WILLIAM T. 
 
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 Copyright N°. 
 
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 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
 ' B. BAIRD, ViCE-PReSIOENT 
 
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 38 1V.., __., NEW YORK 
 
 TELEPHONE: 5718 BARCLAY 
 CABLE ADDRESS: CHAUNBAIR, NEW YORK 
 
 CRUDE 
 RUBBER 
 
 Crude Rubber Consignments Solicited 
 
 Washed and Broken Down (or Refined) Rubber 
 
 a Specialty 
 
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CRUDE RUBBER 
 
 AND 
 
 Compounding Ingredients 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK OF 
 RUBBER MANUFACTURE 
 
 By henry C. PEARSON 
 
 Editor of The India Rubber World 
 
 Author of " What I Saw in the Tropics," " Rubber 
 
 Tires and all About Them," etc. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 The India Rubber Publishing Company 
 
 1909 
 
 Gc 
 
 •Pii 
 

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 Copyright, i899, By Henry C. Pearson. 
 Copyright, 1909, By Henry C. Pearson. 
 
 LIBRARY cfCONGRESSl 
 Two Copies Received | 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Since the first edition of this book appeared, ten years ago, 
 the rubber business has grown notably. New wild sources of 
 "rubber have been opened in various parts of the world, and 
 grades of rubber heretofore unknown have come into use. Plan- 
 tation rubber, previously a negligible factor, has taken its place as 
 a regular and constantly increasing product. Guayule rubber is 
 used by millions of pounds annually. Progress in the reclaiming of 
 waste rubber of all sorts has been constant and of great magni- 
 tude. The industry at large preserves the same general outline 
 as of yore, with perhaps the single exception of the making of 
 motor tires, which is a new development and to-day one of the 
 great divisions of the rubber manufacture. Of new compounding 
 ingredients there are many, of substitutes a great variety, and of 
 processes, good and bad, thousands. In the revision of the book 
 those of a real or a suggestive value have been utilized. The 
 general plan of the book has not been altered. It remains 
 a dictionary of compounding facts, an encyclopedia of rubber 
 factory practice. It is for rubber factory use and bespeaks for 
 itself the same favor that it found with the practical man when 
 it first appeared. 
 
 The superiority of such a collection over the most compre- 
 hensive book of compounds doubtless will be apparent to the 
 expert manufacturer, for this reason. When a manufacturer 
 buys a set of compounds — and most of them are purchasable — 
 he invariably acquires them not so much for use as for sugges- 
 .tion and comparison. The descriptions, therefore, of a great 
 majority of the ingredients used in all lines of rubber com- 
 pounding, and scores with which he may be unfamiliar, will 
 be so suggestive to the practical man that new sets of com- 
 pounds will be secured, each partaking of the individuality of 
 the expert, and bearing the impress of the line of work done 
 in the factory to which he is attached, and wholly free from the 
 taint of imitation or counterfeiting, which is the bane of the pur- 
 chased secret. It is felt that another point of superiority over the 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 mere compound book will be found in the fact that no private for- 
 mulas are given, which might wound the feelings of the more 
 conservative manufacturers. 
 
 The higher level of prices for crude rubber which has pre- 
 vailed for some years past has drawn the attention of manufac- 
 turers to the pseudo gums — such, for instance, as Pontianak. A 
 number of these are described in this volume, with the hope that, 
 since their presence in the market depends largely upon the 
 insistence with which rubber manufacturers demand them from 
 importers or gatherers, many more may be made generally useful. 
 
 In the compilation and revision of this book free use has been 
 made of English, German, and French standard technical works, 
 as well as of technical journals, such as The India Rubber World, 
 The India-Rubber and Gutta^Percha Trades Journal, the Gummi- 
 Zeitung, The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, and 
 others. 
 
 The author takes pleasure in acknowledging his indebted- 
 ness for helpful suggestions to skilled manufacturers and super- 
 intendents in both America and Europe, and to the following dis- 
 tinguished writers on rubber topics : P. G. W. Typke, F.C.S. ; G. 
 S. Jenman, Government Botanist and Superintendent, of the Bo- 
 tanic Gardens, Demerara ; William Thompson, F.R.S.E. ; H. 
 Grimshaw, F.C.S. ; W. Lascelles-Scott, F.R.M.S., M.S.C.I. ; 
 Richard Gerner, M.E. ; Dr. C. Purcell Taylor, Thomas Bolas, 
 F.C.S., F.I.C. ; Professor D. E. Hughes, F.R.S. ; Messrs. Hein- 
 zerling and Pahl, Berlin; Granville H. Sharpe, F.C.S.; Carl Otto 
 Weber, Ph.D. ; A. Camille, John H. Hart, F.L.S., Superintendent 
 Botanic Gardens, Trinidad; Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., Com- 
 missioner of the Imperial Agricultural Department for the West 
 Indies ; the late Dr. Eugene F. A. Obach, F.I.C, F.C.S., M.E.E.E. ; 
 Dr. Joseph Torrey, Dr. David Spence, Hubert L. Terry, F.I.C, 
 and many others. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Physical Characteristics of Crude Rubber; Different Grades and 
 the Sources of Supply; Para, Central, African, and East 
 Indian Gums; Origin of Trade Names; Botanical Details; 
 Coagulation ; Plantation Rubber ; Oxydases 7 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Some Little Known Rubbers and Bastard or Pseudo Gums; Possi- 
 bility of Development of their Use in the Factory 41 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 (i) Divisions in Rubber Manufacture and Primary Processes in 
 Manipulating the Gum. (2) The Washing, Mixing, and Calen- 
 dering of Rubber; Knowledge of Gathering Processes Essen- 
 tial to Intelligent Manipulation in Manufacture 53 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Vulcanizing Ingredients and Processes ; Sulphur, Antimony, Sul- 
 phides, and Other Materials Used; Vulcanizing Pressures and 
 Temperatures 65 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Fillers and Other Ingredients Used in Dry Mixing in Rubber 
 Compounds ; Sources, Properties, and Uses of the Various 
 Materials ; Unusual Ingredients 79 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 (i) Substitutes for India-rubber and Gutta-percha. (2) Substitutes 
 for Hard Rubber and Gutta-percha. (3) Miscellaneous Sub- 
 stitutes and Compounds; (4) Mineral Rubbers; (5) Puncture 
 Fluids and Fillers; (6) Celluloid and Cellulose Products. 
 History of Their Use, and Description of Their Properties 108 
 
 5 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Reclaimed Rubber and Its Uses i43 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Resins, Balsams, Gums, Earth Waxes, and Gum-like Substances 
 
 Used in Rubber Compoimding 151 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Coloring Matters. Reds, Blacks, Yellows, Greens, Blues, and Other 
 
 Colors in Hard and Soft Rubber 172 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Acids, Alkalies, and Their Derivatives Used in the Rubber Manu- 
 facture 189 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Vegetable, Mineral, and Animal Oils Used in Rubber Compounds 
 
 and Solutions 207 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Solvents Used in India-rubber Proofing and Cementing and in 
 Commercial Cements; Their Origin, Properties and Methods 
 of Use '. 222 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Miscellaneous Processes and Compounds for Use in the Rubber 
 Factory ; Waterproofing Compounds ; Shower Proofing ; Deo- 
 dorization ; Preserving Rubber Goods ; Shrinkage of Rubber 239 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Physical Tests and Methods of Analysis of Crude Rubber; Specific 
 Gravity; Analysis of Vulcanized Rubber; Solubility and 
 Permeability of Rubber ; Deterioration ; Torrey's Method 260 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Gutta-percha: Its Sources, Properties, Manipulation, and Uses; 
 Components of Gutta-percha ; Vulcanization ; Gutta-percha in 
 Compounds ; Methods of Analysis 276 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER, SOURCES OF SUPPLY, AND PHYSICAL 
 CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 To an even greater degree than is true of other organic sub- 
 stances, India-rubber is hard to define in scientific language. Its 
 atomic structure is hard to express, and means little when ex- 
 pressed. It is a hydrocarbon, with the approximate formula 
 QoHie; but some oxygen is always present, which has led some 
 to believe that oxygen is a necessary constituent. As a rule, how- 
 ever, the presence of oxygen is considered injurious, or a sign 
 of deterioration. Rubber is as readily attacked by oxygen as is 
 iron, and is as surely destroyed. The formula QoHig is of too 
 general a nature to be of value, since it covers rubbers of widely 
 different physical properties, and even includes Gutta-percha, 
 A more important chemical fact is that rubber is extremely 
 resistant, being soluble only in carbon disulphide, carbon tetra- 
 chloride and in the volatile oils, such as turpentine, ether, gaso- 
 line and the like. 
 
 The physical properties of rubber are softness, toughness, 
 elasticity, impermeability, adhesion and electrical resistance. Its 
 most characteristic, but not most important property, is that it can 
 be repeatedly stretched to many times its length, returning each 
 time to about its first dimensions. No other substance is at all 
 comparable to rubber in this particular property, though one or 
 more of the other properties are possessed in turn by many other 
 substances. 
 
 Rubber is derived chiefly from the milk or latex found in 
 the bark of many trees, shrubs and vines, and to a certain extent 
 also in the fruit, leaves, soft wood, or roots. The great families 
 of the Euphorhiacece, in tropical America, and the Apocynacece, 
 in tropical Africa, furnish most of the world's rubber. The 
 ArtocarpecB, of Central America and the East Indies, have a cer- 
 tain importance, and the Composites, Asclepiadacece and perhaps 
 other vegetable families contribute a certain amount. Altogether 
 there are some thousands of species of trees, vines, bushes, weeds, 
 
8 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 roots, and tubers which contain rubber ; but one genus, the Hevea 
 tree, of Brazil, and another genus, the Landolphia vine, of Africa 
 — and we should add the Castilloa, an American genus — together 
 furnish practically the whole of the world's rubber. The tropics 
 hold a vast store of wild rubber; but transportation, in these 
 regions, is so difficult, and the growth of rubber trees so rapid, 
 that it is becoming easier to grow rubber in accessible places than 
 to get it out of the deeper forests; with the added advantage 
 that plantation rubber is better prepared than would generally 
 be possible in the forest. 
 
 The vegetable latex, from which rubber is derived, is most 
 often white, but is sometimes red or yellow. That of several 
 African vines is pink, and the best Gutta-percha latex is as red 
 as blood. The latex is usually thick, like cream, though the solid 
 matter contained may vary from 20 to 60 per cent. 
 
 It has never been definitely settled whether the rubber 
 exists as such in the latex, or whether it is developed by the pro- 
 cess of coagulation. Some latexes curdle immediately and spon- 
 taneously, like blood; others require the addition of chemicals or 
 natural fermentation, like animal milk. In many cases the latex 
 has never been made to coagulate. In some cases the latex is 
 used as food, while in others it may be highly caustic or a deadly 
 poison. When the milk of Hevea, the Mangabeira rubber tree, 
 or Balata is drunk freely, it shows no tendency to coagulate in 
 stomach, but is apparently digested. The albuminous substances, 
 which all rubber milk contains, are certainly assimilated by the 
 system, and the other components also seem to be utilized, or at 
 least behave quite unlike rubber. 
 
 Another substance developed out of the latex, along with 
 the rubber, is commonly called resin. Some regard this as a 
 broken-down, oxidized, perverted or "unripe" rubber. Other 
 authorities maintain the existence of a series of resin-bearing 
 tubes in the bark, independent of the system of milk tubes, but 
 drawn out with the rubber milk by the same bark cuts. 
 
 Rubber is composed of two substances or "principles," one of 
 which, the adhesive principle, is easily soluble in ether, carbon 
 disulphide, and the like ; while the other, the nervy or structural 
 principle, is never really dissolved. The adhesive principle cor- 
 
SOURCES OF RUBBER. ,9 
 
 responds roughly to starch, while the nervy principle corresponds 
 to cellulose. The adhesive principle seems to vary directly with 
 the resin content, without being quite identical with it. There 
 seems to be nothing else in nature which even approximates the 
 insoluble or nervy part of rubber. It is this which gives rubber 
 its elasticity, and enables it to take up compound; hence it forms 
 the basis of rubber valuation. The adhesive principle, quite 
 useful in cements and "frictions," forms the basis of a great 
 number of "rubberlikes," and is of much less value. 
 
 The classification of the many rubber sources, which at first 
 sight seems such a simple matter, becomes really a perplexing 
 problem before one gets very far into it. The manufacturer must 
 get certain results with his material, and he classes his rubbers 
 according to the results which he has got from certain grades in 
 the past. In buying from the brokers and importers, they must 
 agree on some sort of classification. The only classification which 
 the importer can usually form will be based on geographical 
 origin. He knows where his different lots of rubber came from, 
 and that it about all. 
 
 Far away, at the other end of the line, the outfitters, who 
 receive the rubber from the native gatherers, must agree with 
 the natives on some sort of classification and gradation. The 
 native gatherers, among themselves, must learn how to identify 
 those particular trees and vines giving the rubber which sells 
 best at the coast. Then comes the white man with his experiment 
 stations and rubber plantations, demanding a scientific restate- 
 ment of the v/hole case. The botanists come along, each work- 
 ing without m.uch regard to the other, with the result that we 
 have about as many scientific classifications as there are botanists. 
 Then comes the man with the business instinct, who aims to bring 
 order out of choas by getting the manufacturer in touch with the 
 original gatherer, and to thus have one classification for all, based 
 upon the simple principles of economics. 
 
 In working out this economic classification, the idea is not to 
 add something new to the existing overproduction of classifica- 
 tions, but to recognize and reconcile the existing ones, saving out 
 that which is common to all. From the standpoint of values, 
 the rubber plantation has greatly simplified the problem. Care in 
 
lo GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 the preparation of the milk has brought South American tree 
 rubber, African vine rubber, and Ceylon-grown rubbers very 
 nearly to one common level of prices. Nevertheless, this 
 price classification is not final, because tree rubber and vine 
 rubber cannot be used for the same goods in the factory, and 
 different kinds of trees or vines, or even different lots of rubber 
 from the same tree or vine, will give different results in the fac- 
 tory, or in the hands of the consumer. 
 
 In the final analysis, it is evident that a common sense classi- 
 fication, based upon vegetable origin, must inevitably prevail. 
 This does not mean a scientific botanical classification, because 
 the botanists are guided by insignificant details of flower, fruit or 
 leaf, leading them to useless classifications. What is needed is 
 a popular or quasi-botanical classification, such as has been 
 extended to apple trees or grape vines. Left to their own devices, 
 the botanists will catalogue a thousand species and varieties of 
 apple trees, but this misleads nobody, because we all know what 
 an apple tree is. This, however, does not apply to rubber sources. 
 
 The flower-fruit-and-leaf scheme, necessary to a w^orldwide 
 classification of the vegetable kingdom, becomes nearly useless as 
 a standard of measurement, when applied to the needs of business 
 in one small corner of the vegetable kingdom, such as the rubber 
 sources. Far better than that would be to adopt the native classi- 
 fications bodily, since the native is not buried in a pile of unim- 
 portant detail, nor lost on the barren stretches of the botanist's 
 "families" and "natural orders." The man in the woods is not 
 interested in corollas, lobes and cell sections, but rather seizes 
 upon some prominent feature, such as an edible fruit or a milky 
 juice or, maybe, a large, copper-colored leaf, and gives the same 
 name to all plants which possess this striking or important 
 feature. For the needs of any one neighborhood or industry, the 
 native classification is of greater value, and is often quite accurate. 
 Some of the scientific botanists have acknowledged the power 
 of close observation and accuracy of judgment of the natives in 
 these matters. To them this kind of botany is even more of a 
 specialty than the botanist's botany is to the botanist. The white 
 man will always do well to learn all he can from the natives 
 around him, because this knowledge will be of immediate use. 
 
SOURCES OF RUBBER. ii 
 
 Vegetation always adapts itself to its surroundings, so that 
 geographical and botanical classifications have much in common, 
 ultimately tending to coincide. Still, in most cases, any par- 
 ticular bit of forest will have in it a considerable number of very 
 different plants. We are bound to keep in mind that American 
 rubber comes from trees, while African rubber is derived almost 
 wholly from vines. To a certain extent, too, each of the impor- 
 tant vines has its own territory, though there is always over- 
 lapping, and some species are very widespread. 
 
 In the succeeding pages the leading kinds of rubber now on 
 the market are described and classified according to commer- 
 cial usage, while reference is made also to the geographical 
 distribution of rubber. 
 
 South America produces the best rubber in the world and 
 the most of it. The Amazon valley, embracing hundreds of 
 thousands of square miles of rubber-yielding forests in Brazil, 
 Bolivia and Peru, is the center of the industry, the product 
 being exported from the city of Para, whence the name "Para 
 rubber." Two or more species of the Hevea produce this rub- 
 ber, the best known being the Hevea Brasiliensis. This, by the 
 way, is the tree now being cultivated extensively in the Far 
 East — to which subject further attention will be given on 
 another page. Peru and other portions of the rubber area 
 also produce a rubber, lower in grade than Para, known as 
 "Caucho," and in some markets as "Peruvian rubber." This 
 is the product of a species of Castilloa. Another species, Castil- 
 loa elastica, is the rubber tree of Nicaragua and other Central 
 American states, which is also found in Ecuador, Venezuela, 
 Colombia, and Mexico, and yields the rubber known as "Cen- 
 trals." The Atlantic states of Brazil, south of Para, produce 
 other rubber trees, from which come the grades known as 
 "Mangabeira," "Pernambuco," "Ceara," and "Manicoba." 
 
 Africa comes next to South America in the amount of 
 rubber produced. "African" rubber is inferior to that obtained 
 from South America, but through improved processes in 
 gathering and curing, the various sorts are delivered in much 
 better condition year by year. African rubber is found on 
 both the east and west coasts and throughout the great basins 
 
12 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 of the Congo and Niger rivers, in the Soudan region, and 
 also on the island of Madagascar. The Landolphia, of which 
 there are several species, is a giant vine or creeper, from the 
 milk of which most of the African rubbers come. Recently, 
 however, an increasing amount of African rubber has been 
 gained from trees, particularly the Funtumia elastica, which yields 
 "Lagos" rubber. 
 
 The East Indies to-day furnish but little rubber. The first 
 rubber exported from that part of the world came from Assam, 
 the name of which province has attached itself to rubber from 
 other regions as well. The native rubber tree of India is the 
 Ficus elastica. The islands of Java and Borneo, and also Penang 
 and other states in the Malay peninsula, and likewise French 
 Indo-China, produce a certain amount of rubber, mostly from 
 vines or creepers. 
 
 Seaports, trading posts from which the first shipment is 
 made, the name of a colony or country, or descriptive terms, as 
 "thimbles" "buttons," "strips" — all or any of these may serve for 
 names of different grades of crude rubber. A complete market 
 report would indicate that there are a great number of different 
 qualities of rubber, many coming from the same source. This, 
 however, is not wholly true. Take, for instance, the Para grades : 
 years ago any rubber coming from Brazil was called Para rubber. 
 Later it was divided into "fine," "medium," and "coarse." Then 
 the rubber from the islands in the lower Amazon became known 
 as "Islands rubber," while that coming from further up stream 
 was known as "Upriver," and these, too, were divided into fine, 
 medium, and coarse. Now a dozen or more local names are 
 applied to rubber from different localities, tributary to the Para 
 market. At the same time, most of these rubbers sell at the same 
 figures, grade for grade, with the exception of coarse. 
 
 Something like this is true in the African rubber trade. For 
 instance, a great number of local names are applied to the Congo 
 rubber. The difference between "Equateur," "Kasai," and 
 "Lopori" sorts may not be greater than between different lots 
 from the same place. With a very few exceptions, the names 
 which follow are those used commonly in the leading markets of 
 the world : 
 
PARA RUBBER. 13 
 
 PARA RUBBER. 
 
 Rubber is classified at Para and Manaos into three grades, 
 designated by the Portuguese words fina, entradna, and sernamby. 
 These same grades in the United States are known as "fine," 
 "medium," and "coarse," while in England they are classified 
 as "fine," "entrefine," and "negroheads," the latter being 
 divided to provide for a subgrade, "scrappy negroheads." 
 The proportion of these grades exported through Para of late 
 has been about 61 per cent, of fine, 11 per cent, of medium, and 
 28 per cent, of coarse. 
 
 Fine Para rubber comes in large bottles or balls and, 
 when cut, shows a surface closely marked with lines corres- 
 ponding to the number of layers of rubber milk added during 
 the smoking process. These layers are easily separated and, 
 when stretched, are very transparent. This rubber smells 
 not unlike smoked bacon. 
 
 Medium or Entrafine resembles "fine," but is not so well 
 cured, curds and globules of milk not perfectly smoked being 
 found between the layers. 
 
 Coarse or Sernamby is made up of the residue, scraped 
 daily from the collecting vessels, or from milk which has cur- 
 dled before it could be smoked and made into "fine." This 
 grade takes its name from the supposed appearance of the 
 scraps to the mussel fish, called by the Portuguese sernamby. 
 This rubber is known in England as "Negroheads" when in 
 large chunks, more usual in the case of Upriver supplies. 
 
 Besides this genral classification of Para rubber, other 
 names are in use, derived from the localities of origin. 
 
 Islands rubber is that produced on the island of Marajo, 
 some 17,500 square miles in extent, and other islands in its 
 vicinity in the delta of the Amazon, together with that from 
 other parts of the state of Para, except the Xingu, Tocantins, 
 and Tapajos rivers, which might well be called lower Amazon 
 grades. The Islands "fine" and "medium" rubber is in the form 
 of round or flat bottles, while the "coarse" or "sernamby" is 
 in scraps massed into balls and round cakes, which gives 
 the name "Negroheads" to this grade in the English market. 
 
 Caviana rubber, named from the island that produces it, 
 
14 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 is the highest grade of Islands, and is to-day marketed as a 
 distinct sort. It has a smooth, close grain, and is much in 
 demand for fine work. 
 
 Cam ETA rubber is so called from the port of that name, on 
 the Tocantins river. It is noted for the superior quality of its 
 "sernamby" grade, the "fine" being the same as from the islands, 
 but rarely seen. This rubber comes in the form of little cups 
 pressed into large "negroheads." It is largely used for mechani- 
 cals, and is also suited for white tubing and white toys. 
 
 Itaituba rubber comes from the port of that name, at the 
 head of steam navigation on the Tapajos river, which enters the 
 Amazon at Santerem. Rubber from this river is distinguished 
 for the rather gutty quality of the "fine" and "medium," and its 
 stringy, dirty "sernamby." 
 
 XiNGU rubber, from the Xingu river, is noted for the specially 
 good cure of the "fine." 
 
 Upriver rubber includes the product of the country border- 
 ing the Amazon and its tributaries above Para, and that which 
 comes from Peru and Bolivia through the large streams rising in 
 those countries — such rivers are the Purus, Jurua, Javary, and 
 Madeira. This rubber comes to market in biscuits and balls 
 varying greatly in size and shape, a full average biscuit weighing 
 about thirty pounds. The difference in price between Upriver 
 and Islands rubber is due chiefly to the fact that the latter, being 
 derived from more remote localities, shrinks less after arriving 
 in market. Upriver rubber is marketed also under such local 
 names as "Manaos," "Madeira," "Bolivian, "Purus," etc. 
 
 Manaos rubber is named from the city which is the capital 
 of Amazonas, 1,200 miles up the Amazon river, and the center 
 of the rubber trade of district, exported from this port. 
 
 Madeira rubber, named from a great river which joins the 
 Amazon below Manaos, is of excellent quality and produced in 
 large quantities. It has a finer and closer grain than any other 
 Upriver rubber except the Bolivian. 
 
 Purus rubber comes down the river Purus, the largest of 
 the rubber-yielding tributaries of the Amazon, and is probably the 
 choicest of all the Para grades. A certain amount of the output 
 of the Purus comes from a region formerly belonging to Bolivia, 
 
PARA RUBBER. 15 
 
 and was marketed as "Bolivian" rubber. That region has been 
 acquired by Brazil, and organized into the Federal territory of 
 the Acre, which continues to produce a large amount of rubber. 
 
 Bolivian rubber is floated down the Beni and other rivers 
 in Bolivia to the Madeira, and thence to the Amazon. It 
 meets innumerable dententions from cataracts in the upper 
 Madeira, on account of which it becomes somewhat dried 
 before reaching market. It has the further advantage of 
 being cured by a better, class of labor than is common in 
 Brazil, of having a tougher fiber and of being cleaner than 
 most Upriver rubber, for which reasons it brings higher 
 prices than any other. 
 
 Not all the rubber of the Para grades now comes down 
 the Amazon. A certain amount of the Bolivian output is 
 shipped overland to the Pacific, and some by river to southern 
 Atlantic ports. 
 
 Peruvian rubber, in "ball" and "slab," was formerly applied, 
 in the English trade particularly, to the class of rubber which 
 will be described under the heading "Caucho." In recent 
 years, however, Peru has supplied considerable rubber of the 
 same character as Para — being derived from the same tree 
 and under the same methods — such rubber now forming 
 nearly half the shipments from Peru. This rubber is exported 
 from Iquitos down the Amazon, most of it going to Europe, 
 where it also is sold as "Peruvian." In English market 
 reports, therefore, are now quoted Peruvian fine and negro- 
 heads (coarse), as well as ball and slab, and also "Peruvian 
 weak." The latter is understood to be the product of the 
 same tree as the best Peruvian Para, but on higher lands 
 and somewhat different soil. To a large extent Peruvian fine 
 rubber loses its identity between Iquitos and the consuming 
 markets, and is classed merely as Para, [Described in earlier 
 editions of this work as "Jebe" rubber, mentioned by writers 
 who had applied to it local designations, at a time when trading 
 in it had not become organized.] 
 
 MoLLENDO rubber comes from southern Bolivia, being trans- 
 ported by steamers across Lake Titicaca and by rail to Mol- 
 lendo, a Peruvian port on the Pacific, and thence principally 
 
i6 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 to England. It is prepared in biscuits and sheets and is mar- 
 keted at a price between Upriver and Islands. 
 
 Angostura rubber comes down the Orinoco in Venezeula.. 
 from Cuidad Bolivar, which town formerly was known as 
 Angostura. It is of the same grades as the Para sorts. Some 
 of the same class of rubber finds its way into Brazil, at 
 Manaos, where its identity is lost. 
 
 Orinoco rubber is the same as "Angostura." 
 
 Matto Grosso rubber is from the state of that name in the 
 southwest of Brazil, and reaches the market partly through 
 tributaries of the Amazon and partly through the Parana, 
 which discharges into the river La Plata. It comes in "fine," 
 "medium," and "coarse," but principally the latter, little of it 
 reaching the market at present. 
 
 Caucho^ which figures in all the markets of the Amazon 
 region, and in statistics of Para rubber generally, is a distinct 
 sort of rubber, inferior to Para, collected from a species of 
 Castilloa instead of the Hevea trees. It is not cured by smoking 
 but by the admixture with the milk of lime, potash or soap. 
 The physical characteristics of Caucho, in the main, are the 
 same as the Central American rubbers. The rubber of this 
 sort exported by way of the Amazon formerly was obtained 
 principally from Peru, but it has now been discovered through- 
 out most of the rubber-producing regions of Brazil and Bolivia 
 as well. Caucho figures very largely in the Para rubber 
 trade, the exports in three recent calendar years averaging 
 i8^ per cent, of the whole yearly shipment through Para. It 
 comes to the market in three forms — "ball," "strip," and "sheet" 
 (or slabs) — ranging in value in the order named. 
 
 Caucho is the Spanish word for India-rubber in general. 
 When this particular sort of rubber first began to be marketed, 
 it was obtained only in Spanish-speaking regions, and on 
 coming down to Para, where the commercial language is 
 Portuguese, and being rubber of a distinct type, it not unnatur- 
 ally became known commercially by the Spanish name, which 
 really was a most convenient form of describing it, so as to 
 avoid confusion in the trade. The commercial designation of 
 rubber in Portuguese, in use at Para, is Borracha. 
 
CENTRAL RUBBERS. 17 
 
 CENTRAL RUBBERS. 
 
 Central American rubber, or "Centrals," includes that 
 which is produced in all the states north of the Amazon 
 valley, up to and including southern Mexico. It forms a dis- 
 tinctive class, being the product of a tree not native elsewhere. 
 The consumption of Centrals in the United States was larger 
 once than of Para rubber, but the yield has declined gradually 
 to small proportions. This rubber is in good demand for cer- 
 tain uses, ranking in price below coarse Para. It has not the 
 toughness or strength of fine Para, and possesses less elasticity. 
 Centrals are classed usually as "sheet" and "scrap," besides 
 which the terms "strip," "slab," "ball," and "sausage" are 
 used. Greytown being a common shipping-point for Centrals, 
 there is much confusion, one sort often getting substituted for 
 another. Most of the yield of Costa Rica is exported through 
 Nicaragua. The treatment of Centrals generally consists in 
 mixing with the latex the juice of the "amole" vine, often in a 
 hole in the ground, the product being "sheet" rubber. The rubber 
 drippings which adhere to the bark of the tapped trees are 
 peeled off when dry and called "scrap." The trade names 
 below apply to the locality of origin, rather than indicating 
 distinctions in quality. 
 
 Nicaragua rubber includes more than the product of that 
 republic. The real Nicaragua rubber is drier, as a rule, than 
 other grades of Centrals. Nicaragua sheet comes to market in 
 a less clean condition than formerly, and the scrap now brings 
 a better price. 
 
 Greytown scrap is the best grade of Nicaragua rubber. 
 
 Guatemala rubber is inferior and unequal in quality. The 
 best is whitish in color, and the lower grades black with a 
 tarry appearance. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with 
 cheap molasses. In curing, the rubber-gatherers pour the milk 
 upon mats to dry, afterwards pulling off the product in sheets, 
 pressing them together for shipment. 
 
 Guayaquil strip, from Ecuador, is imported in two grades 
 — good and ordinary. Like the Guatemala rubber, the best 
 has a whitish appearance. The inferior sort is porous and filled 
 
i8 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 with a fetid black liquid, which carries an almost indelible 
 stain. 
 
 Esmeralda rubber, which also comes from Ecuador, is 
 classed as a "strip" and "sausage," the two grades coming to 
 market in about equal quantities. 
 
 Colombian is a pressed strip rubber, dark in color, some- 
 times showing white when cut. It is graded "No. i" and "No. 
 2." Some of the rubber from Colombia bears local designa- 
 tions, besides varying in quality. These include: 
 
 Cartagena, strip rubber, dark and tough, graded "No. i" 
 and "No. 2," selling at less than "Colombian." It comes also 
 in thin sheets, rough or "chewed" in appearance, and tarry or 
 sticky. The production has decreased very much of late. 
 
 Panama rubber, like that from Nicaragua, embraces a wide 
 range of quality. The Pacific mail steamers bring together at 
 Panama rubber from numerous ports, and confusion of grades 
 is a result. What is marketed as "Panama" comes in "sheet" 
 and "strip." 
 
 Virgin or Virgen rubber comes from Colombia in "sheet," 
 "strip," and "slab." It is a product of a different tree from the 
 other "Centrals" described here, and is in demand for the hard 
 rubber manufacture. 
 
 Mexican rubber is of fair quality, but is received in con- 
 stantly-decreasing quantities. The grades, listed in the order 
 of their selling value, are "ball" (or scrap), "strip," and "slab." 
 
 Tuxpam strip comes from the Mexican port of that name. 
 Very little of it is received, and that not of uniform quality. 
 
 Honduras strip is of a quality similar to the Mexican, but 
 is little produced. 
 
 West Indian rubber has a good reputation for quality. It 
 is not produced on the islands, but comes from Venezuela and 
 Central America, and the designation is simply a general trade 
 name used in England. 
 
 It is to be kept in mind that the information given thus far 
 under the general heading of "Central rubbers" relates to the 
 native forest supplies from the countries mentioned. The same 
 tree is now being cultivated extensively, and the product, which is 
 
CENTRAL RUBBERS. 19 
 
 beginning to be marketed, will be considered in another place 
 in this book. 
 
 The grades which follow, though not entitled geographic- 
 ally to be included as "Centrals," are in fact so classed, on 
 account of their quality. 
 
 Mangabeira rubber is so called from the local name of the 
 tree producing it, in some of the Atlantic states of Brazil, south 
 of Para. It is an alum-cured rubber and comes in sheets 
 which resemble slices of liver and are of a tawny red color. 
 The thin sheet sells for more than the thick, as it is drier and 
 better cured. Occasionally it comes in the form of balls. It 
 is exported from Pernambuco, Bahia, Natal, and other points 
 on the coast. 
 
 Pernambuco is another name for Mangabeira rubber, 
 derived from the principal state and port from which it is shipped. 
 
 Santos rubber, from another port, is the same. 
 
 Ceara. — The following paragraph appeared in this place in 
 earlier editions of this work: "Ceara rubber comes from a 
 small tree particularly abundant in the Brazilian state of Ceara 
 and is marketed principally in England. The milk exudes from 
 the tree and coagulates in the form of 'tears' which are 
 gathered in scraps and balls. There are three grades, the 
 lowest of which is dirty and difficult to use. Ceara rubber is 
 deficient in elasticity and is hard to vulcanize. It is very dry 
 and free from stickiness." Since this was written the rubber 
 of the region referred to has received much attention, and the 
 output has been greatly increased. This rubber has come to 
 be known more generally by the local name of the tree, "Man- 
 igoba," of which there are now recognized to be several dis- 
 tinct species. One of these, found in the state of Bahia, is 
 considered to yield a superior quality of rubber, which is 
 marketed as "Jequie" and "Remanso," these being locality 
 names. 
 
 GuAYULE is a Mexican rubber of a distinctively new type 
 which recently has come into use to a very large extent. It 
 was merely referred to in the first edition of this work as 
 ^'Durango" rubber, and by other names, though at that time 
 it had not been taken up by the trade. This rubber is obtained 
 
20 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 from a shrub peculiar to the arid regions of northern Mexico 
 and southern Texas — being practically the only rubber found 
 in the United States — which differs from most rubber produc- 
 ing plants in that it has no latex, the rubber being chiefly in 
 the cells of the bark, a little in the wood, and none at all in the 
 new shoots or leaves. The bark also contains balsam-like 
 resins which are extracted with the rubber and are the cause 
 of its softness and stickiness as compared with fine Para, for 
 example. Generally the extraction of the rubber resolves itself 
 into two processes : one purely mechanical and the other part- 
 ly mechanical and partly chemical. Whatever process 
 is used, however, results in the destruction of the plant, 
 so that unless means are discovered for reproducing 
 the growth, the practical extinction of the species seems 
 assured. At this writing the exportation of guayule from 
 Mexico amounts to about 1,000,000 pounds per month, 
 the larger percentage going to the United States. To a cer- 
 tain extent the shrub is exported to Europe and America for 
 treatment by various processes, but this is not encouraged by 
 the Mexican government. Botanically the plant is known as 
 Partheniuni argentatum. "Guayule" may be pronounced wy-u-le. 
 
 Rubber manufacturers were somewhat afraid of guayule 
 when it first appeared on the market, because of its softness and 
 its slow vulcanizing qualities. They have, however, by learning 
 to use the rubber, overcome most apparent difficulties and find 
 it available for a great many types of goods. For example, it 
 makes an exceedingly strong hard rubber, although it must be 
 combined with a better grade of rubber. It, however, gives a 
 gloss to ebonite that makes very beautiful goods. In mechanical 
 goods, and, indeed, in all soft rubber work, it needs the addition 
 of ingredients that are of a drying nature. For this reason it 
 works exceedingly well with the drier and harder types of 
 reclaimed rubber, and with such intractable gums as Balata. For 
 some months prior to this writing the rubber has been quoted in 
 the market at about 30 per cent, of the price of Islands fine Para. 
 
 The various extractors of Guayule rubber have done some 
 really remarkable work in extracting the resin, and producing 
 rubber that comes about as near to being resin-free as any on the 
 
AFRICAN RUBBER. 21 
 
 market. For example, one company has produced Guayule con- 
 taining only 1,06 percentage of resin, which is less really than 
 in Upriver fine Para, which contains normally 1.3. This Guayule 
 rubber is said also to he very transparent, and free from stickiness. 
 At first blush is might be thought, because of the freedom from 
 resin, that the rubber would be equal in quality with fine Para. 
 That, however, does not by any means follow, as the absence of 
 resin does not necessarily presuppose the toughened fiber, the 
 lasting quality, or even the compounding possibilities that Para 
 rubber possesses. It is, therefore, quite possible that an addi- 
 tional toughening process is needed to bring deresinated Guayule 
 up to the standard aimed at. That this can be done is not 
 unlikely, but it must be along the lines that give to Para rubber 
 its extraordinary toughened fiber. 
 
 AFRICAN RUBBER. 
 
 African rubbers, though comparatively late in becoming 
 known, are produced now in quantities second only to the supply 
 from the Amazon. As a class they are more adhesive and less 
 elastic than Para rubbers, ranking with or below Para negroheads. 
 They often contain a liberal percentage of impurities, and for a 
 long time their disagreeable odor and intractable nature hindered 
 their introduction. But advancing prices for Para grades and fear 
 of their coming scarcity led manufacturers to experiment with 
 African rubbers, until many uses were found for them. The re- 
 sult has been a notable offset to the general upward tendency in 
 price of the Para grades, although there are many purposes for 
 which Africans never have been considered as competing with 
 them. At the same time, the possibilities in the way of utilizing 
 African sorts have not been exhausted, each year bringing out new 
 uses. Besides, more intelligent supervision of the work of pre- 
 paring rubber in Africa has led to a great improvement in some 
 grades, as compared with the condition in which formerly they 
 came to market. 
 
 The African rubbers are obtained from giant creepers, of 
 "which there is a score or more species on the continent and in 
 the island of Madagascar, and also from several trees, the most 
 important one of which, discovered first in the Gold Coast Colony, 
 
22 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 is known now to be widely distributed. There is now also a con- 
 siderable production of "root rubber," obtained from underground 
 creepers and marketed as "Lower Congo thimbles," and also as 
 "Benguela," according to the sources of production. The adultera- 
 tion of African rubbers is not uncommon, being due to the dis- 
 honesty, not only of the native gatherers, but doubtless also of 
 some foreign traders on the coasts. But in most of the European 
 colonies in Africa stringent regulations have been adopted to 
 prevent such adulterations. On the Gold Coast the lumps of 
 rubber brought to market by the natives were formerly cut into 
 strips or buttons by machinery, before being exported. Latterly 
 some of this work has been done in England, the rubber then 
 being known as "Liverpool pressed." 
 
 As a rule, African rubbers are obtained by the destruction of 
 the trees or vines with the result that the total receipts from that 
 continent are decreasing, despite higher prices than prevailed 
 formerly. 
 
 The milk of the Landolphia vines, the chief rubber producers 
 of Africa, coagulates on exposure to the air, though in some locali- 
 ties use is made of various astringents, boiling in water, and other 
 methods to assist in preparing rubber. Even where these methods 
 are used, a residue of the rubber sap is left to dry on the bark 
 and in the earth, and is gathered in strings or scraps. The only 
 treatment in some other places is the smearing of the milk upon the 
 bare bodies of the natives, where it dries speedily in the sun, and is 
 easily peeled ofiF. Where rubber trees exist the practice of sys- 
 tematic tapping has been introduced, with a view to preserving 
 the trees, and more scientific methods of coagulation are being 
 tried. 
 
 Ball is the classification of a large share of the African rub- 
 bers, which comes in every size from three or four inches in 
 diameter down to half an inch or less. "Small ball" of the several 
 kinds differs from the "large ball" in size, and is also drier and 
 afifords a smaller degree of shrinkage. 
 
 Thimbles. — The natives, after gathering this rubber, cut it 
 into cubes, about an inch square or less. Thimbles generally con- 
 tain bark and sand, but very little moisture. 
 
AFRICAN RUBBER. 23 
 
 Nuts. — Rubber thimbles from Ambriz are quoted sometimes 
 in European markets as "Ambriz nuts." 
 
 Lump rubber comes in large pieces, varying in size and of 
 irregular shapes. When packed in casks the pieces often become 
 massed together in transit. It is from the best of the lump rubber 
 that the most desirable buttons and strips are made. 
 
 Flake comes in lumps, livers, and soft irregular masses, and 
 is valuable in the factory chiefly for frictions and for softening 
 compounds. 
 
 Paste is the same as "Flake." The Accra flake and Niger 
 paste, which are the same in quality, are at the foot of the list, in 
 respect to prices, the Niger being the cleaner. 
 
 Strips are lump rubber that is sliced and pressed by 
 machinery before it is offered to the trade. 
 
 Buttons is a name applied to rubber similarly treated as in 
 making strips, except that it is cut into small pieces, whereas strips 
 have been marketed in every length up to ten feet. 
 
 Biscuits is another name for "Buttons." 
 
 Oysters is another name for "Buttons" or "Biscuits." 
 
 Tongues. — Some rubber formerly came to market in long, 
 narrow, tongue-shaped pieces. The same grades are now more 
 frequently seen in the shape of large balls. 
 
 Niggers are of various sorts and from different sources. 
 These rubbers are ball-like in some cases, having the appearance 
 of masses of stringy rubber pressed together between the hands 
 and wound into compact masses. 
 
 Twist rubber is not unlike "Niggers" in quality, but shows 
 less shrinkage and differs in preparation and appearance. The 
 string or strip-like pieces are wrapped about each other in order 
 to give a twisted look to the balls. 
 
 The list of rubber grades "which follows is based upon a 
 geographical arrangement, beginning with the upper west coast 
 of Africa : 
 
 FRENCH west AFRICA. 
 
 This is an extensive region, extending from the Atlantic 
 eastward to the precincts of the Nile, from which in recent years 
 a great amount of rubber has come to French markets, the various 
 
24 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 grades being designated generally by local geographical names. 
 The leading grades now marketed from this region are : 
 
 Conakry Niggers. 
 
 Soudan Niggers and Twists. 
 
 Bassam Niggers and Lumps. 
 
 Lahou Niggers. 
 
 Gamhie "A," "A.M.," and "B." These last are of the "Nig- 
 gers" type. 
 
 GAMBIA (BRITISH). 
 
 Gambia Niggers (No. i, No. 2, No. 3). — These are classified 
 according to cleanliness, No. i and No. 2 being fairly clean, and 
 No. 3 containing considerable soil. 
 
 Bathurst. — Same as Gambia. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE. 
 
 Sierra Leone Tivists (No. i, No. 2, and rejections). — This is 
 white and amber in color, of low shrinkage, and has bark and grit 
 in it, but little moisture. 
 
 Niggers (No. i, No. 2, No. 3) are quite moist. No. 2 and 
 No. 3 contain considerable soil. 
 
 Cake. — Fairly clean, but wet. It is both red and white, the 
 former bringing the better price. 
 
 Manoh Twists. — This comes in the shape of tightly wound 
 cords of rubber and works soft. In color it is black or white, the 
 black being the better. 
 
 LIBERIA. 
 
 Liberian. — This is graded as Lump, Hard Rake, and Soft. 
 It cuts yellow, is very wet, and is often a soft pasty rubber. 
 
 ASSINEE. 
 
 What is known as Assinee is graded : as follows : Assinee- 
 Silky, Grand Bassam, Attoaboa, Lahou, Bayin, Half Jack. It is 
 like Old Calabar, only it comes in chunks three inches square, is 
 wet, and cuts yellow. These names are chiefly used in the English 
 market. 
 
 GOLD COAST COLONY. 
 
 Gold Coast. — This is chiefly lump from which Strips and But- 
 tons are made. There are also Biscuits and Niggers (hard and 
 soft). The Flake is wet and has a bad smell, but otherwise is 
 quite clean. 
 
AFRICAN RUBBER. 25 
 
 Accra. — The Accra lump furnishes Strips and Buttons and is 
 graded "prime," "seconds," and "thirds." The lower grades are 
 Flake and Paste. 
 
 Cape Coast. — This is another lump from which Strips and 
 Buttons are manufactured and has for lower grades Flake and 
 Soft. 
 
 Salt Pond. — This Lump is also used in Strips and Buttons, 
 the lowest grade being Flake. 
 
 Addah Niggers (graded as No. i and No, 2) is very similar 
 to Sierra Leone, but generally in smaller balls. It is not an Accra 
 rubber, nor are Quittah Niggers or Axim. As a matter of fact, 
 the grades from these different ports differ little if any, and are 
 sold most frequently under the head of "Accra" rubber, from the 
 name of the principal town in the colony. 
 
 TOGOLAND. 
 
 Lomi (or Lome) Ball. — The best grade of this is a clean, firm 
 rubber and is fairly dry. The lower grades are rarely seen. 
 
 NIGERIA (including LAGOS). 
 
 Lagos. — This lump is also turned into Buttons and Strips, 
 while soft inferior lumps are sold without manufacturing, as low 
 grades. It is very easily distinguished from Accra by its odor. 
 
 Niger. — The chief grade is Paste, which has an acid smell and 
 is a low grade pasty rubber, wet but clean. 
 
 Old Calabar. — It is graded as Blue, Lump, and Niggers, and 
 is very bad smelling. The best lump is undoubtedly used for strips 
 and buttons. 
 
 Benin Ball. — Is generally dirty and has a rotten, woody smell. 
 
 CAMEROONS (OR KAMERUN). 
 
 Cameroons. — The Ball is graded as large, mixed, and small ; 
 the Ousters, which contain some fifty balls, as No. i and No. 2 ; 
 and the Knuckly ball, which is a small dry ball. This rubber has 
 a fairly strong smell. 
 
 Batanga Ball ("B," "E"). — Same as Cameroons, Batanga 
 being the name of a river and country in the Cameroons. 
 
 FRENCH CONGO. 
 
 French Congo Rubber is very similar to Cameroons, but the 
 balls are larger. 
 
 Gaboon is the best known flake and has for additional grades : 
 
26 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 Lump, Large "O" Ball, and Small "O" Ball. The Flake is free 
 from dirt and is soft. 
 
 Mayumba is both Ball and Flake. Another grade known as 
 Mixed is a combination of the two and is sold as second quality. 
 
 Loango. — Ball. 
 
 These are names of rubber stations on the coast. The natives 
 boil rubber milk, adding the juices of vines, and, while the rubber 
 is hardening, wind it into balls, weighing from one-fifth pound to 
 three pounds. The best rubber is not boiled, the milk drying on 
 the wrists of the natives, as they tap the rubber vines. At the 
 coast the balls are cut, to detect any cheating, and washed and 
 packed in casks for export. 
 
 BELGIAN CONGO (FORMERLY CONGO FREE STATE). 
 
 Congo rubber comes in the shape of Buttons, Balls (No. i 
 and No. 2), Red Thimbles, and Black Thimbles. The Ball is 
 similar to Cameroons, but tougher. The Dutch Congo Ball is the 
 same as the Congo Ball, but is known as the best grade of that 
 rubber. There is also the Congo (Kasai), Black Twist (graded 
 as fine, mixed, and secondary), and Red Twist. The Strips are 
 among the toughest of African rubbers and are dry, with a woody 
 smell. 
 
 From the Lower Congo comes also the Luvituku, which is a 
 Red Ball rubber, and from the Upper Congo, the following: 
 
 Upper Congo. — Ball, Red Ball, Twists, and Strips, all of 
 which is good tough rubber. 
 
 Uele. — Strips, usually heated and fermented and bad smell- 
 ing; Cakes, wet, but clean. 
 
 Sankuru. — Ball, very similar to Congo Ball. 
 
 Lake Leopold. — Graded as Sausage and Ball. It does not 
 differ from the foregoing enough to warrant special description. 
 
 Equateur. — In the form of balls (small and mixed). It is 
 dark, dry, and clean, but contains some fermented rubber, which 
 smells badly. 
 
 Lopori. — Graded as Ball (large and small), Strips, and 
 Cakes. Some of the balls are fine and clean, while others contain 
 fermented milk. Lopori also comes as Sausage. 
 
 Bangui. — Comes in the form of strips, firm and tough. 
 
AFRICAN RUBBER. 27 
 
 Bitssira. — Ball; a trifle softer than Lopori, but usually of 
 excellent quality and dry. In use it develops a strong smell. 
 
 Aruwimi. — Ball. This usually comes as large, firm balls, 
 but on cutting them open much of the interior is found fermented. 
 
 Mongalla. — In this the Ball is similar to Upper Congo Red 
 Ball. It also comes in Strips, and is a good rubber. 
 
 Some other designation of Upper Congo are Kasai, Katanga, 
 Ikelemha, Loango, Isanga, and so on. 
 
 Bumba. — Ball ; Buki — Ball ; Tava and Kwilu are all good 
 Upper Congo grades that are not distinctive enough to dwell upon. 
 
 Wamha. — This is a grade of Thimbles and is a good black 
 rubber, with only ordinary shrinkage. 
 
 ANGOLA, 
 
 Benguela. — Graded as Sausage and Niggers, Of the latter, 
 No. I is clean and tough, and No. 2 contains a large percentage 
 of red leaf, 
 
 Mossamedes is practically the same, from a neighboring port. 
 
 Loanda. — In this the grades, which are Sausage and Nig- 
 gers, are similar to Benguela, but not so dry. There are also 
 Twists (red and black), 
 
 Ambris. — Chiefly Thimbles or Nuts ; both are poor grades. 
 
 Lately a tuberous root in parts of Angola has been found to 
 produce some rubber. This plant has been described by the 
 natives as "Ekanda," 
 
 EAST AFRICA, 
 
 Uganda rubber comes from British East Africa, It is a tree 
 rubber, prepared in sheet form under modem methods, and 
 arrives in good condition, 
 
 Mozambique rubber is that coming from the port of Mozam- 
 bique, from other ports in Portuguese East Africa, and perhaps 
 from still other places in East Africa, It possesses some proper- 
 ties in common with the Madagascar rubbers. The rate of 
 shrinkage is less than in most African sorts, and good prices are 
 obtained. In the Liverpool market, which is the best for Mozam- 
 bique grades, quotations are made for Orange Ball No, i. Ball 
 No, 2, Ball No. 3, Liver, Sausage, Root, Sticks or spindles, Sticks 
 removed. Unripe. 
 
28 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 The Orange Ball (resembling an orange in size and shape) 
 is the choicest rubber. Other grades of Mozambique Ball are 
 distinguished further as "white" and "red," the latter being 
 inferior. Its reddish color is due to the fine bark mixed with it. 
 The Unripe contains more bark than rubber, and is not thoroughly 
 cured. 
 
 Sticks or spindles consist of spindle-shaped pieces made of 
 slender strings of rubber wound around a bit of wood. Liver 
 (or cakes) is in smooth pieces of irregular size. 
 
 Lamu Ball, Liver, Sausage, and Root come from the Mozam- 
 bique port of this name. They are not rubbers of a distinctive sort. 
 
 MADAGASCAR. 
 
 Madagascar rubber formerly ranked higher in price than 
 most other African sorts, though to-day the highest price is ob- 
 tained for some of the Congo sorts. Considering the greater loss 
 sustained in washing, it costs nearly as much at times as fine 
 Para. It is a favorite with manufacturers of hard rubber, on 
 account of the fine lustrous polish which it assumes under the 
 buffing-wheel. The principal classification is between Pinky and 
 Black. 
 
 Pinky comes in round balls, weighing i^ to 4 pounds, black 
 on the outside from exposure to the air, but having a pinkish- 
 white look when cut. 
 
 Black, also in small balls, when cut shows a dark color, and 
 is more or less sandy and dirty. 
 
 Tamatave being the principal seaport, its name is liable to be 
 applied to any grades shipped from there. But what is described 
 as "Prime pinky Tamatave" is the best Madagascar rubber. 
 
 Majunga rubber, from the west coast town of that name, is a 
 dark rubber of special excellence, ranking next to Pinky in price. 
 
 Niggers (or negroheads) are designated as "East coast" and 
 "West coast," and also as "Red ball," and "Gristly." They gener- 
 ally contain sand and dirt. 
 
 Brown cure (or brown slab) is a still lower grade. 
 
 Unripe is the lowest. This term is applied to balls containing 
 bark in the center. 
 
 Rubber from Madagascar is sold at French auctions also as 
 
EAST INDIAN RUBBER. 29 
 
 "Lombiro," the native name of a newly found plant, "Morondava," 
 "Barabarja" (names of localities), and so on. 
 
 Madagascar rubber is cured ( i ) by the use of salt water, in 
 which case the water is never wholly expelled, leading to a heavy 
 rate of shrinkage, and (2) by artificial heat. The island is rich 
 in rubber forests, but the exports are restricted by the wasteful 
 methods of the natives, which exhaust the trees and vines, par- 
 ticularly near the coast. 
 
 EAST INDIAN RUBBER. 
 
 Assam rubber is strong and of firm texture. It is fairly 
 elastic, though often less so on account of carelessness in gather- 
 ing and the introduction of impurities. There are four grades 
 usually (No. i to No. 4), of which the lower ones are extremely 
 dirty and contain soft rubber. The better grades when cut have 
 a glossy, marbleized appearance, somewhat pinkish in color. 
 Assam rubber is marketed in small balls, made by winding up 
 strings of rubber dried on the trees, and also in oblong slabs of 
 irregular size, wrapped in plaited straw. The output has declined 
 for several years. Meanwhile the same species has been found in 
 Burma, where the production of rubber has increased, though 
 the whole output of forest rubber from British India is now 
 smaller than at an earlier period. 
 
 Rangoon rubber is the product of Burma, exported through 
 the port of Rangoon, and differs so little from Assam rubber as 
 to require no separate description. Four grades are marketed, at 
 practically the same prices as for Assam rubber. 
 
 Java rubber, from the island of this name, is dark and glossy, 
 of a deeper tint than the Assam sorts, with occasional red streaks. 
 Otherwise, its history and characteristics are nearly identical with 
 those of Assam rubber. Three grades are recognized. The milk 
 dries on the surface of the trees, on exposure to the air, and the 
 shrinkage of the better grades is slight. 
 
 Penang rubber (from one of the states in the Malay penin- 
 sula, including the island of Penang) is also very similar to that 
 from Assam. There are three or four grades, at slightly lower 
 prices than the Assam sorts bring. 
 
 Borneo rubber ranks below the other Asiatic sorts, being 
 lower in price, with a higher rate of shrinkage. It is of a whitish 
 
30 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 color, changing with age to a dull pink or red. It comes to mar- 
 ket shaped like pieces of liver, and is soft, porous, or spongy. 
 The pores are filled with salt water or whey, for the reason that 
 salt is used to coagulate the rubber, and the water evaporating 
 leaves a saline incrustation in the cells. There are three grades, 
 the first of which is a good rubber, while the lowest, when cut, 
 is almost as soft as putty, and is worth little. 
 
 GuTTA-susu is a local name applied in Borneo to what is 
 known in the markets at "Borneo No. 3." 
 
 PLANTATION RUBBER. 
 
 In the first edition of this work two lines seemed enough 
 to devote to plantation rubber, since so little had then appeared 
 in the market. In fact, with the exception of a few scientists 
 and a smaller number of enthusiastic planters, no one then seemed 
 to regard rubber cultivation as a practical proposition, and the 
 rubber manufacturers were not the least prejudiced against 
 undertakings in this line. The change which has come about in 
 relation to rubber culture, influenced by the continued growth of 
 the demand for rubber, while the extinction of the native supply 
 in many regions seems assured, is indicated by the export of so 
 much rubber already from Ceylon, where there is no native rubber 
 — the product of a Hevea species introduced from the Amazon 
 region. It was long supposed that the Hevea would not thrive 
 away from the Amazon, but the success noted in Ceylon has been 
 duplicated elsewhere, notably in the Federated Malay States, and 
 Hevea species are now being placed under cultivation on every 
 continent. The exportation of cultivated rubber from Ceylon and 
 Malaya has increased at the rate shown by this table, the figures 
 indicating weight in pounds : 
 
 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 
 
 Ceylon 41,684 72,040 168,247 327,024 556,080 912,125 
 
 Malaya 1,000 13,000 228,800 817,769 2,089,085 3,671,435 
 
 Total 42,684 85,040 397.047 1,144,793 2,645,165 4.5^3,560 
 
 This rate of growth has been most encouraging to the 
 planters, and large estates have been formed with the help of 
 European capital and are being conducted by companies 
 organized on the lines which long have proved so successful in 
 
PLANTATION RUBBER. 
 
 31 
 
 tea culture in Ceylon. It was estimated at the beginning af 1909 
 that 300,000 acres had been planted to rubber (mostly Hevea) in 
 Ceylon and Malaya, representing $75,000,000 of capital. The 
 rate of production at that time was such as to lend support to the 
 prediction that when the millions of trees not already producing 
 should reach a tapable size the regions mentioned would alone 
 be in a position to supply as much rubber as now enters into the 
 world's total consumption. Para {Hevea) rubber has been 
 planted also in India and the islands of Java, Sumatra, and 
 Borneo, and other varieties to a large extent in Mexico and 
 Central Amercia (mostly Castilloa elasticd), in several colonies 
 in Africa (chiefly Manihot, otherwise "Manitoba"), and particu- 
 larly in the Congo Free State (Landolphia vines and Funtumia 
 trees). Rubber is being planted likewise in Hawaii and the 
 Philippines, in southern Brazil, New Guinea, and elsewhere. 
 
 Any fear of overproduction of rubber, through the coming 
 into "bearing" of so many planted trees, is offset by the fact that 
 thus far the sources of wild or forest rubber, with the sole excep- 
 tion of the native Hevea (Para) trees in Brazil, are being 
 exhausted by the extraction of their product. Where trees and 
 vines are killed by the rubber gatherers, there may be an in- 
 creased yield from a given country for awhile, due to the working 
 of new areas from time to time, but ultimately the principal 
 forests are overrun, after which the output falls ofif. A diagram 
 is introduced to show how the export of Colombian rubber grew 
 
 POUNDS ||si|ii|iii||||ii|£S|i£Sg§i§|i.Mgiiii'2ii,sisi|| 
 
 7.000.000 -r- -r-^ ■' ^ r^ ~ ^~ - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.W.0CO _- ^^"/T ' • ^ "^"v^ri 
 
 ■^^ - -- -_ ^^.-^_ ---- c^" --""- ^. - ' --^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 «^ >^___^^Z -__ilf::_U __^:"-^__ 
 
 
32 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 rapidly until it reached a high figure, after which it declined as 
 rapidly to the low figure which has since prevailed. The same 
 result has been seen in many other countries, and to-day the 
 total output of African rubber is less than formerly for the same 
 reason as in Colombia, while native rubber has almost disappeared 
 in Assam. 
 
 It would seem that manufacturers ultimately will be forced 
 to adopt plantation rubber to a large extent. Thus far their 
 opportunities for experimenting with plantation products have 
 been confined chiefly to Hevea rubber from Ceylon and the 
 adjacent states, and this has come into widespread use, having 
 been adopted by most manufacturers. The cleanliness of planta- 
 tion as compared with forest rubber has been an attraction from 
 the beginning, and the higher price paid for the former has been 
 due to its greater content, bulk for bulk, of rubber. But it has 
 proved deficient in strength as compared with the Brazilian prod- 
 uct. For some purposes the deficiency of nerve of the new rubber 
 has not proved a disadvantage, as for instance in solution making, 
 in which it has been used largely. Gradually it has replaced 
 Para in many other applications, but as yet not for cut sheet, 
 thread, and elastic bands. 
 
 Rubber from Hevea plantations was at first clearly not 
 identical with the product of the same species under forest condi- 
 tions. The question was discussed whether this difference was 
 due to the plantation rubber not being smoked, as is done with 
 Brazilian rubber. A reason now more generally admitted is that, 
 owing to the tapping of planted trees having been begun at a 
 very early age, the product was "immature." At least plantation 
 rubber can now be had with more strength than formerly, which 
 may be due either to increased age of the trees or to better 
 methods of collection, coagulation, and care in subsequent storage 
 and shipment. 
 
 Plantation or Plantation Para is the term applied in 
 the trade to the new class of rubber. "Ceylon," "Malaya," or 
 "Straits" are also applied, but these are merely local designations, 
 indicating no difference in quality. What is more important is 
 the growing practice of planters of stamping their product with 
 trade marks, by means of which buyers may know absolutely 
 
PLANTATION RUBBER. 33 
 
 the source of any particular purchase, which is helpful when a 
 producer of several tons in a year is attempting to establish a 
 reputation for quality. The number of such marks is too great 
 for them to be enumerated here. Plantation Para is marketed 
 in various forms, as follows: 
 
 Biscuits. — Prepared by allowing the rubber milk to set in 
 shallow receptacles, with or without acetic acid, and washing 
 and rolling the cake of rubber which appears at the top more or 
 less circular in form — usually 1/16 to 1/8 inch in thickness and 
 10 to 14 inches in diameter. 
 
 Sheets. — Formed in the same way as Biscuits, but rectangu- 
 lar in outline. On account of their shape they lend themselves 
 to more economic packing. Biscuits and Sheets are sometimes 
 pressed together to form blocks. 
 
 Crepe. — This rubber, on account of the washing and tearing 
 which it undergoes between the rollers of the washing machine 
 used in its preparation, contains a minimum of impurities. It has 
 an irregular surface, is uneven in thickness, and, like Lace or 
 Flake rubber, dries rapidly. On account of the washing which 
 some manufacturers subject all rubber to, it has been questioned 
 whether the extra labor involved in its preparation will be paid 
 for by the extra price realized. Prepared in lengths of 3 to 6 
 feet, and widths of 5 to 12 inches, and graded according to color. 
 
 Worms. — The product obtained by cutting irregular sheets 
 of freshly coagulated rubber into thin worm-like rods, shears or 
 machinery being used. By passing the dry Worms through 
 ordinary washing rollers they are bound together into an even 
 strip of Crepe. 
 
 Lace. — ^Very thin perforated sheets of considerable lengths. 
 It comes from the machine in a continuous strip, and is cut into 
 pieces 6 feet long as it runs on to wire trays. It is sometimes 
 pressed later into Biscuits or Sheets. 
 
 Flake. — Obtained by placing small pieces of freshly coagu- 
 lated rubber in a small rolling machine or washer, the corruga- 
 tions of which run horizontally ; the rollers are close together and 
 the cut rubber issues as thin strips. 
 
 Block. — Made from pressing together Sheets, Biscuits, or 
 other forms of rubber, in a freshly coagulated or partly dry 
 
34 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 state, in sizes usually lo x lo x 6 inches, the chief purpose being 
 to reduce to a minimum the surface exposed to the air after 
 preparation. 
 
 Scrap. — The remnants obtained after tapping, rolled into 
 balls or made up into cakes. It is shipped with or without other 
 preparation; it is sometimes made into Crepe. It brings a com- 
 paratively high price. 
 
 The popularity of the various forms here described may be 
 indicated by these statistics of the offerings of Ceylon and Malaya 
 plantation rubber at the London auction of December 31, 1908: 
 Crepe, 877 packages; sheets, 202; block, 128; biscuits, 59; worm, 
 12; scrap, 35; total, 1,313. 
 
 The color of Plantation Para is also taken into account. In 
 England paleness is considered important, pale and clear rubber, 
 or even amber color, selling best, 
 
 Rambong is the native name in the Far East for the tree 
 Ficus elastica, which produces the Assam rubber of commerce. 
 A considerable amount of cultivated Ficus rubber, from Java, 
 Ceylon, etc., is sold under this name. This comes in Crepe, 
 Sheet, and Block. 
 
 Manicoba plantation, and Ceara plantation are the product 
 of the cultivation, in southern Brazil, of the various species of 
 Manihot mentioned already under the heading "Ceara rubber." 
 
 Ceara plantation, from the same species, comes from Cey- 
 lon and Malaya, and from some German colonies in Africa. 
 
 Mexican plantation, as this book is issued, is coming into 
 market in increasing quantities, some of it very clean, and not 
 differing otherwise in quality from the product of the same tree 
 (Castilloa) under forest conditions. The higher price of this 
 grade, as in the case of other plantation rubbers, is due to the 
 smaller percentage of shrinkage. Mexican plantation rubber 
 comes as Strips, when the latex is creamed, coagulated, and run 
 between rolls, and as Grena when the product is scrap-picked 
 from the cuts on the trees and coagulated only by exposure to 
 the air. 
 
 Trinidad plantation, Tobago plantation, West Indies Planta- 
 tion Central American plantation, Guayaquil "Castilloa," and 
 such terms relate to the product of cultivated Castilloa trees in 
 
COAGULATION. 35 
 
 the regions indicated. A certain amount of Castilloa plantation 
 rubber comes from Ceylon, 
 
 Congo plantation, from various species, comes from Belgian 
 Congo (Congo Free State). 
 
 Uganda plantation comes from British East Africa. 
 
 COAGULATION. 
 
 The primary process that rubber undergoes when it enters 
 a rubber mill after weighing, is washing. As a rule this is 
 done with clear water. At the same time, certain acids and 
 foreign substances that are contained in the rubber are not easily 
 soluble in water, and yet may be easily removed. The first thing 
 to do, therefore, is to know what is to be expected in various 
 grades of rubber. 
 
 There is no question but that the differences between varying 
 grades of rubber, besides being due to a somewhat different chem- 
 ical composition, are also due in a measure to varying methods 
 of collection and coagulation. It is undoubtedly true that 
 no one method of collection would be best for all kinds of 
 rubber gathered, even if it were possible. At the same time, it 
 is of interest to the practical rubber manufacturer to know pretty 
 nearly what systems are pursued, and particularly what ingre- 
 dients are added, to produce coagulation, as the presence of cer- 
 tain residues may affect his compounds. 
 
 Smoking rubber is the system with which the world at large 
 is most familiar, and is practised in the Amazonian forests in the 
 collection of Para gum. Several kinds of palm nuts are used to 
 produce a thick smudge, but those ordinarily used are from the 
 Urucuri palm (Attalea excelsa). This smoke has been found by 
 analysis to consist mainly of acetic acid and creosote, the latter 
 being a well known preservative of rubber. Fine Para rubber is 
 nearly always smoked in this way. Coarse Para is air dried. 
 Ceara rubber is also, to a certain extent, smoked in the gathering, 
 the palm nut used being that of the Eucturbe edulus. There is 
 also a kind of gum tree found in the forests of the Isthmus, and 
 where it is impossible to get palm nuts, its wood is used for the 
 coagulating smoke. 
 
 Amole Juice. — A native process for coagulating the milk of 
 
36 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 the rubber tree, which prevails throughout Central America, 
 involves the use of an alkaline decoction made from the juice of a 
 plant called "achete" or "coasso" {Ipomcsa bonor-nox, Linn., and 
 also Calonyction speciosum) . This is combined with rubber milk 
 in the proportion of i pint to i^ gallons of the latter. During 
 coagulation the vessels are often heated from 165° to 175° F. 
 After coagulation, the rubber is dried for twelve or fourteen days. 
 The kinds of rubber coagulated in this fashion are Mexican, Nic- 
 araguan, and in fact almost all of the rubbers that come under the 
 head of Centrals, and are obtained from the Castilloa elastica. 
 
 Acetic Acid. — Used in coagulating Hevea latex in the Far 
 East. 
 
 Alcohol. — One of the best general coagulants, but too costly 
 to be commercially available. 
 
 Alum. — This is used all through the isthmus of Panama, and 
 in coagulating Accra rubbers and other African sorts. Pernam- 
 buco rubber is also treated with a water solution of Alum, as is 
 the Nicaraguan at times. 
 
 BosANGA. — The juice of the Costus afer, a seed, used in the 
 coagulation of the latex of Landolphia in the Lopori district in 
 Central Africa. 
 
 Beta Separator. — The invention of Mr. John Hinchley 
 Hart, F.L.S., of Trinidad. This is an arrangement by which the 
 latex placed in the upper compartment is washed, filtered, and 
 coagulated. The machine known as the Beta separator works 
 somewhat on the principle of the cream separator. 
 
 CouTiNHo's Machine. — ^This is a wooden cylinder about 20 
 inches in diameter, set horizontally, revolving by a crank and so 
 arranged that smoke is let into the inside through the cylinder 
 shaft. The latex, by the revolution of the cylinder, is distributed 
 over its inner surface and there smoked and coagulated. 
 
 Coyuntla Juice. — This is an astringent juice made from 
 the Mexican weed of that name. When the rubber milk is 
 gathered, it is placed in earthenware vessels and whipped with 
 the weed, which causes coagulation. The Mexican rubber known 
 as Tuxpam is treated in this way. 
 
 Centrifugal System. — Another form of coagulation, that 
 has recently been tried with considerable success, is the using of 
 
COAGULATION. Z7 
 
 a centrifugal machine which removes the watery contents from 
 the gum, and produces a marvelously clear elastic rubber. 
 
 Danin^s machine for smoking rubber is a revolvable cylin- 
 der, through openings in the end of which smoke is forced, the 
 latex first having been introduced through the other end of the 
 cylinder. The cylinder being rotated, the latex spreads itself 
 over its inner circumference and is carried past the discharge end 
 of the smoke conduit and thus coagulated. The machine is the 
 invention of Joao Roso Cardoso Danin, of Para, Brazil. 
 
 Formic Acid. — Used instead of acetic acid in coagulating 
 Hevea latex. 
 
 FuMERO. — A machine patented by G. van den Kerckhove, of 
 Brussels, Belgium. The apparatus is simple, the latex being 
 guided by the hand over the smoke and the rubber produced in 
 ball form uniformly cured. The apparatus designs to do scien- 
 tifically exactly what the Amazon rubber gatherers do crudely 
 in smoking Para rubber. 
 
 Heat, Air, Sunlight. — Various rubbers are coagulated 
 simply by the exposure to slight artificial heat, to the sunlight, or 
 merely to the air. Such are the coarse Para rubbers, certain of 
 the Centrals, African, and East Indian rubbers. Fiji rubber is 
 coagulated in the mouths of the natives, and some Angola rubber 
 on the arms and breasts of the natives. 
 
 Helper Process. — This consists of the addition of a solution 
 of acetic acid, and is based on the knowledge derived from the 
 analysis of the smoke of the Urucuri nuts. 
 
 KoALATEX. — ^A proprietary preparation used in Ceylon and 
 the Federated Malay States for coagulating the latex of the Hevea 
 Brasiliensis. 
 
 Lime. — A final process in the coagulation of rubber in India 
 is the washing over with lime. Collins also mentions the use of 
 lime in connection with the coagulation of Para rubber. 
 
 Lime Juice. — Lagos rubber and some other African sorts 
 are coagulated by the addition of a little lime juice, which is added 
 as the milk flows from the vine. 
 
 NiPA Salt. — A salt obtained by the burning of the plant 
 known as the Nipa fruticans. Is used in the coagulation of 
 Borneo rubber. 
 
38 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 Machacon Juice. — Cartagena rubber, which is gathered 
 carelessly, is coagulated in a hole in the ground by the addition of 
 the juice of the root of the "machacon" — a strongly alkaline 
 solution. 
 
 PozELiNA. — A preparation intended to keep rubber latex in 
 a fluid condition until the time of curing. The ingredients used 
 in making the preparation are secret. The headquarters for its 
 sale are at Para, Brazil. 
 
 PuRUB. — Another name for hydrofluoric acid, when prepared 
 as a coagulant of rubber latex. 
 
 Salt. — Many kinds of low grade rubber are coagulated by 
 the addition of salt or brine. Borneo, for instance, is coagulated 
 in that way. Madagascar rubber receives a treatment of salt- 
 water. Mangabeira rubber is treated with a mixture consisting 
 of I part of salt to 2 parts of alum. Nicaragua rubber is also 
 often coagulated with salt. 
 
 Seringuina. — A chemical product for retarding for any 
 length of time the coagulation of rubber latex. Is said to con- 
 tain no corrosive elements. When the latex is finally smoked the 
 substance evaporates entirely. It is the invention of Dr. Cerqueira 
 Pinto, of Para, Brazil. 
 
 Soap and Wood Ashes. — The medium grade rubbers all 
 through Central America are often coagulated by the use of soap, 
 and where that is not plenty, of a strong lye from wood-ashes. 
 
 Spirits of Wine. — This is used sometimes in the coagula- 
 tion of Balata. 
 
 Sulphur Fumes. — According to James Collins, rubber of 
 the Para varieties is sometimes exposed to the action of the fumes 
 of melted sulphur, which affects coagulation. This process, how- 
 ever, is very rarely followed. 
 
 Torres System. — In addition to the natural methods de- 
 scribed above, there are several that give some evidence of an 
 intelligent study of the milk and the substances best adapted 
 for this work. Under the Torres system a liquid is made by a 
 secret formula, from the roots and fruits of certain South 
 American palms, which, when added to the milk, preserves it 
 from curdling, so that it will keep for weeks. It can thus be 
 transported to a convenient place for smoking. 
 
OXYDASES IN RUBBER. 39 
 
 OXYDASES IN RUBBER. 
 
 Why rubber is dark in color may with propriety be treated 
 here. The discovery by Dr. David Spence, whose investigations of 
 the latex of various rubber trees have been most profound as well 
 as practical, of an active enzyme which has an oxidizing effect, is 
 of much interest to rubber manufacturers. The result of this 
 line of experiment and research will undoubtedly one day be a 
 pure crude rubber with all the nerve and strength of the present 
 dark colored product. Dr. Spence's description of enzymes is here 
 appended : 
 
 "These enzymes are probably, as I learned, present in the 
 protein of the latex of all rubber producing plants, and so act 
 upon the insoluble portion of the protein that it is converted into 
 colored products, which impart the dark color to the rubber. In 
 my original work I determined that the temperature at which the 
 oxidizing enzymes are destroyed lies very close to the point where 
 in general other similar enzymes perish. To obtain rubber only 
 slightly darkened, it seems, at first glance, only necessary to 
 destroy the active enzymes in the latex or the rubber by heating 
 above the sterilizing temperature, 75° C. But this method of 
 destroying the enzymes by means of heat is not so easily accom- 
 plished in practice, and this fact leads me to the belief that in 
 the latex and in the rubber there was a heat-resisting agent, 
 zymogen, which slowly changed into active enzymes. 
 
 "1 found, for example, that freshly cut pieces of Para rubber, 
 washed thoroughly with water for more than an hour to remove 
 the strongly colored soluble matters, gradually darkened and 
 after exposure to the air finally became entirely black. Potassium 
 cyanide, a mercury chloride solution or acetic acid, failed to pre- 
 vent the dark coloration, or at least after the above solutions were 
 completely removed by washing. I made many experiments with 
 the latex of Funtumia elastica, but found without exception that 
 heating the latex or the rubber prepared therefrom even to 
 100° C. for half an hour was insufficient to alter the tendency to 
 turn dark, 
 
 "It is known that certain natives on the West African coast 
 obtain rubber from the latex of Funtumia elastica by heating it 
 with water until the separating rubber particles coalesce into 
 
40 GRADES OF CRUDE RUBBER. 
 
 balls. Nevertheless, I have seen no sort of rubber prepared in 
 this manner in which the effect of the active oxydase enzyme 
 was not plainly observable. 
 
 "Since the oxidizing enzyme is very stable towards heat, 
 the best method for handling the latex to secure only faintly 
 colored rubber appears to be the one presented previously by me 
 and now repeated here. By this method the enzyme itself is to be 
 removed as completely as possible before coagulation. The latex 
 is diluted with water before the coagulation and the agglomerat- 
 ing rubber particles washed well (this applies at least to Funtumia 
 elastic a) in order to remove the oxidizing enzyme as well as other 
 foreign matter from the rubber. In this manner a snow-white 
 rubber is obtained. Yet to prevent as much as possible the bane- 
 ful effects when using the boiling process a substance having a 
 noxious action against the enzyne but a harmless one towards 
 rubber could be utilized. 
 
 "Many experiments to discover a body which would render 
 innocuous the oxidizing enzyme have been fruitless. So, from a 
 practical standpoint, the destruction of the oxidizing enzyme is 
 not as simple a matter. There are a number of difficulties to 
 overcome, and, only when the nature and properties of the 
 enzyme are more closely investigated, may we hope to ascertain 
 a practical method for the removal of this substance." 
 
 Synthetic Rubber. — Every year there is more or less news- 
 paper prominence given to Synthetic Rubber discovery and dis- 
 coverers, but so far absolutely nothing has been accomplished 
 commercially. The producers of alleged Synthetic Rubber work 
 along a variety of lines. There is, jfirst and most dangerous, the 
 line of fraud where real rubber disguised is put forth as a cheap 
 synthetic production. This procedure has been the means of ex- 
 tracting many dollars from the pockets of the credulous. There 
 is another class of honest but somewhat ignorant inventors who 
 make products that in some respects are similar to rubber, and 
 which they believe are equal to or even better than rubber. They 
 use oils, gums, cellulose, in fact, almost anything that will 
 produce a waterproof plastic. These products are often of value 
 in connection with rubber and sometimes when used alone, but 
 never yet have anywhere near equaled the crude material. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 SOME LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS AND BASTARD OR PSEUDO GUMS. 
 
 From time to time reports come in from all over the 
 tropical world regarding the discovery of gums, some of which 
 are similar to India-rubber, while others are more like Gutta- 
 percha. In a few instances these gums have appeared on the 
 market, in due time, under various names and have been useful. 
 This is not the rule, however, and it is due to a variety of 
 reasons. The first, perhaps, is the scientific attitude of those who 
 primarily examine the samples received at the great centers of 
 civilization. Unless gums are of high grade, and bear promise of 
 being nearly as valuable as a good grade of India-rubber or Gut- 
 ta-percha, they are usually pronounced as worthless, or nearly so. 
 These same experts, it is well to remember, condemned reclaimed 
 rubber and substitutes, which may lead the manufacturer to sus- 
 pect that his wants are not always appreciated by the learned. It 
 is possible, of course, that the scientists and experts are right, and 
 that it would have been better had reclaimed rubber or substitutes 
 never been known. Nevertheless, rubber manufacturers are ever 
 in the market for them, and would welcome many of the pseudo 
 gums and find large uses for them, if once they were within reach. 
 
 Aside from the scientific attitude is the indifferent attitude of 
 the gatherers in their native wilds, of the importers who see 
 little profit in such cheap gums, and of the manufacturers them-, 
 selves, who wait until a neighbor has tried something new before 
 venturing to experiment. 
 
 It is only sufficient to recall what is needed in rubber com- 
 pounding to see how many of these gums could be made valuable. 
 For example, sometimes simple stickiness is called for, in another 
 case only insulating qualities and stickiness, in still another, water- 
 proofing qualities and stickiness, and, it is well to add here, 
 where only one valuable quality exists in a gum others can 
 often be supplied. As a matter of fact, in the present state of 
 compounding and manipulation, the presence of resins is not 
 heeded, short life can be overcome, and intractability can be done 
 away with. 
 
 41 
 
42 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 A few years ago an American rubber manufacturer at- 
 tempted to secure from Mexico a quantity of the bark from a 
 small tree which was believed to yield rubber, with a view to 
 extracting the gum, by the boiling process. His agent, not under- 
 standing the instructions given, had enough of the shrubs cut off 
 at the ground to make a steamer load, and shipped them entire — 
 wood and all. A liberal yield was obtained of a gum equal in 
 quality to a good grade of Centrals. The undertaking did not 
 prove profitable enough, however, to cause it to be repeated. But 
 in time others became interested in the product of the plant in 
 question, with the result of developing the present large produc- 
 tion of Guayule rubber, which is treated more fully in another 
 chapter. 
 
 It is with the hope that some of the gums mentioned in the 
 following pages may be brought before the rubber manufacturers 
 the world over, that space has been given to them. 
 
 Abba Rubber. — This is an African rubber, from Lagos. It 
 probably is the product of the Ficus Vogelii. It is low grade 
 rubber and cures soft and short. There is a large percentage of 
 resin in the milk. The tree is widely distributed, and the product 
 is thought to enter largely into Lagos rubber. The trees are 
 most abundant in Grand Bassam, and grow rapidly to great size, 
 single trees often yielding lo or 12 pounds in a season. The milk 
 is coagulated by adding vegetable acids and boiling. The rubber 
 is bright red. It contains about 55 per cent, rubber and 45 per 
 cent, resin, and forms 30 per cent, of the latex. The washing 
 loss is 10 to 14 per cent. One report is that the latex of this tree 
 is mixed with that of Funtumia elastica, the mixture being called 
 by the natives "aba-odo." 
 
 Abyssinian Gutta. — An adhesive acid gum of an earthy 
 brown color, similar to common gutta in external appearance. 
 Softens in water, but keeps a very great elasticity. On drying 
 it remains exceedingly adhesive, therefore could not be used in 
 place of Gutta-percha, but with proper treatment would undoubt- 
 edly make an excellent friction gum. 
 
 Almeidina. — This comes from West Africa, particularly 
 from the Cameroons and Angola, and has been found in the Solo- 
 mon Islands. Its source is a shrub with succulent stems, all of 
 
ALMEIDINA—BAKA GUM. 43 
 
 which are tapped. The milk is boiled and the resultant balls 
 dried in the sun. It conies to market in small and sulphur- 
 colored nodules, resembling potatoes, for which reason it some- 
 times has been called "potato gum." When broken open, these 
 balls look like putty, and although quite brittle when cold, the 
 gum easily softens in warm water and may be drawn out in 
 threads, which are possessed of some elasticity. It is completely 
 melted at 240° F., and remains rather sticky after melting. It 
 almost completely dissolves in cold benzine; in fact, nearly all 
 of the solvents ordinarily used in rubber manufacture dissolve it. 
 It mixes and dissolves with rubber in almost any proportion and 
 up to 25 per cent, at least. Not only does it not injure the rubber, 
 but is said to be beneficial to it. In working on the mill a pungent 
 vapor arises from the mass, which, however, has no poisonous 
 effect. In using this gum, a little caustic soda sometimes is added 
 to the water when it is being washed; some manufacturers add 
 tannic acid. Animal or vegetable fixed oils do not dissolve Al- 
 meidina, and therefore when mixed with it are apt to rot it. 
 Mixed with Gutta-percha this gum is practically indestructible. 
 The name "Almeidina" is that of the first important shipper of 
 the gum; in England the spelling "Almadina" has come into use. 
 The gum is known also as "Euphorbia gum." Warburg and 
 Jumelle say that Almeidina comes from Euphorbia rhipsaloides, 
 which must not be confused with E. tirucalli. Berry gives 
 Almeidina 82.78 per cent, resin, and 9.40 per cent, hydrocarbon. 
 
 Amazonian Resin Rubbers. — The valley of the Amazon 
 contains various trees and plants that are caoutchouc producers, 
 but which are generally neglected, as the gatherers are seeking 
 the more valuable Hevea or Castilloa. At the same time the latex 
 of some of these plants has been referred as being used to a con- 
 siderable extent for adulterating Para rubber. Among these are 
 mentioned the trees known under the native names of Amapa, 
 Sucuba, Surva, Tamanguiro, Molango, etc. All of these show a 
 marked percentage of resin in the milk. 
 
 Antipolo Gum is being made from Aartocarpus incisa (the 
 breadfruit tree) in the Philippines. Antipolo is a town in the 
 province of Luzon. 
 
 Baka Gum. — Found in the Fiji archipelago. Comes from 
 
44 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 Ficus obligua (Foret). Used by natives for birdlime. Milk very 
 abundant. Gum little known. Samples sent to England were 
 reported upon as being suitable for mixing. 
 
 Banana Rubber. — Green bananas yield considerable latex, 
 which is 95.7 per cent, water and only 3.9 per cent, rubber. It is 
 easily coagulated by boiling. Made from Musa sapientum and 
 M. paradisiaca. 
 
 Barta-Balli. — One of the best kown native trees in the 
 Guianas. The milk of this tree has usually been mixed with 
 Balata milk and is said to give it its reddish tint. The gum when 
 dried by evaporation is rather sticky and soft, but when precipi- 
 tated in alcohol is dry and firm. Reports from England are 
 rather condemnatory as the gum is said to absorb a great deal of 
 water in washing, which it retains very obstinately. The same 
 rubber, dried by precipitation by spirits of wine, is said to be 
 very brittle. Known also as Cumaka-balli. 
 
 Beira Rubber. — Another name for stick rubber, gathered on 
 the east coast of Africa, and shipped from Beira. 
 
 Canoe Gums. — From the bark of the breadfruit tree, which 
 is found so plentifully in the islands of the Indian archipelago, 
 comes a thick mucilageous fluid which hardens by exposure to 
 the air. When boiled with cocoanut oil it makes a tough rubber- 
 like substance wholly waterproof, and very lasting. It is used 
 ordinarily for waterproofing seams of canoes, pails, etc. It is also 
 used, when fresh, as a birdlime. Is probably from the Artocarpus 
 integrifolia. 
 
 Cape Cattimandu. — Derived from an Euphorbia found at 
 the Cape of Good Hope. The juice is so acrid as to give intense 
 irritation to any part of the body with which it may come in con- 
 tact. The gum has been used as an anti-fouling dressing for 
 ships' bottoms, but is little known otherwise. 
 
 Cattimandu Gum. — This is one of the Euphorbia gums, the 
 natives using the milk as a cement to fasten knives in their 
 handles. Under the influence of heat it becomes soft and viscid 
 and when dry is very brittle. It is probably about as useful as 
 Indian gutta. Found in Vizagapatam, India, Cattimandu gum 
 seems to be from Euphorbia trigona. 
 
 Cativo Gum. — This comes from the sap of the mangrove, 
 
CHICLE— COORONGITE. 45 
 
 called "Cativo" in the United States of Colombia. The gum is 
 fluid at 130° F., and if the temperature be raised to 212° F. it 
 is easily filtered and impurities removed, and a somewhat objec- 
 tionable smell greatly lessened. The gum is then of a clear red- 
 dish brown color. It mixes easily with rubber and is said to pro- 
 duce a very tough compound. When vulcanized with 5 per cent, 
 sulphur, this gum makes a fine, elastic product. When vulcanized 
 with more than 5 per cent, sulphur, it becomes like Gutta-percha, 
 and can be sheeted or molded, when warmed. 
 
 Chicle. — A gummy resinous substance found in the Achras 
 sapota, a. tree growing abundantly in the warm damp regions of 
 Mexico and also in portions of Central America. Chicle should 
 be of a whitish color, odorous, and free from impurities, but often 
 is adulterated with an inferior pink or reddish soil. It is solid 
 and brittle at ordinary temperatures, but becomes plastic when 
 placed in hot water. It is quite soft at 49° C. (120° F.). It is 
 used chiefly in the United States in the manufacture of chewing 
 gums, and to a small extent in England for adhesive plasters. 
 It has been used for modeling purposes and for mixture with 
 India-rubber for insulation work. The fruit is about as large as 
 an apple, though looking more like a quince and is eaten under 
 the name of "sapodilla" or "sapotilla" plum. The fruit is pricked 
 or sliced and the latex is allowed to ooze out without squeezing, 
 so as not to get the other juices. Lateral tapping is used on the 
 tree, and 15 to 25 pounds of milk or 5 or 6 pounds of gum may be 
 obtained in one season without injuring the tree. The milk is 
 coagulated by boiling. Prolonged boiling makes it reddish, 
 though some trees are said to yield a red gum. The best Chicle 
 is made from highland grown trees. The trees sometimes grow 70 
 feet high, and the wood, which is very heavy, takes a high polish 
 and is quite valuable. The analysis of Chicle shows 44.80 per 
 cent, resin, 17.20 per cent, rubber, 9 per cent, water, and 8.20 
 per cent, starch and other matters, on an average. It sometimes 
 contains as much as 55 per cent, of resins, when dry. 
 
 CooRONGiTE — Sometimes known as Australian Caoutchouc. 
 An India-rubber like material, discovered first near Salt creek, 
 a short distance from the coast of South Australia. It was ob- 
 served in little hollows of sand and resembled patches of dried 
 
46 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 leather, but it generally occurred in the swamps. It is supposed 
 to be of the petroleum series. Some scientific authorities in 
 England and America ascribe to it a vegetable origin and regard 
 the gum as exuding from a plant or lichen. It is not soluble in 
 the ordinary solvents used in rubber work, but after mixing with 
 India-rubber is can be put in solution. According to Forster, it 
 vulcanizes somewhat as India-rubber does. 
 
 Cow Tree Rubber. — The Cow Tree is very plentiful in tropi- 
 cal South America and yields a milk commonly used for food. 
 This milk contains considerable Caoutchouc, which is about 30 
 per cent, resin. Botanically it is known as the Brosimum galac- 
 todendron. Besides Brosimum galactodendron, Warburg men- 
 tions another Cow Tree, Couma utilis, an Apocynaceae, growing 
 in northern Brazil, while B. galactodendron is an Artocarpeae of 
 Venezuela. Couma utilis latex contains rubber, and is used by 
 the natives in waterproofing. Cow Tree milk is exceedingly 
 hard to coagulate, and evaporation product is completely soluble 
 in hot acetone, seeming to indicate absence of any rubber. The 
 constituents are mainly fatty matter, possessing neither tenacity 
 nor elasticity, according to the German chemists. 
 
 CuMAi Rubber. — From the milk of a tree found on the Rio 
 Negro and Uaupes, in Brazil. None comes to market. This 
 milk is used by the natives for waterproofing purposes. 
 
 Durango Rubber. — See Guayule. 
 
 Euphorbia Rubber. — See Almeidina. 
 
 Fluvia. — See Pontianak. 
 
 GoA Gum. — Discovered by Senor Da Costa. It is a gum 
 that comes from the Mival-cantem, which grows wild in the Cou- 
 can district in Brazil, and is also planted for hedges. Chocolate 
 in color, softens under heat, is easily molded, and thoroughly 
 waterproof. 
 
