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HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE FIRST INVASION BY JULIUS CiESAR, 
 
 TO THE 
 
 .1CCESSI0J\' OF GEORGE THE FOURTH 
 
 IN EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND TWENTY : 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 EVERY POLITICAL EVENT WORTHY OF REMEMBRANCE : 
 A PROGRESSIVE VIEW 
 
 OF heltgiox, laxgttage, axd manners ; of men eminent fob their 
 
 VlRTtTE OR THF.IR LEARNING; THEIR PATRIOTISM, ELOQUENCE, 
 
 OR PHILOSOPHICAL RESEARCH; OF THE TNTROBUCTION OF 
 
 MANUFACTURES, AND OF COLONIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 
 
 WITH 
 
 AN INTERROGATIVE INDEX, 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY WILLIAM QRIMSHAW, 
 
 AUTHOR, OF A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, &C, 
 
 IHIRD EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED AND ENLARGED, 
 
 PHILADELFHM • 
 PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, 
 
 BY LYDIA R. BAILEY, 
 1823. 
 
BASTSnX DISTRICT OP PEKj^SYLVAmA, to wit : 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twenty-first day 
 (L. S.) of August, in the forty-fifth year of the Independence of 
 the United States of America, A. D. 1820, William Grim- 
 sha\v, of the said District, hath deposited in this Office the Title of 
 a Book, tlje right whereof he claims as Author, in the words follow- 
 ing, to 7vit .- 
 • 
 "History of England, from the first invasion by Julias Caesar, to 
 " the accession of George the Fourth, in eighteen hundred and twen- 
 ** ty : comprising every political event worthy of remembrance : a pro- 
 ••gressive view of religion, language, and manners ; of men eminent 
 **for their virtue, or their learning; their patriotism, eloquence, or 
 ** philosophical research ; of the introduction of manufactures, and of 
 "colonial establishments. With an interrogative index, for the use 
 "of schools, by William Grimshaw, authorof a history of the United 
 «' States, &c." 
 
 In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, enti- 
 tuled "An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the 
 copies of maps, charts and books, to the Authors and Proprietors of 
 such copies during the times therein mentioned." — And also to the 
 Act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, * An Act for 
 the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts 
 and books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the 
 times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the 
 Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other 
 prints." 
 
 D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the 
 Eavtern District of Pennsylvania, 
 
 CCj'The interrogative index, mentioned in the title-page, (the 
 form of which, to preserve the copy-right, cannot be altered,) is 
 now omitted. 
 
 ':}a'ii 
 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 AND 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 *' History of England^ from the first Invasion by Julius 
 Csesar to the Peace of Ghent^ isfc. For the use of Schools. 
 By William Grimshaw. Philadelphia, 1819. Benjamin 
 Vv'arncr. 12mo. pp. 300. 
 
 '-^ We have copied so much of the title of this work, bare- 
 ly to express our decided approbation o^ the book, and to 
 recommend its general introduction into schools. It is one 
 of the best books of the kind to be found, and is instructive 
 even to an adult reader. We should be pleased that teach- 
 t;rs would rank it among their class-books ; for it is well 
 calculated to give correct impressions, to its readers, of the 
 gradual progress of science, religion, government, and ma- 
 ny other institutions, a knowledge of which is beneficial in 
 the present age. Among the many striking merits of this 
 book, are, the perspicuity of the narratives, and chasteness 
 of the style. It is with no little pleasure we have learned, 
 that the author has prepared a similar history of the United 
 States ; a work long wanted, to fill up a deplorable chasm 
 in the education of American youth." 
 
 Analectic Magazine^ October^ 1819- 
 
 " Mr. Grimshaw has wisely connected the literary and 
 civile with the polemical history of England : the ecclesias- 
 tical^ he has not wholly neglected : so that the minds of his 
 readers are not entirely occupied, as they would be by too 
 many historians, with the intrigues of a court, the strata- 
 gems of a camp, and the carnage of the field. Most histo- 
 ries may produce warriors ; but can never make men of 
 A 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 science, or good citizens ; can never form the mind to vir- 
 tuous habits. 
 
 " With a better history for schools, in which the English 
 
 language is spoken, than this, we have no acquaintance." 
 
 Theological Review^ Jjiril.) 1819. 
 
 « Philadeljihia, 28 June, 1819. 
 t' Sir — I have read with pleasure and profit your Histo- 
 ry of England. I think it is written with perspicuity, chaste- 
 ness, and impartiality. Well written history is the best 
 political instructor, and under a government in which it is 
 the blessing of the country that the people govern, its pages 
 should be constantly in the hands of our youth, and lie open 
 to the humblest citizen in our wide-spread territories. 
 Your book is eminently calculated thus to diffuse this im- 
 portant knowledge, aiid therefore entitled to extensive cir- 
 culation ; which I most cordially wish. With much re- 
 spect, 
 
 << Your obedient servant, 
 ^ " Langdon Cheves. 
 
 « William Grimshaw, Esq." 
 
 « Mr. Grimshaw, 
 
 '4 Sir — It has been impossible, in the time allotted mc, 
 to find the leisure necessary for a careful perusal of the 
 whole of your manuscript History of England. But it has 
 been a very pleasant exercise, v/henever I could devote 
 half an hour to the work. Indeed it has been an amuse- 
 ment, the loss of which I should much regret, did I not 
 hope very shortly to see it in print. Judging by the chap- 
 ters which I have read, my mind is made up to recommend 
 it to the Trustees and Faculty of the Asbury College. 
 
 " Your style is pure ; your sentences agreeably musical ; 
 your incidents judiciously chosen, so as to enrich the work ; 
 your strictures upon the chai'acters of the princes and men 
 in power, appear to me to be extremely just : and the whole 
 narrative is conducted in a manner, well calculated to excite, 
 in the mind of youth, sentiments highly refined, and hap- 
 pily congenial to the spirit of our free government. 
 
 " Entertaining an opinion so favourable to your endeav- 
 our to supply our schools with a good abridgment of the 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 History of England, I cannot refuse you this little tribute of 
 commendation. 
 
 <' Wishing you a patronage as extensive as your work de- 
 serves, I subscribe myself your obedient, 
 
 " Samuel K. Jennings, 
 <' President Asbury College^ Baltimore.'''' 
 
 <-^ Baltimore, Sejii'r. 1818. 
 i' Mr. Grimshaw, 
 
 <' Sir — I have read, with much pleasure, your valuable 
 History of England ; which, in my opinion, for delicacy of 
 sentiment, purity of style, selection of matter, and strict 
 impartiality, stands unrivalled by any similar production. 
 I shall gladly embrace the opportunity of introducing it 
 into my Academy. 
 
 " Yours, with great respect, 
 
 "Samuel Broy/n, Church street." 
 
 " Historij of the United States, from their frst settlement 
 as Colonies, to the Peace of Ghent, iJfc. By William 
 Grimshaw, pp. 312, 12mo. 
 
 " This is the third time, within the space of two years, 
 that we have had occasion to review a volume from the 
 hand of Mr. Grimshaw. He writes with great rapidity: 
 and improves as he advances. This is the most correctly 
 written of all his productions. We could wish that a per- 
 son so well formed for close, and persevering study, as he 
 must be, might find encouragement to devote himself to 
 the interests of literature." 
 
 " Mr. G. has our thanks for the best concise and com- 
 prehensive history of the United States which we have 
 ^ctn.""— Theological Review, October, 1819. 
 
 " Golgotha, P. EduHl. Fa. Sep. 26, 1820. 
 ^' Dear Sir, 
 
 *' Mr. Grimshaw's ' History of the United States, 8cc.* 
 
 was some time ago put into my hands by Mr. B , who 
 
 requested me to give you my opinion as to the merits of 
 the work. It is, perhaps, on the subject of revolutionary 
 story, rather too compendious, and not sufficiently seasoned 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 with anecdote to captivate the young.* This defect, if it 
 may be so called, originated, it is suspected, in a convic- 
 tion, that Ramsay had done that subject justice ; but more 
 especially in an inclination to afford a cheap book. The 
 "history of the late war is well managed by your author: it 
 has more of detail and interest than the former part ; and I 
 consider it much superior to any of the many compilations 
 on that subject, with which the public has been favoured. 
 It may be said of the entire performance, that it is decided- 
 ly the best chronological series, and the chastest historical 
 narrative, suited to the capacity of the juvenile mind, thai 
 has yet appeared. Its arrangement is judicious ; its style 
 neat, always perspicuous, and often elegant ; and its prin- 
 ciples sound. 
 
 " American writings on men and things connected with 
 America, have been long needed for the young ; and I am 
 happy to find, that Mr. Grimshaw has not only undertaken 
 to supply this want, but also to Americanize foreign history 
 for the use of our schools. In a word, sir, I am so fond of 
 American fabrics, and so anxious to show myself humbly 
 instrumental in giving our youth American feeling and 
 character whilst at school ; that I shall without hesitation 
 recommend Mr. Grimshaw's works to my young pupils, as 
 introductory to more extensive historical reading. In fine, 
 the work is so unobjectionable, and puts so great a mass of 
 necessary information within the reach of schoolboys, at so 
 cheap a rate, that I feel the highest pleasure in recom- 
 mending it to the public, and wish you extensive sales. 
 
 " Your's respectfully, 
 
 " William Branch Jr. 
 '' Mr. Benjamin Warner, 
 
 " Philadelphia:' 
 
 " Js^ew York^ Columbia College.^ 
 Jan. 8, 1822. 
 "' W^M. Grimshaw, Esq. 
 
 " Dear Sir, — As ifar as I have examined your books, 
 I find much to commend. They contain much interesting 
 
 * This objection, it is presumed, has been removed in the third 
 edition ; as it contains many additional incidents relating to tliat pe- 
 riod; some of which will be found highly amusing : and, to render it 
 still more acceptable to schools, there have been published, for the 
 History of the United States, a small book of Questions., and a Kev 
 containing the Answers. 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 and valuable information ; and are peculiarly appropriate 
 for our Schools and Academies. 
 
 *' With great respect, 
 " Your obedient servant, 
 
 *' Wm. Harris, President,^* 
 
 if- Baltimore^ November 12, 1822o 
 ^' Dear Sir, 
 *' The usual business of my academy has left me no lei- 
 sure, till this moment, to acknowledge the receipt of your 
 highly acceptable present. I have, notwithstanding, perus- 
 ed your history of the United States, and am so well con- 
 vinced of its superior excellence, that I shall immediately 
 introduce it into my academy. 
 
 " With the most sincere wishes that you may be amply 
 compensated for the services you have rendered the rising 
 generation, 
 
 "I am, sir, with great respect, 
 
 " Your most obedient servant, 
 
 ^' James Gould, 
 ^'' Wm. Grimshaw, Esq." 
 
 *' D. Jaudon presents his respectful compliments to Mfo 
 Grimshaw, and is much obliged by his polite attention, and 
 the handsome compliment of his History of the United 
 States with the Questions and Key. 
 
 " Mr. J. has been in the use of this book for some timej 
 but anticipates still more pleasure to himself, and profit to 
 his pupils, in future, from the help and facility which the 
 questions and key will afford in the study of these interest- 
 ing pages. 
 
 " October 10th, 1822." 
 
 A 2 
 
*^^ Accompanying this Edition, there is a 
 small book of Historical Questions, for the 
 use of Schools ; also, for the convenience of 
 Teachers, a Key, containing* tlie Answers. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE opinion of those gentlemen who examined the 
 manuscript of my revised edition of Goldsmith's Roman 
 History, having- been confirmed by its very favourable re- 
 ception when published, I have complied with their wishes 
 in a further undertaking. They advised, that I should 
 either correct and free from its impurities the History of 
 England, by the same author, or compose one, in accord- 
 ance with the present taste. 
 
 To the first mentioned task, I was decidedly inclined ; 
 for two reasons — the popular attachment to a long estab- 
 lished work, without reference to its author; and the uni- 
 versal celebrity of Goldsmith, from the greatness of his ge- 
 nius. To supersede a favourite book, is to deprive the 
 public of a venerated acquaintance : to enter the lists 
 against a favourite name, is to combat the powerful bias of 
 education, and the natural infirmity of man. 
 
 For those reasons, having intended the revisal of Gold- 
 smith's History of England for the use of schools, I com- 
 menced a critical examination of its contents. Had it been 
 no further defective than his History of Rome, the attempt 
 might have been accomplished, with satisfaction to myself, 
 and advantage to the public. But objections accumulated 
 in my progress. Ta the faults attending all the historical 
 compositions of Goldsmith, owing to confusion, indelicacy, 
 and grammatical inaccuracy, there was added another ob- 
 stacle ; most momentous indeed, and insurmountable — the 
 absence of material events. His Roman History, I con- 
 ceived, was sufficiently comprehensive. From what cause, 
 then, proceeded this unexpected vacuity ? — The account 
 of hib writings gave me satisfactory explanation. I there 
 found, what I had indeed suspected, but what is little 
 known — that his History of England was not abridged by 
 the Doctor himself ; but that public credulity has been 
 made the instrument of an egregious fraud : a fraud, equally 
 injurious to the memory of a much respected individual, 
 and the important purposes of useful education. 
 
 The design of revising Goldsmith's history was, there- 
 fore, abandoned, and this original work written in its plaqa. 
 
iy PREFACE. 
 
 Few writers have excelled Goldsmith, in readiness ol" 
 M it, in elegance, in facility of composition. Few have ex- 
 perienced more trials of distress ; the effects of unbounded 
 generosity, or of unguarded simplicity. " Whilst he was 
 composing the comedy of the < Good Natured Man,' and 
 preparing to take a more successful flight in his fine poem 
 of the 'Deserted Village,' he wrote, for present support, at 
 the instance of the booksellers, a series of histories, which 
 he never considered as conducive to his fame. These 
 were, his Roman History, in two volum^es, an Abridgment 
 of the same, and his History of England ; which are of- 
 ten superficial and inaccurate." — So, says his biographer. 
 Thus, whilst he poured forth, with unexampled rapidity, 
 those imperfect productions of the hand^ his mind labour- 
 ed, with unwearied assiduity, in acquiring for the name of 
 Goldsmith a posthumous renown ; and the effort was ac- 
 complished. That name will long be cherished : — after the 
 graven marble, the friendly tribute to departed genius, has, 
 ibr ages, crumbled into dust, the monument which he him- 
 self had raised, will still remain, uninjured and admired. 
 
 In forming a work of this kind, there are chiefly three 
 objects to be kept in view — a judicious selection of im- 
 portant events, a moderate interspersion of amusement, 
 and occasional reflections, which may guard the reader 
 against the imitation of vice, or inculcate the love of virtue. 
 The narrative should not be exhausted on the infidelity of 
 a queen, or the erection of a scaffold ; upon the protracted 
 siege, or the countermarching of an army : entertainment 
 should be free from ribaldry, and praise should be v/ithheld 
 from the commission of enormity. When we have weari- 
 ed the reader with the minute recital of a fictitious plot, 
 we should look back, lest we have omitted the Fire of Lon- 
 don :* we should consider, that a story may be humorous 
 yet offensive, and avoid recommending intrigues and vir- 
 tues as joint recommendations to a throne. f 
 
 A book designed for elementary instruction, should in- 
 culcate no doctrines foreign to the relations of the reader. 
 Principles, favourable to the support of a constitutional 
 monarchy, though they may be very excusable in England, 
 should not be instilled into the youth of the United States. 
 Such expressions as " our most gracious majesty," and 
 " we, his most loving subjects," are totally absurd, and 
 
 * Reign of Charles 11. in Goldsmith's vibridg-ed History, 
 f Harold, in the ssme. 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 border too much on the ridiculous, when uttered by the 
 children of a republic. 
 
 As regards the selection of matter, I presume, that a 
 larger portion of this, than of any similar work, is devoted 
 to those incidents, and those characters, in the peaceful 
 walks of society, which are the legitimate subjects of his- 
 tory, show the genius and manners of the age, the laws and 
 administration of government, the achievements of science, 
 the progress of arts and manufactures, the extension of 
 commerce, the downfall of superstition, the triumphs of the 
 spirit of religious liberty, — and form the brightest, noblest 
 features, of a nation. 
 
 The history, from which some impudent scribbler has 
 compiled the duodecimo volume of England, does not dis- 
 play a serious disproportion in its principal and subordi- 
 nate parts; in its political events, and mere matter of amuse- 
 ment. But, unfortunately, the abridging has destroyed the 
 equilibrium. Those hasty sallies of the Doctor, and those 
 flashy antitheses, which were intended only as an agreeable 
 seasoyiing-y are given with so extravagant a hand, that the 
 banquet is completely spoiled. The lights, which, before, 
 were judiciously arranged, and enlivened the entertainment, 
 are now collected in a body, and blaze is substituted for 
 utility. Those distorted sentences, which may justly be 
 styled literary economy, or metaphor burlesqued, and 
 winch, when diffiised, were less easily perceived, might 
 have been advantageously repressed ; or, when introduced, 
 should have been expanded, or explained. 
 
 Other defects of this inconsiderate reduction, are most 
 glaringly perceptible. The transitions are not unfrequent- 
 \y made without the smallest regard to the relation which 
 preceded ; passages are referred to, vv'hich are no where to 
 be found, except in the original ; and, persons are rudely 
 and unexpectedly presented, in the usual manner of fami- 
 liar acquaintance. 
 
 Every language has acquired a colloquial idiom. Per- 
 haps not any is more corrupted by it than our own. No 
 style gives a greater facility to a writer ; none is better 
 adapted to a familiar correspondence ; but there is none 
 which presents more difficulty to a foreigner, or should be 
 more carefully avoided by the historian. The rapidity with 
 which Goldsmith compiled, for pecuniary emolument, has, 
 naturally, caused the admission of the most vulgar of those 
 expressions. These are, in the highest degree, injurious 
 to the reader j for, he will in general acquire the very 
 
\i PREFACE. 
 
 phrases, and the very manner, of his author. As I huvt; 
 early been aware of this fault, so I have, in the present, 
 and in my former work, endeavoured to avoid it. To a 
 young writer, the task is difficult ; in its accomplishment 
 even the most experienced are not always successful. 
 
 On the subject of indelicacy, some remarks can, advan- 
 tageously, be made. What I shall advance may not be 
 universally agreeable ; for, though all should admit their 
 justness, a few may feel offended, because convicted by their 
 truth. As to the opinion of the latter, I am totally regard- 
 less : their censure or their praise is equally unavailing. 
 
 Whilst we acknowledge the difficulty under which the 
 historian labours, of avoiding offensive language, we must 
 also confess, that somie writers employ more than is de- 
 manded by the subject : but, we must admit, that many 
 terms, which are not only harmless, but elegant and essen- 
 tial, are rendered disagreeable, by habitual, and improper 
 association — by the use, which, behind-backs^ is immorally 
 made of words, that, if restored to their proper destination, 
 Delicacy herself need not be ashamed to utter. How sur- 
 prising to a teacher, how distressing to a parent, when 
 language is thus interpreted by the reader — perhaps a fe- 
 male, who stammers without ablush; and,- whilst she seeks 
 to impress the idea of modesty and refinement, only betrays 
 the conversation of her retirement. 
 
 If these verbal contaminations be suffered to proceed, 
 our whole stock, in the course of time, will be corrupted ; 
 and the Latin^ or some o'Ctv^v foreign language, must, again, 
 be used, upon elevated subjects: or, there must be erected, 
 a national institution, to replace, with proportionate indus- 
 try, those words which have been perverted from their 
 original import. 
 
 No expressions have been admitted here, tending, in the 
 .smallest degree, to injure the taste of the reader by their 
 vulgarity, or to wound the feelings of youth by their indeli- 
 cacy : no sentiments to rouse the demon of religious intol- 
 erance, or to inflame the rancour of political animosity. 
 Without rising to the language of affectation, a writer may 
 be elegant : without sinking to the monosyllables of the 
 nursery, he may be perspicuous ; he may inculcate piety 
 without cant, and patriotism without extravagance. 
 
 Philadelfihia, Feb. 15, 1819. 
 
THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ROMANS. 
 
 The invasions by Julius Caesar ; ivith a dcscvi}ition of the 
 Manners^ and civil and religious State^ of the ancient 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 PROTECTED by her insular situation, Britain long re- 
 mained unnoticed by the Romans, and undisturbed by the 
 effects of their insatiable ambition. When, however, tlie 
 successful enterprises of Julius Caesar, had extended their 
 dominion over all the provinces of Gaul, the ardent desire 
 of further glory led that celebrated commander to her shores. 
 
 At this period, our history commences. All previous ac- 
 counts are either the extravagant inventions of the Greek 
 and Roman merchants, or the poetical fictions of the do- 
 mestic bards. 
 
 ^ Csesar, with some veteran troops, sailed about 
 
 » 1^ midnight from the coast of Gaul, and, on the ensu- 
 
 ' * ing morning, landed near Deal. But his visit was 
 very short. After several battles with the unoffend- 
 ing natives, which induced a few of their sovereigns to feign 
 submission, the non-arrival of his cavalry, and approach of 
 winter, constrained him to return. 
 
 The Britains had promised hostages for their future 
 obedience. Relieved, however, from their alarm, they ne- 
 glected the performance of their stipulations : for which 
 breach of treaty, the haughty Roman determined to chas- 
 tise them in the following summer. Accordingly, he came 
 over with a greater force ; and, though he found a more 
 regular resistance, the inhabitants having united under 
 Cassivelaunus, one of their petty chieftains, he defeated 
 them in every action. He then advanced into the country, 
 passed the Thames, in the face of his enemy, and burned 
 B 
 
« HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the capital of the British commander. Fresh submissions 
 being procured, he again withdrew into Gaul ; leaving an 
 authority which was more nominal than real. 
 
 From the writings of Julius Caesar, and other Roman 
 authors, we discern the manners, customs, and mode of 
 warfare, of the Britains, at the time of the first invasion ; 
 and, from the same authorities, we are informed of their 
 origin. These accounts invariably represent them as a 
 tribe of the Gauls or Celtae, who had passed over from the 
 neighbouring continent. The language of the one was the 
 same as that spoken by the other. But the little refine- 
 ment in arts, which the inhabitants of those provinces of 
 Gaul, bordering on Italy, possessed, had, as yet, made 
 small progress amongst the Britains. In the south-east 
 parts, however, before the time of Caesar, they had made 
 some advances towards civilization ; and, by the practice of 
 agriculture, were there enabled to live in closely inhabited 
 districts. The other natives of the island still maintained 
 themselves by pasture. They were partially clothed in 
 skins : the uncovered parts of their bodies were painted, so 
 as to excite terror in their enemies ; and, like all other peo- 
 ple in primeval rudeness, they shifted their habitations as 
 necessity demanded. Had we not the respectable testimo- 
 ny of Caesar, we should be inclined to doubt the correct- 
 ness of history, in regard to their means of military annoy- 
 ance. That perspicuous author gives a particular account 
 of chariots, used by the Britains, with surprising address, 
 in battle. These, they impetuously drove against the ene- 
 my's ranks ; and, sometimes alighting from their powerful 
 machines, the warriors fought as infantry, on foot. 
 
 All the Britains were divided into small tribes, or na- 
 tions ; and, though their governments were monarchal, yet 
 the people were free. They had early acquired a relish 
 for liberty, the common birthright of mankind ; and of which 
 they can be deprived, only by their intestine feuds, or their 
 culpable supineness. Their religion formed the mainspring 
 of their government ; and the Druids, who were their 
 priests, maintained over them very powerful influence. 
 Besides directing all religious duties, they superintended 
 the education of youth : they possessed both the civil and 
 the criminal jurisdiction; and inflicted upon all who re- 
 fused to submit to their decrees, penalties so severe, that 
 death itself became an acceptable relief. They practised 
 their rites in dark and sequestered groves ; and, to invest 
 them in mysterious obscurity, forbade the committing of 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 9 
 
 their ceremonies to writing. No idolatrous worship ever 
 attained so great influence over the human mind, as that 
 which was inculcated by the Druids; so that, the Romans, 
 though they had not before resorted to such a measure, 
 finding it impossible to establish their institutions, where it 
 held its authority, at last abolished the practice of the 
 Druidical mysteries. We cannot, however, even in this 
 case, approve of their interference; for, though we may with 
 impunity persuade, we have no power given us to justify 
 compulsion. Yet, it is scarcely fair, to judge the actions 
 of a Heathen, by the enlightened doctrines of Christianity. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 From the departure of Julius Cdesar^ to the Jinalivithdraiv- 
 ing of the Romans. 
 
 THE civil wars which ensued amongst the Romans, 
 saved the Britains from the yoke which was ready to be 
 imposed upon them. Augustus, the successor of Julius 
 Caesar, was contented with the victory which he had gained 
 over the liberties of his own country ; and, fearing that the 
 continued extension of dominion, wliich had subverted the 
 republic, might have a similar effect upon the imperial 
 government, recommended that the territory of Rome 
 should never be enlarged. 
 . y^ They had, therefore, for nearly a century, remain- 
 
 "' ' ' ed unmolested. But the Romans, under Claudius, 
 began seriously to contemplate their subjection. 
 Accordingly, they sent over an army with Plautius, an able 
 general ; who, in the south-east parts, made considerable 
 progress in conquering this inoffensive people. Soon after, 
 the emperor himself arrived ; and, in those districts, received 
 the submission of several petty states. The other Britains, 
 headed by Caractacus, maintained an obstinate resistance ; 
 and, against them, the Romans gained little advantage, until 
 Ostorius Scapula was sent over to coinmand their armies. 
 This general was more successful. He pierced into the 
 country of the Silures; a warlike nation who inhabited the 
 banks of the Severn ; defeated Caractacus, took him prison- 
 er, and sent him to Rome ; where the magnanimous beha- 
 viour of this valiant chief, procured him better treatment 
 than was generally experienced by captive princes. 
 
10 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 His countrymen, however, were not yet subdued ; and 
 the Romans regarded them as a people, from whom mili- 
 tary glory might still be gained. In the reign of Nero, the 
 command was given to Paulinas Suetonius ; who prepared 
 to distinguish himself, by victories over these rude and un- 
 disciplined forces. He sheuld have known, that those 
 laurels, which are gathered within the trenches of a barba- 
 rian, are unworthy of the hero. With the expiring shout 
 of the giddy multitude, they drop from the victor's brow, 
 withered and forgotten. 
 
 Finding that the island of Mona, now Anglesea, was the 
 chief retreat of^the Druids, he resolved to subject that 
 place ; the centre of their superstition, and the usual re- 
 treat of the baffled forces. On this sacred ground, the Brit- 
 ains endeavoured to prevent his landing, by every means 
 which they could devise. The women and the priests in- 
 termingled with the soldiers ; and, running about with 
 flaming torches in their hands, tossing their disheveled 
 hair, and pouring forth their bowlings and lamentations, 
 c*aused more terror than the real dangers from the army. 
 But Suetonius, by his address, impelled the Romans to the 
 attack. He drove the Britains off the field ; burned the 
 Druids in those fires which they had prepared for their 
 captive enemies ; and, having thus triumphed over their 
 religion, thought that his future progress would be easy. 
 
 But, in this, he was disappointed. The Britains, headed 
 by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, a princess who had been 
 ignominiously treated by the Roman tribunes, attacked, 
 ■with success, many settlements of the insulting conquerors. 
 Suetonius hastened to the protection of London ; then, a 
 flourishing Roman colony ; but which, in order to consult 
 the general safety, he was obliged to abandon. It was re- 
 duced to ashes ; and all who were found there, were, through 
 retaliation, massacred, by the Britains. But this cruelty 
 was revenged by the Roman general, in a great and deci- 
 sive battle ; and Boadicea, rather than fall into the hands of 
 the enraged victor, ended her life by poison. 
 
 Suetonius, not long after, was recalled from the govern- 
 ment of a people, whose natural temper, irritated by their 
 suff*erings, he appeared so little calculated to soften or ap- 
 pease. 
 
 The general that eventually established the Roman pow- 
 er in Britain, was Agricola; who governed it in the reigns 
 of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. He conquered all the 
 southern parts; carried his victorious arms into the forests 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 11 
 
 lancl mountains of Caledonia, which is now called Scotland; 
 driving before him all the fierce and intractable portion of 
 the inhabitants, who preferred any deprivation to a state of 
 servitude. He then ordered his fleet to sail along the coast 
 (by which voyage the Romans first ascertained that 
 Britain was an island,) and formed between the friths 
 of Forth and Clyde, a rampart and a chain of garrisons ; 
 which secured the Roman provinces from their incursions * 
 During these military employments, Agricola was not in- 
 attentive to the arts of peace. He introduced amongst the 
 Britains laws and civility ; gave them a taste for the pur- 
 suits of agriculture; instructed them in letters and science; 
 used every means to reconcile them to subjection; and 
 gradually incorporated them with the empire. 
 
 The Britains gave no further inquietude ; but the Cale- 
 donians, defended by their barren mountains, which se- 
 cured them a retreat, made frequent incursions upon the 
 cultivated lands. The better to protect the frontiers, 
 Adrian, who visited the island, built a strong rampart be- 
 tween the river Tyne and the frith of Solway ; a defence 
 afterwards strengthened by a wall ; traces of which remain 
 at the present day. This was erected by Severus ; who, after 
 repelling the invaders, died at York : from which time, so 
 profound a tranquillity prevailed in Britain, during all the 
 emperors' reigns, that little mention is made of it by any 
 historian. 
 
 But, that stupendous fabric, which had extended its con- 
 quests over so great a portion of the globe, began, at length, 
 to approach its dissolution. Those l^arbarous nations of 
 the continent, who had long been under the government of 
 the Romans, had, whilst in the service of their conquerors, 
 added discipline to their native bravery ; and, allured by 
 the prospect of so great a prize, they assailed, at once, the 
 frontiers of the empire. The Romans were now obliged 
 to concentrate their domestic legions, in which, only, they 
 could place reliance ; and collected their whole military 
 force for the preservation of the capital and the adjacent 
 provinces : those troops, therefore, which had held Britain 
 
 * It is extraordinary, that the En^^lish historians mention this voy- 
 age as liaving discovered the insular situation of Britain ; thus, over- 
 looking a term repeatedly used by Cxsar, in his Commentaries. Fop 
 instance: "Tamen, majmo sibi usui fore arbitrabatur, si modo insuiam 
 adisset, genus homiuum perspexissel ; loca, portus, aditus cognovis- 
 set." Lib. iv. xx. 
 
 B 2 
 
1-2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in subjection, and guarded it from the incursions of its 
 northern invaders, were withdrawn. 
 
 The Picts and Scots, who inhabited those regions which 
 lay beyond the defences formed by the Romans, now made 
 irruptions; threatening^^the whole province with depreda- 
 tion and conquest. The former it is thought, were a tribe 
 of Britains, who had been chased into the northern parts 
 by Agricola. The latter were of the same Celtic origin ; 
 and were, previously, established in Ireland. These bar- 
 barians broke over the Roman wall; and, though a contemp- 
 tible enemy, they met with no resistance from the unwar- 
 iike inhabitants. In this situation, the Britains applied to 
 Rome, and obtained for their relief one legion; which soon 
 drove the invaders into their ancient limits. The return, 
 however, of this force, to the defence of the southern pro- 
 vinces of the empire, was a signal for a fresh invasion; 
 which, by the assistance of a legion, was again repelled. 
 But the Romans, reduced to extremity at home, could no 
 longer afford succour to the Britains: and, after generously 
 assisting them in renewing the wall of Severus, they bade 
 ^ o a final adieu ; having been masters of the greater 
 
 part of the island for nearly four centuries. 
 The earliest example of successful attention to literature, 
 given by a native of the subjected districts, was by Helena, 
 the daughter of Coilus, a tributary king of Britain, wife of 
 the Roman emperor, Constantius Chlorus, and mother of 
 Constantino the great, who was born in Britain. There 
 was no woman of her time more accomplished, either in 
 letters or the polite ^rts, or of more amiable disposition-. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BRITAINS. 
 
 UNABLE to protect themselves against their rapacious 
 jieighbours, the Britains regarded this present of liberty as 
 a misfortune. The flower of their youth having accom- 
 panied Gratian and Constantino, two Romans who made an 
 imsuccessful attempt on the imperial throne, the people 
 were deprived of the assistance of those who were the 
 Tnost capable of uniting them by their advice. The Picts 
 and Scots, relieved from the terror of the Roman arms, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 lo 
 
 jilow regarded Britain as their prize ; and poured in with 
 unabated ferocity. The Britains again made application to 
 their former masters. Their ambassadors carried to Rome 
 a letter from their countrymen ; which was entitled, " The 
 Groans of the Britains." The tenor of the epistle corres- 
 ponded with the superscription ; " The barbarians, on the 
 one hand, chase us into the sea : the sea, on the other, 
 throws us back upon the barbarians ; so that we have only 
 the hard choice left us, of perishing by the sword or by the 
 waves." 
 
 But the Romans, pressed by the arms of Attila, the most 
 formidable enemy that had ever assailed the empire, had 
 no leisure to attend to the supplication of allies. Thus re- 
 jected, they abandoned their habitations ; and, flying for 
 refuge to the forests and mountains, suffered equally by 
 hunger and by the enemy ; until the barbarians, unable to 
 exist in a land which they had desolated, retreated, with 
 their spoils, into their own country. 
 
 Relieved from the presence of their invaders, the Britains 
 returned to their usual occupations ; and soon forgot their 
 miseries, in the comforts which succeeded. But they ne- 
 glected to make provision against any future attacks. The 
 precarious authority, enjoyed by the chiefs, in the various 
 districts independent of each other, created a disunion, 
 which greatly militated against the whole ; and to this dis- 
 advantage, were added, their religious disputes, arising 
 from the schismatical doctrines of Pelagius. Labouring 
 under these domestic evils, and threatened by a foreign in- 
 vasion, they sent into Germany, to implore the aid of the 
 Saxons. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SAXONS. 
 
 THE ancient Germans were the most distinguished of 
 all the barbarous nations, for their valour and their attach- 
 ment to liberty. Even when a monarchy was at any time 
 established amongst them, the sovereign was directed, in 
 every measure, by the approbation of the people. No un- 
 principled despot was allowed the pOAver of sporting with 
 the life, or with the property, of his fellow being. When 
 
J4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 any important question was to be debated, the warriors met 
 in arms ; and freely expressed their disapproval, or their 
 assent: the former by their murmurs; the latter, by the 
 rattling of their armour. Their leaders' were chosen for 
 their merit ; chiefly for their valour : and the contributions 
 which they levied, were merely for subsistence ; the honour 
 of exalted rank being the only reward of their dangers and 
 fatigues. 
 
 Of all those tribes, the Saxons were the most distinguish- 
 ed. War was their principal employment. 
 
 They had spread themselves from the most northern 
 parts of Germany ; had taken possession of all the sea-coast, 
 from the mouth of the Rhine to Jutland ; and had long in- 
 fested, by their piracies, the southern parts of Britain and 
 the northern parts of Gaul. It may, therefore, reasonably 
 be supposed, that they gladly accepted the invitation of 
 the simple Britains. 
 
 Under the conduct of Hengist and Horsa, two 
 brothers of great authority, the Saxons, amounting 
 to sixteen-hundred, landed on the isle of Thanet ; and, im- 
 mediately marching against the Picts and Scots, made 
 them fly before them. But these chiefs were determined 
 to conquer only for their own advantage. They soon re- 
 ceived a reinforcement of five-thousand of their country- 
 men, raised a dispute with the Britains, and formed an al- 
 liance with the Picts and Scots. A dreadful scene ensued, 
 of slaughter, rapine, and devastation. The bravery of Vor- 
 timer, whom the Britains placed at their head, instead of 
 his ignoble father, Vortigern, could preserve, only for a 
 short time, his degenerate compatriots. Some remained 
 in servitude under their treacherous victors : some fled to 
 Gaul and there founded the province of Brittany ; and others 
 took shelter in the remote parts of Cornwall and Wales. 
 
 To share in the general plunder, the Northern hordes 
 came over in succession. The invaders were chiefly Sax- 
 ons, Angles, and Jutes; who all spoke the same language, 
 and passed under the common appellation, sometimes of 
 Saxons, sometimes of Angles. But, neither amusement 
 nor instruction would be given, by a tedious detail of the 
 barbarous names of those adventurers, who participated 
 in the equally barbarous transactions of that age. The 
 native characters are scarcely more worthy of remark. 
 The only person of interest was Arthur, prince of the Si- 
 lures ; who, by his heroic valour, about the year 508, sus- 
 tained the declining fortunes of his country, and was much 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 15 
 
 celebrated by the ancient bards ; but his achievements are 
 blended with so many fables, as almost to induce a doubt of 
 his existence. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HEPTARCHY. 
 
 AFTER a violent contest, of nearly one-hundred-and- 
 fifty years, seven kingdoms were formed in Britain; known 
 by the name of the Saxon Heptarchy. These were Kent, 
 Sussex, Wessex, East-Anglia, Mercia, Essex, and North- 
 umberland ; the respective conquests of Hengist, ^11 a, 
 Cerdic and his son Kenric, Uffa, Crida, Erkenwin, and 
 Ethelfrid. The kingdom of Kent comprised \he counties 
 now known by the names of Kent, Middlesex, and Essex, 
 and a part of Surry: Sussex or South Saxony, the county 
 of Sussex, and the remainder of Surry : Wessex, or West 
 Saxony, Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Berks, and the Isle of 
 Weight: East-Anglia, Cambridge, Suffolk and Norfolk. 
 Mercia extended over all the middle counties, from the 
 banks of the Severn, to the frontiers of East-Anglia and 
 Essex, Essex or East Saxony included Essex, Middlesex, 
 and a part of Hertfordshire; Northumberland, the counties 
 of Northumberland and Durham, and some of the eastern 
 counties of Scotland. 
 
 The whole southern part of the island, except Wales 
 and Cornwall, which still remained unsubdued, had total- 
 ly changed its inhabitants, language, customs, and political 
 institutions. The Britains, under the Roman dominion, had 
 advanced so far, in arts and civilization, that they had built 
 twenty-eight considerable cities, besides a great number of 
 villages; but their Saxon conquerors threw every thing 
 back into its ancient barbarity. 
 
 Q- At this period, there occurred a happy and me- 
 
 morable event ; the contemplation of which relieves 
 us fi'om the disagreeable feelings excited by the disgusting 
 transactions of those ages. The Briti^ih Saxons were now 
 taught the benign principles of Christianity. The ancient 
 inhabitants of the districts which the former had usurped, 
 were, from the earliest promulgation of that sacred religion, 
 f-nrolled amongst its votaries : but its practice had ceased 
 
16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in those parts, upon their dispersion, and was confined to 
 Wales, the remote country of their retreat. The supersti- 
 tion of the British Saxons, in common with that of their 
 German brethren of the Continent, was of the grossest and 
 most barbarous kind. They were idolaters: they worship- 
 ed the sun and moon ; and adored the god of thunder, by 
 the name of Thor. But, Woden, whom they conceived 
 was the ancestor of all their princes, and regarded as the 
 god of war, naturally became their supreme deity, and the 
 chief object of their worship. They believed, that if they 
 gained the favour of this divinity, by their valour, (the 
 most esteemed virtue amongst barbarians,) they would be 
 admitted after death, into his hall, and there, satiate them- 
 selves with ale, from the skulls of their enemies whom 
 they had slain in battle. 
 
 Previous to his ascending the papal chair, Gregory, sur- 
 named the Great, had observed in the streets of Rome, 
 some Saxon "j^ouths, of interesting appearance, and struck 
 with the beauty of their blooming countenances, asked, to 
 what country they belonged. Being told that they were 
 Angles ; he replied, that they ought, more properly, to be 
 denominated Angels ; that it was a pity the prince of 
 darkness should enjoy so fair a prey ; and that so beautiful 
 an exterior should cover a mind devoid of righteousness 
 and grace. He then inquired the name of their king. Be- 
 ing informed that it was Ella; t« Allelujah," cried he: "we 
 must endeavour that the praises of God be sung in their 
 country." Moved by these happy allusions, when he ob- 
 tained the pontificate, he appointed Augustine, a pious 
 monk, to undertake the laudable, but dangerous, duty, of 
 converting the British Saxons to Christianity. 
 
