MICE'S 
 SCHOOL 
 
 JLliO JL i^I\l ^ 
 
 UNITED 
 STATES 
 
 m 
 
 ERICAN: 
 
Class ^.r^Jii 
 Book Jz^_ 
 
 CapghtN" 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. 
 
A SCHOOL HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 BY 
 
 PHILIP ALEXANDER BRUCE 
 
 AUTHOR OF " THE PLANTATION NEGRO AS A FREEMAN," " ECONOMIC 
 
 HISTORY OF VIRGINIA IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY," 
 
 AND LATE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY OF THE 
 
 VIRGINIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY 
 
 o>Kc 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
THE LIBRARY OF 1 
 CONGRESS, 1 
 
 Two Copies 
 
 Received 1 
 
 APR 29 1903 1 
 
 Ccpynghl 
 
 Entry 
 
 CLASS «/ 
 
 1 i 
 
 XXo, No. 
 
 S US' 
 
 ^OPY 
 
 i' 
 
 Copyright, 1903, by 
 PHILIP ALEXANDER BEUCE 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
 
 sen. HIST. UNITED STATES. 
 
 w. p. I 
 
 ! 't* -.^ 
 
 P.^^- 
 
PREFACE 
 
 I HAVE, in the following pages, related the early history of 
 colonial Virginia somewhat more fully than I have done that 
 of any one of the other colonies, because (1) Virginia was 
 founded many years before the oldest of them ; (2) during the 
 time Virginia remained the only English community in Amer- 
 ica, the problem as to whether English colonization could be 
 carried out in that region was finally solved. Previous to 
 1620, the year in which Massachusetts, the next English 
 colony to be founded, was first settled permanently, the right 
 of private property in the soil had been granted in Virginia, 
 slaves had been brought in, an extensive trade with England 
 carried on, a judicial system put in force, a college projected, 
 and the first American legislature had met. These were 
 events of extraordinary importance under the special circum- 
 stances, and really form as much a part of the history of the 
 other English colonies as of Virginia. 
 
 In relating the events of early colonial history I have 
 grouped the colonies together according to their economic and 
 social character, as well as according to their local situation. 
 Thus the account of Virginia has been followed up with an 
 account of the other Southern colonies, in which the gen- 
 eral conditions differed but little. For the same reason the 
 
 New England colonies have next been treated in a separate 
 
 3 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 group, though, if the chronological method were observed, 
 Massachusetts would come immediately after Virginia. So 
 with the Middle colonies in their turn. In this way, a clearer 
 idea is obtained of tlie development of the various groups of 
 colonies along the lines peculiar to themselves. 
 
 Of all the wars in which the United States has been en- 
 gaged, the great contest between JS'orth and South is the one 
 which, for many years, will be studied with the most interest. 
 In the light of this fact, I hope it will not seem inappropriate 
 to have narrated it, even in a short history of this kind, at 
 much greater proportionate length than any other four years 
 of our national annals, however crowded with military events. 
 
 In the treatment of the principal questions that have 
 divided the people of the Southern and Northern States, the 
 point of view of this work is Southern, but I have aimed to 
 present this side in a temperate and moderate spirit, the only 
 spirit becoming in a history of our reunited country. 
 
 PHILIP ALEXANDER BRUCE. 
 
 Clarkton, Halifax County, Va. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Indians 9 
 
 PERIOD I. Discovery and Exploration 
 
 Norse Voyages 16 
 
 Portuguese Explorations 17 
 
 Columbus and his Discoveries 19 
 
 Early English Explorations 24 
 
 Spanish and Portuguese Explorations 26 
 
 Early Frelich Explorations 32 
 
 Permanent French Colonization 35 
 
 Later English Explorations 39 
 
 English Failures in Colonization 41 
 
 PERIOD II. Permanent Colonization and 
 Development 
 
 Southern Colonies — Virginia 
 Southern Colonies — Maryland 
 Southern Colonies — North Carolina 
 Southern Colonies — South Carolina 
 Southern Colonies — Georgia 
 New England Colonies — Massachusetts 
 New England Colonies — Rhode Island 
 New England Colonies — Connecticut . 
 New England Colonies — New Hampshire 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 58 
 61 
 64 
 66 
 70 
 72 
 73 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 New England Confederation 
 Middle Colonies — New York 
 Middle Colonies — New Jersey- 
 Middle Colonies — Pennsylvania 
 Middle Colonies — Delaware 
 Social and Economic Condition of the Colonies 
 Means of Communication and Forms of Government 
 
 PAGE 
 
 74 
 
 78 
 81 
 82 
 84 
 85 
 91 
 
 PERIOD III. Growing Union of the Colonies 
 
 The Lesser French and Indian Wars 
 The Great French and Indian War 
 Struggle for the Possession of the West 
 Disagreements with Great Britain 
 Immediate Causes of the Revolution 
 Opening of the Revolution, 1775 . 
 Events of the Revolution, 1775-1776 
 
 PERIOD IV. Independence 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1776-1777 
 Events of the Revolution, 1778 
 Events of the Revolution, 1779-1780 
 Events of the Revolution, 1781 
 Weakness of the Confederation . 
 Adoption of the Constitution 
 
 AND Confederation 
 
 96 
 100 
 110 
 114 
 115 
 125 
 129 
 
 135 
 145 
 149 
 158 
 165 
 169 
 
 PERIOD V. Under the Constitution — Union 
 
 Washington's Administration 175 
 
 John Adams's Administration 181 
 
 rfefferson's Administration ...,•,.. 183 
 
 Madison's Administration 190 
 
CONTENTS 7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Monroe's Administration . . 202 
 
 John Quincj' Adams's Administration 207 
 
 Admission of New States, 1789-1829 209 
 
 PERIOD VI. Under the Constitution — Division 
 
 Jackson's Administration 216 
 
 Van Buren's Administration 225 
 
 Harrison and Tyler's Administration 228 
 
 Polk's Administration « . . 233 
 
 Taylor and Fillmore's Administration 240 
 
 Pierce's Administration ........ 243 
 
 Buchanan's Administration 246 
 
 Admission of New States, 1829-1861, and General Development 255 
 
 PERIOD VII. Under the Constitution — Disunion 
 
 Lincoln's Administration — The War of Secession, 1861 
 
 The War in the West, 1862 . 
 
 The War in the East, 1862 . 
 
 The War in the East and on the Coast, 1863 
 
 The War in the West, 1863 . 
 
 The War in the West, 1864 . 
 
 The War in the East, 1864 . 
 
 The End of the AVar, 1865 . 
 
 261 
 273 
 279 
 288 
 293 
 299 
 305 
 313 
 
 PERIOD VIII. Under the Constitution — 
 Reconstruction 
 
 Johnson's Administration 324 
 
 Grant's Administration . , 329 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PERIOD IX. Under the Constitution — Reunion 
 
 Hayes's Administration 
 Garfield and Arthur's Administration 
 Cleveland's First Administration . 
 Benjamin Harrison's Administration 
 Cleveland's Second Administration 
 McKinley's Administration . 
 Admission of New States, 1861-1903 
 Progress of the Nation to 1900 
 Roosevelt's Administration . 
 
 337 
 339 
 342 
 344 
 347 
 351 
 364 
 368 
 375 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Declaration of Independence 1 
 
 Constitution of the United States 5 
 
 Index 17 
 
 COLORED MAPS 
 
 The Colonies at the Time of the French and Indian War . 102, 103 
 The Colonies at the Time of the Revolution . . . 120, 121 
 Original Extent of United States and Cession of Western Lands 166 
 
 The United States and Territories in 1809 186 
 
 The United States in 1829 214, 215 
 
 The Mexican War 235 
 
 The United States in 1861 262, 263 
 
 Territorial Development of the United States .... 366 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 3>©<C 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The Indians 
 
 1. Appearance, Origin, and Tribal Division. When Columbus 
 discovered America he found a people of the color of copper 
 
 or cinnamon in possession 
 of the country. They had 
 high cheek bones, black 
 eyes, coarse black hair, and 
 erect and sinewy figures. 
 Some were gigantic in size, 
 and others, dwarfish. Co- 
 lumbus gave them the name 
 of Indians, under the im- 
 pression that he had 
 reached the Indies, a part 
 of Asia. It is now sup- 
 posed by some that 
 their remote ancestors 
 crossed over to Amer- 
 ica from Asia by way 
 of Bering Strait, or 
 drifted in open junks 
 from the coasts of 
 ^ China and Japan. 
 
 2. The Mound 
 Builders. It was 
 formerly thought that the tribes occupying North America at 
 
 9 
 
 Indian Mound 
 Builders 
 
10 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 the time of the Discovery had supplanted a much older race, 
 known as the Mound Builders. AVhen the interior of the con- 
 tinent was first explored there were found at many places in 
 the valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries, earthworks, 
 often of the most extraordinary length, height, and breadth ; 
 some circular in form ; others, shaped like fortifications, pyra- 
 mids, or altars ; others in the form of birds, quadrupeds, or 
 serpents. These mounds contained flint arrow heads, stone 
 implements and tools, jugs, pipes, and urns. The most recent 
 investigation tends to prove that the Mound Builders were not a 
 branch of the Aztecs of Mexico, or the Peruvians, as was once 
 conjectured, but the ancestors of the modern North American 
 Indians. 
 
 3. The countj^y east of the Mississippi was occupied 
 
 chiefly by the Iroquois (irokwoi'), the Algonquins (algon'- 
 
 ^ kins), and the Masko'ki. Among the 
 
 loestern tribes were the Dacotahs, 
 
 the Comanches (coman'cheez), and 
 
 the Apaches (ahpah'cheez). The 
 
 land of the Algonquins spread 
 
 from Hudson Bay southward 
 
 as far as the Carolinas, and 
 
 westward to the Mississippi 
 
 River. The Iroquois were 
 
 seated in the midst of this 
 
 area; they inhabited the 
 
 region now covered by the 
 
 central part of the State of 
 
 New York ; and also claimed 
 
 as far as the mouth of the 
 
 Susquehanna and the extreme 
 
 southern shores of Lakes Huron and Erie. A branch of the 
 
 Iroquois known as the Tuscaro'ras, had thrust themselves into 
 
 Indian Dress 
 
THE INDIANS 
 
 11 
 
 the Carolinas ; the Cherokees', of Tennessee, also were of 
 kindred blood. The Maskoki roamed over the southern part 
 of the territory east of the Mississippi River. 
 
 4. Indian Economy. Dress. In winter, the Indian usually 
 wore a loose dress of deerskin, whicli ended in the moccasin 
 for the feet. In summer, his only garment generally was a 
 breech clout about the waist. The chief, when he went 
 abroad or sat in council, sometimes wore a mantle of 
 squirrel, raccoon, or beaver skins. The mantles of the 
 women were made of the skins of wild ducks, geese, swans, 
 and turkeys, with 
 
 the feathers un- 
 
 plucked. Members 
 
 of both sexes would 
 
 sometimes smear 
 
 their bodies with 
 
 oil, and then spread 
 
 thickly over the 
 
 whole surface the 
 
 soft down of blue 
 
 birds, red birds, 
 
 and white herons. 
 
 The Indian warrior 
 
 wore, in the topknot on his head, a plume of eagle feathers, 
 
 streaked his forehead and cheeks with red paint, and his 
 
 naked breast and stomach with black and yellow. When on 
 
 the warpath, he carried his tomahawk and his bow and arrow. 
 
 5. The houses of the North American Indians were, as a 
 rule, made by tying together the tops of poles arranged in a 
 circle, and then drawing over this simple framework a covering 
 of bark and skins. Mats were the only furniture. A village 
 usually consisted of a dozen or more wigwams. The more 
 substantial bark houses of the Iroquois were sometimes as 
 
 Indian Wigwams 
 
12 INTRODUCTION 
 
 much as two hundred and fifty feet long and thirty feet wide, 
 and held as many as thirty families. 
 
 6. Means of Living. The Indians obtained a living by 
 rudely cultivating the soil and by hunting and fishing. They 
 planted grains of corn in their fields at intervals of a few feet, 
 and when the stalks had sprung up to a considerable height 
 they planted between them the seed of beans, pumpkins, and 
 gourds. Near the wigwams were small patches of tobacco. 
 The methods of catching fish consisted of angling, spearing, 
 netting, and trapping. The principal instrument in hunting 
 was the bow and arrow, but the knife and spear also were in 
 general use. 
 
 7. Intellect and Character. Indian Shill. The stages of 
 progress of the human race may be broadly divided into 
 
 savagery, barbarism, and civilization. The mass 
 
 of the North American Indians were in the 
 
 lowest state of barbarism. Their highest skill 
 
 consisted in building a long house, or wigwam ; 
 
 in making a snowshoe, a moccasin, a birch canoe, 
 
 a willow basket, or pieces of rude pottery. They 
 
 had no beast of burden except the dog, which 
 
 was used by a few tribes for that jjurpose, no 
 
 vehicle, no domestic fowls, no horned cattle. 
 
 Their nearest approach to painting was rude 
 
 tracing or carving. The Cherokees alone used 
 
 marks that faintly resembled our modern writing. 
 
 8. Tomahaivh, Stake, and Gantlet. The 
 
 Indian, however, was not without some poetical 
 
 feeling. His conversation was often marked by 
 
 Snowshoe f^j-^g imagery, and he had extraordinary power 
 
 as an orator. By nature he was proud and haughty, cruel 
 
 and revengeful. It was his delight to tomahawk and scalp 
 
 his enemies ; or burn them at the stake ; or force them to 
 
THE INDIANS 
 
 13 
 
 run the gantlet of knives and hatchets, sticks and clubs. 
 He never fought in the open, but lay in wait for his foes in 
 ambuscade, or surprised them before dawn while asleep. He 
 could suffer any torture without betraying pain, and endure 
 any hardship with stoical indifference. 
 
 9. General Customs. Family and Govermivent. As a rule, 
 the Indian had but one wife and few children. The families 
 living together belonged to the same clan, which bore the 
 name of an animal — wolf, bear, hawk, eagle, turtle — known 
 as the totem. A chief was at the head of each tribe, but its 
 affairs were governed by a council. When the council met, 
 a lighted pipe was handed around, and each member took a 
 puff. When all had spoken, the chief announced the decision. 
 The Iroquois had formed a great Confederacy under the con- 
 trol of a council of chiefs. The Powhatans', who belonged to 
 the Algonquin family, were united under a ruler known as 
 the Powhatan. 
 
 10. Religion. The In- 
 dian looked forward to a 
 happy hunting groimd 
 after death, where, in the 
 company of his dog, he 
 would spend his days in 
 the chase, or in eating or 
 sleeping. All the great 
 forces of nature — the sun, 
 the river, the Avind, the 
 lightning — were associated in his mind with evil beings, which 
 could be mollified only by a valuable offering or sacrifice. The 
 Indian doctor was held in great reverence, as it was sup- 
 posed that he could, by his knowledge of magic, cure all 
 diseases, regulate the weather, and drive away the malignant 
 spirits. 
 
 Indian Pueblo 
 
14 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 11. Semicivilized Indians. The most advanced tribe in 
 
 the present area of the United States were the Pueblo (pweb'lo) 
 Indians of New Mexico and Arizona. They irrigated their 
 fields and built houses of sun-dried bricks. The city of Mex- 
 ico, the seat of the Aztec empire, was filled with houses built 
 of stone and covered with gypsum. The palace of Montezuma 
 (mon tee zoo'mah) was so large that it spread over many acres. 
 In all parts of the city were lofty temples, spacious markets, 
 and beautiful gardens. The Pueblo women were noted for 
 their skill in weaving. 
 
 12. The Peruvians were equally civilized. They had an 
 excellent system of roads, reservoirs, and aqueducts. They 
 used plows and harrows ; and employed the llama as a beast 
 of burden. They manufactured cotton and woolen cloths, 
 and also worked the precious metals. Unlike the Mexicans, 
 their religious services were not tarnished by human sacrifice. 
 
 Pueblo Woman weaving a Belt 
 
ANALYSIS OF INTRODUCTION 
 
 ' 1. Appearance. 
 2. Origin. 
 .3. Distribution. 
 
 4. Economy. 
 
 < 
 
 I. Savage Indians. < 
 
 I 
 
 1. Dress and Weapons. 
 
 2. Houses. 
 
 1,3. 
 
 Tillage. 
 
 Intellect and Char- 
 acter. 
 
 1. Power of Invention. 
 
 2. Power of Imagination. 
 
 3. Disposition. 
 
 4. Ability to Endure. 
 
 (j. Family Life and Clans. 
 7. Form of Government. 
 
 Religion. 
 
 ' 1. Their Conception of 
 Heaven. 
 
 2. Where the Evil Spirits 
 dwelt. 
 ^ 3. Magic. 
 
 II, Semi-civilized Indians. ■{ 
 
 1. Pueblos in North America. 
 
 2. Aztecs in Central America. 
 
 3. Peruvians in South America. 
 
 4. Evidences of their Enlightenment. 
 
 15 
 
PERIOD I. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 Norse Voyages 
 
 13. Greenland Colony. Many hundred years before the birth 
 of Cohmibus, the boldest and hardiest seamen of Europe were 
 the Norsemen, who inhabited Sweden and Norway and (after 
 874) Iceland. In their large open row and sail boats they 
 explored the waters of the ocean for long distances. As early 
 as 986 a colony had been founded in Greenland by Eric the 
 Ked, and long before Columbus's first voyage several settle- 
 ments had been made there. 
 
 14. Bjarni, Leif, and Thorfinn. According to the rude tradi- 
 tions of the Norsemen, preserved in their national poems, a 
 seaman of their race, one Bjarni (beear'nee), driven southwest 
 from Greenland by a violent storm, reached an unknown coast 
 which must have been that of North America. In his track 
 soon followed Leif (lef), the son of Eric (1000 a.d.), Avho first 
 reached a country remarkable for its great rocks (Newfound- 
 land) ; next, a country covered with lofty trees (Nova Scotia) ; 
 and, finally, a point (perhaps on the coast of New England) 
 where vines grew luxuriantly, which he named Vinland. In 
 later times a friend of Leif, Thorfinn, tried to found a perma- 
 nent colony on the same spot, but this was prevented by the 
 bleakness and harshness of the winters, and the hostility of 
 the Indians.^ 
 
 1 For a long time, the old mill at Newport was supposed to be the work of 
 Norsemen, but it is now known to have be^n built, in 1675, by a governor of 
 the province. The picture writing on the Dighton rock, in Massachusetts, 
 
 16 
 
PORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS 
 
 17 
 
 Gradually all recollection of the discoveries of Bjarni and 
 Leif, and the colony of Thoriinn, seems to have passed from 
 the minds of the Norsemen. 
 
 Portuguese Explorations 
 15. Route to the East. The most urgent question, from a 
 commercial point of view, in the Europe of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury (1401-1500), was how to shorten the journey to the East, 
 
 The known World in 1492 
 
 in order to bring in, at the least expense, the j)recious com- 
 modities of the Oriental countries. There was now an increas- 
 
 also at one time thought to be of Norse origin, has been proved to he an 
 inscription of Algonquin Indians ; it does not differ in character from many 
 thousand other inscriptions in the United States made hy the same tribes. 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 2 
 
18 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 ing demand for these commodities, owing to the growth of 
 European wealth and luxury. In this trade Genoa and 
 Venice had become rich and powerful. Transportation over- 
 land, by way of Syria or Egypt, was not only slow, on account 
 of the great distance, but also unsafe, on account of the numer- 
 ous bands of fierce marauders. So serious were these obsta- 
 cles, that, early in the fifteenth century, Portuguese navigators 
 sought to find out how far Africa stretched away toward the 
 south, in the hope that a vessel might sail around it, and 
 thus reach India. It was not until 1471, however, that they 
 crossed the equator 5 and not until 1486 that they rounded 
 the Cape of Good Hope. The ancient philosopher Ptole- 
 my's idea (150 a.d.), that Africa spread unbroken southward, 
 was thus proved to be incorrect. 
 
 16. Theory of the Earth's Roundness. The length of the 
 African voyage, and the capture by the Turks of the countries 
 through which the eastern caravans passed, made more urgent 
 the need for opening up a new route to the East. From 
 the oldest times many people had been of the opinion that the 
 earth is round. Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Strabo, and the 
 Arabian philosophers had taught it. Toscanel'li (1397-1482), 
 a famous Italian astronomer, and Martin Behaim (ba'him), a 
 German navigator of the fifteenth century, held the same beliet 
 
 17. Prince Henry of Portugal. If this doctrine was correct, 
 a ship sailing westward would sooner or later arrive in the 
 East. The use of the compass and astrolabe now made it 
 easy for the navigator to find his way over the trackless ocean. 
 Prince Henry (1394-1460), who founded a naval college, wdiere 
 the most authentic geographical knowledge of those times was 
 taught, and who was anxious to test the theory of the round- 
 ness of the earth, in steering off the Portuguese shores sighted 
 the beautiful Azores, and this greatly increased the general 
 interest in the supposed western waterway to Asia. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES 19 
 
 Columbus and his Discoveries 
 
 18. Columbus's Great Voyage. His Faith. The notion 
 that Asia could be reached by sailing westward had taken 
 complete possession of the mind of Christopher Columbus. 
 He is supposed to have been born in Genoa sometime between 
 1436 and 1446; and doubtless his im- 
 agination had been fired by the wonder- 
 ful tales of the gorgeous wealth of the 
 Orient, told by Marco Polo, w^ho had 
 traveled in the East. At an early age 
 Columbus became a sailor and took part 
 in the Portuguese explorations. His 
 belief in the western route was confirmed 
 by reports of strange plants and trees, 
 
 and of bodies with yellow skins, like 
 
 ^, • „ . . . . ,, 1,1 Christopher Columbus 
 
 those 01 Asiatics, thrown by the waves 
 
 on the sands of the islands oft' the coast of Africa. It has 
 
 been said that he consulted Toscanelli (§ 16), and received 
 
 from him a chart representing the Atlantic to be an open sea 
 
 as far as Japan. The distance to Japan was supposed by 
 
 Columbus to be only three thousand miles.^ 
 
 19. Colinnhus goes to Spain. Columbus sought aid first 
 of Genoa, and then of the king of Portugal. The king, tak- 
 ing Columbus's charts, secretly dispatched a vessel westward 
 from Cape Verde Islands, but the pilot soon came back dis- 
 couraged. Columbus now sent his brother Bartholomew to 
 England to interest Henry VII in his plans, while he himself 
 traveled to Spain to beg men and ships of the monarchs of 
 the united kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, Ferdinand and 
 
 1 Columbus was not influenced entirely by ambition in bis plans for discov- 
 ering the New East. He was very religious, and believed that he had a mis- 
 sion from Heaven " to carry the true faith to the uttermost parts of the earth." 
 
20 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 Isabella. His proposal to find the East by sailing westward 
 was submitted to a body of learned men, and rejected as im- 
 practicable, and also contrary to the teachings of the Bible. 
 He soon became an object of ridicule. If the earth was round, 
 people exclaimed with derision, men arriving on the other side 
 would walk with their heads downward instead of upward 
 in the air. Sailing westward would be like sailing downhill. 
 How could the ships sail back uphill again ? 
 
 20. Columbus secures Aid. Worn out, after many years 
 of waiting, Columbus set out for France, but was stopped by 
 an order from Isabella to return. She now declared that 
 she would pledge her jewels if necessary to raise the money 
 he would want. The greater part, however, was in the 
 end obtained from the royal treasurer. Two brothers named 
 Pinzon (peen thon') gave a vessel, and agreed to go with the 
 expedition. Owing to the supposed perils of the westward 
 voyage, it was found difficult to secure the necessary number 
 of sailors. 
 
 21. The Western Ocean. In August, 1492, the fleet of 
 Columbus, consisting of the Santa Maria (sahn'tah mah ree'ah), 
 the Pinta (peen'tah), and the Nina (neen'yah), set sail. After 
 a detention of thirty days at the Canary Islands in order to 
 repair the Pinta, Columbus boldly steered straight into the 
 western ocean. 
 
 22. The sailors soon became alarmed by the thought that 
 they were sailing toward waters where all the laws of nature 
 would be the opposite of what they had known. This fear 
 seemed to be confirmed by the failure of the compass to point 
 in the same northerly direction as formerly, and by the steadi- 
 ness v/ith which the wind blew westward. How could the 
 ships return in the teeth of such a wind ? For a time, Colum- 
 bus was able to quiet their apprehensions, and the ships went 
 on their course. After a while the sailors began to murmur 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES 
 
 21 
 
 again, and even threatened to throw Cohimbus overboard. He 
 promised them that he would yield to their desire to return, 
 unless land were reached before the end of three days. 
 
 Ships of Columbus 
 
 23. The Landing. Soon flocks of birds were seen flying 
 overhead, and trunks of trees floating in the sea. A branch of 
 thorn covered with berries and a staff, plainly carved by a 
 man's hand, were picked up. On the night of October 11 
 Columbus saw a light rising and falling, as if some one held a 
 torch in his hand as he walked. At two o'clock in the morn- 
 ing of the 12th, a loud cry of "Land, land," rang out from 
 the Pinta. In a few hours Columbus and his followers, all 
 gorgeously dressed, went on shore, knelt, and returned thanks 
 to God, while groups of natives, who supposed the ships to be 
 great white-winged birds, looked on in wonder and awe. The 
 copper color of the savages confirmed the voyagers in their 
 
22 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 belief that they had reached Japan or China, though, after a 
 careful search, they could find no spices, precious stones, or 
 metals. 
 
 Landing of Columbus 
 
 24. Cuba and Haiti discovered. Giving the name "San 
 Salvador" to the newly discovered island, now known to be 
 one of the Bahama group (map, p. 29), Columbus set sail again. 
 He soon discovered Cuba, and thinking it the mainland of Asia, 
 sent a deputation to a great Indian chief in the interior, whom 
 he supposed to be the King of Tartary. Not long afterwards 
 he sighted Hai'ti, which he named Hispaniola (his pan yo'la). 
 Here he built a small fort out of the timbers of the Santa 
 Maria, which had been wrecked, and leaving in it a garrison, 
 turned his prow homeward. A great storm coming on, he 
 wrote an account of his voyage and, encasing it in wax, put it 
 in a barrel which he threw overboard, in the hope that should 
 he perish, the record would drift safely to the shores of 
 Europe and be picked up and read. 
 
 25. Return to Sj)ain. The ships were separated, but rode 
 out the storm, and in time arrived safely at Palos. There 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES 23 
 
 Columbus and his men were greeted with the utmost enthu- 
 siasm, for they had long been given up as lost. His progress 
 toward the court was a splendid triumph. The king and 
 queen received him with every mark of honor. He presented 
 them with tropical fruits and plants, ornaments of gold, and 
 objects of curious device; but what excited most interest 
 was the Indians he brought with, him from the lands he 
 had discovered. 
 
 26. Subsequent Voyages. Second Voyage. In 1493 Colum- 
 bus set out on a second voyage, with a fleet of seventeen ships 
 and a company of 1200 persons. On his arrival at Haiti he 
 found that the fort he had built (§ 24) had been destroyed 
 and its garrison killed or driven off. A town having been 
 laid off, a search for the precious metals and costly products 
 of the East was made, only to end in the bitterest disap- 
 pointment. The voyagers, very much disheartened, soon 
 began to perish from hunger and disease. Having discovered 
 Jamaica, Columbus returned to Spain. 
 
 27. Third Voyage. In 1498 Columbus sailed for a short 
 distance along the northern coast of South America, without 
 being aware that it was the continent of a new world. Making 
 his way to the town his brother Bartholomew had founded in 
 the island of Haiti, he became mixed up in violent disputes 
 with the colonists, and at last was sent back to Spain in chains. 
 He was acquitted of every charge, but was not again fully re- 
 stored to royal favor. 
 
 28. Fourth Voyage. Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese navi- 
 gator, in 1497-1499 sailed to India by rounding the Cape 
 of Good Hope and crossing the Indian Ocean. There he 
 obtained a cargo of spices and perfumes, silks and satins, 
 ivory, oranges, and precious stones, and returned to Portugal. 
 Deeply moved by the success of this expedition, Columbus set 
 out, in 1502, on a fourth voyage, in the hope of finding an open 
 
24 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 waterway to India west of Cuba. He came upon the coast of 
 Central America, and sailed as far south as the narrow isthmus 
 of Panama, where the natives told him of a great sea lying 
 beyond the range of mountains in sight, but Columbus was 
 unable to visit it. 
 
 29. Columbus's Death. He went back to Spain in 1504, 
 fell into neglect, and, in. 1506, died in great poverty, still 
 supposing he had reached the coast of Asia, and unaware that 
 he had discovered a new world. His body was first buried 
 in Spain. In 1536 it was carried to the West Indies. In 
 1898 the bones of Columbus were returned to the land of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 Early English Explorations 
 
 30. John Cabot. The most important of all the early ex- 
 plorers from the point of view of the history of the United 
 States, were John and Sebastian Cab'ot. John was born in 
 
 Italy, but lived in England. In 
 1497 he was authorized by Henry 
 VII, who had declined to aid 
 Columbus (§ 19), to set out on a 
 voyage to find an open waterway to 
 China by sailing westward. After 
 a voyage to the west he came in 
 sight of land, probably Labrador, 
 which, however, he supposed to be 
 an outlying part of Asia (map, 
 p.' 25). This was fourteen months 
 before Columbus first saw the continent. On this discovery 
 the English claim to North America Was afterwards based. In 
 the light of subsequent events, Cabot's voyage is second in his- 
 torical importance only to the first voyage of Columbus. 
 
E A S 'r E U X A y r A^^^„£, coa 
 
 
 /Strait of Magellan <^o 
 
 DISCOVERY 
 
 ON THE EAST COAST OF 
 
 A3IEKICA 
 
 vS. GEORGIA I. 
 
26 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 31. Second Voyage of the Cabots. In the following year 
 John Cabofc and his son Sebastian, a youth of twenty-one, 
 are thought to have made a second voyage to the same 
 coast, in the hope of reaching China and Japan. The ships 
 are supposed to have sailed as far south as Cape Cod or 
 perhaps Hatteras before they returned. No record of these 
 voyages was kept.^ 
 
 Spanish and Portuguese Explorations 
 
 32. Line of Demarcation. Portugal and Spain agreed 
 that the heathen countries which should be found west of 
 a meridian drawn 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands 
 should belong to Spain ; the heathen lands east, to Portugal. 
 This meridian was called the ''Line of Demarcation" (map, 
 p. 25), and it divided all the heathen lands in the world between 
 these two nations ; but as we shall soon see, the English and 
 the French treated the arrangement with contempt. 
 
 33. Cabral's Voyage. When Gama got back from India 
 (§ 28), his success stirred up such enthusiasm in Portugal that 
 a new fleet was at once fitted out under command of Cabral 
 (kah brahl'). In sailing south toward the Cape of Good Hope, 
 the ships were driven so far westward that they came upon the 
 coast of Brazil (April, 1500). Cabral took possession of it in 
 the name of the king of Portugal, as it was found to be east of 
 the Line of Demarcation (§ 32). 
 
 34. The Name America. Voyage to Brazil. In order to con- 
 tinue the explorations of Cabral, the king, in 1501, sent out 
 three vessels under the pilotage of Americus Vespucius (v6s- 
 pu'shi us), a merchant of Florence, who was learned in astron- 
 omy and navigation, and had just returned from a voyage to 
 
 1 It is thought by some historians that Sebastian Cabot went with his 
 father on his first voyage. Others give Sebastian credit for all the dis- 
 coveries of both voyages. 
 
SPANISH AND FORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS 27 
 
 the west (1499-1500).^ The fleet hugged the shores of Brazil 
 and Uruguay as far as the mouth of the llio de la Plata, and 
 then, having sailed southeast until the ocean was blocked by 
 great masses of ice, made their way back to Lisbon. 
 
 35. Americus Vespucius. The coast skirted by Vespucius 
 was so long that it ]3lainly belonged to a continent, the exist- 
 ence of which had not been suspected. 
 It was a new world. The islands off 
 the coast of North America, discovered 
 by Columbus, were still thought to be 
 large islands lying off the coast of Asia. 
 Vespucius wrote an account of his 
 American voyages, and this coming to 
 the hands of a German geographer, he 
 suggested, in a treatise, that the new ^"^^"^"^ ^^^P^""^ 
 continent should be called " America," in honor of Vespucius. 
 The name soon found its way to the maps, and was also given 
 to North America, when its connection with South America 
 finally became known. 
 
 36. The Pacific Ocean. Jfitfiez de Balboa. While wander- 
 ing in the forests on the Isthmus of Panama, in 1513, Vasco 
 Nunez de Balboa (noon'yath da bahl bo'a) was told by the 
 Indians of a great sea lying on the other side of the mountains 
 (§ 28). Climbing to the top of a peak, Balboa beheld the waters 
 of the Pacific glittering in the sunshine far below. Descending 
 to the water's edge, he waded far out, and unfurling the banner 
 of Castile, proclaimed, in a loud voice, that he took possession 
 of all the regions lying on those seas, in the name of his king. 
 He gave the new ocean the name of the South Sea. 
 
 37. Magellan, a native of Portugal, in the service of 
 Spain, made his way, in 1520, into a narrow strait in South 
 
 1 It is believed by some that tlie first voyage of Vespucius to the west 
 was in 1497 under Pinzon and So'lis. 
 
28 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 America, and passing through it, crossed the great ocean, which 
 he called the "Pacific," as the sea was so calm. On reaching 
 the Philippines, he was murdered by the natives. He ivas 
 succeeded by Cano, who, though Magellan's former fleet 
 of live vessels had been reduced to one, safely doubled the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and thus returned to Spain. This was 
 the first time the globe had been sailed around. 
 
 38. Florida and Mexico. Juan Ponce cle Leon (hoo aim' 
 pon'tha da laon'), a friend and companion of Columbus, and 
 
 governor of Porto Rico, made, in 
 1513, a voyage to Florida, at this 
 time thought to be an island off the 
 coast of Asia. It was reported to be 
 rich in gold and silver, and also to 
 have a fountain whose waters would 
 restore youth. Ponce de Leon came 
 in sight of land on Easter Sunday, 
 and he therefore gave the region the 
 name of Florida, from the Spanish 
 Ponce de Leon ^^^^^^ ^^^ Easter, Pascuci Florida. In 
 
 a second expedition, an effort to plant a colony failed, and 
 Ponce de Leon was mortally wounded. This was the first 
 attempt to found a European settlement on the mainland 
 within the present boundaries of the United States. 
 
 39. The Atlantic Coast. Alvarez de Pineda [ahl'vah reth 
 da peena'da], in 1519, in exploring the coast from Panama to 
 Florida, is thought to have entered the mouth of the Missis- 
 sippi. He found many Indian villages on either bank, and 
 noticed with eagerness that the savages wore gold trinkets 
 in their ears and noses. 
 
 40. Conquest of Mexico. While off the coast of Yuca- 
 tan, a Spanish captain, whose vessel had been sent out to 
 capture slaves for the Cuban plantations, heard that there 
 
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS 29 
 
 were opulent cities in, the interior. In 1519 Hernando Cor'tez 
 landed with a small force on the shores of Mexico, and 
 marching boldly inward, by treachery, courage, and superior 
 weapons, overcame the multitude of the enemy. He found 
 the country abounding in gold and silver, and the city of 
 Mexico he reported to be more beautiful than any city in 
 Spain. 
 
 41. Vasquez cV Ay II on (vahs'keth dileyon'), in 1520, sent 
 out from Haiti an expedition to explore the coast north of 
 
 Spanish Explorations in North America, to i6oo 
 
 Florida. The vessels are thought to have gone as far as the 
 Chesapeake Bay. They brought away a large number of 
 Indian slaves for the Spanish mines, but one of the ships 
 sank and most of the slaves in the other perished. The glow- 
 ing accounts which the sailors gave of the country visited 
 induced Ay lion, in 1526, to equip a second expedition and 
 
30 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 to accompany it himself. Many Avomen and negro slaves 
 went along, for it was Ayllon's intention to found a 
 colony. A settlement was made somewhere in eastern 
 Virginia, but in a short time starvation and disease set in, 
 the Indians became hostile, and the colony was finally 
 destroyed. 
 
 42. Estehan Gomez. In 1525 Esteban Gomez (esta'bahn 
 go'meth) sailed along the Atlantic coast as far as Labrador, 
 but as he found no gold or silver, and no route to India, 
 his voyage attracted little notice. 
 
 43. Expeditions Inland. Panfilo de JYarvaez (pahn'fee lo 
 da nahr vah ath'), who had received a grant of Florida, ex- 
 plored that country, in 1528, with an army of four hundred 
 men, in the hope of finding gold. Wandering about in the 
 swamps and forests, the soldiers soon began to perish, either 
 from the effects of disease or the attacks of Indians. Only 
 a small band survived to reach the shores of the Gulf. They 
 at once built boats with saws, axes, and nails, made of the iron 
 of their crossbows, stirrups, and spears, while ropes were 
 made from the tails and manes of the horses. 
 
 44. Cdbeza de Vaca. Five boats were built, but they were 
 so frail that two were soon overwhelmed by the waves, and 
 it was with difficulty that the few persons in the remainder 
 reached the coast of Texas. All were killed, or remained 
 prisoners of the Indians, exce]3t Alva Cabeza de Vaca (ca ba'- 
 tha da vah'kah), two soldiers, and a negro, who, making their 
 escape, passed through southern Arkansas and northern Texas, 
 and finally reached the Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast 
 of Mexico (1536). 
 
 45. The West Explored. Excited by the stories of the 
 countless wild cattle and vast region which Cabeza de Vaca 
 and his companions had seen, Mendoza (men do'tha), viceroy 
 of Mexico, sent Brother Marcos, in 1539, to search for the 
 
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS 31 
 
 " Seven Cities." ^ So glowing were the accounts which Marcos 
 gave on his return, that Mendoza dispatched Francisco Vasquez 
 Coronado with an army to take possession of the Seven Cities 
 of Cibola^ (see'bo la). Clad in shining armor, and attended 
 by a brilliant retinue of mounted men, Coronado rode some 
 distance ahead of the main body, but the only cities he saw 
 were a few Indian towns built of sun-dried brick. After two 
 years spent in a fruitless search, in which he wandered as 
 far as Kansas, Coronado returned to Mexico. 
 
 46. Hernando de Soto, a former companion of Pizarro (pe- 
 zahr'ro), who conquered Peru in South America, set out from 
 Cuba in 1539, with an army of six hundred men, for the explora- 
 tion of Florida and the country beyond. Landing on the coast 
 of Florida, he traversed the wilderness for many months passing 
 through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In 
 1541 he reached the Mississippi River and then wandered through 
 the greater part of Arkansas. Coming back, the brave leader, 
 who now despaired of rivaling the success of Pizarro or Cortez, 
 sank under a fever, and his body, wrapped in his mantle, made 
 heavy with sand, was buried in the waters of the Mississippi. 
 His men, after this event, wandered as far as Texas, but return- 
 ing, constructed boats and thus escaped to Mexico. 
 
 47. These ejcpeditions convinced the Spaniards that the 
 territory now covered by the United States was not rich in 
 
 1 A legend had long prevailed among the Spaniards that, when the 
 Arabs conquered the Spanish peninsula in the eighth century, the Bishop 
 of Lisbon, along with many followers, took refuge in islands lying in tlie 
 Sea of Darkness (the unexplored Atlantic Ocean), and there founded 
 seven cities, which the Spaniards somehow imagined to be located in the 
 unknown regions north of tliem. Marcos had gone but a little way when 
 he heard of seven splendid cities to the north, the first of which was called 
 Cibola. Pressing forward, he caught a glimpse of this city, although he 
 was not allowed to enter it. It turned out afterwards that Cibola was 
 only one of the seven pueblos of the Zuiii Indians, henceforth known as 
 the "Seven Cities of Cibola." 
 
32 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 precious metals, and that it was occupied only by savage and 
 warlike tribes. This fact served, to center their attention 
 almost entirely on Mexico, the West Indies, and South America, 
 countries abounding in gold and silver and the rarest vege- 
 table fibers, and inhabited by peaceful and submissive tribes. 
 It was not until 1565 that a permanent Spanish colony was 
 planted in the present bounds of the United States ; this was 
 at St. Augustine in Florida (§ 51). In 1582 Santa Fe (sahn- 
 tahfa') was founded by Espejo (6s pa'ho) in New Mexico, and 
 later on a settlement was made on the Eio Grande. 
 
 Early French Explorations 
 
 48. Giovanni de Verrazano. As early as 1504 French sailors 
 voyaged every year to the banks of Newfoundland to take part 
 in the cod fisheries.^ Fourteen years later Baron de Leri 
 made a settlement on Sable Island, in the ocean south of Cape 
 Breton Island, but the colonists were driven away by famine. 
 A war breaking out between France and Spain, which blocked 
 the usual routes to India, the French became eager to discover 
 a passage to Asia through or around North America. A fleet 
 was fitted out for Giovanni de Verrazano (jo-vah'ne da ver raht- 
 sah'no), a native of Florence in the service of the French king, 
 who, passing Hatteras early in 1524 and sailing as far north 
 as Newfoundland, gave that part of the continent the name of 
 New France, 
 
 49. Jacques Cartier (zhak kar tya') was as unsuccessful as 
 Verrazano in finding the Northwest Passage. In 1534 he 
 entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence,- but could not advance on 
 account of the late season into the broad mouth of a strait 
 
 1 Cape Breton Island derived its name from Brittany, in France, many 
 of whose sailors were engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries. 
 
 2 Cartier gave the name "St. Lawrence" to the river, as he first 
 entered it on that saint's day. 
 
EARLY FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 
 
 33 
 
 which he saw and supposed led westward into the Indian 
 Ocean. In the following year he returned and sailed up the 
 great river beyond the Indian village of Hochelaga (ho sh6l'- 
 a ga), which he visited. Climbing to the top of the lofty hill 
 at this point, he gave it the name of Mont Keal; that is to 
 
 Cartier at the Indian Village 
 
 say, Eoyal Mountain. In 1541 he attempted to plant a colony 
 near the present site of Quebec, but the following spring he 
 returned to Maine and the colony soon perished. 
 
 50. Jean Ribault. About 1562 France was torn by the 
 wars which raged between the Protestants and Koman 
 Catholics. Coligny (ko leen yee'), the leader of the Hugue- 
 nots, as the French Protestants were known, hoping to 
 found a settlement in America, which would be a place of 
 refuge for members of his persecuted sect, sent out an expe- 
 dition under the command of Jean Ribault (zhoN ree bo'), a 
 French seaman. Ribault sighted land in Florida, and then 
 
 BRUCE'S U.S. HIST. — 3 
 
34 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 sailing northward, built Fort Carolina and planted a colony 
 of thirty persons at Port Royal on the coast of South Caro- 
 lina. Not long after his return to France for supplies famine 
 broke out at Port Royal. In trying to escape to France in a 
 frail vessel of their own construction the surviving colonists 
 were captured by the English, but not until they had killed 
 one of their own company for food.^ 
 
 51. Rene de Laudonniere (re na' de lo do nyer'), in 1564, reached 
 Port Royal, but finding the colonists gone, built another Fort 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ , -. , - i, ClPt BSeTON I 
 
 
 
 ,ce^,-''' 
 
 ,opS--- 
 
 CN'*?,-- 
 
 French Explorations in North America, to 1700 
 
 Carolina on St. Johns River. When news of this settlement 
 was brought to Spain, Pedro Menendez (ma nan'dath) was sent 
 to drive out the French as trespassers in Spanish territory. 
 Landing his men and stores at a spot which he named St. 
 
 1 Some of tlie captives were landed in France, others in England. 
 Queen Elizabeth, in conversing with the latter, is said to have first 
 thought of colonizing the New World. 
 
PERMANENT FRENCH COLONIZATION 35 
 
 Augustine, he took advantage of the wreck of the French fleet 
 by a storm to hurry across to Fort Carolina. The garrison were 
 taken by surprise, and slaughtered without mercy. Several 
 hundred of the settlers — men, women, and children — were 
 also butchered. Eeturning to St. Augustine, the Spaniards 
 seized and killed the crews of the wrecked French vessels 
 straggling back along the sands of the seashore. 
 
 52. Dominique de Gourgues. Eeports of the massacre com- 
 ing in 1567 to Dominique de Gourgues (domeeneek' de 
 goorg'), a French gentleman, he fitted out an expedition, and 
 in the absence of Menendez in Spain captured a Spanish fort 
 on the site of Fort Carolina, and slaughtered or hanged the 
 entire garrison. The expedition returned to France, leaving 
 the country still in the possession of Spain. 
 
 Permanent French Colonization 
 
 53. New France. Sieur de Monts. The work of French 
 colonization had come to a bloody end in the south, but in 
 1603 it began again in the north. In that year Sieur de 
 Monts (syer de mox'), who had received a grant of the country 
 as far south as Pennsylvania, planted a colony on an island at 
 the mouth of the St. Croix (kroi). In 1605, which was two 
 years before the first permanent English settlement in America 
 was made at Jamestown, he removed his colony across the Bay 
 of Fundy to Port Royal in Nova Scotia, which became the 
 first permanent French settlement. The term "Acadia" was 
 at first applied to the whole of De Monts's grant, but was 
 afterwards restricted to what is now Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 54. Samuel de Cliamplain (sham plan') was a man of 
 many virtues and accomplishments. He boldly crossed the 
 ocean in a bark of only fifteen tons' burden. Not long after 
 his arrival in the St. Lawrence, on his second voyage, he 
 
36 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 founded the town of Quebec. In 1609, pushing out into the 
 wilderness, with a war party of Indians, he discovered the 
 lake which bears his name ; and in 1615 Lakes Huron and 
 Ontario. Surrounded by the Hurons and Algonquins, who 
 were at war with the Iroquois, he was forced by his position 
 to become the enemy of the latter. This raised an inappeas- 
 able hatred of the French in the hearts of the Iroquois, which 
 led them to resist successfully the advance of the French 
 
 Champlain's Battle with the Indians 
 
 power southward. For many years they harassed the French 
 settlements, and were guilty of frightful barbarities to French 
 pioneers, who ventured as far as central New York. Cham- 
 plain was appointed governor of New France, and dying in 
 1635, left it in a flourishing condition. 
 
 55. Jesuit Fathers. A great missionary work was done 
 among the Indian tribes by the Society of Jesus. The first of 
 the Jesuit priests to come over. Fathers Biard (byar) and 
 Masse (mahs), arrived about 1611, and, from that time, were 
 followed, year by year, by others, all of whom in turn plunged 
 
PERMANENT FRENCH COLONIZATION 
 
 37 
 
 into the west, where to this day French names of places bear 
 witness to their former presence. In a few years tliey had 
 established missions on the Great Lakes, the oldest of which 
 is St. Mary in Michigan; and they faced every hardship and 
 danger, and endured every torture — scalping, roasting, and 
 boiling — in trying to convert the Indians to Christianity. 
 
 56. Father Marquette (mar kef), in 1673, offered Governor 
 Talon (tah Ion') at Montreal his services in exploring the river 
 and valley of the Mississippi. Joliet (zho lya'), a fur trader 
 familiar with the western country, was sent out to accompany 
 him. Starting in their birch-bark canoes with five companions 
 from the north end of Lake Michigan, by the end of seven 
 
 Marquette and Joliet 
 
 days they reached the Mississippi by way of the Fox and 
 Wisconsin rivers and then floated as far down as the mouth 
 of the Arkansas (ar' kan saw). Returning, they followed the 
 Illinois nearly to its source. Two years later Marquette fell 
 ill during a voyage on Lake Michigan; he went ashore with 
 his companions, and soon died in the act of prayer. 
 
 57. La Salle. Robert Cavelier de La Salle (lah sahl'), who 
 had already gone through the forests as far as the Ohio River, 
 decided to continue the voyage of Marquette and Joliet down 
 to the mouth of the Mississippi, and take possession of the 
 
38 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 country in the name of the French king. Having phanned 
 to raise a line of forts from the Lakes to the Gulf, he built 
 the first near the southern end of Lake Michigan; the sec- 
 ond near Peoria, on the Illinois Eiver. About this time 
 Father Hen'nepin, while a captive among the Sioux (soo), ex- 
 plored the upper waters of the Mississippi Eiver, as far as 
 the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 58. Louisiana. It was not until December, 1G81, that La 
 Salle and his companion, De Tonti, who had come over from 
 France with him, began their expedition southward to the 
 Mississippi Eiver. The ground was covered with snow. When 
 they reached the river, they found its surface hidden by float- 
 ing ice and trunks of trees, but this did not discourage them. 
 As they passed on down the stream, they planted, on the bank, 
 tall crosses bearing the arms and motto of France. In April, 
 1682, they reached the mouth, and La Salle, in honor of his 
 king, named the country through which he had been travel- 
 ing, Louisiana. 
 
 59. Death of La SaJle. Eeturning to Canada, La Salle 
 next visited France to procure aid in his plans for the set- 
 tlement of Louisiana. In 1684 he sailed directly for the Gulf 
 of Mexico with several ships, but, as the pilots were ignorant 
 of the coast, the ships came to anchor in Matagorda Bay, sev- 
 eral hundred miles west of the mouth of the Mississippi, and 
 here a fort was built. At the end of two years, the fleet 
 having gone back to France, only forty colonists survived. In 
 despair, La Salle set out, with a few companions, to make 
 the journey to the French forts north of the Ohio, but was 
 soon treacherously murdered by two of his own men. It was 
 not until 1699 that D'Iberville fee ber veel') founded a colony 
 at Biloxi on the Gulf, and this was the first settlement 
 of the French in that region. In 1702 it was removed to 
 Mobile. 
 
LATER ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 39 
 
 Later English Explorations 
 
 60. English Apathy. Although the English claimed the 
 northern part of the American continent by right of the dis- 
 coveries of the Cabots (§§ 30, 31), they were ^mong the last 
 to take a very active part in its exploration and colonization. 
 England was in that age not so powerful as France or Spain, 
 and therefore was slow to excite the hostility of either of 
 them by seizing territory in the western world. In Queen 
 Elizabeth's time, however, the English flag began to be dis- 
 played upon our waters. 
 
 61. Sir John Hawkins. As early as 1530 many bold and 
 enterprising English sailors Avere supplying the Spanish mines 
 and plantations in the West Indies with African slaves. In 
 the years 1562, 1564, and 1567 Sir John Hawkins carried 
 thither cargoes of negroes, and exchanged them for valuable 
 cargoes of tropical products, which found a ready sale in 
 Europe. While returning home after one of these voyages, he 
 touched on the coast of Florida, and his account of its beauty 
 aroused a new interest in America among the English people. 
 
 62. Drake and his Exploits. Sir John Hawkins was treach- 
 erously attacked on the coast of Mexico by Spaniards, and only 
 succeeded in getting away with two of his ships. One of his 
 companions was Sir Francis Drake, who determined to devote 
 his life to wreaking vengeance for the wrong that had been done 
 the English on this occasion. Elizabeth, a woman with a lion's 
 heart, was queen of England, and as she was a Protestant, she 
 encouraged the assaults on the Spanish power, whose cruelty 
 and arrogance she detested. 
 
 63. The Em^lUh Dragon. It was not long before Drake 
 began to plunder many of the wealthiest toAvns in the West 
 Indies. Happening to be on the Isthmus of Panama in one of 
 his expeditions, he saw the Pacific Ocean from the top of a tree 
 
40 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 Sir Francis Drake 
 
 and swore that he " would sail an English ship on those seas." 
 In 1577 he set out with a fleet of four ships directly for the 
 Straits of Magellan, but on reaching the Pacific, only one 
 
 vessel remained with him ; 
 the rest had deserted. En- 
 tering port after port, he 
 had already secured an 
 enormous booty when he 
 captured a Spanish galleon 
 loaded down with silver, 
 gold, and precious stones. 
 He sailed northward along 
 the Pacific coast, far beyond 
 the S]3anish settlements, 
 and then, crossing the 
 Pacific, he returned to 
 England in 1580 by round- 
 ing the Cape of Good Hope, thus completing the circuit of the 
 globe. Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, but the 
 Spaniards cursed him as a pirate, and always spoke of him 
 among themselves as the "Dragon." 
 
 64. The Spanish Armada. English privateersmen, known as 
 sea dogs, darting from the English Channel, seized the Span- 
 ish treasure ships on their way to Cadiz; or they plundered 
 and burned Spanish towns in the West Indies. The Nether- 
 lands were now in a state of insurrection, and Spain was afraid 
 lest the English should assist the Dutch to win their independ- 
 ence. Inflamed by these facts, she sent a great fleet, called 
 the Armada, in 1588, to conquer England. The English ves- 
 sels swarmed forth under Hawkins and Drake, Erob'isher 
 and Grenville, Howard, Cav'endish and Paleigh (raw'li). It 
 was like a conflict between a whale and a swordfish. All that 
 remained of the Spanish fleet was driven headlong into the 
 
ENGLISH FAILURES IN COLONIZATION 
 
 41 
 
 North Sea. Many ships were wrecked on the rocks in the 
 frantic effort to escape by way of the Hebrides and the west 
 coast of Ireland, and less than 
 one half the vessels ever reached 
 a Spanish harbor again. 
 
 65. Frobisher and Davis. In 
 spite of Drake's voyage along 
 the Pacific coast (§ 63), North 
 America was still thought to be 
 a narrow strip of land, through 
 which a strait connected the 
 waters of the Atlantic and 
 the Indian Ocean. Frobisher 
 (§ 64) made several voyages 
 to discover this strait, in the 
 course of one of which he en- 
 tered Hudson Strait. He was 
 followed by John Davis (1585), 
 from whom Davis Strait is 
 named. As late as 1610 Henry 
 Hudson, who was in the em- 
 ployment of the Dutch, sup- 
 posed that the Hudson Kiver, 
 which he had entered, was the 
 outlet to the Indian Ocean ; and 
 John Smith, about the same 
 
 English Explorations in North Amer- 
 ica, to 1607 
 
 time, thought the Chickahominy Eiver, in Virginia, ran back 
 to the same seas. 
 
 English Failures in Colonization 
 
 66. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed that the true policy 
 was to found colonies instead of searching for gold, was the 
 pioneer of English colonization in the New World. In 1583, 
 
42 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 
 
 under a charter from the crown, he took possession of New- 
 foundland, but on his return voyage to England, his ship, 
 the Squirrel, was swallowed up by the waves. " It is as near 
 to heaven by sea as by land," were the last words he was 
 heard to speak. He was succeeded in his charter rights by 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, his half brother, one of the most accom- 
 plished men of his age, who first won the favor of Queen 
 Elizabeth by throwing his cloak on the ground to enable her 
 to pass dry shod over a wet spot. 
 
 67. Raleigh, in 1584, dispatched Captains Am'idas and 
 Barlow to explore the coast of the Carolinas. Before they 
 came in sight of land they were greeted by 
 breezes from the shore, perfumed as if blown 
 across a garden in spring. The whole coun- 
 try was found to be overgrown with pine and 
 cedar, flovv^ering trees, and plants. Elizabeth 
 was so delighted Avith the accounts of its 
 beauty that she named it "Virginia," in 
 honor of herself, the Virgin Queen, 
 o- «T ,^ T^ , ,. 68. Ralei^lh's Colony on Roanohe 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh ^ ^ 
 
 Island. In 1585 an expedition which 
 
 Raleigh sent out under the command of Sir Richard Grenville 
 landed on Roanoke Island, north of Cape Hatteras (map, p. 50), 
 and built a fort, but the colonists were more interested in 
 hunting for gold than in making use of the soil for their own 
 support. They soon came to blows with the Indians, and the 
 few escaping starvation were, in 1586, carried back to England 
 by Drake, who was passing that way from the West Indies. 
 
 69. The Lost Colony. In the following year a large com- 
 pany, made up of women and children as well as men, landed 
 on the island. Here the daughter of Governor White soon 
 gave birth to a girl, Virginia Dare, the first child of English 
 parentage born in America. Wliite returned to England for 
 
ENGLISH FAILURES IN COLONIZATION 43 
 
 supplies, and when he came back to Koanoke, three years 
 later, he found the settlement in ruins and nothing to show 
 what had become of the colonists but the word " Croatan '' 
 carved in the bark of a tree. This was the Indian name 
 of a neighboring island. Not a trace of the colonists was 
 afterwards discovered. 
 
 70. Raleigh's enterprises failed, but they led to the intro- 
 duction into England of tobacco, sassafras, and Indian corn. 
 James I succeeded Elizabeth, and one of his first acts was 
 to throw Ealeigh into prison. Here he remained until 1616, 
 when he was released to lead an expedition to Guiana in 
 search of gold. This proving unsuccessful, he was, on his 
 return, beheaded.^ 
 
 71. Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, instead of sailing to the 
 West Indies first, the usual route to America at that time, 
 directed the prow of his ship straight across the Atlantic from 
 the Azores, and reached the coast of Maine in fifty days, 
 seventy less than the ordinary voyage required. Skirting the 
 Nevf England shore, he explored it as far as Buzzards Bay, 
 in southern Massachusetts. At this point he planted a col- 
 ony, but when he set out for England, the people raised a 
 clamor and insisted on going back with him. In the next 
 year Martin Bring visited the vicinity of Cape Cod, and, in 
 1605, was followed by Sir George Weymouth, who curiously 
 enough reported the climate to be suited, to the growth of 
 tropical plants. 
 
 1 An amusing story is told of how, one day, while Raleigh, in the enjoy- 
 ment of his pipe, was blowing the smoke out of his mouth, his servant entered 
 the room bearing a tankard of ale, and seeing the smoke and thinking her 
 master on tire, in great haste and consternation poured all the liquor over his 
 head in order to put out the supposed flames ! No man ever died more bravely 
 than Raleigh. As he felt the edge of the ax on the scaffold just before his 
 execution, he is said to have remarked, "This is a sharp medicine, but a sound 
 cure for all diseases." The capital of North Carolina is very appropriately 
 named after the founder of the Roanoke colony. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD 1 
 
 I. Norse. 
 
 II. Portuguese. 
 
 III. Spanish. 
 
 IV. French. 
 
 V. English. 
 
 t 
 
 1. Who were the Northmen. 
 
 2. Colony in Greenland. 
 
 3. Bjarni, Leif, and Thorfinn. 
 
 1. Reasons for seeking a shorter route to Asia. 
 1. The Eiiuator Crossed. 
 
 Hope 
 
 2. African Voyages. \ 2. 
 
 The Cape of Good 
 Kouuded. 
 
 Prince Henry of Portugal. 
 
 1. Columbus and his | 3. 
 Discoveries. 
 
 His Early Career. 
 Disappointments in s 
 
 curing Aid. 
 His Final Success. 
 
 4. Westward Voyage. 
 
 5. Discovers New World. 
 I 6. Returns to Spain. 
 
 [7. Subsetiuent Voyages. 
 
 Line of Demarcation. 
 
 De Narvaez and De Vaca. 
 De Soto. 
 
 3. Discoveries in the J 1. Balboa. 
 
 Pacific. ['^'- ^^I'lgellan. 
 
 4. Exploration of h '^i--fi,'^«JJr 
 
 Florida and Mis- i 3. Vasquez d'Ayllon, 
 sissippi Valley. 
 
 5. Conquest of Mexico. 
 G. Coronado. 
 
 1. Newfoundland Fisheries. 
 
 2. Verrazano. 
 
 3. Cartier. 
 
 4. Ribault and Port Royal. 
 
 5. Laudonniere and Fort Carolina. 
 
 6. De Gourgues. 
 
 7. De Monts and Port Royal. 
 
 8. Champlain. 
 
 1. Zeal of Jesuit Mission- 
 aries. 
 
 2. Marquette. 
 
 3. La Salle. 
 
 VI. English Failures 
 in Colonization. 
 
 9. Western Explora- 
 tions. 
 
 1. TheCabots. 
 
 2. Why England at first avoided the New 
 
 World. 
 
 3. Hawkins. 
 
 4. Drake. 
 
 5. The Armada. 
 
 G. Search for the r 
 
 Northwest Pas 
 
 sage. 
 1. Gilbert. 
 
 Frobisher. 
 Davis. 
 
 2. Raleigh. 
 
 3. Gosnold. 
 
 44 
 
 1. Sends Exploring Expedi- 
 
 tion to Carolina Coast. 
 
 2. FirstColoniesonKoanoke 
 
 Islan.l. 
 
 3. Death of Kaleigh, 
 
PERIOD II. PERMANENT COLONIZATION 
 AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Southern Colonies — Virginia 
 
 72. The Virginia Company. Although Raleigh's colony at 
 Roanoke ended in disaster, after a vast expenditure of money, 
 the influence of his example was to bear fruit in the achieve- 
 ments of those who were to come after him. It was seen that 
 the work was too costly for the purse of a single individual. 
 The Muscovy and East India joint stock companies, organ- 
 ized for the purpose of trading with Russia and the Asiatic 
 countries, were very prosperous, and this fact suggested 
 and encouraged the formation of a Virginia company of the 
 same general commercial nature, which should also found 
 English settlements in America. 
 
 73. The Companies' Territory. In 1606 a company was 
 chartered with two subdivisions, — the Virginia Company of 
 London, which was made up chiefly of citizens of London ; and 
 the Virginia Company of Plymouth, comprised chiefly of persons 
 residing in Devonshire, in the vicinity of Plymouth. To the 
 first. King James granted the right to found a colony, one hun- 
 dred miles square, anywhere between the 34th and 41st degrees 
 of north latitude {i.e. between the Cape Fear River and the 
 mouth of the Hudson); and to the second, a colony one 
 hundred miles square, anywhere between the 38th and 45th 
 degrees of north latitude {i.e. between the Potomac and Nova 
 Scotia). Either company could occupy ground in the over- 
 lapping region, provided the settlement should not be placed 
 
 45 
 
46 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 within one hundred miles of any settlement established by 
 the other company. 
 
 74. Jamestown Founded. Captain John Smith. In De- 
 cember, 1606, the stormiest part of the year, the first expedi- 
 tion equipped by the London Company left London for Virginia 
 in three small vessels, the Susan (Sarah) Constant, the Good- 
 speed, and the Discovery, manned by thirty-nine sailors, and 
 carrying one hundred and five passengers. The largest of the 
 ships was only one hundred tons in burden; the smallest, 
 twenty tons. Of the members of the Council who went over, 
 the most notable was John Smith. From his youth he had 
 led a career of adventure, — had taken part in the wars of 
 Holland, had passed into the service of the king of Hungary, 
 had been captured by the Turks, and had then escaped to 
 Russia. Making his way back to England, he had aided in 
 organizing the expedition to Virginia, as opening a new field 
 of enterprise. 
 
 75. The First Months. Passing into the Chesapeake, and 
 sailing up the broad Powhatan, as the Indians had named the 
 modern James, the voyagers were lost in delighted amazement 
 at the sight of the magnificent forests on either bank, the 
 brilliant plumage of the birds, the clearness and softness of 
 the air. In May, 1607, the fleet dropped anchor off the penin- 
 sula which has become Jamestown Island. The settlers soon 
 built a fort and a few thatched huts. But what with the 
 growing hostility of the natives, the lurking poison of the 
 surrounding marshes, and the weakening effect of labor in 
 the summer fields, the colonists began to die in great numbers, 
 and by August few persons in the settlement were in good 
 health. 
 
 76. Pocahontas. Smith, in order to procure corn from the 
 Indians, nuide a voyage up the Chickahominy, and in the 
 course of it was captured. He was carried to the village of 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — VIRGINIA 
 
 47 
 
 Powhatan situated on the York ; his head was laid on a large 
 stone, and the Indians' clubs were about to descend, when 
 Pocahontas (po ca hon'tas), the favorite young daughter of the 
 king, sprang forth and interceded for his life.^ Smith was sent 
 back to Jamestown in safety, and afterwards, Pocahontas, once 
 every four or five days, brought food for the unfortunate set- 
 
 Pocahontas and Smith 
 
 tiers. Smith himself added to these supplies by making voy- 
 ages up the Chesapeake and its tributaries and bringing back 
 loads of corn. It was chiefly due to his energy and sagacity 
 that the colony was preserved from absolute ruin. 
 
 iSome historians refuse to believe this incident, because Smith did not 
 mention it in his first very brief account of his adventni-es in Virginia (1608). 
 The story, however, is entirely consistent with Indian character and custom, 
 and has in itself nothing incredible. Similar incidents are recorded in the 
 lives of other persons taking part in the early explorations of America. Pow- 
 hatan's village, called Werowocomo'co, was about fifteen miles northeast of 
 Jamestown, on the north shore of the York, near its mouth. 
 
48 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 77. Presidency of Smith. When chosen president of the 
 colony in 1G08, Smith carried out two rules in his government: 
 
 (1) to make the colony self-supporting by 
 relying on the resources of the country ; 
 
 (2) to keep the Indians in awe by a bold 
 and resolute front. He built new cabins 
 and a church, sank wells for pure water, 
 encouraged the raising of hogs, and tried 
 the cultivation of corn. The colony had 
 reached a high state of prosperity in con- 
 Captain John Smith sequence of the hrmness and sagacity of 
 
 Smith, when his presidency came to an end, 
 and being disabled by an explosion of gunpowder, he returned 
 to England. 
 
 78. Starving Time. After Smith's departure the colony, 
 owing to bad management, fell into a deplorable condition. 
 From October, 1609, to June, 1610, man after man died. All 
 the supplies which Smith had gathered together were soon 
 used up. There was no wholesome food for the famishing 
 people. They fed ravenously on roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts, 
 and berries, and on skins and snakes. 
 
 79. Sir Thomas Gates, on his arrival in Virginia in June, 
 1610, with a large number of new settlers, thought it wisest 
 to abandon the colony, so low had it fallen. He started down 
 the James Eiver with all on board. It was not long before he 
 saw sailing toward him three large vessels, which proved to 
 be those of Lord Delaware, who had been appointed governor 
 of Virginia. The fleet returned to Jamestown, where a solemn 
 service was held in the church to celebrate the restoration of 
 the colony. From this time on it steadily grew in prosperity, 
 especially during the administration of Sir Thomas Dale, who 
 put in force a strict military discipline. Up to this date no 
 one had had any private ownership in the land. All property 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES— VIRGINIA 
 
 49 
 
 was owned together, and the needs of the colonists were sup- 
 plied from a common storehouse. Dale gave three acres apiece 
 to the settlers who had been longest in Virginia, and allowed 
 them a month in the year to work the soil. It was not until 
 some years later that the right to divide the land into separate 
 farms was granted. 
 
 80. Marriage of Pocahontas. When Smith sailed away from 
 Virginia, Pocahontas ceased all intercourse with the English, 
 and went to live with one of the Potomac tribes. Captain 
 Argall, sailing up that river, induced the Indians to give her 
 up in return for a copper kettle, and he 
 then brought her to Jamestown. An 
 affection soon sprang up between her 
 and John Rolfe, a settler, and they were 
 married. She had already been baptized 
 with the name of Rebecca. The alliance 
 led to a lasting peace with her father, 
 Powhatan. Some years later she visited 
 England, where she was received at court 
 as a princess, and had her portrait 
 painted. She died at Grave send when 
 about to embark for America. John 
 
 Rolfe was the first Englishman to cultivate tobacco in the 
 colony, and it soon became the chief staple of Virginia. 
 
 81. The Charters. Under the first charter which James I 
 granted to the London Company the government of the colony 
 was directly in the hands of the king. He appointed the 
 Council in England, which in turn appointed the Council in 
 Virginia. The Council in Virginia chose the president of the 
 colony. Under the second charter (1G09) the stockholders of 
 the Company elected the Council in England, which in turn 
 appointed the Council sitting in Virginia and also the gov- 
 ernor of the colony. By its terms also the boundaries of the 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST, — 4 
 
 Pocahontas 
 
50 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 colony along the coast were extended two hundred miles north 
 from Point Comfort, and two hundred miles south, and west 
 and northwest from sea to sea. In 1624 the charter was 
 revoked, and the colony again became subject immediately to 
 the kin,sr. 
 
 Virginia by the Charter of 1609 
 
 82. First Legislature. Sir George Yeard'ley, who came over 
 as governor for the second time, in 1619, was given the 
 authority to call an assembly. This was the first legislature 
 to come together in North America, and its meeting is 
 one of the greatest events in the history of our country. It 
 met in 1619 in the choir of the church at Jamestown, and was 
 made up of the governor, the members of the Council, and 
 twenty-two burgesses elected by the people. In time the 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — VIRGINIA 51 
 
 other American colonies gained the same legislative system, 
 and to-day the government of the United States and the 
 different States is modeled upon the same form. 
 
 83. Servants and Slaves. The lands in Virginia were 
 worked by servants and slaves. The servants were poor boys 
 picked up in the streets of London, or poor persons from the 
 country, or children who had been stolen and sold to the ship- 
 masters. Some were men and women who had broken the 
 English laws (which, in those times, imposed death for offenses 
 now punished by short imprisonment ^), and were sent out to 
 the colony instead of being hung; others had been taken 
 prisoners while in rebellion against the king. 
 
 84. The first negro slaves in Virginia were brought in by 
 a Dutch ship in 1619, and their number steadily increased. 
 They were of more advantage to the planters than white ser- 
 vants, because (1) they were held for life, and not for a mere 
 term of years; (2) they stood the heat of the summer fields 
 better; (3) they were less expensive to feed and clothe. The 
 population of the colony in 1622 numbered 4000 persons, 
 who were in the enjoyment of such plenty that it was said 
 at the time, that every man gave " free entertainment " to his 
 friends and to strangers. There was an extraordinary abun- 
 dance of grain, fruit, and vegetables; wine and silk were 
 made in considerable quantities ; and the crop of tobacco had 
 swelled to 60,000 pounds. The herds of cattle had rapidly 
 increased. The dwelling houses were now substantially and 
 comfortably built. Owing to the London Company importing 
 a great number of young women, every freeman of means was 
 able to obtain a wife. Before he could marry her, he had to 
 
 1 During this period of English history there were many crimes for which 
 the punishment was death. It was shocking to the feelings of the magis- 
 trates, even iu that age, to carry out strictly the criminal code then in force, 
 so, in many cases, they would sentence a prisoner to be sent to the colonies 
 instead of to be killed. 
 
52 
 
 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 pay the Company the cost of bringing her to A^irginia. This 
 at first was one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco, but as 
 the price of tobacco went down, the price of a wife rose to one 
 hundred and fifty pounds. 
 
 85. Indian Massacres. In 1622 the Indians, under the lead 
 of Opechancanough (op e kan'l^a no), began to plot the massa- 
 cre of the colonists, who had now grown so prosperous. At 
 first, no proof of the plot came to light. The Indians entered 
 
 The Massacre of 1622 
 
 the liouses of the English as freely as ever, ate at their 
 tables, played games with them in the open air, and hunted 
 deer and turkeys for them in the forest. Falling upon the 
 colonists suddenly in all the settlements at the same hour, 
 they killed all the}- could, sparing neither man, woman, nor 
 child ; burned many houses ; and drove off the cattle. It took 
 the English many years to recover from this blow. When 
 they had become prosperous again, a second massacre occurred 
 (1644), but this fell only on the frontiers. Opechancanough, 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — VIRGINIA 53 
 
 now so old that his eyelids had to be lifted by hand, was cap 
 tured, and while in the custody of a soldier was basely shot h\ 
 the back and killed. 
 
 86. The Cavaliers. The Virginians, as a mass, were devoted 
 to the monarchy and the Church of England. When Charles I 
 was beheaded by Cromwell, they denounced the act as treason, 
 and proclaimed Charles II as king. He from his retreat in 
 Holland warmly thanked them for their loyalty and fidelity. 
 The supremacy of the Puritans in England caused a great rush 
 of Cavaliers, who had been supporters of the beheaded king, to 
 Virginia. They had, as a rule, been members of the landed 
 gentry of England; and the plantation life in Virginia, with its 
 broad estates, abundance of supplies, and open-air sports and 
 pursuits, was very congenial to their tastes. Parliament soon 
 sent out a fleet to subdue the Virginians. Governor Berkeley 
 put the colon}^ in a state of defense; and when the fleet ar- 
 rived, this determined attitude led to an agreement by which 
 the Virginians were left at liberty to trade with all the world, 
 and also to be taxed only with the consent of their own House 
 of Burgesses. 
 
 87. Bacon's Rebellion. Causes. As soon as Charles II was 
 restored to the throne, an Act of Navigation,^ as it was termed, 
 was passed (1660), requiring, among other things, that all Vir- 
 ginia tobacco should be brought first to England, whether 
 intended for a foreign country or not; and that it should be 
 carried across the ocean only in ships built and owned in 
 England or the colonies. It was also required that three 
 fourths of the mariners of these ships should be Englishmen. 
 Virginia's valuable trade with Holland was thus practically 
 destroyed. To make matters worse, Berkeley, for many years, 
 refused to dissolve the Assembly, which, at his or their own 
 
 1 The first Act of Navigation, passed in 1651, in the time of Cromwell, 
 was not strictly enforced. 
 
54 PERxMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 bidding, laid oppressive taxes, voted themselves high salaries, 
 persecuted the Quakers and limited the suffrage to free- 
 holders and housekeepers. The Indians on the frontier be- 
 came restive ; and the governor, who had a monopoly of the 
 fur trade, made no effort to suppress them, because it would 
 have put an end to his profits. All these influences tended to 
 make the body of the people suspicious and turbulent. 
 
 88. The hutcheries hy the Indians on the frontiers, in 
 1676, alarmed the people so much that they organized a small 
 
 Berkeley and Bacon 
 
 army, and put at its head Nathaniel Bacon, a young man 
 recently arrived from England. Without waiting for the ap- 
 proval of Governor Berkeley, Bacon marched against the 
 savages, and was proclaimed a rebel. Having conquered the 
 Indians, he was soon pardoned; but suspecting evil designs 
 against himself, left Jamestown. He soon returned at the 
 head of an army of men, and was met at the Assembly door 
 
SOUTHETiN COLONIES — VIRGINIA 55 
 
 by Berkeley, who cried out passionately : " Here, shoot me ; 
 'fore God, a fair mark ! shoot." Bacon, disclaiming all inten- 
 tion of violence, only asked for a commission to protect the 
 settlers from the guns and tomahawks of the Indians. To this 
 Berkeley agreed ; but suddenly retired to Gloucester County, 
 and there raised the royal standard. On the approach of 
 Bacon's army, however, he fled to Accomac (map, p. 56). 
 Bacon now called together a convention of the people, which 
 met in August, 1676. The convention denounced the Naviga- 
 tion Act (§ 87) and the severe tax laws ; proclaimed that 
 Berkeley, by his flight, had given up the governorship; and 
 urged resistance to a royal army should one be sent before the 
 character of the situation was explained to the king. 
 
 89. Cruelty of Berkeley. In September, 1676, Berkeley 
 returned from Accomac to Jamestown, at the head of an 
 army. Bacon, summoning his men, drove the governor to 
 his ships and burned the town. Two of Bacon's principal 
 supporters, Drummond and Lawrence, wdio had their homes 
 there, set fire to their residences Avith their own hands. Berke- 
 ley again fled to Accomac. Bacon was now in undisputed con- 
 trol, but while in Gloucester County he died, and his body is 
 supposed to have been bnried in one of the rivers of that 
 county. With Bacon's death all opposition at once ceased. 
 The governor started upon a course of revenge so reckless 
 that he seemed insane. "The old fool," exclaimed Charles 
 II, when he heard of Berkeley's bloody course, " has put to 
 death more people in that naked country than I did here for 
 the murder of my father." One of the noblest of his victims 
 was Thomas Hansford, the first American martyr to political 
 freedom. "Take notice," he said, calmly and proudly, as he 
 stood under the gallows, "I die a loyal subject and lover of 
 my country." Berkeley was soon recalled, and the people 
 lit bonfires in celebration of his departure. 
 
56 
 
 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Southern Colonies — Maryland 
 
 90. Sir George Calvert. The founder of Maryland was George 
 Calvert, the lirst Lord Baltimore, an English Eoman Catholic, 
 who was anxious to establish in America 
 an asylum for the persecuted Catholics. 
 In England at this time no member of 
 that religious body could have his chil- 
 dren educated by a schoolmaster of his 
 own faith; or have Catholic books in 
 his house ; or sit in Parliament ; or carry 
 a weapon; or be buried in the parish 
 churchyard. Calvert was first made 
 Lord of the Province of Avalon, in 
 Newfoundland, but finding the climate 
 
 harsh, he secured, two years later, a grant to the unoccupied 
 region lying north of the Potomac, as far as the 40th parallel, 
 
 and extending west- 
 
 s' //"V" 
 George Calvert 
 
 ward to a line drawn 
 north and south 
 through the source of 
 the same river. As he 
 died before the patent 
 was issued, his charter 
 fell to his son Cecilius, 
 the second Lord Balti- 
 more. The new prov- 
 ince was named Mary- 
 land, in honor of 
 Henrietta Maria, wife 
 of Charles I, and under 
 the terms of the charter was held by the Calverts almost as if it 
 were an independent kingdom. They could coin money, create a 
 
 '!\f^?^ 
 
 Maryland by the Original Charter 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — MARYLAND 57 
 
 nobility, establish courts, appoint judges, pardon criminals, and 
 veto or approve all laws for the colony. At first they claimed 
 the right to dictate legislation, but this the Assembly refused 
 to allow. 
 
 91. St. Marys Founded. In February, 1634, the two brothers 
 of Lord Baltimore, Leonard and George, with a company of 
 twenty Roman Catholic gentlemen and many laborers, who 
 had come over with them in the Ark and the Dove, an- 
 chored near the mouth of the Potomac. They soon founded 
 the settlement of St. Marys, on a site purchased from the 
 Indians with cloth, axes, and hatchets. It was the policy of 
 the colonists to treat the Indians with the exactest justice, a 
 course amply rewarded by the rapid growth of the community. 
 
 92. William Claiborne. The Virginians hated the first set- 
 tlers of Maryland as papists, and as trespassers on the soil of 
 Virginia, for the new province was within the limits of the older 
 colony. William Claiborne had received from the governor of 
 Virginia a grant of Kent Island, in the Chesapeake Bay. The 
 authorities of Maryland declared that, as Kent Island was in 
 their territory, they alone could license him to trade with the 
 Indians ; but Claiborne, refusing to recognize the validity of 
 the Maryland charter, claimed that this license could only be 
 issued by the Virginian authorities. A conflict arose. In 1644 
 Claiborne, by force of arms, seized upon Kent Island, which 
 had been taken away from him by Calvert ; but two years later 
 he was driven from the province. 
 
 93. Religious Toleration. Lord Baltimore, from the beginning, 
 invited to his colony the hunted followers of all persecuted 
 religious bodies. The adoption of the Toleration Act in 1649, 
 which made the kind and liberal treatment of all Christian 
 sects the fundamental law of the province, is one of the most 
 memorable events in the history of modern legislation. At 
 this time the Puritans were persecuting other Protestant 
 
58 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 denominations in New England, and the Episcopalians were 
 hounding the Puritans and Quakers from Virginia. When the 
 Commonwealth was set up in England, the Puritans began to 
 persecute the Eoman Catholics in Maryland. They refused to 
 admit them to the Assembly, and even tried to deprive them 
 of the protection of the law. The conflict of feeling led, in 
 1655, to a battle on the banks of the Severn, in which the Puri- 
 tans were successful. In 1658 the Calverts, who had been 
 deposed, were restored by Cromwell, but, in 1691, were again 
 displaced because they had supported James II ; the Church 
 of England was restored ; and all Koman Catholics were dis- 
 franchised. Until 1716 Maryland was ruled by governors ap- 
 pointed by the crown. In that year the fourth Lord Baltimore, 
 who had become a Protestant, was restored by Queen Anne to 
 the rights of his family in the province, which the family 
 retained down to the Revolution. 
 
 Southern Colonies — North Carolina 
 
 94. Early Settlements. Doavu to 1729 North and South 
 Carolina were one, but as the two colonies, though politically 
 united, were widely separated, they were really two distinct 
 communities from the beginning, known at first as the 
 AlTDcmarle and the Carteret Colonies, after two of the pro- 
 prietaries to whom the territory was granted. The country 
 had been called Carolina by the French settlers in honor 
 of their king (Charles or Caro'lus), and the name was re- 
 tained by the English in honor of Charles II. 
 
 95. The Royal Grant. The colony founded by Raleigh on 
 Roanoke Island having failed (§§ 68, 69), it was not until the 
 middle of the next century that a settlement was made south 
 of Virginia. Carolina then began to fill up with Quakers and 
 other dissenters seeking a place where they could worship in 
 freedom, and with white freedmen whose terms of service in 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — NORTH CAROLINA 59 
 
 Virginia had expired. Persons who preferred a wilder country 
 and greater seckision than Virginia offered also came in 
 great numbers. The first settlement was made on the Chowan 
 River, near the head of Albemarle Sound, under the lead of 
 Eoger Green, in 1653 ; the next in importance, in 1663, on 
 the Cape Fear River, by emigrants from Barbados, one of the 
 English West Indian Islands. The latter supported them- 
 selves by exporting staves and shingles to their former home. 
 In 1663 Charles II granted the territory as far south as the 
 parallel of 29° north latitude, and west to the Pacific to eight 
 noblemen, headed by Lords Clarendon and Albemarle, and for 
 the first time it became separate from Virginia. 
 
 96. Grand ModeL The first constitution of the colony, 
 known as the Grand Model, was drawn up by the celebrated 
 English philosopher, John Locke, and divided the country 
 into provinces, and the white people into classes known as 
 landgraves, caciques, and commons. It sought to plant 
 a system of European nobility in the American backwoods, 
 which, very naturally, failed. The commons had little share 
 in the conduct of affairs, and under this scheme were little 
 superior to the serfs of Russia. The eldest of the proprietaries 
 had all the powers of a king. No laws could be passed except 
 those the Governor's Council had proposed. This foolish 
 constitution caused great discontent and turbulence among the 
 people, and was at last abolished. 
 
 97. Resistance to Taxation. In 1703 the Church of England 
 was declared to be the only legal church of the colony, and a 
 general tax was laid for its support. As the population was 
 chiefly made up of Quakers, Baptists, and Presbyterians, this 
 tax raised a great uproar, and its payment was resisted until 
 the law was revoked. 
 
 98. Indian Fort on the Neuse. In 1711, while De Graff'enreid, 
 who had planted at New Berne a colony from the valley of the 
 
60 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Rhine, iu Germany, was going up the Neuse Eiver, with Law- 
 son, the surveyor general, he was cax^tured by the Tuscarora 
 Indians. Lawson was burned at the stake, but De Graffenreid 
 was let loose on promising that no more lands of the Tusca- 
 
 A r\ O ^l\ IVM^Jj. A/ --^ J 
 
 GULF OF 
 MEXICO 
 
 zfesziSS: 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 S 80 120 160~ 
 
 Carolina by the Grant of 1663 
 
 roras would be taken up. The intrusion of the whites, how- 
 ever, went on, and war broke out. Colonel John BaruAvell, of 
 South Carolina, marching to the aid of the colonists, laid siege 
 to the Indian fort on the banks of the ISleuse. After many In- 
 dians had fallen, the survivors sued "for peace, but before Barn- 
 well could get back home the faithless enemy began to butcher 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 61 
 
 again. A force under Colonel James Moore assaulted their 
 stronghold and captured eight hundred prisoners. The Tusca- 
 roras were so badly beaten that they decided to join their 
 fellow Iroquois in the Mohawk Valley, in New York (§ 3). 
 