 GuTTA Bassia. — Found between Upper Senegal and the 
 Nile. Has the appearance and apparently many of the properties 
 of Gutta-percha. Softens in warm water and becomes glutinous 
 at the boiling point. Is soluble in sulphide of carbon, chloroform, 
 benzole, and alcohol. Can be kneaded in water as easily as 
 ordinary gutta. It may be the same as Karite gutta, which is 
 
GUTTA-GREK—GUTTA-SHEA. 47 
 
 from Bassia Parkii, though there are other African Bassias which 
 are said to yield good gutta. 
 
 Gutta-Grek. — A gum that comes from Palembang, in 
 Straits Settlements. It appears very much like India-rubber, but 
 is permanently softened and destroyed by heat sufficient to melt 
 it. It smells like Gutta-percha rather than India-rubber. 
 
 Gutta Horfoot. — This is a vegetable juice sent in sealed 
 tins from the Straits Settlements, which yields a material like 
 India-rubber of fair quality. No way of coagulating the juice, 
 where it is gathered, seems to be known. 
 
 Gutta-Shea. — Said to be the nearest approach to Gutta- 
 percha among African products; obtained from the Shea, Ga- 
 1am, or Bambouk rubber-tree (Butyrospermum Parkii). The 
 butter is the solid fat contained in the seeds and is used in making 
 hard soaps. Gutta-shea is separated from the fat in the course 
 of the soap making and is found to be present to the extent of 
 from 5 to 75 per cent. A kind of Gutta-percha is also obtained 
 from the trunk of the tree in small quantities. Also known as 
 "Karite gum." Analysis of the butter shows: Guttalike 25.20 
 per cent.; resin 57.13 per cent.; water 5.04 per cent. ; im- 
 purities 12.63 P^'' cent. The yellowish butter smells and 
 tastes much like cocoa butter. Cazalbo claimed to have 
 differentiated two varieties, one yielding a red and the 
 other a yellowish gum. The red kind is the more valuable, 
 and this tree also yields gum from its trunk, while the 
 yellow gum tree does not. It is uncertain whether the yellow 
 butter yields any gutta, though the trunk gutta from the other 
 variety is comparable to Red Borneo in toughness and in its 
 structure. Called also "Karite Gutta" and "Shea butter." 
 Knowledge on this subject is still confused and the authorities 
 conflict. The two varieties are called "Shea" and "Mana," the 
 Shea being the one which yields gutta, and also the more abun- 
 dant variety. The branches seem to yield even more than the 
 trunk. The milk is allowed to stand in the open air for about 24 
 hours, when it partially curdles. The crystalline particles are 
 then kneaded into a mass in hot water. However, reports on 
 this gum are conflicting, and it is probable that two sources are 
 confused. Some advices seem to point to the plum-like fruit as 
 
48 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 the source of both gutta and butter. Fendler and Heim consider 
 Karite gutta worthless as a substitute for Gutta-percha. 
 
 Gutta Susu. — Also called "Gutta grip," at Singapore, and 
 formerly known as "Assam White," The washing loss is 30 
 to 45 per cent,, and the clean rubber contains 14.5 per cent, resin. 
 In Java and Sumatra it is generally stored under water. The 
 vine is tapped and the gum left to dry on the bark. The milk is 
 sometimes gathered and coagulated with salt and boiling, but this 
 method is not so good as bark drying. It is a white and remains 
 so under water, but darkens on exposure to the air. 
 
 Jelutong. — See Pontianak, 
 
 Jeve^ Jebe_, or Heve (hence Hevea) was the ancient name 
 for rubber among the natives of Ecuador, The name was applied 
 to a rubber coming principally from the neighborhood of Iquitos, 
 Peru, (See Peruvian rubber.) 
 
 JiNTAWAN. — A bastard Gutta-percha mentioned by Thomas 
 Hancock in four patents and also by Taylor and Duncan. Prob- 
 ably a mis-spelling of "Djintaan soesoa," the same as Gutta-susu. 
 
 LoRANTHUs Rubber. — A sticky non-elastic Venezuelan 
 product. Contains 18 per cent, of resin. 
 
 Maboa Gum. — Said to be produced from a species of Ficus 
 in Santiago de Cuba. 
 
 Macwarrieballi Gum. — A rubber gathered in British 
 Guiana from the Forsteronia gracilis. From the report of the 
 director of the Kew gardens, to whom a sample was submitted, it 
 would seem that, while the gum is at present unfit for use in 
 place of ordinary Caoutchouc, because of its stickiness, it might 
 be of value in cements, frictions, and the like. Forsteronia 
 gracilis is a vine or bush rope belonging to the ApocynacecB. The 
 milk appears to be often mixed with that of Balata or Barta- 
 balli, though Macwarrieballi is more like rubber than Balata. 
 The vine is very rich in latex. 
 
 Mangegatu Gum. — This comes from Vizagapatam, India, 
 and is a gum of the bastard gutta type, similar to gutta trap, and 
 is said to come from the Ficus Indica. 
 
 Mandarnva Rubber, — A low grade of South American 
 gum, somewhat like Ceara rubber. Little known. Is said to 
 grow on the dry arid uplands of the interior. Is one of a number 
 
MANGA-ICE—PALA GUM. 49 
 
 of gums that bear the natives names, "Cauchin," "Pau," and 
 "Massaranduba." 
 
 Manga-ice Rubber. — Argentine republic. It is very abun- 
 dant. Produces good rubber. 
 
 MuDAR Gum. — ^This comes from an Asclepiad, commonly 
 known as gigantic swallow wort (Calotropis giganteas). The 
 shrub is found throughout the southern provinces of India and 
 grows to a height of from six to ten feet. Produces a gutta-like 
 substance, which becomes plastic in hot water, and in other ways 
 acts somewhat like Gutta-percha. It insulates badly, but is rec- 
 ommended for waterproofing. Analysis: Rubber, 16.92 per 
 cent.; rosin, 83.08 per cent., according to Warden (1885). 
 Hooper found 25.54 per cent, of a rather poor rubber, and 62 per 
 cent, resin. 
 
 Mule Gum, — Another name for Ceara rubber. 
 
 MusA Rubber. — A gum expressed from the peel and leaves 
 of the banana and pisang plants. No gum yet on the market. 
 Process patented in England by Otto Zurcher, of Kingston, 
 Jamaica. Also called "Banana Rubber" (which see). 
 
 Neen Rubber. — A rubber-like gum said to be produced by 
 an insect, reported from Yucatan. The insect belongs to the 
 coccus family, feeds on the mango tree, and swarms in those 
 regions. It is of considerable size, yellowish brown in color, and 
 emits a peculiar oily odor. The body of the insect contains a 
 large proportion of grease, which is highly prized by the natives 
 for its medicinal properties in skin diseases. When exposed to 
 great heat, the lighter oils of the grease volatilize, leaving a 
 tough wax which resembles shellac. When burnt this wax pro- 
 duces a thick semi-fluid mass, like a solution of India-rubber. 
 An "ant wax" or lac is found in Madagascar, and is secreted by 
 two insects, Garcardia Madagascariensis and Gascardia Perrieri. 
 The former secretes a white gum, containing 52 per cent, of resin. 
 The latter secretes red gum, with 46 to 48 per cent, resin. The 
 two gums have the same value. 
 
 Pala Gum. — Found in Assam and Ceylon. The wood and 
 the bark are valued in India for their medicinal qualities. The 
 tree yields an abundant milky juice, which after coagulation 
 acts something like Gutta-percha. It readily softens in hot water 
 
50 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 and takes impressions, which are retained when cold. Also 
 known as "Indian Gutta-percha." Comes from the Dichopsis 
 elliptica. It has been used as an adulterant of Singapore gutta 
 for some years. It was used also as birdlime or cement and keeps 
 well under water. Is hard and brittle when cold. The resin or 
 crystalban is easily removed by boiling alcohol, and the residue 
 appears to be a very fair gutta. 
 
 Palo Amarillo. — A varnish-like gum from the latex of the 
 Mexican tree Euphorbia fulva. Analysis of the latex gives 34 
 per cent, gum and 6 per cent, resin. So far the gum is not sus- 
 ceptible of vulcanization and is not elastic. 
 
 P. F. U. — A good rubber, not now obtained commercially, 
 the source of which was the Colorado desert weed, the Picra- 
 denia florihunda utilis. 
 
 PicKEUM Gum. — See Guayule. 
 
 PoNTiANAK is a cheap inelastic gum imported from Borneo 
 for use as a friction and filler. It takes its name from the town 
 of Pontianak, and is known also as "Jelutong," this being the 
 import name in the United States, and sometimes as "Fluvia" 
 and "Cambria." It is white and looks like marshmallow candy, 
 and smells strongly of petroleum. Oxidizes readily on exposure 
 to the air. Pontianak gum, according to eminent authority, 
 comes from the tree Dyera costulata. It often comes mixed with 
 the milk of local Willoughbeias. The Dyera costulata sometimes 
 grows 150 feet high and yields 100 pounds of gum when cut down. 
 Pontianak is about the same as Almeidina in quality. Berry finds 
 in Jelutong 75 to 76.55 per cent, resin, and 16 to 19 per cent, 
 hydrocarbons. Pontianak wood is much used in making Chinese 
 shoes. 
 
 Root Rubber. — A rubber obtained from the roots of semi- 
 herbaceous plants known as the Carpodinus lanceolatus, Landol- 
 phia Thollonii, and others. Very abundant in the open grassy 
 country of Angola and the Congo Free State. (See Thimbles.) 
 
 Sarua Rubber. — Found in the Fiji archipelago, from Alsto- 
 nia plumosa. Formerly collected largely, now but little comes to 
 market. Natives take no interest in its collection. Is soft at first, 
 but hardens after a time and becomes inelastic. Is about the color 
 and consistency of putty. Natives collect juice in three months 
 
SUSU-POKO—TUNO. 51 
 
 and it coagulates almost at once. Comes from stems and leaves. 
 No juice in trunk of tree. 
 
 SiEBA Gum. — See Tuno. 
 
 Susu-POKO (meaning English tree milk). — A gum from a 
 tree growing in the Malay peninsula, used in the place of Gutta- 
 percha, after being cleansed and treated with chloride of sulphur. 
 Mentioned by Leonard Wray in 1858. 
 
 Talotalo Gum. — Found in the Fiji archipelago. Comes 
 from Tahernaemontana Thurstoni. The gum is hard, gutta like, 
 and without elasticity. Also called "Kau Drega." The milk is 
 thin, but the tree grows large, up to two feet in diameter, and it 
 is the best rubber source in the Fiji islands. 
 
 Talaing Rubber. — An almost black rubber which, when 
 cut into, is white and porous presenting a honeycombed appear- 
 ance, the cavities being filled with a watery fluid. It is quite 
 tough and elastic and appears to be of good quality. It comes 
 from a creeper which is abundant in the Philippines, in Malacca, 
 and Indo-China. The juice is very abundant, and is coagulated 
 by being boiled in water. 
 
 Tirucalli Gum. — This is a Euphorbium gum, from the 
 Indian plant known as milk hedge. The milk of this plant is used 
 for various purposes, chiefly medicinal, in India, and has been 
 suggested as a substitute for Gutta-percha. Like Gum Euphor- 
 bium, it has a very acrid character, and the collection of it is a 
 very dangerous operation to the eyes. When dry it becomes 
 very brittle, but when warmed in water is quite elastic. 
 
 ToucHPONG Gum. — This is without doubt a rubber gum, 
 entirely distinct from Balata. The rubber dries in strips on the 
 trees, and what little of it comes to market has not been recog- 
 nized as a distinct sort. Samples sent to England, however, have 
 been favorably reported on. It is found throughout the Guianas. 
 Probably from Sapium biglandulosum. Spelled "Touchpong" by 
 Jenman; "Touchpong" by Morris; "Pouckpong" by Dr. Hugo 
 Miller. 
 
 Tung is a trade name applied to a gum gathered principally 
 in Nicaragua and Honduras. It is the product of what has been 
 called the "sterile rubber tree" and also the "male rubber tree" 
 of Nicaragua. The milk is coagulated with the aid of heat. The 
 
52 LITTLE KNOWN RUBBERS. 
 
 gum is but slightly elastic, is very sticky when heated, and is 
 cheap. It is used as a friction gum, and is also mixed with 
 Balata in the manufacture of belting. Sometimes it is sold under 
 the name "Seiba gum," its identity being lost by the ingenious 
 massing and manipulation under water. Nicaragua rubber 
 adulterated with "Tuno" in coagulation soon hardens and loses 
 its elasticity. Also spelled "Toonu" and "Tunu." It is derived 
 from Castilloa, tunu, and called locally "caucho macho" or male 
 rubber. Though it has a bad reputation, Mr. E. Poisson has drawn 
 excellent rubber from this same tree in Costa Rica. Tuno gum 
 usually runs over 80 per cent, resin. Berry gives it 80 to 86.13 
 per cent, resin, and 3.50 to 7.06 per cent, hydrocarbons (gutta- 
 like). 
 
 Yellow Gutta. — This comes from the Sunda Isles, from 
 the genus Payena. It is practically a compound of India-rubber 
 with two resins. One of these is crystallizable and the other is 
 pitchy. If the raw material be treated with boiling alcohol the 
 resins are taken off and the remaining product appears to be 
 good India-rubber. Berry describes Yellow Gutta as "a gum of 
 dual composition containing the hard resins characteristic of 
 chicle, and the elastic caoutchouc-like hydrocarbon characteristic 
 of rubber." It is more like rubber than gutta. The analysis gave 
 80 per cent, resin and 12.58 per cent, hydrocarbons (rubber?). 
 The resin looks like chicle resin, and has a saponification value 
 of 104. 1, with a trace of acid. However, there are several guttas 
 which are yellow. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. DIVISIONS IN RUBBER MANUFACTURE AND PRIMARY PROCESSES IN 
 MANIPULATING THE GUM. 
 
 The foremost European manufacturers of rubber goods, as 
 a rule, make everything in the Hne of compounded rubber, hard 
 or soft, and in addition often are producers ' of Gutta-percha 
 goods. In the United States, on the other hand, the tendency has 
 been to speciaHze the industry, and as a result it has divided itself 
 naturally into the following general lines: Mechanical rubber 
 goods; Tires, pneumatic and solid; Molded work; Sundries, 
 druggists', surgical, and stationers'; Dental and stamp rubbers; 
 Surface clothing; Carriage cloth; Mackintoshes and proofing; 
 Boots and shoes; Insulated wire; Hard rubber; Cements; 
 Notions; Plasters; and Reclaimed rubber. 
 
 The following brief description of the manipulation of rub- 
 ber in these various lines is given simply because there are super- 
 intendents and managers who are experts in one line, say, for 
 example, of Druggists' sundries, but who may be wholly 
 unfamiliar with even the machinery used in other lines. 
 
 Mechanical Rubber Goods. — This line of rubber manufac- 
 ture, which is also known in Europe as technical rubber goods, 
 embraces all the heavier combinations of India-rubber, metal, and 
 fabric which are used in engineering and industrial lines. It 
 covers, for example, belting, packings, hose, and special articles 
 of almost endless variety and description. 
 
 This portion of the rubber business has always been the 
 pioneer in the production of new compounds, new processes, and 
 better and heavier machinery. Its manufacturers always have 
 welcomed new grades of rubber, have been the first to utilize those 
 that were a drug on the market, because of lack of knowledge as 
 to their manipulation, were familiar with the uses of reclaimed 
 rubber while yet other lines were simply considering its use, and 
 with hundreds of compounds and cures, with a broad knowledge 
 of industrial achievement in all lines, they have often pointed 
 the way for manufacturers in other lines to follow, to the better- 
 ment of their goods or their pockets. 
 
 53 
 
54 DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The mechanical rubber goods factory has, to begin with, the 
 same general outfit in the way of machines for manipulating 
 the crude gum as have the other lines. Their mixing mills, how- 
 ever, are often heavier, and their calenders run at higher speeds, 
 while they have, in addition, enormously heavy hydraulic belt 
 presses, huge vulcanizers, and scores of special machines designed 
 for individual problems required for their line of work, or per- 
 haps for a single factory alone. The kind of vulcanization used 
 in this work is (i) open steam heat, where the goods are buried 
 in French talc or wrapped in fabric; or (2) dry heat, where they 
 are confined by molds, and held in a steam press during the cure ; 
 or (3) where the goods, as in the case of belts, are molded 
 between the platens of the press itself, while curing. Even in this 
 line of work there are some concerns that only do special parts 
 of it. For example, there are certain large factories that make 
 only certain types of packings, which have a world-wide sale, 
 and on which they are run continuously. Many of these mills 
 also are large producers of tires. 
 
 Boots and Shoes. — ^The manufacture of rubber boots and 
 shoes, although apparently a simple business, not only requires 
 large capital, but is one that has often been overtaken by disaster. 
 It is a matter of common knowledge that, given the same com- 
 pounds, the same machinery, and the same skilled workmen, no 
 two mills are able always to turn out exactly the same grades 
 of goods. Quality is one ingredient that may or may not be 
 added to the goods, no matter how honest the endeavor. That 
 there are reasons for this, no one can doubt, and that the day 
 will come when this branch of manufacture will be an exact 
 science is probably true. That, however, will entail a definite 
 knowledge of rubber from the moment it first sees the light as 
 creamy liquid exuding from the tree, through every event in its 
 life — in coagulation, transit, storage, factory manipulation, com- 
 pounding, calendering, curing, its death in the service of man, 
 and its later resurrection in the process of reclaiming. Nor is 
 this all. There will be a need for exact information regarding 
 the ingredients added in the course of compounding, their rela- 
 tion one to another, mechanically and chemically, so long as 
 they be joined together. This, coupled with atmospheric and 
 
DRUGGISTS' SUNDRIES. 55 
 
 climatic conditions, not to say a profound knowledge of the errors 
 and accidents due to the ignorance, prejudice, or carelessness of 
 the ordinary workman, constitutes so complex a problem that suc- 
 cessful manufacturers to-day feel fairly safe in frankly stating 
 to would-be competitors that they have no need to hide their 
 formulas, as they are but a small part of the problem. 
 
 In the complete rubber shoe plant there are found, for initial 
 equipment, washing rolls, mixers, refining mills, and calenders 
 such as most of the other lines employ. In addition, there are 
 special calenders, with engraved rolls for shoe-upper work ; others, 
 also, with engraved rolls for soleing; presses for molding boot 
 heels, sole-cutting machines, and, of course, vulcanizers. As this 
 class of goods is cured by what is known as the "dry heat" — that 
 is, by being confined in dry, hot air for several hours — it will 
 readily be seen that it is a radically different business from 
 mechanical rubber goods, for instance. These dry heaters are 
 simply large air-tight rooms, fitted with steam pipes for heating, 
 lined with tin, double walled to prevent radiation, into which 
 hundreds of pairs of boots or shoes are run on skeleton cars, to 
 undergo the process of vulcanization. The manufacture of rub- 
 ber footwear in brief, therefore, consists in washing, drying, com- 
 pounding and calendering the rubber, the cutting of the cal- 
 endered sheets into various shapes for cementing over lasts in 
 the shapes desired, the varnishing, and the dry heat cure. 
 
 Druggists', Surgical and Stationers' Sundries. — This 
 part of the rubber business entails more skillful manipulation and 
 more finesse in manufacture than almost any other line. An atom- 
 izer bulb, for example, must be graceful in shape, with delicately 
 smooth surface, of good color, and either of the non-blooming 
 variety or so near it that the sulphurous efflorescence will be so 
 slight as to pass unnoticed, while in mechanical goods a length of 
 garden hose may be of any color, may bloom until crusted with 
 sulphur crystals, but if it "stands up to work," it is the best, 
 and is beautiful in the eyes of the trade. 
 
 The question of colored rubber is one that has interested this 
 branch of the business from its inception. In none other is so 
 much white rubber made and, incidentally, none others get such 
 good effects. This insistence by customers for white goods and 
 
56 DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 by physicians for black containing no trace of lead has entailed a 
 deal of trouble upon this trade, for the manufacturers until re- 
 cently could not go into the open market and buy a high grade 
 of white recovered rubber, while of black there is ever an ample 
 supply, and in black goods to suit the physician he is forced to 
 substitute a dry bulky vegetable black for oxide of lead or white 
 lead, and then not get so good a result. 
 
 The machinery used is very similar to the equipment of a 
 mechanical goods factory, but the scale is smaller. Washers, 
 grinders, calenders, tubing machines, steam vulcanizers, and small 
 steam presses are the machines used. Naturally special machines 
 are employed in certain parts of the work, but their use is limited 
 to a few factories and to comparatively insignificant specialities. 
 
 The feature in this trade which stands out most distinctly 
 from other rubber lines is perhaps the manufacture of hollow 
 work, as atomizers, syringes, breast-pumps, and a host of other 
 balls and bulbs. The parts for these are cut from sheets of com- 
 pounded rubber, cemented together at the edges, inflated to the 
 general shape of the mold and cured in an open steam heat. In 
 order that the ball may perfectly fill the mold during the cure, a 
 few drops of water or a little ammonia are put inside of it which, 
 swelling under the heat, develops pressure enough to perfectly 
 shape it and add to its outer surface the finish found on the inner 
 surface of the mold. 
 
 The difficulties that manufacturers in this line experience in 
 making perfect goods are legion, as they are in other lines. They 
 are added to by the fact that the trade, as already indicated, 
 demands articles of beauty from a gum that was designed for 
 utility solely. A trace of black in a white compound may spoil 
 hundreds of dollars' worth of goods, nor can such trace be rubbed 
 off, scoured out, or eradicated, after vulcanization. Hence, the 
 whites, blacks, reds, and other colors must be mixed on separate 
 mills, and the trimmings and scraps kept sedulously apart. 
 
 Pure gum — that is, rubber compounded only with sulphur or 
 some other vulcanizing agent — is also largely produced in this 
 line. For example, it makes what is known as dental dam, the 
 pure sheet used by dentists. This is generally a sulphur com- 
 pound cured in open steam. Certain manufacturers, however, 
 
CLOTHING— TIRES. 57 
 
 practice the vapor cure with good success in making these goods. 
 This cure gives a beautiful finish, but if it be not done with great 
 skill it may be disastrous to both the workman and the goods. 
 
 Dental dam, surgical bandages, and stationers' bands 
 represent the highest priced and least compounded goods, 
 while stopples, erasive rubber, and common tubing represent 
 the other extreme. Between the two is a latitude that allows 
 of a variety of combinations and compounds that no man can 
 number. 
 
 Clothing, Carriage Cloth, Mackintoshes, and Proofing. 
 — This business may be handled, in a measure, as the 
 mechanical goods business is ; that is, the gums mixed by 
 heat on ordinary mixers, and then spread by calenders on the 
 fabrics which give the articles their strength. This is the 
 manner in which rubber surface clothing is run. The machin- 
 ery is simple, since, in clothing, the parts are cemented 
 together and cured in dry heat. In carriage cloths, after 
 calendering, the goods are grained on embossing rolls, var- 
 nished, and run into a dry heat. 
 
 The mackintosh and proofing business, however, is some- 
 what a departure from this. Here the gum, after mixing dry, 
 is usually put in churns with a cheap solvent, and reduced to 
 a solution. It is then applied to the cloth with a knife 
 spreader. 
 
 For double-texture work, a simple doubling machine 
 brings two surfaces together. A portion of the business that 
 has divided itself from the rest, is what is known as proofing 
 for the trade. Here manufacturers simply coat the cloth and 
 sell it to others, who make it up into garments, or anything in 
 fabric or rubber for M'^hich there may be a call. The mackin- 
 tosh manufacturer to-day not only is familiar with a great 
 variety of rubber gums and ingredients used in compounding, 
 but is also an expert in fabrics, as his business is really closely 
 akin to the tailoring business. 
 
 . Tires. — Although the tire business seemed at first to be a 
 natural part of the mechanical rubber goods business, it really 
 proved itself, later, to be a business wholly distinct from it. Even 
 the large manufacturers of mechanical goods who began tire 
 
58 DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 making on a considerable scale, keep this part of their business 
 distinct from other branches as a rule, running it as an entirely 
 separate department. A large business is done in pneumatic tires 
 for bicycles and motor cycles, but it is much surpassed by the 
 production of pneumatic automobile tires. The knowledge gained 
 through the manufacture of pneumatic bicycle tires (which, by the 
 way, was one of the hardest problems that the rubber trade ever 
 solved) has proved wonderfully effective in developing the skill 
 necessary to make this heavier and more important article. This 
 tire, like the bicycle tire, is built up of frictioned duck, with an 
 outer coating of high-grade rubber carefully vulcanized. While a 
 variety of compounds undoubtedly is used in its manufacture, it is 
 hardly possible that any manufacturer will be able to sell a very 
 low grade of goods. In other words, the life of the tire is so 
 important, and the purchaser so anxious for a good article, that 
 adulteration or cheapening to any great extent is not a danger. 
 An adjunct of this business is the manufacture of inner tubes 
 which has assumed very large proportions. 
 
 The general machinery used in making tires is the same that 
 is used in the work of preparing rubber in the other lines. 
 There are two general classes of tires manufactured, however: 
 those that are molded, and those that are made in such a way 
 that they can be wrapped for the process of vulcanization. 
 Wrapped goods, of course, are cured in an open heat. In the one 
 case the tires are cured in presses, sometimes in nests of molds, 
 and sometimes in vulcanizers. Various ingenious and valuable 
 processes and special machines have been invented, and are now in 
 use in this line. An industry that has grown up in connec- 
 tion with the tire business, and that has increased the practical 
 knowledge of the uses of the rubber wonderfully, is that of tire 
 repairing, which is carried on in many places and to an important 
 extent outside of the rubber factories proper. 
 
 A part of the tire business that is of great interest is the 
 making of the solid or cushion molded tire used on light 
 vehicles. A very large business is done in this, the work being 
 a simple process of mixing the prepared compound, forcing it 
 into shape through a tubing machine, and molding. Of even 
 greater importance has been the business of producing heavy 
 
INSULATED WIRE— HARD RUBBER. 59 
 
 solid tires for trucks, motor buses, fire engines, and freight 
 wagons. Many rubber manufacturers have specialized in this 
 line and their yearly product is very great. 
 
 Insulated Wire. — The manufacture of insulated wire, 
 either with India-rubber or Gutta-percha insulation, is a line 
 that is more distinctly apart from other portions of the rubber 
 business than almost any other. For Gutta-percha, the gen- 
 eral machinery used is described in the chapter on that gum. 
 Where India-rubber is used, the crude gum is treated in the 
 same way as in mechanical goods. It may be forced over the 
 wires by tubing machines, or welded together in strips that 
 are run between grooved rolls. 
 
 Braiding machines are also a part of the outfit for weav- 
 ing the protective covering, and the wire is usually wound on 
 huge drums and vulcanized in open steam heat. Polishing 
 machines, testing machines, and various mechanical contri- 
 vances are, also, a part of this equipment. The line of com- 
 pounds used is one adapted almost wholly to this industry, 
 and embraces a great variety of ingredients and gums that are 
 treated specifically under their special heads, elsewhere in this 
 book. 
 
 Mold Work. — A part of the rubber business that belongs 
 either to the mechanical or to the druggists' sundries line has, 
 during the past few years, detached itself from the rest, so 
 that to-day many large factories are run simply in producing 
 small mold work. They have the usual equipment of rubber 
 machinery, special appliances for filling and emptying molds, 
 and the usual aggregation of hard and soft metal molds that 
 run into thousands of dollars in a short time. The extent to 
 which this business is carried may be imagined when it is 
 known that one company runs 300 presses on this work, and 
 many have from 20 to 50 in constant service. When it is 
 remembered that very rarely are two compounds exactly 
 alike, it will be seen that, in this line also, the expert com- 
 pounder has a wide field for thought and experiment. 
 
 Hard Rubber. — In spite of the hundreds of substitutes for 
 vulcanite, or hard rubber, that have been produced, the demand 
 has in no way fallen off, and mills are running full to-day on the 
 
6o DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 production of this semi-metal. The old fashioned compound, con- 
 sisting of 2 pounds of India-rubber to i pound of sulphur, is 
 still in use in certain goods. Modem progress and chemical 
 knowledge have, however, added a great many compounds for 
 specific uses, so that almost any degree of quality, or hardness, 
 or price is now furnished on call. 
 
 The business, primarily, is a simple one, the hard rubber 
 machinery being like that used in other lines. In the manipula- 
 tion of the gum for vulcanization, and in its finish, however, 
 special machines are necessary. The finishing machines are 
 lathes, saws, buffers, etc., somewhat similar to what might be 
 used for turning hard wood. The mechanical factories often do 
 a little in hard rubber in the line of valves, and the druggists' 
 sundries mills often make their own syringe fittings, but the bulk 
 of the business in America is done by mills that make only 
 vulcanite the year around. 
 
 Cements. — Many rubber factories are run wholly on this 
 line of work, the gums being mixed as in a general rubber busi- 
 ness, put into solution in churns, and sold by the barrel for an 
 infinite variety of purposes. Hundreds of different formulas are 
 in use for cements sold for general and specific purposes. The 
 leather shoe business, for instance, calls for a dozen or more special 
 cements. The bicycle business has need for a great many grades 
 of what are known as tire cements. Stickiness, waterproof 
 qualities, durability, and cheapness in their goods are sought 
 by all cement manufacturers, and, in order to secure these quali- 
 ties, skill is demanded in compounding in no way inferior to 
 that shown in other lines of rubber work. 
 
 Dental and Stamp Rubber. — The manufacture of unvul- 
 canized gums for the use of dentists and rubber stamp manufac- 
 turers is an industry apart from other lines, and one that has 
 assumed large proportions. The rubber is compounded and 
 sold by the manufacturer, and cured and finished by the dentist 
 or rubber stamp manufacturer. In stamp work the rubber is 
 compounded for soft rubber and many hundreds of tons are sold 
 during the year while, of course, the dental rubber is so mixed 
 that under the cure it becomes vulcanite of the color desired. 
 
WASHING AND CALENDERING. 6i 
 
 The machinery for this work consists chiefly of washers, mixers, 
 and calenders. 
 
 Notions. — A department of the rubber business, the impor- 
 tance of which is not generally appreciated, is that which takes 
 in such work as waterproof dress bindings, dress shields, chil- 
 drens' aprons, diapers, etc. Several large factories manufacture 
 these goods, mixing their rubber by the usual processes, coating 
 it on calenders, and having special machines for forming and 
 curing the goods in their special shapes. In the manufacture 
 of dress shields, the vapor cure is often practiced very suc- 
 cessfully. The rubber manufactures of this class are not by any 
 means inexpert compounders. They have also, perhaps, gone as 
 far as any in deodorizing rubber goods, so that the smell of the 
 gum or any compounding ingredients is wholly done away with. 
 
 Plasters. — There are few factories that keep wholly to this 
 line of work. It is perhaps as simple as any part of the rubber 
 business, a fair grade of rubber being washed, dried, and mixed 
 by the usual methods, and calendered upon the fabric that forms 
 the base of the plaster. These goods are not vulcanized, of 
 course. Though a variety of gums and medicaments is used in 
 this compounding, the range is probably smaller than any other 
 line of rubber manufacture. 
 
 II. THE WASHING, MIXING, AND CALENDERING OF RUBBER. 
 
 The very first manufacturing process in the manipulation of 
 rubber of any kind, and for any use, is that of the cleansing. This 
 is usually done by passing the gum again and again between cor- 
 rugated rolls, w^hile fine streams of water remove the various im- 
 purities that are exposed by the tearing action of the rolls. These 
 impurities are bits of vegetable substances, earth, sand, etc. The 
 old type of washer for removing these was a couple of corrugated 
 rolls 6 or 8 inches in diameter, and 12 or 14 inches in length. 
 Modem methods, however, have introduced larger rolls, until 
 to-day one machine, when it is the highest type of three-roll 
 washer, will cleanse enough gum to keep a huge factory busy. 
 
 Some rubbers are so full of sand that it is almost impossible 
 to remove it wholly. For this purpose is used a tub with a false 
 bottom made of fine wire, and also "with a stirrer. "Thimbles," 
 
62 DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 for instance, after being run through the washer, are put in the 
 tub without any attempt at sheeting, and stirred until a large 
 portion of the sand is removed. 
 
 Another type of washer is one- that is quite similar to a paper 
 engine ; in fact, paper engines are often used in rubber washing. 
 The special value of this type is that the rubber in its movement 
 about the tub is floated more or less, and the sand and earthy 
 matters sink to the bottom, while the bark and vegetable matters 
 can be seen and easily removed. 
 
 Some manufacturers, following Austin G. Day's ideas, have 
 used alkaline solutions in washing certain gums, to neutralize the 
 vegetable acids, and it is a question if it might not be as well to 
 use dilute acids to neutralize the strongly alkaline qualities of 
 gums that go through certain kinds of coagulation. Some fac- 
 tories also examine the coarser grades of gums chemically, and 
 give them a treatment to remove odor. As a rule, however, 
 manufacturers rush them through the washing machines, sheet 
 and dry them, and get them into the mixing mills as soon as 
 possible. 
 
 The drying of rubber, according to earlier practice, required 
 a great deal of time. It was the boast of more than one rubber 
 mill that no Para rubber was used by them until it had been dried 
 for a year. The manufacturers of mechanical rubber goods were 
 the first to break away from this tradition. In many cases they 
 found, when there were rush orders on hand, that they must put 
 on their mills gum that was practically just off the washer, and 
 mix it, or else lose orders. Of course, they were forced to get 
 most of the moisture out, or neutralize what was left, and they 
 learned incidentally that they got a stronger compound with the 
 green gum than with the "seasoned," whence the belief grew up 
 that the months and years of drying were not necessary, as had 
 before been supposed. In addition to this, some of them learned 
 that long drying meant oxidation on the outside, or the turning 
 of rubber into resin, which further increased their doubt of the 
 wisdom of the slow drying process. 
 
 These thoughts once entertained, it was not long before 
 various plans were introduced into the drying, for hastening the 
 removal of the moisture. The simplest of these, of course, was 
 
WASHING AND CALENDERING. 63 
 
 artificial heat, and the presence of a fan for removing the 
 moisture laden atmosphere. Later developments have brought 
 about a process for drying rubber very cheaply at quite a high 
 heat, lasting only a few hours, that gives it to the man who runs 
 the mixer, hot from the dryer, and that does away with the 
 expensive process of breaking down. This latter idea is to some, 
 of course, as revolutionary as was the first thought of quick 
 drying, but that it is wholly in the line of progress, is proved by 
 the fact that it has now been used for a number of years in many 
 whose goods stand very high. 
 
 The milling of crude rubber is simply putting the dry rubber 
 which is found in a tough, intractable sheet, on hot rolls, and run- 
 ning it until it gets to be a softened homogeneous mass. The 
 gum, when this is accomplished, is ready for mixing. These mix- 
 ing rolls are run at different speeds and are called friction rolls, 
 and the various adulterants and ingredients that are to be incor- 
 porated with the rubber are pressed into a softened gum by their 
 revolution. 
 
 No general rule can be laid down for mixing in all lines. An 
 expert compounder knows that certain gums should be mixed on 
 cool rolls, and others under considerable heat. His knowledge 
 of specific compounds teaches him to hasten mixing in many cases 
 where another, without skill, would require very much more time 
 to get the same result. In some cases the ingredients are put 
 in together, in others it is necessary one is put in last. Some 
 have dissolved substances that would make the rubber stick to the 
 rolls like glue unless they be put in at just the right time; 
 others have so large a proportion of earthy matters that, unless 
 the gum be humored, it apparently will not take them in, and so 
 on. Each line of work and, in fact, each factory has its own 
 special methods, and often one or more skilled mixers who can 
 handle compounds that none of the others seem to be able to do 
 anything with. 
 
 The use of the calender is simply to sheet the goods so that 
 they may be easily made into the desired forms. The simplest 
 form of calender is a mixing mill with the key that normally 
 holds one roll in place withdrawn, so that both run by even 
 
64 DIVISIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE. 
 
 motion, which is used in many small factories where nothing but 
 molded work is made. 
 
 The modern sheeting calender is ordinarily a three-roll 
 machine. It is sometimes made with four rolls, however, and 
 these rolls may be almost any size, the widest for rubber work 
 being more than 80 inches. No little skill is required for 
 running the calender on a variety of stocks, nor can any general 
 rules be laid down for calender work. This is proved by the 
 value that is set upon good calender men, and by the difference 
 that there is between the work of a good one and a poor one. 
 There are as many different kinds of calenders as there are pat- 
 terns of mixing mills. A sheet calender has smooth rolls, and is 
 for running absolutely smooth goods. In shoe work there are 
 engraved rolls, pebbled rolls, and soleing calenders engraved in 
 the likeness of the shoe sole. The carriage drill business has em- 
 bossing calenders, and so on. A type of calender that is useful in 
 most lines of work is known as the friction calender, the rolls in 
 which, run at uneven speeds, drive the gum deeply into the fabric. 
 
 Where India-rubber is handled in solution there is used in 
 place of the calender a spreading machine, known under various 
 names of "Yankee flyer," "English spreader," "Doughing 
 machine," etc. In this a sheet of rubber is spread on the cloth 
 by being placed on an endless apron of the fabric, the apron 
 running over the roll against which hangs a heavy knife. A very 
 thin coating of the rubber solution is constantly scraped off this 
 surface, which then passes over hot drums or steam chests, evap- 
 orating the solvent. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 The average rubber manufacturer is not interested in exactly 
 what vulcanization is — that is, what it is chemically. It is 
 sufficient for him that India-rubber mixed with sulphur and 
 heated results in a new compound, vulcanized rubber. It is, 
 to be sure, interesting for him to know how much sulphur is 
 combined and how much uncombined, and the effect that high 
 temperatures, time, and pressures have upon resultant com- 
 pounds. Nearly all of these problems, however, are individual 
 to his own work, and are solved by him along practical lines. 
 Considering compounded India-rubber as a dough which is 
 fashioned into shape and baked, is about as far as the manipu- 
 lator of rubber goes. 
 
 The means for vulcanizing India-rubber in general use 
 are roughly two: the heat cure and the cold cure. Consider- 
 ing the first, a great variety of goods is cured in open steam 
 heat and is kept in shape during vulcanization, either in 
 molds or by being wound with strips of cloth or buried in 
 pans of French talc. This is the wet heat and such goods are 
 cured in vulcanizers, big and little, of which there are scores 
 of types. A different application of heat is what is known as 
 dry heat, where goods are put in a hot room without wrapping 
 or mold protection, and left until vulcanization is effected. 
 Another heat cure which at one time was very largely used, 
 but to-day has practically disappeared, was what was known 
 as solarization. This consisted in exposing fabrics coated with 
 a thin skim of rubber to the rays of the sun, which effected a 
 surface cure. 
 
 What is known as the cold cure has been practiced since 
 the days of Goodyear, and within the last ten years has been 
 much resorted to in the manufacture of certain lines of goods. 
 This, in turn, divides itself into two methods — the acid and the 
 vapor cure. In the former one-half pound of chloride of sul- 
 phur is mixed with four pounds of bisulphide of carbon. The 
 
 65 
 
66 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 goods are dipped in this solution and afterwards treated with 
 an alkaline wash. The vapor cure is where the fumes of 
 chloride of sulphur are set free in a heated room or cabinet in 
 which the rubber goods are hung so that all of the surface is 
 affected. When the cure is far enough advanced the further 
 action of the chloride of sulphur fumes is stopped by ammonia 
 fumes. 
 
 While Charles Goodyear's patents for the vulcanization 
 of India-rubber by the use of sulphur and heat were in force, 
 a marvelous amount of ingenuity was shown in the attempts 
 to accomplish the same results by the substitution of other 
 ingredients for sulphur, either with or without the use of 
 heat. These experiments and inventions embrace vulcaniza- 
 tion, by means of chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, fluorides, bro- 
 mides, iodides, and phosphorets of about all the common 
 earths and metals, and also many gases such as sulphurous 
 acid gas. The majority of these experiments have been lost 
 sight of, partly because the Goodyear process is now open to 
 the w^orld, and partly because, for the majority of goods, the 
 sulphur and heat cure is not only the cheapest, but the easiest 
 to accomplish. It may be well, however, to review and 
 record the experiments in this line, as there is no doubt that 
 for special lines in rubber manufacture many of them have a 
 suggestive value to-day. 
 
 One of the very first ingredients to which inventors and 
 experimenters turned their attention was zinc. The veteran 
 rubber manufacturer Jonathan Trotter described a process 
 for preparing a vulcanizing material which he called hyposul- 
 phite of zinc. It was made from a solution of caustic potash 
 saturated with flowers of sulphur and then treated with 
 sulphurous acid gas. This solution he mixed with a saturated 
 solution of nitrate of zinc, forming the precipitate that he 
 desired. He used 3 pounds of hyposulphite to 10 pounds of 
 rubber, curing from 3 to 5 hours, at 260° to 280° F. 
 
 Another American, E. E. Marcy, some years later pat- 
 ented a compound of hyposulphite of zinc and rubber which 
 is apparently almost identical with Trotter's discovery, 
 although he disclaimed similarity, and also made public the 
 
EARLY INVENTORS. 67 
 
 process, in which he used a combination of hyposulphite of 
 zinc and sulphide of zinc, the compound being 2 pounds of 
 rubber, i pound sulphide of zinc, i pound hyposulphite of 
 zinc, and other ingredients as deemed necessary. These 
 goods were of a beautiful white color, were said not to bloom, 
 and did not need the sunning process then in use. At the 
 same time they depended upon sulphur and heat for whatever 
 vulcanizing was accomplished. 
 
 Another attempt to get a good substitute for sulphur was 
 in the production of what is known as sulphite or hyposul- 
 phite of lead. James Thomas describes at length a compound 
 in which he mixes hyposulphite of lead and artificial sulphide 
 of lead in equal proportions, his compound being for vulcan- 
 ization, 2 parts by weight of India-rubber and i part of the 
 vulcanizing material. 
 
 Following this thought came E. E. Marcy again, who 
 mixed sulphide of lead and carbonate of lead in the propor- 
 tions of 2 parts of sulphide of lead, i part carbonate of lead, 
 and 2 parts protoxide of lead in place of the carbonate. 
 
 Then Oscar Falke and Albert C. Richards brought out a 
 compound consisting of 6 parts India-rubber, 2 parts sulphide 
 of antimony, and ^ part sulphite of soda, curing at 270° to 
 280° F. 
 
 A. K. Eaton, in no uncertain terms, disclaimed vulcaniza- 
 tion by the use of free sulphur, but claimed to be the first to 
 use sulphide of manganese. He also gave a formula for 
 making it, which was by mixing intimately 44 parts of 
 peroxide of manganese with 32 parts of sulphur, and exposing 
 the mixture to heat in a covered crucible. He vulcanized 
 several hours, from 250° to 310° F. 
 
 George Dieffenbach claimed sulphite of alumina as an 
 ingredient which, in connection with heat, would bring about 
 vulcanization. He used this in a compound for a dental 
 rubber, which had for its basis India-rubber, amber, linseed 
 oil, sulphide of cadmium, oxide of tin, vermilion, and pulverized 
 feldspar. 
 
 Charles T. Harris cured India-rubber by combining it 
 with an artificial sulphide of bismuth, which he explained as 
 
68 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 being the artificial tersulphide, or polysulphide of bismuth. 
 He describes this as being a heavy black powder, and the 
 compound which he advised for soft rubber was lOO parts 
 India-rubber, 75 parts carbonate of lead, and I2|^ parts poly- 
 sulphide of bismuth, cured in a dry heat at 245° F. for i^ 
 hours. 
 
 Henry W. Joselyn discovered that shale combined by 
 heat with sulphur formed a sulphide which could be used in 
 curing rubber, and hastened to patent it. 
 
 Andreas Willman brought out a process for combining 
 India-rubber with "anhydrous chlorides, sulphates of alkalies" 
 and powdered coke or coal, and claimed that his best result 
 came from chloride of ammonium and coke. His compound 
 was made up of litharge, lampblack, and powdered coke, in 
 connection with from 2 to 10 per cent, of his vulcanizing 
 mixture. 
 
 Edwin L. Simpson formed a vulcanizing compound by 
 mixing benzoin gum with pulverized sulphur, and boiling it 
 in linseed oil. It was used in a dry heat, the compound being 
 I pound of India-rubber, 2 ounces vulcanizing compound, 8 
 ounces litharge, and 8 ounces whiting. 
 
 J. A. Newbrough manufactured a vulcanizing material 
 which he called acid resin, made of turpentine and sulphuric 
 acid. This he incorporated in India-rubber in the proportion 
 of 6 ounces of acid resin to i pounl of India-rubber, and 
 cured at 300° to 320° F. 
 
 The use of selenium as a curing agent was discovered by 
 E. E. Marcy, while connected with Horace H. Day, then 
 prominent as a rubber manufacturer. He advised the use of 
 equal parts of India-rubber and powdered selenium, and, to 
 produce a glossy finish, he added selenium carbonate and 
 whiting. 
 
 At the same time there were many other inventors who 
 were experimenting with processes that were somewhat in 
 the line of the well-known Parkes cold-curing process. For 
 example, it is a matter of history that the late Joseph Banigan, 
 early in his career as a rubber manufacturer, cured wringer 
 rolls by an acid process. 
 
PARMELEE— MEYER. 69 
 
 Dubois C. Parmelee invented a process which he called 
 "hermizing," to distinguish it from curing or vulcanizing, 
 instead of the Parkes process, in which the solution of chloride 
 of sulphur and bisulphide of carbon was used. He recom- 
 mended briefly a solution as follows : 10 pounds of coal-tar 
 naphtha, in which was dissolved i pound of sulphur. Into this 
 solution he passed dry chlorine gas until it assumed a fine 
 yellowish-green color. This solution he used as a dip for such 
 goods as would be cured by the acid treatment. Parmelee 
 also claimed the discovery of a solution made of coal-tar 
 naphtha, bisulphide of carbon, and a solution of sulphur in 
 bromine, mixed with this. 
 
 H. A. Ayling patented a cold curing process in which 
 carbon spirits, one of the petroleum series, was mixed with 
 chloride of sulphur, instead of the usual bisulphide of carbon. 
 
 Referring again to the suggestions of chlorine in the 
 working of rubber, R. F. H. Havermann reduced India-rubber 
 to a solution and subjected it to the action of chlorine. He 
 also, in a later patent, described the washing of the chlorine 
 out of the rubber by alcohol, and the addition of ammonia and 
 lime, the result being, according to his specifications, a white 
 hard rubber. 
 
 Working in the same line, John Helm, Jr., dissolved 
 India-rubber in benzine and mixed it with liquid chlorine in 
 the proportion of 12 ounces of chlorine to i pound of gum. 
 His claim was that he could get rubber of any color and of 
 any degree of hardness by this process. 
 
 In the line of hard rubber manipulation and vulcaniza- 
 tion, L. Otto P. Meyer (then connected with the India-Rubber 
 Comb Co.) patented a process for curing vulcanite in a vessel 
 wholly or partly filled with water, the water in which the 
 rubber was contained being in a tight receptacle, and the heat 
 being raised above 300° F., the pressure of the surrounding 
 steam, keeping it from vulcanizing. This obviated the danger 
 of burning, and was of great value in the production of certain 
 goods. 
 
 While these and other inventors were trying to cure 
 rubber without sulphur, and without interference with the 
 
70 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 Goodyear patents, certain others were at work on other gums. 
 For example, John Rider, who was at the head of a Gutta- 
 percha company, produced what he called mettallothyanized 
 Gutta-percha. In this, he first heated the Gutta-percha, then 
 mixed 3 pounds of hyposulphite of lead and zinc with 8 
 pounds of gum, and sometimes added also a little Paris white, 
 or magnesia. He then put the compound from 2 to 10 hours in 
 a dry heat and cured it at 280° to 320° F. 
 
 John Murphy changed this compound somewhat, by ad- 
 vising the incorporation of sulphur in the proportion of 2 to 
 6 ounces of sulphur to 10 pounds of Gutta-percha. This sul- 
 phur, by the way, obviated the preliminary heating of the 
 Gutta-percha, which was supposed to volatilize the ingredients 
 that had before rendered it unvulcanizable. 
 
 A curious process for the manufacture of hard rubber was 
 also brought out by William Mullee. In this, just as soon as 
 the rubber was washed, the sheets were immersed in the 
 sulphur bath, heated to 220° F. The water and other impu- 
 rities in the rubber were said to be extracted by the action of 
 the heated sulphur. After boiling 30 minutes, the sheets were 
 removed with tongs and washed to prevent crystallization. 
 They were then subjected to the same process a second time. 
 The rubber was then compounded in the old fashioned way, 
 on rolls, the proportions being 17 to 24 ounces of sulphur to 
 16 ounces of rubber. The claim for this was that the com- 
 pound when cured was tougher than any others ever known. 
 
 William Elmer prepared what he called "elastic selenide 
 of Caoutchouc." He first dissolved the India-rubber in bisul- 
 phide of carbon, placed it under pressure, and heated gradu- 
 ally. When brought to about 300° F., the liquefied selenium 
 was put into the apparatus drop by drop, the solution in the 
 meantime being kept in constant motion. This elastic selenide 
 he claimed to be semi-fluid which, when evaporated, possessed 
 all the characteristics of India-rubber. 
 
 The Parkes cold-curing process is so widely known as to 
 require but a word. It is based on the invention of Alexander 
 Parkes, and depends upon the faculty that chloride of sulphur 
 has for vulcanizing India-rubber. (See Chloride of Sulphur.) 
 
AMORPHOUS SULPHUR. yi 
 
 A curious process, similar to that of Parkes, is Caulbry's 
 process, by which it is claimed rubber can be vulcanized at 
 ordinary temperatures, by using an intimate mixture of 
 chloride of sulphur and dry chloride of lime. During this 
 mixture, and when the smell of the chloride of sulphur 
 will be noticed, the temperature of the mixture will rise, the 
 mass becoming plastic by the softening of the sulphur. If a 
 mixture of this kind, in which sulphur is in great excess, be 
 added to the solution of India-rubber in bisulphide of carbon, 
 the rubber will be vulcanized at an ordinary temperature, or 
 perhaps with a slight warming. Chloride of sulphur used pure 
 is too corrosive in its effect on India-rubber; it is therefore 
 reduced in all cases. Only thin articles can be vulcanized in 
 this way. 
 
 A patent taken out in England by Edmond Gamier 
 relates to the vulcanization of India-rubber by the use of alum. 
 Previously alum processes for curing had not been very success- 
 ful, but this patent had some novel features. It called for par- 
 ticularly dry alum treated with a solution of terebinth of benzol 
 and shellac, or some similar gum. In use he took 8 ounces of 
 alum and a solution composed of i part gum and 20 parts benzol. 
 He mixed the ingredients that are usually employed in the manu- 
 facture of rubber, specifying 3 pounds of whiting, i pound 
 barytes, 8 ounces lime, i^ pounds oxidized oil, and 8 ounces of 
 India-rubber. When these had been thoroughly mixed together 
 and specially treated, alum was incorporated with them and well 
 compounded, being passed through the mixing rollers cold. It 
 was then calendered. 
 
 Amorphous Sulphur. — The fusing of i pound of sulphur 
 with 4 ounces of Canada balsam produces what is known as 
 Amorphous Sulphur, which is said to cure rubber so that it will 
 have no tendency to bloom. The preparation has a very pun- 
 gent sulphurous odor. Patented by Dr. Wilhoft, of New York* 
 
 Artificial Sulphuret of Lead. — There are several com- 
 binations of lead and sulphur which may be produced artificially, 
 That one containing the most sulphur has a composition of 13 per 
 cent, of sulphur and 86 per cent, of lead. Its specific gravity is 
 about 9.4. In color it is black. It melts at a strong red heat. 
 
72 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 The other sulphur compounds of lead have much less sulphur, 
 one containing but 9 per cent, and the other only 4 per cent. 
 What is known as hyposulphite of lead is a mechanical mixture 
 of the above first named, with a suitable percentage of sulphur 
 to effect vulcanization. It is also known in the rubber trade as 
 "Eureka compound" and "Burnt hypo." These compounds when 
 pure — that is, when free from adulteration — are of great value. 
 They produce goods that are jet black and have little odor and 
 are free from bloom. They are reckoned as the safest vulcanizing 
 agents, as it is almost impossible to burn goods that depend upon 
 their presence for cure. They are used in either dry or wet heats. 
 
 Barium Sulphide is prepared from heavy spar by making a 
 dough of it with charcoal and oil and subjecting it to a white 
 heat. Sulphides of the alkaline metals, potassium, sodium, cal- 
 cium, and barium, will vulcanize rubber, whence the term "alka- 
 lized rubber." 
 
 Bromine. — A heavy deep red volatile liquid, possessing a 
 most peculiar and unpleasant odor, and giving off vapors most 
 irritating to the air passages and lungs. Its very name means 
 stench. It has a powerful action upon most organic bodies, color- 
 ing animal matter brown, while it bleaches coloring matters, dyes, 
 etc. Its specific gravity is 3.18. A piece of sheet rubber dipped 
 into bromine is vulcanized instantly. It is somewhat soluble in 
 alcohol, and very soluble in ether, bisulphide of carbon, chloro- 
 form, etc. Newbrough and Fagan filed two patents in the United 
 States for the use of bromine in vulcanization, both with and 
 without iodine. By adding to iodine -J its weight of bromine, 
 proto-bromide of iodine is formed, which is said to combine with 
 India-rubber and produce a hard compound on being exposed i 
 hour to a temperature of 250° F. To prevent the forming of an 
 explosive the iodine and bromine were separately treated with oil 
 of turpentine to which had been added a quarter of its weight of 
 sulphuric acid. It was then mixed with the gum in the propor- 
 tion of 2 pounds II ounces to every pound of gum. Bromine 
 was also used alone by these inventors, the material after molding 
 being plunged into the liquid, and left there long enough to 
 harden. To prevent the hardening of the material while in the 
 bath, chloroform or any other solvent of rubber was added in the 
 
CHLORIDE OF SULPHUR. jz 
 
 proportion of i part to 9 parts of bromine; in other words, the 
 rubber vulcanized in the air after its withdrawal from the liquid. 
 Chloride of Sulphur. — Sulphur and chlorine form three 
 compounds, the monochloride, the dichloride, and a tetrachloride 
 of sulphur. The substance usually used in the arts is the first 
 named or a mixture of the first two. It is an oily liquid of the 
 specific gravity 1.7, and boiling at 239° F. It has a pungent 
 smell and decomposes on contact with water or watery vapor. 
 Pure chloride of sulphur is of an orange yellow color of great 
 density. It fumes strongly when exposed to air, throws off the 
 vapors of hydrochlorine, and is quite poisonous, severely attacking 
 the mucous membranes. It is widely known as the active agent 
 in Parkes's cold-curing process, where it is used in connection with 
 bisulphide of carbon. A common formula for this is chloride of 
 sulphur, I part by weight, bisulphide of carbon, 30 to 40 parts by 
 weight; immerse from 60 to 80 seconds. In the manufacture of 
 balloons and toy balls, the solution is a far weaker one. That for 
 the outside dip is 10 parts of chloride of sulphur to 100 parts 
 bisulphide of carbon, while for the inside it is 16 parts chloride of 
 sulphur to 100 parts bisulphide of carbon. When it was com- 
 mon to cure proofed cloth by the cold process, it was done by 
 wetting its surface with a mixture of 5 to 10 parts of chloride of 
 sulphur, dissolved in 100 parts of bisulphide of carbon, then run- 
 ning the fabric over heated drums to evaporate the mixture. In 
 the sulphurization of oils for rubber substitutes chloride of sul- 
 phur plays a most important part, nearly all of the amber and 
 white products being produced by its use. It also has a curious 
 effect upon bastard gums, giving some of them temporarily the 
 elasticity and appearance of high grade rubber. 
 Gold Brimstone. — See Sulphur. 
 
 Golden Sulphuret of Antimony. — This is prepared from 
 black antimony by boiling it with caustic soda and" sulphur for 
 some time. The liquid is then clarified by filtration or settling 
 and the clear part treated with a dilute acid, preferably muriatic 
 or sulphuric. A golden yellow precipitate is formed which should 
 be well washed in water, and dried at not too high a temperature 
 in a darkish place. The results of this operation well carried out 
 are constant and the composition should be : Antimony, 60.4 ; sul- 
 
74 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 phur, 39.6. Golden sulphuret of antimony heated in a tube will 
 give off sulphur which will deposit on the cool sides of the tube 
 away from the flame and the residue will turn black, being indeed 
 the black sulphide of antimony. All samples of this compound 
 should be tested for free acid, by shaking up a little of 
 the powder in a test tube with cold or hot water, and testing the 
 water afterwards with some barium chloride and blue litmus 
 paper. A white cloud in the first place and the reddening of the 
 paper in the second place indicate the presence of more or less 
 free sulphuric acid. Golden sulphuret prepared with muriatic 
 acid will not respond to the first test, but will to the second. 
 
 Golden Sulphuret or Antimony Red (pentasulphide) is 
 used more largely than any other form of antimony in rubber 
 work. It is frequently adulterated, sometimes with carbonate of 
 lime, oxide of iron, or oxide of antimony, all of which tend to 
 harden the rubber. Also called Orange Sulphide of Antimony. 
 Properly used, this ingredient produces some of the best effects 
 found in vulcanized rubber, in color, texture, and durability. It 
 should never be mixed on a very hot mill, should be sheeted and 
 placed in cooling racks if it is not to go right to the calender, 
 and should be cured in as low a heat as possible. The ideal result 
 will be of a golden yellow color, with a very slight bloom, if any. 
 It is used only in high cost goods. 
 
 Honeycomb Sulphur. — A vulcanizing compound made by 
 boiling a pound of sulphur and two ounces of benzoin gum 
 together, i pound of this material being mixed with a quart of 
 boiled linseed oil. 
 
 Hyposulphite of lead. — See Artificial Sulphuret of Lead. 
 
 Iodine is manufactured from seaweed and is a black-gray 
 substance occurring in small shining scales. Its specific gravity 
 is 4.94 and it fuses at 239° F., giving off violet vapors. It is 
 readily soluble in alcohol, benzol, chloroform, and sulphide oi 
 carbon. In addition to the formula given under the head of 
 bromine, Newbrough and Fagan patented the combination of 
 iodine and sulphur. In this the sulphur was boiled in turpentine, 
 and the oil decomposed and deposited with the sulphur at the 
 bottom of the vessel was used in the operation, after being 
 washed in dilute sulphuric acid and dried. The iodine was 
 
LIQUID CHLORINE. 75 
 
 treated in the same manner to prevent explosions. Equal pro- 
 portions of the two were melted together and incorporated in the 
 proportion of 2 ounces 5 drams to i pound of rubber. After 
 shaping, the articles were put in a vulcanizer and during the first 
 fifteen minutes exposed to a dry heat, gradually increasing to 
 320° F., remaining there 5 minutes, then dropping rapidly to 250° 
 F., and continuing for an hour. 
 
 Liquid Chlorine. — Qilorine is a greenish yellow gas at all 
 ordinary temperatures. It has strong bleaching properties and 
 also a very bad smell and action upon the respiratory passages. 
 Under a pressure of 127 pounds to the square inch at 60° F., 
 chlorine condenses to a yellow liquid, having the specific gravity 
 of 1.33. Chlorine cannot, as a rule, destroy mineral colors or 
 blacks produced by carbon. Helm claimed that he was able to 
 produce white hard rubber by incorporating chlorine with the mass. 
 
 Liver of Sulphur. — This is really penta sulphide of potas- 
 sium, and is obtained by mixing carbonate of potassium together 
 with sulphur. It is called Liver of Sulphur on account of its 
 brown color. As it is quite volatile it should be kept in well 
 closed glass vessels. The fluid for vulcanizing purposes is a con- 
 centrated solution of the penta sulphide, about 25° Baume being 
 right for use. To cure with it the liquid is brought to the boiling 
 point in a porcelain vessel, the articles to be vulcanized being 
 immersed in it. This is known as Gerard's process and is said to 
 be inexpensive and perfectly safe. 
 
 Milk of Sulphur. — Another name for what is ordinarily 
 termed precipitated sulphur. It is fine, light, and grayish white 
 in color, but is often adulterated with sulphate of lime. It should 
 be kept in a dry place, as it has an afiinity for moisture. 
 
 Nantusi is a vulcanizing agent and preservative for rubber, 
 manufactured under a secret formula, and in use in England. 
 It is offered as preventing the superficial cracking of rubber 
 exposed to the atmosphere; preserving the quality of the 
 rubber ; doing away with the possibility of acidification in sulphur 
 as ordinarily used; and reducing the cost of the mixing. It is 
 said to be a special mixture of paraffine and sulphur. 
 
 Penta Sulphide of Antimony. — The chemical name for 
 Golden Sulphuret of Antimony (which see). 
 
y6 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 Proto-Chloride of Sulphur. — See Chloride of Sulphur, 
 
 Sulphide of Lead. — Occurs native as galena and is one of 
 the ores of lead, having a specific gravity of 7.2 to y.y. Com- 
 mercially it is found as a black powder, of specific gravity 6.9. 
 Its composition is 86.6 per cent, of lead and 36.4 per cent, of sul- 
 phur. Sulphide of Lead is a very useful black pigment, and one 
 that is used quite largely in rubber works, as it is a good filler 
 and assists in vulcanization. It is often made from pure white 
 lead by very simple treatment. It materially assists the resiliency 
 of Para compounds. 
 
 Sulphur Lotum. — A name for sublimed sulphur that has 
 been washed to remove sulphurous acids, and carefully dried. 
 
 Sulphide of Zinc. — Sulphur forms with zinc two sulphides. 
 One of these, the monosulphide, corresponds to zinc blende, 
 which, as found native, is of various colors, from yellow to black. 
 Its specific gravity is from 3.5 to 4.2. The other is a penta sul- 
 phide artificially prepared and occurs in the form of a white pow- 
 der. Upon ignition in the absence of air this latter substance 
 loses four-fifths of its sulphur, but the temperature at which this 
 takes place is too high to render it available as a source of sulphur 
 of vulcanization in compounding rubber mixtures. With a slight 
 addition of sulphur it is used in the production of white goods. 
 
 Sulphur occurs in a number of different forms, and under 
 various names as brimstone, flowers or flour of sulphur, roll sul- 
 phur, rock sulphur, etc. Its specific gravity is 1.98 to 2.06. It 
 melts at 239° F., thickens and becomes orange yellow at 320° F., 
 at 428° it is semi-solid and red, and on carrying the heat higher 
 it becomes browner and boils at 788° F. Some of the sulphur, 
 now used commercially is recovered from alkali waste, but most 
 of it comes from Sicily, where it is found native. It is more 
 generally used in rubber works than any other ingredient, and 
 in all proportions from 3 per cent, up to 100 per cent, of the 
 weight of the rubber. The ordinary form in which it is found in 
 the rubber factory is in a yellow powder, known as flowers of 
 sulphur. It has a slight affinity for moisture, and careful manu- 
 facturers keep it covered from air to avoid the formation of sul- 
 phurous or sulphuric acids. Mixed with certain oils by heat, it 
 forms the black sulphur substitutes that are often used in rubber 
 
SULPHUR. 77 
 
 compounding. Sulphur in the form of rolled brimstone is pul- 
 verized, sifted, and used in the place of flowers of sulphur, in 
 France, and is equally good and cheaper. 
 
 Sulphur Balsam. — A solution of sulphur in fixed oils, con- 
 sisting of 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur in 8 ounces of linseed oil, 
 used in proofing compounds. 
 
 Vesuvian White. — A special vulcanizing material manu- 
 factured in England, for use in the manufacture of tennis balls 
 and other goods. 
 
 VuLCANiNE. — ^An English vulcanizing preparation, used for 
 both steam and dry heat goods. It occurs either as a white or a 
 black powder, depending upon the line of goods on which it is to 
 be used. 
 
 VuLCOLE. — A paste furnished in two colors, white and black, 
 that, added to certain compounds, prevents blooming. It also 
 has the quality of rendering flowers of sulphur inert if used in 
 excess, so that 50 to 75 per cent, can be used in an ordinary soft 
 compound. 
 
 Garnier, in an English patent, mixes rubber cold (?) with 
 shellac dissolved in benzole and adds alum, claiming that the 
 product is similar to vulcanized rubber. 
 
 Raymond, in another English patent, uses for vulcanizing a 
 mixture of benzine, camphor, chloride of sulphur, and oleic acid. 
 
 The table on the following page indicates vulcanizing pres- 
 sure in pounds per square inch in gage, and temperatures by the 
 Fahrenheit scale: 
 
78 VULCANIZING INGREDIENTS. 
 
 VULCANIZED PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure Temperature 
 
 in lbs. in in lbs. m in lbs. in 
 
 per sq. Fahren- per sg. Fahren- per sg. Fahren- 
 
 mch in heit inch in heit mch in heit 
 
 gage. degrees. gage. degrees. gage. degrees. 
 
 7 232.3 39 285.4 71 316.7 
 
 8 234.7 40 286.6 72 317.5 
 
 9 237.1 41 287.8 73 318.3 
 
 10 239.4 42 288.9 74 319.1 
 
 11 241.6 43 290.1 75 319.9 
 
 12 243.7 44 291.2 76 320.7 
 
 13 245.8 45 292.3 77 321.4 
 
 14 247.8 46 293.4 78 322.2 
 
 15 249.7 47 294.4 79 323.0 
 
 16 251.6 48 295.5 80 323.8 
 
 17 253.5 49 296.5 81 324.5 
 
 18 255.3 50 297.5 82 325.2 
 
 19 257.0 51 298.6 83 326.0 
 
 20 258.7 52 299.6 84 326.7 
 
 21 260.4 53 300.6 85 327.4 
 
 22 262.0 54 301.5 86 328.1 
 
 23 263.6 55 302.5 87 328.9 
 
 24 265.2 56 303.5 88 329.6 
 
 25 266.7 57 3044 89 330.3 
 
 26 268.2 58 305.3 90 331.0 
 
 27 269.7 59 306.3 91 3317 
 
 28 271. 1 60 307.2 92 332.3 
 
 29 272.6 61 308.1 93 333.0 
 
 30 273.9 62 309.0 94 333-7 
 
 31 275.3 63 309.9 95 334-4 
 
 32 276.7 64 310.8 96 335-1 
 
 .33 278.0 65 311.6 97 335-7 
 
 34 279.3 66 312.5 98 336.4 
 
 35 280.5 67 313.3 99 337-0 
 
 36 281.8 68 314.2 100 337.7 
 
 37 283.0 69 315.0 
 
 38 284.2 70 315-8 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FILLERS AND OTHER INGREDIENTS USED IN DRY MIXING RUBBER 
 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 India-rubber is compounded for two reasons, the first being 
 to reduce the cost without destroying the usefulness of the 
 gum, the second being to impart to the gum qualities possessed 
 by a great variety of mineral, vegetable, and even animal sub- 
 stances. Each of the ingredients treated in this chapter has 
 some specific use. While their arrangement may seem a little 
 incoherent to the chemist, it will be fully appreciated and 
 understood by the rubber manufacturer whose habit of mind 
 leads him to reach out into any of the kingdoms — animal, 
 vegetable, or mineral — for assistants in compounding problems. 
 
 Acetate of Lead. — A white, sweetish-tasting powder soluble 
 in water and alcohol. In its crystalline form it contains about 
 7 per cent, of water of crystallization, which is easily driven 
 off at a temperature of, say, 80° to 100° F. Its specific gravity 
 is : crystallized, 2.3 ; water free, 2.5. Its use in semi-hard com- 
 position was patented by both Goodyear and Payen. India-rub- 
 ber dissolved in oil, to which has been added acetate of lead, is 
 used to fill the pores of certain leathers so that the "filling" shall 
 not come through. It is also used in certain varnishes in con- 
 nection with Gutta-percha. 
 
 Agalmatolite. — A silicate of aluminum resembling soap- 
 stone which is soft enough to be carved with a knife. It has 
 no advantages over talc, silicate of magnesia, or soapstone in rub- 
 ber use. The largest deposits of this material are to be found in 
 China. 
 
 Aluminum Flake. — A curious natural product in the form 
 of a white powder, free from grit, with a specific gravity of 
 2.58. It is a remarkable heat resistant, is inert in compounds, 
 and toughens them. Is used instead of zinc oxide, both for 
 color and strength. Is largely used, in rubber work in the 
 United States and Canada. 
 
 Aluminite. — A white clay containing a large percentage of 
 aluminum (about 30 per cent.) and a certain amount of silica. Its 
 
 79 
 
8o FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 specific gravity is low, and its fusing point 2,400° F. Found in 
 the United States. 
 
 Alumina. — The oxide of aluminum and a chief constituent 
 of clay. Its specific gravity is 4.154. Ordinarily speaking, it is 
 a very inert substance, insoluble, and not readily attacked by 
 acids. It is best known in the arts under the forms of 
 corundum, emery, etc. As obtained chemically it is a fine white 
 glistening powder, feeling harsh and dry to the touch. Eaton's 
 formula for the use of oxide of aluminum in making a pure white 
 rubber was : India-rubber 40 per cent., oxide of aluminum 55 per 
 cent, and sulphur 5 per cent. 
 
 Alundum. — A patented abrasive material made from oxide 
 of aluminum or bauxite. 
 
 Amphiboline. — A German earth. When wetted and dried, 
 it will not absorb water again. Used in waterproofing, the product 
 being non-inflammable. Is mixed with gelatine or size, no rubber 
 being used : 34 parts amphiboline, 9 parts gelatine, 2 parts chrome 
 alum, 2 parts ammonium sulphate, 53 parts water. 
 
 Anhydrite. — The water-free mineral form of sulphate of 
 lime or gypsum. It has a specific gravity of 2.9, and is formed 
 artificially by heating gypsum so as to drive off all its water. 
 It is white in color and crystalline in form. Gypsum that has been 
 overheated in the preparation of plaster of paris and that has 
 lost its ability to "set" is pure Anhydrite. It is used as a filler 
 in rubber compounding instead of whiting or paris white. 
 
 Antimony. — See Golden Sulphuret of Antimony, Black An- 
 timony, and Kermes. 
 
 Argillaceous Red Shale. — A shale that has a large amount 
 of clay in it is termed Argillaceous, and the substance mentioned 
 in the heading may be briefly termed clay tinctured red with 
 oxide of iron. The analysis of Argillaceous clay shows : Alumina 
 39, silica 46, water 13, iron, magnesia, and lime 2, It was the 
 basis of a well-known oil-resisting compound that for years 
 baffled imitation. 
 
 Artificial Sulphuret of Lead. — See Burnt Hypo. 
 
 Arsenic. — A white brittle metal, with a specific gravity of 
 4.7 or 2,-7, according to its form. Also a popular term for the 
 oxide of arsenic sometimes called the white arsenic, which is a 
 
ASBESTIC— ASBESTOS. 8i 
 
 heavy white powder of the specific gravity 3.7. White arsenic, 
 arsenious oxide, is sHghtly soluble in cold water and to the 
 extent of 10 per cent, in hot water. There are several coloring 
 matters formed from arsenic, all of which are to he condemned for 
 general use. The most familiar are paris green ; realgar, which is 
 red, and orpiment, which is yellow. The white oxide is rarely 
 used in rubber work, and is to be avoided, as are the greens, 
 reds, and yellows. The green has been used in mechanical 
 rubber goods, but the color was not a valuable one. Hancock 
 vulcanized Gutta-percha with orpiment, and Forster used it in 
 "mosaic work" for floor coverings. An anti-fouling compo- 
 sition for ships' bottoms is formed of Gutta-percha, copper, 
 bronze, and arsenic. Another is formed of: India-rubber 2 
 pounds, rosin 7 pounds and arsenic 2 ounces. 
 
 AsBESTic. — The part of the rock remaining after the richer 
 veins of asbestos have been extracted. This remainder is a 
 purely fibrous material, clearly showing its origin. For 
 mechanical uses it is ground fine, and for all sorts of fire- 
 proofing purposes is valuable and much cheaper than long 
 fiber asbestos. It is mined at Danville, Lower Canada. It 
 makes an excellent compounding material for asbestos pack- 
 ings, etc., in connection with rubber. 
 
 Asbestine. — A pure fibrous silicate of magnesia, called also 
 mineral pulp. It is mined near Gouverneur, New York, 
 where is the only deposit at present known where magnesia 
 shows so distinct a fiber. It is very largely used in the manu- 
 facture of paper, and also as an ingredient in rubber. Appar- 
 ently the pulverized mineral is a very strong white powder, 
 but in actual use it has not much more covering quality than 
 whiting. It was at one time used largely in the manufacture 
 of rubber shoes, but, aside from being inert and a good filler, 
 was probably no better than whiting, while it was more costly. 
 It is often used in white goods, in connection with oxide of zinc, 
 to make a light weight compound. It is also known as 
 agalite and asbestine pulp. Its composition is: Silica 62, 
 magnesia 33, water 4, iron oxide and alumina i. 
 
 Asbestos {Amianthus). — A fibrous silicate of calcium and 
 magnesia, also called stone flax, salamander's wool (from an 
 
82 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 old belief that it was originally made from the wool of the 
 salamander), cotton stone, mountain flax, mountain wood, and 
 mountain cork. Its specific gravity is 3.02 to 3.1. An analysis 
 of the two best known varieties shows : 
 
 Canadian. Italian. 
 
 Silica 40.92 40.25 
 
 Magnesia 33.21 40.18 
 
 Water of hydration 12.22 14.02 
 
 Alumina 6.69 2.82 
 
 Protoxide of iron 5.77 -75 
 
 Soda 68 1.37 
 
 Potash, etc 22 .15 
 
 Sulphuric acid traces .31 
 
 The longest fiber is possessed by the Italian, which is 
 sometimes 3 feet in length. The Canadian ranges from 3 to 6 
 inches in length, but it is finer, more flexible, and more easily 
 separated than the Italian. The mineral divides itself natur- 
 ally into three classes : the first, coarse, brittle, very plentiful, and 
 cheap; the second, possessing well-defined fibers of a brownish- 
 yelow color, fragile, and containing many foreign bodies ; the 
 third, with pure white silky fibers which can be woven into 
 textiles. A notable use to which asbestos has been put in the 
 United States is in the production of the packing known as 
 Vulcabeston (which see). Its low conductivity of heat renders 
 it particularly useful in steam packings, both for cylinder work 
 and for joints, while its incombustibility has long caused it to 
 be used for fireproof purposes. There are fibers formed of 
 serpentine rock which are much used as a substitute for gen- 
 uine asbestos, and answers nearly as well, being, however, 
 shorter in fiber and somewhat less durable. Almost all large 
 rubber manufacturers produce packings in which there is a 
 certain amount of asbestos, often assisted by infusorial earth, 
 asbestine, etc. 
 
 Atmoid. — A very light white earthy matter, marketed by an 
 English corporation. Analysis proves it to be an almost pure 
 silica — quite close, in fact, to infusorial earth. 
 
 Atmido. — A snow-white filler of low specific gravity, free 
 from organic matter and indifferent to acids. Used in small 
 proportions, is said to increase both strength and resiliency in 
 
BARYTES—BLUE LEAD. 83 
 
 soft rubber goods. Used in large proportions, it makes a very- 
 hard compound, said to resist superheated steam. Manufac- 
 tured in Germany. 
 
 Barytes. — ^A heavy white mineral that in commerce takes the 
 form of a fine v^rhite or gray powder. It is obtained by grind- 
 ing the mineral heavy spar, or by chemical means from baric 
 chloride. Its specific gravity is 4.5. It occurs in commerce 
 under the names "permanent white" and "blanc fixe." The 
 artificially-prepared substance is to be preferred to the finely- 
 ground mineral, on account of its less cystalline form. The 
 commercial article should always be examined to determine 
 its freedom from acid impurities. Barytes is chiefly used as an 
 adulterant for white lead and paints. Thus, Venice white con- 
 tains equal parts of sulphate of barytes and white lead ; Hamburg 
 white, 2 parts to 2 parts of white lead; and Dutch white, 3 parts 
 to I part of white lead. It is wholly inert when used as an ingre- 
 dient in rubber compounding, and increases the resiliency of 
 rubber, and is a make-weight. 
 
 Black Antimony. — A black powder obtained by grinding 
 stibnite or antimony ore. It is a sulphide of the metal and is 
 met with more or less pure, as it is often prepared from a high- 
 grade ore. The sulphur contained in it is unavailable for 
 vulcanizing purposes, and if used in compounding it is neces- 
 sary to add a sufficiency of sulphur to vulcanize. In the purest 
 form, black antimony contains about 28 per cent, of sulphur 
 and 72 per cent, of antimony. It is insoluble in water, but 
 is dissolved by muriatic acid or by caustic alkalies. From 
 its solution in alkali a fine brown-red powder may be obtained 
 by treatment with a dilute acid, and this powder, known as 
 kermes, has the same chemical composition as that mentioned 
 above. Its specific gravity is 4.6. It was formerly used some- 
 times as a filler, as it was believed to give a soft effect in 
 molded goods. It has been almost wholly displaced, however, 
 by cheaper and better ingredients. 
 
 Black Hypo. — See Hyposulphite of Lead. 
 
 Black Lead. — See Plumbago. 
 
 Blue Lead. — Where zinc ores are found in combination with 
 galena, or natural sulphide of lead, the two are often smelted 
 
84 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 together with raw coal and slaked lime, producing a fume 
 called blue powder, which is sold under the name of Blue Lead. 
 It is an excellent filler, but is not as good as sublimed lead; 
 for example, as it does not impart enough resiliency to rubber. 
 Its chief merit is its cheapness. A very fine quality of Blue 
 Lead, containing considerable lead oxide, is now on the market, 
 but this must not be confused with either of the two low-grade 
 articles mentioned in these paragraphs. This Blue Lead is of 
 exceeding fineness, and gives a peculiarly soft finish to the 
 rubber. Used in the place of litharge, it materially assists in 
 the cure, and produces a fine black. As it has a high specific 
 gravity, it often displaces barytes. Blue Lead is also a name 
 given to an artificial aluminous substance occurring either as 
 a loose powder or in a concrete form, colored blue by means 
 of some kind of blue dye — aniline or logwood — which does not 
 contain lead. 
 
 Bone Ash. — See Phosphate of Lime. 
 
 BoNEBLACK. — See Animal Charcoal, 
 
 Bucaramanguina. — A transparent amber-colored, incom- • 
 bustible material, found near Bucaramanga, Colombia. It is 
 somewhat similar to asbestos, for which it has been mentioned 
 as a substitute in the manufacture of packings. 
 
 Burnt Umber. — An earth containing a large amount of iron 
 oxide of a dark-brown rust color. As mined, it is called raw 
 umber, and the product obtained by calcining it is known as 
 Burnt Umber. It is a fairly useful filler in compounding, as its 
 action, or rather lack of action, upon rubber makes it safe to 
 use. It is used in brown packings and, to a certain extent, in 
 maroon goods. 
 
 Calamine. — An ore of the metal zinc, and a carbonate of 
 zinc. Ordinary Calamine, which is a silicate of the metal, has a 
 specific gravity of 3.6 to 4.4, and is little used in the arts. 
 Noble Calamine, or native carbonate of zinc, is a gray or gray- 
 ish yellow to brown powder, according to its priority. Its 
 specific gravity is 3.4 to 4.4. Its nature is earthy, and heat has 
 no action upon it. A little of it is said to toughen soft com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Calcium White. — Another name for Whiting. 
 
CALOMEL— CHALK. 85 
 
 Calomel. — A white, tasteless, and inodorous powder of 
 specific gravity about 7.2. It is permanent in the air, but 
 should be kept in the dark, as light blackens it. When pure, it 
 may be wholly volatilized by heat, but if this cannot be done, 
 then the sample tested contains other bodies. Calomel strikes 
 a black color under the action of alkalies. It is insoluble in 
 water, alcohol, ether, or benzine. It is the basis of a com- 
 pound for rendering woven hose waterproof, the other ingre- 
 dients being magnesia, black antimony, oxide of zinc, tar 
 sulphur, and India-rubber. Its office is to hasten the cure. 
 
 Carbonate of Baryta. — Known also as the mineral wither- 
 ite ; has a specific gravity of 4.3. It is a white powder 
 insoluble in water and alcohol. (See Barytes.) 
 Carbonate of Lead. — See White Lead. 
 Carbonate of Lime. — ^Very familiar under the native form 
 of limestone, marble, or chalk. Specific gravity 2.7 and 2.9. ( See 
 Whiting.) 
 
 Carbonaceous Clay. — Found near Lake Albert, South 
 Australia. After being boiled at a high temperature with 
 caustic soda and washed with a weak solution of sulphuric 
 acid, it assumes a remarkably light, spongy, elastic character. 
 It is used as an absorbent, and as a substitute for cork in 
 linoleum, and is suggested as an ingredient for use in connec- 
 tion Avith rubber for playing-balls, etc. 
 
 Carburet of Iron. — A name given to a mixture of graphite 
 and oxide of iron. A fine black-brown powder, fairly heavy 
 specifically, although variable. It makes a fair filler in com- 
 pounding, being inert and strongly coherent. In packings it 
 has been largely used, and also in compounds for wagon covers 
 and tarpaulins before reclaimed rubber came largely into use. 
 It has also been used in cements for card clothing. 
 
 Chalk. — A white, soft, somewhat gritty substance, consist- 
 ing chiefly of carbonate of lime. It is piade up of myriads of 
 very small shells of marine animals long extinct. Its nature 
 is earthy; that is to say, it is not easily affected by ordinary 
 bodies. Acids disengage carbonic acid gas from it. Its specific 
 gravity is 2.9. If heated to a red heat, carbonic acid gas 
 escapes and quicklime is left behind. (See Whiting.) 
 
86 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 Charcoal (animal). — Animal Charcoal is made from cal- 
 cined bones and has the property, in a high degree, of 
 absorbing odors. It is often used, therefore, in deodorizing 
 rubber goods, and experimentally by chemists for filtering 
 Gutta-percha dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, where a per- 
 fectly clear product is desired. Its use is advised by Forster in 
 Gutta-percha compounds, and by Warne, Jaques, and others 
 for packings to withstand heat. (See Boneblack.) 
 
 Charcoal (vegetable). — This is a popular term for the 
 coal produced by the charring of wood. There are many mate- 
 rials which are really Charcoals, such as animal charcoal just 
 quoted, carbon, coke, graphite, and wood Charcoal. All of 
 these are practically the same in their pure states, being almost 
 wholly carbon. Wood charcoal, which is what is meant in rub- 
 ber compounding by vegetable Charcoal, consists of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen, the last two being in the proportion to 
 form water. As it retains the form of the wood from which it 
 is made, it is powdered before use. It is black and brittle, in- 
 soluble in water, infusible, and non-volatile in the most intense 
 heat. It has the power of condensing gases and destroying 
 bad smells. Charcoal may or may not be a bad conductor of 
 heat and a good conductor of electricity, these properties de- 
 pending upon the wood from which it is made. Technically, 
 it is divided into hard wood charcoal and soft wood charcoal. 
 Its composition at ordinary temperatures is about as follows: 
 Carbon 85 per cent., water 12 per cent., ash 3 per cent. It is 
 used in rubber compounding in certain vulcanite varnishes and 
 in certain insulated wire compounds. For this latter use, 
 willow Charcoal is preferable, as it is a decided non-conductor. 
 It has also been used in sponge rubber, with the idea that it 
 acts as a preservative in a compound which is very likely to be 
 short-lived. One curious use for it, a possible and valuable one, 
 was in the attempted manufacture of cop tubes from Gutta- 
 percha and Charcoal. Macintosh also used large quantities 
 of ground charcoal in place of lampblack in some of his com- 
 pounds. A French substitute for vulcanite paints or lacquers 
 is made of 10 pounds of bitumen, 15 parts of Charcoal, and a 
 little linseed oil, mixed by heating. 
 
CHINA CLAY— CORUNDUM. 87 
 
 China Clay. — See Kaolin. 
 
 CoMPO. — A name for a composition used in rubber manu- 
 facture in the United States years ago, but not in use now. 
 The name, however, clings to two compounds sold by an 
 English chemical house for use in rubber work. They are of 
 a secret nature. No. i is used in the manufacture of oil-resist- 
 ing valves and in tubing for chemical factories, in the propor- 
 tion of 30 pounds of Compo to 10 pounds of rubber. No. 2 is 
 used for soles for tennis shoes and in mechanical goods, in the 
 proportion of 25 pounds of Compo to 10 pounds of rubber. 
 
 Cornwall Clay. — See Kaolin. 
 
 CoRKj in granulated or powdered form, has long been a 
 favorite ingredient in rubber compounding. Not that it is used 
 in any such measure as whiting or barytes, but many mills 
 have used it, and a few in large proportions. Used in connec- 
 tion with India-rubber and Gutta-percha, it has been the 
 subject of some fifty patents. Its largest use, perhaps, was in 
 the manufacture of Kamptulicon, where India-rubber is used 
 as a binding material, and in linoleum, where oxidized oils are 
 used in place of rubber. It was also used in what was known 
 as leather rubber, in which palm oil distillate, a little India- 
 rubber, and a good deal of granulated cork were used. At 
 one time it was also compounded with rubber and made up 
 into a waterproof felt for hats. It also went into compounds 
 to resist heat, into cricket balls, and into golf balls, where it 
 was compounded with Gutta-percha and enough metal filings 
 added to give the necessary weight. A rubber blanket used in 
 special manufacture also had its surface covered with granu- 
 lated Cork as an absorbent material. In some cases the Cork 
 was charred and roasted to remove what resinous matter 
 might be in it, while in others resinous matter was removed 
 by boiling in alcohol. As is generally known, Cork is the bark 
 of the cork oak, a native of the south of Europe and north of 
 Africa. The chief supplies come from Spain and Portugal. 
 Cork is the basis of the fine black known as Spanish black, 
 which is made by burning the refuse in close vessels. 
 
 Corundum. — A mineral which is nearly pure alumina, yet 
 of great specific gravity, and of exceeding hardness, being 
 
88 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 inferior, in this respect, only to the diamond. Emery (which see), 
 so largely used as a polishing substance, is a variety of Corun- 
 dum. 
 
 DiATOMACEOus Earth. — See Infusorial Earth. 
 
 Electric Facing. — See Farina. 
 
 Emery. — The average composition of Emery may be taken 
 as alumina 82, oxide of iron 10, silica 6, lime i^. Its specific 
 gravity is about 3.8 to 4. It is prepared by breaking the stone 
 at first into lumps about the size of a hen's eg^, then running it 
 through stamps, and crushing it to powder. It is then sifted to 
 various degrees of fineness, and graded according to the meshes 
 of the sieve. Emery is next in hardness to diamond dust and 
 crystalline corundum, and it is used chiefly as an abrading agent. 
 Prior to the invention of vulcanite, emery wheels were made by 
 mixing clay and emery in suitable mounds, and vitrifying them 
 like common earthenware. In rubber mills it is chiefly used in 
 the manufacture of what are known as vulcanite emery wheels. 
 It is also used in grinding and sharpening compounds, as hones 
 and strops. (See also' Alumina and Corundum.) A certain 
 amount of it also gives the desired surface to rubber blackboards. 
 
 Farina. — This is sometimes used in small quantities in 
 unusual mixtures as a compound, but has little value, as there are 
 many better substitutes for it. A practical use for it, however, 
 is the brushing of a rubber surface with it before vulcanization, 
 when it is necessary to have printing or stamping done upon that 
 surface afterwards. Farina is made largely of potatoes, another 
 name for it being Potato Starch. The process consists simply of 
 crushing, sifting, washing, bleaching, and grinding, which is 
 repeated three times, and each time the starch granules separate 
 and are collected. Potato Starch will be remembered by rubber 
 manufacturers as the material which the gossamer makers used 
 successfully for a number of years in the production of the "elec- 
 tric" or "corruscus" finish. Bone ash is used sometimes in the 
 place of Farina, where rubber surfaces are to be printed upon. 
 
 Feldspar. — A name given to a group of silicates of which 
 the principal ones are Orthoclase or potash, feldspar, containing 
 silica, alumina, and potash, and having a specific gravity of 2.5 ; 
 Albite, containing silica, alumina, and soda, specific gravity 
 
FIRE CLAY— FOSSIL FARINA. 89 
 
 2.61 ; Oligoclase, containing silica, alumina, soda, and lime, 
 specific gravity 2.66 ; and Anorthite, containing silica, alumina, 
 and lime, with a specific gravity of 2.75. The feldspars by the 
 action of the weather break down into china clay, kaolin, or 
 pottery clays. Ground very fine, they have been used in the 
 production of rubber enamels and lacquers. 
 
 Fire Clay. — A kind of clay which, better than any other, 
 resists the action of heat and direct flame. It is composed 
 principally of silica and alumina, with traces of the alkali 
 earths. The best is found in conjunction with coal, and is 
 called Stourbridge clay. Its specific gravity is about 2.5, and 
 its color dirty white. Mixed with vulcanized India-rubber, 
 dissolved in tar oil and sulphur, it forms a compound which, 
 when applied to hot joints, cures at once. 
 
 Flint is practically pure silica and has the specific gravity 
 of 2.63. The nature of the powder obtained by grinding is 
 always sharp and gritty. It is unacted upon by all ordinary 
 means, and with difficulty even in the laboratory of the 
 chemist. Its principal use, perhaps, is in the manufacture of 
 glass. Flint varies in color from yellow and brown to black. 
 It has been used in erasive rubbers, although pumice stone is 
 better. 
 