 A favourable incident had prepared the way for intro- 
 ducing Christianity amongst these people. Ethelbert, king 
 of Kent, had married Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, king 
 of Paris, one of the descendants of Clovis, the conqueror 
 of Gaul ; which princess, being of the Christian faith, had 
 brought over with her a French bishop, and conducted her- 
 self in so irreproachable a manner, as to support its virtuous 
 precepts by a virtuous example ; and employed every art 
 of insinuation and address, to reconcile her husband to her 
 religion. 
 
 Having arrived at the isle of Thanet, Augustine sent an 
 interpreter to Ethelbert, the king of Kent, (a great-grand- 
 son of the first Saxon invader, Hengist) declaring, that he 
 had been sent from Rome with offers of eternal salvation. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 17 
 
 Ethelbert invited Augustine to his court. He was then 
 informed, by the pious stranger, that everlasting joys, and 
 a kingdom without end, would be the reward of his em- 
 bracing the Christian religion. — " Your words and pro- 
 mises," replied the king, " are fair ; but, as they are new, 
 and uncertain, I cannot, immediately, relinquish the prin- 
 ciples which I have inherited from my ancestors. You 
 are welcome, however, to remain here in peace : I will 
 supply you with all necessaries, and permit you to explain 
 your doctrine to my subjects." 
 
 This conduct of Ethelbert was sensible and generous ; 
 worthy of imitation, even at the present day. He soon 
 espoused the religion of Augustine ; and his subjects, also, 
 with the inhabitants of the other Saxon kingdoms, were, 
 in a short time, converted to Christianity. 
 
 Ethelbert's conversion, joined to his matrimonial alliance, 
 produced an intercourse with the French, the Italians, and 
 other nations of the Continent. This had a happy effect. 
 It raised his subjects from the ignorance and barbarity, in 
 which all the Saxon tribes had been long involved. With 
 the consent of his people, he enacted a body of laws ; the 
 first that any of the northern conquerors committed to 
 writing. 
 
 After many revolutions, this monarchy, which, on the 
 death of Ethelbert, descended to his son Eadbald, fell, with 
 the others of the Heptarchy, under the dominion of *Eg- 
 bert, king of Wessex ; who united them into one kingdom, 
 which he named England ; signifying the land of the Angles. 
 
 The Saxons who subdued Britain, as they had enjoyed 
 great liberty in their own country, obstinately maintained 
 that blessing in their new settlement. Their kings possess- 
 ed a very limited authority. So far from being entitled to 
 an arbitrary power, they were only the first among the citi- 
 zens. Their influence depended more on their personal 
 qualities, than on their station. They were even so much 
 on a level with the other inhabitants, that a stated price 
 was afiixed on their head; and their murderer was exon- 
 erated by the payment of a fine, in the same manner as for 
 the murder of the meanest subject. All the kingdoms of 
 the heptarchy were, occasionally, united ; and in each there 
 was a national council, called a Wittenagemot, or assembly 
 of the wise men ; whose consent was required for enacting 
 laws, and ratifying the chief acts of administration. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons, in common with all the northern na- 
 tions of Europe, were not very strict in maintaining a regu- 
 
18 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 lar succession of their princes. Though they paid great 
 respect to the royal family, they either had no rule, or none 
 that was steadily observed, in filling- the vacant throne. If 
 any king, on his death, left a son, of an age and capacity 
 fit for government, he naturally ascended the throne ; but, 
 if he was a minor, it was occupied by his uncle, or the next 
 prince of the blood. All these changes liowever, and in- 
 deed the ordinary administration of government, required 
 the express concurrence, or at least the implied consent, of 
 the people. 
 
 The punishments inflicted by the Anglo-Saxon courts of 
 judicature, as well as the proofs employed, were different 
 from those which prevail amongst all civilized nations, in 
 the present age. Indemnity for all kinds of wounds re- 
 ceived, and for death itself, was fixed, by the Saxon laws, 
 at a regular price. A wound of an inch long, under the 
 hair, was recompensed by one shilling ; a scar, of equal size, 
 upon the face, by two shillings ; thirty shillings were re- 
 ceived for the loss of an ear; and other scars were compen- 
 sated in proportion. Their mode of evidence was still 
 further dissimilar to the modern practice. When any con- 
 troversy about a fact became too intricate for their judges 
 to unravel, they had recourse to (what they called) the judg- 
 ment of God ; that is, to fortune ; and their methods of 
 consulting this oracle were various. The most remarkable 
 custom was by the ordeal. It was practised, generally, by 
 boiling water, or red-hot iron. The water or iron being 
 consecrated by many ceremonies, the person accused either 
 took up a stone immersed in the former a certain depth, 
 or carried the iron a certain distance ; and his hand being 
 then wrapped up, and the covering sealed for three days, 
 if there appeared, on examination, no marks of burning, he 
 was pronounced innocent ; if otherwise, guilty. The trial 
 by cold water, was different. Into this, the culprit was 
 thrown, his feet and his hands being tied. If he swam, he 
 "was guilty; if he sunk, he was considered innocent; though, 
 to us, it appears extraordinary, that any innocent person 
 could ever be acquitted by the one trial, or any criminal be 
 convicted by the other. 
 
 This purgation by ordeal seems to have been very an- 
 cient, and universal in the times of superstitious barbar- 
 ity. It was known to the ancient Greeks ; and there is 
 also a very peculiar species of water-ordeal, said to prevail 
 amongst the Indians, on the coast of Malabar ; where, a 
 person, accused of any enormous crime, is obliged to swim 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 19 
 
 over a broad river, abounding with crocodiles ; and, if he 
 escapes unhurt, he is reputed innocent. In Siam, too, be- 
 sides the usual methods of fire and water ordeal, both par- 
 ties are sometimes exposed to the fury of a tiger, let loose 
 for that purpose : and, if the beast spares either, that person 
 is accounted innocent ; if neither, both are held to be guil- 
 ty ; but, if he spares both, the trial is incomplete. 
 
 It is easy, to trace out the traditional relics of this water 
 ordeal, in the ignorant barbarity, still practised in many- 
 countries, to discover witches, by casting them into a pool 
 of water, and drowning them to prove their innocence. 
 
 The most ancient British historian was Gildas ; from 
 whose writings, dated about the middle of the sixth centu- 
 ry, are derived the only information of that period. John 
 of Beverly, archbishop of York, who died in the year 721, 
 was one of the best scholars of his time ; and his pupil, 
 Bede, though possessing all the puerile credulity of those 
 days, shone as a meteor, in the darkness of a barbarous 
 age. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 .EgDe}*l^ Ethchoolf^ Ethelbald and Ethelbert^ Ethelred^ Al- 
 fred the Great, Edward the Elder, Athehtan, Edmuyid^ 
 Edred, Ednvy, Edgar, Edward the Martyr, Ethelred 
 the seco7id, Edmund Ironside. 
 
 ^<^_ FROM this period, our history will be less diffi- 
 cult of delineation, and more interesting to the read- 
 er ; as the materials are concentrated, and the events as- 
 sume some degree of resemblance to those of the present 
 age. 
 
 The inhabitants of the several provinces showed no de- 
 sire of revolting from the authority of Egbert. Their lan- 
 guage and laws, their customs and religion, were, every 
 where, nearly the same ; and, in all the subjected states, 
 the race of their ancient kings was totally extinct. 
 
 By living in the court, and serving in the armies, of 
 Charlemagne, Egbert acquired those accomplishments, 
 which afterv/ards enabled him to make so shining a figure 
 on the throne, 
 C 
 
20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Governed by a monarch of superior talents and the high- 
 est degree of prudence, and strengthened by their political 
 union, the people had reason to expect, that, thencefor- 
 ward, they would be guarded against inroad and devasta- 
 tion. But these flattering hopes were soon destroyed. 
 The Danes, who, at that period, committed most barbarous 
 ravages, appeared upon the coast. The causes which pro- 
 duced the invasions by this formidable enemy, deserve at- 
 tention. The emperor Charlemagne, though naturally 
 generous and humane, had been led, by an erroneous ap- 
 plication of the Christian doctrine, to use great severity 
 against the pagan Saxons in Germany ; and had obliged 
 them, to make a seeming renunciation of idolatry. But 
 that religion, which had been easily introduced amongst 
 the British Saxons, by persuasion and address, appeared 
 odious to their German brethren, when imposed upon them 
 by the sword. The most warlike of these fled into Jutland, 
 to escape the fury of persecution ; and, assisted by the peo- 
 ple of that country, they invaded the provinces of France ; 
 then but feebly protected by the degenerate posterity of 
 Charlemagne ; and, under the name of Normans, (signify- 
 ing men of the north,) became the terror of all whom they 
 attacked. 
 
 Their first appearance, in Britain, was in the year 787. 
 The English, being of the same religion as the French, 
 were equally the object of retaliation. The next alarm was 
 given about six years afterwards ; when a body of these pi- 
 rates robbed a monastery. But their ships being damaged 
 in a storm, and their leader slain, they were at last defeat- 
 ed. These were only the precursors of more serious at- 
 tacks: the Danes followed their example; and now 
 began those formidable invasions, which make so 
 considerable a figure in the history of those times. They 
 were, however, by the activity of Egbert, driven from the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ethehvolf, the son of Egbert, had neither the 
 vigour, nor the abilities of his father. He was bet- 
 ter qualified for governing a convent than a kingdom. He 
 divided his dominions ; and gave the provinces of Essex, 
 Kent, and Sussex, to his eldest son, Athelstan. 
 
 The incursions of the Danes had now become almost an- 
 nual ; and every part of England v.^as exposed to continual 
 alarm. Their vessels, being small, were easily run up the 
 creeks and rivers ; upon the banks of which they were 
 drawn ashore ; where, an intrenchment was formed around 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 21 
 
 tliem, and guarded by a part of their number. The rest 
 then scattered themselves over the country ; and, carrying 
 away the inhabitants and the cattle, they all hastened to 
 their boats, and quickly disappeared. 
 
 Athelstan having died, and Ethelwolf being absent, on 
 a pilgrimage, at Rome, Ethelbald, the second son, formed 
 a project for dethroning his father. This induced the king 
 to make a second partition of his dominions ; and give to 
 Ethelbald the sovereignty of the western division. After 
 this, Ethelwolf lived only two years. He left four sons, 
 Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred and Alfred ; having, by his 
 will, divided England between the two eldest. 
 
 The ecclesiastics now made rapid advances in the acqui- 
 sition of power and grandeur. Though parishes had been 
 instituted in England nearly two centuries before, the cler- 
 gy had not, until the present reign, got possession of the 
 tythes : but, a superstitious and imbecile monarch being on 
 the throne, when the people were discouraged by their 
 losses from the Danes, and terrified by the fear of future 
 invasions, they were susceptible of any impression, that 
 bore the appearance of religion ; unable to discern that, 
 though all the Mosaic law was binding on the Jews, only 
 the moral part of it was obligatory on Christians. 
 
 _ Ethelbald was a profligate prince; and lived but 
 
 a short time after obtaining the government of his 
 province. Ethelbert, who united his deceased brother's 
 division with his own, conducted himself, during a five 
 years' reign, in a manner more becoming his birth and situ- 
 ation, and defeated the Danes, with considerable loss, at 
 Winchester. 
 
 Ethelbert was succeeded by his brother Ethel- 
 red; who, though he defended himself with brave- 
 ry, enjoyed, during his whole reign, no cessation of the 
 Danish irruptions. 
 
 „ Alfred, (the youngest son of Ethelwolf) who fol- 
 
 lowed his brother, Ethelred, gave early indications 
 of those great virtues, and illustrious talents, by which, in 
 the most difficult circumstances, he saved his country from 
 bondage and from ruin. He was now twenty-two years of 
 age. When a boy, he had been twice in Rome ; yet, it 
 does not appear, that he made, in consequence, any ad- 
 vances in his education ; as, he had reached his twelfth 
 year, without having obtained a knowledge of the lowest 
 elements of literature. His genius was at length roused 
 by the recital of Saxon poems; and thenceforward he ap- 
 
22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 plied himself to study, so assiduously, that he soon became 
 acquainted with many of the ancient Greek and Latin 
 works. But, when called to the protection of his country, 
 he shook ojfif his literary employments, and took the field, 
 with alacrity, to oppose the Danes. 
 
 ^y ^ A new swarm of those ravagers came over this 
 
 year, under Guthrum, Oscitel and Amund ; and, 
 having joined their countrymen at Reptcn, spread them- 
 selves over the whole kingdom. The king exerted him- 
 self so vigorously, that, in the course of one year, he fought 
 eight battles, and reduced them to the greatest extremity. 
 A fresh band, however, of these robbers, landed on the coast. 
 This so disheartened his subjects, that many of them fled 
 out of the kingdom ; and others submitted to the conquer- 
 ors. The utmost energies of Alfred wx're now insufficient 
 to rouse the people to resistance. He was obliged to re- 
 linquish the ensigns of royalty, and, in the humblest dis- 
 guise, to seek shelter from the enemy. He concealed him- 
 self in a peasant's habit, and lived for some time in the 
 cabin of a herd, who had been intrusted with the care of 
 his own covy's. One day, the wife of the herd, observing 
 him engaged by the fire-side in trimming his bows and ar- 
 rows, desired him to take care of some cakes that were 
 toasting ; but Alfred, whose thoughts were otherwise en- 
 gaged, neclected his charge. The good woman, finding 
 her cakes all burned, scolded him severely ; upbraiding 
 him, that he always seemed well pleased when eating her 
 cakes, though he was thus negligent in toasting them. 
 
 When Alfred found that the enemy had abated the 
 eagerness of their search for him, he collected some of his 
 retainers ; and, having retired into the centre of a bog, 
 formed by the stagnant waters of the Thone and Parrett, 
 in Somersetshire, he there discovered about two acres of 
 firm ground, upon which he built a habitation. This place 
 was secured by the difficulty of the passes, and by the for- 
 ests and morasses by which it was surrounded. He called 
 it ^Ethelingey, signifying the isle of nobles. It now bears 
 the name of Athelney. Thence, he made frequent sallies 
 upon the Danes ; who often felt the vigour of his arm, but 
 knew not from what quarter they received the blow. 
 
 After he had remained in this insulated retreat during a 
 whole year, he heard of an exhilarating event. Hubba, the 
 Dane, having devastated Wales, had landed in Devonshire, 
 and laid siege to the castle of Kenwith. Oddune, earl of 
 Devonshire, with his followers, had taken shelter there ; 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 23 
 
 and, determined, by some, vigorous action, to prevent the 
 necessity of submitting to the barbarians, made a spirited 
 sally on the Danes, routed them, killed their chief, and got 
 possession of the famous Reafen, or enchanted standard. 
 This ensign, containing the figure of a raven, was made by 
 the three sisters of Hubba, with many magical incantations; 
 and the superstitious Danes erroneously believed, that the 
 good or the bad success of any enterprise, w^as prognosti- 
 cated by its different movements. 
 
 Encouraged by this conduct of his subjects, Alfred ven- 
 tured from his retreat. But, lest he might prematurely 
 urge them to the noble attempt of restoring their liberties, 
 he resolved, himself, to inspect the situation of the enemy. 
 He accordingly entered their camp in the disguise of a 
 harper ; passed every where unsuspected ; so entertained 
 them with his music and facetious stories, that he was intro- 
 duced even into the tent of Guthrum ; with whom, he re- 
 mained for several days ; and, having remarked the unguard- 
 ed manner of the Danes, and their inconsiderate wasting of 
 what they gained by rapine and violence, he then departed. 
 
 Animated still further, by these favourable appearances, 
 he summoned his principal subjects, with their warlike fol- 
 lowers, to a rendezvous at Brixton, on the borders of Sel- 
 wood Forest. At the appointed day, they joyfully resorted 
 to meet their prince. With shouts of applause, they sa- 
 luted their beloved monarch, whom they had long regarded 
 as dead ; but who, with voice and looks expressive of con- 
 fidence, now called them forth to victory and freedom. He 
 conducted them to Eddington, where the Danes were en- 
 camped; and, directing his unexpected attack against their 
 most unguarded quarter, instantly routed them, with great 
 slaughter. Those who remained, he settled in East-Anglia 
 and Northumberland. But, that he might have at least 
 one pledge of their submission, he previously stipulated 
 that they should embrace Christianity: to which, Guthrum 
 and his followers consented. They were then all admitted 
 to baptism. The king answered for the Danish chieftain 
 at the font, gave him the name of Athelstan, and received 
 him as his adopted son. 
 
 Alfred now employed his time in restoring that order 
 which had been shaken by so many violent convulsions. 
 He established military institutions, infused a taste for in- 
 dustry, and a love of justice, and provided against future 
 calamities. As equality in the administration of the laws, 
 is a great source of concord, he placed the Danes on the 
 C 2 
 
.1 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 same footing with the English. After rebuilding London, 
 which had been destroyed in the reign of Ethelwolf, he 
 very prudently organized a regular militia, to whom he 
 assigned a rotation of duty; so that, whilst a part were em- 
 ployed in arms, the remainder attended to the cultivation 
 of the land; and, wisely judging that the best method of 
 opposing an enemy, who made incursions by sea, was to 
 meet them on the same element, he provided a naval pow- 
 er; an important defence, which, hitherto, had been totally 
 neglected by the English : by which means, he repelled 
 several inroads of the Danes, and maintained his kingdom, 
 during many years, in tranquillity. 
 g„« But Hastings, the famous Danish chieftain, ap- 
 
 peared off the coast of Kent, with a fleet of three- 
 hundred-^and-thirty sail ; and he himself, with a division of 
 his vessels, entering the Thames, commenced most de- 
 structive ravages. Their progress, however, was soon ar- 
 rested. Alfred, with his usual alertness and intrepidity, 
 took the field; and chased the greater part of those free- 
 booters out of the country. He had to contend also with 
 the East-Anglian Danes ; who, encouraged by the presence 
 of their countrymen, broke into rebellion, and embarked in 
 upwards of two-hundred vessels, with which they appeared 
 before Exeter. These, he lost not a moment in opposing. 
 He instantly marched against this new enemy; and, falling 
 suddenly upon them, pursued them to their ships. 
 
 In the mean time, Hastings advanced towards the in- 
 terior, and plundered all around him. But he soon had 
 reason to repent his temerity. Assisted by a party of the 
 citizens, the English army, which had been left in London, 
 defeated him at Bamflete ; and carried off his wife and two 
 sons ; whom Alfred generously restored ; on condition that 
 the Dane should evacuate the kingdom. 
 
 Our limits will not allow us to follow this monarch, 
 through the almost innumerable struggles which he main- 
 tained with these atrocious barbarians, whom he at length 
 subdued. Having taken prisoners a large body, who had 
 landed under the command of Sigefert, a Northumbrian, 
 he tried them at Winchester, then the capital of his do- 
 minions, and hanged them all, as pirates and the common 
 enemies of mankind ; a well timed severity ; which, together 
 Avith the excellent posture of defence, every where estab- 
 lished, again restored the happiness of peace. 
 
 The Welsh having acknowledged his authority, which 
 was now extended from the English Channel to the frontiers 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 25 
 
 of Scotland, he died, in the fifty-second year of his age, after 
 a glorious reign of nearly thirty years ; having justly ob- 
 tained the appellation of Alfred the Great, and Founder of 
 the English Monarchy. 
 
 In private, or in public life, the merit of this prince has 
 never been excelled. His only competitor is the illustrious 
 Washington. But, let us not, by endeavouring, pre-emi- 
 nently, to exalt one hero, unwillingly lessen our admiration 
 of the other. Alfred seems, to use the language of an 
 elegant historian, " to be the model of that perfect charac- 
 ter, which the philosophers have been fond of delineating, 
 rather as a fiction of their imagination, than in hopes of 
 ever seeing it really existing; and nature, as if willing that 
 so fine a production should be set in the fairest light, had 
 bestowed on him every bodily accomplishment, — vigour of 
 limbs, dignity of shape and air, with a pleasant and agree- 
 able countenance." 
 
 When the Danes were subdued, Alfred found the king- 
 dom in a most wretched condition. The country was over- 
 run with straggling parties of those people; and the greater 
 number, even of the English, reduced to extreme indi- 
 gence, had shaken off the bands of government, and plun- 
 dered their fellov/ citizens, in every direction. That he 
 might render the execution of justice strict and regular, he 
 divided England into shires, or counties ; and subdivided 
 these into hundreds and tythings. Ten neighbouring house- 
 holders were formed into a corporation; under the name of 
 a tything, decennary, or fribourg ; over which, he appoint- 
 ed one person, called a headbourg, to preside. The mem- 
 bers were held accountable for each other's conduct; and 
 every man who did not join one of these associations, was 
 considered as an outlaw. 
 
 So regular a distribution of the people, with limitations 
 so strict, may not be necessary where men are inured to 
 obedience to the laws ; indeed, in a polished state, it would 
 be subversive of liberty ; but, amongst those licentious peo- 
 ple, it was well calculated to extend the salutary discipline 
 of government. 
 
 All trifling disputes were referred to the decennary; but, 
 in matters of greater moment, in appeals, or in controver- 
 sies between men of different decennaries, the cause was 
 brought before the hundred; which consisted of ten decen- 
 naries, or a hundred families of freemen, and assembled 
 once every four weeks. Their method of decision resem- 
 bled the present mode by juries ; the best institution that 
 
26 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ever was contrived, for the administration of justice, and 
 the preservation of liberty : but juries were not the invention 
 of Alfred, having been used before in England, and been 
 long in practice amongst all the German nations. Besides 
 these monthly meetings, there was an annual convening ; 
 for inquiring into crimes, correcting magisterial miscon- 
 duct, and a general inspection of the police. Superior to 
 this, was the county court ; which met twice a year— af- 
 ter Michaelmas and Easter; consisting of all the freeholders 
 of the county, Avho possessed an equal vote in the decisions. 
 The bishop and alderman presided there : the business was 
 to determine appeals, and decide controversies between 
 men of different hundreds. 
 
 From all these courts, there lay an appeal, to^he king 
 himself, in council ; where, he was indefatigable in despatch- 
 ing the numerous causes which came before him. The 
 better, however, to guide the magistrates in the administra- 
 tion of justice, Alfred formed a body of laws ; which, though 
 now lost, served long as the basis of English jurisprudence. 
 This code is generally esteemed the origin of the " Com- 
 mon Law." He appointed meetings of the several states, 
 to be held twice a year in London ; which he had repaired 
 and beautified, and, thus, rendered the capital of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 The similarity of these institutions, to the customs of the 
 ancient Germans, to the practice of the other northern con- 
 querors, and to the Saxon laws, during the Heptarchy, pre- 
 vents us from regarding Alfred as the sole author of this 
 plan of government ; but leads us rather to suppose, that, 
 like a wise man, he contented himself with reforming, ex- 
 tending, and properly appl.^ng, the institutions, which he 
 had found previously established. 
 
 It is recorded of Alfred, that he hung forty-four corrupt 
 judges, in one year ; and so exact was the general police, 
 that, it is said, he suspended, near the highways, bracelets 
 of gold ; which no man dared to touch. Yet, amidst all 
 these rigours of justice, this great prince preserved an in- 
 violable regard to the liberties of his people. In his will, 
 is this memorable sentiment: " /; is just^ that the JEnglish 
 should ahvays remain as free as their own thoughts J* 
 
 At the time of Alfred's ascending the throne, there was 
 not one person, south of the Thames, and very few in the 
 northern parts, who could interpret the Latin service of 
 the church. But this prince invited over the most emi- 
 nent scholars from the continent j established schools in all 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 27 
 
 parts of the kingdom ; and founded, or, at least, re-estab- 
 lished the University of Oxford. He was an author of high 
 reputation ; and translated many Latin and Greek works ; 
 amongst which were the elegant fables of jEsop. He 
 also invited industrious foreigners to repeople those dis- 
 tricts which had been desolated by the Danes; encouraged 
 manufactures, and rewarded the inventors of ingenious arts. 
 He usually divided his time into three equal portions. One 
 was employed in study and devotion : another, in the des- 
 patch of business ; a third, in sleep, and the recruiting of 
 his body, by diet and exercise : which divisions he exactly 
 measured, by the use of burning tapers, of equal lengths ; 
 an expedient suited to that rude age, when the geometry of 
 dialling, and the mechanism of clocks and watches, were 
 totally unknown. 
 
 The language of England had not, as yet, assumed an 
 appearance, in which we can distinguish the dawning of 
 the present English. Alfred's imitation of Boethius, taken 
 as a specimen, displays the Saxon in its highest state of 
 ancient purity, with scarcely any intermixture of the Ro- 
 man. 
 
 Alfred left three sons, and three daughters. The eldest 
 son, Edmund, having died, in his father's lifetime, without 
 children, the second, Edward, succeeded to the throne. 
 
 This prince, known by the appellation of Ed- 
 ward the Elder, possessed considerable military 
 talent ; and successfully combated every attack made on 
 the tranquillity of the kingdom ; whether by foreign, or do- 
 mestic, enemies. It was he who founded the University 
 of Cambridge. 
 
 Edward was followed by Athelstan. Although 
 this monarch was a natural son of the preceding 
 king, yet he ascended the throne in preference to Edward's 
 legitimate children; whose tender age rendered them inca- 
 pable of governing a country, so much exposed to irrup-^^ 
 tions from abroad, and convulsions within itself. By these 
 national calamities, Athelstan was severely harassed ; but, 
 by his great abilities, he preserved his dominions inviolate. 
 
 He maintained a successful war against the king of Scot- 
 land, for having protected Anlaf, a Danish nobleman, who 
 had rebelled. When in the neighbourhood of the English 
 army, Anlaf employed the artifice formerly practiced by 
 Alfred against the Danes ; and entered Athelstan's camp, 
 in the habit of a minstrel. He so highly pleased the sol- 
 diers, that they introduced him to the king's tent; and, hav- 
 
28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ing played before the prince and his nobles, he was dis- 
 missed with a handsome present. His prudence prevented 
 liim from refusing the present, but his pride determined 
 him, on his departure, to bury it, when he thought that he 
 was unobserved. But, a soldier in the English camp, who 
 iiad formerly served under Anlaf, having entertained sus- 
 picion on the first appearance of the minstrel, had narrowly 
 watched him; and, regarding this last action as a full proof 
 of Anlaf's disguise, he carried the intelligence to Athel- 
 stan. The king foresaw that the incident might be attended 
 with important consequences. He removed his station in 
 the camp ; and, as a bishop arrived that evening with some 
 troops, (for the clergy were then no less warlike than the 
 civil magistrates,) he occupied, with his train, the very 
 place which had been left vacant by the king. The pre- 
 caution of Athelstan was found prudent. No sooner was 
 it dark, than Anlaf broke into the camp; and, hastening di- 
 rectly to the place where he had left the king's tent, put 
 the bishop to death, before he had time to make defence. 
 
 Athelstan caused the Scriptures to be translated into the 
 Saxon language; and passed a remarkable law, which dis- 
 plays a mind considerably more enlightened, than could be 
 looked for in those days of almost universal ignorance. It 
 enacted, that a merchant, who, on his own account, had 
 made three long sea-voyages, should be admitted to the 
 rank of a thane ; a title equivalent to that of gentleman. 
 
 Edmund, a paternal brother of Athelstan, was 
 
 very young when he came to the crown, and, during 
 
 his short reign, met with considerable disturbance. At a 
 
 festival in Gloucester, he was killed in a rencounter with a 
 
 notorious robber; who had the presumption to enter the 
 
 hall where the king was sitting at dinner. 
 
 g^g The children of Edmund, being very young, were 
 
 set aside in favour of his brother Edred. 
 
 In this reign, the monks, whose introduction into the 
 kingdom was coeval with that of Christianity, greatly in- 
 creased in number; and, by the assistance of Dunstan, abbot 
 of Glastonbury, the monastic rules were rendered much 
 more rigid than before. This ecclesiastic, who is known 
 by the name of St. Dunstan, secluded himself entirely from 
 the world. He framed a cell, so small, that he could 
 neither stand erect in it, nor stretch out his limbs during 
 repose; and here employed himself perpetually, either in 
 devotion or manual labour. By these solitary occupations, 
 he became gradually insane, and imagined chimeras, which, 
 being believed by himself and his stupid votaries, procured 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 29 
 
 him a character of great sanctity amongst the people. He 
 fancied that the devil, in his frequent visits, was one day- 
 more earnest than usual in his temptations; till, provok- 
 ed at his importunities, he seized him by the nose, with 
 a pair of red-hot pincers, as he put his head into the cell, 
 and that he held him there, till that malignant spirit made 
 the whole neighbourhood resound with his bellowings. 
 
 A violent altercation now occurred, in consequence of a 
 new order of the Roman church, that a strict celibacy 
 should be observed, by the monks, and all orders of the 
 clergy ; which, before the death of the present monarch, 
 was, in a great measure, established. 
 
 g „ The next king was Edwy ; nephew of the last mon- 
 
 arch, and son of Edmund, his predecessor. This 
 prince, who ascended the throne at the age of sixteen, was 
 endowed with the most promising virtues; and, distinguish- 
 ed by a handsome exterior. His reign was short and un- 
 fortunate; but it might have been equally happy for him- 
 self and his subjects, had he not been engaged in a contro- 
 versy with the monks. This arose from his having es- 
 poused, against the remonstrances of the bishops, a beauti- 
 ful princess of the royal blood, named Elgiva; who was 
 within the degrees of affinity forbidden by the canon law. 
 
 By the application of a ved-hot iron, his queen was de- 
 prived of her fatal beauty ; after which, she was carried into 
 Ireland; there, to remain, in perpetual exile. Being, how- 
 ever, cured of her wounds, she escaped into England; but, 
 when flying to the embraces of her husband, she was again 
 seized; and was deprived of life, in the most cruel manner. 
 Meanwhile, Edwy was excommunicated; which event was 
 soon afterwards followed by his death. 
 
 Edwy was succeeded by his brother, Edgar. 
 Though he ascended the throne at an early age, yet 
 he soon discovered an excellent capacity: his reign is one^ 
 of the most fortunate that the ancient history of England 
 can produce. He built and supported a powerful navy; 
 which was always employed in the protection of the coast. 
 His character, however, would be more estimable, had he 
 confined the exercise of his talents to the preservation of 
 his dominions, and not employed them in the subjugation 
 of his neighbours. If the account be true, which men- 
 tions his having been rowed upon the Dee by eight of his 
 tributary kings, we have more reason to admire the gran- 
 deur of the scene, than compliment him on his moderation 
 in prosperity. The reputation of Edgar encouraged many 
 
$0 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 foreigners to settle in the kingdom. These, we are told, 
 contributed to corrupt the simple manners of the natives; 
 but, as this simplicity had not preserved them from barba- 
 rity, or from treachery, one of the greatest of all vices, it is 
 probable that their morals did not suffer much injury from 
 the change. 
 
 Edgar's character, in private life, throws a darkening 
 reflection on his lustre as a prince. In the gratification 
 of his desires, he was unrestrained. The circumstances 
 of his marriage with Elfrida, are alike singular and crimi- 
 nal. Elfrida was the daughter and heiress of Olgar, earl 
 of Devonshire; and, though she had never appeared at 
 court, she had filled all England Avith the reputation of her 
 beauty. Edgar was not inattentive to such reports. He resol- 
 ved, if he found her charms correspondent to her fame, to ob- 
 tain possession of her ; and, as her family was noble, not to 
 court her as a mistress, but to place her on his throne. He 
 commissioned earl Athelwold, his favourite, to visit her fa- 
 ther's castle, on some pretence, and bring him a certain ac- 
 count of Elfrida's beauty. Athelwold, found her more beau- 
 tiful than she had been reported ; and, being actuated by 
 the most ardent love, he determined to sacrifice to his pas- 
 sion, his fidelity to his master. He informed Edgar that 
 the report was untrue; that she was not handsome; that 
 she was, on the contrary, of a homely appearance ; but, that 
 though she was a very unfitting partner for a king, she 
 would, on account of her great riches, be an advantageous 
 match for an humble earl. Edgar consented to his intend- 
 ed suit ; and Athelwold became her husband. The king 
 •was soon informed of the truth ; but, before he would exe- 
 cute vengeance on Athehvold's treachery, he resolved to 
 ascertain, with his own eyes, the certainty and full extent 
 of his guilt. He told him, that he intended to pay him a 
 visit, at his castle; and Althelwold, as he could not refuse 
 this honour, begged only leave to go before him, a few 
 hours, that he might the better prepare every thing for 
 his reception. He then discovered the whole matter to 
 Elfrida; and begged her, if she had any regard, either to 
 his own honour or his life, to conceal from Edgar, by every 
 disguise, that fascinating beauty, which had seduced him 
 into treachery and falsehood. Elfrida promised to comply, 
 though nothing was further from her intention. She con- 
 sidered herself little obliged to a man, who had deprived 
 her of a crown; and did not despair, even yet, of obtaining 
 that station, by her charms, of which she had been deprived 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 31 
 
 by her husband's artifice. She appeared before the king, 
 in her richest attire, and with the most engaging airs; and 
 excited, at once, the highest love towards herself, and the 
 most furious revenge against her husband. Dissembling 
 his passion, Edgar seduced him into a wood, on pretence 
 of hunting, stabbed him with his own hand, and, soon after- 
 wards, publicly espoused Elfrida. 
 
 By the judicious policy of this monarch, a pecuniary in- 
 ducement was offered, which caused the extirpation of 
 wolves in England and Wales. 
 
 Edgar died after a reign of sixteen years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Edward. 
 
 ^^ Edward's reign w^as short, and his end tragical. 
 
 ' ^' But, though the murder which term-inated his life, 
 had no connexion with any religious opinions, his youth, 
 liis innocence, and the manner of his death, produced so 
 much compassion, that the people, believing that miracles 
 ^yere wrought at his tomb, gave him the name of Martyr. 
 
 His stepmother, Elfrida, had a son Ethelred, seven years 
 <jld, whom she attempted to raise to the throne. Yet Ed- 
 ward had always shown marks of the greatest regard for 
 her; and the most tender affection for his half-brother. He 
 •was hunting one day, in a forest in Dorsetshire; and, being 
 led by the chace near Corse-castle, where Elfrida resided, 
 he paid her a visit, unattended by any of his retinue, and 
 thereby presented her with the opportunity which she had 
 long desired. After he had remounted his horse, he re= 
 quested a drink ; and, whilst he was holding the cup to his 
 head, a servant of Elfrida gave him a stab behind. The 
 prince, finding himself wounded, put spurs to his horse i 
 but, becoming faint by the loss of blood, he fell from the 
 saddle, his foot stuck in the stirrup, and he was thus drag» 
 ged along by his unruly horse, till he expired. 
 
 Elfrida built monasteries and underwent penances, as an 
 atonement for her guilt; but she could never, by all her 
 hypocrisy and remorses, recover the good opinion of the 
 public. 
 
 _Q To him, succeeded Ethelred, his half-brother: to 
 whom, historians give the epithet of Unready; from 
 his want of promptness in the hour of danger. 
 
 The northern invaders, aware of the favourable opportu- 
 nity now afforded, by his inactivity and the bad conduct of 
 those intrusted with the reins of government; of whom, 
 Alfric, Duke of Mercia, was the most infamous; made a 
 powerful descent, under Swevn, king of Denmark, and 
 D 
 
S2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Olave, king of Norway. A numerous army was assembled 
 to oppose them. A general engagement ensued: but, in 
 consequence of tlje cowardice or treachery of their three 
 commanders, Trithegist, Frena, and Godwin, (all of Da- 
 nish extraction) the English were defeated ; and, after many 
 other severe conflicts, Ethelred purchased a precarious 
 peace ; and Sweyn with his associate, Olave, evacuated the 
 kingdom. But this shameful compromise served as an in- 
 centive to further inroads. Sweyn, shortly after, recom- 
 menced his invasions. The English, therefore, now de- 
 void both of prudence and unanimity in council, ahd of 
 courage and conduct in the field, had recourse to their for- 
 mer weak expedient ; and again ignominiously purchased 
 by their gold, what they might have gloriously gained by 
 the sword. 
 
 After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, Ethelred 
 died, leaving two sons by his first marriage ; Edmund, who 
 succeeded him, and Edwy, whom Canute afterwards mur- 
 dered. His two sons, Alfred and Edward, by his second 
 maiTiage, with Emma, sister of Richard, duke of Normandy, 
 were immediately upon Ethelred's death conveyed into 
 Normandy, by their mother. 
 
 . - Edmund, who had distinguished himself in the 
 ' preceding reign, was, from his hardy valour, named 
 Ironside. Though his courage and abilities might have 
 been adequate to prevent his country from declining, they 
 were unequal to the task of raising it from its degradation. 
 Frustrated in his endeavours by the disaffection of his no- 
 bility and prelates, and wearied by their importunities, he 
 consented to divide the kingdom with Canute the Dane: to 
 whom, was given the northern division ; comprising East 
 Anglia, Mercia, and Northumberland. In a month after 
 this partition, Edmund was murdered at Oxford. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE DANES. 
 
 Canute the Great, Harold Harefoot, Hardicanute. 
 
 CANUTE, the son and successor of Sweyn, king 
 ' of Denmark, now ascended the throne of England ; 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. sr. 
 
 in which usurpation, he was aided by some nobles, who 
 falsely interpreted the treaty, made with Edmund, at Glou- 
 cester. 
 
 Edmund Ironside had left two sons, Edwin and Edward ; 
 both in their minority. These young princes were sent by- 
 Canute to his ally, the king of Sweden; whom he requested 
 to despatch them. But the Swedish monarch, too generous 
 to comply, conveyed them to Solomon, King of Hungary; 
 to be educated at his court. Edwin married Solomon's 
 sister; and died soon after, without issue. Edward espous- 
 ed a daughter of the emperor, Henry the second; from 
 which marriage, sprung Edgar Atheling, who will here- 
 after appear as a claimant of the English throne. 
 
 Canute reigned eighteen years; leaving three sons: 
 Sweyn, who succeeded to the crown of Norway; which his 
 father had woh by conquest: Hardicanute, then on the 
 throne of Denmark, whose mother was Emma, wrdow of 
 Ethelred the Unready, and sister of Richard, duke of Nor- 
 mandy : and Harold, who followed his father, as king of 
 England. 
 
 The epithet, attached to the name of Canute, as well as 
 to that of many other princes, is not, by the inexperienced 
 reader, to be construed as implying any extraordinary 
 share of virtue; such virtue as adorns the patriotic citizen. 
 Great, when applied by the interested adulators of royalty, 
 too often refers to those qualities of the mind, and acts of 
 martial prowess, which are conspicuously exerted in the 
 oppression of an unresisting people, or in the awful destruc- 
 tion of an unoffending neighbour. 
 
 , Assisted by earl Godwin, a powerful nobleman, 
 
 Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from his swiftness in 
 running, distinguished himself by cruelty and injustice. 
 - Hardicanute, (or Canute the Hardy,) his suc- 
 
 cessor, was, upon his arrival from Denmark, joyfully 
 received by the English. But, very different feelings were 
 soon produced by his atrocity. In all his cruel and tyran- 
 nical proceedings, he, too, was assisted by Godwin. This 
 siobleman, being charged with the murder of prince Alfred, 
 a son of Ethelred the Unready, and maternal brother of Har- 
 dicanute, in order to appease the king, made him a present 
 of a splendid galley. It was rowed by eighty men ; each 
 of whom wore upon his arm a golden bracelet, weighing 
 sixteen ounces, and had his other appointments of the most 
 sumptuous kind. The king, pleased by its magnificence, 
 
34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quickly forgot the murder ; and, on Godwin's swearing that 
 he was innocent of the imputed crime, obtained for him an 
 acquittal. 
 
 This violent reign was of very short duration. Hardi- 
 canute died suddenly at the marriage of a Danish lord; 
 which it is probable he attended to gratify his habit of in- 
 temperance. 
 
 CHAPTER Vni. 
 
 SAXON LINE RESTORED. 
 
 Edivard the Confessor-^ (^Harold the second.) 
 
 EDWARD, the youngest and only surviving son 
 ^^'^ of Ethelred the Unready, and half-brother of Hardi- 
 Canute, (their mother being Emma, widow of Ethelred,) 
 was at this time fortunately at court; and, as Sweyn, the 
 eldest son of Canute, was in Norway, and the last two kings 
 had died without issue, the English embraced the favoura- 
 ble opportunity of shaking off the Danish yoke. Though, 
 however, the descendants of Edmund Ironside were the 
 true heirs of the Saxon family, yet their absence, in so re- 
 mote a country as Hungary, appeared a sufficient reason 
 for their exclusion. 
 
