivided on the basis of silicon and sulphur content." "The following subclassification of Foundry and Forge iron has been agreed upon by the blast furnace interests of the districts indicated: Classification and Grades of Foundry Iron Southern Points No. I foundry No. 2 foundry No. 3 foundry No. 4 foundry Gray forge No. I soft No. 2 soft 633 Silicon, per cent Sulphur, per cent 2.75-3.25 .05 and under 2. 25-2. 75 • 05 •* ** 1-75-2.25 .06 " " 1.25-2.00 .07 '* '* I. 25-1. 75 .08 II 1* 3. 00 and over .05 II .1 2.50-3.25 .05 II 1. 634 I'ig Iron Directory Classification and Grades of Foundry Iron (Continued) Eastern Points No.iX No. 2X No. 2 plain No. 3 foundry No. 2 mill Gray forge Mottled and White by Fracture, Cen TRAL West and Lake Points No. I foundry No. 2 foundry No. 3 foundry Gray forge Buffalo Grading Scotch No. I foundry No. 2 foundry No. 2 plain No. 3 foundry Gray forge Silicon, per cent 2.7s and up 2 25-2-75 I. 75-2. 25 I 2S-I.7S 1 . 25 and under 1.50 ■• 2-25-2.75 I -75-2.25 1.7s and under 3-00 and over 2.50-3.00 2.0O-2-S0 1.50-2.00 1.50 (under) Sulphtu", per cent .0^0 and under -045 " .050 " 06s •• •• 06s '• •• 065 and up -05 and under OS " .05 " . OS and over -05 and under .05 " -OS " .05 " .05 " .05 and (over) Note. — If sulphur is in excess of maximum, it is graded as lower grade, regardless of silicon. "Charcoal is not as a rule graded according to the above table but is sold by fracture, by analysis, by chill tests, or by some special s\-stem of grading according to the custom of the maker and demand of the purchaser. " " It will be noted that so far as Foundry iron is concerned the grading system is based exclusively on silicon and sulphur. One reason for this is that the phosphorus and manganese are fixed by the composition of the ores used, whereas the silicon and sulphur can be varied at will by slight changes in the method of operating the furnace. Since in many, perhaps, the majority of, cases a blast furnace will be limited to a very few ores as a source of supply, it follows that it will be limited also in the range of phosphorus and manganese in the iron it produces. For this reason, a given l^rand of iron will usuall}' run fairly constant as regards phosphorus and manganese, although its silicon and sulphur can be varied at the wish of the management. However, this condition, while common, is not universal, for some concerns possess a variet>' of ores and can by mi.xing them produce iron of any composition desired. Coke and Anthracite Irons 635 "In using this directory please bear in mind that it is not infallible. Much of the data has been difficult to get, a few concerns refusing abso- lutely to furnish information. Again, in some cases time brings changes in ownership and character of ore supply, etc., and of course, these things will affect the character of the product. In spite of these defic- iencies, however, it is believed that the following tables represent the most accurate information along these lines available at the present time and that they will be found of considerable value." "Finally, it must be emphasized that the use of the data is not to tell the foundryman the exact analysis of any carload of any brand, but rather to help him locate those brands which have, or can be made to have a composition suitable for his work. " "In these' tables the percentage of sulphur is not usually given. It should be understood that all furnaces strive for, and usually obtain, low sulphur in their iron. Practically all foundry grades are sold on the understanding that the sulphur is under 0.05 per cent and hence no useful purpose is served in giving the sulphur range except in a very few cases where it normally runs unusually low." Coke and Anthracite Irons Adrian. — Adrian fee., DuBois, Pa. (Adrian fee. Co.) Hot blast coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 1.0-4.0% Mang. 0.4-1.2% Phos. 0.4-0.9% Alice. — Alice fee., Birmingham, Ala. (Tenn. Coal, Iron & Ry. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand or chill cast iron, from Ala. red and brown ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.0-4.0% Mang. 0.1-0.4% * Phos. 0.71-0% Basic Under 1% 0.1-0.4 Under 1% Alice. — Alice fee., Sharpsville, Pa. (The Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co.) Hot blast, coke iron, from Lake Superior ores. Usually make Bessemer only for use in their own steel works. Alleghany. — Alleghany fee., Iron Gate, Va. (Oriskany Ore & Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local brown ores. Sil. 1.0-4.0% Mang. 0.7-1.5% Phos. 0.2-0.6% Allegheny. — McKeefrey fee., Leetonia, O. (McKeefrey & Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 0.7-2.0% Mang. 0.4-0.8% Phos. 0.4-0.7% * Sometimes higher. 6j6 rig Iron Directory InJover. — Andovcr fee, Phillipsburg, N. J. (Andover Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, frum local magnetic ore. Lake Superior ore, iron nodules and roll scale. Sil. 1.5-4.0% Mang. 0.6-1.5% Phos. 0.6-0.9% .4 . R. .\fills. — (2 stacks), Allcntown, Pa. (.\llcntown Rollins Mills Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke iron, from local hematites and N. J. and N. Y. magnetites. Ashland. — Ashland fees. (2 stacks), .Ashland, Ky. (..Vshland Iron & Min. Co.) Hot blast, raw coal and coke, sand cast iron, from local brown and Lake Superior ores. High Sil. Fdry. Sil. 5.0-12.0% Mang. 0.5-0.8% Phos. 0.5-0.9% Bess. Ferro Sil. 9.0-14.0% 0.5-0.8% under 1.0% Aurora. — Aurora fee., Columbia, Pa. (Susquehanna Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, forge and foundry- iron, from native and Lake Superior ores. Not in operation, March, 1910. 5a//c//c. — Battelle fee., Battelle, Ala. (Lookout Mt. Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry' iron, from local red hematite. Not in operation March, 1910. Bay View. — Bay\iew fees. (2 stacks), Milwaukee, Wise. (Illinois Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand east iron, from Lake Superior ores. Mall. Bes. Sil. 1.0-3.0% Phos. under 0.20% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Fdry. 1.0-3.0% over 0.50% 0.50-1.0 Beijonl. — Belfont fee.. Ironton, O. (Belfont Iron Works Co.) Hot blast, coke, fdry iron, sand east, from Lake Superior and native ores. Sil. 1.50-2.50% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.50-0.90% Bellefonte. — Bellefonte fee., Bellcfonte, Pa. (.BcUefonte Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundr\' iron, from native and Lake Superior ores. Sil. 1.75-4.0% Phos. 0.5-0.7% Mang. 0.5-0.7% Belmont. — Belmont fee.. Wheeling', W. Va. (\Vhceling Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand east, from Lake Superior ores. Make only iron for their own steel plant. Btssenicr. — Bessemer fees. (5 stacks), Bessemer, Ala. (Term. C. I. & Ry. Co.") Same as De Bardeleben, which see. Coke and Anthracite Irons 637 Bessie. — Bessie fee., New Straitsville, O. (Bessie Ferro Silicon Co.) Hot blast, coke and raw coal, sand cast, ferro silicon, from Lake Superior low phos. ore. Sil. 8.0-14.0% Phos. under 0.10% Mang. under 1.0% Big Stone Gap. — Union fee. No. i. Big Stone Gap, Va. (Union Iron and Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, fdry iron, from local fossil brown ores. Sil. usually high Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 0.40-1.0% Bird. — Bird fee., Culbertson, O. (The Bird Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, fdry iron, from Lake Superior and native ores. Not in operation March, 1910. Boyd. — Ashland fees. (2 stacks), Ashland, Ky. (Ashland 1. & Miu. Co., Inc.) Hot blast, raw coal and coke, sand cast, fdry iron, from Bath Co. & Lake Superior ores. Sil. 1.50-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.90% Mang. 0.50-0.80% Brier Hill. — Grace fee., No. 2, Youngstown, O. (The Brier Hill I. & C. Co.) Hot blast, coke basic and Bessemer iron, from Lake Superior ores. Bristol. — Bristol fee., Bristol, Tenn. (Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, from local brown ores. Fdry. Sil. 2.0-2.75% Phos. abt. 0.50% Basic (chill cast) low abt. 0.60% Mang. abt. 0.75% 1.0-1.50% Brooke. — Brooke fees. (2 stacks), Birdsboro, Pa. (E. & G. Brooke Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, from Lake Superior, Newfoundland and magnetic ores. Buckeye. — Columbus fees. (2 stacks), Columbus, O. (The Columbus I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, chill mold iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry Sil. 1.0-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.60% Mang. 0.60-0.80%* Mai. Bes. 0.50-2.50 under 0.20 0.60-1.0. f Basic under i.o under 0.20 0.80-1.0 Stand. Bes. 1.0-2.0 under o.io • Sometimes higher. t Higher or lower if desired. 6^}S I'ig Iron Directory Burttii Vkla. — Bucna Vista ftc, Hiuna Vista, \'a. (Oriskany Ore & Iron Co.) Hot hlast, coke, (hill, and sand rait iron, from Oriikany hrown hematite. Fdry. Sil. i.o-4.o',c/ I'hos. 0.2-1.0% Mang. 0.6-1.5% Basic under 1.0 0.2-0.5 0.6-1.5% Spec, car wheel 1.0-1.50 0.2-0.5 0.6-1.5 /Jh/j/o. — Buffalo Union fee. (3 sUcks), Buffalo, N. V. (The Buffalo U. F. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.50-3.25% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Mai. 0.75-2.0 0.10-0.20 0.40-1.0 Burden. — Burden fee., Troy, N. Y. (The Burden Iron Co.) Hot blast, mixed anthracite coal and coke, occasionally coke alone. Magnetic concentrates from northern New York. Out of operation March, 19 10. Carbon. — Carbon fee., Perryville, Pa. (Carbon Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke foundry iron, magnetic from N. J. & Lake Champlain, Lake Superior, and foreign ores. Sil. 1.50-3.00% Phos. 0.40-0.90% Mang. 0.40-0.90% Carondelel. — Missouri fee.. So. St. Louis, Mo. (St. Louis Blast Fee. Co.) Hot blast, coke, Missouri red and brown hematite. Analysis refused. Chaleaiigay. — Standish fee., Standish, N. Y. (Northern Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local magnetic ores. Sil. 1.0-3.0% Phos. 0.02-0.035% Mang. 0.15-0.50*^0 Chattanooga. — Chattanooga fee., Chattanooga, Tenn. (The Southern I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from .Mabama red and Georgia brown hematite. Sil. 1.50-3.50% Phos. 1.0-1.5% Mang. 0.6-1.0%* Cherry Valley. — Cherrj' Vallej' fee., Leetonia, O. (United I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry' iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. as desired Phos. o.20-o.6o'^'o Mang. 0.60-0.80% Chkkies. — Chickies fees. (2 stacks), Chickies, Pa. (Standard Iron Min. & Furnace Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, sand cast, foundr>' iron, from mag- netites. * Sometimes higher. Coke and Anlhracile Irons 639 Citico. — Citico fee., Chattanooga, Tenn. (Citico Furnace Co.) Plot blast, coke, sand cast, soft foundry, from red and brown hema- tites from Tennessee and Georgia. SiL 2.0-3.0% Phos. abt. 1.25% Mang. abt. 0.60% Claire. — Claire fee., Sharpsville, Pa. (Claire Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, Bessemer iron only, from Lake Superior ores. Cleveland. — Cleveland fees. (2 stacks), Cleveland, O. (Cleveland Fur- nace Co.) Hot blast, coke, from Lake Superior ores. Analysis refused. Clifton. — Clifton fees. (2 stacks), Ironton, Alabama. (Alabama Con- sol. C. & I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. 1.0-6.0% Phos. c.35-0.70% Mang. 1.0-2.0% Clima.K. — Hubbard fees. (2 stacks), Hubbard, O. (The Andrews & Hitchcock I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, strong foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 1.35-1-75% Phos. 0.30-0.40% Mang. 0.50-0.80% Clinton. — Chnton fees., Pittsburgh, Pa. (Clinton I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3.0% Phos. 0.20-0.75% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Colonial. — Colonial fees. (2 alt. stacks), Riddlesburg, Fa. (Colonial Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from Lake Superior and native ores. Sil. up to 4.0% Phos. 0.40-0.60% Mang. 0.50-0.80% Covington. — Covington fee., Covington, Va. (Low Moor Iron Co. of Va.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from native brown hematite. Fdry. Sil. 1.5-3.0% Phos. 0.90-1.2% Mang. 0.70-1.0% High Sil. silvery 4.0-8.0 0.90-1.2 0.70-1.0 Cranberry. — Cranberry fee., Johnson City, Tenn. (The Cranberry Fee. Co ) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, low phos. iron, from local magnetic ore. Sil. 1.0-3.5% Phos. under 0.035% Mang. 0.4-0.6% 640 Pig Iron Directory Crane. — Crane fees. (3 slacks), Catasauqua, Pa. (Emi)irc S. & I. Co.) Hot l)liisl, anthraritc and coke, sand cast iron, from N. J. m;iKneti< , I'a. hematite, Lake .Su|Krior and foreiKn ores. Fdry. Sil. 0.75-3.50% Phos. o.6o-o.yo% Mang. 0.50-2.0% Basic under i.o under i.o 0.50-0.80 Low phos. 1.0-3.0 under 0.03 0.50-3.0 Crozer. — Crozer fees. (2 sUcks), Roanoke, Va. (Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Va. limonite, mountain and specular ores. Fdry. Sil. 2.10-2.75% Phos. 0.60-0.80% Mang. 0.60-0.90% Basic abt 0.70 abt. 0.70 abt. 1.25 Cumberland. — Cumberland fee., Cumberland Fee. P. O., Tenn. (War- ner Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast foundry, from local brown and red hema- tites. Sil. 2.0-4.5% Phos. abt. 2.0% Mang. abt. 0.30% Dayton. — Dayton fees. (2 stacks), Dayton, Tenn. (The Dayton C. & I. Co. Ltd.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry- iron, from Tenn. fossil and Georgia hematite. De Bardeleben. — Bessemer fees. (.5 stacks), Bessemer, Tenn. (Tenn. C. L & Ry. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand and chill cast iron, from local red and brown hem. Fdry. & Mill Sil. up to 3.25% Phos. 0.70-1.0% Mang. 0.10-0.40 Basic up to 1.0 up to 1.0 0.10-0.40 Detroit. — Detroit fee., Detroit, Mich. (Detroit Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundr>- iron, from Lake Superior ores. Dora. — Dora fee., Pulaski City, Va. (Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast foundrj' iron, from native limonite and mountain ores. Sil. 1.50-3.00% Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 0.50-0.90% Dover. — Dover fee.. Canal Dover, O. (The Pa. Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Dunbar. — Dunbar fees. (2 stacks), Dunbar, Pa. (Dunbar Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand or machine cast iron, from Lake Superior specular and soft ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.5-3.0% Phos. 0.30-0.60% Mang. 0.30-0.60% Malleable 1.0-2.0 under 0.20 0.30 0.80 Coke and Anthracite Irons 641 Durham. — Durham fee., Riegelsville, Pa. (Durham Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior, local hematite and New Jersey magnetite. Eliza. — Pittsburgh fees. (5 stacks), Pittsburgh, Pa. (Jones & Laughlin St. Co.) Hot blast, coke, Bessemer and basic, machine cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Ella. — Ella fee., West Middlesex, Pa. (Pickands, Mather & Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry and malleable iron, from Lake Superior ores. On account of the large assortment of ores available, this furnace can make practically any desired composition. EmbreeviUe. — Embreeville fee., Embreeville, Tenn. (Embree Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Empire. — Reading, Pa. (Empire Steel & Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior, Porman and magnetic ores. Sil. 2.0-3.0% Phos. 1.25-2.50% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Emporium. — Emporium fee.. Emporium, Pa. (Emporium Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from brown hematite. Sil. as desired Phos. abt. 0.80% Mang. abt. 0.60% Ensley. — Ensley fees. (6 stacks), Ensley, Alabama. (Tenn. C. I. & Ry. Co.) Hot blast, coke, machine cast iron, from red and brown hematite. Basic Sil. up to 1.0% Phos. 0.70-1.0% Mang. 0.10-0.40%* Fdry. & Mill up to 2.50 0.70-1.0 0.10-0.40* Essex. — Northern fee., Port Henry, N. Y. (Northern Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local magnetic ores. Sil. 1.0-2.50% Phos. 0.40-0.90% Mang. 0.10-0.40% Etowah. — Etowah fees. (2 stacks), Gadsden, Ala. (Ala. Consol.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local red and brown hematite. Sil. i.o-.o6% Phos. 0.70-1.20% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Eureka. — Same as Oxmoor, which see. Everett. — Earlston fee., Earleston, Pa. (Jos. E. Thropp.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior and local brown ores. Sil. 1.50-3.50% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.50-0.90% * Sometimes higher. 642 I'ig Iron Directory /'iiiniic. — Fannie fee, West Middlcsi-x, Pa. (United Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Sui>crior ores. Sil. as desired Phos. 0.20-0.60% Mang. 0.60-0.80% I'cdcral. — Federal fees. (2 stacks), S. Chicago, III. (.Federal Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, mal. and foundry iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. as desired. Phos. as desired. Mang. as desired. i'loreiue. — Philadelphia fee., Florence, Ala. (Sloss-Shefl'ield S. & I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from .\la. brown hematite. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.80-1.25% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Fort Pill. — Cherry Valley fee., Leetonia, O. (United I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, spec, car wheel iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.20-0.80% Mang. 0.60-0.80% Franklin. — Franklin fee., Franklin Sprinc;s, N. Y. (I'ranklin Iron Mfg. Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from fossil, red hematite from Clin- ton, N. Y. Not in operation March, 19 10. 511.2.25-3.0% Phos. 1.25-1.50% Mang. 0.25-0.40% Gem. — Same as Shenandoah, which see. Genesee. — Genesee fee., Charlotte, N. Y. (Genesee Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, from Lake Superior ore. Not in operation March, 1910. Girard. — Mattie fee., Girard, O. (Girard Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. 1.50-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.50-0.80% Globe. — Globe fee., Jackson, O. (Globe Iron Co.) Hot blast, raw coal and coke, sand cast, high silicon silvery iron, from native ores. Sil. 4.0%-! 2.0% Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Grafton. — McKeefrey fee., Leetonia, O. (McKeefrey & Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 2.0-2.50% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Graham. — Graham fee.,' Graham, Va. (Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry and basic iron, from Lake Superior and native brown hematite. Coke and Anthracite Irons 643 fl^a»w7/ow. — Hamilton fee., Hanging Rock, O. (The Hanging Rock Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from native block and limestone and Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.3-0.4% Mang. 0.5-0.7% Mall. as desired. under 0.20 Hector. — Clinton fee., Pittsburgh, Pa. (Clinton Iron & St. Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3.50% Phos. 0.50-0.75% Mang. up to 1.0% Helen. —Helen fee., Clarksville, Tenn. (Red River Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast soft, fluid foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. 2.0-3.0% Phos. abt. 1.25% Mang. 0.40-0.60% Henry Clay. — Henry Clay fees. (2 stacks), Reading, Pa. (Empire Steel & Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke, foundry and forge iron, from local hematite and magnetite. Fdry. Sil. 1.50-4.50% Phos. 2.50-3.50% Hillman. — Grand River fees. (2 stacks), Grand Rivers, Ky. (Hillman Land & Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry and forge sand cast iron, from local brown hematite. Not in operation March, 1910. Hubbard. — Hubbard fees. (2 stacks), Hubbard, O. (The Andrews & Hitchcock Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, malleable iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. 