 Flour of Glass. — Glass powdered and sifted through a fine 
 sieve of 150 meshes to the inch. Glass varies much in its 
 composition, the more common kinds containing lime, while 
 the so-called flint glass contains lead. Potash and soda also 
 enter into the composition of glass; hence all flour of glass 
 will contain those ingredients which entered into the compo- 
 sition of the glass it was obtained from. Generally speaking, 
 Flour of Glass may be considered an inert substance under 
 ordinary conditions, though the softer kinds are attacked 
 even by boiling water. It was used by Newton and Wray in 
 insulated wire compounds, and has also been used in certain 
 packings. 
 
 Flour of Phosphate. — See Phosphate of Lime. 
 
 Fossil Farina, also called mountain milk, is an earth physic- 
 ally similar to infusorial earth. It is obtained from China and con- 
 sists of silica 5o|^, alumina 26^, magnesia 9, water and organic 
 
90 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 matter 13, with traces of lime and oxide of iron. It has been used 
 in rubber compounding for the production of packings and semi- 
 hard valves. 
 
 Fossil Meal. — A kind of earthy mineral, principally com- 
 posed of the minute shells of very small animals long extinct. 
 It is similar to infusorial earth, lime and silica entering chiefly 
 into its composition. It is used for the same purposes as 
 infusorial earth (which see) or silica. 
 
 French Chalk. — This is ground and sifted talc, forming a 
 white, greasy-feeling powder. Its chemical composition is 
 hydrated silicate of magnesia, the water being chemically 
 combined. Its specific gravity is 2. (See Talc.) 
 
 Fuller's Earth. — A kind of clay. It is a greenish or brown- 
 ish earthy, somewhat greasy-feeling, substance, having a 
 shining streak when rubbed. Its composition is: Silica 70, 
 oxide iron 2.5, alumina 3.5, lime 6, combined water 16, mag- 
 nesia trace, phosphoric acid trace, salt 2, alkalies trace. Fuller's 
 Earth is found in extensive deposits in England, where its 
 annual consumption at one time exceeded 2,000 tons, chiefly 
 in the woolen manufacture, for fulling cloth. Its specific 
 gravity is from 1.8 to 2.2. It is used in rubber compounding 
 for about the same purposes as infusorial earth, and is also 
 used in the manufacture of rubber type. 
 
 Graphite. — See Plumbago. 
 
 Gypsum. — See Sulphate of Lime. 
 
 Infusorial Earth. — This is obtained usually from deposits 
 at the bottom of inland waters, and consists of the minute 
 siliceous remains of infusoria or microscopical animals. It is 
 known also as fossil flour, mountain flour, and infusorial 
 flour. The largest deposits, in the form of a fine white or 
 pinkish powder, are found in Nova Scotia and in Germany. 
 This earth is a wonderful non-conductor of heat, and, in 
 connection with asbestos, is used in the manufacture of boiler 
 coverings. It is used also in small proportions in various 
 rubber compounds, where it increases both strength and 
 resiliency, though if used in excess it makes a very hard com- 
 pound. The best grades are wholly free from vegetable matter, 
 are nearly pure silica, and perfectly indifferent to corrosive 
 
IRON PYRITES— LIME. 91 
 
 substances. Under the name of diatomaceous silica it is used 
 in a formula for elastic valve packing, patented by A. B. Jen- 
 kins, United States. This packing is described as practically- 
 indestructible in steam or water, oils, acids, etc. Specific 
 gravity, 1.66 to 1.95. 
 
 Iron Pyrites. — A natural sulphuret of iron, commonly of a 
 bright, brass-yellow color ; a very plentiful mineral often mistaken 
 for gold. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, 
 while sulphur is also obtained from it by sublimation. It was 
 used by Warne, Fanshaw, and others, in the manufacture of 
 packings to resist a high degree of heat. The sulphur in Iron 
 Pyrites has also been used in vulcanization. Warne, in one of 
 his heat-resisting packings, patented the use of Iron Pyrites, 
 and, in the compound that he gives as an example, leaves out 
 the whole or a portion of the sulphur usually employed. (See 
 Vulcanization.) 
 
 Kaolin. — A white clay largely used in the manufacture of 
 porcelain. It is a hydrated silicate of alumina. 
 
 Kermes. — A brownish red form of sulphide of antimony, 
 artificially prepared by boiling in carbonate of soda. If left 
 to itself the solution will partly deposit a very fine powder of 
 Kermes, while the clear solution may be further treated with 
 a weak acid to obtain the remainder. Kermes will not vul- 
 canize rubber without the addition of sulphur. Its specific 
 gravity is about 4.5. Its compostion is 28 per cent, sulphur 
 and y2 per cent, antimony. It is rarely used in rubber com- 
 pounding. 
 
 Lime. — The oxide of the metal calcium. It is commonly 
 known in two states, viz. : Quick Lime, which is the pure OxidCj 
 and Slaked Lime, which is the hydrated oxide mixed with some 
 carbonate. Quick Lime is a white solid substance of specific 
 gravity 3.2. It is not stable, taking up water and carbonic acid 
 from the air and breaking down into a fine white powder, usually 
 called air-slaked lime. Its power of absorbing water has caused 
 it to be favorably used in drying operations, while the insoluble 
 compounds it forms with various oils have led to its being con- 
 sidered as a drier, although this action is not properly to be called 
 one of drying. Lime, air-slaked, is used in rubber work, where 
 
92 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 there may be a little moisture in a compound, which it readily 
 neutralizes. It is also used in soft cements in connection with 
 tallow and India-rubber, but only where the rubber has been 
 melted and the cement is of the non-drying variety. In composi- 
 tions like that of Sorel's, Lime is introduced to effect a combina- 
 tion between resin acids found in the resin and resin oil. Excess 
 of Lime in India-rubber is injurious, because it renders the com- 
 pound too open, thus inducing oxidation. When used in small 
 quantities, aside from its effect upon moisture, it combines 
 with free sulphur and modifies its continued action upon the 
 rubber. It must be remembered, however, that lime dimin- 
 ishes the resiliency of India-rubber, while it increases the hard- 
 ness of both hard and soft rubber. It may be used in small 
 quantities in insulated wire, and in a measure assists the in- 
 sulating capacity of the rubber. Calcium carbonate, in con- 
 nection with colcothar and methyl alcohol, is used as a com- 
 pound for cleansing vulcanite. Rubber also cures quicker 
 when compounded with lime. 
 
 Litharge. — One of the oxides of the lead, known as the 
 monoxide. When pure its specific gravity is 9.36. Commercial 
 litharge often contains carbonic acid gas and water taken up 
 from the air. These may be removed by strong heating. It 
 has a peculiar property, the nature of which is yet a debated 
 question, by virtue of which it renders oil more easily oxidized, 
 or, as it is commonly called, rendered dry. There is no reason to 
 suppose that this action is available with caoutchouc. The 
 best Litharge is made from pig lead, which is placed in a rever- 
 beratory furnace and exposed to a current of air. which burns 
 it to an oxide. It has been noted in rubber factories that 
 certain men seem specially sensitive to the effects of Litharge, 
 often developing serious symptoms of lead poisoning. Per- 
 sons who show any symptoms should pay scrupulous attention 
 to personal cleanliness. It is said that such persons have been 
 cured by taking them out of the mixing room entirely, and 
 putting them to work on vulcanizers, particularly where they 
 open and handle the goods from the finished heat, the theory 
 being that the sulphur fumes neutralize the effects of the 
 lead. Possibly there is a grain of wisdom in this, for the 
 
LITHOPHONE— MAGNESIA. 93 
 
 old fashioned treatment for lead poisoning was sulphur baths 
 and the drinking of water aciduated with sulphuric acid or the 
 acid of sulphate of magnesia. Litharge is not only a valuable 
 filler for rubber, but has the faculty of hastening vulcanization 
 in a marked degree. All dry heat goods depend upon it, and 
 in mold work and general mechanical goods it is used when- 
 ever possible. Of course, it is generally available for dark or 
 black effects only. 
 
 LiTHOPHONE. — See Colors. 
 
 LiTHARGRiTE. — A Substitute for litharge, made of a mixture 
 of pulverized and calcined magnesia and oxide of lead. 
 
 Magnesia. — A white dry powder which, when mixed with 
 water, forms a hard compact mass like marble. Its specific gravity 
 is 3.65. It is earthy in its nature, having no taste, but producing a 
 sense of dryness in the mouth owing to its absorption of the water 
 therein. It is frequently called calcined magnesia from the method 
 of preparation by burning magnesia alba. Its use in rubber is to 
 increase its toughness and resiliency, which it does to a marked 
 degree when used in moderation. Magnesia is also used in 
 the production of compounds like balenite, its use in hard rubber 
 compounds being to increase resiliency as well as hardness. A 
 very small quantity of it is also used in compounds for insulated 
 wire, where it is said to increase the insulating qualities of rub- 
 ber. Carbonate of magnesia occurs native in the mineral mag- 
 nesite and, in connection with carbonate of lime, as dolomite. 
 
 There exist two kinds of calcined Magnesia: the heavy and 
 the light calcined. Heavy calcined Magnesia is produced by cal- 
 cining heavy carbonate of Magnesia, which carbonate is won by 
 precipitation of hot Magnesia solutions by hot solutions of soda. 
 The light calcined Magnesia is produced by calcining the light 
 carbonate of Magnesia, and this light carbonate is the precipita- 
 tion product of Magnesia solution together with soda solutions, 
 both carefully cooled. The difference between kinds of calcined 
 Magnesia concerns only the structure, so that light calcined Mag- 
 nesia in a dry state seems to have a very big volume, but if the 
 air bladders are driven away and the pores of the material filled 
 by introducing the light Magnesia into liquids, it is easily to be 
 seen that the big volume cannot have the expected effect, if light 
 
94 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 calcined Magnesia is kneaded together with India-rubber on the 
 mixing rollers. The vulcanization of India-rubber can easily be 
 accelerated by addition of calcined Magnesia. Such an addition 
 is often necessary with soft rubbers in open steam cured 
 compounds. Rubbers with a high amount of resins, such as 
 Guayule, Cameroons, Assam, Borneo, etc., usually give better 
 results if compounded with appropriate additions of calcined 
 magnesia. 
 
 Manganese. — A metal of the iron group; gray or reddish 
 white in color, and must be kept under rock oil or in well-sealed 
 vessels, being easily destroyed by the air. Its specific gravity is 
 7.2. Manganese is obtained artificially as a black powder, by 
 exposing the peroxide to prolonged heat. When ignited it is 
 converted into red oxide, which corresponds to the black oxide of 
 iron. The black oxide of Manganese of commerce is the peroxide. 
 Oxides of Manganese have a destructive effect on rubber and 
 blacks that contain this, as they sometimes do, are to be avoided. 
 Managnese is used in connection with pitch, turpentine, and 
 Gutta-percha for making Brandt's cement. 
 
 Marble Flour. — This is the finely ground chips of white 
 marble, and is composed almost wholly of carbonate of lime. It 
 is a heavy inert powder, often used in rubber compounding as a 
 substitute for barytes. It has also been used to some extent in 
 hard rubber, and in the manufacture of hones. 
 
 Massisot. — An oxide of lead, dull red orange in color. A 
 higher degree of oxidation turns this into a product called 
 Minium, which is its purest state. It is often used in rubber com- 
 pounds, acting practically like litharge. 
 
 Mica is the name given to a group of complex silicates con- 
 taining aluminum and potassium, generally with magnesium, but 
 rarely with lime. Their specific gravity ranges from 2.8 to 3.2, 
 while their color varies greatly. Ground mica is simply one or 
 other of these micas reduced to powder. It is used in rubber 
 compounding chiefly for insulating purposes. It is handled as a 
 cement, compounded with rubber, and cut with benzine, or may be 
 mixed dry on the grinder. It is also used in fireproof coverings 
 in connection with rubber, and it is said that for a semi-hard re- 
 sult that is to come in contact with hot water, rubber and Mica 
 
MINERAL WOOL— OXIDE OF ANTIMONY. 95 
 
 forms the best compound. Mica in a state of a very fine pow- 
 der is also known as "cat's gold" or "cat's silver." 
 
 Mineral Wool. — Produced by sending blasts of steam 
 through molten slag, which reduces the fluid metal to a fiber 
 similar to the fused glass that is spun into glass silk. Natural 
 mineral wool, such as is found in the Hawaiian Islands, is very 
 brittle, but the artificial has considerable toughness. It is also 
 known as slag wool, or silicate cotton. It appears in light fleecy 
 masses, and at a distance looks like fine cotton batting. It is very 
 cheap, but is easily affected by weak acids, and should be kept 
 away from a moist atmosphere. It has not been largely used in 
 rubber work as yet, but Lascelles-Scott strongly advises its use, 
 giving as reasons its cheapness and its physical fitness. The sul- 
 phides present in it also assist in vulcanization. 
 
 Minium. — One of the oxides of lead, known also as Red 
 Lead (w^hich see). It is a scarlet crystalline and granular powder 
 having a specific gravity of 8.6 to 9.1. On heating, it temporarily 
 changes color to violet and black, but returns again to the scarlet 
 on cooling. It is adulterated with oxide of iron and brick dust. 
 
 Mountain Flour. — See Infusorial Earth. 
 
 Orange Mineral. — A red lead made from carbonate of 
 lead, while red lead is made from litharge. As a general rule, it 
 contains some lead carbonate. It differs from red lead in color, 
 in that it is more orange red, and more brilliant. The reason 
 for this difference is that it is less crystalline, its particles being 
 much finer than those of red lead. The pigment is also more 
 bulky and much smoother. It is used in finer grades of dark 
 rubber, to assist the cure and impart resiliency. 
 
 Oxide of Aluminum. — See Alumina. 
 
 Ossein. — A light powder made from specially treated bone. 
 Said not to be affected by acids. Is not affected by heat and is not 
 hygroscopic. Preparation patented in England by J. F. Hunter. 
 
 Oxide of Antimony. — There are really three of these 
 oxides. The trioxide, one most useful in the arts, is a snow- 
 white powder of the specific gravity of 5.2. It may be obtained 
 by treating stibnite or, better still, powdered antimony metal with 
 nitric acid, in a current of air sufficient to carry off the copious 
 fumes arising during the operation, or by treating the chloride of 
 
96 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 antimony with cold water for several days. A mixture of the 
 trioxide with a small percentage of the insoluble peroxide may 
 be obtained by melting antimony in a cast iron retort fitted with 
 nozzles, through which air may be blown so as to bubble through 
 the melted metal. Dense white fumes arise, which may be con- 
 densed in suitable chambers into a snow-white powder. This is 
 used in coloring dental vulcanite. 
 
 Oxide of Gold. — As a matter of curiosity it may be noted 
 that this is the most costly ingredient suggested for rubber com- 
 pounding. It occurs in two forms — the protoxide, a dark green 
 or bluish violet powder, and the teroxide, a brown powder. The 
 use of the protoxide was patented by Ninck. For dental vulcan- 
 ite it is doubtful if either form of the oxide could be used, even 
 if the price were so low as to bring it within reach. Another 
 formula calls for the mechanical admixture of gold leaf, which 
 is practicable — if one possesses the gold. 
 
 Oxide of Lead. — See Minium and Litharge. 
 
 Oxide of Tin. — The article most frequently used in the arts 
 is the dioxide. This is a white water-free powder, of the specific 
 gravity of 6.7, insoluble in acids and such solvents as naphtha, 
 petroleum, etc. It is infusible, except at a very high temperature, 
 and is tasteless and inodorous. What is known as French Oxide 
 of Tin is simply a carefully prepared and purified form of the 
 dioxide. It is rarely used in rubber work, although Newton 
 recommends it for a basic ingredient in rubber type. The other 
 oxides of tin are at present merely of chemical interest. 
 
 Oxide of Zinc. — See Colors. 
 
 OxYCHLORiDE OF Lead. — There are several oxychlorides of 
 lead. The substance once known as Turner's Yellow and another 
 known as Carsel Yellow were both of this composition. More 
 recently a white compound has been prepared, which, from its 
 covering power, has been used largely as a paint. Tarpaulin 
 compounds consisting of India-rubber, coal tar, and pitch are 
 treated with Oxychloride of Lead for surface drying, in lieu of 
 vulcanization. 
 
 Pagodite. — A mineral resembling steatite or soapstone. Its 
 name comes from its having been used in the East as a material 
 for carving miniature temples or pagodas from, as it is soft 
 
PARIS WHITE— PHOSPHORUS. 97 
 
 enough to be cut with a knife. Its specific gravity is about the 
 same as that of soapstone, and its color greenish white. (See 
 AgalmatoHte.) 
 
 Paris White. — This has exactly the same composition as 
 Whiting, but is a much harder and more compact form of English 
 chalk, and therefore has greater density. Spanish White is a 
 coarser variety of the same material. Its uses are practically the 
 same as those of whiting. 
 
 Petrifite. — A white powder composed of twO' inexpensive 
 but secret substances. When mixed with water it solidifies 
 quickly, and is an excellent binding substance. Mixed with 
 marble dust, it is sometimes melted and cast upon glass or other 
 smooth surfaces, and makes an excellent table-top in place of the 
 zinc tables used in many rubber factories. As it is perfectly 
 impervious to ordinary solvents, neither cement nor India-rubber 
 sticks to it. It is manufactured in England. 
 
 Peroxide of Lead, — ^The highest oxide of lead — a dark 
 brown powder with a specific gravity of about 9. It is easily 
 decomposed, and from this characteristic it has a strong oxidizing 
 action. Exposed to sunlight or to heat, it yields oxygen and 
 passes intO' the lower oxide known as Red Lead. Its oxidizing 
 properties make it a questionable ingredient in compounding rub- 
 ber, although certain formulas call for its presence. 
 
 Peroxide of Manganese. — Another name for Black Oxide 
 of Manganese, which is a black powder having a specific gravity 
 of 4.8. It is not readily acted on in ordinary ways, being un- 
 changed by heat short of bright red. It is insoluble in the ordinary 
 hydrocarbon solvents. Solvent naphtha was treated with Perox- 
 ide of Manganese by Humphry to free it from water. (See 
 Manganese.) 
 
 Phosphate of Lime. — The chief constituent of animal 
 bones, forming the bulk of the ashes of the same when burnt. It 
 is a white powder, and when in crystalline mineral form, it has a 
 specific gravity of 3.18. It is insoluble in ether, alcohol, or the 
 benzine class of solvents. As it occurs naturally it is known as 
 flour of phosphate and is used in part as a substitute for whiting. 
 Bone ash made from animal charcoal is used in the same way. 
 
 Phosphorus. — A non-metallic element or metalloid, although 
 
98 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 in its combining relation it is more closely connected with arsenic 
 and antimony than with any members of the sulphur group. It 
 is found ordinarily in two states — the ordinary Phosphorus and 
 the red variety. Ordinary phosphorus is an almost colorless or 
 faintly yellow solid substance, somewhat resembling wax, and 
 giving off a disagreeable odor. It fuses at 111.5° F. into a color- 
 less fluid. Heated in the air to about 140° F., it catches fire and 
 burns with a bright white flame. It dissolves freely in benzol, 
 bisulphide of carbon, and in many oils. Red Phosphorus is an 
 amorphous powder of a deep red color, with no odor, and may 
 be heated to nearly 500° F. without fusing. Its specific gravity is 
 2.10. It does not take fire when rubbed, undergoes no change on 
 exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures, and is far less 
 inflammable than ordinary Phosphorus. It is insoluble in sol- 
 vents of the ordinary Phosphorus, and is not poisonous. Mulhol- 
 land made an insulated wire compound from shellac and India- 
 rubber in solution, combined with one to two per cent, of Phos- 
 phorus, which he cured with chloride of sulphur. As cold-cure 
 gums are of little value as insulators, his invention is of doubtful 
 value. He also made a preparation of India-rubber, resin and 
 tallow, and shoddy, to be applied in a fluid state where gas came 
 in contact with the rubber, adding Phosphorus after his solution 
 was finished, to prevent decomposition of the rubber. Duvivier 
 also treated Gutta-percha with sulphide of phosphorus, claiming 
 that he got an elastic result, but allowing that his compound was 
 damaged by acid vapors, to neutralize which action he mixed 
 carbonate of soda with it. An anti-fouling preparation of English 
 origin was also made of Gutta-percha, turpentine, and a little 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Pipe Clay. — A peculiar kind of clay containing neither iron, 
 sand, nor carbonate of lime. It is a beautiful white, retaining its 
 whiteness when burnt. It belongs to the group of clays. Its 
 specific gravity is 2 to 2.5. It was used by Mayall in combination 
 with Gutta-percha, India-rubber, zinc, shellac, and resin for insu- 
 lating tape, and by Austin G. Day to absorb gases during vulcan- 
 ization. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. — This is prepared from gypsum or sul- 
 phate of lime. Its properties of hardening when made into a 
 
PLUMBAGINE— PORTLAND CEMENT. 99 
 
 paste with water are well known. Its chemical properties are the 
 same as burnt gypsum. It is used sometimes instead of lime in 
 compounding and also for making trial molds for rubber work. It 
 was used in old fashioned dry heat compounds to prevent Mister- 
 ing. Specific gravity, 3.2. (See Anhydrite.) 
 
 Plumbagine. — A dark colored pigment manufactured in 
 England and sold to rubber manufacturers for the production of 
 valves. By its use the rubber is vulcanized and goods made which 
 are said to resist successfully the action of cheap lubricants. One 
 pound of Plumbagine is used to two pounds of rubber. 
 
 Plumbago, — This sometimes is called Black Lead, though 
 having no relation to lead ; it is also called Graphite. Its specific 
 gravity is 2.1 to 2,2. Its color is black and shiny. It consists 
 chiefly of carbon, but contains more or less alumina, silica, lime, 
 iron, etc., varying from i to 47 per cent., but not chemically com- 
 bined. Black Lead is a perfect conductor of electricity. It is 
 more incombustible than most ingredients used in rubber com- 
 pounding, and is capable of withstanding great heat. It is used 
 in the rubber industry, chiefly in the manufacture of what are 
 known as graphite or plumbago packings. It is a wholly inert 
 substance, safe to use in connection with any compounds, and is 
 not affected by heat or acids, alkalies, or corrosive substances. It 
 is useful also in certain polishing compositions made with India- 
 rubber as a base, German asbestos cements almost all contain a 
 ^ood proportion of finely powdered graphite, 
 
 Portland Cement "was first obtained by burning the mud 
 found at the mouths of several large rivers in Europe with a pro- 
 portion of clay and lime. Its composition is somewhat complex, 
 containing : Lime 55 to 63 per cent., silicic acid 23 to 26 per cent., 
 alumina 5 to 9 per cent., and oxide of iron 2 to 6 per cent., to- 
 gether with magnesia, potash, soda, sulphate of lime, clay, or 
 sand in various small proportions, according to the mode of manu- 
 facture. Its value as a cement depends upon the interaction of 
 the lime and the silicic acid. In compounding it would have no 
 chemical effects upon rubber, but might of itself become much 
 hardened and thus cause mechanical injury to goods in which it 
 has been introduced. As it occurs commercially, it is a gritty 
 powder of a gray brown or yellow brown color. Its only use as 
 
100 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 far as known in rubber is where it is mixed with tar oil and 
 waste rubber to joint pipes containing fluids. 
 
 Powdered Coal. — Coal consists chiefly of carbon, and is 
 universally regarded as being of vegetable origin. Various coals 
 differ widely in their composition and characters, running from 
 the softest kinds of earths to compact and solid bodies like Parrot 
 coal, which is so compact and solid that it has been made into 
 boxes, inkstands, and other articles which resemble jet. The 
 average specimen of coal analyses is: Carbon 82.6, hydrogen 5.6, 
 oxygen 11.8. Some curious compounds of India-rubber and Coal 
 have been formed. One, for instance, was a mixture in which 
 two pounds of waste India-rubber in a cheap solvent was mixed 
 with nearly a ton of powdered Coal, in which was a certain 
 amount of clay and peat, the use being for an artificial fuel; 
 another use was in the production of hard rubber. Indeed, it is 
 probable that the cheapest compound in use to-day is a jet black, 
 semi-hard rubber made almost wholly of powdered bituminous 
 Coal in which is incorporated a very small percentage of rubber. 
 Coal that is to be used in any rubber work should be submitted to 
 a chemist and its sulphur and other compounds carefully deter- 
 mined before use. 
 
 Pumice Stone. — A light porous ashy stone, the product of 
 volcanic action, its structure being that of a mass of porous glass. 
 Its composition is a mixture of silicates of aluminum, magnesia, 
 calcium, iron, potassium, and sodium, varying with the particular 
 lava whence it had its origin. Its action on India-rubber will be 
 quite inappreciable, chemically speaking, but its mechanical action 
 will be that of a sharp cutting powder. Ground fine, it is used 
 in the manufacture of erasive rubber, and is also' used compounded 
 with the rubber in the manufacture of bones. Recent patents call 
 for its use in certain semi-hard compounds, its presence being said 
 greatly to increase their toughness. Mixed with lard oil to a 
 thick paste, this has been used for polishing India-rubber. 
 
 PuzzoLANA. — A porous lava found near Naples, used 
 chiefly, when mixed with ordinary lime, in forming hydraulic 
 cement. Compounded with marine glue, it is used as a varnish for 
 preserving metallic articles from corrosion. 
 
 Red Chalk. — Artificially deposited chalk colored by any 
 
RED LEAD—SLAKED LIME. loi 
 
 suitable pigment — ^usually one of the red oxides of iron. (See 
 Chalk.) 
 
 Red Lead. — An oxide of the metal, which is also known as 
 Minium. Prepared from pure massicot or from white lead. Its 
 specific gravity is 8.6 to 9.1. A scarlet crystalline granular pow- 
 der, of rather strong coloring powers. As a colorant in rubber 
 work it would be unavailable, since the sulphur necessary to vul- 
 canize would render it more or less black, owing to the formation 
 of sulphide of lead. It is sometimes used, however, in place of 
 litharge. It is also used in "hot" cements of Gutta-percha and 
 for varnishes such as those made of India-rubber, linseed oil, 
 etc., for covering the backs of mirrors. (See Minium, Massicot, 
 and Orange Mineral.) 
 
 Rotten Stone. — Usually considered to be the residuum of 
 naturally decomposed impure limestone, and varying in composi- 
 tion with its sources. That from Derbyshire, England, shows 
 much alumina ; other sorts have more silica. The name is some- 
 times given to "Tripoli," which is a species of infusorial earth. It 
 can have no particular action on rubber, as it is very inert, but is 
 used in certain packings, and was also used by Warne in insu- 
 lated wire compounds. 
 
 Selenium. — A non-metallic element or metalloid of a dark 
 brown color, analagous to sulphur. It has no smell, is tasteless, 
 and is a non-conductor of electricity. It occurs rarely in nature, 
 being found chiefly as a selenide in combination with lead, silver, 
 copper, or iron. It is the basis of a process for vulcanizing India- 
 rubber. 
 
 SiLEX. — Pure Silica. (See Flint.) 
 
 Silica. — The oxide of the metal silicon, familiar in the 
 forms of flint, quartz, etc. Its specific gravity is 2.6. It is with- 
 out action on India-rubber, except mechanically speaking. It is 
 used in Chapman's vulcanite enameling solution, made of India- 
 rubber, sulphur and silica. (See Flint.) 
 
 Silicate Cotton. — See Mineral Wool. 
 
 Slag Wool. — See Mineral Wool. 
 
 Slaked Lime. — Quick lime that has been treated with water, 
 and allowed to absorb it from the air and crumbled to a fine 
 powder, (See Lime.) 
 
102 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 Slate. — A soft easily laminated earthy material, chiefly alu- 
 minous in composition, and allied to the clays. Finely ground, 
 it makes a good semi-hard valve of a blue gray shade. It has 
 been also used in general rubber compounding. 
 
 SoAPSTONE. — A silicate of magnesia, combined with more or 
 less alumina and water. It is really a massive form of talc. In 
 color it is white, reddish, or yellow, is soft and greasy to 
 the touch, is easily cut, but is hard to break. Its specific 
 gravity is 2.26. It is used often in the place of French talc, for 
 keeping rubber surfaces from sticking together during vulcan- 
 ization, and also for burying dark colored goods and holding 
 them in shape while they are being cured. Used as an adulter- 
 ant for rubber, it makes an excellent semi-hard compound for 
 valves. It is also used as a basis compound in the manufacture 
 of insulated wire. (See Talc.) 
 
 Starch. — A vegetable substance allied closely to cellulose. 
 It occurs in regular lumps, composed of granules which have a 
 definite character, according to the variety of the plant they 
 were taken from. When dry its specific gravity is 1.53. Com- 
 mercial starch contains usually about 18 per cent, of water and, 
 if kept in a damp place, will absorb 33 per cent, of water. It 
 was much used formerly on solarized work. Torrefied Starch 
 is obtained by roasting the common form, and is used in arti- 
 ficial leather compounds. 
 
 Stibnite. — That ore of antimony known usually as black 
 antimony. (See Kermes.) 
 
 Sublimed Lead. — Used in the rubber manufacture, it acts 
 both as a filler and chemically. Its peculiar velvety fineness 
 makes it mix intimately with the rubber, and gives a very fine 
 finish, showing no shiny crystals on the surface. The oxide of 
 lead in the Sublimed Lead will also bind free sulphur in the 
 rubber. The amorphous state of the Sublimed Lead makes the 
 action of the lead oxide in this much more effective than the 
 action of litharge, and the result is a very smooth lively jet 
 black rubber. 
 
 Sugar of Lead. — See Acetate of Lead. 
 
 Sulphate of Lead. — A white powder of the specific gravity 
 of 6.2, insoluble in water, but readily soluble in caustic alkalies. 
 
SULPHATE OF LIME— WHEAT FLOUR. 103 
 
 It is not a very stable compound. In Cooky's formula for arti- 
 ficial leather, which has Gutta-percha for a base, it is used in 
 connection with dextrine, magnesia, and cotton dust. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime. — Also called Gypsum. A common min- 
 eral occurring under various forms and names as alabaster, 
 selenite, and gypsum earth. It is pure white in color and has 
 a specific gravity of 2.33. Plaster of paris is a burnt form of 
 gypsum. In the ordinary recovery of rubber by the acid pro- 
 cess, whiting becomes gypsum. (See Anhydrite.) 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc. — Also called White Vitriol. It occurs 
 in the form of a transparent crystal containing about 44 per 
 cent, of water of crystallization, 87 per cent, of which is not 
 given up short of a red heat. Its specific gravity is about 2.03. 
 
 Talc or French Talc is a mineral allied to mica. It is 
 composed entirely of silica and magnesia, in the proportions of 
 67 to 73 of silica, 30 to 35 of magnesia, and 2 to 6 of water. Its 
 colors are silvery white, greenish white, and green. Talc slate 
 is more like steatite and is used for similar purposes. French 
 Talc is used very largely in rubber factories in all lines of work 
 for preventing surfaces from sticking together, during either 
 manipulation or vulcanization. It is used also sometimes for 
 dusting molds to prevent the gum from sticking to the metal 
 and is used largely to bury white goods and keep them in shape 
 during vulcanization. It is used sometimes in compounding, 
 but any great amount of it produces a stony effect. It makes, 
 however, an excellent semi-hard packing. It is used further in 
 compounds for soft polishing, with India-rubber as a binding 
 material. 
 
 Talite. — A white earthy material used in general rubber 
 compounding. It is allied to diatomaceous earth, presumably, 
 and has the same usage. Its analysis shows : Moisture 5.59, 
 silica 83.9, sesquioxide of iron 1.2, alumina 2.8, oxide of man- 
 ganese trace, potash trace, combined water and organic matter 
 (by ignition) 6.47, loss and undetermined 0.04 — total 100. 
 
 Tripoli. — See Rotten Stone and Infusorial Earth. 
 
 Wheat Flour is used in making matrices for rubber stamp 
 work, and sometimes as a compounding material in India- 
 rubber, though this is not to be advised, as the flour is apt to 
 
104 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 turn sour. A large and important use for it has been in the 
 dusting of black goods, such as rubber coats, so as to keep 
 them from sticking together, should they accidentally touch 
 during dry heat of vulcanization. Wheat Flour is preferable 
 to almost anything else, for the reason that it washes off after 
 vulcanization, without leaving any trace in color or stain. It 
 is, of course, used on the goods known as "dull finished." 
 
 Whiting or Chalk, as it is often called, is carbonate of 
 lime. It is a white earthy material of the specific gravity of 
 2.7 to 2.9. It is made from English chalk, which is crushed, 
 floated, and run through a filtering process, and dried in cakes, 
 out of which, by a system of dry grinding and bolting, it is 
 made in varying degrees of fineness. Where Whiting is kiln 
 dried hastily, or under extreme heat, it is apt to become cal- 
 cined, which gives it a hard, gritting feeling. Air dried Whiting 
 is considered the best. Whiting is in reality a purified form of 
 carbonate of calcium, of a very soft or flocculent quality. The 
 finest grades are known as "gilders' " and "extra gilders'." It 
 is used more generally in rubber compounding than any other 
 material, except sulphur. Used moderately, it increases the 
 resiliency of rubber, but adds to the hardness. It does not, 
 however, produce the stony eiifect that many ingredients give. 
 It is also the basis of the molds used in rubber stamp making ; 
 paste being made of whiting, wheat flour, glue, and carbolic 
 acid. Whiting is liable to absorb considerable quantities of 
 water from the air. It is customary in many mills, therefore, 
 to keep it in large bins that not only are covered but have 
 steam pipes in the lower portions to drive out any moisture 
 from the material. 
 
 White Lead. — ^This is a carbonate and is a heavy white 
 powder. It is unstable in color, however, as sulphur com- 
 pounds, especially in the gaseous forms, easily attack it and 
 blacken it by reason of the formation of sulphide of lead. Its 
 specific gravity is 6.46. Sometimes it is adulterated with lead 
 sulphate, chalk, carbonate, or sulphate of baryta, or pipe clay. 
 The simplest test for the purity of White Lead is to heat it 
 in a thin glass vessel with some very dilute pure nitric acid; 
 if pure it will dissolve completely. If chalk be present it also 
 
UNUSUAL INGREDIENTS. 105 
 
 will pass into the solution, in which it may be detected by the 
 addition of caustic potash, throwing it down as a white cloud. 
 The best carbonate of lead is made by an old-fashioned pro- 
 cess, by placing metallic lead, surrounded with spent tan 
 bark, in stacks, where it comes in contact with weak acetic 
 acid. The heat of the bark volatilizes the acid and oxidizes 
 the lead, while the acetic acid changes the oxide into acetate 
 of lead, and this in turn is converted into carbonate by the 
 carbonic acid given off by the heated body. This process of 
 corrosion requires from six to eight weeks. There are many 
 later and more rapid processes ; for instance, take either lith- 
 arge or acetate of lead, and expose them to a current of 
 carbonic acid gas, etc. The original "triple compound" 
 patented by Goodyear consisted of India-rubber, sulphur, 
 and White Lead. A White Lead known as sublimed lead is 
 used very largely in the rubber manufacture. It is a fine 
 white amorphous powder and imparts a decided toughness 
 to rubber compounds. (See Sublimed Lead.) 
 
 UNUSUAL INGREDIENTS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 It is not strictly accurate, perhaps, to say that it is unusual 
 for fibers to be incorporated in rubber mixtures, for stocks 
 made from unvulcanized rubber clippings have been used for 
 years. Inner soles for rubber footwear and mats and molded 
 articles have long been made of stocks of this kind, the fibers 
 being cotton and wool, chiefly. Where wool was present 
 there was oftentimes danger of blistering from the oil in the 
 fiber, but this was easily gotten over by special compounding. 
 In addition to the fibers already noted, silk, flax, jute and 
 hemp — in fact, almost all of those in ordinary use — ^have been 
 utilized, being added to the compounds to give toughness to 
 them. The goods in which they are usually put are packings, 
 artificial leathers, tire treads, and for wearing surfaces. 
 
 A fiber that has attracted considerable attention for this 
 work, and one for which a number of patents have been 
 granted, is cocoanut fiber, which is recommended for pack- 
 ings. Certain kinds of moss have also been used, as have 
 sponge cuttings, peat, and wood pulp. This last-named ma- 
 
io6 FILLERS IN DRY MIXING. 
 
 terial has been used both in packings and in insulated wire 
 compounds. It is also the basis of a curious artificial rubber 
 that appeared several years ago, under the name of Maltha, 
 but is not to be confused with the product that has become 
 almost universally known by that name. 
 
 Sawdust of all kinds has also been incorporated in rubber, 
 and was formerly used in making sponge rubber, until better com- 
 pounds were discovered. Those who use vegetable fibers prefer 
 them unbleached rather than bleached, and very often treat them 
 to remove resins that may be present. A few of the many other 
 vegetable substances that have been used are sugar and sugar 
 charcoal and seaweed. (See Algin.) 
 
 Animal substances are also valuable, as for instance, animal 
 charcoal (which see), whalebone, which is called for in some of 
 the Woodite patents, fur, tan-hair, leather fiber, Currier's skiv- 
 ings, which are used in artificial leather, the white of eggs, etc. 
 
 Under the head of earthy and metallic ingredients, almost 
 anything can be used, although some metals have a bad effect on 
 rubber. The unusual earthy matters are powdered fossil iron- 
 stone, Wisconsin mineral, coke ashes, Stourbridge clay, powdered 
 granite, salt, powdered lithographic stones, powdered oyster shells, 
 powdered schist ; and in metals, steel, and all other common metal 
 borings, filings, and turnings. These latter have been incorpor- 
 ated in packings as a rule. One packing in particular, which has 
 had a world-wide reputation, was heavily compounded with brass 
 filings. 
 
 The deodorization of rubber, and the neutralization either of 
 the smell of the rubber or its solvent, has brought out also a 
 curious line of ingredients. Musk, for example, has been used to 
 disguise the earthy odor of Gutta-percha. Alcoholic infusions of 
 sage-tea, lavender, and verbena have been used in fine goods, 
 while in powdered form, ginger root, birch, orris root, sassafras, 
 marshmallow root, sandal wood, and other sweet smelling ingre- 
 dients have been incorporated. The leaf of the mint has also been 
 mingled with copperas, and placed in dry heaters, while a more 
 expensive process was that pursued by Hill, who passed a cur- 
 rent of hot air over perfumes and into the heaters. It must not 
 be imagined that the ideas expressed in the foregoing are 
 
ADHESIVE PLASTERS. 107 
 
 unworthy of the consideration of those who make ordinary cheap 
 mechanical goods, for certain of these ingredients are used to-day 
 in mechanical mixtures to overcome the odors of African rubbers. 
 Essential oils and gums are also used for the same purposes, 
 the descriptions of which will be found under their proper 
 departments. 
 
 Medical science has also add-ed its list of ingredients to rub- 
 ber compounding, chiefly in the line of adhesive plasters, where 
 ingredients like dry mustard, menthol, capsicum, belladonna and 
 a great variety of other medicaments are incorporated with the 
 rubber. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 I. SUBSTITUTES FOR INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 Rubber Substitutes^ as a rule, are made from oxidized oils. 
 Those used most generally are made from linseed, rapeseed, 
 cottonseed, mustard, peanut, or corn oils, acted on either by 
 chloride of sulphur or by sulphur boiled with the oil at a high 
 temperature. Substitutes have been known nearly fifty years, 
 and have been made the subjects of many patents, but only 
 within the last twenty years have they come into general use. 
 French manufacturers have long exported these goods ; they 
 were really the first to produce them commercially. The fact 
 that Europeans were unable at first to get the results with 
 reclaimed rubber that were secured in the United States, led 
 them to go further in their experiments with oxidized oils and 
 to exploit their uses more thoroughly. The substitutes on 
 the market to-day are, as a rule, white, brown, and black. 
 They are often of the same specific gravity as pure India- 
 rubber, so that their presence cannot be detected in rubber 
 compounds by specific gravity tests. Substitutes of this type 
 are easily analyzed by the expert chemists, and the results of 
 such analyses are of value to rubber manufacturers. The 
 table on the next page, containing analyses of typical sorts of 
 substitutes, is adapted from Dr. Robert Henriques*. 
 
 It would be a mistake to suppose that rubber substitutes 
 are of no value, for they possess certain very distinct advan- 
 tages not found in simple mineral adulterants nor possessed 
 by the bituminous products now in use. Their value, of 
 course, is where they cheapen stock without seriously injuring 
 its durability or changing its texture. Among the wiser of 
 the manufacturers, where substitutes are compounded with 
 rubber they are used in small quantities, sometimes only 5 per 
 cent, being added, and rarely is more than 25 per cent, to be 
 found in a good compound. 
 
 ^Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, igo4, Page 47. 
 
 108 
 
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no SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 Many substitutes, made from sulphurized drying oils, 
 shorten the life of goods materially, by oxidizing the rubber. 
 Manufacturers have learned, however, to avoid those that 
 have this fault, and are becoming more and more expert in the 
 use of these goods, as they have become in the use of the 
 cheaper grades of African rubber and reclaimed rubber. 
 
 The list in the accompanying table has been made quite com- 
 prehensive, not because all the substitutes described are 
 deemed valuable, but rather to give a broad view of the sub- 
 ject. It will be noticed that many of these gums are far out 
 of the line of sulphurized oil experiments. Resins, glues, 
 asphalt, cellulose, seaweed, bastard rubbers, animal substances, 
 etc., have all been called upon, and some of the treatments 
 have been as original as the ingredients are unusual. To the 
 end that the perfect substitute may be found, and with the 
 fullest appreciation that anything which suggests new experi- 
 ments has its value to the manufacturer, many that otherwise 
 would be ignored are given here. 
 
 Adamanta. — The American name for a German substitute 
 for India-rubber, made from linseed oil, sulphur, lime, and 
 resin. It is a thick, black, gummy mass, with an odor similar 
 to that of most of the sulphur oil substitutes, and showing a 
 bright cleavage. It was at one time used largely in France 
 and Germany, and introduced to some extent into the United 
 States. Its chief use was in cheap mechanical rubber goods, 
 and for insulation. 
 
 Adhesor. — A sticky substitute used to a certain extent in 
 frictions. 
 
 Adirondackite. — A rubber substitute presumably made of 
 sulpurized oil for use in proofing cloth and also an insulator. 
 Invention of a chemist in New York State. 
 
 Algin Gum. — A gluey, leathery substance, manufactured 
 from seawood. It is insoluble in cold water, alcohol, ether, and 
 glycerine, and combines readily with alkaline and metallic 
 bases to form substances, many of which are soluble. Algin 
 can be used for waterproofing compounds, as it combines 
 easily with rubber, shellac, and other gums. With many 
 
AMBER-RESIN— BLANDITE. in 
 
 metallic bases it forms insoluble compounds as tough as horn 
 or as pliable as Gutta-percha. It is an English product. 
 
 Amber-resin Substitute. — An English patented substitute 
 made of Amber-resin dissolved in castor oil, heated with a little 
 sulphur. Is treated with ozonized air after cooling. The mass 
 then treated with chloride of sulphur in the presence of a 
 solvent, calcium carbonate being also added. 
 
 A. R. D. Gum. — So called because it is used as an anti-dry- 
 rot compound. It is manufactured of 112 parts glue, 56 parts 
 resin, 10 parts boiled linseed, and 35 parts water. In some 
 cases it has also been mixed with India-rubber in general com- 
 pounding. Patented by J. F. Ebner, London, England. 
 
 Artificial Elaterite. — Made from liquid bitumen by in- 
 corporating with it vegetable oils, such as cottonseed oil, palm 
 oil, rapeseed oil, etc. The product is treated with the aid of heat 
 and pressure, with chloride of sulphur, saltpeter, and sulphur, 
 which produces an oxidization of the fatty substances. The 
 result is an elastic rubber-like or leathery mass, which is soft, 
 spongy, and gluey. This gum is said to be far more elastic than 
 the best samples of mineral rubber, and is useful for waterproof- 
 ing and insulation. Patented by W. Brierly, in England. 
 
 Artificial Gutta-percha. — A French compound made of 
 50 parts copal, 15 parts sulphur, 30 parts turpentine, and 60 
 parts petroleum. While mixing the heat reaches 100° C. ; it 
 is then cooled to 35° C. Then there is added a solution of 3 
 parts caseine, in weak ammonia, and a little methylene, and 
 reheated to 120° C. It is then boiled with a 15 or 20 per cent, 
 solution of tannin, and 15 parts ammonia. After several hours' 
 l)oiling it is washed and cooled. 
 
 Borcherdt's compound for dolls' heads consists of 5 pounds 
 glue, 10 pounds sugar, 2^ pounds glycerine, 3 pounds Perry's 
 white. 
 
 Black German Substitute. — Made of boiled linseed oil and 
 sulphur, together with resinate of lime. This gum is similar to 
 Adamanta, and has been practically driven out of the market 
 by lighter substitutes. 
 
 Blandite. — An artificial India-rubber invented by Dr. A. L. 
 Blandy, of London. It is fairly elastic, stretching to about 
 
112 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 twice its length, and returning readily. It is very pliable and 
 does not show signs of cracking when bent. It is vulcanized 
 like ordinary rubber, and can be molded into any form desired. 
 Coated on cloth, it strongly resembles leather. It is water- 
 proof, and is used for gas tubing, mats, etc. In its crude form, 
 it is a liquid mass resembling molasses. Dr. Blandy's patent 
 describes the compound as made preferably of linseed oil 
 which has been reduced by oxidation; then lo per cent, of bisul- 
 phide of carbon, to which has been added lo per cent, of 
 chloride of sulphur, is mingled with the oil, and brought by 
 gentle heating to the desired consistency. Trinidad asphalt, 
 cleansed and reduced to powder, is combined under the heat 
 in the proportion of 3 parts to i of oil. Care must be taken to 
 avoid fire in heating. These proportions are gradually 
 brought, by heat and stirring, to a liquid or thin state, and 
 when in this condition it must be poured upon a wet, cold 
 surface, and thus cast into sheets, convenient for subsequent 
 mixings. 
 
 Caoutchene. — A French substitute consisting of 100 parts 
 sun-flowerseed oil, 25 parts chloride of sulphur, and exposed to 
 air ten days, when it becomes yellow and elastic. To this is 
 added Matesite, a Madagascar gum, and then Isoprene is 
 added. 
 
 Carrol Gum. — A well-known sulphur oil substitute used in 
 the United States. In smell it has all of the characteristics 
 of the sulphurized oil products. It is produced usually in 
 granular form, and is very black. 
 
 Carbo-nite. — A material used for soft insulation, the basis 
 of the product being cottonseed oil. 
 
 Cereal Rubber. — Wheat treated with ptyalin. The inven- 
 tion of William Threnfall Carr, of England. It is a gluey 
 product which after it comes from the so-called vulcanizing 
 press is said to be both plastic and waterproof. 
 
 Chicle Substitute. — A specially prepared gum-carbo or 
 cottonseed oil substitute. Said to be very largely used by 
 manufacturers of chewing gum. (See Gum-carbo.) 
 
 Chinese Wood Oil Substitute. — A German invention 
 
CHRISTIA GUM—ELASTEINE. 113 
 
 F. for eight hours, then vulcanize with chloride of sulphur. 
 
 Christia Gum. — An English substitute for Gutta-percha or 
 India-rubber, used as a surgical dressing. It is said to be 
 composed of hemp fibers, so treated as to be impervious to 
 both alcohol and water. Dieterich analyzed a sample of the 
 product, and said that the fibers were sulphite wood pulp, and 
 that the coating was made from chrome gelatine treated with 
 glycerine, or the well known compound of glue, glycerine, 
 and bichromate of potassium. 
 
 CoN-cuRRENT RuBBER. — Invention of Julius Nagel, of New 
 York. A secret compound, the basis of which is linseed oil 
 and resins. 
 
 CoRKALiNE is made of glue, glycerine, ground cork, and 
 chromic and tannic acids. It is of English derivation and is 
 used as a substitute in mat work. 
 
 Corn Oil Substitute. — A sulphurized oil substitute similar 
 to that made from oxidized linseed or rapeseed oils, manu- 
 factured from corn or maize oil. It is the cheapest oil sub- 
 stitute that has yet been put on the market. It is made in two 
 colors, brown and straw color, and is used in large quantities 
 in mechanical goods, and in proofing. A good example of 
 this type of substitute is that known on the market as "Kom- 
 moid." 
 
 Dankwerth's Russian Substitute. — This is said to be a 
 perfect substitute for both Gutta-percha and India-rubber, 
 and is used for covering telegraph cables. High temperatures 
 do not affect it. It is made of i part by weight of the mixture 
 of equal parts of wood tar, oil, and coal tar oil, with 2 parts 
 of hemp oil heated until the mass is of the right consistency. 
 Then 1-3 part by weight of boiled linseed oil is added. To 
 this is added a little ozocerite and some spermaceti. It is 
 then heated again, and finally a little sulphur is added. 
 
 Doebrich's Compound for dolls' heads consists of i pound 
 glue, ^ pound glycerine, | pound sugar, and i tablespoonful 
 pulverized flour, with a little albumen and coloring matter. 
 
 Elasteine. — ^An elastic substance produced through the 
 treatment of certain resins. Solid and semi-solid copal resins 
 are treated with oleic acid (found in stearine works), which 
 
114 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 entirely dissolves them. The product of the solution is soluble 
 in spirits of turpentine and in oil. This solution of gums in 
 oleic acid gives an opportunity to produce materials that have 
 sometimes the elasticity and the consistency of India-rubber. 
 The inventor advises their use in insulating wire and in 
 various kinds of proofing. It is of French origin, and patented 
 by M. Louis Riviere. 
 
 Elasticite. — ^Trade name for an American corn oil sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 Elastite. — A brown rubber substitute of German origin of 
 the sulphur oil type. 
 
 Elastic Glue. — A mixture of dry glue and glycerine in 
 equal parts, by weight. As little water should be used as 
 possible in its manufacture. It is used for elastic figures, 
 galvano-plastic molds, etc. It is not waterproof, nor will it 
 stand a high degree of heat. 
 
 Elaterite. — See Artificial Elaterite. 
 
 Euphorbia Rubber. — J. G. Boles reduced Euphorbia gum to 
 a fine powder and, after drying carefully at a low temperature, 
 put it in solution and finally hardened it by mixing it with 
 earthy matters and shellac. The same gum before that he 
 mixed with a preparation of rubber and cured it, forming a 
 kind of vulcanite. 
 
 Fayolles' Substitute. — A French substitute for water 
 proofing, made as follows : i part sulphuric acid, i part gly- 
 cerine, i-| parts Formalin, i part phenol. 
 
 Fenton's Artificial India-rubber. — Manufactured from 
 linseed or similar oils, mixed with tar, pitch, or other forms of 
 pyroligneous acid, the mixture being placed in a bath of 
 diluted nitric acid, and allowed to remain for maceration until, 
 by the action of the bath upon the compound, the whole is 
 coagulated into a tough, elastic magna. The black "Fenton" 
 contains as a coloring matter a small quantity of plumbago or 
 black carbonate of iron. The gum is patented by Ferrar 
 Fenton, London, England. In his specification he modifies it 
 by taking the artificial gum described, and placing it in a bath 
 composed of a solution of sugar of lead, oxide of zinc, salt- 
 peter, or some other form of nitrate, and, if high flexibility is 
 
FIG JUICE— GUM FIBRINE. 115 
 
 desired, adds 5 to 10 per cent, to copal gum and nitric acid 
 diluted with water. These solutions are used one at a time, the 
 proportion being 5 per cent, of sugar of lead, or, for greater 
 hardness, 5 to 7^ per cent, of saltpeter to the weight of the 
 magna. Before vulcanizing, the substances are washed in an 
 alkaline solution to remove acid. Fenton rubber is said to have 
 been subjected to 320° F. for fifteen minutes, the only result 
 being to increase its elasticity. 
 
 Fig Juice Proofing. — A French composition made up of fig 
 juice, Brazilian tapioca, and pearl moss, together with vulcanized 
 rubber. Used as a preservative and proofing compound. 
 
 FiRMUS. — An English rubber substitute presumably of the 
 sulphur oil order. 
 
 Franklin Substitute. — A mixture of coal tar and boracic 
 acid dissolved in alcohol. Boiled and oxidized. 
 
 French Gutta-percha. — This gum is made by boiling the 
 outer bark of the birch tree in water. The result is a fluid, 
 which is very black, and which becomes compact and solid on 
 cooling. It has been claimed that it possesses all of the good 
 properties of Gutta-percha, and that in addition it does not 
 oxidize when exposed to the air. Its application for industrial 
 purposes has been patented. 
 
 Grape Rubber. — A high grade or artificial rubber, produced 
 from the skins and seeds of grapes from which wine has been 
 extracted by pressure. Small samples manufactured in the 
 laboratory are said to be almost identical with pure rubber. 
 It has been impossible so far to make the material on a large 
 scale economically and, therefore, none of the gum is on the 
 market. 
 
 Griscom's Substitute. — A substitute composed of equal 
 parts of animal fat, candle tar, and a residual product from 
 petroleum together with sulphur in proportions of from 2 to 
 8 per cent, of the mass. 
 
 GuM-CARBO. — Substitute made from cottonseed oil. Used 
 in general rubber compounding. 
 
 Gum Fibrine is made of paper rags, treated with liquid car- 
 bonic acid, mixed with resin and gum benzoin and castor oil, 
 dissolved in methylated alcohol. It is an English compound. 
 
ii6 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 GuTTALiNE. — A substitute for India-rubber and Gutta- 
 percha, manufactured as follows : To Manila gum tempered 
 with benzine is added 5 per cent, of Auvergne bitumen, also 
 mixed with benzine. Then add 5 per cent, of resin oil, and 
 allow 48 to 86 hours to pass between treatments. The pro- 
 duct obtained is similar to India-rubber. If it be too fluid, the 
 addition of 4 per cent, of sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of 
 carbon will act as a remedy. 
 
 Gutta-percha Substitute. — Formula: 2 parts paraffine, 2 
 parts pitch, 2^ parts Chinese wood oil, i.i parts chloride of 
 sulphur, 0.1 flowers of sulphur. Heat to 100° C. for one hour. 
 
 Halcox. — A so-called artificial rubber, the invention of H. 
 B. Cox, of Hartford, Connnecticut. Claimed to be almost 
 identical with crude rubber, but much cheaper. 
 
 Hydrocarbon Rubber. — The invention of Eugene Turpin, 
 of England. Made by heating a vegetable oil, oxidizing by air 
 current, adding 25 per cent, by weight of resin, 25 per cent, pow- 
 dered sulphur, 5 per cent, spirits of turpentine, and i to 2 per 
 cent, carbon chloride. 
 
 Hydrolaine. — One of the original waterproof fabrics made 
 by means of India-rubber dissolved in spirits of turpentine and 
 spirits of wine in equal quantities, and deodorized by oil of worm- 
 wood. 
 
 Insulite. — A preparation made of wood or vegetable fiber, 
 finely ground and dessicated, and saturated with a mixture con- 
 sisting of melted asphalt, incorporated with substances of the 
 resin type, with or without substances of the paraffine or anthra- 
 cine types. The products resulting are used as substitutes for 
 India-rubber, particularly in insulation. Patented by Alfred H. 
 Huth, London. 
 
 Jones's Substitute. — An English substitute made of treated 
 psuedo gums. Marketed by the Rubber Substitutes Syndicate, 
 Limited, of London. 
 
 Jungbluth's Compound. — Calcium carbonate 75 per cent. 
 Trinidad asphalt 20 per cent., Selenite 5 per cent. In place of 
 Trinidad Asphalt, neutralite, an asphaltic material made in Berlin 
 is sometimes used. 
 
 Kelgum. — A linseed oil preparation manufactured in the 
 
KELGUM—LINOXIN. 117 
 
 following way: First, boiling linseed oil in a nitric acid bath 
 until it reaches a gum-like condition; second, subjecting the 
 gum to a bath for the removal of the acid; third, cutting the 
 gum in a solvent bath; fourth, disintegrating the gum with 
 the solvent ; fifth, grinding the disintegrated mass ; sixth, boil- 
 ing the material; seventh, subjecting the same to another 
 boiling, and adding a drier. Used in proofing compounds. 
 Invented by Henry Kellog, United States. 
 
 Kerite, — A compound of vegetable oils, coal tar, bitumen, 
 and sulphur, to which are added sometimes a little camphor 
 and various waxes. Occasionally sulphide of antimony is 
 used in place of sulphur. Vegetable astringents, such as 
 tannin, the extract of oak bark, etc., are also used in small 
 quantities to impart toughness, Kerite is the invention of 
 Austin G. Day, and has been used largely for the manufacture 
 of a covering for insulated wire. A later p'atent taken out by 
 W. R. Brixey, changes the original Kerite compound some- 
 what. Cottonseed oil is eliminated and talc added. The 
 later compound is as follows : 
 
 MIXTURE FOR l8o POUNDS. 
 
 Coal tar 25 pounds. 
 
 Asphalt 15 pounds. 
 
 Heat together to 350° F. for i hour; then add — 
 
 Linseed oil 70 pounds. 
 
 Heat again to 350° F. for 7 hours ; let stand over 
 night; heat up to 240° F., and add — 
 
 Sulphur 10 pounds. 
 
 Heat up to 320° F. in ^ hour and add — 
 
 Sulphur 4 pounds. 
 
 Heat again to 300° F. and add — 
 
 Talc 56 pounds. 
 
 Keep at same temperature i to I hour, when vul- 
 canization will have taken place, and the mix- 
 ture can be poured into molds or allowed 
 to cool in mass. 
 
 KoMMOiD. — See Corn Oil Substitute. 
 
 LicoNiTE, produced in Holland, is described as a mixture 
 of bitumen and various oils, without India-rubber or Gutta- 
 percha, elastic and tough, and is claimed to be unaffected by 
 water, dilute acids, and alkalies, and neither flows nor cracks 
 in ordinary temperatures. 
 
 LiNOXiN. — An insoluble oxy-compound produced by the oxi- 
 dation of certain drying oils boiled in acetone or acetic acid, 
 
ii8 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 from which is produced an elastic mass similar to India-rubber. 
 Of French origin. 
 
 Lugo Rubber. — An artificial oxidized oil substitute that 
 originated with Dr. Lugo, a German chemist, who introduced 
 it into the United States, where it once had a large sale. It 
 was black, of about the same specific gravity as India-rubber, 
 and made, in connection with rubber, excellent mold work. 
 It is not now on the market. 
 
 Lugo. — A rubber substitute patented in England, made by 
 heating a mixture of oxidized oil and rubber to a temperature 
 at which the rubber dissolves. Potassium permanganate is 
 added, and the whole heated to 360-400° F. Finely divided 
 waste rubber is added, the mass being stirred and the tem- 
 perature maintained. To obtain a harder product sulphur 
 may be added. 
 
 Maponite. — A "substitute for India-rubber and Gutta-percha, 
 claimed to be capable of use in the manufacture of golf balls, 
 tobacco pouches, etc. It is said to be vulcanizable at 260^ F. 
 An English patent was applied for by F. E. MacMahon. 
 
 Nigrum Elasticum. — A sulphurized oil substance appar- 
 ently made from linseed oil. Very dark colored and quite 
 hard. Of English origin. 
 
 Novelty Rubber. — An English substitute invented by David 
 Lang. It is made red and drab in color. It comes in small 
 slabs about 18 inches square and 2 inches thick, weighing 
 about 7 pounds. It is said to be easily mixed with ordinary 
 rubber, vulcanized in the usual way, the price being about the 
 same as for reclaimed rubber. 
 
 OxoLiN. — An English invention patented by Charles J. Grist, 
 an electrical engineer, and identical with "Perchoid" in the 
 United States. This gum is used for waterproof sheeting, 
 printers' blankets, packings, etc. It is made of a solution of 
 partially oxidized oil by adding litharge and heating to over 
 400° F. Jute, or other fibers, is then dipped in the oil, the 
 surplus oil is removed in a hydro-extractor, and the oil remain- 
 ing on the fibers is oxidized by a current of air. These oper- 
 ations are repeated twice. The material is then ground with 
 sulphur and coloring matters, and treated like India-rubber. 
 
PARKESINE—PICKE UM. 1 19 
 
 Parkesine. — Made from a compound of linseed oil and 
 pyroxyline, and used in the manufacture of small articles that 
 are sometimes made of hard rubber. A Parkesine compound 
 for molding, proofing, etc., is as follows : To 500 pounds water 
 add 50 pounds sulphuric acid, and steep in it as much cotton, 
 or rags, or jute, or linen as the liquor will moisten, for 3 or 4 
 hours. Take out, drain, and expose the mass to steam heat of 
 about 280° F., for an hour, if cotton or jute fiber has been used, 
 and 3 hours if flax. Neutralize the acid pulp with a bath of 
 water and soda, using 4 pounds of carbonate of soda to every 
 200 pounds of rags. Wash and press, pass through a coarse 
 sieve of 12 meshes per inch, and dry. Grind the granulated 
 material and sift it through a sieve of 120 meshes to the inch. 
 The resulting powder may be mixed, in all proportions up to 
 equal parts, with fresh rubber. Compounding 25 to 50 parts 
 dry Parkesine, with 50 parts alcoholic solvent. A proofing 
 compound is : i pound paraffine, linseed oil, or other drying 
 oil ; 4 to 8 ounces Parkesine. 
 
 Paragol. — A high grade oil substitute, the basis of which is 
 probably corn oil, 
 
 Pensa's Rubber. — A French substitute made as follows: 
 100 parts of boiling coal tar, petroleum tar, oil of turpentine, or 
 mineral oils, and 25 parts of boric, or phosphoric acid dissolved 
 in alcohol, and the vapors are ignited, and the flame extinguished 
 as soon as a green color is seen. The mixture is then heated at 
 60° C. in the presence of oxygen, until a viscous ductile sub- 
 stance is obtained. 
 
 Perchoid. — See Oxolin. 
 
 Peroxide Substitutes. — Peroxide of lead having been rec- 
 ommended as a better drier than other oxides used in connec- 
 tion with all compounds, the following formulas are given: 
 25 parts of walnut oil, 62 parts linseed oil, 5.5 parts peroxide 
 of lead, 7.5 parts sulphur. One of the greater toughness is 
 composed of 25 parts walnut oil, 56 parts linseed oil, 5 parts 
 peroxide of lead, 6 parts sulphur, 6 parts gum juniper. 
 
 PiCKEUM Substitute. — This is made by the following treat- 
 ment of Pickeum gum : 
 
120 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 A 
 
 Boiled linseed oil i6o pounds. 
 
 Vaseline 20 pounds. 
 
 Bastard gum (or Pickeum gum) from Central Amer- 
 ica, cut fine 40 pounds. 
 
 Stir and heat to 250° to 300° F., until the gum is dis- 
 solved. Then cool to 100° F., and strain. 
 
 B 
 
 {Solution as above 5 gallons. 
 
 Protochloride of sulphur 9 pounds. 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon 9 pounds. 
 
 After the chemical action takes place, the mass is granu- 
 lated and the grains are washed and stored for use, or the 
 material may be masticated in a rubber mill and run into 
 sheets for use. 
 
 PuRCELLiTE. — The invention of Dr. C. Purcell Taylor, of 
 England. An insulating substance somewhat similar to Gutta- 
 percha, but costing much less. It is said to be very tough and 
 elastic, may be made of any color, and is either flexible or 
 rigid. The specific gravity of the material is 1.2. It can be 
 molded or vulcanized like India-rubber. Its insulation resist- 
 ance is equal to that of Gutta-percha. It is unaffected by 
 atmosphere, by alkaline or acid liquids, freezing mixtures and 
 the like. 
 
 Quinn's Rubber, — ^An English substitute made from petro- 
 leum, bisulphide of carbon, chloride of sulphur, and rapeseed 
 oil. 
 
 Resinolines. — Substances so called by Eugene Cadoret, of 
 Paris, who obtains them by saponifying various oils by the use 
 of a metallic carbonate, using by preference carbonate of lead, 
 then decomposing by nitric acid, decanting, and saturating 
 with an alkali. The soap thus formed is treated with acid to 
 form a resinoid body, purified by dissolving in alcohol, and 
 evaporating the solution. Resinolines thus formed are very 
 similar to natural resins. They are either semi-fluid, pasty, or 
 solid. When solid, they are remarkable for their flexibility. 
 
 Rhea Gum. — Rhea fiber washed and dried; immersed in a 
 solution of silicate of soda; then carefully dried; then im- 
 mersed in a bath of resin or other heavy hydro-carbon oil at 3 
 temperature of about 275° F. ; then put in a hydro-extractor 
 
RICE RUBBER— RUBBERAID. 121 
 
 which is worked at a temperature of 300° F., when the super- 
 fluous oil is extracted; the mass is then dried. Later it is 
 mixed with gums, resins. India-rubber, or Gutta-percha, and 
 Rhea gum is the result. 
 
 Rice Rubber. — Japanese or Machi rice treated so that it 
 makes an elastic cellulose product. 
 
 Rosaline. — A vegetable product said to contain about the 
 same chemical elements as India-rubber, and of about the 
 same specific gravity. Manufactured in the United States, 
 France, and England. A strong point is made by the manu- 
 facturers that after vulcanization no chemist is able to detect 
 that there is anything but pure rubber in a mixture contain- 
 ing 25 per cent, of Rosaline and 75 per cent, of India-rubber. 
 In vulcanizing, it requires about one-third more time to bring 
 about the usual result. 
 
 Ruberine. — An American rubber-like solution used as an 
 insulation paint, and also as a proofing mixture, and partaking 
 of many of the qualities of ruberoid. It is also manufactured 
 in Germany. 
 
 Ruberoid. — An American substitute for India-rubber that 
 has the physical appearance of a high grade of black oil sub- 
 stitute. In use, however, it differs from many of them, for 
 the reason that it has been found useful in vulcanite com- 
 pounds, while at the same time it may be used in ordinary 
 soft rubber work. 
 
 Rubberite. — An artificial rubber of the same specific gravity 
 as fine Para. In color, elasticity, capability for vulcanization, 
 and durability, it is said to resemble the higher grades of rub- 
 ber. It is the invention of H. C. B. Graves, London, and is 
 made up as follows : 
 
 Trinidad asphalt 47 to 80 per cent. 
 
 Oxidized oil 20 to 30 per cent. 
 
 Vaseline 5 per cent. 
 
 Sulphur 15 per cent. 
 
 Chloride of sulphur 3 per cent. 
 
 Rubberaid. — An amber colored substitute manufactured 
 from cottonseed oil by a secret process, which removes what 
 the inventor calls the grease, leaving an elastic semi-solid 
 which has been used quite largely in compounding. 
 
122 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 Rubber Flux. — A semi-fluid compound of a dark color and 
 presumably made from non-drying, non-volatile oils. It is 
 used in compounding where the stocks are dry in place of 
 palm oil, for example. Is said to prevent oxidation and bloom. 
 
 Russian Substitute. — Manufactured from the skins of rab- 
 bits and other small animals, or the v^aste therefrom, digested 
 in crude glycerine, and a little water. The formula is 3 parts 
 by weight of the cleansed substance melted in water, with 3 
 parts by weight of crude glycerine, to which is added \ part 
 by weight of a concentrated solution of potassium chromate. 
 The resultant mass is flexible. To make it harder, a little less 
 glycerine and more chromate of potash are required. To with- 
 stand acids, 30 per cent, of gum lac dissolved in alcohol is 
 added. For waterproofing fabrics, \ part by weight of oxgall 
 is added, with enough salt water to give it the consistency of 
 oil. 
 
 Soap Substitutes. — These have been exploited and ex- 
 plained more thoroughly by Professor W. Lascelles-Scott 
 than by anybody else. The typical formulas that he gives are 
 as follows : 28 parts of aluminum soap, 60 parts of linseed oil, 
 8 parts of acid free sulphur, 4 parts of oil of turpentine. An- 
 other, to use in connection with reclaimed rubber, is 15 parts 
 of aluminum soap, 25 parts of devulcanized rubber, 60 parts 
 fresh rubber, benzine quantum suMcit. Another still, in which 
 a low grade pseudo gutta is used, is 15 parts aluminum soap, 
 25 parts Almeidina gum, 5 parts raw rubber, 6 parts sulphur, 
 and 4 parts oleum succini. 
 
 SoLicuM. — A substitute or rather a compound patented by 
 a chemist in Copenhagen. The basis of the discovery is waste 
 rubber and oil. 
 
 SuLo. — A sulphur oil substitute manufactured in the United 
 States. 
 
 Textiloid. — A mixture of a resinoline [as described by Cad- 
 oret under that heading] with natural resins, cellulose, nitric 
 cellulose, or organic substances of animal origin. The result- 
 ant material may be transparent, white, or colored. It is 
 practically uninflammable, has no smell, is very elastic, and, ii 
 submitted to heat, softens, and can be easily drawn out into fine 
 
TONG OIL—VOLTIT. 125 
 
 threads. It can be used for waterproofing and in various other 
 ways is a good substitute for India-rubber. It is flexible and 
 elastic. Textiloid is made of 4 parts resinoline, 2 parts nitric 
 cellulose, and i part camphor dissolved in alcohol at 90° F. 
 The result thus formed may be made in colors by the addition 
 of metallic oxides. 
 
 ToNG Oil Substitutes. — Manufactured from the Chinese 
 oil known as tong oil, or wood oil. The oil is heated without 
 any foreign matter being added to it, at a temperature of 250° 
 C, when it becomes solidified. It is then pulverized, and im- 
 pregnated with petroleum, which swells it, and renders it 
 more easily worked. Patented by Dr. Charles Repin, Paris. 
 
 Turpentine Rubber. — Manufactured by passing spirits of 
 turpentine through a heated tube so as to vaporize it, and 
 mixing the vapor with hydrochloric or other acid, so as to 
 condense and solidify all of the vapor. Patented by A. F. 
 St. George, England. 
 
 Tremenol. — A German invention that has reference to the 
 production of sulphonic acids, sulphones, oils, resin oils, min- 
 eral waxes, etc. Results from a treatment of mineral matter 
 with fuming sulphuric acids at ordinary temperatures, or with 
 concentrated sulphuric acid at 120° C. The invention further 
 calls for the treating similarly of the bodies obtained from the 
 oil in their precipitation by means of sulphuric acid. The pro- 
 ducts are then washed in brine and water. The inventors 
 precipitate glue and gelatine from a slightly acid solution, as 
 elastic rubber-like substances that can be drawn into threads 
 with perfect ease. 
 
 Velvril. — Basis, a drying or semi-drying oil; treated with 
 strong nitric acid. This is compounded with nitro cellulose. 
 By varying the proportions any consistency may be obtained 
 from that vulcanite to a soft, elastic, rubber-like substance. 
 The product is nearly colorless in thin layers, which shows an 
 elasticity of about 25 per cent, but no great resilience. Invented 
 by W. F. Reid, of England. 
 
 Voltit. — The base of this is glue or gelatine prepared from 
 scraps of kid skins, which are treated until they reach a 
 gelatinous mass, which is filtered and mixed with oleic acid, 
 
124 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 such as is used in candle factories, the proportion being 80 
 parts of oleic acid to 20 parts of the gelatine. The mixture is 
 boiled for -J hour, and then 11 parts of caustic potash solution 
 (in 50 parts of water) are added. The boiling is then continued 
 for an hour, and a special mass is formed to which are added 
 resin oil, oxidized linseed oil, and paraffine. The whole mix- 
 ture is then boiled 4 to 5 hours. Also spelled Voltite. It is of 
 French origin. 
 
 VoLENiTE. — A substitute for India-rubber and Gutta-percha 
 invented by Frederick Lamplough, United States. The com- 
 pound is said to be a mixture of resins, or resin oil conveyed 
 into a mass of fibrous material by a suitable non-oxidizable oil. 
 This latter oil is used simply as a vehicle to carry the resin to 
 its place, the process being completed by the distillation of the 
 non-oxidizable oil, and the oxidizing of the rest of the mass. 
 The oil used is preferably a fish oil, which is refined carefully 
 before use. After saturation and treatment the vegetable 
 fiber is changed into a homogeneous mass which has many of 
 the characteristics of vulcanite. A formula that is said to have 
 worked well is 10 parts by weight of fiber, 5 parts resin oil, and 
 2 parts fish oil, treated at a temperature of 130° C, for say 4^^ 
 hours. 
 
 VoRiTE. — A substitute containing no sulphur and no acid. 
 The melting point for the soft grade is from 300° to 400° F., 
 and for the harder grade 550° F. It is a floating substitute 
 and burns without leaving any ash. It is made in three grades, 
 which are distinguished by the names soft, ground, and white. 
 According to the makers it absolutely resists oxidation and 
 drying out, and is already largely used in the manufacture of 
 insulated wire and in general mechanical rubber goods. 
 
 Waterproof Glue. — ^A substitute for canvas proofing made 
 as follows : Dissolve 16 ounces of glue in 3 pints of skim milk, 
 and to increase its strength add a little powdered lime. 
 
 WiNTHROP Gum. — Another name for Rubberaid. 
 
 Wichmann's Substitute. — A combination of vegetable 
 albumen and animal casein. 
 
 Wheat Rubber. — See Cereal Rubber. 
 
 WoLFERT. — A substitute for rubber made of felt impreg- 
 
ZA CKINGUMMI—HARD R UBBER. 125 
 
 nated with a waterproof substance, presumably vulcanized oil. 
 An English invention. 
 
 Zackingummi. — Substitute invented by Zachias Olsson, a 
 Swedish chemist. Consists of a mixture of glycerine, chloride of 
 calcium, magnesium, and paraffine. 
 
 II. SUBSTITUTES FOR HARD RUBBER AND 
 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 Hard Rubber in its best estate is so valuable and perfect a 
 product that it would always have the preference were it not 
 for its unavoidable high cost. Because of this cost there are 
 many substitutes for it that counterfeit it in texture, color, 
 and quality, but are never quite its equal in all these points 
 of excellence. These substitutes are made of cellulose, gums, 
 and animal, vegetable, and earthy matters, having a variety of 
 distinctive names and varied uses. To the popular mind, if 
 they look like ebonite, they are hard rubber. In the same way, 
 Gutta-percha is often confounded with hard rubber, which it 
 resembles under many conditions. The following list covers 
 not only certain widely-known compounds of hard rubber and 
 Gutta-percha, but a number of substitutes for them now put 
 to many uses, the chief of which, perhaps, is insulation. 
 
 Alexite. — An American insulating material which can be 
 molded in any shape, is waterproof, fireproof, and acid 
 proof, and can be produced in any color. In texture and 
 general appearance it resembles vulcanite. 
 
 Ambroin. — A German substitute for hard rubber, consisting 
 of fiber, silica, and resin compressed to a mass. Its color 
 varies from light brown to green or black. Nitric and acetic 
 acids do not affect it, and even aqua regia does not injure it. 
 Under a moderate heat it softens slightly and can be worked, 
 like vulcanite, in a mold. It also takes a bright finish from 
 the buffing wheel. 
 
 Armalac. — See Insulac. 
 
 Artificial Whalebone. — A well-known product made as 
 follows : India-rubber 20 parts, sulphur 5 parts, shellac 4 
 parts, magnesia 4 parts, and gold brimstone 5 parts. Vulcan- 
 ized somewhat the same as hard rubber. 
 
126 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 Bakelite. — A substance said to have the combined proper- 
 ties of amber, celluloid, and hard rubber. The invention of Dr. 
 L. E. Baekeland. It is a compound of or condensation product 
 of formaldehyde and phenol or carbolic acid. It has long been 
 known to chemists that formaldehyde and phenol formed con- 
 densation products which have been put on the market as arti- 
 ficial gums and resins and used tO' some extent. It was further 
 known that by a certain process this material was condensed into 
 a hard resinous body which resisted every known chemical solvent 
 and was only changed by actual burning. This substance was 
 usually porous and was of no value. Dr. Baekeland discovered 
 that, by carrying on the process in a vulcanizer where heat and 
 temperature conditions could be controlled, the reaction could 
 be divided into several stages, producing first, a plastic mass 
 which can be molded or carved, and on further treatment in the 
 vulcanizer where it is submitted with certain chemicals to care- 
 fully regulated conditions of heat and pressure, that a hard, 
 transparent substance could be produced which is most inert 
 chemically. This substance resembles physically and possibly 
 chemically the Chinese or Japanese lacquer. It is being manu- 
 factured in considerable quantities and seems to have a future, 
 but it is in no sense elastic and would take the place of nothing in 
 the rubber industry except the hardest of rubber goods. It is 
 singularly adapted, however, to manufacture in rubber works as 
 most of the machinery can be used with little change. The inven- 
 tion is said to be fully protected by patents. 
 
 Balenite, as the name signifies, is intended as a substitute 
 for whalebone. It is quite elastic; in other words, it is 
 neither hard nor soft, but may be characterized as semi-hard. 
 A well-known compound for this is India-rubber lOO parts, 
 shellac 20 parts, burned magnesia 20 parts, sulphur 25 parts, 
 and orpiment 20 parts. (Hoffer.) 
 
 Betite. — An English insulating material which is said to be 
 t)itumen refined to absolute purity and vulcanized. It is used 
 on cables, in underground work, for low pressure resistance, 
 and in rare instances for high pressure. 
 
 Brooksite. — A compound of resin and heavy resin oils for 
 insulating purposes. 
 
BROWN'S SUBSTITUTE— ELECTROSE. 127 
 
 Brown's Substitute for Hard Rubber. — Made of bitumen, 
 sulphur, lead peroxide, and gum camphor. Amalgamated by heat. 
 
 Caoutchouc Aluta. — A composition used as a substitute 
 for hard rubber, made of leather scraps boiled in water, with 
 a sufficient quantity of oxalic acid to dissolve them, and a 
 portion of glue. To this are added resin, pitch, beeswax, and 
 copal gum, dissolved in oil. India-rubber boiled in linseed 
 oil is then added and a powder formed of plaster of paris, and 
 a coloring matter is stirred into the composition to thicken 
 and stiffen it. 
 
 Carbo-nite. — ^A cottonseed oil preparation intended as a 
 substitute for hard rubber. 
 
 Ce-re-gum. — A compound made by a secret process, and 
 which, vulcanized, produces a fairly good imitation of hard 
 rubber. Invention of H. W. Morgan, United States. 
 
 Chatterton's Compound. — A widely-known compound 
 sold the world over for connections for joint sheets and for 
 uniting Gutta-percha parts, and also used for cementing 
 Gutta-percha to wood. It softens readily at 100° F., and 
 becomes firm again when cold. Its specific gravity is about 
 1.02. The best compound is i part by weight of Stockholm 
 tar, I part resin, and 3 parts cleansed Gutta-percha, melted 
 and mixed. 
 
 Coralite. — A name for vulcanite which is colored to imitate 
 coral. 
 
 CoRNiTE. — A specially hard vulcanite or hard rubber, so 
 named from the Latin cornu (a horn). 
 
 De Pont Substitutes. — An English patented product made 
 from asbestos 30 parts, plaster of paris 5 parts, clay 8 parts, 
 copal 15 parts, tar 5 parts, bitumen 15 parts, aniline 2 parts, 
 lampblack 15 parts, mica 4 parts, wax 3 parts. 
 
 DiATiTE. — ^A combination of diatomaceous earth, and shellac, 
 made under very heavy pressure. It may be made of any 
 color, and is used as a substitute for hard rubber. 
 
 Electrose. — A substitute for hard rubber for which the fol- 
 lowing advantages are claimed: It will not tarnish metal, as 
 no sulphur is used in its vulcanization; it is cheaper than 
 hard rubber; it possesses high insulation properties; it can 
 
128 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 be melted readily into any shape, or made of any color ; it does 
 not fade ; it possesses great strength, and takes a high polish ; 
 changes of temperature do not afifect it; and it withstands 
 the weaker acids and alkalies. 
 
 Ebonitine. — A hard rubber substitute used for phonograph 
 records. Is of a brilliant black color. Said to be a good insulator 
 and resists acid. Of German origin. 
 
 EsBENiTE. — Made of pure cellulose, chemically incorporated 
 with mica in the form of fine powder, with the addition of 
 magnesia and a silicate, thus forming strong and close grained 
 artificial mica. It is flexible, and can be molded into any 
 shape. Esbenite is waterproof, does not burn readily, and is 
 thoroughly airproof. Manufactured in England. 
 
 FiBRONE. — A substitute for hard rubber which is a good 
 non-conductor, waterproof, and can be handled in a lathe like 
 vulcanite. It is said to be durable, does not contract or ex- 
 pand, and is made in all colors. It is used for thumbscrews, 
 pushbuttons, etc. Plasticon is similar to Fibrone, but heavier 
 and of a more stony nature, and probably made of the same 
 material. 
 
 Hard Core for Golf Balls. — An English composition 
 which consists of lOO parts calcium chloride, 25 parts chloride 
 of zinc, 100 parts potato starch. 
 
 Hyaline. — Made of a mixture of equal parts of gun cotton 
 and a variety of resins. The gun cotton is dissolved in ether 
 and the resins in solution are added, the result being a thick, 
 gelatinous mass. When allowed to dry, this mass soon 
 hardens and forms a horny, incombustible material. Invented 
 by Frederick Eckstein, Vienna. 
 
 Insullac. — A spirit copal resin varnish, with the acids of 
 the resins neutralized as much as possible, to prevent the 
 resin acids from attacking the copper wire. It is a transparent 
 elastic material, and is superior to shellac. Armalac is made 
 of black paraffine wax, in solution in petroleum. It remains 
 permanently plastic under heat, although it dries quickly and 
 thoroughly. Manufactured in the United States. 
 
 Insolacit. — An insulating material produced either as a 
 liquid, semi-liquid, or solid. It is not inflammable or affected 
 
ISO LATIN E— KIEL COMPOUNDS. 129 
 
 by corrosive acids, alkalies, saline substances, etc. It is a 
 German product and the compound remains a secret. 
 
 Iron Rubber. — A compound made from iron filings and 
 petroleum residue. 
 
 IsoLATiNE. — An American insulating material prepared 
 especially for high resistances. It is said to be flexible, not to 
 be affected by cold or heat unless the latter is artificial, and 
 to be durable. It is also said to protect metal. 
 
 Kempeff Hard Rubber Substitute. — A mixture consist- 
 ing of 20 per cent, resin and asphaltum, 15 per cent, china 
 clay, II per cent. Kieselguhr. Mixture is allowed to cool; 
 ground dry; with 4 per cent, of sulphur, and 50 per cent, of 
 ground asbestos fiber. It is elastic and unaffected by acids. 
 
 Keratite. — Another name for hard rubber, derived from the 
 Greek word meaning horn. 
 
 Keratol. — An American waterproof preparation, not of the 
 nature of rubber, but probably one of the cellulose substitutes. 
 It is a colorless transparent substance, and when applied to 
 fabrics renders them waterproof and prevents crocking and 
 fading. It also strengthens the fabric, and allows stains to be 
 washed off. An artificial leather is also made of Keratol. The 
 name is adapted from the Greek word keros, meaning hornlike. 
 
 Kiel Compounds. — One of these well-known compositions 
 consists of India-rubber, sulphur, pumice stone, oil, and bees- 
 wax. The resultant compound makes a hard rubber, said to 
 possess a superior elasticity and toughness, and capable of 
 being vulcanized in sheets at least 2^ inches thick. This com- 
 pound is not affected by the most intense cold, and will stand 
 a higher temperature than ordinary rubber. It also burns 
 with difficulty. Its ingredients are said to mix faster and 
 more uniformly than those of other compounds. It resists 
 acids, and other corrosive substances, is a perfect insulating 
 material, and is cheap. Another Kiel compound is made of 
 India-rubber, sulphur, and mineral oil. The resultant com- 
 pound is more flexible than ordinary hard rubber, and when 
 warm is more plastic than such compounds. It is also less 
 brittle and cheaper, and can be turned in a lathe with greater 
 facility and less injury to the tools. 
 
I30 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 KoRNiTE. — A Russian substitute for hard rubber made at 
 Riga. It consists of 25 per cent, of prepared fish bone and 75 
 per cent, of scrap horn ground to dust, and then melted 
 under high pressure and steam heat. 
 
 Lamina Fiber, — An American invention, used chiefly for 
 electrical purposes. It is of various colors, heavier than vul- 
 canized rubber, and swells to nearly double its weight when 
 placed in water. It is probably a cellulose compound contain- 
 ing no rubber. 
 
 Lactitis. — An artificial ivory made from milk, the process 
 being coagulation, straining, and rejection of the whey. Ten 
 pounds of the curd are then taken and mixed with the solution 
 of 3 pounds of borax in 3 quarts of water. The mixture is 
 then placed in a vessel over slow fire and left until it separates 
 into two parts, one as thin as water, the other resembling 
 melted gelatine. The watery part is drawn off, and to the 
 residue is added a solution of i pound of mineral salt in 3 
 pints of water. (Sugar of lead answers very well as the 
 mineral salt.) This brings about another separation of the 
 mass, into a liquid and a mushy solid. The liquid is strained 
 or filtered off, and at this point coloring matter may be added. 
 The solid is now subjected to heavy pressure in molds of any 
 shape, and afterwards dried under great heat. The resulting 
 product may be used in the manufacture of billiard balls, 
 knife handles, or anything for which ebonite or celluloid is 
 adapted. 
 
 Leatheroid. — A mixture of American origin, made in black, 
 red and gray, and similar to vulcanized fiber. It is insoluble 
 in ordinary solvents, uninjured by alcohol, ether, ammonia, 
 turpentine, naphtha, or other oils, is very tough, is a good 
 insulator, and is of low cost. 
 
 Marloid. — An insulating material said to be made from the 
 hides of certain animals, treated by a chemical process, mak- 
 ing it so hard that it can be handled in every way the same as 
 ebonite. It may be transparent or opaque, and is capable of 
 receiving a very high polish. It is said to give an insulation of 
 2,000 megohms, is uninflammable, and is of English origin. 
 
MICANITE—STABILIT. 131 
 
 MiCANiTE. — Mica cemented together under pressure with an 
 India-rubber compound. Manufactured in America. 
 
 NiGRiTE. — An insulating compound consisting of a mixture 
 of India-rubber and ozocerite. 
 
 Pantasote. — ^A cellulose product made by secret processes, 
 largely used in the manufacture of artificial leathers. 
 
 Pegamoid. — This, although covered by several patents, is 
 said also to involve certain secret processes. In a general way, 
 however, the substance is prepared by treating a fine grade of 
 cellulose with a mixture of sulphuric or nitric acid to form 
 nitro-cellulose or gun cotton, which is then dissolved in a 
 suitable alcohol. The Pegamoid patents call for the addition 
 of glycerine, sweet or olive oil, and various coloring matters. 
 
 Plasticon. — See Fibrone. 
 
 Plastite. — ^A vulcanite which is made extra hard and is 
 not possessed of any special amount of elasticity. The stock 
 recipe for this is : India-rubber 100 parts, sulphur 25 parts, 
 magnesia 50 parts, orpiment 50 parts, coal tar asphaltum 60 
 parts. It is very hard and solid, and takes a high degree of 
 smoothness and polish. (Hof^er.) 
 
 Potato Celluloid. — An Austrian invention relating to an 
 artificial solid produced from potatoes boiled 36 hours in a 
 fluid containing 8 parts of sulphuric acid and 100 parts of 
 water, and then dried. Pipe bowls made from it for the French 
 market are said to be hardly distinguishable from real meer- 
 schaum. Billiard balls are also said to be made from it. 
 
 Presspahm. — ^An English insulating material made from 
 wood fiber so treated that it can be run through rolls into 
 sheets of varying thicknesses. It is said to be capable of with- 
 standing high temperatures, and is used not only in connection 
 with electrical machinery, but also for bookbinding and for 
 putting a finish on cloth. 
 
 Sorel's Compound. — A so-called substitute for Gutta-percha 
 consisting of 2 parts resin, 2 parts asphaltum, 8 parts resin oil, 
 6 parts slaked lime, 3 parts water, 10 parts potter's clay, and 
 12 parts Gutta-percha. Five per cent, of stearic acid is some- 
 times added. 
 
 Stabilit. — A German invention, the compound for which is 
 
132 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 a secret, designed to be half way between hard rubber and 
 vulcanized fiber. It is not affected by corroding substances, 
 and does not absorb moisture. It withstands boiling water 
 where hard rubber and vulcanized fiber do not, and is not 
 attacked by muriatic acid or sulphuric acid. 
 
 Vegetaline. — Cellulose treated with sulphuric acid, dried 
 and ground, then treated with resinate of soda. 
 
 Viscose. — An English cellulose product, used as a substitute 
 for vulcanite. It may be of any color or any degree of hard- 
 ness. It has been used in connection with rubber, experimen- 
 tally, with excellent results. As a friction for belting it is said 
 to be excellent, whether or not the belt has the regulation 
 rubber cover. 
 
 ViscoiD. — A compound of viscose, formed by mixing with it 
 hot bituminous matter such as tar, pitch dissolved in coal tar, 
 or the like. The resultant mixture, when solidified, con- 
 stitutes a material of a high insulating character, and is pro- 
 duced at low cost. The bituminous and cellulose matter may 
 be mixed in equal proportions, although there is a wide range 
 of compounds that may be made through the use of various 
 proportions of the substances. 
 
 ViTRiTE. — A jet black, perfectly hard material, having a 
 smooth polished appearance similar to ebonite. It is not 
 affected by dampness or acids. It is a good insulator, is of low 
 cost, and easily worked. 
 