 99. Immigration. Early in the eighteenth century large 
 numbers of Germans, Swedes, and Huguenots settled in the 
 valleys of the Neuse, Trent, and Pamlico. About 1750 a large 
 body of Moravians settled on the site of Salem, and from 
 1750 to 1760 a great wave of Scotch-Irish poured into the 
 western and central parts of the colony. 
 
 Southern Colonies — South Carolina 
 
 100. Charleston Founded. In 1670 a band of Englishmen, 
 under Governor Sayle, who had been sent out by the pro- 
 prietaries, founded what was known as the Carteret Colony, 
 on or near the same spot, but the next year they moved to 
 the Ashley River, and a 
 few years later to the site 
 of Charleston. Here, in 
 the neck between the Ash- 
 ley and Cooper rivers, 
 they built a village in the 
 forests. A spirit of dissen- 
 sion broke out between the 
 supporters of the Church of 
 England, who favored sub- 
 mission in all things to the 
 proprietaries; and the op- 
 ponents of the Church of 
 
 England, who declared that the orders of the proprietaries 
 ought to be obeyed only when for the good of the colony. 
 Owing to these differences, there were as many as five gov- 
 ernors between 1682 and 1686. 
 
 French Settlers in South Carolina 
 
62 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 101. The Spaniards at St. Augustine resisted the coloniza- 
 tion of South Carolina by the English because it threatened 
 their possessions in Florida. They first sought to egg on the 
 colonists to revolt against the proprietaries ; then to tempt 
 the servants and slaves to fly from their masters ; and at last, 
 in 1686, they made an open attack on the settlement at Port 
 Royal. The war thus brought on continued until 1706, when 
 the Spanish and French fleets were repulsed in an assault on 
 Charleston. 
 
 102. Yamassees Defeated. In 1715 hostilities began between 
 the colonists and the Yamassee Indians. In April the latter 
 burst into Pocotaligo, and massacred one hundred whites 
 in a few minutes. A young man, flying from the scene of 
 bloodshed, barely had time to warn the people of Port Royal. 
 After a number of small defeats and victories a decisive suc- 
 cess was won by Captain Chicken with the Goose Creek 
 militia. This was energetically followed up, and, with the 
 aid of troops from Virginia and North Carolina, and arms 
 from New England, the Yamassees were at last driven into 
 Florida. 
 
 103. The Pirates. About 1717 the coasts of the Carolinas 
 were infested by swarms of pirates. The leader known as 
 Blackbeard had under him a squadron of several ships. 
 Bonnet and Worley, two of his lieutenants, were finally cap- 
 tured and hanged. Blackbeard surrendered and was pardoned, 
 but, returning later to his old life, he was attacked by Lieu- 
 tenant Maynard, in Pamlico Sound, and killed. His head was 
 brought into Chesapeake Bay, dangling at the bowsprit of a 
 vessel. 
 
 104. General Condition. T7ie Huguenots. After Louis XIV 
 repealed the Edict of Nantes, which had protected the French 
 Huguenots from religious persecution, many of that people 
 fled, first to England, then to America. The greater number 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 63 
 
 of these found, in 1686, an asylum in South Carolina, and 
 spread themselves along the banks of the Cooper and 
 Santee. In Charleston alone, at one time, there were 16,000 
 Huguenots. They brought with them many valuable plants 
 and fruits, including the 
 pear, olive, and mulberry. 
 At first, the presence of 
 the Frenchmen, so differ- 
 ent in habits and names, 
 was hateful to the English 
 settlers, but this feeling 
 gradually died out as the 
 high character, chivalrous 
 spirit, and thrifty habits of 
 the new settlers came to be 
 fully recognized. The in- 
 fluence of the Huguenot 
 colonists made a deep 
 impression on the society 
 of South Carolina which 
 has lasted to the present 
 day. 
 
 105. Bice and Cotton. 
 It was not until 1693 that 
 the people began to plant rice. One account says that the first 
 seed used was given to Governor Smith by a sea captain who 
 had just returned from Madagascar. In 1707 seventeen ships 
 left South Carolina with cargoes of rice and by 1740 it yielded 
 yearly about $1,000,000. It was not until after the Kevo- 
 lution that cotton became a valuable crop. From an early 
 date African slaves were brought to South Carolina as pecul- 
 iarly suited to the needs of rice culture as well as to the heat 
 of the climate. 
 
 Blackbeard 
 
64 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Southern Colonies — Georgia 
 
 106. Home for the Oppressed. The foimcler of Georgia was 
 James O'glethorpe, an English gentleman who had served in 
 wars with the Turks. His object in planting the colony was 
 to furnish a home for the debtors who were languishing in the 
 English jails, and also to create an asylum for the Protestants 
 who were flying from persecution on the continent of Europe. 
 
 107. Savannah Founded. Having first touched at Charleston, 
 Oglethorpe, in 1733, sailed up the Savannah, and on its bank 
 
 chose, as the site of his future town, 
 
 the ground on which the city of 
 
 Savannah now stands. He not only 
 
 paid the Indians for all the lands he 
 
 used, but also entered into treaties of 
 
 peace with the tribes roaming in the 
 
 bounds of his grant, which stretched 
 
 ^^^^__ from the Savannah Eiver to the 
 
 Altamaha. He built forts on the site 
 James Oglethorpe 
 
 of Augusta, and on Cumberland and 
 
 Amelia Islands, to strengthen his position. Encouraged by 
 Oglethorpe, a band of people who, under the leadership of 
 Baron von Reck and Martin Bolsius, had walked from Salz- 
 burg, in the valley of the Inn, to Rotterdam, in Holland, 
 landed at Savannah, in 1734. They soon chose a site for their 
 town, and gave it the name of " Ebenezer," because, as they 
 devoutly declared, "God had helped them so far." They 
 were shortly followed by great numbers of Moravians and 
 Scotch Highlanders.^ 
 
 1 John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, resided for some time in Georgia. 
 Whitefield, the greatest of field preachers, was also a citizen of the colony, and 
 founded at Savannah an orphan's asylum which still exists. He is said to 
 have exhorted at least GO,0(X) people at some of his open-air meetings. 
 
SOUTHERN COLONIES — GEORGIA 65 
 
 108. Conflicts with Spaniards. Siege of St. Augustine. 
 
 Seeing that a conflict with the Spaniards in Florida was inevi- 
 table, Oglethorpe returned to England, and having raised a 
 regiment there, brought it over to the colony. After receiving 
 reenforcements from the militia of Georgia and South Caro- 
 lina, he marched, in 1740, against St. Augustine, but was 
 compelled to abandon the siege. Two years later, in re- 
 taliation, the Spaniards sent a large expedition against St. 
 Simon Island, off the coast of Georgia. The fort there was 
 soon captured, but a detachment of Spanish troops which 
 had stolen through the woods to seize Frederica was forced 
 by Oglethorpe to surrender at a place since known as Bloody 
 Marsh. 
 
 109. Flight of the Spaniards. By a stratagem Ogle- 
 thorp gave the Spanish commander the impression that he 
 was looking for the arrival of six British men-of-war, with 
 two thousand troops, from Carolina. Thrown into a state 
 of perplexity, the Spaniards, sighting three ships from Caro- 
 lina, at once supposed the expected aid had come for Ogle- 
 thorpe. In great haste they destroyed the fort and fled, leav- 
 ing behind their cannon and stores. 
 
 110. Rum and Slaves. The general control of the affairs of 
 the colony was in the hands of a Board of Trustees residing 
 in England. One of the regulations adopted by this board 
 forbade the importation of rum, and another prohibited the 
 use of slaves. These rules, in narrowing the opportunities 
 for an exchange of products, injured the prosperity of the 
 colony.^ It was not until 1740 that Georgia became self-sup- 
 porting ; but ten years later its population did not exceed five 
 thousand. 
 
 1 But for this law Georgia would have easily found a market in the West 
 Indies for its lumber, which could have been exchanged for either rum or 
 slaves. 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. — 5 
 
66 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 New England Colonies — Massachusetts 
 
 111. Plymouth Company. In the same year that Jamestown 
 was founded the Plymouth Company established a colony on 
 the Kennebec Eiver, but the settlers, after enduring for twelve 
 months the hardships of the climate, went back to England. 
 John Smith explored the coast seven years later, drew a map 
 of it, and named the country " New England." So glowing 
 
 New England by the Patent of 1620 — Vicinity of Boston 
 
 was his account of its natural advantages that the Plymouth 
 Company, now known as the Council for New England (1620), 
 determined to make another effort to occupy it and obtained 
 a new patent from the king granting it all the land in America 
 between the parallels of 40° and 48°. Before, however, they 
 were ready to send out settlers, a colony had been planted 
 
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES — MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 67 
 
 there by a little company of intrepid Englishmen known from 
 their wanderings as the Pilgrim Fathers, who were seeking a 
 land where they could worship in freedom under the English 
 flag. 
 
 112. A Colony of Separatists. Schism in Chiirch of Eng- 
 land. After the Church of England had by the Reformation 
 become a Protestant church, there were a large number of peo- 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrims 
 
 pie, known as Puritans, who wished to purge it of all traces of 
 resemblance to the Eoman Catholic Church, both in doctrine 
 and in ceremony. One section of these people were anxious to 
 bring about the change without leaving the Church of England. 
 The other section, the Separatists, abandoned that church, as 
 the only way of securing for themselves the power to worship 
 as they chose. 
 
68 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 113. Voyage of "Mayflower." James I declared he would 
 make the Puritans conform to the Church of England, or 
 '^ harry them out of the land." At Scrooby, iii the east of Eng- 
 land, a congregation of Separatists were in the habit of meet- 
 ing at the house of William Brewster. Worn out at last by 
 persecution, they emigrated in a body to Holland, but, shrink- 
 ing from the certainty that their children would lose their 
 English habits and speech in that country, they asked the 
 London Company for permission to settle on the coast of New 
 Jersey, then a part of Virginia. This was readily granted. 
 Setting sail from Plymouth on the Mayflower under the 
 leadership of Brewster, Bradford, and Miles Standish, they 
 were driven far to the north, and on the 11th of December, 
 1620, they landed in a region belonging, not to the London, 
 but to the Plymouth Company. They retained the name of 
 Plymouth, which Smith's map had already given to their place 
 of settlement. The little company numbered only one hundred 
 and two. 
 
 114. First Years in tJie Colony. Some months after they 
 had landed, an Indian walked into the village and saluted them 
 in broken English. This was Samoset, who had learned a few 
 words from the English who had visited the coast. The next 
 day he brought with him another Indian named Squanto, who 
 had been taken to England. Squanto taught the settlers how 
 to plant corn and was their interpreter in making a treaty with 
 Massasoit, the chief of a neighboring tribe. Before the end of 
 the first year, one half of the population had died, and 
 although new emigrants arrived from time to time the growth 
 of the colony was very slow. The spirit of the colonists, 
 however, was not daunted by a harsh climate, unfruitful 
 soil, or the veiled threats of the Indians. On one occasion 
 Canon'icus, the chief of the Narragansetts, sent Governor 
 Bradford a bundle of arrows wrapped in a rattlesnake skin. 
 
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES — MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 69 
 
 Bradford's only notice of tliis act of defiance was to send back 
 the skin full of powder and shot. 
 
 115. A Colony of the Puritans. Grant on Massachusetts 
 Bay. Charles I, wishing to rule England by his single will, dis- 
 missed Parliament and levied taxes without its authority. He 
 also encouraged Archbishop Laud's unwise attempt to restore 
 Koman Catholic ceremonials in the Church of England. Re- 
 volting against this policy, a large body of the Puritans decided 
 to emigrate to America, and with this intention they acquired, 
 in 1628, from the Council of ISTew England, a grant of territory 
 lying on and between Merrimac and Charles rivers. The 
 next step was to secure a charter (1629) giving them all the 
 rights of a self-governing corporation. 
 
 116. Salem and Boston. The first colony of the Puritans 
 was i^lanted, in 1628, at Salem, by John Endicott, a man who 
 so detested all that reminded 
 him of the Cavaliers, the fol- 
 lowers of Charles I, that he 
 ordered the cross to be cut out 
 of his English flag, all women 
 under his rule to wear veils, and 
 all men to trim their hair short. 
 In 1630 John Winthrop, the 
 first governor, a man of good 
 birth, large fortune, and high 
 character, arrived with a fleet 
 of vessels, which brought over 
 nearly 1000 new settlers. Eif- 
 
 teen hundred more followed in the same year, and Boston and 
 other towns were founded. 
 
 117. All political power in the Plymouth Colony was at 
 first in the hands of the men who signed the plan of adminis- 
 tration for the colony. This was drawn up on board of the 
 
 Costumes of the Puritans 
 
70 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Mayfloiver, when it was found that the ship would make the 
 land north of Virginia, in a region where there was no estab- 
 lished government. By 1638, however, the number of settlers 
 having increased, the system of electing representatives was 
 adopted. Such a system now prevailed in the Massachusetts 
 Bay Colony, where at first all power was in the hands of 
 the stockholders of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Only 
 members of the Puritan or Congregational church could 
 vote.' 
 
 118. A Theocracy. In the beginning, each of the townships 
 into which the settlements in Massachusetts were divided had 
 a single church edifice, and in this building all civil as well as 
 religious business was transacted. As only church members 
 could vote, the ministers had an extraordinary influence, even 
 in civil affairs. It was not long before the colony grew to be 
 a theocracy, in which to build houses of worship, preach the 
 gospel, and build religious schools came to be of the first 
 importance. 
 
 119. Harvard College Founded. In 1636 the General Assem- 
 bly, or General Court, as it was termed, of Massachusetts Bay 
 Colony, set aside $2000 for establishing a college at Cambridge, 
 and a short time afterwards Eev. John Harvard, whose name 
 it took, bequeathed to it his library and a considerable sum of 
 money. 
 
 New England Colonies — Rhode Island 
 
 120. Rev. Roger Williams, of Salem, who disapproved of the 
 extreme religious spirit in the Massachusetts Colony, declared, 
 in 1636, that all religious beliefs should be tolerated, and that 
 the affairs of Church and State should be kept entirely separate. 
 This and other opinions he held were thought to be so danger- 
 ous by the Puritan clergymen and magistrates, that he was 
 ordered to return to England, but instead of doing this, he 
 
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES — RHODE ISLAND 
 
 71 
 
 plunged alone into the wilderness and found his way to the 
 country of the Narragansetts. Canonicus, the chief of that 
 nation, granted him a tract of land, and here, in 1636, he began 
 a settlement which he named "Providence," in the hope that 
 it would be a shelter for all persecuted for their religious belief. 
 Here all citizens, whether church members or not, were to have 
 equal rights before the law. 
 
 Roger Williams and the Indians 
 
 121. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. In the year of Williams's banish- 
 ment, Mrs Anne Hutchinson was also compelled to leave Mas- 
 sachusetts for opinion's sake. She sat down on Aquidneck 
 Island, known also as Eoodt Eyland, or Red Island. Her 
 colony was called Portsmouth. Newport was founded a little 
 later by other exiles. In 1644 these colonies were united 
 under a charter, as Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 
 This charter was obtained by Williams, who visited England 
 for the purpose, and was very liberal in its provisions. 
 
72 PEKMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 New England Colonies — Connecticut 
 
 122. Settlements in Connecticut Valley. The fertile lands 
 along the Connecticut River offered a tempting site for a 
 colony. At an early date, the Dutch built a trading post at 
 Hartford, and the English, at Windsor. In the autumn of 
 1635 a body of settlers left Cambridge, and made their way to 
 the valley, driving their cattle before them through the snow. 
 After arriving, many perished from cold and famine ; many, 
 who moved on toward the seacoast, were lost in the depths 
 of the frozen forest. In the spring, one hundred persons, 
 under Thomas Hooker, joined the colony, and together they 
 founded the towns of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield. 
 These settlements increased and came to be known as the 
 Connecticut Colony. In 1639 they were united under the lirst 
 constitution ever written in America, which was further 
 remarkable for abolishing the religious test as a qualification 
 for suffrage. In the meanwhile, a colony, known as Saybrook, 
 had been planted by John Winthrop, near the month of the 
 Connecticut River. This was at first governed by proprietors, 
 but was afterwards sold to the Connecticut Colony. 
 
 123. The colony of New Haven was founded, in 1638, by John 
 Davenport, a Puritan clergyman, and Theophilus Eaton, a 
 wealthy merchant of London. Before two years passed, settle- 
 ments had been made at Milford, Guilford, and Stamford, 
 together known by the name of the parent colony. The Bible 
 was the only code of laws in operation. No trial by jury was 
 allowed, because Moses had not sanctioned it. Only church 
 members could cast a vote. It was not until 1662 that the 
 colonies of New Haven and Connecticut were united under a 
 common charter. 
 
 124. The Pequot Indians, in 1636, began hostilities with the 
 colonists by cutting off stragglers and settlers on the frontiers. 
 
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES — NEW HAMPSHIRE 73 
 
 But for the influence of the noble-minded Eoger Williams 
 (§ 120) the Narragansetts and Mohegans would have joined 
 the Pequots. At the solicitation of the Massachusetts authori- 
 ties, who had treated him so harshly, he crossed Nari-agansett 
 Bay at the risk of his life, and persuaded Canonicus to send 
 the Pequot envoys away disappointed. But in the winter of 
 1636-1637 the towns of Connecticut were kept in constant 
 alarm by the attacks of the Pequots. To stop these atrocities. 
 Captain John Mason, with a band of whites and friendly 
 Indians, stole through the woods to their stockaded fort, in 
 the spring of 1637, and succeeded in darting through the gates 
 and setting fire to the wigwams. Ketreating in haste, they 
 shot the savages down as they, in their attempt to escape 
 the flames, scrambled over the palisade in the brilliant light. 
 Of the seven hundred Indians in the fort only five escaped, 
 and the Pequot nation was wiped out of existence. The blow 
 was decisive, and for thirty -eight years thereafter there was 
 peace between the white men and the Indians of New England. 
 
 New England Colonies — New Hampshire 
 
 125. Mason and Gorges. The earliest settlements in New 
 Hampshire were made in the region known as Laconia, between 
 the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, which had been granted 
 (1622) to Mason and Gorges (gor'jez) by the Council for New 
 England. They were mere fishing stations on the Piscat'aqua 
 E-iver, at the sites of the modern cities of Dover and Ports- 
 mouth. When the Massachusetts Bay Company was formed, 
 as the Laconia patent had expired. Mason obtained a grant of 
 the country lying west of the Piscataqua River, which he 
 named "New Hampshire," after his native county in England; 
 while Gorges acquired title to the country lying east. To 
 this, he gave the name " Maine " ; that is to say, " Mainland," 
 to distinguish it from the islands studding the coast. In the 
 
74 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 end (1677), Massachusetts purchased this region from the 
 heirs of Gorges for $6000. It was not until 1820 that Maine 
 became a separate community. 
 
 126. New Hampshire united with Massachusetts. In 1641- 
 1643 the settlements on or near the Piscataqua were annexed 
 to Massachusetts. But the Mason heirs renewed their claims 
 to New Hampshire, in England ; and a long dispute ensued, as 
 a result of which the king in 1679 erected New Hampshire 
 into a separate royal province. In 1685 it was reunited with 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 New England Confederation 
 
 127. Political and Commercial Affairs. Boaixl of Coimnis- 
 
 sioners. There were enemies on all sides of the New England 
 colonists. The Erench were on the north, the Dutch on the 
 west, and the Indians in their midst. This led, in 1643, to the 
 formation of a confederation for mutual defense. Ehode 
 Island alone was not admitted, because its claim to indepen- 
 dence was not acknowledged, and there was still feeling against 
 its people. A board of commissioners, two from each colony, 
 were appointed, with authority to settle any dispute between 
 the colonies and call out troops in case of need. Each colony, 
 however, retained the management of its internal affairs, and 
 no colony could be bound by the acts of the commissioners 
 without its sanction. 
 
 128. The chief exports of New England were grain, lumber, 
 and salted fish. These commodities were exchanged for the 
 sugar, molasses, and spirits of the West Indies. The sugar 
 was carried to England and sold; the molasses was brought 
 to New England and there converted into rum. This rum 
 was exported to Africa, and there exchanged for slaves and 
 other products, which found a ready market in the English, 
 Dutch, and Spanish colonies. The English Navigation Acts 
 
NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERATION 
 
 75 
 
 would have seriously interfered with the freedom of this 
 widely extended trade if they had been strictly observed, but 
 down to the Revolution they were openly evaded by the people 
 of New England. 
 
 129. Religious Persecution and Witchcraft. The Quakers 
 were bitterly persecuted in all the colonies, as dangerous to 
 government and society, 
 on account of their pecul- 
 iar beliefs, but their treat- 
 ment was especially severe 
 in all the colonies of New 
 England, except Ehode 
 Island (§ 120). This sect 
 thought that no special 
 deference was due to per- 
 sons in authority ; and 
 that it was wrong to take 
 an oath, even the oath of 
 allegiance to the king. 
 It condemned war as 
 always unjustifiable. 
 In Massachusetts a Quaker 
 who persisted in returning 
 after banishment was first 
 flogged, then his ears were 
 cut off and his tongue cut 
 out, and finally he was 
 
 condemned to death. A number of Quakers were hanged in 
 Boston, but after a while public opinion opposed such cruelty, 
 and Quakers were for a time only fined, imprisoned, or whipped, 
 until at length all persecution ceased. 
 
 130. Belief in witchcraft prevailed everywhere in these 
 times, but in Massachusetts it was undoubtedly aggravated 
 
 A Quaker Trial 
 
76 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 by the somber religious spirit of the Puritans. The supposed 
 witch was generally a decrepit old woman, living alone, who 
 was thought to have the power to ride through the air at 
 night on a broomstick. In 1692 Salem became the scene of 
 an extraordinary panic. Many persons suspected of witch- 
 craft were thrown into jail, and a special court met for their 
 trial. The delusion did not pass away until about twenty 
 innocent people had perished on the gallows. 
 
 General Goffe saves Hadley 
 
 131. King Philip's War. Alexander, the chief of the 
 Wampano' ags, was arrested by the Plymouth magistrates, 
 and on his way home he died of fever. His brother Philip, who 
 succeeded him in 1662, suspected that he had been poisoned 
 by the English ; but knowing the strength of the whites, was 
 reluctant to go to war. In 1675, however, as the citizens of 
 Swansea were returning from church they were set upon by a 
 band of his warriors without his authority, and nine of their 
 number were murdered. Philip, though he wept when he 
 
NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERATION 77 
 
 heard of the massacre, threw himself ardently into the contest 
 and soon formed a league of the chief tribes of New England. 
 
 132. Regicide Goffe. They attacked Deerfield and Hadley 
 on the Connecticut River, and other towns in Massachusetts. 
 Hadley was saved by an old man with a long, snowy beard, 
 who appeared in a strange dress, sword in liand, to rally the 
 whites and drive back the savages. This is supposed to have 
 been Goffe, one of the judges who had sentenced Charles I to 
 death, and who had taken refuge in New England after the 
 Restoration. He returned unobserved to his hiding place, and 
 the people believed an angel had come to their deliverance. 
 
 133. The JVam^agansetts having joined Philip, the whites 
 burst into their palisaded fort near the modern Kingston, and 
 slew one thousand of their warriors. At last Philip found 
 himself deserted. '^ My heart breaks," he exclaimed ; '' I am 
 ready to die." He was shot down, in trying to steal out of a 
 swamp. During this war, twelve towns were destroyed. 
 
 134. Struggle over the Charters. Sir Edimvncl Andros was 
 appointed by James II governor of all the New England 
 colonies in 1686, with instructions to revoke the liberal 
 charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island. The charter of 
 Massachusetts had already been annulled (1684) because its 
 people refused to observe the Navigation Act, a course which 
 would have been destructive of their foreign trade, on which 
 their welfare depended. Not long after Andros arrived, he 
 came to Hartford and ordered the Assembly, then in session, 
 to deliver up the charter of the colony. The document was 
 brought into the assembly hall at night and laid on the table. 
 Suddenly the candles went out, and when they were relighted, 
 it was found that the charter had disappeared. According to 
 tradition, the original charter was hidden in the hollow of 
 an ancient oak. When James II was deposed, Andros was 
 arrested for his course as governor, and put in jail. 
 
78 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 135. Charters Restored. Under the liberal government of 
 William and Mary, the successors of James II, the , charters 
 of Rhode Island and Connecticut were restored. In 1691 a 
 new charter was drawn for Massachusetts, which provided that 
 the crown should appoint the governor, and the people elect 
 the Council. All Protestants were allowed to vote and hold 
 office. This ended the separate existence of the Plymouth 
 Colony, and made it, as well as Maine, a part of Massachusetts. 
 
 Middle Colonies — New York 
 
 136. Settled by the Dutch. j\''ew Metherland. In 1609 
 Hudson River was entered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman 
 in the service of the Dutch East India Company, who was 
 searching the coast for a northwestern passage to Asia (§ 65). 
 As he sailed up the broad stream, he thought he had found 
 a strait leading to the Indian Ocean. A few years later (1613- 
 1614), the Dutch built huts on Manhattan Island, at the mouth 
 of the Hudson, and also a fort for the protection of those 
 engaged in the fur trade. In 1614 they erected a fort near 
 the present site of Albany for the same purpose. They called 
 the country New Netherland. The English declined to ac- 
 knowledge the right of the Dutch to the country, on the 
 ground that the voyages of the Cabots (§ 30) had given them 
 the superior claim, and they sent Captain Argall to capture 
 the new settlement on Manhattan Island and force the people 
 to submit to the English government. 
 
 137. The Patroons. Argall having sailed away, New 
 Netherland quietly returned to its Dutch allegiance. In 1621 
 the Dutch AVest India Company was created, wdth full politi- 
 cal and commercial power over New Netherland, and it at 
 once began to send out companies of emigrants who settled 
 at different places. Grants of territory, sixteen miles wide 
 and many miles in length, were, in 1629, made to any one who 
 
MIDDLE COLONIES — NEW YORK 
 
 79 
 
 would plant a colony of fifty persons in the wilderness along 
 the Hiuison. Such was the origin of the patroonships. These 
 lands were cleared and tilled by tenants, at a small rental, 
 in return for their free transportation across the ocean. The 
 Dutch adopted the policy of buying the soil from the Indians. 
 Manhattan Island, which later on became the site of the city 
 of New York, was purchased with twenty-four dollars' worth 
 of scarlet cloth and brass buttons and ribbons. 
 
 138. The first representative hody assembling in New Am- 
 sterdam was a committee of twelve, which came together in 
 1642, in order to 
 pacify the neigh- 
 boring Indians, 
 who were threat- 
 ening to rise. 
 The cry for popu- 
 lar election grew 
 so loud a few 
 years later, when 
 Peter Stuy vesant, 
 a brave, irascible, 
 one - legged sol- 
 dier, was gov- 
 ernor, that he 
 was forced to 
 allow a popular 
 convention to 
 meet, though he 
 refused to assent to its petitions. It was not until English 
 rule began that a regular assembly of the people was held 
 (1684), but a few years later this was forbidden. 
 
 139. Under English Dominion. Grant to Duhe of TorJc. 
 The English had never given up their claim to New Nether- 
 
 The Middle Colonies 
 
80 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 land. As long as the Dutch held it, the English colonies in 
 the South and the North were cut off from each other, except 
 by sea. In 1664 Charles II granted to his brother, the Duke 
 of York, afterward James II, the whole of the region lying 
 between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers. In August of 
 that year an English fleet anchored in the harbor of New 
 Amsterdam and compelled the town to surrender. The name 
 of the place was changed to New York. 
 
 140. Jacob Leisler. When James II w^as deposed, Jacob 
 Leisler (lis'ler), a merchant and captain of militia, called 
 together a band of men who swore that they would against all 
 assaults hold the fort for William and Mary, to whose occu- 
 pation of the throne there was strong opposition in the colony. 
 He at once assumed control of affairs with the support of the 
 democracy. A governor was sent out from England. When 
 his lieutenant, who had arrived first, tried to force his way 
 into the fort, it was resisted by Leisler, who doubted the 
 lieutenant's authority, and several soldiers were killed. For 
 this act, Leisler was tried and convicted of treason. The new 
 governor, Sloughter (slaw'ter), was reluctant to sign the death 
 warrant. Invited to dinner by certain enemies of Leisler, he 
 was made drunk, and in that condition he put his hand to the 
 fatal document. Leisler was hurried to execution before the 
 governor could return to his sober senses. 
 
 141. Captain Kidd. In 1695 many pirates infested the 
 seas off the American coasts. In order to destroy or drive 
 them away, the governor of New York, Lord Bellomont, while 
 still a private citizen, had formed a company for the purchase 
 of a ship, which was put under the command of William 
 Kidd, a merchant of New York. Kidd sailed away, but instead 
 of becoming a scourge to the pirates, turned out to be one of 
 the most daring and successful of these outlaws himself. He 
 was believed to have buried great quantities of treasure along 
 
MIDDLE COLONIES — NEW JERSEY 
 
 81 
 
 the Long Island coast. He was arrested in Boston and sent 
 to England, where he was tried and hanged. 
 
 142. J{ew York in 1697. In 1697 the population of New 
 York City was about 4300. One third of the people were 
 African slaves. The settled portions of the colony consisted 
 
 New York in 1697 (City Hall and Great Dock) 
 
 of a narrow strip of land lying on either side of the Hudson 
 Kiver, extending on the west a little beyond Albany. West of 
 this the country was occupied by the Iroquois. 
 
 Middle Colonies — New Jersey 
 
 143. The First Settlers. New Jersey, which was at first 
 embraced in the i-egion of New Netherland, owes its name to 
 the fact that Sir George Carteret, to whom and Lord Berkeley 
 the Duke of York, in 1664, conveyed the territory, had won 
 great distinction in the defense of the island of Jersey in 
 the English Channel. Early in the seventeenth century the 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 6 
 
82. 
 
 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Swedes and Dutch had planted colonies on the Delaware Eiver. 
 A band of Puritans were the first English settlers to come in ; 
 they established a settlement at Elizabethtown in 1664, and 
 here, in 1668, the first legislature met. 
 
 144. Carteret, in a series of " Concessions," gave the General 
 
 Assembly the exclusive right to collect taxes in East Jersey, 
 
 and guaranteed perfect liberty of conscience. Berkeley soon 
 
 sold West Jersey to two Quakers, one of whom becoming a 
 
 bankrupt, his part fell into the hands of William Penn, as 
 
 trustee. In 1676 Penn and his associates acquired Carteret's 
 
 rights in East Jersey. In 1702 East and West Jersey were 
 
 united into one province, under the direct control of the crown ; 
 
 but for thirty-six years longer it had a governor in common with 
 
 New York. 
 
 Middle Colonies — Pennsylvania 
 
 145. William Penn and the Quakers. The founder of Penn- 
 sylvania was AVilliam Penn, a member of the Society of 
 
 Quakers, a sect opposed to war 
 and slavery and all frivolities 
 and cruel sports. Penn had joined 
 the Society when at college, and 
 in spite of the threats of his father, 
 Admiral Penn, had remained true 
 to its doctrines. He became in- 
 terested in securing a refuge for 
 the persecuted Quakers in the 
 American wilderness. The Eng- 
 lish government was in debt to 
 him to the extent of 16,000 pounds, 
 and in payment Penn received a 
 grant to nearly all the territory in the boundaries of the 
 modern Pennsylvania, a name given to the colony partly 
 (Penn) by the king, and partly (sylvania) by himself. 
 
 William Penn 
 
MIDDLE COLONIES — PENNSYLVANIA" 83 
 
 146. The Earliest Settlers of Pennsylvania were the Swedes. 
 In 1G55 thej^ were subdued by the Dutch, and after this, a 
 number of Dutch came in permanently; and these were fol- 
 lowed by the English as soon as the Duke of York took pos- 
 session of the country as a j^art of Xew Netherland. Penn 
 wrote to his future subjects : " You shall be governed by laws 
 of 3^our own making." He himself arrived in the province in 
 1682, and at Shackamaxon, near Philadelphia, under a noble 
 elm, entered into a treaty with the Indians, which brought 
 about a lasting peace. Por many years no Quaker of Penn- 
 sylvania perished at the hands of the Indians. "^ We will 
 live," they said, " in love with William Penn and his children 
 as long as the moon and sun shall endure." 
 
 147. Philadelphia Founded. In 1683 Penn chose a site for 
 a new city on the north side of the Schuylkill Piver, and 
 here he laid off broad streets, with spaces for gardens, so as 
 to form " a green country town." He named it Philadelphia 
 — City of Brotherly Love — and gave the streets the names 
 of the trees in the surrounding forests — walnut, chestnut, 
 locust, pine, etc. At the end of two years the town had 
 2000 people. At the time of the Revolution Philadelphia 
 was the first city in America in social celebrity as well as in 
 population. 
 
 148. Germantown was founded in 1683 by colonists from Ger- 
 many, the advance guard of the sturdy people who poured into 
 Pennsylvania, and spread as far as Virginia and North Caro- 
 lina. It was Pastorius, the principal citizen of Germantown, 
 who offered a protest against buying and selling slaves — 
 the first public act of the kind in the history of America. 
 
 149. Charter of Privileges. Penn ratified the Charter of 
 Privileges, which had been framed by the people. It provided 
 that no one should be molested for his religious opinions, and 
 that every one believing in the divinity of Christ could hold 
 
84 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 office. The people had the right to elect an Assembly, but the 
 proprietary could veto laws he did not approve. 
 
 150. In his last years, Penn, owing to his large expenditures 
 on account of his province, fell into debt, was arrested, and 
 imprisoned. He died in 1718. The proprietary interest of his 
 family in Pennsylvania continued until the Revolution, when it 
 passed to the commonwealth on the payment of $570,000.^ 
 
 Middle Colonies — Delaware 
 
 151. The Swedes. Delaware derived its name from that of 
 the great bay, which had been named for Lord Delaware, one 
 of the early governors of Virginia. The first settlement by the 
 Dutch was destroyed by the Indians. In 1638 a body of emi- 
 grants from Sweden landed near the site of the modern Wil- 
 mington, and in memory of their native land called the country 
 New Sweden. The new colony was known as Christiana, and it 
 grew rapidly in prosperity. 
 
 152. Subject to Pennsylvania. In 1651 the Dutch, who 
 claimed the country, though it was really in the bounds of the 
 Maryland patent, built a fort near Christiana ; but the Swedes 
 attacked it and drove the garrison out. In a short time (1655) 
 an army of six hundred men arrived from New Amsterdam 
 to avenge the insult and force the Swedes to submit to Dutch 
 rule. In 1664 the country passed into the hands of the Duke 
 of York, under his grant from Charles II. After 1682 Delaware, 
 now known as the " Three Lower Counties on the Delaware," 
 though it had an Assembly of its own, was subject to the pro- 
 prietary of Pennsylvania, who had bought it from the Duke of 
 York, in order to secure a seacoast for his colony. It was not 
 until the Revolution that it acquired a separate government. 
 
 1 A difficulty arose between Maryland and Pennsylvania as to their true 
 boundary line. This was settled by a survey (17()3-17()7) , known as Mason and 
 Dixon's Line, from the names of the two surveyors. This liue bei-ame of na- 
 tional celebrity at a later day, as dividing the slave from the free states. 
 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 85 
 
 Social and Economic Condition of the Colonies 
 
 153. The Population. At the close of the period ending in 
 1754 the social and economic condition of each of the colonies 
 was plainly determined. In that year the total population was 
 about 1,428,000, distributed as follows: in the South, 609,000; 
 in New England, 439,000; in the Middle Colonies, 380,000. 
 The principal stock was English or Scotch, but in some of the 
 colonies other strains were powerful enough to have a far- 
 reaching influence, such as the Dutch in New York, the Ilugne- 
 nots in South Carolina, the Germans in Pennsylvania. 
 
 154. Southern Colonies. The Great Staples. In the South- 
 ern colonies the people were entirely given np to the cultivation 
 of great staples, like tobacco, rice, and indigo. The plantations 
 were generally very large ; the landowners, lived widely apart, 
 and relied upon their estates to snpply most of their wants. 
 Shipping their crops to the English market, they obtained 
 there the goods, such as hardware, glass, crockery, furniture, 
 utensils, and wine, which they could not produce themselves. 
 There were no large cities, in spite of many legislative 
 attempts to increase their growth. The largest was Charles- 
 ton, with a population of about 15,000. 
 
 155. Ownership in vast tracts of land had the tendency 
 to create an aristocratic class in the Southern colonies by 
 nourishing the sense of personal importance and independence. 
 This feeling was increased by the possession of many slaves, 
 who did most of the work of the large plantations. Their only 
 assistants were "indented servants" or " redemptioners." 
 These were persons who had come out from England under 
 a written contract to " serve " for a certain number of years, in 
 return for food, clothes, and lodging. Many of these servants, 
 however, had been kidnapped, or were transported criminals. 
 
 156. Life on widely separated plantations encouraged 
 
86 
 
 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 habits of lavish hospitality. The presence of kinsmen, friends, 
 and even strangers as guests, varied the monotony of the plant- 
 ers' lives. Their residences were spacious, supplies were abun- 
 dant, servants were numerous. The planters rarely left home 
 except to visit relations, or to spend a few weeks in the colo- 
 nial capital. They drove thither in their coaches and four; 
 
 In a Virginia Home 
 
 and in the balls and races which enlivened the brief season 
 they took the leading part. 
 
 157. The Large Planters. The large planters made festi- 
 vals of their family anniversaries, and celebrated the numer- 
 ous holidays, especially Christmas, with all the heartiness and 
 gayety of their English forefathers. The walls of their houses 
 were adorned with family portraits, and their sideboards shone 
 with silver plate, while the rooms were filled with imported 
 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 87 
 
 furniture of the latest English patterns. They had blooded 
 horses in their stables, and dogs of the finest breeds in their 
 kennels. It was the old English life of their ancestors and 
 kinsmen across the water, which had been transplanted to the 
 banks of the Severn, James, and Rappahannock. 
 
 158. The Small Planters. Below this class of large plant- 
 ers in the South there was a class of small landowners, who, 
 while lacking the means to live on the same abundant footing, 
 were independent in their circumstances and formed a body of 
 men of many fine qualities. They were the owners of a few 
 slaves, and in many cases aided in the cultivation of their own 
 fields. There was another class, known as the '• poor whites," 
 who either were without any property, or if they owned any 
 part of the soil, resided on a few acres lying on the barren 
 ridges, where they gained a scanty subsistence. 
 
 159. Religion. The most jjowerful religious influence at 
 work in the Southern colonies was that of the Church of Eng- 
 land, which was supported by the local government. The 
 clergymen, as a rule, were brought from the mother country 
 and did much to confirm the sympathy of the people with the 
 English Church and strengthen their loyalty to the crown. 
 There were influential dissenters, however, like the Scotch- 
 Irish Presbyterians in Virginia and North Carolina, the 
 Roman Catholics in Maryland, the Methodists and Baptists 
 in Georgia. 
 
 160. Southern Schools. As the population of the South, 
 owing to the size of the plantations, was sparse and scattered, 
 popular education did not take deep root there. There were, 
 however, numerous schools. Several free schools were in exist- 
 ence in Virginia and Maryland as early as the seventeenth cen- 
 tury; and there were many private libraries in these colonies 
 from an equally early date. The children of the wealthy 
 planters were educated, as a rule, by tutors, but many were 
 
88 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 sent to English universities. In Virginia, William and Mary 
 College, founded in 1693, offered advantages of instruction 
 equal to any to be obtained in America. The number of 
 authors was small, but in William Byrd, the Southern colo- 
 nies possessed at least one of a high degree of merit. 
 
 161. New England Colonies. TJie Dispositioii to concen- 
 trate. The New England township was made up of many 
 small shares of land owned by families who had built their 
 houses close together in the form of a village. The disposi- 
 tion of the New England colonists was to concentrate, because 
 (1) the people, for the most part, had, in the beginning, come 
 over from England in religious congregations, each led by its 
 minister, and settled in one spot, like a swarm of bees; (2) 
 the fact that the Indians were more persistently hostile there 
 than elsewhere, forced each community to collect its strength 
 as much as possible ; (3) as the soil was thin and stony, and 
 the climate harsh, the region was not adapted to those products 
 which alone made large landholdings profitable. 
 
 162. The Principal Crops. Hay, grain, vegetables, and 
 flax were the principal crops. Unlike rice and tobacco, they 
 required little labor beyond what the members of the owners' 
 families could furnish ; and, in consequence, there was no 
 room for many slaves in the New England colonies. As the 
 forests were extraordinarily fine, the people soon came to be 
 shipbuilders on a large scale. In their homemade vessels, they 
 plowed the Greenland waters for whales, and hovered over the 
 Banks of Newfoundland for cod, and found each to be a source 
 of great profit. They soon became the principal carriers by 
 sea for the other colonies. Boston alone owned six hundred 
 ships engaged in the foreign trade, and one thousand in the 
 fisheries and the coast trade. The only manufactures in New 
 England, as elsewhere in the colonies, were homemade, as the 
 English government actively discouraged them. 
 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ' 89 
 
 163. The social life of the people of New England was 
 marked by much that was stern and austere. The use of gold 
 or silver ornaments and lace was forbidden, except to persons 
 of large estates ; the people refused to recognize the imme- 
 morial holidays and feast days of their ancestors; only persons 
 of the best condition were addressed as Mr. or Mrs., the gen- 
 eral form of address being Goodman, or Goodwife ; the cere- 
 mony of marriage was performed by a civil magistrate ; 
 and the chief social amusements were house raisings, and 
 husking and quilting parties. 
 
 164. Religious Duties. The law was very active in en- 
 forcing the performance of religious duties. In the early 
 colonial age the people were summoned to church by the 
 beating of a drum, and marched thither in military order. 
 The members were seated according to their official dignity, 
 the elders and deacons in front, with rows of men on one side 
 behind them, and rows of women on the other side. The 
 children, servants, and slaves were still farther in the rear. 
 No instrumental music was allowed. 
 
 165. Popular Education. The interest which the New 
 England people felt in popular education was an admirable 
 part of their character. The town system, by concentrating 
 their population, made a public school system possible at an 
 early date. In 1647 every town in Massachusetts was required 
 to establish a free school ; and if its population exceeded one 
 hundred families, a grammar school also. Harvard College 
 was founded in 1636; Yale in 1701; Ehode Island College 
 (Brown University) in 1764; and Dartmouth in 1769. In 
 1639 a printing press was set up in Cambridge. The first 
 permanent newspaper in America was begun in Boston in 
 1704. The Bible, sermons, and almanacs were the most popu- 
 lar literature. Edwards's " On the Freedom of the Will " was 
 one of the greatest books produced in the colonies. 
 
90 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 166. The Middle Colonies. Pin^suits of the People. The 
 
 people of the Middle colonies, being rather mixed in their 
 origin, were distinguished by unusual diversity of pursuits. 
 They not only followed agriculture, like the Southern colonists, 
 but also were as deeply engaged in trade as the colonists 
 of New England, and, to an even greater degree, in manu- 
 facture. Flour as well as grain was exported. Glass and 
 paper were made, and the iron industry had reached propor- 
 tions of importance. In Philadelphia the professions of law 
 and medicine had already won a high reputation. 
 
 167. The Patrooivs. In the colony of New York alone 
 there was to be found a class like the great landowners of the 
 Southern communities. These were the patroons, who lived in 
 fine mansions, surrounded by numerous tenants, servants, and 
 slaves. Here and there, in the other Middle colonies, a landed 
 gentry of some importance existed, but social equality was the 
 rule in all their other communities. 
 
 168. The Dutch colonists of New York, though lovers of 
 home, were fond of holidays and festivals and the pleasures of 
 life as far as their means permitted. In Pennsylvania the 
 Quakers gave a severe character to social habits ; their amuse- 
 ments did not go beyond a house raising, husking, or cider 
 pressing. In all the Middle colonies slaves were numerous. 
 At one time they were suspected of a plot to burn the town 
 of New York ; and for this supposed offense several were 
 hanged or burned at the stake. 
 
 169. Schools. The Dutch established a large number of free 
 schools during the period of their supremacy in New York, but 
 these schools were sustained with little spirit by the English 
 after their rule began. There were none in Pennsylvania until 
 1689, when a free school was started in Philadelphia by the 
 Quakers. The number of private schools was small. New Jer- 
 sey had a few free schools. In 1746 a college was founded at 
 
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AND GOVERNMENT 91 
 
 Princeton, New Jersey, by the Presbyterians, and in 175-4 
 King's College (Columbia) was founded in Xew York by the 
 Episcopaliaas. The College of Pennsylvania was founded 
 in 1751. 
 
 Means of Communication and Forms of Government 
 
 170. Means of Transportation. Owing to the great distance 
 separating the different groups of colonies, there was little 
 intercourse between them. There was no system of good roads 
 uniting the colonies, even of the same group. If any one 
 wished to go from New York to Philadelphia, he either walked, 
 rode on horseback, or went in a sailing sloop down the Jersey 
 coast, and then up the Dela- 
 ware Eiver. The quickest 
 route to Boston, in the 
 North, or Williamsburg or 
 Charleston, in the South, 
 was by sea. It was not 
 until 1744 that the first 
 stage line was established 
 between Providence and 
 Boston. In 1756 a stage 
 was run twice a week be- 
 tween New York and Phil- 
 adelphia. There was no 
 stagecoach in the South in 
 colonial times. 
 
 171. Colonial Post Office. 
 When the public officers 
 had occasion to send a packet of letters, they gave the bearer 
 authority to impress relays of horses, and also men and boats, 
 if necessary. Sometimes such packets were marked for the 
 "public service," and then each planter or farmer on the 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Postal Service in 1700 
 
92 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 line, of its passage was required to forward it to his next 
 neiglibor, and so on in turn. In 1692 the office of deputy 
 postmaster-general for America was created by authority of 
 Great Britain. It was chiefly due to the energy and sagacity 
 of Benjamin Franklin the deputy postmaster-general, that the 
 general post became as useful as it was. There were, how- 
 ever, even under his management, not more than three mails a 
 week between the larger cities. Between New York and Boston 
 mail was sent out only twice a week. The letters were carried 
 by a post rider on horseback, who was required to cover thirty 
 miles a day. Once a month a packet boat left New York for 
 England. 
 
 172. The Forms of Government. If we look at the manner in 
 which they were governed, the colonies can be divided into 
 three groups; namely, (1) the charter, (2) the proprietary, and 
 (3) the royal or provincial. The charter colonies were Con- 
 necticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Their charters 
 were really contracts between the king and the colonists, and 
 could only be revoked by mutual consent, provided that the 
 colonists had not been guilty of some breach of the terms, 
 which gave the king the right to annul the original agreement 
 by due process of law. It was under these circumstances that 
 the charters of Virginia, at first a charter colony, and Massa- 
 chusetts were, in 1624 and 1684, respectively, recalled. The 
 proprietary colonies were Delaware, Maryland, and Pennsyl- 
 vania. The proprietaries themselves were really subject kings, 
 who had the poAver to grant land patents, to set up a regular 
 administration, and to name the governors. The royal or 
 provincial colonies were New Hampshire, New York, New 
 Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Geor- 
 gia. The king appointed the heads of these colonies and 
 gave special instructions as to how their affairs were to be 
 carried on. 
 
MEANS, OF COMMUNICATION AND GOVERNMENT 93 
 
 173. The Legislature. Every colony had an assembly of its 
 own, comiwsed of two branches: the Upper, corresponding to 
 the modern Senate, consisted of the members of the Council ; 
 the Lower, corresponding to the modern House of Eepresen- 
 tatives, consisted of members elected by those among the 
 people who were qualified to vote by the fact that they were 
 landowners, taxpayers, and, in some colonies, also church 
 communicants. The acts of Assembly could become laws 
 only if they had received the approval, first of the governor, 
 and lastly, in most cases, of the king. The king reserved the 
 power to veto the acts of all the colonies, except Maryland, 
 Rhode Island, and Connecticut, which were specially ex- 
 empted by the terms of their charters. 
 
 174. The Governor. It was only in Rhode Island and Con- 
 necticut that the people elected the governor. In the other 
 colonies, but for the fact that his salary depended upon a vote 
 of the Assembly, he would have been entirely independent, in 
 his official conduct, of popular favor. As the representative of 
 the king or proprietary the governor alone could call the Assem- 
 bly together, and he could dissolve it by a stroke of his pen. 
 He was commander in chief of the militia, and as such named 
 all the military officers. He also appointed the judges. 
 
 175. Board of Trade. In order to relieve the king of the 
 burden of following the affairs of the colonies in detail, a 
 Board of Trade and Plantations was created in 1696, which, 
 in the royal name, instructed the colonial governors as to their 
 duties ; received reports from them ; reviewed the colonial 
 laws ; and recommended the king to accept or disallow these 
 laws, as seemed advisable. In other words, the members of 
 the Board acted as the king's advisers and also as his agents. 
 Parliament, previous to the death of Charles I, had no part in 
 colonial rule. In the time of the Commonwealth, however, 
 it passed laws respecting the colonial trade and other colonial 
 
94 
 
 PERMANENT COLONIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 interests, and this power it never again entirely gave up, even 
 after tlie monarchy was restored in England. When, at the 
 beginning of the American Revolution, the colonists declared 
 that Parliament had no right to impose a tax on them, they 
 were thinking of the time, before Cromwell became Protector 
 of England, when the king alone had a right to interfere in 
 their affairs. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF PERIOD II 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 I. Virg-inia. 
 
 II. Maryland. 
 
 III. North Carolina. 
 
 V. Georgia. 
 
 1. The First Expedition. 
 
 o Tr^l.n Cimitli / 1. His Advcntures. 
 
 Z. dolin t5mitn. | 2. Services to the Colony. 
 
 3. Starving Time. 
 
 4. Delaware's and Dale's Administrations. 
 
 5. Pocahontas. 
 
 6. The Charters. 
 
 <J 7. First American Legislature. 
 
 8. Slavery Introduced. 
 
 9. Indian Massacres. 
 
 10. The Cavaliers. 
 
 11. Period of 
 pression. | j; Reiigi'ous Persecution. 
 
 Bacon's Rebellion. 
 
 f)y. ( 1. Navigation A( 
 ^^' ->. 2. Heavy Taxation. 
 
 L12. 
 
 1. Why it was first Settled. 
 
 2. Terms of Charter. 
 
 3. Settlement. 
 
 4. Conflict with Claiborne. 
 
 5. Religious Toleration. 
 1, 6. Civil Conflicts. 
 
 f 1. Settlement. 
 2. Proprietary Charter. 
 
 IV. South Carolina. <J 
 
 I 
 
 I 2. Proprietary (. 
 
 < 3. Grand Model 
 
 4. Struggles wii 
 
 L 5. Immigration. 
 
 th Indians. 
 
 Settlement. 
 
 Conflicts with Spaniards. 
 
 3. Indian Wars. 
 
 4. Depredations of Pirates on the Coast. 
 
 5. Arrival of Huguenots. 
 
 1^ G. Rice Planting. 
 
 f 1. Why it was first Settled. 
 J 2. Savannah. 
 <| 3. European Immigrants. 
 
 4. Conflicts with the Spaniards. 
 I 5. Board of Trustees. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD II 
 
 95 
 
 VI. Massachusetts. 
 
 VII. Rhode Island. 
 
 VIII. Connecticut. 
 
 IX. New Hampshire. 
 
 Plymouth Col- 
 ony. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Bay Colony. 
 
 r 1. Why the Pilgrims left 
 I land. 
 
 -! 2. Their Landing. 
 
 I 3. Their Early Hardships. 
 
 i^ 4. delations with Indians. 
 
 f 1. A Colony of Puritans, 
 
 .i 2. The First Settlements, 
 
 i 3. Civil Government. 
 
 L 4. Harvard College. 
 
 Eng- 
 
 ( 1. The Religious Spirit of the Puritans. 
 
 ^ ,TT.,,. I ^- His Opinions. 
 
 Roger Williams. \ 2. His Flight. 
 , „ T.^ TT X , • '-^- Settles Providence. 
 
 l^ 6. Mrs. Hutchinson. 
 
 r 1. First Settlement. {\ By the Dutch. 
 
 o 'vy T?- ^ «- •.. W- ^Massachusetts Colonists. 
 J 2. 1 he lirst Written Constitution. 
 I 3, New Haven Colony. 
 1^ 4. Pequot War. 
 
 1. Mason and Gorges. 
 
 2. The First Settlements. 
 
 3. Union with Massachusetts. 
 
 (I: 
 
 X. New England I „ 
 Confederation. i '1' 
 
 15. 
 
 Purposes and Limits of Union. 
 Agricultural Products of New England. 
 Religious Persecution and Witchcraft. 
 King Philip's War. 
 Struggle over the Charters. 
 
 r 
 
 en 
 W 
 
 O 
 ^ J 
 
 XI. New Yorlsk. 
 
 XII. New Jersey. 
 
 XIII. Pennsylvania. 
 
 XIV. Delaware. 
 
 r 1. First Settlement. 
 I 2. Patroons. 
 
 Duke of York's Grant and Conquest. 
 Jacob Leisler. 
 Captain Kidd. 
 
 {1. Settlement. 
 2. Carteret's Concessions. 
 3. East and West Jersey united. 
 
 r 1. Settlement by Swedes, Dutch, and English. 
 I 2. William Penn. ^ 
 
 3. Treaty with Indians. 
 
 4. Philadelphia and Germantown founded. 
 
 5. Charter of Privileges. 
 
 ri. Swedish Settlements. 
 <J 2. Dutch Conquest. 
 1^ 3. Bought by Penn. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 XV. Social and Eco- f 1. The Southern Colonies, 
 nomic Condition <^ 2. New England Colonies, 
 of the Colonies. (^ 3. The Middle Colonies. 
 
 XVI. Means of Com- / 1. Roads and Stages. 
 munication. l^ 2. Colonial Post Offices. 
 
 f 1. Charter Governments. 
 
 XVII. Character of | 2. Proprietary Governments. 
 Colonial Civil<;[ 3. Roval Governments. 
 Government. i 4. Power of Governors. 
 
 t T). Board of Trade. 
 
PERIOD III. GROWING UNION OF 
 THE COLONIES 
 
 The Lesser French and Indian Wars, 1 689-1 748 
 
 176. Social and Commercial Intercourse. Down to 1754 all 
 the colonies except the United Colonies of New England 
 
 k(§ 127) were separate communities, wholly independent of 
 each other. This was due not only to their having distinct 
 governments, but also to the great distance between them. 
 Social and commercial intercourse, however, had been steadily 
 growing, and when the last French and Indian war began in 
 1754, all the colonies were sufficiently close together in feeling 
 and interest to act practically as one for their mutual defense. 
 From this time we have to deal with the history of the United 
 Colonies, a history which was to end only when the history of 
 the United States began. 
 
 177. French Chain of Forts. By 1754 the French had built a 
 chain of forts from Louisburg, in Cape Breton Island, to Chi- 
 cagou on the Lakes; from Chicagou to New Orleans and Mobile 
 (map, pp. 102, 103). They claimed a right to all the territory 
 lying on the tributaries of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, 
 and in order to hold it, had built inland forts which, like 
 Kaskaskia and Vincennes in the country north of the Ohio, 
 had now become im]:)ortant trading posts. 
 
 178. The Struggle for Territory. As the English settlements 
 drew nearer to the western spurs of the Alleghanies, the danger 
 of falling foul of the French posts became more imminent. 
 In 1754 the time had come when English colonization must 
 
 96 
 
THE LESSER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 97 
 
 either stop at the crest of these iiiouiitains, or the wave must 
 roll over tlie barrier, and spread far and wide in the fertile 
 regions beyond. It was not long before a mighty struggle 
 began for the supremacy over all the territory west of the 
 Alleghanies — a struggle which was to end in the complete 
 destruction of the French power in North America. 
 
 179. An Unavoidable Entanglement. During the sixty years 
 before the final contest opened, the French and the English 
 colonies had come into conflict several times. This had its 
 origin, not in any independent desire of these colonies for local 
 conquest or in quarrels among themselves, but in the unavoid- 
 able entanglement of their people in the hostilities going on 
 between the French and English nations in Europe. Hence 
 these wars are known by the names of the English monarchs 
 in whose reigns they occurred. 
 
 180. KingWilliam^sWar, 1689-1697. Capture of Port Royal. 
 When James II was driven from his throne by William of 
 Orange, he fled to France, where he sought the aid of Louis XIV. 
 Hostilities, which had been carried on by William as the head 
 of a great league against Louis, now broke out between Louis 
 and William as king of England, and spread to the American 
 colonies. There the first campaign of the English was suc- 
 cessful. A fleet, with New England troops on board, under 
 the command of Governor Phips of Massachusetts, in 1690, 
 captured Port Royal in Acadia ; but on the way to Quebec, a 
 second fleet, also under Phips, suffered a check at the hands 
 of Frontenac, the governor of Canada, and the troops returned 
 to Boston. An overland expedition against Montreal by New 
 York and Connecticut troops also failed. 
 
 181. Indian Massacres. These expeditions against Canada 
 had been sent out to put a stop to the French and Indian 
 atrocities on the frontier. Early in 1690 a band of French 
 soldiers and Indians had come down in their snowshoes, 
 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 7 
 
98 
 
 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 through the wintry forests, to Schenectady. So strong was 
 the sense of security in the garrison of the post, that, as a 
 mere form, they had made figures of snow and set them up as 
 sentinels at the gates. Only a few of the inhabitants were 
 able to escape the butchery by flying half naked to Albany. 
 At Salmon Falls and Durham in New Hampshire, at Groton 
 
 Gulf^of 
 Lawrencef] 
 
 SABLE 1 
 
 A N 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 The Lesser French and Indian Wars 
 
 and Haverhill in Massachusetts, and York in Maine, — every- 
 where the same awful tale of the scalping knife and the 
 torch.^ The Iroquois, who were friends of the English, were 
 
 1 The attack made, in 1697, on Haverhill, in Massachusetts, will always be 
 memorable for the story of Mrs. Dustin. Her husband was working in the 
 field, while seven of their children were playing at no great distance from 
 him. Suddenly discovering that a band of Indians were in possession of his 
 house, where his wife had been left, with an infant, engaged in her usual 
 duties, he succeeded, with his gun at full cock and in his hands ready for 
 immediate use, in making his way safely to shelter with his children at his 
 side. Mrs. Dustin was carried off, together with a maid and a boy who 
 understood the Indian language. The infant was killed. There were nine 
 warriors and three squaws in the party. When two days out, the boy over- 
 heard the savages planning to torture Mrs. Dustin on their arrival at their 
 village. The same night, while the Indians were asleep, the three captives 
 
THE LESSER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 99 
 
 attacked in their villages i-n New York, by tlie Frencli, and 
 their power almost destroyed. The war was closed in 1697 
 by the Treaty of Ryswick (riz'wick). By this treaty Port 
 E-oyal was returned to France (§ 180), and no territorial 
 change was made. 
 
 182. Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. Deerfielcl. In the pre- 
 vious war the Iroquois had been outposts for the protection of 
 the New England colonists, but in the next war, which was 
 carried on in the time of Queen Anne of England, with both 
 the French and Spaniards, the treaty of peace that the French 
 had made with these Indians left the New England frontiers 
 open to attack. In 1704 the French and Indians, waiting 
 until the morning watch at Deerfield, in JMassachusetts, was 
 deserted by the soldiers, rushed within the palisades, plied the 
 torch to the inflammable wooden houses, and after killing about 
 forty persons, carried off about one hundred. 
 
 183. Expedition against Quebec. In 1706 the French 
 and Spaniards made an attack on Charleston, but were bravely 
 repulsed (§ 101). In 1710 Port Eoyal was again seized by the 
 English. In the following year a fleet was sent out from Eng- 
 land to capture Quebec and Montreal. The vessels, in a heavy 
 fog, ran upon the rocks in passing up the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and 1000 men lost their lives. The Peace of Utrecht (u'trekt) 
 ended the war in 1713. By the terms of the treaty Acadia (the 
 name of which was now changed to Nova Scotia), Newfound- 
 land, and the Hudson Bay region passed finally into the hands 
 of England. Hitherto the French had disputed the English 
 claim to the last two countries. 
 
 184. KingGeorge's War, 1744-1748. Capture of Loidshurg. 
 We have already described the events of this war in the South 
 
 rose up, and seizing the tomahawks, by a preconcerted arrangement beat out 
 the brains of ten of tlieir enemies. The remaining two escaped death by- 
 flight. Mrs. Dustin and her companions then made their way home, where 
 Mrs. Dustin was awarded a bounty of fifty pounds sterling. 
 
 LcfC. 
 
100 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 (§ 108) in connection with the settlement of Georgia. There 
 the war was waged with the Spaniards. The chief event in 
 the North, where the conflict took place with the French, was the 
 capture of Louisburg, a fortress on Cape Breton Island. The 
 French boasted that it was impregnable. In 1745 a large body 
 of troops from New England attacked the fort, and after a siege 
 of six weeks captured it. When peace was made, in 1748, by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks lah shah p6l'), Louisburg was 
 given back to France. 
 
 185. Indian Allies of the French. In all these wars the 
 French had made the utmost use of their terrible Indian allies. 
 Hardly a single colony was free from the bloody incursions of 
 the savages. All the previous wars had their origin in quar- 
 rels between the English and French in Europe, but the great 
 French and Indian War that broke out in 1754 was the result 
 of influences having their principal springs in America. It 
 was the colonists who were now most anxious for the French 
 and their Indian allies to be crushed, and for this purpose 
 they furnished a large body of troops. 
 
 The Great French and Indian War, 1 754-1 763 
 
 186. Its Causes. French Posts. The rapid inroads of the 
 Virginians on the western side of the Alleghanies, about 1749, 
 greatly alarmed the French, and led them to erect a new line 
 of forts, Presque Isle (presk eel'), Le Boeuf (I'bef), and Ve- 
 nan'go, midway between the Alleghanies and the old military 
 posts far to the west (§ 177). The object of this was to close 
 the Ohio Eiver as the only unguarded highway to the valley 
 of the Mississippi. In 1753 a young man just twenty-one 
 years of age, named George Washington, was sent by Governor 
 Dinwiddle of Virginia to Le Boeuf to protest against the French 
 intruding on soil claimed by the English, and also to find out 
 as much as possible about the French forts and garrisons. In 
 
THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 101 
 
 returning, the youthful envoy, who had failed to change the 
 policy of the French commanders or to obtain any satisfac- 
 tory answer, received at point blank the fire of a hostile In- 
 dian 5 at another time he was thrown into the Allegheny 
 River in the effort to push a raft of logs across it through 
 the great blocks of floating ice. 
 
 187. Fort Duqivesne and Great Meadows. As the French 
 declined to leave the country, Governor Dinwiddle sent a body 
 of rangers to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio on the site 
 of the modern Pittsburg, but the French drove them off and 
 finished the fort themselves, and named it Duquesne (du kan'). 
 The rangers were soon reenforced by part of a regiment of 
 soldiers under Washington. In the spring of 1754 Washing- 
 ton, who had gone forward with a reconnoitering force, defeated 
 a party of the French,^ but a short time afterward (July 4, 
 1754) he was attacked in overwhelming numbers, and com- 
 pelled to surrender the fort (Fort Necessity) which he had 
 built in haste at Great Meadows ; not, however, until he had 
 obtained terms allowing him and his troops to return unmo- 
 lested to their homes in Virginia. Thus was begun the great 
 French and Indian War, although it was not until 1756 that 
 the formal declaration of war between England and France 
 was made. 
 
 188. Campaign of 1 755-1 756. The Albany Convention. 
 The colonies saw that the cause of Virginia in the dispute with 
 France was the cause of all. A convention, in which nearly all 
 were represented, met in 1754, at Albany to devise a scheme 
 of common defense. Benjamin Franklin brought forward a 
 plan of union, which created a central authority with the 
 right to enlist troops and raise taxes in all the colonies. 
 
 1 Washington himself is said to have fired the first gun at Great Meadows, 
 thus beginning a conflict which was to last for many years and have the most 
 momentous consequences. 
 
104 
 
 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 This plan was rejected, and each colony was left to furnish 
 supplies and troops as seemed to it proper. 
 
 189. Tlie Acadians. In 1755 an army of 2000 men from 
 New England made an attack on the Acadian settlements 
 lying along the Bay of Fundy. These settlements, together 
 with Louisburg, threatened New England and controlled the 
 fisheries. The Acadians, a simple-minded country people, had 
 declined to take the oath of allegiance, although they were 
 
 Washington's Trip to Fort Le Bceuf 
 
 living in British territory (§ 183), and it was determined to 
 scatter them. They w^ere ordered by Colonel Win slow to 
 assemble in the church at Grand Pre at a certain hour. There, 
 for the first time, they were informed of what was in store 
 for them ; and from thence w^ere marched on board ship — 
 some families being separated in the confusion — and trans- 
 ported in bands to Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Some 
 finally settled in France ; some in Louisiana, where their 
 descendants still live. After the most poignant sorrows and 
 
THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 105 
 
 direst hardships inanj of the wanderers made their way back 
 to tlie beautiful hind of their birth. ^ 
 
 190. March to Fort Duqiiesne. Early in 1755 General 
 Brad dock came over from England with two regiments of 
 veteran troops and took command at Alexandria, on the Poto- 
 mac River, in Virginia. In June he set out from Fort Cum- 
 berland against Fort Duquesne. This stronghold threatened 
 Virginia and Pennsylvania with constant Indian and French 
 incursions, and it was important to reduce it. Washington, 
 who was one of Braddock's aids-de-camp, warned him to be 
 on guard against the savage methods of warfare, but Braddock, 
 who despised the strength of the Indians, did not believe that 
 they were to be feared. "The Indians," he said, "might 
 frighten continental troops, but could excite no fear in the 
 king's veterans." His regulars, dressed in their brilliant uni- 
 forms and with colors flying, at times marched forward as 
 if on parade, breaking the stillness of the forests with the 
 lively music of their fifes and drums. 
 
 191. Braddoclc Defeated. The French commander had 
 dispatched a band of French and Indians against the English. 
 The two forces met suddenly in a woody ravine near the fort. 
 The French and Indians immediately separated, and conceal- 
 ing themselves behind trees and rocks on either side, poured 
 a galling fire into the English huddled between them. The 
 English could only return it by fusillades against the rocks and 
 trees, and after a time gave way in confusion. Braddock was 
 soon mortally wounded, and but for the activity of Washington 
 and his Virginian troops, who were accustomed to Indian war- 
 fare, the whole of the British arnay would have perished. 
 The fugitives took refuge in Fort Cumberland. In this battle 
 Washington had two horses shot under him, and his clothes 
 
 1 The wanderinos of the Acadiaus is the subject of one of the most beau- 
 tiful poems in our language, Longfellow's " Evangeline." 
 
106 
 
 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 were pierced by four bullets. Many years afterward an Indian 
 came a long distance to see him as the man at whom he had, 
 in the hght, fired fifteen times in vain. 
 
 192. Expedition against Crown Point. In the same 
 year General William Johnson made an expedition against 
 Crown Point in New York, an important place as forming the 
 gateway from Canada by way of Lakes George and Champlain. 
 Colonel Williams having been sent forward with a larsre 
 
 Braddock's Defeat 
 
 detachment of trooj^s, fell into an ambush and was killed, 
 while his men retreated to the fortifications which had been 
 erected in their rear. In vain did the French and Indians 
 seek to dislodge them. Finally rushing out under the com- 
 mand of General Lyman, they threw the enemy into a com- 
 plete rout and captured the French general, Dieskau (des'kow). 
 Having erected Fort William Henry not far from Fort Ed- 
 ward, Johnson fell back to Albany.^ An expedition under 
 
 1 Johnson, who was wounded slightly early in the battle, slunk ingloriously 
 to his tent. General Lyman was the real hero of the fight, but Johnson reaped 
 
THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 107 
 
 General Shirley against Fort Niagara, the gateway to the 
 Lakes, which was important on account of the fur trade, ended 
 in failure. The fort built by Shirley at Oswego was captured 
 in the following summer by Montcalm, the brilliant and chival- 
 rous commander of the French forces in America. 
 
 193. Campaign of 1757. Attack on Fort Willicnn Henry. 
 Eeturning to Canada, Montcalm sent out word to his Indian 
 allies to assemble at Ticonderoga. At the time appointed 
 thousands had come in ; Lake Champlain was alive with their 
 canoes, and the forests echoed to their shouts and songs as 
 they went through their war dances. Descending upon Fort 
 William Henry, Montcalm after a siege of several days com- 
 pelled General Monro to surrender. General AYebb was at 
 Fort Edward near by with 6000 troops, but failed to give 
 aid. Monro lowered his flag only on condition that his troops 
 should be allowed to march away with colors flying and all the 
 honors of war. As they started on their way to Fort Edward, 
 the Indian allies of the French, who had spent the night in 
 drunken revelry, attacked them and killed a large number on 
 the spot. The wives and children of many of the officers were 
 also butchered. The French tried in vain to stop the massacre. 
 "Kill me," exclaimed Montcalm to the Indians, "but spare 
 the English who are under my protection." 
 
 194. Campaign of 1 758-1759. Loidshurg and Ticonderoga. 
 In July, 1758, Louisburg (§ 184) was captured by General 
 Amherst, and in the siege General Wolfe, the future conqueror 
 of Quebec, greatly distinguished himself. An expedition 
 against Ticonderoga under General Abercrombie (ab'er krum bi) 
 
 the rewards ; he was made a baronet for the part he was supposed to have 
 taken m the battle. Dieskau, the brave French commander, was wounded in 
 the battle. When found by the English he placed his hand in his pocket to 
 take out his watch as a means of propitiating the soldier about to attack him, 
 but the latter, thinking that Dieskau was feeling for a pistol, raised his own 
 gun and fired, severely wounding the French general a second time, 
 
108 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 was not successful. Montcalm, who was in command of the 
 fort when the attack began, was seen moving rapidly along 
 his lines cheering his soldiers and giving them refreshments 
 with his own hands. The English general cowered in his 
 tent until his troops were finally repulsed, when he retired in 
 haste. This campaign was saved from total disgrace by the 
 success of Colonel Bradstreet in capturing Fort Frontenac. 
 
 195. Fort Duqiiesne Captured. A few months later an 
 English army set out against Fort Duquesne. As he marched 
 along. General Forbes cut through the forests a roadway many 
 feet wide, but this did not prevent Major Grant and a large body 
 of Highlanders, who went on ahead, from falling into an am- 
 buscade. Snow lay on the ground, but in spite of this Colonel 
 Washington pushed rapidly in advance. When he arrived at 
 the fort he found that the French had set lire to it and escaped 
 •down the river. The name of the fort was changed to Fort 
 Pitt in honor of the English statesman, William Pitt, who now 
 had charge of the war, and whose energy and sagacity were 
 soon to change the whole character of the operations in Amer- 
 ica. By the capture of Forts Frontenac and Duquesne, the 
 French line of communication between Quebec and the Ohio 
 valley was broken. 
 
 196. Close of the War. WilliaiJi Pitt. Pitt laid down 
 the rule that all the troops, whether British or Provincial, 
 should be on the same footing in the way of promotions. 
 Hitherto, a major general of the Provincials had been sub- 
 ordinate in rank to a major of the British regulars. The 
 new zeal of the colonial troops, as well as the more vigorous 
 and intelligent action of the regulars, was soon seen in all the 
 new expeditions. General Amherst captured Crown Point 
 and Ticonderoga, and General William Johnson (§ 192), Fort 
 Niagara, thus closing to the French the gateways from Canada 
 on the north and the west. 
 
 I 
 
THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 109 
 
 197. Wolfe and Monteali)v. General AVolfe led an army of 
 8000 men against Quebec, and after a siege lasting several 
 months, and a severe defeat near the Falls of Montmorency, 
 six miles from Quebec, decided to scale the ap^jarently inac- 
 
 Death of Wolfe 
 
 cessible crags of the St. Lawrence above the city.^ Dropping 
 silently down the river in flatboats, under cover of darkness, 
 the troops noiselessly ascended the Heights, and on the morn- 
 
 1 General Wolfe was a warm admirer of Gray's " Elegy in a Country 
 Churchyard." As he passed in his harge, on the night of assault, from vessel 
 to vessel, making his final inspection, he repeated to his ofl&cers, uf a tone of 
 great feeling, the lines : — 
 
 " The hoast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 
 Await alike the inevitable hour — 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 
 
 " Gentlemen," said he, in closing, " I would rather be the author of that 
 poem than take Quebec." 
 
110 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 ing of September 13, 1759, in the face of the astonished enemy, 
 drew up in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham. In the 
 battle that followed, Wolfe was soon mortally wounded. 
 "They run, they run!" "Who runs?" exclaimed the dying 
 Wolfe, overhearing the cry. " The enemy," answered his 
 attendants. " Then," he murmured, " I die content," and ex- 
 pired. Montcalm also was wounded. When told that he 
 would die, "So much the better," he calmly replied, "I shall 
 not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." The city opened 
 its gates a few days later. The war was not ended until 1763. 
 In the treaty of Paris then agreed upon, France gave up to 
 Great Britain all further claim to territory in North America 
 north of New Orleans and east of the Mississippi, retaining 
 only two small fishing stations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 The region west, known as Louisiana, together with New 
 Orleans and vicinity, was ceded to Spain. Spain ceded Florida 
 to England, in return for Havana, which the English had cap- 
 tured during the war. 
 
 Struggle for Possession of the West 
 198. Indian Wars. The Cherohee War. The treaty of 
 Paris ended the contest of England and its colonies with 
 France and Spain, but the struggle with the Indian tribes still 
 went on. Before the close of the war (1760) the Cherokees had 
 taken up arms against the whites, in resentment for the erection 
 of forts at different places on the eastern borders of Tennessee 
 and Georgia. Hostilities had been precipitated by the arrest 
 of their chief, while holding a conference with- Governor 
 Lyttleton of South Carolina. Colonel Montgomery was sent 
 south, with 1200 troops, to assist the local militia. Keen- 
 forced by a large body of the latter, under command of men 
 like Moultrie, who was to become famous in the Eevolu- 
 tion, Montgomery gave the Indian foe battle in the Keowee 
 
STRUGGLE FOR POSSESSION OF THE WEST 
 
 111 
 
 valley, and defeated tliem overwhelmingly. Thinking it im- 
 prudent to march farther into the woods, he turned upon his 
 tracks, but not before he had burned the towns and beat 
 down the crops of the natives. Fort Loudon (low 'don), one 
 of the forts most objected to by the Indians, was left to the 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Struggle for the West 
 
 defense of its own garrison. It was soon captured by the 
 Indians, and many of the soldiers were slain, while the rest 
 were sent around as prisoners among the tribes. In 1761, 
 their country having been laid waste by Colonel Grant, the 
 Cherokees were reluctantly compelled to sue for peace. 
 
 199. Pontlac. After the treaty of peace was signed the 
 English occupied all the French posts in the west. The 
 Indian allies of the French resented this, and their indigna- 
 
112 
 
 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 tion was increased by the arrogance of the English traders. 
 Pon'tiac, the chief of the Ottawas, took advantage of this feel- 
 ing to form a conspiracy for the expulsion of the English from 
 the Northwest. By a blow, which fell at the same moment 
 throughout a vast division of country, he captured eight of the 
 forts and put their garrisons to the tomahawk. Detroit only 
 escaped after a memorable siege. The backbone of the con- 
 spiracy was broken at the battle of Bushy Kun, in Pennsyl- 
 vania (1763). Many of the tribes sued for peace, but Pontiac 
 continued at war until murdered by one of his own warriors, 
 in return for a barrel of whisky. 
 
 200. Westward Emigration. Treaties with the Indians. 
 Establishment of peace with the Indians was the signal for 
 a movement of emigrants westward all along the line of the 
 frontiers. A treaty in 1763 threw open to occupation a vast 
 area of country on the southern borders, while by a treaty made 
 
 in 1768, at Fort Stanwix, 
 ^ ^^ in New York, all the terri- 
 
 tory immediately south of 
 the Ohio River was ceded 
 to the whites. Settlement 
 of the lands north of that 
 stream did not begin until 
 about 1789 (§360). 
 
 201. Robertson, Sevier, 
 and Boone. In 1771 and 
 1772 James Eobertson and 
 John Sevier led bands of 
 pioneers from North Caro- 
 lina into the valleys of the 
 Watauga and Nolichucky rivers, in Tennessee. The first settle- 
 ment was made at Watauga. In 1769 Daniel Boone, who, as a 
 boy, had gone from Pennsylvania to the Yadkin Valley, in North 
 
 Daniel Boone 
 
STRUGGLE FOR POSSESSION OF THE WEST 113 
 
 Carolina, led a hunting expedition into Kentucky, at this time 
 a part of Fineastle County, Virginia, and the great pasture 
 ground of countless elk, deer, and buffalo. In a short time all 
 but his brother and himself had fallen victims to the tomahawk. 
 In 1775 Boone moved his family into Kentucky and established 
 himself at the modern Boonesboro. 
 
 202. Battle of Point Pleasant. These inroads of the 
 whites w^ere warmly resented by the Indians, and led to a con- 
 federacy of the Shawnees, Delawares, and others. Open hostili- 
 ties began in 1774, in consequence of the atrocious murder of 
 the family of Logan, the chief of the ^lingos. Governor Dun- 
 more, of Virginia, issued a call for three thousand troops to 
 defend the borders. One body, under General Andrew Lewis, 
 dressed in deerskin hunting shirts, and armed with rifles, used 
 in killing bear and buffalo, marched to the mouth of the 
 Kanawha River. There, in October, they were attacked by 
 the Indians under Cornstalk. The battle began in the night, 
 and, from behind trees and rocks, was kept up all the fol- 
 lowing day until sunset, wdien the Indians retired. This 
 victory threw open Kentucky to the whites. 
 
 203. Western Settlements. By 1775 there were three im- 
 portant settlements in that region, — Harrodsburg, Boonesboro, 
 and Logans station, — and they now^ organized an assembly 
 of their own, and provided a military force, under the com- 
 mand of George E-ogers Clark, w^ho had gone out into the 
 wilderness as a surveyor. In 1776 Kentucky was made a 
 county by the legislature of Virginia, with the right to hold its 
 own courts and elect its ow^n officers. Three years later James 
 Robertson, in exploring the country west of Watauga, came to 
 the great bend in the Cumberland River, and he was so much 
 pleased with the beauty of the scene and the fertility of the 
 soil, that he returned home and induced a band of emigrants to 
 follow him thither. This was the first settlement of Nashville. 
 
114 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 Disagreements with Great Britain 
 
 204. A Spirit of Unity. While the colonies in the great 
 French and Indian War had not recognized any central authority 
 among themselves, with the right to impose taxes and raise 
 troops in all, nevertheless they had acted together on the 
 battlefield against a common enemy. This, as we shall see, 
 fostered among them a spirit of unity, which was to show 
 itself in the war with the mother country, already brewing. 
 
 205. The Navigation Acts (§ 87) had been passed to give the 
 English merchants a monopoly in the colonial exports of to- 
 bacco, rice, and sugar, and in the colonial imports of European 
 merchandise. It was thought in England that the chief end of 
 the colonies was to raise up new buyers for English shopkeepers. 
 The operation of the acts was especially hard on the people of 
 New England, who were dependent largely upon free trade with 
 the world for a livelihood. In order to evade the acts, they were 
 in the habit of bribing the customs officers, and whenever this 
 fact was detected, no jury could be found that would convict them. 
 
 206. Writs of Assistance. With a view to enforcing the 
 acts, the English government set up Courts of Admiralty, 
 in which the judge, who was not so likely to be as much 
 influenced by popular feeling as a jury, tried all cases in 
 violation. Writs of Assistance were also issued, giving the 
 officers of the customs authority to enter private houses to 
 search fpr any goods which they had reason to suspect had 
 been brought in without payment of duty. The legality of 
 these writs was boldly and eloquently attacked in Boston by 
 James Otis, who nobly resigned the position of advocate-general 
 to the crown, in order to represent the people's cause. The 
 discontent in New England was further inflamed by the re- 
 vival of the duty on sugar and molasses, two articles which 
 these colonies imported. 
 
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 115 
 
 207. The Parsons' Cause. In 1758 the tobacco crop of Vir- 
 ginia failed, and the vestries obtained an act allowing them 
 to pay the clergy, not with 16,000 ponnds of tobacco, as 
 usual, but in its equivalent in paper money, rating the tobacco, 
 not at sixpence the pound, the market price, but at twopence. 
 Some of the clergy appealed to the crown, and the act was an- 
 nulled. Suits were now brought against the vestries for the 
 j)ayment of the salaries in 16,000 pounds of tobacco. A test 
 case came up for trial in 1763. The council for the vestry was 
 an obscure young lawyer named Patrick Henry, who took the 
 ground, with a boldness and eloquence superior even to Otis's, 
 that, in annulling an act of Assembly, passed for the benefit of 
 the people, the king degenerated into a tyrant, and therefore 
 forfeited the obedience of his subjects. The king did not 
 veto an act of Parliament. Was it right for him to veto 
 an act of the Virginia Assembly ? It was not long before men 
 from one end of the colonies to the other were asking them- 
 selves the same question. The immediate result of Patrick 
 Henry's eloquence was an award by the jury of only one 
 penny damages to the clergy. 
 
 Immediate Causes of the Revolution 
 
 208. British Troops in America. In order to garrison the 
 strongholds in the western country, to put down the uprising 
 of the tribes under Pontiac, and to keep up a standing force 
 in Canada to overawe the French population, the British gov- 
 ernment was compelled to send a large army to America. 
 Who was to bear the expense of these troops ? The British 
 Ministry declared that the colonies should bear at least a part 
 of it, as the army was chiefly for their benefit. The colonial 
 assemblies refused to raise funds for the purpose, and the 
 question arose : Could the English Parliament legally, either 
 directly or indirectly, enforce a tax upon the colonists without 
 
116 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 their consent ? The colonists declared it could not, as the 
 colonies had no representation in Parliament. Taxation with- 
 out representation was tyranny. 
 
 209. The Stamp Act. The British Ministry, supported by 
 George III, but opposed by William Pitt, declared that Parlia- 
 ment had the right to tax the American colo- 
 nies, both directly and indirectly ; and in 
 accord with this, George Grenville, the Prime 
 Minister, in March, 1765, • brought forward a 
 measure, known as the Stamp Act, which re- 
 quired that stamped paper obtained from the 
 revenue officers, should be used for every con- 
 tract, note, bond, deed, and public document 
 
 that was issued, and every pamphlet, almanac, and paper pub- 
 lished in America. It was expected that this tax, together 
 with the tax on sugar and molasses, coffee, etc., and the money 
 got from enforcing the Navigation Acts, would give all the 
 funds needed for the support of the troops sent to the colonies. 
 
 210. Excitement in the Colonies. The passage of the Stamp 
 Act caused great excitement among the colonists,^ for it was 
 the first attempt by England to place an internal tax on them. 
 All previous taxation by the mother country had been only 
 on the merchandise brought into the colonial ports. When 
 any money had been raised for the use of the king, it had 
 been done by the votes of the colonial legislatures. In May 
 Patrick Henry introduced in the Virginia House of Bur- 
 gesses a series of resolutions declaring that only the General 
 Assembly, together with the king, could impose taxes on the 
 Virginians, and that Parliament had no voice in the internal 
 affairs of the colony. This was the first public protest against 
 
 1 When, in May, 1765, Governor Try on, of North Carolina, asked Speaker 
 Ashe wliat course the Assembly would take about the Stamp Act, — obey or 
 disobey, — Ashe exclaimed, with great vehemence, " We will resist it to the 
 blood." 
 