1.0-2.0% Phos. under 0.20% Mang. under 0.80% Hubbard Scotch. — Hubbard fees. (2 stacks), Hubbard, O. (The Andrews & Hitchcock Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, soft foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3.00% Phos. 0.50-0.65% Mang. about 0.60% Hudson. — Secausus fee., Secausus, N. J. (Hudson Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke, foundry iron, from N. Y. mag- netite, N. J. limonite and Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3-4% Phos. 0.60-0.95% Mang. up to 0.50% Imperial. — Shelby fee., No. i, Shelby, Ala. (Shelby Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron from local brown hematite. Not in operation March, 1910. Inland. — Inland fee., Indiana Harbor, Ind. (Inland Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, basic iron, from Lake Superior ores. 644 I'i^' Iron Directory Ironalon. — Clifton fees. (2 slacks), Ironaloii, Ala. (Alabama Consol. C. &. I. Co.; Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, sand cast, from local brown ore. Sil. 1.0-6.0% Phos. 0.70-0.90% Mang. 0.70-1.0% Iroquois. — Iroquois fees. (2 stacks), S. Chicago, III. (Irofjuois Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Su[)crior ores. Sil. 1.35-2.50% Phos. 0.3-0.4%* Mang. 0.40.-0.70% Ivanhoc. — Ivanhoc fee., Ivanhoe, Va. (Carter Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local and Lake Superior ores. Sil. % as desired. Phos. abt. 0.40% Mang. abt. 0.70% Jenifer. — Jenifer fee., Jenifer, Ala. (Jenifer Iron & Coal Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron from local brown hematite. Not in operation March, 19 10. Jisco. — Jisco fee., Jackson, O. Qackson Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke and raw coal, high silicon iron, from native and Lake Superior ores. Sil. 4.0-14.0% Phos. up to 0.9% Mang. up to 09% Josephine. — Josephine fee., Josephine, Pa. (Josephine Furnace & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. up to 4.0% Phos. 0.50-0.80% Alang. under 0.90% Bessemer 1.25-2.0 0.085-0.10 under 0.90 Juniata. — Marshall fee., Newport, Pa. (Juniata Fee. & Fdry. Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local hematite and Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.0% Phos. under 1.0% Mang. under 1.0% Lackawanna. — (12 stacks). (Lackawanna Steel Co.) Lackawanna fees. (7 stacks), Lackawanna, N. Y. Bird Coleman fees. (2 stacks), Cornwall, Pa. Colebrook fees. (2 stacks), Lebanon, Pa. N. Cornwall fee., Cornwall, Pa. Hot blast, coke, Bes. and basic iron, from Lake Superior and Corn- wall ores. Lady Ensley. — Lady Ensley fee., Sheflield, Ala. (Sloss-Sheflield S. & I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. as desired. Phos. 1.0-1.50% Mang. 0.50-0.80% • Sometimes higher. Coke axid Anthracite Irons 645 La Follette. — La Follette fee., La Follette, Tenn. (La Follette C, I. & Ry. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local fossil, red and brown hematite. Sil. up to 4.0% Phos. 1.0-1.25% Mang. 0.50-0.75% L. C. R. — Lebanon, 0. (Lebanon Reduction Co.) Coke and charcoal, low phos. pig. Operated for experimental purposes only. Lebanon Valley. — Lebanon fee., Lebanon, Pa. (Lebanon Valley Fee. Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke, sand cast, foundry iron, prin- cipally Cornwall ore. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.3-0.4% Mang. 0.3-0.4% Leesport. — Leesport fee., Leesport, Pa. (Leesport Furnace Co.) Hot blast, anthracite coal and coke, sand east, foundry iron, from local hematite and magnetite. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.2-0.3% Mang. abt. 1.00% Lehigh. — Lehigh fee., Allentown, Pa. (Lehigh Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, sand cast, foundry and mill iron, from Lake Superior, local hematite and New Jersey magnetite. Not in operation March, 1910. Lone Star. — Sam Lanham fee.. Rusk, Texas. (State of Texas.) Hot blast, coke, from local brown hematite. Not in operation March, 19 10. Longdale. — Longdale fee., Longdale, Va. (The Longdale Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, chill east iron, from local browTi hematite. "Basic" Sil. under 1.0% Phos. [0.90-1.0% Mang. 1.0-1.5% " Off Basic Sil. " 1.0-1.75 0.90-1.0 1.0-1.50 "Off Basic Sul." * 0.25-0.75 0.90-1.0 1.0-1.50 Lowmoor. — Lowmoor fees. (2 alt. stacks), Lowmoor, Va. (Lowmoor I. Co. of Va.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from local brown hematite. Fdry. Sil. 1.50-3.0% Phos. 0.80-1.0% Mang. 0.90-1.2% High Sil. silvery 4.0-8.0 0.80-1.0 0.90-1.2 Macungie. — Macungie fee., Maeungie, Pa. (Empire Steel & Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, sand east, foundry iron, from local hematites. Lake Superior and foreign ores. Sil. 0.75-3.50% Phos. 0.60-0.90% Mang. 0.50-2.0% * Sulphur over .05 per cent. 646 Pig Iron Directory Mallealilc. — Iroquois fees. (2 stacks), S. Chicago, III. (Iro(juois Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from I^kc Suijcrior ores. Sil. 1.25-2.50% Phos. under 0.2% Mang. 0.40-0.70% Mannic. — Aliens Creek fees. (2 stacks), Mannic, Tenn. (Bon Air C. & I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local bnjwn hematite. Sil. uj) to 8.0% Phos. abt. 2.0% Mang. 0.40-0.65% Marshall. — Marshall fee., New-port, Pa. (Juniata I'ce. & I-dry Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, sand cast, foundry iron, from local hematite and Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3.0% Phos. under 1.0% Mang. under 1.0% Marlins Ferry. — Martin's Ferry fee., Martin's Ferry, \V. Va. (Wheel- ing Iron & Steel Co.j Hot blast, coke, Bessemer only, from Lake Superior ores. Max Meadows. — Max Meadows fee., Ma.x Meadows, Va. (Va. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Va. limonitc and mountain ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.75-2.75% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 1.0-2.0% Basic under 1.0 under i.o Mang. abt. 1.50 Miami. — Hamilton, O. (Hamilton Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.0-3.50% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.50-0.80% Mall. 0.75-2.0 under 0.20 0.60-1.0 Basic under i.o under 0.20 as desired Missouri. — Missouri fee., S. St. Louis, Mo. (St. Louis Blast Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, basic iron, from Mo. red and brown hematites. Analysis refused. Musconetcong. — Musconetcong fee.. Stanhope, N. J. (Musconetcong Iron Works.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundrj" iron, from New Jersey magnetic, Lake Superior, Cuban and other foreign ores. Sil. 2.50-3.50% Phos. 0.60-0.70% Mang. 0.60-0.70% Napier. — Napier fee., Napier, Tenn. (Napier Iron Works.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. 2.0-2.75% Phos. 0.75-1.50% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Nellie. — Ironton, O. (The Ironton Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.25-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.60%- Mang. 0.50-0.80% Mall. Bes. 1.0-2.0 under 0.20 0.50-0.90 Coke and Anthracite Irons 647 Nellie. — Alice & Blanche fees. (alt. stacks), Ironton, O. (The Mar- ting I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior and Kentucky ores. Fdry. Sil. 1.0-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.60% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Mall. 0.50-3.0 under 0.20 0.50-1.0 Niagara. — Niagara fee., N. Tonawanda, N. Y. (Tonawanda Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior hematite. Analysis refused. Nittany. — - Same as Bellefonle, which see. Norton. — Ashland, Ky. (Norton Iron Works.) Hot blast, coke, mall, and Bess, iron, from Lake Superior ores. Norway. — Colonial fees. (2 alt. stacks), Riddlesburg, Pa. (Colonial Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foimdry iron, from Lake Superior and native ores. Sil. up to 4.0% Phos. 0.60-0.90% Mang. 0.70-1.0% Oxford. — Oxford fee., Oxford, N. J. (Empire Steel & Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, basic iron, from local magnetic and special ores. Sil. under 1.0% Phos. under 1.0% Mang. 0.75-1.25% Oxtnoor. — Oxmoor fees. (2 stacks), Oxmoor, Ala. (Term. Coal, I. & Ry. Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry and forge, sand cast, from red and brown hematite. Sil. up to 3.50% Phos. 0.70-1.0% Mang. 0.10-0.40%* Perry. — Carbon fee., Perryville, Pa. (Carbon Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, Bess, iron, from Lake Superior, foreign, Lake Champlain and New Jersey ores. Paxton. — Paxton fees. (2 stacks), Harrisburg, Pa. (Central I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, various ores. Peerless. — Iroquois fees. (2 stacks), S. Chicago, 111. (Iroquois Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 3.0-3.5% Phos. 0.30-0.40% Mang. 0.40-0.70% Pencost. — Bessie fee., New Straitsville, O. (Bessie Ferro-Silicon Co.) Hot blast, coke, ferro-silicon, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 5.0-12.0% Phos. 0.30-0.70% Mang. under 1.0% * Sometimes higher. 648 I'i^ Iron directory I'lqiiest. — Pequcst fee, Hultzville, N. J. (I'f(|ucst Co.) IIol blast, anthracite and coke, foundr>' injii, from N. J. magnclic and manganiferous ores. Out of blast March, 1910. Perry. — Perry fee., Krie, Pa. (Perry Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Sujwrior ores. Fdr>-. Sil. 1.75-30% Phos. 0.40-0.70% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Fdry. 1.00-2.00 1. 15-0.30 0.40-0.80 Special 2.00-3.50 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.80 Pioneer. — Pioneer fees. (3 stacks), Thomas, Ala. (Republic Iron &St. Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from red and brown hematite. Sil. up to 3-5°%* I'bos. 0.75-0.95% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Poughkeepsie. — Poughkeepsie fees. (2 stacks), Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (Poughkeepsie Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, from Lake Superior, local brown hematite and Port Henry magnetite ores. Not in operation March, 1910. Poughkeepsie. — Poughkeepsie fees. (2 stacks), Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (Poughkeepsie Iron Co.) Not in operation March, 1910. (See Poughkeepsie.) Princess. — Princess fee., Glen Wilton, Va. (Princess Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local limonite. Sil. up to 3.0 or 4.0% Phos. 0.60-0.80^^ Mang. up to 1.0% Pulaski. — Pulaski fee., Pulaski, City, Va. (Pulaski Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown ores. Sil. 2.0-3.50% Phos. 0.50-0.80% Mang. 0.40-0.70% Punxy. — Punxy fee., Punxsutawney, Pa. (Punxsutawney Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior hematite. Sil. 1.0-4.0% Phos. 0.40-0.60% Mang. 0.45-1.60% Radford. — Radford Crane fee.. Radford, \'a. (\'a. Iron, Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundr>' iron, from \'a. limonite and mounUiin ores. Sil. 1.5-2.75% Phos. abt. 1.00%. Mang. abt. 1.25% Rebecca. — Rebecca fees. (2 stacks), Kittanning, Pa. (Kittanning L & S. Mfg. Co.) Hot blast, coke, chill cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. up to 3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. under 1.0% Basic under i.o under 0.50 under i.o Mall. 1. 