 VuLCABESTON. — A composition of asbestos and India-rubber, 
 forming a product which is a non-conductor of electricity and 
 stands the severest tests, resisting heat wonderfully. In- 
 vented by R. N. Pratt, United States. 
 
 Vulcanized Fiber. — This material, which is very largely 
 used, is made of cotton paper pulp, chemically dissolved, and 
 solidified under enormous pressure. It is unattacked by ordi- 
 nary solvents such as alcohol, turpentine, ammonia, etc. It 
 appears on the market in two forms — hard and flexible. The 
 hard fiber resembles horn and is exceedingly tough and strong, 
 while the flexible fiber has the appearance of a very close 
 grained leather. It is an insulator in dry places, but, as it will 
 absorb moisture, it is useless in places requiring waterproof 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTES. 133 
 
 qualities. It is made in three colors — black, red, and gray. 
 Vulcanized fiber is unaffected by oils or fats, and will stand 
 action of hot grease. Low grades have been found adulterated 
 with chloride of zinc and calcium, to the extent of nearly 50 
 per cent, of its weight. 
 
 WiLLOUGHBY Smith's Gutta-percha. — Gutta-pcrcha re- 
 fined by a special process invented by Willoughby Smith. 
 Valued in England as giving an increased speed over electrical 
 conductors insulated with it. 
 
 Wsay's Compound. — A composition of India-rubber, silica, 
 powdered alum, and Gutta-percha. Used in climates too hot for 
 Gutta-percha by itself. It is easily attacked by seawater. 
 
 Xelton. — A substitute for hard rubber manufactured prin- 
 cipally for use in making battery jars. It originated in Philadel- 
 phia. 
 
 III. MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTES AND COMPOUNDS. 
 
 "Apo Elastikon Hyphasma." — An English formula for 
 this is : Take caoutchouc and grind it with a portion of residue 
 from cottonseed oil. Work in as much vegetable fiber as will 
 convert it into a strong felt, adding as much farinaceous matter 
 as will fit it for the finishing roller. The outside husk from rice, 
 finely ground, is preferable. Stearine pitch may be added to 
 give a greater stiffness; also chalk and steatite may be used to 
 harden it. 
 
 AsBESTONiT. — An asbestos product manufactured in Eng- 
 land under a secret process, for use as steam or hot water packing. 
 
 AsTRiCTUM. — A compound to be used in damp places, con- 
 sisting of pulped cotton 15 pounds, pitch 25 pounds, asphalt 20 
 pounds, ground granite rock 20 pounds, bitumen 5 pounds, resin 
 10 pounds, coal tar 12 pounds, and mastic 5 pounds. 
 
 Caoutchite. — Vulcanized rubber exposed to heat (250° F.) 
 for several days and devulcanized and recovered by this means 
 alone. 
 
 Cork Leather. — A French invention composed of thin 
 sheets of cork, covered on both sides with an extremely thin 
 India-rubber skin, and of a textile fabric outside. It is very light, 
 is a good insulator against heat, and is waterproof. 
 
134 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 Belledin's Process for Leather Impregnation. — Hides 
 are treated in alkaline solutions and immersed in a bath of rub- 
 ber solution. 
 
 Dermatine. — A well known substitute for India-rubber and 
 leather, made of an artificial Gutta-percha called "gum percha,*' 
 7 pounds; powdered waste rubber, 7 pounds; India-rubber, 14 
 pounds; sulphide of antimony, 6 pounds; peroxide of iron, 2 
 pounds; flour of sulphur, 4 pounds 8 ounces; alum, 4 pounds 8 
 ounces ; asbestos, powder, 2 pounds ; sulphuret of zinc, 3 pounds ; 
 carbonate of magnesia, 7 pounds. A little change in this com- 
 pound adapts it for machine belts. A variety of colors is gained 
 by mixing in various pigments in place of sulphuret of antimony 
 or peroxide of iron. The invention is patented by Maxmilian 
 Zingler, of London. It is claimed that Dermatine will stand more 
 wear than either leather or rubber, that it is absolutely unaffected 
 by heat, cold, dryness, or moisture ; and that it will stand perfectly 
 the action of grease, oils, or acids. Adaptations of the formula 
 given above permit it to be manufactured in molded forms. It is 
 used for valves, packing, etc., and also for covering insulated 
 wire. 
 
 DuRATE. — An artificial rubber compound said to be similar 
 to Dermatine. 
 
 Ekert's High Pressure Compositions. — Consist of rubber, 
 asbestos fiber, litharge and sulphur. To this base are added oxide 
 of zinc, iron oxide, graphite, magnesium silicate and resin. It is 
 patented. 
 
 Endurite. — The invention of John Stuart Campbell, of Eng- 
 land. The basis of it is rubber and it is used in golf balls, 
 belting, etc. 
 
 Fibrine-Christia Gum is manufactured just as Christia 
 gum is, except that silk fibers are used in the place of hemp. 
 
 Frost Rubber. — Another name for what is practically 
 sponge rubber made from any ordinary unvulcanized rubber com- 
 pound by the addition of a little alum or carbonate of ammonia. 
 
 Gront and Moore's Repair Cement. — A mixture of unvul- 
 canized stamp rubber in benzine solution to which are added tur- 
 pentine and collodion. 
 
 Harmer's Substitute. — Composed of 150 pounds waste 
 
HEVEENOID—KIRRAGE. 135 
 
 rubber, 50 pounds Pontianak, 8 pounds African flake, 10 pounds 
 Substitute. Patented. 
 
 Heveenoid. — This is claimed to be more insoluble, durable, 
 and pliable than almost any other rubber composition. Soft 
 Heveenoid consists of India-rubber 32 parts, camphor 32 parts, 
 lime I part, and sulphur 8 parts. Hard Heveenoid is made of 
 India-rubber 6 parts, camphor 4 parts, glycerine i part, and 
 sulphur 16 parts. Heveenoid is the invention of Henry Gemer, of 
 New York, and is patented in the United States and Europe. 
 Kauri gum is also used in certain Heveenoid compositions. One 
 special advantage claimed as to the use of camphor is that the 
 chemical compound termed sulphide of camphor is produced, and 
 therefore the rubber does not bloom. 
 
 Heveenite. — Another name for Heveenoid. 
 
 India-rubber Leather. — A compound produced by Nelson 
 Goodyear in which fibrous substances were mixed with India- 
 rubber to form a body the surface of which resembles leather. 
 
 Ireson's Packing Compound consists of a mixture of rub- 
 ber, ultramarine blue, and silicate of magnesia. 
 
 Jackson's Compound for Printers' Rolls. — Sixteen 
 pounds glue, 16 pounds glycerine, i pound borax, i pound japan. 
 
 Johnstone's Non-Drying Compound consists of Gutta- 
 percha, resin and carnauba wax. 
 
 Just's Acid Proof Composition is composed of linseed oil, 
 Gutta-percha, sulphur, rosin, shellac, and asphaltum or pitch. 
 
 Kamptulicon. — An India-rubber compound for floor cover- 
 ings. The simplest English formula is a vegetable fibrous material 
 ground into a coarse powder, mixed with India-rubber, and 
 treated with a cheap solvent, such as coal tar or naphtha. Color- 
 ing matters are added, if desired. Another Kamptulicon com- 
 pound is : Gutta-percha, cheap grade, 6 pounds ; reclaimed rubber, 
 12 pounds ; residuum from distilling palm oil, 6 pounds ; ground 
 cork, 4 pounds ; ground chalk, 2 pounds ; sulphur, 6 pounds ; hair, 
 I pound ; oxide of zinc, i pound. 
 
 Kirrage Compound. — ^A well-known English patented com- 
 pound, which takes its name from the inventor. It comes in two 
 forms. The first, to be used not over 200° F., is composed of 
 India-rubber 12 pounds. Gutta-percha 4 pounds, Stockholm tar 
 
136 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 25 pounds, chalk 60 pounds, hemp 4 pounds, and sulphur 10 
 pounds. The same inventor also recommends the following, to 
 withstand a great heat and pressure : India-rubber 20 pounds, tar 
 25 pounds, coke, finely powdered, 25 pounds; Stourbridge clay 
 25 pounds, sulphur 10 pounds, fine emery 25 pounds, and steel 
 filings 5 pounds, 
 
 Leatherine is a compound that closely approaches Derma- 
 tine, and in fact a part of the first patent on that product. It 
 is intended as a substitute for leather cloth and is made as fol- 
 lows : India-rubber 28 pounds, substitute 10 pounds, sulphuret of 
 antimony 13 pounds, peroxide of iron 4 pounds, sulphur 3 
 pounds, sulphuret of zinc 10 pounds, carbonate of magnesia 23 
 pounds, and sulphate baryta 8 pounds. 
 
 Leatherubber Compound. — Made of ground waste rubber 
 leather and reclaimed rubber. Manufactured largely in Australia. 
 
 Leonard's Substitute. — Consists of a mixture of corn oil, 
 castor oil, chloride of sulphur, naphtha, and oxide of magnesia. 
 
 Luft's Celluloid Rubber. — By boiling equal parts of 
 phenol and 50 per cent, formaldehyde with sulphuric acid and to 
 the washed and dried product adding India-rubber, a compound is 
 formed that boiled in alkaline solutions is transparent and 
 similar to celluloid. 
 
 LiMEiTE. — A cement that is manufactured from melted 
 India-rubber, with the addition of 8 per cent, of tallow, with 
 sufficient slaked lime to give it the consistency of soft paste. The 
 addition of 20 per cent, vermilion causes the mass to harden 
 immediately. 
 
 Madanite. — A binding material for smooth surfaces, such 
 as air-pumps, etc., made of 2 parts by weight of vaseline, and i 
 part India-rubber, melted. This mixture may be left for years 
 without perceptible alteration. A low grade gum used in the 
 same way in connection with vaseline makes an excellent insulat- 
 ing tape, and has also been used as a friction gum. 
 
 Metalined Rubber. — A name used for compounds used in 
 dental work, under a process patented by C. S. Leadbetter, Man- 
 chester, England, for strengthening the gum with a metallic 
 fabric, woven or knit. 
 
 Moroccoline. — An imitation leather made from a secret 
 
OKONITE—THESKELON. 137 
 
 compound which presumably has India-rubber for its base. Made 
 in various colors but chiefly as an imitation of Morocco leather. 
 
 Okonite. — A well-known compound for insulating wires 
 and cables. According to an English analyst, it consists of India- 
 rubber, 49.6 per cent. ; sulphur 5.3 per cent. ; lampblack, 3.2 per 
 cent. ; zinc oxide, 15.5 per cent.; litharge, 26.3 per cent. ; and silica, 
 0.1 per cent. 
 
 Pantasote. — A secret compound, probably of oxidized oil, 
 which is used for the manufacture of artificial leather coverings 
 for furniture, bookbindings, etc. 
 
 Pedryoid. — A rubber-like finish for cloth, made presumably 
 of oil, in tan, brown, olive, and other colors, and used chiefly in 
 shoe finishing. 
 
 Rathite. — A mixture in which waste silk fibers are incor- 
 porated with India-rubber to impart resiliency and durability. 
 About 6 ounces of silk are used with 28 pounds of rubber com- 
 pound. It is employed in making tires, pump valves, packings, 
 etc. Patented by A. I. Rath, Cheshire, England. 
 
 RuBBERic, — Fiber blended with India-rubber in solution, 
 stretched, and dried. Used chiefly in making rubber tires and 
 mechanical rubber goods. Patented by William Golding, Man- 
 chester, England. 
 
 Rubber Asphalte. — For road making, a late French patent 
 covers a mixture of rubber and asphalt, that after intimate mix- 
 ture takes the form of a powder. This is laid hot and under test 
 is very cheap and lasting. 
 
 Rubber Velvet. — Manuafctured by sprinkling powdered 
 felt of a variety of colors over proofed cloth before vulcanization. 
 The result is a velvet-like fabric, elastic and waterproof. 
 
 Theskelon Cement. — A metallic substance used for water- 
 proofing and for certain kinds of packings. It will neither ex- 
 pand, contract, nor rust. It is used instead of wax for sealing 
 purposes, and resists acids, alkalies, and grease. It is often used 
 in place of asphaltum. It can be mixed with tar, pitch, asphal- 
 tum, and other similar ingredients, the compound possessing ex- 
 traordinary adhesive power. Patented by Thomas Smith, London. 
 
 Turnbull's Anti-fouling Rubber Paint. — Pitch and 
 resin are melted together, and then a mixture consisting of crude 
 
138 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 naphtha, dissolved Para rubber, and sifter whiting is added 
 thereto. 
 
 Unvulcanized Packing Washers. — Goldstein claims in an 
 English patent a washer material for the sheet-metal lids of vessels 
 is made, without containing sulphur, of a mixture of crude rub- 
 ber, talc, asbestos, and Gutta-percha. 
 
 Voltax. — An American insulating compound not subject to 
 chemical change, and proof against water, acids, and alkalies. Is 
 cheaper than rubber and does not affect copper — hence tinning of 
 the wires is not necessary. 
 
 VuLCANiNA. — A preparation of rubber, a Brazilian inven- 
 tion, for paving. 
 
 VuLCANiNE. — A mixture of India-rubber, asbestos, litharge, 
 hme, and powdered zinc, to which is added a percentage of sul- 
 phur. Mentioned in a patent granted to J. E, Hopkinson, West 
 Drayton, England. 
 
 Whaleite. — See Woodite. 
 
 WooDiTE. — A name suggested by Sir E. J. Reed for an India- 
 rubber compound invented by Mrs, A. M. Wood. It is said to 
 possess the elasticity of India-rubber, to be uninflammable, and 
 not injured by salt water. It is used in making valves, packings, 
 etc. It is claimed that it will not become sticky or soft under heat 
 or steam pressure, and will stand hot grease and other lubricants, 
 and neither acids, alkalies, nor wastes from oil refineries, distil- 
 leries, etc., affect it in the least. A compound for Woodite or 
 Whaleite packing is: Asbestos fiber 38 pounds, asbestos powder 
 38 pounds, earth wax 6 pounds, charcoal finely ground 9 pounds, 
 ground whalebone 20 pounds. Para rubber 80 pounds, and sul- 
 phur 5 pounds. 
 
 Zinsser's Barrel Lining. — A compound for lining casks, 
 consisting of deodorized copal, rosin, India-rubber, and a non- 
 drying fat, with coloring matter, such as asphalt. 
 
 IV. MINERAL RUBBERS. 
 
 Genasco Hydro-Carbon. — ^A product made from high grade 
 asphalt so treated that it is valuable in rubber compounding. 
 
 Kapak. — A product made from treated elaterite. Used in 
 general rubber compounding. 
 
"M R"—INRIG. 139 
 
 LaBelle's Mineral Rubber. — ^A treated elaterite produced 
 by an inventor in Utah. 
 
 "M R". — A product of a semi-elastic material similar to 
 elaterite which by chemical treatment is made stable and tractable. 
 It is wholly neutral, is free from sulphur and acids, and does not 
 vaporize under heat. Is largely used in rubber compounding. 
 
 Pioneer Mineral Rubber. — One of the first successful 
 asphaltum rubbers used in connection with rubber compounding. 
 It unites perfectly with any grade of crude rubber or with re- 
 claimed rubber. Is said to prevent blistering, and to minimize the 
 harsh action of free sulphur; is acid proof. 
 
 Sarco. — A rubber assistant, probably made from treated 
 elaterite. 
 
 Tabbyite. — A mineral product from Utah which seems to be 
 a mixture of asphalt and paraffine oils. It is easily manipulated 
 and quite elastic. 
 
 V. PUNCTURE FLUIDS AND FILLERS. 
 
 Cyco is a popular compound, said to serve as a preserver of 
 tires as well as healer of tire wounds. It is made of vegetable 
 gums that will not harden ; neither will it interfere with vul- 
 canizing in the event of a large rupture. 
 
 Dow's Inner Tube Filler. — A mixture of paste and 
 feathers held in a continuous pocket that covers the tread of the 
 inner tube. 
 
 Elastes. — An English compound made of glue, glycerine, 
 and chromic salts. 
 
 Everlastic is a substitute for air, and by some considered 
 a good compound. As a liquid it is forced into the tire until 
 the desired pressure is reached, and in a comparatively short 
 time it solidifies and is said to become like rubber. It is not 
 affected by heat or cold. 
 
 Fagioli, under a British patent, produces a composition con- 
 sisting preferably of these proportions: i pint giant cement, 
 i^ pints of rubber solution, and 2^ gallons granulated cork. 
 
 Frankenburg's Puncture Fluid. — Made of dead Borneo, 
 oxidizable vegetable oil, and sulphur; a British patent. 
 
 Inrig, under a British patent, prepares a rubber substitute 
 from the gelable portions of animals. Fifty parts of such ma- 
 
140 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 terial are treated with 50 parts of water and from 20 to 60 
 parts of oil at a temperature of 200° F. Subsequently sodium 
 stannate and potassium bichromate are added. On heating to 
 212° F. a mass is obtained which may be set in a mold and 
 used for filling motor tires. 
 
 Newmastic. — A tire filler, the component parts of which are 
 a secret, but which is apparently of the glue and glycerine type. 
 
 Puncture Closer. — A British compound: 10 parts Gutta- 
 percha, 60 virgin wax, 5 tallow, 20 rosin, 5 wild thyme. 
 
 Roland's Puncture Compound. — A glue and glycerine to 
 which is added sugar or molasses. 
 
 Rubberine. — A tire filler that is pumped in liquid form into 
 the tire and solidifies into a semi-resilient mass. Of English 
 origin. 
 
 Scott's Puncture Fluid. — Fifty parts milk, 17 parts isin- 
 glass, 200 parts gelatine, 10 parts Carnauba wax, 3 parts formal- 
 dehyde, I part gum ammoniacum. Of British origin. 
 
 Suber's Filler. — One ounce Carnauba wax, ^ ounce gum 
 tragacanth, ^ ounce water. Add glue and mix in steam. 
 
 Tire Life. — A tire filler of the glue and glycerine kind. 
 
 VI. CELLULOID AND CELLULOSE PRODUCTS. 
 
 Celluloid is made in the main from camphor and nitro- 
 cellulose in alcohol, ether being sometimes employed as an 
 additional solvent. The paste formed in this way is warmed 
 gently, and then rolled out into thin sheets. The product is a 
 brittle horny mass, consisting of a chemical, or at least an in- 
 timate, mixture of camphor and pyroxyline. A great variety 
 of coloring matters may be added to it, and it is susceptible 
 to manipulation and processes whereby it has been made quite 
 flexible and practically incombustible. Crude celluloid has a 
 specific gravity varying between 1.25 and 1.45, and has a 
 strong odor of camphor. 
 
 Cellit, — A cellulose acetate. The invention of a German 
 chemist, designed to take the place of celluloid, but to be more 
 easily worked and safer by varying the organic substance 
 that takes the place of camphor. A great variety of products 
 
CELLULITH—NITRO-CELLULOSE. 141 
 
 is produced. The substance varies from a soft plastic to a 
 hard product according to the degree of compound used. 
 
 Cellulith. — A cellulose substitute said to be an improve- 
 ment on viscoid. Mixes readily with shellac, rubber, etc. 
 
 Cellulose is a pure substance forming the cellular tissue of 
 plants. In the arts use is made generally of cotton or filter 
 paper which has been treated with acids to dissolve out im- 
 purities, and forms a basis for the manufacture of celluloid, 
 gun cotton, pyroxoline, and xylonite. On analysis it shows: 
 Carbon 44.44, hydrogen 6.18, oxygen 49.38. It is dissolved in 
 sulphuric acid, and is converted into dextrine, and, by prolong- 
 ing the action, into glucose. So far it has not been used 
 largely in rubber compounding, but both alone and in connec- 
 tion with various other ingredients has been applied as a 
 waterproofing. It is the basis of certain Swiss puncture fluids. 
 
 Galalith. — A German product from casein. The process 
 roughly is to make the casein insoluble by the addition of 
 salts and acids. The product is then dephlegmated and dried, 
 when, by the addition of formaldehyde Galalith is obtained. The 
 process is protected by numerous patents. 
 
 Gun Cotton. — Prepared by treating cotton wool with a 
 mixture of strong sulphuric and nitric acids, or nitrate of 
 potash may be substituted for nitric acid. After treatment 
 with acid the Gun Cotton is rinsed carefully in cold running 
 water, and then dried by pressure or by exposure to the air. 
 All acid should be removed to prevent danger of explosion. 
 Gun Cotton has been used to render fabrics waterproof, for 
 varnishing India-rubber to render it impervious to gases, and 
 in insulation work. Alexander Parkes, as far back as 1855, 
 used a solution of Gun Cotton with gums or resins to take the 
 place of compounds of India-rubber. He rendered Gun Cot- 
 ton less inflammable by using biphosphate of ammonia, mag- 
 nesia, talc, alum, or similar substances. As a good solvent 
 for Gun Cotton, he distilled in i gallon of naphtha from 2 to 
 6 pounds of chloride of calcium. Charles Macintosh used as 
 a solvent equal parts of wood spirit and coal tar naphtha. 
 
 Nitro-Cellulose. — This is produced by the action upon cel- 
 lulose of nitric acid or a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. 
 
142 SUBSTITUTES FOR RUBBER. 
 
 According to the length of time the acid is allowed to act, the 
 resulting Nitro-Cellulose contains 53.7, 43.6, 36.7, or 28 
 per cent, of nitric acid (nitric-anhydride). Gun cotton is 
 usually a mixture containing higher percentages while 
 Pyroxyline — or, as it is sometimes called, soluble cotton — is a 
 mixture of lower compounds. The solution of pyroxyline 
 in a mixture of alcohol and ether is called Collodion. 
 
 Pyroxyline. — A species of gun cotton less explosive in its 
 qualities, prepared from cellulose by means of nitro-sulphuric 
 acid. Its solution in a mixture of ether and alcohol is called 
 Collodion. 
 
 Texoderm. — An imitation leather with a hard durable water- 
 proof surface. Basis of which is cellulose. 
 
 Weber's Cellulose Compound. — Ten pounds of cellulose 
 steeped in a 20 per cent, solution of caustic soda and allowed 
 to stand for ten hours; then pressed until its weight is 35 
 pounds; then treated with 8 pounds cold carbon bi-sulphide 
 for three hours; then emulsified with a mixture of 40 pounds 
 Pontianak gum, 15 pounds mineral oil, and 10 pounds stearine 
 pitch. 
 
 Xylonite. — See Celluloid. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RECLAIMED RUBBER AND ITS USES. 
 
 Reclaimed rubber, known also as recovered or regenerated 
 rubber, shoddy, and crumb, is produced from worn-out rubber 
 goods. There are two general methods in vogue, known respec- 
 tively as the mechanical and the chemical processes. Where the 
 mechanical process is followed, the waste is ground to a fine pow- 
 der, which is run over magnets to extract the iron, and is then put 
 through a blowing process, which separates the woolen or cotton 
 fibers from the rubber. The rubber powder is then subjected to 
 a high degree of heat (the process known as devulcanization) , 
 and afterwards sheeted, when it is similar to unvulcanized com- 
 pounded rubber 
 
 The chemical process is similar to the mechanical, except 
 that the fiber is destroyed by means of acid or alkaline solutions 
 and quite a percentage of it is washed out with the residue after 
 the process is finished. Special grades of reclaimed rubber are 
 made from mechanical goods that have high grade frictions in 
 them and also from unvulcanized scrap. Rubber is also reclaimed 
 from ordinary mechanical goods, such as hose, belting, and pack- 
 ing, and for certain purposes is mixed with what is known as 
 shoe shoddy. White scrap, from wringer rolls, tubing, druggists' 
 sundries, and the like is also produced. The great trouble with 
 the white is that, on second vulcanization, it is apt to be very hard. 
 At one time, hard rubber dust was to be found in the market and 
 was used as a shoddy in certain grades of vulcanite. There is 
 to-day but very little of it to be found, however, as most of the 
 manufacturers of hard rubber goods find a use for all that they 
 make. 
 
 The processes followed in the reclaiming of waste rubber are 
 no longer secret. Those who are in the business of manufactur- 
 ing for the trade are able to do it as a rule because they buy waste 
 stock at a lower figure than a small user could, besides which, by 
 manufacturing the goods in large quantities, they can do it more 
 economically than it could be done in a small way. In this busi- 
 
 143 
 
144 RECLAIMED RUBBER. 
 
 ness are used crackers, sheeting mills like ordinary grinders, and, 
 indeed, general machinery not dissimilar to that used in a mill 
 where crude rubber is compounded. They have in addition, how- 
 ever, lead lined tanks for acid treatment, vulcanizers or, better, 
 devulcanizers, huge vats for washing, magnets for removing 
 metal, sieves, and the like. This branch of the rubber business 
 is not supposed to be deeply interested in compounding, in spite 
 of the fact that it is sometimes suggested that earthy matters and 
 heavy adulterants do find a use in reclaiming mills. 
 
 Rubber scrap of any sort, vulcanized or unvulcanized, is 
 eagerly sought for reclaiming, the world over. The larger fac- 
 tories use their own scrap of both kinds, yet much unvulcanized 
 scrap gets upon the market chiefly in the form of Para cable 
 strippings, mackintosh cloth cuttings, frictional fabric, and 
 cement ball. 
 
 Next to this in value, and indeed often more valuable is the 
 pure gum vulcanized scrap, such as rubber thread, and a variety 
 of floating stocks that do not contain rubber substitutes. Special 
 high grade stocks such as billiard cushions, balloon fabrics, etc., 
 are favorites in this line. 
 
 The greatest single item in scrap collection, is, of course, 
 old rubber boots and shoes. They are graded roughly by the 
 country of their origin — American, English, German, Russian 
 and so on — and their conversion into workable rubber has long 
 been the backbone of the reclaiming business. 
 
 Most of the products of the mechanical goods factory come 
 into the market as waste eventually, and are sorted and graded 
 according to the richness of the compound, and the freedom from 
 metal and fabric. In this line is the red scrap such as valves, the 
 drab embracing wringer rolls, mattings, buffers, and hose graded 
 as air brake, fire hose linings, and garden hose. Then there is 
 the grading of belting, asbestos scrap, red and other packing, etc. 
 
 In tires there is the collection and sorting of solid tires into 
 cab, baby carriage, omnibus tires. In pneumatics, there are single 
 and double tube bicycle tires, motor cycle casing and automobile 
 tire shoes — American, French, and German. There is also the 
 inner tube in gray, red, and green that is to-day a large factor in 
 the recovery business. 
 
PROCESSES. 145 
 
 In druggists' sundries, water-bottles, and the like furnish 
 white rubber. Tobacco pouches, red rubber, while air and water 
 beds, sponges and many other specialties furnish regular grades. 
 
 In hard rubber, cells, telephone receivers, sheets and rods are 
 ground up and used again, while hard rubber shavings and dust 
 find a ready market. 
 
 Gutta-percha in the form of cable strippings, balls, and 
 buckets is a type of waste with a recognized place. And these are 
 but a few of the many grades put out by the sorters, and sold to 
 the scores of reclaiming plants the world over, that turn out the 
 two hundred or more millions of pounds of usable rubber from 
 what was once thrown away or burned under the factory boilers. 
 
 Almost the first attempt at recovering rubber waste was that 
 done at the Beverly Rubber Works, in Massachusetts, back in the 
 fifties, when Hiram L. Hall boiled waste vulcanized rubber in 
 water, after reducing it to a powder, and then sheeted it. It is 
 a curious fact that, in one little mill to-day, the manufacturer 
 grinds his own scrap, boils it in hot water until it is in condition 
 to sheet, and makes a fair article out of it. 
 
 The year after Hall's patent, another was granted to Francis 
 Baschnagel, who paved the way for devulcanization by covering 
 a process whereby a finely ground rubber was exposed to the 
 action of live steam. It was not, however, until E, H. Clapp 
 took hold of the business and discovered a process for blowing 
 the fiber out of the finely ground rubber prior to its devulcaniza- 
 tion that the goods began to be used to a large extent. 
 
 The next step in the progress of the art was characterized by 
 the taking out of a great variety of patents, most of which depend 
 upon various acids and alkalies for destroying the fiber. These 
 patents were more than fifty in number, and were fully reviewed 
 with their attendant processes in the famous suits brought by the 
 Chemical Rubber Co. against The Goodyear's Metallic Rubber 
 Shoe Co. and the Raymond Rubber Co. While it would be 
 tedious to go into that matter, it is interesting to touch upon im- 
 portant processes involved. The action of acids upon fibers, of 
 course, had long been known ; in connection with the rubber busi- 
 ness, however, it was without doubt novel. The Hayward patent, 
 for instance, mixed 75 pounds of sulphuric acid with 8 hogs- 
 
146 RECLAIMED RUBBER. 
 
 heads of water, and in this way the fiber was weakened so thai 
 it was easily ground up with the rubber. The Faure patent called 
 simply for the immersion of the clippings in an acid, which in 
 disintegrating the textile matter set the India-rubber free. Hiram 
 Hall advised the use of lime or alum to eat up the cloth, and also 
 a solution of i part of sulphuric acid to 9 parts of water. Burg- 
 hardt used muriatic acid for destroying the cloth fiber. The 
 Heinzerling patent called for a treatment first with acids, and 
 then with alkalies. It is also to be remembered that Charles 
 Goodyear directed that crude India-rubber should be subjected 
 to a 10 per cent, solution of sulphuric acid to eat up the bark with 
 which the gum might be contaminated. 
 
 The Mitchell patents, the Bourn patents, and others, where 
 an extremely dilute acid was used, and where a concentrated 
 acid was called for, have been so thoroughly reviewed that those 
 familiar with the rubber business know all about the processes 
 employed. 
 
 What is known as the alkali process, based upon the patents 
 of Arthur Hudson Marks, is one of the notable discoveries in 
 reclaimed rubber in more recent years. Factories for reclaiming 
 under this process are operated in the United States, England, 
 Germany and Belgium, mechanical waste being chiefly used. 
 
 In addition to the processes in more general use, a few 
 unusual ones may be interesting. For example, the Tors- 
 trick process, in which dilute nitric acid and fusel oil were mixed 
 with the gum in a heated state, or passed through it in the shape 
 of vapors, making the mass sticky, after which a small quantity 
 of chloride of calcium was added and the gum sheeted. 
 
 Conrad Poppenhusen mixed rubber scrap with essential oils, 
 a little turpentine being used preferably, left the scrap until it had 
 become soft, and then passed dry gaseous ammonia into the mass, 
 forming a gelatinous viscid product. 
 
 C. F. E. Simond mixed 2 parts of chloride of lime with 100 
 parts of waste rubber, and brought it to a high degree of heat, 
 by which the sulphur was volatilized, which took from 15 to 60 
 minutes, and then used the rubber over. 
 
 Thomas J. Mayall mixed vegetable tar with waste rubber — 
 exposed it to the heat of the sun, or to a gentle artificial heat, and 
 
PROCESSES. 147 
 
 got a soft pasty mass that he was able to work with crude rubber. 
 He also invented a process for sprinkling the finely ground rub- 
 ber with camphene and setting the mass afire in a partially covered 
 vessel, his claim being that if the fire was stopped at a certain 
 point, a tough viscid mass was the result, which contained neither 
 sulphur nor fiber, and could be reworked like unvulcanized rubber. 
 
 Beylikgy exposed vulcanized rubber for a number of days to 
 a temperature of 250° F., after which he claimed that it became 
 an adhesive mass, insoluble in alcohol, partially soluble in 
 ether, and wholly soluble in benzole. He called this caout- 
 choucite and claimed that it could be vulcanized with the addition 
 of sulphur at a lower temperature than ordinary crude rubber. 
 
 McCartney, of Glasgow, mixed vulcanized rubber with 
 naphtha and a little acetic acid. He also added camphor, and by 
 the action of heat produced in reality a rubber paint. 
 
 The following are briefs of some of the later claims of 
 inventors in rubber vulcanizing : 
 
 Anderson's process (English). Ground scrap is mixed with 
 calcium sulphide and coal tar naphtha, exposed to heat, and 
 thoroughly washed. 
 
 Alexander's process relates to the production of India-rubber 
 latex from rubber waste. The waste is heated under pressure in 
 benzine. The dissolved matter is then removed, and the solution 
 is heated again in sodium hydrate. The benzine is distilled off 
 and the aqueous solution of caoutchouc filtered and precipitated 
 with acid. 
 
 Basle process. A Swiss process which covers the use of 
 various ethers boiling at a temperature of about 100° C. 
 
 Brimmer's process (German) consists of mixing ground 
 scrap with Ricinus oil, heating until dissolved, adding alcohol for 
 precipitation and washing with a weak solution of caustic soda. 
 
 Clift's process (English). Waste rubber is dissolved in a 
 base of the pyridin group, then treated with acid in the presence 
 of a volatile solvent for the separation of the rubber from the 
 base then separating the solvent with the rubber in solution. 
 
 Chautard process (French) uses commercial phenol for re- 
 claiming, the phenol being later distilled off. The whole process 
 is quite intricate. 
 
148 RECLAIMED RUBBER. 
 
 Durvez process (Belgian). Rubber waste boiled with water 
 and finely powdered lime. Product is washed, rolled, and dried. 
 
 Eves's process (American). Devulcanizing by treating with 
 sodium sulfate in the presence of heat, then incorporating barium 
 chloride. 
 
 French process. Waste vulcanized rubber is heated with 
 terpin hydrate, the mixture is then treated with boiling water, and 
 from the residue the regenerated caoutchouc is extracted by 
 means of a suitable solvent such as commercial xylol. The terpin 
 hydrate is recovered for use over again by cooling the hot aqueous 
 wash-liquors. 
 
 French process. The finely divided rubber is heated, pre- 
 ferably at iio° to i8o ° C, under pressure, with a soap solution, 
 to which may be added other substances such as aliphatic or 
 aromatic hydrocarbons, oil of turpentine or the like, and salts 
 capable of forming solutions which dissolve sulphur, such as 
 alkali sulphides, alkali sulphites, etc. 
 
 Gilbert-Besaw process (American). This process is not 
 patented, but is secret. It is applicable to the recovery of any sort 
 of rubber scrap, whether cured in open steam, in molds, or in 
 dry heat. According to the statement of the inventors, no acid 
 or alkali, or anything that can be in any way injurious, is added. 
 The machinery for treating the waste rubber for the removal of 
 fiber and for devulcanization is individual to the process. The 
 time occupied in devulcanization is about one-quarter that used 
 in existing processes. No residuum or oily matter of any sort 
 is added to the product, either before or after devulcanization. 
 The results of this process for insulation purposes, in reducing the 
 acetone test, is of itself invaluable. 
 
 Gregory and Thom's process (English). Reclaimed in the 
 usual way; then add a solvent which is a mixture of aniline oil 
 and naphtha. The product is heated in open steam until the solu- 
 tion of rubber is complete, when it is taken out and strained. 
 
 Gubbin's process (English). Unvulcanized scrap in which 
 the fabric is saturated with naphtha and passed through plain 
 pressure rolls to remove the rubber from the fabric. 
 
 Heinzerling's process (German). Ground waste rubber 
 treated with aniline or their homologues at 140° to 180° C. The 
 
PROCESSES. 149 
 
 rubber is then mechanically separated from the residue ; is treated 
 with dilute sulphuric acid, and the separating rubber is washed 
 and dried. 
 
 Heyl-Dia's process. Heats ground rubber under moderate 
 pressure in naphtha, temperature being not more than 120° F. 
 The naphtha is then drawn off and with it most of the sulphur. 
 The rubber is then heated to over 350° F. with a fresh solvent 
 when it dissolves. The solvent is then removed and the sulphur 
 washed and dried. 
 
 Hyatt and Penn's process. Waste rubber finely ground is put 
 into a vacuum chamber and molded into goods under heat. 
 
 Karavodine's process (French) consists of pulverizing the 
 material, adding asbestos fibers which have been previously 
 treated with a binding medium, and subjecting the mass to a 
 higher pressure at higher temperature. 
 
 Kessler's process. Waste rubber is treated with carbolic 
 acid in a vacuum. After solution powdered acetate of lead is 
 added and the whole submitted to distillation. Caustic soda is 
 used later for neutralizing. 
 
 Kittel's compound (Austrian). Powdered waste mixed with 
 caustic alkalies is compressed into cakes and heated 2 or 3 hours 
 at 280° C. 
 
 Koneman's process (American). Ground waste is boiled 
 in a salted-acid solution, and a mixable fixed hydrocarbon is then 
 added. 
 
 Koener's process (German), Waste rubber is heated with 
 solvents such as benzine for a time, after which the solution is 
 further heated with water and the solvent subsequently distilled 
 off. 
 
 Marks's process (American). Waste rubber finely ground is 
 heated in a dilute alkaline solution in a closed vessel for a time 
 and at a temperature dependent upon the amount of sulphur 
 present. 
 
 Murphy's process (American) uses for devulcanizing, a 
 bath consisting of carbonate of soda and gallic acid, 
 
 Neilson's process (German). The inventor uses resin oil 
 as a solvent, filters and precipitates the rubber by means of a 
 ketone. 
 
150 RECLAIMED RUBBER. 
 
 Passmore's process dissolves vulcanized waste with eucalyptol 
 and removes mineral matters by filtrating. The eucalyptol is 
 driven off by having steam forced through the mass. 
 
 Penther's process (German). A devulcanizing machine of 
 German origin makes what is known as American reclaimed rub- 
 ber. It separates the fiber from the rubber so thoroughly that 
 the fluff is a merchantable product in the felt trade. 
 
 Peterson's process (American) consists in subjecting 
 shredded waste to an alkaline solution raised to a boiling tempera- 
 ture under hydraulic pressure, next washing in water solution 
 containing phenol under a high temperature and pressure. 
 
 Price's process (American) uses caustic solutions of marked 
 strength, under ordinary atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Price's process (English). A process whereby waste rubber 
 cut into pieces of suitable size is roughly mixed with crude rubber 
 and ground flint, and without being vulcanized, by great pressure 
 molded into finished goods. 
 
 Roux process (French). The inventor describes a machine 
 which devulcanizes powdered waste rubber and makes it into 
 tubing at the same time. In other words it is a combination of a 
 devulcanizer and tubing machine. 
 
 Steenstrup's process. The waste is heated in a solution of 
 alkali and hydrofluoric acid under steam. The product is then 
 washed, dried, etc. 
 
 Theilgaard's process (Denmark). The inventor has several 
 patents which cover the treatment of vulcanized scrap by alka- 
 line earths and such solvents as sodium sulphide. 
 
 Wheeler's process (American) consists in subjecting the 
 waste particles individually to a current of heated fluid moving 
 through a confined passage. 
 
 Zuhl's process (English). Vulcanized waste is dissolved in 
 five times its weight of naphthalene at a low temperature. The 
 naphthalent is then distilled from the mixture with same. 
 
CHAPTER Vlil. 
 
 RESINS, BALSAMS, GUMS, EARTH WAXES, AND GUM-LIKE SUBSTANCES 
 USED IN RUBBER COMPOUNDING. 
 
 A GREAT variety of vegetable, mineral, and animal resins and 
 waxes find uses in admixture with India-rubber and Gutta- 
 percha. Their important uses are to render compounds 
 adhesive, as in frictions, to assist in insulation, to add luster, 
 and to modify the texture of the vulcanized compound. Many 
 gums, like many earths, lend special virtues which they 
 possess to rubber compounds. The more important of these 
 materials, and those most generally used, are described in the 
 following pages. 
 
 Adamanta Resin. — An imitation copal, manufactured from 
 common resin by a special hardening process. It is not 
 soluble in alcohol or benzine, but completely so in boiling 
 turpentine. It is free from acids and alkalies, and has the 
 same melting point as Zanzibar copal. It is used rarely in 
 rubber shoe varnish, and often in cheap frictions in mechan- 
 ical lines, being moistened with resin oil to increase its 
 adhesiveness. 
 
 Amber. — A fossil resin chiefly found in Prussia, on the 
 shores of the Baltic sea; it occurs also in Sicily and some- 
 times in the United States. It is the hardest and heaviest of 
 the resins. Its specific gravity is about 1.07. By distillation 
 a yellow oil — oleum succini or oil of amber — is obtained, and 
 a yellow resin remains in the still. Amber varies in color from 
 light yellow to a deep brownish red. It is insoluble in almost 
 all of the ordinary solvents. When heated above its melting 
 point, however, it becomes partly decomposed, and is then 
 soluble in oil of turpentine and alcohol. It makes a very fine 
 transparent varnish, which is used on negatives in photo- 
 graphing. It is used in cements for fastening linoleum and 
 rubber tiling to decks, and is also mentioned in the formulas 
 for certain patented gums. 
 
 Asphalt is undoubtedly an oxidized residue from evapor- 
 
 151 
 
152 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 ated petroleum. This name is applied usually to the solid 
 bitumen, the liquid being called mineral tar, and sometimes 
 maltha. It is chiefly made up of hydrocarbons, but contains 
 a certain amount of sulphur and nitrogenous bodies. It is 
 known also as natural pitch, Jews' pitch, asphaltum, bitumen, 
 etc. It is a black hard substance which, when freshly broken, 
 shows shining surfaces that are always correspondingly round- 
 ing and hollowing. It is insoluble in water and alcohol, but 
 dissolves in benzine, acetone, and carbon disulphide. Is used 
 in rubber compounding in place of coal tar, and in insulating 
 compositions, and in certain substitutes like Kerite. Com- 
 mercially there are two grades, known as "lake pitch" and 
 "land pitch," of which the latter is the harder. 
 
 In solution it is used sometimes to protect rubber goods 
 that are exposed to the destructive influence of brine. A 
 little Asphalt is also said to increase the elasticity of hard 
 rubber. Asphalt mixed with resin and oil of tar forms a low 
 grade artificial Gutta-percha. It is added to "Cooley's arti- 
 ficial leather" to harden it and enable it to resist heat. It is 
 also the basis of one type of marine glue. 
 
 Artificial Asphalt. — This is made by heating sulphur and 
 resin together to about 250° C, where the reaction takes 
 place, attended by the evolution of sulphuret and hydrogen, 
 and leaving an almost black, pitchy substance resembling 
 asphalt. It is insoluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in 
 benzine. 
 
 AuvERGNE Bitumen. — A species of natural asphalt found in 
 the province of Auvergne, France. It is similar to Trinidad 
 asphalt, but is impure, containing clay, silica, magnesia, iron, 
 and traces of arsenic. (See Asphalt.) 
 
 Balsam. — This term is given to oleo resins which are soft at 
 ordinary temperatures, and are really a mixture of such a 
 resin and the essential oil of the plant from which they 
 exude, such as benzoin, tolu, etc. 
 
 Balsam of Storax. — Produced from the inner bark of a 
 tree of the genus Storax, in Asia Minor. Commercially it is 
 a soft, coarse, dark colored powder, or, more commonly, a 
 semi-fluid, adhesive substance, brown outside, greenish gray 
 
BALSAM OF SULPHUR— BITUMEN. 153 
 
 inside. The sweet gum of the southern United States is 
 alHed to the Eastern drug, and was formerly much used in 
 chewing gum. Used in general cements, being particularly- 
 good in leather cements; also for glass, stone, and earthen- 
 ware cements. 
 
 Balsam of Sulphur. — A solution of sulphur in boiling 
 volatile or olive oil. Used in certain rubber compounds as a 
 vulcanizing agent and a protection against blooming. 
 
 Beeswax is obtained from the comb built by honey bees. 
 The crude wax is yellow and soft, with a granular fracture. 
 Its specific gravity varies between .965 and .969, its melting 
 point being between 140° and 144° F. It is often adulterated 
 by water, by white mineral powders, and by cheaper sub- 
 stances, such as vegetable wax, paraffine, etc. White wax is 
 that which has been exposed to the sun or to the moderate 
 action of nitric or chromic acid, thereby being bleached. It is 
 sometimes used with rubber in medicinal plasters. Ordinary 
 beeswax is largely used in Kiel's hard rubber compounds. 
 Sheet beeswax is often used in the work of vulcanite pattern 
 making. It is also used in processes for making fabrics water- 
 repellent, the other ingredients being aluminum, resin, soap, 
 wax, and silicate of soda. With Gutta-percha it is an in- 
 gredient in shoemakers' wax, and also in certain proofing com- 
 pounds. Hancock used it in a Gutta-percha compound for a 
 soft effect. In a hard rubber compound made up of India- 
 rubber, sulphur, oil, and pumice stone, it is said to be acid 
 proof. 
 
 Birch-bark Tar. — A peculiar tar obtained during the dis- 
 tillation of birch-bark for oil, being probably the same as 
 Russian Jackten extract. Used in the manufacture of certain 
 rubber substitutes. 
 
 Bitumen. — The term applied to a body made up of several 
 hydrocarbons. It resembles Trinidad asphalt and is of the 
 same nature. Its specific gravity is from 1.073 to 1.160. Arti- 
 ficially it is prepared from shales, mineral asphalt, etc. It is 
 used as a source of paraffine. The West Indian product is 
 known as Chapapote. A solution is made from it in which 
 the tapes are soaked that are used for covering wire that has 
 
154 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 been insulated with India-rubber. Bitumen has been utilized 
 by what is known as the calender process, which is a partial 
 vulcanization, rendering it valuable as an insulator. 
 
 Black Pitch. — Is the residue left after the oils of tar have 
 been distilled from that body. Used in weather proofing 
 work. 
 
 British Gum. — See Dextrine. 
 
 Burgundy Pitch. — Is obtained from the hardened juice or 
 sap which concretes upon the bark of the Norway spruce. As 
 imported it is often quite impure and should be melted and 
 strained before being used. It is almost entirely soluble in glacial 
 acetic acid or boiling alcohol, and somewhat in cold alcohol. 
 When pure it is hard and brittle, with a shining fracture, 
 dissolves in benzine, acetone, and carbon disulphide. Is used 
 reddish or yellowish-brown, aromatic. It is much used in 
 cements, in electric tape, and in the manufacture of porous 
 plasters. Common resin is often melted and mixed with fats 
 and water, forming a gum that much resembles Burgundy 
 Pitch. 
 
 BuRMiTE Amber. — Found in Burma, but quite inferior in 
 quality. It is a little harder than amber proper, is easily cut, 
 takes an excellent polish, but has less variety of color. (See 
 Amber.) 
 
 Button Lac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Canada Balsam. — Sometimes called Canada Turpentine. It 
 is derived from the Ahies halsamea. It is a yellowish or greenish 
 transparent liquid, completely soluble in ether, chloroform, or 
 benzol. It is sometimes called Balsam of Fir, but it does not 
 really belong to the balsams, being a true turpentine. Stras- 
 burg turpentine is sometimes substituted for it commercially. 
 It is used in certain compounds to prevent sulphur from 
 efflorescing. With paraffine, beeswax, and coloring matters, 
 it is used for insulating colored yarns that are used for anun- 
 ciator and similar wires, and it was also used by Dtincan in 
 Gutta-percha cements for leather. 
 
 Candle Tar. — The residual products from the distillation of 
 animal fats, oils, etc., are known as candle tar. This product is 
 sometimes soft and ropy, and at other times quite hard. 
 
CASEIN— CHERRY GUM. 155 
 
 Mixed with sulphur, it is said to produce a compound having 
 some of the elasticity and other desirable qualities of vulcan- 
 ized India-rubber. 
 
 Casein (also called Caseum) is one of the chief constituents 
 of milk, being that part which forms the curd of sour milk, 
 and is familiar in the form of cheese. A similar substance, 
 prepared from peas, beans, lentils, and the like, is called 
 vegetable Casein. It is used in shower-proofing after a Ger- 
 man formula in connection with soda, lime, and acetate of 
 alumina; also, in cements of which Gutta-percha is the base, 
 for joining small particles of leather, shavings, etc. In Kittel's 
 compound Casein dried and powdered is mixed with linseed 
 oil. India-rubber or Gutta-percha is then added to the com- 
 pound. A sample compound is India-rubber 10 parts, Casein 
 20, superoxide of lead 10, sulphur 3, and linseed oil i. 
 
 Carnauba Wax is found in Brazil, where it forms as a 
 coating on the leaves of a certain palm (Corypha cerifera), and is 
 removed by pounding and shaking. It is very hard and is of a 
 greenish or grayish color. Its specific gravity is about 0.995, 
 it is odorless, and melts at 185° F. It dissolves completely in 
 boiling alcohol, and is used on insulated wire as a finish, and 
 in the manufacture of wax varnishes. 
 
 Carn Gum. — Used instead of ozocerite as a finish for tape 
 or braids that cover insulated wire. (See Carnauba Wax.) 
 
 Ceramyl. — A material used in the finishing process in the 
 manufacture of elastic web. Its use is to make the web 
 stronger, and in a measure to act as a size, causing it to lie 
 flat. It is also said to add strength to it. By the application 
 of heat, ceramyl, which comes in the form of a semi-solid, is 
 reduced to a liquid. In English practice this is said to have 
 driven out the use of glue in the dressing of elastic webs. 
 Ceramyl is manufactured in England. 
 
 Cerasin, also spelled Ceresine, is of a butter yellow color, 
 odorless, and has a specific gravity of .918 to .922. It is used 
 chiefly in covering annunciator wires where the object it to pre- 
 serve the colors of the yarns in the braiding. (See Ozocerite.) 
 
 Cherry Gum. — A pale yellow or red brown gum, coming 
 from the bark of old cherry trees. It contains 35 per cent, of 
 
156 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 cerasine, 52 parts of arabicum, and i to 3 per cent, of ash. This 
 gum is chiefly used in the manufacture and finishing of fine felt 
 hats. The gums on the market are of two quaUties, the German, 
 which is the best, and the ItaHan. It is used in insulating instead 
 of purified ozocerite, in certain cases where a little more adhesive- 
 ness is required. 
 
 Coalite Pitch. — A residue of Coalite tar, much like natural 
 bitumen and containing little free carbon. An English product. 
 
 Coal Tar. — See Tar. 
 
 CoLOPHANE. — See Rosin. 
 
 Colophony. — See Rosin. 
 
 CooRONGiTE. — ^The name given to a rubber-like mass found in 
 Coorong, South Australia. Some place it among the fossil resins. 
 Coorongite is not soluble in the ordinary solvents used in rubber 
 work, but, after mixing with India-rubber, it can be put in solu- 
 tion. According to Forster, it vulcanizes somewhat as India- 
 rubber does. (See Psuedo Rubbers.) 
 
 Dextrine is a sort of intermediate product between dextrose 
 and starch. It is soluble in cold water, and is much used as .1 
 substitute for gum arabic in mucilage, as it. has strong adhesive 
 properties. Cooley combined it with a little Gutta-percha, resin 
 oil, and earthy matters in the production of what he called arti- 
 ficial leather. It is used also in a mixture with plaster of paris, 
 making a tough surface mold for small experimental rubber work. 
 
 Dextrose is obtained from starch generally, and is crystal- 
 lized glucose. It is soluble in water, and has many commercial 
 uses. For example, it was used by Hancock as a sizing for cloth 
 on "which was spread rubber in solution, the Dextrose being there 
 in order to keep the rubber from sticking to the cloth. In other 
 words, this was a sort of cheap calendering process. 
 
 Earth Wax. — See Mineral Wax. 
 
 Elaterite is also known as elastic bitumen or mineral caout- 
 chouc. It appears naturally in soft, flexible masses of a brownish 
 black color somewhat resembling India-rubber. It is composed 
 of 85.5 per cent, of carbon, and 13.3 per cent, of hydrogen. In its 
 physical characteristics, Elaterite is found in infinite variety. It 
 is sometimes elastic and so soft as to adhere to the fingers, and 
 sometimes brittle and hard. One kind of it, when fresh cut, re- 
 
ELASTIC GLUE— GLUCOSE. 157 
 
 sembles fine cork, both in texture and color, and will rub out 
 pencil marks. Its elasticity is due to its cellular texture, and to 
 the moisture with which it combines. It is used to a certain extent 
 in insulating compounds, but is intractable and so far shows no 
 special features of value above other minerals of the same series. 
 A few years ago a company was formed in Colorado which 
 claimed to be able to make many kinds of rubber goods from this 
 product alone, but little has been heard of the plan of late. (See 
 Gilsonite.) 
 
 Elastic Glue is used with India-rubber and Gutta-percha 
 in shoemakers' cements. (See Substitutes.) 
 
 French Asphalte. — See Auvergne Bitumen. 
 
 FiCHTELiT. — Occurs in a peat bed near Redmitz in the Fich- 
 telgebirge in Germany, and also in fossil pines in the form of 
 scales or flat needles. It has also been met with in Franzenbad 
 and in Denmark. A hydrocarbon little known, though mentioned 
 in certain patented rubber compounds. 
 
 Fish Glue. — Made by boiling the heads, fins, and tails of 
 fish by high heat. It is generally made into a liquid glue by a 
 treatment with acetic or hydrochloric acid, whereby its property 
 of gelatinizing is lost. It would have a disagreeable odor were 
 it not for the fact that that is destroyed by adding cerosite or oil 
 of sassafras or something of that kind. Fish Glue is used in a 
 cement for cured rubber, in connection with Gutta-percha and 
 rubber dissolved in bisulphide of carbon. (See Glue.) 
 
 Garnet Lac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Gilsonite. — A hydrocarbon valued for its elasticity. One 
 of the purest of crude bitumens, it is mined in the Uncompahgre 
 Indian reservation, Utah, United States. It is a black, tarry-look- 
 ing substance of brilliant luster. It is used for varnish making, in 
 paints, and for insulation, either with or without rubber, one well- 
 known compound consisting of rubber, linseed oil, and Gilsonite. 
 
 Glucose. — The commercial form is prepared from starch 
 usually, as that is the cheapest raw material. The starch paste 
 being boiled with mineral acids, dextrose, maltose, and dextrine 
 are produced. Glucose in this country is made entirely of corn- 
 starch; in Europe, however, sago starch, rice, and potato starch 
 are used. It is neutral, and both odorless and colorless. It is 
 
158 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 really a kind of sugar that is with difficulty crystallizable, and it 
 is also called grape sugar. It occurs in commerce either as a thick, 
 sweet, heavy liquid, or as a white solid mass. It is used with rub- 
 ber, glue, sugar, whiting, and glycerine in making bookbinders' 
 cements, and in making puncture fluids for pneumatic tires. 
 
 Glue. — ^An impure form of gelatine obtained from the horns 
 hoofs, skins, and bones of animals. Glue of good quality should 
 be bright brown or brown yellow in color, free from specks, 
 glossy, perfectly clear, hard, and brittle, should not become damp 
 by exposure to the air, and should snap or break sharply when 
 being bent, the fracture showing a glassy, shining appearance. 
 Used in bookbinders' cements, in cheap frictions, and in cheap 
 horse-cover compounds with rubber. A size made of glue was 
 used by Brockedon to protect fabrics that come in contact with 
 the liquid used in cold curing. This was afterwards dissolved off 
 by an alkaline solution. 
 
 Glugloss Gelatine. — A gelatinous product used largely in 
 America in waterproofing fabrics. It is dissolved in hot water to 
 use, and makes an excellent waterproof sizing. A mixture of 
 glycerine with it increases its elasticity. It combines readily with 
 glue, dextrine, or any such products, and develops considerable 
 adhesiveness. 
 
 Gluten. — A vegetable substance obtained from wheat and 
 other grains. Treated with tannic acid, it is used as a substitute 
 for Gutta-percha under a formula by Johnson, who says the pro- 
 duct can be vulcanized. Another formula calls for its mixture 
 with oil and sulphur, as a substitute for Gutta-percha. In cements 
 it is the basis of one for uniting leather scraps, and is used with a 
 little Gutta-percha. 
 
 Gum Anime is a South American fossil resin similar to 
 copal. It occurs in small irregular pieces of a pale yellow color. 
 Has a high melting point, and its specific gravity is 1.028 to 1.072. 
 Mixed with rubber and earthy matters and dissolved in turpen- 
 tine, it formed one of the early compounds for clothing. 
 
 Gum Arabic is an exudation from a species of Acacia. It 
 is made up of clear or semi-transparent fragments, hard and 
 brittle, breaking with shining fracture. It is inodorous and feebly 
 sweetish to the taste. Its specific gravity is 1.3 1 to 1.52, for dried 
 
GUM AMMONIACUM— CAMPHOR. 159 
 
 gum. It comes from Africa and is known also as Acacia and 
 Gum Senegal. It dissolves in hot or cold water. It is used in 
 connection with plaster of paris in making a tougher surface 
 mold for small and experimental rubber work. Enough gum is 
 added to make the mixing solution about the thickness of a thin 
 syrup. It is largely used in cements. It is also used in certain 
 shower-proof compounds, and in paste blackings made of caout- 
 chouc oil, vinegar, molasses, and boneblack. 
 
 Gum Ammoniacum. — Exclusively obtained from Persia as 
 tears, or aggregated masses, of a peculiar smell and a taste 
 slightly sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid. Its specific gravity 
 is 1.207. Used in solutions for pressed leather cuttings and 
 fibrous wastes. Ten parts of this gum mixed with 20 or 25 parts 
 of Gutta-percha form a cement possessing both elasticity and 
 solidity, and is thoroughly waterproof, used for filling cracks 
 in horses' hoofs. Also used with Gutta-percha, boiled linseed oil, 
 and dry casein or caseum, for sticking together small particles of 
 any dry matter in the production of artificial leather. 
 
 Gum Benzoin. — Occurs in lumps of yellowish brown tears, 
 stuck together and more or less mottled from the white inside the 
 tears. Its specific gravity is from 1.063 to 1.092. Of an agree- 
 able balsamic odor and very little taste, but irritating when 
 chewed for some time. Used in linseed oil proofings, presumably 
 to kill odor; also in certain Gutta-percha and India-rubber com- 
 pounds for disguising the odors. Four per cent, of the weight of 
 the mass is said to be sufficient to make the odor an agreeable 
 one. According to Forster, a little of it mixed with Gutta-percha 
 greatly improves the quality. 
 
 Gum Asphaltum. — Refined natural bitumen, also called 
 litho-carbon. Is found in Texas and at one time was exploited as 
 a substitute for rubber. (See Litho-Carbon.) 
 
 Gum Camphor. — The white transparent substance known by 
 this name is obtained from Japan and the island of Formosa. It 
 is really an oxygenated essential oil. Its specific gravity is 0.985. 
 Sparingly soluble in water, and very soluble in alcohol, ether, 
 acetic acid, and hydrocarbons or volatile oils. Is largely used in 
 the manufacture of celluloid. Gum Camphor is also used in 
 
i6o GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 compounds of the substitute order like Textiloid, Kerite, etc. 
 Was also the basis of the Heevenoid compounds (which see). 
 
 Gum Copal. — Hard Copal is a fossil resin obtained from the 
 East Indies, South America, and the eastern and western coasts 
 of Africa, It occurs commercially in roundish, irregular pieces, 
 having a specific gravity of 1.045 to 1.139. It is insoluble in 
 alcohol, partially soluble in ether, and slightly so in oil of tur- 
 pentine. Soft Copal is obtained from living trees in New Zealand, 
 the Philippine Islands, Java, and Sumatra. Used with shellac, 
 asphaltum, and arsenate of potash for waterproofing leather ; also 
 in cements, in proofing compounds, and in varnishes in connec- 
 tion with India-rubber, lead, alum, and other ingredients dissolved 
 in spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Gum Dammar is derived from the Amboyna pine, growing 
 in the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. The resin exudes 
 in tears and is collected after it has dried. It makes a very trans- 
 parent varnish, the gum being soluble in benzine, essential oils, 
 and to a certain extent in alcohol. Used in artificial leather com- 
 pounds, and with rubber, asphalt, and fish oil for waterproofing 
 leather. It is quite largely used in rubber cements. 
 
 Gum Elemi comes from the Philippine Islands, and is a 
 rosin obtained from certain trees there. It varies from white to 
 gray in color, and is quite soft and very tough. Alcohol and 
 other solvents readily dissolve it, and its office usually is to give 
 toughness to varnishes in which are harder resins. Used in con- 
 nection with India-rubber and benzine in the production of 
 puncture fluids. (See Manila Gum.) 
 
 Gum Euphorbium appears in the market in the shape of 
 tears of irregular shape, varying in size from a small pea to i|- 
 inches in length. Of a dirty gray or yellowish color, and very 
 largely mixed with impurities. Must not be confused with Gum 
 Euphorbia (which see). 
 
 Gum Frankincense, — ^Also called Olibanum (which see). 
 
 Gum Gamboge. — The best is found in commerce in cylindri- 
 cal rolls of a dull orange red color. Another form is that of 
 lumps or cakes. Its powder is bright yellow and its taste very 
 acrid, but it has no smell. It is derived from a tree which is a 
 native of Cochin China and Siam, Is used chiefly as a pigment. 
 
GUMS LINI AND OLIBANUM. i6i 
 
 It is the basis of a general cement in which are also found rubber, 
 alum, and burnt sugar, and in another is used with rubber, white 
 lead, gum benzoin, alum, sugar, and sulphur, for cementing vul- 
 canized rubber. 
 
 Gum Lini. — A gum made from linseed, often used as a sub- 
 stitute for gum arable. The seeds are first boiled in water for an 
 hour, the resulting thick mass filtered, and then treated with twice 
 its volume of 90 per cent, spirits of wine. A flocculent white 
 precipitate separates, from which the dilute spirit can readily be 
 decanted. The gum is clear, gray brown, fragile, and dissolves 
 in water. Two grams in 30 grams of oil is almost identical with 
 an emulsion of gum arable. In connection with coloring matters 
 is the basis for the Knowlton patented waterproofing process. 
 
 Gum Tragacanth is an exudation which comes in the form 
 of translucent plates of a dull white, which water swells and partly 
 dissolves. It is often used in mucilage in place of gum arable. 
 The gum comes from the Levant from the Astragalus gummifera. 
 Has been used in connection with Gutta-percha for making dental 
 plates that are soft and adhesive to the membranes and that will 
 not rot or deteriorate. 
 
 Gum Lac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Gum Tragasol. — This is a gum produced from the kernels 
 of the Ceratonia siliqua. The use of this gum as a solvent for 
 India-rubber, Gutta-percha, or celluloid has been patented in 
 England. A mixture of 25 parts of dissolved India-rubber, 75 
 parts of strong gum solution, with the addition of i part of car- 
 bolic acid to 500 parts of the mixture, makes a cement for wood, 
 and a preservative paint against insects and vermin. 
 
 Gum Juniper is the gum known as Sandarac, obtained from 
 an evergreen growing in northern Africa. It occurs in small, 
 light-colored grains, with a slightly bitter taste. It is soluble in 
 turpentine oil and alcohol. Is used as an assistant in making 
 peroxide substitutes. Mixed with rubber and earthy matters and 
 dissolved in turpentine, it was one of the early compounds for 
 clothing. 
 
 Gum Olibanum. — The frankincense of the ancients, ob- 
 tained chiefly from Asia and Africa. It occurs in yellowish, 
 somewhat translucent tears, with a balsam-like resinous smell, 
 
i62 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 and an acrid aromatic taste. Sometimes called Gum Thus. It is 
 largely used in the manufacture of porous plasters. 
 
 Gum Thus. — A name for gum turpentine, and rarely for 
 olibanum. Used with rubber and Japan for waterproofing leather. 
 
 Gum Turpentine. — ^Turpentine hardened by exposure to 
 the air. (See Turpentine.) 
 
 Helen ITE. — Another name for fossil rubber or Elaterite 
 (which see). 
 
 Isinglass. — A substance prepared from the swimming blad- 
 ders of certain fish. It is white and glistening, occurring in fibers 
 or threads. The best is known as Russian, and comes from 
 Astrachan. Its specific gravity is 1.2. On boiling Isinglass it is 
 converted into a very pure form of glue. Isinglass is used in 
 quick drying cements with India-rubber, chloroform being the 
 solvent. 
 
 Idrialin (Idrialit). — A rare hydrocarbon found in Idria, a 
 province of Austria, where it occurs with hepatic cinnabar. A 
 similar body is obtained in the distillation of amber. Its specific 
 gravity is 1.4 to 1.6. Mentioned in certain rubber formulas to 
 assist the insulating qualities of compounds. 
 
 Kauri Gum. — An amber-like substance varying from a soft 
 cream white to an amber color. It comes from New Zealand, and 
 is also known as Australian dammar. The lighter colored Kauri 
 comes from living trees, but much of the darker is a fossil resin. 
 It is cheaper than copal and largely used in varnishes. Kauri 
 Gum, in connection with rubber gum and pitch, is used for treat- 
 ing yams used in insulated wire coverings. Parkes added it to 
 rubber goods where the surface was to be printed upon after cur- 
 ing. One pound of Kauri, 8 pounds of Gutta-percha, and i pound 
 of milk of sulphur formed Richard's covering for insulated wire. 
 
 Lac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Litho-Carbon. — A kind of asphalt large deposits of which 
 are found in the State of Texas. It was at one time thought that 
 it would supersede India-rubber, and a company was formed with 
 the idea of manufacturing goods from it. This was in 1892, and 
 India-rubber is still used. The chemical composition of Litho- 
 Carbon is 88.23 carbon, 11.59 hydrogen, .06 oxygen, a trace of 
 sulphur. Litho-Carbon is jet black in color, is flexible at ordinary 
 
MAN JACK— MINERAL TALLOW. 163 
 
 temperatures, and is quite tough. Its specific gravity is about 
 1.028. It is said to be soluble in naphtha, benzol, bisulphide of 
 carbon, etc. It will stand a temperature of 600° F., without giv- 
 ing off its associate products. It resists alkalies and acids, with 
 the exception of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids. Its man- 
 ufacture was patented. Used with Gutta-percha and shellac it 
 makes an excellent insulator. 
 
 Manila Gum. — See Gum Elemi. 
 
 Manjack. — A kind of asphaltum of which there are exten- 
 sive deposits in Trinidad, West Indies. Used chiefly in varnishes. 
 
 Mastic. — A resin from the shores of the Mediterranean. It 
 occurs in tears of a pale yellow, is brittle, and of a faint balsamic 
 odor. It dissolves in acetone, turpentine oil, and alcohol, and is 
 largely used in varnish. The residue obtained in the purifying 
 of mineral asphalt is also called Mastic. It is used in general rub- 
 ber cements for joining stoneware, earthenware, leather, etc. One 
 of special value calls for 10 parts of Mastic to i part of India- 
 rubber, dissolved in chloroform, and makes an excellent cement 
 for fastening letters to glass. The gum also appears in many old 
 fashioned compounds. 
 
 Menthol is obtained from the oil of peppermint coming 
 from Japan and China, or from the oil of spearmint manufactured 
 in the United States. Its melting point is about 108° to 110° F., 
 and it is slightly soluble in water, but freely in alcohol. It is often 
 tised in medicinal plasters which have rubber for a base. 
 
 Mineral India-rubber Asphalt is the name of a material 
 composed of refuse tar produced during the refining process of 
 tar by sulphuric acid. It is black, like ordinary asphalt, and quite 
 elastic. It is an excellent non-conductor of electricity, and is not 
 assailed by acids or alkalies. In a naphtha solution, it yields a 
 waterproof varnish for metallic objects, and is used in rubber 
 ■compounding in place of asphalt. 
 
 Mineral Tallow^ also called Hatchetine, is a substance 
 found in Siberia, Germany, and Great Britain. It is an earth wax 
 that is soft, flexible, and runs from yellow to yellowish white. 
 It has no smell, and melts at from 115° to 170° F, It is com- 
 posed of 14 parts hydrogen and 86 carbon. Mineral Tallow is 
 used sometimes in place of earth waxes in insulated wire work. 
 
i64 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 and has been used in paste blackings in connection with India- 
 rubber, 
 
 Mineral Wax. — A term appHed to several waxy-looking 
 hydrocarbons found as mineral deposits, such as neft gil (naph- 
 tadil), ozocerite, and earth wax. It is found in Austria, and in 
 the southern part of Russia, on the shores of the Caspian Sea. In 
 the United States it occurs largely in Texas and Utah. Used 
 chiefly in insulating compounds. (See Ozocerite.) 
 
 Myrrh exudes from the bark of a tree which grows in Ara- 
 bia, in yellow drops that are quite oily at first, but which thicken 
 and become hard and of a dark color. It appears in commerce in 
 either grains, or tears, or in pieces of various sizes and irregular 
 form, the color being red, reddish brown, or yellow. Its taste 
 is bitter and aromatic, and its smell balsamic. The best gum is 
 known as Turkey Myrrh. It is used with rubber, sulphur, and 
 salycilic acid in complexion masks. 
 
 Natural Pitch is the name given to such kinds of pitch as 
 are not manufactured, such as asphalt, bitumen, etc, — that is, 
 pitch of a mineral origin, except that from coal or shale. (See 
 Asphalt.) 
 
 Oleo Resins. — A resin that contains a certain amount of the 
 essential oil of the plant from which it exudes is so called. Qiief 
 among the Oleo Resins are certain which have a pungent taste 
 and a peculiar, and often a pleasant odor, known as balsams. 
 
 Ozocerite. — A waxy hydrocarbon occurring in Austria, 
 southern Russia, and the United States. It is also known as earth 
 wax. Its specific gravity is 0.9 to 0.95, and it is about as hard as 
 talc. Chemically, it consists of hydrogen 13.75 and carbon 86.25, 
 while its melting point extends from 140° to 170° F. It is often 
 found adulterated with asphalt and sometimes with Burgundy 
 pitch. Purified Ozocerite is known as ceresine. To make this, 
 the crude material is treated with fuming sulphuric acid, and then 
 filtered through charcoal. Thus prepared it is of a pale yellow 
 color, the melting point ranging from 61° to 78° C. It has almost 
 wholly driven out Stockholm tar as a protection for wires insu- 
 lated with Gutta-percha, when placed under ground. It improves 
 the insulation, but in spite of common belief to the contrary, does 
 not preserve textile fabrics. The best compound for the protec- 
 
OZOCERINE—PARAFFINE. 165 
 
 tion of the insulation on wire consists of 3 parts of Ozocerite to 
 I part of Stockholm tar. It is an insulator of high quality, and 
 while it is in some ways intractable, its wax-like nature allows it 
 to combine with other insulators or with textiles. It is also used 
 as a water-repellent in fabrics, the gum being volatilized by heat, 
 and the fumes passed through the cloth. As a surface covering 
 for tapes or braid, it is often employed and is better than other 
 gums, as it takes a fine polish from the polishing machine. The 
 basis of Henley's system of curing India-rubber core is melted 
 Ozocerite, which is used under pressure to remove all the moist- 
 ure, being afterward heated in hot Ozocerite, which stops up the 
 pores. Ozocerite, mixed with India-rubber, is also the basis of 
 the India-rubber compound called nigrite. It mixes, however, 
 with difficulty with India-rubber, which is an objection to many 
 proposed uses of it. It also has a mildly deleterious effect on it. 
 
 OzocERiNE is a vaseline-like substance prepared from ozocer- 
 ite. There is also prepared from crude ozocerite a valuable black 
 wax which, when fused with India-rubber, makes an excellent 
 electric insulating material. This wax was recognized by a lec- 
 turer before the Society of Chemical Industry as the basis of the 
 insulation known as Okonite. 
 
 Paraffine. — A white waxy-looking body obtained from Pe- 
 troleum and certain tars by distillation. It is tasteless, inodorous, 
 harder than tallow, but softer than wax. Its specific gravity is .877. 
 It is also obtained from ozocerite or earth wax. Its melting point 
 varies with the source it is obtained from. It is insoluble in water 
 and nearly so in boiling alcohol, but soluble in ether, oil of tur- 
 pentine, oil of olives, benzol, and bisulphide of carbon. It is 
 usually very free from water, and not liable to absorb it. It has 
 been used as a waterproofing mixture and is a good insulator. A 
 very widely difiFused bit of newspaper advice has been that to pre- 
 serve rubber goods they should be dipped in a bath of melted 
 Paraffine and dried then in a hot room. It has not been proved 
 to be of any advantage, however. Experts in the rubber trade 
 claim that such a course would seriously injure the elasticity and 
 life of the rubber. When gossamer clothing was manufactured 
 in large quantities, the surface of the goods before solarization 
 was covered with a thin coat of Paraffine, which gave it a peculiar 
 
i66 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 shade until the solarization was completed, when all traces of the 
 Paraffine seemed to disappear. The insulating capacity of rubber 
 to which Paraffine has been added is quite remarkable, but at the 
 same time it lessens the hardness of the rubber to a marked degree. 
 Rubber dissolved in Paraffine wax forms a curious compound 
 which has been used in insulation. Paraffine is used in the arti- 
 ficial gums like Parkesine and insulite; also with cottonseed oil 
 and resin for cheap Brattice cloth, and in cheap proofing com- 
 pounds. It is not a great favorite as an insulator, as it shrinks 
 in cooling, causing cracks. Paraffine tapes are also easily de- 
 stroyed through the presence of free acid. It was formerly used 
 largely in covering annunciator wires, but as it was found to 
 absorb and retain water, its use was given up, and its place taken 
 by a compound of Paraffine, ceresin, and resin. 
 
 Pitch is the black residue that remains after the distilling 
 of wood tar. Varieties are also obtained from coal tar and from 
 bone tar. Wood pitch, however, has a toughness which the others 
 do not possess. Pitch was used very early in considerable quan- 
 tities in hard-rubber compounds. Goodyear, for example, used 
 considerable of it in hard compounds for coating metal, the rest 
 of the compound consisting chiefly of rubber and sulphur. It is 
 almost the only organic substance which largely increases the 
 resiliency of India-rubber. It is largely used in cements, and also 
 in many rubber compounds. Equal parts of pitch and Gutta- 
 percha make a tire cement for fastening to the rims, known as 
 "Davy's Universal Cement." It is used with Gutta-percha in 
 shoemakers' wax, and also in certain proofing compounds. Wood 
 cements made of Gutta-percha as a rule contain a certain amount 
 of Pitch. It is also used in the manufacture of Fenton's artificial 
 rubber. 
 
 Resins. — The term given to a number of complex bodies, 
 generally the hardened exudation of sap from trees. Chemically 
 a resin is the substance obtained by the gradual oxidation of an 
 essential oil. The specific gravity ranges between 1,02 and 1.2. 
 Resins are divided, as a rule, into three classes — hard, soft and 
 gum resins. The former at ordinary temperatures are solid and 
 quite brittle. They contain little or no essential oil, and are easily 
 pulverized. Shellac and sandarac are good examples of this kind, 
 
RETINITE— ROSIN. 167 
 
 and soft resins are usually called balsams, and are either semi- 
 fluid, or soft enough to be molded by hand. They are really mix- 
 tures of hard resins, and the essential oils found in the plant from 
 which they come. On exposure to the air they become in time 
 hard resins. Of this class are balsam of storax, tolu balsam, etc. 
 Gum resins are the solidified milky juices of certain plants. They 
 consist of a mixture of resins, essential oils, and a considerable 
 proportion of gum. These are, for example, gum euphorbium, 
 galbanum, and to this class also belong India-rubber and Gutta- 
 percha. Most of the fossil gums, such as copal, are resins whose 
 physical characteristics have been changed by their having been 
 buried for a long time in the earth. These fossil resins are coun- 
 terfeited to an extent by treating ordinary resin with lime, which 
 raises its melting point considerably. 
 
 Retinite. — Also known as Retin Asphalt. It is a fossil resin 
 found in brown coal. It is found in roundish masses of a yellow 
 brown or reddish color, is quite inflammable and readily dissolves 
 in alcohol. At present it is somewhat rare, but if it ever should 
 become common, it would undoubtedly find a place in rubber 
 compounding. Its specific gravity is 1.07 to 1.35. 
 
 Rosin is made from common turpentine, which is distilled 
 in water, yielding nearly one-fourth its weight of essential oil, 
 the residue in the retort consisting of common rosin. Rosin is 
 also very generally called colophony, its true chemical name 
 distinguishing it from other resins. There are two varieties 
 of rosin in common use, the brown and the white. The 
 first named is brittle, solid, and of an amber color, and comes 
 from the Norway spruce fir. The white rosin is obtained from 
 the pine and is known as galipot. Rosin dissolves very 
 freely in alkaline solutions, which allows of its use in soaps. Its 
 specific gravity is 1.08. There are three grades commonly on 
 the market, which are called virgin, yellow dip, and hard. It is 
 used in a great variety of rubber compounds, its chief uses being 
 in frictions, dry heat varnishes, cements, and the puncture fluids. 
 Almost all lines of rubber manufacture use a certain amount of it 
 at times. Only a small proportion of it can be used in rubber 
 compounding, its office being usually that of the sticker. A large 
 amount of it induces surface cracking, and often a decided bloom- 
 
i68 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 ing of the sulphur. It is also used in waterproof solutions in con- 
 junction with spermaceti, India-rubber, and paraffine wax. Mixed 
 with boiling oil, it has been applied to Gutta-percha articles to give 
 them a Japan-like luster, and is also important in Gutta-percha 
 glue, which is compounded of Gutta-percha, powdered glass, lith- 
 arge, and Rosin. A very large use for it is in the rubber channel 
 cements that are sold to leather shoe manufacturers. 
 
 Sandarac. — Also known as Gum Juniper (which see). 
 
 Seedlac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Shellac, Sticklac, Seedlac, Gumlac. — All these are dif- 
 ferent names for the same thing or different stages of its prepara- 
 tion. It is the exudation formed on several sorts of trees growing 
 in the East Indies, but is chiefly produced from the banyan tree, 
 the exudation coming from a scale shaped insect known as the 
 Coccus lacca, the female fixing herself to the bark and exuding 
 the resinous substance from her body. In addition to the East 
 Indian product there is what is known as Mexican lac, which ex- 
 udes from the Croton draco. Sticklac is the resin as taken from 
 the tree. Seedlac consist of fragments broken from the twigs and 
 partly exhausted by water. Shellac is prepared by melting Stick 
 or Seedlac, straining, and pouring upon a flat surface to harden. 
 It is. then washed, dried, melted, roughly refined, and sent to mar- 
 ket, or it is poured into molds to harden and is known as Button 
 or Garnet lac. The specific gravity of Lac is about 1.139. It is 
 partially soluble in alcohol, turpentine, chloroform, and ether, and 
 is completely soluble in caustic alkalies and borax solutions. Shel- 
 lac was formerly used very generally in rubber manufacture in 
 surface goods, and particularly in solarized goods in small pro- 
 portions. It has a specific use to-day in the production of water 
 varnishes for surface goods. It is also a constituent in the pro- 
 duction of certain compounds in hard rubber, and particularly 
 the semi-hard varieties, being used to the extent of 20 per cent, 
 of the amount of gum. Although quite brittle, it seems to impart 
 a certain elasticity to the product. The maximum use of Shellac 
 in a hard-rubber compound, according to Hoffer, is 88 parts India- 
 rubber, 50 parts Shellac, and 12 parts sulphur. It is also used 
 in certain of the Jenkins patented packings to the extent of 10 to 
 25 per cent, of the amount of rubber, where it is said to preserve 
 
SIZE—STEARINE. 169 
 
 the compound from the effects of coal oil, steam, or hot water. 
 It is also used in many cements both with and without India- 
 rubber, one formula for marine glue being: 20 parts shellac, 12 
 parts benzol, and i part India-rubber mixed with heat. Dis- 
 solved in 10 parts of strong aqua-ammonia, it forms a varnish 
 for rubber goods, and is also used as a solution for re-varnishing 
 old rubber shoes. Used with carburet of iron and bisulphide of 
 mercury as a cement for card clothing, with India-rubber and 
 Gutta-percha for attaching shoes to horses, in English "ale 
 cement," and in certain proofing compounds. 
 
 Size. — A weak solution of glue, sometimes used in shower- 
 proof compounds and cements. The name Size is also often 
 applied to any thin viscous substance, as for instance, gilders' var- 
 nish. In rubber practice, however, the glue Size is what is 
 ordinarily employed. It is also used in perparing a perfectly 
 smooth cloth upon which rubber is to be calendered, and from 
 which it is stripped before the making up. (See Glue and 
 Gelatine.) 
 
 Spruce Gum is used with chicle in the production of chew- 
 ing gums. Melted spruce gum or rosin is known as Burgundy 
 pitch (which see). 
 
 Stearine. — A white waxy-looking body obtained from fata 
 — chiefly tallow and palm oil. When made from tallow it is 
 called pressed tallow or tallow Stearine, which is the solid part 
 obtained from the heating of suet fat and the removal of the 
 liquid part which is oleomargarine. Tallow Stearine is very 
 largely used in candle making, where is found saponified Stearine, 
 distilled Stearine, and distilled grease Stearine. This latter con- 
 tains considerable cholestrol and differs from commercial stearic 
 acid or Stearine chiefly in its physical structure. Stearine is used 
 in proofing compounds, in rubber blackings and in compounds 
 containing resins. It has been suggested that a small proportion 
 of Stearine in certain rubber compounds that contain low grades 
 of rubber which in themselves have large proportions of resin, 
 has a decided value in preventing oxidization. 
 
 Stearine Pitch. — The brown tarry residue left in the still 
 during the process of refining tallow and fat. Used in the manu- 
 facture of certain packings that contain no rubber. Stearine 
 
170 GUMS AND BALSAMS. 
 
 Pitch is also used as a lubricant for bearings that have a ten- 
 dency to heat. 
 
 Stick Lac. — See Shellac. 
 
 Stockholm Tar is used in black cements of the marine glue 
 class, and is also used in rubber compounding, its office being to 
 assist in the mixing of dry compounds, and as a binding material 
 for sulphur in the dry heat cure. Also used in manganese 
 cements and in cements to fasten tiles to floors. (See Tar.) 
 
 Spermaceti. — A peculiar fatty concrete substance obtained 
 from the head of the sperm whale. Its specific gravity is 0.943, 
 and it is fusible at 112° F. Insoluble in water, soluble in hot 
 alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but redeposited as the liquids 
 cool. Was formerly used in certain waterproofing compositions. 
 
 Sludge Oil Resin. — A heavy gummy residue from the 
 waste of superphosphate factories. Has been used with rubber 
 in making Japan varnishes. 
 
 Tar. — This substance is derived from the animal, vegetable, 
 and mineral kingdoms. From the first, by the destructive distil- 
 lation of bones, is produced what is known as "Dippel's oil"; 
 from the second, by the distillation of pine woods, the product is 
 known as pine tar or Stockholm tar ; and from the third, by the 
 distillation of coal, is produced coal tar. Of the three, coal tar 
 is the most used in rubber work, its office being to help carry 
 adulterants in dry mixing and to keep the sulphur from blooming 
 after vulcanization. It is used chiefly in dry heat work. Good- 
 year discovered early that very large quantities of boiled tar 
 could be used in connection with India-rubber and sulphur with- 
 out injuring the quality of the gum, and it has been very generally 
 used since his time. 
 
 Trinidad Asphalt is obtained from the pitch lakes of the 
 island of Trinidad. Its specific gravity is 1.2, and it is somewhat 
 soluble in alcohol, while Persian naphtha, oil of turpentine, benzol, 
 and benzoline readily dissolve it. (See Asphalt.) 
 
 ToLU Balsam is derived from a tree found on the mountains 
 of Tolu, and the banks of the Magdalena river, in Colombia. It 
 is very similar to balsam of Peru. It sometimes appears in com- 
 merce in dry friable fragments, the newly imported gum being 
 soft and tenacious. It has a very fragrant odor, and a medicinal 
 
VEGETABLE PITCH— XYLOIDIN. 171 
 
 and tonic effect. Tolu Balsam is used with paraffine wax and 
 chicle in chewing gum compounds. 
 
 Turpentine. — This is a semi-solid resin, which comes from 
 various species of pine as a rule. The chief commercial varieties 
 are common Turpentine, which comes from the Pinus palustris; 
 Venice Turpentine, from the larch; Bordeaux Turpentine, from 
 the Pinus maritima, and Qiina Turpentine, from the Pistacia 
 lentiscus. Of these the Venice Turpentine is said to be the best. 
 It is of a pale yellow color, transparent, has a bitter taste, but a 
 balsamic odor. Used instead of rosin in many compounds. 
 
 Vegetable Pitch. — The residue left after distilling the tar 
 made from wood of various trees. Called vegetable to distin- 
 guish it from the mineral pitch which is derived from coal. (See 
 Pitch.) 
 
 Xanthorrhoea Gum is somewhat similar to shellac, is 
 abundantly produced in the Australian colonies, and sometimes 
 used in the compounding of ebonite. Xanthorrhoea Gum is also 
 sometimes known as gum acaroides, and is produced from the 
 Australian grass tree. 
 
 Xyloidin. — An artificial gum much resembling pyroxylin 
 obtained by the action of nitric acid on starch. 
 
 Xylonite. — See Zylonite. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PIGMENTS AND PROCESSES USED IN COLORING INDIA-RUBBER. 
 
 Most of the India-rubber goods now manufactured are 
 black, this color, if it may be so called, being produced in a 
 measure by the color of the rubber, together with the leads and 
 other ingredients, most of which darken during vulcanization. 
 The next prominent color, from a rubber standpoint, is white, 
 produced by either an oxide or sulphide of zinc. Next to this 
 range the yellows and reds, produced by the use of sulphide of 
 antimony and vermilion. 
 
 So many colors are unstable when brought in contact with 
 sulphur during the heat of vulcanization, and it is so difficult to 
 get good effects, that it is hardly to be expected that beautiful 
 colors in India-rubber will ever become common. There are 
 various methods used for changing the natural color of India- 
 rubber. The usual way is by incorporating, by mechanical mix- 
 ture, earthy pigments or metallic oxides or sulphides, or vegetable 
 coloring matters, which, by their covering property and strength, 
 give to the India-rubber their own particular shade. There are 
 other methods, however. For example, there have been produced 
 anilines soluble in benzine, that are used for surface work, such 
 coloring being really an elastic enamel. Toys and minor articles 
 that are ornamented in very bright colors, however, are generally 
 painted over after vulcanization, but paint is not durable, nor 
 does it long remain beautiful. 
 
 While it is claimed ordinarily that it is impossible to dye 
 India-rubber, it should be remembered that the attractive colors 
 that appear on childrens' toy balloons and similar pure gum goods 
 are applied as dyes, the colors being anilines, with methylic alco- 
 hol as a base. These colors are boiled in rainwater, and when the 
 solution is cold the balloons are put into the coloring liquid and 
 turned so as to have their entire surface wetted. After that, they 
 are dropped into cold water, which washes off the superfluous 
 color. When this is done properly, the rubber does not give off 
 any stain at all after the first washing. The colors used in this 
 
 172 
 
ANILINE COLORS. 173 
 
 way are red, green, blue, orange, and pink, but other shades are 
 equally available. 
 
 In Germany a full line of aniline colors soluble in benzine 
 is now manufactured, and for surface coloring of rubber goods 
 they have been found very valuable. Although they are not abso- 
 lutely fast, they are sufficiently so for all practical purposes. In 
 many cases, these aniline colors, being soluble in benzine, can be 
 mixed right with the India-rubber — that is, when it is used in the 
 form of solution. If the product be cured in open steam heat with 
 sulphur, some very curious effects are likely to be obtained. This 
 was proved at one time when a line of rubber colors was put 
 on the market in the United States, with white oxide of antimony 
 as a base, and anilines to give various shades. It does not often 
 happen, however, that a problem of this kind confronts the users 
 of aniline colors in rubber, the more general and sensible way 
 being that of surface coloring. This is done in some cases by 
 simply brushing the aniline color dissolved in benzine over the 
 surface of the article. It is desirable, however, first to dip the 
 goods in the dissolved mordant, and then to use the brush, if 
 necessary. Where a high polish or a polished effect is desired, 
 some sort of elastic lacquer must be put on over the coloring mat- 
 ter. A very thin India-rubber solution is often used for this. 
 
 In speaking of anilines, it must be remembered that those 
 that have to be worked up with acids should be avoided for rub- 
 ber work, but there are so many others that there is no need of 
 the rubber man making this mistake. Where colors are to be 
 printed upon rubber surfaces, a little dextrine is added to the ani- 
 line dissolved in benzine, and to make the color dry faster, a little 
 sulphate of manganese mixed with half of i per cent, of alum and 
 added to the mass is advisable. 
 
 Black, blue, red, yellow, and green anilines are also used in 
 coloring rubber cements that go to the leather shoe trade. These 
 and other anilines are also used very generally in artificial leather 
 compounds. Aniline, black, is used in water varnishes for luster 
 coats and blankets. 
 
 It is also a good idea to sponge the rubber surface with a 
 water solution of alum before the color is applied. The use of 
 alum as a mordant may be supplanted by bisulphate of soda, if it 
 
174 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 is desired. The best colors available in the aniline series are reds, 
 particularly magenta reds, and the marine and alkali blues. 
 
 A great many methods of surface coloring have been devised, 
 some of them being ludicrous attempts at dyeing rubber. The 
 surface of rubber is, of course, not easily affected by colors, 
 unless it has first been attacked and roughened by some powerful 
 solvent. Malcolm's process for this surface coloring is perhaps 
 as harmless as any. This method is to expose the rubber to the 
 sunlight while it is immersed in alcohol. When the surface is 
 somewhat disintegrated, the rubber is taken out, washed, and 
 dipped in a dye solution. 
 
 The colors that follow are described very briefly, and most 
 of them are such that any rubber manufacturer can easily secure 
 them for use or for experiment. 
 
 WHITE. 
 
 Only a few colors are available for use in making white 
 rubber goods. Of these, the zincs take the lead, being by far the 
 most constant and valuable. They lend their color to the mass 
 simply by their presence as dry paints with strong coloring 
 qualities. 
 