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 117 
 
 the policy of England.^ In the following October, at the call 
 of Massachusetts, a Congress of twenty-eight delegates from 
 all the colonies, except Virginia, New Hampshire, North 
 
 Patrick Henry addressing House of Burgesses 
 
 Carolina, and Georgia, met in New York, and, in a Declaration 
 of Eights, reiterated substantially the general principle which 
 Henry had so boldly proclaimed.^ 
 
 1 Henry followed up his resolutions with a speech so bold that it drew forth 
 exclamations of indionant surprise from some of the members : " CjBsar had 
 his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III " (here cries of " treason " 
 interrupted him — his form assumed a loftier attitude, and his eye a more 
 determined fire as he closed) " may profit by their example." 
 
 2 Christopher Gadsden, a member from South Carolina, reflected the spirit 
 of the Congress, in its determination to uphold the cause of all the people, 
 when he exclaimed in one of its debates, "There ought to be no New Eng- 
 lander, no New Yorker, no Virginian, no Carolinian, known on the continent, 
 but all of us Americans." 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. — 8 
 
118 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 211. North and South feel alike. Opposition to the use of 
 the stamps was equally strong in the North and South. In 
 Georgia, the stamp agent was compelled to take refuge in the 
 governor's house ; he was glad to escape with his life, while 
 the stamps he had brought with him were sent back to Eng- 
 land. In North Carolina, the stamp agent was forced to swear 
 that he would not even try to perform the duties of his office. 
 In Boston, the " Sons of Liberty " ^ pulled down the building 
 in which stamped paper was to be sold, and on the day the act 
 went into effect the people closed their shops, lowered flags to 
 half mast, and tolled the bells. The bells were also tolled in 
 Philadelphia, while the people of New York refused to allow 
 the stamps to be brought ashore. In Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire, a coffin containing the supposed body of Liberty 
 was carried to the grave, with muffled drums, and amid the 
 firing of minute guns. 
 
 212. Repeal of Stamp Act. The temper of the colonists was 
 so threatening that the English Ministry decided to repeal the 
 act rather than enforce it by arms. " I rejoice," exclaimed 
 William Pitt, in Parliament, "that the Americans have re- 
 sisted. If they had submitted, they would have voluntarily 
 become slaves. They have been driven to madness by injus- 
 tice." He was supported by Edmund Burke, one of the 
 greatest statesmen of the time. News of the repeal caused 
 universal rejoicing in the colonies. Bonfires were lighted, 
 houses illuminated, cannons shot off, and bells rung. Pitt was 
 honored with statues at the public expense. 
 
 213. New Revenue Acts. Opposition of the Colonies. 
 Although Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, it still asserted 
 
 1 " Sons of Liberty," the name adopted by a group of secret societies of 
 workingmen, who pledged themselves to resist the execution of the Stamp 
 Act, was an expression used by Colonel Barre' in Parliament, in lauding the 
 conduct of the American patriots. 
 
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 119 
 
 its right to bind the Americans by any law it thought proper 
 to adopt.^ In 1767 it passed the Townshend Acts, which, among 
 other things, laid a tax on all wine, oil, glass, paper, tea, and 
 painters' colors imported into the colonies. This new measure 
 at once stirred up the Americans. Maryland sent a committee 
 to England to protest, while Pennsylvania, through John 
 Dickinson, bitterly attacked the legality of the tax. Massa- 
 chusetts, in a circular addressed to the colonies, appealed to 
 them to act together for the redress of their grievances. When 
 English troops, under General Gage, were sent to Boston to 
 put down the tumults, the people declined to furnish them 
 with supplies or quarters. New York had already set Massa- 
 chusetts the example in this respect, and North Carolina and 
 South Carolina followed. The Virginians, led by George 
 Mason and George Washington, bound themselves, in a formal 
 paper, neither to import nor use any article subject to the tax 
 laid by Parliament. 
 
 214. TJiis policy of non-importation became so general in 
 the colonies, that, at the urgent request of the British mer- 
 chants engaged in the American trade, the duty on all the 
 articles except tea was repealed in 1770. The tax on tea was 
 continued in order to show that the principle of taxation by 
 Parliament without representation was not abandoned. 
 
 215. Boston Massacre. The presence of British troops gave 
 offense everywhere, but especially in Boston, where their con- 
 duct seems to have been peculiarly irritating to the religious 
 
 ^ The English maintained that all classes of British suhjects, whether living 
 in the British Islands or in the colonies, were represented in Parliament — 
 the clergy and the aristocracy by the bishops and noblemen in the House of 
 Lords; the body of the people by the members of the House of Commons. 
 The American principle was that nobody was represented in an assembly un- 
 less he had the right of voting for one of its members. Hence our expression 
 applied to the lower house of Congress — "House of Representatives.'" In 
 this difference of view arose the armed conflict of the Revolution. 
 
" Loagitnde 84° West from 8'2° Grei 
 
 Longitude T° West from 5° Wa? J 
 
 120 
 
122 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 feelings of the people. On March 3, 1770, a squad of British 
 soldiers, stationed in that city, became involved in a fight with 
 a party of workmen. On the night of the 5th a large crowd 
 assembled on an alarm of fii-e, and as it proved false, they 
 began to annoy a British soldier who happened to be on guard. 
 The sentinel called for assistance, and soon soldiers and towns- 
 men were engaged in a scuffle. One of the former fired ; his 
 companions followed his example; and in a moment three 
 
 ttiJI 
 
 ^-s=^m 
 
 
 m 
 
 ri 
 
 ^^H^v^"^ 'jrWB^w^wwMKw||^^||^^Bfc-'«H^ 
 
 [_ - __ __. 
 
 >r]^ 
 
 wu 
 
 Boston Massacre 
 
 townsmen lay dead on the ground, while several others were 
 wounded. Owing to the prominence of Boston, the nev\^s of this 
 bloody event spread rapidly among the colonies, and greatly 
 inflamed the minds of the people against England. 
 
 216. Battle of the Alamance. In 1767 an association was 
 formed in Orange County, North Carolina, known as the Reg- 
 ulators. Their original object was to regulate the police and 
 insist on the punishment of horse thieves and criminals. 
 Later, they determined to resist illegal taxation. Squads of 
 the Regulators patrolled all the western parts of the colony. 
 
IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 123 
 
 Tryon, the royal governor, marched against them, in 1771, and 
 came up with a large body posted on the Alamance. The 
 Eoyalists opened a heavy fire, which the Regulators returned 
 with great spirit, but their ammunition giving out, they were 
 defeated. They had, however, struck the first blow in the 
 open field for the principles whicli brought on the Revolution. 
 
 217. Destruction of the Tea. In 1773 Parliament granted 
 to the East India Company the monopoly of exporting tea to 
 the colonies, but though it was cheaper to buy this tea with 
 the duty on it than even that smuggled in from Holland, the 
 colonists would not touch it. The first vessels with cargoes 
 of tea that arrived in Kew York caid Philadelphia were ordered 
 to return to England. At Wilmington, North Carolina, the 
 
 •tea was thrown overboard, and at Annapolis, Maryland, the 
 tea ship was burned to the water's edge. During nineteen 
 days the tea ships lay at anchor in the harbor of Boston. As 
 the city was in the possession of the British troops, the people 
 could not compel the vessels to leave, but a party of townsmen 
 appeared, disguised as Indians, who broke open the chests and 
 poured the tea into the sea. This has since been known as 
 the Boston Tea Party. 
 
 218. Boston Port Closed. As Boston was a town of great 
 commercial importance, this last act excited the special indig- 
 nation of Parliament, and an order was at once adopted closing 
 the port of that city until the tea destroyed was paid for. Pro- 
 vision was made for the appointment of a military governor, 
 and the trial in some other colony, or in England, of citizens who 
 were charged with murder in resisting the laws. All assem- 
 blages of the people for the discussion of public questions were 
 prohibited, unless the consent of the military governor was ob- 
 tained ; and the legal obstacles to the quartering among them of 
 British troops were removed. At the same time the charter of 
 Massachusetts was annulled and her free government destroyed. 
 
124 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 219. First Continental Congress. Means for the Cojmnon 
 Defense. When news of these measures reached Williams- 
 burg, Virginia, the General Assembly adopted a resolution that 
 the day the Boston Port Bill went into effect should be observed 
 in Virginia as a day of " fasting, humiliation, and prayer.'' The 
 governor dissolved the Assembly, which at once met in the 
 Raleigh tavern, as a private association, and appointed a com- 
 mittee to consult with the other colonies as to the expediency 
 of calling a General Congress to devise means for their com- 
 mon protection. Such was the origin of the first Continental 
 Congress. It came together in Philadelphia, in September, 
 1774. All the colonies were represented except Georgia, which 
 sent a message of sympathy. Among the members were 
 George AVashington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee,* 
 from A^irginia ; John and Samuel Adams from Massachusetts ; 
 Roger Sherman from Connecticut ; John Jay from New York ; 
 and Edward Rutledge from South Carolina. 
 
 220. The Congress declared (1) that, as the colonists Avere 
 not represented in Parliament, that body had no right to 
 tax them without their consent ; (2) that the colonists must be 
 tried in America by a local jur}^, and not carried to England 
 for trial ; (3) that the support of an English standing army in 
 their midst could not be legally imposed on them without 
 their concurrence. In spite of the warnings of William Pitt, 
 now Lord Chatham, Parliament refused to listen to the Con- 
 vention. It would hear of nothing but the unconditional 
 submission of the Americans. Would the people of the colo- 
 nies give way? Events were soon to prove they would not.^ 
 
 1 In March, 1775, the second convention of the Virginians met at St. John's 
 Church, in Richmond. Henry arose, and with his irresistible eloquence 
 advocated the arming and drilling of a large body of militia. "There is no 
 retreat but in submission and slavery," he exclaimed, " the war is inevitable, 
 let it come. I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me 
 liberty or give me death." 
 
OPENING OF THE REVOLUTION, 1775 
 
 125 
 
 Opening of the Revolution, 1775 
 
 221. Lexington and Concord. By the order of the Provincial 
 Congress of Massachusetts a great quantity of military sup- 
 plies had been secretly collected at Concord. Getting wind of 
 this fact, General Gage, the commander of the British 
 forces in Boston, sent out, on the evening of April 18, 
 eight hundred troops to destroy them. Before this 
 little army started, the patriots in the city hnng up 
 two lights in the steeple of Old North Church to 
 warn the people of Charlestown (map, p. 127) ; and 
 Paul Eevere, rowing across to that town, set off, at 
 a full gallop, to spread the news all along the sol- 
 diers' intended route. On reaching Lexington, on 
 April 19, the British were opposed by a company 
 of minute men,^ who were dispersed only after a 
 skirmish in which seven of their number were 
 killed. Pushing on to Concord, the British de- 
 stroyed the supplies which had not been removed. 
 At Concord Bridge they met with a sharp resist- j 
 ance, and at once began a rapid retreat, which _^^ 
 soon became a flight. From behind stone 
 walls, houses, and trees, shot after shot was 
 poured into their ranks by farmers and 
 minute men. Three hundred fell before 
 they reached the intrenchments of Bos- 
 ton, In a few days the approaches to 
 the city were closed by breastworks thrown up by the Ameri- 
 cans, now numbering 16,000 men, under the command of Bene- 
 dict Arnold, Israel Putnam,- and John Stark. 
 
 1 The " minute " men were those among the colonists who had bound them- 
 selves to appear at a minute's notice, ready for immediate military service. 
 
 2 It is said tliat Putnam, hearing of the Concord tight while plowing, saddled 
 a horse, and, without waiting to change his clothes, galloped off to Boston. 
 
 Old North Church 
 
126 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 222. The Southern Colonies, Nowhere did the news of this 
 battle cause a greater stir than in the Southern colonies. The 
 Committee of Safety in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, 
 drew up and had publicly read a formal declaration of indepen- 
 dence of the mother country. The Assembly of South Carolina 
 gave orders that three regiments should at once be mustered 
 into service, and appropriated .$100,000 for the carrying on of 
 the war. The citizens of Georgia showed equal energy in taking 
 prompt possession of the powder magazine at Savannah. A 
 few weeks later, the Virginia Convention deposed Governor 
 Dunmore, who had fled from Williamsburg, and gave the 
 public administration to a Committee of Safety. 
 
 223. Capture of Ticonderoga. During the progress of these 
 events Ethan Allen, in command of the "Green Mountain 
 Boys," assisted by Benedict Arnold and Seth Warner, at the 
 head of troops drawn from the Connecticut Valley, had captured 
 Ticonderoga, and the large quantity of cannon, muskets, and 
 ammunition which it contained. Arriving with only eighty- 
 three men before that stronghold about daybreak. May 10, 1775, 
 Allen, after having a gun snapped at him by the sentinel at 
 the sally port, forced his way in as far as the room which the 
 commander was occupying. " I demand the surrender of the 
 fortress," he cried as he entered. " By whose authority ? " 
 asked the astonished officer. " In the name of the great Jeho- 
 vah and the Continental Congress," Ethan Allen is said to 
 have answered. The fortress fell without the loss of an 
 American life or gun, and the event was soon followed by the 
 surrender of Crown Point. 
 
 224. Washington Commander in Chief. At this time the 
 Americans perhaps numbered about 2,000,000 whites, barely 
 one third of the population of Great Britain. As the English 
 government had, as far as possible, put a stop to all branches 
 of manufacture in the colonies, the latter had now but few 
 
OPENING OF THE REVOLUTION, 1775 
 
 127 
 
 ^~~^2^dSi^ 
 
 means of making military arms and accouterments. They 
 had, in the end, to look to France for their chief supply of 
 these articles. The second Continental Congress, which met 
 in 1775, was not to be discouraged. It voted that the colonies 
 should furnish 20,000 troops, appropriated f 30,000 for the 
 purchase of powder, and appointed George Washington com- 
 mander of the American army. Among the other officers 
 appointed at the same time were Generals Charles Lee and 
 Horatio Gates, two English military adventurers who had 
 had considerable experience in war. 
 
 225. Battle of Bunker Hill. Militia against Regulars. 
 There were now 10,000 British troops in Boston. It was 
 reported at the American headquarters that the enemy intended 
 fortifying Bunker Hill, and 
 
 orders were given to throw 
 
 up breastworks there by 
 
 night. The body of men 
 
 sent thither, under Colonel 
 
 Prescott, planted a battery 
 
 instead on Breeds Hill just 
 
 beyond, from which they 
 
 could hurl shells into the 
 
 city. In order to dislodge 
 
 them, General Howe crossed 
 
 over to Charlestown at noon 
 
 the next day (June 17, 1775) 
 
 with a force of 3000 men. 
 
 The order ran down the American lines, which had now been 
 
 reenforced by Putnam and Stark, and numbered about 1200 
 
 troops, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes." 
 
 The enemy, struck down in platoons, reeled back in confusion to 
 
 the foot of the hill. It was not until the third assault, when the 
 
 Americans had exhausted their ammunition, that the British, 
 
128 
 
 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 who had by this time lost 1000 men, were able to carry their 
 intrenchments. The Americans withdrew in good order.^ 
 
 226. Moral Influence of the Battle. The result of this 
 battle had all the moral influence of a great victory. The 
 
 
 rM^^'^'^'^^0^ 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill 
 
 American militia, poorly 
 arnied and badly drilled, 
 had practically defeated an 
 army of British regulars. 
 The British Parliament, however, determined to push the war 
 with greater vigor than ever. They voted an addition of 
 45,000 men to the forces already stationed in America. One 
 half of these troops were obtained by hire from the landgrave 
 of Hesse Cassel and other German princes. All trade with 
 the colonies was forbidden; and all colonial vessels were 
 declared to be lawful prize for English ships. 
 
 1 Amoucj those killed on the American side was the brave General Joseph 
 Warren of Boston. When Washington received news of the battle from a 
 courier, "How did the militia stand fire ? " he asked with eagerness. " Well," 
 was the reply. " Then," said he, " the liberties of the country are safe." 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1775-1776 
 
 129 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1 775-1 776 
 
 227. Washington takes Command. On July 3, 1775, Washing- 
 ton arrived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and took command 
 of the army, numbering about 14,000 men. He was in the forty- 
 third year Of his age at this time, tall and erect in figure, 
 noble in feature, and calm and dignified in bearing. At first, 
 the only troops were New England militia, but soon all the 
 colonies were represented. 
 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 and Virginia sent 1400 men 
 skilled in the use of the 
 rifle in border warfare and 
 the pursuit of game. The 
 color of the regulation uni- 
 form was blue and buff, but 
 the largest number of the 
 soldiers were dressed in 
 hunting shirts which had 
 been dyed brown. The 
 first flag was the British 
 double cross with stripes.^ 
 It was not until 1777 that the flag with the stars and stripes 
 was adopted. 
 
 228. Expedition against Canada. Montgomery and Arnold. 
 While Washington was getting ready to drive the British from 
 Boston, Congress decided to send an expedition against Canada 
 in the hope of preventing an invasion of New York from that 
 quarter, and also of inducing the French population of the 
 province to throw off British rule. In Kovember, 1775, Gen- 
 
 1 There were several companies in Cambridge which flaunted private flags. 
 Such was the case with the minute men of Culpeper, Virginia ; the picture of a 
 rattlesnake, coiled to strike, had been worked in the folds of the flag, with 
 the legend beneath : " Liberty or Death, Don't.tread on me." 
 
 Elm under which Washington took 
 Command of Army 
 
130 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 eral Montgomery succeeded in capturing Montreal, and then, 
 with a small army, pushed on toward Quebec. In the mean- 
 while Arnold, with an army nearly three times as large, was 
 hurrying through the forests of Maine to join them. In thirty- 
 one days his men marched three hundred miles, although, at 
 one time, compelled to hew their path through the woods ; at 
 another, to feed on their dogs and shoes. 
 
 229. Attach on Quebec. Montgomery and Arnold met 
 under the walls of Quebec, and on December ol, in the midst 
 of a blinding fall of snow, they made an assault on the city. 
 "Men of New York," cried JMontgomery to his troops, "you 
 Avill not fear to follow where your general leads." In a mo- 
 ment he was cut down by a volley of grape-shot. Arnold 
 was soon disabled, and Morgan, the next in command, who had 
 made his way far into the city, was captured. Arnold drew 
 back several miles and sat down to wait for reenforcements. 
 A British fleet appearing, the ord^r for a retreat was given. 
 Abandoning their baggage, artillery, stores, and the sick, the 
 American army retired southward to Crown Point. The expe- 
 dition had failed. 
 
 230. Royal Governors driven out. Dumnorc. When Gov- 
 ernor Dunmore fled from Williamsburg, and, in consequence, 
 was deprived of his functions by the Virginia Convention 
 (§ 222), he stationed himself in Norfolk. From this place he 
 offered freedom to all slaves who would rise up against their 
 masters ; and he encouraged the Indians on the frontier to 
 renew their bloody incursions. From time to time he made 
 marauding expeditions along the shores of the Chesapeake. 
 The defeat of the British at Great Bridge (map p. 161), about 
 twelve miles from Norfolk, forced Dunmore to abandon the 
 city, which was set on fire by its own citizens, after a bom- 
 bardment by the enemy. Dunmore retired to Gwynn Island, 
 where he remained until driven off to New York. 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1775-1770 
 
 131 
 
 231. Battle of Moores Creek Bridge. Governor Martin, of 
 North Carolina, was compelled to fly to a British man-of-war 
 for safety, while his troops, under the command of General 
 Macdonald, were tgtally defeated, on February 27, 1776, by 
 Colonel Caswell at Moores Creek Bridge. The Tories ^ of South 
 Carolina, who had been instigated to rise by Governor Campbell, 
 were put down with equal spirit. The governor of Georgia 
 
 Battle of Moores Creek Bridge 
 
 was arrested, but contrived to escape to the shelter of a British 
 ship. By 1776 the royal governors in all the Northern colonies 
 had either fled or been thrown into prison. Thus ended in- 
 gloriously British rule in the North and South alike. 
 
 232. Military Operations. British evacuate Boston. In 
 March, 1776, Washington, who had been untiring in bringing 
 the army besieging Boston to a state of efficiency, began a 
 
 1 Americans who aotively supported the British side in the Revolutionary 
 War were known as Tories. 
 
132 GROWING UNION OF THE COLONIES 
 
 bombardment of the city at night, and on the fourth night, the 
 bombardment still going on, ordered breastworks to be thrown 
 np on Dorchester Heights overlooking the town. When Howe 
 saw the breastworks next morning, he exclaimed, " These rebels 
 have done more work in twelve hours than my whole army 
 could have done in a month." A storm arose, which prevented 
 the British for two days from beginning an attack, and in the 
 meanwhile, the Americans had made their fortifications im- 
 pregnable. Howe, accompanied by his army of 11,000 men, and 
 a band of 1000 loyalists, set sail for Halifax, and the American 
 troops at once entered the city. 
 
 233. Expedition against Charleston. Two months later 
 General Clinton led an expedition by sea against Charleston, 
 South Carolina. A fort of palmetto logs filled in with sand bags 
 had been built on SuUivans Island, so as to defend the channel. 
 "The British fleet will knock your fort to pieces in ten min- 
 utes," said Captain Lamperer, an old sailor. " In that case," 
 quietly answered Colonel Moultrie, who was in command, " we 
 will lie behind the ruins and prevent the enemy from landing." 
 So soft was the palmetto wood that it did not splinter when 
 the fleet shelled the fort. In the course of the fight a cannon 
 ball cut the flagstaff in two, and the flag tumbled to the 
 ground outside of the w^orks. As it fell Sergeant Jasj^er leaped 
 through an embrasure, and seizing the flag, fastened it to a new 
 staff, and amid a storm of bullets planted it on the bastion 
 nearest the enemy. Under the heavy fire of the Americans 
 only one of the ten British ships remained seaworthy when they 
 retreated out of range. After nearly three weeks to repair 
 his fleet, the discouraged commander sailed away to the north. 
 
 234. Independence and Confederation. Sentiment in Favor 
 of Sejjarate Government. Although at war with Great 
 Britain, the colonists had declared that they had no wish to 
 separate from the mother country, and that they were only 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1775-177(5 133 
 
 fighting for what they considered to be their rights under the 
 charters granted them by England. The sentiment in favor 
 of a separate government, however, had been steadily growing. 
 It was seen that no foreign aid could be looked for while the 
 colonies maintained their allegiance to Great Britain. The 
 feelings of the people were also outraged by the employment 
 of a hireling soldiery, like the Hessians (§ 22Q), to overrun the 
 country, shoot down its defenders, and lay waste its homes. 
 
 235. Declaration of Independence. In May the dele- 
 gates of Virginia in Congress were instructed by the Virginia 
 Convention, then sitting, to propose that the United Colonies 
 should be declared free and independent States. A motion to 
 that effect was offered in Congress by Eichard Henry Lee, and 
 seconded by John Adams. It was not, however, until July 4 
 that the Declaration of Independence, drawn by Thomas Jef- 
 ferson, a member from Virginia, was adopted. News of this 
 step was received throughout the colonies with every manifes- 
 tation of joy and approval. 
 
 236. A plan of confederation was next discussed. The 
 documents containing the articles, however, were not signed 
 until July, 1779, and then only by ten States. Maryland held 
 out until 1781 (§ 290). In the interval Congress governed 
 without any binding written constitution, but yet in general 
 according to the plan laid down in the articles. Under the 
 articles as the}^ finally went into effect the colonies took 
 the name of the United States of America. Each State was 
 declared to be sovereign and independent, but no State could 
 enter into a treaty with a foreign power or another State 
 without the consent of all the States. Each State was required 
 to pay a certain amount of taxes to the central government 
 and furnish a certain number of troops. Congress alone could 
 determine on peace or war, coin money, make treaties, and fix 
 the amount of money to be paid by the States. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD III 
 
 I. Minor Intercolo- J > 
 nial Wars. l 
 
 II. Great French and 
 IndianWar,1754-<<| o 
 1763. 
 
 
 III. Indian Wars. 
 
 IV. Westward Flow 
 of Population. 
 
 {;: 
 
 V. Causes of the 
 Revolution. > •^- 
 
 VI. Opening" of the 
 Revolution to<; 
 1776. 
 
 King AVilliam's J J- Capture of Port Royal. 
 ■nir -iron i/'ht i "■ Quebec Expedition. 
 W ar, lb»i>-lby7. i^ 3. Buining of Schenectady. 
 
 ^ , , r !• Burning of Deerfleld. 
 
 Queen A n n e s J 2. Attack on Charleston. 
 War, 1702-1713. 1 3. Expedition against Que- 
 •- bee and Montreal. 
 
 K i n g G 8 o r g e's / 1. Capture of Louisburg. 
 War, 1744-1748. 1. 2. Battles in Georgia. 
 
 French build Inland Forts. 
 Washington sent to remonstrate. 
 French build Fort Duquesne. 
 Battle of Great Meadows. 
 Albany Convention meets. 
 
 r 1. Aoadians dispersed. 
 2. Braddock's defeat at Fort 
 /-, f I Duquesne. 
 
 '3. Dieskau defeated at 
 Crown Point. 
 
 4. Fort Oswego captured. 
 
 5. Fall of Ft. William Henry. 
 
 r 1. Louisburg captured. 
 
 ^ f 2. Ticonderoga Expedition. 
 
 -! 3. Fort Duquesne captured. 
 
 I 4. Fall of Quebec. 
 
 I 5. Treaty of Peace. 
 
 Campaign 
 1755-1757. 
 
 Campaign 
 1758-1759. 
 
 With the Cliero- 
 kees. 
 
 2. Pontiac. 
 
 1. Battle in Keowee Valley. 
 
 2. Fall of Fort Loudon. 
 
 Captures English Forts. 
 Battle of Bushy Eun. 
 
 Confederacy of the Shawnees and Battle of 
 Point Pleasant. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 .Kentucky. 
 
 1. Watauga and Nashville. 
 
 / 1. Daniel Boone. 
 t 2. Fii-st Settlements. 
 
 ri. Enforcement oi \ lArr^.f^J,,,,,,^,.,,. 
 Navigation Acts. [3. Comts of Admiralty. 
 
 2. Revived Duty on Sugar, Molasses, etc. 
 
 Stamp Act. 
 
 4. Tax on Tea. 
 
 1. Military. 
 
 2. Civil. 
 
 1 Opposition of Colonists. 
 
 2. Henry's Resolutions. 
 
 3. Stamp Act Congress. 
 
 4. Bejieal. 
 
 C 1. Colonists Remonstrate. 
 
 -). 2. Non-importation Policy. 
 
 [ 3. Destruction of the Tea. 
 
 f 1. Battle of Alamance. 
 
 2. Lexington ami Concord. 
 
 3. Capture of Ticonderoga. 
 J 4. Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
 5. Fall of Montreal. 
 
 6. Battle Moores Creek Br. 
 
 7. Boston evacuated. 
 
 8. Siege of Charleston, S.C. 
 
 1. First Cont. Congress. 
 
 2. Mecklenburg Declaration. 
 
 3. Second Cont. Congress. 
 
 4. Declaration of Indepen- 
 
 dence. 
 
 5. Confederation. 
 
 134 
 
PERIOD lY. INDEPENDENCE AND 
 CONFEDERATION 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1 776-1 777 
 
 237. Battle of Long Island. Foiled in Kew England, the 
 English government decided to transfer the theater of war to 
 New York. With the harbor of Xew York and the line of the 
 Hudson Eiver under the control of a British fleet and army, 
 not only would the road to Canada be always open, but N"ew 
 England would be cut off from the other colonies. Early in 
 July, 1776, General Howe appeared off Staten Island^ with 
 a large army of men, which was soon increased by reenforce- 
 ments, under Admiral Howe and General Clinton. Washing- 
 ton had only one third as many men lit for service. The 
 defenses of 'New York extended over a line of twenty miles. 
 On August 22 the British troops left their encampment on 
 Staten Island and landed on Long Island. Aided by Tories, 
 who served as guides, and advancing in three divisions, they 
 were able, on August 27, in spite of the most heroic resistance, 
 especially by Smallwood's battalion of Marylanders, to sur- 
 round the small American force, which, under the command 
 of Generals Sullivan and Stirling, guarded the approaches to 
 the Heights. Sullivan was captured. Instead of at once 
 assaulting the Heights, where General Putnam was stationed, 
 
 1 Admiral Howe, on joining Clinton on Staten Island, dispatched a letter 
 to " George Washington, Esq.," in which he offered pardon to all who would 
 return to their allegiance. The letter was sent hack unanswered. Howe then 
 addressed a second letter of exactly the same tenor to "General George Wash- 
 ington," who briefly replied that the Americans were engaged in defending 
 their rights, and had done nothing requiring forgiveness. 
 
 185 
 
136 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 AND 
 
 VICINITY 
 
 General Howe, recalling the stubborn spirit of the American 
 troops and the terrible slaughter at Bunker Hill, a situation 
 wliich the Heights resembled, deliberately sat down and 
 besieged the position. This gave the Americans time to 
 escape. 
 
 238. Retreat from Long Island. Quickly gathering up all the 
 boats in reach, on the night of August 29, when a heavy 
 
 fog had settled down on 
 water and land, Washington 
 marched his troops from the 
 Heights, and quietly bore 
 them over to the other side 
 of the river. Withdrawing 
 from New York, he took po- 
 sition on Harlem Heights.-^ 
 After successfully resisting 
 here an attack by the enemy, 
 he retired to White Plains, 
 where, on October 28, an 
 indecisive battle was fought. 
 Washington now fell back 
 to North Castle, about ten 
 miles northeast of White 
 Plains. Leaving a part of 
 his army there, he stationed the remainder on the western side 
 of the Hudson, in order to be in a position to defend Philadel- 
 jjhia should the British attack it. 
 
 239. Retreat across New Jersey. The British, having, after a 
 heavy loss, captured Port Washington (November 16), crossed 
 
 1 While Washington was at Harlem Heights, Nathan Hale volunteered 
 to visit the British camp to discover the enemy's designs. Betrayed hy a 
 Tory kinsman, he was arrested and hanged as a spy. As he momited the 
 gallows he expressed regret "that he had but one life to give to his 
 country." 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776-1777 137 
 
 over the Hudson and took possession of Fort Lee, which the 
 Americans had abandoned on their approach. By their greater 
 strength, they forced Washington to fall back across the whole 
 width of New Jersey. It was now winter, and many of the 
 men were in tatters ; many were even barefooted, and left in 
 the snow tracks stained with blood. In derision, the Tories 
 taunted them, as they passed, as vagabonds and ragamuffins. 
 Having secured all the boats for a distance of seventy miles 
 up and down the Delaware Eiver, Washington crossed over to 
 the west bank. The British army coming up, halted on the 
 east bank, where it awaited the freezing over of the stream. 
 A part of this force were Hessians, who encamped at Trenton. 
 In the meanwhile the section of the American army which 
 Washington had left at North Castle, under the command of 
 General Charles Lee (§ 224), had marched into New Jersey, and 
 taken position at Morristown. While seated in gown and slip- 
 pers in an inn near his camp, Lee was captured, not improbably 
 by an arrangement with the enemy, as a short time later on he 
 secretly revealed all the American plans to the British. 
 
 240. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. A Critical Hour. It 
 was a critical hour. The successes of the British had weak- 
 ened the American cause among the people of New Jersey, 
 New York, and Pennsylvania. But Washington and Congress 
 did not quail. Congress conferred on W^ashington the fullest 
 powers for carrying on the war, and took steps to secure 
 foreign aid (§ 252). The pay of the soldiers was in arrears, 
 and in order to obtain the necessary funds, Washington, who 
 had already pledged his own fortune for supplies, appealed 
 to Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, who raised the required 
 amount out of his own means and by the contributions of his 
 friends. Washington, however, saw that if the spirit of patri- 
 otism was to be greatly revived, and his army kept together, 
 he must strike a bold and successful blow. 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. — 9 
 
138 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 241. Hessians Surprised. On Christmas evening, at which 
 time he thought the discipline of the Hessian soldiers stationed 
 at Trenton (§ 239), under Colonel Eahl, woukl be relaxed, 
 Washington, in the midst of a tierce storm of hail and snow, 
 crossed over the Delaware, all blocked with floating ice, and 
 marching straight to Trenton, in twenty minutes after his 
 arrival compelled the Hessians to surrender. Only two hun- 
 
 m 
 
 Washington crossing the Delaware 
 
 dred escaped. Eahl was so severely wounded that he soon 
 died. The Americans safely regained the Pennsylvania side 
 with their prisoners. 
 
 242, .Wew Jersey in American Hands. The capture of 
 the Hessians revived the spirit of the patriots, and convinced 
 the enemy the war had not yet ended. Washington soon 
 crossed the Delaware again. The British now advanced in 
 force, and Washington's position became very dangerous. The 
 enemy were in front of him ; the Delaware River, full of float- 
 ing ice, was behind him. Cornwallis was urged to attack him 
 the night he came up. " In the morning," he replied, " we will 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776-1777 139 
 
 bag the fox," and retired to bed ; but after darkness fell the 
 fox broke cover. Leaving fires burning brightly in camp, and 
 the pickets at their posts, Washington marched straight toward 
 Princeton, and before assistance could arrive from Trenton, 
 routed the British regiments which were stationed there (Jan- 
 uary 3, 1777). He then retired into winter quarters at Mor- 
 ristown. When the winter closed, nearly all of New Jersey 
 had fallen into the hands of the American patriots. Washington 
 was hailed as the savior of his country and as the American 
 Fabius. 
 
 243. Burgoyne and St. Leger. Battle of Bennington. lu 
 July, 1777, a large British army, under tlie command of Gen- 
 eral Burgoyne, reached Ticonderoga from Canada, and from 
 there began the march southward, toward Saratoga on their 
 way to the town of New York. General Schuyler and the 
 American troops slowly retired before it, but so seriously 
 blocked its progress by burning the bridges and felling trees 
 across the roads, that the British advance was very slow. Food 
 for his soldiers soon became so scanty that Burgoyne was 
 compelled to send out expeditions to secure it. A force of 
 Hessians and Indians under Colonel Baum were dispatched for 
 this purpose to Bennington, in Vermont, where a body of 
 American militia was stationed in defense of the stores. 
 " There are the redcoats," exclaimed Colonel Stark, when the 
 enemy came in sight ; " we must beat them to-day, or Molly 
 Stark's a widow." The British were driven from the field 
 with heavy loss (August 16). 
 
 244. Orislcany. During the progress of these events Colonel 
 St. Leger had been marching from Lake Ontario to the Mo- 
 hawk Valley with the view of joining Burgoyne. On August 3 
 he laid siege to Fort Stanwix, or Fort Schuyler, as it was now 
 called. General Herkimer hurried to its relief, but at Oris- 
 kany, a few miles down the Mohawk, fell into an ambush of 
 
140 INDEPENDENCE AND CONEEDERATION 
 
 rangers and Mohawk Indians. Mortally wounded, Herkimer, 
 propped for support against a tree, and smo'king his pipe, gave 
 orders to his soldiers while his strength lasted. In the end 
 the militia had to retreat. General Schuyler soon sent Gen- 
 eral Arnold to break up the siege. A half-witted Tory had 
 been captured, and he was promised his freedom if he would, 
 on the pretense of having escaped from the Americans, rush 
 into the British camp and tell the commander that an Ameri- 
 can army, overwhelming in numbers, was coming up, and that 
 Burgoyne had been driven back to Canada. The stratagem 
 succeeded ; the British made their way in haste to Canada. 
 
 245. Battles near Saratoga. Freeinaris Farm or Bemis 
 Heights. General Gates had now superseded General Schuy- 
 ler. In September the British army advanced from Saratoga, 
 in the hope of breaking through the obstruction that blocked 
 the way toward the south. At Freemans Farm, just north of 
 Be'mis Heights, they came upon the Americans, and, after a 
 contest lasting until nightfall, held possession of the held 
 (September 19). About two weeks afterward the British again 
 advanced and attacked the Americans, near Bemis Heights 
 (October 7). Arnold had been relieved from the command of 
 his part of the army before the battle, by Gates, on a pretense 
 of disobedience to orders. When the fight began, he dashed to 
 the front and, in a sort of frenzy, charged with his troops and 
 cheered them to the onset. All the bravery of the British 
 army was in vain. They were forced to fall back, after a 
 severe loss. 
 
 246. The SiiTreiulev. Burgoyne now retreated to Sara- 
 toga. The Indians and Tories, scenting defeat in the air, 
 had been rapidly deserting him, and his supplies were run- 
 ning so low that the daily rations of his soldiers were cut 
 down to the smallest quantity. Recruits were rushing to the 
 American standard from all sides. Unless aid came to him 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776-1777 
 
 141 
 
 soon, Burgoyne wrote to General Clinton, lie would be forced 
 to surrender. Soon rations for only three days were left. A 
 council of war was held, and during its session a large cannon 
 ball passed just above the heads of those sitting around the 
 table. They decided to surrender, and, on the 17th of October, 
 the British troops, about GOOO in all, stacked their arms. 
 
 Burgoyne's Surrender 
 
 The captives were marched, first into Massachusetts and then 
 into Virginia and Pennsylvania, and there remained until the 
 declaration of peace. 
 
 247. Near Philadelphia. Brandyiuine. It had been the 
 original plan of General Howe to move northward from the 
 town of New York and form a junction with Burgoyne, but 
 calculating that he would have ample time first to capture 
 Philadelphia, he transported an army up Chesapeake Bay, to 
 
142 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 its head, and thence began his march upon Philadelphia. He 
 took this roundabout route because Washington barred the 
 path across New Jersey, and strong forts defended the channel 
 
 of the Delaware River. At 
 Chads Ford, on the Brandy- 
 wine, Howe found the 
 American army confronting 
 him (September 11, 1777). 
 He at once sent Cornwallis 
 to turn the American flank 
 by stealing up one bank of 
 the stream and then down 
 the other. The American 
 right wing was saved from 
 destruction only by the 
 arrival of General Greene, 
 who had traversed four 
 miles in forty-two minutes. 
 The American army retreated to Chester and, after much 
 maneuvering, the British took possession of Philadelphia.^ 
 
 248. Lafayette. A number of brave officers from conti- 
 nental Europe had now joined the American patriots. Among 
 them were Baron de Kalb, from Germany ; Counts Pulaski 
 and Kosciusko (kos si us'ko), from Poland ; and the Marquis 
 
 Scale of Jlile 
 
 AND 
 
 VICINITV. 
 
 1 Washington established his headquarters at White Marsh. Here he would 
 probably have been captured bat for the jjatriotism and bravery of Lydia 
 Darragh, a name deserving lasting honor in American history. A British 
 council of war was held at her house in Philadelphia, and it was decided 
 that the American camp should be surprised. She rose from her bed and 
 overheard all the details of the plan, and promptly determined to thwart it. 
 Obtaining, the next morning, a passport through the Bintish lines, on the plea 
 that she wished to go to a mill in the country, she rode to the American camp 
 as fast as her horse could carry her, and warned Washington of the intended 
 attack. When the British troops arrived, the Amei-ican forces were drawn up 
 in array of battle, and the enemy retired discomfited. 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1776-1777 143 
 
 de Lafayette^ from France. Lafayette was only twenty-three 
 
 years of age, and had only recently been married. He had 
 
 fitted out a vessel an.d, leaving behind wife, 
 
 fortune, and the most brilliant prospects, 
 
 crossed the ocean to give active support to 
 
 a cause which, at that time, seemed fated 
 
 to end in complete failure.. He offered his 
 
 services to Congress without remuneration. 
 
 His relations with Washington soon became 
 
 those of the warmest affection. In the battle 
 
 of Brandywine, Lafayette, who was badly ^* Fayette 
 
 wounded, and Pulaski won great distinction by their skill and 
 
 courage. 
 
 249. GeriTiantoivn and Valley Forge. The main body 
 of the British army was stationed at Germantown. Here, on 
 October 4, Washington attacked it, with the brave and dash- 
 ing Anthony Wayne — '• Mad Anthony," as he was known — 
 leading the American van. The enemy were driven back, 
 but, in retreating, six companies threw themselves into a 
 stone house by the way, and held it, even after the principal 
 American forces had passed on. A heavy fog hung over the 
 battlefield. The Americans in advance, hearing the loud fusil- 
 lade in their rear, became so confused in the darkness that one 
 party fired by mistake into another. The British now rallied, 
 and the Americans slowly withdrew from the field. Howe 
 now turned his attention to the forts along the Delaware, 
 which he captured only after an obstinate defense. So great 
 was the delay caused by the Philadelphia campaign that 
 Howe lost the opportunity of assisting Burgoyne in his ter- 
 rible predicament at Saratoga. Washington, therefore, was 
 indirectly entitled to much of the credit of the surrender. 
 
 250. Valley Forge. In December Washington went into 
 winter quarters at Valley Forge, near Philadelphia. Before 
 
144 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 Washington's Headquarters at Valley Forge 
 
 rude huts were built to shelter the troops, they slept in the 
 snow. Few had even blankets or straw ; hundreds had no shoes 
 to wear. The only food was salt fish, potatoes, and a little flour. 
 Hungry, half naked, cold, sick, without medicines, and defeated, 
 
 nevertheless the 
 soldiers were un- 
 yielding in their 
 determination to 
 uphold the cause 
 of their country 
 to the last gasp. 
 In all these fright- 
 ful hardships 
 ^^^ashington bore 
 his share without 
 a murmur. The 
 greatness of his spirit was never more apparent. Mrs. Wash- 
 ington had now joined him, and she and the wives of the 
 officers devoted their time to making clothes for the soldiers. 
 . 251. Cabal against Washington. The anxiety which Wash- 
 ington suffered at this time was increased by an intrigue 
 among the members of Congress, certain military officers, and 
 the Board of War, sitting in Philadelphia, to deprive him of 
 his command, and put General Gates in his ])lace. When news 
 of the cabal ^ reached the army, there was such an outburst of 
 indignation that the plans of the conspirators were at once aban- 
 doned. The discipline of the American troops was greatly 
 improved at this time by the appointment of Baron Steuben, 
 a distinguished European officer, to the position of inspector 
 
 1 This cabal was known as the "Conway Cabal," from its head, an Irish 
 adventurer, — General Conway, — who had come over and offered his services 
 to Congress. He was challenged by one of Washington's officers for the part 
 he took in the intrigue, and was severely wounded. Before leaving the country 
 he wrote Washington a letter of apology. 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1778 
 
 145 
 
 general, who began at once to drill them after the European 
 manner. By the appointment of General Greene to the quar- 
 termaster generalship the privations of the soldiers were 
 greatly diminished. 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1778 
 
 252. The French Alliance. As early as 1776 Silas Deane had 
 been sent to Paris to procure arms and ammunition. He was 
 followed first by Arthur 
 Lee, and then by Benja- 
 min Franklin, who was 
 instructed to secure the 
 aid of a French army 
 and fleet. In his fur 
 cap and plain dress, with 
 his homely wdtand genial 
 manners, Franklin soon 
 became the most popular 
 man in France, bat not 
 even his influence could 
 at first induce the French 
 government to break 
 openly with Great Brit- 
 ain. It was afraid lest, 
 should France join the 
 American patriots at this 
 stage of hostilities, when 
 so little real success had ^^^^^"^^^ ^'^^^^^^ 
 
 been w^on, the principal part of the fighting, as Avell as the 
 chief expense of supporting the army, would fall on the 
 French nation. The surrender of Burgoyne removed this fear. 
 
 253. British Overtures. Early in 1778 France entered into 
 an alliance with the United States, and promised to dispatch 
 
146 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 to America a fleet and an army of men. Great Britain at 
 once declared war against France, and sent commissioners to 
 the United States with instructions to concede all that the 
 Americans had claimed — freedom from taxation, except by 
 their own assemblies, or taxation by Parliament only in case 
 they were fully represented in that body. Congress declined 
 to accept these overtures as coming too late. 
 
 254. Battle of Monmouth. Fearing lest a French fleet should 
 enter New York harbor in his absence, General Clniton, who 
 had succeeded Howe in command of the British army at 
 Philadelphia, decided to abandon that city and return by 
 land to New York. On June 28, 1778, at Monmouth, New 
 Jersey, Washington ordered General Charles Lee, wdio had been 
 exchanged (§ 239), to assault the rear guard of the retiring 
 enemy. One of the movements of the forces carrying this out 
 was taken by the subordinate officers as a signal to fall back ; 
 in a short time the whole attacking division was in retreat, 
 which Lee made no effort to stop. Washington, who was com- 
 ing up with the rest of the army, galloped forward, and after 
 sharply rebuking Lee, rallied the troops and turned their faces 
 again against the enemy.^ When night arrived, the Americans 
 were in possession of the field. This was the last important 
 battle in the North. Clinton crossed over to New York City, 
 while Washington took position at White Plains. 
 
 255. Newport and New York were now the only two northern 
 towns of importance occupied by the British. W^ashington 
 was hopeful that, with the aid of the French fleet, he could 
 force Clinton to surrender, but unfortunately the largest French 
 vessels drew too much water to cross the bar at the mouth of 
 New York harbor. General Sullivan was sent to besiege New- 
 
 1 Lee was at first suspended from the army, but was finally dismissed for 
 writing an impertinent letter to Congress. He spent his last days in a hut in 
 the Alleghany Mountains, with only his dogs for company. 
 
EVENTS OF THE llEVOLUTION, 1778 147 
 
 port, while the French fleet was expected to prevent the British 
 ships from coming to its rescue by sea. A violent tempest 
 arose and scattered the French and British vessels, and 
 soon afterward Sullivan withdrew his troops. The French 
 admiral, D'Estaing (des tax'), sailed away to the West 
 Indies. 
 
 256. British and Indian Atrocities. The declining fortunes of 
 the Ih-itish in America now induced them to carry on hostilities 
 in a more savage manner than they had previously done. The 
 British prison ships, the most notorious of which was the 
 Jersey, soon became, owing to bad food, close air, and narrow 
 quarters, the abode of the most frightful diseases. Ten 
 thousand men perished in these pestilential holes. To this 
 revolting feature of the war the ferocity of the Indian was 
 now to be added. 
 
 257. Massacre of Wyoming. One of the most beautiful spots 
 in America was the Wyoming Valley, in Pennsylvania. In 
 July, 1778, most of the inhabitants who could bear a musket 
 were engaged with the regular army in fighting the enemy. A 
 few men past the military age and many women and children 
 were the only persons left in the valley to gather the crops. 
 News came that a large band of Indians, with two companies 
 of Tories, under Butler, were advancing. A small body of old 
 men and boys, who strove to check their progress, were de- 
 feated. The helpless people fled in terror to the principal fort, 
 and at last surrendered on condition that they should be allowed 
 to return to their homes. The Indians and Tories falling upon 
 them thus scattered, robbed those whom they did not butcher, 
 and made the night hideous with the conflagration of crops, 
 barns, and dwelling houses. Many of the inhabitants got 
 away, only to perish of hunger in the wilds of the neighboring 
 mountains. In retaliation, Washington in the following sum- 
 mer sent a force of men, under General Sullivan, into the very 
 
148 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 heart of the country of the Iroquois. After beating the Indians 
 in a pitched battle (August 29), Sullivan completely destroyed 
 some of their villages. A like punishment was inflicted on 
 the Indians in Avestern Pennsylvaiiia. 
 
 258. Capture of Vincennes. The country north of the Ohio 
 was governed by a British c>fficer stationed at Detroit. The 
 Indians in this territory w^ere prompted by the British agents 
 
 -W^/^^-.^^:^-^^ 
 
 Capture of Kaskaskia 
 
 to commit depredations south of the Ohio. George Rogers 
 Clark (§ 203) thought that if the posts in that region could be 
 captured and held, these depreciations would cease. In the 
 spring of 1778, at the head of one hundred and fifty men, 
 Clark drifted down the Ohio Eiver to the mouth of the Ten- 
 nessee. There he was joined by a band of hunters from the 
 forests on the north bank, who consented to be his guides. 
 Plunging boldly into the wilderness, the little army soon 
 arrived in front of the fort at Kaskaskia, which they entered 
 while a ball was going on. Vincennes also was captured. 
 
EVENTS OF THE KE VOLUTION, 1779-1780 
 
 149 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1 779-1 780 
 
 259. Vincennes Recaptured. Hamilton, the British governor, 
 hearing of the fall of these forts, made a rapid march from 
 Detroit to Vincennes, and, in the absence of Clark, easily recap- 
 tured that post in January, 1779. It was now midwinter, the 
 streams were flooded, and the greater part of the country was 
 
 March to Vincennes 
 
 covered with water several feet deep. In spite of these obsta- 
 cles, Clark determined to drive the British out. He w\as two 
 hundred and forty miles away. Accompanied by one hundred 
 and thirty men, he set out for Vincennes. At times, his sol- 
 diers were compelled to wade in water np to their chins. They 
 had few provisions, and could kill no game. In February, 
 1779, they arrived near the fort. 80 carefully had their pres- 
 ence been concealed, that it was not until one of the garrison 
 had been shot down through a porthole that the enemy became 
 
150 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 aware of the danger of their position. The British made a 
 brave defense, but after being exposed to a continuous lire for 
 twenty-four hours were forced to surrender. The region con- 
 quered by Clark became a part of Virginia, and was known as 
 the " county of Illinois." 
 
 260. French Sclieme Thwarted. In the year following 
 the capture of Yincennes, Clark, acting under orders from 
 Governor Jefferson, built a fort near the mouth of the Ohio, 
 and by doing so broke up a scheme which the French had 
 under consideration, of dividing between Spain and Great 
 Britain all the country situated west of the Alleghanies. In 
 1782 the Indians from the region north of the Ohio, having 
 invaded the country south, won a decisive victory at Blue 
 Lick. Placing himself at the head of 1000 riflemen, Clark 
 pursued them to their towns, and so terrible was his retalia- 
 tion that Kentucky was not again molested. Colonel Shelby, 
 by an expedition against the C hick am au gas, put a stop to all 
 further combinations between the Indians of the South and 
 the North. 
 
 261. Capture of Stony Point. The British were occupied in 
 the early part of 1779 in sending out marauding expeditions 
 from New York. General Mathews harried the coast of Yir- 
 ginia; General Try on, the coast of New England. Stony 
 Point, a post on the Hudson, was used to great advantage in 
 harassing the surrounding country. Washington, in 1779, 
 determined to get possession of it. The difficult undertaking 
 was assigned to General Anthony Wayne (§ 249). Under the 
 guidance of a negro, who was in the habit of selling strawber- 
 ries to the British, his force advanced at night along a narrow 
 causeway Avhich led to a steep path running up to the fort. 
 In the assault, Wayne was wounded. "Take me up," he 
 calmly ordered, " and bear me .forward, that I may die at the 
 head of my column." With bayonets fixed, the troops rushed 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1779-1780 151 
 
 into the fort on July 16. Though numbering only two hun- 
 dred men, they killed, wounded, or captured six hundred of the 
 enemy. Major Henry Lee, equal to Wayne himself in love of 
 dangerous and brilliant enterprises, in August, 1779, captured 
 Paulus Hook (map p. 136), and carried off one hundred and 
 fifty-nine prisoners. 
 
 262. Naval Operations. Privateers, acting along Avith the 
 vessels which Congress, in 1775, had ordered to be built, had, 
 for several years, been doing great damage to British com- 
 merce. The most famous of these ships were the Reprisal and 
 the Bevenge. In 1778 Commodore John Paul Jones, a native 
 of Scotland, in the Ranger, harried the coast of Great Britain, 
 and sailing into the Firth of Forth, even threatened the city 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 263. Capture of the " Serapis." In 1779 several vessels 
 which had been bought from the French were placed under the 
 command of Jones. The largest was his flagship, the Bon- 
 liomme Richard} On September 23 the American fleet came 
 up with two British warships, the Serapis and the Countess of 
 Scarborough, off Flamborough Head, on the English coast. 
 The Bonhomme Richard at once grappled the Serajyis. Sev- 
 eral times both ships were in flames. The battle had been 
 in progress about an hour when the Bonhomme Richard ceased 
 firing. '' Have you struck your colors ? " called out the cap- 
 tain of the Serapis. " I have not yet begun to fight," Jones 
 replied. The Serapis finally lowered her flag. In the mean- 
 while, the Countess of Scarborough had surrendered to another 
 of the American ships. 
 
 264. Attach on Castine. Toward the end of the Revolu- 
 tionary struggle, the American public navy consisted of two 
 frigates. New England, however, continued to keep afloat 
 
 1 Named in honor of "Poor (Goodman) Richard" of Franklin's famous 
 Almanac. 
 
152 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 a large number of privateers. In the effort to capture Castiue, 
 a British post in Maine, many of these privateers were either 
 seized or destroyed by an English squadron. The land forces 
 were compelled to beat a hasty retreat, and found their way, 
 with great difficulty, to Massachusetts, through thick and 
 unfrequented woods, after enduring extraordinary hardships 
 and privations. 
 
 265. Benedict Arnold. The Meeting with Andre. Wash- 
 ington, in 1780, placed West Point, which defended the 
 upper Hudson, under the command of General Benedict 
 Arnold. Previous to this appointment, Arnold was stationed 
 in Philadelphia, where he had gotten heavily into debt, and 
 was even accused of taking the public moneys. He was 
 sentenced to be reprimanded by Washington. This greatly 
 stung his pride, Married recently to a Tory wife, disgraced, 
 and weighed down with the burden of what he owed, he 
 opened up a traitorous correspondence with General Clinton in 
 New York. On his appointment to West Point, he renewed, 
 with increased zeal, the negotiations for the betrayal of his 
 country. Major John Andre (ahn'dra), adjutant general of the 
 British forces, a young man of remarkable accomplishments, 
 was sent up the Hudson in the ship Vulture to meet him at 
 night on sliore, and it was agreed between them that, in return 
 for delivering up West Point, Arnold was to receive a brigadier 
 generalship in the British army and the sum of 10,000 pounds 
 sterling. 
 
 266. Arnold Eseapes. The Americans fired upon the 
 Vulture, and compelled her to drop down the stream with- 
 out her passenger. Andre was thus forced to go back to New 
 York by land. Near Dobbs Ferry he was stopped by three 
 militiamen, named Paulding, Williams, and Van Wart, and 
 ordered to dismount. Andre offered them his horse, watch, 
 and purse, if they would allow him to go on. " Not for a 
 
EVENTS OE THE REVOLUTION, 1779-1780 153 
 
 thousand guineas," replied Paulding. Finding suspicious 
 papers on his person, they marched hiin off to North Castle. 
 Receiving information of Andre's capture, Arnold escaped to 
 the Vulture still lying at anchor in the river, near West 
 Point, and thus got away safely to New York. Andre was 
 tried as a spy and hanged (October 2, 1780). 
 
 267. Mutiny in the Army. To such an extent had the 
 American paper money fallen in value by this time that forty 
 dollars had come to have the i)urchasing power of only one 
 gold dollar. A soldier's wages for one month would hardly 
 buy food enough for a single dinner. In consequence of this 
 fact, a mutiny broke out among the American soldiers sta- 
 tioned in winter quarters at Morristown. The regiments 
 from Pennsylvania, numbering 1300 men, demanded their dis- 
 charge on the ground that their time had expired. Finally, on 
 January 1, 1781, they shouldered their muskets and set out for 
 Philadelphia, but at Princeton they were met by a committee 
 from the Congress, which pacified and disbanded them. Many 
 private individuals now came forward to the immediate relief of 
 the army. Robert Morris (§ 240) sent several thousand barrels 
 of flour, while the ladies of Philadelphia gave |8000 and 2200 
 shirts. 
 
 268. Georgia and South Carolina Overrun. Assault on 
 Savannah. We must now turn our eyes toward the South, 
 where events of great importance have been taking place. 
 Having failed to conquer either New England -or the Middle 
 States, the British determined, if possible, to regain the South- 
 ern States for the crown. The campaign began with the cap- 
 ture of Savannah in the winter of 1778, and in a short time the 
 whole of Georgia had been overrun and laid waste. The upper 
 portion of the State w^as wrested from the British by the vic- 
 tory of Colonels Pickens and Clarke at Kettle Creek (Febru- 
 ary 14y 1779), but again fell into their hands after the defeat of 
 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 10 
 
154 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 the Americans at Briar Creek (March 3). Undismayed by this 
 misfortune, General Lincohi, on October 9, made a deter- 
 mined attack on Savan- 
 nah by land. In this 
 he had the aid of the 
 French, who had, a few 
 days before, arrived in 
 their fleet from the 
 West Indies. Three 
 times the French and 
 American troops came 
 on to storm the British 
 intrenchments, and as 
 often were driven back. 
 Among those who fell 
 mortally wounded were 
 the brave Pulaski and 
 Sergeant Jasper. Un- 
 able to dislodge the 
 British, D'Estaing, the French admiral, set sail for France, 
 while Lincoln withdrew into South Carolina. 
 
 269. JBjdtish capture Charleston. Lincoln occupied 
 Charleston, and began at once to put the city in a state of 
 defense. As soon as General Clinton, in New York, heard of 
 the departure of the French fleet, he transported by sea a large 
 army, thoroughly equipped with cannon, to Charleston, and 
 after a vigorous bombardment by land and water compelled it 
 to surrender (May 12, 1780). With the capture of Lincoln's 
 army, the Southern States w^ere placed at the mercy of the 
 British. In a sharp engagement at Waxhaws, in May, 1780, 
 Colonel Tarleton, who had taken the Americans by surprise, 
 butchered even those asking for quarter. Ninety-six, in South 
 Carolina, and Augusta, in Georgia, strong military posts, were 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1779-1780 155 
 
 soon captured. Companies of Tories were now formed, who, 
 in only too many cases, wreaked their hatred of their patriot 
 neighbors in massacres of indescribable atrocity. 
 
 270. The Partisan Leaders. Sinnter. For some time the 
 partisan corps were the only organizations resisting the 
 British supremacy. The most famous of the partisan leaders 
 were Sumter and Marion. Six hundred men rallied to the 
 call of Sumter. They joined his standard — many with 
 weapons of iron made by blacksmiths in the woods; while 
 those who brought their hunting rifles had obtained their first 
 supply of bullets by melting their pewter dishes. In some 
 battles so small was the number of guns that a part of a com- 
 mand would have to wait until their comrades who had rifles 
 had fallen before they began firing; or they would all go into 
 a running fight, with a few rounds of ammunition, expecting 
 to procure a larger supply from the pouches of the dead 
 British soldiers. Sumter was defeated at Rocky Mount on 
 July 30 (1780), but on August 6 won a decisive victory at 
 Hanging Rock. 
 
 271. Marion. Sumter was known as the " Game Cock," 
 Marion as the " Swamp Fox." Marion would sally forth from 
 the green swamps, where his soldiers lay hidden, whenever he 
 saw an opportunity to cut off a British troop scouring the 
 country for plunder and recruits ; and then, laden with booty, 
 would return to his fenny fastnesses of cypress and liveoak.^ 
 As it was never certain where the wily " Swamp Fox " would 
 break cover, a sense of constant apprehension was raised in 
 
 1 On one occasion a British officer, who wished to make an exchange of 
 prisoners, visited Marion's camp in the greenwood, and found him dining on 
 roasted potatoes, served on bark, his usual fare. He was without a blanket 
 at night, to protect him from the dew, and gave his time to his country with- 
 out any expectation of payment. So deeply was tlie British officer impressed 
 by such patriotism that he is said to have resigned his commission rather 
 than aid further in the effort to conquer the Americans. 
 
156 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 the breasts of his marauding enemies. " Light Horse " Harry 
 Lee (§ 261) and his Legion were soon ordered South to coop- 
 erate with Sumter and Marion and the 
 other partisan leaders, and showed them- 
 selves equal to them, on their own 
 ground, in daring courage and quick- 
 ness of movement. 
 
 272. Battle of Camden. At this trying 
 hour, when the only hope of rescue for 
 the Southern patriots lay in the brav- 
 ery of a few partisan bodies of troops, 
 General Horatio Gates was appointed, 
 against the advice of Washington, to 
 the chief command in the South. 
 ''Beware," said General Charles Lee to 
 him, " that your Northern laurels do not 
 turn to Southern willows." The British 
 army was stationed at Camden, and 
 here, Gates, who had just made a fatiguing march through a 
 region of pine barrens, sand hills, and swamps, decided to 
 attack the enemy at night. The plan of attack by night had 
 also been adopted by Cornwallis, the British general. The 
 two armies blundered on each other in the darkness, but de- 
 layed battle until daybreak August 16, 1780. The Americans 
 were overwhelmingly defeated. Baron de Kalb was killed, 
 and Gates, accompanied by a few men, fled to Hillsboro in 
 North Carolina. A few days later Sumter was beaten by 
 Tarleton at Fishing Creek. Sumter himself only escaped by 
 throwing himself on an unsaddled horse and dashing off with- 
 out coat or hat. 
 
 273. Kings Mountain. The Mountaineers Aroused. 
 Cornwallis marched as far north as Charlotte, which he 
 described as a "hornet nest of rebels." He sent Major Fer- 
 
 One of Marion's Men 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1779-1780 
 
 157 
 
 guson, at the head of 1200 troops, into the western parts of the 
 Carolinas, to encourage the Tories and overawe the patriots. 
 Far and wide through the mountains, even as far as Fincastle 
 in Virginia, swift messengers carried the news of the enemy's 
 approach. Soon an army of 3000 men were assembled on the 
 Watauga, under the command of Colonels Campbell, Sevier, 
 Shelby, and Williams. For the most part they were dressed 
 in hunting shirts decorated with fringe ^nd tassel, while each 
 soldier wore in his hat a bucktail or a sprig of evergreen. 
 
 Battle of Kings Mountain 
 
 274. The Battle. Ferguson set out in full retreat toward 
 Kings Mountain. Here he took position on a level ridge cov- 
 ered with enormous trees but free from undergrowth. Scat- 
 tered around were bowlders and masses of rock. Having 
 picketed their horses at the foot of the mountain, the brave 
 frontiersmen charged up in three divisions. Shot down from 
 the limbs of trees and from behind rocks, and finding the bay- 
 onet of little use, the British soldiers were thrown into con- 
 
158 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 fusion, and hastily retreated along the ridge. Ferguson tried 
 in vain to rally them. One moment he was seen galloping up 
 and down their ranks on a large white horse ; the next, the 
 horse was seen plunging wildly, without a rider, down the 
 mountain side. The British soon surrendered (October 7). 
 As the news of the victory flew far and wide through the 
 country, the spirits of the patriots rose and their activity 
 increased. Cornwallis at once abandoned North Carolina, and 
 retreated to Winnsboro, harassed all the way by the yeo- 
 *manry firing on him from behind trees and rocks. Kings 
 Mountain was the turning-point in the war in the Southern 
 Department. 
 
 Events of the Revolution, 1781 
 
 275. Battle of Cowpens. General JS^athanael Greene, a 
 
 skillful and cautious officer, having been appointed to take the 
 place of Gates, assumed command of the troops at Charlotte. 
 He soon went into camp at Cheraw, on the Pedee, as offering 
 the best chance of cutting off British detachments and also 
 securing American recruits. With these purposes in view, he 
 sent General Morgan, at the head of one thousand men, into 
 the western parts of South Carolina. On January 17, 1781, 
 Morgan, who had made a stand on rising ground, near Cowpens, 
 was attacked by Tarleton, dispatched by Cornwallis in pursuit 
 of him. The first rank of the American army fired a volley 
 and retired. The next fell back in confusion over the crest of 
 the hill. The British charged impetuously in great disorder, 
 only to come, suddenly and unexpectedly, upon a body of 
 cavalry which Morgan had stationed behind the hill. The 
 American troopers charged in turn, supported by the regulars, 
 and the British were driven in total rout from the field with a 
 loss about equal to the whole American force engaged. A 
 large number of prisoners and a great quantity of stores were 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1781 159 
 
 captured. This was one of the most brilliant victories of the 
 war. 
 
 276. Greene's Great Retreat. Feeling sure that the news of 
 the battle would arouse Cornwallis to extraordinary activity, 
 Morgan began at once to retreat toward the north. He passed 
 the Catawba River just as the British came up on the other 
 bank. The water was rising, and the enemy were detained 
 for several days. Greene now joined Morgan, after galloping 
 a distance of one hundred and fifty miles through the country. 
 The experience at the Catawba was repeated at the Yadkin, 
 and Greene, now at the head of his entire army, gained suffi- 
 cient time to cross over the Dan into Virginia without fear of 
 attack. Cornwallis turned back on arriving at that stream. 
 Thus ended the American retreat through the Carolinas, one 
 of the most masterly achieveinents in the military history 
 of the Revolution. It had been conducted in the rain, over 
 frozen roads, through a rough country broken by swollen 
 streams, thinly peopled, and greatly lacking in supplies. Many 
 of the soldiers were without shoes to protect their feet ; and 
 for days were able to procure but little food. 
 
 277. Guilford Courthouse. Marching back into North Caro- 
 lina, Greene took position near Guilford Courthouse. Here, 
 on March 15, he was attacked by Cornwallis. The first and 
 second American lines in turn retired before the enemy, but 
 the third drove the British back, until checked by volleys of 
 grapeshot, and then slowly withdrew to a point not far from 
 the battlefield. The British, too much crippled to pursue, 
 retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina. 
 
 . 278. Operations in South Carolina. Greene followed the re- 
 treating British for about fifty miles, and then suddenly faced 
 about for South Carolina. He sent out light detachments 
 under Marion and Sumter, Lee and Pickens, to cut off the 
 supplies of the British garrisons at Ninety-six and other 
 
160 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 points. At Hobkirks Hill, near Camden, the American army- 
 came up with a British force under Lord Rawdon, and retired 
 only after inflicting a heavy loss (April 25). Having laid 
 unsuccessful siege to Ninety-six, CTreeue withdrew to the High 
 Hills of Santee.^ Marching down from there, he attacked 
 the British at Eutaw Springs, September 8, and drove them 
 in confusion back to their camp. Thinking that the victory 
 was won, the Americans gave themselves up to feasting on the 
 rich supplies they found there. The British soon returned to 
 the assault, and compelled the Americans to retreat. In the 
 night, however, the British stole away to Charleston. 
 
 279. Greene's Success. In a short time the British found 
 themselves shut up in Charleston, Savannah, and Wilmington. 
 The Southern compaign had been conducted with great wisdom 
 by Greene. He had never won a decisive victory, but the issue 
 of every battle had been disadvantageous to the enemy and fa- 
 vorable to the object for which the campaign had been planned. 
 
 280. Operations in Virginia. Arnold and Phillips. In 
 January, 1781, Benedict Arnold landed at Westover, on James 
 River, and at the head of five hundred British marched to 
 Richmond. He there plied the torch to stores, foundries, work- 
 shops, and public buildings, and then made his way down the 
 
 1 During the sojourn of the American troops in the encampment on the hills 
 of Santee after the siege of Ninety-six, Greene had occasion to send an impor- 
 tant message to Sumter. It was a dangerous mission, as the whole region was 
 swarming with Tories. Emily Geiger, a brave young girl, volunteered to be 
 the bearer. While she was on her way on horseback, with a letter hidden in 
 her dress, she was halted by a band and ordered to dismount, but before they 
 could make a search on her person for suspicious articles, she succeeded in 
 swallowing unnoticed the piece of paper on which the message was written.^ 
 Released, she rode rapidly on her way, and delivered the message to Sumter 
 orally. Equally heroic was the conduct of Mrs. Motte. The British had 
 taken possession of her house, and strongly fortifying it, drove out the 
 inmates. Marion laid siege to it, but was unable to carry it by storm. Mrs. 
 Motte urged him to set it on fire and handed him the bow and burning arrow 
 with which this might be accomplished. 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1781 
 
 161 
 
 river to Portsmouth, where he awaited the arrival of General 
 Phillips, with reenforcements from New York. In April, 
 Phillips, accompanied 
 by Arnold and several 
 thousand troops, sailed 
 up James K-iver to City 
 Point, and from there 
 marched to Peters- 
 burg. Burning all the 
 tobacco stored there, 
 and destroying the 
 military supplies at 
 Chesterfield Court- 
 house, he made his way to Manchester, opposite Richmond. 
 Hearing that Lafayette with a large force was stationed in 
 the latter city, Phillips retreated down the river, but returned 
 to Petersburg, when informed that the British army, under 
 Cornwallis, was moving northward toward that point. Here 
 he died, and was succeeded by Arnold,^ who withdrew to New 
 York on Cornwallis's arrival in May. 
 
 SOUTHEASTER 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 IN THE REVOLUTION 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 ' ' 40 "go 
 
 i While stationed at Portsmoutli after his withdrawal from Richmond, 
 Arnold was very fearful lest he might be captured either by the French fleet 
 expected outside of the Capes, or by an American detachment coming up by 
 land . " What will the Americans do with me, should I fall into their hands ? " 
 he asked an American i3risoner. "They would amputate the leg wounded in 
 the service of your country," was the reply, "and bury it with the honors 
 of war ; the rest of you they would hang." After his return to New York, 
 Arnold performed his last service for the British cause in America by leading 
 a band of Tories, refugees, and Hessians against New London in Connecticut, 
 his native State. The expedition was marked by rapine, destruction, and piti- 
 less cruelty. During Arnold's residence in England, letters of introduction 
 were requested of him to prominent Americans. " I was born in America," 
 was the melancholy reply, " I lived there to the prime of my life, but alas! I 
 can call no man in America my friend." On one occasion, while seated in the 
 gallery of the House of Commons, he was observed by a member who had just 
 arisen to speak, " Mr. Speaker," said he, " I will not speak while that man is 
 in the House," 
 
162 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 281. Comiuallis had decided that, without the conquest of 
 Virginia, it would be impossible to retain a firm grasp on the 
 Carolinas. Owing to the number of troops Virginia was now 
 furnishing the American armies elsewhere, the State was in no 
 condition to offer serious resistance. Lafayette wisely retreated 
 before the British advance. Halting at Hanover Courthouse, 
 Cornwallis sent out -marauding parties mounted on fine horses 
 taken from the stables of the planters. Tarleton made a 
 rush for Charlottesville, and almost succeeded in capturing 
 the governor, Thomas Jefferson, and the Virginia legislature. 
 Simcoe moved forward to the Point of Fork on James Eiver 
 and destroyed the supplies which had been collected there. 
 
 282. British retire to Portsmouth. It was now June. 
 The British army slowly retired toward Williamsburg, while 
 Lafayette followed. In crossing the ford at Jamestown Island, 
 previous to making the passage of the river, Cornwallis was 
 impetuously attacked by Wayne, who was under the impres- 
 sion that the main body of the enemy had gotten over the 
 James. Beating off the assault, Cornwallis withdrew to Ports- 
 mouth. Later on he took position at Yorktown, as a place 
 where he could have the protection of the British ships. In 
 the Virginia campaign now brought to a close he had destroyed 
 ten million dollars' worth of property and carried off 30,000 
 slaves. 
 
 283. The End of the Revolution. Washingtojv goes South. 
 So far, the French army under Eochambeau, 4000 strong, 
 which had been sent out at the earnest request of Lafayette 
 in person, had been of little service to the American cause. 
 It was now stationed at Peekskill, on the eastern bank of the 
 Hudson below West Point, and Morristown, where the Ameri- 
 can troops were also encamped. News reaching Washington 
 that De Grasse, the commander of the French fleet, would sail 
 from the West Indies for the Chesapeake in August, he laid 
 
EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION, 1781 
 
 168 
 
 his plans for surrounding Cornwallis by land and sea. On 
 August 19, at the head of the French and American forces, he 
 crossed the Hudson without his design being known even to 
 his own soldiers. Early in September he reached Mount 
 Vernon, which he had not visited since the beginning of the 
 war. Lingering there only a few days, he made his way to 
 Williamsburg, Virginia. 
 
 At the Siege of Yorktown 
 
 284. CornwaUis in the Toils. In the meanwhile Lafa- 
 yette had prevented Cornwallis from escaping by land, and Ad- 
 miral Graves, owing to the vigilance of De Grasse, had been 
 unable to rescue him by sea. By October 1 the investment of 
 Yorktown by the American and French forces had been com- 
 pleted, while the French fleet guarded the entrance to the 
 Capes. Governor Nelson, of Virginia, was present in the lines, 
 and when asked what part of the town should be bombarded 
 
164 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 first, directed the cannoneers to fire upon his own house, the 
 finest in the place, as the probable headquarters of Cornwallis, 
 and he offered a reward to the first man who should put a ball 
 through the walls. On October 14 the Americans and the 
 French carried two British redoubts. Cornwallis attempted to 
 escape across the York, but a storm scattered his transports, 
 and the whole body of soldiers had to be recalled to their 
 
 Surrender of Cornwallis 
 
 former intrenchments. Despairing of aid from New York, 
 and abandoning all hope of breaking through the American 
 lines, Cornwallis, on October 19, surrendered. 
 
 285. Tlie Scene at the Surrender. When the hour for 
 actual surrender came, the American troops, only partly in 
 uniform, were drawn up on one side of the road, under com- 
 mand of Washington, while the French troops, in their bril- 
 liant military dress, were drawn up, under the command of 
 
WEAKNESS OF THE CONFEDERATION 165 
 
 Kochambeaii (ro shox b6% on the other. Between these two 
 lines the British soldiers, 8000 in all, passed, led by General 
 O'Hara, in the absence of Cornwallis, who feigned to be too 
 ill to be present. O'Hara, on coming up to Washington, 
 offered his sword, bat the American commander simply pointed 
 to General Lincoln, who received it.^ Washington ordered 
 divine services to be held, and issued general orders thanking 
 the troops for their bravery, skill, and constancy. 
 
 286. Effect of the .Yews. The cry, "Cornwallis has sur- 
 rendered ! " passed almost with the swiftness of an electrical 
 message through the country, and was received everywhere 
 with joyful acclamations. The people danced in the streets 
 and illuminated their houses. Congress, now in session in 
 Philadelphia, marched in a body to church, and returned 
 . thanks to Heaven for the great triumph.- 
 
 Weakness of the Confederation 
 
 287. Treaty of Peace and Discontent of the Army. Effect in 
 England. When Lord North, the head of the British xMinistry, 
 was informed of the surrender of Cornwallis, he opened his 
 arms as if a pistol had been tired at his breast, and, walking in 
 great agitation up and down the room, exclaimed wildly, " Oh, 
 God! it is all over." North resigned, and negotiations for 
 peace began. But it was not until September 3, 1783, that the 
 final treaty was signed. As the United States stood at the close 
 
 1 Lincoln was selected for the honor, as some compensation for the pain 
 which he had undergone in a similar scene after he surrendered Charleston. " 
 As the British troops marched forward between the lines, their bands played 
 
 The World is Upside Down." When they came to lay down their arms, 
 many threw the muskets so violently to the ground as to make them unfit 
 lor lurther use. 
 
 2 The news reached Philadelphia at night; "Past one o'clock," called out 
 the watchman, " and Cornwallis is taken." The old doorkeeper of Congress 
 was so overwhelmed by the joyful news that it caused him to drop dead. 
 
Longitude 85 West from 80 Greenwich 
 
 16(i 
 
 .L.POATES, ENGB., N.Y 
 
WEAKNESS OF THE CONFEDERATION 167 
 
 of the war, its northern boundary was Canada ; its western, the 
 Mississippi River ; its southern, the territory of Florida, which 
 had been taken by Spain during the Revohitionary War. 
 
 288. Causes of Terplexity. The treaty of peace had hardly 
 been signed before new causes of perplexity arose. The pay 
 of the soldiers was very much in arrears, and there was a party 
 in the army which favored the seizure of what was due them, 
 with the sword and bayonet. Another section would have 
 gladly set up a strong military government, with Washington 
 at its head. He was even petitioned to become king, but he 
 repelled the suggestion with abhorrence, and it was not heard 
 of again. 
 
 289. Washington at Annapolis. Having issued a farewell 
 address to his troops, Washington, in December, 1783, at New 
 York, took leave of his officers in person, in a scene in which 
 all were deeply moved. The British had evacuated the city 
 on November 25. On his way to Mount Vernon, Washington 
 stopped first at Philadelphia, where, in settling his accounts 
 with the government, he charged only for his actual expenses. 
 Continuing his journey to Annapolis, there, in the State House, 
 which overflowed with a brilliant assemblage, he surrendered into 
 the hands of Congress, with a few modest words, the great trust 
 which had been confided to him, and which he had carried 
 through with a degree of wisdom, skill, fidelity, constancy, and 
 integrity rarely shown in the history of mankind. 
 
 290. Political Condition. The JVorthiuestern Country. 
 Maryland had declined to join the Confederation until the 
 States holding the northwestern country should cede this vast 
 territory to the United States, as she alleged that the posses- 
 sion of such an empire would give these States an overwhelming 
 importance. Virginia, anxious that the Confederation should 
 succeed, agreed in January, 1781, to cede to the United States 
 all the region now include^ in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Wiscon- 
 
168 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 sin, and a part of Michigan. New York had the year before 
 agreed to make a similar cession, and the other States ^ having 
 claims to western lands soon followed the example of New York 
 and Virginia. 
 
 Shays 's Rebellion 
 
 291. Interstate Dissensions. Now that all fear of British 
 conquest had passed away. Congress had lost its influence and 
 power over the States. The Confederation became the weak- 
 est of leagues. So bitter was the contention between some of 
 
 1 Virijinia claimed the region north of the Ohio, by virtue of her charter of 
 1609 (§ 81) and the conquest by George Rogers Clark. Massachusetts, Con- 
 necticut, the two Carolinas,and Georgia also asserted title to western territory 
 because of their charters. The claim of New York was based on purchases 
 from the Indians in the valley of the Ohio. , 
 
ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 169 
 
 the States over questions of disputed territory and boundaries, 
 and interstate import duties, that little concert of action for 
 the general good was to be expected. Wrangles between citi- 
 zen and citizen about the settlement of debts in the depreciated 
 paper currency issued for the purpose by all the States, except 
 Virginia, ISiew Hampshire, and Massachusetts, intensified the 
 prevailing animosities. A mob of farmers in the western part 
 of Massachusetts, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, under- 
 took to prevent the collection of debts by process of court, and 
 at one time even threatened to overturn the State government. 
 The situation was further aggravated by the prospect of a 
 conflict of arms with Spain about the true boundary of the 
 United States in the southwest and the navigation of the 
 Mississippi River. 
 
 Adoption of the Constitution 
 
 292. The first step toward a closer union of the States was 
 taken when a resolution drawn by Madison was offered in the 
 Virginia legislature, in 1786, looking to the calling of a con- 
 vention, made up of delegates from all the States, in order to 
 lay down a uniform system in their commercial relations. 
 This convention met at Annapolis in the same year, and rec- 
 ommended that a convention of all the States should be held 
 in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The object of this convention 
 was intended to be to give the government of the United 
 States power to raise revenue independently of the separate 
 States, and'also to regulate the commercial intercourse between 
 them. When the convention met, with George Washington 
 as its president, its labors took a much broader scope. Its 
 object soon came to be to set up a government which would 
 (1) preserve peace at home ; (2) defend the country from foreign 
 attack ; (3) maintain local government in the States ; and (4) 
 establish free trade between them. 
 
170 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 293. Compromises. Virginia was in favor of a Congress made 
 up of two chambers, both elected on the basis of population. 
 This would have given the superiority in power to the large 
 States ; the small States, therefore, objected to it, and as a com- 
 promise the plan was adopted of granting an equal number of 
 representatives to all the States in the Senate, and a represen- 
 tation in the House according to population. The great slave 
 States, which by this arrangement would, because fewer in num- 
 ber, have been outvoted in the Senate by the States which had 
 not many slaves, demanded that, in estimating population for 
 representation in the House, all the negro bondsmen should be 
 counted. The struggle between North and South over this 
 point ended in the second great compromise — a three-fifths 
 representation was allowed for slaves. 
 
 294. Character of the Constitution. The Constitution finally 
 framed, September 17, 1787, was an instrument in which all 
 the powers not expressly given to the general government 
 were reserved to the States themselves. The chief powers 
 delegated by the instrument to the general government were : 
 (1) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises ; (2) to 
 borrow money ; (3) to regulate commerce between the States, 
 and with foreign nations ; (4) to make foreigners, settling in 
 this country, citizens ; (5) to coin money ; (6) to establish post 
 offices and post-roads ; (7) to grant copyrights and patents ; 
 (8) to declare war ; (9) to raise armies and navies ; (10) to 
 make all laws necessary for executing its powers. 
 
 295. Influences favoring Adoption. It was provided that the 
 Constitution should go into operation as soon as nine States had 
 ratified it. Eleven ratified it by 1788, but it was not until 1790 
 that Rhode Island, which had been the last to hold out against 
 it, gave her consent. Madison had been foremost in the con- 
 vention in the framing of the instrument, and, together with 
 Hamilton and Jay, had urged its ratification in a series of 
 
ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION 171 
 
 papers of remarkable ability, known as the Federalist ; but that 
 it was finally accepted by all the States was largely due to the 
 earnest support it received from Washington. 
 
 296. Northwest Territory Ordinance. In 1787 an ordinance was 
 adopted by Congress for the future administration of the affairs 
 of the Northwest Territory (§ 290). Some of its articles were of 
 extraordinary importance, such, for instance, as those providing 
 for (1) the advancement of popular education ; (2) the prohibi- 
 tion of slavery (a regulation due to the foresight of Jefferson) ; 
 (3) the establishment of entire religious freedom ; and (4) the 
 future division of the territory into three or five States, with all 
 the rights enjoyed by the original thirteen. 
 
 297. General Conditions of the United States. The population 
 at the time of the ratification of the Constitution was about 
 4,000,000, of which number hardly 100,000 lived west of the 
 Alleghanies. The Iroquois still occupied the country west of 
 Schenectady. Philadelphia, the largest town in the North, 
 had about 30,000 x^eople ; Charleston, the largest in the South, 
 17,000. The streets were still unlighted; the pump and well 
 still supplied the residents with their water ; wood was still the 
 fuel burned on the hearth. The means of sending letters had 
 become safer and more frequent. Stagecoaches plied daily 
 between Philadelphia and New York, and weekly between 
 New York and Boston; but the best route to the South was 
 still by sea. The experiments of Fitch with the steamboat, 
 in 1787, proved to be of no practical use. 
 
 298. Education. As early as 1775 Jefferson had planned 
 a system of public education, in which there was to be a 
 graded ascent: (1) the district school, (2) the high school, 
 (3) the university. This system was to be supported by general 
 taxation, and its benefits were to be enjoyed free of expense. 
 Both Pennsylvania and North Carolina inserted clauses in 
 their constitutions providing for public education. Georgia had 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. — 11 
 
172 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND CONFEDERATION 
 
 opened free county schools in 1777 and in 1784 had built a State 
 university. In 1795 the public school system of New York was 
 established by George Clinton. Transylvania Academy in Ken- 
 tucky, Davidson Academy in North Carolina, and Blount College 
 in Tennessee, were all founded before the close of the century. 
 