0-1.50 under 0.20 under 1.0 • Sometimes up to 8.00 per cent. Coke and Athracite Irons 649 Red River. — Helen fee., Clarksville, Tenn. (Red River Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, from local brown hematite. Fdry. Sil. 2.0- 3.0% Phos. abt. 0.80% Mang. abt. 0.65% Scotch 3.5- 5.5 abt. 0.80 abt. 0.60 High Silicon 8.0-12.0 abt. 0.80 abt. 0.40 Rising Fawn. — Rising Fawn fee., Rising Fawn, Ga. (Southern I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron from red and brown hematites. Not in operation March, 19 10. Roanoke. — West End fee., Roanoke, Va. (West End Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Va. brown hematite. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.75-1.0% Mang. 0.50-1.0% Robesonia. — Robesonia fee., Robesonia, Pa. (Robesonia Iron Co. Ltd.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundry iron, from Cornwall ore. Sil. 2.0-3.50% Phos. under 0.04% Mang. abt. 0.10% Rockdale. — Rockdale fee., Rockdale, Tenn. (Rockdale Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron from Tenn. brown hematite. Fdry. Sil. 2.0 -2.75% Phos. abt. 1.40% Mang. abt. 0.25% Ferro Phos. 0.07-0.75 17.0-22.0 0.15-0.25 Rockhill. — Rockhill fees., (2 alt. stacks), Rockhill P. O., Pa. (Rockhill Fee. Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron from fossil and Lake Superior ores. Not in operatipn March, 1910. Rockwood. — Rock wood fees. (2 stacks). Rock wood, Tenn. (Roane Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from red fossil ore. Sil. 1.75-2.75% Phos. abt. 1.40% Mang. abt. 0.50% Sampson Strong. — Upson fee., Cleveland, O. (Upson Net Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. 1.5-1.8% Phos. 0.40-0.60% Mang. 0.60-1.0% Sarah. — Sarah fee., Ironton, O. (The Kelley Nail & Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, Bessemer iron, from Lake Superior ore. Saxton. — Saxton fees. (2 stacks), Saxton, Pa. (Jos. E. Thropp.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior and local brown ores. Sil. 1.5-3.5% Phos. 0.40-0.90% Mang. 0.50-0.90% Scottdale. — Scottdale fee., Scottdale, Pa. (.Scottdale Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ore. 650 Pig Iron Directory Senega. — McKcefrcy fee., Lcclonia, O. (McKeefrcy & Co.) Hoi blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Suijcrior oroj. Sil. 1.0-2.0% Phos. under 0.20% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Sluirpsvilte. — Sharpsvillc fee., Sharpsvillc, Pa. (Shari>sville, Fee. Co.) Hot blast, coke, mostly Bess, iron, from Lake Superior and New York magn. ores. ShtJUld.—Shefheld fees. (3 sUeks), Sheffield, .Via. (Sheffield C. & L Co.) Hot blast eoke, foundry iron, from .MabanHi and Tennessee brown hematites. Sil. as desired. Phos. abt. 1.0/ (, Mang. abt. 0.50% Sheffield. — Hattie Ensley fee., Sheffield, .\la. (Sloss-Sheffield S. & L Co.) Hot blast, eoke, foundry iron, from loeal brow-n hematite. Sil. as desired. I^hos. abt. 1.20% Mang. abt. 0.50% Shetiaiidoah. — Gem fee., Shenandoah, Va. (Oriskany Ore & Iron Co.) Hot blast, eoke, foundry iron, from loeal brown hem. and Lake Superior ores. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 0.60-1.0% Shenango. — Shenango fees. (5 stacks), Sharpsville, Pa. (Shenango Fee. Co.) Hot blast, eoke, basic, chill cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. under 1.0% Phos. under 0.05% Mang. 0.70-1.30% Sheridan. — Sheridan fee., Sheridan, Pa. (Berkshire Iron Works.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundry iron, sand cast, from Corn- wall local hematite. Sil. 1.0-4.0% Phos. 0.40-0.90% Mang. up to 0.75% Silver Creek. — Rome fee., Rome, Ga. (Silver Creek Furnace Co.) Hot blast, eoke, sand east, foundry iron, from red and bro\vh hema- tite, loeal. Sil. up to 5.0% Phos. under 1.0% Mang. up to 2.0% Silver Spring. — Paxton fees. (2 stacks), Harrisburg, Pa. (Central L&S. Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundry iron, from \arious ores. 5/055. — Sloss fees. (4 stacks), Birmingham, .Via. (Sloss-Shellield S. & L Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from red fossil, hard and soft and brown hematites. Sil. as desired. Phos. abt. 0.75% Mang. abt. 0.40% Coke and Anthracite Irons 651 Soko. — Soho fee., Pittsburg, Pa. (Jones & Laughlin Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, basic and Bes. iron, from Lake Superior ores. South Pittsburgh. — So. Pittsburgh fees. (3 stacks). So. Pittsburgh, Tenn. (Tenn. Coal, Iron & R.R. Co.) Hot blast, coke, mill and foundry, sand cast iron, from local hard red hematite, and brown hematite from Georgia. Sil. up to 3.50%* Phos. 1.00-1.50% Mang. 0.50-1.50% Spring Valley. — Spring Valley fee., Spring Valley, Wise. (Spring Valley Iron & Ore Co.) Hot blast, coke or sometimes charcoal, sand east iron, from brown hematite ore. Mall. Sil. 0.80-1.50% Phos. under 0.20% Mang. 1.0-1.5% Fdry. 1.5-3.00 under 0.20 1.0-1.50 Standard. — Standard fee., Goodrich, Tenn. (Standard Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. i.75-4-5o% Phos. abt. 0.95% Mang. abt. 0.40% Star. — Star fee., Jackson, O. (Star Furnace Co.) Hot blast, raw coal and coke, sand cast, Jackson Co. softener, from native limonite and block ores. Sil. 5.00-12.00% Phos. 0.43-0.80% Mang. abt. 0.70% Star &" Crescent. — Rusk fee., Cherokee Co., Pa. (Frank A. Daniels.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown hematite and black ores. Not in operation March, 1910. Sterling Scotch. — Iroquois fees. (2 stacks). So. Chicago, 111. (Iroquois I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. 2.50-3.0% Phos. 0.30-0.40% Mang. 0.40-0.70% Stewart. — Stewart fee., Sharon, Pa. (Stewart Iron Co., Ltd.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Bess. Sil. 1.0-2.50% Phos. 0.09-0.10% Mang. 0.60-0.80% Low Phos. 1.0-2.50 under 0.04 0.20-0.40 StrutJiers. — Aurora fee., Struthers, O. (The Struthers Fee. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Ba'sic Sil. under 1.00% Phos. under 0.25% Mang. 0.60-1.2% Mall. 1.00-1.50 under 0.20 abt. i.o Susquehanna. — (2 stacks) , Buffalo, N.Y. (Buffalo & Susquehanna I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, from Lake Superior ores. Analysis refused. * Sometimes higher. 6s2 Pig Iron Directory Swede. — Swede fees. {2 slacks), Swei If"" l^ircclory Vesta. — Vesta fee, Watts, I'a. (Susquehanna Iron Co.) Hot blast, anthracite and coke, foundry iron, from local hematites and magnetites. Not in operation March, lyio. Victoria. — Victoria fee., CJoshen, Va. (The Goshen Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry and forge iron, from brown hematite from Rich Patch mines. Sil. as desired. Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 1.0-1.50% Viking. — Same as Carbon, which sec. Warner. — Cumberland fee., I)i(kson Co., Tenn. (Warner Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local red and brown hematite. Sil. j.0-2.75% Phos. abt. 1.60% Mang. abt. 0.40% Wardiick. — Warwick fees. (3 stacks), Pottstown, Pa. (Warwick I. & S. Co.) Hot blast, coke, machine cast foundry iron, from Lake Superior, N. Y., New Jersey, and foreign ores. Sil. i.a-3.0% Phos. 0.40-0.80% Mang. 0.40-0.80% Walls. — Watts fees. (2 stacks), Middlesborough, Ky. (Va. Coal & Coke Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from native ores. Sil. 1.50-2.75% Phos. abt. 0.45% Mang. abt. 0.20% W elision. — W'eWston fees. (2 stacks), Wellston, O. (Wellston S. & I. Co.) Hot blast, coke, sand cast iron, from Lake Superior ores. Str. fdry. Sil. 1.50-1.75% Phos. 0.18-0.20% Mang. 0.60-0.90% Mall. 0.60-2.00 under 0.20 0.40-1.00 T^/wr/oH. — Wharton fees. (3 stacks), Wharton, N. J. (Joseph Whar- ton.) Hot blast, coke, occasionally some anthracite, from N. J. mag., N. Y. and Lake Superior hematites. Wickwirc. — Wickwire fee., Buffalo, N. Y. (Wickwire Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, basic iron, from Lake Superior ores. Williamson. — Williamson fee., Birmingham, .\la. (Williamson Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron from red fossil, and brown hematite. Woodstock. — Woodstock fees. (2 stacks), Anniston, Ala. (Woodstock I. Wks., Inc.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. 1.50-5.00%, Phos. abt. 1.15% Mang. 0.80-1.25% Charcoal Irons 655 Woodward. — Woodward fee., Woodward, Ala. (Woodward Iron Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from local red fossil ores. Sil. 1.0-3.0% Phos. abt. 0.80% Mang. abt. 0.30% Zenith. — Zenith fee., W. Duluth, Minn. (Zenith Furnace Co.) Hot blast, coke, iron, from Lake Superior ores. Bess. Sil. 1.00-2.00% Phos. 0.08-0.10% Mang. under 1.0% Mall. 1.00-2.00 under 0.2 0.80-1.20 Fdry. 1.50-5.00 under 0.20 over 0.60 Zug. — Detroit, Mich. (Detroit Iron & Steel Co.) Hot blast, coke, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Charcoal Irons Aetna. — Aetna, Ala. (J. J. Gray.) Hot or cold blast, charcoal, car wheel iron, from local brown hema- tite. Not in operation March, 1910. Alamo. — Quinn fee., Gadsden, Ala. (Quinn Furnace Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local red and brown hema- tite. Not in operation March, 19 10. Anchor. — Oak Hill, O. (Jefferson Iron Co.) Warm blast, charcoal, strong foundry iron, from native limestone and block ores. Sil. abt. 2.26% Phos. abt. 0.87% Mang. abt. 0.51% Antrim. — Antrim fee., Mancelona, Mich. (Superior Charcoal Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.62% Phos. 0.15-0.22% Mang. 0.30-0.70% Berkshire. — Cheshire fee., Cheshire, Mass. (Berkshire Iron Works.) Warm blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local red and brown hema- tite. Berlin. — Glen Iron fee., Glen Iron, Pa. (John T. Church.) Cold blast, charcoal, iron from local fossil, and hematite. Sil. 1.0-1.5% Phos. 0.50-0.65% Mang. 0.40-0.60% Bloom. — Bloom Switch, 0. (The Clare Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local hematite. Not in operation March, 1910. 