 Barium White. — This is also called constant white, and 
 comes from the sulphate of barium or heavy spar. In treatment, 
 it is ground very fine, treated with hot hydrochloric acid, washed, 
 dried, sifted, and then forms a fairly white, dense, impalpable 
 powder. The pure article, obtained by precipitation, is a brilliant 
 white, and is often used in rubber compounding. It is one of the 
 few metallic colors that the German anti-poison act allows manu- 
 facturers to use in any way they please. (See Barytes.) 
 
 Beckton White. — See Lithophone. 
 
 Borate of Zinc. — A zinc salt, precipitated by 20 to 30 per 
 cent, of a soluble borate, the result being a white powder, which is 
 claimed to have a distinctively preservative influence when used in 
 rubber, while the tensile strength of the gum is much enhanced. 
 
 BouGiVAL White was a fairly common white pigment, 
 although it has been replaced by barytes, terra alba, and whiting. 
 Bougival White is a white, marly, china clay found at Bougival, 
 near Marly, in France. The district surrounding Bougival and 
 
WHITES. 175 
 
 also Normandy and Auvergne contain many beds of white clays, 
 notable for their smooth qualities of good color. Roughly Bougi- 
 val White contains 33 per cent, chalk (carbonate of lime) and 67 
 per cent, kaolin (hydrated silicate of aluminium). 
 
 Calamine White. — This is prepared from the native car- 
 bonate of zinc, by calcining and grinding. It is not a strong 
 white, and is not nearly as good as the oxide or carbonate of zinc 
 as a coloring matter. For a cheap white, and a filler, however, 
 it is useful. Although the German anti-poison act of 1887 pro- 
 hibits the use of zinc as a coloring matter, it does not apply to its 
 ordinary use in rubber compounding. They rule that zinc com- 
 pounds not soluble in water may be used in rubber when and 
 where the coloring matter is mixed in the mass before vulcan- 
 izing, or as a color laver on the surface if it is covered with a 
 lacquer varnish. 
 
 Carbonate of Zinc. — This is a form of zinc rarely known 
 to-day in rubber mills. The first white rubber, however, was 
 made of it under a patent granted to that eminent rubber manu- 
 facturer, the late Henry G. Tyer. It is a white powder, and is 
 made by mixing a solution of equal quantities of sulphate of zinc 
 and carbonate of sodium, and subsequently the boiling of the 
 white precipitate formed for a short time. 
 
 Charlton White. — See Lithophone. 
 
 Fard's Spanish White.: — Also known as Pearl White. A 
 tri-nitrate of bismuth, and a white that, it is said, has a future in 
 rubber compounding. It is not easily affected by atmospheric 
 influences, or by the action of sulphurous compounds. 
 
 Fulton White. — See Lithophone. 
 
 Griffith's White is a sulphide of zinc of English manu- 
 facture, prepared by precipitation, and containing a certain pro- 
 portion of magnesia, 
 
 Kremnitz White was the name of a somewhat indefinite 
 white. In some cases it was applied to white lead, but in others 
 was given to bismuth white (oxide of bismuth) and often to 
 white oxide of tin. 
 
 Lithophone (also Lithopone). — A white pigment made by 
 precipitating sulphate of zinc with barium sulphide. The barium 
 sulphide is made from the native barites by heating with charcoal, 
 
176 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 which reduces the sulphate to sulphide and polysulphide, which 
 are soluble in water. The zinc sulphate is made by roasting zinc 
 blende or the ore "black jack" under oxidizing conditions, which 
 forms soluble sulphate of zinc. Both substances are dissolved in 
 water, which purifies them from many impurities, and the two 
 solutions mixed, when zinc sulphide and barium sulphate both 
 precipitate out as fine powder mixed with free sulphur from the 
 polysulphide. The powder is dried and roasted, which drives off 
 free sulphur and produces some free zinc oxide. Gives a fine 
 white; but may turn gray on long exposure to light. This 
 defect not so bad for rubber as for painting. It is a constant 
 white, and is largely used instead of oxide of zinc for white 
 goods, particularly in the manufacture of druggists' and surgical 
 sundries. The commercial article contains 70 per cent, of Barium 
 sulphate and 30 per cent, sulphide of zinc. Its specific gravity is 
 3.6 to 4.1. 
 
 MouDAN White or Morat White. — This white came from 
 the Pays de Vaud in Switzerland, Moudan and Morat being two 
 towns in that district. It was a fine white clay with a silky 
 luster and a fine grain. They resembled Spanish white and were 
 often used in place of it. 
 
 Oleum White. — A high grade of sulphide of zinc, in which 
 is a certain proportion of blanc fixe. It is a trifle heavier than a 
 pure sulphide of zinc, but in practice has been found to be equal to 
 if not better than either the sulphide or oxide of zinc in the manu- 
 facture of certain white rubbers. 
 
 Orr's White. — See Lithophone. 
 
 Oxide of Zinc is used more than any other coloring matter 
 in the production of white rubber. It is especially valuable be- 
 cause during the process of vulcanization it increases the white- 
 ness of the goods. This is because the part of the zinc oxide that 
 is turned into the zinc sulphide is a stronger white than the first. 
 Oxide of Zinc made of pure spelter is the best. Where lead and 
 zinc ores are found together it sometimes happens that the oxide 
 contains a certain amount of lead, and then its value as a coloring 
 matter is injured. It is prepared by two processes, an air blast, 
 and a steam current ; in other words, by a dry and a wet process. 
 That prepared by the wet process, even when strongly heated. 
 
WHITES. 177 
 
 contains more water than does that produced by the dry process. 
 The specific gravity of zinc oxide is 5.61. A certain percentage 
 of this oxide is often added to dark colored goods to increase the 
 resiliency of the rubber. It also increases the hardness of a 
 compound where soft gums are used. Manufacturers of insu- 
 lated wire find that it increases the insulating qualities of rubber 
 when added in moderate quantity. 
 
 A very simple test for zinc oxide is as follows : Put a small 
 quantity in a test tube or vial and add diluted muriatic acid 
 (such as can be obtained in any drug store) ; agitate to dissolve 
 all lumps, and if it be commercially pure oxide of zinc, no residue 
 will remain. The only adulterant likely to be found which would 
 not leave a sediment would effervesce violently. Should the 
 addition of acid to the pigment produce sulphureted hydrogen, 
 the odor of which is unmistakable, no doubt would exist that the 
 sample is not oxide of zinc and probably a much cheaper pig- 
 ment. There are many pigments on the market called zinc and 
 containing some zinc in various forms, which have their uses, but 
 should not be confused with straight oxide of zinc. 
 
 Ross's White. — See Lithophone. 
 
 Rouen White was a marly clay found near Rouen in 
 France, prepared for use by levigation. In most respects it 
 resembles Bougival white. 
 
 Spanish White is a name often now given to a good quality 
 of whiting, but originally given to a good kaolin clay prepared 
 for sale by first levigation, then treatment with vinegar, which 
 separated out any calcium carbonate it contained, then washing 
 well and drying. 
 
 Sulphide of Zinc. — This is a white that is fully equal to the 
 popular oxide, and does not alter its tint under the influence of 
 sulphur and heat. It is said to exert a distinctly preservative 
 action upon India-rubber. Sulphide of zinc, pure and in combina- 
 tion with other materials, and under various names, has been sold 
 very largely to rubber manufacturers. It is deemed especially 
 valuable in white goods cured with dry heat. It is used in high 
 grade white stocks, and even in pink dental rubber. It also assists 
 in the vulcanization of rubber. 
 
 Troye's White is a carbonate of lime, and, therefore, was 
 
178 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 in all respects like the modern whiting. It was a very common 
 pigment at one time and much used for a variety of purposes. 
 Zinc White. — See Oxide of Zinc. 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 There are more methods of getting black rubbers than 
 almost any other color, as the tendency of the gum itself is to 
 darken under heat and the action of sulphur, and the sulphides of 
 most materials that are used in the compounding have the same 
 effect. Most rubber goods are made up without regard to 
 color, and are usually a dirty brownish-black, tempered by the yel- 
 low of the sulphur bloom. Where a genuine black is wanted, 
 however, some of the vegetable blacks or perhaps certain of the 
 leads are employed. Lampblack is one of the most common in- 
 gredients used. 
 
 Lampblack. — Pure Lampblack is pure carbon, as indeed is 
 the diamond. Lampblack, however, is carbon in its amorphous 
 or spongy form, while the diamond is crystalline. It is obtained 
 on a large scale by collecting the smoke produced during the 
 combustion of oils, fats, resins, coal, gas, tar, wood tar, petroleum 
 residues, dead oil, and even bituminous coal. This accounts for 
 the various grades that are to be found on the market. Large 
 quantities of Lampblack have also been manufactured from 
 natural gas. There are many types of Lampblack, the best in 
 the world being employed in the preparation of Indian ink. This 
 is made from burning camphor, a lower grade being made from 
 the mixture of camphor and other oils. The smoke is collected 
 on leaves, washed, dried, and sifted with the utmost care. The 
 lines of rubber goods in which it is generally found are rubber 
 boots and shoes, surface clothing, and carriage cloth, druggists' 
 sundries (where the leads are deemed dangerous), and in certain 
 compositions where emery is the chief ingredient used for grind- 
 ing or polishing. A curious fact about Lampblack is that a little 
 bit of it in unvulcanized erasive rubber seems to assist the 
 erasive quality, and does not cause smutting. A little of it is also 
 sometimes added to churning mixtures that do not readily mix. 
 The following analysis of the composition of lampblack is given 
 by Braconnot: 
 
BLACKS. 179 
 
 Carbon 79.1 
 
 Water 8.0 
 
 Resinous matter 5.3 
 
 Bituminous matter or pitch 1.7 
 
 Sulphate of ammonium ^.^ 
 
 Sulphate of calcium .8 
 
 Sulphate of potassium 4 
 
 Chloride of potassium traces. 
 
 Phosphates of calcium and iron .3 
 
 Siliceous or earthy matter i.i 
 
 Total loo.o 
 
 The analysis of lampblack from a large black manufactory 
 
 in the United States: 
 
 Carbon 79.1 
 
 Empyreumatic resin \ ^^^^^'^^.^ --_■■ ^ 
 
 Humin 0.3 
 
 Sulphate of ammonium 3.3 
 
 Sulphate of lime 0.8 
 
 Sulphate of potash 0.4 
 
 Phosphate of lime 0.3 
 
 Water 8.0 
 
 Chloride of potassium trace only. 
 
 Sand (accidental) 0.6 
 
 Total lOo.o 
 
 BoNEBLACK, also Called animal charcoal and sometimes ivory 
 black, is a black powder obtained by grinding the product of 
 bones that are burned at a red heat in close vessels. It resembles 
 vegetable charcoal, but is more dense and less combustible. A 
 good quality should have an even color, of a rather dull shade. 
 On analysis, boneblack shows the following : 
 
 Phosphate of lime 78.0 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 1.5 
 
 Carbonate of lime 8.5 
 
 Carbon lo.o 
 
 Impurities, silica, iron, etc 2.0 
 
 Total lOO.o 
 
 Sulphide of Lead. — This is a valuable coloring matter for 
 rubber, as it gives a good black, besides which it makes goods 
 exceedingly resilient. There are great differences in the pro- 
 duction of lead sulphides, but, as before remarked, a good one 
 is of special value to rubber manufacturers. (See Leads.) 
 
 Mineral Black is a pigment that is said to be made from 
 l)ituminous lignite. It is very porous, and is not recommended 
 
l8o COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 for rubber work. A very little ultramarine blue added to a black 
 in rubber sometimes overcomes the grayish shade. 
 
 Sulphide of Uranium. — A fine black pigment more intense 
 than plumbic blacks. It is a permanent color, and is said to be a 
 preservative of rubber. 
 
 Black Hypo. — This is also known as hyposulphite of lead. 
 It is really a mixture of thiosulphate of sodium mixed with 
 acetate of lead, and appears as a fine white crystalline precipitate, 
 which should be called thiosulphate of lead. There are two forms, 
 the white hypo and the Black Hypo, the difference being that the 
 white when heated is transformed into a soft black powder con- 
 taining very little free sulphur. The black of the compound 
 being sulphide of lead often contains over 90 per cent, of pure 
 sulphide. It is an excellent vulcanizing agent, and also a filler. 
 When properly prepared it makes goods absolutely free from 
 bloom. 
 
 Carbon Blacks of late have been used very largely in rubber 
 compounding and have done excellent work. They are not as 
 black, as a rule, as the better grades of lampblack made from 
 oils or resin. They are in many cases wholly inert, however, 
 and therefore perfectly safe to use. One of the best types of 
 this sort of coloring matter comes from a graphite mine in the 
 United States. It is wholly amorphous, and has none of the flaky 
 make-up that ordinary graphite has, and is 97 per cent, pure car- 
 bon. Carbon Blacks, it is also said, give a brighter finish to var- 
 nished goods than ordinary lampblacks. 
 
 Oak Black. — A product of the distillation of oak wood after 
 draining off (i) wood alcohol and (2) a product resembling tar. 
 It is used in certain black insulating compounds in connection 
 with shellac, coal tar, paraffine, and asbestos. 
 
 BLUE. 
 
 Blues are not largely used in general rubber work. They 
 are found chiefly in toys, in sheetings, and in certain packings. 
 The most important blue is — 
 
 Ultramarine. — This is made from lapis lazuli. The exact 
 composition of this coloring matter is not known, but it is said to 
 be based on a silicate of alumina with sulphide of sodium. An 
 
BLUES. i8i 
 
 artificial ultramarine is often produced which is equal and often 
 superior to the natural pigment. This is made of kaolin, carbon- 
 ate of sodium, willow charcoal, and sulphur. The following 
 analysis of the natural Ultramarine is given: 
 
 Silica 37-6 
 
 Alumina 27.4 
 
 Sulphur 14-2 
 
 Soda 20.0 
 
 Analyses of the best artificial Ultramarines show these figures : 
 
 Silica 40.25 39-39 40.19 
 
 Alumina 26.62 24.40 25.85 
 
 Sulphur 13.42 12.69 13.27 
 
 Soda 19.89 21.52 20.69 
 
 Ultramarine appears in commerce as a fine blue powder of 
 various standards of fineness. Acids readily destroy it, but alka- 
 lies have no effect on it. It stands heat well, not changing below 
 a low red. It is used in cements for backs of memorandum 
 blocks, and in blue soft rubber goods, particularly in vapor cured 
 goods, such as sheeting. When mixed with chrome yellow it 
 makes a green; with colcothar, it makes a violet. Mixed with 
 rose pink, oxide of zinc, and Indian red, it produced the well- 
 known wine-colored coat that was so popular a few years ago. 
 It is claimed that Ultramarine blue keeps rubber from overcuring, 
 and that it is, therefore, a most useful ingredient to add to com- 
 pounds that are exposed to heat. 
 
 Yale Blue. — In certain soft rubber goods, where a strong 
 blue is needed, ultramarine was found unsatisfactory. A firm of 
 rubber chemists therefore produced Yale Blue, which is a strong, 
 coloring matter, and wholly inert as far as the rubber is 
 concerned. 
 
 Smalts. — This is what may be called a deep tinted cobalt 
 glass. The analysis of Smalts of good quality is as follows: 
 
 Deep Pale 
 
 Colored Colored 
 
 Norwegian German 
 
 Silica 70.9 72.1 
 
 Potassa (with traces of soda and lime) 20.4 20X) 
 
 Oxide of cobalt 6.5 2.0 
 
 Alumina .4 1-8 
 
 Peroxide of iron .3 1.4 
 
 Other earths and oxides, and loss 1.5 2.7 
 
 Total loo.o loo.o 
 
 This is one of the few colors that are practically indestruct- 
 
i82 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 ible. In using Smalts for the pigment, large quantities are nec- 
 essary, as the color is not exceedingly strong. 
 
 Cobalt Blue is manufactured from oxide of cobalt, phos- 
 phate of cobalt, and alumina. It is rarely used in coloring rubber 
 where the ingredients are to be mixed with the mass, ultramarine 
 being much superior. Also called Smalts. 
 
 Thenard's blue is similar to cobalt blue, but is a more beauti- 
 ful pigment. It is used chiefly as a surface color. White pig- 
 ments in small quantities added to this blue make beautiful tur- 
 quoise colors. 
 
 Prussian Blue. — A dark brilliant blue compound, having 
 iron for a base. There is a soluble and an insoluble variety of 
 this compound which is of a somewhat complex chemical con- 
 stitution. Heated strongly in the air, the insoluble form of Prus- 
 sian Blue burns like tinder. When boiled with caustic 
 potash, it is decomposed. If the dry powder be strongly rubbed 
 in a mortar, it assumes a copper red luster. In commerce it 
 occurs in irregular shaped masses, having a characteristic con- 
 choidal fracture and copper red luster. 
 
 Chrome Blue is manufactured from silica, fluor spar, and 
 chromate of potash. The resultant material is a deep blue 
 vitreous mass which is reduced to an impalpable powder. It is less 
 sensitive to acids than ultramarine, and is better adapted for 
 r|3bber goods. 
 
 Saxon Blue is the original name of the pigment known 
 to-day as smalts ; it was also very frequently called enamel blue. 
 Under this name was also sold a blue pigment made by mixing 
 Prussian blue with alumina or a white clay. 
 
 Molybdenum Blue. — A pigment recommended by Lascel- 
 les-Scott is a bisulphide of molybdenum. It is an exceedingly 
 beautiful blue, but costly. Large new deposits of this mineral 
 have been found in the United States and Australia, and Norway, 
 and it is likely to be so cheapened that it will be a valuable rubber 
 pigment; 
 
 Indigo Blue is prepared from plants of the Indigofera genus. 
 Pure Indigo is insoluble in water, nor is it soluble in weak acids 
 or alkalies. A small percentage is dissolved in alcohol and its 
 solution is more considerable in turpentine. Indigo Blue for rub- 
 
REDS AND BROWNS. 183 
 
 ber is said to be valuable on account of its preserving qualities, 
 which are double those of other blues. 
 
 RED AND BROWN. 
 
 The strong red coloring matters used in rubber work are 
 mostly of a mercurial base. These are vermilion, red chromate 
 of mercury, sulphide of mercury, and iodide of mercury. The 
 Chinese vermilion, which is the best, is prepared by a special pro- 
 cess of their own, and contains 89 per cent, of pure mercury, the 
 rest being sulphur. This coloring matter is used very largely in 
 dental vulcanite, small amounts of it also giving excellent shades 
 in soft rubber goods. Cinnabar and Paris red are also mercurial 
 sulphides, and very strong colors. The sulphides of mercury 
 are really the only ones that are safe and valuable for producing 
 these colors. Red chalk and natural clay containing a certain 
 amount of iron are used chiefly as fillers in rubber goods, 
 although a certain quantity of them produce a dark red color. 
 
 Vermilion. — The red form of mercuric sulphide is a scarlet 
 red powder of specific gravity 8.124. It is sometimes adulterated, 
 with red lead or red oxide of iron, but such adulterations can be 
 detected by heating a small sample of the suspected article on a 
 porcelain or platinum dish. If any adulterant is present it will 
 remain behind as a residue, since pure Vermilion is completely 
 volatile. This substance is sometimes called cinnabar. A substi- 
 tute for Vermilion in; hard rubber was brought out by John Hali- 
 dayin 1870. This was a mixture of garancine and cochineal, in 
 water solutions, boiled and mixed in the proportion of 5 parts of 
 garancine liquor to i part of cochineal liquor. To each gallon 
 of this compound liquor 2 pounds of pure oxide of antimony were 
 added ; ■ then heating until the water was evaporated and the 
 new coloring matter perfectly dry. Another substitute for ver- 
 milion was white oxide of antimony. According to A. D. Schles- 
 inger, the veteran of hard rubber experts, white oxide of anti- 
 mony, when mixed with India-rubber and sulphur, will, during 
 vulcanization, impart to hard rubber a light red color very similar 
 to that obtained by the use of Vermilion, The proportion of sul- 
 phur is the same as is used ordinarily in making vulcanite, while 
 to-each pound of rubber are added 12 ounces of antimony sulphide. 
 
i84 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 Red Oxide of Iron. — This is familiar as iron rust. The best 
 is artifically prepared from green vitriol iron sulphate, and forms 
 a scarlet powder of a specific gravity if 4.46. This contains about 
 5 per cent, water of crystallization, which cannot be driven off at 
 temperatures up to 212° F., and with difficulty at higher ones. 
 (See Colcothar.) 
 
 Peroxide of Iron. — An old name for the sesquioxide of iron, 
 now called ferric oxide. (See Oxide of Iron.) 
 
 Prince's Metallic Paint. — An oxide of iron. 
 
 Indian Red. — Another name for oxide of iron. 
 
 Red Hematite. — An ore of iron, somewhat soft and friable. 
 Specific gravity 5.19 to 5.28. Composition 70 per cent, iron, 30 
 per cent, oxygen. Insoluble in water, alcohol, or rubber solvents. 
 As a colorant in rubber work it is unchangeable chemically. Used 
 in packings and for red maroons. 
 
 Venetian Red. — See Colcothar. 
 
 Red Ocher. — An impure oxide of iron. A dull red earthy 
 substance containing clayey matter, and having a specific gravity 
 of about 5.2. Used chiefly as a filler, as the color is not strong. 
 As far back as the time of Dr. Mattson, Red Ocher, Venetian red, 
 and Indian red, were advised by him for use in rubber com- 
 pounding. Indeed, he obtained a patent for packing in which 
 Venetian red was the principal adulterant. 
 
 Orange Vermilion gives a very handsome color in connec- 
 tion with rubber, but is rarely used, as it is not permanent if other 
 metals, such as copper, brass, iron, and zinc, come in contact 
 with it. 
 
 Crimson Sulphide of Antimony. — This is altogether the 
 best antimony color now in use. It not only gives a fine shade of 
 orange or red, but it also is an excellent vulcanizing agent. 
 
 Colcothar. — A form of oxide of iron of the specific gravity 
 of 4.8 to 5.3. It is the residue left in the manufacture of fuming 
 sulphuric acid from green vitriol. The least calcined portions, 
 which are scarlet in color, are termed jewelers' rouge, and the 
 more calcined parts, of a bluish shade, are called crocus. Its 
 composition is that of ferric oxide. In its reaction it is indifferent, 
 being very stable under ordinary conditions. Colcothar is a dull 
 red and is often used in red packings, soleings, etc. Many rubber 
 
YELLOWS. 185 
 
 chemists prepare their own Colcothar, as they are able to get 
 brighter shades than is possible from the goods ordinarily sold in 
 the open market. 
 
 Umber. — A brown earthy mineral, containing chiefly the 
 oxides of iron and manganese. The following analysis, by Pro- 
 fessor A. H. Church, is taken from a choice specimen of Cyprus 
 Umber: Oxide of iron, 48; oxide of manganese, 14; silica, 13.7; 
 water yielded at a heat of 212° F., 4,8; mixture of lime, mag- 
 nesia, alumina with organic matter, 14.5. In using Umber for 
 rubber compounding, care should be taken to dry the material 
 thoroughly at 212° F., before it is used. Burnt Umber is the 
 product obtained by roasting the above material. It is slightly 
 redder in color and will. naturally contain less water. For brown 
 colors, in addition to Umber, various natural earthy matters are 
 used, as are also oxysulphide of antimony and sepia, the latter 
 being an animal coloring matter made from the bright fluid 
 formed in the ink bag of cuttle fishes. Sienna and chestnut 
 brown are practically the same as Umber, while Vandyke brown 
 is made of oxide of iron, ground very fine, and is not injurious 
 to rubber. While these ingredients are practically inert, they do 
 not make the best of rubber compounds, as the resulting com- 
 pound is apt to have a hard stony feeling. 
 
 Prussian Red is an oxide of iron prepared from copperas, 
 and, therefore, it is the same as the modern rouge or oxide of 
 iron. 
 
 YELLOW. 
 
 Yellows are not often demanded in rubber work, except in 
 a few fancy articles and in hose markings. The most common 
 is that produced by the golden sulphuret of antimony, but color 
 is not what is sought in the use of that ingredient, but rather the 
 excellent rubber produced by it when used instead of sulphur. 
 Other mineral yellows used are strontium, chromium, cadmium, 
 barium, and arsenic. Chrome yellow is made from a lead base 
 which darkens when subjected to vulcanization. 
 
 Cadmium Yellow. — This is the best pigment for producing 
 yellow in a rubber compound. It does not injure the elasticity 
 or strength of the India-rubber in any way, and, while it has no» 
 
i86 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 special effect on vulcanization, perhaps hurries it a little. It is 
 not injurious to the health of persons using it, and is generally 
 used for surface ornamentation of toys, etc. It is sometimes 
 mixed with yellow sulphide of tin to cheapen it. While Cadmium 
 was ruled against in the German anti-poison act, the sulphides of 
 this metal were made an exception, and said to be safe. In dental 
 plates, however, where the coloring matter was used in large 
 quantity, it was advised against. The costliness of Cadmium 
 Yellow at present bars its general use in rubber. 
 
 AuREOLiN Yellow. — A very handsome color, and one that 
 is stable and brilliant. It is made up of acetate of cobalt and 
 nitrate of potassium. The color stands the light well, and sul- 
 phur compounds have little influence upon it. This is chiefly used 
 for surface work. 
 
 : Gamboge Yellow. — Obtained from the Garicinia morella. 
 It contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of gum, 65 per cent, of resin. 
 3 per cent, of volatile oil. It is soluble particularly in spirits, in 
 a number of oily liquids, and partially in water. Finely pulver- 
 ized Gamboge may be mixed with rubber, and is said to be a 
 preservative of it. 
 
 . Barberry Yellow. — Made from the root or bark of the 
 Barberis vulgaris. It is largely used in coloring leather surfaces, 
 and, in connection with gamboge, is said to be useful in rubber 
 work. 
 
 Yellow Ocher. — There are several ocbers, all of them 
 being practically oxides of iron mixed with clay. They are earthy 
 substances of no particular reaction, very stable, having a specific 
 gravity of about 5. Their low cost renders them available for 
 altnost any work, but the colors produced are not especially 
 beautiful. 
 
 ■ Arsenic Yellow. — Also known as King's Yellow, and is a 
 term applied to sulphide of arsenic. A cheap grade of this, which 
 is really only an imitation, is manufactured by mixing together 
 litharge and white arsenic, and grinding the product. Either of 
 these, of course, is poisonous, and they are very rarely used or 
 needed in connection with rubber. The specific gravity of Arse- 
 nic Yellow is 3.48. Although a sulphide, there is not enough 
 sulphur in its composition to vulcanize India-rubber. On account 
 
GREENS. 187 
 
 of its poisonous properties, this yellow has been largely super- 
 seded commercially by the comparatively harmless chrome yel- 
 lows. Another name for this color is orpiment. It was often 
 used in rubber compounds of twenty years ago. A small quantity 
 in white zinc stock takes off the glaring white effect, and pro- 
 duces a handsome cream white. Must be in an impalpable pow- 
 der to bring out the color. 
 
 ' Chrome Yellow. — Ordinarily the chomate of lead, which 
 is largely used as a pigment. It is somewhat poisonous and is 
 apt to oxidize organic substances, particularly if sulphur be pres- 
 ent. Has been used in the surface ornamentation of rubber toys, 
 but such use is generally condemned. The only Chrome Yellows 
 that are really valuable for rubber work are the chromate of zinc, 
 or possibly the chromate of strontium. 
 
 Orpiment. — See Arsenic Yellow. 
 
 Dutch Pink is the name given to some common yellow 
 lake pigments made from Persian berries, quercitron bark, fustic, 
 etc., on a base of China clay or whiting. It is mentioned here 
 just to notice that at one time a blue Dutch pink was known, 
 prepared from the woad plant. 
 
 GREEN. 
 
 It is fortunate that greens are not largely sought in the rub- 
 ber industry, for they are rare. Arsenic greens in many cases 
 are not to be thought of ; therefore, about the only ones that are 
 available, unless very high cost goods can be utilized, are the 
 following : 
 
 Chrome Green. — A coloring matter that is not affected by 
 strong acids, or alkalies, and which is inert when mixed with 
 India-rubber. It is the best mineral green that can be used in 
 connection with rubber. It is really a sesquioxide of chromium; 
 and may be mixed with rubber, with any kind of solvent, and 
 with other oxides and pigments, without hurt to the compounds. 
 
 Terra-verte is of mineral origin, and is imported in large 
 quantities from Italy. It is a pale neutral green of moderate cost, 
 and is not injurious to rubber. On analysis it shows, as in the 
 following table, the analysts quoted being Klaproth for No. i and 
 Bcrthier for No. 2: 
 
i88 COLORING MATTERS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 No. I No. 2 
 
 Silica 51.50 46.00 
 
 Alumina 12.00 11.70 
 
 Protoxide of iron 17.00 1740 
 
 Lime 2.50 3.00 
 
 Magnesia 3.50 8.00 
 
 Soda 4.50 
 
 Water 9.00 13.90 
 
 Total loo.o loo.o 
 
 Green Ultramarine is made by a process very similar to 
 
 that made in producing blue of that name, and its action upon 
 
 rubber is almost identical with that of ultramarine blues. 
 
 Hungarian Green is a similar pigment found at Kem- 
 
 hausen in Hungary, These greens in some respects resemble the 
 
 article now. known as terra- verte. 
 
 Saxon Green is a green earth of a clayey nature, found in 
 
 parts of Saxony. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 ACIDS, ALKALIES, AND THEIR DERIVATIVES, USED IN THE RUBBER 
 MANUFACTURE. 
 
 As a rule neither acids nor alkalies, in the strict sense of the 
 term, are largely used in ordinary rubber compounding. In a 
 great many of the processes, however, that go far to make up 
 finished goods, acids are used, as, for example, in those employed 
 in the reclaiming of rubber chemically. Alkalies also are most 
 necessary, a notable example being the use of caustic potash and 
 caustic soda solutions in removing sulphur from manufactured 
 goods. A great variety of uses other than these may be indicated. 
 
 Acetic Acid. — This is usually obtained by the dry distilla- 
 tion of wood fiber, peat, or sawdust. The strongest form is 
 known as glacial and occurs in large watery crystals, readily 
 liquefied. The common commercial acid usually has a brown or 
 yellowish color, due to impurity, since the pure acid is colorless. 
 Its specific gravity is 1.05, and it has a characteristic odor familiar 
 enough in vinegar. As an acid it is not very corrosive, and its 
 compounds are easily decomposed by mineral acids. It is quite 
 volatile. The primary use of this acid in connection with India- 
 rubber is in the coagulation of rubber milk. It is a prominent 
 component part of the smoke used in coagulating fine Para rub- 
 ber. It has also been used under the Vaughn process for coagu- 
 lating Balata, and in the manufacture of certain substitutes like 
 linoxin, Parkesine, etc. ; in connection with nitro-cellulose and 
 castor oil in the production of certain waterproofing compositions ; 
 by Brooman in separating whiting, white lead oxides, etc., from 
 vulcanized rubber; and in shoemakers' blackings in connection 
 with caoutchouc oil, vinegar, molasses, and lampblack. 
 
 Ale. — A beer made from malt, distinguished chiefly by its 
 strength and the quantity of sugar remaining undecomposed, 
 which enables the liquor to keep, without requiring a large amount 
 of hops. A mixture of ale and linseed oil, in the proportions of 
 8 parts ale to 2 parts linseed oil, is used in dissolving isinglass, 
 
 189 
 
I90 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 in which are afterward incorporated shellac and India-rubber in 
 the formation of what is known as ale cement. 
 
 Alum. — A general term for several chemical compounds of 
 aluminum, potassium, chromium, and ammonium. Common alum 
 is the double sulphate of potassium and aluminum, having a 
 specific gravity of 1.7 and containing 45 per cent, of water of 
 crystallization, one-quarter of which is expelled on heating to 140° 
 F. It is soluble in water 9^ parts per 100 when cold, 357 parts per 
 100 when hot. Chrome Alum is a double sulphate of chromium 
 and potassium, its specific gravity being 2.7, and containing 43 per 
 cent, water of crystallization, which is almost entirely lost at 392'' 
 F. It occurs as dull purple crystals, slowly soluble in water to 20 
 per cent, in the cold and 50 per cent, in the hot water. Its action 
 on gelatine is remarkable for its hardening qualities. Ammonia 
 Alum, the double sulphate of aluminum and ammonia, is largely 
 used in place of common alum. It contains 48 per cent, of water 
 of crystallization and has a specific gravity of 1.63. Strongly 
 heated, it yields sulphate of ammonia, water and a very small 
 quantity of sulphuric acid, while alumina is left behind. It is 
 soluble in water 13 per cent, cold, 422 per cent. hot. Roman 
 Alum has the same general characteristics as common alum, but 
 contains a little more alumina. 
 
 Alum is used in many of the shower-proof mixtures for cloths 
 of the cravenette order, that are to-day bought and made up by 
 manufacturers of mackintoshes. It is also sometimes used in the 
 manufacture of sponge rubber. By Gamier's process it is also 
 used in spirituous solution to cure rubber without heat by mixing 
 with it. Used also in Wray's substitute for Gutta-percha. Alum 
 was used in Payne's Gutta-percha compounds for proofing, var- 
 nishing, and paints. Ghislin, who prepared some curious com- 
 pounds from seaweed and India-rubber, mixed alum, gelatine, 
 and metallic oxides in his compounds. It is also sometimes used 
 in compounding rubber to make sponge effects, and mixed with 
 sulphate of iron and soap, in a water mixture with boiled linseed 
 oil, to make flexible waterproofing compounds. 
 
 Ammonia^ at ordinary temperature, is a colorless gas of well 
 known odor and sharp biting taste. It is usually met with in the 
 arts in watery solution, the specific gravity of which varies with 
 
AMMONIA— BARIUM CHLORIDE. 191 
 
 the amount of ammonia gas dissolved. The strongest, sometimes 
 called caustic ammonia, contains 32.5 per cent, of the gas, and 
 has a specific gravity of .875. Ordinary commercial ammonia 
 has a percentage of 9.5 and a specific gravity of 0.96. The weak- 
 est usually has a percentage of 5.5 and a specific gravity of .978. 
 Ammonia has a powerful solvent action upon sulphur, is alkaUne 
 in its nature, and very volatile, so that much care is requisite in 
 handling it. It has long been known to have a preservative effect 
 upon India-rubber; for example, low grade African rubbers are 
 often treated with Ammonia to neutralize the smell, and also to 
 toughen the rubber. In the cold-curing process a saucer of Am- 
 monia put in the bottom of the vapor room will effectually neu- 
 tralize the fumes of chloride of sulphur. It is also advised to 
 wash vulcanite that has begun to perish with an Ammonia solu- 
 tion. Soft rubber goods also are preserved, according to Dr. 
 Pol, by the immersion for an hour in a solution made of i part of 
 ammonia and 2 parts of water. 
 
 Sievier dissolved India-rubber in Ammonia, leaving it in a 
 closed vessel for a long time, after which he heated the solution 
 and distilled the Ammonia gas in cold water. Concentrated liquor 
 of Ammonia is added to milk of the rubber tree to preserve it for 
 transportation. Where vegetable fibers are reduced to cellulose 
 and mixed with India-rubber, the rubber is first steeped in Am- 
 monia and then dissolved in some suitable solvent. Newton mixed 
 Ammonia with India-rubber and Gutta-percha, and then treated 
 the gum with chlorine, making a white hard compound which 
 he claimed would stand all varieties of climates, acids, greases, etc. 
 
 Aniline. — A colorless oily liquid, manufactured chiefly from 
 coal tar or nitrobenzine. It is a base from which the brilliant 
 aniline dyes are made. Aniline, used by Parkes in the manufac- 
 ture of Parkesine, is also a solvent for Gutta-percha. 
 
 Arsenate of Potash. — It is a very soluble compound of 
 arsenic with potash and forms what is known as Fowler's solu- 
 tion. In the dry state it is a white powder soluble in alcohol up 
 to 4 per cent. Arsenate of Potash was used by Forster, among 
 his earliest experiments, to partially vulcanize a compound made 
 up of India-rubber and shellac. 
 
 Barium Chloride. — A white crystalline powder, insoluble in 
 
192 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 alcohol, but soluble in hot water, 78 per cent., and in cold 38 per 
 cent. Its specific gravity is 3.05. It is not of great technical im- 
 portance, its principal value being that of a test for sulphuric acid. 
 To makers and users of sulphurets it affords a ready means of 
 determining the presence of free sulphuric acid, so liable to occur 
 in these bodies and so injurious to rubber compounds when pres- 
 ent. A suspected sulphuret should be boiled for a moment with 
 a little distilled water, the water filtered off, and a drop or two 
 of a solution of Barium Chloride added ; a white cloudiness that 
 will settle in the form of a white powder proves the presence of 
 sulphuric acid and such a sample should be rejected. Barium 
 Chloride is a powerful poison. Used with size and acid resin as a 
 shower-proof mixture. 
 
 BisuLPHATE OF PoTASH. — A white powder obtained as a by- 
 product in chemical manufacturing. Soluble in twice its weight 
 of cold water, and in half its weight of boiling water. It contains 
 sulphuric acid so loosely held in combination that it is driven off 
 upon heating. Its specific gravity is 2.16. (See Potash.) 
 
 Bichromate of Potash. — The principal compound of chro- 
 mium, which occurs in the form of orange red crystals, that are 
 soluble in water and are largely used in dyeing. Mixed with sul- 
 phuric acid, it is used in bleaching palm oil and other fats. Bi- 
 chromate of Potash is used in vulcanizing the compound known 
 as elastic glue ; also used in Christia gums. 
 
 Bleaching Powder. — See Chloride of Lime. 
 
 BoRACic Acid. — This is found native in the vapor which 
 arises from certain volcanic rocks, in a saline incrustation in vol- 
 canic craters and in combination with borax. It appears in the 
 form of pure white leathery crystals. Boracic Acid is used with 
 tungstate of ammonia, kauri, borax, and India-rubber in the pro- 
 duction of the woodite fireproof compositions. 
 
 Borax or Biborate of Soda. — Sometimes also called Tincal ; 
 a compound of soda and boracic acid. The purified commercial 
 article contains about 47 per cent, of water of crystallization and is 
 usually in the form of large odorless crystals, or a white powder 
 obtained by grinding. The crystalline form has a specific gravity 
 of 1.69. Borax is quite soluble in water, but not in alcohol or 
 any of the common solvents for rubber. At a moderate heat 
 
BORAX— CARBOLIC ACID. 193 
 
 Borax loses water, and separates as a spongy mass called cal- 
 cined borax, while at a higher heat it melts into what is known as 
 borax glass. Immense deposits of it are found in the United 
 States, and it is also found in India, Hungary, and other parts 
 of the world. A good waterproof cement is made of a mixture of 
 Borax and shellac boiled in water. Borax, or a solution of biborate 
 of sodium, has the property of dissolving many resins. Lascelles- 
 Scott describes the manner in which an emulsion of rubber may 
 be preserved by a Borax solution. To a solution of rubber, in 
 any one of the common solvents, a small portion of alcohol is 
 added. This is mixed with a 2-5th saturated solution of Borax, 
 previously heated from 120° to 140° F. This is agitated until the 
 temperature has cooled down to the temperature of the air. From 
 3^ per cent, to 4I per cent, of India-rubber should be present 
 in the fluid when finished. A higher strength quickly separates 
 and sometimes causes the entire quantity to coagulate. Madagas- 
 car or Sierra Leone rubbers are advised for Borax solutions. 
 Solutions of borated rubber are adapted for waterproofing and 
 for preserving mats, marine bedding, etc. Borax is also advised 
 for preserving rubber milk from coagulation. It is also an im- 
 portant ingredient in the water varnishes used for luster finish, 
 for surface coats, army blankets, etc.; is used in waterproofing 
 compounds composed of rubber, boracic acid, kauri, tungstate 
 of ammonia ; mixed with Gutta-percha and shellac, it w^as used by 
 Hancock as an insulating material. 
 
 Carbolic Acid, also known as Phenic Acid, is obtained 
 chiefly during the destructive distillation of coal. The liquid 
 has a hot burning taste, and is largely used for its antiseptic 
 qualities. If white crystallized carbolic acid be added to the paste 
 from which matrices in rubber stamp making are manufactured, 
 it preserves the mixture for a long time. Carbolic Acid is used as 
 a preservative of rubber milk, where it is coagulated by the pro- 
 cess some time employed by the Orinoco Co., in Venezuela. Car- 
 bolic Acid has also been used in connection with a little ammonia 
 to increase the elasticity of low grade African gums, being used 
 as a solution before the gums are washed. It is also used for 
 treating fabrics, such as hose linings for fire and mill hose, to 
 
194 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 prevent deterioration and rotting. Used in certain fiber-made 
 substitutes. 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia, obtained during the dry distilla- 
 tion of bones, is a white crystalhne powder of very penetrating 
 smell, from which quality it takes its popular name of smelling 
 salts. Exposed to the air, it yields ammonia and absorbs water, 
 becoming superficially converted into bicarbonate. It is used 
 industrially for the removal of grease from cloth and cleaning 
 woolen fabrics. Carbonate of Ammonia is used also in the manu- 
 facture of sponge rubber, and in hollow work, where its expan- 
 sive force is utilized to efifectually mold the article. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda. — Also called Sal-soda, washing soda. 
 Prepared from cryolite, salt, etc. Its specific gravity is 1.45, when 
 crystallized. The crystalline form contains 64 per cent, of water 
 of crystallization, of which one-half is driven ofiF by gentle heat- 
 ing. It is a white crystalline substance of alkaline taste. It is 
 found in the ashes of many plants, is produced artificially in 
 large quantities from common salt, and is used as an alkaline 
 agent in many chemical industries. India-rubber, burnt umber, 
 Japan, and a coloring matter are mixed with a certain proportion 
 of Salsoda for a waterproofing composition. Under the cc«nmon 
 name saleratus. Carbonate of Soda is used as follows: Instead 
 of sunning surface goods, like rubber coats and blankets, they are 
 often brushed over with a mixture of saleratus and powdered 
 charcoal right after the stock leaves the calender. Sometimes the 
 saleratus is left out and only charcoal is used. 
 
 Caustic Soda. — The chief use of this, in the manufacture of 
 rubber goods, is in the dissolving of sulphur that is formed on 
 the surface of goods, and which is known as bloom. According 
 to H. L. Terry, F.I.C., the bulk of the alkali supplied to rubber 
 manufacturers in England is used in removing the sulphur from 
 elastic thread. Of course it is used in treating tobacco pouches, 
 fine sheet articles, and blacks, reds, or maroons, that should have 
 a good clear color. The boiling of rubber goods is usually done 
 in wooden tanks in which steam can be passed, and sometimes in 
 slate tanks, as iron is attacked by the alkali. On good grades of 
 rubber caustic soda has no action at all ; where a large quantity of 
 resin is present, however, it may dissolve some of them, forming 
 
CATECHU^CAUSTIC POTASH. 195 
 
 resinates of soda. Heavily compounded rubbers, whether they 
 contain substitutes, gums, or compounds, unless they are abso- 
 lutely inert, are also liable to be attacked through the dissolution 
 of their ingredients. Camille describes a process whereby shoddy 
 is treated with a solution of carbonate of soda in devulcanization. 
 In this, the rubber is boiled several hours in a solution of caustic 
 soda, the result being that it will sheet when the process is com- 
 pleted. Rostaing purified Gutta-percha, by boiling in caustic 
 soda, or in a mixture of caustic soda and potash in water. 
 
 Catechu, or Cutch. — Known formerly as Japan Earth. 
 Made from the sap of an East Indian tree, and used chiefly in 
 dyeing. Is very astringent, and is soluble in water. It appears 
 in commerce in dark brown irregular lumps. Contains 40 to 50 
 per cent, of a peculiar tannic acid. Used in packings and goods 
 made from the whaleite formulas. Johnson's artificial leather was 
 made of Catechu, rosin oil, linseed oil, turpentine, and starch, 
 mixed with a little hot Gutta-percha. A number of other com- 
 pounds, both with and without India-rubber, contain Catechu, 
 but chiefly those which were compounded from gelatine, starch, 
 and gluten. Catechu is mixed with Gutta-percha in solution in 
 order to make it harder. 
 
 Caustic Ammonia. — See Ammonia. 
 
 Caustic Potash. — As occurring in commerce, it is a white 
 solid substance of the specific gravity about 2.5. It is hard and 
 brittle, and very destructive to animal or vegetable substances. 
 It rapidly takes up water from the air, and may be used to obtain 
 a dry atmosphere in a confined vessel. It is also a greedy absorb- 
 ent of carbonic acid, becoming converted into the carbonate 
 thereby. Solutions of potash should be clarified by allowing im- 
 purities to subside. Its taste is bitter and acid and its smell un- 
 pleasant. Alcoholic Caustic Potash is used in analysis of vul- 
 canized India-rubber and was introduced by Henrichs, particu- 
 larly to separate India-rubber from India-rubber substitute. 
 Caustic Potash is mixed with flowers of sulphur for boiling draw- 
 ing rolls, the potash making the rubber more solid, while the sul- 
 phur gives a peculiar surface, making it better for drawing. Used 
 in water solution to remove bloom from cured rubber. It is also 
 used in certain substitutes for hard rubber, like voltit. PotaSh 
 
196 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 was early used in extracting the sulphur from ground vulcanized 
 rubber. A percentage of it is used to-day in neutralizing the acid 
 used in the chemical recovery of rubber. 
 
 Chloride of Ammonium. — Also known as Muriate or Hy- 
 drochlorate of Ammonia, or Sal-ammoniac. Obtained largely 
 from gas works. Specific gravity 1.5. Usually occurs in small 
 crystals of a sharp, saline taste. When dissolving in water a con- 
 siderable reduction of temperature occurs, and this has rendered it 
 valuable for cooling purposes. At temperatures above 212° F. 
 it is completely evaporated, and a decomposition occurs into am- 
 monia and muriatic acid. It is used in certain packings in which 
 iron filings are incorporated. 
 
 Chloride of Calcium. — A crystalline substance containing 
 about 50 per cent, of water of crystallization, which is lost on 
 heating to 392° F. The specific gravity is 1.61, and that of the 
 dried form 2.21. Its extreme attraction for water makes it use- 
 ful in obtaining a dry atmosphere in any closed receptacle. Its 
 color is white, taste acid and sharp. It absorbs ammonia readily 
 and will give it up again on heating. It is used in bookbinders' 
 cements. 
 
 Chloride of Lime. — Sometimes called bleaching powder, 
 although this latter is a mixture of the chloride and hypochlorite 
 of lime. Industrially, its chief use is for bleaching purposes, de- 
 pendent upon the amount of chlorine it contains. Commercial 
 bleaching powder is a white powder with a faint smell of peculiar 
 character and gradually becoming moist on exposure to the air, 
 while it gradually decomposes and absorbs water and carbonic 
 acid. Even in closed vessels decomposition occurs, and some- 
 times so suddenly and with such a rise of temperature that explo- 
 sions occur. Hence it should always be used fresh and a guaran- 
 tee obtained from the vendors (as is customary) of the quality of 
 the article. Chloride of Lime is the basis of a cold curing proc- 
 ess known as Caulbry's (which see). Gutta-percha boiled in it 
 and then mixed with rosin and paraffine is used in insulation. 
 
 Chloride of Sodium (or common salt) has a specific grav- 
 ity of 2.3. It is a very stable compound, soluble in water at the 
 ordinary temperature to the extent of 36 per cent., at the boiling 
 point 39 per cent. At the freezing point water will take up 554 
 
CHLORIDE OF ZINC— CREAM OF TARTAR. 197 
 
 per cent, of common salt. It is used, as is well known, in coagu- 
 lating many of the rubber latexes. Salt is viewed with considerable 
 distrust by ordinary manipulators of rubber. Payne, however, 
 treated Gutta-percha scraps by boiling water, salt, and oil of vit- 
 riol, to get a solution to which he added other gums and metallic 
 oxides to get a waterproofing mixture. Cooley made artificial 
 leather of Gutta-percha dissolved in rosin oil, and added 25 per 
 cent, or more of salt, to which he added starch or other saccha- 
 rine substances. Salt, in the form of brine, is used in washing the 
 compound known as tremenol as a last process. It is also used in 
 shower-proofing compounds, in connection with paraffine and sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 Chloride of Zinc was known formerly as Butter of Zinc. It 
 is formed by burning zinc in chlorine gas, or by dissolving it in 
 hydrochloric acid, the solutioin being evaporated. The anhydrous 
 form is a whitish gray mass which readily fuses, and can be sub- 
 limed at a high temperature. It deliquesces on exposure to the 
 air, and is readily soluble in water, the solution having a bitter 
 taste, and acting in a concentrated state as a powerful caustic. 
 One of the best processes ever known for reducing the fiber in 
 recovering rubber was that in which this substance was employed 
 instead of acid. A boiling solution of Chloride of Zinc was used 
 in deodorizing by Brockedon, who also mixed it with Gutta- 
 percha, adding sulphur and vulcanizing the gum. Hancock also 
 subjected Gutta-percha for a moment or two to binoxide of nitro- 
 gen, then immersing it in a boiling solution of chloride of zinc, 
 which he claimed greatly improved its quality. 
 
 Chromic Acid is not readily obtained in a free state, but 
 forms many well-known salts, such as chrome yellow, for in- 
 stance. It is analogous with sulphuric acid. Vulcanized rubber 
 immersed in it at 140° F. remained a month, and was apparently 
 unharmed. It is also used in the manufacture of the substitute 
 known as corkaline. 
 
 Citric Acid. — An organic acid that occurs in lemons, 
 limes, and many other fruits. It is readily soluble in water, and 
 has an intensely sour taste. Has been used in the coagulation 
 of Balata. Vulcanized rubber immersed in it at 140° F. re- 
 mained a month, and was apparently unharmed. 
 
198 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 Cream of Tartar. — A white crystalline substance with an 
 acrid taste, a very common ingredient in baking powders; also 
 called Potassium Bitartrate. It is made from purified tartar, or 
 argol. It is used in artificial ivory made from resins in solution. 
 
 Crystals of Soda. — See Carbonate of Soda. 
 
 Cyanide of Potassium. — A white crystalline substance, very 
 poisonous, of a sharp bitter taste. It is very easily decomposed, 
 even on exposure to the air absorbing carbonic acid and yielding 
 prussic acid, which gives the salt its peculiar smell of peach ker- 
 nels. The vapors thus given off are very poisonous. Cyanide of 
 Potassium was used by Brooman "to give clearness to the gum 
 which was made from ground vulcanized rubber, which had been 
 treated with alkalies and acids to remove sulphur and adulterants." 
 
 Fluoride of Silicon is a colorless gas. What is used in the 
 arts is a solution in water, forming a very sour fuming liquid, 
 acting like a strong acid. It is easily decomposed and may be 
 used for etching glass if allowed to evaporate upon it under heat. 
 It is prepared from flints or silica in some such form as sand or 
 powdered glass. Used in treating meerschaum and paper pulp 
 which, combined with certain resins, forms an artificial ivory. 
 
 Formic Acid obtains its name from the fact that it was first 
 obtained from the red ant. It is a fuming liquid with a pungent 
 odor, boiling at 212° F. It is now made from a mixture of 
 starch, binoxide of manganese, sulphuric acid, and water. It has 
 been suggested as an ideal precipitant for rubber milk. It is 
 quite volatile, could be easily washed out, and would be found 
 more beneficial to the rubber than many of the alkaline solutions 
 now used, 
 
 Hydrochlorate of Ammonia. — Another name for Muriate 
 of Ammonia or Sal-ammoniac. (See Chloride of Ammonium.) 
 
 Hypochlorite of Lime. — One of the principal constituents 
 of bleaching powder. It does not exist alone. ( See Chloride of 
 Lime.) 
 
 Hydrosulphuret of Lime. — Lime that has been treated 
 with hydrogen sulphide. It is an offensive smelling substance, 
 of a dirty greenish gray appearance, and is obtained in the process 
 of purifying coal gas. It decomposes easily, giving off sulphu- 
 reted hydrogen. It will absorb bisulphide of carbon and is solu- 
 
HYDROCHLORIC ACID— IODIDE OF ZINC. 199 
 
 ble in alcohol. Its liability to oxidize should render it of ques- 
 tionable use in compounding. It was used by Hancock in vulcan- 
 izing India-rubber. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid is known usually by its trade name of 
 Muriatic Acid. It is also known as chlorhydric acid, and spirits 
 of salt. It is one of the principal mineral acids. Used in the arts 
 in the form of a water solution, of which the strength varies 
 from a specific gravity of i.oi or 2° Beaume with 2.02 per cent, 
 acid to 1. 21 or 26° Beaume, with 42.85 per cent. acid. Each .01 
 increase of gravity corresponds to 1° Beaume and 2.02 per cent, 
 of acid. It is corrosive to the skin and attacks nearly all 
 metals. It has no action on caoutchouc and very little on oxidized 
 linseed oil if the acid be dilute. With soda and its compounds 
 generally speaking it will form common salt and with metals it 
 forms chlorides thereof. Hydrochloric Acid, during the treatment 
 of reclaimed rubber, turns whiting into chloride of lime. As the 
 chloride is more soluble than sulphate of lime much of it washes 
 out during the vigorous cleansing that the rubber undergoes to 
 remove the free acid. Hydrochloric Acid, according to tests made 
 by William Thompson, F.R.S., did not at all injure India-rub- 
 ber, although it was kept in it at a temperature of 140° F. for a 
 month. Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid has but little action on 
 Gutta-percha, and tubing made from it is therefore largely used in 
 chemical factories for running this acid from one vessel to an- 
 other. Hydrochloric Acid is used in the manufacture of turpen- 
 tine rubber, and in one of the last processes in the analysis of 
 vulcanized India-rubber. In preparing a hard rubber compound, 
 Austin G. Day used linseed, cottonseed, castor, and coal oils ; hy- 
 drochloric and nitric acids; bicarbonate of soda, muriate of tin, 
 coal tar asphaltum, sulphur, and Gutta-percha. 
 
 Iodide of Antimony. — A brownish red crystalline mass, 
 which yields a cinnabar red powder. It is soluble in hot carbon 
 bisulphide. Its specific gravity is 4.39. It was used by Parkes 
 in vulcanizing India-rubber. 
 
 Iodide of Zinc. — A very unstable substance. A white gran- 
 ular powder, odorless and of sharp, saline metallic taste. Chiefly 
 used in medicine. It was used by Hancock to assist in the vul- 
 canization of India-rubber. 
 
200 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 Liquor of Flint. — See Silicate of Soda. 
 
 MiMO-TANNic Acid. — See Catechu. 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia. — See Chloride of Ammonium. 
 
 Muriatic Acid. — See Hydrochloric Acid. 
 
 Nitrate of Lead. — A compound of lead and nitric acid con- 
 taining 62.5 per cent, of lead. Its specific gravity is 4.58. It has 
 an astringent metallic taste, crackles when heated, detonates when 
 thrown on red hot charcoal, and takes fire when ground with sul- 
 phur. Its color is white and it is largely used in dyeing and for 
 making chrome yellow (which see). It is used with gums in the 
 production of shower-proof mixtures with sugar of lead and 
 alum. 
 
 Nitric Acid. — Chemically an oxide of nitrogen. Technically 
 a strongly acid liquid consisting of an aqueous solution of the pure 
 acid. Its action on different bodies is various. Some, like sul- 
 phur, phosphorus, carbon, and many organic substances are easily 
 oxidized. Tin and powdered antimony are rapidly converted into 
 their oxides, while turpentine, if poured into the strong acid, is 
 attacked with almost explosive violence with the evolution of light 
 and heat. Straw or sawdust may become ignited if impregnated 
 with this acid. Cotton wool is converted by it into gun cotton. 
 Rubber immersed in Nitric Acid at a temperature of 140° F. was 
 injured in a few hours, and in a few days its elasticity was de- 
 stroyed, while at the end of the month it was reduced to a pulp. 
 Nitric Acid attacks Gutta-percha very powerfully, and evolves 
 suffocating fumes of a deep red color, the gum meanwhile being 
 reduced to a pasty mass which afterwards dries and becomes very 
 brittle. According to H. L. Terry, F.I.C., Nitric Acid of any 
 strength has a very deleterious effect upon India-rubber, the action 
 of the fuming acid being to form immediately an oxidized body of 
 a resinous nature. He holds, therefore, that the weaker acid also 
 injures the India-rubber, although of course in a less degree. 
 Nitric Acid is used in the treatment of leather cuttings to reduce 
 them to a glutinous mass before being mixed with India-rubber, 
 and is also used in making certain substitutes. 
 
 Nut-Gall. — An excrescence formed on the leaves of a spe- 
 cies of oak called Quercus infectonia. It is used in the arts for the 
 sake of the tannic acid it contains. There are three varieties in 
 
OLEIC ACID— PEROXIDE OF HYDROGEN. 201 
 
 commerce — green, white and black. The black and the green are 
 the best. Those grown in warm countries are the best. Aleppo 
 galls contain from 60 to 66 per cent, of tannic acid. There is a 
 variety of nut-gall known as Chinese, imported from Japan, 
 China, and Napal. The gall is somewhat bean-shaped or is cov- 
 ered with a yellow gray felt. It contains from 60 to 70 per cent, 
 of tannic acid. Nut-gall is used in certain places instead of tan- 
 nin, which see. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol. — See Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Oleic Acid. — An acid found in certain animal and vegeta- 
 ble oils, such as olive oil, sperm oil, etc. It has been used in cer- 
 tain substitutes for hard rubber, like voltit, and by Hunt for re- 
 covering waste vulcanized rubber under heat, methylated spirit 
 being added later to precipitate the rubber, which was then 
 washed in a weak caustic soda. 
 
 Oxalate of Lime. — Quick lime slaked by water in which is 
 oxalic acid is given this name. Used in certain Gutta-percha 
 compounds. 
 
 Oxalic Acid occurs in transparent, colorless prisms, with a 
 very sour taste, soluble in both cold and hot water. It is pro- 
 duced by either the action of the hydrate of potash, or of nitric 
 acid upon most organic compounds. It is very poisonous. Gutta- 
 percha was cleansed by Lorimer's process by boiling in water 
 mixed with this acid. 
 
 Permanganate of Potash occurs in dark red prisms of a 
 greenish color which, when dissolved in water, give a purple red. 
 It is a decided oxidizer, and is used as a disinfectant. It is also 
 called chameleon mineral. Used in certain artificial leathers. 
 
 Peroxide of Hydrogen. — This is a powerful oxidizing 
 agent, largely used as a bleaching agent, and also as an antichlor 
 for use after chlorine bleaching. It comes in the form of a color- 
 less liquid, and has a specific gravity of 1.45. Neither the alka- 
 line nor the acid solutions of this reagent seems to impair vul- 
 canized India-rubber. In certain cases Peroxide of Hydrogen 
 has been used in removing the bloom from rubber, which it does 
 most effectively ; besides, it seems to penetrate the surface of the 
 rubber and dissolve the sulphur. It also has a curious effect on 
 colors, brightening some reds wonderfully, dulling others, and 
 
202 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 rendering whites much whiter. One curious effect that it has 
 upon India-rubber is to bring out any surface imperfections in a 
 marked degree. 
 
 Phosphate of Soda. — A crystalHne colorless substance con- 
 taining 60 per cent, of water, which is given up on heating to 
 248° F., leaving behind a dry mass. The commercial article fre- 
 quently contains sulphate of soda as an impurity. The crystals 
 have a specific gravity of 1.5, melt at 95° F., and are readily soluble 
 in water. By long drying at 113° F. the water of crystalliza- 
 tion may be entirely driven off. The presence of this material 
 is called for in a certain compound for dental vulcanite, where it 
 is incorporated with rubber, sulphur, and phosphate of lime, the 
 idea being that less sulphur is required than in the ordinary com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. — See Phosphorus, 
 
 Potash. — This substance, a carbonate of potassium, is 
 usually met with commercially in small colorless crystals. It- is 
 prepared in a variety of ways and forms, the basis from which is 
 prepared what is called caustic potash. Pearl ash is a crude form 
 of potash mixed with the caustic variety and a sulphuret of potas- 
 sium. Used in certain proofing compounds where low heat is 
 required for cure. It was used by Charles Hancock, mixed with 
 water in a bath, to improve the quality of Gutta-percha. He 
 found, by boiling the Gutta-percha in such a bath for an hour, 
 that it did not oxidize in the open air as badly. An old-fashioned 
 process for treating unvulcanized thread was to steep it in a hot 
 solution of carbonate of potash, which greatly increased its 
 strength. (See Caustic Potash.) 
 
 Quick Lime is the impure oxide of calcium obtained by heat- 
 ing or burning chalk, marble, or limestone, or any carbonate of 
 calcium. Its well-known attraction for w^ater renders it unstable 
 but also valuable where dyeing qualities are desired. Blizzard 
 claimed to be able to make a perfectly transparent rubber by treat- 
 ing it with soda and water, in which was a little Quick Lime. 
 
 Reclaiming Salt. — An alkaline composition made in Ger- 
 many and used chiefly in the reclaiming of red and light colored 
 rubber waste. 
 
 Rennet is made from the inner lining of the true stomach 
 
SALICYLIC ACID—SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE. 203 
 
 of the sucking calf and gets its value from the gastric juice con- 
 tained therein. The membrane, after treatment, is salted and 
 stretched out to dry. It is advised in the Vaughn process for 
 coagulating Balata. 
 
 Salicylic Acid is obtained from the creeping plant known as 
 wintergreen. It is prepared from the oil of wintergreen (oil of 
 Gaultheria), which is distilled in large quantities in Luzerne 
 county, Pennsylvania. It is soluble in the following proportions : 
 I part of the acid dissolves in 450 of water, or 2.4 of alcohol. It 
 melts at 312° to 314° F. Salicylic Acid was used in an artificial 
 leather compound for reducing leather dust to a paste, after which 
 it was mixed with glue under heat, and treated to an alkaline solu- 
 tion. 
 
 Sal Ammoniac. — See Chloride of Ammonium. 
 
 Salt. — See Chloride of Sodium. 
 
 Saltpeter is niter or potassium nitrate. It is a crystalline 
 substance, white, and having a saline taste, and is a very strong 
 oxidizer. It is used in the manufacture of artificial elaterite. In 
 Gridley's process for recovering rubber, by exposing it to flame, 
 saltpeter was added to remove the smell. 
 
 Saleratus. — See Carbonate of Soda. 
 
 Sal Soda. — See Carbonate of Soda. 
 -Silicate of Soda. — See Soluble Glass. 
 
 Soaps. — Various kinds of soaps are used in rubber manu- 
 facture. Pure Castile soap, for instance, is dissolved in rain 
 water and made into a soft soap that is used to "slick" molds that 
 the rubber, during vulcanization, may not adhere to them. Some 
 manufacturers use by preference white soda soap made from 
 caustic soda and olive oil. Resin soaps are also used in certain 
 shower-proof compounds. A further use for soap is in the manu- 
 facture of water varnishes for luster coats and blankets. A soap 
 compound for wagon covers is made of 50 pounds of soap dis- 
 solved in 15 gallons of water, heated to 250° F., to which is 
 added 25 pounds of sulphide of zinc. A half pint of rubber dis- 
 solved in olive oil by heat is added to each gallon of the above 
 mixture. Whiting, lampblack, or coloring matters may be added. 
 Vulcanized rubber, beeswax, rosin oil, argillaceous earth, and 
 alkaline soap form the basis of Sorel's substitute for rubber. 
 
204 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 Soda. — See Carbonate of Soda. 
 
 Sodium Hyposulphite. — A i per cent, solution is used for 
 removing traces of chlorine where its presence is suspected in 
 India-rubber. 
 
 Soluble Glass (known also as Waterglass) is a silicate of 
 soda or potash. It is usually sold in solutions of varying density, 
 the commonest being 33° and 66°, by which is meant that the 
 solution contains either one-third or two-thirds solid waterglass. 
 Acids readily precipitate the silica from these solutions as a 
 gelatinous mass. It is used in certain shower-proof compounds 
 and in compounds of the Algin (which see) type. 
 
 Stearic Acid. — See Stearine, 
 
 Sugar of Lead. — This is used in certain rainproof com- 
 pounds, one of which is 16 parts of compounded rubber, 128 
 parts of paraffine wax, i part of Sugar of Lead, i part of alum 
 in powder. India-Rubber compound contains no sulphur. Used 
 also in artificial rubber and artificial ivory. (See Acetate of 
 Lead. ) 
 
 Sulphate of Alumina. — The active principle of alum. 
 Often sold as concentrated alum. Occurs commercially as white 
 square cakes, somewhat transparent, and capable of being cut 
 with a knife. Readily soluble in water, and contains a small 
 quantity of free sulphuric acid, potassa, and soda alum. Its 
 specifc gravity is about 4; water of crystallization 48 per cent. 
 Its composition indicates a usefulness in compounding sponge rub- 
 bers. Used in linseed oil compounds, for wagon covers. (See 
 Alum.) 
 
 Sulphate of Copper. — Sometimes called Blue or Cyprus 
 Vitriol. Occurs in commerce in masses of large blue crystals 
 having a specific gravity of 2.28, and containing 36 per cent, of 
 water of crystallization, and a varying additional percentage of 
 entangled moisture. Heated for some time at 212° F. all the 
 entangled water may be driven off, together with four-fifths of 
 the water of crystallization, the residue being a bluish white pow- 
 der. Sulphate of Copper is used in attaching rubber to iron 
 during vulcanization. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda occurs commercially in colorless crystals 
 which deteriorate in contact with the air, and hence should, be 
 
SULPHURIC ACID— TANNIN. 205 
 
 kept in well closed vessels. It contains a vety large amount — 
 nearly 60 per cent. — of water of crystallization, which is yielded 
 on heating to 302° F. Its reaction is alkaline. Sulphate of Soda 
 was used by Hancock in vulcanizing Gutta-percha. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid (called also Oil of Vitriol), when pure, is 
 a colorless oily looking heavy liquid of a sharp, sour taste. It is 
 very corrosive, and has a great attraction for water ; hence wood 
 and other organic bodies are charred by its depriving them of 
 their water. The specific gravity of the commercial acid is 
 usually about 1.83, or 66° Beaume, containing 94 per cent, of acid. 
 Sulphuric Acid is used in the coagulation of Madagascar rubber. 
 The Orinoco Co., in Venezuela, are also said to have coagulated 
 India-rubber by mixing the milk of the Hevea with sulphuric 
 and carbolic acid. Commercial Sulphuric Acid is said to coagu- 
 late 55 times its volume of gum, while the carbolic acid acts as 
 an antiseptic in the juice, improving its keeping qualities. It is 
 a question whether rubber treated this way is as good as that 
 obtained by the smoking process. Rubber immersed in Sulphuric 
 Acid at 140° F. remained a month and came out stronger, 
 apparently, than when it went in. Sulphuric Acid is used in paste 
 blacking, mixed with boneblack, vinegar, molasses, and caout- 
 chouc oil. Concentrated Sulphuric Acid colors Gutta-percha 
 brown, throwing off at the same time sulphurous acid fumes. 
 Nevertheless, a paste of this acid and charcoal was added by Han- 
 cock to Gutta-percha to make it pliable. Sulphuric Acid may be 
 expected to attack vulcanized rubber compounds in which there 
 are large proportions of chalk, lead, or zinc oxides. Sulphuric 
 Acid is very largely used in destroying the fiber found in ground 
 waste rubber ; indeed it is the basis of what is known as the acid 
 reclaiming process. When thus used the acid turns whiting into 
 sulphate of lime. 
 
 Tannic Acid. — See Tannin. 
 
 Tannin includes a number of substances, some of which are 
 crystalline and others amorphous, with a marked astringent taste, 
 and no smell. The solutions are acid, soluble in water and alco- 
 hol, and yield precipitates with most metallic oxides. It is the 
 active principle of oak bark, hemlock bark, catechu, and many 
 other materials usually used for tanning hides. Pure Tannin is 
 
2o6 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 
 
 a light powder of a yellow greenish hue, soluble in water, alcohol, 
 and ether. Its solution precipitates glue. It is used with sul- 
 phate of alumina, waterglass, and glue in shower-proofing. Tan- 
 nin has been claimed to be injurious to rubber, the reason being 
 that rubber thread used in gorings is often destroyed at points 
 close to its junction with the leather. It is more likely, however, 
 that it is the oil or oleic acid that effects the destruction. Tannin 
 was largely employed by Austin G. Day in many of his "Kerite" 
 compounds with excellent effect. It is also used in the manufac- 
 ture of certain puncture fluids, together with glue and glycerine. 
 
 Tartaric Acid is found usually in the form of transparent 
 colorless prisms, which have an agreeable acid taste, are not 
 affected by the action of the atmosphere, and are soluble in either 
 alcohol or water. Nitric acid or peroxide of lead act upon Tar- 
 taric Acid, turning it into formic and carbonic acid. This acid 
 is very abundant in the vegetable kingdom, being found in many 
 fruits. Used under Vaughn's patent in coagulating Balata. Vul- 
 canized rubber immersed in Tartaric Acid at 140° F. remained a 
 month, and was apparently unharmed. 
 
 TuNGSTATE OF Ammonia. — A crystalline body which is very 
 soluble in water and becomes covered with a white bloom on 
 exposure to the air. Used with boracic acid, kauri, borax, and 
 rubber in the production of the woodite fireproof compositions. 
 
 TuNGSTATE OF SoDA. — Prepared commercially from wolfram 
 ore and soda ash; usually contains about 14 per cent, water of 
 crystallization; and is in the form of colorless crystals. Mixed 
 with a solvent such as methylated ether, it is added to soluble gun 
 cotton, castor oil, and gum copal, forming a substitute for India- 
 rubber. 
 
 TuNGSTic Acid is derived chiefly from wolfram, which is a 
 tungstate of iron and manganese. Tungstic Acid is analogous to 
 sulphuric and chromic acid. It has been used in connection with 
 paraffine, gelatine, and metallic oxides in proofing compounds. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 VEGETABLE, MINERAL, AND ANIMAL OILS USED IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS 
 
 AND SOLUTIONS. 
 
 The use of oils in the rubber manufacture has kept pace fully 
 with the use of gums, substitutes, and reclaimed rubber. The 
 addition of earthy or metallic or vegetable ingredients in dry mix- 
 ing has rendered many a good rubber somewhat intractable — a 
 fault which the right oil has often rectified. As a rule, vegetable 
 oils are chosen, as they are rarely harmful to the gum. Many 
 mineral oils are also freely incorporated in certain compounds. 
 Animal oils have always been viewed with more or less sus- 
 picion, however, and with good reason, for manufacturers have 
 constantly before them rubber goods that have lost their life and 
 elasticity through contact with lubricants made of such oils and 
 fats. Nevertheless certain of them may be and are used. The 
 essential or volatile oils are used to a certain extent in rubber 
 manufacture. These oils, as a rule, are liquids which give the 
 peculiar odors of plants from which they are derived. Their use 
 in rubber is to impart to it a pleasing odor. 
 
 Aluminum Lanolate. — ^This is a product of French Wool 
 Grease (which see), made by adding a solution of alum. After 
 the addition of the alum, it falls in a brown precipitate. It is then 
 dissolved in mineral oil, forming a jelly-like mass which is said to 
 compound readily with either India-rubber or Gutta-percha, and 
 is soluble in any of their solvents. It is possible that this may 
 have some both softening and preservative influences on India- 
 rubber, as is claimed, but it should be used with considerable 
 caution. 
 
 Anhydrous Paraffine Oil. — Water-free paraffine oil 
 (which see). 
 
 Birch Oil. — The fine white bark of the birch tree yields 
 a red oil, nearly one-fourth of which consists of the sap phenol, 
 which gives the well-known odor to Russia leather. The residue, 
 or green part of the birch, yields neither acid nor alkaloid, and 
 forms with alcohol a fluid solution which, when once dried, is 
 unacted on by alcohol. It is chiefly Obtained from northern 
 
 207 
 
2o8 OILS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Europe and Siberia, and has recently been made also in Germany 
 and Austria, where it is known as Jackten oil. This substance 
 will unite with the most brilliant colors, and has been used in 
 France for waterproofing textile fabrics. In connection with shel- 
 lac, resin, and aniline, it is used in the form of a substitute for 
 Gutta-percha in insulation. 
 
 Blown Oils. — These are prepared by heating fixed oils in a 
 jacketed kettle and blowing a current of air through the fluid. 
 Under this treatment, oils become much more dense and also vis- 
 cous; indeed, in many physical aspects, they resemble castor oil, 
 but differ in that they can be mixed with mineral oils and as a 
 rule are not easily soluble in alcohol. Blown oils made from lin- 
 seed oil, rape oil, poppyseed oil, and cottonseed oil are sometimes 
 used in the manufacture of rubber substitutes instead of the raw 
 oils. Known also as Thickened Oils, Base Oils, Soluble Castor 
 Oil, etc. 
 
 Bone Oil is obtained by the distillation of animal gelatinous 
 substances, principally in the calcining of bones for the prepara- 
 tion of boneblack. Its specific gravity it 0.97. It is sometimes 
 called Dippel's Oil (which see). 
 
 Camphor Oil. — A liquid of a light reddish brown with a 
 yellowish tint, a strong odor like camphor, and a bitter camphor- 
 like taste. Its specific gravity is 0.94. Japanese oil varies in 
 color from colorless through pale straw, yellow, to black, and has 
 a specific gravity of 0.898 for the colorless to 0.99 for the very 
 dark. This oil is used in the manufacture of celluloid varnishes, 
 paints, lampblacks, etc. It is used also as an adulterant for such 
 oils as sassafras oil. It is one of the best solvents for resins, and 
 dissolves 46 per cent, of rosin, 9 per cent, copal, and 35 per cent, 
 of mastic. 
 
 Caoutchouc Oil. — Made by digesting 55 parts of India- 
 rubber in 450 parts of linseed oil. The principal large use for 
 this oil is in Germany, particularly in the army, where it was used 
 for coating various articles to prevent their rusting. The follow- 
 ing substances are found in Oil of Caoutchouc : Eupoine, butylene, 
 caoutchoucine, isorprene, caoutchine, and heveene. 
 
 Castor Oil. — A colorless or pale greenish transparent oil, 
 very viscous and thickening on exposure to the air. It has the 
 
COD-LIVER OIL— COTTONSEED OIL. 209 
 
 highest specific gravity of any known natural fatty oil — 0.958. 
 It is adulterated frequently with resin oil and rape, linseed, and 
 cottonseed oils, especially the "blown" variety. Used in cheap 
 proofings without rubber with Kauri gum; also in collodion and 
 rubber proofing. It is used in the production of substitutes like 
 gum fibrine, and also with chloride of sulphur in producing amber- 
 colored substitute. 
 
 Cholesterin. — See Lanichol. 
 
 Cod Oil or Cod-Liver Oil is obtained from the livers of 
 codfish. Newfoundland and Norway are the principal manufac- 
 turing points. The finest is a very pale, clear, golden yellow, the 
 color deepening to a brown in the second and third grades. Its 
 specific gravity is 0.923 to 0.929. One part of oil is soluble in 
 from 40 to 20 parts cold alcohol, or 30 to 17 parts hot alcohol. 
 The lower grades are the more soluble. It is much adulterated. 
 Is compounded with India-rubber, beeswax, linseed oil, litharge, 
 and asphalt as a waterproofing for leather and with India-rub- 
 ber, beeswax, and turpentine as a dressing for hides. 
 
 Colza Oil. — See Rape Oil. 
 
 Consolidated Oil. — See Stearine. 
 
 Corn Oil (also known as Maize Oil). — Made from the seed 
 of Indian corn, the plant known botanically as Zea mays. There 
 are two processes of manufacture: (i) in which the seed germ is 
 pressed before it is used for the manufacture of starch, which 
 produces oil of a golden yellow color, and (2) where it is 
 recovered from the residue of the fermentation vats where the 
 com has been used in the production of alcohol. This oil is dis- 
 solved sparingly in alcohol, but very readily in acetone. The oil 
 is almost without drying powers. Neither boiling nor the addi- 
 tion of lead when boiling gives it definite drying properties. If 
 it is heated, however, and a current of air passed through it, and 
 manganese borate mingled with it, it dries after a fashion. It is 
 largely used at present in the manufacture of what are known as 
 Corn-oil substitutes. 
 
 Cottonseed Oil is made from the seeds of the cotton plant, 
 usually the Gossypium herhaceum. The crude is of a ruby red 
 almost black color. The refined is pale yellow and possesses a 
 pleasant nutty taste. It is a semi-drying oil, and is rarely adul- 
 
210 OILS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS. 
 
 terated except when linseed oil is very cheap. On standing it 
 deposits stearine in waxy flakes. Much used in making substi- 
 tutes for rubber. It is also used in the production of artificial 
 elaterite, and with paraffine oil for canvas proofing. For Cotton- 
 seed blown oils see Blown Oils. 
 
 Creosote Oil is a distillate from wood tar. It is an oily 
 liquid with a smoky taste, and is antiseptic. It should be color- 
 less but is usually yellow or brown, due to impurities or to ex- 
 posure. The best is made from the beech. A similar oil is 
 distilled from coal tar. Mixed with red oxide of mercury it has 
 been used to coat the fabric of which cotton hose is made as a 
 preservative; with India-rubber and sulphur it has also formed 
 an insulating compound for telegraph wires. It is used in some 
 rubber works where it is arranged that the fumes of the naphtha 
 are carried off into it, which it rapidly absorbs, to be later re- 
 covered by distillation. 
 
 Essence of Petroleum. — Obtained during the refining of 
 Petroleum, and known also as petroleum, vaseline, petroleum 
 jelly, etc. (See Vaseline.) 
 
 EucALiPTiA. — A fragrant, refreshing volatile oil. It is 
 prepared from eucalyptus oil. 
 
 Eucalyptus Oil. — An aromatic oil found in the leaves of 
 the Eucalyptus globulus in Australia. The odor of the oil is 
 extremely pleasant, smelling not unlike oil of verbena. This oil is 
 said to be most advantageous, used in small quantities in connec- 
 tion with solvents for India-rubber, as it tends greatly to accel- 
 erate complete solution. It also breaks down refractory samples 
 of the gum and renders all of the compound homogeneous. It 
 is said that one-third of the time may be saved if from 4 to 6 per 
 cent, of this oil is used in the solvent. It is especially good for 
 low-grade gums. It has also great solvent power on all resins 
 and gums, including India-rubber and Gutta-percha. With the 
 addition of a little methylated spirit it will dissolve even kauri 
 gum, cold. It is also used in dissolving asphalt for photograph 
 varnish. 
 
 Fish Oil. — Obtained from all parts of the bodies of common 
 fish by boiling. Fish whose livers yield oil commercially do not 
 give Fish Oil, and those bodies that yield oil, do not give liver 
 
GLYCERINE. 2ii 
 
 oils. Principally prepared from Menhaden. Its specific gravity 
 varies between .915 and .930. Fish Oil is used in the manufacture 
 of the substitute known as volenite. It is used, however, only as 
 a vehicle for carrying resin into the fiber, being afterwards 
 wholly removed. 
 
 French Wool Grease. — See Lanoline. 
 
 Glycerine. — A clear liquid of oily sweet taste, without odor. 
 When pure it has a specific gravity of 1.26. The Glycerine of 
 commerce is a by-product of the soap manufacture, chemical 
 reaction occurring when the fat is treated with a caustic 
 alkali, giving rise to a compound of a fatty acid and alkali 
 to form a soap, while the Glycerine is at the same time lib- 
 erated and goes into solution. Glycerine is not acted upon by 
 oxygen, and therefore more closely resembles mineral oils, such 
 as are used in rubber mixing, than it does the drying oils that go 
 to make up substitutes. It has absolutely no solvent action on 
 rubber. 
 
 A recent German patent calls for the addition of Glycerine 
 because of its oil resisting qualities. In the compound used are 6 
 pounds of rubber, and i pound of Glycerine, together with whit- 
 ing, litharge, and sulphur. A soap made of Glycerine and an 
 alkaline fluid is also used as a cleaning and polishing medium in 
 the last stages of the manufacture of certain cut sheet goods. 
 Glycerine combined with gelatine and borax has been used as a 
 wash for both black and red rubber surfaces. 
 
 Glycerine was the basis of a well-known deodorizing com- 
 position for India-rubber, the other ingredients being of an alka- 
 line nature. A bath of Glycerine has also been used for experi- 
 mental work in vulcanizing India-rubber, and also for rubber 
 stamp making. In this kind of work, the mold and its contents 
 are immersed in the Glycerine so that the liquid just covers the 
 top of the mold; heat is then applied to the Glycerine, and the 
 mold in turn becomes hot and the rubber vulcanizes. It is also 
 used to a certain extent in good grades of white rubber, as it gives 
 a softened effect to the compound. Glycerine, in connection with 
 glue, gelatine, molasses, and tannin, is used in the manufacture of 
 puncture fluids for tires. It is also used in clothing compounds, 
 and in cellulose products like pegamoid. Used in rubber, a little 
 
212 OILS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS. 
 
 of it increases the resiliency of the product. Another use for 
 Glycerine is to prevent fabrics from mildewing. The fabric is 
 coated with it before being frictioned. 
 
 Hydrolene. — A rubber assistant used in connection with the 
 reclaiming of rubber, and also rubber compounding. It would 
 seem to be a petroleum product, and in rubber reclaiming is used 
 instead of stock oil or residuum. 
 
 Japan Wax. — A white or pale yellow vegetable fat, with a 
 specific gravity of 0.97 to 0.98. It is used in wax matches, 
 candles, and for adulterating beeswax. A special use for it, that 
 has arisen within the last few years, is in the manufacture of 
 cravenette cloths. 
 
 Lallemantia Oil is obtained from the seeds of the Lalle- 
 mantia iberica, a plant cultivated in Russia. This is one of the 
 best drying oils, being said to surpass even linseed oil, but its 
 chief use is for illuminating purposes. In Europe it is said to 
 have been used instead of linseed oil in rubber substitutes. 
 
 Lanichol. — A product of lanoline (which see), made from 
 the oil' of sheep's wool. It combines with Gutta-percha and India- 
 rubber in any proportion to a perfectly homogeneous mass. This 
 grease does not oxidize and is wholly antiseptic. It has no smell, 
 and is impervious to the action of alkalies or to dilute sulphuric 
 acid. It is said that, used in connection with Gutta-percha, the 
 melting point is considerably raised, while it does not diminish 
 the insulating property. An insulating compound given is 50 
 parts by weight of Gutta-percha, 30 parts of India-rubber, 20 
 parts Lanichol. The inventor claims that it renders Gutta-percha 
 less liable to oxidation, improves its elasticity and tenacity, and 
 diminishes its liabilty to become sticky. Patented in the United 
 States and Great Britain by Robert Hutchinson. 
 
 Lanoline is also known as wool grease, recovered grease, 
 and brown grease. It is the natural grease found in sheep's wool 
 and recovered from it while the raw wool is being prepared for 
 spinning. A similar grease, made from scoured woven goods, is 
 known as Yorkshire grease. It is a thick yellow or brown offen- 
 sive smelling greasy paste. Commercial Lanoline is lighter 
 colored and consists of about 80 per cent, of pure wool fat and 20 
 per cent, of water. It possesses in a remarkable degree the 
 
■ LAN OLINE— LINSEED OIL. 2-13 
 
 property of taking- up water without losing its vaseline-like con- 
 sistency. Is largely used in ointments. 
 
 Lanoline, mixed with India-rubber, works up into an exceed- 
 ingly sticky mass, and is used as a medicinal plaster. It is said 
 that, while it possesses the adhesive properties of the regular' 
 plaster, Lanoline takes up the medicament, and while very sticky 
 can be readily removed from the skin. It is used for the purpose' 
 of softening India-rubber, and was advised for use in tires, as it 
 was said to soften the compound, and to keep the tire from decay, 
 and from consequent surface cracking. It was also said to be 
 used in boot and shoe work. 
 
 Lard Oil is prepared by the cold pressing of lard, which, of 
 course, is the fat of the hog. It is a colorless, limpid liquid, 
 although poorer grades are brown. Its specific gravity is 0.915. 
 It is frequently adulterated with rape oil and cottonseed oil. Lard 
 Oil, mixed with powdered pumice stone into a thick paste, is used 
 for polishing hard rubber. 
 
 Linseed Oil is pressed from the seeds of the flax plant 
 (Linum usitatissimum) , grown chiefly in India, Russia, and 
 Argentina. The trade recognizes two qualities of Russian seed — 
 yielding the Black sea Linseed Oil, and the Baltic Linseed Oil — 
 while that coming from India is known as East India Oil. Of 
 these, the Baltic is the best, and the East Indian the poorest in 
 quality. The two lower grades are not up in quality for the 
 reason that the Black sea seed contains a certain amount of hemp 
 seed, while that from India is usually mixed with rape, camelinc, 
 and mustard seeds. The oil which is expressed from these seeds 
 is of a golden yellow color, with a peculiar taste and odor. Lin- 
 seed Oil becomes easily rancid in the open air, but when spread 
 in thin films dries into an insoluble substance which has been 
 called linoxyn. Linseed Oil is adulterated sometimes by fish or 
 mineral oils, and by resin oils. Old tanked Linseed Oil is used in 
 the preparation of what is known as boiled oil ; that is, it is heated 
 in a high temperature that it may more rapidly dry when used in 
 varnish. This drying process is hastened by the addition of man- 
 ganese dioxide, litharge, etc. Boiled Linseed Oil is much darker 
 than raw oil, having a brown red shade. It is also much more 
 viscous and has a higher specific gravity. Boiled oil is adulterated 
 
214 OILS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS. 
 
 in the same manner as is raw Linseed Oil, the adulterants being 
 resin oils, resin, and mineral oils. 
 
 In rubber compounding Linseed Oil is very often used. A 
 very simple formula for waterproofing canvas is India-rubber, 
 litharge, sulphur, and Linseed Oil. It is also used in rubber var- 
 nishes, to a certain extent in molded goods, and quite largely in 
 hard rubber compounding. It is used in the manufacture of rub- 
 ber substitutes, and is well known as it is the basis of a great 
 many of the vulcanized oil substitutes. Linseed Oil that is in- 
 tended for mixing in linoleum is exposed to the air until it is 
 thoroughly oxygenated. In this state it is insoluble in alcohol, 
 chloroform, ether, and ordinary solvents. 
 
 Lithographic Varnish is obtained by boiling linseed oil at 
 a temperature higher than that at which boiled oil is prepared, 
 nor are dryers added during the boiling. It is a perfectly clear, 
 transparent substance, the best quality being nearly as light as 
 raw linseed oil. There are two ordinary grades of Lithographic 
 Varnish. One is known as "burnt oil," which is obtained by 
 bringing raw linseed oil up to its flash point, and allowing it to 
 bum until the required thickness is reached, it being constantly 
 stirred meanwhile. "Oxygenated oil" is a linseed oil varnish 
 made by treating the oil with oxygen in jacketed kettles, heated by 
 steam. The product is as light colored as raw linseed oil, but 
 heavier. It is also more readily soluble in alcohol, and has marked 
 drying powers. 
 
 Manganated Linseed Oil is used in certain rubber com- 
 pounds where more of a drying effect is needed than is found in 
 the raw linseed oil. It is linseed oil that has been boiled with 
 peroxide of manganese to increase its drying qualities. (See 
 Boiled Oil.) 
 
 MiRBANE Oil. — See Nitrobenzene. 
 
 Mustard Oil. — Black Mustard Oil is obtained from the 
 seeds of the Sinapsis nigra. It possesses a mild taste, is of a 
 brownish yellow color, and in its chemical composition closely 
 resembles rapeseed oil. It is a by-product and is largely used in 
 soap making. White Mustard Oil is made from the seeds of the 
 Sinapis alba. It is of a yellow color, and is almost identical with 
 black Mustard Oil. Used in making rubber substitutes. 
 
NEATSFOOT OJL-^OIL OF TAR. 215 
 
 Neatsfoot Oil. — A pale, yellow, colorless oil, obtained from 
 like feet of oxen by boiling in water. It has a smooth pleasant 
 taste. On standing it deposits stearine. It is largely adulterated 
 with cheaper animal or vegetable and even mineral oils. Neats- 
 foot Oil, mixed with Gutta-percha, tallow, sweet oil, and oil of 
 thyme, is used as a rust preventive. It is used in connection 
 with beeswax. India-rubber, and Burgundy pitch in a composition 
 for dressing leathers or hides. 
 
 Nitrobenzene (also called Oil of Mirbane and "imitation 
 oil of bitter almonds") is a yellow aromatic liquid produced by 
 the action of nitric acid on benzine. It is used in perfumery and 
 turned out in great quantities for the manufacture of anilines. 
 It is used also in certain insulating compounds in connection with 
 asbestos, powdered glass, vulcanized rubber, castor oil, resin oil, 
 and celluloid in solution. 
 
 Oil of Lavender has no perfume when new, but develops 
 it on being exposed to the air. It is distilled from the flowers of 
 the Lavandula vera, and is used sometimes to deodorzie rubber 
 goods. 
 
 Oil of Lemon is obtained from fresh lemon peel. A very 
 volatile yellow or colorless oil ; specific gravity of 0.858 ; soluble in 
 bisulphide of carbon, and absolute alcohol ; often adulterated with 
 fixed oils and alcohol; dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resin, and 
 fats; used to deodorize certain proofing compounds, cologne 
 sometimes taking its place. 
 
 Oil of Orris, or Orris Oil, is found commercially and is 
 prepared from the root. It is lighter than water, and of the con- 
 sistency of butter. Melts at 100° F., and is miscible with alcohol. 
 Its odor is like that of violets. Is used in rubber as a deodorizer. 
 