 The king, by the mildness of his conduct, soon reconcil- 
 ed the Danish inhabitants to his administration ; so that all 
 national distinctions gradually disappeared. In most of the 
 provinces, the Danes were interspersed with the English : 
 they spoke nearly the same language; they varied little in 
 their laws or manners; and there is no further mention in 
 history of any dissimilarity between them. Edward was 
 educated in Normandy, and had contracted many intima- 
 cies with the natives of that country, as well as a partiality 
 for their manners. The court of England was soon filled 
 with Normans; who, being distinguished both by the fa- 
 vour of Edward, and a degree of cultivation superior to 
 that of the English, soon rendered their language, laws, 
 and customs, fashionable in the kingdom. The study of 
 the French tongue became general; and that language was 
 used, in their deeds and other papers, by the lawyers. 
 The most eminent character that appeared in this reign> 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 'Jo 
 
 was Siward, earl of Northumberland. This nobleman, be- 
 sides his unwearied exertions in defence of the government, 
 against the attacks of its internal enemies, particularly 
 Godwin, acquired honour to England, by his successful 
 management of the only foreign enterprise vmdertaken 
 during the reign of Edward. Duncan, king of Scotland, a 
 prince of very gentle disposition, having been assassinated 
 by Macbeth, a powerful nobleman nearly allied to the 
 Scottish crown; Siward, whose daughter had been married 
 to Duncan, embraced, by Edward's concurrence, the pro- 
 tection of his distressed family; marched an army into 
 Scotland ; and, having defeated and killed Macbeth in bat- 
 tle, restored Malcolm, Duncan's son and heir, to the throne. 
 This is the historical foundation of the tragedy of " Mac- 
 beth;" one of the finest productions of the illustrious 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Edward, to whom the monks give the name of saint and 
 confessor, was the last of the Saxon line of English mon- 
 archs. He was the first that touched for the scrophula or 
 king's evil : the opinion of his sanctity induced a belief 
 that he could thus heal that incurable disorder ; and his 
 successors indulged the people in this delusion for nearly 
 seven-hundred years.* 
 ^ Harold was a son of the famous earl Godwin, 
 
 * (who had acted as stev^ard of the household, under 
 Edward,) and, by his mother's side, grandson of Canute the 
 Great. His sister Editha had been espoused by the late 
 king. Before the death of Edward, he had so well pre- 
 pared matters, that, notwithstanding the weakness of his ti- 
 tle, (Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside, being; 
 the legitimate heir of the sovereignty,) he immediately 
 stepped into the vacant throne; and the whole nation seem- 
 ed joyfully to swear allegiance. 
 
 The new king, however, was not allowed to remain long 
 in tranquillity. A formidable rival soon appeared. Wil- 
 liam, natural son of Robert, duke of Normandy, by the 
 daughter of a tanner in Falaise, was very early established 
 in that grandeur, from which he seemed to have been 
 placed at so great a distance, by his birth; and the eminent 
 qualities which he soon displayed, in the field and in the 
 cabinet, rendered him one of the most powerful princes of 
 his time. Founding his pretensions to the British throne 
 upon a family connexion, and some negotiations which had 
 
 * This ridiculous practice was first discontinued by George the 
 first, 
 
 E) 2 
 
.o HISTORY OF !::NGLAND. 
 
 taken place when at the court of Edward, William now 
 prepared to win by his arms, that crown which Harold had 
 gained by his address. Thus, to gratify ambition, the blood 
 of thousands was to flow ; and the peaceful cottage, the 
 habitation of the industrious peasant, to become the abode 
 of the afflicted widow and her helpless orphans. 
 
 The Normans were, at this time, the most renowned 
 people in Europe; having been inured to the fatigues 
 of military duty in successive campaigns, under captains 
 of the greatest experience and abilities. The emperor, 
 Henry the fourth, besides giving his vassals permission to 
 embark in the intended expedition, promised his protection 
 to the dutchy of Normandy, during the absence of the 
 prince; and, thereby, enabled him to draw his whole force 
 to the attack upon England. He was also supported by 
 the approbation of the pope ; who, to encourage the duke 
 in his enterprise, sent him a consecrated banner, and a ring, 
 in which was one of St. Peter's hairs — at least so it was 
 denominated. 
 
 William had now assembled a fleet of three-thousand 
 vessels, and selected, from his numerous supplies, an army 
 of sixty-thousand men. During these mighty preparations, 
 he had induced Harold's brother, Tosti, and the king of 
 Norway, to make a descent upon England; which they ac- 
 complished. A sanguinary battle ensuing, near Stamford- 
 bridge, in Yorkshire, they were both killed, and their ar- 
 mies entirely routed; but Harold's victory served greatly 
 to reduce the strength of his own forces, and render them 
 less capable of opposing the threatened invasion. 
 
 Without having experienced any opposition in his pass- 
 age, the duke landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, and quietly 
 14,0 t disembarked his forces. A great battle took 
 place at Hastings; and after a well contested ac- 
 tion, in which all the energies of the respective command- 
 ers were displayed, and Harold and his two brothers, killed, 
 the Normans were victorious. 
 
 Although the loss which the English had sustained in 
 this memorable engagement, was considerable, yet it might 
 easily have been repaired, had the resources of the nation 
 been skilfully concentrated and vigorously applied. Unfor- 
 tunately, the people, by their long subjection to the Danes, 
 had lost all national pride and spirit; Edgar Atheling, the 
 only heir of the Saxon line, was considered as unfit to gov- 
 ern them, even in times of tranquillity and order, therefore 
 totally incapable of repairing their recent losses j and the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 37 
 
 duke was allowed to complete his conquest, with little oppo- 
 sition, except from two powerful earls, Edwhi and Morcar: 
 who, in concert with Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 having proclaimed Edgar, king, used their utmost endeav- 
 ours to stop the progress of the invaders. Their exer- 
 tions, however, were ineffectual, and they retired with their 
 troops to their own provinces; after which, the people 
 unanimously yielded to the victor. As soon as William 
 had reached Berkhamstead, the primate made submission 
 to him ; and before he came within view of London, all the 
 chief nobility, and Edgar Atheling himself, the newly elect- 
 ed king, (the only remaining prince of the royal blood,) 
 went into his camp, and tendered him the crown ; of which, 
 with apparent reluctance, he accepted. 
 
 Thus, ended the Saxon monarchy in England, after con- 
 tinuing for more than six-hundred years. 
 
 CHAPTER IX, 
 
 William the Conqueror.^ William Rufus, Henry the Firsi^. 
 Stephen. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 1066 — 1087. 
 
 THE victory gained by William at Hastings, was over 
 the person of Harold, and not over the rights of the Eng- 
 lish nation. Edward the Confessor having died without 
 issue, the competitors for the crown were Edgar Atheling, 
 Harold, and the duke of Normandy. Edgar had not capa- 
 city to sway the sceptre; and the succession of kings was 
 not then decided by any invariable rule. Harold was a 
 subject, and had no legal claim. William was related to 
 Edward, and urged the wishes of this prince that he should 
 succeed him. His victory, accordingly, gave him the title 
 of a successor, and not a conqueror; and, that the quarrel 
 was personal, appears frona the circumstance that William 
 offered to decide the dispute with Harold, by single com- 
 bat. 
 
 What we call purchase.^ was, in the feudal law, called 
 conquest } both denoting any means of acquiring an estate^ 
 
5S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 out of the common course of inheritance ; and this is stili 
 the proper term in the law of Scotland ; as it was amongst 
 the Norman jurists; who styled the first purchaser (that is, 
 him who first brought the estate into the family which at 
 present owns it) the conqueror. 
 
 Westminster Abbey was the place appointed for the 
 magnificent ceremony of the coronation ; and the most 
 considerable nobility, both English and Norman, attended, 
 on this important occasion. Aldred, archbishop of York, 
 by whom, rather than by the prelate of Canterbury, Wil- 
 liam chose to be consecrated, demanded of the English no- 
 bility, whether they would accept of William as their king. 
 The bishop of Constance put the same question to the 
 Normans. Both having agreed, by acclamations, the arch- 
 bishop administered the usual coronation oath : by which, 
 he bound himself to protect the church, to administer jus- 
 tice, and repress violence. After this, he anointed him, 
 and placed the crown upon his head. At that instant, the 
 Norman soldiers, who were stationed vv'ithout, in order to 
 guard the church, hearing the shouts within, and fearing 
 that the English were committing violence on their prince, 
 assaulted the populace, and set fire to the neighbouring 
 houses. The alarm was conveyed to the nobility who sur- 
 rounded the king ; and it was with difficulty that he him- 
 self could appease the tumult. 
 
 Besides the usual coronation oath, William swore that 
 he would govern by the laws of the Confessor; and, for 
 this purpose, he summoned twelve Englishmen from every 
 county, to ascertain what these laws were ; because the 
 greater part of them had not been written, but were the 
 ancient customs of the realm. He also established justices 
 of the peace. His own army, in particular, was governed 
 with severe discipline ; and the greatest care was taken to 
 curb the insolence of recent victory. Yet, amidst this ap- 
 parent friendship for his new subjects, he took care to place 
 all power in the hands of the Normans, and still keep pos- 
 session of the sword, to which he was indebted for his crown. 
 Anxious to revisit his native country, he now 
 departed for Normandy ; and, that the kingdom 
 might, in his absence, be exposed to less danger, he carried 
 with him Edgar Atheling and the principal nobility of 
 England; who served both to increase the splendour of his 
 court, and remain as hostages for the fidelity of their coun- 
 trymen. But the rapacity of the Normans, which had been 
 restrained by the rigou^of their sovereign ; and the tend- 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 39 
 
 er-cy to revolt, which had been prevented by his vigilance; 
 soon began to appear: conspiracies were formed, hostilities 
 commenced, in many places, and every thing menaced a 
 revolution, as sudden as that which had placed William on 
 the throne. 
 
 Upon the first intelligence of these commotions, he hast- 
 ened back to England, disconcerted all the plans of the 
 confederates, confiscated their estates, and assigned them 
 to his Norman captains. 
 
 This measure, whilst it gratified his rapacious followers, 
 increased the number of his enemies. His attention was 
 bOon recjuired by an insurrection in the north. At the head 
 of this patriotic struggle, were Edwin and Morcar ; who 
 iiad stipulated for aid, from Blethin, prince of North Wales, 
 .Malcolm, king of Scotland, and Sweyn, king of Denmark. 
 But William, knowing the importance of celerity, advanced 
 by forced marches, reached York before his enemies were 
 prepared for resistance, or were joined by any of the foreign 
 succours, except a small body from Wales, and obliged the 
 iLVvO earls to make an unconditional surrender. 
 
 The following year, he was again disturbed. An inva» 
 sion was made by Godwin, Edmund, and Magnus ; three 
 sons of Harold; who, after the defeat at Hastings, had 
 sought refuge in Ireland. Having met with a kind recep- 
 tion from Dermot, and other princes of that country, they 
 prepared an expedition against England, and landed in Dev- 
 onshire. But Brian, son of the count of Brittany, was 
 here ready to oppose them. Several actions ensued, in 
 which the invaders were unsuccessful; and they were oblig- 
 ed, after great loss, to return into Ireland. 
 
 It was at this period, that William introduced 
 ' into England the feudal system. Finding himself 
 entirely master of the English people, he determined to 
 reduce them to a condition, in which they could no longer 
 be formidable to his government. He divided nearly all 
 the lands of the kingdom into baronies, and conferred them 
 (with the reservation of stated services and payments) on 
 the most considerable of his adventurers. These great 
 barons shared the principal part of their lands with other 
 foreigners, who were called knights, or vassals ; and who 
 paid their lords the same duty and submission, in peace 
 and in war, which the lords themselves owed to their sove- 
 reign. The whole country contained about seven hundred 
 chief tenants, and sixty thousand knights. But, as none of 
 the EnL':Ur,h were admitted into the first rank, the few who 
 
40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 retained their landed property, were glad to be received in- 
 to the second, and live under the protection of some pow- 
 erful Norman. It was a fixed maxim, in this reign, that 
 no one born in the island should ever be advanced to any 
 dignity — civil, military, or ecclesiastical ; and the natives 
 were universally reduced to such a state of poverty and 
 meanness, that the English name became a term of reproach. 
 
 But William reserved a very ample revenue for the 
 crown, and retained for himself upwards of fourteen-^hun- 
 dred manors ; which paid him rent, either in money, or in 
 corn, cattle, and the usual produce of the land : and, not 
 contented with the large forests, which the former kings 
 possessed, in all parts of England, he resolved to make a 
 new forest, near Winchester, the usual place of his resi- 
 dence ; and, for this purpose, he laid waste the country in 
 Hampshire, for an extent of thirty miles, expelled the in- 
 habitants from their houses, seized their property, even de- 
 molished churches and convents, and made the sufferers 
 not the smallest compensation. The killing of a deer or a 
 boar, was punished with the loss of the delinquent's eyes ; 
 at a time, when the killing of a man could be atoned for 
 by paying a moderate fine. 
 
 No sooner was the Norman prince established on the 
 throne, than the pope, with the concurrence of William, 
 despatched into England, the bishop of Sion, as his legate; 
 who was the first prelate that had ever appeared in that char- 
 acter in the kingdom. The bishops, under frivolous charges 
 of irregularity, were, soon afterwards, by his dictation, de- 
 prived of their respective sees. The bishop of Worcester 
 was the only English prelate who remained in possession 
 of his dignity. It is said, however, that he, also, was re- 
 moved ; but, refusing to deliver his pastoral staff and ring, 
 to any except the person from whom he had first received 
 it, he went immediately (so it is related by the monkish 
 historians) to Edward the Confessor's tomb, and struck the 
 staff so deeply into the stone, that no one except himself, 
 could pull it out ; upon which, he was allowed to retain his 
 office. 
 
 In addition to his other innovations, this monarch enter- 
 tained even the difficult project of abolishing the English 
 language ; and, for that purpose, ordered, that, in all schools, 
 the youth should be instructed in the French tongue. The 
 pleadings in the supreme courts were in French : the laws 
 were written in that idiom : no other language was used at 
 court: it became fashionable in all the higher circle's; u 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 41 
 
 polic)', to which is chiefly to be attributed, the mixture 6f 
 French, at present to be found in the English language. 
 
 After quelling an insurrection of the barons in 
 England, and a revolt of his son Robert in Norman- 
 dy, William had leisure to begin and finish a survey of all 
 the lands in the kingdom. He appointed commissioners 
 to ascertain the quantity and the various qualities of land 
 in each district, with the names of their proprietors ; and, 
 in many counties, the number and specification of the in- 
 habitants : which great undertaking was completed in six 
 years ; and the particulars were noted in what is called 
 Domesday-Book. This monument, the most valuable piece 
 of antiquity possessed by any nation, is still preserved in 
 the Exchequer in London.* 
 
 Having reached the sixty -third year of his age, William 
 died on the Continent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in 
 consequence of a hurt received when riding; in the twenty- 
 first year after the conquest of England, and the fifty-fourth 
 of his reign over Normandy. He left three sons: Robert, 
 William, and Henry. 
 
 The Normans introduced into England the use of sur- 
 names. 
 
 The best historian of this age, was Ingulphus, abbot of 
 Croyland ; who wrote a history of his abbey, interspersed 
 nith much general information. 
 
 WILLIAM RUFUS. 
 
 1087—1100. 
 
 William, surnamed Rufus, from the colour of his hair, 
 which was of a reddish hue, though the second son, as- 
 cended the throne by the will of his father ; Robert, the 
 eldest, having succeeded to the dutchy of Normandy. The 
 appointment, however, caused considerable discontent, 
 amongst the Norman barons ; who generally possessed large 
 estates both in England and their own country. They fore- 
 saw, that it would be impossible for them long to preserve 
 their allegiance to two masters ; and that they must, ulti- 
 mately, resign either their ancient property, or their new 
 
 * The cities appear, by Domesday-book, to have been little more, 
 in extent, than villag-es. York, itself, thoug-li, at tliat period, the 
 second city in England, contained only 1418 houses; Norwich, 738; 
 Exeter, 315; Ipswich, 538; Nortliamj/ton, 60; Hertford, 146; Canter- 
 bury, 262; Balh, 64; Southampton, 84: Warwick, 113. 
 
4^ HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 acquisitions. A comparison, also, of the personal qualities 
 of the two brothers, led them to give a preference to the 
 elder. The duke was brave, sincere, and generous ; and, 
 even his predominant defect, extreme indolence, was not 
 disagreeable to those haughty soldiers, who were fond of 
 independence, and submitted with reluctance to a rigorous 
 administration in their sovereign. The king, though equal- 
 ly brave, was violent, haughty, and tyrannical. He seem- 
 ed disposed to govern, more by the fear, than by the love, 
 of his people. An insurrection ensued: but William, by 
 the vigorous measures which he adopted, soon reduced 
 the disaffected to obedience, banished the promoters of this 
 sedition, and divided their estates amongst the barons who 
 had remained faithful. 
 
 Actuated by a criminal ambition, he now thought of 
 wresting from his brother the dutchy of Normandy ; and 
 appeared there with a formidable army. An accommoda- 
 tion, however, took place. It was agreed, that William 
 should be put in possession of Eu, the town of Aumale, 
 and other places : but, in return, he promised to assist his 
 brother in subduing Maine, which had rebelled; and restore 
 the barons to their forfeited estates in England. 
 
 A dispute having arisen between Henry, on the one side, 
 and Robert and William, on the other, Henry retired into 
 a strong fortress on the coast of Normandy ; in which, he 
 was attacked by the two brothers. When nearly reduced 
 by a scarcity of water, Robert, hearing of his distress, grant- 
 ed him leave to supply himself, and also sent him some 
 pipes of wine, for his own table. Being reproved by W^il- 
 liam for this ill-timed generosity, he replied : " What I 
 shall I suffer my brother to die of thirst? Where, shall we 
 find another, when he is gone?" The king, also, performed 
 an act of generosity, which was less suitable to his charac- 
 ter. Riding out one day, alone, to take a survey of the 
 fortress, he was attacked by two soldiers, and dismounted. 
 One of these drew his sword, in order to despatch him ; 
 when, W^illiam exclaimed: " Hold, knave ! I am the king 
 of England." The soldier suspended his blow; and, having 
 respectfully raised the king from the ground, received u 
 handsome reward, and was taken into his service. 
 
 Prince Henry, being soon after obliged to capitulate, 
 wandered about, for some time, in great poverty. 
 
 This period is memorable for the commence- 
 ment of the Crusades, which now engrossed the 
 attention of Europe ; and may be ranked as the most rc:« 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 43 
 
 markable monument of human folly, that ever was raised 
 by superstition. The appellation of Crusaders was given 
 to the deluded votaries of this mad enthusiasm, from the 
 figure of a cross affixed by each to his right shoulder. 
 All orders of men deemed the crusades the only road to 
 Heaven. The greatest criminals were forward in a service, 
 which they regarded as a propitiation for every crime. 
 Even women, concealing their sex under the disguise of 
 armour, attended the camp of these warriors ; who sought 
 to wrest from the Mahometans, the city of Jerusalem, or 
 breathe their last in sight of that place where their Saviour 
 had died. How much better might they have fulfilled the 
 injunctions of their sacred Master, by practising, at home, 
 the duties of morality and peace ! 
 
 Impelled by the general frenzy, the king's brother, Ro- 
 bert, had early enlisted in the crusade. Being, however, in 
 want of money, he mortgaged his dominions to the king of 
 England ; and William v/as, accordingly, put in possession 
 of Normandy and Maine. But he did not many years sur- 
 vive this continental acquisition. In the thirteenth year 
 of his reign, and fortieth of his age, when engaged in his 
 favourite amusement of hunting, in the New Forest, in 
 Hampshire, a French gentleman, named Walter Tyrel, hav- 
 ing aimed at a stag which suddenly started before him, his 
 arrow, glancing from a tree, struck the king in the breast, 
 and instantly killed him. His body was buried by the coun- 
 try-people, without any pomp or ceremony, at Winchester. 
 His courtiers neglected to perform the last duties, to a 
 monarch who was so little beloved. They were too much 
 occupied in the more profitable employment of choosing 
 )iis successor, to allow their attending the funeral of a dead 
 sovereign. 
 
 A fashion prevailed, in this age, in England, and through- 
 out Europe, amongst both men and women, to wear shoes 
 of enormous length, to draw the toe to a sharp point, and 
 affix the figure of a bird's bill, or a similar ornament, which 
 was turned upwards, and was often sustained by gold or sil- 
 ver chains, tied to the knee. The clergy declaimed, with 
 great vehem.ence, against this fashion ; which, they said, 
 was an attempt to bely the Scripture, where it is affirmed, 
 that no man can add a cubit to his stature. They even 
 assembled synods, who condemned it. But, though the 
 clergy, at that time, could overturn thrones, and had authori- 
 ty sufficient to send a million of men on the crusade^:,, they 
 could never prevail against these long-pointed shoes. 
 lit 
 
44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The monuments which remain in England of this prince, 
 are Westminster Hall, and London Bridge ; both of which 
 were built by his directions. The Tower, also, was origi- 
 nally founded by him : but the present superstructure of 
 that fortress was erected at the close of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, by Richard H. 
 
 HENRY THE FIRST. 
 
 1100 — 1135. 
 
 The throne was immediately occupied by Henry, the 
 younger brother of the late king. Robert was absent at 
 Jerusalem ; where, he distinguished himself, by his extra- 
 ordinary courage, as well as by that affable disposition and 
 unbounded generosity, which qualify a prince to shine in a 
 military profession. 
 
 As Henry easily foresaw, that a crown, usurped against 
 all rules of justice, would sit very unsteadily on his head, 
 he resolved, by fair appearances, to gain the affection of 
 his subjects. He voluntarily made a charter, which was 
 calculated to remove many grievous oppressions under 
 ■which the people had long laboured. In this instrument, 
 he promised, that upon the death of any earl, baron, or 
 military tenant, his heir should be admitted to the posses- 
 sion of his estate, on paying a just and reasonable sum to 
 the crown. He also remitted the wardship of minors, and 
 the right of giving any heiress in marriage, without the ad- 
 vice of all the barons ; restored the Anglo-Saxon laws, as 
 confirmed in a charter by Edward the Confessor, (the same 
 that the first William had sworn to observe) and made 
 several other concessions, favourable to the property and 
 liberty of the subject. But, when he had gained his pur- 
 pose, he never once thought, during his whole reign, of 
 observing a single article of it. 
 
 Robert, who, shortly after his brother's death, had return- 
 ed to Normandy, took possession of that dutchy; and com- 
 menced preparations to enable him to gain the English 
 throne, of which, in his absence, he had been deprived. 
 He landed with his troops at Portsmouth ; but an accom- 
 modation ensued. It was agreed, that Robert should re- 
 sign his claim to England, in consideration of an annual 
 pension ; and, that if either of the princes died without is- 
 sue, the other should succeed to his dominions. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 45 
 
 . Henry was the first to infringe the treaty. He 
 
 made an attack on Normandy ; in the conquest of 
 which he succeeded, after a severe battle at Tenchebray ; 
 where, Robert was made prisoner. This unfortunate prince 
 was detained in custody during the remainder of his life, 
 which was twenty-eight years, in the castle of Cardiff, in 
 Glamorganshire. Thus, are the bonds of kindred affection 
 rent asunder, by the furious impulse of a detestable am- 
 bition. Edgar Atheling, also, who had accompanied Ro- 
 bert to Jerusalem, was amongst the prisoners taken, by 
 the king, at Tenchebray. He gave him his liberty, and 
 settled a small pension on him ; with which, having retired, 
 he lived to an advanced age in England, totally neglected 
 and forgotten ; such was the indifference with which he 
 was viewed, from his want of talent. 
 
 Henry died suddenly in Normandy, in the sixty-seventh 
 year of his age, and thirty-fifth of his reign ; leaving his 
 daughter, the empress Matilda, heiress of his dominions. 
 This prince, in point of mental attainments, and abilities 
 in general, was one of the most accomplished that ever 
 filled the British throne ; and by his great progress in lite- 
 rature, he acquired the name of Beau-clerc, or the scholar. 
 He made canals for joining navigable rivers, and granted a 
 charter to London , v/hich acenis to have been the first step 
 towards rendering that city a corporation. 
 
 During his whole reign, the nation was disturbed by vio- 
 lent contentions with the court of Rome. A synod, con- 
 vened at Westminster, passed a vote, prohibiting the laity 
 from wearing long hair. The aversion of the clergy to this 
 mode, was not confined to England. When the king went 
 over into Normandy, before he had conquered that prov- 
 ince, the bishop of Seez, in a formal harangue, earnestly be- 
 sought him to redress the manifold disorders under which 
 the government laboured, and to oblige the people to cut 
 their hair in a decent form. Henry, though he would not 
 resign his prerogatives to the church, was very willing to 
 part with his hair : he cut it in the required form, and 
 obliged all the courtiers to imitate his example. 
 
46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 STEPHEN. 
 
 ■ 1135 — 1154. 
 
 The irregular manner in which Henry had acquired the 
 crown, might have taught that prince how little regard 
 would be shown to the injunctions of a will ; and the casu- 
 istry of the age, how little respect to the oaths of fealty, 
 sworn, by the barons, both of Normandy and England, to 
 Matilda. Indeed, no nation of Europe had ever seen a 
 crown on the head of a female ; and Spain was then the 
 only country that had ever had a king who claimed in a 
 female right. His nephew, Stephen of Blois, maternal 
 grandson of the Conqueror, had, by the friendship of the 
 late king, gained, in England, great riches, honours, and 
 preferments ; and no sooner had Henry expired, than he 
 hastened over from the Continent, and, by the influence of 
 his wealth and dignities, got possession of the throne. 
 
 But Stephen, though he now wielded a sceptre, did not 
 enjoy it in tranquillity. He felt a large share of those in- 
 quietudes, with which Providence is pleased, abundantly, 
 to visit the palaces of kings. The barons, in return for 
 their suom:::::C", h':d e-.-Cttd r^-'"*^^ .-.xorhitant demands ; 
 equally destructive of the royal authority, and the peace of 
 the community. Many of these required the right of for- 
 tifying their castles, and increasing their defences ; so that 
 all England was immediately filled with those fortresses, 
 which they garrisoned with their vassals, or with licentious 
 soldiers that flocked to them from every quarter. 
 
 Robert, earl of Gloucester, natural son of the late king, 
 was a man of honour and ability, and much attached to the 
 interests of Matilda. From this nobleman, Stephen had 
 3nuch to fear. Having arranged the project of an insur- 
 rection, he retired to the Continent, sent the king a defi- 
 ance, solemnly renounced his allegiance, and upbraided 
 him with a breach of the conditions which had been annex- 
 ed to his oath of fealty. Her uncle, David, king of Scot- 
 land, took the field in defence of Matilda's title; and, pene- 
 trating into Yorkshire, committed most barbarous devasta- 
 tions. The fury of his massacre and ravages enraged 
 the northern iTobility, who might, otherwise, have been 
 inclined to join him ; and the earl of Albermarle, William 
 Percy, Robert de Brus, and other powerful barons, assem- 
 t)led an army, with which they encamped at North-Aller- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 47 
 
 ton; where a great engagement took place, in which the 
 king of Scots was routed, and very narrowly escaped fall- 
 ing into the hands of his enemies. 
 
 Matilda, accompanied by the earl of Gloucester, 
 now landed in England, and fixed her residence at 
 Arundel Castle ; where she was joined by many of the barons, 
 with their numerous vassals. An engagement took place 
 at Lincoln ; in which, Stephen was made prisoner. Matil- 
 da was shortly after crowned at Winchester; and, though 
 she experienced great opposition from the citizens of Lon- 
 don, yet, by the aid of the clergy, whose favours had been 
 gained by concessions, she brought them to submit. 
 
 But, another revolution shortly followed. By a con- 
 currence of events, which it would be tedious to enumerate, 
 and which, if related, would be devoid of interest, Stephen 
 was released from prison, and Matilda was under the ne- 
 cessity of retiring from the kingdom. Although, however, 
 the king had gained his liberty, he can scarcely be said, at 
 this time, to have reascended the throne. He had to con- 
 tend, not only with powerful opposition from many of the 
 nobles, but also with the anathemas of the pope. 
 
 Seizing the favourable opportunity now afforded, prince 
 Henry, son of Matilda, made an invasion ; and, having 
 gained some advantages over Stephen, compelled him to 
 listen to an accommodation. It was agreed, that Stephen 
 should possess the crown during his life, and that Henry- 
 should succeed him. The death of the king, which hap- 
 pened in the next year, prevented all those quarrels and 
 jealousies which were likely to ensue in so delicate a situa- 
 tion ; as it is not very probable, that the young prince 
 would have patiently waited for an event, which he himself 
 might not survive. 
 
 The historians of this period, were William of Malms- 
 bury, and Peter of Blois. On the authority of the latter, 
 it appears, that London then contained only forty-thousand 
 inhabitants. The Saxon language now assumed in Eng- 
 land, a form, in which may plainly be discovered the be- 
 ginning of the present English, 
 
 E 
 
48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 
 
 Henry the second^ Richard thejirst^ John^ Henry the thirds 
 JEdiuard the Jirst, Edivard the second^ Edward the third* 
 Richard the second. 
 
 HENRY THE SECOND. 
 
 1154—1189. 
 
 THIS prince was about twenty-one years of age when 
 he ascended the British throne. In his person, the fami- 
 lies of the Saxon and Norman monarchs were united; his 
 inother being the grand niece of Edgar Atheling, and a 
 lineal descendant of Edmund Ironside. He was master, in 
 right of his father, the earl of Anjou Plantagenet, of Tou- 
 raine, Anjou, and Maine : he inherited from his mother 
 Matilda, Normandy ; obtained by his wife, Perigord, Poic- 
 tou, Guienne, Xaintogne, Auvergne, Limousin, and Angou- 
 iTiois ; and, soon after, annexed Brittany to his other states. 
 These provinces composed above a third of the whole 
 French monarchy ; and were much superior, in extent and 
 resources, to those territories which were under the imme- 
 diate jurisdiction of the king of France. Henry was the 
 greatest prince of his time, for wisdom, virtue, and politi- 
 cal ability ; and the most powerful, in extent of dominion, 
 that had ever worn the crown of England. His character, 
 in private, as well as in public life, is almost without blem- 
 ish. He was of a middle stature — strong, and well pro- 
 portioned : his countenance was lively and engaging ; his 
 conversation, affable and entertaining ; his elocution, easy, 
 persuasive, and always at command. He loved peace, but 
 possessed both bravery and conduct in war. 
 
 As the king, and all the English barons, were of French 
 extraction, the manners of the latter gradually acquired 
 the ascendance. All foreign improvements, therefore, such 
 as they were, in literature and politeness, in laws and in 
 arts, seem then, in a great measure, transplanted into Eng- 
 land; and this country soon rivaled her continental neigh- 
 bours, in the fashionable accomplishments of the age. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 49 
 
 A dispute having arisen respecting the occnpatioo of 
 Nantz, Henry, lest Louis, the French king, should inter- 
 pose against him in the controversy, paid that monarch a 
 visit; and pleased him so much by his deportment, that an 
 alliance was contracted. They agreed, that young Henry, 
 heir of the British throne, should be affianced to Margaret 
 of France ; though the former was only five years of age, 
 and the latter was yet in her cradle. 
 
 , - The usurpations of the clergy, which had, here- 
 
 tofore, been gradual, were now so rapid and alarm- 
 ing, that it seemed necessary to determine, whether the 
 king or the ecclesiastics, particularly the archbishop of 
 Canterbury, should have the political ascendency. The 
 high spirit of Henry, was not likely to pay a tame submis- 
 sion to their encroachments. The most remarkable person- 
 age in these contentions, was the celebrated Thomas a Beck- 
 et ; the first man of English pedigree, who, since the Norman 
 Conquest, had risen to any considerable station ; and who, 
 by natural ability, improved by experience ; and by intrigue 
 and affected austerity ; raised himself, from an humble sta- 
 tion, to the exalted dignity of chancellor of the kingdom, 
 prime minister, and, ultimately, to that of archbishop of 
 Canterbury. In addition to these great employments, he 
 received also the income of two extensive baronies ; and, 
 to complete his grandeur, was intrusted with the education 
 of the king's eldest son. The pomp of his retinue, the 
 luxury of his table, and the munificence of his presents^ 
 corresponded to these great preferments ; or, rather, ex- 
 ceeded any thing which England had ever, before, witness- 
 ed, in any subject. His historian and secretary, Fitz-Ste- 
 phen, mentions, amongst other particulars, that his apart- 
 ments were every day, in winter, covered Avith clean straw 
 or hay; and, in summer, with green rushes or boughs: lest 
 the gentlemen who paid their court to him, and who could 
 not, by reason of their great number, find a place at table, 
 should soil their fine clothes by sitting on a dirty floor !— • 
 That, however, in those days, when carpets were not used 
 even in the royal palace, was considered as effeminate re- 
 finement. He employed himself, at leisure hours, in hunt- 
 ing, hawking, and gaming ; and maintained, during forty- 
 days, in one of the king's wars in Normandy, twelve-hun- 
 dred knights and four-thousand of their train. 
 
 Henry, himself, partook of his entertainments. An amus- 
 ing instance of their familiarity is mentioned; which forci- 
 bly displays the manners of that age. One day, as the king 
 
50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and Becket were riding in the streets of London, they ob- 
 served a beggar, who was shivering with cold : " Would it. 
 not be very praiseworthy," said the king, " to give that 
 poor man a warm coat, in this severe weather ?" " It would, 
 surely," replied the chancellor ; " and you do well, sir, in 
 thinking of so good an action." " Then he shall have one 
 presently," replied the king ; and, seizing the skirts of 
 Becket's coat, he began to pull it violently. Becket defended 
 himself for some time ; and both had nearly fallen off their 
 horses, when the chancellor, after a vehement struggle, let 
 go his coat ; which the king gave to the beggar : who, be- 
 ing ignorant of their persons, was not a little surprised with 
 the present. 
 
 At this time, however, Becket had not attained the sum- 
 mit of his elevation. But, when afterwards he received 
 from Henry the exalted honours of the see of Canterbury, 
 which rendered him, for life, the second person in the king- 
 dom, he totally altered his demeanour, and endeavoured to 
 retrieve that character of sanctity, which his former osten- 
 tation had impaired. He immediately resigned all his civil 
 employments ; intimating, that, thenceforth, he must be 
 solely occupied in the exercise of his religious functions. 
 Although he still retained, in his retinue and attendants, 
 his accustomed pomp and lustre, which were useful to 
 strike the vulgar, yet, in his own person, he affected the 
 most rigid mortification. He wore sackcloth next his skin ; 
 his usual diet was bread ; his drink, water ; which he had 
 rendered unpalatable by the mixture of unsavoury herbs : 
 he tore his back by the frequent scourgings which he in- 
 flicted on it ; and daily, on his knees, washed the feet of 
 thirteen beggars, whom he afterwards dismissed with pre- 
 sents. 
 
 These austerities, could not, however, deceive men of 
 penetration. They easily foresaw, that he meditated some 
 great design ; and that his ambition had directed him to- 
 wards a new and more dangerous experiment. 
 
 The ecclesiastics, in that age, had renounced all subor- 
 dination to the magistrates : they openly pretended to an 
 exemption, in criminal accusations, from a trial before 
 courts of justice, and were gradually introducing a similar 
 exemption in civil causes ; and, as the clergy had extreme- 
 ly multiplied in England, and many of them were, conse- 
 quently, of very low characters, murders, and robberies, 
 and other crimes of the deepest die, were daily committed 
 by them, with impunity. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 51 
 
 The most inquisitive reader would be wearied by a recital 
 of the successive encroachments of the primate, and the 
 endeavours of the sovereign to resist their effects. Henry, 
 seizing a favourable opportunity, resolved to determine, at 
 once, the increasing controversies between the civil and the 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He therefore summoned an as- 
 sembly of all the prelates in the kingdom ; and put to them 
 this plain and decisive question : Whether they were willing 
 to submit to the ancient laws and customs of England ? The 
 bishops vmanimously replied, That they were willing, sav- 
 ing their own order. 
 
 This evasion served only to inflame the king's resent- 
 ment. He was not to be diverted from his purpose. In the 
 following year, he convened, at Clarendon, a general council 
 of the nobility and prelates; to whom he submitted the im- 
 portant decision of the present alarming differences. The 
 barons having been gained to the king's party, the bishops 
 became overawed ; and a body of laws, called the Constitu- 
 tions of Clarendon, were agreed to, without opposi- 
 tion. It was enacted, that clergymen accused of any 
 crime should be tried by the civil power : that laymen should 
 not be indicted in spiritual courts, except by legal and repu- 
 table witnesses : that the bishops, and other spiritual digni- 
 taries, should be regarded as barons of the realni, and be 
 bound to assist at trials, and attend the king in his great 
 councils; and that goods forfeited to the king should not be 
 protected in churches or church yards. 
 
 Although Becket himself subscribed to these articles, it 
 does not appear, that he, in the least degree, relaxed from 
 his usual struggles in favour of the clerical supremacy. 
 Henry and the primate were almost perpetually at variance ; 
 he was at length banished from the kingdom ; and, al- 
 though, after a compromise had been effected, he was al- 
 lowed to return, yet, still, the controversy was repeated. 
 He filled all places with exclamations against the violence 
 ivhich he had suffered, excommunicated the king's ministers, 
 by name, and every one that obeyed the constitutions of 
 Clarendon ; absolved all persons from the oaths which they 
 had taken to observe them ; and even told Henry that kings 
 reign solely by the authority of the church. 
 
 The king, when on the continent, being one day 
 ' vehemently agitated, burst forth into an exclama- 
 tion against his servants ; whose want of zesil, he said, had 
 left him so long exposed to the enterprises of that ungrate- 
 ful and imperious prelate. Four officers of his household, 
 
02 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 taking these passionate expressions as a hint for Becket's 
 death, swore to revenge their prince's quarrel, and secretly 
 Avithdrew from court. The king, apprehensive of their 
 design, despatched after them a messenger ; charging them 
 to attempt nothing against the person of the primate. 
 But these orders arrived too late. Becket had been assas- 
 sinated in the cathedral church of Canterbury. In this 
 manner, did his rashly officious friends, seek a remedy for 
 evil, in the commission of one of the most horrid crimes of 
 which man can be guilty ; and plunge, into the severest 
 affliction, him, whose troubles they had sought to alleviate. 
 
 Though Henry had acquitted his own conscience from 
 desiring the assassination of Becket, he was extremely 
 alarmed, lest he might incur the anathemas of the court of 
 Rome. The Thursday before Easter was now approach- 
 ing, when it is customary for the pope to denounce annual 
 curses against all his enemies ; and it was expected that 
 Henry would be solemnly comprehended amongst the num- 
 ber: but an ambassador, sent hastily forward, found means 
 to appease the pontiff, and artfully to elude the blow. 
 
 Two years after his death, Becket was sainted by the 
 pope, his body was removed to a magnificent shrine, en- 
 riched with presents from all parts of Christendom ; and, 
 in one year, above a hundred-thousand pilgrims arrived at 
 Canterbury, and paid devotions at his tomb. 
 
 We shall now proceed to the most important, but not 
 the most pleasing, event, in the history of this reign — the 
 invasion and subjection of Ireland. 
 
 Though it is foreign to the plan of the present work, to 
 devote an equal degree of attention to Irish affairs, as to 
 those of England, yet, viewing as we do, the greatness of 
 the attainment to the British crown, it seems a duty to give 
 at least a cursory sketch, of the ancient state of so cele- 
 brated an island. 
 