 Early Stage Travel 
 
 299. Slaves. In 1780 the slave population of the United 
 States numbered about 500,000. By the time the Constitution 
 was ratified the Northern States, except New York and New 
 Jersey, finding the institution of slavery unprofitable, on account 
 of their peculiar soil and climate, had adopted measures looking 
 to gradual emancipation. From an early period Virginia had 
 tried in vain to impede the slave trade, only to have every act 
 of her Assembly annulled by the British government, because 
 the traffic in negroes, in which even royalty profited, had been 
 so great a source of wealth. The slave trade would have been 
 abolished by the convention adopting the Constitution, but for 
 the influence of Georgia and South Carolina, combined with that 
 of the New England States, many of whose shipmasters were 
 engaged in bringing in negroes. Its abolition was put off until 
 1808. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD IV 
 
 II. 
 
 "War of Independ- 
 ence. 1776. 
 
 War of Independ- 
 ence, 1777. 
 
 Military- 
 Events. 
 
 2. Civil Events, 
 
 1. Military 
 
 Events. 
 
 C 1. Battle of Long Island. 
 I 2. Battle of Harlem Heights. 
 J 3. Battle of White Plains. 
 j 4. Fort Washington t-aptured. 
 fi. Retreat across New Jersey. 
 i^ a. Battle of Trenton. 
 
 / 1. Congress asks aid of France. 
 1, 2. Morris aids Army. 
 
 1. Battle of Princeton. 
 
 2. Battle of Bennington. 
 
 3. Battle of Brandywine. 
 
 4. Fall of Philadelphia. 
 
 5. Battles near Saratoga. 
 
 6. Burgoyne's Surrender. 
 
 7. Valley Forge. 
 
 ^2. Civil Events. l. Franklin in France. 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 « 
 
 W 
 Q 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 o 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 Q 
 
 III. War of Independ- 
 ence, 1778. 
 
 IV. War of Independ 
 ence, 1779-1880. i 
 
 Military 
 
 Events. 
 
 2. Civil Events. 
 
 Military 
 
 Events. 
 
 r 1. Battle of Monmouth. 
 
 I 2. Wyoming Massacre. 
 
 I 3. Clarke invades Northwest. 
 
 I 4. Capture of Savannah. 
 
 C 1. Alliance with France. 
 
 J 2. Conway Cabal. 
 
 [ 3. British Overtures for Peace. 
 
 1. Capture of Stony Point. 
 
 2. Indians defeated. 
 
 3. Victory over Serapis. 
 
 4. Arnold's Treason. 
 
 5. Andr^ executed. 
 
 6. Defeat at Savannah, (ia. 
 
 7. British capture Charleston. 
 
 8. Battle of Camden. 
 
 9. Battle of Kings Mountain. 
 
 2. Civil Events. l. County of Illinois formed. 
 
 War of Independ- 
 ence, 1781-1783. 
 
 VI. Adoption of the j 
 Constitution. ^ 
 
 1. Military 
 
 Events. 
 
 2. Civil Events. {2; 
 
 1. Failure of the [2. 
 C o n f e d e r- 
 ation. 
 
 2. First Steps. 
 
 1. Mutiny among Troops. 
 
 2. Arnold Invades Virginia. 
 
 3. Battle of Cowpens. 
 
 4. Battle of Guilford C. H. 
 
 5. Battle of Eutaw Springs. 
 
 6. Cornwallis invades Virginia. 
 
 7. Cornwallis surrenders. 
 
 8. Battle of Blue Lick. 
 
 9. Washington resigns his Com- 
 
 mission. 
 
 Virginia cedes Western Lands. 
 Treaty of Peace. 
 
 1. Discontent of Soldiers. 
 
 2. Animosities between States. 
 
 3. Popular Discontent. 
 
 4. Shays's Rebellion. 
 
 5. Dangerof Conflict with Spain. 
 
 1. Virginia calls Commercial 
 
 Convention. 
 
 2. Commercial Convention calls 
 
 Constitutional Convention. 
 
 3. Convention meets. 
 
 es. 
 States. 
 
 q rnmnrni-ni«P / l' Protection for Small Stat 
 6. bompiomise. \ 2. Protection for Slave Stati 
 
 4 ClmrsiptPr nf f 1- Powers granted to National 
 *. L/naracter OI J Government. 
 
 Constitution. 12. Powers reserved to states. 
 
 . VII. Condition of the People at the Adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 173 
 
PERIOD V. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — 
 
 UNION 
 
 Washington's Administration, 1789-1797^ 
 
 300. Washington's Inauguration. When the time came to put 
 the Constitution in force, all eyes turned to Washington, as 
 
 1 George Washington was born February 22, 1732, and died December 14, 
 1799. He was educated by his mother, a woman of a Roman type of character. 
 From his early years he was used to tlie manly and health-giving sports and 
 amusements of the country, and when a mere boy, became a leader in them 
 all. Adopting, when very young, the profession of a surveyor, he learned all 
 the arts of a frontiersman in exploring the vast domain of Lord Fairfax, who 
 had inherited the grant of the Northern Neck, extending on the west to 
 the Shenandoah valley and beyond. The part he took in the French and 
 Indian War, 1754-17G3, and the war of the Revolution has already been 
 related. On leaving the presidency, he withdrew to his princely estate, 
 Mount Vernon, where he spent the short remaining portion of his life, 
 engaged in the pursuits which interested him most, — riding, hunting, and 
 superintending his farms. His style of life was generous and aristocratic. 
 Although he himself preferred horseback as a means of getting about, his 
 family traveled in a coach and four, with postilions in livery. Mount Vernon, 
 which he had inherited from his brother, was a seat of hospitality where the 
 most distinguished people in America, and many celebrated guests from 
 abroad, were entertained ; but this did not interfere with the owner's simple 
 habits of living. He arose at an early hour, breakfasted plainlj^ rode over 
 his estates, and retired for the night at ten o'clock. In person, Washington 
 was as tall and erect as an Indian ; in manner formal and dignified. He 
 rarely unbent, though at times capable of strong anger. His judgment was 
 the most unerring, his probity the most unswerving. It is one of the great- 
 est of our national blessings that we have such a figure in the forefront of 
 our history. " Until time shall be no more," wrote Lord Brougham, " a test 
 of the progress which our race has made in wisdom and virtue will be de- 
 rived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of Washington." He 
 died as he lived, master of himself. "I die hard," said he, "but I am not 
 afraid to go," 
 
 175 
 
176 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 best fitted by character and reputation to be the first presid- 
 ing officer of the new Eepii'blic. He received the vote of every 
 member of the electoral college,^ and John Adams, having the 
 next highest number, the two were proclaimed President and 
 Vice President respectively In his journey to New York for 
 his inauguration (April, 1789), Washington found the way 
 strewn with flowers, and he was greeted everywhere with the 
 loudest acclamations. His arrival in that city was marked 
 by an enthusiasm and magnificence without example in the 
 previous history of America. 
 
 301. The leading members of Washington's Cabinet^ were Jef- 
 ferson and Hamilton, who, owing to the antagonism of their 
 political principles, were pitted against each other like two 
 gamecocks in a main. Jefferson believed in increasing the 
 power of the State governments, as the strongest fortification 
 against the possible tyranny of the central government. 
 Hamilton believed in one centralized, sovereign nation, as 
 opposed to a league of sovereign commonwealths. 
 
 302. Hamilton's Policy. As Secretary of the Treasury, 
 Hamilton proposed that the United States should issue bonds 
 in payment of the debts contracted in support of the war by 
 the Confederation and by the different States. How was the 
 revenue to meet the interest on these bonds to be raised ? 
 By a moderate tariff laid on imports, which would also afford 
 
 1 The people do not vote directly for President and Vice President. In our 
 times, each political party nominates a set of electors in each State. The set 
 chosen by the popular majority cast the vote of the State for the nominees of 
 their party convention. In 1788 the legislatures of some of the States 
 appointed the electors for their States. The idea of the founders of our gov- 
 ernment was, that the "College of Electors," as it was called, would select 
 the best man in the country for President, regardless of party sympathy. It 
 was on this principle that the electors acted in the choice of Washington. 
 
 2 At first there were only three departments, Foreign Affairs, War, and the 
 Treasury. The officers filling these positions, together with the Attorney 
 General, made up the Cabinet. 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 177 
 
 protection to American manufactures. The party led by 
 
 Jefferson made no objection to the United States paying the 
 
 debts of the Confederation, but where, they asked, is the 
 
 authority in the Constitution for the national assumption of 
 
 the State debts? In that clause, replied Hamilton, which 
 
 gives to Congress '^the right to make laws 
 
 which shall be necessary and proper for 
 
 carrying into execution the powers vested, 
 
 by this Constitution, in the government 
 
 of the United States." The assumption 
 
 of the State debts was necessary, if public 
 
 confidence was to be restored and the 
 
 new government put in operation. Such 
 
 a liberal construction of the clause, 
 
 answered Jefferson, would soon swallow 
 
 ,, , Alexander Hamilton 
 
 up ail the powers which the States have 
 
 reserved for themselves. Only a strict construction, he de- 
 clared, could prevent the government from becoming a cen- 
 tralized tyranny. 
 
 303. Federalists and Republicans. Hereafter there were 
 arrayed against each other two great parties, namely, the 
 Federalists and the Republicans, one advocating a liberal, 
 the other a strict, construction of this, the elastic clause of 
 the Constitution. The disputed question as to the national 
 assumption of the State debts Avas settled by compromise. 
 About this time it was to be decided in Congress whether the 
 new capital city should be built on the Delaware Eiver or 
 on the Potomac. The iSTorthern members, who represented 
 the communities in which the State debts were chiefly held, 
 favored the Delaware, but they voted for the Potomac,^ in 
 
 1 The District of Columbia was ceded by Maryland and Virginia as the seat 
 for the national capital. The tract covered ground about ten miles square. 
 The portion given by Virginia was afterward ceded back to that State. 
 
178 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 consideration that the Southern members would agree to the 
 United States assuming the debts of the States. The corner 
 stone of the Capitol was laid in 1793, by Washington, after 
 whom the new city was named, but it was not until 1800 that 
 the city became the seat of government. 
 
 304. National Bank and Whisky Insurrection. For the finan- 
 cial convenience of the government, Hamilton recommended 
 that a charter should be granted to a bank with a capi- 
 tal of $10,000,000, and that the United States should be 
 admitted as one of the partners. Finding that the import 
 duties did not bring in enough revenue, he got Congress to 
 pass an act imposing a tax on liquors. This led, in 1794, 
 to what was known as the " Whisky Insurrection " in Penn- 
 sylvania, a State largely engaged in the manufacture of 
 spirits. A large body of militia was sent to suppress the 
 tumult. 
 
 305. The Invention of the Cotton Gin. The value of slave 
 property in the South was enormously increased by Eli Whit- 
 ney's invention, in 1793, of the cotton gin, by which, it was 
 estimated, two hundred times more progress in removing the 
 seed from the fiber of the staple could be made in one day 
 than could be made in the same length of time by the old 
 process of hand. His invention caused cotton planting to 
 become profitable, and thus had an extraordinary influence 
 in strengthening the institution of slavery in the Southern 
 States. Whitney was a school teacher who had come to 
 Georgia from ^Massachusetts. 
 
 306. Indian Wars. In 1790 General Harmer led an ex- 
 pedition against the Indians of the ]S"orthwest, who had risen 
 up against the whites, but was defeated in two battles. In the 
 following year General St. Clair marched as far as the head 
 waters of the Wabash (map p. 120), and was there attacked and 
 completely routed. Many of his men gave themselves up to 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 179 
 
 such headlong flight, that in twenty-four hours they traversed 
 ground which, in the advance, had taken them two weeks to 
 pass over. It was not until 1794 that General Wayne was 
 able to break the power of the Indians. After defeating them 
 on the Maumee, he ravaged their whole country. The south- 
 ern half of Ohio was thus left in a state for its free and safe 
 settlement by the whites. 
 
 307. A Second Term. Although Washington was anxious to 
 lay down office at the close of his first term, the popular 
 voice insisted upon his reelection, with Adams still as Vice 
 President. He was inaugurated on March 4, 1793. 
 
 308. Foreign Affairs. Genet. The French Ee volution was 
 now under way. The Republicans, the followers of Jefferson, 
 who were a majority of the people, were anxious that the 
 United States should give active aid to the French in their 
 war with England. In April, 1793, Genet (zhe na'), the new 
 French minister, arrived at Charleston. He had the presump- 
 tion to send out privateers, as if he were still in France, and to 
 order their captains to bring into American ports, for condem- 
 nation by the French consuls, all prizes they should seize on 
 the ocean. Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality. 
 Genet openly defied it, and threatened to appeal to the 
 people. Washington demanded of France that he should be 
 recalled. 
 
 309. Jay's Treaty. Popular feeling now ran strongly 
 against Great Britain on account of her seizing American ships 
 bound for French ports, and carrying off, even from American 
 men-of-war, sailors who were claimed to be British deserters. 
 To avert hostilities, Chief Justice Jay was sent to England, in 
 1794, to settle the questions in dispute. Under the treaty 
 entered into. Great Britain agreed to abandon, by 1796, all the 
 posts she was holding in the boundaries of the United States 
 and to give compensation for damage done by her cruisers. In 
 
180 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 return, the United States promised that all debts due British 
 citizens before the Kevolution should be paid. There was no 
 provision to put a stop to the impressment of American sailors. 
 So unpopular was this treaty, that Jay was burned in effigy in 
 many parts of the country.^ 
 
 Washington's Home at Mt. Vernon 
 
 310. Election of Adams. Washington delivered a farewell ad- 
 dress, and, declining a third election, retired to Mount Vernon 
 when his term came to an end, leaving the country in a state 
 of great prosperity. He was succeeded by John Adams. Jef- 
 
 1 A treaty with Spain about this time allowed the people in the Mississippi 
 Valley to float their produce to New Orleans — now, with the country down to 
 the mouth of the river, a Spanish possession — and there transship it after 
 paying a small duty. The same treaty fixed the northern boundary of 
 Florida, which had previously been in dispute. 
 
JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 181 
 
 ferson became Vice President. Adams was one of the leaders 
 of the Federalist party, and as such was strongly opposed in 
 political opinion to Jefferson. 
 
 John Adams's Administration, 1 797-1801 ^ 
 
 311. Foreign Affairs. Controversy ivith France. France, 
 at this time, was under the government of the Directory, and 
 had given great offense to the United States by seizing Ameri- 
 can ships, on the ground that 
 they were carrying English goods. 
 An audience was refused the 
 American envoys, but they were 
 told secretly that, on the pay- 
 ment of 1250,000 by the United 
 States, the differences complained 
 of would be settled. " Not one 
 cent for tribute," Pinckney, one 
 of the envoys, is said to have 
 replied. Congress promptly gave 
 the President authority to raise 
 twelve regiments of infantry and 
 cavalry, and to build twelve •'^ ^ ^™^ 
 
 vessels. Washington was appointed commander in chief. In 
 February, 1799, Commodore Truxton captured the French 
 frigate L' Insurgeant, and silenced La Vengeance, which, how- 
 
 1 John Adams was born in 1735, and died in 1826. He was a member of the 
 first Continental Congress, and, as a member of the second, urged the nomi- 
 nation of Washington as commander in chief of the army ; and in a three 
 days' debate secured the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, which 
 he had assisted in drafting. In 1778 he filled the post of minister to France; 
 and after serving as one of the commissioners to draw up the treaty of peace 
 with Great Britain, in 1783, was appointed the first American Minister to that 
 country. With more or less truth he was accused of being prejudiced, hot- 
 tempered, and egotistic, but his integrity and patriotism have been univer- 
 sally acknowledged. 
 
182 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 ever, setting full sail, escaped. Many prizes were also made 
 by the American schooner Enterprise. The Directory having 
 been succeeded by Napoleon Bonaparte, all grounds of con- 
 troversy between the two governments were finally settled. 
 
 312. Alien and Sedition Acts. During the progress of the 
 controversy with France, the Alien and Sedition Acts were 
 passed by Congress. The Alien Act empowered the President 
 to banish any foreigner wdiose presence was thought to be dan- 
 gerous to the government. The Sedition Act made it a crime 
 to write, print, or publish any matter — false, scandalous, and 
 malicious — against the President, or any member of either 
 house of Congress. It was charged, at the time, that these 
 acts were passed not so much to suppress the activity of French 
 emissaries in the United States, as to drive away a number of 
 able Eepublican writers of foreign birth, who were doing much 
 damage to the prospects of the Federalist party. 
 
 313. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The Eepublican 
 party claimed that these acts violated those clauses of the Con- 
 stitution guaranteeing liberty of speech and freedom of the 
 press. The legislature of Kentucky adopted, in the sessions of 
 1798-1799, two sets of resolutions, the one prepared, the other 
 inspired, by Jefferson, in which it was affirmed that the Consti- 
 tution was a mere compact or treaty between the States ; and 
 that if any State thought an act of Congress to be in violation 
 of the Constitution, this act, so far as she was concerned, was 
 as if it had never been passed. The resolutions of the Vir- 
 ginia legislature (1798), drawn by Madison, were substantially 
 of the same teuor. All the legislatures of the States north of 
 the Potomac expressed disapproval of these doctrines. 
 
 314. Election of Jefferson. Adams was a candidate for reelec- 
 tion, and his principal opponent was Jefferson, the leader of 
 the Eepublican party, wdiich had vastly increased in numbers. 
 By the original Constitution, the presidential electors each 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 183 
 
 voted for two persons, without designating which was voted 
 for as President and which as Vice President. When the votes 
 of the electors were counted, it was found that Jefferson had 
 obtained seventy-three, Aaron Burr seventy-three, and Adams 
 only sixty-five. Jefferson and Burr having secured the same 
 number of votes, the rule of declaring the person receiving the 
 greatest number, President, and the person receiving the next 
 greatest. Vice President, could not be followed. The question 
 had now to be decided by a vote of States in the House of 
 Representatives. As twelve States pronounced in favor of 
 Jefferson, and only four in favor of Burr, Jefferson was 
 declared to be elected President, and Burr, Vice President. 
 The Constitution was soon amended, providing for a separate 
 vote for the two officers in the electoral colleges. 
 
 Jefferson's Administration, 1801-1809^ 
 
 315. The Democracy. During the administration some nota- 
 ble changes in suffrage took place. Hitherto the basis of the 
 suffrage had been the possession of property, and the people 
 had been content to leave the exercise of political power to a 
 few men ; but from this time there was less restriction upon 
 
 1 Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743 and died in 1820. Previous 
 to liis elevation to tlie presidency, he had won great distinction, and filled 
 many high offices, — had drafted the Declaration of Independence and the 
 Virginia statute for maintaining religious freedom ; had been governor of his 
 native State, Minister to France, Secretary of State, and Vice President. An 
 aristocrat by birth and training and in his personal associations, he was yet 
 the founder of American democracy and the idol of the common people ; the 
 owner of many slaves, he was the advocate of freedom as the inboi-n right of 
 all ; the encourager of simple tastes and plain living, he resided in perhaps 
 the most beautiful house in the United States, and entertained on a scale as 
 notable for its elegance as for its liberality ; the strict economist in the man- 
 agement of the public affairs, he died a bankrupt in consequence of his neglect 
 of his own large fortune. A true Republican, a genuine friend of humanity, 
 he made an impression on American institutions second only to that of Wash- 
 ington. 
 
184 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION —UNION 
 
 the right to vote imposed by the various state legislatures, and 
 a greater desire was shown by the masses to take part in the 
 administration of public affairs. 
 
 316. Economic Affairs. The popidation of the United 
 States was now 5,308,483. Of this number, about 1,000,000 
 
 were slaves, 
 of which over 
 950,000 were 
 in the South. 
 Philadelphia 
 had now a 
 population of 
 41,220. Its 
 streets were 
 paved, and 
 at night, 
 lighted; and 
 water was 
 supplied to 
 the citizens 
 by means of 
 pipes tapping 
 streams flow- 
 ing outside 
 of the boun- 
 daries of the 
 town. A like 
 improvement 
 
 was to be observed in New York, Boston, Baltimore, and 
 Charleston. 
 
 317. Manufactures. Agriculture was still the chief pur- 
 suit of the bulk of the people, but commerce was rapidly grow- 
 ing in the Middle as well as in the New England States. In 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 185 
 
 the latter, only spinning mills had as yet been erected, but 
 there a great variety of small articles were already made. It 
 was not until 1812 that the first weaving mill was built at 
 Waltham, Massachusetts. Pennsylvania had already begun to 
 erect a few iron mills. 
 
 318. Transportation. In all the older parts of the origi- 
 nal thirteen States good post-roads were to be found. The 
 only public stage in the 
 
 South was run between 
 Savannah and Charles- 
 ton, but there were 
 many stage lines in 
 the North. In 1807 
 the Clermont, a small 
 side- wheel steamer, the 
 invention of Robert 
 Fulton, who had gotten 
 the first hint from 
 
 Rumsey and Fitch (§ 297), made the voyage from New York 
 to Albany. The success of this experiment soon brought the 
 steamboat into general use. 
 
 319. Purchase of Louisiana. In 1800 Spain ceded Louisiana 
 to France. Napoleon acquired Louisiana, which took in the 
 practically unexplored territory drained by the Mississippi 
 River, west of that stream, in the hope of restoring French 
 power in the w^estern hemisphere, but the prospect was blasted 
 by the certainty that war would soon break out between 
 France and Great Britain. Becoming fearful lest the entire 
 region should fall into British hands, he sold the whole of it to 
 the United States in 1803 for $15,000,000 and a relinquish- 
 ment of debts due by French citizens to citizens of the United 
 States amounting to $15,000,000 more. This purchase more 
 than doubled the area of the United States. It was Jeffer- 
 
 Fulton's First Steamboat 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 187 
 
 son's expectation that it would give the American people 
 control of the continent, and would in future tend to shut out 
 all danger of foreign complications on American soil. 
 
 320. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, two army officers 
 from A^irginia, in 1804, led an exploring party up the Mis- 
 souri River to its sources, crossed the chain of the Eocky 
 Mountains, and reached the mouth of the Columbia in 1805. 
 This exploring expedition through an almost unknown region 
 returned in safety to its starting point, St. Louis, in 1806. It 
 was undertaken at the instance of President Jefferson, and 
 together with the voyage which Captain Gray of Boston had 
 made to the Columbia, in 1792, gave the United States a claim 
 to all the territory covered by the States of Washington, Ore- 
 
 Duel between Burr and Hamilton 
 
 gon, and Idaho. Another exploring party under Lieutenant 
 Zebulon Pike was dispatched in 1805, to the unknown sources 
 of the Mississippi, and afterward across the plains to the 
 Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 
 
 321. Death of Hamilton. In July, 1804, Alexander Hamil- 
 ton was killed in a duel by Aaron Burr, the Vice President. 
 
188 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 Burr at once lost favor with all parties. After the close of his 
 term, a vague scheme, either to set up a separate government 
 west of the Alleghanies, or to found an empire in Texas and 
 Mexico, entered his brain. In a tour of the western territory 
 he stopped at the home of Herman Blennerhasset, a British 
 subject, who had erected a beautiful residence on an island (of 
 the same name) in the Ohio Kiver ; and here his plans were 
 more carefully formed, with the approval of his host. Con- 
 tinuing his journey, he gathered together a force of armed 
 men and transported them down the Mississippi River. He 
 was arrested at Natchez, released, rearrested, and carried to 
 Eichmond, where he was tried for treason, but acquitted for 
 lack of evidence. Burr, whose reputation was ruined by this 
 enterprise, died in New York City in obscurity and poverty. 
 Blennerhasset also was arrested, and before he could obtain 
 his release his creditors, taking possession of his island home, 
 converted his mansion into an agricultural storehouse and his 
 ornamental grounds into a hemp field. 
 
 322. Foreign Affairs. War with Tripoli. For many years 
 the Barbary Powers had been doing damage to the commerce 
 of all nations whose vessels entered the Mediterranean Sea. 
 The United States during Washington's administration had 
 agreed to pay an annual tribute in order to put a stop to their 
 attacks on American shipping. Jefferson declined to pay the 
 tribute, and this led to a w^ar with Tripoli. In 1803 Com- 
 modore Preble was sent thither with a fleet, but it was not 
 until 1805 that the bey would release the American prisoners 
 and sue for peace.^ 
 
 1 Captain Bainbridge, in the Philadelphia, in chasing the pirates too near 
 the shore, ran aground, and the enemy soon took possession of his ship. 
 Stephen Decatur, manning a small schooner, permitted her to float, as if 
 in distress, to the side of the Philadelphia ; the crew then, leaping on board, 
 forced the pirates into the sea, set fire to the vessel, and came off in the 
 midst of a heavy cannonade from the batteries on shore. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 189 
 
 323. American Carrying Trade Obstructed. The war 
 now going on between Great Britain, France, and Spain fell 
 with peculiar heaviness on the carrying trade of New Eng- 
 land. Great Britain would allow no American vessel to con- 
 vey any commodities to Europe either directly or indirectly, 
 by way of the United States, from any of the Spanish or 
 French West Indies. It was only by first stopping in a 
 British port, and there paying a duty on their cargoes, that 
 American ships, sailing from any American port to any Euro- 
 pean port, under the power of Napoleon, the French emperor, 
 could secure exemption from capture by British vessels. Na- 
 poleon, in retaliation, issued two decrees that all ships con- 
 taining English merchandise, or touching at any British port, 
 whether American or otherwise, should be seized on their 
 arrival in any of the Continental harbors. In consequence of 
 the British and French policy, the Americans lost many vessels. 
 
 324. Embargo Act. Great Britain still claimed the right 
 to overhaul all American vessels for English deserters. The 
 American frigate, the 
 
 Chesajjeake, refusing 
 to submit to search 
 in 1807, was fired 
 upon by the British 
 man of-war, the Leop- 
 ard, and forced to 
 strike her colors. 
 Four of her sailors 
 were carried off. Jef- 
 ferson issued a proc- 
 lamation forbidding 
 all British war ships 
 from entering the waters of the United States. This prov- 
 ing insufficient, the Embargo Act was passed (1807) ordering 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 12 
 
 Jefferson's Home at Monticello 
 
190 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 American vessels not to leave American ports. As this act 
 cut the United States off from all foreign markets, it aroused 
 strong opposition and was openly evaded. As a substitute, 
 the Non-intercourse Act was adopted in 1809. This forbade 
 trade with England and France, but allowed commercial ex- 
 change to go on with other nations. 
 
 325. Election of Madison. Jefferson's second administration 
 ended with a great decline in the prosperity which had 
 marked his first.^ His friend, James Madison, succeeded 
 him. George Clinton, who had been elected to succeed Aaron 
 Burr, was reelected Vice President. 
 
 Madison^s Administration, 1809-1817^ 
 
 326. War with Great Britain. Previous to 1812 British 
 captains had carried off thousands of American seamen, and 
 
 1 Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration 
 of Independence. John Adams passed away on the same day. His last 
 words were, "Jefferson still lives," but Jeff«rson, at this hour, lay dead in 
 his chamber at Monticello. At Monticello he had spent the last years of his 
 life, deeply interested in everything that would advance the general welfare 
 of his countrymen. He still continued, by his vast correspondence, to have 
 much influence in the guidance of public affairs. It was during this period 
 that he founded the University of Virginia, one of the noblest monuments 
 of his career. 
 
 2 James Madison, who was born in Virginia in 1751, and died in 1836, 
 passed nearly the whole of his life, after reaching manhood, in public office. 
 His public service began one year after his graduation from Princeton 
 College; and from that time he grew i-apidly in popular esteem. He was 
 elected a member of Congress, and was the leader of his party in that body 
 until he withdrew. So conspicuous was his influence in bringing about the 
 call for the General Convention of 1787, that he has been justly spoken of as 
 the " Father of the Constitution." His Resolutions of 1798-1799 in the Vir- 
 ginia legislature, and the Report with which he followed them up, are among 
 the most memorable contributions ever made to the constitutional history of 
 the United States. Under Jefferson, he filled the post of Secretary of State. 
 With a memory of singular tenacity; a mind clear, strong, and logical ; a dis- 
 position serene and cheerful ; manners, simple and courteous, — all supported 
 by the highest integrity and the greatest store of learning, — it is not strange 
 that Madison should have had, as was said, a whole nation for his friends 
 and admirers. 
 
James Madison 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 191 
 
 so far had the practice gone, that British men-of-war were 
 stationed outside the harbors in the United States to over- 
 haul American merchantmen and compel the surrender of all 
 persons in the crews who were of British birth. The spirit 
 of the Americans became thoroughly 
 aroused/ and in 1812 war was declared 
 with Great Britain. It had really begun 
 on May 16, 1811, when the British ship, 
 the Little Belt, about twilight, fired upon 
 the American frigate, the President, oE 
 the coast of Virginia. The latter was 
 in search of the Ouerrih-e, which' had, 
 only a short time before, impressed an 
 American sailor. The President returned 
 the iire, and the Little Belt was compelled 
 to lower her flag. 
 
 327. Military Operations, 1812. Surrender of Hidl It 
 was planned that three American armies should invade Canada 
 and gradually approach each other until they should unite in 
 sight of the fortifications of Montreal, - one to march from 
 New England; another, from western New York; and the 
 third, from Michigan. General Hull, in command of the last 
 advanced into Canada, with a view of capturing the British 
 camp at Fort Maiden, but confronted by the enemy 
 retreated to Detroit. Crossing the river below that post, the 
 British were about to make an assault on the fortifications, 
 
 1 Madison from the beginning favored the policy of peaceful conciliation 
 and pledged himself to recommend war only when the course of ev n s had 
 
 ^his r fi r""'~?™"' '^^^""'* ^^ ""^^^^ distinction, -strongly opposed 
 th pacific pohcy. Another wing, which favored peace, was led hy the 
 
 h Ii^fJ"^ '"";'"' '''"^ """"^^'^^^^ '' ^^'^"«^^- ^-^^^'^Pb' -ho boasted o 
 e^s H t? ' ""V"^'"" ""' ''""' "^^^ -^daverous face and burning 
 ejes. He was as quick as lightning in retort, with a wit that cut like a 
 rapier and epithets that stuck like a bur. 
 
192 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 when a white flag was raised (August 16). Hull, on being 
 exchanged, sought to justify the surrender on the ground that 
 the British commander had sent him word that he would be 
 unable, in the event of an attack, to restrain his Indian allies 
 from murdering the women and children in the fort. In addi- 
 
 
 y/'^^ 
 
 
 
 / V 
 
 tion, Hull asserted that a large 
 part of his troops were raw mili- 
 tia who could not be relied on. 
 He was tried for treason and cow- 
 ardice, and sentenced to be shot, 
 but his life was finally spared. 
 
 328. v'lttach on Queenstown. In October, 1812, a detach- 
 ment of the army under General Van Rensselaer (ren'se ler), 
 which was to march from western New York to Montreal, 
 crossed over the Niagara River, and captured the fort at 
 Queenstown. The soldiers remaining on the American side 
 declined to join their comrades on the Canadian side, on the 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION I93 
 
 i^ToiiiKl tliat they had been called out to defend the border 
 and not to invade the enemy's country. A large body of Brit- 
 ish troops and Indian warriors was now approaching; and on 
 Its arrival a battle took place, in which the small American 
 force was completely defeated. Dearborn, who was to lead 
 the expedition from New England against Montreal, stopped 
 at the Canadian line. Thus ended ingloriously on land the 
 first year of the war with Great Britain. 
 
 329. Naval Operations, 1812. A^l^erican Victories The 
 operations by sea greatly increased the reputation of the 
 
 Constitution and Guerriere 
 
 American navy. In the interval between August and January 
 the British sloops and men-of-war, the Gnerrih-e (gar ryar') 
 the Java, the Alert, the Frolic, and the Macedonian, were forced 
 to surrender to American captains. These victories raised 
 very much the confidence of the American people. They 
 were, perhaps, mainly due to the superiority of the American 
 
194 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 gunnery. The American officers who won especial distinction 
 were Captains Hull ^ and Bainbridge in the Constitutmi, Cap- 
 tain Porter in the Essex, and Captain Decatur in the United 
 States. 
 
 330. American Privateers. It is estimated that during 
 the first seven months of the war American privateers cap- 
 tured five hundred British merchantmen and three thousand 
 prisoners. They scoured the ocean in small fleets, but, even 
 when alone, never hesitated to attack British vessels, some- 
 times even when of greater size. The Chasseur (shah ser' ), 
 commanded by Captain Boyle, overhauled many British ships, 
 most of which were either equal, or superior, to her in dimen- 
 sions and number of guns. Sweeping the English Channel of 
 merchantmen. Captain Boyle issued, in a spirit of humorous 
 bravado, a proclamation declaring the British Islands in a 
 state of blockade. 
 
 331. Military Operations, 1813. General William Henry 
 Harrison had succeeded General Hull in command of the 
 Western army. He had won great distinction by his victory 
 over the Indians, November 7, 1811, at Tippecanoe Creek, a 
 tributary of the Wabash, where he had been attacked at night 
 by the Prophet, the brother of Tecuraseh, who was now fight- 
 ing on the side of the British. Harrison determined to drive 
 the British from Detroit. At Frenchtown, on the river Kaisin, 
 his advance guard, under General Winchester, was compelled 
 to surrender (January 22).^ Harrison fell back to Fort Meigs 
 
 1 Captain Hull was a nephew of General Hull, who surrendered Detroit. 
 It was he who captured the Guerrlere. 
 
 2 The greater number of the wounded Americans who surrendered at 
 Frenchtown were butchered by the Indians as soon as Proctor returned to 
 Maiden. Proctor, perhaps designedly, left the prisoners unprotected; and 
 as a bounty was offered by the inhuman British for every American scalp 
 brought in, the Indians were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity 
 to secure so large a number. " Remember the Raisin " became the battle cry 
 of the American soldiers in the West. 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 195 
 
 (mggz), on the Maiimee. Here the British, under Colonel 
 Proctor, made two assaults, but were repulsed. Proctor was 
 also forced to retire from before Fort Stephenson (August 2), 
 by the extraordinary skill and bravery with which it was 
 
 Battle of Tippecanoe 
 
 defended by Captain Croghan, an officer only twenty years of 
 age, in command of one hundred and sixty men, and having 
 one cannon. 
 
 332. Battle of the Thames. Proctor retired to Fort Mai- 
 den, in Canada. Harrison, having transported his troops across 
 Lake Erie by means of the American fleet operating in those 
 waters, followed close behind the retreating British general, 
 and, coming up with him, on October 5, at the Thames River, 
 defeated him so overwhelmingly that few of the enemy escaped 
 death or capture. Among those killed was the famous Indian 
 chief, Tecumseh. This victory restored to the Americans the 
 control of the Northwest. 
 
 333. Toronto and Chryslers Field. In April the Army 
 of the Center, which had taken position on the Niagara River, 
 
196 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 under the coramand of General Dearborn, succeeded in captur- 
 ing York, now Toronto, and destroying the supplies stored 
 there, but soon withdrew across the lake. In the assault on 
 York, in the course of this expedition. General Pike, a young 
 and brilliant American officer, was mortally wounded in the 
 moment of victory by the blowing up of the magazine. An 
 attack by the British on Sacketts Harbor was bravely repulsed. 
 General Wilkinson superseded Dearborn, and in October set 
 out with his army for Montreal, but receiving a check at 
 Chryslers Field, November 11, retreated to his starting point. 
 The frontier of the United States along the Niagara Eiver was 
 now abandoned to the ravages of the British. 
 
 334. Naval Operations, 1 813-1 815. Varying Fortunes. In 
 the course of 1813-1815 fortune was, on the whole, favorable 
 to the Americans by sea. Among the British ships captured, 
 after fierce battles, were the Peacock, the Boxer, the Epervier, 
 the Reindeer, and the Avon. In June, 1813, Captain Lawrence, 
 in the Chesctpeake, was forced to strike his colors to the Brit- 
 ish frigate Shannon, but only after every officer on board of 
 his vessel had either perished or been severely wounded. 
 Mortally wounded himself, Lawrence, as he was borne below, 
 exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship." Captain Porter, cruis- 
 ing in the Essex in the Pacific, destroyed the British whaling 
 interests in those waters. His prizes were so numerous that 
 he was soon able to form a small fleet. It was not until she 
 was disabled by an accident that the Essex was captured by 
 two British ships sent in pursuit of her. 
 
 335. Battles of Lahes Erie and Champlain. On Sej^tem- 
 ber 10, 1813, Captain Oliver H. Perry, who had built, in part 
 out of green forest trees, nine vessels on Lake Erie, attacked 
 the seasoned British fleet, under Commodore Barclay, at a 
 point near Put-in Bay. Perry had never before been present 
 at a naval battle ; Barclay had seen long service under Nelson. 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 197 
 
 The American flagship was the Lawrence. So fiercely did the 
 battle rage about it that it was soon in a crippled condition. 
 Perry, bearing the colors in one hand, leaped into a boat and 
 was rowed to the Niagara. Renewing the contest, he soon 
 broke the British line, and compelled the fleet to surrender. 
 " We have met the enemy, and they are ours," so ran his dis- 
 patch to the government. Twelve months later (September 11, 
 1814), Commodore McDonough won a victory, on Lake Cham- 
 
 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 
 
 plain, over a British fleet which had been sent forward to clear 
 the way for the invasion of northern New York by an expe- 
 dition under General Prevost (prevo'). The British land 
 force, which had also been repulsed at Plattsburg, retreated to 
 Montreal. 
 
 336. Operations in the North, 1814. Army Reorganized. 
 The whole of the winter of 1813-1814 was given up to reorgan- 
 izing the American troops. The system of drill in use in 
 France, then the first military nation in the world, was intro- 
 
198 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 duced. The progress of hostilities had brought out the capacity 
 of the uien fitted for command, and these were now rapidly 
 promoted. General Jacob Brown, an officer of great ability, 
 was put at the head of the American armies. One of his lieu- 
 tenants was Winfield Scott, a young officer from Virginia, who 
 was destined to rise to the highest distinction. 
 
 337. Chippewa and Lunclys Lane. On July 3, the Ameri- 
 can army crossed the Niagara River and captured Fort Erie. 
 A few days later (July 5) the advance guard, under Scott, 
 drove the British from their strong intrenchments on the 
 Chip'pewa, and compelled them to retreat to the north shore 
 of Lake Ontario. Keenforcements coming to their assistance, 
 they wheeled about, and, at Lundys Lane, July 25, not far 
 from Niagara Falls, gave the Americans battle. It was soon 
 sunset, but the combat went on as fiercely as ever until mid- 
 night. Both Brown and Scott were wounded in the fight. 
 General Ripley succeeded to the command, and although the 
 enemy had withdrawn from the field, he retreated to Fort 
 Erie, where he was besieged by the British, until Brown, hav- 
 ing recovered from his wound, drove them back to their 
 intrenchments on the Chippewa. Brown then took position 
 on the American side of the Niagara River. Before hostilities 
 could begin again, peace was declared. 
 
 338. Operations in the East, 1813-1814. Attach on Wash- 
 ington. In the course of 1813 and 1814 the British were 
 busy ravaging the smaller towns on the Atlantic coast, from 
 Connecticut to Virginia. In August, 1814, they determined to 
 attack several of the larger cities.- Five thousand men under 
 General Ross were transported up the Chesapeake and landed 
 at Benedict, on the Patuxent River, in Maryland. JVIarching 
 toward Washington, Ross succeeded, in spite of the hot fire 
 from the batteries of Captain Barney, in brushing aside a body 
 of militia, under General Winder, that tried to obstruct the 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 199 
 
 road at Bladensburg. The President and Cabinet had left the 
 city. Setting fire to the Capitol, the White House, and other 
 public buildings (August 24), Ross retreated hastily to the 
 British shipping in the Patuxent. 
 
 339. Fort McHemy Bomhardecl. The fleet then sailed 
 toward Baltimore. Disembarking his troops fourteen miles 
 below the city, Ross attacked a large body of raw militia that 
 blocked his way and was killed in the fight. On the same day 
 (September 13) the British ships began a terrific bombardment 
 of Fort McHenry, which defended the approaches to the har- 
 bor, and kept it up until one o'clock next morning.^ So deter- 
 mined was the defense by Colonel Armistead that the enemy 
 were forced to draw off and return to the mouth of the Chesa- 
 peake. From there they finally retired to the coast of Georgia, 
 where they accumulated 
 every sort of booty. 
 
 340. Operations in the 
 South, 1813-1815. The 
 Creeks. When the war 
 began, the Indian tribes 
 in the Southwest had been 
 inclined to take sides 
 against the Americans. 
 The Creeks, the most 
 
 G U L V 
 
 ^5o i3o 200 
 
 Creek War 
 
 1 Francis Scott Key, a citizen of Maryland, was at this time detained on 
 board of one of the British ships. As long as he saw the bombs rising and 
 falling in their course, he knew that the garrison of the fort still held out, and 
 that the flag of his country was still waving from its ramparts. When the 
 roar of the cannon ceased at one o'clock and the darkness remained unillumi- 
 nated by a single exploding shell, his heart sank within him; he was fearful 
 lest the flag should be no longer on the fort. But as the first beam of light 
 Stole across the heavens, he saw it still proudly streaming to the wind on its 
 accustomed staff. Inspired by the patriotic emotions called up by that 
 glorious sight, he composed the memorable song, the Star-fipangled Banner, 
 which has become the national hymn of the American people. 
 
200 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 powerful of these tribes, had shown a hostile spirit at once, 
 and, on August 30, 1813, had ruthlessly massacred live 
 hundred men, women, and children in Fort Mimms, near 
 Mobile. Rushing to arms on receiving news of this terrible 
 event, the Tennessee troops, under General Andrew Jackson, 
 succeeded in cooping the Indians up in the narrow bounds of 
 Horseshoe Bend, on the Tallapoosa River. In the fight that 
 followed (March 27, 1814), eight hundred savages were left 
 dead on the field, and the power of the Creeks was completely 
 broken. 
 
 341. Jackson's Victory at JS^ew Orleans. The first abdica- 
 tion of Napoleon left Great Britain at liberty to direct against 
 
 the United States the whole 
 force which had been engaged 
 in the war with the French. 
 Fifty of her best ships carry- 
 ing 20,000 veteran soldiers 
 and sailors were sent out in 
 an expedition against New 
 Orleans. Hearing of this 
 intended invasion, General 
 Jackson called together a 
 large body of volunteers 
 from Tennessee and Ken- 
 tucky, and hurried to the 
 neighborhood of that city. 
 Throwing up a breastwork, 
 first of cotton bales, but 
 afterwards of earth, with his 6000 hardy backwoodsmen, 
 who were unerring riflemen, he calmly awaited the attack 
 of the British (January 8, 1815). Twice the enemy bravely 
 came on over the open plain, with bands playing lively airs 
 and flags streaming overhead, and twice recoiled before the 
 
 Battle of New Orleans 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 201 
 
 storm of shot and shell. Soon after the battle began, the 
 British withdrew, in great disorder, from the field, after the 
 loss of 2100 men. General Pakenham^ who was in command, 
 was killed. Jackson's total loss was about seventy men. 
 
 342. Treaty of Peace. Fifteen days before the battle of 
 New Orleans was fought, a treaty, insuring peace, had been 
 signed at Ghent, in Europe (December 24, 1814). Information 
 that such a treaty had been made, and that a victory had been 
 won in Louisiana, came nearly together, and caused universal 
 joy. Nor was this lessened when it was found that the treaty 
 made no provision to stop the impressment of American 
 sailors, or to put an end to the supposed right of search. The 
 second war of Independence had ended ; the power of the 
 United States was now, for the first time, clearly recognized 
 abroad, and frankly admitted. There would be no further 
 occurrence of the causes of complaint which had brought on 
 the war. 
 
 343. Some Effects of the War. Hartford Convention. The 
 war bore upon the interests of the New England States so 
 seriously, by damaging their commerce and shipping, that a 
 strong feeling of disaffection sprang up in that quarter. On 
 December 15th, 1814, there assembled at Hartford a con- 
 vention with delegates in attendance from them all. Its 
 sessions were held with closed doors, but in the public address 
 which was issued the intention seemed to be expressed that, 
 unless the general government changed the manner of carrying 
 on the war, the States of New England would Avithdraw from 
 the Union. A second body, which was to take decisive action, 
 was only prevented from assembling by the reception of the 
 news that a victory had been won at New Orleans, and peace 
 declared. 
 
 344. Growth of Manitfactures. The war proved in the 
 end to be of great advantage to the New England and other 
 
202 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 Northern States by turning their attention more than ever to 
 manufactures. In this line, heavy investments of capital were 
 now made, instead of in seagoing vessels as formerly. When 
 peace was declared, English merchandise poured into the 
 United States. But it was too late for American manufacturers 
 to turn to shipping, because the nations of Europe, being all 
 at peace, were now ready to compete with them. Should the 
 new cotton spindles stop and the new factories shut their 
 doors ? The Tariff Act of 1816 was passed, and a duty of not 
 less than six and a half cents a yard placed on all cotton and 
 woolen goods brought into the United States. This duty 
 added to the foreign price of imported goods made it easy for 
 domestic goods to compete with them. 
 
 345. The Barbary Powers had renewed their attacks upon 
 American merchantmen in the Mediterranean. In May, 1815, 
 Decatur was sent with a fleet to humble the dey of Algiers. 
 After overhauling several frigates and taking a large number 
 of prisoners, he dropped anchor off the city of Algiers and 
 threatened that unless the American captives were set free, an 
 indemnity paid, and all claim to a tribute renounced, he would 
 destroy the town. His terms were accepted. 
 
 346. Election of Monroe. Madison, who had filled two terms 
 of office, declined to be elected again, and was succeeded by 
 James Monroe, of Virginia, at that time the Secretary of State. 
 Governor Tompkins, of New York, was elected Vice President. 
 
 Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825^ 
 
 347. Acquisition of Florida. Florida, at this time still a 
 Spanish possession, was a refuge for fugitives of all colors, 
 
 ^ James Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758, and died in 1831. So ardent 
 was his patriotic spirit that, while still a mere youth, he abandoned his studies 
 at William and Mary College to take part, as a private soldier, in the Revo- 
 lutionary war. He won distinction in a number of battles. Governor of 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 203 
 
 whether white men, Indians, or negroes. From the safe hiding 
 places of its everglades and swamps many smuggling expedi- 
 tions stole out to carry goods over into Georgia and Alabama. 
 So intolerable became the murders and depredations of the 
 Creeks and Seminole tribes residing near the border, that 
 General Andrew Jackson was, in 
 1818, sent by the general govern- 
 ment with a large body of troops 
 to put them down. They sought 
 refuge in the Spanish forts, but in 
 vain. The Spaniards were treated 
 as enemies ; two English traders 
 were hung as spies ; and the Indians 
 were conquered. In the following 
 year Spain ceded the whole of 
 Florida to the United States in 
 ueturn for $5,000,000. By the same 
 treaty, also, the dispute with Spain 
 over the boundary in the Southwest 
 and West was settled by the adoption of a zigzag line drawn 
 from a point on the Sabine River to the source of the Arkansas ; 
 thence north to. 42°, and along that parallel to the Pacific 
 Ocean (map, p. 214). 
 
 Virginia, member of both houses of Congress, Minister in turn to France, 
 Spain, and England, Secretary of State, Secretary of War, — in all these high 
 offices he showed such integrity and disinterestedness as to deserve the enco- 
 mium of Jefferson : " If the soul of Monroe were turned inside out, not a spot 
 would be found on it." A man of solid rather than brilliant attainments, 
 plain in his tastes, unpretending in his manners, he won at an early period in 
 his career the confidence and respect of the people, and retained both to his 
 last hour. In a tour of the Northeastern States at the beginning of his ad- 
 ministration, he appeared everywhere in the undress uniform of a Revolu- 
 tionary officer, — the military coat of homespun, the light-colored breeches, 
 cocked hat. The memories of a common glory, which were by these means so 
 vividly called up, won for him at every stage of his journey a most enthu- 
 siastic ovation. 
 
 James Monroe 
 
204 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 348. The Missouri Compromise. Missouri Territory, part 
 of the Louisiana ^^i^i^chase, sought, in 1818, admission as a 
 State. The question arose: Should it be allowed to come 
 in only on condition that, after a certain date, slavery should 
 be abolished in its borders ? The Southern members of Con- 
 gress maintained that as Louisiana had been allowed to come 
 in as a slave State, Missouri should also. The Northern mem- 
 bers not only protested against the further extension of 
 slavery, as an economic blight, but also objected that, if all 
 the States to be carved out of the Louisiana purchase were 
 
 to be admitted to 
 the Union as slave 
 States, the slave 
 States would have 
 a great superiority 
 in numbers over 
 the free States iii 
 Congress. The 
 Ohio K-iver was 
 considered to be 
 the line between 
 the free and slave States. If this line were continued directl}^ 
 westward from the Mississippi Kiver, it would consign the 
 greater part of Missouri to the region belonging to the free 
 States of the Northwest.^ The controversy was settled by 
 admitting Missouri as a slave State, but laying down the rule 
 that, in the remainder of the Louisiana purchase lying north 
 of 36° 30' north latitude, which was the boundary line between 
 
 Missouri Compromise 
 
 1 By this time Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had been admitted as free States, 
 under the terms of the ordinance for the government of the Northwest Terri- 
 tory. These new States extended to the Mississippi River. Why, asked the 
 North, should fi-ee institntions stop at that stream? Why should they not he 
 introduced into the country on the opposite side, a mere prolongation of the 
 Northwest Territory, though not by name included in it? 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 205 
 
 Missouri and the Territory of Arkansas, the institution of 
 slavery was to be forever prohibited. This was known as the 
 Missouri Compromise of 1820. 
 
 349. Antagonism of Sectional Interests. American System. 
 In the session of Congress, in 1822, tliere was noticed among 
 the members of the Eepublican party a great difference of 
 opinion as to the right interpretation of the powers and limi- 
 tations of the Constitution. One wing, composed chiefly of 
 Western, Northern, and Eastern members, favored what was 
 termed the " American System " ; that is to say, the encourage- 
 ment of the manufactures of the United States by a heavy tax 
 on all the goods brought into the country, and the carrying 
 out of internal improvements at the expense of the general 
 government. The other wing, composed for the most part 
 of Southern members, disapproved of a high tariff, and also 
 of all plans for internal improvements, unless made at the 
 expense of the States. The latter wing was soon known as 
 the Democratic party, the former as the National Eepublican.^ 
 
 350. The South and the Tariff. As the area of cotton 
 culture in the South widened, the interests of the Southern 
 people grew more and more purely agricultural. A tariff 
 brought to them few advantages beyond a demand for their 
 great staple in New England, which was of less relative value 
 now that the demand for it was steadily increasing in Europe. 
 They were anxious to buy what merchandise they needed in 
 the cheapest markets, and as these were foreign, in many cases, 
 tariff rates had the effect of raising the prices of the goods 
 they had to purchase. 
 
 1 After 1816 the Federalist party, as a political organization, practically 
 ceased to exist. This was because the war with England had settled the 
 questions of foreign policy, which were the main causes of difference between 
 the Federalists and Republicans. During twelve years the Republican party 
 was the only great party, and then, as stated in the text, it began to divide as 
 new issues arose. 
 
 bruce's u, s. hist. — 1.3 
 
206 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 351. The West and the Tariff. The western States, also, 
 were chiefly engaged in agriculture, but their products, unlike 
 cotton and rice, were not as yet in great demand abroad. It 
 was very much to the interest of these States that markets 
 should be created for their products in the eastern States. A 
 tariff would not only, by making the eastern States wealthier, 
 increase their ability to buy the western crops, but it would 
 also put it in the power of the general government to accumu- 
 late a large fund for building roads and digging canals, that 
 would render it easy for the western States to transport their 
 products to the eastern. In consequence of northern and 
 western influence in Congress, the tariff was raised on iron, 
 hemp, wool, v/oolen and cotton goods. 
 
 352. Monroe Doctrine. Several of the Spanish dependencies 
 in South America had risen up against the mother country, 
 and the United States had recognized them as independent 
 powers. Hearing that France intended to call together a 
 conference of nations to adopt measures for helping Spain 
 to regain these colonies, the American people leaped to the 
 conclusion that the European governments really designed to 
 take possession of the countries in revolt. Monroe sent a 
 message to Congress (1823), in which he declared that the 
 United States would consider any attempt on the part of the 
 European powers to extend their system to any portion of 
 this hemisphere as dangerous to the peace and safety of 
 the republic. This has always been interpreted as meaning 
 that this country would resent such extension by force of 
 arms. There was, after this, no further suggestion of inter- 
 ference, and all the Spanish colonies except Cuba and Porto 
 Rico remained independent republics. 
 
 353. Election of Monroe and John Quincy Adams. Era of 
 Good Feeling. Monroe was elected for a second term. This 
 was the "era of good feeling," — the era when there was but 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 207 
 
 one great party, — and he received all the electoral votes except 
 one, which was cast for another candidate, by an elector from 
 New Hampshire, who desired that Washington alone should 
 have the distinction in history of receiving all the votes in the 
 electoral colleges. At the end of Monroe's second term, no 
 one candidate having obtained the votes of a majority of the 
 electors, the election was thrown into the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. The choice of the States fell on John Quincy 
 Adams, of Massachusetts, a son of John Adams, although 
 in the electoral colleges he had received fewer votes than 
 General Andrew Jackson. This result was due to the influ- 
 ence of Henry Clay, another candidate, who preferred Adams 
 to Jackson. When Adams became President, he appointed 
 Clay Secretary of State. The followers of Jackson at once 
 raised the cry of " Bargain and Sale," but Clay fully vindi- 
 cated himself from the charge. John C. Calhoun was elected 
 Vice President. 
 
 John Quincy Adamses Administration, 1825-1829^ 
 
 354. Erie Canal. The administration of Adams was chiefly 
 remarkable for the number of internal improvements that were 
 taken up and carried on by public and private enterprise. Every 
 venture of that kind in which there was a prospect of gain had 
 the liberal support of private purse and public treasury. The 
 Cumberland Road, starting in Maryland, was extended to 
 
 1 John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams the second President, was horn 
 in Massachusetts in 1767 and died in 1848. His great natural ability had been 
 improved by general culture and the discipline of varied experience. His 
 long and distinguished life was for the most part occupied with the duties of 
 public office — he was in turn Minister to Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Rus- 
 sia, and Great Britain ; and was one of the envoys who negotiated the treaty 
 of Ghent. He was at the time a member of the Senate and Secretary of 
 State, and after retiring from the presidency was for many years a member 
 of the House of Representatives. In character he was narrow, acrimonious, 
 indefatigable, learned, upright, and patriotic. 
 
208 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 Wheeling, and later on to Indiana. In 1825 the Erie Canal, 
 built by the State of New York, from Hudson River to Lake 
 Erie (map, p. 215), was thrown open to traffic, thus cutting 
 down the cost of transporting a ton 
 of merchandise from Buffalo to 
 Albany from $120 to $U. The 
 effect of this was enormous. The 
 canal at once became the great high- 
 way between the west and east. It 
 encouraged a steady outpouring of 
 people from New England, and by 
 diverting the bulk of the western 
 trade from the Mississippi River and 
 New Orleans, made New York City 
 the great commercial depot and 
 financial center of North America. The success of the Erie 
 Canal greatly stimulated canal building, and by the close of 
 Adams's administration there were over 1300 miles of canal dug. 
 355. Steam Transportation. In 1819, the Savannah crossed 
 the ocean, the first steamship to make the voj^age. Small 
 steamboats were, at the beginning of this administration, 
 plying on all the principal rivers in the settled parts of the west. 
 
 John Quincy Adams 
 
 First Railroad Train in New Jersey 
 
 and by furnishing easy transportation to immigrants were 
 rapidly extending tlie line of the frontiers. As early as 1827 
 there were horse railways in Massachusetts and New York, and 
 in this year a charter was obtained to build a steam railway in 
 
ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 209 
 
 South Carolina. George Stephenson, in England, had, by this 
 time, given an enormous impulse to the use of steam by his 
 success in driving, by that means, the Rocket at the rate of 
 thirty miles an hour. By 1831 several steam railways were in 
 operation in the United States. 
 
 356. Doctrine of Nullification. Higher import duties were, 
 in 1828, placed on manufactured goods, and also on such 
 raw materials as wool and hemp. The interests of the South- 
 ern States, which were confined to the production for export 
 of such staples as tobacco, rice, and cotton, were so damaged by 
 this bill, in consequence of the high prices of manufactured 
 articles which it caused, that a large number of their legislatures 
 protested against it. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, drew 
 up a paper as the expression of that State's opposition to 
 the new duties, in which it was maintained that every State had 
 a right under the Constitution to determine whether an act of 
 Congress were constitutional, and to declare it null and void 
 and resist its enforcement if judged to be unconstitutional. 
 This was known as the doctrine of nullification (§ 313). 
 
 357. Election of Jackson. Adams was a candidate for reelec- 
 tion in 1828, but Andrew Jackson, the Democratic candidate, 
 was elected, by a large majority, because he was " a man of 
 the people." 
 
 Admission of New States, 1789-1829 
 
 358. Eleven new States were admitted to the Union in the 
 interval between the adoption of the Constitution and the 
 end of J. Q. Adams's administration. This swelled the total 
 number of States to twenty-four. As the region best fitted 
 for settlement lay toward the west and southwest, it followed 
 that the great majority of new States were situated in those 
 quarters ; Vermont and Maine, indeed, were the only new 
 States situated in the east. With the exception of Louisiana 
 
210 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 and Missouri, which were carved out of the region purchased 
 from France, each one of the new States had, at one time, 
 formed a part of one of the original thirteen. Vermont, though 
 claimed by New York as belonging to the Duke of York's 
 grant (§ 139), was, in the beginning, a part of New Hamp- 
 shire, and long known as the " New Hampshire Grants." 
 Maine had been a part of Massachusetts. At one time 
 Kentucky was a county of Virginia. Tennessee, the State 
 immediately south of it, had been a possession of North Caro- 
 lina. In 1784 it had gone so far as to set up an independent 
 government known as the " State of Franklin," in honor of 
 Benjamin Franklin, but was compelled to return to its alle- 
 giance to North Carolina. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had, 
 after Clark's conquest of the Northwest, been included in 
 Illinois County, which, like Kentucky County, was a part of 
 Virginia, though other States claimed a share in that country. 
 The greater part of Mississippi and Alabama once belonged 
 to Georgia. 
 
 359. First Settlers of the New States. Vermont and Maine 
 had been gradually settled like the older States to which they 
 originally belonged. But with the exception of Louisiana, a 
 French and Spanish colony, this was not the case with the other 
 new States. Those States had been settled by great streams of 
 emigrants from the east. The first great stream poured from 
 Pennsylvania and eastern Virginia into western Virginia and 
 Kentucky. The second stream, composed of Virginians and 
 Carolinians, poured down the valley of the Tennessee. The 
 third, greater in volume than either of the other two, and 
 largely drawn from New England, spread over the Northwest 
 Territory. It Avas not until the production of cotton became 
 profitable and the power of the Indian tribes was broken that 
 the country lying in the boundaries of the present States of 
 Alabama and Mississippi began to fill up rapidly with popu- 
 
ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 211 
 
 lation. As cotton, like tobacco, could be cultivated to ad- 
 vantage with slave labor, settlers who brought their slaves 
 with them were attracted to this region from all the Southern 
 States. 
 
 360. The Northwest Territory, unlike Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 Mississippi, and Alabama, was cultivated by free labor from 
 the beginning, in consequence of the provision against slavery 
 inserted in the ordinance for the government of that region. 
 There was no inducement for slaveholders to settle there. 
 Perhaps the largest proportion of the persons from slave States 
 who came into the country afterwards known as Ohio, were 
 the holders of land warrants granted by Virginia for services 
 in the Revolution. That State, in ceding the Northwest to 
 the national government, reserved certain lands for this pur- 
 pose. The overwhelming mass of the people wdio entered 
 Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, the three States of the Northwest 
 admitted to the Union previous to the election of Jackson, had 
 always been accustomed to free labor. It is estimated that, 
 during the first two years after the adoption of the ordinance 
 for the Northwest Territory, not less than 20,000 settlers 
 passed down the Ohio Kiver in search of new homes. They 
 had come over the mountains on foot, on pack horses, or in 
 wagons. The Indian uprisings for a time checked the influx 
 of settlers, but as soon as peace was restored the rush began 
 again. 
 
 361. The liberal policy which the government finally adopted 
 in selling the public lands of the Northwest greatly increased 
 the number of people coming in. At first they had to pay 
 cash. After 1800 the new settler could pay for his farm in 
 four annual installments, which gave him time to meet his debt 
 to the government by the sale of his products. As early as 
 1800 the population had grown so large that Indiana Territory 
 was set apart from the Northwest Territory. Three years 
 
212 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — UNION 
 
 later the State of Ohio (1803) was organized, only fifteen years 
 after the first settlement had been made at Marietta. In 1800 
 almost the only people in Indiana were a few French traders 
 and the scattered tribes of Indians. Sixteen years later so 
 many settlers had poured in that it was sufficiently populous 
 to be admitted as a State. In 1809 part of the remainder of 
 the original Territory of Indiana (Illinois and Wisconsin) was 
 set apart as the Territory of Illinois. In 1818 a portion of 
 this territory was organized as the State of Illinois. 
 
 362. The Political Balance. Previous to the election of 
 Andrew Jackson the new country east of the Mississippi Eiver, 
 from its source to its mouth, had, with the exception of the 
 present States of Florida, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and part 
 of Minnesota been divided into great States. Two States, 
 Louisiana and Missouri, had also been organized west of that 
 stream. As the case then stood the free States and the slave 
 States were fairly well balanced in political power, and this had 
 been brought about by the alternate admission of a slave State 
 and a free State. The admission of Kentucky as a slave 
 State was approved in 1791, but before she could adopt a con- 
 stitution and come in (1792), Vermont, a free State, had been 
 admitted (1791). Tennessee, a slave State, followed in 1796, 
 and Ohio, a free State, in 1803. Louisiana, a slave State, was 
 admitted in 1812, and Indiana, a free State, in 1816 ; Missis- 
 sippi, a slave State, was admitted in 1817, and Illinois, a free 
 State, in 1818; Alabama, a slave State, was admitted in 
 1819, and Maine, a free State, in 1820. Maine was really 
 admitted as a counterbalance to Missouri, which came in as 
 a slave State in 1821. The geographical line between the 
 free and slave States was now clearly drawn. Whatever 
 antagonism existed between the political interests of the two 
 was supposed to have been forever settled by the Missouri 
 Compromise. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD V 
 
 Washing-ton's Ad- 
 ministration, 
 1789-1797. 
 
 II. John Adams's 
 Administration, 
 1797-1801. 
 
 III. Jefferson's Ad 
 ministration 
 1801-1809. 
 
 i., 
 
 IV 
 
 Madison's Ad- 
 ministration 
 1809-1817. 
 
 1. Domestic 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 Domestic J 
 
 Affairs. 1 
 
 1. Funding the National Debt. 
 
 2. Assumption of State I)el)ts. 
 
 3. Estab. ot National I'.aiik. 
 
 4. Protective liniiort Duties. 
 
 ft. Federalists and Jlepulilirans. 
 
 6. Washington City tounded. 
 
 7. Cotton Gin invented. 
 
 8. Indian Wars. 
 
 9. Farewell Address. 
 
 1. Ditficulties with Oenet. 
 
 2. Proclamation of Neutrality. 
 
 3. Treaty with Great Britain. 
 
 1. Alien and Sedition Acts. 
 
 2. Va. and Ky. Resolutions. 
 
 3. President elected by House 
 
 of Representatives. 
 
 f 1. Mission to France. 
 
 Foreign 2. Envoy's Insolent Treatment. 
 
 Affnivti 1 3. Naval Battles with French. 
 
 Anaub. ^ ^ Treaty of Peace. 
 
 1. (Growth in National Prosperity. 
 
 2. Fulton's Experiment. 
 
 3. Expedition of Lewis andCIark. 
 
 4. Burr's Conspiracy. 
 
 1. Purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 2. War with Tripoli. 
 
 3. British Impress. Am. Seamen. 
 
 4. Capture of Chesapeake. 
 
 5. Embargo Act. 
 
 6. Non-intercom-se Act. 
 
 1. Battle of Tippecanoe. 
 
 2. Surrender of Detroit. 
 
 3. Battle of Queenstown. 
 
 4. Battle of Frenchtown. 
 
 5. Battle of the Thames. 
 
 6. Battle of Chryslers Field. 
 
 7. Battle of Chippewa. 
 
 8. Battle of Lundys Lane. 
 
 9. Battle of Horseshoe Bend. 
 
 10. Fall of Washington. 
 
 11. Attack on Baltimore. 
 
 12. Battle of New Orleans. 
 
 13. War with Barbary Powers. 
 
 L Essex and Constitution. 
 
 2. Damage by the Chasseur. 
 
 3. Capture of Chesapeake. 
 
 4. Battle on Lake Erie. 
 
 5. Battle on Lake Champlain. 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 Military 
 
 Events. 
 
 2. Naval 
 
 Events. 
 
 3. Domestic f i. Hartford Convention. 
 
 Affairs. I 2. Manufactures and Tariff. 
 
 1. Domestic 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 2. Foreign 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 VI. J.Q.Adams's Ad- | i. Domestic 
 min., 1825-1829. \ Affairs. 
 
 Monroe's Admin- 
 istration, 1817- 
 1825. 
 
 Missouri Compromise. 
 Diversity of Interests. 
 
 1. The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 2. Purchase of Florida. 
 
 1. Internal Improvement. 
 
 2. In<'rease on Import Duties. 
 
 VII. New States Ad 
 mitted, 1789-<| 
 
 _ I 1. FrQ,e. 
 
 1. Averment. 
 
 2. Ohio. 
 
 3. Indiana. 
 
 4. Illinois. 
 
 5. Maine. 
 
 1829. 
 
 2. Slave. 
 213 
 
 f 1. Kentucky. 4. Mississippi. 
 -i 2. Tennessee. 5. Alabama. 
 I 3. Louisiana. 6. Missouri. 
 
215 
 
PERIOD VI. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION 
 DIVISION 
 
 Jackson^s Administration, 1829-1837^ 
 
 363. Democratic Spirit. The political influence of the colo- 
 nial age had now passed. The control had fallen into the 
 hands of a generation brought up under republican institutions 
 alone. The democratic spirit was abroad, and its energy, 
 buoyancy, confidence, and even recklessness were already 
 apparent, both in political and economic affairs. Thirty years 
 
 1 Andrew Jackson was born in North Carolina in 1767, and died in Ten- 
 nessee in 1845. He was sprung from the sturdy and upright Scotch-Irish stock 
 
 which had settled the Waxhaw district in the 
 former State. As a boy he took part in the 
 relentless partisan warfare of Whig and Tory, 
 which spread fire and death on all sides ; was 
 struck over the head with a sword and nearly 
 killed, because he declined to clean the boots 
 of a British officer ; was thrown into a loath- 
 some prison, and came out disfigured for life 
 by smallpox. After several years, he studied 
 law, and having been appointed public prose- 
 cutor, removed to the remote settlements 
 on the Cumberland River, at a time when 
 hardly a day passed that some pioneer was 
 not cut off by the lurking Indians. With 
 a high sense of public duty, and without 
 any fear whatever, he carried terror into the 
 hearts of all who broke the law. His deter- 
 mination to trample down all opposition, 
 rightful or wrongful, involved him, as a pri- 
 vate citizen, in many brawls and duels. Born a leader of men, his progress 
 in official distinction, both civil and military, was very rapid. Elected in 
 succession to the United States House of Representatives, to the Senate, to 
 
 216 
 
 Andrew Jackson 
 
 I 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 217 
 
 earlier, so ignorant and, from many points of view, so inex- 
 perienced a person as Jackson would not have been thought of 
 for the presidency. Democracy was now to show for the first 
 time in our history that a chief magistrate drawn from the 
 people is often a more competent ruler than one who has 
 enjoyed all the benefits of birth, education, wealth, and long 
 experience in office. 
 
 364. Spoils System. There had gone abroad a notion that 
 constant change in office was truly democratic, and that politi- 
 cal warfare should be waged on the principle that '' to the 
 victor belong the spoils." There had, previous to Jackson's 
 election, been comparatively few removals from office for politi- 
 cal reasons. In 1829 alone Jackson caused the names of at 
 least 700 persons to be stricken from the roll of public employ- 
 ment, with no better excuse than a desire to reward his own 
 clamorous partisans. As the new appointees changed all their 
 clerks, about 2000 changes were made in the civil service. 
 The example thus set became, until recent years, the fixed pol- 
 icy of Jackson's successors. 
 
 365. Financial Conditions. United States Banh. Jackson 
 was strongly opposed to the United States Bank. He declared 
 that it was in league with his enemies, and that, having a 
 pecuniary monopoly, it could build up or depress any part of 
 the country it chose. After having vetoed a bill rechartering 
 the Bank in 1832, he ordered his Secretary of the Treasury, 
 Eoger B. Taney, in 1833, to use the State banks as places of 
 safe keeping for the government's funds. The public moneys 
 
 the Supreme Court of Tennessee, there was no position in the gift of the 
 State he could not have won. We have already dwelt on his career in the 
 Creek and Seminole wars and the war with Great Britain. Honest in every 
 fiber, unconquerable and inflexible in will; a patriot, drawing his inspiration 
 from the blood of the Revolution ; a friend of the people because one of them 
 by birth and associatiou ; narrow, prejudiced, passionate, and illiterate, he 
 was withal one of the greatest of Americans, and not without merits as a 
 ruler. 
 
218 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 were drawn out of the United States Bank in payment of the 
 expenses of national administration, and no public moneys 
 were again put there. 
 
 366. Wild Cat State Banks, The chief opposition to the 
 United States Bank had come from the Southern and Western 
 States. In those parts of the country there were many State 
 banks, and it Avas feared that, should the United States Bank 
 establish many branches there, the business of the State banks 
 would be curtailed, if not destroyed. As soon as it was known 
 that the United States Bank would not be rechartered, there was 
 a rush for charters for new State banks, because these banks 
 were hereafter to be the places of deposit for the govern- 
 ment's funds, and because they would also have the power 
 to issue paper money. For both reasons they would be in 
 a position to do a very profitable business. A spirit of specu- 
 lation at once arose, and it rapidly grew more and more extrava- 
 gant. Money was easily obtained, and everybody tried to 
 make a fortune quickly. 
 
 367. The speculative mania took different forms. The 
 profitableness of manufactures under the influence of the 
 higher import duties, the erection of new lines of transporta- 
 tion, the rush of immigrants, — all tended to build up new cen- 
 ters of population. Everywhere in the newly settled parts of 
 the United States villages were in an incredibly short time 
 expanding into towns, and towns into cities. For instance, in 
 1833 Chicago was a small fort; in 1839 it had become a 
 flourishing town. St. Louis and Cincinnati were now growing 
 almost as rapidly. This growth of villages, towns, and cities 
 made speculation in town lots one of the most popular forms 
 of investment, in the hope of acquiring sudden riches by the 
 increase in values. More popular yet was the speculation in 
 railroad building. By this means a vast area of the public 
 domain was brought in reach of early and convenient settle- 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 219 
 
 ment. One form of speculation was to buy the public lands 
 at a small figure, and sell them high, often, indeed, for 
 fabulous sums, as the sites of new towns. In the South and 
 Southwest the speculation was directed to the purchase of 
 slaves and lands suited for the cultivation of cotton. New 
 Orleans rapidly increased in importance. As we shall see 
 later on, this speculative fever ended in a great financial 
 panic (§§379-380). 
 
 368. Nullification in South Carolina. Tariff of 1832. 
 
 In 1832 a tariff act was 
 
 passed which was more 
 offensive to the South 
 than even that of 1828 
 (§ 356), because it further 
 increased the cost of the 
 manufactured supplies 
 it was forced to buy. A 
 convention met in South 
 Carolina, and, under the 
 influence of Calhoun, 
 adopted an ordinance of 
 nullification, to take effect 
 in February, 1833, unless 
 the tariff act was, in the 
 meanwhile, repealed by 
 Congress. It was maintained that the object of this act was 
 simply to give further protection to manufacturers, and not 
 to raise the necessary revenue for the government ; that it 
 was, therefore, contrary to the Constitution. Any attempt of 
 the general government to enforce it in South Carolina, the 
 convention declared, would be regarded as justifying the with- 
 drawal of the State from the Union. 
 
 369. Jackson Acts. Jackson dispatched a sloop of war to 
 
 John C. Calhoun 
 
220 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 Charleston for tlie protection of the customs officers. He also 
 concentrated troops in the forts around that city and along the 
 borders of the State. Having issued an eloquent proclamation 
 upholding the power of the national government, he sent a 
 
 message to Congress 
 recommending that the 
 tariff act condemned by 
 the South Carolina ordi- 
 nance should be modi- 
 lied. A new act was 
 passed by the influence 
 of Clay, which would 
 gr adu al ly reduce all 
 duties year by year until 
 only a tariff for the reve- 
 nue needed by the gov- 
 ernment would remain.^ 
 The people of South 
 Carolina, believing they 
 had gained the end for 
 which the Ordinance of 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 Nullification was adopted, quietly met in convention again 
 and repealed it.^ 
 
 1 The principle of this act was opposed to the spirit of the ** American Sys- 
 tem " (§349) which Clay had so earnestly advocated. When told that his 
 connection with the new law would injure his chance of hecoming President, 
 he nohly replied, " I had rather be right than President." 
 
 2 We have seen that, in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798-1799 (§ 313), it was 
 first distinctly asserted that nullification was the remedy in every case in 
 which a State considered that an act of Congress impairing her interests, was 
 in violation of the Constitution, and that she alone was to he the judge as to 
 whether the act amounted to such violation or not. In 1830, in a debate of 
 great learning and acuteness, Robert Y. Hayne and Daniel Webster, repre- 
 senting South Carolina and Massachusetts respectively, in the Senate, dis- 
 cussed in all their varied aspects the rights of the States, on the one side, the 
 powers of the Federal government, on the other. Was the tariff act of 1828 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 221 
 
 370. Slavery Agitation. Aholitlon Societies. At this time, 
 the great body of the people in the North looked upon slavery 
 as an institution that was protected, where .it existed already 
 from all interference on the part of Congress or the free States 
 by the guarantees of the Constitution. Now, for the first time, 
 private individuals in the Northern communities began an 
 agitation in favor of emancipation throughout the United 
 States, on the ground that slavery was a moral evil and a 
 crime. The most extreme 
 and uncompromising advo- 
 cate of this policy was 
 William Lloyd Garrison of 
 Massachusetts, who even de- 
 nied the right of the slave- 
 holders to any compensation 
 in case their slaves were 
 taken away from them. 
 Under his influence numer- 
 ous abolition societies were 
 formed. Largely in con- 
 sequence of their activity 
 in spreading abroad their 
 views by means of pam- 
 phlets, newspapers, etc., symptoms of uneasiness and rebellion 
 were at this time noticed among the negroes at many places 
 
 contrary to the Constitution? Could South Carolina, under the reserved 
 rights of the States, refer that question for an answer to her own judiciary 
 alone ? Mr. Calhoun, at this time, occupied the chair in the Senate, and took 
 no part in the debate. When the same subject came up again (Decem- 
 ber, 1832) in the Senate, on the question of giving- the President power to col- 
 lect the custom duties in South Carolina by force of arms, Calhoun was no 
 longer Vice President, but a member of that body, and he engaged in a 
 debate with Webster, which for wealth of political knowledge, weight of 
 logic, and power of eloquence is unsurpassed, perhaps unequaled, in Ameri- 
 can history. 
 
 Daniel Webster 
 
222 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 in the South. The Turner slave insurrection in Southampton 
 County, Virginia, resulted in the ruthless murder by negroes 
 of sixty white persons, many of them infants in arms. 
 
 371. The South and Slavery. That the people of the 
 slave States should have been profoundly stirred was only in 
 accord wdth the law of self-preservation. They felt as if they 
 stood over a powder magazine, ready to explode the instant the 
 
 Jackson and Black Hawk 
 
 agents of the abolition societies, however opposed they might 
 be to actual violence, were allowed to pass freely in and out of 
 the Southern communities. Everything they valued and loved, 
 everything they owned, was at stake ; the honor of their 
 wives and daughters, the lives of their families, their roofs, 
 their hearths, their estates, were all inextricably involved in 
 the maintenance of kindly relations between master and slave. 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 228 
 
 372. Indian Affairs. Black Haiuh War. During this ad- 
 ministration, tlie tribes roaming over Illinois — the Sacs and 
 Foxes — were removed from their hunting grounds in that 
 State and settled on lands in Iowa, which had been given them 
 in exchange. A large body of the Indians, influenced by their 
 chief, Black Hawk, strongly objected to going ; and joining with 
 the Winnebagoes of Wisconsin, they showed their ill feeling by 
 repeated attacks on the white settlers, who were pouring into 
 the country. Coming in conflict with the United States 
 troops on the Bad Ax Eiver (1832), they were defeated, and 
 Black Hawk himself was captured.^ 
 
 373. Seminole JVar. In 1835 hostilities broke out with 
 the Seminole tribes in Florida. They had agreed, by formal 
 treaty, to cede their lands to the United States, but became 
 greatly discontented, under the impression that their consent 
 had been obtained by fraud. They finally refused to with- 
 draw. Osceola, their chief, had married a negro half-breed. 
 His wife, while visiting a United States fort with him, was 
 taken away from him on the ground that she was the slave of 
 an American. Osceola himself was arrested and thrown into 
 irons, but soon escaped, and gathering his discontented war- 
 riors around him, he waylaid and destroyed a detachment of 
 troops under Colonel Dade (December 28, 1835), and hurrying 
 on to Camp King, in central Florida, killed General Thompson, 
 the Indian agent, and his companions, who were dining at 
 some distance off under the trees. He next drew General 
 Clinch into an ambuscade, and in the following year routed 
 General Gaines. Osceola was finally captured by treachery 
 and died in Fort Moultrie. General Zachary Taylor dispersed 
 an Indian force near Lake Okecho'bee, December 25, 1837, but 
 it was not until 1842 that the Seminoles were at last conquered. 
 
 iBoth Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln took part in this war, —one 
 as an officer in the regular army, the other as a captain of volunteers. 
 
224 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 By the refuge which the everglades afforded they had been 
 able to prolong the war seven years. 
 
 374. Indian Teridtory. During the administration of Jack- 
 son the larger number of the Indian tribes in the Southern 
 States were removed to the Indian Territory, which had been 
 set apart as their place of residence. This was the beginning 
 of the system of Indian reservations in the west which still 
 prevails. The Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Cherokees, the 
 Creeks and Seminoles, were among those withdrawn. 
 
 375. French Indemnity. The French government had con- 
 sented to the payment of $5,000,000 in compensation for losses 
 wrongfully inflicted on American commerce during Napoleon's 
 wars. So great was the delay in paying, that Jackson became 
 impatient, and with characteristic boldness recommended, in 
 a message to Congress, that reprisals should be made on 
 French cowimerce. The mediation of Great Britain, however, 
 secured the payment by France, without recourse to war. 
 
 376. Nominating Conventions. The year 1831 is remark- 
 able in our political history as the first in Avhich a convention 
 of delegates from all parts of the country came together for 
 the purpose of naming candidates for the presidency and vice 
 presidency. In that year nominations were made by the Anti- 
 Masonic convention, representing twenty-two States. A few 
 months later, a convention of National Republicans nominated 
 Henry Clay for the presidency. In the following year a party 
 platform was first used by a national convention. Previous to 
 1831 the nominations to the presidency had been made by Con- 
 gressional caucus or by State legislatures and conventions, but 
 without any formal declaration of party policy. 
 
 377. Election of Van Buren. Martin Van Buren, a Demo- 
 crat, was chosen to succeed Jackson. He had been Vice Presi- 
 dent during Jackson's second administration. Van Buren 
 stood for opposition to a National Bank, to a protective tariff, 
 
VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 225 
 
 and to internal improvements at the expense of the general 
 government. General W. H. Harrison was the candidate of 
 the National Republican or Whig party. 
 
 ^-^^-^ 
 
 Van Buren's Administration, 1837-1841 ^ 
 
 378. Financial Storm. Effect of Jackson's Specie CU^cu- 
 lar. Van Biiren had hardly taken his seat when the symptoms 
 of a financial panic began to show 
 themselves. E-eference has already 
 been made to the speculation pre- 
 vailing during the administration 
 of Jackson. Payment for public 
 lands was made in the paper money 
 of the State banks. As most of 
 these banks had little capital, the 
 government began to fear lest it 
 should be taking money that w^as 
 really worthless. Jackson there- 
 upon issued a circular ordering the 
 government's agents to receive only 
 gold or silver or landscrip in all 
 future sales of the public lands. This at once caused a heavy 
 flow of gold and silver to the west, w^hich weakened the east- 
 ern banks, because they had been keeping these metals for the 
 redemption of their own paper money. The supply of coin in 
 
 1 Martin Van Bnren was born in New York in 1782, and died in 1802. He 
 entered local politics as soon as he reached manhood, and became, in succes- 
 sion, a member of the United States Senate and governor of New York. 
 Jackson appointed him Secretary of State, and also Minister to England, but 
 his nomination for this last position was rejected by the vote of the President's 
 enemies in the Senate. This led to his elevation to the vice presidency during 
 Jackson's second term. It was due to the partiality of Jackson that Van 
 Buren was named for the presidency and elected. In his bearing he was a 
 man of great dignity and courtesy ; in character, supple, imperturbable, and 
 cautious; in intellect, able and adroit. 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. — 14 
 
 Martin Van Buren 
 
226 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 the eastern banks was further diminished by the quantity that 
 went abroad to pay for the enormous amount of foreign mer- 
 chandise imported, in consequence of prosperous times. 
 
 379. Distribution of the Surplus. In the last year of 
 Jackson's administration a large surplus of government funds 
 had accumulated. This was due to three causes : (1) the na- 
 tional debt had now been paid off, and there was no interest to 
 meet ; (2) the national expenses were small ; (3) the tax on 
 imported goods and the sales of public lands brought in an 
 enormous income. What should be done with this surplus ? 
 It was decided to distribute it among the States in four annual 
 installments, beginning January 1, and ending October 1, 1837. 
 
 380. The Collapse. The strongest banks in the country, 
 which had already been weakened by the transfer of gold and 
 silver for the purchase of western lands, were now called upon 
 to distribute among the States the surplus funds which the 
 government had deposited in their safe keeping and which 
 they had loaned out. They were not only compelled to re- 
 quire their borrowers to pay up, but also were deprived of the 
 ability to make further loans. At once a financial stringency 
 set in. People who owed the banks money had to sell their 
 property to meet their debts, but as everybody was trying to 
 sell, it was impossible to find purchasers. Thousands were 
 thus ruined. As the paper money had become discredited, it 
 returned in a flood for redemption to the banks which had 
 issued it. As they had no gold or silver to give in return 
 for it, bank after bank went into insolvency. In the spring 
 of 1837 there were failures in New York City amounting to 
 $100,000,000, and in New Orleans to $50,000,000.^ 
 
 1 This panic led to the establishment of subtreasuries in the principal 
 cities. Here the funds of the government not deposited in the vaults at 
 Washington are kept. These subtreasuries have taken the place of the old 
 United States Bank and its branches. 
 