 Oil of Peppermint. — A greenish yellow colorless oil, be- 
 coming reddish with age; of a strong and aromatic odor; and 
 warm, camphor like, very pungent taste; specific gravity from 
 0.902 to 0.920 ; used in fine goods for its color. 
 
 Oil of Rosemary. — An essential oil of the specific gravity 
 0.896. Colorless and having the odor of rosemary. Used with 
 India-rubber, parafiine, and spermaceti in waterproofing com- 
 pounds, and, where rubber is present, to neutralize its odor. 
 
 Oil of Tar. — An oil distilled from tar. It is a mixture of 
 
2i6 OILS IN- RUBBER 'COMPOUNDS. 
 
 several lighter oils, and is made up of liquid hydrocarbons which 
 hold in solution small quantities of anthracine, napthaline, and 
 paraffine. It is sometimes used for mixing with lubricating oils, 
 and for coating bags that are to hold alkaline earths, the interior 
 of the bag being washed with chloride of lime. The Earl of Dun- 
 donald recommended Oil of Tar as a coating for rubber, claiming 
 that it had a preservative effect. It is also used in compounds 
 for surface clothing. 
 
 Oil of Thyme (also called Origanum Oil) is extriacted 
 from the flowers and leaves of the Thymus vulgaris. It is yel-" 
 lowish red in color ; its specific gravity is 0.92 ; and it has a pun- 
 gent taste ; it is used to disgitise the odor of ale cements. 
 
 Oil of Wormwood. — A pungent essential oil distilled from 
 the Artemisia absinthium: employed at an early day to deodorize 
 spirits of turpentine when used in rubber. 
 
 OleaRgum. — A black viscid liquid of an oily nature used as 
 a dull finish wash for rubber boots. Its composition is a trade 
 secret. 
 
 Oleum Succini. — The sam.e as Oil of Amber (which see) ; 
 used in the manufacture of soap substitutes. 
 
 Olive Oil is expressed from the fruit of the olive tree, prin- 
 cipally in the countries of Europe bordering on the Mediterra- 
 nean. Its specific gravity is 0.916. It is adulterated frequently 
 with cottonseed oil. Olive Oil is used in taking impressions from 
 type faces in the matrix in which rubber type is cured. Mayall 
 suggested the mixing of Olive Oil with clay until it formed a 
 soft putty, and then incorporating it with India-rubber, the 
 proportion being -J pound of oil to 30 pounds of gum. The use 
 of the oil enabled the goods to be more largely adulterated ; he 
 also used Olive Oil in connection with devulcanized rubber, not as 
 a solvent, but because he claimed that it combined with the gum 
 and improved its quality. Olive Oil is also used in hard rubber 
 compounding. Rubber is sometimes heated up in Olive Oil mixed" 
 with zinc, soap, and borax for a proofing solution. It is also used 
 in the manufacture of pegamoid. 
 
 Palm Oil is obtained from the fruit of various species of 
 palm, principally from the west coast of Africa, and is known in 
 commerce under as many names as there are ports of shipment. 
 
PALM OIL—PETROLA TUM:' ' iiy 
 
 It is expressed in a very rough fashion by the natives, who stir 
 the palm kernels in holes in the ground until fermentation sets in 
 and the oil rises to the surface. They also sometimes press the 
 oil from the fresh fruits. The harder grades of Palm Oil are 
 yielded by the former process, the latter giving the finer oils. 
 Palm Oil varies in consistency. Its specific gravity is 0.945 ; its 
 color yellow to reddish ; its odor that of violets. It yields a soap 
 readily with alkalies and dissolves in ether and in alcohol of 0.848 
 specific gravity. Palm Oil is very rarely adulterated, unless it is 
 done by the native gatherers, who sometimes add sand as a make- 
 weight. Commercially, where sand and water together exceed 2 
 per cent., an allowance is claimed from the seller. 
 
 White Palm Oil is that which has been bleached by heated 
 chemicals or exposure to the air. "Lagos oil" has about the same 
 consistency as butter, while "Congo oil" is as thick as tallow. 
 Palm Oil is used largely in the manufacture of mechanical and 
 dry-heat goods, chiefly to enable dry ingredients to mix more 
 easily with India-rubber. It has also been used in the recovery 
 of waste rubber by the mixing of the finely ground rubber with 
 it and exposing the mass to a heat of 572° F. Palm Oil residuum 
 is used in connection with resin oil as an insulator. Palm Oil is 
 also used in the production of artificial elaterite. 
 
 Paraffine Oil is a petroleum product; it may also be pre- 
 pared from coal tar and wood tar. It is a waxy substance of a 
 white color, much resembling spermaceti. It is used chiefly as a 
 lubricant, and is not acted upon by most of the chemical reagents. 
 Paraffine Oil mixed with cottonseed oil is used in certain canvas 
 proofings. 
 
 Petroleum Oil (also known as Rock Oil) is a dark, ill- 
 smelling liquid, obtained from wells sunk in oil-bearing sands. 
 Some Russian oils, however, are colorless. White Rangoon oil 
 contains so much paraffine as to have the consistency of butter. 
 The specific gravity of American petroleum varies from 0.8 to 
 0.85 or 0.9. 
 
 Petroleum Paraffine. — See Vaseline. 
 
 Petroleum Jelly. — See Vaseline. 
 
 Petrolatum is a rubber compounding ingredient very gen- 
 erally used, especially in mechanical goods. It is one of the 
 
2i8 OILS IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS. 
 
 numerous products of petroleum or rock oil derived by distilla- 
 tion. These products are classed as follows : Light oils, includ- 
 ing gasoline and naphtha ; illuminating oils, kerosene ; residuum 
 or tar. From the latter subdivision is separable, by further in- 
 crease of heat, heavy lubricating and parafiine oils, among which 
 are petrolatum or vaseline, and coke as a waste product. 
 
 Petrolatum gains much of its value from its indifference to 
 volatile oils. It is separated from the residuum of crude petro- 
 leum which has been subjected to the vacuum process of distil- 
 lation in contradistinction to the "cracking" process by which 
 some of the natural constituents are chemically broken up to form 
 new bodies. The residuum being kept fluid by steam, the finely 
 divided coke resulting being the distillation is allowed to settle 
 out and the clear oil drawn oflf and filtered through bone charcoal 
 contained in cylinders, in order to remove the color and odors 
 contained in it. Sometimes the oil recovered from the residuum 
 is treated with sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate for the 
 removal of certain impurities before the filtration through bone 
 charcoal. This is said to be the German process. 
 
 Petrolatum gains much of its value from its indifference to 
 all chemical treatment, thus resembling paraffine very closely. 
 It is generally familiar as a dense product, pale yellow, trans- 
 lucent, slightly fluorescent, semi-solid melting at about ioo° F., 
 and having a specific gravity of 0.850. Its chemically inert quality 
 peculiarly adapts Petrolatum to use in rubber compounding where 
 a non-oxidizing lubricant and softener is needed to facilitate the 
 manipulation of harsh or dry compounds, and which will not sub- 
 sequently develop in the finished goods injurious or other incon- 
 venient qualities. Simple softening of rubber any oil will 
 accomplish, but for all around adaptability Petrolatum excels all 
 others. 
 
 Ordinarily 2 or 2^ per cent, of Petrolatum is sufficient in any 
 compound where its presence is needed, although 5 or even 7 per 
 cent, may be employed in special cases. Cheap goods containing 
 Petrolatum will withstand drying out or hardening with age, a 
 similar effect being produced by the use of soft coal tar. As 
 regards the item of economy. Petrolatum commends itself to the 
 rubber manufacturer when considering the use of an oil ingre- 
 
POPPYSEED OIL— SHALE OIL. 219 
 
 dient in compounding. For all ordinary purposes, everything 
 except perhaps the whitest goods, the dark filtered stock is entirely 
 suitable and the price will be less than the light filtered stock. 
 
 PoppYSEED Oil is obtained by pressing the seeds of the com- 
 mon poppy (Papaver somniferum). Commercially there are two 
 grades, white and red. This oil has a pleasant taste and no odor ; 
 it is rarely adulterated with other oils, although occasionally 
 sesame oil is found in it; it is an excellent drying oil, and its 
 lower grades are used in the manufacture of soaps ; its use in the 
 rubber industry is chiefly in the manufacture of substitutes. 
 
 Rapeseed Oil (also known as Colza Oil) is a pale yellow in 
 color, with an unpleasant harsh taste. Its specific gravity is about 
 0.916. It is largely adulterated with vegetable, mineral, or 
 fish oils. It is obtained from the seeds of the Brassica campestris, 
 and of several varieties of this genus which are cultivated. 
 American oils from all of these are termed Colza or Rape Oil in- 
 discriminately. In Europe, however. Rape is one kind of oil and 
 Colza is another. There is also what is called the summer oil and 
 the winter oil, a distinction which is of no interest to rubber 
 manufacturers. Rape oil is hardly a semi-drying oil, nor is it yet 
 a non-drying oil, but about half way between the two. It is used in 
 the manufacture of certain rubber substitutes. Mixed with India- 
 rubber it has been used as a somewhat costly mixture for lubri- 
 cating machinery. 
 
 Rosin Oil. — Made by subjecting resin to destructive distil- 
 lation. The resultant oil is heavier than mineral oils, and its 
 chemical composition is quite involved. It is largely made up, 
 however, of hydrocarbons, with a certain amount of resin acids. 
 Used in making a waterproof solution, by the addition of Japan 
 wax and gum thus, in the manufacture of a solution for treating 
 hides and leather. Used also in compounds for calking ships in 
 which India-rubber has a part, and is an important ingredient in 
 the manufacture of guttaline. (See Rosin.) 
 
 Russian Mineral Oil. — Petroleum from the Baku oil wells. 
 
 Shale Oil. — Chiefly produced in Scotland from a dark, 
 coal-like looking material called shale. It is similar in nearly all 
 respects to petroleum oil. Used with asphaltum in certain insu- 
 lating compounds. 
 
220 OILS IN R VBBER-- CO'MPO UNDS. 
 
 Sludce. — The brown or black residue obtained in the defin- 
 ing of petroleum after all the lighter oils have been distilled off: 
 Known also as Petroleum Residuum. (See Sludge-oil Resin.) 
 
 Stearine. — An important ingredient in animal and- vege- 
 table fats. It is quite solid, and increases the hardness, and raises 
 the melting point of fat. Commercially, Stearine is also known ag 
 stearic acid. It is an important element in the manufacture of 
 cravenettes, where it is used with ozocerite, beeswax, paraffine, 
 and Japan wax. 
 
 TalloVi'. — Beef tallow, when fresh, is almost white, free 
 from disagreeable odor, and almost tasteless. On the other hand, 
 foreign tallow runs from white to yellow and is often quite ran- 
 cid. Tallow is often adulterated with resin oil, cocoanut oil, cot- 
 tonseed oil, and paraffine wax. It is used in non-drying cements 
 in connection with slaked lime and India-rubber. In connection 
 with India-rubber it is also used in the production of what was 
 known as Derry's waterproof harness oil, which was made of 
 India-rubber, Tallow, seal oil, and ivory black. An etching var- 
 nish is made of Gutta-percha, turpentine, beeswax, and Tallow. 
 A small amount of this was used by Hancock in compounding 
 for softening Gutta-percha. It is used with Gutta-percha in shoe- 
 makers' wax, and also in certain proofing compounds with India- 
 rubber, pitch, and linseed oil. Mixed with India-rubber, beeswax, 
 and linseed oil, Tallow makes an excellent dressing for leather. 
 
 Turpentine was used in one of the earliest formulas in the 
 manufacture of devulcanized rubber. (See Spirits of Turpentine.) 
 
 Vaseline is the purified residue from the distillation of 
 petroleum. Its specific gravity is .875 to .945. It is insoluble in 
 water, barely soluble in cold, but soluble in boiling absolute alco- 
 hol, and in ether, bisulphide of carbon, oil of turpentine, benzine, 
 and benzol. It is the basis of a cheap waterproofing process, the 
 other ingredients being silicate of soda, alum, and hot water. 
 Vaseline is used quite often in general compounding for its soft- 
 ening efifects. It is also combined with menthol and gum ali- 
 banum in the manufacture of porous plasters. Vaseline has been 
 iised in the manufacture of substitutes similar to ruberite. (See 
 Petrolatum.) 
 
 Vulcanized Oil. — See Rubber Substitutes. , ■ 
 
WALNUT OIL. 221 
 
 Walnut Oil. — Cold drawn oil is very fluid, almost colorless, 
 and of an agreeable nutty flavor. Hot pressed oil has a greenish 
 tint and an acrid taste and smell. Is used in rubber substitutes, 
 particularly in those in which peroxide of lead appears as a dryer. 
 
 White Drying Oil. — Bleached linseed oil. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SOLVENTS USED IN INDIA-RUBBER PROOFING AND CEMENTING AND IN 
 COMMERCIAL CEMENTS. 
 
 The beginnings of the manufacture of India-rubber con- 
 sisted in putting the gum in solution and it was a considerable 
 time before the discovery of the present processes of dry mixing, 
 which are employed in the production of the greater part of the 
 rubber goods now made. There are certain lines, however, where 
 the use of solvents is still both necessary and economical. In the 
 mackintosh manufacture, for instance, the rubber is in almost 
 every instance spread in the form of solution, as a thinner coat 
 can be spread in this way, offsetting the cost of the solvent. Many 
 sheetings in various colors that, only a few years ago, were calen- 
 dered, are now coated by the means of solution. In the making 
 up of almost all lines of rubber goods, certain cements are neces- 
 sary, and these are ordinarily made in the factory that produces 
 the goods. The cements that are sold in bulk, such as channeling 
 cements, for leather shoe manufacturing, as well as cements that 
 are sold in smaller packages to repair men in the cycle industry, 
 all consist of rubber and analogous gums treated with some suit- 
 able solvent. Before discussing the ordinary and the extraor- 
 dinary solvents that interest the rubber manufacturer, it may be 
 well to consider what the various solvents can do. 
 
 The following tables showing the solubility of India-rubber 
 are of exceeding interest, therefore. The first, which is taken 
 from the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, is a table 
 of the solubility of masticated caoutchouc in solvents : 
 
 Ceara Para Sierra Leone 
 
 100 parts of : Rubber Negroheads Rubber 
 
 Ethyl ether 2.6 3.6 4.6 
 
 Turpentine 4.5 5.0 4.6 
 
 Chloroform 3.0 3.7 3.0 
 
 Petroleum benzene 4.4 5.0 j 1 7 
 
 Carbon bisulphide 0.4 None. None. 
 
 Hoffer gives, as a result of his individual experiments, the 
 
 following table of solutions, the samples in each case being 100 
 
 parts of well-dried India-rubber: 
 
 222 
 
RESINS IN RUBBER. 223; 
 
 In bisulphide of carbon 65 to 70 
 
 In benzol 48 to 52 
 
 In oil of turpentine 50 to 52 
 
 In caoutchine 53 to 55 
 
 In ether 60 to 68 
 
 In camphene 53 to 58 
 
 The great differences in solubility between various grades of 
 rubber have been found to be due, as much as anything, to the 
 amounts of resins that are to be found in them. As these resins 
 are soluble, and in some cases can be removed, it is important that 
 rubber manufacturers not only appreciate their presence, but, 
 where it is practicable, dissolve them out. These resins, accord- 
 ing to Lascelles-Scott, who furnishes the following table, consist 
 of abietic acid or some other similar body : 
 
 Normal Resin Normal Resin 
 
 Description of (soluble in Description of (soluble in 
 
 Rubber. 85 p. c. Alcohol) . Rubber. 85 p. c. Alcohol) . 
 
 Para 91 Ceara 1.16 
 
 Para 60 Assam 6.45 
 
 Para 1.62 Assam 4.88 
 
 Para 1.14 Burma 5.20 
 
 Para 85 Rio 3.37 
 
 Madagascar 4.06 Africa (various) 8.23 
 
 Madagascar 5.22 Africa (various) 10.60 
 
 Madagascar 2.84 Africa (various) 6.71 
 
 Colombia 3.40 Mangabeira 8.43 
 
 Colombia 2.11 Origin unknown 11.14 
 
 Ceara 2.33 Origin unknown 7.27 
 
 Ceara 1.80 Origin unknown 16.56 
 
 In some of them oxygen is a component part, and they are 
 all soluble in alcohol of 85 per cent, strength and upwards. It 
 will be noticed from this table that Para rubber has the least per- 
 centage of resin, and, of course, is the most valuable. The 
 samples containing the largest proportions of resin were unmis- 
 takably adulterated with other gums during collection. 
 
 C. O. Weber gives the percentages of resin in a number of 
 samples of rubber as follows : 
 
 Per Cent. Per Cent, 
 
 Grade of Rubber. Resin. Grade of Rubber. Resin. 
 
 Para (fine) 1.3 Sierra Leone 9.7 
 
 Ceara 2.1 Assam 11.3 
 
 Colombian 3.8 Mangabeira 13.1 
 
 Mozambique 3.2 African ball No. i 22.8 
 
 Rio Janeiro 5.2 African ball No. 2 26.1 
 
 Madagascar 8.2 African flake 63.9 
 
 The patent of Frankenberg (English) covering the produc- 
 tion of non-inflammable solutions of rubber is of exceeding 
 
224 SOLVENTS' FOR R UBBER. 
 
 interest as suggesting the use of new and safe solvents. To-day 
 few chlo'rhydrins are used, because of their expense, but a num- 
 ber of them are on the market and the cost is steadily being 
 reduced. Frankenberg's solutions are produced by mixing rubber 
 with carbon tetrachloride, dichlor-methane, trichlor-ethane, tetra- 
 chlor-ethane, or trichlor-benzol, alone or together. The rubber 
 may be softened with coal-tar naphtha or other solvent before 
 the above solvents are added. 
 
 Acetone is a colorless mobile liquid, with a very unpleasant 
 taste and peculiar odor, and outwardly resembling alcohol. It is 
 a good solvent for many organic substances, and for many gums 
 and resins. Acetone is produced by the destructive distillation of 
 acetate of lime, which is one of the chemicals made from the 
 products of wood distillation. It has a specific gravity of .80 and 
 boiling point of 134° F. It is a solvent for rubber resins dis- 
 solving about 18 per cent, of Pontianak resin while hot and is 
 recommended as a solvent for use in analysis of rubber, as it is 
 without action on the gum. 
 
 Alcohol, when pure, is a colorless, thin, mobile liquid, of a 
 somewhat disagreeable smell, burning taste, and specific gravity 
 0.792. What is known as absolute Alcohol is that which has been 
 deprived of all water. Its specific gravity is 0.795. It eagerlv 
 absorbs water, and, as it becomes more dilute, its specific gravity 
 rises ; Alcohol of 60 per cent, has a specific gravity of .883. There 
 are a number of forms of alcohol used in the arts. Alcohol, 
 chemically considered, embraces a large class of similar bodies. 
 Wood Alcohol or methyl Alcohol is made from the products of 
 wood distillation, is a colorless mobile fluid with a specific gravity 
 of .80 and a boiling point of 150° F. and is poisonous. It is a 
 good solvent for many resins, but dissolves Pontianak resin 
 scarcely at all. Some of the resins of other rubbers are attacked 
 slightly by it. Grain Alcohol is the product of the fermentation 
 of starch or sugar and in the United States is made largely from 
 corn, rye, and molasses. It is chemically termed ethyl Alcohol 
 and is the next in series above wood Alcohol. Its boiling point 
 is 170° F. and its solvent powers for resins of rubber is greater 
 than that of wood Alcohol, but some other resins are less soluble 
 in the grain Alcohol. It can be brought to a purity of only 96 
 
ALCOHOL. " 225 
 
 per cent, by ordinary distillation, and this grade is known as 
 cologne spirits or neutral spirits. It does not dissolve rubber or 
 sulphur, except the "beta" modification which crystallizes in 
 yellow prisms. Dissolves readily in benzol but not in petroleum 
 benzine except slightly. Dissolves fatty acids but not fats or fatty 
 oils except castor oil. Soluble in most rubber solvents or dissolves 
 them. Grain or ethyl Alcohol is the most commonly used Alcohol 
 and is usually the one referred to unless others are specified. 
 
 Denatured Alcohol is merely grain Alcohol to which have been 
 added small quantities of substances which render it poisonous 
 and undrinkable. The most common formula for denaturing 
 Alcohol is 5 per cent, wood Alcohol and J4 per cent, petroleum 
 naphtha or gasoline. Many other special formulas are allowed. 
 When so denatured it may be removed from the distillery without 
 the payment of the government tax of $1.10 per proof gallon or 
 $2.90 per gallon of 95 per cent. 
 
 Fusel oil consists of higher Alcohols and is obtained in the 
 manufacture of grain Alcohol. It is insoluble in water and a 
 solvent of many gums and of pyroxylin or celluloid. Other sub- 
 stances, for example, phenol and glycerine, are chemically alcohols, 
 but are not so called in commerce. 
 
 None of these really are solvents of rubber, but are frequently 
 and largely used in varnishes. India-rubber solution, when 
 treated with large quantities of Alcohol, is deposited in a spongy 
 form, the foreign ingredients in the gum going into the solution. 
 Treated in this way it can be made an exceedingly white mass. It 
 is also used in treating many of the pseudo guttas to dissolve out 
 the brittle resinous matters. It has also been claimed that the wash- 
 ing of raw rubber with Alcohol dissolves resinous ingredients 
 which are better absent, and that the rubber as a result lasts 
 longer. Rectified spirit is what is generally known, or rather, 
 used, in connection with India-rubber. It is used by the gatherers 
 to coagulate the latex of the Balata, and is used also in the produc- 
 tion of resinolines (which see). One of the early uses was to 
 mix with it various solvents — for instance, with spirits of tur- 
 pentine, coal oil, bisulphide of carbon, ether, chloroform, etc. 
 When ill-smelling solvents were used, it was also often incor- 
 porated to neutralize the odor. In the Azo process for reclaiming 
 
226 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 rubber, 20 parts of Alcohol to i part of bisulphide of carboti are 
 used for softening and reclaiming rubber. Dental and other gums 
 are exposed to the sunlight in Alcohol to increase the brilliancy 
 of the colors and to make the shades lighter. Alcohol is also 
 used to soften vulcanized rubber when a surface color is to be 
 added. Alcohol, in connection with nitric acid, spirits of tur- 
 pentine, and aniline, was used by Kelly for surface work on 
 India-rubber. 
 
 Anthracine. — A trade name for Napthaline (which see). 
 Benzol or Benzole is a volatile oil obtained in the distilla- 
 tion of coal tar, which must not be confused with petroleum ben- 
 zine or petroleum naphtha. Its specific gravity is 0.899 ^^ 3^° F., 
 and 0.878 at 68° F. Chemically it consists of 6 parts carbon and 
 6 parts of hydrogen and its combinations and products are the 
 most numerous and best known of all chemical compounds. It is 
 the basis of nitrobenzene and aniline which is the basis of the 
 largest part of the coal tar compounds, colors and dyes. Com- 
 mercially it is sold as pure, 90 per cent, and 70 per cent. By 
 90 per cent. Benzol it is meant that 90 per cent, will distill over at 
 the temperature of boiling water and likewise with 70 per cent. 
 The commercial Benzol is to a great extent obtained from the 
 Hquid which settles out from compressed Pintch gas. The com- 
 mercial article is a mixture of Benzol with higher boiling bodies 
 which are very similar in their chemical properties, and these bodies 
 are mostly toloul or toulene which boils at 232° F. and xylol or 
 xylene which boils at 287° F. and higher boiling homologues. It is 
 slightly soluble in water, and freely soluble in alcohol and ether, 
 and in bisulphide of carbon. It has great solvent properties. Benzol 
 (is used largely as a solvent for rubber in manufacturing bicycle 
 cements, and also for dissolving rubber, and for the cold vulcani- 
 jzation of thin rubber fabrics containing chloride of sulphur, in 
 ', which Benzol is much superior to carbon bisulphide ; and at pres- 
 ■ ent it is much cheaper, both on account of less loss in handling, 
 and also, of its much lower price per gallon. This refers more 
 particuarly to the high grades of Benzol, like 100 per cent, or 
 C. P. ; the 160° Benzol is mostly used where a solvent is required 
 that must not evaporate too rapidly. It is said that if Gutta- 
 percha is put in 20 times its weight of boiling Benzol, to which 
 
BISULPHIDE OF CARBON. 227 
 
 one-tenth of plaster is added, and the mixture agitated from 
 time to time, a perfectly clear solution is decanted. This is then 
 mixed with twice its volume of 90 per cent, alcohol and the 
 Gutta-percha precipitated a pure white. (See Naphtha.) 
 
 Bisulphide of Carbon is a transparent liquid, the specific 
 gravity of which it 1.27. It is exceedingly volatile, evaporating at 
 ordinary temperature. When properly made its smell is some- 
 what similar to chloroform. The bad smell found in some is due 
 to sulphureted hydrogen, and the presence of foreign matters 
 from which it can be thoroughly freed by purification. It is 
 highly inflammable, though not explosive, and has great affinity 
 for sulphur, 100 parts dissolving 37 parts of sulphur, cold; and 
 at 100° F. the same quantity will dissolve 94.5 parts. Bisulphide 
 of Carbon mixes with every known substance capable of vul- 
 canizing rubber. It also assimilates rapidly with all fatty oils, 
 and dissolves all the resins, with the exception of shellac. It does 
 not dissolve vulcanized rubber, however. Where it is used in 
 rubber factories care is taken, as a rule, to remove the fumes, as 
 they are injurious to the workmen. Some very serious cases 
 of chronic poisoning have occurred through the use of this sol- 
 vent, the symptoms being numbness, partial paralysis, and, in 
 some cases, temporary insanity. The use of Bisulphide of Carbon 
 in rubber factories is very carefully watched, therefore, by the 
 authorities in Europe, proper means for ventilation and carrying 
 off the fumes being insisted upon, and minors being excluded 
 from rooms where it is used. It is one of the best and most com- 
 mon solvents for India-rubber, very largely used in the Parkes 
 cold curing and similar processes, and in cements. 
 
 Bisulphide of Carbon Substitute, a liquid produced by 
 Dr. Carl Otto Weber, is said to have been a perfect substitute for 
 bisulphide of carbon. It had these advantages: less chloride of 
 sulphur was needed, the smell of the vulcanized product was 
 sweeter, the vulcanizing solution penetrated deeper into the rub- 
 ber, the risk of burning the rubber and the uneven vulcanization 
 were also done away with. It is also said that this substitute is 
 not injurious to the health. It is manufactured in England. 
 
 Borax is sometimes used as a solvent for rubber. (See 
 Acids and Alkalies.) 
 
228 SOLVENTS FOR R UBBER. 
 
 Camphene is a name applied to one of the varieties of spirits 
 of turpentine which was once largely used as a burning fluid. It 
 is very volatile, and the vapor may exist in the air in explosive 
 quantities. Camphene was formerly used to a certain extent as a 
 solvent for India-rubber. Under Newton's method of recovering 
 rubber, the waste was placed in a closed vessel, covered with 
 Camphene, and heated to 158° F. for fourteen days. The solvent 
 was then distilled off, and the tough mass remaining was capable 
 of utilization, and was somewhat similar to unvulcanized rubber. 
 It was also used in the boot heel cements in the old-fashioned 
 method of attaching them to rubber boots, and also in general 
 shoe cements. Camphene was also used in putting vulcanized 
 waste, finely powdered, into a solution in connection with ether 
 and alcohol, in a simple but somewhat expensive process of 
 recovery. 
 
 Camphor has been used as a solvent for utilizing the waste 
 of vulcanized rubber and of hard rubber, the waste being first 
 treated with any ordinary solvent and then placed in a still with 
 a certain amount of Camphor, when the India-rubber is dissolved 
 and the solvent passed out and distilled over again. Granulated 
 Camphor, over which had been passed sulphurous acid gas until 
 it was reduced to a liquid, was used also as a solvent for India- 
 rubber, by Alexander Parkes. (See Gums, etc.) 
 
 Caoutchoucine, also spelled Caoutchine, is a crude oil of 
 India-rubber, made by its dry distillation, and smelling much like 
 naphtha. It is an excellent solvent for India-rubber, but of course 
 is too expensive for ordinary use. India-rubber immersed in it 
 swells exceedingly, and a considerable quantity of it is dissolved 
 during the boiling. It must be kept in hermetically sealed vessels, 
 as it has a great affinity for oxygen, which it absorbs energeti- 
 cally. In preparing it, the India-rubber is treated in a retort at 
 a heat exceeding 400° F. Caoutchoucine dissolves in ether or 
 alcohol, and, absorbing oxygen freely, forms a resinous body as 
 a result. 
 
 Carbon Tetrachloride is a heavy, colorless, transparent 
 mobile liquid, having a neutral reaction. Its odor is agreeable, 
 but poisonous, resembling that of chloroform. It is non-inflam- 
 mable and non-explosive. The vapors do not support combustion, 
 
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE. 229 
 
 but act in the reverse as a fire extingfuisher. The specific gravity 
 of Carbon Tetrachloride is 1.6; the boiHng point yy° C. or 170° F. 
 The Hquid is insoluble in water, diluted alcohol containing less 
 than 75 per cent, by volume of absolute alcohol and also in glycer- 
 ine and the glycerides. It is freely soluble in acetone, glacial 
 acetic acid, oleic acid, liquid carbonic acid and aqueous solution 
 of carbolic acid, ethyl, and amylic alcohol, chloroform, carbon 
 disulphide, benzol (Petroleum benzine), ether and aniline, oil of 
 turpentine, petroleum and all petroleum products, also in fixed and 
 volatile oils and oleoresins. 
 
 It dissolves oils, fats, resins, w^ax, India-rubber, Gutta- 
 percha, ceresin, spermaceti, paraffine, stearin, varnish, paints, 
 asphaltum, pitch, balsams, coal tar, pine tar, and soda and 
 potash soaps. It also dissolves salicylic acid, carbolic acid, 
 iodine, bromine, iodoform, bromoform, menthol, thymol, cam- 
 phor, camphor monobromate, naphthalin, etc. It further- 
 more dissolves several gases, among others ammonia and hydro- 
 gen sulphides. It is not acted upon by the strong mineral 
 acids and is not decomposed by an aqueous solution of potassa, 
 which will, however, remove any carbon disulphide or hydro- 
 gen sulphide present. 
 
 It is strongly recommended as an extracting medium. It 
 is important to remember that in contrast with benzine, gaso- 
 line, etc., Carbon Tetrachloride (C Q4) is a single chemical 
 compound, and in its recovery from the extracted fats, grease, 
 etc., it is always obtained as the same chemical combination, 
 with the selfsame properties; whereas in benzine or gasoline 
 there are unavoidable losses to be sustained, particularly the 
 valuable, very volatile parts, so that with a continued use of 
 benzine the remaining less valuable ingredients, the heavier 
 oils, must finally be enriched by important additions of fresh 
 benzine or gasoline. 
 
 An apparatus already installed for the recovery of the 
 solvents does not need to be remodeled for the recovery of 
 Carbon Tetrachloride, and distillation process may be like- 
 wise carried through in the customary manner. Carbon Te- 
 trachloride does not in the least affect the colors of fabrics. 
 The most delicate colors, even aniline colors of silk, satin, laces, 
 
230 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 etc., are not affected in the slightest degree. A mixture con- 
 sisting of equal parts of turpentine and Carbon Tetrachloride 
 cannot be ignited at ordinary temperatures. A mixture of 60 
 per cent. Carbon Tetrachloride and 40 per cent, naphtha is like- 
 wise non-inflammable at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 Chloride of Carbon. — This is obtained by the distilling 
 of bisulphide of carbon into a vessel containing pentachloride 
 of antimony, the product being rectified by distilling with 
 lime. According to Simpson, this makes a good solvent for 
 India-rubber and in a measure vulcanizes it. Newton also used 
 a Chloride of Carbon in dissolving both India-rubber and Gutta- 
 percha, while Crump used Tetrachloride of Carbon (which see). 
 
 Chloroform is prepared generally by distilling together a 
 mixture of spirit — that is, grain alcohol — with bleaching pow- 
 der and water. Its density is from 1.496 to 1.498. It is one 
 of the best rubber solvents known. It is costly, however, 
 and has a bad effect upon workmen. Lascelles-Scott men- 
 tions what he calls the A. C. E. mixture, composed of 
 alcohol 15 parts, Chloroform 38 parts, and ether 47 parts, 
 which yields a powerful solvent for India-rubber or Gutta- 
 percha. Chloroform dissolves not only India-rubber, but fats, 
 resins, sulphur, alkaloids, and many other organic compounds. 
 It should be remembered that a small percentage of Chloroform 
 in the air, even as little as 5 per cent., is dangerous to the 
 workmen. Chloroform is used as the solvent for India-rubber 
 which is treated with the ammoniac gas process for bleaching. 
 Is also used alone, and in connection with naphtha for rubber 
 cements, which are intended to adhere to glass. In the bleach- 
 ing of Gutta-percha, it is also used as a solvent. One of the 
 first uses of Chloroform in connection with India-rubber is to 
 be noted under an American patent granted to Charles F. 
 Durant, who announced the discovery of a solvent known as 
 "perchloride of formyle, otherwise known as Chloroform." 
 
 Creosote Oils, in connection with ordinary solvents for 
 India-rubber, are said to produce a cheap and effective solvent. 
 Indeed, John Bagnol, manufacturer for Charles Macintosh & 
 Co., patented their use as applied to India-rubber. (See 
 Creosote.) 
 
CHUTE'S SOLVENT— HEPTANE. 231 
 
 Chute's Rubber Resin Solvent. — This is a mixture of 
 methyl acetate with either acetone or methyl acetone. Patented in 
 the United States in 1907. 
 
 DiCHLOR-ETHYLENE is a non-inflammablc, non-poisonous sol- 
 vent, of German origin. It has a density of 1.269, with a boiling 
 point of 83° C. or 181° F. 
 
 Dippel's Oil (or Bone Naphtha). — A thick, viscid oil of 
 brown color and very disagreeable odor, which on distillation 
 may be obtained limpid and colorless. It is prepared by the 
 destructible distillation of bones, leaving boneblack as a resi- 
 duum. It was one of the early solvents used for India-rubber. 
 
 Ether. — This was one of the early solvents used in connec- 
 tion with India-rubber. It is sometimes called Sulphuric Ether, 
 but erroneously. It is prepared usually by distilling a mixture 
 of alcohol and sulphuric acid, washing the distillate, and recti- 
 fying the product with quick lime or something of that kind. 
 It is a colorless, very mobile liquid, with a not unpleasant 
 smell, burning taste, and very volatile. Its specific gravity is 
 0.7183. It is soluble in water i to 12. Commercial Ether boils 
 at 96° F., and yields a dense vapor. It is very inflammable, 
 and, when mixed with air or oxygen, gives rise to a dangerous 
 explosive mixture. It is one of the best solvents known for 
 oils and fats, and is also an excellent solvent for sulphur. For 
 use in rubber work Ether should be free from water, but not 
 absolutely pure, necessarily. It is little used to-day in rubber 
 mills, except in some lines of very fine work. It has the ad- 
 vantage of being absolutely free from the smells that many 
 solvents have. A little is sometimes added to ordinary rubber 
 solutions to make a complete solution of India-rubber in 
 naphtha. There are also certain processes, expensive ones to 
 be sure, for treating perished rubber with Ether vapor to 
 recover it. Ether was used to remove sulphur from vulcanized 
 India-rubber waste in Newton's camphene process. 
 
 Gasoline. — See Naphtha. 
 
 Heptane. — One of the four isormeric hydrocarbons of the 
 paraffine series, which occurs as a colorless liquid and is de- 
 rived from heavy canned coal oil, petroleum, etc. Its specific 
 gravity is 0.712. It is soluble in alcohol and in ether, and is 
 
232 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 used with paraffine wax and India-rubber in water-repellent 
 compounds, 
 
 IsoPRENE. — A body found in oil of caoutchouc. It boils at 
 98.6° F., and possesses the property of absorbing quantities of 
 oxygen when exposed to the air, in consequence of which it 
 forms itself into an elastic spongy mass. This same volatile 
 compound is obtained by the action of moderate heat on oil of 
 turpentine. William A, Tilden, D.Sc, F.R.S., had some Iso- 
 prene from turpentine placed in a bottle, his first result being 
 a limpid, colorles liquid. After a time, this changed in appear- 
 ance, looking like a dense syrup, on which floated several hard 
 elastic masses. On examination, they turned out to be practi- 
 cally India-rubber. This rubber united with sulphur in the 
 same way as ordinary rubber, forming a tough, elastic com- 
 pound. It was also soluble in benzine, etc. Dr. Weber, before 
 the Society of Chemical Industry, reported on Tilden's dis- 
 covery that Isoprene is so expensive that it cannot be converted 
 into rubber without loss, and therefore the synthetical manu- 
 fatcure of India-rubber, even if possible, was not probable. 
 
 LiGROiN. — See Naphtha. 
 
 Methane. — Professor Lascelles-Scott describes the manu- 
 facture of what he calls Methane solvents, which are really 
 benzines or benzols through which marsh gas has been passed. 
 He claims that a benzine containing from 2 to 3 per cent, of 
 Methane, obtained in this way, yields a better and more 
 mobile solution than the ordinary solvent naphtha, and the 
 solution when spread dries off better, besides giving a more 
 finished surface. 
 
 Naphthas. — The term Naphtha was originally applied to a 
 variety of pungent, volatile, inflammable liquids that belonged 
 chiefly to a class of ethers ; then it took in oils of natural origin, 
 such as rock oil, petroleum oil, etc. ; at a later date, a light oil 
 of coal tar, which should properly be designated benzol, was 
 included under the name of Naphtha; while recently it has 
 been extended so that it covers most of the inflammable liquids 
 distilled dry from organic substances. It is applied in the 
 United States to a series of hydrocarbons that are obtained 
 from petroleum, whose boiling points vary with the densities, 
 
NAPHTHAS. 233 
 
 from 65 to 300° F, The Naphthas of commerce are Bog-Head 
 Naphtha, obtained from bog-head coal; Bone Naphtha, or Dip- 
 pel's animal oil; Coal Naphtha, obtained from the distillation of 
 coal tar; Wood Naphtha, or methyl alcohol obtained during the 
 dry distillation of wood. Of these. Coal-tar Naphtha and Petro- 
 leum Naphtha are most useful to rubber manufacturers. The 
 former of these was used largely as a rubber solvent, but to- 
 day it is almost wholly replaced by Petroleum Naphtha. The 
 Naphtha which is derived from petroleum comes between 
 gasoline, which is lighter, and benzine, which is heavier. 
 Benzene is contained in the Naphtha produced by the destruc- 
 tive distillation of coal, while benzine is a petroleum product. 
 Benzine is really the first product that arises from the process 
 of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to Naphtha 
 that the distillate does to refined oil, thus showing that ben- 
 zine is simply a crude Naphtha. What is known as gasoline 
 has a proof rate of 86° F., and boils at 90° to 100° F. Warm 
 currents of air volatilize this type of Naphtha very rapidly, and 
 its vapor unites with the atmosphere in explosive proportions. 
 
 Coal-tar Naphtha was one of the first solvents used in 
 rubber work. Macintosh, as far back as 1823, prepared it him- 
 self for dissolving India-rubber for proofing. There is ob- 
 tained from crude Coal-tar Naphtha what is known as "once 
 run" Naphtha and "last runnings." The once run Naphtha 
 is the starting point from which are derived the various grades 
 of benzols, solvent Naphthas, etc., by fractional distillation. 
 The specific gravity of solvent Naphtha should not exceed 
 0.875. Its composition is a very complex affair, including 
 xylols, cumols, homologous of benzol, together with some 
 paraffine, and sometimes a little naphthaline. This last- 
 named substance, by the way, is often objectionable, as it acts 
 upon some rubbers like animal oil. Naphtha derives its vege- 
 table solvent power largely from the xylol present in it. This 
 is to-day removed and sold by itself as a solvent, though the 
 residual Naphtha is simply robbed of that much virtue. 
 
 Speaking of Naphthas, Lascelles-Scott, after exhaustive 
 experiments, thus describes three used in England in rubber 
 factories. Petroleum Naphtha in its solvent action on rubber 
 
234 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 showed slight action in the cold or under gentle heat. Viscid 
 masses and semi-solutions were formed, but these solutions 
 did not dry well. The same Naphtha had almost no solvent 
 action on pitch. Shale Naphtha was useful only in dissolving 
 Madagascar rubbers, and had no action on pitch, while Coal- 
 tar Naphtha caused almost any rubber to swell quickly and, 
 after gentle heat, to effect a good solution. It also readily 
 dissolved pitch, forming a deep brown solution. 
 
 The problem that confronts rubber manufacturers as a 
 rule is the solution of gums that are more or less heavily com- 
 pounded, which is an easier problem than the putting into 
 solution of crude rubber that perhaps has not been broken 
 down in any way. At the same time it is customary in many 
 cases to apply a little heat during the mixing. The following 
 table relates to Petroleum Naphthas. The C Naphtha has not 
 only the greatest solvent power, but it is easier to evaporate 
 after it has dissolved the rubber compound. B and A require 
 a certain amount of heat to vaporize them : 
 
 Specific Degrees Boiling 
 
 Products. Gravity. Beaume. Points. 
 
 Rhigolene 0.625 .. 65° F. 
 
 Gasolene 0.665 85 120° F. 
 
 C. Naphtha 0.706 70 180° F. 
 
 B. Naphtha 0.724 67 220° F. 
 
 A. Naphtha 0.742 65 300° F. 
 
 Naphtha is more largely used in the proofing business 
 than any other. It is, however, a general solvent for cements, 
 and quantities of it are used in almost all lines of rubber work 
 where there is any making up to be done of separate pieces 
 after calendering. It is therefore necessary that a good grade 
 be used when one considers the danger that may come from 
 fires caused by the explosion or easy ignition of low grade 
 solvents. Odorless Naphthas are those from which naphtha- 
 line, a solid white body, has been removed, as it is the presence 
 of this body that causes the strong smell. Naphtha treated 
 by sulphuric acid is deodorized, acquiring a rather pleasant 
 odor as a consequence. It is often mixed with other solvents 
 — for example, with oil of turpentine — and is found thus to 
 have a better effect on the rubber. 
 
 Naphthaline (called also Anthracine). — Commercially 
 
NITRO BENZOL— OIL OF TURPENTINE. 235 
 
 obtained from coal-tar, being among the third and fourth prod- 
 ucts of the distillation of that body. Naphthaline is usually 
 sold in rolls made by melting the large silvery plates or 
 scales in which it crystallizes, and running the melted com- 
 pound into molds. Its specific gravity is 1.15. It is insoluble 
 in v^^ater and petroleum naphtha, but the liquids derived from 
 coal tar dissolve it easily. Naphthaline is sparingly soluble in 
 alcohol and ether, but readily in benzol. It is used in insula- 
 ting paints, as when it evaporates it leaves a very solid film 
 that is said to be absolutely free from porosity. 
 
 NiTRO Benzol. — A compound obtained by boiling benzol 
 with nitric acid. It is a brown, heavy, oily looking liquid, 
 having a specific gravity of 1.2, a burning sweet taste, and a 
 smell resembling that of oil of bitter almonds. It is used in 
 the analysis of vulcanized India-rubber to dissolve the sub- 
 stitute that may be incorporated in it. It is produced by the 
 action of nitric acid and benzene, also called Nitro-Benzene. 
 Used by Parkes in the manufacture of Parkesine. (See 
 Acids and Alkalies ; also Naphtha.) 
 
 Oil of Turpentine (crude) is what is known as an oleo 
 resin, and is of about the consistency of fresh honey. There 
 are more than a dozen varieties on the market, the more com- 
 mon being Bordeaux, Venice, Canadian, and American. A 
 fair quality of turpentine oil should begin to boil at 155° C. or 
 312° F. The distillation of crude Oil of Turpentine by steam 
 leaves ordinary resin. Oil of Turpentine is used in certain water- 
 proof cements, in connection with both Gutta-percha and India- 
 rubber. Where Oil of Turpentine is necessary for rubber work, it 
 is well to have it free from the considerable percentage of water 
 which it invariably contains. This is done by a treatment with sul- 
 phuric acid, or by rectifying it over burnt lime. Turpentine, 
 particularly that known as Venice Turpentine, is often used 
 in connection with linseed oil and sulphur in the production 
 of rubber substitutes. Professor Tilden showed, some years 
 ago, that what appeared to be pure India-rubber could be 
 obtained from turpentine ; indeed, he announced that he had 
 produced it on a small scale. The same thing was also 
 observed by Bouchardt. Venice Turpentine is obtained from 
 
236 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 Switzerland, where it is procured from the Larix Europea, or 
 larch. The genuine Venice Turpentine is of the consistency 
 of honey, cloudy, yellowish, or slightly greenish. It is entirely 
 soluble in alcohol. The commercial Venice Turpentine is a 
 factious substance, usually quite brown, and is prepared by 
 dissolving rosin in Oil of Turpentine. Venice Turpentine is 
 largely used in cements. Bordeaux Turpentine is the ordinary 
 turpentine of commerce, getting its name from the port in 
 France whence it is exported. (See Spirits of Turpentine.) 
 
 Pentane. — A hydrocarbon of the paraffine or methane 
 series. A colorless, volatile liquid which occurs in petroleum. 
 Boiling point 98° F. Pentane is used with paraffine wax and 
 India-rubber in water-repellent compounds. 
 
 Petroleum. — A mixture of several hydrocarbons which, in 
 fluid form, issue from the ground in many parts of the world ; 
 also known as rock oil. It varies in consistency from a thin, 
 light, colorless fluid with a specific gravity of about 0.750, to 
 a substance as thick as butter, and almost as heavy as water. 
 All kinds, however, have about the same constitution, consist- 
 ing of carbon and hydrogen compounds only, and containing 
 no oxygen. Asphalt and bitumen are closely allied to petro- 
 leum. This oil is often used for restoring rubber that is 
 oxidized somewhat, by immersion, and then hanging for a 
 couple of days in a warm atmosphere. Petroleum is very 
 rarely used in rubber manufacture, for although a good solvent, 
 it weakens the goods exceedingly. Crude petroleum, however, 
 is a valuable adjunct to the reclaiming of rubber, where, in 
 the form of a cheap residuum, it assists in devulcanization and 
 in sheeting. (See Naphtha.) 
 
 Resin Oil. — This is obtained by subjecting rosin to dry dis- 
 tillation, the specific gravity of the resultant oil ranging from 
 0.96 to 0.99. It is rarely used as a solvent for rubber, in the 
 ordinary meaning of the term. As a matter of fact, it is not a 
 good solvent for crude rubber. For compounded rubbers, 
 however, it works well and is often used, particularly in 
 connection with pseudo guttas. In certain insulating experi- 
 ments, where a thin sheet of Gutta-percha covered the con- 
 ductor, and the outer Gutta-percha tube was full of Resin Oil, 
 
SHADE SPIRIT— TOLUENE. 237 
 
 it gave, according to Professor D. E. Hughes, F.R.S., a higher 
 insulation test than Gutta-percha alone. Professor Hughes 
 used Resin Oil quite thick and viscid, and added resin and a 
 solid residuum obtained from the distillation of palm oil. 
 Resin oil in rubber compounding, however, softens the com- 
 pound in a marked degree. (See Oils). 
 
 Rhigolene. — See Naphtha. 
 
 Shale Spirit is the solvent used in the Scottish waterproof- 
 ing establishments. It is a product of the Scottish parafifine 
 oil industry. 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine is really oil of turpentine, and it has 
 a specific gravity of 0.864. It is colorless, transparent, of a 
 strong odor, and a bitter taste. It is insoluble in water, on 
 which it floats, but readily soluble in strong grain alcohol, ether, 
 and the fixed and essential oils. It is an excellent solvent for sul- 
 phur, resin, and India-rubber. Spirits of Turpentine, with wood 
 spirit alcohol, aniline, and nitric acid is used in surface work 
 on vulcanized India-rubber. The earliest records of India- 
 rubber speak of this oil as a solvent for it; indeed, the whole 
 secret of rubber compounding for a number of years, even 
 when the great Roxbury Rubber Co., of Boston, was running, 
 was the solution of India-rubber in it. It is used in solutions 
 that are expected to be sticky, and to dry slowly. 
 
 Tetrachloride of Carbon. — See Carbon Tetrachloride. 
 
 Tetrachlormethene Benzine Substitute is an excellent 
 solvent, boiling at 75° C. Not easily ignited; of pleasant smell; 
 made from chlorine and carbon bisulphide, 
 
 Thion. — A substitute for bisulphide of carbon, manufac- 
 tured in England, which is said to mix excellently with chloride 
 of sulphur and is non-poisonous. 
 
 Toluene. — That oil which is distilled from coal tar at a tem- 
 perature of 230° to 234° F., also called methyl benzine and 
 Toluol. It resembles benzene in outward appearance. Much 
 commercial benzol contains Toluene, and this it is that makes it a 
 far better solvent for rubber than benzine itself, as it dissolves the 
 rubber in five-sixths of the time. The solutions are more mobile; 
 it has a higher boiling point ; and, given a quantity of the solvent, 
 will reduce more gum. It does not chill in cold weather, but keeps 
 
238 SOLVENTS FOR RUBBER. 
 
 on macerating. It leaves a more solid deposit than does 
 benzine, and does not induce headache or sickness among the 
 workmen. 
 
 VuLCOLEiNE is a liquid of English origin, and is put upon 
 the market at about the same price as carbon bisulphide, and 
 used for a solvent for India-rubber. It leaves on evaporation 
 a perfectly tough and elastic film, quite unlike that left by coal 
 tar naphtha, or the usual solvents. It mixes instantly with 
 chloride of sulphur, and is intended to replace bisulphide of 
 carbon in the cold curing process. It has no bad smell, nor is 
 it unhealthful. 
 
 Wood Spirit (also known as Pyroxylic Acid). — This is 
 made from the destructive distillation of wood. Wood Spirit 
 resembles grain or ethyl alcohol in its affinities, forming a 
 series of compounds exactly corresponding to that of spirits 
 of wine. Wood Spirit, when pure, is a thin, colorless Hquid, 
 with a peculiar odor and a hot disagreeable taste. It boils at 
 152° F., and its density is .798 at 60°. It mixes freely with 
 water, and, like alcohol, dissolves resins and volatile oils, and 
 is used as a cheap substitute for that purpose. Wood Spirit, 
 also known as methylic alcohol, is not methylated spirit. It 
 is not a solvent of rubber, but is used in many compounds that 
 are intended as substitutes for vulcanized rubber. It is also 
 used in dyeing India-rubber in connection with nitric acid, 
 alcohol, and aniline. 
 
 Xylol. — A colorless, somewhat aromatic, inflammable, oily 
 liquid found in coal tar and wood tar; also called Xylene. (See 
 Benzol.) 
 
CHAPTER XIIl. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES AND COMPOUNDS FOR USE IN THE 
 RUBBER FACTORY. 
 
 Many interesting formulas are given for the dyeing and 
 surface coloring of rubber, although the processes are not 
 such as will generally be used. A suggestion that comes from 
 France is the dipping of rubber for an instant in a bath of 
 nitric acid, then washing in water. For coloring, the rubber 
 is dipped in an alcoholic solution of fuchsine. The experi- 
 menter should appreciate fully, however, the effect that nitric 
 acid produces on rubber, and govern himself accordingly. 
 
 Alexander Parkes, who produced some exceedingly valu- 
 able processes for the treatment of rubber, gives the following 
 formulas for dyeing India-rubber: 
 
 Black. — Boil from 15 to 30 minutes in a liquid prepared 
 as follows : Sulphate copper, i pound ; water, i gallon ; caustic 
 ammonia or muriate of ammonia, i pound. Or: Sulphate or 
 bisulphate potash, i pound; sulphate copper, 12 pounds; water, 
 I gallon. 
 
 Green. — Muriate ammonia, 2 pounds; sulphate copper, i 
 pound ; caustic lime, 4 pounds ; water, i gallon. Boil the 
 rubber as before, 15 to 30 minutes. 
 
 Purple. — Sulphate or bisulphate of potash, i pound; sul- 
 phate of copper, ^ pound; sulphate of indigo, ^ pound. Boil 
 the rubber, 15 to 30 minutes. 
 
 Hoffer gives almost the same ingredients for producing 
 these colors, adding the information that the articles are dyed 
 by being boiled in these fluids from 15 to 30 minutes, the 
 thicker the article the longer the boiling. This is done before 
 the goods are vulcanized. 
 
 Hard rubber may be decorated by means of pigments 
 mixed with shellac and applied to the given surface with a 
 brush. The surface then is to be pressed with some force 
 against a hot plate of metal, whereby the colors are made to 
 appear as though integral with the rubber. 
 
 Wood coated a sheet of vulcanized rubber with chloride 
 
 239 
 
240 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 of silver, the idea being to use it in dental plates. Various 
 processes have also been brought out for the surface treat- 
 ment of rubber with gold leaf, bronzes, etc., usually applied 
 in the form of powders, in the manner in which flock is applied. 
 Truman also patented a process for electro-gilding rubber 
 dental plates after they were finished. Goodyear dusted un- 
 vulcanized rubber surfaces with plumbago or powdered metal, 
 to make them conductive, pressed the dust in, and then 
 electroplated it. 
 
 The embossing of India-rubber surfaces has been practiced 
 almost since the invention of the "triple compound," It is 
 really nothing more than a light surface molding. This is 
 done sometimes by embossing rolls, the rubber being cured 
 after the impression is taken, and sometimes by being vulcan- 
 ized on the impression plate. 
 
 Bourbridge patented a process for embossing rubber by 
 rolling it tightly on a drum with embossed paper or book- 
 binders' cloth, and semi-curing it in that form, preferably by 
 boiling at a temperature from 212° to 220° F. This boiling 
 operation was not really vulcanization, but simply a means of 
 setting the rubber which was afterward made up into goods 
 and cured. 
 
 In producing sheets of India-rubber for the manufacture 
 of tobacco pouches, balls, balloons, etc., by this process, the 
 sheet is calendered on sized cloth, partially vulcanized, printed, 
 coated with transparent India-rubber, the goods made up, and 
 the vulcanizing process completed. 
 
 A great many beautiful colors are added to India-rubber 
 surfaces by coating the sheet with a thin adhesive solution, 
 dusting it over with colored flock, and then vulcanizing. By 
 this process any color can be given to rubber surfaces which 
 have a cloth-like appearance. 
 
 Kelley produced a bronzed appearance on rubber coated 
 fabrics by means of a roller partly immersed in a trough hold- 
 ing the dye, curing either by dry heat, or by chloride of 
 sulphur. His solution consisted of 2 ounces alcohol spirits, 
 I ounce wood naphtha, 10 drops nitric acid, i ounce spirits of 
 turpentine, with sufficient aniline dye to make the desired 
 
COLORED DESIGNS FOR FABRICS. 241 
 
 color, 4 ounces liquid dyeing, 3 pounds rubber composition. 
 He also impregnated farina with aniline solutions, dried it, and 
 mixed it in the compound. 
 
 In certain dyeing processes lakes are necessary. What is 
 known as caoutchouc lake is made by steeping i ounce of Para 
 rubber in a quart of light camphor oil, exposed to the sunlight 
 for several days. This is said to be excellent for binding 
 colors. 
 
 Matthew's process for producing colored designs for 
 proofed fabrics is to first coat the fabric in the ordinary man- 
 ner with pure or colored India-rubber. When the design is 
 to be printed on a black or dark ground, the last coating is 
 mixed with starch or some powder that will render it non- 
 adhesive, and to an extent absorptive. The fabric is then 
 partially vulcanized, when the designs are printed on the 
 desired surface, just as oil-cloth or linoleum is printed. The 
 vulcanization is finished preferably by using chloride of 
 sulphur. 
 
 Colors suitable for admixture with rubber should answer 
 the following requirements : They must be unaffected by water, 
 by acids, by alkalies, and by chloride of sulphur. Further 
 than this, they must not be affected by sulphur at temperatures 
 ranging from 200° to 300° F. The colors must not be soluble 
 in or affected by naphtha or other solvents used in rubber 
 work. They must not be affected by heat up to 300° F. 
 According to Frankenburg, his invention of aniline lakes 
 answers all these requirements. His description is as follows : 
 
 (A). Lakes prepared from acid aniline colors. — 'T have 
 found that by converting any of the acids or suphonated aniline 
 colors into compound lakes, such as barium-alumina, calcium- 
 alumina, barium-chromium, or calcium-chromium lakes, colors 
 are obtained answering all the above requirements, and 
 therefore eminently suitable for the dyeing of India-rubber, 
 waterproof, and other articles. The aniline dyes best suited 
 for the production of these lakes are those known as azo or 
 di-azo colors. From colors of this description I prepare lakes 
 in the following manner : 50 pounds of orange II., or any other 
 suitable azo or di-azo color, and 112 pounds of soda crystals 
 
242 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 are dissolved in loo gallons of water at 170° F. This solution 
 is then precipated with a solution of 150 pounds of barium 
 chloride. The precipitate is kept boiling for half an hour. It 
 is then left to stand, and washed several times with fresh 
 water. Eventually a solution of 40 pounds of alumina sulphate 
 is added very gradually, when a bright, fast, and flocculent 
 lake is obtained, which, after filtration, drying, and pulverizing, 
 is ready for incorporation with the India-rubber dough. It is 
 evident that a great many variations of the process may be 
 devised, but in every case the important point is the conversion 
 of the aniline dye into one of the above-mentioned compound 
 lakes. As regards the proportions given above, they are, of 
 course, subject to such variations as are in accordance with the 
 molecular weights and the commercial purity of the materials 
 used, as well as with the particular properties and qualities to 
 be imparted to the lakes for the purpose they are intended to 
 serve. Using in this manner the numerous azo and di-azo 
 dyes a very great variety of lakes may be produced, compris- 
 ing all conceivable shades, and all suitable for the dyeing of 
 India-rubber articles of every description. The lakes prepared 
 from the acid oxy-ketone dyes and most of the natural dyes 
 are very little suitable for this purpose, owing to their indiffer- 
 ent and dull shades." 
 
 (B). Lakes prepared from basic coloring matters. — "A 
 large number of lakes derived from this class of dyes are also 
 suited for the dyeing of India-rubber articles, although many 
 of them are lacking in fastness to light acids and alkalies. 
 To produce a perfect compound lake from these dyes tannic- 
 acid and antimony, along with aluminum and barium, are used 
 for the complete fixation and precipitation of these lakes. The 
 following proportions give good results: Soda carbonate, 128 
 pounds; barium chloride, no pounds; thioflavine, 25 pounds; 
 tannic acid, 20 pounds ; acetate of soda, 20 pounds ; sulphate 
 of alumina, 100 pounds. These colors can be made faster by 
 adding to them a small quantity of antimony potassio-tartrate. 
 The proportions of tannic acid, sodium acetate, and tartar 
 emetic used in this process vary considerably with the differ- 
 ent basic colors, such variations being due to the difference in 
 
THE CRAVENETTE PROCESS. 243 
 
 the atomic weights and commercial purity of the basic 
 dyes." 
 
 Hebblewaite and Holt's process for producing designs on 
 gossamer cloth calls for the spreading over the rubber surface 
 of farina or other powder, then running the fabric through 
 embossed rollers and producing patterns thereon. 
 
 Mosley's ornamented fabric was a gossamer cloth covered 
 with farina, the surface being printed much as calico is, and 
 then vulcanized with chloride of sulphur. The colors were 
 mixed with suitable solvents and a certain amount of paraffine 
 or India-rubber added. A part of this invention was also the 
 use of an engraved roller, which revolved in the vulcanizing 
 solution, and came in contact with the surface of the rubber, 
 only at its raised portion. Directly after passing over _ the 
 roller, if the surface of the rubber were dusted with farina, it 
 would adhere to the portions that had come in contact with the 
 roller, and not to the rest, thus producing a design on the fabric. 
 The whole of the coating was afterwards cured by vapor. 
 
 Impregnating Rubber. — Lessnenn and Weinkopf advise the 
 following : Sixty per cent, birch tar oil ; 38 per cent, coal tar 
 benzine ; 2 per cent, dissolved dextrine, to prevent sun-crack- 
 ing. Apply with brush. 
 
 SHOWER-PROOF PROCESSES. 
 
 The Cravenette and other processes for rendering textile 
 fabrics waterproof or water-repellent have attracted so much 
 attention in the rubber trade that space will be given here to 
 a description of the Wiley patent, which is used at the Craven- 
 ette Works, Bradford, England. To begin, the waterproofing 
 compound is applied in a solid or hard state by the action of 
 friction and heating. In other words, there are no solvents 
 used, nor is it a calendering process. The advantage of this is 
 a lessening in the cost of applying waterproofing solutions and 
 a further valuable result is that the dyes on various fabrics 
 are in no way disturbed, and no unpleasant odor is developed 
 or imparted to the cloth. The substances chosen are those 
 which have a low melting point, so that the fabrics are not 
 damaged by heat. They are preferably ozocerite, stearine. 
 
244 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 spermaceti, paraffine wax, beeswax, or Japanese wax. These 
 are sometimes used singly, and sometimes in combination, 
 considerable judgment being necessary in selecting those 
 which have an affinity for or are readily absorbed by the fibers 
 of particular fabrics, influenced also by the nature and color of 
 the fabric. In some cases India-rubber, Gutta-percha, maltha, 
 asphaltum, resin, and artificial gums are found valuable in 
 small proportions, and in conjunction with the substances 
 already mentioned. 
 
 In order to apply the waterproofing substance, it is 
 formed into slabs. The fabric is carried on a reel supported in 
 bearings between suitable frames, at the opposite end of which 
 is a hollow cylinder mounted upon carrying rollers and sup- 
 ported laterally by side rollers. This cylinder is filled with 
 water. The slab of the compound, wider than the fabric to 
 be coated, is fixed in a holder above the cylinder. This holder 
 is so arranged that the weight presses the slab against the 
 cylinder. The fabric is then drawn from the reel over and 
 under tension bars, under a supporting roller, between it and 
 the rubber cylinder, and around the cylinder and under the 
 slab, then over the guide roller and into a drying machine. 
 The friction of the cloth wears the slab away and uniformly 
 deposits it upon the cloth, while in the drying machine, the 
 heat melts the waterproofing compound, and it is absorbed by the 
 fibers which are thereby rendered waterproof or water-repellent. 
 
 Other formulas for shower-proofing and waterproofing are 
 of interest in this connection and a few are given : 
 
 The first is a German waterproofing compound : Alum, lo 
 pounds ; sugar of lead, lo pounds. Dissolve in hot water and 
 allow the precipitate to settle. Dilute the clear liquid with 
 I20 gallons water and add 2 pounds isinglass in solution. The 
 goods are steeped in this solution 8 or 10 hours. 
 
 An American shower-proof compound: Liquid silicate of 
 soda or liquor or flint, i gallon ; white oxide of zinc, i pound, 
 if the fabric is to be colored, add coloring matters. The 
 mixture may be applied to fabrics hot or cold, by means of a 
 brush or by immersion of the fabrics, which are afterwards to 
 be run between rollers. 
 
SHOWER-PROOF COMPOUNDS. 245 
 
 Another American compound: Dissolve separately, i:^ 
 pounds alum (in hot water), 10 ounces acetate of lead (in hot 
 water), and i^ pounds carbonate of magnesia (in hot water). 
 They should aggregate about 31 quarts. Add the acetate of 
 lead to the alum solution, and then the carbonate of magnesia ; 
 after which 10 quarts liquid as above and i tablespoon white 
 gum arabic. Stir ^ hour; let stand 24 hours, skimming now 
 and then ; in 48 hours the first mixture will be ready. Lay the 
 fabric in a vessel and pour liquid over it, beating the fabric 
 well and removing it within an hour. 
 
 A third American shower-proof compound: 
 
 A. Carbonate of soda 16 parts. 
 
 Lime 8 parts. 
 
 Water 32 parts. 
 
 Boil 30 minutes, let settle and pour off the clear lye. 
 
 B. Glue or gelatine 3 parts. 
 
 Linseed oil 3 parts. 
 
 Add after soaking glue in cold water 12 hours. 
 
 C. Tallow (or other animal fat) 16 parts. 
 
 Rosin 8 parts. 
 
 Melt together. 
 
 To (A) boiling hot add hot (C), then pour in (B) and stir hot until well 
 mixed. 
 
 D. Sulphate of alumina i pound. 
 
 Acetete of lead i pound. 
 
 Boiling water 8 gallons. 
 
 Let settle and draw off clear liquor for use. To i gallon water add i 
 ounce of first product for bath for cotton goods. Add i ounce for silk 
 or wool. Immerse 24 hours or more, then six hours or more in second 
 compound (D). 
 
 Proofing compound: 
 
 Mixture i. — Dissolve in water, 50 parts alum; also dis- 
 solve in water, 35 parts sugar of lead ; mix. 
 
 Mixture 2. — Combine 17 parts paraffine and 35 parts ben- 
 zine; drop into this 17 parts Caoutchouc. Stir until well dis- 
 solved. 
 
 Mixture 3. — To the clear decanted liquor from the above 
 mixtures, add 8 parts alcohol and 4 parts eau de cologne (or 
 oil of lemon). 
 
 An English compound for waterproofing textile fabrics : 
 Sugar soap, i pound ; water, 16 gallons. Soak articles in them 
 for 6 hours ; drain, but do not wring them ; and place them in 
 the following solution: 
 
246 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 Alum, I pound; water, i6 gallons; soak again 6 hours, 
 take out and dry without wringing. 
 
 Another English compound for waterproofing textile 
 fabrics : Concentrated size, 8 pounds ; aluminum sulphate, 5 
 pounds ; barium chloride, 6 pounds ; water, 16 gallons. After 
 coating, varnish with the following: Melt together 22 pounds 
 colophony, 4 3-5 pounds crystallized soda, and 11 pounds 
 water. Then add : Ammoniacal fluid, 5^ pounds ; and water, 55 
 pounds ; or : Borax, 6 pounds ; shellac, 6 pounds ; and water, 
 40 pounds. 
 
 A German compound for waterproofing woolens: Dissolve 
 100 pounds alum in moderate quantity of boiling water; soak 100 
 pounds glue till it has taken up twice its weight of cold water, 
 then apply heat to dissolve it ; stir 5 pounds tannin and 2 pounds 
 soluble glass well into the glue, then add the alum solution. Enter 
 the goods at 80° C, and steep 30 minutes. Take out and drain 
 several hours, stretch on a frame, and, when dry, calender. 
 
 A German shower-proof compound: Stir 9 pounds casein 
 well in 32 quarts water, adding little by little 25 pounds of slaked 
 lime. Add a solution of 4^ pounds soap in 26 quarts water. 
 
 Filter and treat the cloth with the liquid. Dress with a 
 dressing of acetate of alumina, by which the casein is rendered 
 insoluble in the fibers of the cloth. After two applications, rinse 
 the goods with hot water, press strongly, and dry. 
 
 One process for waterproofing threads and yarns used in 
 weaving ducks and other fabrics is in two parts, the first of which 
 relates to a tanning mixture in which the yarns are immersed, 
 consisting of: Birch bark, 14 pounds; bichromate of potash, i 
 pound; chloride of calcium, ^ pound; tar i pint; solution of 
 alkali, 2 pounds. The threads are first boiled in a 5 per cent, 
 solution of alkali to destroy perishable matter, after which they 
 are immersed in the tanning liquid and dried. The second part 
 consists of preparing or dressing the threads with the following 
 compound : 
 
 Poppyseed oil, 2 gallons; India-rubber solution, 2 pounds; 
 red oxide of mercury, i pound; resin, 28 pounds; beeswax, 28 
 pounds; palm oil, 14 pounds. The threads after this treatment 
 are wound on reels for weaving. 
 
WATERPROOF FABRICS. 24% 
 
 Forster, as far back as 1847, made a water-repellent comr. 
 pound in which he used spermaceti, wax, and stearine, while three 
 years prior to that Townsend used two solutions to accomplish 
 that end, the first being water, calcined British gum, white soap, 
 logwood liquor, and rock alum ; the second being water, sulphate 
 of zinc, calcined British gum, and palm soap. 
 
 The Kyanized cloth process is well known in connection with 
 preserving fabrics, the treatment being with a mixture of cor- 
 rosive sublimate, chloride of zinc, pyrolignite of iron, oil of tar, 
 and resinous matters. Fabrics treated in this way have been used 
 for the manufacture of hose. 
 
 Crape cloth is a fabric which has much the appearance of real 
 crape, but is far less expensive. It is treated with processes 
 similar to the Cravenette process, which make it both waterproof 
 and durable. Two patents for this process have been granted to 
 W. E. B. Priestly. 
 
 According to Dr. Doremus the lightest fabrics are rendered 
 uninflammable by dipping them in a solution of phosphate of 
 alumina in water. 
 
 Allard's fireproof felt is made of 50 per cent, of asbestos and 
 50 per cent, of animal hair, and for ordinary purposes is wholly 
 fireproof. 
 
 Canvas for sails and other purposes, which it is desired to 
 render waterproof, is treated by the Dumas process so that, while 
 it is both waterproof and fireproof, it is still elastic and permeable 
 by air. The treatment is this: The material is first put in a 
 solution of gelatine, then run through pressure rollers, and spread 
 in the open air to dry ; later it is dipped in a cold solution of alum 
 again exposed to the air, then washed in cold water, and finally 
 dried. 
 
 Frankenburg's waterproof cloth is made in this manner: 
 Both warp and woof are coated in the yarn with India-rubber, 
 then powdered with farina, then woven, after which the fabric 
 is calendered, and the result is a cloth that it thoroughly water- 
 proof, and yet does not give evidence of having rubber in its 
 make-up. 
 
 Smith's porous waterproof fabric called for a compound 
 made of 100 parts of paraifine melted by heat, to which was 
 
248 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 added 15 per cent, of India-rubber, the mixture being kept from 5 
 to 30 minutes at a temperature of 100° C. The solution, either 
 as it is, or with a solvent, is then transferred to the cloth by means 
 of a set of rollers which have a temperature of about 70° C. 
 
 Amphiboline. — A natural earth found in Germany, which 
 once mixed with water, will not mix again. Used with a small 
 amount of gelatine for waterproofing. 
 
 Cohuru's waterproofing compound. This consists of crude 
 petroleum, 3 quarts; liquid asphalt, i pint; white drier, i pint; 
 beeswax, 4 ounces, and gum-arabic. 
 
 DEODORIZATION. 
 
 The odors that cling to vulcanized rubber goods and to 
 Gutta-percha are often very objectionable, and the following 
 processes are given for deodorization : 
 
 Cattell's process: For every pound of well cleaned Gutta- 
 percha take 15 pounds of the following solution: Benzol, i 
 gallon; alcohol, i ounce; glycerine, 30 drops. Or: Benzole, i 
 gallon; nitrate of the oxide of ethyl, 30 drops; heat in a closed 
 vessel to 110° F. The Gutta-percha is recovered by cooling to 
 below 32° F., and pressing or by distilling off the solvent, or by 
 precipitation with fusil oil. 
 
 Freeley's process : Dip vulcanized rubber goods in a solution 
 of : Salicylic acid, 20 grains ; alcohol, ^ pint. This will deodorize 
 them, but goods will be toughened and the deodorization in- 
 creased by subjecting goods to a bath in hot or cold solution 
 composed as follows : 
 
 (A) Bark of oak, 50 pounds; bark of hemlock, 50 pounds; 
 bark of sumac, 50 pounds ; water, 900 gallons. 
 
 (B) Solution as above, 2 gallons; salicylic acid, 20 grains; 
 large tablespoonful of Russian Jackten extract, dissolved in 2 
 pints of alcohol, i pint of ether, and 10 grains of salicylic acid. 
 
 Bourne's process : The articles to be deodorized are placed 
 between layers of charcoal and heated from 120° to 150° F., if 
 unvulcanized ; 180° F., if partially vulcanized; or 212° F., if com- 
 pletely vulcanized. Heat for six hours or more. 
 
 Lavater and Tranter's process: Subject the articles to a 
 boiling in potash, then to a vacuum, then to a pressure of air 
 
PRESERVATIVE PROCESSES. 249 
 
 scented with some essence. They claim the extraction of the sul- 
 phur from the pores of the rubber in the form of sulphureted 
 hydrogen and its replacement by perfumed air. 
 
 Charles Hancock's process: To remove the odor of Gutta- 
 percha, steep it in the following solutions : 
 
 (A) Soda or potash, i pound; water, 10 gallons. 
 
 (B) Chloride lime, i pound; water, 10 gallons. 
 De la Granja's process: 
 
 Iodine 15 grains. 
 
 Permanganate of potassa 20 grains. 
 
 Iodide of potassium 60 grains. 
 
 Glycerine , . 4 ounces. 
 
 Sulphite of soda 4 ounces. 
 
 Sulphite of lime 4 ounces. 
 
 Sulphite of potassa 4 ounces. 
 
 Water li to 2 gallons. 
 
 Steep or macerate rubber in a solution composed as above, 
 in a close earthern vessel, 24 hours, the solution being cold. 
 Then heat the solution gradually to boiling point and uncover the 
 vessel until -| of weight of solution evaporates. When the solu- 
 tion cools remove the rubber. 
 
 The Traun Rubber Co. patented a process for adding pow- 
 dered perfumes to India-rubber, the stock being used for dental 
 dam, dress shields, and the like. 
 
 PRESERVING RUBBER GOODS. 
 
 The deterioration of vulcanized rubber goods is often a 
 serious matter, where it is necessary for some time to keep them in 
 store. Wherever possible, they should be kept in a cool dark 
 place, and away from warm currents of dry air. It has been 
 advised that such goods as druggists' sundries be stored in an air- 
 tight receptacle in the bottom of which is placed a vessel contain- 
 ing benzine, which is allowed to evaporate slowly. Kreusler and 
 Bude in Der Techniker recommend the dipping of the articles in 
 a paraffine bath, heated to about 212° F. This does not injure the 
 color or the appearance, but is said to enable the goods to effectu- 
 ally resist both light and atmospheric influences. From its well 
 known softening effect on India-rubber, however, paraffine is 
 likely to be used with considerable care by rubber manufacturers. 
 In the line of mechanical goods. Turner patented a process for 
 
250 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 treating both hose and tubing with carbolic acid, either during its 
 manufacture or after vulcanization in order to preserve it, Tor- 
 rey also saturated duck with carbolic acid before it was made up 
 into hose, 
 
 Mowbray's process for preserving rubber in valves: The 
 use of 20 pounds of India-rubber, washed and cut fine, in con- 
 nection with 5 to lo pounds of naphthaline ; digest 24 to 48 hours, 
 at 180° to 230° F, Masticate in a machine heated to 212° F., 
 until it forms a plastic homogeneous compound. If other sub- 
 stances are to be added, treat as follows : 
 
 1. Soluble matters (sulphur, antimony, resins, etc.) dissolve 
 in naphthaline, melted or boiling, and add to above naphthalized 
 caoutchouc at temperature of 240° F. 
 
 2. Materials insoluble in naphthaline (oxides of lead and 
 zinCj chalk, etc.) deprive of moisture and heat to 212° F. and add 
 to naphthalized caoutchouc. 
 
 This compound can be used for soft or hard rubber, accord- 
 ing to the proportion of sulphur used. The object is to preserve 
 the elasticity of rubber and prolong its durability, 
 
 Trueman's process for preserving India-rubber, and fibers 
 that may be used with it, employs the peroxides of manganese and 
 lead and the black oxide of copper, all of which have the property 
 of decomposing ozone in great quantity, and converting it into 
 oxygen. The inventor believes that ozone is the active agent in 
 producing decay, and, by changing it into oxygen, he arrests such 
 decay. In applying these oxides, he mixes them with ozocerite 
 or tar, 
 
 Elworthy patented a process for storing rubber goods in a 
 receptacle filled with nitrogen, hydrogen, marsh gas, or carbonic 
 acid gas. This was recommended especially for rubber goods in 
 India. 
 
 Benton (American patent) describes the following: A com- 
 position for preserving India-rubber, consisting of one part tur- 
 pentine as much camphor gum as the turpentine will readily dis- 
 solve, and one part linseed oil proportioned to the combined part 
 of turpentine and camphor gum. 
 
 Truss (English patent) advises: A mixture of 95 parts of 
 soda-ash and 5 parts of commercial carbonate of ammonia is 
 
FASTENING RUBBER TO METALS. 251 
 
 dissolved in hot water and applied to India-rubber articles to 
 preserve or restore them. 
 
 Zingler's process treats decayed rubber goods by long solu- 
 tion in boiling water containing tartar emetic ; mixed afterwards 
 with tannic acid and calcium sulphite. 
 
 FASTENING RUBBER TO METALS. 
 
 The problem often comes to rubber manufacturers as to how 
 to stick rubber or rubber compounds to iron so that they will not 
 part from it, no matter under what strain. This is done success- 
 fully by a number of different formulas. Where the processes 
 are skilfully carried out, the rubber should adhere so firmly to the 
 iron, that it will disintegrate and give way anywhere else in the 
 mass, except where its surface is in contact with metal. The 
 basis of all these processes is said to be the chemical affinity for 
 sulphur which is in the rubber with the copper salts used in the 
 compound. One formula for this is : First, the grinding of the 
 iron, finishing it with a file, and dipping it in strong lye to remove 
 all grease, and afterward in muriatic acid or dilute sulphuric 
 acid heated in water. The metal is cemented before the rubber 
 is applied. 
 
 The process patented by Garrity and Avery, is as follows: 
 Nitric acid (41° Beaume), 10 gallons; muriatic acid (22° 
 Beaume), 10 gallons; mix and add pure tin, finely divided, 10 
 pounds. 
 
 Immerse the iron for 8 seconds, remove and dip into weak 
 solution sulphuric acid, then wipe with a woolen cloth. Then 
 apply with brush or otherwise, the following compound : Rubber 
 cement 7^ gallons; litharge, 6 pounds; and sulphur, 3 pounds. 
 Add vulcanizable rubber compound at once, and vulcanize. 
 
 Hall's process : Water, 100 quarts ; caustic potash, 10 pounds ; 
 cyanide of potash, 2 pounds ; sulphate of copper, 2 pounds ; sul- 
 phate of zinc, 2 pounds. The pickle and bath are made of water 
 and about 10 per cent, sulphuric acid, the tub being lined with 
 brass plate. 
 
 Adam's process: A weak solution of sulphate of copper is 
 made — say 2 or 3 ounces of the crystallized salt to the gallon — 
 and this solution may be acidulated with sulphuric acid — say 
 
252 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 about ^ gill of strong acid to the gallon. For a fine film for 
 "dipping" articles of iron, steel, or tin, to which the rubber com- 
 pound is to be applied, if the metal is copper, it should first be 
 coated with tin, nickel, or iron. 
 
 The shellac process calls for a cement made of shellac steeped 
 in ten times its weight of concentrated ammonia, the solution 
 being allowed to stand three or four weeks. This solution is 
 painted on the iron, allowed to dry, and the rubber vulcanized 
 upon it. 
 
 THE USE OF GASES. 
 
 Before India-rubber reached its present value in the arts, 
 and before coal gas was generally known as an illuminant, Mol- 
 lerat obtained oil of caoutchouc by distillation and made a fine 
 quality of illuminating gas from it. It is needless to say that the 
 process is not practiced to-day. 
 
 Pellen rendered India-rubber impervious to gas by coating 
 it with collodion mixed with a very small quantity of castor oil 
 or with a varnish composed (i) of 32 per cent, of gum arable, 
 8 per cent, of sugar, and 60 per cent, of water, or (2) made from 
 28 per cent, of dextrin, 60 per cent, of water, and 12 per cent, of 
 gelatine. 
 
 Bousfield rendered vulcanized India-rubber impermeable to 
 gas by applying linseed oil to it in the form of a varnish, the 
 articles being heated. 
 
 Parkes suspended articles to be vulcanized in a dry heater 
 and passed the following gases into the chamber as a means of 
 vulcanization : Sulphurous acid, gas, chlorine, nitrous acid, or the 
 vapors of bromine or iodine. 
 
 Charles Hancock cured rubber by the action of vapors pro- 
 duced by dissolving zinc, copper, or mercury in nitric acid. The 
 action of these vapors being so solvent, only one or two moments 
 were given, and the surfaces then washed in an alkaline solution. 
 
 Nickels passed sulphur fumes and hydrogen into the gum 
 while in a masticator, curing afterward by heat. 
 
 Johnson prepared carburet of hydrogen from oil of tar as a 
 solvent for Gutta-percha. In order to overcome the smell of the 
 solvent, he added a little alcohol in which was essence of lavender. 
 
METALS AND RUBBER. 253 
 
 Hughes made an artificial rubber from gelatine, resin, oil, and 
 tannin, improving the compound by exposing the compound to 
 the action of hydrogen, sulphurous gas, sulphureted hydrogen, 
 nitrous gas, or ammonia. 
 
 Brooman treated vulcanized waste rubber with vapors of tur- 
 pentine in his reclaiming process. 
 
 Lake bleached India-rubber in a stream of ammonia gas or 
 chloride of ammonia, afterwards thoroughly washing the gum in 
 hot water. 
 
 A great many rubber goods — ^that is, thin sheet goods — are 
 cured by what is known as the vapor process. This is done in 
 many cases by hanging the goods in an air-tight chamber, like a 
 dry heater, and passing the vapor, which is either that of chloride 
 of sulphur alone, or chloride of sulphur mixed with carbon bisul- 
 phide, into the curing room. Small articles are often put in a 
 tumbling barrel made of wire, which revolves slowly in the vul- 
 canizing room, thus giving the vapor a chance to do its work 
 thoroughly. The rubber surfaces are of course dusted first, to 
 keep them from adhering. Proofed cloth is cured in vapor by 
 passing the rubber surface over troughs in which this reagent is 
 slowly evaporating. 
 
 The vapors of ozocerite are also used in rendering cloth 
 water-repellent. 
 
 Vulcanized India-rubber, whether compounded or pure, is 
 permeable by gas. In making flexible gas tubing, therefore, it 
 must be coated or in some way protected in order to make it gas 
 tight. The common way of accomplishing this is to cover the 
 rubber tube with an outer tube made of glue, glycerine, and 
 bichromate of potash, this covering being protected in turn by a 
 woven fabric. Another plan for accomplishing the same result 
 is to have an outer and inner tube of India-rubber, between the 
 two being vulcanized a sheet of tin-foil. 
 
 ACTION OF METALS ON RUBBER. 
 
 The action of various metals on India-rubber has always 
 interested rubber manuftcturers. In the memoirs and proceed- 
 ings of the Manchester (England) Literary and Philosophical 
 Society 1890-91, William Thomson, F.R.C., and Frederick 
 
254 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. 
 
 Lewis published an exceedingly interesting paper on this subject. 
 They covered almost all of the metals that are likely in any way 
 to come in contact with rubber surfaces, and proved what has 
 long been acknowledged by rubber manufacturers, that the action 
 of copper is most harmful. The metals that have no action at all 
 on rubber are gold, silver, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, chro- 
 mium, iron, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and cadmium. Those that act 
 only in a slight degree on rubber are lead, aluminum, palladium, 
 and platinum. 
 
 Of the salts of metals that are very destructive, copper stands 
 first, manganese oxides and nitrate of silver, being, however, 
 almost as bad. Several other nitrates have also an injurious 
 effect, although not as much so as those just mentioned. They 
 are the nitrates of ammonia, uranium, sodium, and iron. 
 
 According to N. Foden, a well-known English expert, 
 proofed goods in browns have caused him more trouble by 
 deterioration than any other colors — more than black, even — and 
 it is to be said right here that blacks as a rule are viewed with 
 distrust by manufacturers, because it is believed generally that 
 copper salts are used in the dyeing. Mr. Foden instances the 
 time when brown tweeds were used largely, and when most man- 
 tifacturers experienced a great deal of trouble with them, as the 
 browns showed early signs of decay, while the grays remained 
 soft and flexible. Mr, Foden suggests that, as certain dyers use 
 lime, which is cheaper than logwood, this may act destructively 
 upon the rubber. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RUBBER MILK. 
 
 When rubber in solution of almost any of the ordinary sol- 
 vents is mixed with a moderately large quantity of methylated 
 spirit, it is precipitated and forms later a sticky, whitish mass 
 from which the resins and coloring matter have been taken by the 
 spirit. Instead of this process, Lascelles-Scott advises the fol- 
 lowing: Take a lo or 15 per cent, solution of fine Para rubber in 
 benzine or chloroform with a little strong alcohol, but not enough 
 to precipitate the rubber. If a considerable volume of tepid water 
 be then quickly stirred into the solution, the rubber slowly 
 separates from its solvent. If to this be added a little resin-potassa 
 
RUBBER SPONGE. 255 
 
 soap, with a little liquor ammonia, the emulsion is very similar 
 to rubber milk. The distinguished author suggests the use of 
 potassa soap made of the native rubber resin as the best emulsi- 
 fying compound for such a purpose. 
 
 In writing on the preservation of genuine rubber milk, he 
 also condemns the use of creosote, for, although it prevents fer- 
 mentation, it does not hinder the gum from separating. He ad- 
 vises the use of ammonia and if it is to be kept through hot 
 weather, the addition of a fragment of camphor or naphthaline or 
 a few drops of santal-wood oil. 
 
 Thermophoric Mixture. — Tiemar (Germany), patents the 
 following: A thermophoric mixture comprising thermophoric 
 salt, dissolved sunflower seed, Greek hay-seed (Faenum Grae- 
 cum) or similar vegetable-seeds which contain viscous substances 
 and a fat which will not affect India-rubber and the like material. 
 
 Zieger and Weigand (British patent) cover a process for 
 exposing dipped goods, after each dipping, to air-dried bi-calcium 
 chloride or by cooling. 
 
 Rendering vulcanized rubber adhesive. — Raymond's patent 
 consists of treating India-rubber with benzine or a substance 
 having an analogous action thereupon, then immersing the rub- 
 ber in a solution of permanganate of potassium and a suitable 
 acid, and again treating the rubber with benzine or a substance 
 having similar action thereon. 
 
 Rubber Sponge. — The Harburg- Vienna Rubber Co. patent 
 the following: Unvulcanized India-rubber is mixed with natural 
 seeds, or with molded bodies of flour, clay, gelatine, sugar com- 
 positions, or other substances, or with non volatile soluble metallic 
 salts, either by rolling, or by first dissolving the India-rubber in 
 a hydrocarbon. The mixture is vulcanized, and the added bodies 
 are subsequently washed out with water, acids, or alkalies. 
 
 Refining Gutta-like Gums. — Willmowski's patent consists in 
 dissolving the gum in hot petroleum naphtha, removing the in- 
 soluble parts, cooling the solution until the gum itself is pre- 
 cipitated while the resins remain in solution. Then washing the 
 precipitated gum in cold petroleum naphtha, which removes 
 soluble parts, and then evaporating the naphtha from the remain- 
 ing purified gum. 
 
256 SHRINKAGE OF RUBBER. 
 
 Crude Rubber Purifying— British patents of Thame and 
 the South Western Rubber Co, — Rubber is first soaked in hot 
 dilute caustic potash, and then immersed in a solvent. When 
 partially in solution the tank is filled with water. After 1 8 to 24 
 hours the liquid is removed and the rubber washed with boiling 
 water. 
 
 Banana Rubber Process, — Bananas are washed and cut cross- 
 wise, and the liquid extracted in a centrifugal machine. The India- 
 rubber separates from the liquid on standing. British patent by 
 Zurcher, of Jamaica, West Indies. 
 
 SHRINKAGE OF RUBBER. 
 
 The following table shows the average rate of shrinkage in 
 the various leading grades of India-rubber, and also the widest 
 range of shrinkage noted in the practice of some extensive manu- 
 facturers. The figures express percentages in weight : 
 
 Average Range 
 
 Para sorts : 
 
 Fine 16 to 18 15 to 20 
 
 Medium 17 to 19 16 to 22 
 
 Coarse 22 to 28 18 to 35 
 
 Mangabeira 25 to 30 20 to 35 
 
 Caucho 26 to 34 20 to 40 
 
 Centrals 26 to 32 20 to 40 
 
 Africans : 
 
 Tongues 19 to 24 18 to 25 
 
 Flakes 28 to 33 25 to 35 
 
 Thimbles 22 to 28 15 to 35 
 
 Accra sorts 24 to 32 20 to 40 
 
 Congo sorts 19 to 24 18 to 35 
 
 Benguela sorts 16 to 20 16 to 20 
 
 Mozambique sorts 17 to 28 10 to 35 
 
 Madagascar sorts 30 to 40 25 to 55 
 
 Assam 23 to 31 8 to 45 
 
 Borneo 33 to 38 30 to 45 
 
 Mr. T. Bolas, in his "Cantor lectures" on India-rubber, in 
 1880, gave the following estimates of shrinkage of these leading 
 grades : 
 
 Para 15 per cent. 
 
 Para negroheads 25 " 
 
 Ceara 28 " 
 
 Guayaquil 40 " 
 
 Borneo 25 " 
 
 African ball 25 " 
 
 African tongues 35 " 
 
 African niggers 25 " 
 
 Madagascar 25 " 
 
SHRINKAGE OF RUBBER. 257 
 
 PARA RUBBERS. 
 