 When we examine the remote histories of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, and find names and facts given with un- 
 hesitating confidence, and apparent chronological accuracy, 
 it seems, at first sight, an unreasonable degree of scepti- 
 cism, to withhold our assent, or question their authentici- 
 ty ; however, a minuter inquiry, evinces them to be, in 
 general, but specious delusions — the inventions of the hu- 
 man mind. Ireland, unquestionably, at a very early period, 
 contained extensive colleges for the reception of literary 
 students ; but, until after the general revival of letters, if 
 we except her music, which was then, as it is now, the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 53 
 
 most delightful in the world, she sent forth no illuminating 
 beams of scientific knowledge, or of elegance. Greece and 
 Italy, though possessed, in remote ages, of few public 
 seminaries of learning, have transmitted, even through the 
 gloomy centuries of barbarism, those immortal productions, 
 which excite the highest admiration, and challenge the 
 ablest exertions, of our modern schools. The language of 
 the Irish, it may be said, is no longer a collegiate study. 
 The Greek and Latin, though neither is, at this time, the 
 language of a nation, live, from age to age, in the splendid 
 pages which they have adorned. Had those crowded aca- 
 demies of Ireland produced within their walls a Homer or 
 a Virgil, an Herodotus or a Livy, the Iberno-Celtic tongue 
 would not now be confined to the illiterate vulgar. 
 
 The earliest authentic reference to this island, is by the 
 ancient geographer, Strabo. He says, that the position of 
 Ireland, and its distance from the coast of Gaul, were in- 
 serted in the papers of Eratosthenes, librarian of the sec- 
 ond Ptolemy, king of Egypt. This prince flourished 
 about two-hundred-and-fifty years before the Christian aera. 
 Pliny, also, refers to a map of Ireland, which was placed in 
 a portico at Rome, amongst other geographical documents 
 collected under the superintendence of Julius Caesar. The 
 names of Iri, Eri, Erin, with their variations, were ancient- 
 ly given to this island. Caesar is, we believe, the first Ro- 
 man writer who mentions it. He calls it Hibernia; proba- 
 bly from its supposed coldness ; hibernus^ in Latin, signi- 
 fying winterly. 
 
 As Britain was first peopled from Gaul, so was Ireland, 
 most probably, from Britain. The inhabitants of all these 
 countries seem to have been so many tribes of the Celtae, 
 who derive their origin from an antiquity far beyond the 
 records of any history or tradition. The ancient language 
 of Ireland was what is now called the Gaelic : the same, 
 excepting the changes produced by time, that is still 
 used by at least three-fourths of the lower classes in that 
 country. In many parts of Scotland, Wales, and the Isle 
 of Man, dialects of this tongue are still very common; all 
 bearing so near an affinity, that the people of one can con- 
 verse intelligibly with those of another. 
 
 .„ At this period, besides many small tribes, there 
 
 were in the island five principal sovereignties ; 
 Munster, Leinster, Meath, Ulster, and Connaught. Rod- 
 erick O'Connor, king of Connaught, was advanced to the 
 dignity of presiding in their councils, and of leading their 
 
54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 armies against a foreign enemy ; but his government, ill 
 obeyed, even within his own territory, was not capable of 
 imiting the people in measures for their general defence. 
 The following circumstance seems to have hastened the 
 attempts of the British king upon this island, which had 
 been previously designed by himself, and sanctioned by the 
 Roman pontiff. Dermot M'Murrough, sovereign of Lein- 
 ster, an odious tyrant, had formed a design on Omach, wife 
 of Ororic, king of Meath : Ororic, for better security, dur- 
 ing his absence in a distant part of his dominions, had 
 placed his queen in an island surrounded by a bog : but 
 Dermot, seizing the opportunity, invaded the place, and 
 carried off" the princess. This immoral and ungenerous 
 act, led to his expulsion from the country. He had then 
 recourse to Henry ; and proposed that if he assisted him in 
 recovering his kingdom, he would hold it in vassalage of 
 the crown of England. Christianity had been carried to 
 Ireland by missions from the ancient Britains; but the Irish 
 followed the doctrines of their first teachers, and had never 
 acknowledged subjection to the Roman see. /Adrian the 
 third, therefore, in the year 1 156, issued a bull in favour of 
 Henry ; in which, after premising that this prince had al- 
 ways been anxious to enlarge the church of God, on earth, 
 and to increase the number of his saints in Heaven, he ex- 
 horts him to invade Ireland, to extirpate the vice and wick- 
 edness of the natives, and oblige them to pay, yearly, from 
 every house, a penny to the see of Rome./ 
 
 The first hostile party of the British vs^as under the or- 
 ders of Robert Fitz-Stephen ; who landed near Wexford. 
 Maurice de Prendergast, Fitzgerald, Raymond, and the 
 earl of Strigul, (surnamed Strongbow,] successively follow- 
 ed ; each with a party under his command. The latter, 
 the most renowned of all, landed at Waterford ; which he 
 immediately subdued. He then proceeded to Dublin ; 
 which he carried by assault. Henry himself soon arrived, 
 with a few hundred men ; not so much to conquer a dis- 
 puted territory, as to take possession of a subjected king- 
 dom. Amongst the British adventurers, he distributed the 
 lands, which belonged to those leaders who had offended 
 him by their opposition ; and, after a short stay, returned to 
 England ; leaving most of the Irish chieftains undisturbed 
 in their dominions. 
 
 The Irish, at that time, were undisciplined, and almost 
 entirely without armour; a mode of personal defence used 
 by their invaders : to which causes, and their want of union, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 55 
 
 may be attributed the easy victory over a people, inferior 
 to none in point of natural bravery and strength. 
 
 Henry died in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and the 
 thirty-fifth of his reign. His life was shortened by the un- 
 grateful conduct of his own children, Henry, Richard, and 
 John ; who, disgracefully aiming to deprive their indulgent 
 father of his dominions, embittered his declining years with 
 corroding anguish. Two, only, of his sons survived him ; 
 Richard, who succeeded to the throne ; and John, who did 
 not inherit any territory. He was thence called Lacland. 
 
 The most industrious writer of this reign was Hovedon, 
 
 RICHARD THE FIRST, 
 
 1189— -1199. 
 
 By his conduct^ when invested with the regal dignity, 
 Richard endeavoured to atone for his undutiful behaviour 
 to his father. Those who had assisted in his rebellion, in- 
 stead of meeting with the honour and confidence which 
 they had expected, were, on all occasions, hated and des- 
 pised ; but, the faithful ministers of Henry, were received 
 with open arms. 
 
 The events of this reign are unimportant, at the present 
 day. Our business is, to give a faithful detail only of those 
 transactions that have a tendency to elucidate effects which 
 have remained permanent ; not to burthen our pages with 
 those that should rather be forgotten than remembered. 
 
 The character of Richard displays a strange mixture of 
 vice and virtue. He seemed calculated rather to dazzle 
 mankind by the splendour of his enterprises, than to pro- 
 mote the happiness of his people by a well regulated gov- 
 ernment. No man, even in that romantic age, carried per- 
 sonal courage to a greater height. It was this quality 
 %vhich gained him the appellation of C(Sur de Lion^ the 
 lion-hearted. Shortly after ascending the throne, he joined 
 in a crusade to Palestine ;«fcv.diere he remained nearly three 
 years; shining in every action. The most memorable bat- 
 tle which then occurred, was fought by the Christians on 
 the one side, and Saladin, the renowned emperor of the 
 Saracens, on the other ; who, by the heroic behaviour of 
 Richard, received a signal overthrow^ In his return home, 
 the king was treacherously detained by Leopold, duke of 
 Austria ; and for a sum of money, assigned to the emperor 
 Henry the sixth; bv whom he was carried into the heart of 
 V 
 
56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Germany, and loaded with irons, until ransomed by his 
 country. Nor was that the only cause of his unhappiness. 
 Prince John, during the captivity of his brother, made an at- 
 tempt to gain the throne ; thus, renewing the disgraceful 
 conduct, which had brought his father to the grave. 
 
 Richard, when attacking the castle of Chains, near Li- 
 moges, received a mortal wound, in the tenth year of his 
 reign, and the forty-second of his age. 
 
 Coats of arms were not introduced into seals, nor indeed 
 into any other use, until about the reign of Richard ; who 
 brought them from the Holy Land, where they were first 
 invented, and painted on the shields of the knights, to dis- 
 tinguish the variety of persons, of every Christian nation, 
 who resorted thither, and could not, when clad in complete 
 ^teel, be otherwise ascertained. 
 
 This prince established in England a uniformity in weights 
 and measures : a useful institution ; with which, the mer- 
 cenary disposition of his successor induced him to dispense,, 
 for money. 
 
 JOHN. 
 
 1199 — 1216. 
 
 The late king, who died without children, previous to 
 his departure for the East, had declared his nephew, Ar- 
 thur, duke of Brittany, son of his deceased elder brother 
 Geoffrey, his successor. But John did not acquiesce in this; 
 and Richard, by his last will, appointed him heir to all his 
 dominions; probably, because he thought that Arthur, 
 then but twelve years of age, was incapable of establishing 
 his claim against the faction of his uncle. 
 
 Philip, king of France, desiring an opportunity to embar- 
 rass John, and disunite his dominions, embraced the cause 
 of the young duke, and brought him to Paris, to be edu- 
 cated with his own son. 
 
 A war with France shortly a4Jter ensued ; which was at 
 length concluded by the mutual adjustment of disputed 
 claims ; and, to render the union more durable, John gave 
 his niece in marriage to Prince Louis, Philip's eldest son. 
 Nine barons of the king of England, and as many of the 
 king of France, were guarantees of this treaty ; all of whom 
 swore, that if their sovereign violated any article which it 
 contained, they would declare against him, and embrace 
 ■he cause of the injured monarch. 
 
HiLtORY of ENGLAND. 57 
 
 Now secure, as he imagined, on the side of France, 
 John, though his queen was still alive, indulged his passion 
 for Isabella, the daughter of Aymar, count of Angouleme ; 
 a lady, who had been contracted to the count De la Marche, 
 and was already delivered into his hands; but, by reason of 
 her tender years, the marriage had not been consummated. 
 Having procured a divorce from his own wife, John es- 
 poused Isabella; regardless both of the menaces of the 
 pope, and the resentment of the count. But the latter 
 soon found means to punish his atrocious rival. Taking 
 advantage of the general discontent which prevailed against 
 John, the enraged husband excited commotions in Poictou 
 and Normandy. The king then summoned all the barons 
 of England, and required them to assist him on the conti- 
 nent. But he found that he possessed as little authority, 
 there, as in his transmarine dominions. They unanimously 
 replied, that they would not attend on this expedition, un- 
 less he would promise to restore and preserve their privi- 
 leges — the first symptom of a regular combination, and 
 plan of liberty, amongst those noblemen. Affairs, however, 
 were not yet fully ripe for the projected revolution. John, 
 by threatening them, dissolved the association, induced 
 many to follow him into Normandy, and compelled those 
 who remained behind, to pay for the indulgence. 
 
 He was, for a while, equally successful against the refrac- 
 tory barons on the continent. But, elated by his superiori- 
 ty, he advanced claims, which gave universal alarm to his 
 vassals, and diffused, still wider, the general discontent. 
 As the jurisprudence in those times, generally required 
 that the causes in the lords' court should be decided by- 
 duel, he carried with him a number of bravos ; whom he 
 retained as champions, to fight with his barons in any con- 
 troversy that he might raise against them. The count De 
 la Marche, and other noblemen, regarded this proceeding 
 as an insult, as well as an injury ; and declared that they 
 would never draw their swords against men so inferior in 
 quality. The barons ha\»ng appealed to Philip, their su- 
 perior lord, that prince espoused their cause ; and a new 
 and powerful ally soon appeared, to encourage them in the 
 completion of their designs against the British king. 
 
 The young duke of Brittany, aware of the dangerous 
 character of his uncle, determined to seek both his security 
 and advancement by a union with Philip and the barons. 
 The allies, for a while, were invariably successful. In an- 
 swer to every proposal which the king of England made 
 
.>8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 for peace, Philip still insisted, that he should resign all his 
 continental dominions to his nephew. But an event hap- 
 pened which seemed to turn the scale in favour of John. 
 Whilst the duke of Brittany was besieging the town of 
 Mirabel, in Poictou, his camp was suddenly attacked ; and 
 he himself, together with La Marche, and the most con- 
 siderable of the revolted barons, were made prisoners, and 
 carried in triumph into Normandy. Philip, who then in- 
 vested a city in that dutchy, raised the siege, and retired 
 on his approach ; and John, sensible from the spirited dispo- 
 sition of young Arthur, that he might prove a dangerous 
 enemy, if he should regain his liberty, murdered him with 
 his own hands ; and, fastening a stone to the dead body, 
 threw it into the Seine I 
 
 All Europe was struck with horror at this inhuman deed. 
 From that moment, the king, detested by his subjects, re- 
 tained a very precarious authority, over both the people 
 and the barons. Philip, as his superior lord, summoned 
 him to stand a trial ; and, on his non-appearance, passed 
 sentence, with the concurrence of the peers, declaring him 
 guilty of felony, and adjudging him to forfeit all the pro- 
 vinces which he held in vassalage of the French crown. 
 These, he entered with a numerous army ; and conquered 
 Anjou, Touraine, Maine, and Poictou ; and reunited to the 
 crown of France the whole province of Normandy, two- 
 hundred -and-ninety-four years after it had been ceded, by 
 Charles the Simple, to RoUo, the Dane, the ancestor of 
 William. 
 
 Despised by his army, attacked on all sides by his ene- 
 mies, expelled from every province in France, John retreat- 
 ed into England, with infamy and dishonour. 
 
 That he might cover the disgrace of his own conduct, he 
 exclaimed loudly against his barons ; who, he said, had de- 
 serted his standard in Normandy ; and, as a punishment for 
 this offence, he extorted from them a seventh part of all 
 their moveable estate. Soon after, he forced them to grant 
 him a tax for another expedition* But he did not attempt 
 to enter upon the service for which it was exacted. After 
 many similar preparations, which ended in the same man- 
 ner, he carried his hostile measures a step further; and ac- 
 tually ventured abroad with an army. Terrified, however, 
 by the approach of Philip, he made proposals for peace, 
 and fixed a place of interview with his enemy. But, in- 
 stead of keeping this engagement, he secretly withdrew his 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 69 
 
 forces, embarked at Rochelle, and returned to England ; 
 loaded with additional disgrace. 
 
 In an age when personal valour was regarded as the chief 
 accomplishment, such conduct must have been exposed to 
 extreme contempt. But the government exercised by the 
 Norman princes, had wound up the royal power to so high 
 a pitch, that even still further degradation of the regal dig- 
 nity seemed necessary, to impel the barons to insurrection. 
 
 A controversy relating to an ecclesiastical election, com- 
 pleted that odium, which, whilst it debased the sovereign, 
 contributed to enlarge the liberties of the subject. The 
 pope, without a previous writ from the king, had caused 
 Langton to be chosen archbishop of Canterbury ; but, aware 
 that this usurpation would be highly resented by the court 
 of England, he despatched to John four gold rings, accom- 
 panied by this flattering epistle. <'I beg, my son, that you 
 will consider seriously the form of these rings ; their num- 
 ber, their matter, and their colour. Their form, being 
 round, is typical of Eternity, which has neither beginning 
 nor end ; and you ought, thence, to learn the duty of as- 
 piring from earthly objects, to heavenly — from things tem- 
 poral, to things eternal. The number four, being a square, 
 denotes Steadiness of Mind ; not to be subverted by either 
 adversity or prosperity ; fixed, for ever, on the firm basis of 
 the four cardinal virtues. Gold, which is the matter, be- 
 ing the most precious of metals, signifies Wisdom ; which 
 is the most valuable of all accomplishments, and justly 
 preferred by Solomon, to riches, power, and every exterior 
 acquirement. The blue colour of the sapphire represents 
 Faith : the verdure of the emerald, Hope : the redness of 
 the ruby. Charity; and the splendour of the topaz, Good 
 Works." 
 
 This, however, was not sufficient to appease him. He 
 vented his rage against all those who had concurred in the 
 irregular instalment ; and the pope, on his part, prepared 
 to assert his claims by the application of his spiritual thun- 
 ders. The kingdom was, consequently, placed under an 
 Interdict; the execution of which was calculated to strike 
 the senses in the highest degree, and operate on the mind 
 ■with irresistible force. The nation was suddenly deprived 
 of ail exterior exercise of religion. The altars were despoil- 
 ed of their ornaments : the crosses, the relics, the images, 
 the statues of the saints, were laid on the ground ; and, as 
 if the air itself was profaned, and might pollute them by its 
 contact, the priests carefully covered them up, even from 
 F 2 
 
00 HISTORY Oi' ENGLAND. 
 
 their own approach and veneration. The use of bells en- 
 tirely ceased in all the churches: mass was celebrated with 
 closed doors ; and none but the priests were allowecLto he; 
 present at the ceremony. The laity partook of no religious 
 rite, except baptism to new-born infants, and the commu- 
 nion to the dying : the dead were not interred in conse- 
 crated ground; they were thrown into ditches, or buried in 
 the fields. Marriage was celebrated in the church-yards; 
 and, that every action in life might bear the marks of this 
 dreadful situation, the people were prohibited the use of 
 meat, as in lent ; were debarred from every pleasure, and 
 forbidden to salute each other, or even to shave their beards, 
 or give any decent attention to their persons or apparel. 
 Every circumstance carried the appearance of the deepest 
 distress, and produced an apprehension of immediate divine 
 indignation and vengeance. 
 
 Dreadful, however, as this sentence was, the king seems 
 to have been less alarmed by it than the pope expected. John 
 appeared determined to set him at defiance. The pope, 
 therefore, proceeded to issue against him the more dreadful 
 sentence of excommunication : he likewise absolved his sub- 
 jects from their oath of allegiance ; solemnly deposed him 
 from his throne ; and gave his dominions to the king of 
 
 1 "'ranee. 
 
 But John, was ut last induced, after a violent struggle, 
 to yield to the pope ; and even to submit to the mortifying 
 condition of acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman 
 see. He resigned his dominions to pope Innocent and his 
 successors ; and agreed to hold them by the annual pay- 
 ment of a thousand marks. He did homage to Pandolph, 
 the pope's legate, with all the submissive forms which the 
 feudal law required of vassals before their superior lord. 
 He came disarmed into the legate's presence, Avho was 
 .seated on a throne; threv/ himself on his knees before him; 
 lifted up his joined hands, and put them within those of 
 Pandolph ; swore fealty to the pope ; and paid a part of the 
 stipulated tribute. 
 
 Such, were the unhappy consequences of John's homage, 
 that the value of English benefices, at one time possessed 
 by Italian non-resident priests, exceeded the ordinary reve- 
 nue of the crown ; and the historians of that age tell us, 
 ^hat Rome sheared all Europe, but in England she stripped 
 off the skin. 
 
 In the mean time, John's natural inclination to tyranny 
 increased. He seemed, wantonly, to disgust all orders of 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 61 
 
 rhen ; especially his nobles ; from whom, alone, he could 
 reasonably expect assistance. He dishonoured their fami- 
 lies by licentious amours ; restrained them from hunting 
 feathered game ; ordered that all the hedges and fences, 
 near his forests, should be leveled, to give his deer access 
 into the fields for pasture; and continually loaded the na- 
 tion with arbitrary taxes. He once demanded a large sum 
 of money from a Jew of Bristol ; and, on his refusal, order- 
 ed one of his teeth to be drawn, every day, until he would 
 comply. The Jew allowed seven teeth to be taken, and 
 then paid the required amount. 
 
 Enough has been already detailed, to show the necessity 
 of reform. We shall now give a summary view of the glo- 
 rious effects which resulted from this tyranny, when the 
 crisis had arrived. 
 
 The barons, having chosen Robert Fitz-Walter for their 
 general, took the field, in defence of their honour and their 
 liberty. John, being soon left with a very slender retinue, 
 was unable to withstand this strenuous attack. A confer- 
 ence was appointed to be held at Runnemede, betv/een 
 Windsor and Staines ; a place which has ever since been 
 celebrated, on account of this great event. The king and 
 the barons encamped apart, as open enemies; and, 
 after a debate of a few days, John, with a facility 
 rather suspicious, signed the contract which was required. 
 This famous deed, commonly called MAGNA CHARTA, 
 or the Great Charter, either granted or secured very im- 
 portant liberties and privileges to every order of men in 
 the kingdom ; to the clergy, to the barons, and to the 
 people. 
 
 One clause in this venerable instrument deserves parti- 
 cular attention; as it formed the germeof the present Brit- 
 ish Parliament; or rather the re-establishment of the Saxon 
 Wittenagemot, and the great national council, such as it 
 was before the Conquest, and such as William had solemn- 
 ly sworn to maintain : « No scutage or aid shall be im- 
 posed, but by the great council of the nation; except in the 
 three general feudal cases— -the king's captivity, the knight- 
 ing of his eldest son, and the marriage of his eldest daugh- 
 ter : the prelates, earls, and great barons, shall be called to 
 this great council, each by a particular writ ; the lesser ba- 
 rons, by a general summons of the sheriff." 
 
 The liberties of Englishmen are not (as some arbitrary 
 writers would represent them) mere infringements on the 
 king's prerogative, extorted from their princes, by taking 
 
6*2 HISTORV OF ENGLAND. 
 
 advantage of their weakness ; but a restoration of their an 
 cient constitution, of which their ancestors had been de- 
 frauded, by the art and finesse of the Norman lawyers, rather 
 than by the force of the Norman arms. 
 
 John died in the castle of Newark-upon-Trent, in the 
 forty-ninth year of his age, and the eighteenth of his reign- 
 He left two legitimate sons ; Henry and Richard ; the for- 
 mer nine, the latter only seven years old. 
 
 It was in this reign, that the citizens of London procur- 
 ed a charter, which conferred on them the right of choos- 
 ing, annually, a mayor, out of their own body ; that office, 
 previously, having been held for life. They also obtained 
 the power to elect and remove their sheriffs at pleasure ; 
 and their common-council-men every year. London Bridge 
 was finished in this reign ; being erected on the site of a 
 previous structure which was of wood. 
 
 HENRY THE THIRD. 
 
 1216 — 1272. 
 
 The concession of the Great Charter, or rather its full 
 establishment, for there was a considerable interval between 
 the one and the other, introduced a degree of order and 
 justice into the administration. Yet this charter made no 
 provision for the creation of new courts, or magistrates, or 
 senates, nor for the abolition of the old. It made no inno- 
 vation in the public law of the kingdom. It only enforced 
 the operation of those laws which already existed. The 
 barbarous license of the king, and perhaps also of the no- 
 bles, was, thenceforth, more restrained : men acquired ad- 
 ditional security for their liberties ; and political authority 
 approached nearer to that end for which it was originally 
 instituted — the distribution of justice, and the equal pro- 
 tection of the citizens. 
 
 Were we, in delineating the events of this reign, to de- 
 vote attention in proportion to their number, we should be 
 exercising a talent destructive of the real utility of history, 
 Who could have the patience to write, or even to read, a 
 long detail of such frivolous occurrences, as those with 
 which it is filled ; or attend to the tedious narrative, which 
 would follow, through a period of fifty-six years, the capri- 
 ces of so weak a monarch as Henry ? 
 
 The earl of Pembroke was appointed protector of the 
 kingdom, during the minority of the young prince. This 
 nobleman, who had maintained his loyalty to John, through 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 63 
 
 the lowest fortune of that monarch, determined to support 
 the authority of the infant king ; and was not dismayed by 
 the number or violence of his enemies. As the nation was 
 still agitated by the effects of those struggles made in the 
 preceding reign, Pembroke wrote letters, in the king's name, 
 to the malcontent barons ; in which, he represented, that, 
 whatever animosity they might have entertained against 
 the late king, there had now succeeded to the throne a 
 young prince, the lineal heir of their ancient sovereigns : 
 that, as all past offences of the barons were now buried in 
 oblivion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com- 
 plaints against the deceased monarch ; who, if he had been 
 in any measure blameable in his conduct, left to his son 
 the salutary warning, to avoid the paths which had led to 
 extremities so fatal ; and, that having now obtained a char- 
 ter for their liberties, it was their interest to show, that the 
 acquisition v/asnot incompatible with their allegiance; and, 
 that the rights of king and people, so far from being hostile 
 and opposite, might mutually support and sustain each 
 other. 
 
 These considerations, enforced by the great weight of the 
 protector's character, had a powerful influence on the bar- 
 ons. The majority began secretly to negotiate with him : 
 many soon openly returned to their duty ; and, in a few 
 months, a general pacification was effected. But Pembroke 
 did not long survive the consummation of his labours. He 
 was succeeded by Peter de Roches, bishop of Winchester, 
 and Hubert de Burgh, high justiciary. The latter took 
 the most active part in the administration. Though, how- 
 ever, he was a statesman of considerable ability, and a man 
 of honour, yet he was not possessed of sufficient authority 
 to restrain the turbulence of the barons. They held, by 
 force, the royal castles, which had been committed to their 
 custody by the protector : they seized the royal demesnes ; 
 oppressed their vassals ; invited disorderly people to live 
 upon their lands, and gave them protection in all their rob- 
 beries and devastations. 
 
 ^ Notwithstanding these intestine commotions, and 
 
 ". "* the precarious authority of the crown, (Henry be- 
 ing now only in his sixteenth year,) the kingdom was oblig- 
 ed to carry on a war with France. But no military action 
 of any moment was performed on either side. 
 
 De Burgh, the most virtuous minister that Henry ever 
 possessed, having been removed from office, was succeeded 
 by his colleague,\he bishop of Winchester. Henry, though 
 
64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 incapable of pursuing the same violent measures, by which 
 his father had so disgusted the nation, had imbibed simi- 
 lar principles of tyranny ; and, prompted by the evil coun- 
 sel of his minister, drove the barons to form another com- 
 bination against the crown. In a very full parliament, 
 when he demanded a supply of money, he was openly re- 
 proached with the breach of his word, and the frequent vio- 
 lations of the great charter. He was asked, whether he 
 did not blush, when desiring aid from a people whom he 
 professedly hated and despised ; to whom, on all occasions, 
 he preferred foreigners ; and who groaned .under the op- 
 pressions which he either exercised or permitted. He was 
 told, that besides insulting the nobility, by forcing them to 
 contract unequal and mean marriages with strangers, no 
 rank of men was so low as to escape vexations, from him- 
 self or his ministers : that even the meat consumed in his 
 household ; the clothes which he and his servants wore — 
 still more, the wine, which they used ; were all taken, by 
 force, from the lawful owners : that foreign merchants shun- 
 ned the English harbours, as if they were possessed by pi- 
 rates ; and commerce, with every nation, was thus cut off 
 by violence : and that, even the poor fishermen could not 
 escape the oppression of himself and his courtiers. 
 
 On one occasion, the ecclesiastical order sent a deputa- 
 tion of four prelates — the primate, the bishops of Winches- 
 ter, Salisbury, and Carlisle, to remonstrate with him on his 
 frequent violations of their privileges, the oppressions with 
 which he had loaded them and all his subjects, and tlie un- 
 cano7iical and forced elections %vhich luere 7nade to vacant 
 dignities in the church. "It is true," replied the king, "I 
 have been rather faulty, in this particular. I obtruded you, 
 my lord of Canterbury, upon your see : I was obliged to em- 
 ploy both intreaties, and menaces, my lord of Winchester, 
 to have you elected: my proceedings, I confess, were very 
 irregular, my lords of Salisbury and Carlisle, when I raised 
 you, from the lowest stations, to your present dignities. I 
 am, therefore, determined, henceforth, to correct these 
 abuses ; and it will also become you, in order to make a 
 thorough reformation, to resign your present benefices, ;md 
 try to enter again in a more regular and canonical manner." 
 The bishops, surprised by these unexpected sarcasms, re- 
 plied, that the question was not how to correct errors which 
 ■were past, but how to avoid them for the future. 
 ,^ -g The imprudent and illegal measures of the gov- 
 
 ernment induced Simon de Mountfort, carl of Eei- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 65 
 
 cester, a brother-in-law of the king, to attempt a revolution. 
 Assisted by many powerful barons, he waged war against the 
 king, and compelled him to agree to an extensive reform ; 
 particularly as regarded a more equal and popular repre- 
 sentation in parliament. This reign, therefore, may be con- 
 sidered ^as the epoch of the House of Commons. ' Two 
 knights were now elected, to sit in the legislature, from 
 each county ; and deputies were admitted also from the 
 boroughs. The parliaments, before, seem to have consisted 
 exclusively of the nobles. 
 
 Overcome by the cares of government and the infirmi- 
 ties of age, the king died at St. Edmondsbury, when he had 
 reached the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-sixth 
 of his reign ; leaving two sons — Edward, his successor, and 
 Edmund, earl of Lancaster; also two daughters — Marga- 
 ret, queen of Scotland, and Beatrix, dutchess of Brittany. 
 
 In this reign, the manufacturing of linen was introduced 
 into England, although there was yet in the kingdom no 
 cultivation of flax ; and, coals, the first that were raised in 
 the country, were dug from the mines at New Castle. The 
 state of our language, about this time, may be discerned by 
 the following extract from an historical poem, written by 
 Robert of Gloucester.* 
 
 The greatest luminary of science in the whole world, 
 during this century, was Roger Bacon ; a Franciscan friar, 
 born near Ilchester, in 1214. He began his studies at Ox- 
 ford ; from which seminary, he went to Paris : and, after a 
 long residence there, he returned to England, and studied 
 experimental philosophy with unremitting ardour. This 
 extraordinary man was familiar with the theory and prac- 
 tice of perspective ; understood the use of concave and 
 convex glasses ; knew the great error in the kalendar, and 
 proposed the remedy. He was also an adept in chemistry^ 
 and he is mentioned as the inventor of gunpowder. Through 
 the envy and malice of his illiterate fraternity, who spread 
 the puerile report of his dealing with an evil spirit, he was 
 imprisoned in his cell for ten years, and the reading of his 
 works was prohibited. These are, " Ejiistola fratris Ro- 
 
 * Of }>e batayles of Denemarch, ]7at hii dude in }?ys londc 
 j?at worst were of alle o]?ere, we motte abbe an honde. 
 Worst hii were vor o]>ere adde somwanne ydo, 
 As Ropieyns 8c Saxons, Sc well wuste |:»at lond }?erto. 
 Ac hii ne kept yt holde nojt, bote robby, and ssende, 
 And destrue, k berne, & sle, & ne cou}>e abbe non cnde. 
 
66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 geri Baconis de secretis ofieribus ai-tis et nature^ et de nul^ 
 litate magia ;" printed in Paris in 1542 ;— " Ojius majus ;'^ 
 — <' Thesaurus chemicus ;" all in Latin ; the titles of which 
 may be translated thus : The Letter of brother Roger Ba- 
 con, on the secret operations of art and nature, and on the 
 nonexistence of magic — The Greater Work — The Chemi- 
 cal Treasury — He died, in the succeeding reign, in the 
 eightieth year of his age. 
 
 The other distinguished scholars of this time, were Gi- 
 raldus Cambrensis, Matthew Paris, and Bracton. The lat- 
 ter was chief justice, and wrote, in the Latin language, as 
 it was then usual, a book on the laws and customs of Eng- 
 land ; which is one of the most ancient as well as most 
 methodical w^orks of the kind produced in Britain. 
 
 EDWARD THE FIRST. 
 
 1272—1307. 
 
 In a battle at Evesham, and many other engagements in 
 his father's reign, as well as in a crusade against the Sara- 
 cens, Edward had given most striking indications of those 
 splendid talents for command, by which, after he ascended 
 the throne, he was so eminently distinguished. He so ter- 
 rified the Saracens, that they employed a ruffian to assas- 
 sinate him. Having procured admittance to the prince, 
 under pretence of negotiating, he took an opportunity, 
 when only Edward and himself were in the room, to aim a 
 poisoned dagger at his breast. Edward found means to 
 ward off the stroke; though, in so doing, he was wounded 
 in the arm ; and, perceiving the wa'etch about to repeat the 
 blow, he struck him so forcibly with his foot, that he threw 
 him upon the ground ; and then, wresting the dagger from 
 his hand, he plunged it into the barbarian's heart. Ed- 
 ward's wound seemed, at first, very dangerous : but it was 
 at last cured, according to many writers, by the devoted 
 affection of his consort, Eleanor of Castile ; who, in order 
 to save her husband's life, at the evident hazard of her own, 
 sucked out the poison with her mouth. 
 
 Edward had reached Sicily, in his return from the Holy 
 Land, when he received information of his father's death ; 
 upon which occasion, he discovered a deep concern. At 
 the same time, he was told of the death of an infant son, 
 John; whom Eleanor had borne him in Palestine. As he 
 appeared much less affected with this misfortune, the king 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 67 
 
 <5i Sicily expressed his surprise ; to whom, Edward repliedj 
 that the death of a child was a loss which he might hope 
 to repair— the death of a parent was a loss irreparable. , In 
 his passage through Chalons, in Burgundy, he was chal« 
 lenged, by the prince of that country, to a tournament ; and, 
 as Edward excelled in that martial and dangerous exercise, 
 the true image of war, he did not decline the opportunity 
 of acquiring honour and renown, in presence of so many 
 nobles as were then collected. But the resemblance of 
 war was, here, unfortunately, turned into reality. Edward 
 and his retinue were so successful in the jousts, that the 
 French knights, provoked at their superiority, made a seri- 
 ous attack, which was repulsed ; and much blood was idly 
 shed in the quarrel. 
 
 It is said, that, in order to heighten the grandeur of his 
 coronation, five-hundred horses were turned loose, with 
 liberty for every one to keep as many as he could catch. 
 
 Edward lost no time in commencing the removal of those 
 disorders, which the civil commotions, and the loose ad- 
 ministration of his father, had introduced into every part of 
 the government. But, notwithstanding the judicious insti= 
 tutions, and public spirited plans, of this prince, we cannot 
 acquit him of those numerous charges, which the history 
 of his own time displays, respecting the severity of his dis- 
 position, and the unrestrained extortion which he frequent- 
 ly exercised, when money was required. He w^as an up- 
 right arbiter between one subject and another; but, in his 
 own cause, a rapacious tyrant. The Jews, who, since their 
 first establishment in England, v/ere invariably persecuted 
 and plundered, felt, in this reign, the overwhelming effects 
 of his oppression. Had these unfortunate people been de-= 
 void of riches, they would also have been free from the im- 
 putation of crime. 
 ,^ The king now undertook an enterprise, the suc- 
 
 cess of which might have been as glorious to him- 
 self, as it was advantageous to his people. This was, the 
 conquest of Wales. Lewellyn, prince of that country, had 
 been deeply engaged with the Mountfort party ; and had 
 employed every expedient to depress the royal cause, and 
 promote the encroachments of the barons. In the general 
 accommodation, though Lewellyn had obtained a pardon, 
 yet he seized every opportunity of sowing dissentions 
 amongst the English, and lessening the authority of gov- 
 ernment. Edward was not displeased with this occasion 
 for exercising his favourite pursuit of war, and reducing, 
 G 
 
68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 entirely, the principality of Wales. The Welsh prince had 
 no resource but in retiring to his mountains, which were 
 inaccessible to an invading army; and had, hitherto, through 
 so many ages, defended his predecessors against all the 
 attempts of the Saxons and the Normans. He took re- 
 fuge in the hills of Snowdon ; and resolved to hold out 
 to the last extremity. But Edward, equally vigorous and 
 cautious, entering by the north, pierced into the heart of 
 the country ; and, having carefully explored every road be- 
 fore him, and secured every pass behind, he approached 
 the Welsh army in its last retreat. He here avoided put- 
 ting to trial the valour of a nation, proud of its ancient in- 
 dependence, and inflamed with animosity against its here- 
 ditary enemies ; but trusted to the slow, though sure effects, 
 of famine. Destitute of magazines, and cooped up in a nar- 
 row corner, the Welsh army and their cattle suffered equal 
 deprivation ; and Lewellyn, without being able to strike a 
 single blow, submitted to the discretion of the victor. He 
 bound himself to pay to Edward fifty -thou sand pounds, as 
 reparation for damages, to do homage to the crown of Eng- 
 land, and relinquish the country between Cheshire and the 
 river Conway. 
 
 But the English, insolent from the recollection of their 
 easy victory, oppressed the inhabitants of the ceded dis- 
 tricts ; and, by many other injuries, raised the indignation 
 of the Welsh ; so that they determined, again to encounter 
 a force, already found to be so much superior, rather than 
 any longer submit to the severity of oppression. They 
 flew to arms. This was what Edward had desired. With 
 a powerful army, he adva.nced with rapidity into Wales — 
 he fought and was victorious. All the Welsh nobility sub- 
 mitted to the conqueror : the laws of England were estab- 
 lished in the principality ; an important object, which it 
 had required eight-hundred years fully to eftectuate. 
 
 It is with reluctance that we sully our pages with the 
 deeds of cruelty which he then committed. Sensible that 
 nothing kept alive the ideas of military valour and of an- 
 cient glory, so much as the traditional poetry of the people, 
 which, assisted by the power of music, and the jollity of 
 festivals, made a deep impression on the minds of the youth, 
 he gathered together all the Welsh bards, and, with a bar- 
 barous policy, ordered them to be put to death. 
 
 We now come to give some account of the affairs of 
 Scotland, which produced the most important occurrences 
 of this reign. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 69 
 
 The intercourse of that kingdom with England, either in 
 peace or war, hitherto produced so few events of moment, 
 that we have paid them little attention. The government 
 of Scotland was continually exposed to those factions and 
 convulsions, which are incident to all barbarous countries, 
 and to many that are civilized; but, though the succession 
 of their kings had been disordered by irregularities and. 
 usurpations, the true heir of the royal family, had, ultimate- 
 ly, prevailed; and Alexander the third, who had 
 ' married Edward's sister, probably inherited, after 
 a period of eight-hundred years, and through a succession 
 of males? that sceptre which was held by the first k5ng, at 
 the time of the original establishment of the Scottish mon- 
 archy. Alexander died, without leaving any male issue, 
 or any descendants, except Margaret, his grand-daughter. 
 This princess, then a minor, seemed, under the protection 
 of Edward, her grand-uncle, to be firmly seated on the 
 throne of Scotland. The English monarch was, however, 
 incited to form ambitious projects on this event; and, hav- 
 ing, lately, by force of arms, brought Wales under subjection, 
 attempted, by the marriage of the queen with his eldest 
 son, Edward, to unite the whole island under one monarchy, 
 and, thereby, give it security against invasion. The sud- 
 den death of the young princess defeated the king's inten- 
 tions. Twelve claimants now appeared ; who, by various 
 titles, demanded their right of succession to the Scottish 
 crown ; but all these were very soon reduced to three ; by 
 the less remote proofs offered, individually, by John Hast- 
 ings, John Baliol, and Robert Bruce. Scotland was threat- 
 ened with a civil war. Its parliament, therefore, referred 
 the dispute to Edward ; not reflecting on his ambitious 
 character, and the almost certain ruin which is likely to at- 
 tend a small sta.te, divided by factions, when it thus sub- 
 mits to the will of a neighbour, so powerful and encroach- 
 ing. The temptation was too strong for the English mon- 
 arch to resist. He designed, if not to create, at least to 
 revive, a claim, of feudal superiority over Scotland. He 
 gave his av/ard in favour of Baliol ; who was, accordingly, 
 put in possession of the kingdom. The decision, itself, 
 was just ; and, had Edward done no more, he would have 
 acted an honourable part. But John did not receive an in- 
 dependent crown. It was loaded with the disgrace of vas- 
 salage. One insult was followed by another : a war ensued : 
 Edward marched with a powerful army into Scotland; and, 
 after a great battl^ fought near Dunbar, reduced the whole 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 country to subjection. The feeble and timid Baliol hast- 
 ened to make submission to the British king ; and surren- 
 dered into his hands a crown, which he was more suited to 
 dishonour than adorn. 
 
 But the high spirited chiefs of Scotland, could 
 not long endure the indignities of those appointed 
 to govern them. Almost every nation has, at some period, 
 produced a hero. William Wallace was the agent, who, 
 by his patriotism, was incited to undertake, and, by his 
 courage and abilities, enabled to bring about, the deliver- 
 ance of his country. Though, however, the intrepid Wal- 
 lace lived not to see the consummation of his hopes, (hav- 
 ing been betrayed into Edward's hands, and barbarously 
 hanged in London) yet, the flame which he had imparted 
 to his brave associates, survived the throbbings of the breast 
 which gave it birth. After an arduous struggle for many 
 years, they broke the British bonds; and placed the crown, 
 once more, upon the head of a native prince, — Robert 
 Bruce; a man of conspicuous valour, grandson of that Ro- 
 bert who had been a competitor for the crown. 
 