VAN BUKEN'S ADMINISTRATION 227 
 
 381. Slavery Agitation Renewed. In 1837, when the panic 
 caused such universal distress, the slavery agitation began 
 with new vigor. The membership of the abolition societies 
 of the North had by this time grown to 150,000. The num- 
 ber of newspapers supporting the doctrines of these societies 
 rapidly increased, and it was not long before the laws passed 
 by some of the Northern legislatures reflected the opinions 
 and feelings in which the movement had its origin. The 
 sentiment of the great mass of the Northern people, how- 
 ever, still ran strongly against Garrison and his coworkers, 
 because it was believed they were endangering the safety of 
 the Union. Mobs broke up abolition meetings in Philadelphia, 
 Utica, Boston, and other cities and maltreated the speakers. 
 Abolition newspaper offices were wrecked, and the editors 
 were killed or put in jeopardy. 
 
 382. The Mormons. In the course of this administration the 
 Mormon sect first attracted public notice. It was founded in 
 1827 by Joseph Smith, who claimed to have discovered the 
 Book of Mormon, a part of the Bible never before known. 
 His followers increased until they numbered 10,000. They 
 erected a beautiful temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, and began to 
 assume, contrary to the laws of that State, the right to enjoy 
 a plurality of wives. In 1844 Smith was^ killed by a mob. 
 In 1847 the Mormons, under the leadership of Brigham Young, 
 emigrated to Utah, then in Mexican territory, and there built 
 Salt Lake City. 
 
 383. Election of Harrison. In the presidential campaign of 
 1840 the Democratic party renominated Van Buren, while the 
 Whigs again nominated General William Henry Harrison, and 
 also named John Tyler of Virginia for the vice presidency. 
 They denounced Van Buren as an aristocrat, who, amid the 
 almost universal poverty which his administration had caused, 
 used gold spoons and a silver tea service. Harrison had passed 
 
228 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 his manhood on the frontier, and was accustomed to the plain 
 dwelling houses and fare of the backwoods. His political 
 enemies declared that "he would be more at home in a log 
 cabin, drinking hard cider and skinning coons, than living in 
 the White House." His supporters promptly turned the sneer 
 to advantage by holding their political rallies in log cabins, 
 w^earing coonskin caps, distributing hard cider among the 
 
 voters, and dining in public on 
 pigs and opossums. Harrison 
 was elected by a large majority. 
 
 Harrison and Tyler^s Ad- 
 ministration, 1841-1845^ 
 
 384. Tyler disappoints the 
 Whigs. Harrison filled the of- 
 fice of President only one month, 
 dying on April 4, 1841, from the 
 worry caused by the importu- 
 nity of office seekers and his 
 owai too earnest devotion to the 
 public business. He was suc- 
 ceeded by John Tyler, the Vice 
 President. Tyler was a Demo- 
 crat who had been nominated by the Whig party in order to in- 
 crease Harrison's strength as a candidate in the South. The 
 
 1 William Henry Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773, and died in Wash- 
 ington in 1841. He was sprung from an ancient and distinguished family. 
 After studying medicine, he entered the military service of the United States, 
 and soon rose to be captain. Becoming identified in 1797 with the Northwest 
 Territory, he was appointed, in 1801, governor of Indiana Territory, and con- 
 tinued in that position until 1813. As the hero of Tippecanoe and the battle 
 of the Thames, he stood high in the favor of the people ; was a representative 
 in Congress, 1816-1819; member of the Senate, 1825-1828; and Minister to 
 Colombia, 1828-1829. 
 
 John Tyler was the first Vice President to be advanced to the presidency 
 by the death of the incumbent. Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790 in the 
 
 William H. Harrison 
 
HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 229 
 
 Whigs soon found out that the new President was opposed to 
 national banks, high tariffs, and internal improvements at the 
 expense of the Federal government, measures which they 
 warmly advocated. The cabinet of Harrison, all loyal Whigs, 
 had been retained by Tyler ; but now, with the exception of 
 Daniel Webster, who wished to complete the treaty for the 
 determination of the northeastern 
 boundary (§ 389), they all resigned. 
 Not only did Tyler veto a bill re- 
 chartering the United States Bank, 
 but also two tariff bills for the pro- 
 tection of manufactures. A third 
 bill, which recognized the same prin- 
 ciple, but in a modified form, ob- 
 tained his approval. 
 
 385. Dorr's Rebellion. In 1842 
 Ehode Island was the scene of seri- 
 ous internal dissensions. In that 
 State the right to vote was confined 
 by the original charter, still in opera- 
 tion (§ 135), to the property holders and their eldest sons. 
 The people in vain petitioned against this qualification of the 
 suffrage. Finally they drew up a constitution, and chose 
 Thomas W. Dorr to be governor. The validity of his election 
 was disputed, because it was claimed the charter was still in 
 
 John Tyler 
 
 county adjacent to that in which Harrison first saw the light. Before the age 
 of thirty-seven he had been elected a member of the House of Representa- 
 tives, governor of his native State, and United States senator. Although 
 nominated by the Whig convention as the associate of Harrison on its presi- 
 dential ticket, Tyler had been conspicuous as a Democrat who gave an 
 unwavering support to the doctrine of State sovereignty. He was only 
 thought of as a Whig because he disapproved of Jackson's determination 
 to suppress nullification, and detested the general methods of that Republican 
 autocrat. In 1861 he became the presiding officer of the Peace Convention 
 (§ 421), and was a member of the Confederate Congress. He died in 1862. 
 
230 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 force. The people rushed to arms, and tried to seize the 
 arsenal and other public property. The insurrection was only 
 put down after the President had been called upon for aid; 
 but a more liberal constitution was adopted, and went into 
 operation in 1843. 
 
 386. Independence of Texas. The Alamo. Beginning in 
 1820, a great wave of people, principally from the South- 
 
 Attack on the Alamo 
 
 ern States, had been flowing into the Mexican province of 
 Texas. Moses Austin was the first to obtain a large grant, 
 and his example was followed by many others. The Ameri- 
 can population soon grew restive under Mexican rule, and, 
 in 1835, they drove the Mexican troops across the Rio 
 Grande. In 1836 Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, led 
 an army into Texas, and on March 6, 1836, the American 
 garrison of the Alamo (a mission church at San Antonio) was 
 massacred. 
 
HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 231 
 
 387. Goliad and San Jacinto. Santa Anna next attacked 
 the Texan troops stationed at Goliad, which were forced to 
 surrender, but only after the arrival of heavy Mexican reen- 
 forcements. As soon as the Texans had laid down their arms 
 the Mexicans darted upon them and massacred them to a man. 
 Seven hundred Texan soldiers, under General Samuel Houston 
 (hus'ton), were now the only Texan army left. At first Hous- 
 ton retreated before Santa Anna, but turning suddenly at San 
 Jacinto (April 21, 1836), 
 and raising the battle cry, 
 " Kemember the Alamo," 
 he fell, with the fury of 
 a summer tempest, on the 
 Mexican ranks and swept 
 them from the field. The 
 independence of Texas, 
 which had been declared 
 on March 2, 1836, was 
 soon recognized by the 
 United States, England, 
 and France. 
 
 388. South favors Admis- 
 sion of Texas. Texas al- 
 most at once petitioned to enter the Union, but as Mexico had 
 not acknowledged its independence, these overtures were not 
 accepted, for fear of trouble with the Mexican Republic. The 
 South strongly favored the admission of Texas. Florida, 
 coming in as a slave State in 1845, gave a majority of two 
 senators to the slave States, but this majority, it was known, 
 would be soon destroyed by the admission of Iowa as a free 
 State. Unless Texas should be added to the ranks of the 
 slave States, the South would have no more territory to draw 
 upon, while the free States could look forward to the admission 
 
 BttALE OF MILES 1 
 
 Texas 
 
232 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 of a large number of other free States, to be carved out of the 
 region lying north of the line agreed on in the Missouri Com- 
 promise (§ 348). Texas lay south of this line, and it would 
 furnish territory for the creation of half a dozen slave States. 
 The South had lost control of the House of Representatives, 
 but as long as she had control of the Senate, there was no dan- 
 ger of national legislation hostile to the interests of the slave- 
 holders. Southern sentiment was sufficiently strong to lead to 
 the passage of a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas 
 to the United States on March 1, 1845. This was approved in 
 June by the Texan Congress, and Texas was admitted to the 
 Union in December, 1845, with the right to divide its territory 
 into five States, should its people wish it. 
 
 389. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. In 1842 a treaty, known 
 as the Wejjster-Ashburton treaty, from the names of the 
 negotiators, was made between Great Britain and the United 
 States, under which the northeastern boundary line (Maine- 
 New Brunswick) was settled as it stands to-day. The forty- 
 ninth parallel had been agreed upon in 1818 as the boundary 
 line east of the Eockies ; the boundary line west of these 
 mountains was left to be determined at a later elate. 
 
 390. Joint Occupation of Oregon. In 1818 Great Britain 
 and the United States had agreed to hold Oregon in joint 
 occupation for a period of ten years. When this period 
 ended, the time for joint occupation was extended indefinitely, 
 with the understanding, however, that one year's notice from 
 either party was to bring it to a close. The first settlements 
 in this Oregon region — which soon came to have the limits of 
 42°, 54° 40', the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific — had been 
 made by the American Fur Company. The best known was 
 Astoria, founded by John Jacob Astor, a leading member of 
 the company. Hunters and trappers roamed over the face 
 of the country. By 1841 a number of permanent settlers — 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 233 
 
 English and American — had come in. In 1842, however, a 
 large company of American settlers emigrated over the moun- 
 tains to Oregon. They were soon followed by others, so that 
 by 1846 the American population in Oregon numbered 12,000. 
 A cry soon arose for the settlement of the boundary and ter- 
 mination of the joint occupation. The boundary was finally 
 agreed upon in 1846 b}^ extending the forty-ninth parallel to 
 the coast, and then drawing a line down the Strait of Juan 
 de Fuca to the Pacific (see maps, pp. 214 and 262). 
 
 391. Election of Polk. In the election of 1844 James K. 
 Polk, of Tennessee, the Democratic candidate, was chosen 
 President over Henry Clay, the Whig. Mr. Polk favored the 
 reoccupation of Oregon and the reannexation of Texas,^ whether 
 it would bring about a war with Mexico or not. At this elec- 
 tion, Mr. Birney, the candidate of the Abolitionists, obtained 
 a popular vote of 62,000. 
 
 Polk's Administration, 1845-1849- 
 
 392. Mexican War. W^ar Declared. Mexico still refused to 
 recognize the independence of Texas, though now a State of the 
 Union. Both claimed a strip of territory between the Nueces 
 
 1 President Tyler had negotiated a secret treaty with the Texan authorities, 
 by which Texas was to become a part of the United States. The Senate re- 
 jected this treaty. 
 
 2 James Knox Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795, and died in Ten- 
 nessee in 1849. When ten years old he removed to Tennessee with his parents, 
 and at the age of thirty was elected to the lower House of Congress, and re- 
 mained a member during fourteen years, a part of which time he filled the 
 office of Speaker. In 1839 he became governor of Tennessee. His nomina- 
 tion to the presidency was the first appearance of the "dark horse " in the 
 history of the chief magistracy. There was so much dissension in the Demo- 
 cratic party, in consequence of the antagonism between the friends and 
 enemies of Van Buren, the leader of the party, that it was finally determined 
 to bring forward a candidate so obscure, comparatively, that no substantial 
 objection to him could be offered by either of the contending wings. The 
 wisdom of this course was shown in Polk's election over so able and popular a 
 man as Clay, who was greatly superior to him in influence, capacity, and 
 experience. 
 
234 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 Eiver and the Eio Grande. The President directed G-eneral 
 Zachary Taylor (§ 373) to take possession of this region, in order 
 to prevent the intrusion of the Mexicans. Taylor, in January, 
 1846, inarched to the Rio Grande, and here a reconnoitering 
 party of American troops was attacked by a large body of 
 Mexicans. Taylor fell back toward the Nueces Eiver, but 
 returning, won a signal victory over the Mexicans at Palo 
 Alto (pah'lo ahl'to)^ (May 8), and a day later at Eesaca de la 
 
 Palma (ra sah'kah da lah pahl' 
 /^^ mah) (May 9), by a rush of 
 
 C^ \^ cavalry under Captain May. 
 
 ^^^m,^^^ War with Mexico was formally 
 
 - "^^ ^-^'i declared at Washington on 
 
 May 13. 
 
 393. Kearny's Campaign. The 
 President issued a call for 
 50,000 volunteers. Under the 
 plan of campaign now adopted. 
 General Kearny (kar'ny) was 
 to descend upon New Mexico, 
 and General Wool upon the 
 northern Mexican states, while 
 General Taylor was to advance 
 southward from Matamoras. 
 In August Kearny captured Santa Pe, and having subdued the 
 whole of New Mexico, set out for California. Captain John 
 C. Fremont', who was engaged in exploring the far West, had 
 already conquered this region, and with the assistance of 
 Kearny and Commodore Stockton, who commanded the Ameri- 
 
 1 Among the few who perished on the American side at Palo Alto was Major 
 Ringgold, of Maryland. He had organized the flying ai-tillery service, and by 
 his skill and courage had greatly contributed to the success of the day. 
 " Leave me alone," he cried out to those who came to his aid on his receiving 
 a mortal w^ound, "you are needed in front." 
 
 James K. Polk 
 
FOLK'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 235 
 
 can fleet on the coast, was able to hold it permanently. In 
 the meanwhile Colonel Doniphan, a lieutenant of Kearny's, 
 had marched 1000 miles southward from Santa Ye, had cap- 
 
 THE 
 MEXICAN WAR 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 ' 100 200 300 ioO 
 
 tured Chihuahua (che wah'wah), one of the largest and wealth- 
 iest cities in the Mexican Republic, and then had made his 
 way to Saltillo (sahl teel'yo), and thence to New Orleans. 
 
236 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 394= Taylor's Campaign. Monterey. By this time General 
 Wool had been forced to give up his expedition against the 
 northern states of Mexico, and unite his army with Taylor's 
 at Monterey (montara'). On September 21 that city was 
 assaulted by the American troops. The walls were scaled, 
 and from house to house, room to room, and roof to roof, a 
 hand-to-hand combat with the Mexicans was carried on. It 
 
 Taylor at Monterey 
 
 was not until September 24 that the Mexican general surren- 
 dered. 
 
 395. Bitena Vista. Taylor's army was soon reduced to 
 5000 by the transfer of his ablest officers and most experi- 
 enced troops to the force which General Scott, the commander 
 in chief, was about to lead against the city of Mexico. Gen- 
 eral Santa Anna, receiving news of that fact, put his army, 
 now 20,000 strong, in motion, and came up with Taylor at 
 Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), February 23, 1847. At first 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 287 
 
 the Mexican troops were successful in driving back the 
 Americans, but at the critical moment Captains Bragg and 
 Sherman fired round after round of grapeshot iuto the ranks 
 of the foe. The latter were finally repulsed all along the line, 
 fell into disorder, and in the night retired from the field. 
 The whole of northeast Mexico lay at the feet of the con- 
 queror. It was now possible to concentrate the entire Amer- 
 ican military force in the capture of Vera Cruz (ve'rah krooz), 
 a strongly fortified town on the seacoast. 
 
 396. Scott's Campaign. March upon the Capital. Gen- 
 eral Scott invested Vera Cruz on March 9 with an army of 
 12,000 men and began preparations for a siege. After a siege 
 of a number of days the city, though defended by the strongest 
 fortress in America after Quebec, the castle of San Juan de 
 Ulloa (sahn hoo ahn' da oolo'ah), surrendered, largely in con- 
 sequence of the engineering skill of Captain Robert E. Lee. 
 The advance upon the city of Mexico began immediately. At 
 Cer'ro Gor'do, a pass in the mountains, a strong detachment of 
 Mexican troops was completely routed (April 18). It was not 
 until August that the American army reached the top of the 
 Cordilleras (cor dil ya'raz), and beheld the towers and domes 
 of the city of Mexico glittering in the distance. Descending 
 the mountains, the Americans captured the intrenched camp 
 at Contreras (kon tra'rahs), August 20; and on the same day 
 they stormed the heights of Churubusco (choo roo boos'ko). 
 
 397. Capture of the Capital. On September 8, Molino del 
 Rey (mo lee 'no dal ra') was captured, and there followed, on Sep- 
 tember 13, a grand assault on Chapultepec (chah pool ta p6k'), 
 the principal stronghold of the capital, perched on such an 
 abrupt height that scaling ladders had to be used in storming 
 it. In a few days Scott marched into the city. This brought 
 hostilities to a close. 
 
 398. Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty. Under the treaty of Guada- 
 
288 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 lupe-Hiclalgo (gwah dah loo'pae dahl'go), February 2, 1848, an 
 area of over 500,000 square miles reaching south to the Gila 
 (he'lah) River and west to the Pacific was ceded to the United 
 States.' In return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico 
 $15,000,000 and to pay claims to the amount of $3,500,000 
 which our citizens had against Mexico. Among the officers 
 taking part in this war destined to win great fame in the War 
 
 Scott's Entry into City of Mexico 
 
 of Secession were Lee, Grant, Johnston, Sherman, Thomas, 
 McClellan, Jackson, Meade, Hood, and Bragg. 
 
 399. Wilmot Proviso. A year and a half before the conclu- 
 sion of the war and the acquisition of the new territory, David 
 Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, moved in Congress (August, 1846) 
 that any soil which the United States should buy of Mexico, 
 no matter where situated, should be free. This was suggested 
 
 1 The Gadsden Purchase (1853) gave shape to the southern boundary line 
 as it is to-day (map, p. 366). 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 239 
 
 by the fact that Mexico bad abolished slavery in 1827, but it 
 was opposed to the spirit of the Missouri Compromise, which 
 made the parallel of 36° 30' the boundary line between slave 
 and free soil.^ The resolution was passed by the House, but 
 rejected by the Senate, and the same thing happened again in 
 1847. The Proviso, as it was known, excited strong oi)posi- 
 tion in the South, because, if it became law, it would place the 
 slave States in the power of the free, by taking away, even 
 after the division of Texas, all hope of preserving in the 
 Senate the numerical equality between the North and South, 
 which had already been lost to the South in the House. The 
 growing sentiment at the North in favor of abolition was 
 accepted by the Southern people, now grown thoroughly 
 alarmed, as a warning that the interest of the Southern States 
 in their slaves would not be respected when their ability to 
 defend this interest in at least one branch of Congress had 
 passed away. 
 
 400. Gold in California. In 1848 gold was discovered in Califor- 
 nia at John Sutter's mill 
 near the site of Coloma, 
 on a branch of the Sacra- 
 mento River. The dis- 
 covery was made by a 
 workman who was build- 
 ing a mill race for Sutter. 
 In spite of every precau- 
 
 ^ r - 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 ^■^r 
 
 
 o ^ "^^ 
 
 \Z. 
 
 \ 
 
 (..„ I 
 
 , '' 
 
 / 
 
 o - ^>^.^' 
 
 V L I 
 
 t; 
 
 |«> K >' 
 
 I A 
 
 \ \ 
 
 ^ ^ i- 
 
 C" 
 
 ^x^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 r-^^ 
 
 S% 
 
 San Franci- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 SCALE 
 
 OF MILES 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 100 
 
 Vicinity of Coloma 
 
 tion the news rapidly spread, and all forms of regular busi- 
 ness were suspended in the eagerness to search for gold. The 
 
 1 The spirit of the Missouri Compromise consisted in dividing the unsettled 
 parts of the west as equally as possible between slave and free States. If 
 the Missouri Compromise line had been extended to the Pacific, after the war 
 with Mexico, a very large part of the territory acquired by that war would 
 have been situated south of the line. Mr. Wilmot's proposition was regarded 
 by the South as designed to deprive her of this advantage. 
 
240 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 fact becoming known throughout the United States, a rush 
 for the new El Dora'do on the Pacific coast began. Some 
 of the adventurers went in vessels by way of Cape Horn ; 
 some traversed the Isthmus of Panama; v^hile others, in spite 
 
 of tribes of hostile Indians, 
 made the journey on horse- 
 back, or in canvas-covered 
 wagons, across the prairies 
 and the Kocky Mountains. 
 In two years, a city of 20,000 
 people sprang up on the Bay 
 of San Francisco, and Cali- 
 fornia was occupied by a popu- 
 lation of 100,000.1 
 
 401. Election of Taylor. In 
 1848 General Zachary Taylor 
 and Millard Fillmore were 
 elected President and Vice 
 President respectively. They 
 were the candidates of the Whig party. The candidates of 
 the party opposed to slavery polled nearly 300,000 votes in 
 the popular election. 
 
 Taylor and Fillmore's Administration, 1849-1853- 
 
 402. Slavery Agitation Resumed. General Taylor's adminis- 
 tration lasted only sixteen months, w^hen he was succeeded by 
 Millard Fillmore. Before President Taylor died, however, Con- 
 
 1 The chief gold mines in the United States worked before the discovery of 
 gold in California were situated in the Southern Appalachians, and yielded 
 about f 20,000,000 in all. 
 
 2 Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, and died in Washington in 
 1850. Through the influence of his kinsman, Mr. Madison, then Secretary of 
 State, he obtained a lieutenancy in the army, and rose grade by grade to a 
 major generalship. His career in the Seminole and Mexican wars has already 
 been detailed. He won fi-om his soldiers the memorable sobriquet " Rough and 
 
 Zachary Taylor 
 
TAYLOR AND FILLMORE^S ADMINISTRATION 241 
 
 gress (1849-1850) was torn by violent debates over the question 
 
 of shutting slavery out of the new Territories. California was 
 
 now seeking admission to the Union, with a constitution 
 
 opposed to slavery. As it lay partly 
 
 south of an extension of the Missouri 
 
 Compromise line (§ 348), and had been 
 
 largely settled by Southern people, the 
 
 Southern members of Congress were 
 
 strongly opposed to its admission as a 
 
 free State. 
 
 403. Compromise of 1850. The con- 
 troversy was quieted for a time by a 
 series of resolutions, offered by Clay, 
 which provided (1) that California 
 should be allowed to come in as a free 
 State ; (2) that the remainder of the Mexican cession should 
 be organized as the Territories of New Mexico and Utah, with- 
 out any provision concerning slavery, the people being left 
 free to make them free or slave as they pleased; (3) that 
 Texas should be paid $10,000,000 for the cession of territory 
 claimed by her north and west of her present boundaries ; 
 (4) that a Fugitive Slave Law should be enacted providing 
 more effectively for the return of all slaves escaping into the 
 free States ; and (5) that the slave trade should be prohibited 
 
 Millard Fillmore 
 
 Ready." So little interest had he taken in public aifairs previous to his election 
 to the presidency, that he had not cast a vote in the course of forty years. The 
 fact that he was a slaveholder alienated the support of many Whigs. Few of 
 the Presidents, however, have enjoyed greater respect and popularity. In 
 character he was frank, sincere, honest, and resolute. 
 
 Millard Fillmore, his successor, was born in New York State in 1800. He 
 began active life as a fuller ; then taught school and studied law ; then, in 
 turn, was a member of the State Assembly and of Congress. Having been 
 defeated for the governorship of his native State, he was elected to the office 
 of comptroller, and while filling this position, was nominated to the vice 
 presidency. 
 
242 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 7^f---^.SjTr_s„ 
 
 in the District of Columbia. A bill, called the Omnibus Bill, 
 was introduced for enacting the first three of these measures, 
 but, in the end, all the measures were passed as separate laws. 
 
 The whole series of 
 measures is known as 
 the Compromise of 
 1850, because in some 
 of the provisions the 
 wishes of the North 
 were followed; in 
 others, of the South. 
 
 404. Rise of New 
 
 Compromise of 1850 Leaders. There were 
 
 now taking an active part in public life men who were destined 
 to win even greater national fame in the near future, among 
 others, Jefferson Davis, Alexander H. Stephens, Robert 
 Toombs, Stephen A. Douglas, Charles Sumner, William .H. 
 Seward, and Salmon P. Chase. The great leaders of the 
 immediate past were now vanishing. Mr Calhoun had died 
 in March, 1850; Mr. Clay followed in June, 1852; anr^. Mr. 
 Webster died in the course of the same year. Thus passed 
 away, at short intervals, the " G-reat Triumvirate." ^ 
 
 1 The principal events in the lives of these three great statesmen have been 
 mentioned in connection with the general history of the country, such as Cal- 
 houn's support of the Doctrine of Nullification, Webster's stand in the debates in 
 the Senate with Hayne and Calhoun, for an " indivisible Union," Clay's advo- 
 cacy of the " American System " and the Compromises represented by the tariff 
 act of 1833 and the measures of 1850. Clay, who was born in Virginia, settled 
 in Kentucky and became the spokesman of the West ; Calhoun voiced the 
 South ; and AVebster the North. Clay acted sometimes with Calhoun, but 
 more often with Webster. Under all circumstances, however, like Webster, 
 he was a firm upholder of the paramount authority of the Union ; Calhoun 
 believed that each State was sovereign and that the Union was a compact of 
 sovereign States. All three had filled the highest position in the Cabinet — 
 the secretaryship of state. Webster had occupied that office under three 
 administrations. For seven years CalhouJi had been Secretary of War, and 
 for seven, Vice President. Clay had been Speaker of the H.iuse of Represen- 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 243 
 
 405. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and Treaty with Japan. During 
 P^illinore's adiiiinistratioii Great Britain and the United States 
 entered into a treaty not to seek to obtain an exclusive 
 control over any ship canal which should be dug from ocean 
 to ocean, in Nicaragua, or any other part of Central America. 
 This is known as the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, from the names 
 of the American and English statesmen who negotiated it. 
 An expedition to Japan by Captain M. C. Perry forced that 
 country, in 1854, to enter into a treaty of peace and commerce. 
 This treaty led directly to the opening of Japanese ports to all 
 nations for the first time. 
 
 406. Election of Pierce. In the presidential election of 
 1852 Franklin Pierce, the Democratic candidate, who favored 
 upholding the terms of the Compromise of 1850 (§ 403), was 
 successful over his Whig opponent. General Winfield Scott. 
 John P. Hale, the candidate of the Abolitionists, who opposed 
 the Compromise measures, especially the Fugitive Slave Act, 
 received 156,000 votes. 
 
 Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857^ 
 
 407. '* Uncle Tom's Cabin." There appeared, in 1852, a book 
 
 which, by painting in the liveliest colors of fiction, the dark 
 
 aspects of the institution of slavery, greatly strengthened the 
 
 tatives. But it was on the floor of the Senate, when in the maturity of their 
 powers, that these three celebrated men appeared to the most advantage. 
 Unlike Calhoun and Webster, Claj'' had not enjoyed a college education, but 
 in impassioned and moving eloquence he was the superior of either of his two 
 great rivals ; Webster surj^assed in grandeur of thought and expression ; 
 Calhoun in logical force. A common disappointment entered into the lives 
 of all three, — failure to secure the presidency. But even that exalted honor 
 was not necessary to fill the measure of their fame. 
 
 1 Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire, in 1804, and died in 18G9. 
 He was elected a member of the State legislature in his twenty-first year ; 
 of the lower House of Congress in his twenty-ninth ; and of the Senate 
 in his thirty-third. He was offered the position of Attorney General in the 
 cabinet of President Polk, but declined it. Entering the Mexican War as a 
 volunteer, he rose to the rank of a brigadier general. 
 
 BRUCE'S U.S. HIST. — 15 
 
244 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 Abolitionists, who were now striving to defeat the Fugitive 
 Slave Law (§ 403) by the passage of " personal liberty " bills, 
 and the establishment of the " underground railway " for 
 aiding slaves to escape to Canada. The author was Mrs. 
 Harriet Beecher Stowe, who sought to enlist the sympathies 
 and moral support of mankind by drawing a very unfavorable 
 picture of the South's treatment of the slave. In the form of 
 an interesting story, this attack on slavery reached all classes 
 
 in the North, and intensified the 
 popular opposition there to the 
 further spread of slavery.^ 
 
 408. Kansas-Nebraska Act. In 
 1854, the region between the Mis- 
 souri River and the Eocky Moun- 
 tains, north of 37°, was divided 
 into two territories, Nebraska and 
 Kansas, and under the act of 
 Congress creating them, drawn by 
 Stephen A. Douglas, the JMissouri 
 Compromise was declared inopera- 
 tive in accord with the principles 
 of the Compromise Measures of 
 1850, which allowed Utah and 
 New Mexico to accept or reject slavery as they chose (§403). 
 The question whether Kansas and Nebraska should adopt 
 slavery or not, was left to their Territorial legislatures. This 
 was what was known as " popular or squatter sovereignty." 
 Had the terms of the Missouri Compromise been still in force, 
 no question of slavery would have arisen in connection with 
 these States, as they were north of the line (§ 348). 
 
 1 " Uncle Tom's Cabin" was followed, in 1857, by "The Impending Crisis 
 of the Sonth " by Hinton Helper, a citizen of North Carolina, in which all 
 slaveholders were threatened with spoliation, and exclusion from church and 
 society, if they did not free their slaves. 
 
 Franklin Pierce 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 24:5 
 
 409. * * Bleeding Kansas. ' * The principal energies of the oppo- 
 nents of slavery were now turned toward securing a majority 
 of votes in the two Territories, as this would enable them to 
 adopt constitutions which would shut out the institution. 
 Kansas was settled first, and its soil became, in consequence, 
 the scene of a struggle so fierce and sanguinary that the terri- 
 tory was known as "Bleeding Kansas." Two emigrant socie- 
 ties were started in Massachusetts for the sole purpose of send- 
 ing out settlers to that Territory. In the meanwhile slavehold- 
 ers from Missouri had poured across the border and were 
 building towns. Bloody disputes arose, and a loud outcry of 
 fraud in the elections was raised by both sides. Each party 
 set up a Territorial government and sent a delegate to Con- 
 gress. Congress admitted the proslavery delegate,^ and the 
 President hurried troops to Kansas to back up the proslavery 
 governor and legislature. 
 
 410. Know-nothing Party. As an enormous number of Euro- 
 peans were, each year, pouring into the United States, and 
 acquiring great political power by their votes, the cry began 
 to be heard: "Americans must rule America." Am'ong these 
 newcomers were many Irishmen who were Roman Catholics. 
 A political organization known as the American Party was 
 formed, whose main principle was the shutting out of both 
 foreigners and Roman Catholics from all office. As it was 
 carried on in the manner of a secret society, and as its mem- 
 bers when questioned as to its principles were sworn to profess 
 
 1 The bitter feeling among the opponents of slavery in Congress was greatly 
 increased by these events. Senator Sumner, in the course of one of his 
 speeches, reflected unjustly on Senator Butler, of South Carolina, who was 
 not present at the time. The nephew of Senator Butler, Preston S. Brooks, a 
 member of the House of Representatives from the same State, resented this 
 attack, and with a small gutta-percha cane assaulted Sumner as he sat at his 
 desk in the Senate chamber. The injuries which the Massachusetts senator 
 received disabled him for a time, but increased his popularity and influence 
 in the North. Brooks resigned, but was promptly reelected. 
 
246 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 entire ignorance, it soon came to be termed the "Know-nothing 
 Party." In a few years it disappeared, but for a time had 
 
 considerable influence on the 
 course of politics. 
 
 411. Election of Buchanan. In 
 the presidential election of 1856 
 the Democratic candidate, James 
 Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was 
 successful. John C.Breckinridge, 
 of Kentucky, was chosen Vice 
 President. All the political par- 
 ties which favored the abolition 
 of slavery, or opposed its ex- 
 tension to the Territories, had 
 united, under the name of the 
 James Buchanan^' Kepublican Party, in the nomina- 
 
 tion of John C. Fremont (§ 393) 
 for President. Fremont carried the vote of eleven States. 
 
 Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861^ 
 
 412. Controversy over Slavery. Drecl Scott was the slave of 
 an army surgeon who, as ordered, passed from post to post, and 
 State to State. In this way, Scott, in attending his master, had 
 lived in Illinois and Minnesota where slavery was prohibited. 
 
 1 James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1701, and died there in 1868. 
 He had, in succession, filled the positions of representative, senator, and Sec- 
 retary of State ; and just previous to his election, had returned from England, 
 where, with distinguished ability, he had occupied the post of Minister. 
 Buchanan had advocated the subtreasury scheme (§380), had favored the 
 annexation of Texas, and had supported the Compromise Measure of 1850. 
 He began his administration with the " avowed object of destroying any sec- 
 tional party, whether North or South, and restoring, if possible, that national 
 feeling between the different States, that had existed during the early years 
 of the Republic." A statesman of ripe experience, he became President at a 
 time when the Republic was tossing in a sea of passion which no man could 
 control. 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 247 
 
 He made this fact the ground of a claim for freedom. The case 
 was, on appeal, brought into the Supreme Court, which decided 
 (1857) that it had no jurisdiction, as a slave could never become 
 a citizen of the United States. Chief Justice Taney, however, 
 then went on to give his opinion to the effect that a slave was 
 personal property, and could be carried into the free States, 
 without depriving his master of the right of ownership. This 
 
 Capture of John Brown 
 
 deliverance greatly alarmed the North, and a more resolute 
 spirit was at once shown by many Northern legislatures in de- 
 feating the Fugitive Slave law, a course that confessedly 
 amounted in practice to nullification of the Constitution, and 
 the laws in its support passed by Congress. 
 
 413. John Brown's Raid. The bitter feeling thus stirred 
 up led, in 1859, to an armed attack upon a Southern com- 
 
248 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 munity by one of the Abolitionists. In October of that year 
 John Brown, who had taken an active part in the Kansas 
 troubles (§ 409), crossed the Potomac, to Harpers Ferry, Vir- 
 ginia (map, p. 263), with a small band of supporters, and 
 boldly seized the arsenal there. He planned to make this 
 the starting point of an uprising of the slaves, which was to 
 spread all over the South. He had brought with him a large 
 number of pikes for use in arming the negroes against their 
 masters, but no disposition was shown by those in the vicinity 
 to join him. Brown and all of his followers who survived 
 were, after a desperate resistance, captured by a squad of 
 marines under command of Colonel Robert E. Lee. Brown 
 was tried for murder and inciting slaves to rebel, was con- 
 victed and hanged. One of his sons had been killed outright ; 
 another, mortally wounded. 
 
 414. Lecompton Constitution. The Territorial legislature 
 of Kansas having called a convention to adopt a constitution 
 previous to its admission as a State, those persons who were 
 opposed to slavery declined to take any part either in the 
 drafting or ratification of this constitution, and it followed 
 that the one drawn up and voted for recognized the institu- 
 tion. This was the Lecompton Constitution, which derived 
 its name from the place where the convention met. Sub- 
 mitted a second time to the people, on account of some irregu- 
 larity in the original proceedings, a majority of 10,000 voted 
 against it, because those opposing slavery now voted for the 
 first time. In spite of this the President in his message 
 recommended the admission of Kansas as a State under the 
 Lecompton Constitution. A bill was finally passed offering 
 large grants of land to the new State if she should agree to 
 adopt the Lecompton Constitution. But again a majority 
 voted against it. The dispute led to a breach among the 
 Democratic members, a large number of whom opposed the 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 249 
 
 constitution on the ground that to force it on the people of 
 Kansas was contrary to the doctrine of popular sovereignty 
 (§ 408). As a result, Kansas remained a Territory until 1861 
 when it was admitted as a State under a constitution prohibit- 
 ing slavery, which had been framed in 1859. 
 
 415. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. In 1858 there occurred 
 in Illinois a series of debates which had an important influ- 
 ence in strengthening the opposition of the North to the 
 further extension of slavery. Stephen A. Douglas, the author 
 of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (§ 408), and Abraham Lincoln, a 
 prominent Republican lawyer, were candi- 
 dates for the United States Senate from 
 Illinois. Douglas, who was a Democrat, was 
 seeking reelection. At first, the speeches, 
 though in reply to each other, were not 
 delivered from the same platform. Lincoln 
 began with a speech at Springfield. Douglas 
 replied at Chicago, a few weeks later. This 
 
 was kept up, at short intervals, until it „, , . ^ , 
 
 i- i-^ ' Stephen A. Douglas 
 
 was agreed that there should be joint de- 
 bates between them. Seven speeches in all were delivered 
 by each candidate, and all the great public questions involv- 
 ing slavery were ably and thoroughly discussed. Lincoln w^as 
 defeated, but the prominence which he gained by his presen- 
 tation of the Republican view led to his nomination to the 
 presidency. 
 
 416. Election of Lincoln. Principles of the Candidates. 
 The hopelessness of the division in the Democratic party over 
 the question of slavery in the Territories w^as shown in the 
 action of their presidential conventions in 1860. One conven- 
 tion nominated Stephen A. Douglas. Another, John C. Breck- 
 inridge (§ 411). There were now four presidential candidates 
 seeking election : Douglas, who urged that the people of each 
 
250 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 Territory should be allowed to decide whether they should have 
 slavery or not; Breckinridge, who held that a citizen could 
 hold slaves in any Territory whether a majority of its people 
 opposed slavery or not ; Lincoln, the candidate of the Repub- 
 lican party, who advocated the exclusion of slavery from all of 
 the Territories, whether the people favored it or not; Bell, 
 the candidate of the Constitutional Union party, whose watch- 
 words were "loyalty to the Constitution, and devotion to the 
 Union." Lincoln received a majority of the electoral votes. ^ 
 
 417. Secession of South Carolina. The triumph of the 
 Republican party created a profound sense of uneasiness in 
 the South, and in all that part of the Union there were soon 
 many signs of popular excitement. On December 20, 1860, 
 the people of South Carolina met in convention and passed an 
 ordinance of secession. It was soon seen that most of the 
 other Southern States would at once follow her example, and 
 in having recourse to this extreme step they expressly declared 
 that they asserted, not their right of revolution, like their fore- 
 fathers in the times of the Declaration of Independence, but 
 their right under the Constitution, by which alone they de- 
 fended their withdrawal from the Union. 
 
 418. Motives of Secession. The Southern people main- 
 tained that the Constitution was simply a compact or agree- 
 ment between " free, sovereign, and independent States," which 
 could be revoked by either side when circumstances demanded 
 and justified it. Such circumstances appeared to the South to 
 have arisen in the election of Lincoln, because the main })rin- 
 ciple of the Republican party was the exclusion of slavery 
 from the Territories, which virtually meant the exclusion of 
 the Southern slaveholders. This, the Southern people deeply 
 
 1 Like Jackson, Polk, Taylor, and Buchanan before him, Lincoln failed to 
 receive a majority of the popular vote. Buchanan Ij^cked 188,815, about five 
 per cent of the votes cast ; Lincohi lacked 472,075, about ten per cent. 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 251 
 
 resented, first, because they held that the Territories were the' 
 property of all the States alike, and, therefore, of the slave- 
 holder as well as of the free soiler ; secondly, because the 
 restriction of the institution of slavery to the Southern States 
 signified the permanent numerical superiority of the free 
 States in Congress, a condition which the Southern people felt 
 certain would lead in the end to the extinction of slavery in 
 the States where it still existed. 
 
 419. Shoiilcl the slaves he freed, the South thought she 
 could foresee for herself no higher condition than that prevail- 
 ing in Jamaica and Haiti; in the meanwhile it certainly 
 meant the complete destruction of the larger part of the 
 wealth which had been accumulating since the beginning of the 
 colonial age. Even if slavery should not be abolished by an 
 act of Congress, the South believed that she had held up to 
 her the prospect of repeated invasions like that of John Brown, 
 which would inevitably produce an uprising of the slaves. 
 Such an insurrection would end in the wiping out of either the 
 white or the black population of the Southern States, after 
 atrocities surpassing the power of language to describe or even 
 of the imagination to conceive. 
 
 420. Sitbordination of tJie State. Apart from the question 
 of slavery, the Southern people, who had been long accustomed 
 to think that each State was " free, sovereign, and independ- 
 ent," saw wuth the utmost alarm the general prevalence in the 
 North of a sentiment wdiich would subordinate all the interests 
 of the States to the interests of the nation, a condition which 
 the people of the South thought would, sooner or later, increase 
 the central power until it would reduce State lines to a mere 
 geographical expression As the State was, according to the 
 Southern view, the only real bulwark which local government 
 had against the encroachments of the national government, 
 the Southern people in withdrawing from the Union firmly 
 
252 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 believed that they were preserving that principle of independ- 
 ent local administration which they cherished as the most 
 sacred of political inheritances, because they deemed it the 
 only guarantee of the liberty of the individual. 
 
 Jefferson Davis 
 
 421. Confederacy Organized. Peace Congress. By February 
 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and 
 Texas had followed the example of South Carolina. Virginia 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 253 
 
 was very reluctant to break the tie with the Union, and in 
 the hope of bringing all the States together again invited 
 them to send delegates to a peace congress to be held in Wash- 
 ington. The congress met, but accomplished nothing, as the 
 differences in opinion were irreconcilable. 
 
 422. Confederate Constitution. A congress composed of 
 delegates from all the States which had seceded (except Texas) 
 assembled in Montgomery, Ala- 
 bama, on February 4, 1861, and 
 at once proceeded to form a 
 provisional government for the 
 new Confederacy, and to elect 
 Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, 
 and Alexander H. Stephens, of 
 Georgia, to the offices of Presi- 
 dent and Vice President respec- 
 tively.^ Shortly after tliis a con- 
 stitution was framed and ratified 
 by the seceding States. Under 
 this constitution each State was 
 declared to be sovereign and in- 
 dependent ; taxation to build up manufactures was })rohibited ; 
 any Territory admitted to statehood was to be allowed to come 
 in with or without slavery, as its people preferred; and all 
 internal improvements were to be made at the expense of the 
 
 1 Jefferson Davis was called to the principal office in the Confederate Gov- 
 ernment on account of bis military and political experience. He was born in 
 Kentucky in 1808, and died in Louisiana in 1889. After graduating at West 
 Point he was engaged as a lieutenant in the Black Hawk War, but, resigning 
 his commission, settled as a planter in Mississippi. In 1845 he was elected to 
 Congress. Having greatly distinguished himself at the battles of Monterey 
 and Buena Vista, he was, after the Mexican War ended, appointed to the 
 Senate of the United States, and continued to fill that position by election until 
 1850, when he resigned to become a candidate for the office of governor of Mis- 
 sissippi. As Secretary of War in the cabinet of Pierce he won a high reputa- 
 tion for administrative ability. Again elected to the Senate, he remained a 
 
 Alexander H, Stephens 
 
254 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 States and not of the general government. It will be observed 
 that these had been the chief points of difference in the con- 
 troversy between the Northern and Southern people. 
 
 423. Confederate Cojmnissioners in Washington. Davis 
 was inaugurated President of the Confederate States at Mont- 
 gomery, on February 18, 
 1861, and at once sent 
 three commissioners to 
 Washington, who were to 
 establish diplomatic rela- 
 tions between the gov- 
 ernments of the United 
 States and tlie Confeder- 
 ate States, and to settle in 
 a friendly way all ques- 
 tions in dispute between 
 them. In the meanwhile 
 commissioners from South 
 Carolina had arrived in 
 
 Washington and were demanding the withdrawal of all the 
 Federal troops who were garrisoning the forts situated in the 
 boundaries of that State. 
 
 424. " Star of the West.'* Major Eobert Anderson had evac- 
 
 Charleston Harbor 
 
 member of that body until Mississippi Avithdrew from the Union. The fare- 
 well address which he delivered to tlie members was marked by warm feeling 
 and extraordinai-y eloquence. Davis was a man of wide information, of varied 
 accomplishments, of courteous and winning manners, and chivalrous and un- 
 selfish instincts. 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens was born in 1812 in Georgia and was educated at the 
 State University. In 184.3 he was elected a member of Congress and was re- 
 elected for six terms. After the close of the war he was again elected and 
 remained a member during five years. He was chosen to be governor of 
 Georgia in 1882, and died in 1883. Few men in the South had enjoyed so ex- 
 tensive a political experience as Stephens when selected as the Vice President 
 of the Confederacy, and not one was more respected for uprightness, ability, 
 and conservative wisdom. 
 
NEW STATES AND GENERAL DEVELOrMENT 255 
 
 uatecl Fort Moultrie and taken possession of Fort Sumter, 
 also in Charleston harbor, the strongest fortilication in South 
 Carolina. Instead of commanding him to return to Fort Moul- 
 trie, as urged, Buchanan gave orders that the steamer /Star of 
 the West should leave New York City with reenforcements and 
 provisions for the troops stationed at Fort Sumter. While this 
 vessel was making its way up Charleston harbor one night in 
 January the Southern batteries on shore tired on her and forced 
 her to retire and put to sea. No other steps were taken to pre- 
 cipitate the issue further diiring Buchanan's administration. 
 
 Admission of New States, 1 829-1861, and General 
 Development 
 
 425. The New States (map, pp. 262, 263). Of the ten States 
 admitted to the Union between the years 1829 and 1861, only 
 jNIichigan (18o7), Wisconsin (1848), and part of Minnesota 
 were carved out of the territory which had belonged to the 
 United States from the beginning. Florida (1845) had been 
 ceded by Spain. Texas (1845) and California (1850) had been 
 possessions of Mexico; Arkansas (1836), Iowa (1846), about 
 half of Minnesota (1858), aiid Kansas (1861), of France. 
 Oregon (1859) formed part of the Oregon country which was 
 acquired by exploration and settlement, and by cession of 
 Spanish and English claims. 
 
 426. Preponderance of Power. The admission of these ten 
 new States increased the political power of the free States. 
 Only three — Texas, Florida, and Arkansas — had slave insti- 
 tutions. Had the South remained in the Union after the inau- 
 guration of Lincoln, the Senate would have shown a majority 
 of eight on the side of the free States, and the measures which 
 those States favored. Their majority in the House of Eepre- 
 sentatives would have been overwhelming. 
 
 427. Foreign Immigration. One reason why more free than 
 
256 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DIVISION 
 
 slave States were admitted during this period was the in- 
 crease in the number of foreign immigrants. The rush began 
 in 1842. In that year 100,000 Europeans came in. In 1854 
 the number rose to 428,000. Hardly any of this enormous new 
 population sought homes in the Southern Territories or States ; 
 the great mass settled in the north and west because they 
 were not in sympathy with slavery, and also because those 
 divisions of the Union offered a great variety of occupations 
 in manufactures and the mechanical trades. The South was 
 still purely agricultural, with an ample supply of slave labor. 
 This mighty stream of foreign settlers not only hastened the 
 admission of new free States, but also swelled the population 
 of the old free States, and thus further increased the number 
 of representatives in the lower House of Congress, who were 
 opposed to slavery. 
 
 428. Concentration of Population. The greater facilities for 
 transportation, whether by railway or steamboat, which did so 
 much to quicken the settlement of the middle West during the 
 first period under the Constitution, did equally as much during 
 the second to make more dense the population of the older 
 States. Now that railroads especially were opening up all 
 parts of these States, and bringing them in close relations with 
 the world at large, thus increasing their means of acquiring 
 wealth, there was not the same disposition in their inhabitants 
 to emigrate to the new country on the frontier. Arkansas and 
 Micliigan were the only two States admitted to the Union in 
 the interval of nearly a quarter of a century between 1821 and 
 1845. Iowa and Wisconsin were chiefly settled by people 
 from the Mississippi Valley. The same in a measure w^as true 
 of Texas and Arkansas. Of all the new States, California 
 alone derived its population as much from the eastern States 
 as from the western. This was because the prospect of finding 
 gold drew adventurers from all the States. 
 
NEW STATES AND GENERAL DEVELOPMENT 257 
 
 429. A General Improvement. As the wealth and popula- 
 tion of the older States increased, there was a great improve- 
 ment in everything relating to the comforts and conveniences 
 of life. In the principal cities the streets were carefully paved 
 and sewered, and at night fully lighted. Omnibus and car 
 lines afforded a constant means of conveyance, and there was 
 an abundant supply of water for all purposes. A system of 
 postage had been adopted, and letters w^ere delivered at the 
 door. In hundreds of dif- 
 ferent ways the inventive 
 genius of the people had 
 subserved their public and 
 private welfare. The in- 
 ventions by quickening and 
 diversifying the production 
 of manufactured articles, 
 had vastly increased the 
 number of factories and 
 mills, and in doing so had 
 widened the field of em- 
 ployment. No class bene- 
 fited more by this than the 
 workingmen, not only in the improvement in their clothing 
 and food and the advance of their wages, but also in the shorter 
 hours of labor which it finally brought about. 
 
 430. Three Great Inventions. There were three inventions of 
 this period that were especially useful to mankind, — the sew- 
 ing machine, the harvester, and the telegraph. We owe the 
 sewing machine chiefly to the genius and persistency of Elias 
 Howe. In reducing the cost of clothing it has enlarged the 
 means of livelihood and advanced the general wealth. The 
 harvester was invented by Cyrus McCormick. By economiz- 
 ing labor the harvester has increased the quantity of wheat 
 
 First Howe Sewing Machine 
 
258 
 
 UNDER THE C()>;8TITUTI0N — DIVISION 
 
 Instrument for sending 
 Telegrams 
 
 raised, and thus lowered the cost of bread. The telegraph was 
 
 first worked successfully in 1844 by Samuel Finley B. Morse. 
 
 After a long and patient struggle with poverty and every sort 
 
 of discouragement, he secured from Congress an appropriation 
 
 with which to build a line between 
 Washington and Baltimore. Hith- 
 erto the method of sending mes- 
 sages wdien great rapidity was 
 desired had been by signaling 
 
 them across the country from post to post, letter by letter. 
 
 By 1856 the electric telegraph had come into general use 
 
 in all the larger States. 
 
 431. The Atlantic Cable. Matthew F. Maury, the chief of the 
 United States Observatory at Washington, in the course of his 
 investigations of the ocean currents, discovered that a high 
 plateau formed the floor of the sea between Newfoundland 
 and Ireland. Taking advantage of this fact, Cyrus W. Field, 
 of New York, succeeded in raising a large fund for laying a 
 submarine cable 
 between Valencia 
 Bay, in Ireland, 
 and Trinity Ba}^, 
 in Newfoundland. 
 The'first cable laid 
 in 1858 was only 
 partially success- 
 ful as it w^orked 
 only three weeks, 
 put in successful operation. 
 
 432. International Navigation. Matthew F. Maury, who was 
 sprung from a Huguenot family of Virginia, had succeeded in 
 making a remarkable series of charts of the oceanic winds and 
 currents, which so improved sailing directions that a vast sum 
 
 Laying the Atlantic Cable 
 It was not until 1866 that the cable was 
 
NEW STATES AND GENERAL DEVELOPMENT 259 
 
 of money was annually saved to the maritime nations of the 
 world, while the loss of life was greatly lessened. By 1837 
 steamships had began to ply between Liverpool and New York, 
 and two years later the Cunard Line was founded. This was 
 followed in 1850 by the Collins Line. Thenceforth the rivalry 
 between the two companies — one British, the other American 
 — became so intense that the time of the voyage between Eng- 
 land and the United States was reduced to eleven days and 
 eight hours. 
 
 433. Public Schools. AVith tlie growth of wealth and popula- 
 tion there was seen everywhere an improvement in the methods 
 of education. This was especially notable in the public school 
 system of the free States, By the terms of the ordinance for 
 the government of the Northwest Territory, a certain propor- 
 tion of the land in every new township laid off was devoted to 
 the advance of public education. This proportion was doubled 
 in Oregon when that region was organized as a Territory, and 
 after this each new State admitted reserved the same area of 
 land for the support of the public schools. 
 
 434. American Writers. During the first two periods under 
 the Constitution (1789-1829 and 1829-1861) there appeared the 
 most illustrious writers whom the United States has produced. 
 Washington Irving, William Hickling Prescott, and James 
 Fenimore Cooper belong more distinctly to the first period. 
 So does William Cullen Bryant, if we consider only the date 
 of his finest poem, " Thanatopsis " (1817). The greatest names 
 in the literary history of the second period are those of the 
 poets, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, 
 and Edgar Allan Poe ; of the poet essayists, Kalph Waldo 
 Emerson, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes ; 
 of the novelists, Nathaniel Hawthorne and William Gilmore 
 Simms ; and of the historians, George Bancroft, John Lothrop 
 Motley, and Erancis Parkman. 
 
 bruce's U.S. HIST. — 10 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD VI 
 
 I. Jackson's Admin 
 istration, 1829- <^ 
 1837. 
 
 II. Van Buren's Ad- 
 min., 1837-1841. 
 
 III. Harrison and 
 Tyler' s Adminis- 
 tration, 1841-1845. 
 
 ) 1. 
 
 1 
 
 IV. Polk's Adminis- ; 
 tration,1845-1849. i 
 
 V. Taylor and Fill- 
 more's Adminis- 
 tration, 1849-185 3. 
 
 VI. Pierces Admin- 
 istration, 1853- 
 1857. 
 
 VII. Buchanan's Ad 
 
 m i n i s t r a t i o n . <l 
 1857-1861. I 
 
 VIII. New States ad- 
 mitted. 1829-1861. 
 
 C- 
 
 Domestic 
 Affairs. 
 
 \\. 
 
 Military / ?/ 
 Affairs. ^ l\ 
 
 Rotation in Office. 
 
 U. S. Bank Controversy. 
 
 S. C. passes Provisional Nullifica- 
 tion Ordinance. 
 
 Tariff Act modified. 
 
 .Slavery Agitation renewed. 
 
 Turner Slave Insurrection. 
 
 Industrial and Intellectual Activ- 
 ity. 
 
 Black Hawk War. 
 
 Seminole War. 
 
 Reprisals on French advised. 
 
 Foreign f 
 Affairs. \ 
 
 Domestic J 
 Affairs. [ 
 
 Domestic / 
 Affairs. I 
 
 Foreign 
 Affairs. 
 
 1. Free 
 
 Slave 
 260 
 
 Military 
 Affairs. 
 
 Domestic 
 Affairs. 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 Foreign 
 Affairs. 
 
 Domestic 
 Affairs. 
 
 Domestic 
 Affairs. 
 
 3. 
 
 / 1. 
 I '^• 
 
 1. Independence of Texas recognized. 
 
 1. Financial Panic. 
 
 2. Growth of Abolition .Societies. 
 
 3. The Spread of Mormonism. 
 
 1. Death of Harrison in Office. 
 
 2. Tyler vetoes the Whig Measures. 
 
 3. Dorr's Rebellion. 
 
 1. Settlement of Northeastern Bound- 
 
 ary Line. 
 
 2. Passage of Joint Resolution for 
 
 annexation of Texas to U. S. 
 
 1. Taylor marches to Rio Grande. 
 
 2. Battle of Palo Alto. 
 
 3. Battle of Resaca de la Palma. 
 
 4. Kearny captures Santa F6. 
 
 5. Conquest of California. 
 
 6. Capture of Monterey. 
 
 7. Battle of Buena Vista. 
 Siege of Vera Cruz. 
 Battle of Cerro (iordo. 
 Contreras and Churubusco. 
 Battle of Molino del Rey. 
 Assault on Chapultepec. 
 City of Mexico surrenders. 
 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. 
 
 House passes Wilmot Proviso. 
 Gold discovered in California. 
 
 Disputes over Slavery. 
 Compromise of 1850 — Omnibus 
 
 Bill. 
 Rise of New Leaders. 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. 
 Perry's Expedition to japan. 
 
 " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
 Squatter Sovereignty. 
 Struggle for Kansas. 
 Rise of Know-nothing Party. 
 
 Dred Scott Decision. 
 John Brown's Raid. 
 Lecompton Constitution. 
 Division in Democratic Party. 
 Triumph of Republican Party. 
 South Carolina secedes. 
 Other Southern States secede. 
 Confederate Congress meets at 
 
 Montgomery, Ala. 
 Confed. Constitution adopted. 
 Davis chosen Confed. President. 
 Anderson moves into Fort Sumter. 
 fStar of the West fired on. 
 
 Michigan. 
 Iowa. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 California. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 Florida. 
 
 5. Minnesota. 
 
 6. Oregon. 
 
 7. Kansas. 
 
 3. Texas. 
 
PERIOD VII. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION- 
 DISUNION 
 
 Lincoln^s Administration, 1861-1865.^ The War of 
 Secession, Events of 1861 
 
 435. Fall of Fort Sumter. The SoutWs JVaming. Shortly 
 after the delivery of Lincoln's inaugural address, in which 
 he had declared that the Federal government would "hold, 
 occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the 
 government," a squadron of ships sailed from New York for 
 Charleston, with orders to strengthen the garrison of Fort 
 Sumter, at the cannon's mouth, if necessary. The Confederate 
 
 1 Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in 1809, in the humblest and 
 plainest walk of life. His father was entirely illiterate, and the son had the 
 advantage of one year's schooling only. Removing with his parents to 
 Indiana, and afterward to Illinois, he aided in splitting the rails for the 
 fencing of the new farm. He was in turn a boatman, clerk, storekeeper, 
 postmaster, and surveyor. By studying borrowed law books, which he pored 
 over at night, he prepared himself for the bar, and was admitted in 183B. He 
 was soon sent to the State Legislature, and in 1846 was elected to Congress, 
 but served only a single term. He came into national prominence in 1858, dur- 
 ing his canvass of the State of Illinois for the senatorship. In the course of 
 his memorable debate with Douglas, Lincoln took strong ground against thy 
 further extension of slavery. His nomination to the presidency was unex- 
 pected, and his election was looked on with distrust by many persons even 
 of his own party. In character Lincoln was honest and sincere ; in disposi- 
 tion, homely, simple, and kind ; hi intellect, shrewd and penetrating. He had 
 in his nature a singular mixture of melancholy and humor which gave 
 uniqueness to his individuality. AVith a patience that was inexhaustible, 
 a sagacity not often at fault, and a firm reliance upon the sympathy and 
 support of what he called the " plain people," he was able to pass with great 
 distinction through a crisis that would have taxed to the utmost the powers 
 of Jackson or Washington. 
 
 261 
 
105 Longitude 100 
 
 2Q2 
 
264 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 commissioners, who were still in Washington, on hearing of 
 the destination of the fleet, wrote Seward, the Secretary of 
 State in Lincoln's Cabinet, that any attempt to reenforce Fort 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 
 
 Sumter would be accepted by the Confederate government as 
 a declaration of war. 
 
 436. General Beauregard (bo're gard) was stationed at 
 Charleston with 6000 men. When Major Anderson refused 
 to evacuate Fort Sumter, Beauregard, following his instruc- 
 
THE WAR OF SECESSION, 1861 
 
 265 
 
 tions, opened fire on the fort, on the morning of April 12, 
 and for thirty-four hours the bombardment was kept up. 
 At the end of that time the garrison surrendered. Not a 
 single person had been killed, though the fort had been bat- 
 tered almost to pieces. In the meanwhile the Federal fleet 
 hove in sight in the offing. The first shot had been fired by 
 the South, but only after a warning that an effort to reenforce 
 Sumter would be taken as a declaration of war. 
 
 Bomoardment of Fort Sumter 
 
 437. Preparations for Hostilities. The First Bloodshed. 
 The fall of Fort Sumter caused overwhelming excitement in 
 the North as well as in the South. On April 15 Lincoln 
 issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 militia. This was 
 the signal to the Southern States which had not yet left 
 the Union — Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee 
 — to pass ordinances of secession. Maryland, the majority of 
 whose citizens were in sympathy wdth the new Confederacy, 
 
266 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 was prevented from going out by the arrest and imprisonment 
 of the leading members of its legislature. Large bodies of Fed- 
 eral troops were soon on their way to Washington. Portions 
 of a Massachusetts and a Pennsylvania regiment, in passing 
 through Baltimore, April 19, were stoned by an angry con- 
 
 Robert E. Lee 
 
 course of citizens. Several men were killed and many were 
 injured. This was the first bloodshed of the war. 
 
 438. Resignations of Southern Officers. As each State 
 passed an ordinance of secession, most of its sons who were in 
 the army and navy of the United States resigned their com- 
 
THE WAR OF SECESSION, 1861 267 
 
 missions. Among the most prominent of the military officers 
 thus to act were Albert Sidney Johnston, a native of Ken- 
 tucky, but now of Texas, Joseph E. Johnston, and Robert E. 
 Lee of Virginia (§§ 396, 413). Lee, who was a son of ''Light 
 Horse Harry" Lee of the Revolution, had been offered the 
 command of the Federal armies in the now impending con- 
 flict.^ These noble-minded men thought that their first 
 allegiance was to their own States, and with a solemn sense 
 of filial obligation they obeyed the call, prepared to risk 
 life, property, everything except honor, in defense of their 
 native soil. 
 
 439. Relative Strength of the Antagonists. The North began 
 the contest not only with an enormous disproportion of popu- 
 lation in her favor, but also with the support of the regular 
 army and navy organized for immediate service. The Northern 
 States contained the greater number of the public arsenals and 
 dockyards. They possessed factories in which all kinds of 
 military supplies could be produced at once. As a recognized 
 nationality, these States also had access to the markets of the 
 world in which to purchase such supplies. The South had 
 followed agriculture, and given no attention to any branch of 
 manufactures. It was so entirely lacking in ships that by 
 the end of 1861 Lincoln had put the whole Southern seacoast 
 in a state of thorough blockade. The cotton of the South 
 could not be exported for the purchase of arms abroad, nor 
 stores imported, except at imminent risk of capture. The 
 Confederacy was forced to erect its own iron works and mills 
 in which to make the military supplies it needed. The one 
 great advantage which the Southern people possessed was that 
 they were fighting directly for their homes and firesides, a fact 
 
 1 Colonel Lee wrote, "With all my devotion to the Union and the feeling 
 of loyalty and dnty as an American citizen, I have not been able to make up 
 my mind to raise my hand against my relatives, my children, my home." 
 
268 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUXIOX 
 
 that always nerves the arm and strengthens the soul to an 
 extraordinary degree of resistance. 
 
 440. Big Bethel. According to the plan of campaign laid 
 down by the Federal government, General Patterson was to 
 advance up the Valley of Virginia; General Butler was to 
 attack the Peninsula; General McClellan, western Virginia. 
 General Butler made the first movement, and on June 10, 
 1861, at Big Bethel, on the road between Yorktown and Hamp- 
 ton, his lieutenant. General Pierce, met a severe check at the 
 
 hands of General ^lagruder. The only Confederate soldier 
 who fell was Henry Wyatt, a North Carolinian, the first sol- 
 dier to perish in battle in the War of Secession. 
 
 441. The operations in western Virginia Avere unfavorable to 
 the Confederate army. The country was inaccessible, and the 
 population hostile to the Confederate cause. Two battles were 
 fought, one at Kich Mountain, July 11 ; the other at Carricks 
 Ford, July 14. Not even the skill of General Robert E. Lee, 
 who was sent in the autumn to reorganize the disheartened 
 troops of the Confederacy, was able to wrest West Virginia 
 
THE WAR OF SECESSION, 1861 
 
 269 
 
 from the Federal forces. Lee himself was repulsed at Cheat 
 Mountain, and Floyd at Carnifex Ferry. The Confederate 
 troops were soon withdrawn. 
 
 442. Battle of Manassas or Bull Run. A ^reat Federal 
 army had been slowly collecting at Washington. Marching 
 into Virginia, 35,000 strong, under General McDowell, with 
 the battle cry, '' On to Richmond," it struck the outposts of the 
 
 Jackson at Bull Run 
 
 Confederate army, under Beauregard, at Bull Run, not far from 
 Manassas. General Johnston, who had been in the Valley of 
 Virginia, arrived on the ground, and took command. With 
 the troops he brought along with him, the Confederates now 
 numbered about 32,000 men. A Federal force rapidly march- 
 ing up Bull Run, crossed the stream, and fiercely attacked 
 (July 21) the Confederates in the flank and in the rear. 
 
270 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 who falling back at first before the fast increasing host of their 
 opponents, at last halted stubbornly, and repelled assault after 
 assault on their position.^ 
 
 443. Defeat of the Federals. As the Federal troops were 
 getting ready for a fifth assault, a force of Confederates, under 
 Early and Kirby Smith, appeared on the field, and at once 
 poured a cross-fire into the advancing foe. Beauregard took 
 advantage of this moment to press forward. In falling back, 
 the Federals exposed their right flank. Charging on this flank 
 as well as in front, the Confederates drove the Federals 
 back in great confusion. The retreat soon became a rout, 
 the rout a panic. The headlong flight did not stop until 
 the Long Bridge at Washington was reached. The loss in 
 killed and missing was about oOOO Federals and 2000 Confed- 
 erates. The Confederates captured a great quantity of artil- 
 lery and military stores of all kinds. 
 
 444. Determination of the North. The Confederates made 
 no effort to follow up this success. Beyond winning in the 
 battle of Balls Bluff, near Leesburg, October 21, in which only 
 detachments of the two armies were engaged, nothing further 
 was accomplished by them in the East during the year. These 
 Confederate victories only strengthened the determination of 
 the Northern people to conquer in the end. Steps were at 
 once taken by the Federal Congress to increase the army to 
 500,000, and to build ironclads and purchase munitions of all 
 kinds. General McClellan was appointed commander in chief 
 
 1 As the Confederates were falling back, General Thomas J. Jackson moved 
 forward to support General Bee. While Jackson was quietly awaiting the 
 approach of the Federals, General Bee rode up to him. " General," he cried 
 oiit, "they are beating us back." "We will not be beaten back " was the 
 calm reply. " We will give them the bayonet." Encouraged by the manner 
 as well as by the words of Jackson, Bee returned at a gallop to his troops. 
 " Look," he exclaimed, " there stands Jackson like a stone wall. Rally on the 
 Virginians." He soon fell mortally wounded. 
 
THE WAR OF [SECESSION, 1861 
 
 271 
 
 in place of General Scott, who was retired on account of old 
 age. 
 
 445. The Confederate Congress showed equal energy in 
 organizing the Confederate resources. It ordered a levy of 
 400,000 troops, issued $200,000,000 in bonds and treasury 
 notes for the carrying on of the war, and gave letters of 
 marque to a number of armed vessels. The Sumter and Nash- 
 ville soon got to sea in spite of the Federal blockade. The 
 little squadron of Commodore Tattnall, however, found it 
 impossible to defend Port Royal and the forts on Hatteras 
 Inlet from the attacks of the Federal fleets and land forces in 
 August. 
 
 446. Events in the West. Cajnpaign in Missouri. Events 
 of great importance had been takiug place in the West. Hav- 
 ing ground for thinking that 
 Missouri would in the end join 
 the Confederacy, Captain Lyon, 
 the Federal officer in command 
 at St. Louis, boldly strengthened 
 the garrison in the arsenal 
 there, took as prisoners a body 
 of State militia stationed at 
 Camp Jackson, and defeated 
 the Confederates at Boonville. 
 A few weeks later he was him- 
 self defeated and killed at Oak 
 Hills or Wilsons Creek (August 
 10). General Sigel (se'gel) had 
 been beaten at Carthage on 
 July 5. Fremont soon con- 
 centrated a large body of Fed- 
 eral troops in the State. This army gradually pressed its 
 opponents back to Springfield. 
 
 sterling Price 
 
 Halleck took charge and 
 
272 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 forced the Confederates as far south as Arkansas, but not until 
 General Sterling Price had won a decisive victory at Lexington. 
 
 /Boonvilli 
 
 O I 
 
 JEFFERSON CITy' 
 
 t»t,ao. 
 
 0< R;£^ — "^^ ^ ^ 
 
 P Bowlin|]p^*lill Springs ~ • 
 
 WAR IN THE WEST, 
 1861-62 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 ^'S S E 
 
 psMurfreesboto' ,' ,. _ . ^ 
 
 Ayr /^' ■'■■^/^'^■Ifl^i 
 
 / ALA B^A^MaT 
 
 Tvllahoma'-(;j,;jt(, 
 Pittsburg Llipdipfl! 
 
 447. Military Line in Kentucky. Kentucky had tried 
 to maintain an attitude of armed neutrality, but this proved 
 
 a failure. Federal detachments 
 soon took possession of the 
 northern part of the State, while 
 the Confederates under General 
 Albert Sidney Johnston estab- 
 lished a military line from border 
 to border, further south. The prin- 
 cipal intrenched points on this line 
 were Columbus, Bowling Green, 
 and Cumberland Gap. Fort Henry 
 and Fort Donelson, in Tennessee, 
 were also strongly fortified. 
 
 448. Mason and Slidell. In 
 order to secure the recognition of 
 the Confederate States abroad, Davis sent James M. Mason to 
 England, and John Slidell' to France. Having run the block- 
 
 Alberl Sidney Johnston 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1862 
 
 273 
 
 ade, they went on board the English steamer Trent. On 
 November 8, the vessel was stopped on the high seas by the 
 Federal Captain Wilkes, of the San Jacinto, the Confederate 
 commissioners were taken off, and carried to the United States, 
 and there imprisoned. As soon as news of the forcible 
 removal of Mason and Slidell reached England, that country 
 demanded their surrender, which was complied with, as the 
 Federal government had too much discretion to involve itself 
 in war with Great Britain at that critical time. 
 
 The War in the West, 1862 
 
 449. Mill Springs and Fort Henry. On January 19 General 
 George H. Thomas^ badly defeated the Confederate army 
 operating, under General 
 Zollicoffer, in eastern Ten- 
 nessee. This was the battle 
 of Mill Springs, and the 
 victory greatly raised the 
 hopes of the Northern people. 
 It was decided to break 
 through the fortified line 
 which General Albert Sidney 
 Johnston had drawn across 
 Kentucky (§ 447) and invade 
 the country southward. Fort 
 Henry, on the Tennessee 
 Eiver, was the first object 
 of attack. A fleet of gun- 
 boats, under Flag Officer Foote, making its way up the stream. 
 
 George H. Thomas 
 
 1 General Thomas, who is thought by many military critics to have been 
 the ablest soldier engaged on the Federal side, was a Virginian by birth. 
 Farragut, the most distinguished Federal naval officer, was a native of 
 Tennessee. 
 
274 UNDER THE COXSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 soon silenced the fort's cannon (February 6). General Tilgh- 
 man, seeing that further resistance was useless, surrendered 
 his force, consisting of less than one hundred men. The 
 Confederate troops stationed in the camp near by retreated 
 to Fort Donelson before General Grant, who designed to 
 make an assault on the fort on the land side, could come 
 up. 
 
 450. Fort Donelson, situated on the Cumberland River, de- 
 fended the water approaches to Nashville, where a vast quantity 
 of military stores had been collected. It was strongly fortified 
 by breastworks and abatis of forest trees. The Confederate 
 troops stationed here were under the command of Generals 
 Floyd, Buckner, and Pillow. By February 14 the fort was com- 
 pletely invested on the land side by General Grant, and on the 
 side of the river by the Federal gunboats. In spite of their 
 success in repelling the assaults of the Federal army on the 
 breastworks and resisting the bombardment of the fleet, the 
 Confederate leaders, thinking their position untenable, decided 
 to cut their way through the Federal forces and retreat to 
 Nashville. At first the attempt to break through promised to 
 be successful, but reenforcements coming up, the Federals 
 drove the Confederates back into the fort. On February 16 
 the Confederate troops, numbering from 10,000 to 14,000, were 
 compelled to surrender.^ In a few days Nashville was evacu- 
 ated, and General A. S. Johnston was forced to abandon his 
 line in Kentucky and fall back to Corinth in Mississippi. 
 
 451. Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. Death of A. S. 
 Johnston. Here Johnston soon formed an army of 40,000 
 men, and though disappointed in receiving reenforcements 
 from General Van Dorn, who on March 7 had been severely 
 
 1 Buckner sent a flag of truce to Grant and requested him to name the 
 conditions of submission. " Unconditional surrender," was the reply, and 
 these terms had to be accepted. 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1862 
 
 275 
 
 checked at Pea Ridge (Elkhorii Tavern) in Arkansas, in 
 the effort to repel the Federal invasion of that State, he 
 determined to go forward and attack General Grant at Pitts- 
 burg Landing, on the Tennessee Eiver, before General Buell 
 could join him. Grant alone had about 37,000 men, which 
 Buell's forces would have swelled to 70,000. On the morning 
 of April 6 Johnston came upon the Federal outposts near 
 
 Battle of Shiloh 
 
 Shiloh Church, and with the suddenness and irresistible 
 w^eight of an avalanche drove the whole Federal army back 
 to the river, where it was cooped up in an area of ground 
 not exceeding four hundred acres. At this moment Johnston 
 was struck in the leg by a ball and soon bled to death. 
 
 452. General Beauregard, the next in command, the hour 
 being late and the Confederate advance having been checked by 
 the fire from the Federal gunboats, ordered that further attack 
 should cease until the next morning. Buell, however, came up 
 
276 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Gustave T. Beauregard 
 
 in the night and the Federal troops, half of whom were fresh 
 
 and who outnumbered the Confederates two to one, gradually 
 
 took possession of the ground from 
 which they had been driven the 
 day before. Beauregard fell back 
 to Tupelo, in Mississippi. The 
 losses of both sides together 
 amounted to 25,000 men. 
 
 453. Island No. lo. The free 
 navigation of the upper Mississippi 
 River by the Federal gunboats was 
 blocked by the Confederate fortifi- 
 cations on Island No. 10.^ During 
 three weeks Flag Officer Foote 
 bombarded these works, but it was 
 not until General Pope threatened 
 
 them in the rear that the garrison, now hemmed in on all sides, 
 
 yielded (April 7). The naviga- 
 tion of the lower Mississippi 
 
 was in the same month thrown 
 
 open by the capture of New 
 
 Orleans (map, p. 263). The 
 
 approaches to that city by 
 
 water were guarded by Forts 
 
 Jackson and St. Philip. Six 
 
 heavy chains, supported on 
 
 hulks, had been stretched across 
 
 the stream to obstruct the 
 
 passage of ships, and they were 
 
 guarded by a Confederate float- 
 ing battery, ram, and thirteen small gunboats. 
 
 1 The islands in the INIississippi River are numbered in order from the mouth 
 of the Ohio River to New Orleans. 
 
 David G. Farragut 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1862 
 
 277 
 
 454. New Orleans. Farragut, with a fleet of over forty 
 vessels, after vainly hurling his shells against the walls of the 
 forts, crashed through the chains and destroying or disabling 
 the little Confederate squadron, made his way to New Orleans 
 (April 25). Forts Jackson and St. Philip were a few days 
 later compelled to surrender by a simultaneous attack on 
 land and water. An army under General Butler promptly 
 took possession of the city. It was not long before Farragut 
 captured Natchez and Bat'on Rouge (roozh), and successfully 
 running by the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Federal fleet 
 operating in the upper Mississippi. 
 
 455. Bragg in Kentucky and Tennessee. JSTorthward March. 
 By June Kentucky and Missouri had both fallen into the 
 hands of the Federals; the 
 greater part of Tennessee had 
 been abandoned ; New Orleans, 
 Nashville, and Memphis had 
 been captured. General Beau- 
 regard was now superseded by 
 General Braxton Bragg, an 
 officer who had won distinction 
 in the Mexican War (§ 395). 
 Extraordinary efforts were 
 made to increase the strength 
 and efficiency of the western 
 army. Bragg having sent 
 Forrest into Tennessee, and 
 Morgan into Kentucky on 
 raids, concentrated a strong force at Chattanooga near where 
 Generals Buell and Thomas were encamped. Dispatching 
 strong reenforcements to General Kirby Smith, which enabled 
 the latter to win a brilliant victory near Richmond, Kentucky, 
 and threaten Cincinnati, Bragg turned northwards with the 
 
 Braxton Bragg 
 
278 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 intention of capturing Louisville, but while he halted by the 
 way, Buell was pressing forward and succeeded in entering that 
 city first. 
 
 456. Perryuille. The Federal force was so formidable in 
 numbers that Bragg decided to retreat southward, with the vast 
 quantity of stores he had collected. His position was rendered 
 less secure by the drawn battle at luka, Mississippi, on Septem- 
 ber 19, and by the severe repulse of Van Dorn and Price in 
 the attack on the fortifications of Corinth in the same State 
 October 4. Buell followed Bragg, and at Perryville (Octo- 
 ber 8) fell in full force on one part of the Confederate army, 
 Polk's corps, which after a brave resistance retreated in the 
 night to Harrodsburg, the station of the main army. Prom 
 this point Bragg retired slowly into eastern Tennessee. Buell 
 was now superseded by Kosecrans, who marched forward 
 against the Confederates. 
 
 457. Murfreeshoro. On December 31 a great battle began 
 at Murfreeshoro on Stone River. By eleven o'clock the Federal 
 right wing was driven from the field. The Federal center, 
 commanded by Thomas and posted on a rocky elevation the 
 slope of which was covered with thickets, was forced back, 
 after a stubborn resistance. In vain, however, the Confeder- 
 ates sought to dislodge the Federal left. In the night it fell 
 back, and the whole Federal army, now reenforced, threw up a 
 new line of defense. On January 2 there was a brush between 
 sections of the two opposing forces, but without important 
 results. A heavy rain having fallen on the 3d, Bragg became 
 apprehensive lest the rise in the waters of Stone River should 
 cut him off from his supplies, and under cover of night with- 
 drew from the battlefield which had been occupied at all points 
 by the Confederates. The moral effect of a victory, however, 
 was on the side of the Federals, as the Confederate troops were 
 again in retreat. 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1862 
 
 279 
 
 The War in the East, 1862 
 
 458. The " Virginia " and the " Monitor." ^ Destruction of 
 Federal Ships. On April 20, 1861, the Federal authorities had 
 abandoned the iN'orfolk Xavy Yard, and in doing so, had scut- 
 tled the forty-gun frigate Merriinac lying there. The Confed- 
 erates having raised her, converted her into an ironclad, and 
 rechristened her the Virginia. On March 8, 1862, under the 
 command of Commo- 
 dore Buchanan, she 
 made her way to New- 
 port News, where the 
 Federal ships the 
 Congress and Cum- 
 berland were an- 
 chored under the pro- 
 tection of the shore 
 batteries. 
 
 Having 
 
 SOUTHEASTERN VIRGINIA 
 1862 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 rammed the Cumber- 
 land and set the Congress on fire, the Virginia withdrew for 
 the night to Norfolk. 
 
 459. A Drawn Battle. The next morning she moved down 
 the Roads, with the intention of destroying the Minnesota 
 which had run aground. Awaiting her was a singular-looking 
 craft, lying low, like a box, in the water, with a revolving turret. 
 This was the Monitor which Ericsson had built in a hundred 
 
 1 As the events of the battle between the Virginia and the Monitor 
 have been much disputed, it is proper to say that the details in the above 
 account were obtained from a monoscraph — one of the most valuable relating 
 to the war — written by Virginius Newton, Esq., of Richmond, Virginia, an 
 officer of the Confederate navy who took part in the fight (March 8) between 
 the Virginia and the wooden vessels, and was a close and attentive witness 
 of the fight between the Virginia and Monitor on the following day 
 (March 9). The monograph is also based upon a careful examination of all 
 the printed authorities. 
 
 HRUCk's U.S. HIST. — 17 
 
280 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 days to grapple with the Virginia. It was commanded by 
 Lieutenant Worden. The two guns it carried were much 
 larger than those of the Confederate ram. The two vessels soon 
 closed in a deadly grapple. The Monitor twice withdrew, 
 once for a period of nearly an hour. At last she drew off 
 into shallow water where the Virginia could not follow. 
 
 The "Virginia" and the "Monitor" 
 
 On the 11th, the Virginia moved down to Fort Monroe, and 
 in vain offered the Monitor and other Federal war vessels 
 stationed there battle in deep water. 
 
 460. The Virginia revolutionized the naval architecture 
 of the world. All the maritime nations began at once to 
 construct men-of-war modeled on the same general principle. 
 In the attempt to remove the Virginia to Richmond when 
 the Confederates evacuated Norfolk, she ran aground and had 
 to be blown up. For a time she had caused widespread alarm 
 in the North, for it was expected that she would not only break 
 
THE WAR 'IN THE EAST, 1862 
 
 281 
 
 up the Federal blockade of the Southern coasts, but also bom- 
 bard Washington and Philadelphia, New York and Boston, 
 and thus destroy millions in property and thousands of lives. 
 
 461. McClellan's Advance up the Peninsula. Yorktoivn. Early 
 in April General jMcClellan, who had determined to attack 
 Richmond by way of the Peninsula between the York and 
 the James rivers, landed at Fort Monroe with about 90,000 
 men. General Magruder had now taken position at York- 
 town. McClellan marched thither, but when, after a month's 
 delay, he made his dispositions to carry the place by storm, 
 the Confederates quietly evacuated it at night and moved 
 slowly off in the direction of Richmond. 
 
 462. Seven Fines or Fair Oaks. McClellan followed. 
 At Williamsburg his advance guard met with a severe check 
 on May 5, but by the end of 
 
 the month the Federal army, 
 135,000 strong, was posted 
 on both banks of the swampy 
 Chickahominy. Fearing lest 
 his communications with 
 McDowell, w4io was stationed 
 at Fredericksburg (map, p. 
 282) for the protection of 
 Washington, should be cut 
 off, McClellan sent Fitz-John 
 Porter forward to Hanover 
 Courthouse. The spring rains 
 having flooded the Chicka- 
 hominy, Johnston, on May 
 31, at Seven Pines and Fair 
 Oaks, hurled his troops against Keyes and Heintzelman on the 
 southern side of the stream, and but for their receiving timely 
 assistance from Sumner, would have destroyed their two corps. 
 
 Joseph E. Johnston 
 
282 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Johnston being wounded, General Eobert E. Lee now took 
 direct command. 
 
 463. Jackson's Valley Campaign. Effect on McClellaivs 
 Position. The failure of the Federal fleet to pass the bat- 
 teries at Drewrys Bluff (map, p. 279) prevented any naval 
 attack on Richmond. On the other hand, the success of Gen- 
 
 
 
 1862-63 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 20 10 CO 80 
 
 eral Jackson's campaign in the Valley of Virginia compelled 
 McClellan to abandon all hoi)e of aid from McDowell's corps. 
 Jackson had been sent to the Valley in order to defend it from 
 invasion, and also to threaten Washington. He succeeded in 
 engaging the attention of a large body of Federal troops who 
 otherwise would have been free to cooperate with McClellan. 
 
 464. Generals Banks and Shields were now in command 
 of the Federal forces in the Valley. Jackson, with half the 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1802 283 
 
 iiuinber of his opponents, attacked the Federals at Kernstown 
 on March 23, but was compelled to draw off as night came on. 
 Posting himself in the Blue Ridge, where his army was soon 
 increased to 15,000 men, he watched, with the keen eye of 
 an eagle, the three Federal armies stationed in the Valley. 
 Swooping down from his eyrie, he strnck Milroy a telling 
 blow at McDowell, and, doubling upon his tracks, defeated 
 Banks at Front Royal (May 23) and at Newtown (May 24), 
 and drove him across the Potomac. Passing between Shields 
 and Fremont, who were moving on opposite sides of the Shen- 
 ando'ah, Jackson, on June 8, overthrew Fremont at Cross 
 Keys, and crossing the river at Port Republic (June 9), fell 
 on Shields and forced him to retreat headlong down the 
 Valley. 
 
 465. General Results. In a period of less than fifty days 
 Jackson's " foot cavalry " had passed over four hundred miles 
 of ground. With an army hardly exceeding 15,000 men he 
 had defeated four separate armies, in the aggregate three 
 times the size of his own ; had captured 35,000 prisoners ; 
 and, finally, had made it unsafe for McDowell to join 
 McClellan. Seventeen days after the battle of Port Re- 
 public, Jackson, by a rapid and secret march, had arrived on 
 the Chickahominy. 
 