 The next table indicates in detail the percentage of shrink- 
 ages in the various grades of Para rubber, also determined by the 
 practice of American manufacturers : 
 
 Fine Medium Coarse 
 
 Bolivian 15 to 17 16 to 18 20 to 25 
 
 Mollendo 15 to 17 16 to 18 
 
 Madeira 15 to 18 16 to 19 20 to 25 
 
 Manaos 16 to 17 17 to 18 18 to 22 
 
 Upriver 16 to 18 17 to 19 18 to 25 
 
 Matto Grosso 16 to 18 17 to 19 20 to 28 
 
 Angostura 16 to 18 17 to 19 25 to 30 
 
 Caviana 16 to 18 18 to 20 25 to 30 
 
 Itaituba 17 to 18 18 to 19 20 to 25 
 
 Islands 18 to 20 18 to 22 25 to 35 
 
 Cameta 30 to 35 
 
 The shrinkage of Mangabeira (Pernambuco) thin sheet is 
 about 25 to 30 per cent. ; thick sheet, 30 to 35 ; ball, 20 to 25. 
 Caucho (Peruvian) slab, 30 to 40; sheet, 30 to 35 ; strip, 25 to 35 ; 
 ball, 20 to 25. 
 
 The better grades of Centrals shrink from 25 to 30 per cent. ; 
 other grades, generally from 30 to 40. 
 
 AFRICANS. 
 
 The Gold Coast sorts (including Accra, Cape Coast, Salt- 
 pond, Addah, Quittah, and Axim) range about as follows : But- 
 tons or biscuit, 20 to 30; flake, 30 to 35 ; lump, 30 to 40; niggers, 
 20 to 35. 
 
 Cameroon ball, 18 to 25 ; clusters, 18 to 28. 
 
 Lagos buttons, 25 to 35; lump, 30 to 40; strip, 25 to 35. 
 
 Congo buttons, 25 to 30; ball No. i, 20 to 25; ball No. 2, 
 25 to 35 ; Upper Congo ball and strips, 20 to 35 ; red ball, 18 to 
 22; Equateur small ball, 16 to 20; mixed ball, 18 to 22; Lopori 
 small ball, 16 to 22 ; Kassai black twist, 18 to 22 ; red twist, 20 to 
 25 ; ball, 20 to 25. 
 
 Benguela (and Loanda) sausage, 16 to 20; niggers, 18 to 20, 
 
 Mozambique (including Lamu) ball No. i, 10 to 15; ball 
 No. 2, 15 to 25 ; ball No. 3, 25 to 35 ; sausage, 20 to 35. 
 
 Madagascar pinky, 30 to 35; Majunga, 30 to 35 ; black, 30 
 to 40 ; niggers, 30 to 40. 
 
258 SHRINKAGE OF RUBBER. 
 
 EAST INDIAN. 
 
 Assam No. i, lo to 15 ; No. 2, 20 to 30; No. 3, 30 to 35. 
 Penang, No. i, and Java No. i, 10 to 15 per cent.; other 
 numbers same shrinkage as Assam. 
 
 E. Chapel gives this table of percentages of shrinkage: 
 
 Para, fine 12 Ceara 28 
 
 Para, coarse 25 African ball 28 
 
 Loando 17 Madagascar 28 
 
 Colombia 20 Assam 28 
 
 Java 22 Gaboon 35 
 
 Gambia 24 Borneo 35 
 
 TO FIGURE SHRINKAGE IN CRUDE RUBBER, 
 
 It is Strange that there should be a divergence of opinion 
 
 and method in arriving at the net cost of rubber after washing, 
 
 sheeting, and drying it, yet such is the case. To assist those who 
 
 have not studied this question, the right and the wrong way of 
 
 figuring on shrinkage is given here. Take, for instance, an 
 
 average-priced rubber: 
 
 Example A. 
 100 lbs. rubber at $0.50 = $50.00 
 20 lbs. shrinkage = 20 per cent., or i-5th. 
 
 80 lbs., net cost $50.00, as above. 
 80 ) 50.00 ( 62.50 
 480 
 
 200 
 160 
 
 400 
 400 
 
 Some persons, however, figure in this way: 
 
 Example B. 
 
 100 lbs. at $0.50 lb. 
 
 Shrinkage 20 per cent. = i-5th. 
 
 $0.50 4- i-5th (10 cents) = 60 cents. 
 
 Example A. — Correct method — net cost $62.50 
 
 Example B. — Incorrect method — ^net cost 60.00 
 
 DiflFarence $2.50 
 
 This is a diflference of 4 per cent., which, if it occur in manu- 
 facturing a large amount of goods where rubber is the greater 
 part of the compound, would make quite a difference in the profit. 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 259 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF RUBBER. 
 
 The following records of the specific gravities of different 
 samples of India-rubber have been collected : 
 
 Best Para, taken in dilute alcohol (Ure) 0.941567 
 
 Best Assam, taken in dilute alcohol (Ure) 0.942972 
 
 Best Singapore, taken in dilute alcohol (Ure) 0.936650 
 
 Best Penang, taken in dilute alcohol (Ure) 0.919178 
 
 Caoutchouc (Julian) 0.920000 
 
 Crude caoutchouc of India (Adriani) 0.966800 
 
 Black caoutchouc (Adriani) 0.945200 
 
 Prepared from juice in pure state (Faraday) 0.925000 
 
 Determined by E. Soubeiran 0.935500 
 
 Determined by Payen 0.925000 
 
 H. L. Terry, F.I.C., gives the specific gravity of Para rub- 
 ber and refers to Faraday's figures as being most correct. 
 
 Faraday's general analysis of the latex of the Hevea is: 
 
 Caoutchouc 30.70 
 
 Albuminous extractive and saline matter 12.93 
 
 Water 56.37 
 
 The specific gravity of the latex quoted was 1.012. 
 The crude rubber itself is made up of the following general 
 composition : Carbon, 87.5 ; hydrogen, 12.5. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PHYSICAL TESTS AND METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF VULCANIZED INDIA- 
 RUBBER. 
 
 It long has been the boast of expert rubber superintendents 
 and manufacturers that they found Httle trouble in matching com- 
 pounds. As a matter of fact, some of them are marvelously 
 expert. Given a small sample of vulcanized rubber in a familiar 
 line, with a knowledge of the price at which it must be produced, 
 they are able in a majority of instances, by their knowledge of 
 rubber and of compounding ingredients, to get a result that is 
 apparently similar, and without much experimenting. 
 
 In certain instances, however, they fail, principally where a 
 new product is brought in for matching, to which is attached an 
 extraordinarily low price. The usual refuge in such a case for- 
 merly was the assertion that the manufacturer was losing money 
 on that particular line of goods. But this has been so often dis- 
 proved, and the sample found to be both an original and better 
 compound, that this excuse is not often heard nowadays. 
 
 The factory expert gaged his sample, no matter how expert 
 he might be, by purely physical rules. The smell told him what 
 kind of rubber was used, whether Para or African, and usually 
 whether reclaimed rubber was present. The strength and the 
 weight of the sample gave him an indication as to the amount 
 of adulteration. The color also had its suggestions as to material 
 contained in it, but the knowledge thus shown often was very far 
 from being exact. 
 
 Nor was the general result very much better when informa- 
 tion was purchased from employes, or points secured through 
 quizzing the supply men. The best course for the rubber super- 
 intendent to pursue, therefore, is to put his knowledge up against 
 that of the expert chemist, when the two, working together, can 
 usually match better than the original. It is better if the chemist 
 be familiar with the practical manipulation of rubber, for the un- 
 familiar chemist has in many cases brought science into consider- 
 able disrepute in the factory. 
 
 Certain rubber compounds, in spite of the most careful analy- 
 
 260 
 
TESTING MACHINES. 261 
 
 sis by expert chemists, have remained, and probably will remain, 
 profound secrets. For ordinary work, however, there ought to 
 be no trouble in getting a fair analysis. The following descrip- 
 tions of processes employed in the analysis of vulcanized rubbber 
 are given chiefly that the rubber superintendent who views chem- 
 istry as a dark and deep mystery may have some knowledge of 
 what the chemist is about when he seeks his assistance. Before 
 beginning on chemical analysis a few words more concerning 
 physical tests may not be amiss. 
 
 In the case of many kinds of goods there is a great variety 
 of appliances that form really valuable tests as to their durability, 
 tensile strength, wearing quality, and so on. As a rule, these aim 
 to reproduce the work that the vulcanized article is obliged to 
 endure in actual service. In rubber boots and shoes, for example, 
 a machine is employed which bends the shoe exactly as it is bent 
 when the wearer is walking, and at the same time gives a friction 
 motion on the sole. This is run at a high rate of speed, so that a 
 week's wear on a machine like this would correspond to a month 
 of service in actual use. 
 
 A machine is also used for testing air-brake hose which coun- 
 terfeits the swing and kinking motion that the hose gets in actual 
 service. This is run at a very high rate of speed, and the hose 
 which stands this sort of usage longest is supposed to be adapted 
 to endure the longest time in actual use. 
 
 Tires, both pneumatic and solid, are tested by being put on a 
 wheel rim and run what is equivalent to hundreds and thousands 
 of miles over roughened surfaces upon which they are pressed by 
 a lever carrying heavy weight. These mechanical contrivances 
 are valuable in showing the severe usage that rubber will often 
 stand, but none of them are exact parallels to absolute service, 
 for as a rule they are more severe, particularly in the intense 
 heating that may come to the rubber from high speeds and great 
 friction. 
 
 Manufacturers and purchasers of rubber goods have also 
 many simple and excellent tests for approximating the value of 
 the rubber. In belt and hose covers and tubes, a bit of the rubber 
 is cut from the fabric and stretched to show its tensile strength. 
 The fabric is also pulled apart, and the integrity of the friction 
 
262 
 
 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 proved by the way it resists such separation. Rubber springs 
 sometimes have been placed under a steam hammer which was 
 allowed to drop upon them, the results being noted and that com- 
 pound standing up longest being considered the best. 
 
 An English manufacturer following out this test, got some 
 interesting, if not valuable, results. He took a piece of vulcanized 
 India-rubber i^ inches thick and with 2 inches area, and placed it 
 under a steam hammer of five tons, which first rested upon the 
 rubber without effect. The hammer was then raised two feet and 
 dropped upon it without injury, then lifted four feet, when the 
 cake was torn, but none of its elasticity was destroyed. More 
 severe trials were then made. A block of vulcanized India-rubber 
 was placed between two cannon balls, with the whole power of 
 the heaviest steam hammer employed ; the iron spheres split the 
 block, but the elasticity of the rubber still remained. 
 
 The ordnance department of the United States government 
 some years ago inaugurated some very interesting tests of vul- 
 canized rubber at the arsenal at Watertown, Massachusetts, the 
 results of which are appended : 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Applied Loads. 
 
 Mean Length. 
 
 Compression. 
 
 Compression 
 Sets. 
 
 Middle Diameter. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 572 
 
 
 
 
 6.10 
 
 1,000 
 
 S-32 
 
 .40 
 
 0." 
 
 6.38 
 
 2,000 
 
 4.84 
 
 .88 
 
 .10 
 
 6.72 
 
 3,000 
 
 4-47 
 
 1-25 
 
 .18 
 
 7.06 
 
 4,000 
 
 403 
 
 1.69 
 
 .29 
 
 7.48 
 
 5,000 
 
 370 
 
 2.02 
 
 •33 
 
 7^79 
 
 6,000 
 
 3-40 
 
 2.32 
 
 •37 
 
 8.12 
 
 7,000 
 
 3-M 
 
 2.58 
 
 .42 
 
 8.44 
 
 8,000 
 
 2.96 
 
 2.76 
 
 •39* 
 
 8.73 
 
 9,000 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.92 
 
 •51 
 
 8.92 
 
 10,000 
 
 2.68 
 
 3-04 
 
 .58 
 
 9.1 1 
 
 11,000 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.12 
 
 .52* 
 
 9.24 
 
 12,000 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.22 
 
 .60 
 
 9.42 
 
 13,000 
 
 2.45 
 
 3.27 
 
 .67 
 
 9-5S 
 
 14,000 
 
 2.36 
 
 3-36 
 
 •73 
 
 9.68 
 
 15,000 
 
 2.31 
 
 3-41 
 
 •74 
 
 9-77 
 
 
 
 5-15 
 
 
 
 6.71 
 
 * Before these sets were taken the load on the rubber was reduced to 500 pounds, then 
 increased to 1,000 pounds, and the sets then measured. 
 
TESTS OF VULCANIZED RUBBER. 
 
 263 
 
 The second test was of new rubber gun-carriage springs, in 
 which the compression sets were determined under the initial load, 
 the end diameters approximate under load. The length of the 
 rubber spring was 6.03 inches ; the diameter 6.03 inches ; the diam- 
 eter of core 1.04 inches; the sectional area 27.71 square inches; 
 and the weight 1 1 pounds : 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Applied 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- Coi 
 sion. son 
 
 npres- 
 Sets. 
 
 Diameters. 
 
 Middle 
 Diam. Under 
 Initial Load. 
 
 Loads. 
 
 End. 
 
 Middle 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. It 
 
 tch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 500 
 
 5-87 
 
 0. 
 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.12 
 
 6.12 
 
 1,000 
 
 5.70 
 
 • 17 
 
 02 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.24 
 
 6.15 
 
 1,500 
 
 551 
 
 •36 
 
 03 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.35 
 
 6.15 
 
 2,000 
 
 5-34 
 
 •53 
 
 06 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.48 
 
 6.18 
 
 2,500 
 
 5-13 
 
 •74 
 
 07 
 
 6.03 
 
 6.64 
 
 6.18 
 
 3,000 
 
 5.00 
 
 .87 
 
 07 
 
 6.10 
 
 6.76 
 
 6.18 
 
 3.500 
 
 4.81 
 
 1.06 
 
 09 
 
 6.15 
 
 6.87 
 
 6.18 
 
 4,000 
 
 4-65 
 
 1.22 
 
 08 
 
 6.16 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.18 
 
 4,500 
 
 4.50 
 
 1-37 
 
 08 
 
 6.18 
 
 7-15 
 
 6.19 
 
 5,000 
 
 4-35 
 
 152 
 
 02 
 
 6.29 
 
 7.26 
 
 6.19 
 
 5.500 
 
 4.20 
 
 1.67 
 
 12 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.41 
 
 6.19 
 
 6,000 
 
 4.06 
 
 1.81 
 
 19 
 
 6.43 
 
 ^■§f 
 
 6.19 
 
 6,500 
 
 3-95 
 
 1.92 
 
 03 
 
 6.50 
 
 7.66 
 
 6.21 
 
 7,000 
 
 3-83 
 
 2.04 
 
 IS 
 
 6.64 
 
 7-77 
 
 6.21 
 
 7,500 
 
 370 
 
 2.17 
 
 15 
 
 6.70 
 
 7.91 
 
 6.22 
 
 8,000 
 
 3.62 
 
 2.25 
 
 15 
 
 6.78 
 
 8.02 
 
 6.22 
 
 8,500 
 
 3-52 
 
 2-35 
 
 16 
 
 6.89 
 
 8.13 
 
 6.22 
 
 9,000 
 
 3-43 
 
 2.44 
 
 16 
 
 6.96 
 
 8.24 
 
 6.23 
 
 9,500 
 
 3-35 
 
 2.52 
 
 17 
 
 7.06 
 
 8.34 
 
 6.24 
 
 10,000 
 
 3-25 
 
 2.62 
 
 17 
 
 7.25 
 
 8.46 
 
 6.25 
 
 The spring was then removed from the testing-machine, 
 measured, and its length was 5.90 inches; middle diameter 6.08 
 inches. After it had rested 20 minutes the length was 6 inches, 
 and the middle diameter 6.06 inches. It was then placed again in 
 the testing machine and the figures on the following page taken. 
 
 When removed its measurements were: Length 5.86 inches; 
 middle diameter 6.24 inches ; end diameter 5.90 inches ; the ends 
 were concave, V. sine .o5 and .08 inches. After six hours' rest it 
 recovered in length to 5.96 inches. 
 
264 
 
 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Middle 
 
 Applied 
 Loads. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 
 Compres- 
 
 
 
 Diam. Under 
 Initial Load 
 
 sion. 
 
 sion Sets. 
 
 Ends. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 500 
 
 5-84 
 
 •03 
 
 •03 
 
 6.01 
 
 6.15 
 
 6.15 
 
 6,000 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.87 
 
 
 6-55 
 
 7.63 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 3-29 
 
 2.58 
 
 
 7.25 
 
 8.40 
 
 
 10,500 
 
 3.21 
 
 2.66 
 
 
 7-35 
 
 8.48 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 3.16 
 
 2.71 
 
 
 7 39 
 
 8.54 
 
 
 11,500 
 
 3" 
 
 2.76 
 
 
 7.46 
 
 8.60 
 
 
 1 2,000 
 
 3.06 
 
 2.81 
 
 •17 
 
 7-55 
 
 8.67 
 
 6.26 
 
 1 3,000 
 
 2.94 
 
 2-93 
 
 
 7-74 
 
 8.86 
 
 
 1 4,000 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.01 
 
 
 7.86 
 
 8.97 
 
 
 1 5,000 
 
 2.80 
 
 3-07 
 
 .22 
 
 7-94 
 
 9.04 
 
 6.30 
 
 1 6,000 
 
 2.71 
 
 3.16 
 
 
 8.10 
 
 9.20 
 
 
 17,000 
 
 2.65 
 
 3.22 
 
 
 8.20 
 
 9.28 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.26 
 
 
 8.27 
 
 9-35 
 
 
 19,000 
 
 2.56 
 
 3-31 
 
 
 8.36 
 
 9.42 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 2-53 
 
 3-34 
 
 •30 
 
 8.43 
 
 9-47 
 
 6.37 
 
 In the next test the length of the spring was 6.06 inches ; 
 diameter, 5.97 inches; diameter of core 1.06 inches; sectional area 
 27.11 square inches; weight, 11 pounds. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 Applied 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 
 Compres- 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 
 
 Diam.Under 
 
 
 
 
 
 End. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Initial Load. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 500 
 
 .590 
 
 0. 
 
 0. 
 
 5-97 
 
 6.07 
 
 6.07 
 
 1,000 
 
 5-75 
 
 •15 
 
 .02 
 
 5-97 
 
 6.16 
 
 6.07 
 
 1,500 
 
 5-59 
 
 •31 
 
 .02 
 
 5-97 
 
 6.27 
 
 6.08 
 
 2,000 
 
 5-41 
 
 •49 
 
 .06 
 
 5.98 
 
 6.38 
 
 6.10 
 
 2,500 
 
 5.25 
 
 .65 
 
 .05 
 
 6.02 
 
 6.48 
 
 6.10 
 
 3,000 
 
 5.05 
 
 .85 
 
 .09 
 
 6.05 
 
 6.62 
 
 6.12 
 
 3,500 
 
 4.90 
 
 1. 00 
 
 .08 
 
 6.08 
 
 6.73 
 
 6.1 1 
 
 4,000 
 
 4.76 
 
 1. 14 
 
 .10 
 
 6.14 
 
 6.88 
 
 6.12 
 
 4,500 
 
 4.61 
 
 1.29 
 
 .10 
 
 6.20 
 
 7.00 
 
 6.12 ■ 
 
 5,000 
 
 4-47 
 
 1-43 
 
 .11 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.1 1 
 
 6.12 
 
 5,500 
 
 4-33 
 
 1-57 
 
 .11 
 
 6.31 
 
 7.24 
 
 6 14 
 
 6,000 
 
 421 
 
 1.69 
 
 .12 
 
 6.37 
 
 7-32 
 
 6.15 
 
 The measurements when removed from the machine were: 
 Length, 5,98 inches; middle diameter 6 inches; end diameter 5.97 
 inches. After it had rested 15 hours, it measured: Length 6.02 
 
TESTS OF VULCANIZED RUBBER. 
 
 265 
 
 inches; middle diameter 6 inches; end diameter 5.96 inches. It 
 was then placed again in the machine and tests were resumed. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion Sets. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Middle 
 Diam.Under 
 Initial Load. 
 
 Loads. 
 
 End. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 500 
 
 5.90 
 
 0, 
 
 
 5-97 
 
 6.08 
 
 6.08 
 
 6,000 
 
 4.27 
 
 1.63 
 
 
 6.3s 
 
 7.30 
 
 
 6,500 
 
 4.12 
 
 1.78 
 
 .08 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.41 
 
 6.1 1 
 
 7,000 
 
 4.00 
 
 1.90 
 
 .09 
 
 6.60 
 
 7-55 
 
 6.12 
 
 7,500 
 
 3-90 
 
 2.00 
 
 .10 
 
 6.57 
 
 7.62 
 
 6.14 
 
 8,000 
 
 3-82 
 
 2.08 
 
 .10 
 
 6.65 
 
 7-73 
 
 6.12 
 
 8,500 
 
 3-72 
 
 2.18 
 
 .11 
 
 6.75 
 
 7.82 
 
 6.14 
 
 9,000 
 
 3.62 
 
 2.28 
 
 • 14 
 
 6.84 
 
 7-93 
 
 6.16 
 
 9,500 
 
 3-52 
 
 2.38 
 
 .14 
 
 6-93 
 
 8.03 
 
 6.17 
 
 10,000 
 
 345 
 
 2.45 
 
 .16 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.1 1 
 
 6.17 
 
 The spring was then removed from the testing machine and 
 its measurements were: Length 5.92 inches; middle diameter, 
 6.09 inches. Measurements after the spring had rested one hour 
 showed: Length, 5.98 inches; middle diameter, 6.06 inches; end 
 diameter, 5.95 inches. The spring was again placed in the 
 machine and tests resumed. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 Applied 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion Sets. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Middle 
 Diam.Under 
 Initial Load 
 
 Loads. 
 
 End. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 500 
 
 5.88 
 
 0.7 
 
 .07 
 
 597 
 
 6.13 
 
 6.13 
 
 6,000 
 
 4.09 
 
 1.81 
 
 
 6.41 
 
 7-47 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 3-46 
 
 2.44 
 
 
 7.00 
 
 8.12 
 
 
 10,500 
 
 338 
 
 2.52 
 
 
 7.09 
 
 8.22 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 3-34 
 
 2.56 
 
 
 7-15 
 
 8.27 
 
 
 11,500 
 
 3-27 
 
 2.63 
 
 
 7.21 
 
 8.36 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 3-17 
 
 2.73 
 
 .22 
 
 7.26 
 
 8.40 
 
 6.22 
 
 13,000 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.80 
 
 
 7.46 
 
 8.57 
 
 
 14,000 
 
 3.02 
 
 2.88 
 
 
 7.51 
 
 8.67 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.00 
 
 .26 
 
 7.66 
 
 8.70 
 
 6.27 
 
 16,000 
 
 2.84 
 
 3.06 
 
 
 7.84 
 
 8.95 
 
 
 17,000 
 
 2.79 
 
 3-" 
 
 
 7.90 
 
 9.02 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 275 
 
 3.16 
 
 
 7.97 
 
 9.06 
 
 
 19,000 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.20 
 
 
 8.05 
 
 9-13 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.22 
 
 ■1>1 
 
 8.11 
 
 9.19 
 
 6.36 
 
266 
 
 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 (the preceding table continued.) 
 
 Applied Loads. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion. 
 
 Applied Loads. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Compres- 
 sion. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1,000 
 
 5-43 
 
 •47 
 
 11,000 
 
 3-05 
 
 2.85 
 
 2,000 
 
 5.10 
 
 .80 
 
 12,000 
 
 2.98 
 
 2.82 
 
 3,000 
 
 4.75 
 
 115 
 
 13,000 
 
 2.91 
 
 2.99 
 
 4,000 
 
 4-43 
 
 1.47 
 
 14,000 
 
 2.85 
 
 3-05 
 
 5,000 
 
 4.10 
 
 1.80 
 
 15,000 
 
 2.81 
 
 309 
 
 6,000 
 
 3.80 
 
 2.10 
 
 16,000 
 
 2.78 
 
 312 
 
 7,000 
 
 3-58 
 
 232 
 
 17,000 
 
 2.74 
 
 3-16 
 
 8,000 
 
 3-38 
 
 2.52 
 
 18,000 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.20 
 
 9^000 
 
 325 
 
 2.65 
 
 19,000 
 
 2.67 
 
 323 
 
 10,000 
 
 3-15 
 
 2.75 
 
 20,000 
 
 2.63 
 
 3-27 
 
 Time for loading, three minutes. The spring was then 
 removed from the testing machine and its measurements showed : 
 Length, 5.81 inches; middle diameter, 6.25 inches; end diameter, 
 5.87 inches; ends concave, V. sine, .08 and .10 inch. It recovered 
 in length to 5.93 inches after four hours' rest. 
 
 The French navy also inaugurated a series of tests for rub- 
 ber belting which are of interest. The first test related to elas- 
 ticity. Samples from the cover were first put into a steam vul- 
 canizer for 48 hours, under a pressure of 5 atmospheres, which 
 they should stand without losing their elasticity. The samples 
 are then placed under a pressure of 85.5 pounds per square inch 
 on the grating of a valve box, and given strokes at the rate of 100 
 per minute. They were expected to stand 9,100 strokes, while 
 samples not tested by the steam should stand 17,100 strokes. 
 Strips from the cover that had received the steam treatment, 6-I0 
 of an inch square on cross section, and 8 inches long, fastened 
 at each end and elongated 3.9 inches, were not expected to break 
 when stretched 8 inches more, this being repeated 22 times a 
 minute for 24 hours. Strips that had not been treated to the 
 steam bath should resist the same treatment for 100 hours. 
 These tests of course applied to high grade compounds only. 
 
 The analysis of vulcanized India-rubber should give the fol- 
 lowing information : 
 
 Amount of India-rubber, 
 Amount of India-rubber resins, 
 Amount of substitutes, 
 
HENRIQ UES'S METHODS. 267 
 
 Amount of free, fatty resin, and mineral oils, resin, paraffine, and 
 bituminous bodies. 
 
 Amount of sulphur of vulcanization. 
 Amount of sulphur and chlorine in substitute, 
 Amount of free sulphur. 
 Amount of mineral matters. 
 
 The mineral matters embrace metallic sulphides and oxides, 
 inert mineral substances such as whiting and barytes, and sub- 
 stances imparting special properties such as asbestos, graphite, 
 pumice, etc. 
 
 According to Carl Otto Weber, Ph.D., F.C.S., and to Percy 
 Carter Bell, F.I.C., F.C.S., Dr. Robert Henriques has by his 
 methods of analysis solved the problem that troubled the analysts 
 more than any other, which was that of determining the amount 
 of oil substitutes found in India-rubber compounds. 
 
 Dr. Henriques's methods are as follows: Fuming nitric acid 
 to the amount of 20 c.c. is placed in a small dish covered with 
 a funnel, through the stem of which 3 to 4 grams of rubber are 
 slowly added. When the action has ceased, the dish is warmed 
 gently on a water bath until the contents are of the consistency 
 of a thin syrup. There are then added 4 grams of a mixture of 4 
 parts sodium carbonate and 3 parts of potassium nitrate, after 
 which it is carefully fused, and treated with dilute muriatic acid, 
 then evaporated to dryness to render silica, if present, insoluble, 
 redissolved by adding a little nitric acid, and, last, the sulphuric 
 acid is precipitated with barium chloride. The residue of silica 
 may contain sulphates of lead or of barium. Ammonium acetate 
 dissolves the former. 
 
 In estimating the sulphur of vulcanization, and also the 
 excess of sulphur, they must be separated from that present in the 
 form of sulphates and sulphides. This is done in the following 
 manner: The sample of rubber is dissolved in that fraction of 
 ordinary petroleum which distills over at from 140° to 250° C, 
 being kept in the solvent at a boiling temperature for two days. 
 From 5 to 15 grams of the sample are placed in a weighed flask, 
 and, after adding about 150 c.c. petroleum free from sulphur, all 
 the inorganic matter is dissolved by heating the flask with reflux 
 condenser at about 150° C. The subsequent processes are the 
 filtering of the solution, the careful washing of the flask with hot 
 
268 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 petroleum, and the rinsing of both flask and filter with petroleum 
 ether. Those substances insoluble in petroleum are determined by 
 weighing on the tared filter at iio° C. 
 
 The sulphur in this residue, which is easily determined, when 
 deducted from the total sulphur of the sample, gives the amount 
 of the free sulphur, and sulphur of vulcanization. If the rubber 
 contains metallic oxides or carbonates, some of the sulphur may 
 have been oxidized to sulphuric acid, and the results noted above 
 may be too low. 
 
 The rubber substitutes in the compound are completely and 
 easily soluble in alcoholic potash. The following is the manner 
 of this analysis: From 3 to 5 grams of the rubber compound, 
 finely divided, is boiled for about 8 hours in ten times its weight 
 of alcoholic soda, 8 per cent, strong. The solution, diluted with 
 water, is freed from the alcohol by means of a water bath, after 
 which the residue on a weighed filter is washed, dried, and 
 weighed. To determine the residue on ignition of the extracted 
 residue, one gram is taken and the ignition performed in the 
 presence of ammonium nitrate. If now the substance extracted 
 from the rubber be free from chlorine, it may either consist of" 
 free oil, or be derived from black rubber substitute. In the latter 
 case, it must contain at least 10 per cent, of sulphur, but in the 
 former, only traces of sulphur will be present. An estimation 
 therefore of the chlorine and of the sulphur in the alcoholic ex- 
 tract determines the presence of white substitute, black substitute, 
 or sulphur. 
 
 In using caustic alkali a certain amount of the alkali will be 
 retained, the amount of which must be determined, if correct 
 figures are to be secured. Repeated washings in dilute muriatic 
 acid remove this, and allow of its determination. 
 
 The following data are necessary in the analysis of vulcan- 
 ized rubber containing substitute or oil: (i) The total sulphur; 
 (2) the total ash; (3) the weight of the substance after extrac- 
 tion with alcoholic soda; (4) the sulphur, the ash, and the sul- 
 phur in the extracted fatty acids all to be found in the third sub- 
 stance. Also, the weight of the substance after extraction with 
 alcoholic soda. From 1.5 to 2 grams of substance are used, the 
 extraction being twice repeated, each boiling being from two to 
 
VARIOUS TESTS. 269 
 
 three hours. The quantity of rubber dissolved by the alcoholic 
 soda is deducted from the weight of the total extract. This cor- 
 rection averages 2.5 per cent. 
 
 From the above figures, the percentage of rubber and fatty 
 acids may be calculated by equations, which read : 
 
 ICX) 
 
 Rubber = (Weight of substance after extraction of alcoholic 
 
 97.5 soda — its sulphur — its ash). 
 
 The fatty acids from this equation : 
 
 Fatty acids ^ 100 — (total sulphur -j- total ash 4- percentage of 
 
 rubber found from the foregoing equation). 
 
 The sulphur contained in the rubber substitute is represented 
 by assuming that quantity to be about equal to that of the fatty 
 acids in white substitute and about 1.5 per cent, larger than the 
 quantity of fatty acids in brown substitute. The difference be- 
 tween the total sulphur and the sulphur in the substitute is the 
 sulphur of vulcanization. Asphalt being often present in rubber 
 compounds, by first dissolving the free sulphur by treatment with 
 alcoholic soda, and then dissolving the asphalt out by means of 
 nitrobenzene, it is easily determined. The presence of mineral 
 oils, parafiine, and resins are the only things that interefere with 
 this means of extraction. 
 
 The following tests are credited to C. A. Lobuy de Bruyn : 
 
 1. Extract Test (Henriques's method). — Three grams of 
 the finely divided sample when boiled for six hours with 50 c.c. 
 of a 6 per cent, alcoholic solution of caustic soda should not lose 
 more than 8 per cent., the loss to be calculated upon the organic 
 substance of the sample. The extract should contain sulphur and 
 rubber resins. 
 
 2. Dry Heat Test. — Two grams of the finely divided sample 
 are heated to 135° C. for two hours. When cold the sample 
 should not have suffered any alteration and should show a loss of 
 weight not exceeding 1.5 per cent. 
 
 3. Moist Heat Test. — A small piece of the sample is sealed 
 in a glass tube half filled with water. The tube is then heated to 
 170° C. for four hours. The sample should not be affected by 
 this treatment. 
 
270 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 4. Ash. — About I gram of the sample is fused, decomposed, 
 and partly ignited over a small flame in a porcelain crucible. The 
 heat is then increased and ignition completed. 
 
 Dr. C. Reinhardt, in Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, 
 writes as follows on the analysis of vulcanized India-rubber: 
 ^'The determination of the ashes is effected by gradually heating 
 in a covered crucible .0182 ounce of the product until the cessa- 
 tion of gaseous liberation. The calcination is finished in an open 
 crucible, care being taken not to heat too much, so as to avoid the 
 losses due to the volatilization of the substances composing the 
 ashes. To determine the proportion of mineral substances (with 
 the exception of sulphur) .0182 ounce of India-rubber fragments is 
 moistened with 1.2 cubic inch of D nitric acid (= 14.), and heat- 
 ing takes place in a water bath for five to seven minutes, until 
 complete dissolution ensues. Dry evaporation takes place in the 
 water bath, followed by moistening with hydrochloric acid and 
 dissolution in water. The residue is formed of sulphate of 
 barium and silica acid ; the quantitative analysis of the substances 
 contained in the liquid (oxide of zinc, lime, magnesia, oxide 
 of iron, and alumina) being made according to the usual methods. 
 To determine the total of sulphur there is treated .0357 ounce of 
 the product (while heated) with 1.2 cubic inches of nitric acid; 
 chlorate of potash being gradually added until oxidation is 
 complete. After evaporation and dissolution in water, with the 
 addition of hydrochloric acid, follows precipitation. Then takes 
 place the quantitative analysis of the sulphuric acid by the 
 chloruret of barium and of the remainder of the sulphuric acid in 
 the insoluble residue of sulphate of baryta. It is possible to deter- 
 mine the quantity of sulphur added for the vulcanization by burn- 
 ing the product in a current of oxygen at a low temperature by 
 passing the vapors across hydrochloric acid containing bromine, 
 and by analyzing quantitatively the sulphuric acid formed in the 
 condition of sulphate of baryta. The India-rubber can likewise 
 be distilled in glass tubes and the quantity of sulphur in the dis- 
 tilled liquor can be ascertained." 
 
 In Dr. Weber's exceedingly valuable article printed in the 
 Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, the steps in analysis 
 are thus shewn: 
 
DETERMINING RUBBER SUBSTITUTES. 271 
 
 SUMMARY OF WEBER's METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
 
 I. Acetone (10 runs in Soxhlet tube). 
 
 Fatty and 
 
 Mineral 
 
 Oils, 
 
 Resins and 
 
 Free 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 II. Boiling Alcoholic Soda (8 per cent). 
 
 Rubber 
 Substitutes. 
 
 III. Cold Nitrobenzole. 
 
 Asphaltum. 
 
 IV. Boiling Nitrobenzole (Soxhlet 
 tube). 
 
 Rubber and 
 Sulphur 
 of Vul- 
 canization. 
 
 V. Residue. 
 
 Mineral matters and 
 free carbon. 
 
 The rubber substitutes are determined by extracting in 
 alcoholic soda solution and asphaltum by cold nitrobenzene, both of 
 these methods being Henriques's. The rubber is separated by 
 extraction with boiling nitrobenzene in the Soxhlet tube. Starch 
 is dissolved out by boiling water. The mineral and carbonaceous 
 matters are determined in the final residue. The matters in the 
 acetone extract, the rubber and mineral matters are determined by 
 weighing after evaporation. Substitutes and asphaltum are best 
 determined in the loss of weight operated upon. 
 
 Of the various forms of sulphur occurring in rubber, the 
 determination of free sulphur and sulphur of vulcanization is of 
 great importance. The estimation of the free sulphur is made in 
 t^e acetone extract. Not all the sulphur in this extract is free, as 
 the presence of rubber substitutes in the sample means that the 
 extracts will contain sulphides of the fatty acids, also the sul- 
 phides produced by the action of free sulphur on the resins always 
 found in rubber. To estimate the sulphur in the acetone extract, 
 add 20 c.c. of a solution of pure sodium sulphide and caustic 
 soda and heat the mixture on a water bath for an hour. Dilute 
 the solution with warm water, and precipitate the fatty acids by 
 adding a slight excess of barium hydrate. Filter, wash, and make 
 up the filtrate to 300 c.c. and estimate the sulphur in an aliquot 
 part. 
 
272 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 In determining the sulphur of vulcanization, the free sulphur 
 must first be removed, and for this purpose, the acetone extract 
 answers very well. In every case the sulphur of vulcanization 
 should be estimated direct. The solution of rubber in nitroben- 
 zene is therefore distilled under reduced pressure. The flask con- 
 taining the non-volatile residue is then dried at 140° C, and then 
 oxidized with fuming nitric acid. When the residue has finally 
 dissolved, the solution is poured into a platinum dish, the flask 
 being rinsed with warm nitric acid. The residue is then evapo- 
 rated on the water bath, fused with carbonate of soda, dissolved 
 in water, oxidized with bromine, acidulated with muriatic acid, 
 and the sulphur precipitated with barium chloride. The sulphur 
 in the asphaltum which is in the cold nitrobenzole solution is 
 determined in a similar manner. 
 
 TORREY'S METHOD OF DETERMINING RUBBER. 
 
 Joseph Torrey, Ph.D., who has added much to rubber re- 
 search, uses the following method for examining both vulcanized 
 and unvulcanized rubbers : 
 
 "i. Oils, resins and free sulphur — Acetone extract. 
 
 "2. Pitch, tar, asphalt, etc. — Pyridine extract on residue 
 from I, 
 
 "3. Oily substitutes — Alcoholic soda extract on residue 
 from 2. 
 
 "4. Mineral matter — Residue from and nitro naphthaline 
 extraction of residue from 3, or by incineration. 
 
 "I have not included the 'sulphur of vulcanization' determina- 
 tion because in very many cases it is not important, or can be 
 judged closely enough. It would however, be convenient to have 
 a short method of determining in the residue from 3 — or a por- 
 tion of it — the amount of pure rubber present. 
 
 "The methods described by Weber and Harries, apart from 
 the recent criticisms by Alexander and Harries, are long and 
 expensive. They require, moreover, no small amount of manipu- 
 lative skill. I venture, therefore, to submit the following as a 
 simple and inexpensive method requiring little apparatus and 
 capable of yielding good results in comparatively untrained hands. 
 
 "Let it be distinctly understood, however, that I do not offer 
 
TORREY'S METHOD. 273 
 
 this as a suitable method for valuing crude rubber, though I have 
 in many cases obtained good results by its use. If such a method 
 is desired the precipitation method recently described by Fendler 
 gives quick and satisfactory results, as I have found in several 
 years' experience with it. 
 
 "The new method is founded on the fact that when rubber is 
 heated with pure nitric acid of specific gravity 1.42 under fairly 
 constant conditions it is converted into a body which dissolves 
 completely in caustic alkaline solutions with production of a deep 
 red color. I have not studied this body in detail, except to satisfy 
 myself that the same weight of pure rubber, when treated as 
 described and diluted with water to a definite volume, always 
 gives the same tint. It makes no difference whether the rubber 
 be vulcanized or not, in the ordinary filling and weighing mineral 
 bodies used in vulcanized rubber goods have no effect on the final 
 tint. 
 
 "Resins sometimes interfere, sometimes not. Dark substi- 
 tutes interfere, and must be removed. Pitch, tar, asphalt, etc., 
 also interfere. The proper place for the determination is after 
 No. 3 in the scheme given above. I will now describe the prepa- 
 ration of a rubber solution of known strength, and having a con- 
 venient standard tint; and then show how the solution thus pre- 
 pared is used as a standard of comparison with other solutions 
 similarly prepared, but containing unknown amounts of rubber. 
 
 "o.i gram of pure, precipitated rubber is placed in a test 
 tube and treated with 2 c.c. of pure nitric acid, specific gravity 
 1.42. The tube is placed in a beaker of water heated to 50-60° C. 
 till the action is entirely over; then to 90-100° for 20 minutes. 
 
 "Add first ID c.c. distilled water, then 20 c.c. of caustic soda 
 solution (i part stick caustic soda in 4 parts water). Stir or 
 shake gently; dilute with 10 c.c. more water, filter, and wash the 
 filter paper with water till the washings are colorless. Finally 
 dilute the whole to 250 c.c. ; mix thoroughly, and transfer about 
 100 c.c. to a test tube of, say, 120 c.c. capacity. This solution 
 represents a concentration of o.i gram rubber in 250 c.c. and 
 has a straw tint which experience shows to be a convenient one. 
 
 "Suppose now that we have in hand the residue from opera- 
 tions I, 2, and 3, we proceed with it as follows: 
 
274 ANALYSES OF RUBBER. 
 
 "Weigh carefully o.i gram and treat with 2 c.c. of nitric 
 acid, specific gravity 1.42, in exactly the same way as just de- 
 scribed. Add the same quantities of water and caustic soda 
 solution as before, filter, and wash till the washings are colorless. 
 Finally transfer the solution (or half of it if the tint is very deep) 
 to a test tube having the same internal diameter as that contained 
 in the standard; and dilute, with constant stirring, till the 
 standard tint is exactly matched. Measure carefully the volume 
 of the solution under test. Call it V. Then the calculation of 
 the percentage of rubber in the original mixing is accomplished 
 by the equation — 
 
 a V 
 
 250 
 Where /'=The percentage required. 
 
 F=The volume of the solution under test when at standard 
 
 tint. 
 a=ioo per cent, minus the total percentage lost in operations 
 I, 2 and 3. 
 
 "If only half the test solution has been diluted this result 
 must, of course, be doubled. The results are good. Duplicates 
 usually agree with 0.5 per cent. A table is appended showing a 
 few results. 
 
 "As to the composition of these samples, I will merely say 
 that they contain no substitutes and no tarry substances. The 
 rubber used was a good Borneo, containing 1.5 per cent, resin. 
 The content of rubber according to the proportion in which the 
 materials were weighed out would be from 40 to 50 per cent., but 
 I do not feel at all sure that one can assume that a mixing, 
 especially when vulcanized, contains the calculative proportion of 
 unaltered rubber. 
 
 "I have had about four months' experience with the method, 
 and the best evidence of its trustworthiness is that in every case 
 where I have been lead to results which I at first distrusted, the 
 final outcome has been the discovery of unsuspected circumstances 
 which vindicated the accuracy of the suspected results. 
 
 "Finally, it may be pointed out that the determination of 
 mineral matter not easy at all by any of the present methods can, 
 by making use of the direct determinations indicated in the above 
 
TEST FOR FARINA. 275 
 
 plan of analysis, be made the only factor determined by difference. 
 I am of the opinion that results obtained by this method will be 
 found fully as trustworthy as those by any method at present 
 known." 
 
 Sample Number. Unvulcanized. Vulcanized. 
 
 No. I 4726 4700 
 
 47.43 47.19 
 
 No. 2 41.92 4118 
 
 41.36 41.74 
 
 No. 3 4589 46.19 
 
 44.93 45-12 
 
 No. 4 47-75 47-00 
 
 47-39 4756 
 
 No. 5 47-19 47-39 
 
 46.62 46.43 
 
 No. 6 49.26 49.44 
 
 48.52 49.82 
 
 Test for Farina in Rubber. — Those manufacturers who now 
 and then receive lots of Para rubber adulterated with the starch like 
 meal of the mandioc or cassava plant — also called farinha flour — 
 may be interested to know of the method of detecting such adul- 
 teration employed by Mr. Walter E. Piper. Starch is a charac- 
 teristic test of iodine, forming with it a deep blue compound. Mr. 
 Piper uses a solution in water of iodine and potassium iodide, 
 which is applied with a brush to the interior of a "ham" of fine 
 Para. If there is farinaceous matter present it will speedily take 
 on a bluish appearance. Ordinarily the adulterant is not visible, 
 and the manufacturer becomes aware of it only from the extra 
 loss in washing- rubber. 
 
 Analyses of Caoutchouc molecules. — Professor Dr. C. 
 Harries's experiments show that ozone may be readily added to 
 the Caoutchouc molecule, and he proved that there are two double 
 sets of bonds for C^,, Hjg. The "Ozonite" obtained is an explosive 
 body and it has a chemical formula of (CioHi6 06)2. Professor 
 Harries analyzed this "ozonite" into levulinic acid, which is an 
 acetone, and which is a derivative from succinic acid. The 
 mystery which has surrounded the Caoutchouc molecule has by 
 this work been unveiled. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA-ITS SOURCES, PROPERTIES, MANIPULATION, AND 
 PRINCIPAL USES. 
 
 Gutta-percha^ which was introduced into Europe from 
 Singapore in 1843, was for a while confounded with India- 
 rubber, from which it differs in some very important particu- 
 lars. It becomes soft and plastic on immersion in hot water, 
 retaining the shape then given it on cooling, whereupon it 
 becomes hard, but not brittle like other gums. India-rubber, 
 on the other hand, does not soften in hot water, and retains its 
 original elasticity and strength unimpaired. The water, as 
 such, exercises no softening action on Gutta-percha, the effect 
 being purely one of temperature, which may equally well be 
 produced by hot air, only somewhat more slowly. The degree 
 of heat required depends upon the quality of the material, but 
 even the hardest kinds become plastic above 150° F. Heated 
 in air considerably above the boiling point of water, Gutta- 
 percha decomposes and finally ignites, burning with a lumi- 
 nous smoky flame and emitting a pungent odor resembling that 
 from burning rubber. If heated in a vacuum, gaseous and 
 liquid products are obtained similar to those resulting from 
 the distillation of rubber. The liquid which distills over con- 
 sists chiefly of hydrocarbons of the terpene series, which form 
 an excellent solvent for Caoutchouc. The two most important 
 are isoprene and caoutchine, which are identical with the liquids 
 by the same names obtained from India-rubber. Since 
 these products can also be obtained from other sources, Dr. 
 Eugene Obach and others have observed that they may yet 
 form a stepping-stone in the synthetical production of India- 
 rubber and Gutta-percha from the lower terpenes. 
 
 A curious physical characteristic of Gutta-percha is that 
 when it has been softened in water, although it is so plastic 
 that it will reproduce the most delicate impressions, it will 
 bear blows from hammers or allow itself to be thrown against 
 a stone wall without being at all marred. The reason for this 
 is that it contains a large amount of air. By placing the 
 
 276 
 
COMPONENTS OF GUTTA-PERCHA. 277 
 
 Gutta-percha under a bell jar immersed in mineral oil, when 
 a vacuum is produced, a large amount of air is evolved from 
 the g"um, and it will be found to have lost the property of 
 hardening on cooling, its substance being like a tough greasy 
 leather. 
 
 Nowhere on the globe have genuine Gutta-percha trees 
 been found outside of a rectangular area embracing portions 
 of the Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and some adjacent 
 smaller islands. Strange to say, the occurrence of these trees 
 has not been established in Java, or the Celebes, though trees 
 producing inferior qualities are found in the Philippines. 
 These trees belong to the natural order Sapotacece; the principal 
 genera and species will be noted further on. 
 
 According to Payen's analysis, verified by later chemists, 
 Gutta-percha contains three components: (i) a substance in- 
 soluble in cold and in boiling alcohol, which he termed pure 
 gutta; (2) a crystalline white resin, soluble in hot, but not in cold 
 alcohol, which he called alhane; (3) an amorphous yellow resin, 
 which he named fluavile. Pure gutta is insoluble in ether and 
 light petroleum spirit at ordinary temperatures, whereas both 
 albane and fluavile dissolve readily in them. Gutta possesses 
 all the valuable qualities of Gutta-percha, but in a much en- 
 hanced degree; it becomes soft and plastic on heating, and 
 hard and tenacious on cooling without being in the least 
 brittle. But the resins themselves are either soft at ordinary 
 temperatures, or, when hard, quite friable. It is, therefore, 
 gutta which forms the useful constituent of Gutta-percha, 
 and the resins are only accessory components, which, although 
 admissible, and perhaps even desirable in a comparatively small 
 amount, yet have a decidedly detrimental effect when they 
 preponderate. Hence, in order to determine the technical 
 value of a sample of Gutta-percha, it is necessary first to learn 
 the relative proportion or ratio between gutta and resins. 
 There must also be taken into account the water enclosed in 
 the mass, and the coarse impurities — wood fibers, bark, sand, 
 etc. — which are described as dirt. These components repre- 
 sent the loss or waste to the manufacturer. 
 
 While the relative proportion of gutta and resins forms an 
 
278 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 important criterion for estimating the commercial value of a 
 sample, it is not in itself sufficient. Although the analysis of 
 two different specimens may give the same result, the physical 
 and mechanical properties, and, most important of all, the 
 durability, may differ widely, owing to a difference in their 
 molecular constitution. It will thus be seen that there are 
 guttas and guttas. In addition to the qualitative analysis, it 
 is necessary to scrutinize the gutta itself, which requires much 
 judgment and experience. Analyses have been made of speci- 
 mens which contained eight times as much gutta as resin ; 
 others contained about an equal amount of both, and in others 
 still the amount of resin was three times that of gutta. Sam- 
 ples in which the percentage of resin reaches that of gutta, or 
 surpasses it, are of a decidedly inferior description. These 
 differences are due doubtless to the fact that the Gutta-percha 
 of commerce is derived from trees of various species, and also 
 in part to the treatment which the gum receives at the hands 
 of the gatherers, who are suspected of mixing the product of 
 different trees, to say nothing of adulterations of a more 
 debasing character. 
 
 The commercial classification of Gutta-percha is less satis- 
 factory than that of India-rubber, since no standards have 
 become fixed in the markets. While Para rubber, for instance, 
 may be bought and sold by means of established designations, 
 "Islands fine," "Upriver fine," and the like, no such practice 
 exists with regard to Gutta-percha, Since all transactions in 
 the latter are based upon samples, trade names and brands are 
 little considered. However, "Macassar," and "Banjermassin," 
 which are the names of districts producing Gutta-percha, were 
 used formerly to indicate the highest quality, while "Sumatra" 
 sorts were supposed to be less valuable, and "Borneo" the lowest 
 of all. In a sense these designations have become merely com- 
 mercial, no longer affording any indication of the origin of the 
 Gutta-percha. At the same time, "Macassars" and "Banjer- 
 massins" might vary with every new arrival, so that one was 
 not certain, in buying one of the sorts named, to obtain particu- 
 larly good Gutta-percha ; it might have been the very opposite. 
 
 Innumerable sorts appear in the Singapore market — which 
 
PRINCIPAL GRADES. 279 
 
 is the center of the Gutta-percha trade — but Df. Obach 
 selected twelve of the principal brands as typical of all the 
 rest, and divided them into four groups, for convenience in 
 comparison, the best being named first. They are as follows, 
 the designations being derived either from the countries of 
 their origin or from the places of export : 
 
 ( I. Pahang — from the Malay peninsula. 
 
 I. \ 2. Bulongan red — from Macassar, Borneo. 
 
 ' 3. Banjer red — from Banjermassin, South Borneo. 
 
 ( 4. Bagan goolie soondie — from Borneo. 
 
 II- ] 5. Goolie red soondie — from Serapong, Borneo. 
 
 ' 6. Serapong goolie soondie — from Serapong, Borneo. 
 
 i 7. Bulongan white — from Macassar, Borneo, 
 
 in. J 8. Mixed white — from Borneo. 
 
 ( 9. Banjer white — from Banjermassin, South Borneo. 
 
 i 10. Sarawak mixed — from Borneo. 
 
 IV. < II. Padang reboiled — from Sumatra. 
 
 ( 12. Banca reboiled — from Banca. 
 
 Group I comprises the three best kinds, derived from trees 
 of the genus Dichopsis (known in continental Europe as Pala- 
 quium). Group II comprises three kinds of the second order, 
 derived probably from the genus Payena. Group III embraces 
 the so-called "white gutta," of second and third grade, mostly of 
 uncertain origin, but probably from Dichopsis polyantha. Group 
 IV is made up of mixed materials, two of them being what is 
 termed "reboiled" (an operation performed by the Chinese 
 traders, who buy up odd lots, soften the materials in hot water, 
 and make them into a more or less homogeneous average mix- 
 ture). The "Sarawak mixed" lots mostly represent a very useful 
 second-class material; the "reboiled" is decidedly inferior. This 
 classification is based upon the results of 751 analyses of mixed 
 lots, representing over 5,000,000 pounds of raw Gutta-percha, 
 made by Dr. Obach, with a view to arriving at the relative pro- 
 portions of gutta, resin, dirt, and water contained. The cleanest 
 kind is the "Sarapong soondie," which contains only 3^ per cent, 
 of dirt, but it is rather wet, having more than 25 per cent, of water. 
 One of the least favorable materials is "Banjer white," which 
 contains 33 1-3 per cent, of water and 15 per cent, of dirt, making 
 in all nearly 50 per cent, of waste. When a raw material is very 
 dirty and wet, it is noticeable on cutting the blocks open, and this 
 is now the rule in the Singapore market. The blocks are then 
 
28o GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 sorted out into several grades (two or three, sometimes more) 
 according to their appearance, and valued accordingly, 
 
 A grade of Gutta-percha which is nearly white in color and 
 very brittle is apt to contain a large percentage of resin, which, 
 as already explained, renders it of little value. In explanation of 
 some of the terms in the preceeding classification, it may be said 
 that Gutta-percha is obtained principally by cutting down the 
 trees and ringing the bark at intervals of 12 to 18 inches along 
 the trunk. The milky sap soon fills the grooves cut into the bark, 
 and, in the better varieties, soon coagulates, when it is scraped oflF 
 with a knife. In the case of inferior sorts, the milk requires more 
 time to curdle, and has to be caught in receptacles placed under 
 the tree. The collected milk is then gently boiled, either by itself 
 or with the addition of water. The material obtained without the 
 use of water is called a goolie, the other a gutta; but the two 
 kinds are often mixed together. The goolie is more compact than 
 the gutta, and has a dough-like smell. The word soondie is 
 derived from the Malay term "Gutta-sundek," which is applied 
 to the product of trees of the Payena species already referred to. 
 
 The processes employed by manufacturers for cleaning raw 
 Gutta-percha are either mechanical, or chemical Those of the 
 first class will first be considered. Generally speaking, the raw 
 Gutta-percha is either first cut up in a slicing machine and then 
 softened in hot water, or the lumps are placed directly in hot 
 water and the soft material transferred to the washing machine. 
 There it is washed with hot water for a longer or shorter time, 
 and then passed through a strainer. Next, as a rule, it is washed 
 once more, then put into a kneading or masticating machine, to 
 consolidate it and remove the mechanically enclosed water, and 
 finally it goes to the rolling mill, to be made into sheets. 
 
 The slicing machine or chopper now used is pretty much the 
 same as that proposed by Charles Hancock, of England, in his 
 patent (No. 11, 575, O.L.) of 1847, except that it is provided 
 ■with a greater number of fluted and serrated knives, instead of 
 only three plain ones, fixed in the slots of a heavy iron disc. The 
 blocks of Gutta-percha are packed into a trough and then forced 
 against the rotating disc, the knives in which cut the material into 
 thin slices. 
 
MECHANICAL TREATMENT. 281 
 
 The washing machine consists of an iron roller of star-shaped 
 section, enclosed in a cylindrical shell provided with one or two 
 projections, or ribs, against which the Gutta-percha is forced in 
 going round. The cylindrical shell is enclosed in a large iron 
 case, filled with water, which is heated by means of direct steam. 
 The dirt, as it is washed off, falls through the lower part of the 
 cylindrical shell into the outer case, whence it is drawn off once 
 in a while. This machine is developed from that described in the 
 English patent of R. A. Brooman. (No. 10,550, O.L.) 
 
 The Gutta-percha leaves the washing machine in a plastic 
 state and passes to the straining machine — a strong iron cylinder 
 with a perforated bottom, on which a number of discs of fine wire 
 gauze have been placed. It has a piston which is driven home by 
 hydraulic power, at a pressure of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per 
 square inch, squeezing the soft Gutta through the meshes of 
 the gauze. 
 
 The kneading machine or masticator resembles the washer, 
 except that the roller is smaller in diameter, and the flutings are 
 more numerous and not so deep. The Gutta-percha is kept hot 
 during mastication and the water escapes in the form of steam 
 through openings at the top. 
 
 The mixing machine, introduced by Paul Pfeiderer, is similar 
 to that used in the India-rubber, linoleum, and other similar 
 industries. It is provided with peculiarly-shaped blades, working 
 against one another. The machine is used for mixing the various 
 sorts of Gutta-percha, in order to obtain a material of any requi- 
 site properties, and also for blending Gutta-percha with pigments 
 or other ingredients. The rolls can be heated by steam, but heat 
 is developed by the kneading process itself, and care must be taken 
 not to overheat the material. 
 
 The Gutta-percha is next rolled into sheets, usually between 
 I and ^ inch, and cut into lengths of 5 or 6 feet, and stacked away 
 for use. The rolling machine takes the material from the mixer 
 and squeezes it between parallel rollers, running it back and forth 
 until it is cool and hard enough for cutting up. 
 
 The average percentages of waste, shown by numerous 
 analyses of the twelve brands of Gutta-percha catalogued on a 
 preceding page, are about as follows : 
 
282 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 Pahang 34 Bulongan white 43 
 
 Bulongan red 35 White mixed 35 
 
 Banjer red 44 Banjer white 47 
 
 Bagan goolie soondie 32 Sarawak mixed 44 
 
 Goolie red soondie 27 Padang reboiled 44 
 
 Serapong soondie 36 Banca reboiled 29 
 
 The difference in the quality of various brands of Gutta- 
 percha, measured by the relative proportions of gutta and resin, 
 has already been mentioned. Of the sorts mentioned above, 
 "Banca reboiled" shows a comparatively small loss in cleaning, 
 but it is the least valuable on the list, being low in gutta, whereas 
 "Pahang," though losing more in the cleaning process, is by far 
 the most valuable sort in the market, because so rich in gutta. 
 Gutta-percha imported in recent years loses more in cleaning than 
 formerly; Dr. Obach, in 1898, estimated the loss as almost twice 
 as great as formerly. 
 
 The chemical washing process was suggested by Charles 
 Hancock, in an English patent, in 1846. He steeped raw Gutta- 
 percha, cut into small pieces, in a solution of caustic alkali or 
 chloride of lime, to neutralize the acidity and remove any unpleas- 
 ant odor. His experiments showed that the alkaline treatment 
 not only reduced the percentage of dirt — that is, it was better 
 cleaned than by the mechanical process — but lessened the capacity 
 of the Gutta-percha for retaining mechanically enclosed water. 
 But the treatment with chemicals requires great care and judg- 
 ment, and thorough subsequent washing with water; otherwise 
 the material will be rendered perishable. 
 
 Chemicals were also used by Obach for hardening Gutta- 
 percha. The really valuable constituent of Gutta-percha being 
 the gutta, the more a sample contains of the latter, the better it is, 
 provided the gutta itself is of a good description. For certain 
 purposes it is advantageous to improve the hardness and other 
 mechanical properties of Gutta-percha, and this can be done by 
 extracting the resin with a suitable solvent, which leaves the gutta 
 itself intact. The raw Gutta-percha is first chopped and thrown 
 on drying platforms gently heated from below by steam pipes. 
 Or the pieces may be thrown into a rotating drum heated by cur- 
 rents of warm air. They then go to a series of tanks in which 
 petroleum spirit is used as a solvent for the resin. The spirit 
 
GREEN GUTTA-PERCHA. 283 
 
 becomes charged with the resinous matters, and the resulting 
 solution is distilled off, after which the material remaining is 
 masticated as in the case of any other Gutta-percha. A specimen 
 treated by this process will remain quite hard under a temperature 
 which will render other specimens soft and plastic. Other liquids 
 may also be used, as ether, and a saturated solution of carbon 
 disulphide in alcohol. 
 
 Instead of removing impurities from Gutta-percha by wash- 
 ing it either with water or an alkali, this can be done by dissolving 
 the material into a suitable liquid, straining or filtering the solu- 
 tion, and then evaporating the solvent. Carbon disulphide has 
 been used as the solvent, but with the effect of rendering the 
 Gutta-percha perishable. 
 
 Recently an article known as Green Gutta-percha has been 
 offered to the trade, being extracted from the leaves of the trees. 
 Several systems for extracting Gutta-percha from leaves have 
 been described. That of Dieudonne Rigole involves the use of 
 carbon disulphide ; that of Eugene SeruUas the use of hot toluene 
 as a solvent, after which the Gutta-percha is precipitated by 
 means of acetone, instead of distilling off the solvent ; and that of 
 Obach the use of light petroleum spirit as a solvent for leaves 
 that have been previously crushed between rollers, the gum being 
 reprecipitated from the solution on cooling below 60° F. The 
 author of each process has devised apparatus for its operation. 
 
 Many trees produce gums which have been experimented 
 with in the hope that they would prove good substitutes for Gutta- 
 percha, but none have proved of value except the "bullet" tree, 
 which yields Balata. The gutta contained in Balata is very strong 
 and tough, being of excellent quality ; but the percentage of resin 
 is large, and the material can be regarded as a substitute only for 
 second-class, or perhaps even third-class. Gutta-percha. Balata 
 is somewhat more flexible than Gutta-percha containing an equal 
 amount of resin, which appears to be due to the softness of the 
 resinous constituents. On becoming heated Balata behaves much 
 like ordinary Gutta-percha. If plunged into boiling water it 
 becomes quite soft and plastic. If next immersed in cold water, it 
 slowly hardens again, but still remains flexible and elastic, show- 
 ing no signs of brittleness. Analyses of specimens of Balata from 
 
284 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 British Guiana, obtained from the London docks in 1889-94, 
 showed an average loss of 13.8 per cent, of water, and 9.9 per 
 cent, of dirt, or a total of 23.7 per cent, of waste. The respec- 
 tive percentages of gutta and resin were 41.4 and 34.8. 
 
 The specific gravity of cleaned Gutta-percha is practically 
 the same as that of water, though varying with the relative pro- 
 portion of gutta and resin, becoming lower as the percentage of 
 resin increases. It may be affected, also, by the constitution of 
 the resin and also of the gutta. The softening temperature of 
 Gutta-percha depends entirely upon the ratio of gutta and resin. 
 A specimen of which 60 per cent, was resin was softened at the 
 temperature of 48° C. to the same extent as another specimen, 
 containing only 2^ per cent, of resin, for which a temperature of 
 55° C. was required. The time for the material to become hard 
 again, after having previously been softened in hot water, depends 
 in a like degree upon the proportion of gutta and resin. But the 
 principal mechanical property of Gutta-percha with which the 
 manufacturer has to deal is the tensile strength. A specimen hav- 
 ing 45 per cent, of gutta and 55 per cent, of resin will break under 
 pressure of 770 pounds to the square inch, whereas for another 
 specimen, after most of the resin has been extracted with petro- 
 leum spirit, nearly twice that breaking strain would be required. 
 As for the elongation of Gutta-percha — i. e., the extent to which 
 it will stretch before breaking — it is also affected by the percent- 
 age of resin, being in the last two cases, for instance, 490 and 500 
 per cent., respectively, but it also depends on the nature of the 
 gutta. 
 
 The earliest practical use of Gutta-percha was for surgical 
 appliances — for bandages, splints, and receptacles for vaccine 
 virus. It is used for ear trumpets; for the handles of surgical 
 instruments, as it affords a firm grip and is preferable to wood 
 for antiseptic reasons; in medicine, in the form (i) of a very 
 thin tissue, (2) of sticks, and (3) of a 10 |>er cent, solution in 
 chloroform; for chemical purposes, in the form of tubes, pumps, 
 syringes, bottles, and the like, and for ladles and tubes for hand- 
 ling caustic alkalies and corrosive acids and liquids in chemical 
 works ; and for mechanical purposes, as rings and cups for pumps 
 and hydraulic presses and for driving-bands (belting). For the 
 
USES IN INSULATION. 285 
 
 latter purpose Balata is also used largely, interposed between can- 
 vas ; such belts can be joined by means of a solution of Balata or 
 Gutta-percha in carbon disulphide. Another application of Gutta- 
 percha is that for taking impressions of medals, and also of the 
 interior of large guns. Gutta-percha is also modeled into orna- 
 ments in the shape of the leaves and petals of flowers, this being 
 done by working the gum by hand in hot water with one or two 
 simple iron tools. Such ornaments are often applied to the deco- 
 ration of jars made of semi-porous ware, the whole being painted 
 afterward. 
 
 But the most important application of Gutta-percha is in the 
 insulation of submarine and subterranean cables. Dr. Werner 
 von Siemens first proposed Gutta-percha for insulating purposes 
 in 1846, and in the next year he designed a screw-press, for the 
 seamless covering of wires with that material, which is still in 
 existence, while the principle of the press is still adhered to. Gut- 
 ta-percha has been found to be very permeable to the X-rays, and 
 it has been proposed to utilize this property to examine Gutta- 
 percha-covered wires for the detection of defects in the copper 
 conductor, particularly in "joints," or for finding air-bubbles. 
 The X-rays may also be used for the detection of large foreign 
 bodies in the raw Gutta-percha. Up to the end of 1907 no less 
 than 248,000 miles of submarine cables had been laid, either 
 commercial in character or government owned, embodying the 
 use of Gutta-percha of a weight estimated at 32,000 tons. 
 A further allowance must be made, for underground cables, street 
 wires, etc., of 8,000 tons. The length of Gutta-percha-covered 
 wires under the streets of London alone, some time ago, was 
 17,000 miles, correpsonding to 375 tons of Gutta-percha. 
 
 The electric properties of Gutta-percha depend chiefly on the 
 nature of the gutta and to a less extent upon the resin; but only 
 very slightly on the relative proportion of these two components. 
 They depend also upon the nature and amount of the impurities 
 and on the water. The insulation resistance and inductive capac- 
 ity are little affected by the extraction of the resin. The insula- 
 tion should be as high as possible, and the inductive capacity, 
 for most purposes, as low as possible, but whereas the latter is 
 mostly associated with other good qualities of the material, such 
 
286 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 is not always the case with a high insulation. A third electric 
 property is called dielectric strength, or resistance to piercing by 
 high voltages. A thickness of a little over ^ inch of Gutta-percha 
 breaks down with 40,000 volts, and one of about i-ioth inch with 
 28,000 volts. 
 
 Gutta-percha hardened by the extraction of its resin is used 
 chiefly in the manufacture of golf balls. Gutta-percha for this 
 purpose should be tough, elastic, and not brittle at low tempera- 
 tures ; it should be specifically lighter than water, in order not to 
 sink if dropped accidentally into a ditch. It is requisite that the 
 proper grade of raw material be chosen and that the resin be 
 extracted as completely as possible. To test the elasticity of golf 
 balls, a machine is used, consisting (i) of a perpendicular scale, 
 divided into feet and tenths; (2) a clip, at the top, for holding 
 the ball to be tested; and (3) an iron plate at the bottom. The 
 object is to measure the rebound of the ball, when released from 
 the clip and falling upon the plate. A ball made of Gutta-percha, 
 of which 25 per cent, was resin, rebounded only to the point on 
 the scale marked 30; a ball containing only 10 per cent, of resin 
 rebounded to 45 ; and still another, having only a small percent- 
 age, rebounded to 60 — the highest point reached. A ball of 
 Balata, having the resin thoroughly removed, rebounded to 59. 
 
 Some figures will give an idea how greatly the physical and 
 mechanical properties of Gutta-percha are affected by the extrac- 
 tion of the resin. Carefully selected specimens of a medium 
 quality were cut fine and intimately mixed, and then divided into 
 two portions. One portion was next washed in the ordinary way 
 with water; the other treated with petroleum spirit until nearly 
 all the resin had been extracted. The two specimens showed the 
 following analyses : 
 
 Gutta. Resin. Dirt. Water. Total. 
 Cleaned in ordinary way 54.7 39.4 2.7 3.2 100 
 Same material, hardened 93.0 2.8 2.5 1.7 100 
 
 The different physical and mechanical properties of the two 
 
 specimens are indicated in the next comparison : 
 
 Ordinary. Hardened. 
 
 Temperature when commencing to soften 37.7°C. S7.2°C. 
 
 Temperature when commencing to harden s8.8°C. 9i.i°C. 
 
 Time of hardening 17 min. 45 sec. 
 
 Tensile strength — pounds per square inch 1592 5662 
 
 Elongation — per cent 360 285 
 
CAUSES OF DETERIORATION 2^7 
 
 The electrical properties, on the other hand, are but little 
 affected, the insulation being practically the same as before, and 
 the decrease of specific inductive capacity is probably due to the 
 smaller percentage of water in the hardened material. 
 
 The principal cause of the destruction of Gutta-percha is the 
 absorption of atmospheric oxygen, which alters the gutta and pro- 
 duces a brittle resin of quite a different nature to that originally 
 present in the material. This destructive oxidization is greatly 
 assisted by light, and by other causes — for instance, by any action 
 tending to make the material porous, such as alternate wetness 
 and dryness, the presence of substances which exercise a solvent 
 action on Gutta-percha as a whole, or any of its components. 
 Certain alkaline substances and decaying organic matters also 
 appear to act injuriously, but frequently it is impossible to 
 assign a definite cause for the decay of Gutta-percha. It is, how- 
 ever, not merely manufactured Gutta-percha which undergoes 
 these destructive changes, for raw material of the very best kind 
 succumbs in time to the combined action of light and air. On 
 the other hand, specimens of Gutta-percha are in existence which, 
 after proper means of protection, have remained in good condition 
 for more than fifty years. Complete immersion in water affords 
 a good protection, for which reason submarine cores of Gutta- 
 percha are more safely placed than underground wires. Another 
 way of excluding the air, to some extent, is to varnish the Gutta- 
 percha articles. When Gutta-percha is oxidized it becomes por- 
 ous and full of cracks. If it be used for insulating wires, the 
 insulation fails at such places, since the moisture perietrates the 
 pores and fissures and establishes an electric contact with the 
 conducting wire. 
 
 Some compounds containing Gutta-percha are very useful 
 for different purposes, and a specially useful one, consisting of a 
 mixture of Gutta-percha, colophony, and Stockholm tar, is known 
 as "Chatterton's compound." It is used largely in connection 
 with the manufacture of Gutta-percha-covered wires, as a bind- 
 ing material between the copper conductor and the Gutta-percha 
 covering, or between the different layers of Gutta-percha on the 
 core. 
 
 Willoughby Smith patented the following compound for 
 
288 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 insulating wires : One-fifth by weight of Stockholm tar and about 
 the same weight of resin are put into a vessel with a jacket (or, 
 preferably, a series of pipes) heated by steam; when properly 
 melted the whole is passed through a wire gauze strainer "into 
 another vessel similarly heated" ; three-fifths by weight of Gutta- 
 percha, having by preference been previously cleansed in the 
 ordinary way, and reduced into thin pieces or shreds, is then put 
 into the heated vessel and mixed with the resin and tar. In this 
 second vessel are stirrers, for mixing the whole uniformly. 
 
 Leonard Wray's cable compound was made of i part Gutta- 
 percha, 4 parts India-rubber, 2 parts shellac, 2 parts flour of 
 glass. This was used for underground wires. 
 
 Gaullie combined Gutta-percha with Roman cement by means 
 of animal gall, forming a plastic material, capable of being 
 stamped and molded. 
 
 Cooley mixed Gutta-percha with resin oil under heat, then 
 mixed in carbonate of soda with roasted starch. To this com- 
 pound he added asphalt to make it harder, or hyposulphite of lead, 
 to make it softer. He also made a great many Gutta-percha com- 
 pounds in which salts were present. These he steeped in water 
 after mixing until they became soft and flexible. 
 
 Charles Macintosh made a compound for telegraph wire 
 from Gutta-percha, naphthaline, and lampblack. 
 
 Charles Hancock boiled Gutta-percha in muriate of lime, 
 passed it between heated cylinders, sifting the surface with rosin, 
 in the production of a compound for complete insulation. An- 
 other of his compounds was made of Gutta-percha, shellac, and 
 borax. He also made Gutta-percha sponge by mixing with it 
 carbonate of ammonia or alum and applying heat. He also made 
 a hard Gutta-percha which was similar to vulcanite by mixing it 
 with sulphur, putting it in molds and keeping the compound at a 
 high temperature for several days. 
 
 Duncan invented a great many compounds for Gutta-percha 
 cement, many of which are now in general use. One suggestion 
 of his was the mixing of Gutta-percha with Canada balsam and 
 shellac, the resultant compound being a good cement capable of 
 standing considerable heat and in no danger of becoming greasy 
 on its surface. 
 
VULCANIZATION. 289 
 
 Robert Hutchinson claimed that he was able to render Gutta- 
 percha less liable to oxidize, to improve its elasticity, increase its 
 tenacity, and diminish its liability to become sticky or tacky, by 
 compounding it with lanichol or wood cholesterin. (See Lano- 
 line.) Forster deodorized Gutta-percha by mixing with it essen- 
 tial oil, orris root, or gum benzoin. 
 
 Liquid Gutta-percha is Gutta-percha dissolved in chloroform, 
 to which a little carbonate of lead is added in the shape of a fine 
 powder. After agitation, the mixture is set aside until the 
 insoluble matter has settled. The clear liquid is then decanted. 
 
 Spill, in order to prevent Gutta-percha that had been vulcan- 
 ized from being attacked by grease, treated it to a solution of 
 melted beeswax, hardening this coating with an infusion of nut- 
 galls. Godefroy mixed Gutta-percha with powdered cocoanut 
 shell, claiming that it would stand a higher degree of heat, and 
 was considerably more elastic. Day, in America, mixed pipe clay 
 with Gutta-percha that is being vulcanized in order to prevent its 
 sponging. 
 
 The vulcanization of Gutta-percha, in spite of a common im- 
 pression to the contrary, is something that can be easily accom- 
 plished, and is analgous to the vulcanization of India-rubber. It 
 can be done by mixing with free sulphur or sulphides that con- 
 tain free sulphur, or by the use of chloride of sulphur. As the 
 Parkes mixture attacks Gutta-percha very easily, the dipping for 
 vulcanization must be very quick, the article being then allowed 
 to remain in the air for some hours. The second dip can be a 
 little longer, as the surface is less easily attacked than .before. The 
 vulcanized product is quite hard and will stand a high degree of 
 heat. Chloride of sulphur mixed with bisulphide of carbon can 
 also be incorporated in a solution of Gutta-percha and bisulphide 
 of carbon, with the result that the Gutta-percha will be thoroughly 
 vulcanized. 
 
 The late Robert Dick, of Glasgow, who was a successful 
 manufacturer of Gutta-percha articles in the mechanical line, pro- 
 duced many vulcanizable compounds of Gutta-percha of great 
 value, some of which follow. He claimed that his compounded 
 Gutta-percha retained the good qualities of the gum ; that is, that 
 is was homogeneous and plastic at a moderate heat, but tough and 
 
290 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 hard at ordinary temperatures, and that it was just as valuable 
 afterwards for mixing and molding over again. 
 
 Compound No. i is described as the hardest and toughest, 
 and may be used, in place of leather and vulcanized India-rubber, 
 for tires, belts, pulley coverings, horse shoes, etc. No. 2 is softer 
 and more elastic, and suitable for soles and heels of shoes, wringer 
 rolls, springs, playing balls, mats, etc. These goods are mixed 
 in the usual way, and vulcanize in the masticator, but not enough 
 to take away the plastic qualities of the Gutta-percha. For treat- 
 ing this compound, a special masticator was devised by Mr. Dick, 
 the rolling cylinders being hollow, and a Bunsen gas burner 
 inserted through one end of the hollow axle, while the gases pass 
 off at the other, thus heating both roller and mixture. The outer 
 cylindrical masticator is jacketed and heated with steam: 
 
 COMPOUND NO. I. 
 
 Pure cleaned hard Gutta-percha 28 
 
 Pure cleaned tough selected Gutta-percha or Balata (preferably more 
 
 rather than less) 11 
 
 Pure cleaned "low white" Gutta-percha (preferably less rather than 
 
 more) 9 
 
 ^'Crumb" or ground good old vulcanized India-rubber 34 
 
 Hardwood veneer dust 5 
 
 Sulphur 6i 
 
 Zinc oxide (or zinc dust) 3i 
 
 Flocking, or the cut fiber of cotton textile fabrics 3i 
 
 Total 100 
 
 COMPOUND NO. 2. 
 
 Pure cleaned tough Gutta-percha 81 
 
 Pure cleaned Balata or selected Gutta-percha 8i 
 
 Pure cleaned "low white" Gutta-percha 24 
 
 "Crumb" or ground good old vulcanized India-rubber :is 
 
 Hard ground veneer dust 5 
 
 French chalk, powdered 6 
 
 Sulphur 6 
 
 Zinc oxide (or zinc dust) 3 
 
 Flocking, or the cut fiber of cotton textile fabrics 3 
 
 Alum, ground 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Another compound patented by Mr. Dick embraced the use 
 of low grade African and Borneo rubbers, which, after cleansing, 
 were mixed with gutta-percha while still moist in hot water. 
 After the mixing the compound is treated under a moist heat, 
 where the temperature is 212° to 240° F., the result being a 
 
COMPOUNDS. 291 
 
 tough, plastic, fibrous dough. This compound is then, so the 
 inventor claims, equal to any service for which the Gutta-percha 
 and Balata compounds are used. An important property in this 
 compound is the shrinking quality which Gutta-percha possesses, 
 while its power of cohesion rendered it especially valuable for 
 insulating wires. 
 
 Shepard mixed Gutta-percha with sulphur, exposed it to a 
 heat varying from 300° to 350° F., admitting hot air, then com- 
 bined it with sulphur and earthy matters. It was then vulcanized 
 "by Parkes's cold curing process. 
 
 Parkes dissolved Balata and mixed it with 5 per cent, of chlo- 
 ride of sulphur, diluted with mineral naphtha. Gun cotton was 
 also dissolved to a pasty mass, in naphtha distilled with chloride 
 of calcium, and the two solutions were combined, forming a soft, 
 flexible compound. 
 
 Qiilds vulcanized Gutta-percha by mixing it with sulphur 
 and placing it in a vulcanizer containing hydrated lime, and then 
 turning on heat sufficient to obtain enough steam from the lime 
 to do the curing. 
 
 Duvivier and Chaudet treated Gutta-percha with bromide of 
 sulphur or chloride of sulphur, making it more elastic and less 
 liable to be acted on by heat or cold. When acid vapors were 
 formed during the operation, carbonate of sodium was mixed 
 with the solution. 
 
 Rostaing made Gutta-percha hard and unalterable by treating 
 it, after cleansing, with caustic soda, which was thoroughly 
 washed out, after which it was combined with silicate of magnesia 
 and treated with tannin, catechu, and other astringent matter. 
 
 Keene cured Gutta-percha articles by exposing them to the 
 fumes of sulphur or immersing them in a bath of melted sulphur. 
 
 Charles Hancock treated Gutta-percha in a bath of boiling 
 water in which was carbonate of potash, or muriate of lime, leav- 
 ing it for an hour, and then mixing it with lead, glue, and bitu- 
 men. His claim was that this treatment hardened the Gutta- 
 percha, rendered it better adapted for bearing friction, and less 
 likely to be oxidized. He also cured Gutta-percha by mixing 
 with it sulphur, sulphides or orpiment, and applying heat. He 
 gave as a compound for vulcanizing Gutta-percha 48 parts Gutta- 
 
292 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 percha, 6 parts golden sulphuret antimony, and i part sulphur, 
 the compound to be boiled under pressure. 
 
 Emory Rider mixed Gutta-percha with oxide of lead, heated 
 it in open steam heat until the oily matters were expelled, then 
 mixed it with hyposulphite of lead and cured it. 
 
 Lucas prepared a printing roll of Gutta-percha, first immers- 
 ing the Gutta-percha in nitric acid, and then placing it for an 
 hour in a solution of carbonate of soda, thus producing a tougher 
 wearing surface. 
 
 Barlow and Forster mixed Gutta-percha with kauri gum 
 and milk of sulphur for a cable coating. 
 
 Macintosh immersed Gutta-percha in concentrated sulphuric 
 acid for a number of seconds to harden the surface. He also 
 mixed Gutta-percha with gun cotton, curing with sulphuric acid, 
 claiming that the resultant compound was not likely to be affected 
 by the heat of tropical climates. 
 
 Analyses of common Gutta-percha, by Edouard Heckel and 
 Fr. Schlagdenhauffen : 
 
 Gutta 75 to 82 
 
 Albane 19 to 14 
 
 Fluavile 6 to 4 
 
 Total 100 100 
 
 Analysis by Payen: 
 
 Gutta 78 to 82 
 
 Albane 16 to 14 
 
 Fluavile 6 to 4 
 
 Total 100 100 
 
 Gutta-percha is made of a mixture of hydrocarbons, and 
 
 there is usually present a certain amount of oxygen. According 
 
 to Granville H. Sharpe, F.C.S., its ultimate composition is : 
 
 Carbon 86.36 
 
 Hydrogen 12.15 
 
 Oxygen 1.49 
 
 Total 100. 
 
 [Specific gravity, 0.96285 to 0.99923.] 
 
 The primary analysis of Gutta-percha by Sharpe is: 
 
 Hydrocarbon 7970 
 
 Resin 15.10 
 
 Wood fiber 2.18 
 
ANALYSES. 293 
 
 Water 2.50 
 
 Ash 0.52 
 
 Total 100. 
 
 Obach gives the following average results from a large num- 
 ber of analyses of each of twelve leading brands or sorts of Gutta- 
 percha : 
 
 Gutta. Resin. Dirt. Water. 
 
 Pahang 78.1 19.2 1.5 1.2 
 
 Banjer red 67.0 30.2 1.5 1.3 
 
 Bulongan red 68.6 29.0 1.4 i.o 
 
 Bagan 57.5 40.9 i.o 0.6 
 
 Goolie red soondie 55.2 42.9 1.2 0.7 
 
 Serapong 56.2 42.4 0.9 0.2 
 
 Bulongan white 52.2 45.4 1.5 0.9 
 
 Mixed white 49-8 474 i-i i-7 
 
 Banjer white 51.8 44.1 1.8 2.3 
 
 Sarawak mixed 55.6 40.9 1.8 1.7 
 
 Padang reboiled 50.3 45.8 2.0 1.9 
 
 Banca reboiled 46.8 51. i i.i 1.0 
 
 Another series of analyses by Obach relates to the constitu- 
 tion of the resins in Gutta-percha, as follows : 
 
 Albane. Fluavile. 
 
 Carbon 78.76 80.79 
 
 Hydrogen 10.58 11.00 
 
 Oxygen 10.46 8.21 
 
 Total 100. 100. 
 
 Some typical Gutta-percha cement compounds follow: 
 
 I. — For joining wood: Gutta-percha, 11 pounds; shellac, 3 
 pounds; Venice turpentine, 5 pounds; pitch, i pound. 
 
 2. — For uniting metals, glass, stone, and earthenware : Gutta- 
 percha, 45 pounds ; shellac, 20 pounds ; gum mastic, 5 pounds ; 
 oxide of lead ^ pound ; storax, 3 pounds ; Venice turpentine, 26-|- 
 pounds. 
 
 3. — For cementing leather : Gutta-percha, 4 ounces ; bisul- 
 phide of carbon, 20 ounces ; asphaltum, i ounce ; common resin, 
 I ounce. 
 
 4. — Gutta-percha glue: Gutta-percha, i pound; rosin, i 
 pound ; litharge, i ounce ; powdered glass, quantum suMcit. 
 
 5. — Shoemaker's wax : Melt Gutta-percha, 20 ounces ; add 
 pitch, 58 ounces ; soap, 5 ounces ; rosin, 6 ounces ; beeswax, 5 
 ounces ; palm oil, i ounce ; tallow, 5 ounces. 
 
 6. — For preserving metals and other surfaces : Coal tar, 20 
 
294 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 pounds; Gutta-percha, 5 pounds; minium, 6 pounds; white lead. 
 7 pounds; pitch, 10 pounds; resin, 10 pounds; spirit turpentine, 
 4 pounds; sulphur, 38 pounds. 
 
 7. — General cement : Make a solution of Balata of 5 ounces 
 in i gallon naphtha, and another of Gutta-percha 5 ounces in ^ 
 gallon naphtha. Combine the two solutions and add 13 ounces 
 resin or pitch and stir and mix thoroughly. 
 
 "Gentsch's Gutta-percha" is a widely used substitute for 
 Gutta-percha, made in general as follows : The ingredients used 
 are mineral wax, tar, resin, and rubber. The process is thus 
 described by a scientist who visited the English factory : A mix- 
 ture of resin, wax, and tar was thrown into a kneading machine, 
 steam being applied from below, to keep the temperature at the 
 proper point. Twenty minutes later, the mass having been 
 kneaded meanwhile, the steam was turned off and the rubber 
 (cut into small pieces) added, being fed in slowly to prevent 
 jamming of the knives of the kneading machine. The machine 
 was stopped from time to time to test the condition of the mass, 
 and at the end of three hours the solution of the rubber was 
 found to be complete and the mass was removed from the machine 
 and passed between rollers, coming out in slabs ^ inch thick — 
 the finished material. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 This of course refers to the analysis for the crude gum, and, 
 to have the analysis complete, it should cover the amount of water 
 present, the amount of foreign matters and impurities, the amount 
 of ash, the amount of pure gutta, and the amount of resins. 
 
 The water is easily determined by heating a known weight 
 from the sample at a temperature ranging from 212° to 230° F., 
 the loss in weight being the amount of water present. This is a 
 common process in chemical analysis. In the case of Gutta- 
 percha, it must be varied, as the sample is liable to oxidize even 
 under examination, causing an increase of weight. This is over- 
 come by conducting the heating in a slow current of nitrogen, or 
 carbonic acid gas. 
 
 J. A. Montpellier devised an apparatus for this, which con- 
 sisted of a special retort with a large opening which he used as a 
 
ANALYSES. 295 
 
 vapor bath and having a tubiihire at its side. It is closed by a 
 large cork, in which there are two holes, one for the tube which 
 is to introduce the gas, and the other for the thermometer. The 
 sample to be dried is placed in a crucible of porcelain or platinum 
 suspended within the retort. As the water evaporates it is borne 
 by the current of gas through a tube inserted in the side tubulure, 
 and into U-shaped tubes, containing sulphuric pumice, which 
 retain it. Further on the U tubes are connected with a Liebig 
 tube with five bulbs containing pure sulphuric acid preventing 
 the entrance of moist air after the apparatus cools, a further use 
 being to make it possible to regulate the speed of the current of 
 gas. 
 
 The retort is immersed in an oil bath heated by a Bunsen 
 burner. If carbonic acid be used it is obtained by the action of 
 hydrochloric acid on marble chips produced in a Kipp apparatus 
 followed by wash flasks, the first of which contains bicarbonate of 
 potassium in solution, which is intended to stop the passage of 
 any hydrochloric acid, and the second containing sulphuric acid at 
 150° to thoroughly dry the gas. To be absolutely sure that this 
 gas is dry a dessicator filled with sulphuric pumice is placed 
 between the retort and the second wash flask. The operation of 
 drying one gram with this apparatus takes 6 or 7 hours. The 
 determination of the amount of impurities, which comes next, may 
 be effected very easily, by using M. F. Jean's exhaust apparatus. 
 A small part of the sample, from one-half a gram to a gram, is 
 weighed, cut into small fragments, put in a filter, the weight of 
 which is known, which in turn is placed in a platinum cone. This 
 cone is then put in the extension of the apparatus ; this extension 
 communicates by two tubes with the retort containing pure chlo- 
 roform. A condenser, in which a current of cold water con- 
 stantly circulates in order to condense the chloroform vapor, is 
 placed at the upper part of the extension. 
 
 The retort rests on a sand-bath, very gently heated by a Bun- 
 sen burner. Under the influence of the slight heat the chloroform 
 evaporates, passes through one of the tubes, and drops on the 
 filter containing the Gutta-percha, which it gradually dissolves. 
 The solution, passing through the filter, then drips into the retort 
 through the second tube. 
 
296 GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 All the impurities remaining in the filter, it is sufficient to 
 dry and weigh the filter to get the weight of the foreign matters, 
 the drying should be done in the apparatus used in determining 
 the amount of water. 
 
 The next process is the determination of the amount of ash. 
 In Gutta-percha this is always very small, as mineral matter is 
 almost entirely absent from it, the quantity never exceeding one- 
 half of I per cent. The amount of ash is determined by burning 
 in a capsule of platinum or porcelain a known weight of Gutta. 
 
 The fourth step is the determination of the amount of pure 
 gutta, and of the resins. Both fluavile and albane are soluble in 
 absolute alcohol at the boiling point, and as pure gutta is insoluble 
 in it, this is a very ready means of separation. The sample to 
 be examined is cut in little bits, put in a platinum basket which is 
 pierced with holes, and hung in a retort containing the alcohol. 
 This retort is heated with a sand-bath or water bath, the vapor 
 of the alcohol passing through a Liebig condenser and returning 
 to the retort. The boiling is continued for 5 or 6 hours, with 
 the basket immersed in the alcohol. It is then raised above the 
 liquid, and the boiling continued for 5 or 6 hours more. The 
 latter part of the process removes the last traces of resin. 
 
 The boiling operation being completed, the pure gutta to- 
 gether with the impurities remains on the filter. There remains 
 then the drying of the filter in the apparatus used in determining 
 the amount of water and the weighing of it. The loss of weight 
 shown by the Gutta-percha corresponds to the amount of resins 
 increased by the weight of the water. Subtracting that weight, 
 already determined, the weight of the resins remains. 
 