656 rig Iron Directory Blue Ridge. — Tallapoosji fee, T.illai>fK)sa, Tcnn. (Southern Car Wheel Iron Co.) Cold and warm blast, charcoal, iron from brown hematite. Phos. 0.18-1.50% Mang. up to 2.0% Biickhorn. — Olive fee., Lawrence Co., O. (McGugin Iron & Coal Co.) Hot or cold blast, charcoal iron, from native limestone ore. Not in operation March, 1910. Cadillac. — Cadillac fee., Cadillac, Mich. (Milchcll-Diggins Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.50% Phos. 0.16-0.20% Mang. up to 1.0% Center. — Superior P. O., O. (The Superior Portland Cement Co.) Charcoal iron, from native limestone. Not in operation March, 1910. Champion. — Manistique, Mich. (Superior Charcoal Iron Co.) Warm blast, charcoal, foundry iron from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.62% Phos. 0.15-0.22% Mang. 0.30-0.70% Clierokcc. — Cherokee fee., Cedartown, Ga. (Alabama & Georgia Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, sand cast, strong foundry iron, from brown hematite. Sil. up to 2.50% Phos. 0.35-0.70% Mang. 0.30-1.60% CItocolay. — Chocolay fee., Chocolay, Mich. (Lake Superior Iron & Chemical Co.) Warm blast, charcoal iron, from Lake Superior ores. Fdry. Sil. up to 2.0% and over Phos. 0.17-0.22% Car Wheel 0.05-2.0 and over 0.17-0.22 Mall. 0.17-0.22 Mang. up to 0.65% and over 0.30-0.65 and over 0.30-0.65 and over Copacke. — Copacke Iron Works, N. Y. (Copacke Iron Works.) Cold and warm blast, charcoal iron, from N. Y. ores. Not in operation March, 19 10. Dover. — Bear Spring fee., Stewart Co., Tcnn. (Dover Iron Co.) Cold blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local brown hematite. Sil. 0.40-2.0% Phos. abt. 0.40% Mang. abt. 0.25% Charcoal Irons 657 Elk Rapids. — Elk Rapids, Mich. (Superior Charcoal Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, pig for car wheels and mall., from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.62% Phos. 0.15-0.22% Mang. 0.36-0.70% Excelsior. — Carp fee., Marquette, Mich. (Superior Charcoal Iron Co.) Warm blast, charcoal iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 2.62% Phos. 0.15-0.22% Mang. 0.20-0.70% Gertrude. — Maysville fees. (2 stacks), Maysville, Wise. (Northwest Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from Lake Superior and local ores. Sil. 2.50% and over Phos. 0.60-0.80% Mang. 0.50-1.00% Glen Iron. — Glen Iron fee.. Glen Iron, Pa. (John T. Church.) Cold blast, charcoal iron, from local fossil and hematite. Sil. up to 1.00% Phos. 0.70-1.25% Mang. 0.60-1.50% Hecla. — Heela fee., Milesburg, Pa. (The McCoy-Linn Iron Co.) Cold blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from Nittany Valley hematite. Sil. 0.65-1.25% Phos. abt. 0.30% Mang. 0.15-0.25% Hecla. — Hecla fee., Ironton, O. (Hecla Iron & Mining Co.) Cold or warm blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local ore. Hematite. — Center fee., Center, Ky. (White, Dixon & Co.) Cold blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from local hematite. Sil. 0.50-1.40% Phos. 0.25-0.39% Mang. 0.20-0.25% Hinkle. — Ashland fee., Ashland, Wise. (Lake Superior Iron & Chem- ical Co.) Warm blast, charcoal iron, from Lake Superior ores. Sil. up to 3.00% Phos. 0.10-0.18% Mang. to 0.70% and over Jefferson. — Jefferson fee., Jefferson, Tex. (Jefferson Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal iron, from local brown hematite. Not in operation March, 1910. Liberty 1812. — Liberty fee., Shenandoah Va. (Shenandoah I. & C. Co., Va.) Warm blast, charcoal iron, from brown hematite. Marquette. — Pioneer fee., Marquette, Mich. (Superior Charcoal Iron Co.) Hot blast, charcoal, foundry iron, from Lake Superior ore. Sil. up to 2.62% Phos. 0.15-0.22% Mang. 0.30-0.70% 65S TMk Iron Directory M'uhigan. — Newberry fee., Newberry, Mi(h. (Superior Char(-.|7; loss of air pressure from frirtion in piix's. .J47. Blast pijR's for pressure blowers, tables of, 450. Blow-holes, trouble with, 316; in steel, 398. Blowers, pressure, for cupolas, tables of, 4 •» 8^-4 9- Board and timber measure, 44. Board measure, table of, 91—92. Bod stick, the, 463-64. Boiler castings, nii.xture for, 277. Boiling points at sea level, 204; at at- mospheric pressure, 210. Bolt ends and lag screws, 158. Bolt heads and nuts, weights of, 159. Bolts and nuts, U. S. standard, 150-51. Bolts, machine, weight of, per 100, 155-56; list prices, 157. Borings and turnings, melting, 293; per cent of, 322. Box strapping, 236. Brake shoes, mixture for, 287. Brass, fillets of, areas and weights of, 145- Brass foundries, alloys in use in, 223. Brass, moulding sand for, 472. Brass, sheet and bar, weight of, 144. Brass tubes, seamless drawn, 167-69. Brass wire and plates, weight of, 143. Breaking loads, formula for, 301; ratio of tensile strength to, 10 to i, 302. Breast of cupola, 440-41. Buffalo steel pressure Blowers, 449. Cables, See Chains and cables. Cables, transmission or standing, 179- Calorie, French thermal unit, 207. Cap screws, 161. Car castings, mixtures for, 278. Car wheel iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 300. Car wheels, qualities of iron for, 275; mixtures for, 278; specifications for, 350-55. Carbon and iron, forms of combi- nation of, 313. Carbon, combined. See Cementite. Carbon content in steel, 395. Carbon, properties of, 252-53; in- fluence of, as constituent of cast iron, 253-54; loss or gain of, in remelting, 254-56. Carbon, total, jx-'r cent, 308, 310; in micrographs, 311; ways of re- ducing, 315-16; for elasticity, 323; reduced for hardness, 328; high to decrease shrinkage, 332; high aids fluidity, 335; for re- sistance to heat, 337-38; for high permeability. 340; for re- sistance to corrosion, 341; de- termination of, 379-So. Carpenter shop and tool room, 562. Carr, W. M., open-hearth methods for steel castings, 411-16. Carrier, W. H., on foundry heating and ventilating, 582—86. Cast iron, constituents of, standard methods for determining, 377-80: Silicon, 377-78; sulphur, 378; phosphorus, 37S; manganese, 379; total carbon, 379-80; graph- ite, 381. Cast iron, effect of structure of, upon its physioil properties, 306-14; microscopic evidence, 308-12; Prof. Porter on, 312—14. Cast iron, fillets of, areas and weights of, 145- Cast iron, influence of chemical con- stituents of, 252-72: Carbon, 252— 56; silicon, 256-60; sulphur, 260-63; phosphorus, 263-64; manganese, 265-66; aluminum, 266-67, nickel, 267; titanium, 267-68; vanadium, 268-70; ther- mit, 270; oxygen, 270-71; ni- trogen. 271-72. Cast iron, mechanical analysis of, see Mechanical analysis. Cast iron, weight of a superficial foot of, 570. Casting, direct, 562. Casting properties of iron, 343-45. Castings, mixtures for various classes of. 273-74; (alphabetical) 276-87; amounts of different irons to be used found l)y percentage, 2S7-89. Castings, qualities of iron necessary for different grades of, 275. Index 665 Castings, shrinkage of, per foot, 234. Castings under pressure, 562. Castings, weight of, determined from weight of patterns, 569-70; for- mulas for finding, 570-76. Cement mortar, tensile strength of, 215- Cementite (combined carbon), 241; in micrographs, 308^11; physical characteristics of, 313; per cent combined carbon, 315, 319-20, 323; causes hardness, 324-29; for fusibility, 332-34; low for fluidity, 335 ; for resistance to heat low, 337-38; low for per- meability, 340; in micrographs, 346-49. Center of gravity, 195-97. Centigrade to Fahrenheit, equiva- lent temperatures, 211-12. Centismal years, 43. Centrifugal castings, 561-62. Centrifugal force, 215. Chain end link and narrow shackle, 174. Chain hooks, proportions for, 172. Chains and cables, U. S. Navy stand- ard, 173. Chaplets, 528-36; peerless perforated, 530; double head, 531-32; wrought-iron, 533-35- Charcoal iron, 250. Charcoal pig irons, directory of, 655-59. Charging cupolas, 452-54. Charging floor, the, 453-54- Charpy & Grenet's experiments on irons, 383. Chemical analyses of cast iron, 3 1 5-49 : Strength, 315-22; elastic prop- erties, 322-29; shrinkage, 329— 32; fusibility, 332-34; fluidity, 334-35; resistance to heat, 335- 38; electrical properties, 338-40; resistance to corrosion, 340-42; resistance to wear, 342; coeffi- cient of friction, 342-43; casting properties, 343-45; micro-struc- ture, 345-49- Chemical analyses of test bars, 308— 12; micrographs, 308-11; forms of combination of iron and car- bon, 313. Chemical constituents of cast iron, influence of the (W. G. Scott), 252. Chemical reactions in the cupola, 443- Chilled castings, mixtures for, 274, 275, 278. Chilled iron defined, 326-28. Chilled roll (furnace) iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299. Chills, mixture for, 278. Chipping and grinding, 566. Chords for spacing circle, 89-90. Chords of arcs from one to ninety de- grees, 88. Circle, length of chord for spacing, 89-90. Circle, problems of the, 15, 18-20; ratio of circumference to di- ameter, 28; area of, 28. Circles, areas and circumferences of, for diameters from 3^^ to 100, by tenths, 70-79; rules to compute larger, 79. Circles, areas and circumferences of, for diameters in units and eighths, 64-69. Circular arcs, table of, 80-82. Circular arcs, table of lengths of, to radius i, 82-84. Circular measure, 43. Circular segments, table of areas of, 84-87. Cisterns and tanks, number of bar- rels in, loo-i. Clamps, 506. Clarke, D. K., formula for extreme fibre stress, 304; volume, den- sity and pressure of air at vari- ous temperatures, 216. Cleaning room, the, 563-68; tumblers, 563-66; chipping, grinding, the sand blast, 566; pickUng, 567; hydrofluoric acid, 568. Clout nails, tinned, 536. Coach screws, gimlet points, 159. Coke and anthracite pig iron.s, direc- tory of, 635-55. Coke, 425-29: Analyses of various kinds of, 425-26; by-product coke, 426-27; effect of atmos- pheric moisture upon, 427; 666 Index specifications for, by R. Mol- dcnkc, 428'-29; number of