 466. Battles on the Chickahominy. Gaines Mill and Cold 
 
 Harbor. Before the arrival of Jackson, General Stuart, at the 
 
 head of 1200 cavalrymen, in order to procure information for 
 
 General Lee, had gone on a raid entirely around the Federal 
 
 army.^ Repelling a Confederate assault at Mechanicsville 
 
 (map, p. 279) on June 26, McClellan fell back to Gaines Mill 
 
 and Cold Harbor. Here, on the 27th, a section of the Fed- 
 
 1 Lieutenant (afterward Colonel) William T. Robins was in command of 
 the advance guard. One sentence from General Stuart's report gives a vivid 
 idea of the quickness of its movements : " On, on dashed Robins, here skirting 
 a field, there leaping a fence or a ditch, and clearing the woods." 
 
284 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 eral army was attacked by nearly all the Confederate forces, 
 and was only saved from total destruction, in attempting 
 to cross the Chickahominy, by the falling of darkness. 
 
 McClellan was now cut oft' 
 from the base of his supplies 
 at the White House on the 
 Pamunkey, and determined 
 to retreat to the James River 
 under cover of his gunboats. 
 467. Malvern Hill. The 
 Confederates followed close 
 in the track of the retreating 
 army. Indecisive battles 
 were fought at White Oak 
 Swamp and at Fraziers 
 Farm. By July 1 the Fed- 
 erals had taken a strongly 
 James E. B. Stuart fortified position at Malvern 
 
 Hill, overlooking James Kiver, their flanks protected by gun- 
 boats. As the Confederates advanced, the entire hill seemed 
 to blaze with a sheet of solid flame. Repeated onsets were 
 made, but the Federal troops held their ground. During the 
 night, however, they retreated to Harrisons Landing. Lee, 
 not deeming it wise to make a further attack, withdrew his 
 soldiers to the vicinity of Richmond. The Confederate army 
 lost, in killed, wounded, and captured, about 20,000 men ; the 
 Federal lost about 16,000 men. McClellan was ordered to 
 withdraw his army to the Potomac, and Lincoln issued a call 
 for 300,000 additional troops. 
 
 468. Lee's Advance Northward. Second Battle of Manas- 
 sas, or Bull Run. General Pope (§ 453) was the next Fed- 
 eral commander to join battle with the Confederates. Issuing 
 a series of rather boastful .proclamations, he began his march 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1862 285 
 
 toward Gordonsville (map, p. 282), but at Manassas, on August 
 29, found himself confronted by Jackson's corps, which had, on 
 August 9, defeated Banks at Cedar Run. Though surrounded 
 by the I'ederals, Jackson held his position stubbornly until 
 nightfall. Longstreet, arriving on the field the next morning, 
 united his forces with Jackson's; the Federals were thrown 
 
 Seven Days' Battles 
 
 into confusion, and soon sought safety in a retreat, which only 
 ended at Washington.^ 
 
 469. Harpers Ferry and Sharpshiirg or AnUetam. Now 
 that Virginia, from the James to the Potomac, was cleared of the 
 Federals, General Lee determined to invade Maryland. Cross- 
 ing into that State, he took position near Frederick (map, p. 282). 
 
 1 In the basty retreat of the Federal army after this battle, two of the 
 ablest Federal officers were killed in an engagement at Chantilly — Generals 
 Stevens and Kearny. The latter had only one arm, and yet, holding the reins 
 of his horse in his teeth, while he brandished his sword with his remaining 
 arm, be would lead in the most headlong charges on the battlefield. 
 
286 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Before the Federal forces, under General McClellan, could come 
 up, he sent Jackson to seize Harpers Ferry. Having captured 
 about 13,000 prisoners, seventy -three cannon, and 30,000 
 muskets (September 15), Jackson hurried back to the main 
 
 body of the Confederate 
 army, which, after an engage- 
 ment at Boonesboro (South 
 Mountain), was now stationed 
 at Sharpsburg, near Antietam 
 (an te'tam) Creek. Here, on 
 September 17, Lee, whose 
 plans had been revealed to 
 his opponent by the finding 
 of a mislaid order, was at- 
 tacked by the Federal forces, 
 now more than double his 
 own. After varying fortune 
 and prodigies of valor on 
 both sides, the armies held their positions during the night; 
 and all the following day remained quiet. During the second 
 night Lee, hearing that heavy Federal reenforcements were 
 coming up, retreated across the Potomac and withdrew to 
 Winchester.^ 
 
 470. Battle of Fredericksburg. The Federal army, now num- 
 bering 115,000 men, crossed into A^irginia early in November, 
 and camped near Warrenton. Here McClellan was superseded 
 by General Burn side, who, a few days later, set his troops in 
 motion toward Fredericksburg. The hills on the north bank of 
 the Eappahannock, opposite that town, were soon thoroughly 
 
 James Longstreet 
 
 1 During the invasion of Maryland, tlie Confederate soldiers suffered almost 
 as much as their Revolutionary fathers. Many were in rags ; many without 
 shoes to protect their feet from the stones ; recalling to the minds of those 
 who saw them the retreat of Washington's tattered army across New Jersey. 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1862 
 
 287 
 
 fortified by the Federals, while the Confederates took position 
 on the hills on the southern bank. On December 13, 90,000 
 Federal soldiers crossed the river on pontoons, and advanced, 
 under the cover of a fog, across the valley to the foot of the 
 Confederate position. The Federal left wing was, after a 
 momentary success, driven back by the Confederate right, and 
 retreated across the plain to the protection of their guns. 
 
 Battle of Fredericksburg 
 
 The Federal right wing advanced, only to reel back in confu- 
 sion before the terrible fire of the Confederate left. The 
 Federal reserve now marched bravely forward, only to meet 
 with the same fate. Darkness put an end to the battle. On 
 the night of December 15 Burnside withdrew his troops to the 
 north side of the river. Both armies soon went into winter 
 quarters. 
 
 471. The '* Alabama." The close of 1862 found the whole of 
 the eastern seaboard of the Confederacy brought under a rigid 
 
288 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 blockade. The efficiency of the Federal navy had now been 
 vastly increased, and this was shown in the capture of tlie dif- 
 ferent forts along the coast. 
 Every city immediately on 
 the seaboard, except Charles- 
 ton, Savannah, and Wil- 
 mington, was now in Federal 
 hands. The Confederacy 
 had practically no means of 
 building a navy, but was 
 able to purchase several 
 cruisers abroad. The most 
 celebrated was the Alabama, 
 commanded by Captain 
 Kaphael Semmes, of Mary- 
 land. Her ravages extended 
 from the Atlantic to the 
 Indian Ocean. The Florida, 
 also, though at first a merchantman, had under Captain Maffett 
 been very successful in destroying Northern vessels. 
 
 The War in the East and on the Coast, 1863 
 
 472. Emancipation Proclamation. On September 22, 1862, 
 after General Lee had withdrawn his army from Maryland, 
 Lincoln issued a proclamation, warning the people of the Con- 
 federate States that, unless they returned to their allegiance to 
 the Federal government before January 1, 1863, he would 
 declare all their slaves to be free. No notice was taken of this 
 threat, and at the date named the final proclamation appeared. 
 This was a heavy blo^^' to the interests of the South. The 
 Confederate authorities had been hoping that France and 
 England would recognize the independence of the Confederate 
 States. After the proclamation, such a step would have 
 
 Raphael Semmes 
 
THE WAR IX THE EAST AND ON THE COAST, 1803 289 
 
 appeared to the people of England like casting their influence 
 against the abolition of slavery, an institution with which they 
 had no sympath}^ The French government would not take 
 action without the cooperation of the English. 
 
 473. Galveston and Charleston. Early in the year General 
 Magruder, the Confederate commander in Texas, planted bat- 
 teries on the shore opposite Galveston, which was occupied by 
 the Federals. Under the protection of these batteries two 
 river steam packets, lined on each side with cotton bales, and 
 manned by Texan cavalrymen, swept boldly down on the Fed- 
 eral gunboats. One of the latter was captured and another 
 blown up ; the remainder got away. The garrison of the city 
 surrendered January 1. The attempt of the Federal admiral, 
 Dupont, to seize Charleston, again under the command of Gen- 
 eral Beauregard, was unsuccessful. After a terrific bombard- 
 ment of Fort Sumter the fleet was forced to fall back to sea, 
 having lost one of its finest vessels. The subsequent efforts of 
 General Gillmore to capture Charleston also proved in vain. 
 
 474. Battle of Chancellorsville. Hooker Crosses the Rap- 
 pahannoch. After the battle of Fredericksburg Burnside had 
 been superseded by General Hooker, known as "Fighting Joe." 
 In the early spring Hooker's army of 120,000 infantry and 
 12,000 cavalry -crossed the Kappahannock in detachments, 
 both above and below Fredericksburg, in order to attack 
 at one and the same time the Confederate forces from two 
 opposite points of the compass. Lee, owing to the absence of 
 Longstreet, had only 57,000 troops to oppose this host. On 
 April 30 Hooker, who had passed the Rappahannock above 
 Fredericksburg, took position at Chancellorsville, in a country 
 of almost impenetrable thickets. Lee decided to strike this 
 part of the Federal army before Sedgwick, w^ho had crossed 
 below Fredericksburg, could come to its assistance. Jackson 
 was sent (May 2) by a circuitous route of fifteen miles, through 
 
290 
 
 UNDER TH.E CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 the underbrush, to double up the Federal extreme right. ^ In the 
 moment of victory, having gone forward to reconnoiter, he fell 
 wounded by a volley which his own soldiers had lired by mis- 
 take. His troops, uniting with those of Lee, drove the Federals 
 back to the junction of the Kapidan and Rappahannock rivers, 
 
 where they were penned up 
 in a dangerous corner. 
 
 475. Sedgwick Checked. 
 Lee was preparing for the 
 last spring when informed 
 of Sedgwick's approach in 
 the rear. Turning on the 
 latter (May 3) with a part 
 of his forces, he compelled 
 him to retreat in haste across 
 the Rappahannock. Hooker, 
 before he could be attacked 
 again, made good his escape 
 by the upper fords. The 
 losses in killed, wounded, 
 and missing on both sides equaled about 30,000 men. On May 
 10 General Jackson died, murmuring, doubtless with memories 
 of the Shenandoah Valley, which he had made forever famous, 
 flitting through his delirious brain : " Let us cross over the 
 river and rest under the shade of the trees." 
 
 476. The Gettysburg Campaign. Invasion of Fennsyl- 
 vania. The hour now seemed favorable for one supreme mili- 
 tary effort, with which Southern independence might be won. 
 The Confederate government decided to invade the North, in 
 
 ' Stonewall " Jackson 
 
 1 As Jackson marched with extraordinary speed through the undergrowth, 
 sending the deer and other wild animals scurrying before him, the Federals 
 caught glimpses from time to time of his columns, but without alarm, as they 
 thought it was only the Confederate line in retreat. 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST AND ON THE COAST, 18G3 291 
 
 the hope that a victory gained on that ground would cause the 
 European powers to recognize the nationality of the Confeder- 
 ate States. Lee, dividing his army into three corps, under the 
 command respectively of Longstreet, Hill, and Ewell, marched 
 straight toward the Valley, and on June 26 crossed the 
 Potomac at Williamsport (map, p. 282). On the way Stuart 
 had defeated Fleasonton at Brandy Station in a great cavahy 
 fight, and Ewell had defeated 
 Milroy, at Winchester. The 
 North was greatly alarmed; 
 Lincoln issued a call for 
 120,000 additional men; 
 Hooker hurried forward with 
 the Federal army toward 
 Frederick. Here he was 
 superseded by General Meade. 
 477. First Dai/s Battle. 
 General Lee ordered his dif- 
 ferent corps to concentrate 
 in the vicinity of Gettysburg, 
 Pennsylvania,^ a town sit- 
 uated in a country crossed 
 by a series of ridges. Here on July 1 a part of General Hill's 
 corps, owing to the absence of the Confederate cavalry on a 
 raid, came unexpectedly into collision with a body of Federal 
 cavalry under General Buford. The main body of the Federal 
 army was stationed many miles away. Reynolds marched up 
 to Buford's assistance with the first Federal corps, and Howard 
 with the eleventh; but the Confederates, having been reen- 
 
 George G. Meade 
 
 1 On entering Pennsylvania, General Lee issued a proclamation warning his 
 soldiers against committing personal outrage of any kind or destroying pri- 
 vate property. " It must be remembered," he declared, " that we make war 
 only on armed men." This order was strictly observed. 
 
292 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 forced, drove the Federal troo^JS back into Gettysburg. General 
 Reynolds was killed. The Federals now retreated to Cemetery 
 Ridge, just south of the village. 
 
 478. Second Day's Battle. By four o'clock next day all 
 of the Federal corps had come up, and posted themselves 
 along the crest of the southern ridges, in an area occupying 
 barely three square miles, protected by ledges of rock, stone 
 
 Third Day of Battle of Gettysburg 
 
 walls, and earthworks. The Confederate line ran along Semi- 
 nary Ridge, separated by a plain from the position of the Federal 
 army. The battle did not begin until the afternoon. Longstreet, 
 on the right, drove the Federals in front of him back to their 
 main defenses ; Ewell, on the left, seized but could not hold 
 Cemetery Ridge. When night fell, Meade had been forced to 
 concentrate his entire strength on the crest of the hills. 
 
 479. Third Day's Battle. The battle of the third day 
 began at one o'clock in the afternoon with the roar of one 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1863 293 
 
 hundred and fift}^ Confederate guns, pointed straight at Ceme- 
 tery Hill. The Federal artillery replied, and for the space of 
 one hour the terrible cannonade was kept up. At the end 
 of that time, Pickett's division and Pettigrew's brigades, in 
 order to capture Cemetery Hill, advanced across the plain 
 in the midst of the most galling Federal fire. Pettigrew's 
 brigades in vain threw themselves on a stone wall in their 
 way. The artillery and mifsketry of the Federal army were 
 soon concentrated on Pickett's division, which rushed up the 
 slope and planted their battle flags on the crest of the ridge ; 
 no reenforcements came to their aid ; Generals Garnett, Armi- 
 stead, Barksdale, and Kemper had been killed or disabled ; 
 without officers to command them, with half of their own 
 number fallen, they were forced to retire from the heights 
 they had momentarily won. 
 
 480. Lee Retreats. This repulse closed the battle. The 
 killed, wounded, or missing, nearly equally divided between 
 the two sides, amounted in all to 44,000 men.^ Lee maintained 
 his position for a day, ready to repel an assault, should one 
 be made. On the night of July 4 he withdrew his army from 
 Gettysburg, and shortly thereafter crossed the Potomac. The 
 Federals had slowly followed, but had not seriously harassed 
 his march. By the autumn Lee had drawn his forces back 
 to the Rapidan. Without joining in any further serious en- 
 gagements, the two opposing armies soon went into winter 
 quarters. 
 
 The War in the West, 1863 
 
 481. Vicksburg. Value of the City to the South. The 
 failure of the Gettysburg campaign was a terrible blow to the 
 fortunes of the Confederacy in the East, not only by checking 
 
 1 On the Federal side four general officers had been killed, thirteen 
 wounded, including Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon. 
 
294 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 all further invasions of the North, but also by destroying all 
 hope of foreign recognition. The fall of Vicksburg was an 
 equally serious blow in the southwest. Vicksburg was of great 
 importance to the Confederates as enabling them to pass with- 
 out molestation from the trans-Mississix^pi Department to the 
 east bank of the river, and the reverse. Great stores of pro- 
 visions from that Department were transported by way of the 
 city, to supply the Confederate armies. General Grant de- 
 termined, if possible, to capture it.^ He first tried to secure 
 an artificial water way around the city for his gunboats and 
 transports by the digging of two canals ; he then tried to 
 make Vicksburg an inland town by diverting the Mississippi 
 from its channel. Both attempts failed. 
 
 482. The Siege. In April, Grant marched down the west 
 bank of the Mississippi, and crossing below Vicksburg, moved 
 
 toward Jackson. GeneralJoseph 
 
 E.Johnston was now in command 
 of the Confederate forces in 
 Mississippi, and he ordered 
 General Pemberton, who was 
 stationed between Grant and 
 Vicksburg, to unite with him 
 near Clinton. Pemberton dis- 
 obeyed the order, and being 
 defeated twice (Champion Hills 
 and Big Black River, May 16, 17), retired behind the for- 
 tifications of Vicksburg. Being ordered to abandon that post, 
 he again disobeyed, and in a few days the Federal army had 
 
 Vicinity of Vicksburg 
 
 1 Grant had collected at Holly Springs, Mississippi, supplies valued at sev- 
 eral million dollars. On December 29 (1862), Van Dorn, who was making a 
 raid in Grant's rear, struck Holly Springs, captured two thousand prisoners, 
 and destroyed the military stores. At Chickasaw Bayou, near the mouth 
 of the Yazoo River, General Sherman was repulsed by General Stephen D. 
 Lee, with a loss of several thousand men. 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1863 
 
 295 
 
 completely invested the city. A continuous rain of shot and 
 shell fell upon the roofs and in the streets of the heroic town, 
 and many of the families were forced to find refuge in caves 
 dug in the side of the bluff. The besieged were at last 
 reduced to slender rations of mule meat. On July 4 Vicks- 
 burg surrendered, delivering into the hands of the Federals 
 31,000 prisoners and immense stores of arms and ammunition.^ 
 
 Siege of Vicksburg 
 
 Port Hudson was captured a few days later (July 9). The 
 Federals now controlled the Mississippi River from its source 
 to its mouth, and the Confederacy w^as thus cut in two. 
 
 483. Battles around Chattanooga. Chichamauga. After 
 the battle of Murfreesboro, Bragg had retired to Tullahoma 
 (map, p. 302). In June Rosecrans, at the head of 60,000 men, 
 began to march southeastward, with the design of cutting the 
 
 1 At Vicksburg, as at Appomattox later on, General Grant showed charac- 
 teristic delicacy and generosity in his respect for the feelings of the prisoners. 
 
 BRUCE'S U.S. HIST. — 18 
 
296 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Confederate communications with G-eorgia and the Eastern 
 States. Bragg, with 50,000 troops, fell back to Chattanooga, 
 and on the approach of Rosecrans, took post in the Chicka- 
 mauga Valley, not far away, in order to protect the railway 
 running through that valley into Georgia. Here he was re- 
 enforced by 11,000 troops from Virginia, under the command 
 of Longstreet. On September 19 the fighting began, and 
 
 when darkness fell, Bragg 
 had failed to thrust his 
 forces between the Federals 
 and Chattanooga. The next 
 day Longstreet pressed 
 boldly between the Federal 
 right and center, and drove 
 that part of the Federal 
 army back in great confu- 
 sion toward Chattanooga. 
 The Federal left, under 
 General Thomas, which 
 stood like a rock, continued 
 to hold its ground until 
 night came on, and then retreated in good order, in the same 
 direction. After this, Thomas was always known as the 
 " Eock of Chickamauga." 
 
 484. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Rose- 
 crans was soon superseded by Thomas, and reenforcements 
 under Hooker and Sherman were hurried forward to Chatta- 
 nooga. By November 15 a large body of Federal troops 
 had been concentrated in that town, under the supreme com- 
 mand of General Grant. At this critical moment Davis gave 
 orders that Longstreet should march into eastern Tennessee 
 with 15,000 infantry and Wheeler's cavalry, and drive Gen- 
 eral Burnside out of that region. General Grant promptly 
 
 SCALE OF MILES? 
 
 Chattanooga and Vicinity 
 
THE AVAR IN THE WEST, 1863 
 
 297 
 
 took advantage of the withdrawal of this large body of 
 men to strike a blow at the remaining Confederate army. 
 On November 24 his lieutenant, Hooker, fought his way 
 around the north end of Lookout Mountain,^ whereupon the 
 Confederates defending it retreated to Missionary Kidge. 
 Sherman seized the north 
 end of the Eidge (Novem- 
 ber 25), and as the Con- 
 federates sought to drive 
 him off, Thomas's troops, 
 which were stationed in the 
 valley below, boldly moved 
 up the mountain side, and 
 attacking the Confederate 
 center, compelled the entire 
 Confederate army to retire 
 precipitately from the 
 ground. It finally fell back 
 to Dalton in Georgia, where 
 General Johnston took 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 
 
 command. Sherman, in the meanwhile, had gone to Burnside's 
 relief at Knoxville in east Tennessee. Yielding- before an 
 overwhelming force, Longstreet retreated into Virginia. 
 
 485. Federal Financial Measures. Greenbacks. The Federal 
 government had recourse to various means to meet the enor- 
 mous expense of carrying on the war. It first issued a great 
 volume of paper money, which could be used in the payment 
 of all debts. These notes, known as " greenbacks," had nothing 
 to make them good except the credit of the government, and 
 as this credit, in the beginning, declined, owing to military 
 reverses, it took at one time |2.80 in paper money to equal 
 $1 in gold. 
 
 1 This was the " Battle above the Clouds." 
 
298 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 486. Jfational Banhs. The government's next step was to 
 pass a National Bank Act, providing for the organization of 
 new banks by the investment of capital in United Statea 
 bonds. The Treasury thus secured new purchasers for it? 
 securities, when these had to be sold in order to obtain money 
 for supplying the army. The national banks had the right to 
 issue paper notes, which were made good by the government's 
 guarantee. A system of internal taxation, reaching nearly 
 every branch of business, further increased the volume of 
 funds at the disposal of the Federal government. 
 
 487. Condition at the South. The South' s Frivations. In 
 spite of taxes, and the drain of men for the armies, the North 
 rapidly grew in national wealth. It was just the opposite with 
 the South. Swarms of soldiers, passing in every direction, 
 had laid waste the country. The very necessities of life grew 
 scarce. A large number of manufactured articles of the 
 simplest kind could not be procured at all. All the clothing 
 was made in the household. The Confederate currency fell 
 steadily in purchasing power, until it required a very large 
 sum on its face value to buy the cheapest article for sale. 
 
 488. Treatment of Prisoners. Having to endure all sorts of 
 deprivations themselves, the Southern people naturally lacked 
 the means to ease the condition of their prisoners of war. At 
 the North, there were sanitary commissions to watch over the 
 health of the soldiers in camp; and there were hospitals, 
 where every appliance of medical science, and every comfort 
 that money could purchase, were found to soothe the pains of 
 the Federal wounded. The Confederate wounded, on the other 
 hand, had little to satisfy their needs beyond what the minis- 
 trations of skillful physicians and loving nurses could give. 
 
 489. Even when well and in active service the Confederate 
 troops had food and clothing only of the simplest kind. The 
 captive could hardly expect to fare better than his captor. 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1864 299 
 
 After the summer of 1863 the Federal government rarely 
 consented to an exchange, and at the very time the Con- 
 federacy was the least able to make the condition of its 
 prisoners one of tolerable comfort, not only did the number 
 increase, but also the means of caring for them properly 
 steadily diminished. 
 
 490. West Virginia and Nevada. From the beginning of the 
 war all that part of the Old Dominion lying west of the 
 Alleghanies had practically been under Federal control. Lin- 
 coln recognized these counties as forming Virginia, the dele- 
 gates they sent to Wheeling, as the State legislature, and 
 Francis H. Pierpont, as governor. Claiming to act for the 
 entire State, these counties chose senators and representatives, 
 who took seats in the Federal Congress. In 1863 this part 
 of Virginia was admitted to the Union as the State of West 
 Virginia, the thirty-hfth State.^ Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, 
 was admitted in 1861. It" was carved out of territory acquired 
 by the war with Mexico. It derived its name from the jSTevada 
 Mountains, the word signifying "snow-covered." Its first 
 settlement was due to the discovery of silver mines. 
 
 The War in the West, 1864 
 
 491. At the beginning of 1864 the country west of the Mis- 
 sissippi River was entirely cut off from the Confederacy. Vir- 
 ginia was in the hands of the Federals as far as the Rapidan, 
 while the whole of Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee had 
 
 1 From the Southern point of view, the creation of West Virginia as a new 
 State, without the consent of Virginia, was unconstitutional, as it was in 
 defiance of the provision of the national Constitution that a State should not 
 be divided without its consent. From the Northern point of view, this con- 
 sent was given by the Pierpont legislature at Wheeling, which was accepted 
 as the " reconstructed " government of Virginia. West Virginia had its birth 
 in the violence of the times, and also in the difference of interest which had 
 long separated it, in every way but politically, from eastern Virginia. 
 
300 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 WAR IN THE '"^c^i 
 SOUTHWEST, ^^p 
 __., 1864 ^ 
 
 been overrun. Alabama, South and North Carolina, and 
 Texas alone were free from the presence of large bodies of 
 Federal troops. The whole line of seacoast, however, was still 
 under a close and vigilant blockade. And yet, in spite of all 
 this, the people and the government of the Confederate States 
 were as resolute as ever in fighting for their independence. 
 
 492. Federal and Confederate Armies. On March 2 Grant 
 was appointed lieutenant general of all the armies of the 
 United States. He made his headquarters with the Army of 
 
 the Potomac, which numbered 
 118,000 effective men and 
 was opposed by the Army of 
 Northern Virginia, under Lee, 
 which did not exceed 61,000. 
 Sherman was placed at the 
 head of the Federal forces in 
 the West, with immediate 
 command of the army at Chat- 
 tanooga, which numbered 
 100,000 and was opposed by 
 the Confederate army of about 
 50,000, under J. E. Johnston.^ 
 493. In the Southwest. 
 Olustee and Fort Pilloiv. 
 In Florida, at Olustee, on Feb- 
 ruary 20, the Confederates won a decisive victory; but in 
 Alabama, General Polk was forced to retreat toward Mobile 
 by General Sherman, who had been engaged in ravaging the 
 
 alveston G U r ^ A^ 
 
 SCALtOF M ILES -^ P ,, 
 
 i Since the beginning of the year but one military event of importance had 
 taken place. This was the raid of General Kilpatrick, at the head of 4000 
 cavalrymen, in the hope of destroying General Lee's railroad communications 
 with Richmond, and setting free the Federal prisoners hi that city. A col- 
 umn, headed by Colonel Ulrich Dahlgren, reached the neighborhood of the 
 city, but was there driven off, after the fall of its leader. 
 
THE WAR IN THE WEST, 1864 301 
 
 country around Meridian, Mississippi. At Okolona (map, p. 
 300) General Forrest came suddenly upon General W. S. Smith, 
 a lieutenant of Sherman's, and drove him back, with heavy 
 loss, toward Memphis. Following in his track, Forrest laid 
 siege to Fort Pillow on the Mississippi, occupied chiefly by a 
 large body of negro troops, and, on April 12, compelled the 
 garrison, after a terrible slaughter, to take refuge in the Federal 
 gunboats in the river. 
 
 494. General Banks. In the spring of 1864 General 
 Banks, who was in command at New Orleans, led an army 
 against northern Louisiana and Texas. General Eichard Tay- 
 lor was at the head of the Confederate forces in the former 
 State. Marching overland toward Shreveport, Banks, having 
 captured Fort de Russy, came upon Taylor, stationed near 
 Mansfield. Taylor boldly attacked him (April 8) and drove 
 him back to Pleasant Hill. The Federals made a stand here 
 (April 9), but soon retreated to New Orleans, after a heavy 
 loss. The water in the Red River fell at this time, and Admi- 
 ral Porter, who had transported Banks's army up the river, in 
 withdrawing his gunboats, was compelled to make a dam at one 
 place to impound enough water to float them down the stream. 
 
 495. Steele and Price. The Federals were now in pos- 
 session of Little Rock, Arkansas, but in a battle with the 
 Confederate army at Jenkins Ferry (April 30) General Steele 
 met with a severe repulse. In the following September the 
 Confederate General Price marched as far into Missouri as 
 Pilot Knob, but, his force having been greatly weakened, he 
 was attacked and defeated. Retreating into Kansas, he was 
 defeated a second time, and then withdrew into Arkansas. 
 
 496. Defense and Fall of Atlanta. Johnston and Sherman. 
 On May 4, the day on which the Army of the Potomac began 
 its campaign in Virginia, the Federal army of the West, under 
 Sherman, set out from Chattanooga, in order to assail the Con- 
 
302 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 federate troops, under Johnston, stationed at Dalton, Georgia 
 (§ 484). By threatening the Confederate flank at the very 
 time he also threatened the front, Sherman compelled his 
 opponent to fall back from position to position until the whole 
 length of country between Eesaca and the Etowah Eiver had 
 been passed over. Having checked the Federals at Eesaca 
 and New Hope Church, and also at Kenesaw Mountain, Johns- 
 ton took his stand on Peach Tree Creek, not far north of 
 Atlanta. In a skirmish during the retreat he had lost General 
 Polk, one of the bravest of his lieutenants. 
 
 497. General Hood. There was a general cry in the Con- 
 federacy for more aggressive tactics ; and Johnston was super- 
 seded by General Hood, who had the reputation of being a 
 
 bold fighter. By July 20 
 / DEFENSE the Confederates had with- 
 
 OF ATLANTA , . . 
 
 drawn into mtrenchments 
 in the immediate vicinity 
 of Atlanta, On that day 
 a sharp attack was made 
 on the Federal lines, and 
 also on the 22d and 28th ; 
 but in each case, after 
 temporary success, the 
 Confederate troops had to 
 fall back to the shelter 
 of their fortifications. In 
 the second assault General McPherson, a brave and able 
 Federal officer, was killed. General Wheeler, at the head of 
 the Confederate cavalry, made several successful raids, in the 
 course of which he, for a time, cut the Federal army off from 
 the base of its supplies. Sherman now concentrated his army 
 on the southern and western sides of the city, and thus blocked 
 the main line of Confederate supplies. On September 1 Hood 
 
THE WAli IN THE WEST, 1864 303 
 
 was forced to evacuate Atlanta, which was the principal seat 
 in the South for the manufacture of military stores ; and its 
 fall, for that reason, struck a terrible blow at the already 
 declining fortunes of the Confederacy. 
 
 498. Mobile Bay and Fort Fisher. The fall of Atlanta was 
 rendered the more fatal by the fact that Mobile (mo beel') 
 Bay ^ had already been captured by Farragut, thus cutting off 
 all prospect of securing supplies in that direction through 
 Confederate blockade runners. Wilmington, North Carolina, 
 still remained open. The entrance to its water way was de- 
 fended by Fort Fisher. In December this fort successfully 
 resisted an attempt by a large Federal fleet to reduce it. A 
 huge ship torpedo, charged with two hundred and flfty tons of 
 gunpowder, was exploded under its walls without effect. 
 
 499. Hood in Tennessee. On abandoning Atlanta, Hood moved 
 northward, in the hope of drawiug Sherman away from Georgia, 
 the granary of the Confederacy. After a detour to Gadsden, 
 Alabama, he entered Tennessee. In the meanwhile Forrest 
 had been raiding as far as Mississippi — had set on Are Federal 
 gunboats and transports, had destroyed vast quantities of sup- 
 plies, and defeated large bodies of Federal troops. Advanc- 
 ing through Tennessee, Hood encountered General Schofield at 
 Franklin, and compelled him to retreat, but only after the Fed- 
 erals had inflicted terrible losses on the Confederate ranks, in- 
 
 ' eluding five general officers, among them the brilliant Cleburne. 
 At Nashville Hood, on December 15, came into conflict with 
 the Federal forces stationed there, under General Thomas. On 
 the second day of the battle the whole Confederate army was 
 driven back in the utmost confusion, and it kept up its rapid 
 retreat as far as Bridgeport. The vigilance of Forrest and 
 
 1 The city of Mobile, wliich was gallantly defended by General Dabuey H. 
 Maury, was not evacuated by the Confederates until three days after General 
 Lee surrendered at Appomattox. 
 
304 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Stephen D. Lee alone saved it from destruction. This defeat 
 was a fatal blow to the Confederacy in the West and South- 
 west. 
 
 500. Sherman's March to the Sea. On November 15 the army 
 under General Sherman started from Atlanta on its march to 
 the sea. Leaving the base of his supplies behind, Sherman 
 determined to live chiefly on the country through which he 
 passed. Stretching oat his troops, 60,000 strong, in a line 
 
 Painting by F. O. C. Darley 
 
 Sherman's March to the Sea 
 
 forty miles in length, he swept along like some terrible 
 force of nature which recks not of the destruction it causes. 
 He estimated the damage he inflicted at ^100,000,000. Gen- 
 eral Kilpatrick, the commander of the Federal cavalry, de- 
 clared that the only evidences of former habitations left in the 
 Federal track were the blackened brick chimneys of the resi- 
 dences which had been burned. One month after leaving 
 Atlanta Sherman arrived in the neighborhood of Savannah. 
 On the night of December 20 General Hardee, the Confederate 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1864 305 
 
 officer in command, aware that his force was not sufficient for 
 the defense of the city, withdrew, and Sherman marched in on 
 December 21. 
 
 The War in the East, 1864 
 
 501. The Wilderness. On May 4 Grant crossed the Kapi- 
 dan with his army. Tlie next day the terrible conflict between 
 the two armies began in a country so covered with thickets 
 that it was known, locally, as the "Wilderness." It was a 
 hand to hand light between men moving on foot through the 
 bush. In the battles of the 5th and 6th, which ended in the 
 failure of the Federal assaults, Lee inflicted a loss of over 
 17,000 men on the Federal army, while his own loss did not 
 exceed half that number. The thickets in which the con- 
 flict went on took fire, adding to the horrors of the scene. 
 Grant, on the night of the 7th, set his trooi:>s in motion eastward, 
 in order to turn his opponent's right flank. The next day, at 
 Spottsylvania Courthouse, the fighting began again. It was not 
 until the 12th that the Federals gained an advantage ; they then 
 succeeded in capturing a salient point in the line of the Con- 
 federate intrenchments. As they poured in, they were received 
 with a terrific fire from the brigades under the command of 
 General Gordon, and were finally driven back to what came 
 to be known as the " Bloody Angle." Here the ground was 
 soon heaped with corpses, and the very trees were cut down 
 by the volleys of bullets. 
 
 502. Battle of Cold Harbor. Grant having found it impossible 
 to. break through, after repeated assaults, resumed the march 
 eastward. At Cold Harbor the Federal army again saw 
 itself confronted by Lee, with a much smaller force. On 
 June 3 the Federals, in lines six miles in length, came on 
 to carry the Confederate breastworks, but so terrible were 
 the volleys poured into their ranks that they fell back in 
 
306 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 great confusion, after losing, in a few minutes, 13,000 of 
 their number. 
 
 503. The Terrible Losses. Out of a total of 192,000 Federal 
 soldiers 55,000 had been killed or disabled since Grant took 
 command. The Confederate army out of a total of 78,000 had 
 lost 20,000 men. But the Federals could better afford to lose 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1864 307 
 
 100,000 men than the Confederates 10,000. The Federal 
 resources in troops were practically boundless; the Con- 
 federate were already exhausted. There is in history no 
 record of greater valor and fortitude, in the face of fright- 
 ful odds, than the Confederate soldiers had displayed in this 
 campaign. 
 
 504. Around Richmond and in the Valley. Death of Stuart, 
 Early in May Sheridan, at the head of a large body of cavalry, 
 had marched southward in order to cut Lee's line of communi- 
 cation with Kichmond. Stuart set out in pursuit ; and at Yel- 
 low Tavern the two opposing forces met. The Confederate 
 leader was mortally wounded. Sheridan was checked, and only 
 succeeded in joining Grant by making a long and roundabout 
 march. In the meanwhile General Butler, who had landed at 
 the mouth of the Appomattox Kiver in order to break the 
 Confederate communications south of Petersburg, had at- 
 tempted to seize Drewrys Bluff, which guarded the approach 
 to Richmond by water. Beauregard stopped the advance of 
 the Federal troops, and in the end drove them back to the 
 shelter of their gunboats. 
 
 505. Sigel and Hunter. General Sigel had been sent to 
 the Valley of Virginia to prevent General Lee from drawing 
 supplies from that region. At New Market he encountered 
 a Confederate force, under General Breckinridge, and was 
 badly repulsed (May 15). A battalion of cadets from the Vir- 
 ginia Military Listitute at Lexington i — a seat of learning 
 which had furnished many distinguished officers to the Con- 
 federacy — were among the soldiers engaged in this battle. 
 They fought with the bravery and steadiness of veterans. 
 General Hunter superseded Sigel and began a systematic 
 devastation of the valley by burning bridges, residences, farm- 
 
 1 The buildings of the Institute were later on burned by the Federal 
 General Hunter. 
 
308 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 houses, trampling down the crops, carrying off the live stock, 
 and tearing up the railroads. Sheridan attempted to form a 
 junction with Hunter, but was so badly defeated by General 
 Hampton at Trevilian Station that he was diverted from his 
 purpose. In the interval Hunter had retreated hastily into 
 West Virginia, pursued by the Confederates. 
 
 Cadets at New Market 
 
 506. Siege of Petersburg. Grant crosses the James. On 
 
 June 14 General Grant, finding it impossible to break through 
 the Confederate army and capture Richmond from the north, 
 moved across the James River, in order to assail Petersburg, 
 and thus cut the capital off from its southern connections. 
 Beauregard, at the head of only 2200 men, was now in com- 
 mand of that city, and successfully resisted the attacks upon 
 his breastworks of the van of the Federal army, numbering 
 18,000 men. By June 18 the bulk of the Confederate forces 
 under Lee had come to his assistance. The repeated assaults 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1864 309 
 
 of the Federals under Hancock and Burnside having been 
 repelled, Grant determined to extend his earthworks southward 
 and then westward, and thus hem Lee in with impregnable 
 lines of fortification. 
 
 507. The superioj^ity in resources of men, provisions, 
 arms, and military stores which Grant enjoyed was now greater 
 than ever before. There was no danger that the communica- 
 tions of his troops would be cut. Wherever he took a position 
 a telegraph line was immediately erected for the instant con- 
 veyance of every order to the remotest sections of the Federal 
 armies and fleets, and of every demand for aid to the govern- 
 ment at Washington. 
 
 The situation of Lee was melancholy in comparison. He 
 had both Richmond and Petersburg to defend on a line thirty- 
 five miles in length. The steady narrowing of the area of 
 country under the control of the Confederacy had rapidly 
 diminished the number of conscripts, the only means of renew- 
 ing the strength of his forces, while so scant was the supply 
 of food, owing to the same cause, that four pounds of flour and 
 one pound of meat formed the daily rations of four soldiers. 
 The clothing worn by the troops had been so long used, that it 
 seemed difficult for it to do further service, and yet there was 
 little to be j^rocured to replace it. In spite of these defi- 
 ciencies the moral tone of the Confederate army was as firm 
 as if the prospect of success was assured. Nothing short of 
 annihilation could destroy the spirit of that wonderful 
 organization. 
 
 508. Federals Cheched. - On June 22, as the troops of the 
 Federal left were in the act of spreading out to occupy a new 
 position, a Confederate force, under General Mahone, fell sud- 
 denly and unexpectedly on them, carried a part of their in- 
 trenchments, and only drew oif as night came on. A large 
 body of Federal cavalry, commanded by General Wilson, 
 
310 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 which had been making a destructive raid through Southside^ 
 Virginia, were defeated at Keanis Station, on the Weldon 
 Railroad, and driven back to the main Federal army with 
 heavy loss. 
 
 509. Mine Exploded. Despairing of breaking through 
 the Confederate intrenchments by an ordinary assault, Grant 
 dug a mine under them at a selected angle. The mine 
 was exploded (July 30), throwing huge masses of earth 
 high up in air. A strong force of Federal troops marched 
 up to pass through the breach, but the Confederates at 
 once opened such a terrific fire on the advancing columns 
 that they were compelled to seek refuge in the yawning 
 chasm. A large body of negro soldiers who followed, were 
 driven to the same course. Reenforcements were rushed 
 forward, which resulted in the seizure of a part of the 
 Confederate lines, but the Federals were soon pressed back. 
 The corpses were now piled up in the crater. A white flag 
 was raised above its rim, and all who were alive surren- 
 dered. The Federals had lost 4000 men; the Confederates 
 about 400. 
 
 510. Early's Valley Campaign. Monocacy and Kernstown. 
 With a view of drawing off a part of the Federal forces around 
 
 Petersburg, General Early was ordered by 
 Lee to march down the Valley, cross the 
 Potomac, and make a feint of attacking 
 Washington. By July 6 he had moved into 
 Maryland, and three days later, defeated 
 General Wallace at Monocacy Bridge. Ar- 
 riving at the outer line of the fortifications 
 of Washington (July 11), he was compelled 
 to withdraw by the overwhelming number 
 of troops, including two corps of Grant's army, gathered to 
 resist his further advance. Recrossin^ the Potomac and de- 
 
THE WAR IN THE EAST, 1864 
 
 311 
 
 feating one Federal force at Snickers Gap, and another at 
 Kernstown, he took post near Winchester.^ 
 
 511. General Sheridan. Grant now sent General Sheri- 
 dan to the Valley at the head of 50,000 men. Even with 
 the reenforcements that General Lee hurried forward, Early 
 could bring in the field only about 20,000 men. On Sep- 
 tember 19, and again on the 22d, 
 the Confederates were defeated 
 at and near Winchester, but it 
 was only after inflicting heavy 
 losses that they slowly retired 
 up the Valley. In October they 
 received some addition to their 
 strength by the arrival of Gen- 
 eral Kershaw from the lines 
 around Petersburg. On October 
 19 Early moved forward and 
 attacked the Federal intrenched 
 camp at Cedar Creek, and drove 
 the Federals out in confusion. 
 
 Philip H. Sheridan 
 
 The Confederates, in the enjoyment of the supplies which 
 the camp afforded, discontinued the pursuit. This gave 
 Sheridan, who was many miles away when the battle began, 
 time to ride foward at headlong speed, and rallying the fugi- 
 tives, to bring them into action again. So completely was 
 Early now defeated that he was afterward unable to make 
 
 1 Early sent General Bradley T. Johnson to Cumberland, in Maryland, and 
 General McCausland to Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania, to levy upon their 
 inhabitants a sum sufficient to reimburse those citizens of the Valley whose 
 homes Hunter had burned down. Chambersburg refused to comply, and in 
 accord witli instructions which McCausland had received, was given over to 
 the flames. Colonel William E. Peters, when commanded to set the town on 
 fire, returned the memorable reply: "With a full knowledge of the conse- 
 quences of refusing to obey orders, I have to say you may take my sword, but 
 I will not use the torch against innocent non-combatants." 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 19 
 
312 UNDER TPIE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 any headway against his powerful opponent. Sheridan was so 
 snccessfid in ravaging the Valley that he declared that even 
 "a crow flying over it would find it necessary to carry his 
 rations with him.'" 
 
 512. Naval Operations. The '' Alabama " Sunh. During 
 the time that the Confederate forces on land were slowly 
 wearing away under the constant impact of the overwhelming 
 Federal resources in men and supplies, the Confederate cruisers 
 Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and Shenandoah were sweeping the 
 last vestige of the Federal merchant marine from the ocean. 
 The Alabama alone destroyed ships and cargoes valued at 
 $10,000,000. On June 11 she put into the harbor of Cherbourg, 
 in France, for repairs and a supply of fuel. The Kearsarge, a 
 larger and more heavily armed vessel, under the command of 
 Captain Winslow, came to anchor in the offing and awaited 
 her return to sea. On June 19 the Alabama left the harbor, 
 and for an hour the two ships, moving in double circuits, can- 
 nonaded each other. At the end of that time Semmes, finding 
 his vessel disabled, drew off, and she soon went to the bottom. 
 The Confederate commander and a part of his crew escaped by 
 means of an English yacht which had been hovering around. 
 
 513. The ''Florida " and other Confederate Ships. The 
 Florida was attacked unexpectedly and in defiance of interna- 
 tional law in the Brazilian port of Bahia, and captured. The 
 Shenandoah, under the command of Captain Waddell, ravaged 
 the Northern whaling interests in the Pacific until the Con- 
 federacy fell, and then surrendered to the United States con- 
 sul in Liverpool. The Georgia was seized off the coast of 
 Portugal at a time when she was without armament. The 
 Albemarle, while guarding Plymouth, North Carolina, from 
 invasion, was blown up in October, 1864, with a torpedo by 
 Lieutenant Cushing, who with a few sailors in a small boat, had 
 stealthily, under cover of night, ascended the E-oanoke River 
 
THE END OF THE WAR, 1865 313 
 
 to the spot where she lay at anchor. Having successfully 
 performed this exploit, one of the boldest in American naval 
 history, Gushing, with only one of his crew, managed to escape. 
 
 514. Reelection of Lincoln. In the Federal election that took 
 place in November, Lincoln was reelected President, with 
 Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, as Vice President. Their 
 opponents before the people were General McClellan and 
 George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, who were nominated by those 
 Democrats who desired the reestablishment of peace by nego- 
 tiations with the South. General John C. Fremont had been 
 nominated for the presidency by a wing of the Republican 
 party which favored more radical measures than Lincoln 
 approved, but withdrew before the day of election. 
 
 The End of the War, 1865 
 
 515. Fall of Fort Fisher. In January a force of 8000 
 men, under General Terry, together with a fleet of about sixty 
 vessels was sent to capture Fort Fisher, which defended the 
 approaches by water to Wilmington, North Carolina, the last 
 Confederate post open to blockade runners (map, p. 263). On 
 January 15 the bombardment began ; the vessels moved in a 
 circuit off the fort, and, ship following ship, hurled the contents 
 of four hundred and thirteen guns against its walls. The Fed- 
 eral troops had now landed, and, after meeting an obstinate re- 
 sistance, carried the outer line of fortifications, but it was not 
 until midnight that the inner was captured. General Whiting, 
 who commanded the fort, was killed, and Colonel Lamb, who 
 succeeded him, disabled. The fall of Fort Fisher made Wil- 
 mington untenable, and it was soon occupied by a Federal 
 force. 
 
 516. Sherman in the Carolinas. Sherman now started (Feb- 
 ruary 1) from Savannah northward to join the Army of the 
 
314 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Potomac in Virginia. His force numbered about 60,000 
 men. In passing tlirough Soutli Carolina, the devastation 
 which he carried in his footsteps, the desolation which he left 
 behind him, exceeded even the waste and ruin which distin- 
 guished the march to the sea. When the Federals took 
 possession of Charleston after its evacuation by the Confed- 
 erates (February 18), Sherman 
 had already reached Columbia 
 (February 17). The Federal 
 troops had barely entered 
 Columbia when it was found 
 to be on fire, and all efforts 
 of the local authorities to put 
 it out were brought to naught 
 by the soldiers persisting in 
 cutting the hose. The women 
 and children were forced to 
 take refuge in the streets 
 and open squares.^ Sherman 
 marched northward to Fay- 
 etteville (map, p. 306), and 
 then, turning toward Goldsboro, set out for Ealeigh, with his 
 army increased to 100,000 men by his junction with Schofield 
 and Terry. As he drew near, General Johnston, at the head 
 of a force of about 20,000 men, with which he had already 
 
 Sherman 
 
 1 Desperate as the fortunes of the Confederacy had been from the begin- 
 ning- of Sherman's march toward Virginia, the Southern people could not 
 yet make up their minds to yield. This was shown by the result of the Peace 
 Conference, which was held at City Point, Virginia, in February, 1865, between 
 Lincoln and Seward, as the Federal representatives, and Stephens, Hunter, 
 and Campbell, as the Confederate. Lincoln insisted that no terms would 
 receive his approval unless the South would agree to abolish slavery and 
 reenter the Union without conditions. The only instruction which the Con- 
 federate commissioners had received was to secure recognition of the inde- 
 pendence of the Confederate States. The conference ended in nothing. 
 
THE END OF THE WAR, 1865 315 
 
 attacked the Federals at Averysboro and Bentonville, fell back 
 to Hillsboro, and Sherman followed in his rear. 
 
 517. Fort Stedman. Sheridan, having early in March dis- 
 persed the remnant of Early's army, united his forces with the 
 main Federal army posted at Petersburg. Lee now saw that 
 his only alternative was to abandon his intrenchments, leaving 
 Richmond also to its fate, and form a junction with the Confed- 
 erate forces stationed in the Carolinas. A delay of several 
 weeks followed in anticipation of better weather and improve- 
 ment in the roads. Then, in order to draw the Federal left 
 wing off from the path of his proposed retreat, he commanded 
 General Gordon to attack Fort Stedman, a fortification on 
 the Federal right. Gordon captured the fort (March 25), but 
 could not seize the crest in the rear, because no reenforce- 
 ments came to his support. He was, therefore, compelled to 
 withdraw from the ground he had won. Lee's plan had 
 failed. 
 
 518. Five Forks. The Confederate line of defense, thirty- 
 five miles in length, was now so thinly guarded that, in places, 
 the men stood several yards apart. General Grant had not 
 only sufficient troops at hand to defend the Federal breast- 
 works, but also large bodies for use in attacking the flanks 
 and rear of the Confederate army, or breaking up the 
 railways by means of which that army obtained its supplies. 
 In March, Sheridan was sent to destroy the Southside, and 
 Richmond and Danville railroads. On March 31, Fitzhugh 
 Lee and Pickett, who had followed him, assailed and drove 
 him southward toward Dinwiddle Courthouse ; but on April 1 
 Sheridan, returning upon his course, struck the Confeder- 
 ates a terrible blow at Five Forks, which compelled them 
 to retreat with heavy loss. In the meanwhile a part of the 
 Confederate army had left its intrenchments and thrown itself 
 on the Federal left, in the hope of breaking through, but 
 
316 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 failing had resumed its former position. Grant now (April 2) 
 ordered a general assault on the entire line of the Confederate 
 breastworks. A Federal army of 100,000 men was pitted 
 against 30,000 Confederates. The Confederates were forced to 
 fall back to the protection of their inner line of fortifications. 
 
 519. Richmond Abandoned. Lee, seeing that Petersburg 
 could no longer be held, informed Davis of the fact by tele- 
 
 gra]3h, and in a few hours 
 Richmond was abandoned 
 by the Confederate officials 
 (April 2). There was soon 
 much drunken disorder in 
 the streets, and the shops 
 were openly pillaged. A 
 roaring conflagration be- 
 gan, which threw over the 
 city a dense cloud of smoke. 
 The bridges across the 
 river caught on fire, as 
 well as the vessels lying 
 at the wharves. In the 
 midst of this wild uproar 
 and confusion a detach- 
 ment of Federal cavalry 
 marched in and drew rein 
 in the Capitol Square. 
 
 520. Petersburg Abandoned. Lee withdrew from Petersburg, 
 and set out toward Amelia Courthouse, where he had ordered 
 a supply of provisions to be collected. On arriving there, he 
 found that this supply had been carried on to Kichmond. The 
 country had to be scoured for some means of subsistence. 
 The delay that followed was fatal, as Grant, by sending Sheri- 
 dan forward, barred the Confederate advance along the line 
 
 General Lee and his Horse, "Traveler 
 
THE END OF THE WAK, 1865 317 
 
 of the Danville Kailroad, upon which alone they could rely 
 for a certain supply of food. Lee started in the direction of 
 Lynchburg, in the hope of making a successful stand behind 
 the Staunton Kiver until Johnston's army could join him. 
 At Sailors Creek, on April 6, his rear guard, numbering 
 nearly 10,000 men, was attacked, and only a few hundred 
 escaped death or capture. Passing through Farmville, where 
 he received a letter from Grant requesting him to surrender, 
 Lee arrived at Appomattox Courthouse on the evening of 
 April 8, only to find Sheridan strongly posted in advance. 
 At one o'clock the next morning he sent Gordon and Fitz- 
 hugh Lee forward to break through. The Federal cav^ry 
 were driven back, only to expose to view great masses of 
 infantry. 
 
 521. Appomattox Courthouse. Lee and Grant, Lee now 
 (April 9) sent a note to Grant, asking for an interview in 
 which to discuss the terms of surrender. While waiting for 
 a reply, with his faithful aides. Colonels Charles Marshall and 
 Walter H. Taylor, in attendance, he rested for a short while on 
 a rude couch in an apple orchard situated near the front of 
 the Confederate lines. Grant having appointed Appomattox 
 Courthouse as the place of meeting, Lee rode forward to the 
 village, accompanied by Colonel Marshall. ^ He had not even 
 yet determined to surrender his army. It all depended on 
 the liberality of the terms offered. If these terms should be 
 harsh, "I will put myself at the head of the remnant of 
 my brave men," he declared, "and we will die in our tracks." 
 
 522. Terms of Surrender. Fortunately there was no need 
 to pursue such a course. The Confederate commander had in 
 
 1 The interview between Grant and Lee took place at the residence of 
 Wilmer McLean. McLean had formerly lived in a house built on the battle- 
 field of Bull Run, but had left that part of Virginia as being too much 
 exposed to war. 
 
318 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 Grant a magnanimous foe. The latter's conduct in this hour 
 of triumph was marked by all the consideration and delicacy 
 of a truly great man. History furnishes few examples of 
 equal, not one of superior, generosity and chivalry in bearing 
 on a similar occasion. By the terms of surrender the officers 
 and privates were paroled on promising that they would not 
 bear arms against the United States until exchanged. The 
 
 Surrender of Lee 
 
 officers were allowed to retain their side arms, and officers and 
 men their baggage and horses. Lee had said that his cavalry- 
 men for the most part owned the horses they rode, and Grant 
 readily assented to their retention, remarking that they would 
 be needed for the spring plowing. By his orders rations were 
 at once issued to the starving Confederate soldiers, and no 
 firing of cannon, no playing of military bands, was permitted. 
 523. The Last Scene. When General Lee returned to his 
 lines, and his soldiers, who had gotten wind of his sad mission 
 
THE END OF THE WAR, 1865 
 
 319 
 
 and its result, had gathered about him, "Men," said he to 
 them, while the tears coursed down his cheeks, "we have 
 fought through the war together; I have done my best for 
 you. My heart is too full to say more." 
 There was hardly a dry eye present. His 
 veterans crowded about him, eager to grasp 
 his hand or even to touch his clothes or his 
 horse. The next day he set out for Rich- 
 mond. There he was at once recognized, as 
 he rode along the street on his way to his 
 residence. Federal veterans joined witli 
 hearty enthusiasm in the popular tribute 
 to the famous soldier. As the door of his 
 home closed behind him, all felt that the 
 war was indeed ended, now that the great 
 Confederate champion was once more a pri- 
 vate citizen.^ 
 
 The Confederate force which surrendered 
 at Appomattox with arms in their hands did not exceed 10,000 
 men. The arrival of stragglers swelled the number of those 
 paroled to 28,356. 
 
 524. Surrender of the Confederate Forces. On April 26 Johns- 
 ton surrendered to Sherman. In May General Kirby Smith, 
 in command of the department west of the Mississippi Eiver, 
 and General Taylor, in command of the department east, laid 
 down their arms. 
 
 525. Cost of the War in Men and Money. From first to last 
 the number of Confederate soldiers in active service had not 
 exceeded 800,000, while the Federal soldiers engaged numbered 
 
 1 In August, 1865, General Lee was elected to the presidency of Washington 
 College (now Washington and Lee University), situated at Lexington, Vir- 
 ginia. In 1869 his health began to decline. One year later he passed away, 
 his mind in its last delirium engaged with memories of those fields of battle 
 on which he won such fame. He was buried at Lexington. 
 
 Confederate Soldier 
 
820 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — DISUNION 
 
 2,200,000. At least 1,000,000 men on both sides had per- 
 ished by disease or the sword. In January, 1865, the nu- 
 merical proportion between the Federal and Confederate troops 
 was as ten to two. 
 
 In August, 1865, the public debt of the United States had 
 grown to the stupendous figure of $2,845,000,000. The South 
 had lost in slaves alone $2,000,000,000. All its invest- 
 ments in bank stock and Confederate bonds had been dissi- 
 pated; all of its crops and. most of its live stock had 
 been consumed ; its railroads were bankrupt. Add to these 
 losses and to the Federal debt, the expenses incurred by 
 
 municipal or State govern- 
 
 ' I ments on both sides, and 
 
 also by the Confederate 
 government itself — and 
 further the vast pecuniary 
 damage inflicted by the 
 Confederate cruisers — and 
 it will not be overstating 
 the cost of the war to say 
 that it fell little short of 
 $10,000,000,000. 
 
 526. Assassination of 
 Lincoln. On April 14 
 Lincoln was assassinated 
 at Washington, while pres- 
 
 Monument to Confederate Dead, Richmond ^"* ^* ^ performance at 
 
 Ford's Theater. John 
 Wilkes Booth, a crazed enthusiast, entered from behind the 
 box in which the President was sitting, cowardly shot him 
 in the back of the head, and then leaped to the stage, with 
 the shout Sic semper tyrannis on his lips. As he struck the 
 flooring, he broke his leg, but, in spite of this accident, was 
 
THE END OF THE WAR, 1865 321 
 
 able to mount his horse and escape. Lincohi died the follow- 
 ing morning. Seward, who was sick in bed, was attacked 
 with a dagger by an accomplice of Booth, but escaped with 
 his life. Booth fled to Virginia, and there, while resting 
 in a barn, was overtaken by his pursuers, and shot down 
 through an opening in the boards. Lincoln's body was buried 
 at Springfield, Illinois, after passing through New York, 
 Albany, and Buffalo, where it was received by vast multi- 
 tudes of people with every manifestation of respect and 
 sorrow. All thoughtful persons in the South deeply lamented 
 his atrocious murder. 
 
 527. Davis Captured and Imprisoned. Davis, though not 
 deprived of life like Lincoln, was in his turn to become a 
 victim of the violent passions of the hour. After the sur- 
 render at Appomattox, he determined to join General Kirby 
 Smith beyond the Mississippi. In Georgia he overtook the 
 party escorting his wife and children toward the coast. Un- 
 expectedly at night the camp was surrounded by a body of 
 Federal soldiers (May 10) and Davis was captured. He was 
 carried to Fort Monroe, and there, in a small cell, was shut 
 up during a period of two years. At first, neither books 
 nor papers were allowed him, and at one time his ankles were 
 manacled, but the rigor of his imprisonment was gradually 
 relaxed. 
 
 528. He IV as finally removed from his cell to Eichmond, 
 was there indicted for treason and bailed, — Horace Greeley 
 and Gerrit Smith, two Abolition leaders, being among his 
 bondsmen, — but was never brought to actual trial. The 
 charge of treason was dropped. He passed the last years of 
 his life among the Southern people, who held him in honor 
 and veneration for his unwavering constancy to the memory 
 of the Confederacy. He died in New Orleans in 1889, and his 
 body was finally buried in Richmond. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD VII 
 
 1861 
 
 I. Inauguration of Lincoln. 
 
 II. Military Events 
 in the East. 
 
 III. Military Events 
 in the West. 
 
 IV. Naval Events. 
 
 Military Events in 
 the West. 
 
 Fall of Fort Sumter. 
 
 ^ . . r 1- Battle of Big Bethel. 
 
 Campaigns m | 2. in Western Virginia. 
 
 Virginia I 3. Battle of Manassas. 
 
 ^ I 4. Battle of Balls Bluff. 
 
 Mason and Slidell captured and released. 
 
 I 1. Federals strengthen Arsenal at 
 Campaign in 
 
 St. Louis. 
 ■««^. . -, 2. Battle of Carthage. 
 
 Missouri. 3. Battle of Oak Hills. 
 
 [ 4. Battle of Lexington. 
 
 Line of Confederate fortified Posts across 
 
 Kentucky. 
 Attack on Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. 
 
 1863 
 
 1. Federal Inva- 
 
 Battle of Mill Springs. 
 Forts Henry and Donelson. 
 
 II. Military Events in 
 the East. 
 
 Battle of Pea Ridge, 
 siuu. I 4. Battle of Shiloh. 
 
 5. Capture of New Orleans. 
 !> 6. Capture of Memphis. 
 
 2. Bragg s Ken- r 
 
 tnpkv Cam. J 1. Smith's Victory at Richmon 
 paigJ- I ^" ^^*"^ ""^ Perryville. 
 
 3. Battle of luka. 
 
 4. Battle of Corinth. 
 
 5. Battle of Murfreesboro. 
 
 1. Peninsular 
 Campaign — 
 1st Part. 
 
 2. Jackson's 
 
 Valley Cam- 
 paign. 
 
 3. Peninsular 
 
 Campaign — 
 2d Part. 
 
 4. Second Battle 
 
 5. Lee's First In- 
 
 . McClellan at Fort Monroe. 
 . Evacuation of Yorktown. 
 . Battle of Williamsburg. 
 . Battle of Seven Pines. 
 . Lee takes Direct Command. 
 . Battle of Kernstown. 
 . Battle of McDowell. 
 . Battle of Front Royal. 
 . Battle of Cross Kevs. 
 . Battle of Port Republic. 
 . Battle of Mechanicsville. 
 . Battle of Gaines Mill. 
 . Battle of Cold Harbor. 
 . Battle of White Oak Swamp. 
 . Battle of Fraziers Farm. 
 . Battle of Malvern Hill. 
 
 Manassas or Bull Run. 
 
 f 1- 
 vasion of the -; 2. Battle of Boonesboro. 
 
 III. Naval Events. 
 
 {i: 
 
 Capture of Harpers Ferry. 
 -. Battle of Boonesboro. 
 North I ^' ^^ttl6 of Sharpsburg. 
 
 Battle of Fredericksburg. 
 
 Virginia and Monitor fight. 
 
 Blockade of Atlantic Coast. 
 
 Ravages of the Alabama and the Florida. 
 
 1863 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation. 
 
 r 1. Federal Greenbacks, Banknotes, and Taxes. 
 J 2. Depreciation of Confederate Currency. 
 I 3. Condition of North and South. 
 [ 4. West Virginia admitted to the Union. 
 322 
 
 II. Civil Events. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD VII 
 
 323 
 
 III. Military Events ^ 
 in the East. 
 
 IV. Military Events 
 in the West. 
 
 i:: 
 
 I. Military Events in 
 the Bast. 
 
 1863 
 
 Charlestou, S.C., successfully defended. 
 
 Chancellors- j J- f ^e defeats Hooker. 
 .,, ^ , i 2. Lee defeats iSedgwick. 
 
 VilleCamp n. \ 3. Death of Jackson. 
 Lee's Second r 1. Battle of Brandy Station. 
 
 Invasion of < 2. Battle of Winchester. 
 
 the North. I 3. Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 Galveston captured. 
 Fall of Vicksburg. 
 
 Battles around / 1. Battle of Chickamauga. 
 Chattanooga, l 2. Battle of Missionary Kidge. 
 Relief of Burnside at Knoxville. 
 
 1864 
 Battle of Olustee. 
 
 Grant's first r l- Battles of the Wilderness. 
 TT" i ,. rr ^ n Tci J 2. Battle of Spottsylvania C. H. 
 \ 1 1 g 1 n 1 d I 3 g^^^jg ^^ (^,Qj^^ Harbor. 
 
 Campaign. I 4. Battle of Yellow Tavern. 
 Butler's Expedition against Petersburg. 
 Battle of New Market. 
 Siege of Petersburg. 
 
 Earlv'sVallpv f 1- Battle of Monocacy. 
 ridriy s v aiiey 1 2, Battle of Winchester. 
 Campaign. I 3. Battle of Cedar Creek. 
 
 1. Banks's Ex- 
 
 II. Military Events ^ 
 in the West. 
 
 1. Fort de Kussy captured. 
 .2. Battle of Mansfield. 
 pedltion. ^ 3. Battle of Pleasant Hill. 
 
 Battle of Jenkins Ferry. 
 
 Battle of Resaca. 
 
 Defense and 2! 
 Surrender of \ 3. 
 Atlanta. [ J; 
 
 Hood marches f 1. 
 
 North. 
 
 Battle of New Hope Church. 
 Battle of Kenesaw Mountain. 
 Battles around City. 
 City surrenders. 
 
 Battle of Franklin. 
 Battle of Nashville. 
 
 III. Naval Events. 
 
 IV. Civil Events 
 
 ■ C 
 
 Military Events in ^ 
 the Carolinas. 
 
 Sherman's March to the Sea. 
 
 Coast Opera- / 1. Fort Fisher bombarded, 
 tions. \ 2. Mobile Harbor captured. 
 
 Alabama sunk. 
 
 Nevada admitted to the Union. 
 
 Reelection of Lincoln. 
 
 1865 
 
 Fall of Fort Fisher. 
 Wilmington captured. 
 Charleston captured. 
 
 Sherman in 
 th e Caro- 
 linas. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 Military Events 
 in Virginia. 
 
 1: 
 
 ( 1. Devastation of S.C. 
 
 2. Burning of Columbia. 
 
 3. Battle of Averysboro. 
 
 4. Battle of Bentonville. 
 
 I 5. Surrender of Johnston. 
 
 1. Attack on Fort Stedman. 
 
 2. Battle of Five Forks. 
 
 3. Petersburg and Richmond 
 evacuated. 
 
 Defense of Pe- 
 tersburg and 
 Richmond . 
 
 _ , r. ^ ^ f 1. No Supplies at Amelia C. H. 
 
 Lee S Retreat. J 2. Battle of Sailors Creek. 
 t 3. Lee's Surrender. 
 
 Jefferson Davis captured and imprisoned. 
 Cost of the War. 
 Assassination of Lincoln. 
 
PERIOD VIII. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 Johnson's Administration, 1865-1869I 
 
 529. President and Congress Differ. Johnson'' s Policy. 
 Andrew Johnson succeeded to the presidency on the death of 
 Lincoln. His first step was, by proclamation, to grant all the 
 
 States lately at war with the 
 United States the authority to 
 hold conventions at the call of 
 the provisional governors he had 
 appointed ; and as each conven- 
 tion repealed its State's ordinance 
 of secession, repudiated the Con- 
 federate debt, and ratified the 
 Thirteenth Amendment to the 
 Constitution, which abolished 
 slavery (December, 1865), the 
 government of that State was 
 recognized by the Federal authori- 
 ties. Peace reigned from border 
 to border, and life, liberty, and property were never more 
 fully protected. Had the President's policy — which was sub- 
 
 1 Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808, and died hi 1875. 
 He became a citizen of Tennessee in 1826. At the age of ten he was ap- 
 prenticed to a tailor, and it was not until he found a teacher in his wife, that 
 he learned to read and write with ease. A man of extraordinary energy and of 
 great natural ability, he soon became active and prominent in local political life. 
 In the interval between 1843 and 1853 he occupied, as a Democrat, a seat in 
 Congress, and was elected governor of Tennessee in 1853. From 1857 to 1862 
 
 324 
 
 Andrew Johnson 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 325 
 
 stantially that Lincoln had acted npon before his death — been 
 permitted to go on, to be followed by a gradual extension of 
 the suffrage to the negroes as they became fitted for it, the 
 South might have been saved the indescribable blight which 
 fell upon all its interests after the passage of the Acts of 
 Reconstruction. 
 
 530. Policy of Congress. When Congress assembled in 
 December, 1865, it was seen that its views were not in harmony 
 with Johnson's. • It promptly adopted a resolution to the effect 
 that the seceding States had forfeited all right to national 
 representation and popular government, and that Congress 
 alone had the power to lay down the conditions on which they 
 should be restored to the Union. A struggle with the President 
 at once began, which grew more and more bitter. Johnson 
 promptly vetoed (1) the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, providing for 
 destitute Southern negroes, and allowing them to rent deserted 
 and confiscated Southern lands ; (2) the Civil Rights Bill, which 
 guaranteed to the freedman protection in the enjoyment of his 
 new privileges. These measures were made laws over the 
 President's veto by an affirmative vote of two thirds of the 
 members of Congress. 
 
 531. Reconstruction Acts. Fourteenth Amendment. In 
 spite of the President's emphatic disapproval. Congress now 
 framed a Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which 
 gave the negroes, as natives of the United States, the character 
 
 he was a member of the United States Senate, and not being in sympathy 
 with the people of the South, declined to withdraw when Tennessee seceded. 
 As soon as that State passed into the possession of the Federal armies, he was 
 appointed its first military governor. He was nominated on the same ticket 
 as Lincoln, not because he was a Republican, for he had always professed to 
 be a Union Democrat, but because the Republican party were anxious to 
 show favor to that body of men in the Southern States who had supported 
 the Federal side in the war. Johnson was tactless, stubborn, rash, and 
 aggressive, but honest and true to his convictions, at the cost of life itself, if 
 necessary. 
 
326 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 of citizens, while it took away from all white men in the South, 
 who had borne a part " in insurrection or rebellion " the right to 
 hold office. Congress made the adoption of this amendment 
 the condition of readmission to the Union for the late Confed- 
 erate States. When that body came together in December, 
 1866, it was found that all these States except Tennessee had 
 rejected the amendment. At once Congress by the First Act 
 of Eeconstruction, which was passed over the President's veto, 
 uprooted their governments, and divided the States themselves 
 into five military districts. 
 
 532. The Second Act of Reconstrivction, passed in the fol- 
 lowing March, laid down the conditions to which the reorgan- 
 ization of the new State governments would be subject. In 
 choosing delegates to the conventions to be called together to 
 frame the State constitutions, and also delegates to the legis- 
 latures to assemble later, it was provided (1) that every black 
 freedman was to enjoy the right to vote ; (2) that this right 
 was to be taken from every white man who was unable to 
 swear that he had never borne arms against the United States. 
 This was known as the "ironclad oath," and it virtually 
 placed the South in the power of the late slaves, necessarily 
 the most ignorant and most inexperienced persons in the 
 community. 
 
 533. Carpetbaggers and Scalawags. There now appeared two 
 new classes of white officeholders who, playing upon the 
 African's fears and cupidity, were to prove the greatest scourge 
 that has ever afflicted any American commonwealth : first the 
 " carpetbagger," a white man from the North, who, scenting 
 in his distant home the political corruption in the South, had 
 come down like an ill-omened bird to batten on the spoil ; 
 secondly, the " scalawag," the supple native, who under the 
 pretense of " accepting the situation " had gone over to the 
 party of the late slaves, and used his superior intelligence 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 327 
 
 for his own political advancement and pecuniary enrichment. 
 By 1868, the new electorate had adopted the Fourteenth 
 Amendment in the States of Arkansas, the Carolinas, Florida, 
 Alabama, and Louisiana. Virginia, Texas, Mississippi, and 
 Georgia declined to ratify, preferring to remain under the con- 
 trol of military governors. It was not until 1870 that they 
 were admitted. 
 
 534. Impeachment of Johnson. In 1867 a bill was passed by 
 Congress forbidding the President to remove any official of 
 the government without the consent of the Senate. The Ee- 
 publican party was afraid lest Johnson would use this means 
 of obstructing the Eeconstruction Measures. Deeply offended 
 by the insubordination of Stanton, the Secretary of War, 
 the President re- 
 moved him from 
 office and finally 
 appointed Gen- 
 eral Lorenzo 
 Thomas in his 
 place in spite of 
 the disapproval 
 of the Senate. 
 The Republican 
 leaders, who were 
 more embittered 
 than ever against 
 Johnson, took 
 this as an infraction of the Tenure of Office Act and deter- 
 mined to impeach him. He was tried before the Senate, and 
 acquitted by one vote. Stanton then resigned his office. 
 
 535. In 1867 Alaska, nearly 600,000 square miles in area, 
 with a sparse population of Indians and Eskimos, and a few 
 settlements of whites, was bought from Russia for f 7,200,000. 
 
 BRUCe's U.S. HIST. — 20 
 
 Gold Mining, Alaska 
 
328 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 At the time of its purchase it was thought to be valuable only 
 for its furs, fisheries, and timber, but it has been found to con- 
 tain beneath its surface some of the richest deposits of gold in 
 the world. 
 
 536. Foreign Affairs. Ti^eaty with China. In 1868 an im- 
 posing embassy from China reached Washington accompanied 
 by Mr. Burlingame, the American Minister to that country. A 
 treaty was soon arranged by which the United States secured 
 concessions in trade in that empire which have already greatly 
 added to the national wealth. 
 
 537. French in Mexico. In 1861 Napoleon III, as the 
 representative of France, had, together with England and 
 Spain, sent troops to Mexico to compel the payment of debts 
 due those nations by that country. England and S])ain with- 
 drew, but Napoleon, subverting the existing government, placed 
 on the throne he created in its stead, Ma^ximilian of Austria, 
 and supported him with a strong army. The United States 
 protested against this act, as a violation of the Monroe Doc- 
 trine (§ 352), but was too much involved in war at the time 
 to enforce its demand for an early evacuation of the country. 
 When the Confederacy fell. Federal soldiers were massed on 
 the frontier, and the French emperor was warned to embark 
 his troops. As soon as these troops retired from the country 
 (1867), Maximilian's empire was overthrown by the Mexicans, 
 and Maximilian himself was seized and shot. 
 
 538. Election of Grant. In November, 1868, General Ulysses 
 S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax were the Eepublican candidates 
 for the presidency and vice presidency respectively. The 
 Democratic candidates were Horatio Seymour and F. P. Blair. 
 Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were not allowed to vote as 
 their reconstruction was not yet complete. Grant and Colfax 
 were elected on a platform warmly approving the Reconstruc- 
 tion Acts. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 329 
 
 Grant^s Administration, 1869-1877 ^ 
 
 539. Fifteenth Amendment. It lias already been seen that, 
 by the terms of the Fourteenth Amendment, the negro had 
 become a citizen. It Avas now decided by the Eepublican party 
 that a Fifteenth was necessary to prevent 
 the abridgment of his right to vote. No 
 man, the new amendment declared, should 
 be deprived of the right of suffrage on 
 account of '-race, color, or previous condi- 
 tion of servitude." That the negro alone 
 was considered in this provision, was 
 shown in the refusal of the courts to ad- 
 mit the Chinese to the privileges of voters. 
 
 540. Ku Klux Klan. Loyal Leagues were 
 soon formed in all parts of the South by 
 the freedmen and their white leaders. They held their meet- 
 ings at night in the forest, and the intemperate harangues and 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 
 
 1 Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio in 1822, and died at Mount McGregor,. 
 New York, in 1885. At the age of seventeen he was appointed to a cadetship 
 at AVest Point Academy, and graduated as number twenty-one in a class of 
 thirty-nine. He was advanced to a captaincy in the Mexican War, as a reward 
 for conspicuous gallantry. Resigning from the army at a later day, he became 
 his father's partner in a tannery at Galena, Illinois. On the breaking out of 
 hostilities between the States he raised a company of volunteers, and in 
 August, 1861, was promoted to a generalship. His career from this time to the 
 end of the war, has been already given in our history of its events. After 
 the close of his second term of the presidential office he made a tour of the 
 world, and everywhere was received with extraordinary honors. In char- 
 acter Grant was unpretending, reticent, tenacious, inflexible, truthful, and 
 maguanimous. His reputation would be greater, if it were military alone. 
 He was unfitted for civil life, especially during a period in which self-seeking 
 knaves were active in striving to mold the most honest executives to their 
 own purposes. His last days, during which he suffered from a cruel disease, 
 were marked by a heroic fortitude, and his last words, in the spirit of his 
 famous utterance as President, "Let us have peace," were all directed to 
 bring about greater harmony, friendship, and sympathy between the North- 
 ern and Southern people. 
 
330 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 wild threats made on those occasions had the effect of inciting 
 the negroes to many lawless acts. The number of murders, 
 arsons, and robberies increased with appalling rapidity. It 
 was impossible for the white people to punish the crimes of 
 the blacks and their white leaders in open arms. Secret 
 societies were quietly organized, as offering the only hope of 
 accomplishing that end. In the beginning, the main purposes 
 of these societies were to protect the white women from 
 assault ; to put a stop to the destruction of property ; to force 
 the blacks to work ; to temper their insolence ; and finally, 
 to cut down the majorities, the real cause of these frightful 
 troubles. The secret societies were known as the Ku Klux 
 Klan. As time went on, the Klan lost some of its original 
 motives, and descended to acts of unjustifiable violence. The 
 reputable class of whites withdrew from it, and sought to 
 effect the same end by other means, which now had more 
 chance of success.^ 
 
 541. Oppressive Taxation. Taxes were, at this time, imposed 
 on the white people, the only owners of property, by the legis- 
 latures of negroes and their white associates, which they could 
 not have borne in the most prosperous days during the period 
 of slavery. In the course of ten years, the public debt of 
 the Southern States rose enormously, and the largest part of 
 this sum found its way into the pockets of the corrupt 
 politicians. 
 
 542. Whites recover Control. But for the constant inter- 
 position of President Grant with troops, the wdiole of the South 
 
 1 In recent years negro suffrage has been greatly reduced by the South's 
 adoption of constitutional provisions, which the Federal courts have decided 
 are not opposed to the Fifteenth Amendment. Illiteracy and failure to pay 
 taxes are the chief grounds of exclusion. In some States the voter is required 
 to be able to read or write any section of the Constitution ; in others he is 
 only required to be able to interpret it. In Louisiana there is in addition a 
 property qualification. These provisions place the negroes at the greater dis- 
 advantage owing to the greater illiteracy and poverty of the race. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 331 
 
 would, before the end of his first term, have passed under the 
 rule of the white population. Any marked success on their part, 
 however, was the signal for the local Republicans to clamor for 
 Federal assistance; and for a time the Republican State gov- 
 ernments were kept in power at the point of the bayonet. As 
 soon as the bayonet was withdrawn, these governments would 
 
 Battle of Little Big Horn River 
 
 be overthrown, and the white people would set up governments 
 of their own. Not infrequently, as in Louisiana in 1873, there 
 were rival administrations in operation at the same time. A 
 Force Bill was passed in 1871, which in its practical operation 
 placed all national elections under the control o£ Federal 
 officials, supported by the regular army. In spite of these 
 obstacles, w^hen Grant's second term drew to a close, all the 
 Southern States, except Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina, 
 had passed into the hands of the whites. 
 
332 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 543. Indian Uprisings. The administration of President 
 Grant was marked by two important uprisings among the 
 Indians. The Modocs had been removed from their hunting 
 grounds in southern Oregon, but on the first opportunity 
 returned. Driven into the lava beds of northern California, 
 they were, in 1873, finally conquered and sent to a reservation 
 in Dakota, but only after they had murdered General Canby 
 at a peace conference. A few years later (1876) General Cus- 
 ter, with his entire cavalry troop, fell in the battle of the Little 
 Big Horn River, fought with the Sioux Indians, who had 
 been stirred up to war by the encroachments of the whites 
 among the gold fields of the Black Hills in southern Dakota. 
 
 544. Chicago and Boston Fires. In 1871 Chicago was almost 
 completely wiped out by fire ; 100,000 people were rendered 
 homeless and $200,000,000 worth of property burnt up. At 
 the end of two years the destroyed portions of the city, which 
 covered several square miles, were rebuilt. In 1872 Boston was 
 visited by a fire which laid in ashes the finest business part of 
 the city, covering an area of sixty acres. 
 
 545. Centennial Exposition. In 1876 an exposition was held 
 at Philadelphia to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of 
 the Declaration of Independence. The largest of the buildings 
 spread over twenty acres. The Exposition cost f 8,000,000, and 
 about 10,000,000 people visited it. The occasion was made 
 notable by tlie first reunion of Northern and Southern troops. 
 
 546. Finances. Black Friday. In the course of the 
 autumn of 1869 a great panic occurred in the gold market 
 of New York City, which came to a head, on September 24, 
 in what is known as Black Friday. Unscrupulous speculators 
 had been quietly buying up all the gold in circulation, with a 
 view of forcing up its value by making it scarce, which would 
 leave them an enormous margin of profit in sales to merchants, 
 among others, who were compelled to have it in carrying on 
 
GKANT'IS ADMINISTRATION 888 
 
 their foreign trade. The tension of the situation was only 
 relieved by the government offering for sale, to those avIio 
 needed it, f 4,000,000 in gold out of the public treasury. This 
 broke the monopoly of the conspirators. In 1873 the fluctu- 
 ations in the value of the currency and the reckless spirit of 
 railway building brought on a second panic. 
 
 547. Specie Payments. When the greenback, a mere 
 promise of the government to pay in coin as soon as it was 
 able, was first issued, to aid in the prosecution of the war, its 
 purchasing power, as compared with that of gold and silver, 
 was less than its nominal value. The government, at this 
 time, had too small an amount of the precious metals to allow 
 it to redeem in coin every paper dollar brought to the Treasury 
 by persons wishing to exchange it in that form. The value of 
 the enormous quantities of greenbacks put in circulation rested 
 upon the national credit alone, which was greatly shaken by 
 the disasters of the war (§ 485), and was not entirely restored 
 until 1875, when the government, now richer in gold and 
 silver, declared that, after January 1, 1879, every paper dollar 
 could be redeemed at the public treasury in coin, according to 
 its face value. Greenbacks at once rose in purchasing power, 
 and on January 1, 1879, they reached the figure they had 
 previously only nominally represented. 
 
 548. Alabama Claims. In 1871, commissioners of the United 
 States and Great Britain met in Washington, and drafted a 
 treaty settling all points in dispute between the two countries. 
 The most important one was what was known as the Alabama 
 Claims. The United States took the ground that Great Britain 
 should ■ pay for all the damage done by the Confederate 
 cruisers built or fitted out in British ports. The most de- 
 structive was the Alabama, which gave its name to the claims. 
 A Board of Arbitration sitting at Geneva, Switzerland, in 
 which not only the United States and Great Britain, but 
 
334 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 also Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland were represented, awarded 
 $15,500,000 to the United States for distribution among the 
 persons upon whom the losses had fallen. 
 
 549. Liberal Republicans. When the last year of Grant's 
 first term came around there was a strong opposition in his 
 own party to his renomination, on the ground (1) of the cor- 
 ruption which had marked his administration, though not him- 
 self personally ; (2) the unconstitutionality of his course in 
 sustaining the mongrel State governments in the South by 
 the power of the Federal bayonet. There was now a growing- 
 sentiment at the North in favor of allowing these gov- 
 ernments to sink, if unable themselves to maintain their posi- 
 tion. The section of the Republican party which held these 
 opinions organized and called a convention, which met at 
 Cincinnati and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, 
 for the presidency, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, 
 for the vice presidency. The Democrats adopted these 
 nominees as their candidates. The regular Republican party 
 nominated for the same offices. General Grant, and Henry 
 Wilson, of Massachusetts, who were elected. 
 
 550. Electoral Commission. Disputed Election Returns. 
 Toward the close of General Grant's second term, the Repub- 
 lican party nominated for the presidency and 
 the vice presidency, Rutherford B. Hayes, of 
 Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, 
 respectively, and for the same offices, the 
 Democratic party nominated Samuel J. Tilden, 
 of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of 
 Indiana. As there were 369 electoral votes, 
 185 were necessary for a choice. In the elec- 
 
 Samuel J. Tilden ^.^^ ^.^^^^ ^^^ Hendricks obtained pne hun- 
 dred and eighty-four votes which were not disputed. In Flor- 
 ida, Louisiana, South Carolina (and partially also in Oregon) 
 
GRANTS ADMINISTRATION 335 
 
 the Democrats claimed to have been successful, and certificates 
 to that effect Avere forwarded to Washington, but the Republi- 
 can State Returning Boards gave certificates to the Republican 
 candidates. This assured for Hayes and Wheeler a majority of 
 one in the total electoral vote for the presidency and vice 
 presidency. The legality of this was warmly disputed in 
 Congress by the Democrats, and it soon began to look as if the 
 United States would have two rival national administrations, 
 
 551. Election of Hayes. A Joint Electoral Commission was 
 now proposed as a means of overcoming the perilous difiiculty. 
 It was to be composed of fifteen members — five senators, five 
 representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. Con- 
 gress appointed seven Democrats and seven Republicans. The 
 fifteenth man, to be chosen by the four justices already ap- 
 pointed, was expected to be Justice Davis, who was an Inde- 
 pendent. But Davis having been elected to the Senate, Justice 
 Bradley, a Republican, was chosen. The Electoral Commis- 
 sion, by a vote of eight to seven, decided each contest in favor 
 of the Republicans. Hayes was therefore declared to be 
 elected by a vote of 185 to 184. 
 