 „ „ Edward, in his march to Scotland with a large 
 
 army, died suddenly at Carlisle, in the north of 
 England ; in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirty- 
 fifth of his reign ; having enjoined, with his last breath, his 
 son and successor never to desist until he had finally sub- 
 dued that kingdom. 
 
 The great talents of this prince as a legislator, have 
 gained him the appellation of the English Justinian : to the 
 form into which he modeled the common-law, the wisdom 
 of succeeding ages has not been able to add any consider- 
 able improvement. The house of commons, during this 
 reign, made a still nearer approach to its present dignity ; 
 but, as yet, the members of that body acted merely as As- 
 sessors of the public taxes ; they were allowed no interfer- 
 ence, whatever, in the enactment of laws. The delegates 
 considered their election as a burthen, and, like the mem- 
 bers of the American Congress, at the present day, were 
 remunerated for their services. 
 
 EDWARD THE SECOND. 
 
 1307—1327. 
 
 This prince, the only surviving son of the late king, was 
 HQW in his twenty-third year. He was of a gentle dispo- 
 
HISTORY OF EiVGLAND. 71 
 
 siiion ; and, as he had never discovered a propensity to any- 
 dangerous vice, it was natural to prognosticate tranquillity 
 and happiness from his government. But he soon showed 
 himself to be totally unqualified for the difficult task of 
 managing a turbulent people. Always attached to some 
 unworthy favourite,*he forfeited the esteem of his subjects. 
 Piers Gavaston, a native of Gascony, was the first that he 
 selected as a companion in his frivolous pursuits. But 
 that unfortunate associate, in proportion as he was caress- 
 ed by the prince, became obnoxious to the barons; and fell 
 a victim to their fury. His next favourite, was Hugh le 
 Despenser, commonly called Spenser, a young Englishman 
 of a noble family ; who, with his father, a man of immense 
 estates, exercised unbounded sway over the royal mind. 
 
 By the inconsiderate surrender of his authority, and the 
 unremitting attention paid by Edward to his favourite, he 
 lost the affections of Isabella, his queen. She retired to 
 the court of her brother, the king of France. There, she 
 met a young Welsh nobleman, named Roger Mortimer ; 
 who, also, being inimical to the administration of the Spen- 
 sers, was easily admitted to her company. The graces of 
 his person and address gained quickly on her affections : 
 he became her confidant and counsellor in all her measures; 
 and, at last, engaged her to sacrifice every principle of con- 
 jugal fidelity and honour. Hating, now, the man whom 
 she had injured, and whom she had never highly valued, 
 she entered warmly into all Mortimer's conspiracies ; and, 
 having artfully got into her hands the young prince, the 
 heir of the monarchy, who was then at Paris, she resolved 
 on the utter ruin of the king and his obnoxious companion. 
 She accordingly came over into England ; where, being 
 joined by many of the pov>^erful nobility, the Spensers soon 
 fell a sacrifice to the general attack. The unfortunate 
 monarch, after in vain attempting to escape, fell into the 
 hands of his enemies; and the queen summoned a parlia- 
 ment, which voted his dethronement. Edward did not 
 long survive this humiliation : he was put to death, in the 
 most barbarous manner, by the infamous Mortimer and his 
 associates, in the forty-third year of his age, and the twen- 
 tietii of his reign. 
 
 In the sixth year of this reign, was fought, about two 
 miles from Stirling, in Scotland, the celebrated battle of 
 Bannockburn. Edward himself commanded the English 
 forces, and Robert Bruce, the Scottish king, those of his 
 own country. This engagement ended in the signal over- 
 G 2 
 
72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 throw of the British army ; and firmly established the vic- 
 torious Robert on the throne of his ancestors. 
 
 EDWARD THE THIRD, 
 
 1327 — 1377. 
 
 A council of regency was now chosen by parliament, to 
 superintend the administration of the laws ; and the earl of 
 Lancaster, a nobleman of the blood royal, was appointed 
 i^uardian and protector of young Edward, eldest son of the 
 late monarch. 
 
 Although it might reasonably be expected, that, as the 
 weakness of his father had caused an alarming licentious- 
 ness amongst the barons, the first disturbance of the pub- 
 lic tranquillity would proceed from them ; yet, it was from 
 external enemies, that the country felt its earliest attack. 
 The king of Scotland, though advanced in years, still re- 
 tained that martial spirit which had raised his nation from 
 the lowest ebb of fortune, and deemed the present opportunity 
 favourable for invading England. He first made an attack 
 on the castle of Norham ; in which, he was disappointed. 
 He then mustered, on the frontiers, an army of twenty-five- 
 thousand men ; and, having selected the earl of Murray 
 and Lord Douglas, as generals, he threatened an incursion 
 into the northern counties. The English regency, after 
 ineifectually using every expedient to restore peace with 
 Scotland, made vigorous preparations for war; and, besides 
 a native army of sixty-thousand men, they procured a large 
 body of foreign cavalry, much superior in discipline to the 
 forces of their own country. Young Edward, burning with 
 a passion for military fame, appeared at their head; though 
 nov/ only in his fifteenth year; and marched in quest of the 
 enemy, who had already passed the frontiers, laying waste 
 every thing around them. Murray and Douglas were the 
 two most celebrated warriors that arose in the long hostili- 
 ties between the Scots and English ; and their forces, train- 
 ed in the same school, were perfectly qualified for this de- 
 sultory and destructive warfare. Except a body of four- 
 thousand cavalry, well appointed, and fit to make a steady 
 impression in a regular battle, their army consisted of light- 
 armed troops, mounted on small horses, which could find 
 subsistence any where, and carry them, with rapidity, 
 whether they meant to commit depredations on the peace- 
 •able inhabitants, to attack an armed enemv, or retreat info 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. rr 
 
 their own country. The whole equipage of one of these 
 soldiers, consisted in a bag of oatmeal, which he carried 
 behind him; and a light plate of iron, on which, in the 
 open fields, he quickly baked his meal into a cake. But 
 the principal resource was the cattle which he seized ; the 
 cookery of which was as expeditious as any of his other 
 operations. After skinning the animal, he placed the hide, 
 loose, and hanging in the form of a bag, upon some stakes : 
 then poured water into it, kindled a fire below, and thus 
 made it serve as a cauldron, for boiling his meat. 
 
 After Edward had long, in vain, followed the enemy, 
 who, being little encumbered, were so rapid in their 
 marches, he found, at last, that they had fixed their camp 
 on the southern bank of the Were, as if they intended to 
 await a battle; but their prudent leaders had chosen their 
 ground with so much judgment, that the English saw it 
 ■was impracticable to cross the river in their face, for the 
 purpose of attacking them in their present situation. Im- 
 patient for revenge and glory, Edward sent them a defi- 
 ance ; and challenged them to meet him in an equal field, 
 and try the fortune of their arms. The bold spirit of Doug- 
 las could not withstand this bravado, and he advised the 
 acceptance of the challenge : but he was over-ruled by 
 Murray; wdio replied to Edward, that he never took the 
 counsel of an enemy. 
 
 Whilst the armies lay in this position, an incident oc- 
 curred, which had nearly proved fatal to the English, 
 Douglas, having got the watch-word, entered their camp 
 secretly, in the night time, with a body of two-hundred 
 chosen warriors; and advanced to the royal tent, with a 
 design of killing the prince, or carrying him off through 
 the midst of his army. But, in that critical moment, some 
 of Edward's attendants, awaking, made resistance : his 
 chaplain and chamberlain sacrificed their lives for his safe- 
 ty; the king himself, after making a valiant defence, escap- 
 ed in the dark; and Douglas, after losing the greater part 
 of his followers, was glad, with the remainder, to make a 
 hasty retreat. Soon afterwards, the enemy silently de- 
 camped, in the dead of night, and arrived, without further 
 loss, in their own country ; leaving the English monarch 
 highly incensed at the disappointment. 
 
 The infamous Mortimer, having added, by repeat- 
 
 "^"^ ' ed crimes, to the heavy weight of guilt by which he 
 had rendered himself unworthy of existence, was, at length, 
 condemned by a vote of parliament, and hung, on a gibbet;? 
 
74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 in the neighbourhood of London. Justice was also execut- 
 ed on some of the inferior criminals ; particularly Simon 
 de Bereford; and the queen was confined to her house at 
 Risings. 
 
 , The brave and valiant Bruce, who had recovered 
 
 * by arms the independence of his country, having 
 now yielded to the hand of Death, (that conqueror, whose 
 unerring dart strikes, equally, the monarch and the sub- 
 ject,) the earl of Murray was appointed guardian to his son, 
 David, then a minor. Edward, the son of that John Baliol, 
 who had been cix)wned king of Scotland, lived at this time 
 in Normandy, on a patrimonial estate; without any 
 thoughts of reviving the claims of his family to the crown 
 of Scotland. But, a dispute having arisen respecting the in- 
 terpretation of a treaty, made between England and Scot- 
 land, by which all claim of superiority over the latter king- 
 dom had been renounced, Baliol was now induced, by the 
 English, to renew his pretensions to the Scottish throne. 
 This produced a contest; in which Edward was busily en- 
 gaged. Baliol was put in possession of the crown, but was 
 soon driven from the kingdom; and, after a series of milita- 
 ry events, unimportant at the present day, affairs stood 
 nearly in the same state as before the v/ar. 
 
 We come now to a transaction, on which depended the 
 most memorable events, not only of this long and active 
 reign, but of the whole English or French history, during 
 more than a century. Edward, when a youth of but fifteen 
 years of age, had fondly cherished the idea that he was en- 
 titled, in right of his mother, to succeed to the crown of 
 France, upon the death of Charles the Fair. There cannot 
 be conceived a claim weaker, or worse grounded. The 
 principle of excluding females, had been long established 
 in that country, and had acquired equal authority with the 
 most positive law. It was supported by ancient prece- 
 dents : it was confirmed by recent instances, deliberately and 
 solemnly decided ; and if Edward was inclined to question 
 its validity, he thereby cut off his own pretensions ; as each 
 of the last three kings left daughters, who were still alive, 
 and stood before him in the order of succession. He was, 
 therefore, reduced to assert, that, although his mother, Isa- 
 bella, was, on account of her sex, incapable of succeeding, 
 he himself, who inherited through her, was not liable to 
 any objection, and might claim by the right of propinquity. 
 Though, however, the youthful and ambitious mind of Ed- 
 ward had rashly entertained this idea, he did not immedi- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 75 
 
 ately insist on his pretensions; as Philip, the monarch, 
 then on the throne of France, was a prince of mature years, 
 and of an established character, both for prudence and val- 
 our. It is, therefore, highly probable, that he would have 
 totally relinquished his pretensions, but for some incidents, 
 which, subsequently, excited a high degree of animosity 
 between the two monarchs. 
 
 „„w Edward, now prepared for a powerful invasion of 
 * the French territories. However, before he entered 
 on this great enterprise, he affected to consult his parlia- 
 ment, and obtained an apparent approbation. He procured 
 from them a grant of twenty-thousand sacks of wool, (the 
 principal article of export in those days,) which was a good 
 instrument to employ with the Flemings, and the price of 
 it with his German allies; as he had previously made ar- 
 rangements for a supply of troops, with many eminent 
 leaders amongst these people. But, after entering the 
 French territory, and assuming the title of King of France, 
 he was intimidated by the powerful force which Philip 
 brought against his hireling troops, and, at last, returned 
 into Flanders ; where he dispersed his army. 
 , ^^ But Edward was not discouraged by the first dif- 
 
 ' ficulty of an undertaking. He passed over into 
 England, procured a reinforcement, and fitted out a fleet; 
 "with which he again set sail for the invasion of France, 
 Philip, having been apprized of the preparations making 
 both in England and the Low Countries, collected a fleet 
 of four-hundred vessels, having on board forty-thousand 
 men. These, he stationed oft^Sluys; with a view of inter- 
 cepting his antagonist. The navy of Edward was much 
 inferior in number ; consisting only of two-hundred-and- 
 forty sail. A fierce and sanguinary engagement ensued^ 
 The English archers, then highly celebrated, galled the 
 French on their approach ; and, when the vessels grappled, 
 and the contest was changed to close fighting, the exam-- 
 pie of the king and his gallant nobles so highly animated 
 the soldiery and seamen, that they maintained, every 
 where, a superiority. Thirty-thousand of the enemy were 
 killed, and two-hundred-and-thirty of their vessels taken ; 
 although the loss on the side of the English was inconsid- 
 erable. It is said, that none of Philip's courtiers dared to 
 inform him of this disaster, until his fool or jester had given 
 him a hint, by which he was led to discover his misfor- 
 tune. 
 
 The German allies of Edward, seeing now a strong pro^ 
 
76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 bability of being paid for their services, assembled their 
 forces, and expeditiously joined his army. He marched to 
 the frontiers of France, at the head of above one-hundred- 
 thousand men ; a more numerous body than any that had 
 previously, or that has since, been commanded by a king 
 of England. But he was completely frustrated in his at- 
 tempts; and, after making a truce with the enemy, again 
 returned into England. 
 
 ^ The truce having expired, Edward again invaded 
 
 ' France. His army, w^hich, during the ensuing 
 campaign, was crowned with the most splendid success, 
 numbered thirty-thousand ; and consisted of four-thousand 
 men at arms, ten-thousand archers, ten-thousand Welsh 
 infantry, and six-thousand Irish. The Welsh and Irish were 
 light, disorderly troops; fitter for doing execution in a pur- 
 suit, or ravaging a country, than for any regular action. 
 The king created the earl of Arundel, constable of his 
 army; the earls of Warwick and Harcourt, marshals: and, 
 immediately upon his landing, conferred the honour of 
 knighthood on several of the young nobility, and on his 
 eldest son, the prince of Wales; who, from the colour of 
 his armour, received the name of the Black Prince. He 
 then spread his army over the country ; and, though Philip 
 used every precaution that prudence could suggest, or 
 abilities could execute, Edward penetrated the kingdom 
 with rapidity, and some of his light troops carried their 
 ravages to the very gates of Paris. 
 
 But being closely pressed by the French monarch, he 
 was, at length, obliged to act on the defensive. Besides 
 the numerous parties of the enemy, who, under the most 
 experienced commanders, assailed him in front and in 
 rear, on his right and on his left, Philip himself advanced, 
 at the head of a hundred-thousand men. 
 
 As his last resource, he took an advantageous post near 
 the village of Crecy. He disposed his army in excellent 
 order; determined to await, in tranquillity, the arrival of the 
 enemy; for, he expected that their eagerness to engage, 
 after all their past disappointments, would hurry them on 
 to some rash or ill-concerted action. He drew up his 
 forces on a gentle ascent ; and divided them into three lines. 
 The first line was commanded by the prince of Wales; 
 and, under him, by the earls of Warwick, Oxford, and Har- 
 court, by the lords Chandos, Holland, and other noblemen. 
 The earls of Arundel and Northampton, with the lords 
 Willoughby, Basset, Roos, and sir Lewis Tufton, were at 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 77 
 
 the head of the second. The kmg took on himself the com- 
 mand of the thh'd line, which he intended as a reserve. 
 He had the precaution to throw up trenches on his flanks; 
 and placed all his baggage behind him, in a wood ; which 
 also he secured by an entrenchment. 
 
 That he might infuse confidence and spirit throughout 
 his army, Edward rode along the ranks, with an air of 
 cheerfulness and alacrity; and then addressing them : <' I 
 demand, only," said he, *< that you will imitate my own ex- 
 ample, and that of my son, the prince of Wales; and, as 
 the honour, the lives, the liberties, of all, are now exposed 
 to the same danger, I am confident that you will make one 
 common eftbrt to extricate yourselves from your present 
 difficulties, and, that your united courage, will give you 
 the victory over all your enemies." 
 
 The French army, very imperfectly formed into three 
 lines, already fatigued and in disorder, now arrive in pre- 
 sence of their enemy. The first line, consisting of fifteen- 
 thousand Genoese cross-bow-men, was commanded by 
 Doria and Grimaldi. The second was led by the count 
 D'Alen^on, Philip's brother. The king himself v/as at the 
 head of the third. There were in the field, on the side of 
 the French monarch, no less than three crowned heads; 
 the king of Bohemia, the king of the Romans, and the king 
 of Majorca; with all the nobility, and the great vassals of 
 the crown. His army amounted to one-hundrcd-and-twen- 
 ty-thousand : four times the number of his adversary's. — 
 The Genoese begin the attack. The English keep their 
 ranks firm and immoveable, and pour forth a rapid stream 
 of well directed arrows. The Genoese, in confusion, fall 
 back upon the line of D'Alen9on; who, enraged at their 
 cowardice, orders his troops to put them to the sword.— 
 The artillery of the English now fire amongst the crowd : 
 the archers ply, incessantly, their well bent bows: all, 
 amongst the enemy, is hurry and confusion, terror and dis- 
 may. The young prince of Wales seizes the advantage, 
 and leads on his line to the charge. — Now, the French cav- 
 alry, recovered from the disorder into which they had been 
 thrown by the runaways, advance upon their assailants, 
 and, by their superior numbers, begin to hem them round. 
 — The battle becomes for some time hot and dangerous; 
 and the earl of Warwick, apprehensive of the event, des- 
 patches a messenger to the king, entreating him to send 
 succours for the relief of the prince. 
 
 Edward had chosen his station on the top of a hill ; from 
 
78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 "which, he surveyed, in tranquillity, the scene of action. 
 When the messenger accosted him, his first question was, 
 whether the prince was slain or wounded — On receiving an 
 answer in the negative, " Return," said he, '' to my son, 
 and tell him I reserve the glory of this day for him : he will 
 be able, without my. assistance, to repel the enemy." 
 
 The prince and his attendants are now inspired with new 
 courage. They make an attack, with redoubled vigour, 
 upon the French : D'Alen9on falls : the whole line of cav- 
 alry is thrown into disorder : the riders are killed or dis- 
 mounted — The king of France comes up to their relief — 
 but the confusion is past remedy — the whole French army 
 take to flight, and are followed, and put to the sword with- 
 out mercy, until the pursuit is ended by the darkness of 
 the night. 
 
 There fell, on the side of France, twelve-hundred knights, 
 fourteen-hundred gentlemen, and above thirty-thousand of 
 inferior rank. Many of the principal nobility, and the kings 
 of Majorca and Bohemia, were left dead upon the field. 
 The fate of the latter was remarkable. He was blind from 
 age; but, being resolved to hazard his person for an exam- 
 ple, he ordered that the reins of his bridle should be tied, 
 on the outside, to the horses of two gentlemen of his train; 
 from which arrangement, his dead body, and the bodies of 
 his attendants, were afterwards found together, with their 
 horses standing by them. His crest was three ostrich 
 feathers ; and his motto these German words : Ich dien. 
 [1 serve.] The prince of Wales adopted them, as a me- 
 morial of his great victory ; and both crest and motto are, 
 at the present day, used by the king of Great Britain's eld- 
 est son. The loss of the English in this engagement was 
 remarkably small — only three knights, one esquire, and 
 very few of inferior rank. 
 
 Edward, having taken the town of Calais, after one of 
 the most celebrated sieges in the annals of the world, and 
 having concluded a truce with France, returned into Eng- 
 land.* 
 ^ When the truce expired, the war with France 
 
 was renewed ; and the prince of Wales was intrust- 
 ed with the chief command. He invaded France, and sig- 
 
 * The battle of Crecy was the first affair of importance in which 
 Artillery was used. Thoug-h the French also were in possession of 
 the invention, they had not any cannon ut Crecy: probably in their 
 hurry they had left them behind. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 79 
 
 naiized himself by gaming the celebrated victory of Poic- 
 tiers. He had but twelve-thousand men; the enemy sixty- 
 thousand : yet the latter v^^cre completely routed ; leaving 
 their monarch, John, a captive with the prince. The 
 French king was treated by young Edward with the greatest 
 humanity and respect ; but was carried as a prisoner to 
 London. Here, he met a companion in his misfortunes. 
 David Bruce, the Scottish king, had been eleven years a 
 prisoner in the hands of Edward. After remaining three 
 years, it was agreed, that John should obtain his liberty, 
 by paying three-millions of gold crowns : a mutual adjust- 
 ment of provinces was made; and Edward relinquished his 
 claim to the throne of France. 
 . ^^g The health of the Black Prince had long been 
 
 declining ; and, after a lingering illness, he died in 
 the forty-sixth year of his age ; illustrious by every virtue, 
 and, from his earliest youth, until the hour in which he ex- 
 pired, unstained by any blemish. 
 
 The king survived only a few months this melancholy 
 incident. He died in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and the 
 fifty-first of his reign. 
 
 The order of the Garter was instituted by this prince ; 
 and it was he who built the magnificent castle of Windsor, 
 aided by the architectural knowledge of the learned Wil- 
 liam of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester. A parochial 
 assessment for the poor now began. The woolen manufac- 
 ture was promoted by the introduction of foreign weavers 
 and cloth-dressers ; an act of parliament was passed, which 
 prohibited the wearing of any cloth except of British manu- 
 facture ; and that badge of conquest, the use of the French 
 language,in pleadings and public documents, was at this 
 time abolished in England. 
 
 Having employed his arms successfully in subduing the 
 crown of France, Edward thought it unbecoming the digni- 
 ty of the victors to use any longer the language of the van- 
 quished : it was therefore enacted, that all trials should 
 proceed in the English tongue ; and be entered and enrolled 
 in Latin. 
 
 This reign is esteemed the fountain of English poetry. 
 Chaucer, who flourished in the time of Edward, was not 
 only the first poet, but among the best poetical writers, that 
 England has ever shown. His poems, in general, display 
 every kind of excellence, except melody and regularity of 
 measure ; defects which are to be attributed chiefly to the 
 rude state of the English language, at the time in which he 
 H 
 
80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 wrote. The writings of sir John Mandeville, a scientific 
 traveller, furnish us with its form in the year 1356, and 
 show the gradual approximation to the present.* 
 
 RICHARD THE SECOND. 
 
 1377—1399. 
 
 Richard, the only surviving son of the Black Prince, was 
 but eleven years of age when he succeeded to the throne. 
 The young king was assisted in the government by his three 
 uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester; sons 
 of Edward the third ; whose dangerous ambition was check- 
 ed by the plain and unimpeachable title of Richard ; the 
 affectionate regard which the people bore to the memory 
 of his father ; and the different dispositions of the three 
 princes. The duke of Lancaster was invested with the 
 principal authority : but Gloucester, though the youngest, 
 was the most conspicuous; being turbulent, bold, and 
 popular. 
 
 The most remarkable event in this reign, was an insur- 
 rection of the people ; the second, we believe, that occur- 
 red in England. This serious disturbance was caused by 
 the unfair method of assessing a poll tax, and the severity 
 with which it was collected. A determined spirit of resist- 
 ance spread rapidly over many of the principal counties : 
 the populace, worked up to the highest pitch of frenzy, by 
 the most daring of their leaders, who assumed the names 
 of Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, Hob Carter, and Tom Miller, 
 entered London ; threatening almost universal destruction. 
 However, by the address of young Richard, then only in his 
 sixteenth year, and some promises made to them, this 
 alarming commotion was, in a short time, quelled. 
 
 „Q The tranquillity of the northern borders was now 
 
 disturbed ; not so much from any national quarrel, 
 
 'as the rivalship between the two martial families of Percy 
 
 of the north of England, and Douglas of Scotland. A well 
 
 • " In that lond, ne in many other bezonde that, no man may see 
 the sterre transmontane, that is clept tlie sterre of the see, that is 
 unmevable, and that is toward the Northe, that we clepen the lode 
 sterre. But men see another sterre, the contrarie to him, that is to- 
 ward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. And right as the schip 
 men taken here avys here, and governe hem be the lode sterre, right 
 so don scliip men bezonde the parties, be the sterre of the Southe^, 
 the which sterre apperethe not to us.'* 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 81 
 
 contested action took place at Otterburne; in which, young 
 Percy (surnamed Hotspur) was taken prisoner, and Doug» 
 las slain. 
 
 Some insurrections in Ireland obliged the king to go 
 over into that country ; which he reduced to obedience. 
 But the general conduct of this prince was little suited to 
 gain the affections even of his English subjects, or impress 
 them with a proper degree of respect for the royal authori- 
 ty. Indolent, expensive, addicted to low pleasures, he spent 
 the principal part of his life in riot and feasting ; and dissi- 
 pated, in idle show, or in bounties to his favourites, the 
 revenue which should have been employed for the honour 
 and advantage of the nation. Gloucester, taking advantage 
 of the public feeling, formed a conspiracy against Kim: but 
 the king seized his uncle, and hurried him off to Calais ; 
 where, it is supposed, he was assassinated. The duke of 
 Lancaster (commonly called John of Gaunt) having shortly 
 after died, was succeeded by his son, Henry, earl of Derby ; 
 who had, by his conduct and abilities, acquired the esteem 
 of the public. Richard, however, refused to put this prince 
 in possession of his paternal estates; which produced a 
 general insurrection. The slender talents of the duke of 
 York, who adhered to the royal cause, were unable to re- 
 sist the storm. The king was dethroned, and Lancaster 
 obtcdned the crown: the deposed monarch was immured 
 in the castle of Pomfret ; and the same party which had. 
 wrested from him his feeble sceptre, soon deprived him 
 also of his life. 
 
 But, even had king Richard been justly dethroned, the 
 crown did not regularly devolve upon Henry. By the rules 
 of succession, the posterity of Lionel, duke of Clarence, 
 second surviving son of Edward the third, were now enti- 
 tled to the throne; the heir of which branch was the young- 
 earl of Marche, son of Philippa, the daughter of the duke 
 of Clarence, by Edmond Mortimer ; whose descendants, as 
 will be seen hereafter, at length established their disputed 
 title. 
 
 The House of Commons had now, decidedly, obtained 
 the power of legislation. 
 
 John Wickliffe, a secular priest educated at Oxford, who, 
 in the latter part of the preceding reign, had begun to spread 
 the doctrine of religious reformation, died in 1385. His 
 opinions were nearly the same as those afterwards propa- 
 gated by Luther, and the other continental reformers, in 
 the sixteenth century ; having been carried over into Ger» 
 
82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 many by some young men who had been students at Ox- 
 ford.* 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 HENRY THE FOURTH. 
 
 1399 — 1413. 
 
 THE unfortunate Richard left no posterity. The eari 
 of Marche, heir of the house of Mortimer, who, previous 
 to the usurpation of the duke of Lancaster, had been de- 
 clared the next in succession to the crov/n, was, at this time, 
 a boy of only seven years of age ; and, as his friends consult- 
 ed his safety by observing a profound silence with regard 
 to his title, Henry detained him and his younger brother in 
 a kind of honourable custody, at Windsor Castle. 
 
 The new king, however, had to encounter many difficul- 
 ties. He was opposed by a powerful body of the nobility : 
 the peers, in the very first parliament summoned after his 
 coronation, broke out into violent animosities; and forty 
 gauntlets, the pledges of furious battle, were thrown on the 
 floor of the house, by noblemen who gave challenges to as 
 many members of opposite opinion. The king had suffi- 
 cient authority to restrain the combats ; but he was not able 
 to produce reconciliation. These angry passions soon broke 
 out into action ; and nothing but the treachery of one of 
 the conspirators, prevented Henry's dethronement from 
 being as rapid as his elevation. Miseirable monarch ! whose 
 
 * The following" specimen of the language in those days, is taken 
 from Wlckhffe's translation of the Bible. 
 
 T.TTK. Chap. J. [Lttkt-.] 
 IX the days of Eronde kyng of Judee ther was a prest, Zacarye by 
 name : of the sort of Abia, and his wyf was of the doughiris of Aaron : 
 and hir name was Elizabeth. 
 
 2 And bothe \\eren juste bifore God: goynge in all the maundemen- 
 tls and just ifyingis of the Lord withouten plavnt. 
 
 3 And thei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn, and botli 
 ^veren of g-reet age in her dayes. 
 
 4 And it befel that whanne Zacarye schoulddothe office of prest- 
 hod, in the order of his course to fore God, 
 
 5 Aftir the custom of the presthod, he wente forlK by lot and en^ 
 tride into the temple to encensen. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 83 
 
 only security was the streaming of the scaffold ; and whose 
 tottering throne seemed still to vibrate with the agonies of 
 his murdered predecessor I 
 
 The revolution in England caused an insurrection in 
 Wales, and tempted the Scots to make incursions. In one 
 of these, Archibald earl of Douglas, with many more of his 
 countrymen, were overtaken by the Percys at Homeldon, 
 on the English borders, and made prisoners. Henry sent 
 orders to the earl of Northumberland, not to ransom them ; 
 though by the laws of war, which then prevailed, he had 
 that privilege. The impatient spirit of Harry Percy, and 
 the factious disposition of the earl of Worcester, younger 
 brother of Northumberland, inflamed the discontents of this 
 nobleman, and induced him to seek revenge, by overturn- 
 ing that throne which he had assisted to establish. He 
 entered into a correspondence with Glendour, a descendant 
 of the ancient princes of Wales ; liberated the earl of Doug- 
 las; made with him an alliance, and roused up all his par- 
 tizans to arms. Northumberland having been suddenly 
 deprived of health, the command devolved upon yovmg 
 Percy ; who marched towards Shrewsbury, in order to 
 form a junction witli Glendour. The king overtook Percy, 
 before that noblejiian was joined by his Welsh friends; and 
 . „ the policy of one leader, and impatience of the other, 
 hastened on the engagement. — The shock was tre- 
 mendous. The charges were incessant. Henry exposed 
 himself in the thickest of the fight. His gallant son, whose 
 military feats became afterwards so famous, now signalized 
 Iiimself by his heroic bravery. Percy supported the renown 
 which he had hitherto maintained ; and Douglas, formerly 
 Iiis enemy, but now his friend, still appeared his rival, 
 amidst the horror and confusion of the day. But, whilst 
 the armies were thus contending, the death of Percy de- 
 rided the victory, and the royalists prevailed. Douglas 
 and Worcester were taken prisoners : the former was be- 
 headed at Shrewsbury ; the latter was treated with mercy 
 and respect. 
 
 Thus, have been related, nearly all the memorable inci- 
 dents of this reign ; which, though crowded with sanguina- 
 ry commotions, produced few events that deserve to be re- 
 corded. 
 
 After an illness of many months, the king expired at 
 
 Westminster, in the forty -sixth year of his age, and the 
 
 fourteenth of his reign. He left four sons : Henry, who 
 
 succeeded to the crown ; Thomas, duke of Clarence; John? 
 
 H 2 
 
84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 duke of Bedford; and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 
 The military order of the Bath was now founded. 
 
 HENRY THE FIFTH. 
 
 1413—1422. 
 
 The precarious title by which the late king held his ele- 
 vated situation, had naturally filled his mind with appre- 
 hension ; and even his own son, whose reign is now the 
 subject of narration, was not exempted from the pernicious 
 effect of his unconquerable jealousies. 
 
 The active spirit of young Henry, restrained from its 
 proper exercise in political pursuits, broke out, in his 
 father's life time, into extravagancies of every kind ; and 
 he endeavoured to forget, in riot and debauchery, the dis- 
 appointments of an ardent and ambitious mind. — The great 
 English dramatist, who availed himself of every striking in- 
 cident in history, has not omitted Henry as a fit subject for 
 theatrical exhibition. — The nation, however, regarded the 
 young prince with an indulgent feeling ; they observed so 
 many gleams of generosity, spirit, and magnanimity, break- 
 ing continually through the cloud, which a wild conduct 
 had thrown over his character, that they never ceased hop- 
 ing for his amendment ; and ascribed all his irregularities 
 to his father's inattention. 
 
 A riotous companion of the prince had been indicted for 
 some disorders, before Gascoigne, the chief justice ; and 
 Henry appeared at the bar, to give him his countenance and 
 protection. Finding that his presence had not overawed 
 the judge, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal ; but 
 Gascoigne, not forgetful of the dignity of his own character, 
 and the respect which is due, by all, without distinction, to 
 the laws, ordered the prince, for his rude behaviour, to be 
 carried to prison. The spectators were agreeably surprised 
 when they saw the heir of the crown peaceably submit 
 to this sentence, make reparation for his error by an ac- 
 knowledgment, and check his impetuosity in the midst of 
 its career. 
 
 After his elevation to the regal dignity, the first step taken 
 by the young monarch, confirmed all those prepossessions 
 which had been entertained in his favour. He called to- 
 gether his former companions ; acquainted them with his 
 intended reformation; exhorted them to imitate his ex- 
 ample ; strictly forbade them to appear any more in his 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 8J 
 
 presence, until they had given proofs of their amendment ^ 
 and then dismissed them, with liberal presents. The wise 
 and virtuous ministers of his father, and the upright and no- 
 ble spirited Gascoigne, were told to persevere in the same 
 impartial execution of the laws ; and the character of the 
 young king now appeared brighter than if it had never been 
 shaded by any errors. Instead of continuing the restraints 
 imposed by his father on the earl of Marche, he received 
 him with singular courtesy and favour ; which magnanimi- 
 ty gained so much on the gentle disposition of his rival, 
 that he remained, ever after, sincerely attached to him, and 
 gave no disturbance to his future government. The family 
 of Percy was restored to its estate and honours : Henry's 
 subjects were unanimous in their affection, and the defects 
 of his title were forgot amidst their personal regard. 
 
 The late king, upon his death-bed, most emphatically en- 
 joined his son, not to allow the English to remain long in 
 peace ; but to employ them in foreign expeditions : by which, 
 he said, the prince might acquire honour, the nobility, in 
 sharing his dangers, might attach themselves to his person, 
 and all the restless spirits find occupation for their inquie- 
 tude. This request maybe used in palliation of those mili- 
 tary exploits, in which Henry was afterwards so eminently 
 conspicuous. The injunctions of an expiring parent should 
 have a powerful effect upon the conduct of a son : but, still, 
 they have not sufficient weight, on our minds, to call forth 
 an approval of those reiterated plaudits, given by the histo- 
 rians of this prince. We have allowed Henry the full meas- 
 ure of our praise, for his deportment as a magistrate : we 
 shall withhold them for his conduct as a warrior ; and, only 
 the barbarism of the age in which he lived, restrains us from 
 throwing into the opposite scale, a weight of censure, which 
 would overbalance his domestic virtues. 
 
 Charles the sixth, then on the throne of France, was af- 
 flicted with occasional attacks of mental derangement, which 
 rendered him incapable of pursuing any steady plan of pub- 
 lic government. The administration of affairs was disputed 
 by the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy : but, the former 
 having been assassinated by order of his rival, the son of 
 the murdered prince sought revenge ; and thus, the city of 
 Paris was, for a long time, a deplorable scene of violence 
 and blood. The advantage which might be made of these 
 confusions, was easily perceived in England ; and, accord- 
 ing to the maxims too often prevailing amongst nations, 
 it was determined to use the favourable opportunity of re° 
 
86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 gaining all those provinces wliich his ancestors had possess- 
 ed in France, and, as circumstances might direct, of re- 
 newing the claim made by Edward the third to the French 
 erown. 
 
 Henry put to sea, and landed at Harfleur, with an 
 army of thirty-thousand men ; mostly archers. He 
 immediately began the siege of that place ; and, enraged at 
 a breach of faith in the governor, who had agreed to surren- 
 der on a certain day, if succours should not arrive, he or- 
 dered a general assault, took the town by storm, and put all 
 the garrison to the sword ; except some gentlemen, whom 
 the victorious army were induced to spare, in hopes of reap- 
 ing profit by their ransom. 
 
 The fatigues of the siege, with the unusual heat of the 
 season, had severely wasted the English army. Henry could 
 not, therefore, enter on any further enterprise, and wished 
 to return to England : but, as he had dismissed his trans- 
 ports, he lay under a necessity of going by land to Calais ; 
 from which place, he proposed to embark. A French army^ 
 of fifty-thousand men, now watched his motions ; and, after 
 he had passed the small riverof Ternois, at Blangi, he was 
 surprised to observe, from the heights, this pov/erfui ene- 
 my, drawn up in the plains of Agincourt; and so posted, 
 that it was impossible for him to proceed on his march, 
 without hazarding an engagement. So great was the supe- 
 riority of the P'rench, in number, that David Gam, a Welsh 
 captain, who had been sent out to reconnoitre them, brought 
 back word, in the homely style of his country, that there 
 was enough to be killed, enough to be taken prisoners, and 
 enough to run away. Henry's situation was similar to that 
 of Edward at Crecy, and of the Black Prince at Poictiers. 
 He was opposed to an army above four times his number ; 
 yet no battle was ever more fatal to France than the battle 
 of Agincourt. Of the French forces, ten-thousand were kill- 
 ed, and fourteen-thousand taken prisoners — nearly half 
 their entire army, and more than double the number that 
 opposed them I The English lost but forty slain 1 
 
 The trifling resources of all the European princes, in 
 those days, prevented them from prosecuting a war, with 
 uninterrupted vigour; and Henry, yielding to necessity, 
 concluded a truce with the enemy, and returned into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Still distracted by the furious ambition of her roy- 
 
 * al princes, France was, at this time, badly prepared 
 
 to resist invasion. Henry, now aiming at the crov/n of that 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. B7 
 
 country, landed, with a numerous army, in Normandy ; and 
 was favoured equally by his fortune in the field, and the 
 events which occurred amongst the French. The duke of 
 Burgundy having been murdered, the young dauphin, heir 
 apparent ofthe crown, was not exempted from the imputa- 
 tion of having shared in the crime ; though, from his ex- 
 treme youth, it is probable he was innocent ofthe charge. 
 The son of that prince thought himself bound, by every tie 
 of honour and of duty, to revenge the murder of his father. 
 The subjection to a foreign enemy, the expulsion of the law- 
 ful heir, the slavery of the kingdom, appeared but small 
 evils, if they led to the gratification of his feelings. By the 
 intrigues, therefore, of the young duke, a treaty was con- 
 cluded at Troye ; the principal articles of which, were, that 
 Henry should espouse the princess Catherine, the French 
 king's daughter; that Charles, during his lifetime, should 
 enjoy the title and dignities of king of France ; that Henry 
 should be declared and acknowledged heir of the monarchy, 
 and be intrusted with the present administration of the gov- 
 ernment ; that that kingdom should pass to his heirs gen- 
 eral ; that France and England should, for ever, be united 
 under one crown ; and that Henry should join his arms to 
 those of king Charles and the duke of Burgundy, in order 
 to subdue the adherents of Charles, the pretended dauphin. 
 Such was the tenor of this astonishing treaty, which trans- 
 ferred the crown of France to a stranger : a treaty, which, 
 as nothing but the most violent animosity could dictate, so 
 nothing but the sword could carry into execution. In a few 
 days after, he was married to the princess Catherine : he 
 carried his father-in-law to Paris ; got possession of that cap- 
 ital, and obtained, from the French parliament, a ratifica- 
 tion of the treaty. At length, having succeeded in reducing 
 many of the principal towns which had held out against the 
 royal authority, he appointed his uncle, the duke of Exeter, 
 governor of Paris, and passed over into England, for the 
 purpose of raising supplies. 
 
 He had now returned to the French capital; hav- 
 ing overcome every difficulty : his queen had a son, 
 who was called by his father's name, and was joyfully re- 
 garded, both at Paris and London, as the future heir of 
 both monarchies. But the earthly glory of the conqueror, 
 when it had nearly reached the summit, was stopped short 
 by the hand of death, and all his mighty projects glided 
 from his view. 
 
88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 He died in the thirty-fourth year of his age, and the 
 tenth of his reign. 
 
 He left the regency of France to his next brother, the 
 duke of Bedford; that of England, to his younger, the duke 
 of Gloucester ; and the care of his son's person to the earl 
 of Warwick. 
 
 The exterior figure and deportment of Henry were en- 
 gaging. His stature was rather above the middle size : his 
 countenance beautiful : his limbs were slender, but full of 
 vigour ; and he excelled in all the warlike and manly exer- 
 cises of the age. 
 
 Catherine of France, Henry's widow, married, soon after 
 his death, a Welsh gentleman, sir Owen Tudor, (said to 
 have been descended from the ancient princes of his coun- 
 try) and bore him two sons ; Edmund and Jasper ; of whom, 
 the eldest was created earl of Richmond ; the second, earl 
 of Pembroke. 
 