pouiid:< of iron melted by one pound of, 444-45- Colby, A L., influence of the mould upon piR iron, 2.J9. Coleman, J. J., heat conducting power of covering materials, 210. Collars and couplings, mixture for, 27S. Combining equivalents, 204. Conductivity of metals, 206, 209. Cone, the, 32-?3- Contraction or shrinkage, 329-32. Converter linings, 404-5; practice, 405-9- Converter steel, cost of, 420, 421. Converters, the Baby (Robert) and Tropenas, 397. Cook, E. S , on different results from two irons of same chemical com- position, 330-32. Cook, F. J., and G. Hailstone, micro- scopic evidence why similar irons have difTerent relative strengths, 306-12, 317-19- Cooling, influence of rate of, 318. Cope, formula to find weight re- quired on a, to resist pressure of molten metal, 575. Copper and tin, alloys of, 222. Copper and zinc, alloys of, 223. Copper-nickel alloys, 224. Copper, round bolt, weight of, per foot, 144. Copper, tin and zinc, useful alloys of, 22s- Copper tubes, seamless drawn, 167-69. Copper wire and plates, weight of, 143. Core machines, 499. Core mi.xtures, 480-86. Core ovens, 492-95. Core plates and driers, 498-99. Core room and appurtenances, 492- 500: The oven, 492—96; core oven carriages, 496; mixing ma- chines, sand conveyors, rod straighteners, wire cutter, 497; sand driers, 498; core plates and driers, 498-99; core machines, mould-machines, cranes and hoists, 499-500. Core sand with analysis, 479-80. Corrosion, resistance to, 340-42. Corrugated iron roofing, weight of, 141. Cosine, 107. Cotters, steel spring, 164. Cotton machinery, mixture for, 278. Covering materials, heat-conducting power of, 210. Cranes and hoists for core room, 499- 500. Cranes for cupola service, 466. Cranes for moulding nwm, 502. Crucible castings, 423. Crusher jaws, mixture for, 278. Cube of a whole number ending with ciphers, to find, 56. Cube root, 4-5. Cube root of large number not in table, to find, 62-63. Cube roots of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, 57-61. Cubes and cube roots of numbers from .01 to 1000, tables of, 46-56. Cupola, construction of the, 437-52: Five zones, 437, 442-43; the lining, 437-39; tuyeres, 439-40; the breast, 440-4 1 ; sand bottom, 441; chemical reactions in ordi- nary, 443-45; wind box, 445; builders' rating, 446; blowers for the blast, 446-49; diameter of blast pipes, 450-51; dimensions, etc., of, 451-52. Cupola appliances, 462-67: Ladles, 462-65; tapping bar, 463; bod stick, 464-65; cranes, 466; spill bed, 466; gagger mould, 467; rake. 467. Cupwia charging and melting, 452—61: The charging floor, 453-54; tables of meltings and losses, 455- 61; melting ratio, 461. Cupola makers, best known, 446. Custer, Edgar A., on permanent moulds. 559-61. Cutting tools, mixture for, 278. Cylinder, the, 32. Cylinder iron test bars, moduli of rupture of. 300. Cylinders or pipes, contents of, 102—3. Cylinders, locomotive, mixtures for, 273, 282; specifications for, 355. Index 667 Cylinders, marine and stationary, mixtures for, 273; see also Cylin- ders, 279. Cylinders, solid and hollow iron, for- mulas for finding weight of, 570- 71- Decimal equivalents of parts of one inch, 6. Deflections, table of, 183-85. Delta metal, 225. Diamond polishing wheels, mixture for, 279. Dies for drop hammers, mixture for, 279. Diller, H. E., tests of use of steel scrap in mixtures of cast iron, 290-91; on malleable cast iron, 390-91. Division in algebra, 10. Dry measure, British Imperial, see Liquid and dry measures, British Imperial, 39—40. Dry measure, table of U. S., 39; weights of, 39. Dynamo and motor frames, mixtures for, 279. Dynamo frame iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299. Earth, measurements of, and on the, 238-39- Eccentric straps, 279. Elastic properties, 322-23. Elasticity, modulus of, 181; table of moduli, 182-83. Electric furnace steel, cost of, 424. Electrical and mechanical units, equiv- alent values of, 220-21. Electrical castings, mixture for, 279. Electrical properties, 338-40. Elimination, 12-13. Ellipse, construction of an, 21-22; circumference and area of an, 29. Ellipse, solid iron, formula to find weight of a, 571. Engine castings, mixtures for, 279. Equations, quadratic, 14-15. Equations, simple, 11-14; solution of, 12. Expansion, lineal, for solids, 205. Eye bolts, table for, 175. Facings, 486-87; graphite facing and analyses, 488-91. Factors, useful, 44—45. Fahrenheit to Centigrade, equivalent temperatures, 211-12. Falling bodies, acceleration of, for- mulas and table, 191—92. Fans and blowers, 280. Farm implements, mixture for, 280. Fe-C-Si, influence of, on cast iron, 315, 320. Ferrite, pure iron, 241, 347. Field, H. E., on carbon and silicon in pig iron, 253. Fillet, cast iron straight, formula to find weight of a, 574; of a cir- cular, 575-76. Fillets of steel, cast iron and brass, areas and weights of, by E. J. Lees, 145. Fire brick, 236. Fire brick and fire clay, 434-36; analyses, 434-35; ganister, 435; fine sand, 435; magnesite, 436; bauxite, 436. Fire clays, analysis of, 237. Fire pots, mixture for, 280. Flanged fittings, cast iron, 232. Flasks, 506-18: Wooden cope and drag, 506-9; iron, 510-14; ster- ling steel, 515-17; snap, 517-18; slip boxes, 519; in machine moulding, 547-So. Flat rolled iron, see Iron, flat rolled. Flat rolled steel, see Steel, flat rolled. Floor plates, grate bars, etc., average of two meltings, 460. Fluidity, factors governing, 334-35- Fluxes, 429-34: Limestone and fluor spar, 430-31; analyses of slags, 432-33- Flywheel, cast iron, formulas to find weight of a, 572-73. Foot, inches to decimals of a, 6. Foot pound, the unit of work, 45. Forces, parallelogram and parallelopi- pedon of, 192. Foundry accounts, 587-632: Foundry requisition, 588-89; pattern card, 589-90; pig iron card, and book, 590, 591; coke card, 591; heat book, 592-96; cleaning room re- 66S Tmlex porti S97I foundry reports, 598- 600; monthly expenditure of supplies, 601-4; montlily com- parison of accounts, 605-7; -i"- nual comparison, 60H-10; chart of transmission of orders, 611-12; foundry costs (B. A. Franklin), 612—25; successful foundry cost system (J. I'. Golden), 625-32. Foundry cost system, a successful a. p. Golden), 625-32. Foundry costs (B. .\. Franklin), 612- 25; outline of scheme, 612-13. Foundry pig iron, vr Pig iron. Foundrymen's Association, American, standard specifications for found- ry pig iron, 246-48; table of mixtures for various castings, 275-76; report of committee on test bars, 294-306. Fractions, products of, expressed in decimals, 7. I-'racture, of pig iron, index of com- position, 273. Franklin, B. \., foundry costs, 612- 25; outline of scheme, 612-13. Frick, Louis H., dimensions of stand- ard wrot pipe, 167. Friction clutches, mixture for, 280. Friction, coefficient of, 215, 342-43. Frustrum of a cone, 23; center of gravity of a, 196. Frustrum of a hexagonal pyramid of cast iron, formula to 5nd weight of, 574- Frustrum of a pyramid, 30-31. Fuels, foundry, 425-29: .'\nthracite coal, 425; coke, 425—29. Furnace castings, mixture for, 2S0. Furnace temperatures, 206. Fusibility, or melting point, 332-34. Gagger mould, 467. Gaggers, 524. Galvanized sheet iron, weight of, 141. Ganister, composition of, 435. Gas engine cylinders, mixture for, 280. Gases, specific gravity of, 197. Gates, tables of areas of, 524-25; top pouring, 526; whirl, 527; "cross" skim, 527; horn, 527. Gears, mixtures for, 280-81. Geometry, plane, problems in, 15-24. German silver, 224. (iolden, J. P., a successful foundry cost system, 625-32. Grain structure of cast iron, 329. Graphite, shown in micrographs, 308- II, 346-48; physical character- istics of, 313; per cent of, 315-17. 330-31; size of flakes in relation to strength, 317-19; per cent of, for fusibility, 333-34; for resist- ance to heat, 337-38; low, for friction, 342. Graphite facing, with analyses, 488-91. Grate bars, mixture for, 281. Gray iron castings, speciBcations for, 296-97. Grinding machinery, mixture for, 281. Grinding wheel speeds, table of, 231. Guldin's theorems, 34. Gun carriages, mixture for, 281. Gun iron, mixture for, 281. Gun iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 300. Gyration, radius of, 197. Hailstone, G., sec Cook, F. J. Hangers for shafting, mixture for, 281. Hardness, control of, 324-28. Hardware, light, mixture for, 281. Hatfield, W. H., experiment on de- flection with six bars, 384; in breaking bars, 387-8S. Heat, measurement of, 206-10; radi- ation of, 208; resistance to, 335- 38. Heat unit defined, 45. Heat-resisting iron, mixture for. 281. Heating and ventilating, 579-86. Height corresponding to acquired velocity, 193. Hemisphere, hollow iron, formula for finding weight of a, 571. Hexagon, relations of inscribed, to circle. 