 Wilton G. Berry, Ph.B., is the author of a monograph on the 
 analysis of Gutta-percha resins, the basis of which was a paper 
 read before the Society of Chemical Industry. In it he dealt with 
 the comparative quantitative analyses by treatment of the pre- 
 viously dried material with acetone, alcoholic-potash, and petro- 
 leum ether, and extraction of the resins in a uniform manner 
 with boiling absolute alcohol, and the separation of the thus ex- 
 tracted resins into their component resins, soluble and insoluble 
 in cold absolute alcohol. 
 
 The object was the determination of — 
 
ANALYSIS OF RESINS. 297 
 
 Saponification value. 
 
 Acid value. 
 
 Ether value. 
 
 Iodine value, 
 
 Acetyle value, 
 
 Methyl value, 
 
 Melting point, solubility, etc., 
 
 — of the individual resins, hoping thus to establish a table of 
 values w^hereby the resins of any given specimen may be iden- 
 tified and the identity of the parent gum thus established. The 
 gums thus far experimented on are a few specimens each of 
 Gutta-percha, Chicle, Almeidina, Tuno, Jelutong (Pontianak), 
 Balata, and Payena sp. 
 
 It has been found thus far that the resins from several speci- 
 mens of the same gum have practically the same constants and 
 characteristics, and that the resins from the different species of 
 gums have different constants and characteristics — in some widely 
 different, and in the cases of the gums above cited sufficiently 
 differing to make identification of their parent gum an easy 
 matter. From the gums so far examined it is hoped to establish 
 the fact that the combined evidence of the constants and charac- 
 teristics of the resins, together with the character of the accom- 
 panying hydrocarbons, will show that each species of gum varies 
 from each other sufficiently to make differentiation of unnamed 
 specimens complete, and to establish the fact that every specimen 
 of the same species of gum is alike in the characteristics quoted. 
 
 RESUME OF ANALYTICAL WORK. 
 
 Gutta-percha. — Resins soft, pasty, yellow. 
 
 Chicle. — Resins hard, grayish yellow, brittle. 
 
 Tuno. — Resins hard, dark yellow, brittle. 
 
 Almeidina. — Resins hard, brittle, yellow. 
 
 Jelutong. — ^Resins soft, brittle, yellow. 
 
 Balata. — Resins turbid liquid, yellow. 
 
 Payena. — Resins similar to Chicle resins. 
 
 Saponification value. Acid value. 
 
 *Gutta-percha resins . 78.5 5 
 
 *Gutta-percha (albane) 83.5 — 
 
 *Gutta-percha (fluavil) 71.45 — 
 
 *Chicle resins 103. i Trace 
 
 Chicle (resin A) 129.0 Trace 
 
 Chicle (resin B) 100.8 Trace 
 
 fTuno resins 77.3 5.6 
 
 tjelutong 77.5 Trace 
 
 Almeidina S0.4 ii.o 
 
 Balata 69.2 Trace 
 
 fPayena sp 103.7 Trace 
 
 * Average of 4 specimens. t Average of 2 specimens. 
 
2^ GUTTA-PERCHA. 
 
 While the saponification values of Gutta-percha, Tuno, and 
 Jelutong resins respectively are almost identical, their separation 
 into component resins corresponding to albane and fluavil of 
 Gutta-percha gives entirely different results from the latter and 
 from each other. The resins of Chicle and Payena differ ts 
 widely and the accompanying hydrocarbons are quite different. 
 
 BALATA. 
 
 Balata is the gum of the "bully" or "bullet" tree — the 
 Mimusops balata — found in British and Dutch Guiana, and in 
 Venzuela. It is marketed in two forms, "block" and "sheet." The 
 sheet is usually worth about 30 per cent, more than the block 
 Balata, The sheet is used for belt covering, while the block is 
 more used in compounding. Balata is usually reddish gray, 
 though sometimes brown. The dried sheet milk or sheet product 
 usually contains 39 per cent, gutta and 37 per cent, rosin; while 
 the boiled or block contains 51 per cent, gutta and 48 per cent, 
 rosin. The sheet shrinks from 10 to 20 per cent, while the block 
 shrinks from 20 to 30 per cent. 
 
 The balata tree may be tapped when 5 inches in diameter. If 
 tapped too deep, the tannin sap injures the product, and the 
 wound is slow to heal. The outer bark is removed before tapping. 
 The milk runs for about three hours, and a tree will generally 
 yield about 3.6 liters of milk, or i^ to 2 kilos of Balata. It 
 usually requires about two weeks for the milk to dry. 
 
 In character this gum occupies a position between India- 
 rubber and Gutta-percha, combining in a degree the elasticity of 
 one with the ductility of the other, and freely softening and 
 becoming plastic and easily molded in hot water. Balata is dried 
 ordinarily by evaporation. A more rapid coagulation is effected 
 by the use of spirits of wine. Alum is sometimes used to coagu- 
 late, but is not very satisfactory. The gum is sometimes mixed 
 during the gathering with the milk that produces gum known as 
 Touchpong and Barta-Balli. It is used principally in the manu- 
 facture of belting and for insulation work. It has been utilized 
 also for golf balls and as a substitute for rubber in dress shields. 
 
 MuRAC is a commercial product resulting from the treat- 
 ment by a chemical process of the latex of certain plants of the 
 Sapotacece family, as Balata, for example. Made in England. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 AsBA rubber 42 
 
 Abies halsamea 154 
 
 Abyssinian gutta 42 
 
 Accra rubber 25 
 
 Acetate of lead 79 
 
 Acetic acid 36, 189 
 
 Acetone 224 
 
 Achras sapota 45 
 
 Acid, Acetic 36, 189 
 
 Boracic 192 
 
 Carbolic 193 
 
 Chromic 197 
 
 Citric 197 
 
 Formic 27> 198 
 
 Hydrochloric 199 
 
 Mimo-tannic 200 
 
 Muriatic 200 
 
 Nitric 200 
 
 Oleic 201 
 
 Oxalic 201 
 
 Phenic 193 
 
 Phosphoric 202 
 
 process of reclaiming rub- 
 ber 14s 
 
 proof composition, Just's. 13S 
 
 Pyroxylic 238 
 
 Salicylic 203 
 
 Stearic 204 
 
 Sulphuric 205 
 
 Tannic 205 
 
 Tartaric 206 
 
 Tungstic 206 
 
 Acids, alkalies, and their deriva- 
 tives 189 
 
 Action of metals on rubber 253 
 
 Adamanta no 
 
 resin 151 
 
 Addah niggers 25 
 
 Adhesive, renderng rubber 255 
 
 Adhesor 1 10 
 
 Adirondackite no 
 
 African rubbers. List of 21 
 
 Shrinkage of 257 
 
 Agalmatolite 79 
 
 Air-brake hose, testing 261 
 
 Albane 277 
 
 Alcohol as a solvent 224 
 
 Ale 189 
 
 Alexite 125 
 
 Algm gum 1 10 
 
 Alkalies and their derivatives... 189 
 
 Allard's fireproof felt 247 
 
 Almeidina rubber 42 
 
 Alstonia plumosa 50 
 
 Alum 190 
 
 cure 71 
 
 in coagulation 36 
 
 Alumina, as a filler 80 
 
 Sulphate of 204 
 
 Aluminum flake 79 
 
 lanolate 207 
 
 Oxide of 95 
 
 Aluminite 79 
 
 Alundum 80 
 
 Amazonian resin rubber 43 
 
 Amber 151 
 
 Burmite 154 
 
 Oil of 216 
 
 resin substitute iii 
 
 Ambriz rubber 27 
 
 Ambroin 125 
 
 Ammonia 190 
 
 Carbonate of 194 
 
 Caustic 195 
 
 Hydrochlorate of 198 
 
 Muriate of 200 
 
 Tungstate of 206 
 
 Ammoniacum, Gum 159 
 
 Ammonium, Chloride of 196 
 
 Amole juice 35 
 
 Amorphous sulphur yi 
 
 Amphiboline 80, 248 
 
 Analysis of oil substitutes log 
 
 Analysis of gutta-percha 292, 294, 296 
 
 lampblack 179 
 
 rubber compounds 267 
 
 rubber substitutes 269 
 
 vulcanized rubber 260 
 
 Angostura rubber 16 
 
 Anhydrite 80 
 
 Anhydrous paraffine oil 207 
 
 Aniline 191 
 
 colors 173, 241 
 
 Anilines in coloring rubber 172 
 
 to be avoided 173 
 
 Animal charcoal 86 
 
 oils in rubber compounds 207 
 
 substances in dry mixing. . ro6 
 
 299 
 
30O 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Anime, Gum 158 
 
 Anthracine 226 
 
 Antimony 80 
 
 Black 83 
 
 Crimson sulphide of 184 
 
 Grolden sulphuret of 7:^ 
 
 Golden sulphuret of, red . . 74 
 
 in curing rubber 67 
 
 Iodide of 199 
 
 Oxide of 95 
 
 Penta-sulphide of 75 
 
 Anti-poison act, German 175 
 
 Antipolo gum 43 
 
 ApocynacecB 7 
 
 "Apo elastikon hyphasma" 133 
 
 Arabic, Gum 158 
 
 A. R. D. gum Ill 
 
 Argillaceous red shale 80 
 
 Armalac 125 
 
 Arsenate of potash 191 
 
 Arsenic as a filler 80 
 
 yellow 186 
 
 A rtemisia absinthium 216 
 
 Artificial asphalt 152 
 
 elaterite iii 
 
 Gutta-percha iii 
 
 India-rubber (Fenton's) .. 114 
 
 rubber milk 254 
 
 sulphuret of lead 71, 80 
 
 whalebone 125 
 
 ArtocarpecB 7 
 
 Artocarpus Kunstleri 45 
 
 Aruwimi rubber 27 
 
 Asbestic 81 
 
 Asbestine 81 
 
 Asbestonit 133 
 
 Asbestos 81 
 
 AsclepiadacecE 7 
 
 Ash, Bone 84 
 
 test of rubber substitutes . . 270 
 
 Asphalt 151 
 
 Mineral India-rubber 163 
 
 Trinidad 170 
 
 Asphalte, French 157 
 
 Asphaltum, Gum 159 
 
 Assam rubber 29 
 
 Assinee rubber 24 
 
 Astrictum 133 
 
 Atmido 82 
 
 Atmoid 82 
 
 A ttalea excelsa 35 
 
 Attoaboa rubber 24 
 
 Aureolian yellow 186 
 
 Australian caoutchouc 45 
 
 Auvergne bitumen 152 
 
 Axim rubber 25 
 
 Ayling's cold cure 69 
 
 Baka gum 43 
 
 Bakelite 126 
 
 Balata 298 
 
 as a substitute for Gutta- 
 percha 283 
 
 tree 283 
 
 Balenite 126 
 
 Ball, African 22 
 
 Balloons, dyeing 172 
 
 Balsam 152 
 
 Canada 154 
 
 of storax 152 
 
 of sulphur 153 
 
 Sulphur 76 
 
 Tolu 171 
 
 Balsams in rubber compounding 151 
 
 Banana rubber 44 
 
 process for extracting . . . 256 
 
 Bangui rubber 26 
 
 Banigan's (Joseph) experiments 68 
 
 Barberry yellow 186 
 
 Barium chloride 191 
 
 sulphide 72 
 
 white 174 
 
 Barrel lining, Zinsser's 138 
 
 Barta-Balli gum 44 
 
 Bartyes as a filler 83 
 
 Baryta, Carbonate of 85 
 
 Baschnagel's devulcanizing pro- 
 cess 145 
 
 Bassia Parkii 47 
 
 Bastard or pseudo gums 41 
 
 Batanga ball 25 
 
 Bathurst rubber 24 
 
 Bayin rubber 24 
 
 Beckton white 174 
 
 Beeswax 153 
 
 Beira rubber 44 
 
 Belgian Congo, rubber from ... 26 
 Belledin's process for leather 
 
 impregnation 134 
 
 Bell (P. Carter) on analyses of 
 
 rubber 267 
 
 Belting, rubber. Tests of 266 
 
 Benguela rubber 27 
 
 Benin ball rubber 25 
 
 Benzoin, Gum 159 
 
 Benzol 226 
 
 Nitro-benzol 235 
 
 Benzole 226 
 
 Beta separator 36 
 
 Berry's (W. G.) analysis of 
 
 gutta-percha resins 296 
 
 Beverley Rubber Works 145 
 
 Beylikgy's devulcanizing process 147 
 
 Biborate of soda 192 
 
 Bichromate of potash 192 
 
INDEX 
 
 301 
 
 Birch bark tar 153 
 
 oil 207 
 
 Biscuit rubber 22,, 33 
 
 Bismuth rubber cure 67 
 
 Bisulphate of potash 192 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon 227 
 
 Substitute 227 
 
 Bitite 126 
 
 Bitumen 153 
 
 Auvergne 152 
 
 Black antimony 83 
 
 dye for rubber 239 
 
 German substitute 1 1 1 
 
 hypo 83, 180 
 
 lead 83 
 
 Mineral 179 
 
 Oak 180 
 
 pigments for rubber 178 
 
 pitch IS4 
 
 Blacks, Carbon 180 
 
 Blandite 1 1 1 
 
 Bleaching powder 192 
 
 Block rubber 33 
 
 Blown oils 208 
 
 Bkie, Chrome 182 
 
 Cobalt 182 
 
 Indigo 182 
 
 lead 83 
 
 Molybdenum 182 
 
 pigments 180 
 
 Prussian 182 
 
 Saxon 182 
 
 Thenard's 182 
 
 Yale 181 
 
 Boot and shoe manufacture .... 54 
 Bolas (Thomas) on shrinkage of 
 
 rubber 256 
 
 Bolivian rubber 15 
 
 Bone ash 84 
 
 black 84, 179 
 
 naphtha 231 
 
 oil 208 
 
 Boracic acid 192 
 
 Borax 192 
 
 as a solvent 227 
 
 Borate of zinc 174 
 
 Borcherdt's compound iii 
 
 Bordeaux turpentine 235 
 
 Borneo rubber 29 
 
 Bosanga 36 
 
 Bougival white 174 
 
 Bourn's (A. O.) devulcanizing 
 
 process T46 
 
 Brimstone, Gold 73 
 
 British gum 154 
 
 Bromine rubber cure 72 
 
 Bronzed appearance on rubber . . 24c 
 
 Brooksite 126 
 
 Brosium galactodendron 46 
 
 Brown pigments 183 
 
 Brown's substitute 127 
 
 Bucaramanguina 84 
 
 Bumba rubber 27 
 
 Burgundy pitch 154 
 
 Burmite amber 154 
 
 Burnt umber 84 
 
 Bussira rubber 2y 
 
 Button lac 154 
 
 Buttons, rubber 23 
 
 Butyrospermum Parkii 47 
 
 Cadmium yellow 185 
 
 Cake rubber 24 
 
 Calamine 84 
 
 white 175 
 
 Calcium, Chloride of 196 
 
 white 84 
 
 Calendering rubber 61, 63 
 
 Calomel 85 
 
 Calotropus giganticus 49 
 
 Cameroons rubber 25 
 
 Cameta rubber 14 
 
 Camphene 228 
 
 Camphor 228 
 
 Gum 159 
 
 oil 208 
 
 Canada balsam 154 
 
 Candle tar 154 
 
 Canoe gums 44 
 
 Canvas sails, waterproofing .... 247 
 
 Caoutchene 112 
 
 Caoutchite 133 
 
 Caoutchouc aluta 127 
 
 Caoutchoucine 228 
 
 Caoutchouc oil 208 
 
 Cape Cattimandu 44 
 
 Cape Coast rubber 25 
 
 Carbolic acid 193 
 
 Carbonaceous clay 85 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia 194 
 
 baryta 85 
 
 lead 85 
 
 soda 194 
 
 zinc 175 
 
 Carbon blacks 180 
 
 Bisulphide of 227 
 
 Chloride of 230 
 
 Substitute 227 
 
 tetrachloride 228, 237 
 
 Carbo-nite 112, 127 
 
 Carburet of iron 85 
 
 Carnauba wax 155 
 
 Carn gum 155 
 
 Carpodinus lance la tus 50 
 
302 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Carriage cloth manufacture 57 
 
 Carrol gum H2 
 
 Cartagena rubber 18 
 
 Casein I5S 
 
 Caseum 155 
 
 Castilloa elastica 11 
 
 Castor oil 208 
 
 Catechu 195 
 
 Cativo gum 44 
 
 Cattell's process for deodoriza- 
 
 tion 248 
 
 Cattimandu gum 44 
 
 Caucho I5> i6 
 
 Caulbry's rubber cure 71 
 
 Caustic ammonia I95 
 
 potash 195 
 
 soda 194 
 
 Caviana rubber 13 
 
 Ceara rubber 18, 34 
 
 Cellit 140 
 
 Cellulith 141 
 
 Celluloid 140 
 
 Potato 131 
 
 Rubber, Luffs 136 
 
 Cellulose 141 
 
 Compound 142 
 
 nitro 141 
 
 Cement manufacture 60 
 
 compounds. Gutta-percha. 293 
 
 Davy's universal 166 
 
 Portland 99 
 
 Theskelon 137 
 
 Cements, Rubber 222 
 
 Coloring I73 
 
 Centrifugal method of coagula- 
 tion 36 
 
 Central American rubber 17 
 
 Shrinkage of 257 
 
 Ceramyl IS5 
 
 Cerasin I55 
 
 Cereal rubber 112 
 
 Ce-re-gum 127 
 
 Ceresine I55 
 
 Ceylon rubber 30 
 
 Chapel (E.) on shrinkage of 
 
 rubber 258 
 
 Chalk as a filler 85, 104 
 
 French 90 
 
 Red 100 
 
 Charcoal animal 86 
 
 vegetable 86 
 
 Charlton white I7S 
 
 Chatterton's compound 127, 287 
 
 Chemical process of reclaiming 
 
 rubber 143 
 
 Chemical Rubber Co 145 
 
 Cherry gum 155 
 
 Chicle gum 45 
 
 substitute 112 
 
 China clay 87 
 
 Chinese wood oil substitute 112 
 
 Chloride, Barium 191 
 
 Chloride of ammonium 196 
 
 calcium 196 
 
 carbon 230 
 
 lime 196 
 
 sodium 196 
 
 sulphur rubber cure 70, 7-5 
 
 zinc 197 
 
 Chlorine, Liquid 75 
 
 rubber cure 69 
 
 Chloroform 230 
 
 Cholesterin 209 
 
 Christia gum 113 
 
 Chrome blue 182 
 
 green 187 
 
 yellow 187 
 
 Chromic acid 197 
 
 Chute's rubber resin solvent 231 
 
 Citric acid 197 
 
 Clapp's (E. H.) devulcanization 
 
 patents 145 
 
 Clay, Carbonaceous 85 
 
 China 87 
 
 Cornwall 87 
 
 Fire 89 
 
 Pipe 98 
 
 Clothing manufacture, Rubber.. 57 
 
 Coagulation of rubber 35 
 
 Coalite pitch 156 
 
 Coal, Powdered 100 
 
 Coal tar 156 
 
 naphtha 233 
 
 Coarse Para rubber 13 
 
 Cobalt, Blue 182 
 
 Codliver oil 209 
 
 Cod oil 209 
 
 Colcothar 184 
 
 Cold curing process 69 
 
 Colombian rubber 18, 31 
 
 Colophane 156 
 
 Colophony 156 
 
 Color of rubber. Natural 172 
 
 Colored design for proofed fab- 
 rics 241 
 
 Coloring rubber 172 
 
 rubber surfaces 174 
 
 Colors, Black 178 
 
 Blue 180 
 
 Brown 183 
 
 for admixture with rubber 241 
 
 Green 187 
 
 Red 183 
 
 White 174 
 
INDEX 
 
 y»i 
 
 Colors, Yellow 185 
 
 Colza oil 209 
 
 Compo 87 
 
 Composition, Just's acid proof... 135 
 Compounding rubber, Reasons 
 
 for 79 
 
 Compounds for showerproofing. . 243 
 
 Borcherdt's iii 
 
 Chatterton's 127, 287 
 
 Congo Free State 26 
 
 Doebrich's 113 
 
 Ireson's packing 135 
 
 Jackson's 135 
 
 Johnstone's non-drying . . 135 
 
 Jungbluth's 116 
 
 Kiel 129 
 
 Kirrage 136 
 
 Leatherubber 136 
 
 oil 217 
 
 Roland's puncture 140 
 
 rubber 26 
 
 Sorrel's 131 
 
 Weber's cellulose 142 
 
 Wray's 133 
 
 Con-current rubber 113 
 
 Consolidated oil 209 
 
 Coorongite 45, 156 
 
 Copal, Gum 160 
 
 Copper, effect of on rubber 254 
 
 Sulphate of 204 
 
 Coralite 127 
 
 Cork 87 
 
 Corkaline 113 
 
 Cork leather 133 
 
 Cornite 127 
 
 Corn oil 209 
 
 substitute 113 
 
 Cornwall clay 87 
 
 Corundum 87 
 
 Corypha cerifera 155 
 
 Cost of rubber after shrinkage . . 258 
 
 Costtis afer 36 
 
 Cotton gun 141 
 
 silicate loi 
 
 Cottonseed oil 209 
 
 Coutinho's machine 36 
 
 Cow tree rubber 46 
 
 Coyuntla juice 36 
 
 Crape cloth 247 
 
 Cravenette process 243 
 
 Cream of tartar 198 
 
 Creosote oil 210, 230 
 
 Crepe rubber ZZ 
 
 Crimson sulphide of antimony . . 184 
 
 Crystals of soda 198 
 
 Cumai rubber 46 
 
 Cutch 195 
 
 Cyanide of potassium 198 
 
 Cyco 139 
 
 Dammar, Gum 160 
 
 Danin's machine 37 
 
 Dankwerth's Russian substitute. 113 
 
 Davy's universal cement 166 
 
 Day, Austin G., rubber substi- 
 tutes 62 
 
 Day, Horace H., early rubber 
 
 manufacture 68 
 
 De Pont substitutes 127 
 
 Deodorization of rubber 106, 248 
 
 Dental rubber 60 
 
 Dermatine 134 
 
 Devulcanization of rubber 143 
 
 Dextrine 1 56 
 
 Dextrose 156 
 
 Diatite 127 
 
 Diatomaceous earth 88 
 
 Dichlor-ethylene 231 
 
 Dichopsis elliptica 50 
 
 Dichopsis polyantha 279 
 
 Dieffenbach's (George) rubber 
 
 cure 67 
 
 Dippel's oil 231 
 
 Divisions of the rubber manufac- 
 ture 53 
 
 Doebrich's compound 113 
 
 Dow's inner tube filler 139 
 
 Druggists' sundries manufacture 55 
 Dry-heat test of rubber substi- 
 tutes 269 
 
 Drying oils in rubber substitutes 198 
 
 Drying rubber 62 
 
 Dry mixing 79 
 
 Durango rubber 46 
 
 Durate 134 
 
 Dutch Congo ball 26 
 
 pink 187 
 
 Dyera costulata . 50 
 
 Earth, Diatomaceous 88 
 
 Fuller's 90 
 
 Infusorial 90 
 
 wax 156 
 
 Earth waxes in rubber com- 
 pounds 151 
 
 East India rubbers 29 
 
 Shrinkage of 258 
 
 Eaton's (A. K.) rubber cure 67 
 
 Ebonite 128 
 
 Ekanda rubber 27 
 
 Ekert's high pressure composi- 
 tions 134 
 
 Elasteine 113 
 
 Elastes 138 
 
304 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Elasticate II4 
 
 Elastic glue I14, 157 
 
 Elasticum, nigrum 118 
 
 Elastite 114 
 
 Elaterite 114, 156 
 
 Artificial iii 
 
 Electric facing 88 
 
 Electrose 127 
 
 Elemi, Gum 160 
 
 Elmer's (William) rubber cure.. 70 
 
 Embossing rubber 240 
 
 Emery 88 
 
 Endurite 134 
 
 Equateur rubber 26 
 
 Esbenite 128 
 
 Esmeralda rubber 18 
 
 Essence of petroleum 210 
 
 Ether as a solvent 231 
 
 Eucaliptia 210 
 
 Eucalyptus globulus 210 
 
 Eucalyptus oil 210 
 
 Eucturbe edulus 35 
 
 Euphorbia fulva 50 
 
 rhipsaloides 43 
 
 tirucalli 43 
 
 trigona 44 
 
 Euphorbia rubber 46, 114 
 
 EuphorbiacecB 7 
 
 Euphorbium, Gum 160 
 
 Everlastic 139 
 
 "Excelsior," reclaimed rubber .. 113 
 Extract test of rubber substitutes 269 
 
 Facing, Electric 88 
 
 Fagioli 139 
 
 Falke's (Oscar) rubber cure 67 
 
 Fard's Spanish white 175 
 
 Farina 88 
 
 Fossil 89 
 
 Test for 275 
 
 Fastening rubber to metal 251 
 
 Faure's devulcanizing patent . . . 143 
 
 Fayolles' substitute 114 
 
 Feldspar 88 
 
 Fenton's artificial rubber 114 
 
 Fiber, Lamina 130 
 
 Vulcanized 132 
 
 Fibers in rubber mixing 105 
 
 Fibrine-christia gum 134 
 
 Fibrone 128 
 
 Fichtelit 157 
 
 Ficus elastica 12, 34 
 
 obligua 44 
 
 Vogelii 42 
 
 Fig Juice roofing 115 
 
 Filler, Bow's inner tube 139 
 
 Suber's 140 
 
 Fillers in dry mixing 79 
 
 Fine Para rubber 13 
 
 Fire clay 89 
 
 Firmus 115 
 
 Fish glue 157 
 
 oil 210 
 
 Flake, aluminum 79 
 
 rubber 23, 2)i 
 
 Flint 89 
 
 Liquid of 200 
 
 Flour of glass 89 
 
 Marble 94 
 
 Mountain 95 
 
 phosphate 89 
 
 Wheat 103 
 
 Fluoride of silicon 198 
 
 Fluvia gum 46, 50 
 
 Formic acid 198 
 
 in coagulation ^y 
 
 Forsteronia gracilis 48 
 
 Fossil farina 89 
 
 meal 90 
 
 Frankenberg's waterproof cloth. 247 
 Frankenburg's puncture fluid . . 139 
 
 Frankincense, Gum 160 
 
 Franklin substitute 115 
 
 French asphalte 157 
 
 chalk 90 
 
 Congo rubber 25 
 
 Gutta-percha 115 
 
 Navy tests of rubber belt- 
 ing 266 
 
 talc 103 
 
 West Africa 23 
 
 wool grease 211 
 
 Frost rubber 134 
 
 Fuller's earth 90 
 
 Fulton white 175 
 
 Fumero $7 
 
 Funtumia elastica 12, 39 
 
 Gaboon rubber 25 
 
 Galalith 141 
 
 Gambia rubber 24 
 
 Gamboge gum 160 
 
 yellow 186 
 
 Gambria gum 50 
 
 Garnet lac 157 
 
 Garnier's (Edmond) alum cure.. 71 
 
 rubber shellac mixture 77 
 
 Gas, effect of on rubber 252 
 
 obtained from rubber 252 
 
 tubing, manufacture of . . 253 
 
 Gasoline 231 
 
 Gelatine, Glugloss 158 
 
 Genasco hydro-carbon 138 
 
 Gentsch's gutta-percha 294 
 
INDEX 
 
 3^5 
 
 German substitute, black iii 
 
 Gilbert-Besaw devulcanizing pro- 
 cess 148 
 
 Gilsonite 157 
 
 Glass, flour of 89 
 
 Soluble 204 
 
 Glucose 157 
 
 Glue 158 
 
 Elastic 114, 157 
 
 Fish 157 
 
 Waterproof 124 
 
 Glugloss-gelatine 158 
 
 Gluten 158 
 
 Glycerine in rubber compounds. 211 
 
 Goa gum 46 
 
 Gold brimstone 73 
 
 Gold Coast rubber 24 
 
 Gold leaf applied to rubber 240 
 
 Gold, Oxide of 96 
 
 Gk>lden sulphuret of antimony.. 73 
 
 Golf balls 286 
 
 Hard core for 128 
 
 Goodyear (Charles) vulcaniza- 
 tion process 66 
 
 triple compound 105 
 
 Gossypium herbaceum 209 
 
 Grades of crude rubber 7 
 
 Grand Bassam rubber 24 
 
 Graphite 90 
 
 Grape rubber 115 
 
 Green, Chrome 187 
 
 dyes for rubber 239 
 
 Hungarian 188 
 
 Saxon i88 
 
 Gutta-percha 283 
 
 pigments 187 
 
 ultramarine 188 
 
 Gregory & Thorn's devulcanizing 
 
 process 148 
 
 Greytown rubber 17 
 
 Griffith's white 175 
 
 Griscom's substitute 115 
 
 Gront and Moore's repair ce- 
 ment 134 
 
 Guatemala rubber 17 
 
 Guayaquil strip rubber 17 
 
 Guayule rubber 19, 42 
 
 Gubbin's devulcanizing process.. 148 
 
 Gum Algin no 
 
 ammoniacum 159 
 
 anime 158 
 
 Antipolo 43 
 
 arabic 158 
 
 A. R. D Ill 
 
 asphaltum 159 
 
 Baka 43 
 
 benzoin 159 
 
 Gum, British 154 
 
 camphor 159 
 
 carbon 115 
 
 Carn 155 
 
 Carrol 112 
 
 Cherry 155 
 
 chicle 45 
 
 Christia 113 
 
 copal 160 
 
 dammar 160 
 
 elemi 160 
 
 euphorbium 160 
 
 fibrine 115 
 
 Fibrine-christia 134 
 
 frankincense 160 
 
 gamboge 160 
 
 gambria 50 
 
 Goa 46 
 
 juniper 161 
 
 Kauri 162 
 
 lac 161 
 
 lini 161 
 
 Manila 163 
 
 olibanum 161 
 
 Rhea 120 
 
 Spruce 169 
 
 thus 162 
 
 tragacanth 162 
 
 tragasol 161 
 
 turpentine 161 
 
 Winthrop 124 
 
 Xanthorrhea 171 
 
 Gums used in rubber compounds 151 
 
 Gun cotton 141 
 
 Gutta Bassai 46 
 
 Gutta-grek 47 
 
 Gutta Horf oot 47 
 
 Gutta-like gums. Refining 255 
 
 Guttaline 116 
 
 Gutta- jelutong 48, 50 
 
 Gutta-percha, Chapter on 276 
 
 Analyses of.. 277, 292, 293, 294 
 
 Artificial in 
 
 "Banjermassin" 278 
 
 Brooman's patents 281 
 
 cement compounds 293 
 
 Chemical cleaning of, 280, 282 
 Commercial classification 
 
 of 278 
 
 Components of 277 
 
 compounds 290 
 
 Deodorization of 248 
 
 Deterioration of 287 
 
 Dick's compounds 289 
 
 Effect of heat on 276 
 
 extracted from leaves 283 
 
 French 115 
 
3o6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Gutta-percha, Grades of 279 
 
 Green 283 
 
 Hancock's compounds, 288, 291 
 Hancock's patents ....280, 282 
 
 hardened chemically 282 
 
 in compounds 287 
 
 in golf balls 286 
 
 in insulation 285 
 
 Liquid 289 
 
 "Macassar" 278 
 
 masticator 281 
 
 Mechanical cleaning of . . . 280 
 
 mixing machine 281 
 
 Montpelier's apparatus for 
 
 analyzing 294 
 
 Obach's analysis of . .279, 293 
 
 Payen's analysis of 277 
 
 percentages of waste 281 
 
 Properties of 276 
 
 Reboiled 279 
 
 Resins in 277, 296 
 
 slicing machine 280 
 
 Smith's compound 133, 287 
 
 Sources of 276 
 
 Specific gravity of 284 
 
 Substitutes for ...108, 116, 125 
 
 "Sumatra" 277 
 
 Uses for 284 
 
 Vulcanization of 70, 289 
 
 White . . . . ; 279 
 
 Gutta-shea 47 
 
 Gutta-sundek 280 
 
 Gutta-susu 30, 48 
 
 Gypsum 90 
 
 Haf Jack rubber 24 
 
 Halcox 116 
 
 Hall's (Hiram L.) devulcanizing 
 
 patents 145 
 
 Hancock's Gutta-percha pat- 
 ents 280, 282 
 
 process for deodorization 
 
 of rubber 249 
 
 Hard core for golf balls 128 
 
 Hard rubber substitute, KempeflF 129 
 
 Hard rubber 125 
 
 Decoration of 239 
 
 manufacture 59 
 
 Substitutes for 125 
 
 Harmer's substitute 134 
 
 Harris's (Charles T.) rubber 
 
 cure 67 
 
 Hatchetine 163 
 
 Havemann's (R. F. H.) rubber 
 
 cure 69 
 
 Hay ward's vulcanizing patent . . . 145 
 
 Heat in coagulation 37 
 
 Heinzerling's devulcanizing pat- 
 ent 146, 148 
 
 Helenite 162 
 
 Heifer process of coagulation . . 37 
 Helm's (John, Jr.) rubber cure 69 
 
 Hematite, Red 184 
 
 Henriques (Dr. Rob.) analysis 
 
 of rubber substitutes 271 
 
 Testing rubber 267 
 
 Heptane 231 
 
 Herminizing process 67 
 
 Hevea Brasiliensis 8, 11, 30 
 
 Heveenite 135 
 
 Heveenoid 135 
 
 Heyl-Dia's devulcanizing process 149 
 
 Honduras strip rubber 18 
 
 Honeycomb sulphur 74 
 
 Hose air-brake, Tests of 261 
 
 Hungarian green 188 
 
 Hyaline 128 
 
 Hydro-carbon, Genasco 138 
 
 rubber 116 
 
 Hydrochlorate of ammonia .... 198 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 199 
 
 Hydrochlorite of lime 198 
 
 Hydrogen, peroxide of 201 
 
 Hydrolaine 116 
 
 Hydrolene 212 
 
 Hydrosulphuret of lime 198 
 
 Hypo, black 83, 180 
 
 Hyposulphite of lead 74 
 
 Sodium 204 
 
 Tdrialin (Idrialit) 162 
 
 Impregnating rubber 243 
 
 Indian red 184 
 
 India-rubber compounds 79 
 
 leather 135 
 
 Substitutes for 108 
 
 Indigo blue 182 
 
 Infusorial earth 90 
 
 Inrig 139 
 
 Insolacit 128 
 
 Insulite 1 16 
 
 Insulated wire manufacture .... 59 
 
 Insullac 128 
 
 Iodide of antimony 199 
 
 zinc 199 
 
 Iodine 74 
 
 I pomoea bona-nox 36 
 
 Ireson's packing compound 135 
 
 Iron, Carburet of 85 
 
 pyrites 91 
 
 rubber 129 
 
 Isinglass 162 
 
 Islands rubber 13 
 
 Isolatine 129 
 
INDEX 
 
 307 
 
 Isoprene 232 
 
 Itaituba rubber 14 
 
 Jackson^s compound for printers 
 
 rolls 135 
 
 Japan wax 212 
 
 Java rubber 29 
 
 Jelly, Petroleum 217 
 
 Jelutong 48, 50 
 
 Jenkins's valve packing 91 
 
 Jequie rubber 19 
 
 Jeve rubber 48 
 
 Jintawan rubber 48 
 
 Johnson's non-drying compound 135 
 
 Jones's substitute 116 
 
 Joselyn's (Henry W.) rubber 
 
 cure 68 
 
 Jungbluth's compound 116 
 
 Juniper, Gum 161 
 
 Just's acid proof composition . . . 135 
 
 Kamerun rubber 25 
 
 Kamptulicon 135 
 
 Kaolin 91 
 
 Kapak 138 
 
 Karite gum 47 
 
 Kasai rubber 26, 27 
 
 Kauri gum 162 
 
 Kelgum 116 
 
 Kempeff hard rubber substiiute.. 129 
 
 Keratite 129 
 
 Keratol 129 
 
 Kerite 117 
 
 Kermes 91 
 
 Kiel compounds 129 
 
 Kirrage compound 13S 
 
 Koalatex 37 
 
 Koener's devulcanizing process. 149 
 
 Kommoid 117 
 
 Koneman's devulcanizing process 149 
 
 Komite 130 
 
 Kremnitz white 175 
 
 Kwilu rubber 27 
 
 Kyanized cloth process 247 
 
 La Belle's mineral rubber 139 
 
 Lac 162 
 
 Button 154 
 
 Garnet 157 
 
 Gum i6t 
 
 Lace rubber 33 
 
 Lactitis 130 
 
 Lagos oil 217 
 
 rubber 25 
 
 Lahou rubber 24 
 
 Lake Leopold rubber 26 
 
 Lakes for coloring rubber 241 
 
 Lallemantia oil 212 
 
 Lamina fiber 130 
 
 Lampblack, Analysis of 179 
 
 for coloring rubber 178 
 
 Lamu ball rubber 28 
 
 Landolphia 8, 22 
 
 Landolphia Thollonii 50 
 
 Lanichol 212 
 
 Lanolate, Aluminum 207 
 
 Lanoline 212 
 
 Lard oil 213 
 
 Lavandula vera 215 
 
 Lavender, Oil of 215 
 
 Lead, Acetate of 79 
 
 Black 83 
 
 Blue 83 
 
 Carbonate of 85 
 
 Hyposulphite of 74 
 
 Nitrate of 200 
 
 Oxide of 96 
 
 Oxychloride of 96 
 
 Peroxide of 97 
 
 Red loi 
 
 Sublimed 102 
 
 Sugar of 102, 204 
 
 Sulphate of 102 
 
 Sulphide of 58, 179 
 
 Sulphurate of 71, 80 
 
 White 104 
 
 Leather impregnation, Belledin's 
 
 process 134 
 
 Leatherine 136 
 
 Leatheroid 130 
 
 Leatherubber compound 136 
 
 Lemon, Oil of 215 
 
 Leonard's compound 136 
 
 Liberian rubber 24 
 
 Liconite 117 
 
 Ligroin 232 
 
 Lime as a filler 91 
 
 Carbonate of 85 
 
 Chloride of 196 
 
 Hydrochlorite of 198 
 
 Hydrosulphuret of 198 
 
 in coagulation 37 
 
 Juice 2,7 
 
 Oxalate of 201 
 
 Phosphate of 97 
 
 Quick 202 
 
 Slaked loi 
 
 Sulphate of 103 
 
 Limeite 136 
 
 Lini, Gum 161 
 
 Linoxin 117 
 
 Linseed oil 213 
 
 Linum usitatissimum 213 
 
 Liquid chlorine 75 
 
3o8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Liquor of flint 200 
 
 Litharge 92 
 
 Lithargrite 93 
 
 Litho-carbon 162 
 
 Lithographic varnish 214 
 
 Lithophone 93. "75 
 
 Little known rubbers 41 
 
 Liver of sulphur 75 
 
 rubber 28 
 
 Liverpool pressed rubber 22 
 
 Loanda rubber 27 
 
 Loango rubber 26 
 
 Lombiro rubber 29 
 
 Lomi rubber 25 
 
 Lopori rubber 26 
 
 Loranthus rubber 48 
 
 Luft's celluloid rubber 136 
 
 Lugo 118 
 
 rubber 118 
 
 Lump rubber 23 
 
 Maboa gum 48 
 
 Machacon juice 38 
 
 Machine for testing air-brake 
 
 hose 261 
 
 Machine for testing vulcanized 
 
 rubber 262 
 
 Mackintosh manufacture 57 
 
 Macwarrieballi gum 48 
 
 Madagascar rubber 28 
 
 Madanite , 136 
 
 Madeira rubber 14 
 
 Magnesia 93 
 
 Maize oil 209 
 
 Majunga rubber 28 
 
 Malaya, rubber from 30 
 
 Male rubber tree Si 
 
 Manaos rubber 14 
 
 Mandarva rubber 48 
 
 Mangabeira rubber 19 
 
 Manga-ice rubber 49 
 
 Manganated linseed oil 214 
 
 Manganese 94 
 
 Peroxide of 97 
 
 Mangegatu gum 48 
 
 Manicoba rubber 19, 34 
 
 Manila gum 163 
 
 Manjack 163 
 
 Manoh twist rubber 24 
 
 Maponite 118 
 
 Marble flour 94 
 
 Marcy's (E. E.) rubber cure 
 
 66, 67, 68 
 Marks's (A. H.) devulcanizing 
 
 patents 146, 149 
 
 Marloid 130 
 
 Massaranduba rubber 49 
 
 Massisot 94 
 
 Mastic 163 
 
 Matto Grosso rubber 16 
 
 Mayall's (Thomas J.) rubber 
 
 cure 146 
 
 Mayumba rubber 26 
 
 Meal, Fossil 90 
 
 Mechanical rubber goods manu- 
 facture 53 
 
 Menthol 163 
 
 Metal, Fastening rubber to .... 251 
 
 Metallined rubber 136 
 
 Metals, action of rubber on .... 253 
 
 Methane 232 
 
 Mexican rubber 18, 34 
 
 Meyer's vulcanizing process .... 69 
 
 Mica 94 
 
 Micanite 131 
 
 Milk of sulphur 75 
 
 Milling rubber 63 
 
 Mimo-tannic acid 200 
 
 Mimusops balata 298 
 
 Mineral black 179 
 
 India-rubber asphalt 163 
 
 Orange 95 
 
 rubbers 138 
 
 tallow 163 
 
 wax 164 
 
 wool 95 
 
 Minimum 95 
 
 Mirbane oil 214 
 
 Mitchell's (N. C.) rubber re- 
 claiming patents 146 
 
 Mixing rubber 61 
 
 Moist heat tests of rubber substi- 
 tutes 269 
 
 Mold work 59 
 
 Mollendo rubber 15 
 
 Molybdenum blue 182 
 
 Mongalla rubber 27 
 
 Morat white 176 
 
 Moroccoline 136 
 
 Moudan white 176 
 
 Mountain flour 95 
 
 Mozambique rubber 27 
 
 Mudar gum 49 
 
 Mule gum 49 
 
 Mulee (William) in the hard 
 
 rubber industry 70 
 
 Murac 298 
 
 Muriate of ammonia 200 
 
 Muriatic acid 200 
 
 Murphy's (John) use of sulphur 
 
 for gutta-percha 70 
 
 devulcanizing process . . . 149 
 
 Musa rubber 49 
 
 Mustard oil 214 
 
INDEX 
 
 309 
 
 "M. R." 139 
 
 Myrrh 164 
 
 Nantusi 75 
 
 Naphthaline 234 
 
 Naphthas as solvents 232 
 
 Natural pitch 164 
 
 Neatsfoot oil 215 
 
 Neen rubber 49 
 
 Newbrough's (Dr. J. A.) vulcan- 
 izing compound 68 
 
 Newmastic 140 
 
 Nicaragua rubber 17 
 
 Nigeria, rubber from 25 
 
 Niger rubbers 25 
 
 Niggers (crude rubber), 
 
 23, 24, 25, 27, 28 
 
 Nigrite 131 
 
 Nigrum elasticum 118 
 
 Nipa fructicans ^7 
 
 Nipa salt 27 
 
 Nitrate of lead 200 
 
 Nitric acid 200 
 
 Nitrobenzine 215 
 
 Nitro benzol 235 
 
 Nitro-cellulose 141 
 
 Notions in rubber 61 
 
 Novelty rubber 118 
 
 Nut-gall 200 
 
 Nuts (crude rubber) 23 
 
 Oak black 180 
 
 Obach's (Dr. Eugene) classifica- 
 tion of Gutta-percha 279, 293 
 Chemical cleaning of Gut- 
 ta-percha 282 
 
 green Gutta-percha 283 
 
 Ocher, Red 184 
 
 Yellow 186 
 
 Oil, Anhydrous paraffine 207 
 
 Birch 207 
 
 Bone 208 
 
 Camphor 208 
 
 Caoutchouc 208 
 
 Castor 208 
 
 Cod 209 
 
 Cod-liver 209 
 
 Colza 209 
 
 Congo 217 
 
 Consolidated 209 
 
 Corn 209 
 
 Cottonseed 209 
 
 Creosote 210 
 
 Dippel's 231 
 
 Eucalyptus 210 
 
 Fish 210 
 
 Lagos 217 
 
 Oil, Lallemantia 210 
 
 Lard 213 
 
 Linseed 213 
 
 Maize 209 
 
 Manganated linseed 214 
 
 Mirbane 214 
 
 Mustard 214 
 
 Neatsfoot 215 
 
 Olive 216 
 
 Orizanum 216 
 
 Palm 216 
 
 Paraflfine 217 
 
 Petroleum 217 
 
 Poppyseed 219 
 
 Rapeseed 219 
 
 Resin 236 
 
 Rock 217 
 
 Rosin 219 
 
 Russian mineral 219 
 
 Shale 219 
 
 substitutes analyzed 109 
 
 Vulcanized 220 
 
 Walnut 221 
 
 White drying 221 
 
 of amber 216 
 
 lavender 215 
 
 lemon 215 
 
 orris 215 
 
 peppermint 215 
 
 rosemary 215 
 
 tar 215 
 
 thyme 216 
 
 turpentine 235 
 
 vitriol 201 
 
 wormwood 216 
 
 Oils, Blown 208 
 
 Creosote 230 
 
 used in rubber compounds 
 
 and solutions 207 
 
 Okonite 137 
 
 Old Calabar rubber 25 
 
 Oleargum 216 
 
 Oleic acid 201 
 
 Oleo resins 164 
 
 Oleum succini 216 
 
 white 176 
 
 Olibanum, Gum 161 
 
 Olive oil 216 
 
 Orange ball rubber 28 
 
 mineral 95 
 
 vermilion 184 
 
 Origanum oil 216 
 
 Orinoco rubber 16 
 
 Orpiment 187 
 
 Orris, Oil of 215 
 
 Orr's white 176 
 
 Ossein 95 
 
310 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Oxalate of lime 201 
 
 Oxalic acid 201 
 
 Oxide of aluminum 95 
 
 antimony 95 
 
 gold 96 
 
 iron, Red 184 
 
 lead 96 
 
 tin 96 
 
 zinc 96, 176 
 
 Oxolin 118 
 
 Oxychloride of lead 96 
 
 Oxydases in rubber 39 
 
 Oysters (crude rubber) 23 
 
 Ozocerine 165 
 
 Ozocerite 164 
 
 Ozonite 275 
 
 Packing washers, Unvulcanized . 138 
 
 Pagodite 96 
 
 Paint, Prince's metallic 184 
 
 TurnbuU's anti - fouling 
 
 rubber 137 
 
 Pala gum 49 
 
 Palm oil 216 
 
 Palo Amarillo 50 
 
 Panama rubber 18 
 
 Pantasote 131, 137 
 
 Papovcr Somniferum 219 
 
 Para rubber grades 13 
 
 Shrinkage of 257 
 
 Paraflfine 165 
 
 oil 217 
 
 Paragol 119 
 
 Paris, Plaster of 98 
 
 white 97 
 
 Parkesine 119 
 
 Parkes's cold cure 70 
 
 formulas for dyeing rub- 
 ber 239 
 
 Parmelee's "hermizing" process. . 69 
 
 Parthenium argentatum 20 
 
 Paste rubbers 23, 25 
 
 Payen's analysis of Gutta-percha 277 
 
 Pedryoid 137 
 
 Pegamoid 131 
 
 Penang rubber 29 
 
 Pensa's rubber 1 19 
 
 Pentane 236 
 
 Penta-sulphide of Antimony ... 75 
 
 Penther's devulcanizing process. 150 
 
 Peppermint, Oil of 215 
 
 Perchoid 119 
 
 Permanganate of Potash 201 
 
 Pernambuco rubber 18 
 
 Peroxide of hydrogen 201 
 
 iron 184 
 
 lead 97 
 
 Peroxide of Manganese 97 
 
 substitutes 119 
 
 Peruvian rubber 15 
 
 Peterson's devulcanizing process 150 
 
 Petrifite 97 
 
 Petrolatum 217 
 
 Petroleum as a solvent 236 
 
 Essence of 210 
 
 jelly 217 
 
 naphtha 233 
 
 oil 217 
 
 paraffine 217 
 
 P. F. U 50 
 
 Phenic acid 193 
 
 Phosphate, Flour of 89 
 
 of lime 97 
 
 of soda 202 
 
 Phosphoric acid 202 
 
 Phosphorus 97 
 
 Physical tests of vulcanized rub- 
 ber 260 
 
 Pickeum gum 50 
 
 substitute 119 
 
 Picradenia floribunda utilis 50 
 
 Pigments for coloring rubber . . . 172 
 
 Pink, Dutch 187 
 
 Pipe clay 98 
 
 Pitch 166 
 
 Black 154 
 
 Burgundy 154 
 
 Coalite 156 
 
 Natural 164 
 
 Stearine 169 
 
 Vegetable 171 
 
 Pioneer mineral rubber 139 
 
 Plantation rubber ;^;j 
 
 Plaster of Paris 98 
 
 Plasters, ingredients of 107 
 
 Rubber 6r 
 
 Plasticon 131 
 
 Plastite 131 
 
 Plumbagine 99 
 
 Plumbago 99 
 
 Pneumatic tire manufacture ... 57 
 
 "Pongo" reclaimed rubber 112 
 
 Pontianak 50 
 
 Poppenhusen's (C.) use of rub- 
 ber scrap 146 
 
 Poppyseed oil 219 
 
 Portland cement 99 
 
 Potash 202 
 
 Arsenate of 191 
 
 Bichromate of 192 
 
 Bisulphate of 192 
 
 Caustic 195 
 
 Permanganate of 201 
 
 Potassium, Cyanide of 198 
 
INDEX 
 
 311 
 
 Potato celluloid 131 
 
 Powder, Bleaching 192 
 
 Powdered coal 99 
 
 Pozelina 38 
 
 Preservation of rubber goods . . 249 
 
 Presspahm 131 
 
 Price's (R. B.) devulcanizing 
 
 processes ISO 
 
 Prince's metallic paint 184 
 
 Processes in coloring rubber ... 172 
 
 Proofing business 57 
 
 Fig juice 115 
 
 Proto-Chloride of Sulphur 76 
 
 Prussian blue 182 
 
 red 185 
 
 Pumice stone 100 
 
 Puncture closer 140 
 
 compound, Roland's .... 140 
 
 fluids and fillers 139 
 
 fluid, Frankenburg's 139 
 
 fluid, Scott's 140 
 
 Purcenite 120 
 
 Purifying crude rubber 256 
 
 Purple dyes for rubber 239 
 
 Purub 38 
 
 Purus rubber 14 
 
 Puzzolana 100 
 
 Pyrites, Iron 91 
 
 Pyroxiline 142 
 
 Pyroxylic acid 238 
 
 Quick lime 202 
 
 Quinn's rubber 120 
 
 Rambong rubber 34 
 
 Rangoon rubber 29 
 
 Rapeseed oil 219 
 
 Rathite 137 
 
 Raymond's vulcanization mixture 77 
 
 Reclaimed rubber 143 
 
 Reclaiming processes 145 
 
 salt 202 
 
 Red chalk 100 
 
 hematite 184 
 
 Indian 184 
 
 lead loi 
 
 ocher 184 
 
 oxide of iron 184 
 
 pigments 183 
 
 Prussian , 185 
 
 Venetian 184 
 
 Reinhardt's analysis of rubber . . 270 
 
 Remanso rubber 19 
 
 Rennet 202 
 
 Resin, Adamanta 151 
 
 oil 236 
 
 Sludge oil 170 
 
 Resinolines 120 
 
 Resins contained in rubber 223 
 
 in rubber compounding 
 
 151, i66 
 
 Oleo 164 
 
 Retin asphalt 167 
 
 Retinite 167 
 
 Rhea-gum 120 
 
 Rhigolene 237 
 
 Rice rubber 121 
 
 Richard's (Albert C.) rubber 
 
 cure 67 
 
 Rider (John) on gutta-percha 
 
 vulcanization 70 
 
 Roland's puncture compound ... 140 
 
 Root rubber 50 
 
 Rosaline 121 
 
 Rosemary, Oil of 215 
 
 Rosin 167 
 
 oil 219 
 
 Ross's white 177 
 
 Rotten stone loi 
 
 Rouen white 177 
 
 Rubberaid 121 
 
 Rubberic 137 
 
 Rubberite 121, 140 
 
 Rubber asphalte 137 
 
 flux 122 
 
 milk, Artificial 254 
 
 Velvet 137 
 
 Ruberine 121 
 
 Ruberoid 121 
 
 Russian mineral oil 219 
 
 Russian substitute 122 
 
 Dankwerth's 113 
 
 Sal Ammoniac 203 
 
 Saleratus 203 
 
 Salicylic acid 203 
 
 Sal soda 203 
 
 Salt 203 
 
 in coagulation 38 
 
 Nipa 37 
 
 Reclaiming 202 
 
 Saltpeter 203 
 
 Saltpond rubber 25 
 
 Sandarc 168 
 
 Sankuru 26 
 
 Santos rubber 19 
 
 Sapium biglandulosum 51 
 
 Sarco 139 
 
 Sarua rubber So 
 
 Sausage (crude rubber) 27 
 
 Sawdust as a filler 106 
 
 Saxon blue 182 
 
 green 188 
 
 Scott's puncture fluid 140 
 
312 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Scrap rubber 34 
 
 Seedlac 168 
 
 Selenium 68, 70, loi 
 
 Seringuina 38 
 
 Sernamby (Para) rubber 13 
 
 Shale oil 219 
 
 spirit 237 
 
 Shellac 168 
 
 Shrinkage of rubber 256 
 
 Sieba gum 51 
 
 Siemens (Dr. Werner von), pio- 
 neer in gutta-percha 285 
 
 Sierra Leone rubber 24 
 
 Silex loi 
 
 Silica loi 
 
 Silicate, cotton lOi 
 
 of soda 203 
 
 Silicon, Fluoride of 198 
 
 Simond's devulcanizing process. 146 
 Simpson's (E. L.) rubber cure.. 68 
 
 Sinapsis nigra 214 
 
 Size 169 
 
 Slag wool loi 
 
 Slaked lime loi 
 
 Slate 102 
 
 Sludge 220 
 
 oil resin 170 
 
 Smalts 181 
 
 Smith (Willoughby) on Gutta- 
 percha 133 
 
 Smoking rubber 35 
 
 Soap in coagulation 38 
 
 Substitutes 122 
 
 Soaps 203 
 
 Soapstone 102 
 
 Soda 204 
 
 Biborate of 192 
 
 Carbonate of 194 
 
 Caustic 194 
 
 Crystals of 198 
 
 Phosphate of 202 
 
 Silicate of , 203 
 
 Sulphate of 204 
 
 Tungstate of 206 
 
 Sodium, Chloride of 196 
 
 hyposulphite 204 
 
 Solicum 122 
 
 Solubility of India-rubber 222 
 
 Soluble glass 204 
 
 Sorel's compound 131 
 
 Spanish white 177 
 
 Specific gravity of rubber 259 
 
 Spence (David) on Oxydases.. 39 
 
 Spermaceti 170 
 
 Spirit, Shale 237 
 
 Wood 238 
 
 Spirits of turpentine 237 
 
 Spirits of Wine in coagulation 38 
 
 Sponge, Rubber 255 
 
 Spruce gum 169 
 
 Stabilit 131 
 
 Stamp rubber 60 
 
 Starch 102 
 
 Stationers' rubber goods 55 
 
 Stearic acid 204 
 
 Stearine 169, 220 
 
 pitch 169 
 
 Stibnite 102 
 
 Sticklac 168, 170 
 
 Sticks (crude rubber) 28 
 
 Stockholm tar 170 
 
 Stone, Pumice 100 
 
 Rotten loi 
 
 Storax, Balsam of 152 
 
 Straits rubber 32 
 
 Strips (crude rubber) 23 
 
 Suber's filler 140 
 
 Sublimed lead 102 
 
 Substitute, Amber-resin iii 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon 227 
 
 Black German iii 
 
 Brown's 127 
 
 Chicle 112 
 
 Chinese wood oil 112 
 
 Corn oil 113 
 
 Dankwerth's Russian 113 
 
 De Pont 127 
 
 Fayolles' 114 
 
 Franklin 115 
 
 Griscom's 115 
 
 Gutta-percha 116 
 
 Harmer's 134 
 
 Jones's 116 
 
 Kempeff hard rubber 129 
 
 Leonard's 136 
 
 Pickeum 119 
 
 Russian 122 
 
 Tetrachlormethene benzine 237 
 
 Tong oil 123 
 
 Wickmann's 124 
 
 Substitutes, Analysis of oil .... 109 
 
 rubber 268 
 
 Peroxide 119 
 
 Soap 122 
 
 for Gutta-percha 108, 125 
 
 hard rubber 125 
 
 India-rubber 108 
 
 Succini, Oleum 216 
 
 Sugar of leaA 102, 204 
 
 Sulo 122 
 
 Sulphate of alumina 204 
 
 copper 204 
 
 lead 102 
 
 lime 103 
 
INDEX 
 
 313 
 
 Sulphate of soda 204 
 
 zinc 103 
 
 Sulphide, Barium 72 
 
 antimony, Crimson 184 
 
 lead 76, 179 
 
 uranium 180 
 
 zinc 76, 177 
 
 Sulphur 76 
 
 Amorphous 71 
 
 Balsam of 76, IS3 
 
 Chloride of . .T 73 
 
 fumes in coagulation 38 
 
 Honeycomb 74 
 
 in rubber substitutes 269 
 
 Liver of 75 
 
 lotum 76 
 
 Milk of 75 
 
 Proto-chloride of 76 
 
 Sulphuret of antimony Golden.. 73 
 
 lead, artificial 71, 80 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . , 205 
 
 Surgical rubber goods 55 
 
 Susu-poko gum 51 
 
 Synthetic rubber 40 
 
 Tabbyite 139 
 
 Tdbern(Bmontana Thursioni 51 
 
 Taking rubber 51 
 
 Talc, French 103 
 
 Talite 103 
 
 Tallow 220 
 
 Mineral 163 
 
 Talotalo gum 51 
 
 Tamatave rubber 28 
 
 Tannic acid 205 
 
 Tannin 205 
 
 Tar 170 
 
 Birch-bark i53 
 
 Candle I54 
 
 Coal 156 
 
 Oil of 215 
 
 Stockholm 170 
 
 Tartar, Cream of 198 
 
 Tartaric acid 206 
 
 Tava rubber 27 
 
 Terra-verte 187 
 
 Terry (H. L.) on specific gravity 
 
 of rubber 259 
 
 Tetrachloride, Carbon 228, 237 
 
 Tetrachlormethene benzine sub- 
 stitute 237 
 
 Texoderm 142 
 
 Textiloid 122 
 
 Theilgaard's (Albert) devulcan- 
 
 izing process 150 
 
 Thenard's blue 182 
 
 Thermophoric mixture 255 
 
 Theskelon cement I37 
 
 Thimble rubbers 22 
 
 Thion 237 
 
 Thomas's (James) rubber cure.. 67 
 Thomson (Sir William) on ef- 
 fect of metals on rubber. 253 
 
 Thus, Gum 162 
 
 Thyme, Oil of 216 
 
 Tin, Oxide of 96 
 
 Tire life 140 
 
 Tire manufacture 57 
 
 Tires, Pneumatic, Testing of . . . 261 
 
 Tirucalli gum 51 
 
 Tobago rubber 34 
 
 Togoland, rubber from 25 
 
 Tolu balsam 170 
 
 Toluene 237 
 
 Tong oil substitute 123 
 
 Tongues (crude rubber) 23 
 
 Torres coagulation system 38 
 
 Torrey's (Joseph) method of 
 
 determining rubber 272 
 
 Touchpong gum 51 
 
 Tragacanth, Gum 161 
 
 Tragasol, (jum 161 
 
 Tremenol 123 
 
 Trinidad asphalt 170 
 
 rubber 34 
 
 Tripoli 103 
 
 Trotter's (Jonathan), \Tilcanizing 
 
 process 66 
 
 Troye's white I77 
 
 Tungstate of ammonia 206 
 
 soda 206 
 
 Tungstic acid 206 
 
 Tuno gum 51 
 
 Turpentine 171, 220 
 
 Gum 162 
 
 Oil of 235 
 
 rubber 123 
 
 Spirits of 237 
 
 TurnbuU's anti- fouling rubber. . . 137 
 
 Tuxpam strip rubber 18 
 
 Twists (crude rubber) 23, 24 
 
 Uele rubber 26 
 
 Uganda rubber 27, 35 
 
 Ultramarine, Blue 180 
 
 Green 188 
 
 Umber 185 
 
 Burnt 84 
 
 Unusual ingredients in dry mix- 
 ing 105 
 
 Upper Congo rubber 26 
 
 Upriver Para rubber 14 
 
 Uranium, Sulphide of 180 
 
314 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Valves, Preservation of rubber 
 
 in 250 
 
 Van den Kerckhove's (G.) rub- 
 ber smoking apparaus ... 37 
 Vapor process of rubber cure... 253 
 
 Varnish, Lithographic 214 
 
 Vaseline 220 
 
 Vegetable charcoal 86 
 
 Vegetable pitch 171 
 
 Vegetaline 132 
 
 Velvril 123 
 
 Venetian red 184 
 
 Venice turpentine 235 
 
 Vermilion 183 
 
 Orange 184 
 
 Vesuvian white 77 
 
 Virgen rubber 18 
 
 Virgin rubber 18 
 
 Viscoid 132 
 
 Viscose 132 
 
 Vitriol, Oil of 201 
 
 Vitrite 132 
 
 Volenite 124 
 
 Voltax 138 
 
 Voltit 123 
 
 Vorite 124 
 
 Vulcabeston 132 
 
 Vulcanina 138 
 
 Vulcanine 77, 138 
 
 Vulcanization of Gutta-percha.. 289 
 
 India-rubber 65 
 
 pressures 78 
 
 temperatures 78 
 
 Vulcanized fiber 132 
 
 oil 220 
 
 rubber, Analyses of 260 
 
 Vulcanizing ingredients and pro- 
 cesses 65 
 
 Vulcole 77 
 
 Vulcoleine 238 
 
 Walnut oil 221 
 
 Wamba rubber 27 
 
 Washers, Unvulcanized packing 138 
 
 Washing rubber 61 
 
 Waterproof fabric, A porous . . 247 
 
 glue 124 
 
 Watertown, Mass., Tests of rub- 
 ber goods at 262 
 
 Wax, Carnauba 155 
 
 Earth 156 
 
 Japan 212 
 
 Mineral 164 
 
 Waxes in rubber compounds ... 151 
 Weber (Carl Otto) on analyses 
 
 of rubber 267, 270 
 
 on resins in rubber 223 
 
 Weber's cellulose compound . . . 142 
 
 West Indian rubber 18 
 
 Whalebone, Artificial 125 
 
 Whaleite 138 
 
 Wheat flour 103 
 
 rubber 124 
 
 White, Barium 174 
 
 Beckton 174 
 
 Bougival 174 
 
 Calamine 175 
 
 Calcium 84 
 
 Charlton 175 
 
 colors for rubber 174 
 
 Fard's Spanish 175 
 
 Fulton 175 
 
 Griffith's 175 
 
 Kremnitz 175 
 
 lead 104 
 
 Morat 176 
 
 Moudan 176 
 
 Oleum 176 
 
 Orr's 176 
 
 Paris 97 
 
 Ross's 177 
 
 Rouen 177 
 
 Spanish 177 
 
 Troye's 177 
 
 Zinc 178 
 
 Whiting 104 
 
 Wichmann's substitute 124 
 
 Wilhoft's (Dr. F.) vulcanizing 
 
 process 71 
 
 Willman's (Andreas) rubber 
 
 cure 68 
 
 Winthrop gum 124 
 
 Wolf ert 124 
 
 Woodite 138 
 
 Wood oil substitute, Chinese ... 112 
 
 Wood spirit 238 
 
 Wool, Mineral 95 
 
 Slag 101 
 
 Worm rubber 33 
 
 Wormwood, Oil of 216 
 
 Wray's (Leonard) compound . . 133 
 
 Xanthorrhea gum 171 
 
 Xelton 133 
 
 Xingu rubber 14 
 
 X-rays for analyzing Gutta- 
 percha 285 
 
 Xyloidin 171 
 
 Xylol 238 
 
 Xylonite 142, 171 
 
 Yale blue 181 
 
 Yellow, Arsenic 186 
 
 Aureolian 186 
 
INDEX 
 
 315 
 
 Yellow, Barberry 186 
 
 Cadmium . . , 185 
 
 Chrome 187 
 
 Gamboge 182 
 
 gutta 52 
 
 ocher 186 
 
 pigments 185 
 
 Zackingummi 125 
 
 Zinc, Borate of 174 
 
 Carbonate of 175 
 
 Chloride of 197 
 
 Iodide of 199 
 
 Oxide of 96, 176 
 
 Sulphate of 103 
 
 Sulphide of 76, 177 
 
 white 178 
 
 Zinsser's barrel lining 138 
 
 Zuhl's devulcanizing process . . . 150 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS 
 
AD J \ERTISEMENTS. 
 
 W-Pe^' 
 
 PUBLISHED ON THE 1st OF EACH MONTH BY 
 
 The India Rubber Publishing Company 
 
 No. 395 BROADWAY, NEW YORK 
 
 Edited by 
 HENRY C. PEARSON 
 
 ESTABLISHED in 1889, to represent the interests of the manufactur- 
 ers and distributors of India-rubber and allied goods in the United 
 States, this journal has broadened its scope until it now commands a 
 position of importance as a record of the rubber trade and industry in all 
 other countries as well. At the same time it has taken a leading position 
 as an exponent of the rubber planting interests and the intelligent exploita- 
 tion of forest rubber, while its statistical department is more fully relied 
 upon than any other source of information of this class. 
 
 The publishers believe that to-day no other special journal published 
 covers its field so fully, or commands a circulation so widespread or of such 
 a high character. The contents of The India Rubber World are, for 
 the most part, expert information, covering whatever is new in factory pro- 
 cesses, in applications of rubber, in company development or changes, mar- 
 ket conditions, and whatever else may concern the entire field of rubber in- 
 terests. 
 
 As) an advertising medium, it is believed that the paper occupies an 
 exceptionally high position as a medium for bringing manufacturers and 
 consumers of rubber goods in contact, and for attracting the attention of 
 manufacturers to new appliances and materials. 
 
 YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION: 
 
 UNITED STATES AND MEXICO, .... 
 ALL OTHER COUNTRIES, ..... 
 
 $3.00 
 3.50 
 
 THE INDIA RUBBER PUBLISHING CO, 
 
 395 BROADWAY, NEW YORK 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 Laboratory Washer — For use on small 
 samples ranging from 1 to 5 Pounds. 
 Same general description as No. 2 Washer. 
 
 THE 
 
 Turner yaughn& Taylor C2 
 
 Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, U.S.A. 
 
 Water Separator — Removes 60 to 65 per 
 cent, of moisture from reclaimed stock. An 
 invaluable machine for drying mechanically. 
 
.^DI'ERTISEMENTS. 
 
 F. H. APPLETON & SON 
 
 Manufacturers of I^ECLAIMED RUBBER 
 
 FACTORY : 
 
 Franklin, Mass. 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 Telephone: OXFORD, 460 
 
 OFFICE: 
 
 1 86 Summer St. 
 
 Boston 
 
 CABOT'S 
 
 RUBBER BLACK 
 
 For more than twenty-five years we have 
 made a specialty of producing absolutely 
 pure lamp-blacks for rubber manufacture. 
 Our blacks are strong in coloring power, 
 rich and intense in tone, and contain no 
 grease, grit or other impurities. 
 
 BENZOL 
 
 The Most Powerful Solvent for Rubber. 
 
 At present prices Benzol is the cheapest 
 solvent for the rubber factory, as it is far 
 more efficient than any other. 
 
 Samples and prices on request. 
 
 SAMUEL CABOT, Inc. 
 
 Manufacturing Chemists 
 BOSTON, - - - MASSACHUSETTS 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 OHM LAC-- 
 
 HYDRO-CARBON COMPOUNDS 
 
 PUT UP IN DIFFERENT CONSISTENCIES TO SUIT THE 
 NEEDS OF MANUFACTURERS IN VARIOUS COMPOUNDS 
 
 THE COMPANY HAS AN EXPERT IN RUBBER MANUFACTURING, AND IS IN A 
 
 POSITION TO GIVE INTELLIGENT INFORMATION PERTAINING TO THE USE OF 
 
 HYDRO-CARBON IN ALL CLASSES OF RUBBER COMPOUNDS 
 
 THE COMPANY ALSO MAKE A COMPLETE LINE OF INSULATING COMPOUNDS 
 
 FOR PAINTS, WIRES, COIL SATURATING, POT HEADS, CABLE JOINTS, ETC., 
 
 AND A FULL AND COMPLETE LINE OF BLACK PAINTS AND JAPANS. 
 
 OHM LAC MFG. CO. 
 
 OFFICE: 1101 MONADNOCK BLDG., - CHICAGO 
 FACTORY: CLEARING, - - - - ILLINOIS 
 
 WRITE FOR SAMPLES 
 
 Since 1900 
 
 no substitutes like 
 
 THE 
 
 STAMFORD 
 
 SUBSTITUTES 
 
 IDEAL 
 
 PRODUCT 
 
 OF AN 
 
 IDEAL FACTORY 
 
 The Oldest American Producers of hath 
 the White and the T>ark Grades of 
 
 RUBBER SUBSTITUTES 
 
rlD VERTISEMENTS. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1844 
 
 A. SCHRADER'S SON, INC. 
 
 28-30-32 ROSE STREET, NEW YORK CITY 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 SCHRADER UNIVERSAL VALVES 
 
 FOR PNEUMATIC TIRES 
 
 Schrader's Stopple and Combination Syringe Connection for Hot Water Bottles 
 
 Schrader's Pillow Valves for Pillows, Life Preservers and similar articles 
 
 Hose Couplings, Contracted Ferrules for Garden Hose 
 
 Bands and Fittings 
 
 Shower Bath Sprinklers Shower Rings 
 
 Brass Fittings for Rubber Goods of Every Description 
 
 DIVING APPARATUS 
 
 Furnishers of Diving Apparatus to United States Navy. 
 Awarded Medal at Jamestown Exposition, 1907. 
 
 Rubber, Gutta,iBalata Machinery 
 
 In all its 
 Branches 
 
 FOR FACTORY AND PLANTATION 
 BRIDGES 
 
 HEvwooo* PATENT FRICTION CLUTCHES 
 
 Catalogues in English, French and German 
 
 DAVID BRIDGE CO., PEAR WORKS 
 
 CASTLETON, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. 
 
 LITHOPONE 
 
 SULPHATE OF BARYTES 
 
 CARBONATES OF BARYTES 
 SULPHATE OF LIME 
 
 OXIDE OF ZINC 
 
 ALL IMPORTED 
 
 GABRIEL & SCHALL 
 
 205 PEARL STREET, NEW YORK 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ BOOK m RUBBER PLANTERS 
 
 By the Editor of The India Rubber World 
 
 The Home and Colonial Mail (London) says : "When Mr. Henry C. 
 Pearson started out to study rubber culture in the tropics, and to record 
 his impressions, he did his work thoroughly." 
 
 The South American Journal says : " From the view of the rubber 
 planter, and the investor in the rubber plantations, the book is of the 
 greatest interest, showing comparisons of growth, methods of tapping, 
 and preparation in various countries. " 
 
 Price, $3.00 Prepaid 
 
 The India Rubber Publishing Co. 
 
 No. 395 Broadway - - NEW YORK 
 
AD J ^ERTISEMENTS. 
 
 FIINEST QUALITY 
 
 QUAYULE 
 
 Made from strictly fresh shrub 
 
 BRAND 
 QUARAINTEED ALWAVS THE SA.1VIE 
 
 The same quality, washed and dried, ready for use is offered 
 in our 
 
 BRAND 
 
 If you cannot obtain results from Crude Guayule, try 
 Durango. 
 
 EDWARD MAURER 
 
 97 Water Street, 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
A D VER TIS EM EX TS. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM IRON FOUNDRY 
 
 Established 1836 
 
 DERBY, CONN. 
 
 Incorporated 1850 
 
 "BIRMINGHAM" RUBBER MILL MACHINERY 
 
 Two, three and four-Roll Standard Chilled Roll Calenders — Pearce Patent 
 six-Roll Double Friction Calender — Pearce Patent eight-Roll Double Sheet- 
 ing Calender— Embossing Calenders for Carriage Cloth — Experimental 
 Calenders — Soling and Upper Calenders — Engraved Steel Rolls, etc., etc. 
 
 WASHERS 
 
 Standard two-Roll Washers, from 83^^^xl2^^ to 18''x40'''— three-Roll 
 Washers — Washing Plants arranged with overhead Drive — Washers Equip- 
 ped with Self- Adjusting Guides and Safety Stops — Double Geared Crackers. 
 
 MIUUS 
 
 Standard Mills with Chilled or Sand Rolls 6'', W\ W, 12^ 14^ W, 
 1&\ 18'''', 20^'', 22"'' and 24'' in diameter, any length— Double Geared Refiners 
 — Experimental Mills — Mills equipped with Self-Adjusting Guides, Safety 
 Stops, Water-Cooled Boxes, etc. , etc. New Designs and Patterns throughout. 
 
 PRESSES 
 
 Belt Presses, 30'', 42", 50", 52", 60" and 74" in width, 30 feet and under 
 in length — Clark's Hydraulic Stretcher— Square Presses, any number of 
 Platens, 12", 18", 24", 30", 36", 40", 48", 52", 60" and 74"-Heel Presses- 
 Screw Presses— Accumulators and Pumps. 
 
 SPECIAL MACHIINES 
 
 Hose making Machines — Special Machines for Air-Brake Hose — Belt 
 Making Machines — Bias Cutting Machines for all Purposes— Spreaders — 
 Duck Slitting Machines — Band Cutters, Vulcanizers, etc., etc. 
 
 SMARXIIVa, QEARIISQ, Etc. 
 
 Hammered Steel Shafting — Machine Molded and Cut Gearing — Friction 
 Clutches — Couplings— Motor Drives— Rope Drives — Pulleys— Pillow Blocks 
 —AH parts needed in alterations or repairs. 
 
AD J ^ERTISEMENTS. 
 
 TYPRE <a RING, Ltd., 
 
 IG Mincing Lane, LONDON, E. C. 
 
 [From a report on the International Rubber and Allied Trades Exhibition, in 
 London, from T/ie Itidia-Rubber Jojinial.'] 
 
 TYPKE & KING'S DISPLAY 
 International Rubber Exhibition at London 
 
 The exhibit of this company was one of 
 the features of the Exhibition, the arrange- 
 ment of the stand and show cases was unique, 
 and called forth commendations from all 
 who inspected the display. 
 
 For more than twenty-five years the firm 
 has made a special study of the requirements 
 of the rubber trade. Its large works are at 
 Mitcham Common, Surrey, and Rainham, 
 Essex, and the company now has agents in 
 Manchester, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Bel- 
 gium, France, Germany, United States, Rus- 
 sia, Canada, and Japan. 
 
 Of the articles exhibited we noticed par- 
 ticularly the golden and crimson antimonies, 
 ssveral shades of the latter being shown; 
 the outstanding feature of this company's 
 antimonies is that the percentage of free sul- 
 phur is always the same, and the user is 
 therefore able to obtain regular results. Sam- 
 jjles of rubber sheet, bat handles, tubing, etc., 
 were on view, actually made from these an- 
 timonies, and were pronounced to be very 
 fine indeed. 
 
 A good collection of india-rubber substitutes 
 was made by the company. Of the white 
 there were the special for mixing for proof- 
 ing purposes, a quality which has been in use for very many years and has always given 
 uniform results, and the ordinary white substitutes, S.O. and S.O.O., for mechanical 
 goods, tubing, sheeting, etc. There were also white and black snow sorts; the last-named 
 is made by this company alone,-. and is intended for mixing with rubber for the manufac- 
 ture of cut sheet. A new kind of dark substitute, to which the company has given 
 the name "Parateka," was also shown; this is reputed to be the lightest on the market, 
 having a specific gravity of 0.9642. 
 
 There were also coloring substitutes in red, orange and yellow shades for heightening 
 the color of rubber goods. They were pronounced quite free from acid. 
 
 Black hypo and special black pigment, specially prepared for mechanical and piece goods 
 respectively, were also displayed. These are always uniform in composition and percentage 
 of free sulphur. 
 
 The firm showed a fine set of tennis shoe soles in yellow, blue, green, red and black, 
 made with their colors, which were greatly admired. The same shades are also made for 
 enamel work. 
 
 The special grades of vegetable black are very fine; the "Extra" is an intense black, 
 very light, and can be used in small proportions. 
 
 Finest pure sulphur is another specialty; being perfectly neutral it is suitable for rubber 
 work. 
 
 Zinc sulphide was shown in white and yellow shades; the company have a new quality 
 of white testing 98 per cent, that is of very fine texture. 
 
 Among other articles exhibited were vermilion, of various shades; pure fine lime, 
 plumbagine for oil resisting valves; scarlet stain for cheap red goods; carbon tetrachloride, 
 absolutely uninflammable; precipitated chalk very fine, white and light; barytes, French 
 chalk, lithopone, calcined magnesia, carbonate of magnesia, pure precipitated sulphur, 
 sublimed lead, and zinc oxides in all qualities. 
 
AD VERTISEMENTS. 
 
 Parrel Foundry & Machine Co 
 
 ANSONIA, CONN., U.S.A. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF THE 
 
 (( 
 
 FARREL " RUBBER MACHINERY 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL CALENDER AND GRINDER 
 
 CALENDERS, WASHERS, GRINDERS, 
 HYDRAULIC PRESSES, ETC., FOR ALL 
 
 RUBBER MANUFACTURING 
 
 DESIGNERS AND BUILDERS OF COMPLETE MECH- 
 ANICAL, SHOE, HOSE, HARD RUBBER AND 
 RECLAIMING PLANTS. 
 
 CHILLED IRON, DRY SAND AND STEEL ROLLS. 
 
 COIL FRICTION CLUTCHES (PAT.) AND POWER 
 TRANSMISSIONS. 
 
ADlliRTlSEMENTS. 
 
 ACID PROOF NO PITCH 
 
 ALKALINE PROOF NO TAR 
 
 ELECTROLYSIS PROOF NO ASPHALTUM 
 
 KAPAK 
 
 Pure Natural Hydrocarbon, Elastic, Resilient, used extensively in 
 Mechanical Rubber Goods, Insulation and Hard Rubber. 
 
 RAVEM MINING CO. 
 
 Marquette Building 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦-♦-♦^ ♦ ♦ ♦ »< 
 
 i Dixon'» riake Qra|)hite 
 
 ♦ To get the full value to be derived from the use of graphite you should t 
 
 T employ only Dixon's Flake Gra|)hite which has proven its value. It is the t 
 
 4 preferred form of graphite for all lubricating requirements, and is used as I 
 
 t well in the manufacture of packings and other supplies in which graphite t 
 
 I is used to advantage. ^ 
 
 i Write for further inform/xtion and samples I 
 
 JOSEPH DIXON CRUCIBLE CO., \ 
 
 I JERSEY CITY, N. J. I 
 
 The S. p. WETHERILL COMPANY'S 
 
 No. 600 RED OXIDE 
 
 Has GREATER COLORING CAPACITY than any other 
 
 Red Pigment. 
 
 925 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia 
 
AD VERTISEMENTS. 
 
 RICHER 
 
 BRAINDS OR 
 
 SUBLIMED WHITE LEAD 
 
 (Non-Poisonous) 
 
 SUBLIMED BLUE LEAD 
 RUBBER MAKERS^ LITHARGE 
 
 are standards of excellence and efficiency. 
 We shall be pleased to quote delivered prices 
 anywhere in the United States and abroad. 
 We maintain warehouses in all prin- 
 cipal cities, which insure prompt service. 
 
 Address inquiries to— 
 
 RICHER LEAD COMPANY 
 
 TACOMA BUILDING, CHICAGO; 
 and 100 WILLIAM STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
 Works: JOPL^IIN, MISSOURI, U^S.A, 
 
 Richer Lead Company 
 
ADVERTISEMEXTS. 
 
 ALUMINITE 
 
 THE NEW FILLER FOR 
 RUBBER COMPOUNDS 
 
 ABSOLUTELY INERT IN CHARACTER 
 
 Low Specific Gravity, 2.63 
 
 LARGE PERCENTAGE MAY BE USED. 
 
 DISPLACES ZINC, LITHOPONE, BARYTES, FLAKE, &c 
 CHEMISTS INDORSE IT. 
 
 ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR ALL MECHANICAL AND 
 MOLDED GOODS. 
 
 TEST SAMPLES SENT ON APPLICATION. 
 
 The Cawn Mining & ig. Co. 
 
 CANTON, OHIO, U.S.A. 
 
AD VER TISEMBNTS 
 
 A Book for Everybody Who 
 Has to Do With Rubber 
 Tires for Business or Pleasure 
 
 The newest, and we should say the most 
 complete, work dealing with the subject of 
 rubber tires.— T/ie Canadian Motor, Toronto. 
 
 Deals with the rubber tire of every kind, 
 and from every possible point of view. — The 
 Automobile, New York. 
 
 The author has well succeeded in the 
 task. His book is an authoritative source of 
 information in this branch of manufacture, 
 and is to be complimented for its accuracy. — 
 Gummi-Zeitung, Dresden, Germany. 
 
 Even the best informed will learn some- 
 thing from it, and to the average man with an 
 interest in tires who once gets hold of it, it 
 will become an inseparable companion. — The 
 India-Rubber Journal, London. 
 
 There may be those who think they know 
 all about tires that is worth while, but they 
 will conclude differently if they will peruse 
 this well-written volume. — Carriage Monthly, 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Mr. Pearson [the author] is a practical 
 expert in matters pertaining to rubber, and 
 has since the very inception of the pneumatic 
 
 tire industry and trade been in very close touch with that line. — Das Radmarkt, 
 
 Bielefeld, Germany. 
 
 Deserves the greatest attention from the rubber trade. — Le Caoutchouc 
 et la Gutta-Percha, Paris. 
 
 Price, $3,00 per Copy Prepaid 
 
 THE INDIA RUBBER PUBLISHING 
 =^=^= — = COMPANY =— — = 
 
 Number 395 Broadway 
 
 New York 
 
i6 ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 \ THE CARTER BELL MFG. CO. I 
 
 150 Nassau Street, 
 New York. 
 
 Manufacturers 
 
 of I 
 
 High Grade | 
 
 RUBBER SUBSTITUTES I 
 
 and t 
 
 Chemical Products | 
 
 For Soft and Hard Rubber Compounds | 
 
 White 
 
 Rubber 
 
 Substitute 
 
 SOLID AND POWDERED 
 
 T. C. ASHLEY & CO. 
 
 683 Atlantic Avenue - - - BOSTON 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 Address for letters and telegrams : Maschinenbau Golzern 
 Mulde (Germany) 
 
 UASCniN[NBAy - AKTI[NG[8[LL8Cniin 
 
 GOLZ[RN-GRIMMi\ 
 
 GOLZERN - - - SAXONY 
 
 MAKERS OF ALL KINDS OF 
 
 MACHINERY 
 
 — FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF 
 
 India Rubber vulcanizing Pans 
 
 Hard Rubber (Ebonite) drauiic vulcanizing 
 
 Presses 
 
 uuttapercha 
 
 * Hose and Block Ma- 
 
 Celluloid ^•^'""y 
 
 . J f-«i Clutches of every 
 
 Crushing Vulcanized Fiber description 
 
 r;:^ Asbestos 
 
 Grinding Machines p^^^^^ j^^^^^ 
 
 Calenders 
 
 Dough Mills Balata Belting 
 
 Cutting Machines 
 Spreading Machines ExplOSive Material 
 
AD VRR T IS EM EN TS. 
 
 ROBT. E. TYSON THOS. H. TYSON 
 
 TYSON BROTHERS 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 RUBBER 
 SUBSTITUTES 
 
 Quality Guaranteed 
 
 WHITE and BROWN RAPE 
 ALL GRADES OF BLACK 
 
 Warranted Free from Acid or Alkali, AND WILL 
 NOT BLOW UNDER CURE 
 
 PRICES CONSISTENT WITH QUALITY 
 
 Samples and analysis of same cheerfully furnished upon request 
 
 FACTORY AND 
 OFFICE: 
 
 STAMFORD, CONN. 
 
A OVER TISEMENTS 
 
 RUBBER TRADE 
 
 DIRECTORY 
 
 ^ The First American Directory ^ 
 
 ^ of Rubber Factories and Distributing ^ 
 
 ^Houses; Every State Covered.^. 
 
 ^ It contains nearly 300 Large ^ 
 
 ^, Pages (9x6 inches), is Conveniently ^ 
 
 ^ Arranged, and Neatly got up. ^ 
 
 Price $3, Post Paid 
 
 Published at the Offices of 
 
 THE INDIA RUBBER WORLD 
 
 No. 395 BROADWAY 
 NEW YORK 
 
AD VER TI SEME NTS 
 
 »t«*>9a*#**#B >ii»i*«#ii»«i#"«»» ■»*■•" 
 
 |. •••*•>•••••. •»***1 
 
 
 ARIAU BRANDS 
 
 Rubber Substitute, Displacers and Chloride of Sulphur 
 
 Made from Best Materials and by Up-to-Date Methods 
 
 White Substitute, Black or Brown Substitute, Chloride of Sulphur, Scarrite, 
 High-grade Hydro-Carbon, Bi-Sulphide of Carbon, Tetrachloride of Carbon. 
 
 IMPORTERS 
 
 Asphalts, Pitch, Cements, Earths, Chemicals, Dryers, Dry Colors, Lime, 
 Varnish and Other Gums, Oils, Acids, Rosin, Pigments, Shellac, Waxes, 
 and Sundries. 
 
 WIUUIAM H. SCHEEU 
 
 159 Maiden Lane and 37 Fletcher Street, NEW YORK, N.Y. 
 
 The International Rubber 
 AND Allied Trades Exhibition 
 
 HELD AT OLYMPIA, LONDON, 1N1908 
 
 PROVED SUCH A SUCCESS THAT A REPETITION OF 
 IT, TO BE HELD THREE YEARS LATER, WAS AT 
 ONCE DETERMINED UPON, THE ORGANIZING 
 MANAGEMENT TO BE IN THE SAME HANDS AS THE 
 FIRST EXHIBITION : : : : : 
 
 1^^ The organizing manager of the Olympia Rubber 
 
 Show Avas: 
 
 A. STAINES MANDERS, 
 75 Chancery Lane, - - LONDON, W.C. 
 
MAY 13 
 
 The Aluminum Flake Company 
 
 Miners and I^efiners of 
 ALUMINUM FLAKE 
 
 AN ORIGINAL PIGMENT, SUITED TO ALL LINES OF 
 
 RUBBER WORK 
 
 Physical condition a chemical combination by nature 
 
 Base, Metallic Aluminum 
 
 Gravity, 2.58 
 
 Absolutely inert 
 
 It toughens Rubber, gives it life and lightens gravity 
 
 Over 7,000,000 pounds sold and contracted for in two years 
 
 THE ALUMINUM FLAKE COMPANY, Akron, 0. 
 
 FREDERICK J. MAYWALD, F.C.S. 
 Consulting Chemist and Expert 
 
 Remedying Defects in Processes. Improving 
 and Inventing Processes. Improving Quality 
 and Yield of Products. Testing and Report- 
 ing on New Processes. W^orking out Manu- 
 facturing Formulas. Utilizing Wastes and 
 Unapplied Substances. Softening and Clarify- 
 ing "Water. Reducing' Manufacturing Costs. 
 Experimental Tests and Investigations. J- ^ 
 
 TESTING OF RUBBER MANUFACTURERS' SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY 
 
 89 Pine Street, NEW YORK 
 
 TELEPHONE 823 ••JOHN' 
 
HIDROGiRBON 
 
 Why our "MALTHA BRAND " IS BEST 
 
 1 . Will retain its flexibility at zero weather. 
 
 2. It will not soften and run all over your compound room on the hottest 
 day in summer. 
 
 3. Being semi-elastic it can be cut with a knife which overcomes the harm 
 done by brittle Hydro-Carbons that have to be broken up with an axe, 
 causing specks to fly in all directions, sometimes falling into white or red com- 
 pounding ingredients, or into batches of the same that have been already 
 weighed up ready for milling. 
 
 4. It is pure and runs uniform in quality, something a Hydro-Carbon 
 mixed with Gilsonite Does Not, because Gilsonite varies so in chemical 
 consistency, especially in sulphuric contents. 
 
 5. You can use hot mill rolls in mixing up a compound containing our 
 "Maltha" Hydro-Carbon, and instead of sticking to the rolls, as other mixed 
 Hydro-Carbons do, it is readily absorbed by the compound, greatly aiding the 
 rapid assimilation of the mineral pigments. 
 
 6. Its fluid point is such that it forms a homogeneous blend in vulcaniz- 
 ing, and overcoming the harsh effects of the minerals used in the compound. 
 
 7. Being pure it will not itself oxidize, and rubber goods into which it 
 is incorporated resist oxidization much longer than the same compound 
 without it. 
 
 8. Its use helps to get a smooth, fine-grained result in calendering. 
 
 9. While " Quality" is our motto, the price is low. 
 
 10. "A customer once a customer always ": is not this an argument 
 which warrants your giving it a trial ? 
 
 We will be pleased to furnish a working sample FREE. Drop us a 
 line now. 
 
 AMERICAN WAX COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A.