 The fixed revenue of the crown during this reign, amount- 
 ed only to fifty-five-thousand pounds, and the ordinary ex- 
 penses of government to fifty-two-thousand ; so that the 
 king had, yearly, for the support of his household, for em- 
 bassies, and other contingencies, no more than three-thou- 
 sand pounds. 
 
 From the earliest times, until the reign of Edward the 
 third, the denomination of money had not been altered. A 
 pound sterling was still a pound troy ; (about three pounds 
 of the present money ;) hence, the letter L is used to de- 
 note a pound of money : which character is deducible ei- 
 ther from the Latin, libra, or the French, livre — words 
 used in those languages to denote either a pound in weight 
 or a pound in money. Through necessity, Edward coined 
 twenty-five shillings out of a pound troy : but Henry carri- 
 ed the imposition still further; and made thirty shillings 
 from the same quantity. His revenue, therefore, wa5 equal 
 to one-hundred-and-ten-thousand pounds of the present mo- 
 ney ; and, by the price of provisions in his time, equivalent 
 to more than three-hundred-and-thirty-thousand.* 
 
 None of the princes of the house of Lancaster ventured 
 to impose taxes without the consent of parliament. Their 
 doubtful, or bad title, became, so far, advantageous to the 
 state ; as, thereby, a precedent was established, which could 
 not afterwards, with impunity, be infringed ; even by prin- 
 ces of more absolute disposition. 
 
 * In the year 1816, after several intermediate changes, the standard 
 was reduced to 66 shiUings from a pound of silver. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 89 
 
 HENRY THE SIXTH. 
 
 1422—1461, 
 
 The British parliament, without paying any regard to the 
 will of the late king, assumed the power of giving a new ar- 
 rangement to the whole government. Not approving of the 
 title of regent with respect to England, they nominated the 
 duke of Bedford protector of the kingdom ; a title supposed 
 to imply less authority : they invested the duke of Glouce- 
 ster with the same dignity, during the absence of his broth- 
 er ; and, in order to limit the power of both these princes, 
 appointed a council, without whose advice and approbation, 
 no measure of importance could be determined. 
 
 The power of administration in France, vested in Henry 
 the fifth, by the treaty of Troye, was still continued to his 
 heir, though yet an infant ; and the duke of Bedford now 
 managed the affairs of that kingdom. The experience, the 
 prudence, and valour, of this nobleman, qualified him for 
 this high office; and enabled him to maintain union amongst 
 his friends, and gain the confidence of his enemies. He was 
 at the head of armies inured to victory : he was seconded 
 by the most renowned generals of the age — the earls of So- 
 merset, Warwick, Salisbury, Suffolk, and Arundel; Sir 
 John Talbot, and Sir John Fastolfe. But all these advanta- 
 ges were not sufficient to counterbalance the difficulties by 
 which he was surrounded. Every political arrangement 
 miust yield to the changes produced by time. Many of the 
 French nobility, upon whom the regent had most firmly re- 
 lied, now felt their interest in supporting the opposite cause; 
 and war again resounded over France. 
 
 The city of Orleans was so situated between the provin- 
 ces commanded by Henry and those possessed by Charles, 
 that it opened an easy entrance into either; and as the duke 
 of Bedford intended to make a great effort to penetrate into 
 the south of France, he began with this place, now become 
 the most important in the kingdom. The eyes of all Eu- 
 rope were turned towards a scene, where it was supposed 
 that the French were to make their last stand for the inde- 
 pendence of their monarchy. The earl of SpJisbury ap- 
 proached with an army of ten-thousand men, and commenc- 
 ed his operations by an attack upon the outworks ; in which 
 affair, he was killed by a cannon-ball. The English, also, 
 had several pieces of artillery in their camp : the first that 
 were found of importance at any siege in Europe. The earl 
 
90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of Suffolk, upon whom the command devolved, trusted, for 
 success, more to famine than to force, and converted the 
 siege into a blockade. Great scarcity was soon felt within 
 the city. Charles not only gave up the place for lost, but 
 began to entertain a very dismal prospect with regard to 
 the general state of his affairs. But it was fortunate for this 
 good prince, that, as he lay under the dominion of the fair 
 sex, the women whom he consulted had the spirit to sup- 
 port his sinking resolutions. Mary of Anjou, his queen, in 
 particular, exerted herself to kindle in his breast the patriot 
 flame. Love was more powerful than ambition — he resolv- 
 ed rather to perish with honour in the midst of his friends, 
 than yield ingloriously to the frowns of fortune. 
 , .-„ The determination which Charles had made in 
 compliance with his queen, was soon assisted by a 
 female of a very different character; who gave rise to one 
 of the most extraordinary revolutions to be found in histo- 
 ry. In the village of Domremy, on the borders of Lor- 
 raine, there lived a country girl, twenty-seven years of age, 
 called Joan d'Arc. She was a servant in a small inn; in 
 which station, she was accustomed to tend the horses of 
 the guests, to ride them, without a saddle, to the watering 
 place, and to perform other offices, which, in well-frequent- 
 ed inns, fall to the share of men-servants. This girl was 
 of an irreproachable life, and, hitherto, was not remarked 
 for any singularity ; probably because she had met with no 
 occasion to excite her genius. It is easy to imagine, that 
 the present situation of the country was an interesting sub- 
 ject of discourse, even to persons of the lowest rank f and 
 that the peculiar character of Charles, so strongly inclined 
 to friendship and the tender passions, would naturally ren- 
 der him the hero of that sex, whose generous minds know 
 no bounds in their affections. The siege of Orleans, 
 ihe great distress of the garrison and the inhabitants, the 
 importance of saving the city and its brave defenders, had 
 attracted universal attention; and Joan, inflamed by the 
 general excitement, was seized with a wild desire of reliev- 
 ing the miseries of her sovereign. Her inexperienced 
 mind, employed day and night on this favourite object, 
 mistook the impulse of enthusiasm for heavenly inspira- 
 tion ; and she fancied that she saw visions, and heard voices, 
 exhorting her to expel the invaders of her country. She 
 went to the governor of the district, informed him of her 
 inspirations and intentions ; and conjured him not to ne- 
 glect the voice of God, which spoke through her, but to 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 93 
 
 not forgotten, claim, to her son, Richard, duke of York. 
 This prince, descended from Philippa, only daughter of 
 the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward the third, stood 
 plainly in the order of succession before the king ; who 
 derived his descent from the duke of Lancaster, third son 
 of that monarch. Thus, the English were to pay the se- 
 vere, though late penalty, of their turbulence against Rich- 
 ard the second ; and of violating, without just reason, the 
 lineal succession of their monarchs. The duke was sec- 
 onded by many of the most powerful nobles in the kingdom; 
 and, amongst the number, by the celebrated Richard Ne- 
 vil, earl of Warwick, commonly known by the appellation 
 of King-maker. 
 J , A sanguinary engagement between the rival par- 
 
 ties, took place at St. Albans, where the Yorkists 
 had the advantage ; upwards of five-thousand of their ene- 
 mies having been left dead upon the field. There, the first 
 blood was spilled, in that fatal quarrel; which continued for 
 thirty years ; v/as signalized by twelve pitched battles ; 
 caused the deaths of eighty princes of the blood, and almost 
 entirely annihilated the ancient nobility of England. 
 
 After alternate battles and negotiations, the parliament: 
 declared the title of the duke of York to be certain and in- 
 defeasible ; but, in consideration that Henry had so long 
 enjoyed the crov/n, without dispute, they determined that 
 he should continue in possession of the title and dignity for 
 the remainder of his life, and. that the administration of the 
 government should, immediately, be vested in the duke. 
 
 This prince, however, did not long survive the settlement, 
 Margaret, the queen of England, still kept the field, with a 
 powerful army ; and, in a severe engagement, fought at 
 Wakefield, in which she herself commanded, the duke of 
 York was killed, and his army defeated. But the affairs of 
 the Yorkists were soon retrieved by the bravery of Edward, 
 eldest son of the deceased duke ; who entered London, 
 amidst the acclamations of the citizens, and Avas, by the 
 voice of tiie people, called to the throne, under the title of 
 Edward the fourth. 
 
 Thus, ended, the reign of Henry; who, whilst in his 
 cradle, had been proclaimed king both of England and 
 France : — a prince who should be pitied for his misfortunes, 
 as he suffered for the usurpation of another. 
 
 Happily for England, her foreign dominions, except Ca- 
 lais and a few other places, were now lost. From this time, 
 her maritime adventures were better understood, and more 
 
94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 closely pursued ; and, as soon as she had rested from her 
 civil wars, she began suddenly to flourish ; and became 
 much more considerable in Europe, than when her princes 
 were possessed of a larger territory, and her councils were 
 distracted by foreign interests. 
 
 The historian employed by Henry the sixth, was Thomas 
 Walsingham. The most remarkable law passed in this 
 reign, was for the due election of members of parliament, 
 in counties : the electors were limited to freeholders who 
 possessed forty shillings a year, free from all burthen, with- 
 in the county for v/hich the members were to be returned. 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 EDWARD THE FOURTH. 
 
 1461 — 148S. 
 
 THERE is no part of English history since the conquest, 
 so obscure, and inconsistent, as that of the wars between 
 the two houses of York and Lancaster. Some events of 
 the utmost importance, in which nearly all the historians of 
 those days agree, are contradicted by records; and it is re- 
 markable, that this uncertainty occurs just on the eve of 
 the restoration of Letters. All we can distinguish, through 
 the deep cloud which covers the transactions of that agC;. 
 is a scene of horror and bloodshed, savage manners, arbi- 
 trary executions, and treacherous, dishonourable conduct, 
 in all parties. The chief certainty, in this and in the pre- 
 ceding reign, arises, either from public documents, or the 
 notice taken of particular occurrences by the French wri- 
 ters. It is highly probable, that the scarcity of English au- 
 thors, during this period, proceeded from the destruction 
 of the convents, which had been almost the sole reposito- 
 ries of learning ; as the nobility and gentry were yet in a 
 state of profound ignoi'ance. They were so much engaged 
 in the sanguinary contests of the field, that they had no 
 leisure to attend to the peaceable studies of the closet. 
 
 Young Edward, in the very commencement of his reign, 
 gave symptoms of that cruelty which afterwards so strongly 
 marked the course of his turbulent career. A tradesman 
 in London, who had above his door the sign of thQ crown. 
 
HISTORV OF ENGLAND. 91 
 
 Second those revelations, which impelled her to this glori- 
 ous enterprise. It is uncertain, whether the governor had 
 discernment sufficient to perceive, that a great effect might 
 be produced on the vulgar, by an instrument so uncom- 
 mon ; or, that he was, himself, a convert to this visionary. He 
 adopted, however, the scheme of Joan, and gave her some at- 
 tendants, who conducted her to the French court at Cliinon. 
 
 The more the king and his ministers were determined 
 to profit by the illusion, the more scruples they pretended. 
 An assembly of grave theologians examined Joan's mis- 
 sion, and pronounced it undoubted and supernatural. She 
 was sent to the parliament, then residing at Poictiers, and 
 was interrogated before that assembly. The presidents 
 and the counsellors, who came, persuaded of her imposture, 
 "went away convinced of her inspiration ; and a ray of hope 
 soon illumined the minds of those, who, before, were en- 
 •eloped in despair. 
 
 Joan was now armed cap-a-pee, was mounted on horse- 
 back, and, in that martial habiliment, was shown to the 
 people. Her dexterity in managing her steed, though ac- 
 quired in her old employment, was regarded as a new 
 proof of her mission : her former occupation was even de- 
 nied, — she was no longer the servant of an inn. She was 
 converted into a shepherdess; and, to render her still more 
 interesting, nearly ten years were subtracted from her age. 
 
 When the engine was thus dressed up in full splendour, 
 it v^as determined to try its force against the enemy. Joan 
 was sent to Blois, where a large convoy was prepared for 
 the support of Orleans, and an army of ten-thousand men 
 assembled to escort it. She ordered all the soldiers to con- 
 fess their sins, before they set out ; banished from the camp 
 all women of bad fame; and insisted, in right of her pro- 
 phetic mission, that the convoy should enter Orleans, by 
 the direct road, from the side of Beausse. But the count 
 of Dunois, an able general, unwilling to relinquish the rules 
 of the military art, ordered that it should approach by the 
 vt/ie?' side of the river; where, he knew, was stationed the 
 weakest part of the English army. 
 
 The powerful influence of superstition on the minds of 
 the besiegers, became evident. When the convoy ap« 
 proached the river, a sally was made by the garrison, on 
 the side of Beausse, to prevent the English general from 
 sending any detachment to the other side : the provisions 
 were then peaceably embarked in boats, sent out by the in- 
 habitants: Joan covered with her troops the embarkation: 
 I 
 
92 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 SulTolk did not venture to attack her; and the French gen- 
 eral returned with his army in safety to Blois. The Maid 
 of Orleans, (by which name this female is generally known) 
 entered the town, arrayed in her military garb, displaying 
 a consecrated standard, and was received by all the inhabit- 
 ants as a celestial deliverer. They now believed, that, un- 
 der her sacred influence, they were invincible; and Dunois 
 himself, perceiving so wonderful an alteration, both in 
 friends and enemies, consented that the next convoy, which 
 was expected in a few days, should enter by the side of 
 Beausse. — The convoy approaches — no sign of resistance 
 appears — the wagons and troops pass through the redoubts, 
 without interruption — and there remain amongst the be- 
 siegers a dead silence and astonishment 1 
 
 We have now related the most interesting scenes in 
 which this remarkable character so conspicuously appear- 
 ed. The blockading army, after her entrance into the city, 
 did not long remain before its walls; and, from this time, 
 the affairs of the English gradually declined in France. 
 The duke of Bedford, however, displayed pre-eminent 
 abilities in bearing up against the misfortunes of the army; 
 but his death, which happened in about six years from the 
 commencement of these reverses, hastened the evacuation 
 of the French dominions. That amiable character by which 
 he had long been distinguished, was, unhappily, sullied by 
 an atrocious act of barbarism. The Maid of Orleans, had, 
 by the chances of war, fallen into his hands ; and this ad- 
 mirable heroine, to whom, as an elegant writer has observ- 
 ed, the more generous superstition of the ancients would 
 have erected altars, was, on pretence of heresy and magic, 
 delivered to the flames ; and expiated, by that dreadful pun- 
 ishment, the signal services which she had rendered to her 
 prince and her native country. 
 
 The English were not finally subdued in France until 
 the year 1450; and, even then, neither a truce nor a peace 
 was concluded : nor can it be said that they were over- 
 thrown by the strength of their opponents; as their retreat 
 proceeded from a gradual diminution in their numbers, 
 which could not be recruited. 
 
 Henry's incapacity for government appeared every day 
 in a fuller light, and his title to the British crown was now 
 disputed. All the males of the house of Mortimer were ex- 
 tinct ; but Anne, sister of the last earl of Marche, having 
 been espoused by the earl of Cambridge, beheaded in the 
 reign of Flenry the fifth, had transmitted her latent, though 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 95 
 
 having jocosely said that he would make his son heir to 
 the crown^ this harmless pleasantry was interpreted to have 
 been spoken in derision of the king's assumed title ; and he 
 was, for this implied offence, condemned and executed. 
 Such an act of tyranny was a suitable prelude to the scenes 
 which followed. The scaffold and the field incessantly 
 streamed with blood, shed in the quarrel between the two 
 rival families. The adherents of the house of Lancaster 
 chose the red rose, as the symbol of their party : those of 
 York, assumed the white ; and thvis, these civil wars were 
 known over Europe by the name of the quarrel between 
 the Two Roses. 
 
 Queen Margaret being still in the field with a numerous 
 army, the king, accompanied by the earl of Warwick, set 
 out with a body of forty -thou sand men, to give her battle. 
 A sanguinary engagement shortly ensued : the Lancastrians 
 were defeated; and the queen, with the unfortunate Henry, 
 fled for safety into Scotland. The good effects of this vic- 
 tory upon the affairs of Edward, were apparent, in the first 
 parliament summoned for the purpose of settling the gov- 
 ernment. The members no longer hesitated between the 
 two families ; they recognised his title, through the house 
 of Mortimer; and declared that he was entitled to the throne 
 from the moment of his father's death. 
 
 In the following spring, the nation was again visited by 
 the horrors of war. The French king, induced from mo- 
 tives of policy to support the weaker party, gave Margaret 
 a body of two-thousand men; with which, assisted by a nu- 
 merous train of adventurers from vScotland, and many par^ 
 dzans of the house of Lancaster, this indefatigable woman. 
 again appealed to arms. However, in two engagements 
 which occurred, at Hedgley-more and Hexham, her forces 
 were completely overthrown. She herself escaped into 
 Flanders ; but the weak and unhappy Henry was made 
 prisoner, and conveyed to the Tower of London. 
 
 The cruel and unrelenting spirit of Edward, though in- 
 ured to the ferocity of civil wars, was, at the same time, ex- 
 tremely devoted to the softer passions : which, without miti- 
 gating the severity of his temper, maintained over him a 
 powerful influence, and shared his attachment with the 
 pursuits of ambition and the thirst for military glory. But, 
 as it is diflicult to reduce the inclinations within strict 
 bounds of propriety, his amorous temper led him into an 
 imprudence, fatal to his future repose, and to the stability 
 of his throne. 
 12 
 
96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Sir John Gray of Groby having been killed in batUe, 
 fighting' on the side of Lancaster, his widow, Elizabeth, had 
 gone to reside with her father, sir Richard Wideville, at 
 his seat of Grafton, in Northamptonshire. The king went 
 accidentally to the house, after a hunting party; and, as 
 the occasion seemed favourable for obtaining some grace 
 from this gallant monarch, the young widow, remarkable 
 for the elegance of her person, threw herself at his feet, and, 
 with tears, entreated him to have pity on her distressed 
 and impoverished children. Edward was strongly affected 
 by the sight of so much beauty in aftliction : through the 
 imperceptible agency of compassion, love stole insensibly 
 into his heart; and her sorrow, so becoming a virtuous 
 inatron, made his esteem quickly correspond to his affec- 
 tion. With assurance of favour, he raised the lovely mourn- 
 er from the ground : every moment, by the conversation of 
 the amiable object, he found his passion rapidly increase ; 
 and was soon reduced to become a suppliant at her feet. 
 But, all the endearments, caresses, ancl importunities, of 
 the young and fascinating Edward, failed, against her rigid 
 and inflexible virtue. Carried, at last, beyond all bounds 
 of reason, he offered to share his throne, as well as heart, 
 with a woman, whose beauty of person, and dignity of char- 
 acter, seemed so well to entitle her to both. Their mar- 
 riage was privately celebrated at Grafton ; and the secret, 
 for a while, carefully concealed. No one could suspect 
 that so libertine a prince would sacrifice so much to a ro- 
 mantic passion ; indeed, there were strong reasons which 
 rendered this union in the highest degree imprudent and 
 dangerous. 
 
 Edward soon felt the effects of his precipitate alliance. 
 
 Not long before, he had commissioned the earl of Warwick, 
 
 to request the hand of Bona of Savoy, sister to the queen 
 
 of France; to which proposal, through the address of that 
 
 nobleman, she had acceded. When, therefore, the incon- 
 
 •^Iderate love-match with the lady Elizabeth came to light, 
 
 •-he high spirited Warwick, delicately susceptible of af- 
 
 front, soon determined to seek revenge. Having 
 
 formed a confederacy with the duke of Clarence, 
 
 the king's eldest brother,) and several more of the chief 
 
 nobility, the earl went over to the continent. There, he 
 
 nad an interview with queen Margaret; and a planof inva- 
 
 ->ion was soon arranged, under the auspices of the king of 
 
 France ; who assisted them with an army. Warwick with 
 
 his followers landed at Dartmouth, whilst the king was in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 97 
 
 the north, suppressing- an insurrection. The scene which 
 ensued, is more like the fiction of romance, than an actual 
 historical event. In eleven days from the landinc; of this 
 celebrated nobleman, and without even a sword having been 
 drawn, Edward was expelled from the kingdom ; and Hen- 
 ry the sixth was released from the gloomy walls of his prison, 
 and placed upon the throne. 
 
 But the ascendency of the Lancastrians was of short con- 
 tinuance. Edward, having obtained an armament from the 
 duke of Burgundy, landed, in the ensuing spring, at Rav- 
 enspur, in Yorkshire, and marched with rapidity towards 
 London. In a sanguinary and well contested action, fought 
 at Barnet, near the capital, the reigning party was defeat- 
 ed ; and Warwick himself, after combating on foot, fell glo- 
 riously amidst the thickest of his enemies. The intrepid 
 Margaret landed on the same day at Weymouth, with her 
 son, a promising young prince of about eighteen years of 
 age, supported by a small body of French troops ; and, be- 
 ing joined by several of the English nobility, she pushed 
 forward as far as Teukesbury. Here, the expeditious Ed- 
 ward soon attacked her : the Lancastrians were totally over- 
 thrown, and Margaret and her son taken prisoners. The 
 king having asked him how he dared to invade his domin- 
 ions, the youth answered, that he came thither to claim his 
 just inheritance. For this reply, the barbarous and ungener- 
 ous Edward struck him on the face with his gauntlet ; and 
 his attendants, taking the blow as a signal for further vio- 
 lence, hurried the prince into the next apartment, where 
 ihey despatched him with their daggers. Margaret was 
 thrown into the Tower : king Henry died, a few days after 
 the battle of Teukesbury ; but the cause of his death is un- 
 certain. 
 
 In the following year, the duke of Clarence, having giv- 
 en some new oflPence to his brother, was condemned to clie; 
 and being allowed to choose the manner of his death, was 
 drowned, by his own desire, in a butt of Malmsey wine. 
 
 We shall now close the unpleasant scenes of this san- 
 guinary period, by the death of the king himself. He died 
 in the forty-second year of his age, and the twenty-third of 
 his reign; leaving, besides five daughters, Edward prince 
 of Wales, his successor, then in his thirteenth year, and 
 Richard duke of York, in his ninth. 
 
 It was in the seventh year of this reign, that the modern 
 art of Printing was introduced into England, by Edward 
 Caxton, of London, This enterprising citizen became ac- 
 
53 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quainted, in Germany, with that invaluable method of dis- 
 seminating knowledge : where, it was invented, about thir- 
 ty years before ; causing an immense improvement on the 
 mode of printing from wooden stereo-types, used in remote 
 ages by the Chinese. 
 
 EDWARD THE FIFTH. 
 
 1483. 
 
 The late king had expressed a desire, that his brother, 
 the duke of Gloucester, should be invested with the regen- 
 cy, during the minority of the young prince. But Glouce- 
 ster soon determined to usurp the throne, Avhich it was his 
 duty to protect. To the greatest abilities, this nobleman 
 united an ambition, which no circumstances could deter, no 
 principle of justice or generosity could restrain. The chief 
 agents in his iniquitous and tragical proceedings, were, the 
 duke of Buckingham, Dr. Shaw a clergyman, the mayor of 
 London, (brother to the latter,) sir William Catesby, and 
 sir James Tyrel. The queen dowager, alarmed at the sud- 
 den arrest of her brother the earl of Rivers, and her son sir 
 Richard Gray, fled from the treachery of Gloucester, into 
 the sanctuary of Westminster; taking with her the five 
 princesses, and the duke of York. Menaces and entreaties 
 were now used by the duke, to induce the queen to deliver 
 up the latter; and she, finding that force would be used, if 
 she persisted in a refusal, at last complied. 
 
 The council, without the consent of parliament, having 
 appointed the duke of Gloucester protector of the govern- 
 ment, he soon proceeded to remove all, who, by connexion, 
 attachment, or a sense of duty, stood opposed to his crimi- 
 nal design. Lords Rivers and Hastings^, sir Richard Gray 
 and sir Thomas Vaughan, were murdered by his order. He 
 then openly aspired at the throne; and, by intimating the 
 illegitimacy of the king, and his own superior right, through 
 the means of sermons from the pulpit and popular ha- 
 rangues, he endeavoured to gain the suffrages of the peo- 
 ple. But, failing in these, he threw aside almost the sem- 
 blance of propriety ; and, with no better title than the hired 
 acclamations of a rabble, assumed the crown. 
 
 The fate of the unfortunate and helpless Edward and his 
 brother, may easily be foreseen. They were murdered in 
 the Tower, the place of their confinement ; and their bodies 
 buried there, at the foot of a flight of stairs. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ioi 
 
 ard, duke of York, had not been put to death by his uncle, 
 but lay concealed in England. Simon, taking advantage of 
 this report, at first instructed his pupil to assume the name 
 of that prince ; but, hearing, afterwards, a new rumour, that 
 Warwick had escaped from his confinement, he changed 
 his plan, and made Simnel personate the latter. It was, 
 however, remarked, that Simnel was better informed in 
 affairs relating to the royal family, and, particularly to the 
 earl of Warwick, than he could be supposed to have been 
 from one of Simon's condition ; and it was thence conjec- 
 tured, that persons of higher rank participated in the 
 scheme : nor was the queen dowager herself exempted from 
 suspicion ; as she had been treated very unkindly by the king. 
 
 Simon, very properly judging that the artifice would not 
 bear a close inspection, carried his pupil to Ireland ; where 
 the inhabitants were zealously attached to the house of York. 
 Warwick's father had been chief governor in that island, 
 and for his memory they bore an affectionate regard. Here, 
 his tale was implicitly believed. The earl of Kildare, who 
 was then governor, espoused his cause ; and, by the unan- 
 imous voice of the people, he was crow*ned in the castle of 
 Dublin, under the title of Edward the sixth. 
 
 When Henry received intelligence of this extraordinary 
 event, he ordered that Warv/ick should be taken from the 
 Tower, and exposed to public view. This was accordingly 
 done, and had the desired effect in England ; but, in Ire- 
 land, the delusion still continued. 
 
 The dutchess of Burgundy, sister of Edw^ard the fourth, 
 pleased with an opportunity of disturbing the repose of 
 Henry, despatched over to Ireland a body of tv/o-thousand 
 veteran Germans. These, united with the Irish forces, set 
 sail, under the command of the earl of Lincoln, accompani- 
 ed by the newiy created king, and landed at Foudrey in 
 Lancashire. Thence, they advanced as far as Stoke in Not- 
 tinghamshire ; where they were encountered by the royal 
 forces, and completely routed, with the loss of tlieir leader 
 and four-thousand of the common men. Simnel himself was 
 taken prisoner ; but, being too contemptible to excite either 
 apprehension or resentment, he was pardoned, made first a 
 servant in the king's kitchen, and then advanced to the sta- 
 tion of a falconer. 
 
 France had latterly received an immense increase 
 
 • of territory. Normandy, Champagne, Anjou, Dau- 
 
 phiny, Guienne, Provence, and Burgundy, were, for some 
 
 time past, united to her crown : the English were expelled 
 
102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 from all their continental possessions, except Calais; and 
 Charles the eighth, the present monarch, this year suc- 
 ceeded in annexing also the dutchy of Brittany. It was 
 evidently the interest of Henry to prevent this depression 
 of an ally, and consequent elevation of a rival, already 
 grown dangerous from the extent of his dominions. But, 
 though he had neglected to render sufficient aid, when it 
 might have been given with advantage,, he resolved, at all 
 events, to have a war v/ith France; more intent upon gra- 
 tifying his ruling passion, by draining the pockets of his 
 subjects, than anxious for the deliverance of Brittany. He 
 issued orders for levying a Benevolence ; a species of taxa- 
 tion, not only pointedly denounced by the Great Charter, 
 but, again forbidden, by act of parliament. Archbishop 
 Morton, the chancellor, instructed the commissioners to 
 employ a dilemma, by which every one might be included 
 in its application. If the persons applied to for money liv- 
 ed frugal I y^ they were told that thaiv Jiarsiinonij must have 
 enriched them: if their establishments were splendid, they 
 were supposed opulent from their expenses. 
 
 Q In the autumn of this year, Henry landed at Ca- 
 
 ' lais with a large army; Avhich he placed under the 
 command of the duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford. 
 It does not appear, however, that the soldiers were much 
 harassed in their professional duty, as no military opera- 
 tions can be found on record; but we are informed, that 
 in about a year after this politic and intimidating parade, 
 negotiations for a peace commenced. A few days were 
 sufficient for the purpose. The demands of Henry were 
 wholly pecuniary; and the king of France, deeming the 
 possession of Brittany an equivalent for any sum, readily 
 agreed to the proposals. He engaged to pay Henry 
 seven-hundred-and-forty-five-lhousand crowns, and his heirs 
 a yearly pension of twenty-five-thousand. Thus, the king, 
 as is wittily remarked by Bacon, " made profit on his sub- 
 jects for the war, and on his enemies for the peace." 
 
 Rather irritated than depressed by the failure of her past 
 enterprises, the dutchess of Burgundy was determined at 
 least to disturb a government which she was not able to 
 subvert. The report of the escape of the young duke of 
 York, brother of Edward the fifth, and his subsequent con- 
 cealment, was renewed; and another instrument was now 
 tutored for deceit. — One Warbec, of Tournay, had, in the 
 reign of Edward the fourth, visited London, on business ; 
 and had there a son born to him. Having had opportuni- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 99 
 
 RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 1483—1485. 
 
 The history of the world does not furnish a more flagrant 
 instance of usurpation than that of Richard. Even were 
 men disposed to pardon these violations of public right, the 
 sense of private and domestic duty, which is not totally ef- 
 faced in the most barbarous times, must have produced an 
 abhorrence against so detestable a character; and have re- 
 presented the murder of the young and innocent princes^ 
 his nephews, with whose protection he had been intrusted, 
 in the most odious and terrific colours, 
 
 A friendship commenced in villainy and blood, as was 
 that of Richard and the duke of Buckingham, can never be 
 cemented. No alliance can be lasting, unless sealed by the 
 hand of virtue. — Jealousy, on the one side, and reiterated 
 demands for past services, on the other, having soon caus- 
 ed an irreparable breach, the latter now endeavoured to 
 drag Richard from his throne, and place on it the earl of 
 Richmond. 
 
 This nobleman was grandson of sir Owen Tudor, and 
 Catherine, widow of Henry the fifth ; and was related, by 
 blood, to the royal family, through a spurious branch, legi- 
 timated (with an express exclusion from the crown) by act 
 of parliament. He was descended from the eldest illegiti- 
 mate son of John of Gaunt, who was the fourth son of Ed- 
 ward the third. Having fled after the battle of Teukesbury, 
 to seek refuge with the duke of Brittany, Henry the fourth, 
 finding that all the Lancastrians regarded the earl as the 
 object of their hopes, requested that the duke would de- 
 liver him into his hands : but the utmost he could obtain, 
 was a promise, that he should not be allowed to depart 
 from that prince's dominions ; and he was, at this time, de- 
 tained there in a kind of honourable custody. 
 
 Richard having soon received intelligence of the con- 
 spiracy, Buckingham was obliged to take the field. He 
 was, however, shortly after, made prisoner, condemned, and 
 executed. 
 
 „. The earl of Richmond, with a retinue of about 
 two-thousand persons, landed at Milford Haven, in 
 Wales. The two rivals approached each other at Bosworth, 
 near Leicester; Henry, at the head of six-thousand men; 
 Richard, with an army of double that number. A dreadful 
 conflict ensued. The sanguinary tyrant fought with a dc- 
 
100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 gree of bravery worthy of a better cause : but his forces 
 were defeated, and he himself, fighting to the last, perished 
 by a fate too mild and honourable for his multiplied enor- 
 mities. The soldiers, suddenly prompted by the joy of so 
 great success, hailed their victorious leader as their king; 
 and the acclamations of " Long live Henry the seventh" 
 resounded through the field. 
 
 HENRY THE SEVENTH. 
 
 1485—1509. 
 
 Although the adherents of the house of Lancaster had, 
 for some time, considered Henry as the heir of that family, 
 yet, even admitting that the pretensions of that line to the 
 crown were well founded, which has always been a matter 
 of dispute, this prince was not the true heir. Nothing in- 
 deed but the obstinacy of faction, could have induced the 
 partizans of that house to adopt the earl of Richmond as 
 their head ; for, besides the many other objections to his 
 title, his mother, through whom he derived his claim, was 
 still alive, and evidently preceded him in the order of suc- 
 cession. Previous to Henry's return, it was stipulated, that 
 he should espouse the princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
 of Edward the fourth, heir of the family of York, and, by 
 right, entitled to the crown. But, unwilling that his claim 
 should derive any additional force, from this union of the 
 two branches, he carefully avoided the performance of the 
 contract, until he had obtained a parliamentary ackpowl- 
 edgment of his own title ; and, in the act of settlement, he 
 studiously omitted the smallest mention of the princess. 
 
 A few days after the battle of Bosworth, Edward Plan- 
 tagenet, earl of Warwick, son to the unfortunate duke of 
 Clarence, who had been drowned in the butt of Malmsey, 
 and nephew of Edward the fourth, was, by Henry's order, 
 conveyed to the Tower. This gave rise to one of the most 
 remarkable incidents of the present reign. A priest, named 
 Richard Simon, possessed of considerable subtlety and bold- 
 ness, had entertained the design of disturbing Henry's gov- 
 ernment, by raising a pretender to his crown. For this pur- 
 pose, he selected a youth of fifteen years of age, named 
 Lambert Simnel ; v/ho, being endowed with understanding 
 above his years, and address above his condition, seemed 
 well fitted to personate a prince, educated near a court. A 
 rumour had been spread, and eagerly received, that Rich 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. loi 
 
 ties of being known to the king, he prevailed with that 
 prince, whose manners were very affable, to stand god- 
 father for his son ; to whom, he gave the name of Peter. 
 Some years afterwards, Warbec, with his family, returned 
 to Tournay; where young Peter (called, after the Flemish 
 manner, Perkin) did not long remain; buf, by different ac- 
 cidents, was carried from place to place ; by which means, 
 his origin became unknown, and difficult to be traced by 
 the most diligent inquiry. This Perkin Warbec having 
 been represented to the dutchess as perfectly fitted to her 
 purpose, she became desirous of seeing him, and found 
 him even to exceed her expectations. Warbec, being 
 properly instructed, was sent over to Ireland ; where he 
 was received as the true Plantagenet. Thence, by the in- 
 vitation of the French king, he went to Paris ; and was 
 there treated with the highest marks of distinction, and vis- 
 ited by many of the most respectable nobility of England. 
 
 Henry now ordered that the bodies of the murdered 
 princes should be searched for in the Tower; but they 
 could not be discovered. However, by the vigorous mea- 
 sures which the king pursued against the abettors of this 
 impostor, all men of respectability gradually forsook him.* 
 ^ Perkin, having collected about six-hundred out- 
 laws and necessitous persons of all nations, appear- 
 ed off the coast of Ke^it ; from which, he was quickly re- 
 pulsed. Soon afterwards, he made an attempt upon Ire- 
 land. But sir Edward Poynings, the governor, had put the 
 affairs of that country in so good a posture, that he met 
 'vvith little success. He then bent his course to Scotland, 
 and presented himself beibre James the fourth. This mon- 
 arch was so much deceived by his plausible accounts and 
 elegant deportment, that he gave him in marriage lady 
 Catherine Gordon ; a relation of his own, equally eminent 
 for her virtue and her beauty. 
 
 As there subsisted, at this time, a considerable jealousy 
 betv/een the courts of James and Henry, the former thought 
 the opportunity favourable for giving disturbance to his 
 neighbour; and, accordingly, having collected a number of 
 his border-men, he made several inroads into England, ac- 
 
 * In the reign of Charles the second, the skeletons of those two 
 young princes were found in the Tower; in the very spot assigned 
 by More, Bacon, and other ancient authors, as Die place of their in- 
 terment. This fact sliould be taken as conclusive ag-ainst the doubts, 
 expressed by several writers, of their having been murdered by theii' 
 uncle. 
 
 K 
 
i04 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 companied by Warbec. But, in a short time, a truce was 
 made between the two countries ; and Perkin was obliged 
 to retire from Scotland. Being joined by a few adherents, 
 he chose, as a temporary retreat, the wild fastnesses of 
 Ireland ; and soon again issuing forth, landed in Cornwall. 
 Having then, for the first time, assumed the title of Rich- 
 ard the fourth, king of England, he advanced into the 
 country ; and, when he arrived at Taunton, his army 
 amounted to seven-thousand men. There, however, hear- 
 ing that a large force was on its march to oppose him, he 
 secretly withdrew to the sanctuary of Beaulieu in the New 
 Forest. The rebels submitted to the king's mercy. Lady 
 Catherine, wife to Perkin, fell into the hands of Henry; by 
 whom she was treated with a degree of generosity and re- 
 spect highly to his honour ; Perkin, under a promise of 
 pardon, surrendered; but, having entered into a conspira- 
 cy with the earl of Warwick, to effect their escape from 
 the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Perkin was hang- 
 ed at Tyburn, and the earl beheaded. 
 
 When Henry was freed from these alarming attacks, he 
 employed himself in satiating his avaricious propensity, by 
 repeated exactions upon his subjects ; in which illegal pro- 
 ceedings, he was assisted chiefly by two lawyers, named 
 Empson and Dudley. 
 
 After a busy reign of nearly twenty-four years, 
 * Henry yielded to the ravages of a consumption ; hav- 
 ing ordered in his will, that restitution should be made to 
 all whom he had injured. He was a prince equally conspicu- 
 ous for his wisdom in the cabinet and his conduct in the 
 field ; and, notwithstanding his occasional errors, the his- 
 tory of his country can produce few monarchs who were 
 less chargeable with the frailties of man. He left only one 
 son, of his own name, who succeeded to the throne; and 
 one daughter, Margaret, wife of James the fourth of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 It was in this reign, in the year 1492, that Christopher 
 Columbus, a native of Genoa, sailed from Cadiz on that 
 celebrated voyage which ended in the discovery of the 
 Western World ; and it was only by accident, that Henry 
 had not a considerable share in the glory of this event. 
 Columbus, after experiencing many repulses from the court 
 of Spain, sent to England his brother, Bartholomew, to ex- 
 plain his projects to the king, and solicit his patronage and 
 aid : but, in his passage, Bartholomew was taken by pirates; 
 and though Henry, after his release, and subsequent arrival 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 105 
 
 at his court, gave an invitation to his brother to come over, 
 it was too late. Columbus, having-, in the mean time, ob- 
 tained the countenance of Isabella, was supplied with a 
 small fleet, and happily executed his enterprise. In six 
 years afterwards, Henry employed Sebastian Cabot, of Bris- 
 tol ; who fell in with the main land of America, near the 
 sixtieth degree of north latitude ; and then, steering south- 
 ward along the coast, discovered a large island, to which 
 his sailors gave the name of Newfoundland. Changing his 
 course to the west, he came to a smaller island, which he 
 named St. John ; and soon reached that part of the new con- 
 tinent now called Virginia. 
 
 Many salutary laws were nov,^ enacted. A humane alter- 
 ation was made in the courts of justice; Avhich allows to 
 foreigners the privilege of a jury, half of whose number are 
 also aliens. But, the most important law was one for per- 
 mitting the nobility and gentry to break the ancient entails, 
 and dispose of their estates ; by which means, the great 
 fortunes, and consequently the dangerous influence, of the 
 barons, were diminished, and property more equally diffus- 
 ed amongst the commons. Several statutes Avere also made 
 against engaging retainers, and giving them badges and liv- 
 eries ; a practice, by which they were, in a manner, en- 
 listed under some great lord, and kept in readiness to assist 
 him in all wars, insurrections, and tumults ; and even to 
 bear evidence for him, in courts of justice. 
 
 HENRY THE EIGHTH. 
 
 1509 — 1547. 
 
 Every advantage, that the safety of an extensive king- 
 dom could demand, or the ambition of a youthful monarch 
 could desire, was now united in the British crown :— tran- 
 quillity at home ; peace with all abroad ; an improving com- 
 merce, and a well stored treasury; a people affectionate to 
 their prince ; an undisputed title to the throne. 
 
 The conduct pursued by Henry in the commencement 
 of his reign, served to heighten the favourable preposses- 
 sions of the public. Anxious to gain the applause, if not 
 to increase the happiness, of his subjects, he dismissed from 
 his council those men, who, in his father's reign, had been 
 most obnoxious to the nation. Of the new ministers, the 
 
i06 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 most ambitious of royal favour, were, the earl of Surry, and 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester. The populace were next grati- 
 fied by the punishment of all who had lately assisted in 
 plundering' the kingdom ; amongst whom, Empson and 
 Dudley, as they had been the most active, so were they the 
 most exposed to public hatred ; and, having been brought 
 to trial, they suffered an ignominious death. 
 