20. Hoisting rope, pliable wire, 179. Hollow ware, qualities of iron for, 275: mixture for, 282. Hooks, slings and chains, 502-3. Hooper, G. K., on continuous melt- ing, 554-55- Index 669 . Horse power defined, 45; required to compress air, 217—18. Housings for rolling mills, mixture for, 282. Hydraulic cylinders, mixtures for, 282. Hydraulic pressures, formulas for dimensions of cast iron pipe to withstand, 232-33. Hydrofluoric acid used for pickling, 568. H5rperbola, the, 23-24. Inch, one, decimal equivalents of parts of, 6. Inches to decimals of a foot, 6. Inclined plane, 194. Information, useful, 234-39. Ingot mould iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299. Ingot moulds and stools, mixture for, 282. Iron and carbon, forms of combi- nation of, 313. Iron, band and hoop, weights per lineal foot, 121—22. Iron, burnt, of no use except for sash weights, 293. Iron castings, formulas for finding weight of, 570-75. Iron, flat, weight of, per foot, 45. Iron, flat plates, weight of, per square foot, 45. Iron, flat rolled, weights of, per lineal foot, 123—28; areas of, 129. Iron, mixing, by fracture, 273-74; by analysis, 274-89; mixtures for various classes of castings (al- phabetical), 276-87. Iron ores, varieties of, 240. Iron, physical properties of, 241. Iron, pig, see Pig iron. Iron roofing, corrugated, weight of, 141. Iron, round, weight of, per foot, 45. Iron, sheet, gauges used by U. S. mills in rolling, 120; weight per foot, 141. Iron, temperatures of, corresponding to various colors, 239. Iron wire, gauges and weights of, 146; list prices of, 147. Iron, wrought, weight and areas of square and round bars, 136-39. Jigs, by S. H. Stupakoff, 540-46. Jobbing castings, general, average of five meltings, 455. Jobbing castings, light, average of four meltings, 455. Joule's equivalent, 207. Keep, W. J., on pig iron cast in iron moulds and in sand, 249-50; in- fluence of silicon on cast iron, 259-60; injurious influence of sulphur, 263; effect of manga- nese, 266; on recovery of shot iron, 292; shrinkage of test bars, 371-72; shrinkage chart, 372-74; strength table, 375; process of making coke, 426. Kent, William, altitudes correspond- ing to barometric readings, 217; head in feet of water corre- sponding to pressure, 219; pres- sure for different heads, 219. Kettles to stand red heat, mixture for, 274. Ladles and table of capacities, 462-65. Lag screws, 158. Land measure, table of, 37. Le Chatelier, M., on furnace tem- peratures, 206. Lead pipes, sizes and weights of. 171. Ledebur, Prof. A., influence of silicon on annealing temperature, 391. Lees, Ernest J., areas and weights of fillets of steel, cast iron and brass, 145- Lever, the, 194. Lifting beams, 503-5; table of safe loads for, 504. Lighting, importance, 578-79. Lime mortar, tensile strength of, 215. Liquid and dry measures, British Im- perial, weights of, 39-40. Liquid measure, table of U. S., 38; weights of volumes of distilled water, 39-40. Liquid pressure on moulds, 529—30. Locks and hinges, see Hardware, light. Locomotive castings, mixtures for, 282. 670 Index Locomotive cylinders, mixtures for, 273, 282; specifications for, 355. Long measure, table of, 36; miscel- laneous, 37. Liingmuir, Percy, on the sulphur con- tent of cast iron, 261-62; micro- structure of cast iron, 345-49; on silicon in malleable castings, 386; on steels, 394. Loudon, A. M., comparative values of core binders, 481-86. Lumber, weight of, per icxx> feet board measure, 93. McGahey, C. B., tests of use of steel scrap in mixtures of cast iron, 291. Machine-cast pig iron, sec Pig iron, 248-50. Machinery castings, heavy, average of four meltings, 457. Machinery castings, light, average of six meltings, 456. Machinery castings, qualities of iron for, 27s; mixtures for, 283. Machinery iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299, 300. McWilliams & Longmuir on malleable castings, 382; on annealing, 400- i; on moulding machines, 548. Magnesite, bricks of, 436. Malleable cast iron, 382-93: Black heart, 382-S5; experiments on varying compositions of, 383-8;; ordinary or Reaumur, 3S5-88; mixtures in .\merican practice, 389-91; specifications and tests, 391-93- Manganese, per cent, 308, 310, 315; high, 322; for elasticity, 323; as hardening agent, 324-25; in chilled iron, 328, 337; effect on grain structure, 329; increases shrinkage, 332; little effect on melting point, 334; for heat re- sistance, 337; low for permeabil- ity, 340; for acid resistance, 341; for resistance to wear, 342; skin effects, 344; in micrographs, 346- 48; determination of, 379. Manganese, properties of, 265; in- fluence of, as constituent of cast iron, 265-66, 272. Mann, \V. I., lengths of chords for, spacing circle whose diameter is I, 90. Martcnsite "beta" form of iron, 313. Mayer, Dr. A. M., on radiation of heat, 208. Measures, mi.sccllancous, 39; and weights, 44. Measures of work, power and duty, 4S- Measures, sec Weights and measures; also name of measure, as Dry measure. Liquid measure, etc. Mechanical analysis of cast iron, 371— 77; Keep's shrinkage chart, 372— 74; strength table, 375. Mechanical equivalent of heat, 207. Melting, continuous, 551-55. Melting losses in cupolas, tables of, 4S4-6i- Melting ratio, 461. Mensuration, 26—34. Metalloids, influence of the more im- portant, on combined carbon, 272; method of adding, to the iron, 465. Metals, conductivity of, 206, 209; weights per cubic inch of, 239. Metals, sheet, Birmingham gauge for, except steel and iron, 120; weights of, per square foot, 142. Metric measures and weights in U. S. standard, 40-43. Micrographs of graphite, 308-11. Micro-structure of cast iron by P. Longmuir, 345-49- Mixing machines in core room, 497. Modulus of elasticity, iSi-83. Modulus of rupture, 185-86; for- mula for, 304; in pounds per square inch, 29S-303. Moldenkc, Dr. R., effects of titanium and vanadium in cast iron, 268-70; on fusibility of cast iron, 332—33; contents of malleable cast iron, 389; specifications for foundry coke, 42S-29. Molten iron, formulas to find i)res- sure of, 575. Moment of inertia, 187; of rotating body, 197. Moments, location of, iSo. Index 671 Monomial, 10. Mortar, lime and cement, tensile strength of, 215. Motor frames, see Dynamo. Mould, pressure on, by molten metal, formula to find, 575. Moulding, dry sand, mixtures for (West), 477-7S. Moulding machines, 538-50: Jigs by S. H. Stupakoff, 540-46; flasks, 547-50; diagram of moulding operations, 549. Moulding operations, diagram of (StupakoiT), 549. Moulding room and fixtures, 501-37: Cranes, 502; hooks, slings and chains, 502-3; lifting beams, 503-5; binder bars, 505 ; clamps, 506; flasks, 506-19; pins, plates and hinges, 519-21; sweeps, 522- 23; anchors, gaggers, and sol- diers, 523—24; sprues, risers and gates, 524-27; tables of areas of gates, 525 ; strainers and spindles, 528; weights, 528; chaplets, 528- 37; liquid pressure on moulds, 529-30; sprue cutters, 537. Moulding sand, 468-91: Cohesion, 468; permeability and porosity, 468-69; refractoriness, 469; du- rability, 469; texture, 469, 471; grades of various, 470; analysis, 47 1 ; sand for brass, with analysis, 472; test bars of green sand, 473~76; for dry sand moulding, 477-79; skin drying, 479; core sand, and analyses, 479-80; core mixtures, 480-86; parting sand, 486; facings, 486-87; graphite facing, 488; analyses, 488-91. Moulds, multiple, 555-58; perma- nent, 558-61; mixtures for per- manent, 283. Multiplication in algebra, 8-10. Nagle, F. A., on erratic results of in- vestigation of test bars, 298, 301- 3- Nails, common wire, 148. Nails, force required to pull, from various woods, 238. Nickel, properties of, 267; eflfect of, in cast iron, 267; imparts most valuable properties to steel, 267. Niter pots, see Acid-resisting. Nitrogen, properties of, 271; effect of, on cast iron and steel, 271. Nonconductivity of materials, 209-10. Novelty iron test bars, moduli of rup- ture of, 300. Nuts and bolt heads, weights of, 159. Nuts and washers, number of, to the pound, 152. Open-hearth methods for steel castings by W. M. Carr, 411-16. Ordway, Prof., on non-conductivity, 209. Ornamental work, mixture for, 283. Outerbridge, A. E., tests of moulding sands, 473-75. Oxygen, effect of dissolved oxide on cast iron, 315, 318, 319, 320. Oxygen, properties of, 270; cau.ses foundryman much trouble, 270- 71; effective deoxidizers, 271. Parabola, the, 22-23. Parallelogram, area of, 26. Parenthesis, in algebra, 10. •Parting sand, 486. Pattern lumber, specific gravity and weight per cubic foot of, 569. Pattern plates, preparation of, 540-46. Patterns for test bars of cast iron, 297. Pearlite, a mixture of fernite and cementite, 241, 347. Pentagon, to construct a, 20. Percentage, 5-7. Permeability and porosity of moulding sand, 468-69. Permeability, importance of, 339~40- Phosphorus, properties of, 263; in- fluence of, as constituent of cast iron, 264, 272; per cent, 308, 320- 21; in micrographs, 309-11; low, for strong castings, 321; and for elasticity, 323; slight hardemng effect, 324; slight influence on chill, 328; decreases shrinkage, 332; increases fusibility, 332-33, 336; keep high for fluidity, 334- 35; low for wear resistance, 342; 67a Index presence in microRraphs, ,^46-49; determination of, ,?7S. I'hysic.-il constants, tables of, 202-j. I'iano plates, mixture for, 283. Pickling, 567-68. Pig iron, physical properties of, 241- 42; grading, 242—43; foundry, 244-48; machine-cast, 248-50; charcoal iron, 250; grading scrap iron, 250-51; fracture of, index of composition, 273. Pig iron directory, 633-59: Coke and anthracite irons, 635-55; char- coal irons, 655-59. Pillow blocks, mi.xture for, 284. Pins, plates and hinges, 519-21. Pipe and pipe fittings, mixtures for, 284. Pipe, cast-iron, specifications for, 356- 63; tables of dimensions, 358; of thicknesses and weights, 359; volume and weight, 364-65; pattern, size and weight, 366-70. Pipes, contents of, 102-3. Piston rings, mixture for, 284. Plane figure, irregular, area of any, 27- 28. Plane figures, properties of, 24-26. Plane surfaces, mensuration of, 26-29. Plow points, chilled, mixture for, 284. Polygon, area of a, 27. Polyhedra, 31-32. Polynomials, lo-ii. Porter, Prof. J. J., effects of sulphur on cast iron, 262-63; of phos- phorus, 264; influence of the metalloids on combined carbon, 272; refwrt on mixtures for various classes of castings (al- phabetical), 276-87; on proper- ties and mixtures of cast iron, 312-14; pig iron classification and directory, 633-59. Pouring temperature, influence of, 318. Powers of quantities, 9-10. Prince, \V. F., process for melting borings, 293. Printing presses, see Machinery cast- ing. Prism, the, 30. I'rismoid, the, 31. I'robert, Richard H., analysts of iron for jK'rmanent moulds, 558-59. Projx'ller wheels, mixture for, 284. ProiMjrtion, 1-2. Pulleys, circumferential speed of, 229- 30; rules for speeds and diameters of, 231; mixtures for, 274, 284- 85- Pumps, hand, mixture for, 285. Pyr^nriid, the, 30-31. Quadratic cquation.s, solution of, 14- 15- Quadrilateral, area of any, 27. Quantities, in algebra, 7-10: addition of like and unlike, S; multi- plication of simple and com- pound, 9. Radiation of heat, 208. Radiators, mixture for, 285. Railroad castings, mixture for, 285; average of three meltings, 459. Rake, cupola, 467. Ratio, 1-2. Reaumur malleable cast iron, 385-88: Remelting, 385-86; annealing, 386; analyses, 387-88. Retorts, See Heat resisting castings. Richards, horsepower required for air compression and delivery, 217-18. Ries, Prof. H., analyses