 552. Consequences of the Controversy. One of the most strik- 
 ing consequences of this heated controversy over the presi- 
 dency was the rapid growth of a sentiment among ISTorthern 
 citizens hostile to the further maintenance, by the bayonet, of 
 the Republican administrations in the South. It was seen only 
 too clearly by them that the corruption of these administra- 
 tions had extended its baneful influence to the operations of 
 the national government, and that it would in the end bring 
 civil strife on the whole people if not removed in time. The 
 Federal troops were withdrawn from Louisiana, Florida, and 
 South Carolina, and the political control of these States, shortly 
 thereafter, passed into the hands of the white people. The 
 era of Reconstruction had closed in dismal failure. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD VIII 
 
 Johnson's 
 istration, 
 1869. 
 
 1. President's 
 Southern ' 
 Policy. 
 
 Admin- 
 1865- -d 
 
 2. Congress's 
 Southern 
 Policy. 
 
 1. Provisional Governors. 
 
 2. State Conventions authorized. 
 
 3. These Conventions required 
 to adopt Certain Measures. 
 
 4. State Governments recognized 
 by Federal Authorities. 
 
 5. No Negro Voters. 
 
 1. Freedmen's Bureau Bill. 
 
 2. Civil Rights Bill. 
 
 3. Fourteenth Amendment. 
 
 t. Adoption of Amendment a 
 Condition of Keadmission. 
 5. Acts of Reconstruction. 
 1, 6. Negro Voters. 
 
 3. Struggle be- f 
 
 ' 1. President's Vetoes passed over. 
 J 2. Tenure of Office Act. 
 3. Impeachment. 
 Congress. [ 
 
 tween Presi- 
 d e n t and 
 
 4. Foreign 
 fairs. 
 
 Af- 
 
 II. Grant's Adminis- 
 
 1. Alaska purchased. 
 
 2. Chinese Treaty. 
 
 3. Napoleon III ordered out of 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 1. Fifteenth Amendment. 
 
 2. The Loyal Leagues. 
 
 3. Wliites form Secret Societies. 
 
 4. Stealing of Public Funds. 
 
 5. Republican State (Jovernments 
 
 supported by Bayonets. 
 
 6. Federal Supervision of Elec- 
 
 tions. 
 
 7. Whites regain control of South. 
 
 2. Uprising of Modocs and Sioux. 
 
 3. Great Fires at Chicago and Boston. 
 
 1. Condition of 
 the South. 
 
 tration, 186 9-^ ^ Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia. 
 1877. 
 
 1. Black Friday. 
 
 2. Panic of 1873. 
 
 5. Financial Af- 
 
 fairs. 
 
 3. Promise of Specie Payments. 
 
 6. Settlement of Alabama Claims by Arbitra- 
 tion. 
 
 7. Rise of lib- | i. corruption at Washington, 
 eral Repub- \ 2. President's Unconstitutional 
 licans. I, 
 
 Course in the South. 
 
 8. Electoral Commission. 
 336 
 
PERIOD IX. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION 
 REUNION 
 
 Hayes's Administration, 1877-1881^ 
 
 553. Railroad Strike. 
 
 fallen otf, the manasrers 
 
 1878, 
 
 111 1877 railroad earnings having 
 of many lines decided to cut down 
 wages. A redaction made by the 
 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was 
 followed by a strike among its em- 
 ployees which soon spread to other 
 roads. So great was the destruction 
 in cars, engines, station houses, and 
 freight, which took place at many 
 points, that both the local militia 
 and Federal troops were called out 
 to put down the rioters and restore 
 order. 
 
 554. Among the other events of im- 
 portance during this administration 
 were (1) the yellow fever epidemic in 
 in the Mississippi Valley, in the course of which about 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes 
 
 15,000 people died ; (2) the placing of jetties in the mouth of 
 
 1 Rutherford B. Hayes was bom in Ohio in 1822, and died in 1893. He was 
 a lawyer by profession and during the War of Secession rose to the position of 
 brigadier general of volunteers. At the close of hostilities he was elected to 
 Congress, was a member during one term , and was thrice elected governor of 
 Ohio. He was nominated for the presidency as a compromise candidate. 
 Although his name will probably be somewhat clouded by the peculiar circum- 
 stances of his election, he will be known in history as a man of upright 
 character, whose administration was pure and dignified, and especially mem- 
 orable as having inaugn rated the era of genuine reunion. 
 
 387 
 
338 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 the Mississippi, in order to insure deeper water for the pas- 
 sage of the largest steamers ; (3) the capture of Joseph, chief 
 of the Nez Perces Indians of Idaho, after a remarkable 
 retreat. 
 
 555. Practical Inventions. This administration was also 
 memorable for the number of mechanical contrivances first 
 brought to bear to promote the comfort and convenience of life. 
 The telephone and electric light and also the passenger eleva- 
 tor soon came into general use. The phonograph was in- 
 vented and many improvements were made in i^hotography. 
 There was also a great improvement in the speed of city 
 travel by means of cable cars and elevated and electric rail- 
 ways. The bicycle also became popular. 
 
 556. The price of silver as compared with that of gold was 
 now steadily declining in all parts of the world. In 1873 Con- 
 gress had passed an act stopping the further coinage of the 
 silver dollar and declaring that it should no longer be a legal 
 tender ; in other words, money which must be accepted in set- 
 tlement of debts. Five years later Mr. Bland, of Missouri, in- 
 troduced in the House of Representatives a bill requiring the 
 Secretary of the Treasury to coin into dollars all the silver 
 bullion which should be brought to the Treasury, however 
 great the quantity, and without cost to the bringer. This is 
 known as " the free and unlimited coinage of silver." It was 
 further provided that as many dollars should be coined out of 
 sixteen pounds of silver as out of one pound of gold. This is 
 what is meant by the ^^ ratio of 16 to 1." When the bill 
 reached the Senate, it was amended at the instance of Senator 
 Allison, and, as passed, provided that the government should 
 purchase each month at the market rate not less than $2,000,000 
 nor more than $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion and coin it 
 into dollars at the ratio of 16 to 1. It made the silver dollar 
 again legal tender. This is called the Bland-Allison Act. 
 
GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 339 
 
 557. Specie payments were resumed in 1879. So high was 
 the credit of the government, in consequence, that it negotiated 
 without difficulty the sale of an enormous number of new bonds 
 at a low rate of interest, and with the proceeds took up the old 
 bonds, which had been issued at a time when the government 
 was compelled to pay a high rate of interest. The national 
 debt was about ^2,000,000. 
 
 558. Election of Garfield. In the election of 1880 James A. 
 Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, Re- 
 publicans, were the successful candidates for the presidency 
 and vice presidency. The candidates of the Democrats were 
 General Winfield S. Hancock, and William H. English. 
 
 Garfield and Arthur's Administration, 1881-1885^ 
 559. Garfield Assassinated. Garfield had been in office but a 
 short time when he made a nomination to fill the collector- 
 ship of the port of New York City, 
 which aroused the strong opposition of 
 Conkling and Piatt, senators from the 
 State. These senators belonged to 
 what was known as the "Stalwart" 
 wing of the Eepublican party, which 
 had supported General Grant for a 
 third term. The action of the Presi- 
 dent greatly widened the breach in 
 the party, and led to his assassination. 
 On July 2, as he entered the station, 
 at Washington, of the Baltimore and 
 Potomac Eailroad, he was shot and James a. Garfield 
 mortally wounded by a miscreant, who pretended that he was 
 
 1 James A. Garfield was born in Ohio in 1831, and died in 1881. He was the 
 son of a small farmer, and only with difficulty obtained an education. He 
 graduated from Williams College; became a professor in Hiram College; 
 
340 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 only seeking to heal the differences in the Eepublican party 
 by the "removal" of the President. Garfield lingered until 
 September 19, when he was succeeded by 
 Vice President Arthur. 
 
 560. Civil Service Act and Other Events. 
 The public shock which followed the 
 assassination of President Garfield by a 
 worthless office seeker led to the adoption, 
 in 1883, of a Civil Service Act, making 
 the appointment of certain classes of office- 
 holders dependent upon success in pre- 
 vious examinations. The number of these 
 Chester A. Arthur classes was greatly enlarged during later 
 administrations. Am'ong other events of importance during 
 Arthur's administration were (1) the celebration of the one 
 hundredth anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at York- 
 town ; (2) a succession of great floods in the Mississippi liiver ; 
 (3) the reduction of postage on letters to two cents an ounce. 
 
 561. Southern Industrial Progress. Although only a short 
 time had passed since the collapse of the Reconstruction gov- 
 ernments, the progress which the Southern people were making 
 under white supremacy was extraordinary. The volume of the 
 
 studied law ; and when the war came on entered the army, and was soon pro- 
 moted to the rank of major general. Elected to Congress while in military 
 service, he continued a leading member of the House during a period of 
 eighteen years. He had only recently been advanced to a seat in the Senate 
 when he was elected to the presidency. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, who, as Vice President, succeeded to the presidency on 
 the death of Garfield, was born in Vermont, in 1830, and died in New York 
 in 1886. In early life he taught school, and then became a lawyer. During 
 the War of Secession he filled the position of quartermaster general of New 
 York State; and at a later period was appointed to the office of collector 
 of the port of New York City, through the influence of Senator Conklmg. 
 His nomination as Vice President was due to his affiliation with the " Stal- 
 wart" wing of the Republican party, a wing which, after the nomination of 
 Garfield for the presidency, it was important for the convention to conciliate. 
 
GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION 341 
 
 cotton crop surpassed all previous records ; railways were in the 
 course of construction in every direction ; mines were opening 
 and factoi'ies building. A Cotton Exposition lield at Atlanta 
 in 1881 and a World's Exposition at New Orleans in 1884 and 
 1885 showed the confidence of the South in inviting the at- 
 tention of all nations to its material achievements. 
 
 -A 
 
 
 v.^Li^w^^^^B^s 
 
 " ' . '*"--/ 
 
 ^^^^^^^fe",'^s^^5MW 
 
 
 World's Exposition Buildings, New Orleans 
 
 562. Capitalists and Corporations. The extraordinary impulse 
 given to every branch of business by new adaptations of natural 
 forces and the use of new inventions — the rapid opening up of 
 ever}^ avenue to wealth which the vast natural resources of the 
 country offered — made men more impatient than ever of every 
 influence that impeded the accumulation of fortune. In order 
 to save expenses and diminish or destroy competition individu- 
 als and companies engaged in the same line of business now 
 began to unite and combine in powerful corporations with 
 enormous capital at their disposal. This tendency of trade was 
 already shown in the existence of some of the greatest corpora- 
 tions ever organized in the United States — notably the Stand- 
 ard Oil Company. These mighty combinations of capital, which 
 have steadily grown in number, have come to be known as 
 " Trusts." A loud outcry was raised against the great corpo- 
 rations during this administration, on the ground that they used 
 
342 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 their money to bribe legislatures in order to secure improper 
 privileges; that they fixed prices to the injury of the com- 
 munity ; and that they imported cheap labor from abroad to 
 increase their profits. 
 
 563. Election of Cleveland. An Anti-Monopoly party sprang 
 up, which demanded that the government should regulate inter- 
 state commerce, which meant the control of all telegraphs and 
 railroads ; and that it should prevent the further importation 
 of foreign laborers under contract to do special work. Benja- 
 min F. Butler, of Massachusetts, was nominated for the presi- 
 dency by this party, and he was also accepted by the Greenback 
 party as their candidate. Grover Cleveland, governor of New 
 York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, were the nominees 
 of the Democratic party for the presidency and vice presidency 
 respectively ; James G. Blaine, of Maine, and General John A. 
 Logan, of Illinois, of the Republican pa.rty. Cleveland and 
 Hendricks were elected, largely by the vote of Republicans 
 known as Mugwumps, who declined to support Blaine. 
 
 Cleveland's First Administration, 1885-1889^ 
 
 564. *' Knights of Labor." An organization had been formed 
 
 by large bodies of laboring men in different parts of the United 
 
 States, known as the " Knights of Labor," whose object was to 
 
 1 Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837, but in 1841 removed 
 with his parents to New York State. He received his education in the public 
 schools, and during some time was a teacher in an institute for the blind. 
 At the age of eighteen he began the study of law at Buffalo and became the 
 sheriff of that city in 1870 and the mayor in 1882. He was so successful while 
 occupying the latter ofiice in reforming abuses that he was nominated for the 
 governorship of the State and was elected by an unprecedented plurality. 
 In every position he held he acted upon the principles that a "public office is 
 a public trust" and that " he serves his party best who serves his country 
 best." A man of inflexible will, indomitable courage, and rugged honesty, he 
 always " pursued the right and scorned the expedient," and in doing so ob- 
 tained a hold upon the confidence and respect of the masses of his countrymen 
 which could not be shaken by the attacks of political enemies or the criticisms 
 of political associates. 
 
CLEVELAND'S EIKST ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Grover Cleveland 
 
 unite all working men in one body to enable them the more suc- 
 cessfully to resist the supposed encroachments of capitalists 
 and corporations (§ 562). In 1886 the 
 Knights demanded that either the hours 
 of labor should be shortened or wages 
 should be increased. This demand 
 being refused, a strike began among 
 the employees of the street railways 
 in New York, and, spreading to all 
 the great cities, soon involved the prin- 
 cipal steam railways. It resulted in 
 an enormous destruction of property. 
 
 565. Chicago Anarchists. In May, 
 1886, the anarchists of Chicago, whose 
 
 main principle of action was opposition to all forms of gov- 
 ernment, held a great meeting in that city, in the course of 
 which the most atrocious sentiments were proclaimed. A 
 body of policemen rushed upon the crowd and endeavored 
 to disperse it. Suddenly dynamite bombs were hurled in 
 their midst, causing the death of seven of their number and 
 severely wounding sixty others. In spite of this terrible 
 incident, the brave policemen compelled the cowardly multi- 
 tude to take to their heels. A number of the anarchists were 
 arrested, and several, after trial, were hanged. 
 
 566. Additions to Navy. The building of the new American 
 navy was pushed forward with energy under this administra- 
 tion. The need of a greater number of vessels seemed to be 
 shown by (1) the commencement of work on the Panama Canal 
 by a French company ; (2) the dispute with Great Britain as to 
 the American right to buy ice and fish bait in Canadian ports ; 
 (3) a controversy with Germany over the possession of Samoa. 
 
 567. Important Acts of Congress passed during this adminis- 
 tration were those (1) creating a commission to supervise trans- 
 
 BRUCE'S U.S. HIST. — 21 
 
344 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 portation rates on interstate lines of railway ; (2) prohibiting 
 further Chinese immigration, and also prohibiting the bringing 
 in of laborers under previous contracts with them to work in 
 this country; (3) regulating the succession to the presidency 
 in case both the President and Vice President shall die, be 
 impeached and removed, or become disabled during their terms 
 of office. Under this new law, the office passes first to the 
 Secretary of State and then to the other members of the Cabi- 
 net in the order of the establishment of their departments.^ 
 
 568. Election of Harrison. The surplus revenue in the Treas- 
 ury was now so great that it was a constant menace to the 
 business of the country as long as it remained there ; but if dis- 
 persed by appropriations, a spirit of national extravagance was 
 certain to be encouraged. In December, 1887, the President, 
 in his annual message, dwelt upon this subject almost exclu- 
 sively, and. earnestly advised that the tariff rates should be 
 lowered. At once the question became the point at issue 
 between the two parties. Cleveland was renominated for 
 the presidency on a platform favoring the reduction of the 
 import duties to the basis of the expenses of the government, 
 but was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, the Kepublican can- 
 didate, who favored the retention of the existing tariff. Levi 
 P. Morton, of New York, was elected Vice President. 
 
 Benjamin Harrison's Administration, 1 889-1 893 ^ 
 
 569. Foreign Affairs. Important Events. The relations 
 of the United States with foreign nations during this adminis- 
 tration were marked by several events of importance: (1) the 
 
 1 Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney General, Post- 
 master General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. The 
 Departments of Agriculture and of Commerce and Labor were created after 
 this law was passed. 
 
 2 Benjamin Harrison was born in Ohio in 1833, and died in 1901. He was 
 the great-grandson of the signer of the Declaration of Independence of the 
 
BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 345 
 
 passage of an international copyright law, which gives copy- 
 right protection to foreign authors of nations which afford like 
 protection to American authors; (2) the 
 decision of a board of arbitration, sitting 
 at Paris, that the United States could 
 not make a just claim to the sole juris- 
 diction in Bering Sea in connection with 
 the seal fisheries ; (3) the meeting of 
 representatives of all the South Ameri- 
 can countries and the United States, in 
 Washington, for the purpose of bringing ^^K^ 
 about the construction of an interna- Benjamin Harrison 
 tional railway, the adoption of reci- 
 procity treaties, and the formation of an international monetary 
 union. 
 
 570. Mew Orleans Mafia. The relations of the United 
 States with both Italy and Chile were at one time during this 
 administration greatly strained. A branch of the Italian 
 secret organization known as the Mafia existed in New Orleans. 
 The activity of the chief of police of that city in ferreting out 
 the crimes committed by this society led, in 1890, to his assassi- 
 nation. A jury, under the influence of bribes or fear, acquitted 
 some of the men charged with the act and disagreed in the case 
 of the rest. In their indignation over this verdict the citizens 
 rose, took the prisoners out of jail, and hanged them. Italy 
 demanded reparation, and friendly relations were restored with 
 that country only on the payment of $25,000 to the heirs of 
 the Italian citizens who had been lynched. 
 
 same name, and a grandson of President William Henry Harrison. He received 
 his academic education at Miami College, and was admitted to the bar in 
 Indianapolis. Entering the Federal army as a lieutenant at the breaking out 
 of the war, he was promoted before its close to the rank of a brigadier gen- 
 eral. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1880, where he exhibited 
 the talents of an able and ready debater. 
 
346 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION— REUNION 
 
 571. Trouble with Chile. In October, 1891, the United States 
 ship Baltimore was lying in the harbor of Valparaiso, Chile, 
 and some of her sailors obtained leave to go on shore. 
 They soon became mixed up in a quarrel with the natives 
 and an armed mob set on them, and killed and wounded several 
 of them. Chile at first refused to pay an indemnity, but, 
 when the United States showed a determination to go to war, 
 yielded. 
 
 572. McKinley Act and Reciprocity. Their success in the 
 presidential election led the Republican party to think that 
 their tariff policy had the approval of the people. The mem- 
 bers of that party soon passed a bill, known as the McKinley 
 Act from the name of its author, increasing the duties on 
 many imported goods and cutting down or abolishing the 
 duties on others. The former were articles which came in 
 competition with domestic production; the latter articles in 
 lines of manufacture that were not yet established in the 
 United States. The policy of protection had been a serious 
 impediment to the sale of American manufactures in foreign 
 countries, because the high tariff tended to prevent goods from 
 those countries to be brought in in return. In order to obtain 
 the trade of the South American republics, which, under exist- 
 ing conditions, went chiefly to England, the United States 
 removed the duty on a number of articles, with the proviso 
 that the free entry should be denied to countries imposing 
 reciprocally unequal and unreasonable duties on American 
 products. 
 
 573. Sherman Act. There were large numbers of people who 
 were dissatisfied with the Bland-Allison Act, because it re- 
 stricted the coinage of silver to a certain amount each month. 
 In 1890 their representatives in Congress made a determined 
 attempt to pass a law that would compel the Treasury to coin 
 into dollars all silver bullion brought to it. In other words, 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 347 
 
 their object was to enact the Bland Bill without the Allison 
 Amendment (§ 5o6). The House rejected the new bill, but by 
 the Sherman Act it was provided that the amount of silver to 
 be coined each month should be increased to 4,500,000 ounces. 
 This metal was to be stored away in the Treasury vaults, but 
 for every silver dollar represented in it a paper dollar was to 
 be issued. 
 
 574. Election of Cleveland. In the presidential election of 
 1892 Mr. Cleveland, renominated by the Democrats for the 
 third time, was successful over Benjamin Harrison, who had 
 been named by the Republicans for a second term. General 
 Weaver was the nominee of the People's party, which favored 
 the free coinage of silver, the adoption of a general income 
 tax, loans to farmers by the government, and State control of 
 all railroads. 
 
 Cleveland's Second Administration, 1893-1897 
 
 575. Panic of 1893. When the second administration of 
 Cleveland began, the country seemed to be enjoying a period 
 of great prosperity. It was, however, only on the surface. 
 Influences were at work which were soon to bring on a hnan- 
 cial panic. The Secretary of the Treasury was forced to sell 
 bonds in order to obtain the gold necessary for the redemp- 
 tion of all the greenbacks that might be presented at the 
 Treasury. In expectation of such calls it was the rule to keep 
 in the Treasury vaults at least $100,000,000 in gold. A fear 
 arose that the Treasury would be unable to obtain gold enough 
 for the redemption of all the paper money in circulation, 
 and that it would have to use silver for that purpose. The 
 silver in a dollar was now worth only 67 cents in gold, and 
 it was feared that if debts were paid in silver, the creditors 
 might lose 33 cents on every dollar. Foreigners, apprehen- 
 
348 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 sive of such loss, began at once to sell their American stocks 
 and bonds and ceased to invest in American securities. The 
 Americans themselves began hoarding their gold and draw- 
 ing their deposits out of the banks. This general lack of 
 confidence led to great financial depression, in which large 
 numbers of banks, companies, and individuals engaged in 
 business failed. 
 
 576. Silver Clause of Sherman Act Repealed. Wilson Tariff 
 Act. With the intention of doing away with what was sup- 
 posed to be the chief cause of the prevailing depression. Con- 
 gress met, in extra session, in August, 1893, and repealed the 
 clause of the Sherman Act that required 4,500,000 ounces 
 of silver to be coined each month. This step, however, did 
 not bring about a revival of business. As the expenditures 
 of the government rose the receipts fell, until at the end of 
 the year there was a deficiency of $34,000,000. The country 
 was in this condition when Congress reassembled in De- 
 cember, 1893. As soon as Congress met, the work of reform- 
 ing the system of import duties began. The Wilson Bill, 
 as the new tariff act was known from the name of its author, 
 made numerous reductions in existing rates, especially in those 
 which had been placed on raw materials used in American 
 manufactures. The clause in the bill taxing all incomes in 
 excess of $4000 was rejected as unconstitutional by the 
 Supreme Court. The bill failed to afford the government 
 the revenue it needed. The drain on the gold reserve of 
 $100,000,000 in the Treasury went on, and, in order to main- 
 tain it, $262,000,000 had to be added to the bonded debt of 
 the United States. 
 
 577. The World's Columbian Exposition. The gates of the 
 great luternational Exposition, held at Chicago in honor of 
 the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America, 
 were thrown open in May, 1893. The inauguration of the ex- 
 
CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 349 
 
 position began with the review, in Hampton Roads, of a great 
 fleet of ironclads, belonging to the foremost powers of the 
 world. In strange contrast with these modern vessels were 
 the three wooden caravels in the same waters, built by Spain 
 in exact imitation of the frail barks in which Columbus and 
 his crew had crossed the ocean. The exposition was visited 
 by 20,000,000 people, and cost over $30,000,000. 
 
 578. Increase in the Navy. During the second term of 
 Cleveland there were numerous important additions to the 
 navy of the United States. A great advance in fighting power 
 and in rapidity of movement was now made in the construction 
 of first-class battleships and armed cruisers. 
 
 579. Foreign Affairs. Venezuelaji Conti^oversy. A contro- 
 versy had, for some time, been in progress between Venezuela 
 and Great Britain as to the ownership of a strip of territory 
 lying on the borders of Venezuela and British Guiana. The 
 United States offered to serve as the arbitrator of the disputed 
 claims, but its services were declined by Great Britain. The 
 President sent a message to Congress, recommending that a 
 commission should be appointed to find out what was the cor- 
 rect boundary line between the two countries with a view to 
 upholding the Monroe Doctrine in case it should appear that 
 Great Britain was seizing Venezuelan territory. The pacific 
 attitude of Great Britain alone averted hostilities. The dis- 
 pute was amicably settled in 1897. 
 
 580. Revolution in Hawaii. In January, 1893, Queen Liliuo- 
 kalani (lee lee wo kah lah'nee), of the Hawaiian (hah wi' yan) 
 Islands (map, p. 361), threatened to revoke the Constitution, and 
 make the monarchy absolute. A revolution resulted — a provi- 
 sional government was promptly set up, and royal rule in the 
 Islands was declared to be forever abolished. A large body of 
 marines was landed from an American man-of-war, stationed in 
 the harbor of Honolulu, with the avowed intention of protect- 
 
350 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 "^ Q 20 ^ 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 I^KAHOOLAWE 
 
 Mauna'Coa .^f' y^ 
 
 ing American citizens and property, but in reality to give sup- 
 port to the leaders of tlie movement, who, with hardly an 
 exception, were of American birth or descent. In February, 
 1893, Minister Stevens raised the American flag, and publicly 
 announced that the Islands were under the control of the 
 United States. A 
 treaty of annexa- 
 tion was submitted 
 to the Senate by 
 President Harri- 
 son, but in 1893, 
 before it could be 
 
 acted upon, it was withdrawn by Cleve- 
 land, who sent a new Minister to the 
 Islands with instructions to bring about 
 the restoration of the queen on certain 
 conditions. As the President of the Hawaiian Kepublic 
 refused to consent to this, the queen failed to recover her 
 throne. 
 
 581. Election of McKinley. In 1896, the Democratic party 
 nominated William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, and Arthur 
 Sewall, of Maine, for the presidency and vice presidency 
 respectively. The Democratic platform called for the "free 
 and unlimited coinage of silver " at the existing ratio of 
 sixteen to one ; that is, with sixteen times as much silver in 
 a silver dollar as of gold in a gold dollar. A wing of the 
 party, which favored the gold standard of value, nominated 
 General John M. Palmer, of Illinois, and General Simon B. 
 Buckner, of Kentucky, for the the same offices. William 
 McKinley, of Ohio, was the Republican and successful can- 
 didate, on a platform favoring, not only the gold standard, 
 but also a high protective tariff. Garret A. Hobart, of New 
 Jersey, was elected Vice President. 
 
McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 351 
 
 McKinley's Administration, 1897-1901* 
 
 582, Disorder in Cuba. The leading event of McKinley's 
 administration was the war with Spain (1898). This grew out 
 of the American opposition to the continuation of the lamen- 
 table condition of affairs in Cuba, in consequence of the 
 savage manner in which Spain 
 had attempted to put down the 
 rebellion prevailing there for sev- 
 eral years. Cleveland refused, 
 so far as our country was con- 
 cerned, to grant to the Cuban 
 insurgents the rights of a people 
 engaged in open war; but their 
 cause had the moral support of 
 the Americans, whose feeling of 
 humanity was shocked, and whose 
 material interests were greatly 
 injured by the intestinal strife 
 which had plunged the beautiful 
 island into ruin and despair. Cleveland had appointed General 
 Fitzhugh Lee consul general at Havana, and such were the 
 courage, discretion, and ability he had shown in his difficult 
 position that McKinley had retained him in office. General 
 Lee and the vice consuls were very active in relieving the suf- 
 fering which the people endured from exposure and famine, 
 
 1 William McKinley was born in Ohio in January, 1843. He began active 
 life as a school teacher; entered the Federal army as a private at the begin- 
 ning of the war, and rose to the rank of major ; studied law after the close of 
 hostilities, and seven times in succession was elected to Congress. In 1800 he 
 reported the tariff bill bearing his name, which gave him great prominence, 
 and led eventually to his election to the presidency. In 1891 he was chosen 
 governor of Ohio by a large majority of the popular vote. He was reelected 
 President in liX)0, and was assassinated at Buffalo in September, 1901, 
 
 William McKinley 
 
352 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 Key West- -^^^^^ 
 
 lassau csj. 
 
 SCALE CF MILES 
 
 ISLE OF 
 PINES 
 
 ^t 
 
 ^^K 
 
 4^ 
 
 but in spite of their judicious use of the approx)riation which 
 Congress made for the purpose, tlie most appalling destitution 
 prevailed, especially in the towns where the inhabitants had 
 been herded together by the Spaniards, — places of " recon- 
 centration," as they were termed, — among whom a frightful 
 mortality prevailed. 
 
 583. The " Maine" blown up. The situation became so criti- 
 cal in January, 1898, that, at the request of General Lee, the 
 Maine, commanded by Captain C. D. Sigsbee, was ordered 
 
 to the harbor of 
 Havana. A pri- 
 vate letter written 
 to a friend by 
 Seiior Dupuy de 
 Lome, the Spanish 
 minister at Wash- 
 ington, in which 
 he referred to 
 McKinley in harsh 
 terms, was obtained surreptitiously and published. The indig- 
 nation which this letter caused in the United States had 
 hardly subsided when, on February 15, 1898, the Maine was 
 blown up, with the loss of two of her officers and two hundred 
 and fifty-eight of her crew. 
 
 584. Ultimatum to Spain. As it was generally believed that 
 this explosion had been perpetrated by the Spaniards, all hope 
 of a peaceable settlement of the difficulty disappeared. Con- 
 gress appropriated $50,000,000 for national defense, and prepa- 
 rations for active hostilities at once began. A Board which 
 had been appointed to ascertain the causes of the explosion 
 reported that the Maine had been destroyed by means of a 
 submarine mine, but for lack of testimony it was im.possible 
 to say by whom it had been fired. Spain having, in a note 
 
 Santiago de Cuba C:?,":t?Avr6S--> ^^"^^^-f^. 
 
 West Indies 
 
McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 358 
 
 Ml. 
 
 to the Great Powers, declined to give up her sovereign right 
 
 over Cuba, the President, on April 19, delivered to the vepve- 
 
 sentatives of that country, the ultimatum of the United States, 
 
 which required that Spain should withdraw from the island. 
 
 585. Call for Volimteers. The Spanish minister at Wash- 
 ington promptly demanded his 
 
 passports, and the American 
 
 minister at Madrid, General 
 
 Stewart L. Woodford, was 
 
 dismissed from Spain on 
 
 April 21. This was virtually 
 
 a declaration of war, though 
 
 the formal declaration by 
 
 Spain was not made till 
 
 April 24. Active hostilities 
 
 opened with the capture by 
 
 American war ships of two Spanish vessels on April 22. 
 
 The President issued a call for volunteers and 200,000 men 
 
 were soon enlisted. 
 
 586. War with Spain. Battle of Manila. On April 27 
 
 the coast of the western half of Cuba having been brought 
 
 into a state of strict blockade, 
 the town of Matanzas was bom- 
 barded and its fortifications 
 silenced. A few days afterward 
 (May 1) the great naval victory 
 at Manila occurred. The Ameri- 
 can fleet, commanded by Commo- 
 dore Dewey, an officer who was 
 as skillful as he was brave, 
 pushed boldly into the bay about 
 midnight, and at dawn arrived 
 
 off the city. As soon as the fleet came in range, the guns in 
 
 Admiral Dewey 
 
354 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 the batteries at Manila and Cavite (cah vee'ta) opened a heavy 
 fire, in which the Spanish ships, lying under the protection of 
 the forts at Cavite, hotly joined. 
 
 587. The American squadron returned the bombardment. 
 Sailing in a line parallel to that of the Spanish fleet, the 
 American vessels maintained a terrific fire, at once continuous 
 
 Battle of Manila Bay 
 
 and accurate, although submarine mines swarmed in the sur- 
 rounding waters, and torpedo launches w^ere darting out to 
 send the American ships to the bottom. The Reina Cristina, 
 moving forward to grapple with its antagonists at close quar- 
 ters, was forced to withdraw, disabled and in flames, and soon 
 sank. AYhen the American fleet drew off for a few hours, in 
 which to rest and refresh the sailors, several of the Spanish 
 vessels were on fire. The fleet returned to the attack, and 
 by noon the batteries in the forts at Cavite were silenced. 
 The victory had been won without the loss of a man, with 
 
MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 355 
 
 seven men only slightly wounded, and with no appreciable 
 damage to the ships. Three Spanish vessels had sunk ; seven 
 had been burned. Such complete success was almost without 
 a parallel in naval warfare. As a reward for his victory, 
 Dewey received the thanks of Congress and was promoted to 
 be rear admiral and later admiral. 
 
 588. Cardenas. Meanwhile a Spanish squadron, under the 
 command of Admiral Cervera (ther va'rah), had , left Cape 
 Verde Islands, and Acting Rear Admiral Sampson, in com- 
 mand of the Atlantic Squadron, set out to intercept it. A 
 few days later (May 11), an engagement took place off Car- 
 denas between the vessels enforcing the blockade and Spanish 
 gunboats and the batteries on the shore. Ensign Worth Bag- 
 ley, of North Carolina, with four sailors, perished by the 
 explosion of a shell overhead. This young man was the first 
 officer to fall in the war. On May 12 the American fleet under 
 Sampson began a terrific bombardment of San Juan in Porto 
 Rico, but nothing was accomplished. 
 
 589. Ari^ival of Cervera at Santiago. On May 19 the 
 fleet of Cervera, by a circuitous route, stole into the winding 
 harbor of Santiago de Cuba (sahn te ah'go da coo'bah), which 
 was protected at its entrance by formidable shore batteries 
 and numerous submarine mines. On May 13 Commodore 
 Schley, who was in command of the Flying Squadron, left 
 Hampton Roads and came to anchor off the mouth of the 
 harbor, where, on May 30, Sampson joined him, and took 
 control of the united fleets. 
 
 590. Sinhing of the " Merrimac." On June 3 a re- 
 markable attempt was made to close the mouth of the 
 harbor to navigation by sinking the collier Merrimac in 
 the channel. This 2:»erilous duty was confided to Lieutenant 
 Richmond P. Hobson, of Alabama, and seven men, who 
 were chosen from among the hundreds who eagerly volun- 
 
356 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 teered to go. A steam launch was to be dispatched to bring 
 them off when the collier went down. The little party of 
 gallant seamen, with their brave young leaded^, set out at dawn, 
 and in the midst of a heavy fire from tlie Spanish batteries 
 
 on shore, scuttled the 
 Merrimac, but owing 
 to damage to its rud- 
 der, caused by flying 
 shells, which made it 
 unmanageable, the ves- 
 sel could not be sunk 
 exactly across the chan- 
 nel. Hobson and his 
 men drifted toward the 
 shore, the launch be- 
 ing unable to come to 
 their rescue, and were 
 captured. They were 
 afterward imprisoned 
 at Santiago. Admiral 
 Cervera sent a flag of 
 truce to Sampson, with 
 a letter, in which he 
 extolled the bravery of 
 the little band of heroes, 
 Sinkingof the "Merrimac" ^^^ ^^^^ assurance 
 
 that they would receive the most honorable treatment. On 
 July 6 they were exchanged. 
 
 591. Advance on Santiago hy Land. General Shaffer, at 
 the head of an army of about 18,000 men, set sail from Tampa, 
 Florida, and by June 22 had landed at Daiquiri. General 
 Joseph Wheeler, a former Confederate leader of distinction 
 (§§ 484, 497), was the commander of the cavalry which accom- 
 
McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 357 
 
 VICINITY 
 
 SANTIAGO 
 
 SCALE OF ^ 
 
 panied the expedition. The advance toward Santiago began 
 on the 24th. At Las Guasimas the Koiigh Kiders, a volunteer 
 cavalry organization composed largely of western cowboys, 
 together with the first and tenth 
 (negro) cavalry regiments of the 
 regular army, fell into an ambush, 
 but bore themselves with such firm- 
 ness and courage that the enemy 
 retired. Lieutenant Colonel Theo- 
 dore Roosevelt of the Eougii Riders 
 on this occasion showed conspicuous bravery. By June 26 the 
 cavalry under General Wheeler had marched as far as San 
 Juan (sahn hoo ahn'), not far from Santiago. Two days later 
 General Kent planted his siege and field guns on the heights 
 overlooking that city. At San Juan on July 1 a brilliant 
 charge was made by the American troops, the brunt of the 
 attack falling on the unmounted cavalry of the Rough Riders 
 and the first and tenth regiments. The Spaniards had now 
 been driven back, trench by trench. 
 The American forces sat down to await 
 the submission of the city. 
 
 592. The Battle. On July 3 Samp- 
 son was summoned in the battleship 
 New York to Siboney, to hold a confer- 
 ence with General Shafter, who wished 
 to plan a joint naval and military at- 
 tack on Santiago. While the head of the naval forces was thus 
 several miles distant from the scene of the blockade the Spanish 
 fleet darted out of the mouth of the harbor, and at first con- 
 centrated its fire on the Brooklyn, the flagship of Commodore 
 Schley now, in the absence of Sampson, in command of the fleet.^ 
 
 1 Thus officially stated by Admiral Dewey in the decision of the Board that 
 sat to inquire into Schley's conduct before and during the battle. 
 
 Joseph Wheeler 
 
358 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 Rear Admiral Schley 
 
 The Spanish vessels sought to escape by flight, but were so 
 hotly pursued that by one o'clock all had been run ashore to 
 avoid capture. Only one American sailor was killed; a few 
 
 were wounded. The Spanish loss in 
 killed and wounded was very heavy. 
 Besides this Admiral Cervera and 
 1800 Spanish sailors were taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 593. Siirrender of Santiago. 
 General Toral, now in command of 
 the Spanish forces at Santiago, hav- 
 ing previously refused to surrender, 
 on July 9, after consultation by 
 cable with the Spanish government 
 at Madrid, offered to evacuate the 
 city, provided that he should be permitted to leave with all 
 his army without molestation. Shafter demanded that his 
 surrender should be unconditional. Toral firmly refused to 
 yield, and on the next day the Brooklyn, Texas, and Indiana, 
 anchoring off Aguadores, five miles away, opened a terrific 
 bombardment on the city, which lay behind the hills out of 
 sight of the gunners. No damage of importance was inflicted. 
 On the 13th General Miles, the officer in command of all 
 the forces of the United States, who had just arrived from 
 Washington, accompanied by General Shafter held an interview 
 with General Toral, in which terms for the surrender of the 
 Spanish troops were agreed upon. On July 17 the city 
 capitulated, the American flag was hoisted, and General Wood, 
 who began the war as the colonel of the regiment of Rough 
 Riders, was made the military governor. Nearly 25,000 
 soldiers laid down their arms and were sent back to Spain. 
 594. An exrpedition against Porto Rico was now planned. 
 By July 25 General Miles, who had assumed direct charge. 
 
McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 359 
 
 had landed a large detachment of troops at Puerto de Guanica, 
 about seventeen miles west of Ponce. On July 28 the town of 
 Ponce surrendered. The American army was received by the 
 people with a great ovation. 
 
 595. Terms of Peace. About this time the French am- 
 bassador at AVashington conveyed a message to President 
 
 
 
 
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 Scene in the Philippines 
 
 McKinley, which led to the inauguration of negotiations for 
 peace. What were the terms which the United States would 
 consider sufficiently satisfactory to justify a termination of 
 hostilities ? The reply was returned : (1) the withdrawal of 
 Spanish troops from Cuba and the abandonment of the Spanish 
 claim of sovereignty; (2) the evacuation of Porto Rico and 
 other Spanish islands in the West Indies and their cession to 
 the United States; (3) the cession of one of the Ladrone 
 Islands to the United States ; (4) the retention by the United 
 bruce's u. s. hist. — 22 
 
360 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 States of the city and bay of Manila until it was determined 
 by the treaty of peace what should be the final disposition 
 of the entire group of the Philippine Islands. The protocol 
 was approved by the Spanish government on August 11, and 
 on August 12 hostilities were declared to be suspended. 
 
 596. Bombardment of Malate. While these events were 
 in progress a large body of American troops, under command 
 of General Wesley Merritt, had been sent to Manila. On Au- 
 gust 13, before receiving news of the protocol, Dewey opened 
 a heavy bombardment, from his ships, of the defenses at 
 Malate (mah lah'ta), under cover of which the forces on land 
 made a determined assault on the trenches. The Spaniards 
 were driven back in great confusion, and took refuge behind 
 the walls. They soon surrendered. 
 
 597. Cession of the Philippines. The peace conference 
 was held in Paris. The treaty was concluded December 10, 
 and ratified by the Senate February 6, 1899. By its terms, 
 in addition to the provisions of the protocol, Guam was selected 
 as the island to be ceded to the United States. The Philip- 
 pines also were ceded, and in return for the Philippines the 
 United States agreed to pay Spain $20,000,000. On February 4 
 
 the Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, un- 
 successfully attacked the defenses of 
 Manila. Now began an active cam- 
 paign on the part of General Otis, the 
 commander of the American army, to 
 conquer the native troops, which was 
 found to be a very difficult task, on 
 account of the tropical climate and 
 growth. By the beginning of 1900 most 
 overaor a ^^ ^j^^ insurgents had surrendered. 
 
 In 1899 President McKinley appointed a commission to re- 
 port upon the condition of the Philippines. In 1900 a new 
 
862 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 commission of five members was appointed to control the gov- 
 ernment of the island and appoint the civil officers. William 
 H. Taftj the president of this commission, was appointed civil 
 governor of the islands. 
 
 598. Other Events. The other important events in the 
 history of the administration of McKinley were: (1) the 
 
 Palace at Honolulu 
 
 passage of a joint resolution of Congress in July, 1898, under 
 the terms of which the Hawaiian Islands were annexed to 
 the United States ; they now form a part of the American 
 possessions, as an organized territory; (2) the passage of a 
 new tariff law in the place of the Wilson Act, known from its 
 author as the Dingley Act — this measure has increased the 
 duties on many imported articles to a point that is without 
 precedent in the history of the country; (3) the return of 
 miners from Alaska with the news that there had been dis- 
 
McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 363 
 
 coveries of rich deposits of gold on the Klondike River, in 
 Canada, — followed by many discoveries of gold in Alaska, 
 especially at Cape Nome ; (4) the great exposition held at Nash- 
 ville in 1897, in celebration of the one hundredth anniversary 
 of the founding of the State government of Tennessee ; (o) the 
 consolidation in 1897, into one great city, of the cities of 
 New York and Brooklyn and some outlying territory — New 
 York has thus become the second city in the world in popula- 
 tion ; (6) the Boxer movement in China in 1900, which compelled 
 the United States, along with the European powers and Japan, 
 to send troops there for the protection of its interests ; (7) the 
 acquisition by the United States of Tutuila (too too ee'lah) in 
 the Samoan Islands by treaty with Germany and Great Britain 
 (1900) ; (8) the more complete establishment of the gold stand- 
 ard by the Act of 1900. 
 
 599. Reelection of McKinley. In the election of 1900 McKin- 
 ley was again the nominee of the Republican party on the 
 same platform of principles as in 1896. Theodore Roosevelt, 
 of New York, was the nominee for the vice presidency. 
 William J. Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, were 
 the candidates of the Democratic party. McKinley was 
 reelected. 
 
 600. Death of McKinley. In the spring of 1901 a Pan- 
 American Fair was thrown open to the public at Buffalo, New 
 York. Among the many thousands who visited it was President 
 McKinley, who came in September as the guest of the exposi- 
 tion. While holding a public reception he was approached by 
 an anarchist as if to shake hands and was shot twice. At first 
 the President's wounds were not thought to be mortal, but 
 suddenly his injuries assumed a fatal character, and he died 
 on September 14, deeply lamented by the people of the United 
 States, and regretted by the entire civilized world. Mr. Roose- 
 velt took the oath of office the same day. 
 
364 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION— REUNION 
 
 Admission of New States, 1861-1903 
 
 601. West Virginia and Nevada. — Great American Desert. 
 
 As already stated (§ 490) West Virginia and Nevada were ad- 
 mitted into the Union during the War of Secession, West Vir- 
 ginia in 1863 and Nevada in 1864. An impression prevailed 
 for many years that a large part of Nebraska, Kansas, Col- 
 orado, Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Texas formed a great desert, 
 popularly known as the Great American Desert, which was 
 the resort only of hardy wild game. It was supposed to be 
 unfitted for cultivation, and, therefore, for settlement. It was 
 due chiefly to the explorations of Lieutenant John C. Fremont 
 (§ 393) that this notion was dispelled as to the larger part 
 of this region, and later examination has shown that the 
 apparently most barren portions can be brought into a state 
 of fertility by irrigation. In his third expedition, Fremont 
 made his way across what are now the States of Nebraska 
 and Utah. 
 
 602. Nebraska was organized as a Territory under the Kansas- 
 Nebraska Act (§ 408), but escaped the struggles that darkened 
 the history of its sister Territory. When it entered the Union 
 (1867) slavery had been abolished. It is one of the greatest 
 of the grain-producing States. Its rapid growth in population, 
 which increased eightfold in twenty years, v/as largely due to 
 the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad, which began at 
 Omaha. 
 
 603. Pacific Railroads. In 1858 a great number of miners 
 entered the country around Pikes Peak, and one of their rude 
 and straggling camps came to be known as Denver, in honor 
 of a governor of Kansas of that name. Before very long per- 
 manent settlers began to establish their homes in the same 
 region. Denver rapidly grew into a town, with 1000 inhabit- 
 ants. In order to bring in the supplies they needed, a daily 
 
ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 
 
 365 
 
 line of coaches was run to Leavenworth, in Kansas. Soon a 
 pony express was carrying the mails between St. Joseph, 
 Missouri, and San Francisco, and this was followed by a 
 line of overland stages. 
 From the time Califor- 
 nia was admitted as a 
 State there had been a 
 plan to unite it with the 
 East by means of a rail- 
 road, but it was not until 
 1862 that work began. 
 Two companies were 
 chartered, — one to build 
 a railroad from Omaha 
 
 Pony Express 
 
 westward ; the other to build from Sacramento eastward, until 
 the two railroads should come together. The government 
 aided the companies by large subsidies in bonds and land 
 grants. 
 
 .604. Colorado and Utah. The discovery of silver made 
 Colorado a Territory in 1861, and the building of the Central 
 Pacific made the Territory a State in 1876. As Colorado was 
 admitted in the hundredth year after the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, it is known as the " Centennial State." It continues 
 to be one of the greatest silver-producing States of the Union. 
 Utah, which was originally settled by the Mormons (§ 382), 
 was not admitted until 1896, although it was entitled to 
 admission long before by reason of its wealth and popula- 
 tion. The obstruction lay in the institution of polygamy, and 
 this was not removed until the people adopted a constitution 
 expressly prohibiting polygamy. Utah, like Colorado, was 
 greatly aided by the construction of the Pacific railways; 
 and, like Colorado too, is largely dependent on its mineral 
 interests. 
 
ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 367 
 
 605. The population of Idaho, Montana, and the Dakotas in 
 
 1860 did not exceed 5000. Ten years later the discovery of 
 the precious metals at different points in this region had 
 brought in 50,000 settlers, the larger number of whom were 
 engaged in mining. It was not until the Northern Pacific 
 Railroad was built that the permanent prosperity of the scat- 
 tered communities was assured. The first earth was dug for 
 it in 1870, and as the line was constructed westward, emi- 
 grants took advantage of it to lay off farms and erect cities in 
 its vicinity. In 1889 the population of Dakota had increased 
 to 500,000. In that year it was divided and admitted to the 
 Union as two States, known as North Dakota and South 
 Dakota. Montana also entered in 1889, and Idaho and Wyo- 
 ming in 1890. 
 
 606. Vast regions in these States, which were formerly the 
 pasture ground of countless buffalo and antelope, have become 
 the ranges of innumerable herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. 
 The largest wheat farms in the world are to be found here. 
 The annual production of wheat in the two Dakotas often rises 
 to over 100,000,000 bushels, and of corn in South Dakota to 
 35,000,000 bushels. The production of the precious metals in 
 South Dakota is enormous, and this is also the case in the 
 States of Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming. 
 
 607. Washington, which was admitted as a State in 1889, 
 owed its first settlement to people who had been at first 
 attracted to Oregon by the fine cliniate and fertile farming 
 lands. The rush of population into California, after the dis- 
 covery of gold, brought across the continent many emigrants, 
 who finally made their homes in the region now included in 
 Washington. The only Territories now included in the main 
 part of the United States are Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, 
 which was separated from Indian Territory, and made a Terri- 
 tory in 1890, and Indian Territory. 
 
368 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 Progress of the Nation to 1900 
 
 608. Progress of the United States. Richest Country in the 
 World. We have from time to time dwelt upon the growth 
 of the United States in wealth and population during the 
 different periods in its history. In conclusion, a brief review 
 of a few recent aspects of that growth will not be out of place. 
 In the interval of forty years between 1860 and 1900, the area 
 of the United States has increased nearly 1,000,000 square 
 miles, and the population has increased two and a half fold ; 
 the length of the railways has increased seven fold ; the num- 
 ber of tons of pig iron fifteen fold ; the value of all manu- 
 factured products seven fold. The production of grain has 
 nearly trebled and of cotton more than doubled in the same 
 interval. The volume of exports has increased in value to 
 nearly J^ 1,500,000,000 and that of the imports to $900,000,000. 
 A comprehensive idea of the vast development of the country 
 covered by the United States from the foundation of the first 
 colony may be obtained from the statement that in three hun- 
 dred years its wealth has grown to be more than one sixth of 
 that of the entire world. The United States is now the richest 
 community on the globe, although the wealth of Great Britain 
 is greater in proportion to the number of its inhabitants. 
 
 609. Jfational Income. The gross receipts of the United 
 States in 1900 were nearly $2,000,000,000, and the expendi- 
 tures $1,000,000,000. In 1790 there were only 75 post offices 
 in the United States ; now there are over 75,000. The Ameri- 
 can post-office department handles more mail matter than all 
 the post-office departments of Europe taken together. 
 
 610. Educational and Literary Advance. In the period 
 of the Eevolution there were not more than 37 newspapers 
 issued; there are now more than 20,000 periodicals of all 
 kinds. The public libraries of the United States are among 
 
PROGRESS OF THE NATION TO 1900 369 
 
 the largest and finest in the world. There are now nearly 
 five hundred colleges, while the average annual attendance in 
 the public schools exceeds 15,000,000 pupils. 
 
 611. Ai)verican Inventions. All that inventive genius 
 could do to cheapen production, to promote comfort, to preserve 
 life and quicken transportation, has been done in the United 
 States. The print- 
 ing press, the sewing 
 machine, the type- 
 writer, the telephone, 
 the phonograph, the 
 agricultural reaper 
 and mower, the elec- 
 tric and the cable car, 
 
 the air brake, the Modem Newspaper Printing Press 
 
 house elevator, the breech-loading gun, — such are a few of 
 the marvelous American contrivances for the advancement of 
 the welfare of mankind. 
 
 612. Material Progress of the South. Agriculture. In the 
 enormous progress which the United States is making, the 
 South is playing, in some particulars, the leading part. At 
 the end of the War of Secession its whole system, social and 
 industrial, was overthrown. During the twelve years succeed- 
 ing the close of hostilities at Appomattox, the Southern States 
 were able to advance but little, owing to the disorder and rob- 
 bery attending Reconstruction. It was not until the adminis- 
 tration of Hayes began that these States can be said to have 
 had control of their own affairs. Although at the beginning 
 of the brief period that has elapsed since then, the South, 
 overwhelmed with debt, possessed little banking cayutal and 
 few manufacturing plants, with a laboring population disor- 
 ganized, and all foreign immigration diverted from its borders, 
 yet the progress of that part of the Union has been more 
 
370 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION — REUNION 
 
 rapid than that of any other division. It has made enormous 
 gains in the value of its farm products. It produces nearly 
 all the cotton, rice, sugar and molasses, and three fourths of 
 the tobacco raised in the United States. In spite of the fluctua- 
 tions in the price of cotton, the annual value of the agricul- 
 tural products of the South is now about $1,000,000,000. This 
 includes the value of the fruits and vegetables, which now 
 form so large a part of the shipments from all the Southern 
 ports on the Atlantic, — a new industry, which is destined 
 to become a source of vast wealth to the Southern States. 
 
 613. The advance in manufactures has been more re- 
 markable even than in agriculture. In 1900 the capital invested 
 in that form of production amounted to nearly $1,500,000,000, 
 which w^as five times its value in 1880. In 1880 there were 
 180 mills, 700,000 spindles, and 15,000 looms engaged in cotton 
 manufacture. By 1900 the number of mills had increased to 
 over 400, the spindles to nearly 5,000,000, and the looms to 
 110,000. In 1900 the capital invested in cotton manufactures 
 was $150,000,000 which was six and a half times the amount 
 invested in 1880. Already the Southern States monopolize 
 the manufacture of coarse cotton, and are making steady pro- 
 gress in obtaining a share in the manufacture of finer goods. 
 Producing about 80% of the supply of the raw cotton of the 
 world (10,000,000 bales in 1900, as compared with 5,761,000 
 in 1880), with cheap coal in abundance, and an unsurpassed 
 water power not far from the fields, it would be safe to predict 
 that in the course of the next fifty years the South will become 
 the leading manufacturer of cotton on the globe. 
 
 614. In former days it was a serious problem in the South- 
 ern States how to get rid of cottonseed at the least expense. 
 The gins were frequently built over streams, in order that the 
 running water might carry off the seed without further trouble. 
 The first mill for compressing oil from cottonseed was erected 
 
PROGRESS OF THE NATION TO 1900 
 
 371 
 
 in Natchez, Mississippi, in 1834, but the industry did not ac- 
 quire commercial importance till after the War of Secession. 
 In 1900 there were over 350 mills engaged in the extraction of 
 cottonseed oil, using 2,500,000 tons of cottonseed, from which 
 nearly $50,000,000 worth of products were extracted. The 
 cake made of the compressed seed after the removal of the 
 hulls and refuse cotton fiber, is shipped to every country in 
 
 Iron Works, Alabama 
 
 Europe as food for live stock, and adds largely to the income 
 derived from cotton culture. The refuse cotton fiber and the 
 hulls are also sold for use in various ways. 
 
 615. The developmeYit of the iron industry in the South 
 is as remarkable as that of the cotton. So vast is the abun- 
 dance of fuel, that West Virginia alone possesses nearly twice 
 as great a coal area as Great Britain. In Alabama there is an 
 inexhaustible supply of iron ore, in the closest proximity to 
 coking coal and limestone. This iron is finding a market, not 
 only in America, but also in Asia and Europe. The iron and 
 
872 
 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION— REUNION 
 
 steel production of the Southern States, as a whole, increased 
 from 530,000 tons in 1880 to over 3,000,000 in 1900. The 
 region where this industry is carried on to the best advan- 
 tage extends from northern Virginia, south to central Alabama. 
 616. Exports, Railroads, and Shiphuilding. The value 
 of exports from ports, owing in part to the diversion of west- 
 ern traffic from New York, Boston, and Philadelphia to them, 
 
 William and Mary College 
 
 was about #500,000,000 in 1900, which was an increase of 
 $100,000,000 in two years. The increase in the extent of new 
 railroads since 1880 has been 35,000 miles. Already the South 
 possesses in the shipbuilding yards at Newport News the 
 largest of the kind in the United States, and among the largest 
 in the world. Its supply of timber for shipbuilding, as well as 
 for other purposes, is enormous. 
 
 617. Intellectual Progress of the South. ScJiools and Colleges. 
 In the midst of this great industrial progress, the Southern 
 States have not neglected the moral and intellectual welfare of 
 
PROGRESS OF THE NATION TO 1900 373 
 
 their people. The public school funds have increased rapidly, 
 the number of colleges and universities has steadily grown, 
 while the standards of instruction have been as constantly 
 rising. The tendency of the increasing manufacturing inter- 
 ests of the South is to stimulate the growth of cities, which are 
 rapidly becoming the centers of a productive literary life. 
 
 618. Southern Writers. Since the deaths of Hawthorne, 
 Emerson, Longfellow, Bryant, and Lowell, the Northern States 
 have declined in literary fertility of a high order ; the South- 
 ern have grown. Before the War of Secession the latter 
 States were prominent in political writings alone. They now 
 possess a circle of writers of fiction, who, in truth to nature, 
 purity of sentiment, searching humor and excellence of style, 
 are unsurpassed by any of their contemporaries who have won 
 fame in the same field. The most famous are George W. Cable, 
 of Louisiana, Thomas Nelson Page, of Virginia, Miss Murfree, 
 of Tennessee, Joel Chandler Harris, of Georgia, and James 
 Lane Allen, of Kentucky. In historical research Virginia and 
 South Carolina have been especially active, and in Edward 
 McCrady, William Wirt Henry, Kate Mason Eowland, Lyon 
 G. Tyler, and Alexander Brown claim writers who have made 
 notable contributions to our knowledge of American Colonial 
 and Revolutionary events and their causes. 
 
 619. The jjrogress of the South in all the elements of ma- 
 terial, intellectual, and moral greatness, is the progress of the 
 United States. In patriotic devotion, and in national aspira- 
 tions for the future, that part of our country is now as 
 much a part of the Union as it has always been in its geo- 
 graphical lines. The growing identity of practical interests, 
 and the increasing rapidity of communication between the 
 States, is fast welding North and South, East and West, into 
 one great community, in which the points of substantial dif- 
 ference will become less marked each year that passes. 
 
ANALYSIS OF PERIOD IX 
 
 12; 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 ^< 
 
 HI 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 W 
 
 a 
 
 Hayes's Adminis- 
 tration, 1877-1881. 
 
 II. Garfield and Ar- 
 thur ' s Administra- 
 tion, 1881-1885. 
 
 III. Cleveland's First 
 Administration, 
 1885-1889. 
 
 IV. Harrison's Ad- 
 ministration, 1889- 
 1893. 
 
 V. Cleveland's Sec- 
 ond Administra- -( 
 tion, 1893-1897. 
 
 Domestic J 2. 
 
 Affairs. I. 3! 
 
 Financial / 1' 
 Affairs. (^ 3. 
 
 Domestic J 2*. 
 
 Affairs. | 3- 
 
 1. Domestic 
 
 Affairs. I 4] 
 
 2. Foreign 
 
 Affairs. 
 
 ih 
 
 1. Domestic J 2'. 
 
 Affairs. [ 3. 
 
 2. Foreign / 2; 
 
 Affairs. (^ £ 
 
 rl. 
 
 1. Domestic J 2. 
 
 Affairs, j ^• 
 
 2. Foreign / 2; 
 
 Affairs. [ 3! 
 
 1. W a r with 
 
 VI. McKinley's Ad- 
 ministration, 1897- < 
 1901. 
 
 VII. New States ad- 
 mitted, 1861-1903. 
 
 u 
 
 VIII. Progress of the / 1. 
 Nation to 1900. 1 2. 
 
 Spain, Naval, j 4. 
 
 War w i t h I 2. 
 Spain, Mill- ] J 
 tary. [ 5. 
 
 Foreign J 2. 
 
 Affairs. I 3. 
 
 Domestic J 3. 
 
 Affairs, j 4- 
 
 West Virginia. 
 Nevada. 
 Nebraska. 
 Colorado. 
 North Dakota. 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Progress in General. 
 Progress of the South. 
 
 374 
 
 Railroad Strikes. 
 Jetties in Mississippi R. 
 Mechanical Inventions. 
 
 Renionetization of Silver. 
 Specie Payments Resumed. 
 Refunding of Public Debt. 
 
 Assassination of Garfield. 
 Civil Service Act 
 Reduction of Postage. 
 Southern Expositions. 
 
 Labor Troubles. 
 Interstate Commission. 
 Chinese Exclusion. 
 Succession to Presidency. 
 Surplus Revenue. 
 
 Canadian Fisheries. 
 Dispute about Samoa. 
 
 McKinley Tariff Act. 
 Business Depression. 
 Mafia suppressed. 
 
 International Copyright. 
 Bering Sea Dispute settled. 
 Controversy with Chile. 
 
 Panic of 1893. 
 Wilson Taritr Act passed. 
 World's Columbian Fair. 
 Kavy enlarged. 
 
 Venezuelan Controversy. 
 Revolution in Hawaii. 
 Cuban Difficulties. 
 
 Coast of Cuba blockaded. 
 Battle of Manila. 
 Spanish Fleet enters Santiago. 
 Bombardment of San Juan. 
 Flying Squadron off Santiago. 
 Battle of Santiago. 
 
 Army lands at Daiquiri. 
 Engagements before Santiago. 
 Santiago surrenders. 
 Expedition against Porto Rico. 
 Treaty of Peace. 
 
 Acquisition of Philippines. 
 Hawaiian I. annexed. 
 Expedition against China. 
 
 Filipino Uprising. 
 Dingley Tariff Act passed. 
 Klondike Gold Discoveries. 
 Nashville Exposition. 
 Gold Standard established. 
 Assassination of McKinley. 
 
 7. Washington. 
 
 8. Montana. 
 
 9. Idaho. 
 
 10. Wyoming. 
 
 11. Utah. 
 
Roosevelt's^ Administration, 1901 
 
 620. Isthmian Canal. In November, 1901, a treaty between 
 Great Britain and United States was signed which revoked 
 the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (§ 405). By the terms of the 
 
 new convention, the right of the 
 United States to construct the Isth- 
 mian Canal, and to manage it, 
 and protect it from lawlessness, is 
 fully recognized, but all nations are 
 granted equal freedom, both in war 
 and in peace, in the use of the canal. 
 An Isthmian Canal Commission 
 reported in favor of the Nicaragua 
 route, but on the offer by the Panama 
 Canal Company to sell its fran- 
 chises and property to the United 
 States for §40,000,000, the Commis- 
 sion made a second report in favor of the Panama route, and a 
 bill was passed by Congress authorizing the President to make 
 the purchase, and also to acquire from Colombia certain terri- 
 torial rights along the line of the new water way. In 1903 a 
 
 1 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. He is 
 sprung from Dutch and Scotch-Irish stock. His mother was a native of 
 Georgia, being descended from Archibald Bulloch, the first Revolutionary- 
 governor of Georgia. Roosevelt was a member of the New York Assembly, 
 1882-1884, was appointed in 1889 a member of the United States Civil Service 
 Commission, of which body he was made president. In 1895 he became presi- 
 dent of the New York Police Commissioners. This position he resigned on his 
 appointment as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. When war broke out with 
 Spain he became lieutenant colonel of the Rough Riders, a regiment com- 
 posed chiefly of western cowboys and hunters. In 1898 Roosevelt was elected 
 governor of New York, and in 1900 Vice President of the United States. 
 
 375 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
376 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 treaty with Colombia was signed securing to the United States 
 practically permanent control of a six-mile strip across the 
 Isthmus of Panama on the payment of $10,000,000 and an 
 annual rental of $250,000. 
 
 621. Republic of Cuba. In 1901, Cuba, which was still occu- 
 pied by an American army, adopted a Constitution agreeable to 
 the conditions laid down by the United States. On May 20, 
 1902, the United States troops were withdrawn, and Cuba 
 assumed control of its own government. The new government 
 bound itself to continue the prevailing American regulations 
 for the x^revention of epidemic diseases and the enforcement 
 of thorough sanitation in the cities. In March, 1903, the 
 Senate of the United States ratified a reciprocity treaty with 
 Cuba, subject to approval by Congress before it becomes 
 operative. 
 
 622. Philippine Islands. In July, 1902, Congress passed a 
 bill establishing a plan of civil government for the Philippines. 
 This bill provided for a legislature of two houses, one consist- 
 ing of the Philippine Commission (§ 597) and the other of an 
 assembly elected by the Filipinos. The civil governor, vice 
 governor, members of the Philippine Commission, and heads 
 of executive departments are appointed by the President with 
 the consent of the Senate. 
 
 623. Anthracite Strike. It was the custom of the miners in 
 most of the bituminous coal regions, and the owners of the 
 mines, by their representatives, to meet annually, and adopt 
 for a year a general scale of wages. The miners in the anthra- 
 cite regions were anxious to make a similar arrangement, but 
 the owners of the mines declined to unite with them. The 
 miners then demanded an advance in wages and a reduction 
 in the hours of work. Both demands were refused, and in 
 May, 1902, there began a strike which involved 147,000 men 
 and lasted five months, practically closing the mines. So great 
 
ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 877 
 
 was the distress from a coal famine which followed that Presi- 
 dent Roosevelt came forward with the suggestion that the dif- 
 ferences should be submitted to the arbitration of a commission, 
 to be appointed by him. This plan of settlement was accepted 
 by all parties, and work was resumed late in October. The 
 Commission, after a careful investigation, reported in March, 
 1903, an award to the miners of a portion of their demands. 
 
 624. Irrigation. In 1902 Congress passed a law which 
 allowed the greater part of tlie proceeds from the sales of 
 public lands in certain States and Territories in the West to 
 be used for the reclamation of their arid lands- The States 
 and Territories in Avhich this work will be done are Arizona, 
 California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, 
 Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, 
 South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. It is 
 thought that about 60,000,000 acres will by this means be 
 added to the arable soil of the United States. 
 
 625. Wireless Telegraphy. For several years wireless teleg- 
 raphy has been successfully used for short distances, but in 
 December, 1901, INIarconi, the Italian scientist, was able to 
 send a message across the Atlantic by this means. Soon after- 
 wards he erected two stations in America, one on Cape Breton 
 Island, the other at Cape Cod. In November, 1902, his first 
 experiment of a transoceanic message was successfully re- 
 peated. Many of the great international steamship lines are 
 now equipped with instruments for wireless telegraphy, and 
 have no difficulty in keeping up at sea communication with 
 the land and each other, thus greatly diminishing the perils 
 of an ocean voyage. 
 
 626. Department of Commerce and Labor. — An act of Con- 
 gress passed in February, 1903, added to the President's cabi- 
 net a Secretary of Commerce and Labor who presides over the 
 Department of Commerce and Labor. The duty of this De- 
 
 BRUCE's U.S. HIST. 23 
 
378 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 partment is " to foster, promote, and develop the foreign and 
 domestic commerce, the mining, manufacturing, shipping, and 
 fishery industries, the labor interests and the transportation 
 facilities of the United States." The work of the Department 
 is divided among a number of bureaus, many of which were 
 transferred to it from other departments. Among these is the 
 Census Office, transferred from the Department of the Interior. 
 A Bureau of Corporations was created with authority to make 
 investigations into the organization, conduct, and management 
 of the business of any corporations, except railroads, engaged 
 in commerce among the several States and with foreign nations. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE — 1776 
 
 In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 the unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of 
 
 AiMERICA 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
 people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
 another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
 equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
 them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created 
 equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
 rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
 That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
 deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
 ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
 right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new govern- 
 ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers 
 in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
 happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long estab- 
 lished, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to 
 suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
 the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of 
 abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a 
 design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
 their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
 their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
 colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
 their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
 of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all hav- 
 
 1 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 ing in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
 States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
 for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
 importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
 obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
 them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- 
 tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- 
 sentation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable 
 to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
 able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole 
 purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
 manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others 
 to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, 
 have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remain- 
 ing, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- 
 out, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
 purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
 pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
 of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
 to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
 offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
 officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the 
 consent of our legislature. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, 
 the civil power. 
 
 He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
 to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent 
 to their acts of pretended legislation : 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- 
 ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States: 
 
 2 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov- 
 ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging its 
 boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for 
 introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
 altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
 with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protec- 
 tion, and waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
 destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 lie is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
 to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, 
 with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
 barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
 to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
 friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored 
 to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, 
 whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
 sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in 
 the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered only 
 by repeated injury, A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
 act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We 
 have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
 extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
 of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
 appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
 them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
 which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
 They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
 must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separa- 
 tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
 peace friends. 
 
 3 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
 general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
 for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of 
 the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That 
 these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
 States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, 
 and that all political connection between them and the state of Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and inde- 
 pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, con- 
 tract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things 
 which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this 
 declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
 we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
 honor. John Hancock. 
 
 New Hampshire 
 Josiah Bartlett, 
 Wm. Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay 
 Saml. Adams, 
 John Adams, 
 Robt. Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 Bhode Island 
 Step. Hopkins, 
 William Ellery. 
 
 Connecticut 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Sam'el Huntington, 
 Wm. Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 Nexo York 
 Wm. Floyd, 
 Phil. Livingston, 
 FranS. Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 New Jersey 
 Richd. Stockton, 
 Jno, Witherspoon, 
 Fras. Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abra. Clark. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Robt. Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benja. Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 Geo. Clymer, 
 Jas. Smith, 
 Geo. Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 Geo. Ross. 
 
 Delaware 
 Csesar Rodney, 
 Geo. Read, 
 Tho. M'Kean. 
 
 Maryland 
 Samuel Chase, 
 Wm. Paca, 
 Thos. Stone, 
 4 
 
 Charles Carroll of Car- 
 rollton. 
 
 Virginia 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Th Jefferson, 
 Benja. Harrison, 
 Thos. Nelson, jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 North Carolina 
 Wm. Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 South Carolina 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Junr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 Geo. Walton. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES — 1787 ^ 
 
 We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
 union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- 
 mon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
 liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- 
 stitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
 a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
 House of Representatives. 
 
 Section 2. 1 The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
 members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, 
 and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
 electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 
 
 2 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
 the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
 States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in 
 which he shall be chosen. 
 
 3 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
 several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
 their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
 whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term 
 of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other per- 
 sons.2 The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after 
 the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every 
 subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. 
 The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until 
 such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be 
 entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- 
 dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, 
 Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North 
 Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
 
 4 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
 executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 5 The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other 
 officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Section 3. 1 The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
 two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six 
 years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 
 
 1 This reprint of the Constitution exactly follows the text of that in the 
 Department of State at Washington, save in the spelling of a few words. 
 
 2 The last half of this sentence was superseded by the 13tb and 14th Amend- 
 ments. (See p. 16 following.) 
 
 5 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 2 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
 first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
 classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
 the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of 
 the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
 so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
 happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature 
 of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
 until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 3 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
 of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
 who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
 shall be chosen. 
 
 4 The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
 Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president p7'o 
 tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise 
 the office of President of the United States. 
 
 6 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
 When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
 preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two 
 thirds of the members present. 
 
 7 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
 removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
 honor, trust or profit under the United States : but the party convicted 
 shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and 
 punishment, according to law. 
 
 Section 4. 1 The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
 senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
 legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or 
 alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 
 
 2 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
 meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
 law appoint a different day. 
 
 Section 5. 1 Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns 
 and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
 stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from 
 day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
 members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may 
 provide. 
 
 2 Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
 members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, 
 expel a member. 
 
 3 Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
 to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
 require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House 
 on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be 
 entered on the journal. 
 
 4 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
 consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
 place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
 
 6 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UxXITED STATES 
 
 Section 6. 1 The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
 pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
 Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
 felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
 attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 2 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
 was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
 United StateB, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
 shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any 
 office under the United States shall be a member of either House during 
 his continuance in office. 
 
 Section 7. 1 All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
 House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
 amendments as on other bills. 
 
 2 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
 the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President 
 of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall 
 return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have origi- 
 nated, who shall enter the objections at laroe on their journal, and proceed 
 to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House 
 shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, 
 to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
 approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all 
 such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be en- 
 tered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be 
 returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
 shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
 as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
 its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 3 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the \ concurrence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
 tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
 States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
 or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- 
 scribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Section 8. 1 The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
 taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
 common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, 
 imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 
 
 2 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 3 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
 States, and with the Indian tribes ; 
 
 4 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
 the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 5 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
 fix the standard of weights and measures ; 
 
 6 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
 current coin of the United States ; 
 
 7 To establish post offices and post roads ; 
 
 7 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 8 To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for 
 limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respec- 
 tive writings and discoveries ; 
 
 9 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 
 
 10 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
 seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 11 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water ; 
 
 12 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
 use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 13 To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 14 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
 naval forces ; 
 
 15 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
 Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 
 
 16 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
 for governing such part of them as may Joe employed in the service of the 
 United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the 
 officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- 
 pline prescribed by Congress ; 
 
 17 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
 district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
 States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government 
 of the United States, i and to exercise like authority over all "places pur- 
 chased by f the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same 
 shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
 other needful buildings ; and 
 
 18 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
 into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
 Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
 or officer thereof. 
 
 Section 9. 1 The migration or importation of such persons as any 
 of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
 hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
 eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceed- 
 ing ten dollars for each person. ^ 
 
 2 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
 quire it. 
 
 3 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 4 No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
 to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 5 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 
 
 6 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or reve- 
 nue to the ports of one State over those of another : nor shall vessels 
 bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
 another. 
 
 7 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of 
 appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the 
 
 1 The District of Columbia, which comes under these regulations, had not 
 then been erected. 
 
 2 A temporary clause, no longer in force. See also Article V, p. 12 following. 
 
 8 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time 
 to time. 
 
 8 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : and no 
 person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the 
 consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, 
 of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 
 
 Section 10. ^ 1 No State shall enier into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
 federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills 
 of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
 debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
 obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
 or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
 for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and 
 imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
 the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
 the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 3 No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
 tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
 agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
 will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Section 1. 1 The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
 the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of 
 four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same 
 term, be elected, as follow^s 
 
 2 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
 may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
 and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : 
 but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
 profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
 for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
 same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- 
 sons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; -which list they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the 
 Senate, shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
 having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number 
 be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be 
 more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of 
 votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by 
 ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then 
 from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose 
 the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
 by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum 
 for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
 the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
 
 1 See also the 10th, 13th, 14th, and loth Amendments, pp. 15, 16 following. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the 
 greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the ^'ice President. But 
 if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
 shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President.^ 
 
 3 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
 the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same 
 throughout the United States. 
 
 4 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
 States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
 the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
 who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four- 
 teen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 5 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
 resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
 office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress 
 may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
 bility, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer 
 shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
 the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 6 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
 pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
 period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
 within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
 of them. 
 
 7 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- 
 lowing oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
 will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
 will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States." 
 
 Section 2. 1 The President shall be commander in chief of the 
 army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
 States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may 
 require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the 
 executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
 for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 2 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present con- 
 cur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of 
 the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, 
 judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, 
 whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
 shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the 
 appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Presi- 
 dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 3 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
 happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which 
 shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- 
 mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
 such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 
 
 1 This paragraph superseded by the 12th Amendment, p. 15 following. 
 
 10 
 
11 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 extraordiDary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in 
 case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
 ment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he 
 shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers 
 of the United States. 
 
 Section 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the 
 United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- 
 viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
 in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
 from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
 and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
 shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation which 
 shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Section 2. 1 The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
 equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
 and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to 
 all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; — 
 to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two 
 or more States ; — between a State and citizens of another State ; i — be- 
 tween citizens of different States, — between citizens of the same State 
 claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or 
 the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 
 
 2 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
 suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall 
 have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the 
 Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, 
 with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
 make. 
 
 3 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
 jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall 
 have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the 
 trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
 directed. 
 
 Section 3. 1 Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
 levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
 aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
 testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
 open court. 
 
 2 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
 but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture 
 except during the life of the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
 public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
 
 1 See the 11th Amendment, p. 15 following. 
 11 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such 
 acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Section 2, 1 The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- 
 leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
 who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on de- 
 mand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be 
 delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
 3 No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- 
 lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
 delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
 be due.i 
 
 Section 3. 1 New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
 Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
 tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
 or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures 
 of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
 rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
 to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
 strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular 
 State. 
 
 Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
 Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
 against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the execu- 
 tive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
 be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
 conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no amend- 
 ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
 ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 1 All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
 adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
 under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 
 
 2 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
 made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the 
 land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in 
 the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 1 See the 13th Amendment, p. 16 followiug. 
 12 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 3 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 
 bers of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial oificers, 
 both of the United States, and of tlie several States, shall be bound by 
 oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
 shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under 
 the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for 
 the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
 same. 
 
 Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the 
 seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of tlie United 
 States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto 
 subscribed our names, 
 
 Go: Washington — 
 
 Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 John Langdon 
 Nicholas Oilman 
 
 3Iassachicsetts 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham 
 Rufus King 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Wm. Saml. Johnson 
 Roger Sherman 
 
 New York 
 Alexander Hamilton 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Wil : Livingston 
 David Brearley 
 Wm. Paterson 
 Jona: Dayton 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 B. Franklin 
 Thomas Mifflin 
 Robt. Morris 
 Geo. Clymer 
 Thos. Fitzsimons 
 Jared Ingersoll 
 James Wilson 
 Gouv Morris 
 
 Attest 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Geo : Read 
 
 Gunning Bedford Jun 
 John Dickinson 
 Richard Bassett 
 Jaco : Broom 
 
 Maryland 
 
 James Mc Henry 
 
 Dan of St. Thos Jenifer 
 
 Danl. Carroll 
 
 Virginia 
 
 John Blair — 
 James Madison Jr. 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Wm. Blount 
 
 Richd. Dobbs Spaight 
 
 Hu Williamson 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 J. Rutledge, 
 
 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 
 
 Cliarles Pinckney 
 
 Pierce Butler. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 William Few 
 Abr Baldwin 
 William Jackson Secretary. 
 
 13 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Articles in addition to, and amendment bf, the Constitution of the United 
 States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratihed by the legisla- 
 tures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of the original 
 Constitution. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
 prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
 or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
 petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
 the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
 the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
 scribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
 and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
 lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by 
 oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
 and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in 
 cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
 service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject 
 for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
 be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
 speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
 wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
 been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and 
 cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; 
 to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to 
 have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
 tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
 States, than according to the rules of the common law. 
 
 1 The first ten Amendments were adopted in 1791. 
 14 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE VIII 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
 prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
 the people. ARTICLE XI > 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
 to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
 United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
 any foreign state. ARTICLE XIP 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
 for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
 inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their 
 ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person 
 voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all per- 
 sons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice President, 
 and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
 certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
 States, directed to the president of the Senate; — The president of the 
 Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person 
 having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, 
 if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
 and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
 highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
 President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by 
 ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be 
 taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
 thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
 to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
 President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before 
 the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act 
 as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
 of the President, The person having the greatest number of votes as 
 Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a 
 majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
 choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
 ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice Presi- 
 dent of the United States. 
 
 1 Adopted in 1798. 2 Adopted iu 1804. 
 
 16 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE XIII 1 
 Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
 ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
 exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
 propriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV 2 
 
 Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
 subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
 the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
 which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
 States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
 tion the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
 States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
 of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
 to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice 
 President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
 and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
 is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one 
 years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
 except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- 
 tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such 
 male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
 years of age in such State. 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, 
 or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
 tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
 taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
 States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judi- 
 cial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, 
 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given 
 aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of 
 two thirds of each House, remove such disability. 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
 ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
 for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
 But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
 or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the 
 United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
 but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
 legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV 3 
 
 Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
 not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
 of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 1 Adopted in 1865. 2 Adopted in 1868. a Adopted in 1870. 
 
 16 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abercrombie, James, 107, 108. 
 Abolition societies, 221, 222, 227. 
 Acadia, 35, 99, 104, 105. 
 Accomac, 55. 
 Adams, John, death of, 190. 
 
 member first Continental Congress, 124. 
 
 President, lSl-183. 
 
 proposes Declaration of Independence, 
 13.3. 
 
 Vice President, 176, 179. 
 Adams, John Quincy, President, 207-209. 
 Adams, Samuel, 124. 
 Agriculture, 184, 369, 370. 
 Aguinaldo, Emilio, 360. 
 Air brake, 369. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 100. 
 Alabama, 287, 288, 312. 
 
 claims, 333, 334. 
 Alabama, admitted, 212. 
 
 iron ore in, 371. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 
 settled, 210. 
 Alamance, battle of, 123. 
 Alamo, the, 230. 
 Alaska, 327, 328, 362, 363. 
 Albany, 78, 101. 
 Albemarle, 312. 
 Albemarle, Lord, 59. 
 Albemarle Colony, 58. 
 Alert, 193. 
 
 Alexander, Indian chief, 76. 
 Algiers, trouble with, 202. 
 Algonquin Indians, 10. 
 Alien and Sedition Acts, 182. 
 Allen, Ethan, 126. 
 Allen, James Lane, 373. 
 Allison, William B., .338. 
 Amelia Courthouse, 316. 
 Ameha Island, 64. 
 
 Amendments to Constitution, 14-16 (Appen- 
 dix). 
 
 Thirteenth, 324. 
 
 Fourteenth, 325-327. 
 
 Fifteenth, 329. 
 
 America, discovered, 21, 22. 
 
 named, 27. 
 American Fur Company, 232. 
 American Party, 245, 246. 
 "American System," 205, 220. 
 Amherst, Jeffrey, 107, 108. 
 Amidas, Philip, 42. 
 Anarchists in Chicago, 343. 
 Anderson, Robert, 254, 255, 264. 
 Andre, John, 152, 153. 
 Andros, Sir Edmund, 77. 
 Annapolis, 123, 167, 169. 
 Anne, Queen, 58. 
 Anthracite strike, 376, 377. 
 Antietam, or Sharpsburg, battle of, 285, 
 
 286. 
 Anti-Masonic convention, 224. 
 Anti-Monopoly party, 342. 
 Apaches, 10. , 
 
 Appomattox Courthouse, 317, 318. 
 Aquidneck Island, 71. 
 Argall, Samuel, 49, 78. 
 Arizona, 367, 377. 
 Ark, 57. 
 
 Arkansas, 255, 256, 265, 327. 
 Armistead, George, 199. 
 Arnold, Benedict, at Bemis Heights, 140. 
 
 at Concord, 125. 
 
 at Quebec, 130. 
 
 Ticonderoga captured hy, 126. 
 
 treason of, 152, 153. 
 
 Virginia expedition, 160, 161. 
 Arthur, Chester A., President, 340-342. 
 
 Vice President, 339. 
 Articles of Confederation, 133, 168, 169. 
 Ashburton treat}', 232. 
 Ashley River, 61. 
 Assembly, Colonial, 50, 51, 92, 93. 
 Astor, John Jacob, 232. 
 Astoria founded, 232. 
 Astrolabe, 18. 
 Atlanta, 301-303, 341. 
 Atlantic cable laid, 258. 
 Atlantic squadron, 355. 
 Attorney General, 176. 
 
 17 
 
18 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Augusta, 64, 
 Austin, Moses, 230. 
 Avalon, province of, 56. 
 Averysboro, battle of, 315. 
 Avo7i, 196. 
 Azores, 18. 
 Aztec empire, 14. 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, 54, 55. 
 
 Bad Ax Kiver, 223. 
 
 Bainbridge, William, 1S8. 
 
 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 2T. 
 
 Balls Blutf, battle of, 2T0. 
 
 Baltimore, 346. 
 
 Baltimore, 184, 266. 
 
 Baltimore, Lord, 56, 58. 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio Kailroad, 337. 
 
 Bancroft, George, 259. 
 
 Bank, United States, 178, 217, 218, 229. 
 
 Banks, National, 178, 298. 
 
 State, 217, 218, 225, 226. 
 Banks, Nathaniel P., 282, 283, 285, 301. 
 Barbados, 59. 
 