 Henry now deliberated concerning the completion of his 
 marriage with a Spanish princess. His elder brother, Ar- 
 thur, prince of Wales, had espoused Catherine of Arragon, 
 a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and sister of the cele- 
 brated Charles the fifth ; Arthur being then about sixteen 
 years of age, and Catherine eighteen. But, as Arthur died 
 in a few months afterwards, the king, unwilling to restore 
 the dowry, compelled his second son, Henry, then only 
 twelve years of age, to be contracted to her ; having first 
 received the concurrence of the pope. 1 hough, hov/ever, 
 this contract had been made by the desire of his father, yet 
 their disparity of years, and her former marriage with his 
 brother, caused him for a while to hesitate. Her known 
 virtue, however, the sweetness of her temper, the affection 
 v/hich she bore hini, the political advantages resulting from 
 the alliance, together with the approbation of his council, 
 determined him, improperly, to consummate the union. 
 
 He was scarcely settled on his throne, when he began to 
 enter warmly into the affiiirs of the continental princes. In- 
 stigated by the over-reaching intrigues of Ferdinand, and 
 a desire to gain the favour of the pope, he invaded France; 
 but, after defeating the enemy in an engagement called the 
 battle of the Spurs, because, in that action, the French 
 made more use of their spurs than of their swords, his 
 army was reimbarked. In the mean time, Scotland, always 
 the assailant of England, when England made war upon 
 France, renewed her depredations. 
 
 An able minister was now required ; and that minister 
 was found in the person of Thomas Wolsey, dean of Lin- 
 coln. This extraordinary man, born at Ipswich in Suffolk, 
 had received a classical education, and being endowed with 
 an excellent capacity, was admitted as tutor into the family 
 of the marquis of Dorset; where, he gained the friendship 
 of his patron. He was afterwards recommended as chap- 
 lain to the late king; who esteemed him highly for his dili- 
 gence and address: and now, neither his own years, though 
 more than forty, nor his clerical profession, were any re- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. lor 
 
 straint upon himself; nor did he check, by any ill-timed 
 severity, the occasional pleasures of his new master. 
 
 The summer of this year was employed chiefly in 
 preparations for the war with France ; which, after 
 many military operations, presenting no interest at the pre- 
 sent day, was concluded by a treaty. Henry was contented 
 by receiving a million of crowns, due, by stipulation, to his 
 father and himself; Lewis, by a contract of marriage with 
 the princess Mary, sister to the British king : the one aged 
 fifty -four — ^the other, but seventeen. 
 
 The success which, in his absence, had attended the arms 
 of Henry, in the North, was much more decisive. In a great 
 battle fought in the field of Flouden, near the Cheviot Hills, 
 the earl of Surry gained a memorable victory. The king 
 of Scotland, brother-in-law of Henry, and most of his prin- 
 cipal nobility, were there killed ; and a peace with that 
 country was soon concluded. 
 
 Wolsey, whom the king had promoted to the see of Lin- 
 coln, was now made archbishop of York ; enjoying, at the 
 same time, the emoluments of many other ecclesiastical 
 establishments. The pope, observing his great influence 
 over the king, by which he wished to profit, advanced him 
 to the high dignities of cardinal and legate ; and never did 
 any churchman carry the state and splendour of that cha- 
 racter to a more exorbitant height. His income is said to 
 have been equal to the king's ; and he spent it in a not 
 less royal manner. The walls of his palace were covered 
 with cloth of gold, or cloth of silver. His plate was of 
 massy gold. His train consisted of eight-hundred servants ; 
 of whom, many were knights and gentlemen, desirous of 
 his patronage. Thus, did the minister of a religion, which 
 demands only the modest exterior of simplicity, rival the 
 puerile magnificence of an eastern despot. But, neither the 
 income of these preferments, nor the pageantry of these 
 establishments, could satiate his ambition. Another step 
 was yet ungained. The papal chair now occupied his^ 
 thoughts ; and to the attainment of this last object of his 
 desire, he sacrificed the faith of treaties, and the tranquilli- 
 ty of Europe. Always watching the varying revolutions of 
 the political machine, he attached himself to that movement 
 which tended towards the last goal of his earthly view ; and, 
 by sometimes favouring the intrigues of one monarch, 
 sometimes those of another, he involved his country in 
 foreign broils, equally uninteresting to her feelings, and in- 
 jurious to her welfare* Let us, however, whilst we condemnj 
 K 2 
 
108 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 allow a due portion of extenuation. Francis the first, then 
 monarch of the French, and Charles the fifth, a prince who 
 swayed at once the powerful sceptres of Germany and 
 Spain, and into whose treasury were poured the riches of 
 the western world — these did not withhold their flattery 
 and their countenance, but courted the aspiring cardinal 
 with the fawnings of hypocrisy, and encouraged the arden- 
 cy of his ambition, by the profusion of their bounties, their 
 promises, and familiarities. 
 
 The extensive field in which the authority of the 
 Roman pontiff had been so freely practised, began, 
 at this time, to contract its limits. From the diffusion of 
 polemical essays, caused by the use of printing, a new era 
 had arisen ; and Martin Luther, an Augustin friar, pro- 
 fessor in the university of Wittemberg, was, by that 
 means, enabled to oppose, with unusual effect, the influ- 
 ence of the pope, and the prevailing doctrine ; and, hence, 
 proceeded that important change called the Reformation. 
 The Lutheran princes of Germany, finding that liberty of 
 conscience was denied them, combined for their own de- 
 fence ; and, as they protested against the votes passed in 
 the imperial diet, they received the appellation of protest- 
 ants. To the arguments of Luther, Henry replied in Latin, 
 with considerable ability : as a return for which voluntary 
 service, the pope conferred upon him the title of Defender 
 of the Faith ; an appellation still used by his successors : 
 though they have rejected the doctrines by which it was 
 obtained, and those which the work of Henry had con- 
 demned, are now the fundamental principles of the Church 
 of England. 
 
 Of the arbitrary measures pursued by the British mon- 
 archs, in those days, we can form some idea, by the follow- 
 ing instance. When Henry heard that the commons were 
 reluctant in granting him a supply of money, he was so 
 provoked, that he sent for Edward Montague, one of the 
 members, who had considerable influence ; to whom, he 
 cried out : " Ho 1 man ! will they not suffer my bill to 
 pass ?" And laying his hand on Montague's head, who 
 was then on his knees before him, as was customary : " Get 
 my bill passed by to-morrow; or else, to-morrow, this head 
 of yours shall be off." Next day the bill was passed. 
 .^» The inauspicious marriage with Catherine, origi- 
 nally contracted against his will, but afterwards 
 consummated with deliberation, the king, though she had 
 given him an heiress, now endeavoured to dissolve. Those 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 109 
 
 feelings of conscience, which once produced a hesitation, 
 had been quelled ; but, at this time, it seems, after a lapse 
 of nearly twenty years, they revived. There lately had 
 appeared at court a young lady, named Anne Boleyn, who 
 was created maid of honour to the queen. This female, 
 whose grandeur and misfortunes have rendered her so cele- 
 brated, was daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, grand-daughter 
 of the duke of Norfolk, and related to all the principal no- 
 bility of the kingdom ; and was not less remarkable for the 
 graces of her person, than the accomplishments of her mind. 
 She soon became the object of his admiration ; but, find- 
 ing that her virtue was unconquerable, he resolved to raise 
 her to the throne ; and applied to the pope for a divorce 
 from Catherine. Wearied, however, by the frequent post- 
 ponements of the Roman pontiff', Henry, at length, obtain- 
 ed from the English bishops a dissolution of his marriage, 
 after which he espoused his favourite. 
 
 During the various negotiations with the pope, relating 
 to the divorce, Wolsey had practised his accustomed dis- 
 simulation ; and the king now determined that the ruin of 
 the cardinal should be as rapid as his elevation. He ac- 
 cordingly removed him from the situation of chancellor; 
 and in his place appointed sir Thomas More : the first 
 person that was regularly qualified for that office, and who, 
 besides the ornaments of literature, possessed the highest 
 degree of political capacity and virtue. Wolsey was or- 
 dered to depart from his palace in London : [now called 
 Whitehall :] his furniture and plate were converted to the 
 king's use : he was convicted in the Star Chamber, and 
 abandoned to all the rigour of the parliament. It was voted, 
 that he was out of the king's protection : that his lands 
 and goods were forfeited ; and that his person might be 
 committed to custody. He was, however, pardoned for 
 the present ; and, after being compelled to move from one 
 place to another, took up his residence at Cawood, in 
 Yorkshire. At length, he Vv'as, by order of the king, ar- 
 rested, on a charge of high treason ; and, on his way to 
 London, being attacked by a severe illness, was obliged to 
 stop at Leicester Abbey ; where, he shortly afterwards ex- 
 pired. On his death bed, he exclaimed, " Had I but served 
 God, as diligently as I have served the king, he would not 
 have deserted me in my grey hairs." 
 
 „ In the autumn of this year, the new queen had a 
 
 daughter, called Elizabeth ; who afterwards swayed 
 
 the sceptre with so much renown. Parliament confirmed 
 
110 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the ecclesiastical sentence which had annulled the former 
 marriage : that with Anne was ratified : Mary, the daugh- 
 ter of Catherine, was excluded from the succession : the 
 crown was appointed to descend to the issue of this mar- 
 riage ; and an oath enjoined to be taken in favour of the 
 new order of inheritance. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 and sir Thomas More, were the only persons of rank who 
 expressed a doubt of its legality, and were both committed 
 to the Tower. 
 
 But the persecution of these accomplished men, did not 
 cease with imprisonment. Henry having now thrown off 
 all dependence on the see of Rome, and resolved to'^Jpi^^h 
 entirely the papal authority in England; and tl^-parii^- 
 ment having conferred on him a new title, — " Suprem*^ 
 head, on earth, of the Church of England," they werf, fo'r 
 refusing to acknowledge this supremacy, most iiii justly, 
 condemned, and taken to the block. They bptli suffered 
 with unshaken fortitude ; and More preserved, to th^YGvf 
 last, his accustomed cheerfulness, and even liis pleasantry. 
 When he was mounting the scaffold, he said to a person 
 near him, <' Friend, help me up, and, when I come down 
 again, let me shift for myself." The executioner having 
 asked his forgiveness, he granted his request ; but told 
 him, " You will never gain credit, by beheading me, my 
 neck is so short." Then, laying his head upon the block, 
 he bade the executioner wait till he put aside his beard ; 
 '< For," said he, " it never committed treason." 
 
 In the year following, queen Catherine yielded to a lin- 
 gering indisposition, in the fiftieth year of her age; having 
 written, a little before she expired, an affectionate letter to 
 the king. On the death of her rival, Anne, it is said, ex- 
 pressed her satisfaction in a manner much to be condemned. 
 But the time was short, during which she was allowed to 
 enjoy her exultation. The affection, which had subsisted 
 so warmly under difficulties, had no sooner obtained posses- 
 sion of its object, than it languished from satiety. Henry's 
 love was now transferred to another object — lady Jane Sey- 
 mour, a maid of honour to the queen. The enemies which 
 Anne had made by her attachment to the reformed religion, 
 siezed every opportunity of hastening her fail ; and invent- 
 ed most scandalous slanders, to inflame the jealousy of the 
 king. Of tliese charges, she appears to have been entirely 
 innocent; yet, she had a certain gaiety, if not levity of man- 
 ner, which gave weight to the accusations. Being brought 
 to trial, she was condemned to be burned or beheaded, at the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Hi 
 
 king's pleasure. When this dreadful sentence was pro- 
 nounced, she was not terrified; but, lifting up her hands to 
 heaven, she exclaimed: "O, Father! O, Creator! thou who 
 art the way, the truth, and the life, thou knowest that I 
 have not deserved this death." She was soon beheaded ; 
 and her body was negligently thrown into a common chest 
 made to hold arrows, and buried in the Tower. 
 
 The best evidence, perhaps, that can, at this time, be of- 
 fered, to establish the innocence of Anne, is, that the very 
 day after this bloody catastrophe, Henry was married to 
 Jane Seymour. 
 
 A parliament was then called.,. The children of the two 
 former marriages were declared illegitimate; and the crown 
 was settled on the king's issue by Jane, or any subsequent 
 wife. The progress of the reformation continued ; being- 
 favoured by. the king's disgust at the Roman pontiif, the ex- 
 treme submission, to the royal will, of-the parliament and 
 the ecclesiastical convocations, and the general feeling of 
 the nation. The reduction of the monastic establishments 
 went forward with rapidity. In a little time, were sup- 
 pressed, upwards of three-thousand of these institutions; 
 more frequently the encouragers of idleness than of religion. 
 
 But, of all the instruments of superstition, none was so 
 zealously destroyed, as the shrine of Thomas a Becket, 
 commonly called St. Thomas of Canterbury. The devotion 
 towards him had quite effaced, in that place, the adoration 
 of the Deity. In a particular year, there was not offered 
 at the altar of God a single penny, though at Becket's there 
 was given above nine-hundred pounds. 
 
 It is evident, how obnoxious to Henry a saint of this re- 
 putation must have been ; and how contrary to all his plans 
 for degrading the authority of the court of Rome. He not 
 only pillaged his rich shrine, but cited the saint himself 
 to appear in court, condemned him as a traitor, ordered his 
 name to be erased from the calendar, his bones to be burn- 
 ed, and his ashes to be thrown into the air. 
 
 An event now occurred, which Flenry had long 
 
 and ardently desired — -the birth of a son ; who was 
 
 called Edward, and created prince of Vv^ales. Yet, this 
 
 happiness was not without alloy ; for, in two days afterwards, 
 
 he lost his queen. 
 
 The business of dictating to the nation in matters of re- 
 ligion, was unceasing. What the king thought fit to or- 
 der, the parliament was always ready to support ; not only 
 in spiritual, but in temporal, concerns : so that, it may be 
 
112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 justly said, that the power of Henry, through his entire 
 reign, was absolute and undisputed. On the one hand, 
 anxious to restrain the pope ; on the other, to oppose his 
 own opinions to the bold doctrines of the reformers; every 
 day was pregnant with a royal mandate, and that mandate 
 was most frequently in opposition to the dogmas of the 
 preceding. Adherence to the old, or accordance with the 
 new tenets, was equally fatal, because both were at variance 
 with the king's : and those who preferred a glorious death 
 to a disgraceful denial of their faith, were soon surrounded 
 by consuming flames. A new law was often made, before 
 the old, of a contrary tenor, was repealed. Both prctest- 
 ants and catholics were subject to the penalties of his vari- 
 ous statutes ; and it was not uncommon to see two persons, 
 burning in the same fire, for entertaining opinions that were 
 directly opposite. 
 . „ Henry, however, was not so entirely engaged by 
 
 the controversies of religion, as to prevent his look- 
 ing out for another queen. By the advice of Cronuvell, 
 the primate, a marriage was concluded with Anne of Cleves, 
 a princess of Germany. On her way to London, the king, 
 impatient to ascertain the correctness of the pictures of his 
 new bride, went privately to Rochester, and saw her. He 
 found her as large, indeed, and as tall as he could wish ; but 
 utterly devoid both of grace and beauty. The matter was 
 still worse, when he found that she could speak no language 
 except Dutch ; of which he was entirely ignorant. He 
 would have immediately sent her back, only that political 
 motives restrained him : but a divorce was soon obtained ; 
 to which the queen contentedly submitted. 
 
 To this measure, he had been impelled, by two most pow- 
 erful passions — aversion to one object, and inclination to- 
 wards another. He had fixed his eyes on lady Catherine 
 Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk. Catherine and the 
 duke, being violently inimical to Cromwell, because he fa- 
 voured the protestant opinions, to which they were as strenu- 
 ously opposed, urged a prosecution against that minister, 
 on a charge of heresy and treason : and he fell an innocent 
 victim to their malice. Ten days, only, elapsed, between 
 the divorce from Anne, and the nuptials with lady Cathe- 
 rine ; and only a few months had passed, when this new 
 queen, destitute of every virtue, both now, and before her 
 marriage, was taken to the scaffold. 
 
 Though Henry had been already deprived of five wives ; 
 by divorce, by the hand of nature, and by the executioner; 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 115 
 
 yet, in about a year and a half from this, he espoused his 
 sixth wife, Catherine Par, widow of Lord Latimer. She 
 was a virtuous woman, but was nearly losing her head, by 
 her attachment to the reformation. 
 
 Henry was now at war with both Scotland and 
 * France. He sent some troops to invade the former ; 
 who were disembarked at Leith, and then marched to Ed- 
 inburgh ; which city they plundered and burned ; and he 
 himself, with a large army, passed over into France : but, 
 being deserted by his ally, the emperor, his operations were 
 not productive of any material success ; and a peace, in 
 which Scotland w^as included, ended the campaign. 
 
 The hatred felt by the king, for some time past, towards 
 the family of Howard, from the imputations against Anne 
 Boleyn, and the bad conduct of Catherine, (both related to 
 the duke of Norfolk) was now inflamed by a swelling in his 
 limbs, as well as the declining of his health in general. The 
 duke and his son, the earl of Surry, were brought to trial ; 
 and, upon charges which could not be substantiated, were 
 found guilty. The earl was beheaded — the sudden death 
 of the king prevented Norfolk from experiencing a similar 
 fate. 
 
 He had retired to his seat at Croydon, in Surry ; w^here 
 he expired in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, and sixty- 
 sixth of his age. About a month before, he had made his 
 will : in which, the previous destination of the parliament 
 was confirmed, by leaving the crown, first to Edward, then, 
 to Mary, and next, to Elizabeth. 
 
 Durine: this reign, a great variety of laws were enact- 
 ed ; some beneficial, others injurious, to the community. 
 Amongst the former, was one for depriving criminals of 
 the privilege of sanctuary, when guilty of enormous of- 
 fences : amongst the latter, were many for fixing the prices 
 of labour and provisions, and an act for regulating the in- 
 terest on money. 
 
 Until nearly the end of this reign, neither garden vege- 
 tables, nor small fruits, of any kind, were cultivated in Eng- 
 land ; having, previously, been imported from Holland. 
 When queen Catherine w^anted a sallad, she was obliged to 
 send a messenger to that country. 
 
 Although there was now used in the army a sort of 
 musket with a matchlock, called a caliver or harquebuse, 
 the bow, which had been brought over by the Normans, 
 was still a favourite and powerful weapon in the hands of 
 the English soldier. 
 
iU HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The casting of iron was introduced; cannon-balls of thib. 
 metal were used in the place of stone ; and a law was made 
 concerning bankrupts. 
 
 Literature was patronized by the king and cardinal Wol- 
 sey. It was the latter who founded in Oxford the first chair 
 for teaching Greek ; which novelty rent that university 
 into most violent factions. The students divided them- 
 selves into two parties — Greeks and Trojans ; and some- 
 times fought with as great animosity as was displayed by 
 those hostile nations, in their celebrated encounters. The 
 institution at Oxford having excited the emulation of Cam- 
 bridge, the rivalship was of important benctit, in correcting 
 the pronunciation. Dramatic poetry was cultivated by Hay- 
 wood; and Lela.nd was an assiduous recorder of antiquities. 
 
 EDWARD THE SIXTH. 
 
 1547 — 1553. 
 
 For the government of the kingdom, during the minority 
 of his son, who now ascended the throne in his tenth year, 
 the late king appointed sixteen executors and twelve coun- 
 sellors ; amongst whom, were, Cranmer, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury ; Seymour, earl of Hertford, maternal uncle to the 
 king ; lord Seymour, brother to the earl ; and sir Edward 
 Montague, chief justice of the common pleas. Hertford, 
 who was chosen protector, and created duke of Somerset, 
 had long been regarded as a secret partizan of the reform- 
 ers; and being now freed from restraint, he used every ex- 
 ertion to repress the old religion, and give encouragement 
 to the nev^^ He took care, that those intrusted with the 
 education of the king, should be of his own creed ; by which 
 means, the protcstant opinions, of young Edward, already 
 inculcated, were confirmed. Cranmer, thcnigh more mod- 
 erate in his actions than the protector, was a sincere pro- 
 moter of the reformation; and to him, was opposed, Gardi- 
 ner, bishop of Winchester. At length, however, the prin- 
 cipal ceremonies of the Roman Catholics were abolished ; 
 and a form of worship, very nearly resembling that of the 
 present Church of England, and the protestant episcopal 
 church of tlie United States, was established throughout 
 the kingdom. But that scope which the reformers had 
 given to their own judgment, in disputing the principles of 
 the ancient religion, was not allowed to others ; not only 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 115 
 
 the practice, but the very doctrine, of toleration, teing 
 then, to every sect, unknown. 
 
 Hostility with both Scotland and France was now so 
 much a matter of course, that, on the commencement of a 
 reign, we do not more regularly look for the account of a 
 coronation, than a war. In compliance with the late king's 
 desire, the protector demanded, that Mary Stuart, the young 
 queen of Scots, whose mother was sister to Henry, should 
 be married to the king of England : Arran, her guardian, 
 sls resolutely opposed the union : Somerset invaded her 
 territory ; and in a great engagement, called the battle of 
 Pinkey, lord Arran was defeated, with the loss of ten-thou- 
 sand men. As a last resource, Mary was sent over to 
 France ; where she was soon after contracted to the dauphin. 
 
 The victory at Pinkey was ascribed chiefly to the cour- 
 age and ability of Warwick ; a man alike conspicuous for 
 his talents and his contempt of justice. Having by his in- 
 trigues induced the protector to exercise the royal authori» 
 xy against lord Seymour, this nobleman was, in consequence, 
 tried, found guilty, and executed. Although Seymour was 
 not entirely innocent of the charges of sedition, yet he was 
 obnoxious to the earl of Warwick more as a rival, than as 
 a disturber of tranquillity. 
 
 Somerset himself v/as next removed. Having grown 
 extremely unpopular, by the part which he had taken in 
 his brother's death, and his having pulled down several 
 churches, to make room, or furnish materials for a palace 
 in the Strand, Warwick was enabled to deprive him of his 
 office, and to gain an entire ascendency in the government. 
 He also obtained the titles and estates of the house of Per- 
 cy ; as sir Thomas, the hc-ir of that family, had been attaint- 
 ed for rebellion. Thus, by the greatness of his acquisitions, 
 the ruin, which he had been so earnestly preparing for the 
 duke of Somerset, could now, without danger, be completed. 
 The duke was brought to trial, upon a variety of charges. 
 None, however, of a treasonable nature, could be proved ; 
 but, by his own confession, of having entertained a design 
 against the lives of Warwick (lately created duke of North- 
 umberland) and others, to which he had been impelled by 
 repeated insults, he was convicted, and, accordingly, be- 
 headed. 
 
 The princess Mary, sister of Henry the eighth, had, on 
 the decease of her husband, the king of France, espoused 
 Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. From them, was de- 
 scended lady Jane Gray *, who, considering the opposite de- 
 L 
 
U6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 crees which affected the titles of Henry's two daughters, 
 Mary and Elizabeth, had, certainly, fair pretensions to the 
 crown. To that lady, Northumberland married his fourth 
 son, lord Guildford Dudley ; and then, by his artifices, so 
 influenced the king, whose youth and declining health made 
 him susceptible of every impression, that, by the royal let- 
 ters patent, he set aside his sisters, and vested the succes- 
 sion in lady Jane. 
 
 The symptoms of Edward's complaint became every day 
 more alarming : his physicians were removed ; in their 
 place, was substituted a feeble and ignorant woman ; and 
 in a short time the young prince yielded to the effects of the 
 disorder or the medicines. He expired at Greenwich, in the 
 sixteenth year of his age and the seventh of his reign; high- 
 ly respected for his mildness of disposition, his love of equity, 
 and application to business and literature. 
 
 The prospect of opening a communication with China, 
 by a north-east passage, induced the English, at this peri- 
 od, to send out three vessels, under the command of sir 
 Hugh Willoughby ; who steered directly along the coast 
 of Norway, and doubled the North Cape. But, having 
 been separated in a storm, Willoughby, with two of the 
 vessels, took refuge in a desert part of Russian Lapland ; 
 where he, and all his companions, were frozen to death. 
 Chancelour, the captain of the other, having entered the 
 White Sea, wintered at Archangel ; and, although no for- 
 eign vessels had before visited that part of the globe, they 
 were received there with the greatest hospitality. Being 
 informed that it was part of a vast empire subject to the 
 Czar of Muscovy, who resided in a great city twelve-hun- 
 dred miles from Archangel, he instantly set out for the 
 capital ; which was Moscow. Here, he was treated with 
 respect : and, thenceforward, an intercourse continued be- 
 tween England and Russia. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 1553 — 1558. 
 
 The late attempt to violate the order of succession, by 
 having the crown assigned to Jane, so fully displayed the 
 ambition and injustice of Northumberland, that, when the 
 people reflected on the long train of fraud and cruelty, by 
 which that project had been conducted, they were moved by 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 117 
 
 indignation to exert themselves in opposition to such crimi- 
 nal enterprises. 
 
 Lady Jane is alike the object of our pity and admiration. 
 Amiable, engaging, accomplished, she was worthy of the 
 most exalted throne ; as well by her acquirements, as by her 
 reluctant acceptance of what she supposed to be another's 
 right. 
 
 Orders were given by the council to proclaim Jane 
 throughout the kingdom ; but they were observed only near 
 the court. No applause ensued : on account of the hatred, 
 of all parties, towards Northumberland, they heard the pro- 
 clamation with silence and concern, or with expressions of 
 contempt. At this time, Mary was in Suffolk. There, 
 having declared, that she would not alter the religious 
 establishments of Edward, the nobility and gentry flocked 
 with their adherents to her standard. The duke of North- 
 umberland being deserted by the council and the army, 
 lady Jane, after wearing the crown but ten days, returned 
 to the more pleasing enjoyment of a private life. North- 
 umberland was arrested by the earl of Arundel, and suffer- 
 ed the punishment which he so justly merited. Sentence of 
 death was pronounced also against lady Jane Gray, and her 
 husband, lord Guildford Dudley ; but, without any intention, 
 then, of putting it in execution. Indeed, their innocence 
 and youth, neither having reached seventeen years, pleaded 
 amply in their favour. 
 
 But the joy arising from the accession of the lawful heir, 
 was succeeded by disgust. The queen soon displayed that: 
 malignity of disposition, vvhich, throughout her reign, was 
 so destructively exercised on her unhappy subjects. Bigo- 
 try, cruelty, tyranny, and revenge, were the strongest pas- 
 sions of her mind : and these were well depicted in the for- 
 bidding cast of her exterior. From her earliest years, she 
 had imbibed an aversion to the reformed religion ; and now, 
 contrary to her solemn pledges, she reinstated in their sees 
 all the most violent of her own party, and established 
 throughout the kingdom the Roman Catholic form of wor- 
 ship. The prisons were crowded with the protestants : the 
 flames burned with unexampled fierceness; and all who re- 
 fused to subscribe to the religion of the queen, were sacri- 
 ficed by the ferocity of persecution. Amongst those dis- 
 tinguished for intolerance, may be mentioned, Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, and Bonner, bishop of London. The 
 prelates who suffered martyrdom, were Cranmer, Ridley, 
 Latimer, Hooper, and Ferrar. 
 
18 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 . ^ . A marriage was this year solemnized between 
 
 Mary and Philip the second of Spain, son of Charles 
 the fifth. Her husband was little calculated to gain the 
 affections of the nation; being 'as gloomy and tyrannical as 
 the queen herself; and public feeling was soon displayed 
 by an insurrection. This rebellion was, however, after 
 much bloodshed, suppressed. But the vengeance of the 
 queen reached even to the innocent. Lady Jane Gray and 
 lord Guildford Dudley suffered for the actions of their 
 friends. Notice was given this amiable and interesting- 
 couple to prepare for death ; and they were soon relieved 
 from their anxiety. On the scaffold, Lady Jane said, that 
 her offence was not her laying her hands upon the crown, 
 but her not rejecting it with sufficient constancy; and that 
 she willingly received death, as the only satisfaction she 
 could make to her injured country. 
 
 Soon afterwards, the duke of Suffolk, father of Lady 
 Jane, was taken to the block ; where, he would have met 
 with more compassion, had not his temerity caused his 
 daughter's untimely end. 
 
 England was now at war with France; and, by 
 the negligence of government, Calais, the only place 
 remaining to the British, on the continent, was taken by 
 the duke of Guise ; after being in theii' possession above 
 two-hundred years. This event sunk deep into the mind 
 of Mary. She had long been in a delicate state of health : 
 a variety of reflections now tormented her, and threw her 
 into a fever ; of v/hich she died, in the sixth year of her 
 reign, and the forty-third of her age. Cardinal Pole, de- 
 scended from the royal family, who had, for a considerable 
 time, laboured under bodily afflictions, expired on the same 
 day. 
 
 At this time, the dwellings of people, even of considera- 
 ble estate, were very meanly constructed. They were of 
 plank, badly put together, and chimneys were almost un- 
 known in England. The fire was kindled by the wall, and 
 the smoke found its way through the roof, door, or windows. 
 The furniture was appropriate. The people slept on straw 
 pallets, having a log under their heads for a pillow ; and 
 almost every domestic utensil was of wood. Dinner and 
 supper were taken about an hour earlier than at present : 
 which were their only meals ; breakfast not being then in 
 use. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 119 
 
 ELIZABETH, 
 
 1558—1603. 
 
 This princess, the daughter of Henry the eighth and 
 Anne Boleyn, ascended the throne in her twenty-sixth year. 
 Her principal ministers were, sir William Cecil, (afterwards 
 lord Burleigh,) and sir Francis Walsingham ; men of highly 
 eminent abilities. 
 
 Although it was generally believed that she had em- 
 braced a religion opposite to that which now prevailed in 
 England, yet, so much were men displeased with the con- 
 duct of the late queen, that, overlooking their theological 
 disputes, they expressed unfeigned joy at the coronation of 
 Elizabeth. When she was conducted through London, 
 amidst the acclamations of the people, a boy, who person- 
 ated Truth, descended from one of the triumphal arches, 
 and presented her with a copy of the Bible. She received 
 it with the most gracious deportment, placed it next her 
 bosom, and declared, that amidst all the costly testimonies 
 of their attachment which the citizens had on that day given 
 her, this present was by far the most acceptable. In this 
 manner, did the queen gain the affections of her subjects. 
 Gracious and affable in public, she joined in their amuse- 
 ments, without departing from her dignity ; and, notwith- 
 standing the high and unbending tenor of her government, 
 she acquired a popularity, greater than was ever attained 
 by any other sovereign of England. 
 
 Though the queen, previous to her coronation, had made 
 several alterations in the existing ceremonies of the church, 
 yet she delayed the entire change until the meeting of par- 
 liament. Immediately on its assembling, the statutes of 
 Edward the sixth with regard to religion were confirmed ; 
 many fresh innovations were made, and the Protestant re- 
 ligion was again established throughout the entire kingdom. 
 It was not thought sufficient to prohibit, by severe penalties, 
 the celebration of the Mass: the Roman Catholics, and all 
 other sects, without distinction, v/ere even compelled to par- 
 take in the Liturgy of the court — Such measures are not 
 only unjust but ineffective. We cannot refrain from con- 
 demning the slightest exercise of inquisitorial power. Uni- 
 formity of opinion can never be produced by violence. 
 
 This parliament was completely obsequious to the royal 
 will ; all the members having been nominated by the court. 
 Indeed, during her whole reign, Elizabeth swayed the 
 L 2 
 
120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 sceptre with an authority unrestrained by the least regara 
 to the constitution; and, to this domineering spirit both 
 lords and commons submitted, with a degree of tamcness 
 and servility, which stamps their memories with indelible 
 disgrace. They might indeed give directions for the due 
 tanning of leather, or the milling of cloth ; the assessment of 
 taxes, the mending of decayed bridges, or the whipping of 
 beggars; any thing further, she thought, was above their 
 understanding. Three representatives, however, Carleton, 
 Yelverton, and Peter Wentworth, resolutely supported par- 
 liamentary independence. 
 
 We come now to the most interesting, though, certainly, 
 the most disagreeable, part of the history, of this celebrated 
 reign. 
 
 The lineal heir to the crown, after Elizabeth, was Mary, 
 queen of Scots, (descended from Margaret, sister of Henry 
 the eighth, and wife of James the fourth of Scotland,) v/ho 
 still resided abroad, and novv', as wife of Francis the second, 
 enjoyed also the title of queen of France. As both, by di- 
 rection of the late French king, had assumed not only the 
 arms, but the royal titles, of England, Elizabeth persever- 
 ed in opposing the wishes of the nation, that Mary should 
 be acknowledged her successor; nor could she, until her 
 latest breath, be induced to concur in the appointment even 
 of another. Always fearful of an heir apparent, she amus- 
 ed the parliament by most artful evasions; and though she 
 had frequently declared her resolutions to remain unmar- 
 ried, she listened to the addresses of her numerous lovers ; 
 but, with the most refined coquetry, held her parliament 
 and her lovers equally in suspense: the one by the hopes 
 of an heir; the other by the expectation of a bride. 
 
 The death of the French monarch naturally in- 
 * duced Mary to return to Scotland; and no v/oman, 
 perhaps, ever experienced so great a change, in ponit of 
 social enjoyment. To the gay and easy manners of the 
 French, were now opposed the rough familiarities of the 
 Scotch: to the splendid exterior of the Roman Catholic 
 •worship, the total abolition of the ancient rites. Every 
 insult, that the violence of fanaticism could produce, was 
 given to her, without reserve; to which harsh and prepos- 
 terous treatment, may, in part, be ascribed, those errors of 
 her subsequent life, so much at variance with the tenor of 
 her early conduct. For, hitherto, her deportment had been 
 amiable. — She had now reached her nineteenth year: and 
 the bloom of youth, and beauty of her person, were height- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 121 
 
 ened by the politeness of her manners, and the elegance of 
 her acquirements. Her age, her rank, her education, in- 
 vited her to liberty and cheerfulness ; but, by the absurd 
 severity of the reformers, she was debarred from every 
 amusement; and her uncles, with the other French no- 
 bility, were driven to their own country, by disgust. 
 
 Notwithstanding the umbrage which Elizabeth had con- 
 ceived, arising from Mary's having openly usurped the 
 English dignities, and the resentment which the latter, on 
 her side, might justly feel against Elizabeth, on account of 
 the active part she had taken to encourage the Scotch in 
 opposition to her rival, a cordial friendship seemed to be 
 cemented between them : they wrote, every week, amicable 
 letters to each other; and adopted the style and sentiments 
 of sisters. 
 
 As Mary's uncle, the duke of Guise, was endeavour- 
 ing to form a matrimonial alliance with her and the Arch- 
 duke Charles, Elizabeth, to prevent it, not only gave this 
 prince some hopes of obtaining herself, but intimated to 
 Mary, that if she would espouse an English nobleman, her 
 title to the crown of England should be examined. The 
 person whom she named, was the earl of Leicester. This 
 nobleman, a son of the late duke of Northumberland, had 
 long been the favourite of Elizabeth, and, by his handsome 
 person and insinuating address, had so deceived her, that 
 she discovered not the odious vices of his disposition. Ma- 
 ry listened to the proposal : but Leicester was too great a 
 favourite to be parted with ; and Elizabeth soon withdrew 
 the bait. By this duplicity of conduct, joined to some in- 
 dications of insolent superiority, the correspondence of the 
 two queens was for some time interrupted ; but, to make 
 up the breach, Mary despatched to London sir James Mel- 
 ville ; a courtier of pleasing address and conversation. 
 Melville insinuated himself completely into the confidence 
 of Elizabeth, and made her discover the recesses of her 
 heart, full of those levities, and ideas of rivalship, which 
 possess the youngest and most frivolous of her sex. Some- 
 times, she was dressed in the English costume — some- 
 times, in the French — at another time, in the Italian ; and 
 she asked him which of these became her most. He an- 
 swered, the Italian : a reply which he knew would be agree- 
 able; because that mode showed to advantage her flowing 
 locks; which, he remarked, though they were more red 
 than yellow, she fancied were the handsomest in the world. 
 She asked, whether his queen, or she, had the finest hair. 
 
«22 HiSTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 She even inquired which had the fairest person— a very 
 delicate question ; which he prudently eluded, by saying, 
 that her majesty was the fairest person in England, and his 
 mistress, in Scotland. From the whole of her behaviour, 
 Melville concluded, that his queen had no reason ever to 
 expect any cordial friendship from Elizabeth ; and that all 
 her professions were full of falsehood and dissimulation. 
 
 At length, Mary was married to lord Darnley, son to 
 the earl of Lenox, of the house of Stuart, and, after her, 
 heir to the crown of England. Elizabeth was so enraged 
 at this, that she threw the countess of Lenox and her sec- 
 ond son into the Tower, and confiscated the earl's English 
 estate; though without being able to assign one single rea- 
 son for her displeasure. 
 
 But Mary had overlooked the qualities of her husband's 
 mind : insolent, credulous, and easily governed by flatter- 
 ers, all domestic enjoyments were poisoned by those pro- 
 pensities, and the whole nation soon became a scene of fac- 
 tion and confusion. Of these, Elizabeth was always sure 
 to take advantage. There was, at this time, in the Scottish 
 court, one David Rizzio, an Italian musician, who enjoy- 
 ed, with Mary, an extraordinary degree of confidence, and 
 acted as secretary for French despatches. By these fa- 
 vours, and his joining the Roman Catholic party, he be- 
 came so obnoxious, that a conspiracy was formed against 
 him. Lord Ruthven, George Douglas, Darnley, and some 
 others, entered the room where Mary, with the 
 * countess of Argyle, and Rizzio, was at supper ; and, 
 rushing upon the favourite, they despatched him with their 
 daggers. 
 
 Henceforth, Mary conceived an incurable antipathy to- 
 wards Darnley. Now, commenced, the decline of all her 
 grandeur, and a total contempt of virtue, or even of char- 
 acter. She attached herself to lord Bothwell : the murder 
 of her husband was soon effected; and, of their being the 
 perpetrators of that horrid deed, no reasonable doubt re- 
 mains ! Scarcely three months had passed, before she was 
 married to this man; though he then had a wife alive. The 
 earl of Argyle, lord Hume, and many more, flew to arms. 
 Bothwell escaped to Denmark; Mary was dethroned and 
 imprisoned, and her infant son, by Darnley, was proclaimed 
 king, under the title of James the sixth. 
 
 The miserable queen escaped into England. Here, be- 
 itig again imprisoned, she desired to exonerate herself, by 
 trial, from the charge of her husband's murder : and, in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 123 
 
 consequence, many meetings of the Scotch and English 
 commissioners took place; but without a decision. In the 
 mean time, the duke of Norfolk, contrary to the wishes of 
 Elizabeth, having made Mary a tender of his hand, she 
 promised to espouse him, as soon as she could be legally 
 divorced from Bothwell. Though Norfolk was a protest- 
 ant, he was highly respected amongst the great catholic no- 
 bility; by whose influence, and that of the king of Spain, 
 he joined Mary in a plan of insurrection, invasion, and sub- 
 version of the government. This conspiracy, however, be- 
 ing detected, the duke was condemned and executed. The 
 unhappy queen, during a long series of years, was remov- 
 ed from prison to prison ; still, naturally, forming plans for 
 her liberation. At length, she was charged with associat- 
 ing in a conspiracy, which aimed even at the life of Eliza- 
 beth, and was conveyed to Fotheringay-castle, in North- 
 amptonshire; which, it was determined, should be the last 
 stage of her earthly sufferings. Here, she was brought to 
 trial and condemned. As soon as her son, the king of Scot- 
 land, heard of this event, he sent sir William Keith with a 
 letter to Elizabeth ; in which, he remonstrated, in severe 
 terms, against the indignity and cruelty of the procedure. 
 But this exercise of filial duty had no effect. After delays, 
 produced rather by dissimulation than humanity, she sign- 
 
 ^ « ed the warrant for her execution; and Mary's head 
 was soon severed from her body. Thus, perished, 
 this unfortunate female, in the forty-fifth year of her age, 
 and nineteenth of her captivity in England. 
 