of moulding sands, 472-73. Rings, cast iron, formulas to find weight of, 574. Rivets, iron, round head, 166. Rolling mill rolls, mixture for, 274. Rolls, chilled, mixtures for, 274, 275, 285. Roofing, corrugated iron, weight of, 141. Roofing, tin and other, 169-70. Root Positive Rotary Blowers, 449. Roots of numbers, 3-5. Rossi, G. A., on effect of titanium in cast iron, 268. Rupture, modulus of, 185-S6; for- mula for, 304. Sand blast, the, 566. Sand bottom of cupola, 441. Sand conveyors and driers, 497, 498. Index 673 Sand, rammed, to find weight of, 572. Sand roll iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299. Sanitary ware, qualities of iron for, 27s; average of eight meltings, 458. Sash weight, mixture for, 274, 275. Sash weight iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 299. Scales, mixture for, 285. Scott, W. G., influence of the chemi- cal constituents of cast iron, 252. Scott, W. G., specifications for coke, 426; for moulding sand, 472; analyses of core sands, 479-89; an- alysis of Yougheogheney gas coal, 487; analyses of graphite, coke dust, coal and charcoal, 488-91. Scott, W. G., specifications for graded pig irons, 243. Scrap iron, grading, 250-51. Secant, the, 108. Set screws, steel, list price per 100, 160. Shafting, See Steel shafting. Sheath, Mr., on continuous melting, 551-54- Sheet brass and all metals except steel and iron, Birmingham gauge for, 120. Sheet iron. See Iron, sheet. Sheet metals, weights of, per square foot, 142. Shot iron, recovering and melting, 291-93. Shrinkage chart, by W. J. Keep, 372- 374- Shrinkage of castings per foot, 234. Shrinkage or contraction, 329—32. Signs and abbreviations, v. Silica brick, analysis of, 435. Silicon, per cent, 308, 310; should be low, 315, 321; for elasticity, 323; for hardness, 325; for chill, 327; decreases shrinkage, 332; little effect on fusibility, 334; aids fluidity, 334; favors growth by repeated heating, 337; increases permeability, 340; increases acid resistance, 341; decreases resist- ance to wear, 342; unrecognizable in micrographs, 346; determina- tion of, 377-78. Silicon, properties of , 256; influence of as a constituent of cast iron, 256- 60, 272. Sines, natural, tangents and secants, 107-8; tables of, 110-14. Skin drying moulds, 479. Slag car castings, mixture for, 285. Slags, comparison of analyses of, 432- 33- Smoke stacks, locomotive. See Loco- motive castings. Soil pipe and fittings, mixture for, 286. Soldiers, 524. Solids, and their mensuration, 30-34. Solids, center of gravity of, 196-97; lineal expansion for, 205. Specific gravity of various substances, 197-201. Specifications for steel castings, stand- ard, 409-11. Speeds, grinding wheel, 231. Speeds, surface, rules for obtaining, 232. Sphere, the, 33-34- Sphere, hollow iron, formula for find- ing weight of a, 572; of a solid iron, 571. Spheres, table of surface and volumes of, 93-98- Spherical segments, cast iron, for- mulas to find weight of, 573. Spill bed, 466. Sprocket wheels for ordinary link chains, 176—78. Sprue cutters, steel, 537. Square measure, tables of, 37-38. Square of a whole number ending with ciphers, to find, 56. Square root, 3-4. Square root of large number not in table, to find, 62. Square roots of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, 57-61. Squares and square roots of numbers, of from .01 to 1000, tables of, 46-56. Stead, J. E., on relations of iron and phosphorus, 348. Steam chests, See Locomotive and Machinery castings. Steam cylinders, mixtures for, 286. 674 Index Steel castings in the foundry, .194-416: Content of carl>()n in varieties, .<94-<(.s; mcch:iiiiial |)rti|KTlies "Normal steels," .nj6; Bessemer process, 396; liaby converter (Robert), 397; gases in, 398; chemical changes in Tropenas converter, 397-99; annealing, with micrographs, 400-1; Trope- nas process, 401-3; chemistry of the process, 403-4; converter linings, 404-5; converter practice, 40G-9; standard specifications, 409-1 1 ; open-hearth methods by VV. M. Carr, 411-16. Steel, comparative cost of, made by dilTercnt processes (B.Stoughton), 417-24: Acid open hearth, 417, 419, 422; basic open hearth, 418, 419, 423; converter, 420, 421; crucible castings, 423; electric furnace, 424. Steel, fillets of, areas and weights of, 145- Steel, flat rolled, weights of, per lineal foot, 130-35- Steel scrap, use of, in mixtures of cast iron, 290-gi; points to be watched in melting, 316—17; closes the grain, 319; per cent of, 322. Steel shafting, cold rolled, weights and areas of, 140. Steels, mechanical properties of "nor- mal, " 396. Steels, unsaturated and supersatu- rated, 241. Stoughton, Bradley, tables of com- parative cost of steel made by different processes, 417-21. Stove plate, qualities of iron for, 275; mi.xture for, 286; average of three meltings, 457. Stove-plate iron test bars, moduli of rupture of, 300. Straight line, problems of the, 15-17. Strainers and spindles, 52S. Straw rope for core bodies, 499. Strength of beams, transverse, for- mulas for, 188-90. Strength of cast iron, nine factors which influence, 315-22. Strength of materials, 185-86, 213-14. Strength table by W. J Keep, 375. Strengths, transverse, table of, 185-86 StupakolT, S. 11. Chapter on jigs, 540-46. Sturtevant Steel Pressure Blower, 448. Subtraction in algebra, 8. Sulphur, properties of, 260; deleteri- ous influence of, in cast iron, 261- 63, 272; per cent, 308, 315, 321; low for elasticity, 323; harden- ing effect of, 325; increa.ses com- bined carbon, 327-28; cflecl on shrinkage, 332; on melting point, 334. 336; low for heat resistance, 337; and for corrosion resistance, 339-42; increases resistance to wear, 342; causes dirty castings, 343; in micro-structure, 346-48; determination of, 378. Sulphuric acid, use of, in pickling, 567-68. Sweeps, 522-23. Tacks, length and number of, to pound, 148. Tangent, 107. Tanks, rectangular, capacity of, in U.S. gallons, 99-100; number of barrels in, loo-i. Tapers per foot and corresponding angles, table of, 117-18. Tapping bar, 463. Taylor and White, temperatures cor- responding to various colors of heated iron, 239. Temperatures, equivalent. Centigrade to Fahrenheit, 211-12. Temperatures, furnace, 206. Tensile strength, ratio of, to breaking loads, 10 to I, 302; I). K. Clarke's formula for, 304. Tensile test, size of bar for, 295-97. Test bars, report on by committee of .Vmerican Foundrymen's Asso- ciation, 294-306: Character of the heats, 294; making of cou- pons, 295; specifications for gray iron castings, 296—97; patterns for, 297; moduli of rupture, 298^ 300; erratic results, 298, 301-2; comparison of, 302-3; casting Index 67; defects, 304; circular, 304-6; microscopical evidence why simi- lar irons have different relative strengths, 306-12; Prof. Porter on the physical properties of cast iron, 312-14. Thermit, use of, in the foundry, 270. Thermometer scales, comparison of, 213. Threads, U. S. standard, 149. Thumb screws, 165. Tin and copper, alloys of, 222. Tin, copper and zinc, alloys of, 224—25. Tin, roofing, 169—70. Tin, sheet, sizes and weight of, 142. Titanium, properties of, 267; effect of, in cast iron, 267-68. Tobin bronze, 225. Tons, gross, in pounds, 235. Transverse strength, See Strength. Transverse test, size of bar for, 295- 98; See Test bars. Trapezium, area of a, 27. Trapezoid, area of a, 27. Triangle, area of a, 26. Triangle, right-angled, solution of, 109. Triangles, oblique-angled, solution of, 109. Tropenas converter, chemical changes in a, 397. Tropenas process of steel making, 401-3; chemistry of the process, 403-4- Troy weight, table of, 36. Tubes, brass and copper, seamless, 167-69. Tumblers and tumbling mills, 563-66. Turn-buckles, drop- forged, 162-63. Turner, Prof. T., on varieties of pig iron, 253; percentages of com- bined carbon, 256; on the use of silicon, 257-59; phosphorus in cast iron, 264. Tuyeres, construction of, in cupola, 439-40. Two-foot rule, measurement of angles with, 1 15-16. Unit of heat, 207. Units, electrical and mechanical, equivalent values of, 220-21. Valves, mixtures for, 286. Vanadium, properties of, 268; Mol- denke's experiments on action of, on cast iron, 269-70. Ventilating, See Heating and venti- lating. Walker, F. G., shrinkage of castings per foot, 234; weight of castings determined from weight of pat- terns, table, 570. Washer, lock, 153; positive lock, 154- Washers, wrought steel plate, 153. Water, distilled, weights of volumes of, 39-40. Water heaters, mixtures for, 286. Water, pressure of, 219. Water supply, 577—78. Watts in terms of horse power, 45. Wear, resistance to, 342. Weaving machinery. See Machinery castings. Wedge, the, 31, 195. Weight of castings determined from weight of patterns, 569-70; for- mulas for finding, 570-76. Weights, 528. Weights and measures, 35-45; tables of various, 46—106. Wells, contents of linings of, 104-6. West, Thomas D., on power of cast iron to stretch, 332. Wheel and axle, 194. Wheels, mixtures for, 287. Whitehouse, J. S., on side blow con- verters, 404-8. Willson, E. M., table of tapers per foot and corresponding angles, 1 1 7-1 8. Wind box of the cupola, 445-46. Window glass, panes of, in a box, 236. Wine measure, table of, 38. Wire, brass. See Brass. Wire, copper. See Copper. Wire, coppered Bessemer spring, 147. Wire, coppered market, 147. Wire gauges, different standards for, 119-20. 676 Index Win-, iron, gauRcs and weights of, t.\Ci; list prices of, 147. WlhkI workinK machinery, See Ma- chinery castings. W'rut pi[H.-, dimensions of standard, 167-69. Wrought Iron, See Iron, wrought. Zinc and copper, alloys of, 223. Zinc, copper and tin, alloys of, 224—25 Zones in cupola, 437, 442-43. D.Van nostrand Company are prepared to supply, either from their complete stock or at short notice, Any Technical or Scientific Book In addition to publishing a very large and varied number of Scientific and Engineering Books, D. Van Nostrand Company have on hand the largest assortment in the United States of such books issued by American and foreign publishers. All inquiries are cheerfully and care- fully answered and complete catalogs sent free on request. 25 Park Place - - - New York