 Barbary Powers, war with, 188, 202. 
 Barclay, Commodore, 196. 
 Barlow, Arthur, 42. 
 Barney, Joshua, 198. 
 Barnwell, John, 60. 
 Barre, Isaac, 118. 
 Baton Rouge, captured, 277. 
 " Battle above the Clouds," 297. 
 Baum, Friedrich, 140. 
 Beauregard, P. G. T., at Bull Run, 269, 270. 
 
 at Charleston, 264, 289, 
 
 at Drewrys Bluff, 307. 
 
 at Shiloh, 275, 276. 
 
 defends Petersburg, 308. 
 
 superseded by Bragg, 277. 
 Bee, Barnard p]., 270. 
 Behaim, Martin, 18. 
 Bell, John, 250. 
 Bellomont, Lord, SO. 
 Bemis Heights, battle of, 140, 
 Bennington, battle of, 139. 
 Bentonville, battle of, 315. 
 Bering Sea, 345. 
 Berkeley, Lord, 81, 82. 
 Berkeley, Sir William, 53-55. 
 Biard, Father, 36, 
 Bicycle, 338. 
 
 Big Bethel, battle of, 268. 
 Big Black River, battle of, 294. 
 Biloxi, founded, 88. 
 Birney, James Gillespie, 233. 
 Bjarni, 16. 
 Blackboard, 62. 
 " Black Friday," 332, 
 
 Black Hawk War, 223. 
 
 Blaine, James G., 342. 
 
 Blair, F. P., 328. 
 
 Bland-Allison Act, 338, 346, 347. 
 
 Blennerhasset, Herman, 188. 
 
 Bloody Angle, battle of, 305. 
 
 Bloody Marsh, 65. 
 
 Blount College, 172. 
 
 Blue Lick, battle of, 150. 
 
 Blue Ridge, 283. 
 
 Board of Arbitration, 333, 334. 
 
 Board of Trade and Plantations, 93, 94. 
 
 Bolsius, Martin, 64. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 182, 189, 200. 
 
 Bonhomme Richard, 151, 
 
 Bonnet, Stede, 62. 
 
 Boone, Daniel, 112, 113. 
 
 Boonesboro, 113, 286, 
 
 Boonville, battle of, 271. 
 
 Booth, John Wilkes, 320, 321. 
 
 Boston, abolition meetings in, 227, 
 
 fire in, 332. 
 
 founded, 69. 
 
 improvements in, 184. 
 
 in Revolutionary period, 125, 127, 129, 131, 
 132. 
 
 massacre in, 119, 120. 
 Boston Port Bill, 123, 124, 
 Boston Tea Party, 123. 
 Boundary, Northeast, 232, 
 
 Northwest, 233. 
 
 of United States at end of Revolution, 166, 
 167. 
 
 Venezuelan, 349. 
 BowMng Green, 272. 
 Boxer, 196. 
 Boxer movement, 363. 
 Boyle, James A., 194, 
 Braddock, Edward, 105, 
 Bradford, William, 68. 
 Bradley, Justice, 335. 
 Bradstreet, John, 108. 
 Bragg, Braxton, at Chickamauga, 296. 
 
 in Kentucky and Tennessee, 277, 278. 
 
 in Mexican War, 237, 238. 
 Brandy Station, battle of, 291. 
 Brandywine, battle of, 142, 143, 
 Brazil,' 26, 27, 
 
 Breckinridge, John C, 246, 249, 250, 307. 
 Breech-loading gun, 369. 
 Breeds Hill, battle of, 127, 
 Brewster, William, 68. 
 Briar Creek, battle of, 54, 
 Bridgeport, 303. 
 British, see England. 
 Brookhpi, 357, 358. 
 Brooklyn and New York consolidated, 363. 
 
INDEX 
 
 19 
 
 Brooks, Preston S., 245. 
 
 Brown, Alexander, 373. 
 
 Brown, B. Gratz, 334. 
 
 Brown, Jacob, 198. 
 
 Brown, John, 247, 248, 251. 
 
 Brown University founded, 89. 
 
 Bryan, William Jennings, 350, 363. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, 259. 
 
 Buchanan, Franklin, 279. 
 
 Buchanan, James, President, 246-255. 
 
 Buckner, Simon B., 274, 350. 
 
 Buell, Don Carlos, 275, 277, 278. 
 
 Buena Vista, battle of, 236, 237. 
 
 Buffalo, Pan-American Fair at, 363. 
 
 Buford, John, 291. 
 
 Bull Run, or Manassas, battles of, 269, 270, 284, 
 
 285. 
 Bunker Hill, battle of, 127, 128. 
 Burgoyne, John, 139-141. 
 Burke, Edmund, 118. 
 Burlingame, Anson, 328. 
 Burnside, Ambrose E., at Knoxville, 297. 
 
 at Petersburg, 309. 
 
 in eastern Tennessee, 206. 
 
 supersedes Hooker, 289. 
 
 supersedes McClellan, 286. 
 Burr, Aaron, 183, 187, 188. 
 Bushy Pain, battle of, 112. 
 Butler, Benjamin F., at Big Bethel, 268. 
 
 at Drewrys Blulf, 307. 
 
 at New Orleans, 277. 
 
 presidential nominee, 342. 
 Buzzards Bay, 43. 
 Byrd, William, 88. 
 
 Cabinet, President's, 176. 
 
 Cable, Atlantic, 258. 
 
 Cable, George W., 373. 
 
 Cable cars, 338, 369. 
 
 Cabot, John, 24, 26. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian, 24, 26. 
 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 26. 
 
 Calhoun, John C, career of, 242, 243. 
 
 debate with Webster, 221. 
 
 nullification ordinance, 209, 219. 
 
 Vice President, 207, 
 
 war policy of, 191. 
 California, admitted, 255. 
 
 gold discovered in, 239, 240. 
 
 irrigation of, 377. 
 
 population of, 256. 
 
 seeks admission, 241. 
 
 united with east by railroad, 365. 
 Calvert, Cecilius. 56. 
 Calvert, George, 56, 57. 
 Calvert, Leonard, 57. 
 Cambridge, 70, 89. 
 
 Camden, battle of, 156. 
 Camp Jackson, 271. 
 Camp King, 223. 
 Campbell, John A., 314. 
 Campbell, William, 157. 
 Canada, colonists attack, 97. 
 in Revolutionarv War, 129, 130. 
 in War of 1812, 191, 192. 
 Canal building, 208. 
 Canby, Edward R. S., 332. 
 Cano, Juan Sebastian del, 28. 
 Canonicus, 68, 71, 73. 
 Cape Breton Island, 32. 
 Cape Cod, 26. 
 Cape Fear River, 59. 
 Cape Nome, 363. 
 C^ape of Good Hope, 18. 
 Capitalists, 341, 343. 
 Capitol, 178, 199. 
 Cardenas, 355. 
 Car lines, 257. 
 
 Carnifex Ferry, battle of, 269. 
 Carolina, Fort, 34. 
 
 Carolina, named, 58. See North and South 
 Carolina. 
 
 "Carpetbaggers," 326. 
 
 Carricks Ford, battle of, 268. 
 
 Carteret, Sir George, 81, 82. 
 
 Carteret Colony, 58, 61. 
 
 Carthage, battle of, 271. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques, 32, 33. 
 
 Castile, 19. 
 
 Castine, attack on, 152. 
 
 Caswell, Richard, 131. 
 
 Cavaliers, 53. 
 
 Cavite, 354. 
 
 Cedar Creek, battle of, 311. 
 
 Cedar Run, battle of, 285. 
 
 Cemetery Ridge, battle of, 292. 
 
 Census Office, 378. 
 
 Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, 332. 
 
 "Centennial State," 365. 
 
 Central America, 243. 
 
 Central Pacific Railroad, 365. 
 
 Cerro Gordo, battle of, 237. 
 
 Cervera, Admiral, 355, 356, 358. 
 
 Chads Ford, battle of, 142. 
 
 Chambersburg burned, 311. 
 
 Champion Hills, battle of, 294. 
 
 Champlain, Lake, 36. 
 
 Champlain, Samuel de, 35, 36. 
 
 Chancellorsville, battle of, 289. 
 
 Chantilly, battle of, 2S5. 
 
 Chapultepec, battle of, 237. 
 
 Charles 1,53, 69. 
 
 Charles IL 53, 55, 59. 
 
 Charleston, founded, 61. 
 
20 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Charleston — Continued. 
 
 French and Spanish attack, 62, 99. 
 
 improvement in, 1S4. 
 
 in Revohitionary War, 132, 154. 
 
 in War of Secession, 255, 2!59, 314. 
 
 in 1788, 171. 
 
 population in Colonial days, 85. 
 Charlestown, 127. 
 Charlottesville, 162, 
 Charter colonies, 92. 
 Charters restored, 78. 
 
 struggle over, 77. 
 
 Virginia, 49, 50. 
 Chase, Salmon P., 242. 
 Chasseur, 194. 
 Chattanooga, 277, 295-297. 
 Cheat Mountain, battle of, 269. 
 Cheraw, 158. 
 
 Cherokee Indians, 10, 110, 111, 224. 
 Chesapeake, 189, 196. 
 Chesterfield Courthouse, 161. 
 Chicago, anarchists in, 343. 
 
 fire in, 332. 
 
 growth of, 218. 
 
 World's Columbian Exposition at, 348, 
 349. 
 Chickahominy River, 281, 283, 284. 
 Chickamauga, battle of, 295, 296. 
 Chickamauga Indians, 150. 
 Chickasaw Bayou, 294. 
 Chickasaw Indians, 224. 
 Chicken, Captain, 62. 
 Chihuahua conquered, 235. 
 Chile, trouble with, 346. 
 China, Boxer movement in, 363. 
 
 treaty with United States, 328. 
 Chinese, immigration of, 343. 
 
 suffrage denied to, 329. 
 Chippewa, battle of. 198. 
 Choctaw Indians, 224. 
 Chowan River, 59. 
 Christiana, 84. 
 Chryslers Field, 196. 
 Churubusco, battle of, 2-37. 
 Cincinnati, growth of, 218. 
 Citizens, American, 170, 325, 326. 
 Citizenship, qualifications for, 183, 184, 229, 
 
 330. 
 City Point. 314. 
 Civil Rights Bill, 325. 
 Civil Service Act, 340. 
 Civil War, 261-321. 
 Claiborne, William, 57. 
 Clarendon, Lord, 59. 
 Clark, George Rogers, 113, 148-150, 168. 
 Clark, William, 187. 
 Clarke, Eliiah, 153. 
 
 Clay, Henry, career of, 242, 243. 
 
 Compromise Bill, 22U. 
 
 Compromise of 1850, 241, 242. 
 
 presidential nominee, 224, 233. 
 
 Secretary of State, 207. 
 
 war policy of, 191. 
 Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 243, 375. 
 Cleburne, General, 303. 
 Clermont, 185. 
 Cleveland, Grover, President, 342-344, 347- 
 
 350. 
 Chnch, General, 223. 
 Clinton, George, 190. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, 132, 135, 146, 152, 154. 
 Coinage, free, 350. 
 
 gold and silver, 338. 
 Cold Harbor, battle of, 283, 284, 305, 306. 
 Colfax, Schuyler, 328. 
 Coligny, Gaspard de, 33. 
 College of Electors, 176. 
 Colleges, 369, 373. See Schools. 
 ColUns Line of steamships, 259. 
 Coloma, 289. 
 Colombia, treaty with, concerning Panama 
 
 Canal, 376. 
 Colonial Assembly, 50, 51, 92, 93. 
 Colonies, English failures in colonization, 
 41-43. 
 
 government of, 92-94. 
 
 Middle, 7S-S4. 
 
 New England, 66-78. 
 
 social and economic conditions of, 85-91. 
 
 Southern, 45-65. 
 
 taxation in, 119. 
 
 transportation in, 91, 92. 
 
 wars intercolonial, 96-110. 
 Colorado, 365, 377. 
 Columbia, burning of, 314. 
 Columbia College founded, 91. 
 Columbia, District of, 177, 242. 
 Columbia River, explored, 187. 
 Columbus, Bartholomew, 19, 23. 
 Columbus, Christopher, 19-24. 
 Columbus, Kentucky, 272. 
 Comanches, 10. 
 Commerce, after War of 1812, 201, 202. 
 
 and Labor, Department of, 377, 378. 
 
 during Jefferson's administration, 184, 185. 
 
 Embargo Act, 189, 190. 
 
 in colonial times, 88, 90. 
 
 in 1900, 368, 372. 
 
 Interstate, 342. 
 
 with Japan, 243. 
 Committees of Safety, 126. 
 Compass, 18. 
 
 Compromise, Missouri, 204, 212, 232, 239, 244. 
 Compromise of 1850, 241, 242, 244. 
 
INDEX 
 
 21 
 
 Compromises in Constitution, 170. 
 Concord, battle of, 125. 
 Confederacy organized, 252-254. 
 Confederate Congress, 271. 
 Confederate Currency, 298. 
 Confederation, 133, 167-169. 
 Congress, 279. 
 Congress, Confederate, 271. 
 
 First Continental, 124. 
 
 Second Continental, 127. 
 
 under Articles of Confederation, 133, 
 Conkling, Koscoe, 339. 
 Connecticut, cedes land to United States, 168. 
 
 early history of, 72, 73. 
 Constitution, 194. 
 Constitution, Confederate, 253. 
 Constitution, United States, 169-171 ; Ap- 
 pendix, 5-16. 
 
 amendments to, 183, 324-327, 329 ; Appen- 
 dix, 14-16. 
 
 interpretation of, 205, 
 
 Southern interpretation of, 250. 
 Constitutional Union party, 250. 
 Continental Congress, 124-127. 
 Contract law, 344. 
 Contreras, battle of, 237. 
 Convention, Constitutional, 169. 
 
 nominating, 224. 
 Conway Cabal, 144. 
 Cooper, James Fenimore, 259. 
 Copyright laws, 170, 345. 
 Corinth, battle of, 265. 
 Corn, Indian, 43. 
 Cornstalk, 113. 
 
 CornwaUis, Lord Charles, abandons North 
 Carolina, 158. 
 
 at Brandywine, 142, 
 
 at Camden, 156. 
 
 at Guilford Courthouse, 159. 
 
 at Princeton, 189, 
 
 at Richmond, 161. 
 
 in Virginia, 161, 162, 
 
 pursued by Greene, 159. 
 
 surrender of, 163, 164. 
 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 31. 
 Corporations, 341, 343, 
 
 Bureau of, 378, 
 Cortez, Hernando, 29, 
 Cotton, production of, 178, 205, 211, 368, 
 
 370, 371, 
 Cotton Exposition, 341. 
 Cotton gin, 178, 
 Cottonseed oil, 371, 
 Council for New England, 66, 
 Countess of Scarborough, 151. 
 Courts of Admiralty, 114. 
 Cowpens, battle of, 158, 
 
 Creek Indians, 199, 200, 203, 224. 
 
 Crimes, punishment for, 51. 
 
 Croghan, George, 195. 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 53. 
 
 Cross Keys, battle of, 283, 
 
 Crown Point, 106, 108, 126. 
 
 Cuba, assumes control of government, 376. 
 
 discovered, 22. 
 
 United States signs reciprocity treaty with, 
 376. 
 
 war in, 351-358, 
 Culpeper, Thomas, 129, 
 Cumberland, 279. 
 Cumberland, Fort, 105. 
 Cumberland Gap, 272, 
 Cumberland Island, 64. 
 Cumberland Eoad, 207, 208, 
 Cunard Line, 259. 
 Currency, see Money. 
 Cushing, William B., 312, 313. 
 Custer, George A., 332. 
 
 Dacotah Indians, 10. 
 Dade, Francis, 223. 
 Dahlgren Ulrich, 300. 
 Dakota, 367. 
 
 Dale, Sir Thomas, 48, 49. 
 Dalton, battle of, 302. 
 Dare, Virginia, 42. 
 "Dark horse," 233. 
 Darragh, Lydia, 142, 
 Dartmouth College founded, 89. 
 Davenport, John, 72. 
 Davidson Academy, 172, 
 Davis, David, 335. 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, capture, imprisonment, 
 and death of, 321. 
 
 in Black Hawk War, 223, 
 
 President Confederate States, 253, 254. 
 Davis, John, 41. 
 D' Ayllon, Vasquez, 29. 
 Deane, Silas, 145, 
 Dearbon, Henry, 193, 196. 
 Debt, National, after Eevolutionary War, 176, 
 177. 
 
 after War of Secession, 320, 
 
 in 1879, 339, 
 
 in 1893, 348. 
 Debts, of Southern States, 330, 
 
 State, 177, 178. 
 Decatur, Stephen, 188, 194, 202, 
 Declaration of Independence, 133. 
 Declaration of Rights, 117, 
 Deerfield, 77, 99. 
 De GraflFenreid, 59, 60, 
 De Grasse, Franfois J, P., 162, 163. 
 De Kalb, Baron John, 142, 156. 
 
22 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Delaware, 84. 
 
 Delaware, Lord Thomas, 48. 
 
 Delaware Indians, 118. 
 
 De Leon, Juan Ponce, 28. 
 
 De Lome, Dupuy, 352. 
 
 Democratic party, 205. 
 
 De Monts, Sieur, 35, 
 
 Denver founded, 364. 
 
 De Pineda, Alvarez, 28. 
 
 Deputy postmaster-general, 92. 
 
 De Russy, Fort, 301. 
 
 De Soto, Hernando, 31. 
 
 D'Estaing, Admiral Charles, 147, 154. 
 
 De Tonti, Henry, 38. 
 
 Detroit, 112, 191, 192. 
 
 Dewey, George, 353-355, 360. 
 
 Dickinson, John, 119. 
 
 Dieskau, Ludwig A., 106, 107. 
 
 Dighton rock, 16. 
 
 Dlngley Act, 349, 362. 
 
 Dinwiddle, Pwobert, 100, 101. 
 
 Dinwiddle Courthouse, 315. 
 
 Directory, 181, 182. 
 
 Discovery, 46. 
 
 District of Columbia, 177, 242. 
 
 Dobbs Ferry, 152. 
 
 Donelson, Fort, 272, 274. 
 
 Doniphan, Alexander W., 235. 
 
 Dorchester Heights, 132. 
 
 Dorr's Rebellion, 229, 230. 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A., 242, 244, 249. 
 
 Dove, b1. 
 
 Dover, settled, 73. 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis, 39. 
 
 Dred Scott decision, 246, 247. 
 
 Drewrys Bluff, 282, 307. 
 
 Dunmore, John Murray, 113, 126, 130. 
 
 Dupont, Samuel F., 289. 
 
 Duquesne, Fort, 101, 105, 108. 
 
 Durham, 9S. 
 
 Dustin, Hannah, 9S, 99. 
 
 Dutch settlements, 78-80, 82-84. 
 
 Early, Jubal A., 270, 310-312. 
 
 East India Company, 123. 
 
 Eaton, Theophilus, 72. 
 
 Ebenezer founded, 64. 
 
 Edict of Nantes, 62. 
 
 Edinburgh, Americans threaten, 151. 
 
 Education, 171, 172, 259, 372, 373. 
 
 Edward, Fort, 107. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, 89. 
 
 El Dorado, 240. 
 
 Election, disputed, 334, 335. 
 
 Electoral Commission, Joint, 335. 
 
 Electors, presidential, 176, 182, 183. 
 
 Electric cars, 369. 
 
 Electric light, 338. 
 
 Electric railways, 338. 
 
 Elevated railways, 338. 
 
 Elevators, 338, 369. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 39. 
 
 Elizabethtown, settled, 82. 
 
 Elkhorn Tavern or Pea Ridge, battle of, 274. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 288, 289. 
 
 Embargo Act, 189, 190. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 259. 
 
 Emigration, Western, 112. 
 
 Endicott, John, 69. 
 
 England, arbitration with, 333, 334. 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 243. 
 
 colonies of, 45-113. 
 
 explorations in America. 24-26, 39-43. 
 
 joint occupation of Oregon, 232, 233, 
 
 overtures to America, 146. 
 
 Revolutionary War with, 125-165. 
 
 Venezuelan controversy, 349. 
 
 War of 1812, 190-201. 
 
 wars with France, 97-110, 179, 189, 190. 
 
 Webster- A shburton treaty, 232. 
 English, William H., 339. 
 Enterprise, 182. 
 Epervier, 196. 
 " Era of good feeUng," 206, 
 Ericsson, John, 279, 
 Eric the Red, 16, 
 Erie Canal built, 208. 
 Erie, Fort, 198, 
 Espejo, Antonio de, 32. 
 Essex, 196. 
 Etowah River, 302. 
 Eutaw Springs, battle of, 160. 
 " EvangeHne " (Longfellow), 105. 
 Evvell, Richard S., 291, 292. 
 Expenditures, national, 368. 
 Explorations, English, 24-26, 39-43. 
 
 French, 32-38. 
 
 Norse, 16-17. 
 
 Portuguese, 17, 18, 23, 26, 27. 
 
 Spanish, 19-24, 26-32. 
 Exports, 368, 372. 
 
 Fairfax, Lord, 175. 
 
 Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, battle of, 281. 
 
 Falls of Montmorency, 109. 
 
 Farmville, 317. 
 
 Farragut, David Glascoe, 277, 303. 
 
 Fayetteville, 314. 
 
 Federalist, the, 171. 
 
 Federalists, 177, 182, 205. 
 
 Ferdinand, King. 19. 
 
 Ferguson, Patrick, 156-158. 
 
 Field, Cyrus W., 258. 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment, 329. 
 
INDEX 
 
 23 
 
 Fillmore, Millard, President, 240-243. 
 Finances, after Kevolutionary War, 176, 177. 
 
 after War of Secession, 320. 
 
 panic of 1837, 225, 226. 
 
 panic of 1869, 332. 
 
 panic of 1873, 333. 
 
 panic of 1893, 347, 348. 
 
 ratio of 16 to 1, 338. See Money. 
 
 specie payments in 1879, 339. 
 Fires in Chicago and Boston, 332. 
 Fisher, Fort, 303, 313. 
 Fisheries, 345. 
 
 Fishing Creek, battle of, 156. 
 Fitch, John, 171, 185. 
 Five Forks, battle of, 315, 316. 
 Flag, national, 129. 
 Flamborough Head, 151. 
 Floods in Mississippi River, 340. 
 Florida, 288, 312. 
 Florida, boundary fixed, 180. 
 
 ceded to United States, 203, 255. 
 
 early history of, 28-32. 
 
 England acquires, 110. 
 
 Spain conquers, 167. 
 Florida, State, admitted, 231, 255. 
 
 Federal troops leave, 335. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 Floyd, John B., 269, 274. 
 Flying Squadron, 355. 
 Foote, Andrew H., 273, 274, 276. 
 Forbes, John, 108. 
 Force Bill, 331. 
 
 Foreign Affairs, Department of, 176. 
 Forrest, Nathan B., 277, 301, 303. 
 Fort Crown Point, Du Quesne, etc., see 
 
 Crown Point, Du Quesne, etc. 
 Fourteenth Amendment, 325-327. 
 Fox tribe, 223. 
 France, alHance with United States, 145, 146. 
 
 claims in America, 96. 
 
 explorations in America, 32-38. 
 
 indemnity paid to United States, 224. 
 
 Louisiana purchased from, 185. 
 
 Mexico trouble, 328. 
 
 troubles with United States, 181, 182. 
 
 wars with England, 97-110, 179, 189, 190. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, deputy postmaster- 
 general, 92. 
 
 in France, 145. 
 
 plan of Union, 101, 104. 
 Franklin, Schofield's retreat from, 303. 
 Fraziers Farm, battle of, 284. 
 Frederica, 65. 
 Frederick, 285, 291. 
 
 Fredericksburg, battles of, 281, 286, 287. 
 Freedmen'3 Bureau Bill, 325, 
 
 Freemans Farm, battle of, 140. 
 Fremont, John C, "Great American De- 
 sert" explored by, 364. 
 
 in Mexican War, 234, 235. 
 
 in War of Secession, 271, 283. 
 
 presidential nominee, 246, 313. 
 French and Indian War, 100-110. 
 French Revolution, 179. 
 Frenchtown, battle of, 194. 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin, 40, 41. 
 Frolic, 193. 
 Frontenac, Fort, 108. 
 Frontenac, Louis de Buade de, 97. 
 Front Royal, battle of, 283. 
 Fruits, shipment of, 370. 
 Fugitive Slave Law, 241, 244, 247. 
 Fulton, Robert, 185. 
 
 Gadsden, Christopher, 117. 
 
 Gadsden, Hood in, 303. 
 
 Gadsden Purchase, 238. 
 
 Gage, Thomas, 119, 125. 
 
 Gaines, Edmund P., 223. 
 
 Gaines Mill, battle of, 283, 284. 
 
 Galveston, surrender of, 289. 
 
 Gama, Vasco da, 23, 26. 
 
 Garfield, James A., President, 339, 340. 
 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, 221,227. 
 
 Gates, Horatio, 127, 140, 156, 158. 
 
 Gates, Sir Thomas, 48. 
 
 Geiger, Emily, 160. 
 
 Genet, Edmond C, 179. 
 
 Geneva, 333. 
 
 George III, King, 116. 
 
 Georgia, 312. 
 
 Georgia, cedes land to United States, 168. 
 
 declines to ratify Fourteenth Amendment, 
 327. 
 
 early history of, 64, 65. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 schools in, 171, 172. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 Germans, settlements of, 61, 
 Germantown, battle of, 143. 
 
 founded, S3. 
 Gettysburg campaign, 290-293. 
 Ghent, treaty of, 201. 
 Gibbon, John, 293. 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 41, 42. 
 Gillmore, Quincy A., 289. 
 Goffe, William, 77. 
 Gold, in Alaska, 828, 862, 363. 
 
 in California, 239, 240. 
 
 in South Dakota, Idaho, Wyoming, and 
 Montana, 367. 
 
 standard, 36^3. 
 
 value, relative to silver, 338. 
 
24 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Goldsboro, 314. 
 
 Goliad, surrender of, 231. 
 
 Gomez, Esteban, 30, 
 
 Goodspeed, 46. 
 
 Gordon, George Henry, 305, 315, 317. 
 
 Gordonsville, 2S5. 
 
 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 73. 
 
 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 43. 
 
 Gourgues, Dominique de, 35, 
 
 Government, colonial, 92-94. 
 
 of United States, 169-171. 
 
 under Articles of Confederation, 133, 167- 
 169. 
 Governor, of colonies, 93. 
 Grain, production of, 368. 
 Grand Model, 59. 
 Grand Pre, 104. 
 Grant, Major, 108, 111. 
 Grant, Ulysses S., at Chattanooga, 296, 297. 
 
 at Cold Harbor, 305, 306. 
 
 at Fort Donelson, 274. 
 
 at Petersburg, 308-310, 316, 317. 
 
 at Richmond, 316, 317. 
 
 at Vicksburg, 294, 295. 
 
 in the Wilderness, 305. 
 
 Lee's surrender to, 317, 318. 
 
 lieutenant general of United States armies, 
 300. 
 
 President, 329-335. 
 Graves, Admiral Thomas, 163. 
 Gray, Captain Robert, 187. 
 " Great American Desert," 364. 
 Great Bridge, 130. 
 Great Britain, see England. 
 Great Meadows, 101. 
 " Great Triumvirate," 242. 
 Greeley, Horace, 334. 
 Green, Roger, 59. 
 Greenback party, 342. 
 Greenbacks, 297, 333. 
 Greene, Nathanael, 145, 158-160. 
 Greenland, colony in, 16, 
 Green Mountain Boys, 126, 
 Grenville. George, 116, 
 Grenvilie, Sir Richard, 40, 42, 
 Groton, 98. 
 
 Guadalupe-Hidalgo, treaty of, 237, 238. 
 Guam, ceded to United States, 360, 
 Guevrih^e, 191, 193. 
 Guiana, 43. 
 Guilford settled, 72. 
 Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 159, 
 
 Hadley, Indian attack, 77. 
 Haiti, 22, 23. 
 Hale, John P., 243. 
 Hale, Nathan, 186. 
 
 Halleck, Henry W., 271, 272. 
 Hamilton, Alexander, 170, 176-178, 187. 
 Hamilton, Henry, 149. 
 Hampton, Wade, 308. 
 Hampton Roads, 355. 
 Hancock, Winfield S., 293, 309, 339. 
 Hanging Rock, battle of, 155. 
 Hanover Courthouse, 162, 281. 
 Hansford, Thomas, 55. 
 Hardee, William J., 304, 305. 
 Harlem Heights, battle of, 136. 
 Harmer, Josiah, 178. 
 Harpers Ferry, 248, 285, 286. 
 Harris, Joel Chandler, 373. 
 Harrison, Benjamin, President, 344-347. 
 Harrison, William Henry, at Tippecanoe, 
 194. 
 
 in battle of the Thames, 195. 
 
 President, 228. 
 Harrisons Landing, 284. 
 Ilarrodsburg, 113, 278. 
 Hartford, Andros at, 77. 
 
 convention at, 201. 
 
 founded, 72. 
 ILarvard College founded, 70, 89. 
 Harvester invented, 257. 
 Havana, 110, 352. 
 Hawaiian Islands, 349, 350, 362. 
 Hawkins, Sir John, 39. 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 259. 
 Hayes, Rutherford B., election of, 334, 335. 
 
 President, 337-339. 
 Hayne, Robert Y., 220, 242. 
 Ileintzelman. Samuel P., 281. 
 Helper, Hinton, 244. 
 Hendricks, Thomas A., 334, 342. 
 Hennepin, Father. 38. 
 Henrietta, Maria, Queen, 56. 
 Henry, Fort, 272-274. 
 Henry, Patrick, 115-117, 124. 
 Henry, Prince of Portugal, 18. 
 Henry, William Wirt, 373. 
 Henry VII, King, 19. 24. 
 Herkimer, Nicholas, 189, 140. 
 Hessians, 128, 133, 137, 138. 
 Hill, Daniel H., 291. 
 Hillsboro, 315. 
 Hispaniola, 22. 
 Hobart, Garret A.. 850. 
 Hobkirks Hill, battle of. 160. 
 Hobson, Richmond P., 355, 356. 
 Hochelaga, 33. 
 
 Holly Springs, battle of, 294. 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 259. 
 Hood, John B., 288, 302-304. 
 Hooker, Joseph, 289, 291, 296, 297. 
 Hooker, Thomas, 72. 
 
INDEX 
 
 25 
 
 Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 200. 
 
 House of Kepresentatives, 170. 
 
 Houston, Samuel, 231. 
 
 Howard, Charles, 40. 
 
 Howard, Ohver O., 291. 
 
 Howe, Admiral Kichard, 135. 
 
 Howe, Ellas, 257. 
 
 Howe, William, 127, 132, 135, 136, 141, 143. 
 
 Hudson, Henr}'^, 41, 78. 
 
 Hudson Bay region, 99. 
 
 Huguenots, 38, 61-03. 
 
 Hull, Isaac, 194. 
 
 Hull, William, 191, 192, 194. 
 
 Hunter, David, 307, 308, 314. 
 
 Huron, Lake, 36. 
 
 Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 71. 
 
 Iberville, Pierre le Moyne, Sieur de, 38. 
 Idaho, admitted, 367. 
 
 explored, 187. 
 
 irrigation of, 377. 
 Illinois, admitted, 204, 212. 
 
 county of, 150. 
 
 settlement of, 210, 211. 
 Illinois Kiver explored, 37. 
 Immigration, 61, 255, 256, 344. 
 Impeachment of Johnson, 327. 
 "Impending Crisis of the South" (Hinton 
 
 Helper), 244. 
 Imported goods, 202, 368. 
 Impressment of sailors, 179, 180, 190, 191. 
 
 201. 
 Income, national, 368. 
 Income tax, 348. 
 Indented servants, 51, 85. 
 Indiana, 358. 
 Indiana, 204. 210-212. 
 Indians, 9-14. 
 
 at Blue Lick, 150. 
 
 Black Hawk War, 223. 
 
 Cherokee War. 110, 111. 
 
 confederacy of, 113. 
 
 conversion of, attempted, 37. 
 
 Creek War, 199, 200. 
 
 in Connecticut, 72, 73. 
 
 in French and Indian War, 105-107. 
 
 in King George's War, 100. 
 
 in King William's War, 97-99. 
 
 in North Carolina, 60, 61. 
 
 in Northwest, 178. 179, 194, 195. 
 
 in Queen Anne's War, 99. 
 
 in Eevolutionary War, 140. 
 
 in South Carolina, 62. 
 
 King Philip's War, 76, 77. 
 
 massacres, 52, 147. 
 
 Modoc War, 332. 
 
 Penn's treaty with, 83. 
 
 Indians — Continued. 
 
 Pequot War, 72, 73. 
 
 Pontiac's War, 112. 
 
 reservations in West, 224. 
 
 Seminole War, 223. 
 
 Sioux War, 332. 
 Indian Territory, 224, 367. 
 Indigo, cultivation of, 85. 
 Industries, 88, 90, 184, 185, 257, 340, 341, 367- 
 
 372. 
 Intellectual progress in South, 372, 373. 
 Interstate commerce, 342. 
 Interstate line of railways, 343, 344. 
 Inventions, 257, 338, 369. 
 Iowa, 255, 256. 
 "Ironclad oath," 326. 
 Iron industry, 90, 371. 
 Iron mills, 185. 
 
 Iroquois Indians, 10, 13, 36, 98, 99, 148. 
 Irrigation of arid lands in the West, 377. 
 Irving, Washington, 259. 
 Isabella, Queen, 20. 
 Island No. 10, 276. 
 Isthmian Canal, 375, 376. 
 Italy, trouble with, 345. 
 luka, battle of, 278. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, in Creek War, 200, 203. 
 
 in Mexican War, 238. 
 
 President, 216-225. 
 Jackson, Fort, 276, 277. 
 Jackson (Stonewall), Thomas J., at Bull 
 Pvun, 270, 285. 
 
 at Chancellorsville, 289, 290. 
 
 at Harpers Ferry, 286. 
 
 death of, 290. 
 
 Valley Campaign, 282, 283. 
 Jamaica, discovered, 23. 
 James I, King, 43, 68. 
 James II, King, 77, 80, 97. 
 Jamestown, 35, 46. 
 Jamestown Island, 162. 
 Japan, 243. 
 
 Jasper, Sergeant William, 132, 154. 
 Java. 193. 
 
 Jay, John, 124, 170, 179, ISO. 
 Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence written by, 133. 
 
 educational scheme of, 171. 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 150, 162. 
 
 Kentucky Resolutions prepared by, 182. 
 
 policy of, 176. 
 
 President. 18.S-190. 
 
 Vice President, 180, 181. 
 Jenkins Ferry, battle of, 301. 
 Jersey, 147. 
 Jesuit Fathers, 36. 
 
26 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, President, 324-328. 
 
 Vice President, 313. 
 Jolinson, Bradley T., 311. 
 Johnson, William, 106-lOS. 
 Johnston, Albert Sidney, at Corinth, 274. 
 
 death of, 275. 
 
 in southern Kentucky, 2T2. 
 
 resigns from United States array, 267. 
 
 victory at Shiloh, 274, 275. 
 Johnston, Joseph E., at Bull Eun, 269. 
 
 at Dalton, 297. 
 
 at Hillsboro, 815. 
 
 at Seven Pines, 281. 
 
 at Vicksburg, 294. 
 
 in Mexican War, 238. 
 
 resigns from United States army, 267. 
 
 Sherman opposed by, 300, 302. 
 
 superseded by Hood, 302. 
 
 surrenders to Sherman, 319. 
 Joliet, Louis, 37. 
 
 Jones, Commodore John Paul, 151. 
 Joseph, Indian chief, 338. 
 
 Kanawha River, 113. 
 
 Kansas, admitted, 245, 249, 255. 
 
 irrigation of, 377. 
 
 Lecompton Constitution, 248, 249. 
 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 244, 245, 364. 
 Kaskaskia, 96, 148. 
 Kearny, Philip, 285. 
 Kearny, Stephen W., 234. 
 Kearsarge, 312. 
 
 Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 302. 
 Kennebec River, 66. 
 Kent, General, 357. 
 Kent Island, 57. 
 Kentucky, admitted, 212. 
 
 county of, 113, 210. 
 
 military line in, 272. 
 
 settlement of, 210. 
 Kentucky Resolutions, 182, 220. 
 Keowee Valley, battle in, 110, 111. 
 Kernstown, battle of, 283, 311. 
 Kershaw, Joseph B., 311. 
 Kettle Creek, battle of, 153. 
 Key, Francis Scott, 199. 
 Keyes, Erasmus D., 281. 
 Kidd, William, 80, 81. 
 Kilpatrick, Judson, 300, 304. 
 King George's War, 99, 100. 
 King Philip's War, 76, 77. 
 King William's War, 97-99. 
 King's College, founded, 91. 
 King's Mountain, battle of, 157, 158. 
 Klondike River, 363. 
 " Knights of Labor," 342, 343. 
 Know-nothing party, 245, 246. 
 
 Knoxville, 297. 
 
 Kosciusko, Count Thaddeus, 142. 
 
 Ku Klux Klan, 329, 330. 
 
 Labor troubles, 337, 343, 376, 377. 
 
 Labrador, 24. 
 
 Laconia, 73. 
 
 Ladrone Islands, 359. 
 
 Lafayette, Marquis de, 143, 161, 162. 
 
 Lake Champlain, battle of, 197. 
 
 Lake Erie, battle of, 196. 
 
 Lake Okechobee, 223. 
 
 Lamb, William, 313. 
 
 Lamperer, Captain. 132. 
 
 Land, public, see Public land. 
 
 La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 37, 38. 
 
 Las Guasimas, 357. 
 
 Laud, Archbishop, 69. 
 
 Laudonnidre, Rene de, 34. 
 
 La Vengeance, 181. 
 
 Lawrence, 197. 
 
 Lawrence, James, 196. 
 
 Lawson, John, 60. 
 
 Le Bceuf, Fort, 100. 
 
 Lecompton Constitution, 248. 
 
 Lee, Arthur, 145. 
 
 Lee, Charles, 137, 146, 156. 
 
 Lee, Fort, 137. 
 
 Lee, Fitzhugh, 315, 317, 351, 352. 
 
 Lee, Henry (" Light-horse Harry "), 151, 
 
 156, 159. 
 Lee, Richard Henry, 124, 133. 
 Lee, Robert Edward, at Chancellorsville, 289, 
 290. 
 
 at Cheat Mountain, 269. 
 
 at Cold Harbor, 305, 306. 
 
 at Frederick, 285. 
 
 at Gettysburg, 290-293. 
 
 at Richmond and Petersburg, 309, 310, 316. 
 
 at Winchester, 286. 
 
 commands army of Northern Virginia, 300. 
 
 death of, 319. 
 
 in John Brown's raid, 248. 
 
 in Mexican War, 237, 233. 
 
 in the Wilderness, 305. 
 
 President Washington College, 319. 
 
 resigns from United States army, 267. 
 
 surrender of, 317, 318. 
 
 takes direct command Confederate troops, 
 282. 
 Lee, Stephen D., 294, 304. 
 Leif, 16. 
 
 Leisler, Jacob, 80. 
 Leopard, 189. 
 Leri, Baron de, 32. 
 Lewis, Andrew, 118. 
 Lewis, Meriwether, 187. 
 
INDEX 
 
 27 
 
 Lexington, battle of, 125. 
 Liberal Republicans, 334. 
 Libraries, public, 36S, 369. 
 Liliuokalaui, Queen, 349, 350. 
 Lincoln, Abraham, assassination and burial 
 of, 320, 32L 
 
 at Peace Conference, 314. 
 
 debates with Douglas, 249. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 2S8. 
 
 in Black Hawk War, 223. 
 
 President, 201-321. 
 
 troops called for, 265, 284. 
 Lincoln, Benjamin, 154, 165. 
 Line of Demarcation, 26, 39. 
 V Insurgeant, 181. 
 Literature, 259, 373. 
 Little Belt, 191. 
 Little Big Horn Pviver, 332. 
 Little Rock, 301. 
 Locke, John, 59. 
 Logan, John A., 342. 
 Logan, John, Indian chief, 113. 
 Logan's station, 118. 
 Longfellow, Henry W., 259. 
 Long Island, battle of, 135, 136. 
 Longstreet,' James, 285, 291, 292, 296, 297. 
 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 296, 297. 
 Losses in War of Secession, 306, 307, 319, 320. 
 Loudon, Fort, 111. 
 Louisburg, 100, 107. 
 Louisiana, named, 38. 
 
 Spain acquires, 110. 
 
 Spain cedes to France, 185. 
 
 United States purchases, 185. 
 Louisiana, State, admitted, 204, 212. 
 
 early history of, 210. 
 
 Federal troops leave, 335. 
 
 property qualifications for voters in, 330. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 rival administrations in, 331. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 Louis XIV, King, 62, 97. 
 Lowell, James Russell, 259. 
 Loyal Leagues, 329. 
 Lundys Lane, battle of, 198. 
 Lyman, Phineas, 106. " 
 
 Lynchburg, 317. 
 Lyon, Nathaniel, 271. 
 Lyttleton, Governor, 110. 
 
 McCausland, John, 311. 
 
 McClellan, George B., in Mexican War, 238. 
 
 in War of Secession, 268. 270, 281, 283, 286. 
 
 presidential nominee, 313. 
 McCormick, Cyrus, 257. 
 McCrady, Edward, 373. 
 Macdonald, Donald, 131. 
 
 McDonough, Thomas, 197. 
 McDowell, battle of, 283. 
 McDowell, Irvin, 269, 281. 
 Mactdonian, 193. 
 McHenry, Fort, 199. 
 McKinley Act, 346. 
 
 McKinley, WilHam, President, 351-363. 
 McLean, Wilmer, 317. 
 McPherson, James B., 302. 
 Madison, James, in Constitutional Conven- 
 tion, 169, 170. 
 
 President, 190-202. 
 
 Virginia Resolutions prepared by, 182. 
 Maffett, Captain J. N., 288. 
 Mafia, 345. 
 
 Magellan, Fernando, 27, 28. 
 Magruder, John B., 268, 281, 289. 
 Mahone, William, 309. 
 Mails, 92, 171, 257. 
 Maine, 852. 
 Maine, admitted, 209, 210, 212. 
 
 early history of, 78, 74, 78. 
 Malate, 360. 
 Maiden, Fort, 191, 195. 
 Malvern Hill, battle of, 284. 
 xManassas, or Bull Run, battles of, 269, 270, 
 
 284, 285. 
 Manchester, 161. 
 Manhattan Island, 78, 79. 
 Manila, 353, 354, 360. 
 Mansfield, 301. 
 Manufactures, 88, 90, 184, 185, 201, 202, 257, 
 
 370. 
 Marconi, William, 377. 
 Marco Polo, 19. 
 Marcos, Brother, 30, 31. 
 Marietta founded, 212. 
 Marion, Francis, 155, 156,159, 160. 
 Marquette, Father, 37. 
 Marshall, Charles, 317. 
 Martin, Alexander, 131. 
 Mary, Queen, 78, 80. 
 
 Maryland, declines to join Confederation, 
 133, 167. 
 
 District of Columbia ceded by, 177. 
 
 early history of, 56-58. 
 
 schools in, 87. 
 
 sympathizes with Confederacy, 265. 
 Maskoki Indians, 10, 11. 
 Mason, George, 119. 
 Mason, John, 73. 
 Mason and Dixon's Line, 84. 
 Mason and Slidell, 272, 273. 
 Massachusetts, cedes land to United States, 
 168. 
 
 charter annulled, 123. 
 
 early history of, 66-70. 
 
28 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Massachusetts — Continued. 
 
 Maine and New Hampshire annexed to, 74. 
 
 Plymouth Colony and Maine joined to, 78. 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 70. 
 Massasoit, 68. 
 Masse, Father, 36. 
 Matagorda Bay, 38. 
 Matamoras, 234. 
 Matanzas, 3.53. 
 Mathews, General, 150. 
 Maumee, battle of the, 179. 
 Maury, Dabney H., 803. 
 Maury, Matthew F., 258. 
 Maximilian of Austria, 328. 
 May, Captain, 234. 
 Mayflower, 68. 
 Maynard, Lieutenant, 62. 
 Meade, George G., 238, 291, 292. 
 Mechanicsville, battle of, 283. 
 Mecklenburg County, 126. 
 Mediterranean Sea, 188. 
 Meigs, Fort, 194, 195. 
 Memphis, captured, 277. 
 Mendoza, Antonio de, 30, 31. 
 Menendez, Pedro, 34. 
 Meridian, 301. 
 
 Merrimae, collier, 355, 356. 
 Merrimac, or Virginia, 279, 280. 
 Merritt, Wesley, 360. 
 Mexico, conquered, 29. 
 
 French in, 328. 
 
 slavery abolished in, 238. 
 
 Texas revolts from, 2-30, 231. 
 
 war with, 233-238. 
 Mexico City, capture of, 237. 
 Michigan, 255, 256. 
 Miles, Nelson, 358, 359. 
 Milford, settled, 72. 
 Military districts, 326. 
 Mill Springs, battle of, 273. 
 Milroy, Robert, 283, 291. 
 Mimms, Fort, 200. 
 Mingo Indians, 113. 
 Mining, 367, 371, 372. 
 3fi)inesotn, 279. 
 Minnesota, 2.5.5. 
 Minute men, 125. 
 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 297. 
 Mississippi, admitted, 212. 
 
 early history of, 210. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 Mississippi Elver, explored, 37, 38, 187. 
 
 floods in, 340. 
 
 jetties in, 337, 338. 
 
 navigation of, 169, 276. 
 Missouri, admitted, 204, 212. 
 
 Missouri Compromise, 204, 212, 2S2, 239, 
 244. 
 
 Missouri Eiver, explored, 187. 
 
 Mobile, 38, 303. 
 
 Mobile Bay, capture of, 303. 
 
 Modocs, 332. 
 
 Mohegan Indians, 73. 
 
 Molasses, produced in South, 370. 
 
 MoUno del Key, captured, 237. 
 
 Monetary Union, International, 345. 
 
 Money, after Revolutionary "War, 176, 177. 
 
 after War of Secession, 320. 
 
 Bland-AlHson Act, 338, 346, 347. 
 
 changes in currency, 338, 339. 
 
 Confederate, 298. 
 
 free coinage of silver, 350. 
 
 Gold Standard Act, 363. 
 
 greenbacks, 297, 333. 
 
 paper, 153, 169, 297, 333. 
 
 See aho Finances. 
 Monitor, 279, 280. 
 Monmouth, battle of, 146. 
 Monocacy Bridge, battle of, 310. 
 Monro, General, 107. 
 Monroe, Fort, 281. 
 Monroe, James, President, 202-207. 
 Monroe Doctrine, 206, 328, 349. 
 Montana, 367, 377. 
 
 Montcalm, Marquis de, 107, 108, 110. 
 Monterey, battle of, 236. 
 Montezuma, 14. 
 
 Montgomery, Confederate Congress at, 253. 
 Montgomery, Richard, 110, 111, 130. 
 Monticello, 190. 
 Montreal, 33, 97, 99, 130. 
 Moore, James, 61. 
 Moores Creek Bridge, 131. 
 Moravians, 61, 64. 
 Morgan, Daniel, 130, 158, 159. 
 Morgan, John H., 277. 
 Mormons, 227, 365. 
 Morris, Robert, 137, 153. 
 Morris town, 137, 153, 162. 
 Morse, Samuel F. B., 258. 
 Morton, Levi P., 344. 
 Motley, John Lothrop, 259. 
 Motte, Mrs., 160. 
 Moulbrie, Fort, 255. 
 Moultrie, Wilham, 110, 132. 
 Mound Builders. 9, 10, 
 Mount Vernon, 163, 167, 175. 
 Mower, invented, 369. 
 Mugwumps, 342. 
 Murfree, Miss, 373. 
 Murfreesboro, battle of, 278. 
 Mutiny in army during Revolutionary War, 
 
INDEX 
 
 29 
 
 Napoleon I, 182,189,200. 
 
 Napoleon III, 328. 
 
 Narragansett Indians, 68, 71, 73, 77. 
 
 Narvaez, Panfilo de, 30. 
 
 Nashrille, 271. 
 
 Nashville, battle of, 303, 804. 
 
 capture of, 277. 
 
 exposition at, 363. 
 
 settled, 113. 
 Natchez, 277, 371. 
 National bank, 178, 298. 
 National debt, see Debt, national. 
 National Republican party, 205, 224. 
 Nauvoo, 227. 
 
 Naval warfare, in Revolutionary War, 151, 
 152. 
 
 in War of Secession, 271, 277, 279, 280, 288, 
 312, 313. 
 
 in War of 1812, 193, 194, 196, 197. 
 Navigation, international, 258, 259. 
 Navigation Acts, 53, 55, 74, 75, 77, 114, 
 
 116. 
 Navy, new American, 343, 349. 
 Nebraska, 244, 364, 377. 
 Necessity, Fort, 101. 
 Negroes, Civil Rights Bill, 325. 
 
 Freedmen's Bill, 325. 
 
 Suffrage granted to, 329, 330. 
 
 See Slavery. 
 Nelson, Thomas, 163, 164. 
 Neuse River, 60, 61. 
 Nevada, 299, 364, 377. 
 New Amsterdam, 79, 80. 
 New Berne, 59. 
 New England, colonies, 66-78, 88, 89. 
 
 named, 66. 
 New England Confederation, 74-78. 
 Newfoundland discovered, 16, 
 
 England acquires, 42, 99. 
 New France, 32. 
 New Hampshire, 73, 74. 
 New Hampshire Grants, 210. 
 New Haven founded, 72. 
 New Hope Church, 302. 
 New Jersey, early history of, 81, 82. 
 
 Washington's retreat across, 137. 
 New London, 161. 
 New Market, battle of, 307. 
 New Mexico, colony in, 32. 
 
 Compromise of 1850, 244, 
 
 conquered, 234. 
 
 irrigation of, 377. 
 
 Territory, 241, 367. 
 New Netherland, 78. 
 
 New Orleans, battle of, in War of 1812, 200, 
 201. 
 
 capture of, in Civil War, 276, 277. 
 
 New Orleans — Continued, 
 
 growth of, 219. 
 
 Mafia in, 345. 
 
 Spanish possession, 110, 180. 
 
 World's Exposition at, 341. 
 Newport, besieged, 146, 147. 
 
 founded, 71. 
 Newport News, 279, 372. 
 Newspapers, 89, 368. 
 New Sweden, 84. 
 Newton, Virginius, 279. 
 Newtown, battle of, 283. 
 New York, 357. 
 New York (City), British evacuate, 167. 
 
 consolidated with Brooklyn, 363. 
 
 financial center, 208. 
 
 improvements in, 1S4. 
 
 New Amsterdam becomes, 80. 
 
 population in 1697, 81. 
 New York (State), cedes land to United 
 States, 168. 
 
 early history of, 78-81. 
 
 public school system in, 172. 
 Nez Perces Indians, 338. 
 Niagara, 197. 
 Niagara, Fort, 107, 108. 
 Niagara River, 195, 196. 
 Nicaragua, 243. 
 Nina, 20. 
 
 Ninety-six, siege of, 159, 160. 
 Nominating conventions, 224. 
 Non-intercourse Act, 190. 
 Norsemen, explorations of, 16, 
 North, Lord Frederick, 165. 
 North Carolina, cedes land to United States, 
 168. 
 
 early history of, 58-61, 
 
 pubHc education in, 171. 
 
 readmitted, 327, 
 
 secedes, 265. 
 North Castle, 136. 
 North Dakota, 367, 377. 
 Northeast boundary, 233. 
 Northern Pacific Railroad, 367. 
 Northwest Passage, search for, 32, 78. 
 Northwest Territorj", ceded to the United 
 States, 167, 168. 
 
 education in, 259. 
 
 government of, 204. 
 
 Indian wars in, 178, 179, 194, 195, 
 
 Ordinance, 171. 
 
 settlement of, 211. 
 
 slavery prohibited in, 171, 211. 
 
 States formed from, 204, 
 Nova Scotia, 16, 99. 
 Nueces River, 234. 
 Nullification, 209, 219, 220, 
 
30 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Oak Hills, or Wilson's Creek, battle of, 271. 
 
 Oglethorpe, James, 64, 65. 
 
 O'Hara, Charles, 165. 
 
 Ohio, 204, 21U-212. 
 
 Okechobee, Lake, 223. 
 
 Oklahoma, 367, 377. 
 
 Okolona, battle of, 301. 
 
 Olustee, battle of, 300. 
 
 Omaha, 364, 365. 
 
 Omnibus Bill, 242. 
 
 Omnibuses, 257. 
 
 "On the Freedom of the Will" (Edwards), 
 
 89. 
 Ontario, Lake, 36, 
 Opechancanough, 52. 
 Orange County, Regulators in, 122. 
 Oregon, admission of, 355. 
 
 boundary of, 233. 
 
 claims to, 187. 
 
 irrigation of, 377. 
 
 joint occupation of, 232, 233. 
 Oriskany, battle of, 139. 
 Osceola, 223. 
 Oswego, 107. 
 Otis, Elwell S., 360. 
 Otis, James, 114. 
 Ottawa Indians, 112. 
 
 Pacific Ocean discovered, 27, 28. 
 
 Pacific railroads, 364, 365, 367. 
 
 Page, Thomas Nelson, 873. 
 
 Pakenham, Edward M., 201. 
 
 Palmer, John M., 350. 
 
 Palo Alto, battle of, 234. 
 
 Palos, 22, 23. 
 
 Pamhco River, 61. 
 
 Panama, isthmus of, 24. 
 
 Panama Canal, 343, 375, 376. 
 
 Pan-American Fair, 363. 
 
 Panics, see Finances. 
 
 Paris, treaties of, 110, 360. 
 
 Parkman, Francis, 259. 
 
 Pastorius, S3. 
 
 Patents, 170. 
 
 Patroons, 78, 79, 90. 
 
 Patterson, Robert, 268. 
 
 Patuxent River, 198, 199. 
 
 Paulding, John, 152, 153. 
 
 Paulus Hook captured, 151. 
 
 Peace Conference, 314. 
 
 Peace Congress, 2.52, 253. 
 
 Peach Tree Creek, 302. 
 
 Peacock^ 196. 
 
 Pea Ridge, or Elkhorn Tavern, battle of, 274. 
 
 Peekskill, 162. 
 
 Pemberton, John C, 294. 
 
 Pendleton, George H., 313. 
 
 Peninsular Campaign, 281. 
 Penn, Admiral Sir William, 82. 
 Penn, William, S2-S4. 
 Pennsylvania, early history of, 82-84. 
 
 public education in, 171. 
 Pennsylvania, College of, 91. 
 People's party, 347. 
 Pequot Indians, 72, 73. 
 Perry, Matthew C, 243, 
 Perry, Oliver H., 196, 197. 
 Perryville, battle of, 278. 
 Personal Liberty bills, 244. 
 Peru, 31. 
 Peruvians, 14. 
 Peters, William E., 311. 
 Petersburg, in Revolutionar}- War, 161. 
 
 in War of Secession, 308-310,316, 317. 
 Philadelphia, 188. 
 Philadelphia, abolition meetings in, 227. 
 
 British abandon, 146. 
 
 British capture, 142. 
 
 Centennial Exposition at, 332. 
 
 Continental Congress at, 124. 
 
 founded, 83. 
 
 improvements in, 171, 184. 
 Philip, Indian chief, 76. 77. 
 Philippine Islands, ceded to the United 
 States, 360. 
 
 Dewey's victory in, 353, 354. 
 
 government of, 362, 376. 
 Phillips, General, 161. 
 Phips, Sir William, 97. 
 Phonograph invented, 838, 369. 
 Photography, improvements in, 338. 
 Pickens, Andrew, 153, 159. 
 Pickett, George E., 315. 
 Pierce, Franklin, President, 243-246. 
 Pierce, General L. B., 268. 
 Pierpont, Francis H., 299. 
 Pike, Zebulon, 187, 196. 
 Pilgrims, 67. 
 Pillow, Fort, 301. 
 Pillow, Gideon J., 274. 
 Pilot Knob, battle of, 301. 
 Pinckney, Charles C, 181. 
 Pinia, 20. 
 
 Pinzon, Vicente Yanez, 20, 27. 
 Pirates, Captain Kidd leads, 80, 81. 
 
 in Carolinas. 62. 
 
 of Tripoli, 188. 
 Piscataqua River, 73. 
 Pitt, Fort, 108. 
 
 Pitt, William, 108, 116, 118, 124. 
 Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, battle of, 274- 
 
 276. 
 Pizarro, Francisco, 31. 
 Plains of Abraham, 110. 
 
INDEX 
 
 31 
 
 Piatt, Thomas C, 839. 
 
 Plattsburgr, battle of, 197. 
 
 Pleasant Hill, battle of, 301. 
 
 Pleasanlon, Alfred, 291. 
 
 Plymouth Colony, 66-69, 78. 
 
 Plymouth Coa^pany, 66. 
 
 Pocahontas, 46, 47, 49. 
 
 Pocotaligo, 62. 
 
 Poe, Edgar Allen, 259. 
 
 Point of Fork, 162. 
 
 Point Pleasant, battle of, 113. 
 
 Polk, James K., President, 233-240. 
 
 Polk, Leonidas, 278, 300, 302. 
 
 Polygamy, 365. 
 
 Ponce, surrender of, 359. 
 
 Ponce de Leon, Juan, 28. 
 
 Pontiac, 115. 
 
 Pony express, 365. 
 
 Pope, John, 276, 285. 
 
 Porter, David, 196. 
 
 Porter, Fitz-John, 281. 
 
 Port Hudson, surrender of, 295. 
 
 Porto Kico, 355, 358, 359. 
 
 Port Eepublic, battle of, 283. 
 
 Port Royal, N.S., 35, 97, 99. 
 
 Port Itoyal, S.C, 34, 62, 271. 
 
 Portsmouth, 71, 73, 162. 
 
 Portuguese exi)lorations, 17, 18, 23, 26, 27. 
 
 Postage, reduction of, 340. 
 
 Post offices, 91, 92, 170, 368. 
 
 Post-roads, 170, 185. 
 
 Powhatan, 47. 
 
 Powhatan Indians, 13. 
 
 Preble, Edward, 188. 
 
 Prescott, William, 127. 
 
 Prescott, Wilham Hickling, 259. 
 
 Presidency, succession to, 344. 
 
 PreMdent, 191. 
 
 Presidential electors, 182, 183. 
 
 Presque Isle, Fort, 100. 
 
 Prevost, George. 197. 
 
 Price, Sterling, 272, 278, 301. 
 
 Princeton, battle of, 139. 
 
 Princeton College, 91. 
 
 Pring, Martin, 43. 
 
 Printing press, 369. 
 
 Prisoners, treatment of, in War of Secession, 
 
 298. 
 Prison ships. British, 147. 
 Privations of South, 298. 
 Proctor, Henry A., 194, 195. 
 Progress of United States, 368. 
 Prophet, the, 194. 
 Proprietary colonies, 92. 
 Providence founded, 71. 
 Provincial colonies, 92. 
 Ptolemy, 18. 
 
 Public land, sale of, 211, 219, 225, 226. 
 
 See Northwest Territory. 
 Pueblo Indians, 14. 
 Pula.ski, Count Casimir, 142, 143, 154. 
 Puritans, 53, 57, 58, 67-69. 
 Put-in Bay, 196. 
 Putnam, Israel, 125, 127, 135. 
 
 Quakers, persecution of, 54, 75. 
 
 principles of, 82. 
 
 social habits of, 90. 
 Quebec founded, 36. 
 
 in French and Indian War, 109, 110. 
 
 in Queen Anne's War, 99. 
 
 in Revolutionary War, 130. 
 Queen Anne's War, 99. 
 QueenstowD, attack on, 192. 
 
 Rahl, Colonel, 138. 
 
 Railroads, constructed in South, 341. 
 
 first steam, 208, 209. 
 
 in 1900, 372. 
 
 influence population, 256. 
 
 international, 345. 
 
 Pacific, 364, 365, 367. 
 
 strikes, 337, 343. 
 Raisin River, 194. 
 Raleigh, Sherman's march to, 314. 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 40, 42, 43, 45. 
 Randolph, John, 191. 
 Ranger, 151. 
 
 Rappahannock River, 289, 290. 
 "Ratio of 16 to 1," 338. 
 Rawdon, Lord Francis, 160. 
 Reams Station, battle of, 310. 
 Reaper, invented, 369. 
 Reciprocity, 345, 346, 376. 
 Eeconcentration, 352. 
 Reconstruction, era of, 325-335. 
 Redemptioners, 85. 
 Regulators, 122. 
 Reina Cristina, 354. 
 Reindeer, 196. 
 Religion, in colonial days, 87, 89. 
 
 of Indians, 13. 
 Religious toleration, 57, 58. 
 Representation, 170. 
 Reprisal, 151. 
 Republican administration in South, 329-331, 
 
 335. 
 Republicans, 177, 182. 
 Republicans (new party), 246, 334, 339. 
 Resaca, battle of, 302. 
 Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 234. 
 Reservations, Indian, 224. 
 Revenge, 151. 
 Revenue, surplus, 344. 
 
32 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Kevere, Paul, 125. 
 
 Revolution, French, 1T9. 
 
 Revolutionary War, 125-165. 
 
 Reynolds, John Fulton, 291. 
 
 Rhode Island, Dorr's Rebellion in, 229, 280. 
 
 early history of, 70, 71, 74. 
 Rhode Island Collegre founded, 89. 
 Ribault, Jean, 33, 34. 
 Rice, cultivation of, 63, 85, 370. 
 Richmond, convention at, 124. 
 
 in Revolutionary War, 160. 
 
 in War of Secession, 307-809, 315, 316. 
 Rich Mountain, battle of, 268. 
 Right of search, 201. 
 Ringgold, Major, 234. 
 Rio de la Plata, 27. 
 Rio Grande River, 32, 234. 
 Ripley, E. W., 198. 
 Roanoke Island, colony in, 42. 
 Robertson, James, 112, 113. 
 Robins, William T., 283. 
 Rochambeau, Count Jean B. do, 162, 165. 
 Rocket, 209. 
 
 Rocky Mount, battle of, 155. 
 Rocky Mountains, 187. 
 Rolfe, John, 49. 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish War, 357. 
 
 President, 375-378. 
 
 Vice President, 363. 
 Rosecrans, William Starke, 278, 296. 
 Ross, Riobert, 198, 199. 
 Rough Riders, 357, 375. 
 Rowland, Kate Mason, 373. 
 Royal colonies, 92. 
 Royal Mountain discovered, 38. 
 Rum, 65, 74. 
 Rumsey, James, 185. 
 Russia, Alaska purchased from, 327. 
 Rutledge, Edward, 124. 
 Ryswick, treaty of, 99. 
 
 Sable Island, settlement on, 32. 
 
 Sacketts Harbor, 196. 
 
 Sacramento, 365. 
 
 Sacs, 223. 
 
 Sailors Creek, battle of, 317. 
 
 St. Augustine founded, 32, 34, 35. 
 
 siege of, 65. 
 
 Spaniards at, 62. 
 St. Clair, Arthur, 178. 
 St. Croix River, 35. 
 St. Joseph, fort at, 38. 
 St. Lawrence River, 32. 
 St. Leger, Barry, 139. 
 St. Louis, 218, 271. 
 St. Mary, mission at, 37. 
 St. Marys founded, 57. 
 
 St. Philip, Fort, 276, 277. 
 St. Simon Island, 65. 
 Salem, settled, 69. 
 
 witchcraft mania in, 76. 
 Salmon Falls, 98. 
 Saltillo, 235. 
 
 Salt Lake City built, 227. 
 Samoan Islands, 343, 363. 
 Samoset, 68. 
 
 Sampson, William T., 355-357. 
 San Antonio, 230. 
 San Francisco, 240. 
 tian Jacinto, 273. 
 San Jacinto, battle of, 231. 
 San Juan, battle of, 355, 357. 
 San Juan de Ulloa, castle of, 237. 
 San Salvador, 22. 
 
 Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, 230, 231, 236. 
 Santa Fe, 32, 234. 
 Santa Maria, 20. 
 Santee, 160. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, 355-358. 
 Saratoga, battle of, 140. 
 Sassafras, introduced into England, 43. 
 Savannah, 208. 
 Savannah founded, 64. 
 
 in Revolutionary War, 153, 154. 
 
 in War of Secession, 804, 305. 
 Saybrook Colony, 72. 
 Sayle, Governor, 61. 
 "Scalawags," 326. 
 Schenectady massacre, 98. 
 Schley, Winfield S., 355, 357. 
 Schofield, John M.,303, 314. 
 Schools, 87, 89-91. 171, 172, 259, 369, 373. 
 Schuyler, Fort, 139. 
 Schuyler, Philip, 139, 140. 
 Scotch Highlanders in Georgia, 64. 
 Scotch-Irish, immigration of, 61. 
 Scott, Winfield, at Chippewa, 198. 
 
 Mexico captured by, 236, 237. 
 
 presidential candidate, 243. 
 
 retires, 271. 
 Scrooby, 68. 
 Secession, of Southern States, 250-25:3. 
 
 ordinances of, repealed, 324. 
 
 War of, 261-321. 
 Sedgwick, John, 289, 290. 
 Sedition Act, 182. 
 Seminary Ridge, battle of, 292. 
 Seminole Indians, 208, 223, 224. 
 Semmes, Raphael, 288, 312. 
 Senate, 170. 
 Separatists, 67, 68. 
 Sera pis, 151. 
 Servants, indented, 51, 85. 
 "Seven Cities " of Cibola, 31. 
 
INDEX 
 
 33 
 
 Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, battle of, 281. 
 Severn, battle of the, 58. 
 Sevier, John, 112, 157. 
 Sewall, Arthur, 350. 
 Seward, William H., 242, 314. 
 Sewers, 257. 
 
 Sewing machines, 257, 369. 
 Seymour, Horatio, 328. 
 Shackamaxou, 83. 
 Shafter, William K.,356, 358. 
 Shannon, 196. 
 
 Sharpsburg, or Antietam, battle of, 285, 286. 
 Shawnee Indians, 113. 
 Shays's Eebellion, 169. 
 Shelby, Isaac, 150, 157. 
 Shenandoah, 312. 
 
 Sheridan, Philip, at Appomattox Courthouse, 
 817. 
 
 at Petersburg, 315-SlT. 
 
 at Yellow Tavern, 307. 
 
 defeated at Trevihan Station, 308. 
 
 Early defeated by, 311, 31'^. 
 
 Lee and Pickett defeated hy, 315. 
 Shei-man, Roger, 124. 
 
 Sherman, William T., at Chattanooga, 296, 
 300. 
 
 at Chickasaw Bayou, 294. 
 
 Atlanta captured by, 301-303. 
 
 at Missionary Ridge and Knoxville, 297. 
 
 in Mexican War, 237, 238. 
 
 in the Carolinas, 313-815. 
 
 Johnston's surrender to, 319. 
 
 march to the sea, 304, 305. 
 
 Polk defeated by, 300, 
 Sherman Act, 347, 348. 
 Shields, James, 283. 
 Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 274- 
 
 276, 
 Shipbuilding, 88, 372. 
 Shirley, William, 107. 
 Shreveport, 301. 
 Siboney, 357. 
 Sickles, Daniel E., 293. 
 Sigel, Franz, 271, 307. 
 Sigsbee, Charles Dwight, 852. 
 Silver, coinage of, 338, 846, 850. 
 
 discovered in Colorado, 365. 
 
 discovered in South Dakota, Montana, 
 Idaho, and Wyoming, 367. 
 Simcoe, John G,, 162. 
 Simms, William Gilmore, 259. 
 Sioux Indians, 38, 382. 
 Slavery, abolished in Mexico, 239. 
 
 abolished in United States, 324. 
 
 abolition societies, 221, 222, 227. 
 
 attitude of North and South toward, 172. 
 
 Compromise of 1850, 241, 242, 244. 
 
 Slavery — Continued. 
 
 cotton industry intiuences, 178, 
 
 Dred Scott decision, 246, 247, 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 288, 289, 
 
 excluded from territories, 249-251. 
 
 Fugitive Slave Law, 241, 244, 247. 
 
 in colonies, 51, 63, 65, 85, 90. 
 
 in Jefferson's administration, 184. 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 244, 245, 364, 
 
 Lecompton Constitution, 24S, 249. 
 
 Missouri Compromise, 204, 212, 232, 239, 
 244. 
 
 prohibited in District of Columbia, 242. 
 
 prohibited in Northwest Territorj', 171, 211. 
 
 representation allowed for slaves, 170. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso, 238, 239. 
 
 See Secession. 
 Slidell, John, 272, 273. 
 Sloughter, Governor, 80. 
 Smallwood, William, 135. 
 Smith, John, 41, 46, 48, 66. 
 Smith, Joseph, 227. 
 Smith, Kirby, 270, 277, 319. 
 Smith, William S., 301. 
 Snickers Gap, battle of, 311. 
 Social conditions in colonies, 85-S7, 89, 90, 
 Solis, Juan Diaz de, 27. 
 "Sons of Liberty," 118. 
 South American republics, 206, 346. 
 Southampton County, 222. 
 South Carolina, cedes land to United States, 
 168. 
 
 early history of, 61-63. 
 
 Federal troops leave, 335. 
 
 Nullification Ordinance, 219, 220. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 secedes, 250. 
 South Dakota, 867, 877. 
 South Mountain, battle of, 286. 
 Southside, 310. 
 Spain, conflict with English in Georgia, 65. 
 
 explorations in America, 19-24, 27-32. 
 
 Florida boundary fixed, 180. 
 
 Florida conquered by, 167. 
 
 Florida purchased from, 203. 
 
 in King George's War, 100. 
 
 in Queen Anne's War, 99. 
 
 Louisiana ceded to France, 185. 
 
 Mississippi navigation secured to United 
 States, 180. 
 
 New Orleans and Louisiana acquired by, 
 110. 
 
 treaty with, ISO, 
 
 war with France and Great Britain, 189. 
 
 war with United States, 851-^^60. 
 Spanish Armada, 40, 41. 
 Specie payments, 225, 383, 339, 
 
34 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Speculation, 218, 219. 
 
 Spinning mills, 185. 
 
 Spoils system, 217. 
 
 Spottsylvania Courthouse, battle of, 305, 
 
 Squanto, 68. 
 
 " Squatter sovereignty," 244. 
 
 Stagecoaches, 91, 171, 185. 
 
 "Stalwart" wing of Republican party, 839, 
 
 340. 
 Stamford settled, 72. 
 Stamp Act, 116, 118. 
 Standard Oil Company, 341, 
 Standish, Miles, 68. 
 Stanton, Edwin M., 327. 
 Stanwix Fort, 112, 139. 
 Stark, John, 125, .127, 139, 
 Star of the Weiit,2bb. 
 Star-fipangUd Banner, 199, 
 State banks, 217, 218, 225, 226. 
 State debts, 176-178. 
 State of Franklin, 210. 
 State Rights, 182, 220. 
 State, subordination of, 251. 
 States, admission of new, 209-212, 255, 364. 
 Staunton Eiver, 317. 
 Steamboats, 185, 259. 
 Stedman, Fort, 315. 
 Steel, 872. 
 
 Steele, Frederick, 301. 
 Stephens, Alexander H., 242, 253, 254, 314. 
 Stephenson, Fort, 195. 
 Stephenson, George, 209. 
 Steuben, Baron von, 144, 145. 
 Stevens, Isaac I., 285. 
 Stevenson, Adlai E., 363. 
 Stirling, Lord William, 135. 
 Stockton, Robert F., 234. 
 Stone River, battle of, 278. 
 Stony Point, captured, 150, 151. 
 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 244. 
 Strabo, 18. 
 Strength of antagonists in War of Secession, 
 
 267. 
 Strikes, 337, 348, 376, 377, 
 Stuart, James E. B,, 283, 291, 307. 
 Stuyvesant, Peter, 79, 
 Subtreasuries, 226, 
 Suflrage, 183, 184, 229, 329, 350. 
 Sugar, 370. 
 
 SulUvan, John, 135, 146-148, 
 SuUivans Island, 132. 
 Sumner, Charles, 242, 245, 
 Sumner, Edwin V., 281. 
 Sumter, 271. 
 
 Sumter, Fort, 255, 261, 264, 265, 289. 
 Sumter, Thomas, 155, 156, 159, 160. 
 Surjjlus, distribution of, 226. 
 
 Susan Constant, 46. 
 
 Sutter, John, 239. 
 
 Swansea, 76. 
 
 Swedes, settlements of, 61, 82-84. 
 
 Taft, William H., 362. 
 Talon, Jean-Baptiste, 37. 
 Taney, Roger B., 217, 247. 
 Tariff, '• Amertcan System," 205. 
 
 Dingley, 362, 
 
 McKinley Act, 346. 
 
 of 1816, 202. 
 
 of 1832, 219, 
 
 Southern opposition to, 205. 
 
 surplus revenue, 344. 
 
 Western encouragement of, 206. 
 
 Wilson Bill. 348. 
 Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 154, 156, 158, 162. 
 Tattnall, Commodore Josiah, 271. 
 Tax, income, 848, 
 
 on imported goods, 226. 
 Taxation, in colonies, .54, 55, .59, 114-116, 119 
 
 in Southern States, 330, 
 Taylor, Dick, 301, 319. 
 Taylor, Walter H., 317. 
 Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 234, 286. 
 
 in Seminole War, 223. 
 
 President, 240, 241. 
 Tecumseh, 194, 195. 
 Telegraph, invented, 257, 258, 
 Telegraphy, wireless, 377. 
 Telephone, use of, 338, 369. 
 Tennessee, 210, 212, 265. 
 Tenure of Office Act, 327. 
 Territories, slavery question in, 249-251. 
 Terry, Alfred H.,318, 314. 
 Texas, 358, 
 Texas, admitted, 231, 232, 255, 
 
 cedes land to United States, 241. 
 
 independence of, 230, 231, 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 secedes, 252. 
 
 settlement of, 256. 
 Thames, battle of the, 195. 
 " Thanatopsis " (Bryant), 259. 
 Thirteenth Amendment, 324. 
 Thomas, George II., at Chickamauga, 296, 
 
 at Mill Springs, 278. 
 
 at Missionary Ridge, 297, 
 
 at Murfreesboro, 278, 
 
 at Nashville, 303. 
 
 encampment near Chattanooga, 277, 
 
 in Mexican War, 238. 
 Thomas, Lorenzo, 327, 
 Thompson, General, 223, 
 Thorfinn, 16. 
 Ticonderoga, Fort, 107, 108, 126, 
 
INDEX 
 
 35 
 
 Tildeii, Samuel J., 334. 
 Tilgliman, Lloj-d, 2T-4. 
 Tippecanoe Creek, battle of, 194. 
 Tobacco, cultivation of, 85, 3T0. 
 
 introduced into England, 43. 
 Toleration Act. 57. 
 Tompkins, Daniel D., 202. 
 I'oomb-s Kobert. 242. 
 foral, General, 358. 
 ■rorie.s, 131, 155. 
 Toronto, 196. 
 
 Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzo, IS, 19. 
 Townshend Acts, 119. 
 Township, New England, 8S. 
 Trade, in colonies, 88, 90. See Commerce. 
 Transportation, 91, 185, 208, 209, 256, 34:3, 344. 
 Transylvania Academy, 172. 
 Treasury, Department of the, 176. 
 Treaties, reciprocity, 345, 376. 
 Trent, 272, 273. 
 Trenton, battle of, 138. 
 Trent Kiver, 61. 
 Trevilian Station, battle of, 308. 
 Tripoli, war with, 188. 
 "Triumvirate, Great," 242. 
 Trusts, 341, 342. 
 Truxton, Thomas, 181. 
 Tryon, William, 116, 123, 150. 
 Tullahoma, 295. 
 Tupelo, 276. 
 
 Turner slave insurrection, 222. 
 Tuscarora Indians, 10, 11, 60, 61. 
 Tutuila, 363. 
 Tyler, John, President, 228-233. 
 
 Vice President, 227. 
 Tyler, Lyon G., 373. 
 Typewriter, 369. 
 
 " Uncle Tom's Cabin " (Stowe), 243, 244. 
 
 " Underground railway," 244. 
 
 Union Pacific Railroad, 364. 
 
 United Colonies of New England, 96. 
 
 United States, 194. 
 
 United States Bank, 178, 217, 218, 229. 
 
 United States of America formed, 133. 
 
 Universities in South. §73. 
 
 University, of Virginia, 190. 
 
 State, in Georgia, 172. 
 
 Washington and Lee, 319. 
 
 See Schools. 
 Utah, 241, 244, 365, 377. 
 Utica, 227. 
 Utrecht, peace of, 99. 
 
 Vaca, Alva Cabeza de, 30. 
 Valley Forge, 143, 144. 
 Valparaiso, 346. 
 
 Van Buren, Martin, President, 225-228. 
 
 Van Dorn, Eari, 274, 278, 294. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 192. 
 
 Van Wart, 152. 
 
 Vegetables, shipment of, 370. 
 
 VenangOj Fort, 100. 
 
 Venezuelan controversy, 349. 
 
 Vera Cruz, battle of, 237. 
 
 Vermont, 209, 210, 212. 
 
 Verrazano, Giovanni de, 32. 
 
 Vespucius, Americus, 26, 27. 
 
 Vicksburg, 294, 295. 
 
 Vincennes, 96, 148-150. 
 
 Vinland, 16. 
 
 Virginia, 279, 280. 
 
 Virginia, cedes land to United States, 167, 177. 
 
 explorations in, 30, 42. 
 
 in colonial tinaes, 45-55. 
 
 land warrants granted by, 211. 
 
 Peace Congress, 252, 253. 
 
 readmitted, 327. 
 
 schools in, 87, 88. 
 
 secedes, 265. 
 Virginia Company, 45. 
 
 Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, 307. 
 Virginia Resolutions, 182, 190. 
 Von Reck, Baron, 64. 
 Voters, qualifications of, 183, 184, 229, 330. 
 Vu-liiire, 152. 
 
 Wabash River, 178. 
 
 Waddell, James I., 312. 
 
 Wallace, Lewis, 310. 
 
 Waltham, 185. 
 
 Wampanoag Indians, 76. 
 
 Warner, Seth, 126. 
 
 Warren, Joseph, 128. 
 
 Warrenton, Federals encamped at, 286. 
 
 Wars — 
 
 Indian, see Indians. 
 
 intercolonial, 96-110. 
 
 Mexican, 233-238. 
 
 of 1812, 191-201. 
 
 of Secession. 261-321. 
 
 Revolutionary, 125-165. 
 
 Avith Spain, 351-360. 
 
 with Tripoli, 188. 
 Washington (city), in Civil War, 285. 
 
 in War of 1812, 198, 199. 
 
 made national capital, 178. 
 
 Peace Congress in, 253. 
 Washington, (State), 187, 367, 377. 
 Washington, Fort, 136. 
 Washington, George, appointed commander 
 in chief, 127. 
 
 at Annapolis, 167. 
 
 at Boston, 131. 
 
36 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Washington, George — Continued. 
 
 at Gennantown, 143. 
 
 at Long Island, 135, 136. 
 
 at Monmouth, 146. 
 
 at New York, 135. 
 
 at Princeton, 139. 
 
 at Trenton, 137, 138. 
 
 at Valley Forge, 143, 144. 
 
 Constitution supported by, 171. 
 
 Conway Cabal against, 144. 
 
 Cornwallis surrenders to, 163-165. 
 
 in French and Indian War, lUU, 101, 105, 
 106, lOS. 
 
 Lydia Darragh warns, 142. 
 
 member Continental Congress, 124. 
 
 President, 175-181. 
 
 president Constitutional Convention, 169- 
 
 retreat through New Jersey, 136, 137. 
 
 takes command in Revolutionary W"ar, 129. 
 
 taxation opposed by, 119. 
 Washington, Mrs. Martha, 144. 
 Washington and Lee University (Washing- 
 ton College), 319. 
 Watauga, 112, 157. 
 Waxhaws, battle of, 154. 
 Wayne, Anthony, 143. 150, 162, 179. 
 Weaver, James B., 347. 
 Weaving mill, 185. 
 Webb, Daniel, 107. 
 Webster- A shburton treaty, 232. 
 Webster, Daniel, 220, 221, 229, 242, 243. 
 Werowocomoco, 47. 
 Wesley, John, 64. 
 West, settlement of, 112, 118. 
 West Point, 152. 
 West Virginia, 299, 364, 371. 
 Wether sfield founded, 72. 
 Weymouth, Sir George, 43. 
 Wheat, production of, 367. 
 Wheeler, Joseph, 296, 302, 356, 357. 
 Wheeler, William A., 334, 335. 
 Whisky Insurrection, 178. 
 White, John, 42, 43. 
 Whitefield, George, 64. 
 White House on the Pamiinkey, 284. 
 White Marsh, 142. 
 White Oak Swamp, battle of, 284. 
 White Plains, 1-36, 146. 
 Whiting, W. II. C, 313. 
 Whitney, EH, 178. 
 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 259. 
 Wilderness, battle of the, 305. 
 Wilkes, Charles. 273. 
 Wilkinson, James, 196. 
 
 William, King, 78, 80, 97. 
 
 William and Mary College, 88. 
 
 William Henry, Fort, 106, 107. 
 
 Williams, Kphraim, 106, 152, 157. 
 
 Williams, Koger, 70,71, 73. 
 
 Williamsburg, 124, 163, 281. 
 
 Williamsport, 291. 
 
 Wilmington, 84, 123, 313. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso, 238, 289. 
 
 Wilson, Henry, 334. 
 
 Wilson, James H., 310. 
 
 Wilson (or Gorman-Wilson) Bill, .348. 
 
 Wilsons Creek, or Oak Hills, battle of, 271. 
 
 Winchester, battle of, 291, 311. 
 
 Lee withdraws to, 286. 
 Winchester, James, 194. 
 Winder, William H., 198. 
 Windsor settled, 72. 
 Winnebago Indians, 223. 
 Winnsboro, Cornwallis retreats to, 158. 
 Winslow, John, 104. 
 Winsh)w, John A., 312. 
 Winthrop, John, 69, 72. 
 Wireless telegraphy, 377. 
 Wisconsin, 255, 256. 
 Witchcraft, 75, 76. 
 Wolfe, James, 107, 109, 110. 
 Wood, Leonard, 358. 
 Woodford, Stewart L., 853. 
 Wool, John Elhs, 234, 236. 
 Woolen goods, duty on, 202. 
 Worden, John L., 280. 
 Workingmen, improvement in condition of, 
 
 257. 
 World's Columbian Exposition, 848, 349. 
 World's Exposition at New Orleans, 341. 
 W^orley, Richard, 62. 
 Writs of assistance, 114. 
 Wyatt, Henry, 268. 
 Wyoming, 367, 377. 
 Wyoming Valley, massacre in, 147. 
 
 Yale College founded, 89. 
 
 Yamassee Indians, 62. 
 
 Yeardley, Sir George, 50. 
 
 Yellow fever epidemic, 837. 
 
 Yellow Tavern, 307. 
 
 York, captured, 196. 
 
 York, Duke of, (James II) 80, 84, 98. 
 
 Yorktown, 162, 168. 
 
 Young, Erigham, 227. 
 
 Zollicoffer, Felix K., 278. 
 Zuni Indians, 31. 
 
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