 During these transactions, Elizabeth was engaged in 
 succouring the protestants in France and the Low Coun- 
 tries. In the latter, the infamous Philip of Spain, aided by 
 the equally atrocious duke of Alva, had driven the follow- 
 ers of Luther to so great a pitch of desperation, that they 
 flew to arms ; and, in a few days, the provinces of Holland 
 and Zealand shook off his authority. William, prince of 
 Orange, by uniting the revolted districts into a lea^^ue, laid 
 the foundation of the celebrated Dutch Commonwealth ; 
 since erected into a monarchy, called the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Francis Drake, a bold and celebrated seaman, fitted out, 
 at his own expense, five vessels, with Avhich he passed 
 through the Strait of Magellan, into the Pacific Ocean: 
 then, having taken many rich prizes from the Spaniards, 
 he set sail for the East Indies, and returned by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, after an absence of more than three years. He 
 
124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was the first Englishman that sailed round the globe, and 
 the first commander, of any nation; (Magellan, whose ship 
 had before performed the same voyage, having died in the 
 passage;) for which memorable achievement, he was 
 knighted by the queen. 
 
 In retaliation for Elizabeth's enmity, Philip sent a small 
 body of men into Ireland. But the earl of Ormond besieg- 
 ed them in Kerry, where they had erected a fort, and made 
 them all prisoners. 
 
 Accounts were now received from all quarters, 
 ' of an immense armament nearly completed by the 
 Spaniards; whose monarch, founding his pretensions to the 
 English crown, upon his descent from a female branch of 
 the house of Lancaster, and the will of his late consort, 
 Mary, meditated the invasion and entire conquest of Eng- 
 land. The chief support of the kingdom seemed to consist 
 in the vigour and prudence of the queen ; who, undismayed 
 by the present dangers, issued all her orders with tran- 
 quillity. The more to excite the martial ardour of the na- 
 tion, she appeared, on horseback, in the camp at Tilbury ; 
 and, riding along the lines, cheered the soldiers by her 
 eloquence, and the animation of her countenance. People 
 of every class, and of every religion, forgot their animosi* 
 ties, and strove only for the safety of their country. The 
 royal navy of England amounted only to twenty-eight sail, 
 of but small size : all the sailors in the kingdom, to four- 
 teen-thousand ; however, the seaports freely contributed 
 to increase the fleet, and what was v/anting in the number, 
 was supplied by the bravery and experience, of the men. 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of courage and capacity, 
 was admiral ; and, under him, were, Drake, Hawkins, and 
 Frobisher; the most renowned seamen in the world. The 
 admiral had scarcely got out of Plymouth, when he saw the 
 Spanish Armada (by which name this famous armament 
 is known) coming full sail towards him, disposed in the 
 form of a crescent, and displaying a front of no less than 
 seven miles. It consisted of one-hundred-and-thirty ves- 
 sels, of larger size than were ever before used in Europe, 
 and had on board thirty-thousand men. — As the armada 
 advances up the Channel, Effingham hangs upon its rear, 
 occasionally giving battle ; when, each trial abates the con- 
 fidence of the Spaniards, and adds courage to the English. 
 The fire of the enemy passes over the heads of their as- 
 sailants, whilst almost every English shot is the messenger 
 of death. — Effingham now sends fire-ships amongst the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 125 
 
 Spaniards : — nothing is to be seen but terror and confu- 
 sion : — they take to flight — the English seize the advan- 
 tage and pursue ; but want of ammunition constrains them 
 to desist. 
 
 Their disasters were not yet completed. A violent tem- 
 pest overtook them, driving them either upon the coast of 
 Ireland, or on the Western isles of Scotland ; where, they 
 were so miserably wrecked or shattered, that not half of the 
 boasted armament returned to Spain. 
 
 From the noble breed of horses then driven on these 
 places, are descended the beautiful little race of Scotch 
 ponies ; which, without the size, retain all the spirit, and all 
 the symmetry, of their progenitors. 
 
 The affairs of Ireland next demand attention. Al- 
 though the claim of England to that country had 
 now existed above four centuries, her authority was, hither- 
 to, little more than nominal. The Irish princes and nobles, 
 divided amongst themselves, readily paid exterior marks of 
 obeisance to a power which they wxre not able wholly to 
 resist ; but, as no permanent force was ever assigned for 
 the purpose of retaining them in subjection, they still re- 
 lapsed into their former state of independence. The laws 
 enacted for the government of this unhappy country, were 
 ungenerous and absurd. When every other Christian na- 
 tion was cultivating the sciences, and the refinements of 
 society, Ireland, lying in a temperate climate, enjoying a 
 fertile soil, with many other natural advantages, was in- 
 habited by a people v/hose situation was deplorable. To 
 suppress the extensive insurrections of the O'Neales, (the 
 earls of Desmond and Thomond,) the queen sent over a 
 powerful army, under the command of Devereux, earl of 
 Essex ; whom she appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland. 
 This young nobleman had distinguished himself in many 
 naval and military enterprises ; and, as the earl of Leices- 
 ter was now dead, Essex occupied his place in the queen's 
 affections. But, in Ireland, he was entirely unsuccessful. 
 He was recalled — disgraced— received again into favour — 
 again dismissed ; and being driven, at last, almost to fren- 
 zy, by the fluctuation of his hopes and disappointments, he 
 endeavoured to overturn the government. For this, he was 
 condemned, and taken to the scaffold ; where he confessed 
 the justice of his sentence. 
 
 . From the death of Essex, the health of the queen 
 
 visibly declined. She fell into a profound melancho- 
 ly, which all the glories of her administration were unable 
 
126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 to alleviate ; and expired in the seventieth year of her age. 
 and the forty-fifth of her reign ; having expressed a desire 
 that the king of Scotland should succeed her. 
 
 Few sovereigns have displayed abilities equal to Eliza- 
 beth's ; and, certainly, such talents were never shown by 
 any other female, in any age, or in any nation. She was a 
 woman of considerable accomplishments : Greek and La- 
 tin were familiar to her ; but she was devoid of that soft- 
 ness of disposition, without which, her sex are never amia- 
 ble. Overbearing in the council, her ministers feared her 
 as a tiger. Imperious in the palace, her servants dreaded 
 her approach. 
 
 Elizabeth founded Trinity College in Dublin ; ordered 
 the printing of the " English Mercury," which was the 
 earliest newspaper in the kingdom ; established posts for 
 the regular transmission of letters ; directed the cultivation 
 of hemp and flax, and introduced into England the manu- 
 facture of gunpowder and of brass-cannon. She also grant- 
 ed a charter to the East India Company ; the first voyage 
 to the Indian seas having been effected in her reign : des- 
 patched a squadron for the purpose of finding a passage to 
 Hindostan, by the north-west, under the command of 
 Frobisher ; and another, intrusted to the skill of Davis ; 
 who were unsuccessful, but respectively, discovered the 
 straits that bear their names : and she obtained from the 
 czar of Muscovy a privilege of vending the manufactures 
 of England through his whole dominions, free from duty, as 
 well as of carrying them to Persia and Media, by the Cas- 
 pian sea ; the merchants of other nations not being allow- 
 ed to trade beyond Moscow. Copper-mines were opened, 
 and mills erected for slitting iron bars. The printing of 
 linen commenced, and the manufacture of paper ; and com- 
 merce was rendered less hazardous to individuals, by in- 
 surance on ships at sea. The nobility began to build their 
 houses of brick and stone, with glass windows : coaches 
 were introduced, pocket-watches brought over from Ger- 
 many ; and the queen, having received a present of a pair 
 of silk knit-stockings, discontinued the previously universal 
 fashion of hose, or stockings made of cloth. Sir Thomas 
 Gresham, a merchant, erected in London, at his own ex- 
 pense, a building, which, in presence of the queen, was call- 
 ed the Royal Exchange ; and the Bodleian Library, at Ox- 
 ford, was, with equal liberality, founded and largely en- 
 dowed by sir Thomas Bodley. 
 
 Though the population of England did not then exceed 
 
IIISTOUY OF ENGLAND. nr 
 
 four millions, the rage of colonization was very great. Sir 
 Walter Raleigh made several unsuccessful attempts to 
 tjstablish a colony on the island of Roanoke, off the coast 
 now called North Carolina ; then called Virginia : a name 
 given by Elizabeth to all the English discoveries in Amer» 
 jca during her reign ; as a memorial that they were made 
 nnder a virgin queen. Tobacco was brought into England 
 from those parts ; and was rendered fashionable by Ra- 
 leigh ; and (in 1565) the potato, called battata by the In- 
 dians, was brought into Ireland from Mexico, by sir John 
 Hawkins; being the first of that valuable article of food 
 introduced into Europe. 
 
 Elizabeth had the honour of patronizing Spenser and 
 Shakespeare, Sackville and sir Philip Sidney. Spenser is 
 author of that admired poem, the Fairy Queen ; written in 
 a provincial dialect ; not in the national language of his 
 time. The numerous productions of Shakespeare, show, 
 that he possessed dramatic talents, and a knowledge of 
 human nature, greater than were ever displayed by any 
 other man, at any period of the world. Holinshed was 
 distinguished for his Chronicles ; and Briggs, for his in- 
 genious researches in mathematics. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Union of the Rn^li^h and Scotch Crowns 
 
 JAMES THE FIRST, 
 
 1603—1625. 
 
 THE sceptre now passed from the house of Tudor to 
 that of Stuart ; and, henceforward, the crowns of England 
 and Scotland were united. 
 
 James the first of England, and sixth of Scotland, was son 
 of the unfortunate Mary, and Henry Stuart, lord Darnley ; 
 and grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry the seventh. 
 He had been baptized a Roman Catholic, but was after- 
 wards educated in the protestant religion j the famous his- 
 torian, Buchanan, being his tutor. 
 M 
 
128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 James was at this time in his thirty-eighth year ; was a 
 man of considerable learning, of a social disposition, but 
 averse to the bustle of the world, and to the noisy demon- 
 strations of joy, which the people, crowding around him, 
 so willingly displayed. He was not, however, insensible to 
 this great overflow of affection. He seems to have been in 
 haste to make them some return. Hence, that profusion 
 of favours, in the beginning of his reign. In six weeks 
 after his entrance into England, he conferred knighthood on 
 above two-hundred persons ; and titles of all kinds became 
 so common, that they were no longer considered as marks 
 of distinction. From an excusable weakness, he was par- 
 tial to men of his own country ; yet, he retained, in all the 
 principal offices, the ministers of Elizabeth ; and sir Ro- 
 bert Cecil, created by him earl of Salisbury, (son of the 
 great Burleigh) was always regarded as his prime minister. 
 To congratulate the king on his accession, there soon ap- 
 peared at court ambassadors from almost every state in 
 Europe ; amongst whom, was the accomplished marquis 
 of Rosni, (afterwards duke of Sully,) the favourite min- 
 ister of the celebrated Henry the fourth, of France. 
 
 Amidst the great tranquillity, with which the nation was 
 now blessed, nothing could be more surprising, than the 
 discovery of a conspiracy, to place on the throne Arabella 
 Stuart, a near relation of the king. Of this, there were ac- 
 cused, several men of different religions : and, amongst the 
 number, sir Walter Raleigh ; who was, in consequence, 
 (without, however, any satisfactory proof,) condemned to 
 die; but afterwards reprieved^ though not pardoned. . The 
 prosecutions were conducted by sir Edward Coke; who in- 
 sulted Raleigh with abuse, so extremely gross, that his con- 
 duct may be deemed a reproach, not only on his own me- 
 mory, but on the manners of the age. 
 
 This year is rem.arkable for one of the most cele- 
 brated events in the history of England — the Gun- 
 powder Plot : a fact as certain as it appears incredible ; 
 displaying, at once, the widest departure from moral vir- 
 tue, and the steadiest attachment to religious prepossession. 
 Catesby, a man of respectable family, and Percy, a descend- 
 ant of the house of Northumberland, were the projectors 
 of a scheme, for restoring the Roman Catholics to power; 
 and formed the diabolical plan of blowing up the house of 
 parliament with gunpowder. " We must destroy," said 
 they, " the king, the royal family, the lords, the commons ; 
 and bury all our enemies in one general ruin. They are 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 129 
 
 now assembled in the first meeting of parliament ; and af- 
 ford us the opportunity of glorious and useful vengeance." 
 For this purpose, they engaged one Guy Fawkes, an officer 
 in the Spanish service; with whose zeal and ingenuity, they 
 were well acquainted. Happily, however. Providence avert- 
 ed, by a discovery, this dreadful blow ; after the gunpowder 
 and the matches were conveyed into a vault under the house 
 of lords. Here, Fawkes being seized, he made a full con- 
 fession of his own guilt, and that of his associates ; whoj 
 with himself, met the reward which their crime so highly 
 merited. But let us not involve the Roman Catholic body 
 in this horrid plot. It would be unjust. The king was 
 conscious that they were unfairly implicated; and declared, 
 that, for his part, the conspiracy, however atrocious, should 
 not alter, in the least, his plan of government. 
 
 '' James frequently boasted," says Hume, " that the man- 
 agement of Ireland was his masterpiece. Upon inquiry, it 
 will appear, that his vanity, in this particular, was not 
 without foundation. Although Elizabeth had succeeded in 
 finally subjecting that country ; yet, the more difficult task 
 remained — to civilize the inhabitants, and reconcile thenri 
 to industry and laws. James proceeded by a steady and 
 well concerted plan ; and, hi less than ten years, did more 
 towards the improvement of that kingdom, than all his pre- 
 decessors had accomplished, in upwards of four centuries. 
 By the old Irish custom, every crime, however enormous, 
 was punished, not by death, but by a pecuniary fine. Mur- 
 der itself was atoned for in this manner : and each man, ac- 
 cording to his rank, had a different rate or value affixed to 
 him ; which, if any one was willing to pay, he might as- 
 sassinate his enemy. This rate was called his eric. When 
 sir William Fitzwilliams, a governor of Ireland, told Ma- 
 guire, an Irish chieftain, that he intended to send a sheriff' 
 into Fermanagh; which, a little before, had been made a 
 county, and subjected to the English laws ; ' Your sheriff*,' 
 said Maguire, ' shall be welcome to me : but, let me knowj 
 before hand, his ei-ic, or the price of his head ; that, if my 
 people cut it off, I may levy the money upon the county." 
 As for oppression, extortion, or other trespasses, so lit- 
 tle were they regarded, that no redress for such offences 
 could ever be obtained. James abolished these Irish cus- 
 toms, and substituted the laws of England ; and, having 
 declared the natives to be free' citizens, proceeded to gov- 
 ern them by a regular administration. The whole province 
 of Ulster having fallen to the crown, by the attainder of the 
 
.30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 rebels, a company for establishing in it new colonies -vya?* 
 formed in London : tenants were sent over from England 
 and Scotland : the Irish were removed from their retreats, 
 and settled in the open country : husbandry and the arts 
 were taught them ; and, by these means, Ulster, from be- 
 ing the wildest and the most disorderly province of all Ire- 
 land, soon became the most highly cultivated and the most 
 civilized." 
 
 Although we do not deny Hume our general approba- 
 tion, yet we cannot accord with his manner of treating the 
 affairs of Ireland. In this instance, he is extremely super- 
 ficial ; indeed, more so, than the extended plan of his valu- 
 able work would lead us to expect. That the Irish, even 
 at the period to which he alludes, were in some degree un- 
 civilized, and that their laws were neither judiciously fram- 
 ed, nor properly enforced, we readily admit. But, the op- 
 pressions under which they laboured from their rapacious 
 masters, had assisted in prolonging this miserable condi- 
 tion ; and we confidently maintain, that they were not more 
 remarkable for insubordination than the Scotch ; nor many 
 degrees more uncivilized than the English. To Scotland, 
 Hume is certainly not partial ; but still, he has paid more 
 attention to her affairs than to those of Ireland ; and had he 
 gone more minutely into the latter, this " master piece'* of 
 James, would not appear so equitable. Historians of great 
 research, attribute the colonization of Ulster to his desire 
 of extending the protestant religion; and assert, that seve- 
 ral of the Irish chieftains had been attainted and deprived 
 of their estates, without sufiicient evidence. 
 
 Those who feel an interest in the concerns of Ireland, 
 will be gratified by the works of Davies, Leland, O'Hal- 
 loran, Ledwich, Gordon, Plowden, and Lawless ; and by a 
 late work — the " Vindiciae Hibernicae" of Carey. 
 
 James had, in common with other men, his failings and 
 his follies. His puerile attachment to favourites was first 
 conspicuous in the honours, and confidence, which he so 
 lavishly gave to Robert Carr. Though Carr was made 
 known to the king merely by accident, he was soon created 
 viscount Rochester, and earl of Somerset ; was loaded with 
 riches, and had, for a while, the sole direction of national 
 affairs. Unworthy, from the beginning, of these distinc- 
 tions, this upstart minion plunged headlong into the deepest 
 crimes ; was disgraced, and dragged out a miserable life in 
 obscurity and detestation. To Carr, succeeded George 
 VilUers J a younger brother of a good English family j whose 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 131 
 
 chief advantages were a handsome person, genteel air, and 
 fashionable dress. First, he was made cupbearer to the 
 king; then, successively, created viscount Villiers, earl, 
 marquis, and duke of Buckingham, knight of the garter, 
 master of the horse, chief justice in Eyre, warden of the 
 cinque ports, master of the king's bench office, steward of 
 Westminster, constable of Windsor, and lord high admiral 
 of England ! Of every talent, requisite for a statesman, he 
 was utterly devoid ; and, to indulge his pride or his inso- 
 lence, he sacrificed the faith of treaties, the character of 
 the nation, and the honour of his benefactor. 
 
 Hitherto, the influence of parliament, in questions of 
 great national importance, was undefined. Those invalu- 
 able rights, which the people fondly supposed had been 
 ascertained and secured by the great charter, were frittered 
 away, by the insolence of tlie crown, the servile flattery of 
 ministers, the ignorance and submission of the public guar- 
 dians. But a new era now burst forth. The minds of men 
 became more enlightened ; the prince was less capable of 
 tyranny, though not less inclined to be a tyrant. 
 
 In one of his speeches, he insisted, that, as it was blas- 
 phemy for man to dispute what God might do, in the ful- 
 ness of his omnipotence ; so, was it sedition, for subjects to 
 dispute what a king might do, in the fulness of his power. 
 The commons, however, assumed a degree of vigour and 
 boldness: they began to call public officers to account; and 
 no situation was above the reach of their investigation. The 
 office of chancellor was then filled by the celebrated Francis 
 Bacon, viscount St. Albans; a man universally admired for 
 the greatness of his genius, and beloved for the humanity 
 of his disposition. But, unfortunately, his want of econo- 
 my having involved him in necessity, he had taken several 
 bribes from the suitors in chancery ; which caused his im- 
 peachment, and a sentence, that he should pay a fine of 
 forty-thousand pounds, and be for ever incapable of holding 
 any public employment. 
 
 We have another instance of deviation from the path of 
 rectitude, in sir Walter Raleigh. This great man had been 
 confined in the Tower for thirteen years ; during which 
 time, he had increased his literary reputation, by writing a 
 history of the world. Eager, after so long an imprisonment, 
 to obtain his liberty, he spread a report of a gold mine, that 
 in one of his excursions he had discovered in Guiana ; to 
 which country, he perhaps imagined that England had a 
 claim, from his having set up a mark upon the coast. The 
 M 2 
 
>32 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 king gave him liberty to go in search of this reported miae- 
 but reserved the capital sentence, as a check upon his beha- 
 viour. Raleigh, accordingly, htted out a fleet; with which 
 he set sail to South America. But the mine from which 
 he endeavoured to draw his riches, was the Spanish town 
 of St. Thomas; which he seized, and afterwards set on fire. 
 For this, he was, on his return, executed upon his 
 * former sentence. The crown lawyers justified them- 
 selves, by a maxim, that no man could be tried on a fresh 
 indictment, whilst lying under a previous sentence of death. 
 This is a nice point ; however, their conduct bears a strong 
 tincture of barbarism and injustice. 
 
 In this spring, the king was seized with a tertiaa 
 ^' ague; which terminated his life, in the fifty -ninth 
 year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign over Eng- 
 land. He was possessed of considerable virtues ; but scarce- 
 ly any of these were pure, or free from the contagion of the 
 neighbouring vices. His generosity bordered on profusion, 
 his learning on pedantry, his pacific disposition on pusil- 
 lanimity, his wisdom on cunning, his friendship on light 
 fancy and boyish fondness. 
 
 He left only one son, Charles ; and one daughter, Eliza- 
 beth, married to the Elector Palatine. 
 
 It was in this reign, and through the desire and patron- 
 age of James, that the last authorized English translation 
 of the Bible, was begun and finished. 
 
 But, notwithstanding this monarch's attention to religion, 
 his mind was clouded with the childish superstition of his 
 native country. In the first year of his reign in England, it 
 v/as enacted, that all persons invoking any evil spirit, cov- 
 enanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding, or reward- 
 ing it, or taking up dead bodies from the grave, to be used 
 in any witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchantment ; or kill- 
 ing or otherwise hurting any one by such infernal arts, 
 should be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy, and 
 suffer death.* This law continued in force till lately ; to 
 the terror of all ancient females in the kingdom ; many of 
 whom were thereby sacrificed, to the prejudice of their 
 neighbours, or their own illusions. 
 
 • The term " benefit of clergy," signifies, in law, a privilege an- 
 ciently granted to all clergymen, by whicb liiey were exempted from 
 capital punishment, for a first offence. It was afterwards allowed to 
 any person that could read ; and is now, in many eases, pleaded, by 
 every criminal, as a matter of course, and obliges the judge to com- 
 route the infliction of death, for some milder punishment. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 133 
 
 Throughout all Europe, and especially in England, a 
 taste was now generally diffused for literature, and the lib- 
 eral as well as mechanical arts; for commerce, and for colo- 
 nial establishments. But the English seem not yet to have 
 learned the art of dyeing and dressing woolen-cloth : it was 
 mostly exported as it came from the loom, and was dyed 
 and finished by the Dutch. Holland, at this time, traded 
 to England with six-hundred ships ; England to Holland, 
 with only sixty. The most active promoter of the colonies 
 was Richard Hakluyt, prebendary of Westminster ; who, 
 in order to excite his countrymen to naval enterprise, pub- 
 lished his valuable collection of voyages and discoveries 
 made by Englishmen. King James divided Virginia into 
 two districts : the southern portion still retained its name ; 
 but the northern received the appellation of New England. 
 A charter was granted to Hakluyt, Gates, and Summers; 
 authorizing them to occupy, in the former, an extent of 
 one-hundred miles along the coast, and extend to an equal 
 distance into the interior. Accordingly, three vessels, under 
 the command of captain Newport, with one-hundred men, 
 set sail ; and, on the 26th of April, 1607, entered the Bay 
 of Chesapeake ; contemplating, with delight, the happy 
 discovery of that spacious inlet. Then, keeping along the 
 southern shore, they sailed up a river, which the natives 
 called Powhatan ; and to which they gave the name of James 
 river. Having landed, they called their infant settlement 
 James Town ; which, though still only a poor place, can 
 boast of being the most ancient English establishment in 
 America. Gates and Summers, about two years after- 
 wards, sailed with five-hundred planters. In their passage, 
 they were stranded on the Bermuda Islands; but, at length, 
 they succeeded in reaching James Town, with all their ad- 
 venturers. The first governor of the new colony was lord 
 Delaware. 
 
 We must not omit to mention captain Smith, as a most 
 intrepid and distinguished character amongst these early 
 settlers ; nor the marriage of captain Rolfe, with the beau- 
 tiful and amiable Pocahuntas, daughter of the great chief 
 Powhatan; from which celebrated princess, some of the 
 most opulent families in Virginia are proud to claim their 
 descent. 
 
 The most ancient permanent establishment in New Eng- 
 land was made in the year 1620, in Massachusetts Bay; and 
 was named New Plymouth. Thence, arising from theolo- 
 gical disputes, were formed, Rhode Island and Connecti- 
 
1S4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cut ; one under the direction of a clergyman named WiU 
 Hams ; at a place which he called Providence : the other, 
 under that of Hooker, also a clerg-yman ; the oldest settle- 
 ment in which is Hartford. New Hampshire is indebted 
 for its rise to the same cause : it made no advancement, 
 until Exeter was founded by Mr, Wheelright ; a divine 
 who had been banished from Massachusetts. 
 
 To enter into a minute criticism of the writers of this 
 age, would exceed our plan. Their style was rude, and 
 widely different from the present; but their distorted ex- 
 pressions are attended with such vigour of mind, that we 
 must admire the imagination which produced them. Ben 
 Jonson, an eminent dramatic writer, possessed more learn- 
 ing than Shakespeare, but Mas far inferior to him in genius ; 
 and Beaumont, and his coadjutor, Fletcher, were also con- 
 spicuous for their comic talents. Camden was the most 
 correct historian of his age ; Speed and Stow are distin- 
 guished for their labours in the same walk ; and Spelman, 
 as well as sir Robert Cotton, has transmitted interesting- 
 researches for the antiquarian. As a lawyer, deeply learn- 
 ed in his arduous profession, we must distinguish sir Ed- 
 ward Coke ; advanced to the office of lord chief justice. 
 His most remarkable work is the Institutes of the Laws of 
 England; part of which is a translation from the writings of 
 sir Thomas Littleton, one of the judges in the reign of Ed- 
 w^ard the fourth. Inigo Jones has left various monuments of 
 skill in architecture. Mathematics engrossed the chief at- 
 tention of Hariot, Gunter, and lord Napier. Gunter is the 
 contriver of the valuable rule of proportion inscribed upon 
 his Scale : in 1614, that science was enriched by Napier's 
 invention of logarithms ; and, in five years afterwards the 
 circulation of the blood was discovered by Dr. Harvey. 
 But, so slow is the progress of truth, in every science, when 
 opposed by pre-existing opinions, that no physician in Eu- 
 rope, who had reached forty years of age, ever adopted that 
 great discovery ; and Harvey's practice in London was ex- 
 tremely diminished, from the reproach which it drew upon 
 him. 
 
 The dignity of Baronet, the lowest degree of hereditary 
 honours, was founded by king James. This title, originally 
 confined to gentlemen who held a clear annual income from 
 lands of one-thousand pounds, was granted in consideration 
 of a certain pecuniary payment, and of each member's rais- 
 ing and maintaining thirty soldiers for the defence of the 
 Irish province of Ulster. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 135 
 
 AgTicuIture, though much improved, was still very im- 
 perfect. England, in a great measure, depended upon 
 foreign nations for her daily bread. Wheat was considered 
 low at thirty-two shillings; barley, at sixteen shillings per 
 quarter, of eight bushels : a turkey sold for three shillings 
 and six pence; a goose two shillings; though the pay of a 
 private soldier, enlisted from a much better rank than at 
 present, was only eight pence a day ; by which, we may form 
 some estimate of the general remuneration of manual labour; 
 and conclude, that the working people were not so comforta- 
 bly provided, as at the present time. By the king's direc- 
 tion, mulberry -trees were planted, and silk-worms intro- 
 duced ; but, to the success of this project, the climate of 
 England was unfavourable. That valuable article, Alum, 
 indispensable in the dyeing of several colours, was first 
 manufactured in England in the year 1608; having, before, 
 been imported from the continent. 
 
 Hudson, when searching for a north-west passage to the 
 East Indies, entered the spaciovis bay which retains his 
 name; and the English, in this reign, discovered and plant- 
 ed the island of Barbadoes. 
 
 CHARLES THE FIRST. 
 
 1625--. 1649. 
 
 Charles, the only surviving son of James, ascended the 
 throne at the age of twenty-five years. In his father's life 
 time, he had been contracted to the princess Henrietta, of 
 France, daughter of Henry the fourth ; with whom the 
 nuptials were celebrated shortly after he assumed the reins 
 of government. 
 
 When we view him in the domestic circle of his family, 
 it is difficult to imagine a character more respectable: a 
 kind husband — an indulgent father — a gentle master — a 
 steadfast friend. His address and manner, though inclin- 
 ing towards formality, corresponded to his rank; and gave 
 grace to his natural gravity and reserve. The good sense 
 which he evinced in conversation, promised success in 
 every reasonable undertaking; and he displayed other en- 
 dowments, which, in a private gentleman, would have been 
 highly ornamental, and, in a monarch, might have been 
 exerted for the benefit of society. In any other age, or na- 
 tion, this prince would probably have enjoyed a happy 
 reign. The exalted idea, however, of regal authorit)-. 
 
136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 which he had imbibed, made him incapable of yielding to 
 the determined spirit of liberty, which now began to pre- 
 vail amongst his subjects; but, happily for the nation, he 
 was deficient in ability to maintain, what he, from educa- 
 tion, supposed to be his right. 
 
 At war with Spain and with the house of Austria; com- 
 menced in the late reign for the purpose of aiding his 
 brother-in-law against the encroachments of the latter; and 
 continued by the evil counsel of the duke of Buckingham ; 
 his empty treasury, and precarious revenue, promised an 
 unsuccessful struggle. From a parliament, composed of 
 all the talent, and all the patriotism of the nation ; men, 
 who carried their opinions of religious reformation, far be- 
 yond the moderate doctrines of the king, and who viewed 
 with indignant jealousy the unmerited honours of the duke, 
 the bosom friend and minister of Charles, no supplies could 
 be expected, without his yielding to their demands. The 
 house of commons were almost entirely led by characters 
 of the most uncommon capacity, and the largest views; 
 formed into a regular party, united by principle, and by 
 the injuries which many of them had sustained. Amongst 
 these, were, sir Edward Sandys, sir Edward Coke, sir 
 Francis Seymour, sir Dudley Digges, sir John Elliot, sir 
 Thomas Wentworth, Mr. Selden, and Mr. Pym; which 
 distinguished patriots, animated with a warm regard for lib- 
 erty, boldly resolved not to grant any supplies, without re- 
 ceiving some favourable concessions. 
 
 The grievances complained of, were forced loans, taxes 
 w'ithout consent of parliament, arbitrary imprisonments, the 
 billeting of soldiers, and martial law. 
 
 There raged then in London a violent plague ; which 
 constrained the king, after receiving, in return for some 
 small token of complaisance, about one-hundred-thousand 
 pounds, to remove the parliament to Oxford. Here, he 
 made an attempt to gain some further aid. But they re- 
 mained inexorable, and Charles finished the session by a 
 dissolution; openly expressing hie displeasure. 
 
 As a substitute for parliamentary supply, he issued privy 
 seals, for borrowing money from his subjects ; which creat- 
 ed considerable disgust: and, to increase the public mur- 
 murs, an expedition, which he had despatched against the 
 Spaniards, proved unsuccessful and disastrous. 
 
 In the ensuing spring, a second parliament was sum- 
 moned. Four of the popular leaders of the commons — 
 Coke, Philips, Seymour, and Wentworth, had been ap- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. IS7 
 
 pointed, by the crown, sheriffs of counties, to prevent their 
 election as members. But, notwithstanding this measure, 
 and other improper stretches of prerogative, a sufficient 
 number of patriots was returned. The king went so far, as 
 to threaten the commons, that, if they did not furnish him 
 with supplies, he should be obliged to try new councils. 
 These threats served rather to rouse than to intimidate; 
 and the commons went boldly forward in the great work of 
 liberty. The king, with occasional retractions, as violently 
 opposed: and, at length, irritated by the increasing spirit 
 of patriotic firmness, he again closed the session by a dis- 
 solution. 
 
 To uphold the authority of the crown, by the interfer- 
 ence of religion, sermons were preached and distributed, 
 in favour of the «^ new councils," and a general loan which 
 Charles began to exact throughout the kingdom. In these, 
 passive obedience, in its full extent, was recommended : 
 the whole civil power was declared to belong to the king 
 alone; and all constitutional limitations were rejected, as 
 impious and seditious. But many refused to lend their 
 money, and were immured in prison. Five gentlemen, 
 only — Darnel, Corbet, Earl, Heviningham, and John Hamb- 
 den, had sufficient spirit to defend the public liberties, and 
 to demand enlargement: not as a favour, but as a right. 
 This question was brought, by Hambden, to a solemn argu- 
 ment, in the Exchequer chamber; but, as the judges were 
 then removable from office at the will of the king, and con- 
 sequently afraid of contravening his decree, only four of 
 their number had the honesty to support the laws ; and the 
 decision was given against Hambden. 
 , ^ The duke of Buckingham, having daily become 
 more obnoxious to the public, had been impeached 
 in parliament; but without a final decision. Yet, as if he 
 still further courted the odium of the nation, he plunged 
 his country into a war with France. The monarch then 
 on the throne of that kingdom was Louis the thirteenth. 
 His minister was the celebrated cardinal Richelieu. It ap- 
 pears, that Buckingham, presuming on an easy and polite 
 reception ^iven him by the French queen, had entertained 
 towards her, serious intentions of gallantry; and, that, after 
 his departure, having, upon some pretence, returned, he 
 paid her a visit; and was dismissed, with a reproof, which, 
 however, savoured more of kindness than of anger. Infor- 
 mation of this was soon carried to the cardinal; whose vigi- 
 lance, it is said, was roused by a stronger motive than re- 
 
las HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 spect for the honour of his mistress. When, therefore, tiie 
 duke was preparing for a new embassy to Paris, a message 
 was sent him, from Louis, intimating that he must not 
 think of such a journey. But, Buckingham, in a romantic 
 passion, swore, that he would see the queen, in spite of all 
 the power of France; and, from that moment, determined 
 to have a war. Accordingly, under pretence of assisting the 
 Hugonots, a sect of protestants in France, he made an at- 
 'tempt, with a large fleet and an army of seven-thousand 
 men, upon the Isle of Rhe; but, instead of reaching Paris, 
 he had much difficulty in even returning to England; as he 
 was compelled to retreat, with the loss of two-thirds of his 
 forces; totally discredited, both as an admiral and a general. 
 
 It may well be imagined, that the king and the duke 
 now dreaded, above all things the calling of a parliament; 
 but the urgent occasion for money drove them under the 
 necessity of embracing that expedient. When the com- 
 mons assembled, they displayed the same independent 
 spirit as their predecessors; yet, although many of the 
 members had been cast into prison, and had suffered by 
 the measures of the court, they entered upon business with 
 perfect temper and decorum. The king said to them in 
 his speech, " If you do not perform your duty, in contribut- 
 ing to the necessities of the state, I must, in discharge of 
 my conscience, use those other means^ which God has put 
 into my hands; in order to save that, which the folly of 
 some men, may, otherwise, put in danger. Take not this 
 for threatening," added he, " for I scorn to threaten any but 
 my equals ; but as an admonition, from him, who, by na- 
 ture and duty, has most care of your preservation and pros- 
 perity." 
 
 The business having commenced, sir Francis Seymour 
 said : " This is the great council of the kingdom ; and here, 
 with certainty, if not here, only, his majesty may see, as in 
 a true glass, the state of the kingdom. We are called 
 hither, by his writs, to give him faithful counsel; such as 
 may stand with his honour: and this we must do without 
 flattery. We are also sent hither by the people, to deliver 
 their just grievances : and this v/e must do without fear. 
 Let us not act as Cambyses' judges; v;ho, when their ap- 
 probation was demanded by the prince, to some illegal 
 measure, said, that, though there was a written law, the 
 Persian kings must follow their own will and pleasure. 
 This was base flattery; fitter for reproof than imitation; 
 and as fear, so flattery, taketh away the judgment. For 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 139 
 
 my part, I will shun both ; and speak my mind, with as 
 much duty as any man, to his majesty, without neglecting 
 the public." 
 
 Philips and Wcntworth ably supported the eloquence of 
 Seymour ; and their sentiments w^ere unanimously em- 
 braced. 
 
 Though a supply of two-hundred-and-eighty-thousand 
 pounds was voted, the house deferred passing it into a 
 law, until they had provided some barriers against the en- 
 croachments of the crown. A bill, entitled the Petition of 
 Rights, was then passed through the commons; which re- 
 ceived the sanction of the lords, and, after much evasion 
 and duplicity, obtained the royal assent. 
 
 But, the manner in which the king gave his approval of 
 this bill, served rather to heighten the animosity, than re- 
 lax the vigour, of the commons. To the complaints against 
 tonnage and poundage, (impositions said to be levied for 
 the navy,) loud outcries were joined against the Catholics, 
 and the Arminians ; so that political and theological dis- 
 putes went hand in hand. Information being given by the 
 speaker, that he had a command from the king to adjourn 
 the house, a short remonstrance was passed in the most 
 tumultuary manner; declaring, that those who levied ton- 
 nage and poundage, and those who should voluntarily pay 
 those duties, were, alike, enemies of the commonwealth. 
 
 To prepare an expedition for a further attack on 
 France, the duke of Buckingham went to Ports- 
 mouth; where his career was ended by an assassin. He 
 Vv'as stabbed in the breast by one Felton ; who, having serv- 
 ed under him as a lieutenant, was disappointed in promo- 
 tion. Thus, do the unfortunate, by seeking for revenge, 
 throw an indelible stain upon their memories, plunge their 
 families into misery, and violate the most awful command- 
 ment of their Creator. 
 
 Henceforward, Charles placed his principal friendship 
 and confidence in his queen; from whom, Buckingham 
 had, in some degree, alienated his affections. By her 
 general good sense and spirit, as well as by her beauty, she 
 justified the fondness of her husband; though, being rather 
 of a passionate temper, she involved him in hasty and im- 
 prudent measures. Her religion, likewise, to which she 
 was strongly attached, must be regarded as a great mis- 
 fortune ; as it increased the jealousy of the nation against 
 the court. 
 
 Charles, being disgusted with parliaments, resolved, un- 
 N 
 
140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 til he should see the nation in a better humour, to do with- 
 out their assistance; and, to lessen his expenditure, made 
 peace with France and Spain. 
 
 Various expedients were used to augment his revenue. 
 For a stipulated sum of money, individuals were allowed 
 the exclusive advantages arising from certain branches of 
 commerce and manufacture; and all persons having a 
 yearly income of twenty pounds, were compelled, under the 
 pretence of being qualified, in conformity with a long ex- 
 ploded custom, to attend the sovereign in war, either to 
 accept knighthood, or pay a heavy fine for their non-com- 
 pliance. 
 
 The people were still further irritated by the conduct of 
 Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; who studied to exalt the 
 ecclesiastical power, and depress the civil : to revive the 
 ancient ceremonies, and retard the progress of the puri- 
 tans. The latter went ofi' in great numbers to New Eng- 
 land; and there sought for that civil and religious liberty, 
 Avhich they were denied at home. But their enemies were 
 unwilling that they should any where be happy. Eiglit 
 ships, lying in the Thames, ready to sail, were detained 
 by the council ; in which, were embarked, Fiazlerig, Crom- 
 -vvell, and Flambden; a measure of which the king had, af- 
 terwards, great reason to repent. 
 
 The situation of Scotland now demands our at- 
 '^ * tention. There, too, the misguided Charles was 
 involved in difficulties the most serious. With him, pre- 
 judice had usurped the seat of reason; and misfortune ex- 
 alted his lofty ideas of prerogative. The form of church 
 government established in Scotland, was the presbyterian : 
 could any thing, therefore, be imagined more absurd, or 
 more impolitic, than an attempt to force, upon his northern 
 subjects, the English liturgy, w4th the whole train of eccle- 
 siastical dignities ? Yet this was really attempted ! A day 
 Lad been appointed, by proclamation, for the first reading. 
 of the new service in Edinburgh: and, accordingly, the 
 dean, arrayed in his surplice, began the service ; the 
 bishop himself, and many of the privy counsellors, being 
 present. But, no sooner had the dean opened the book, 
 than a multitude of the meanest sort, most of them w^o- 
 men, clapping their hands, cursing, and crying out, A 
 pofie ! a fio/ie ! antichrist 1 stone him! raised so great a tu- 
 mult, that it was impossible to proceed with the service. 
 The bishop, when mounting the pulpit in order to appease 
 th^ populace, had a stool thrown at him; and, after the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 141 
 
 magistrates had expelled the rabble, stones were thrown 
 in through the doors and windows. These rude indications 
 displayed, however, the general sentiments of the nation : 
 an assembly soon after met at Glasgow; in v.hich, the litur- 
 gy, and the whole fabric of episcopacy, were abolished, and 
 a Covenant entered into, renouncing the papal doctrines, 
 and binding the subscribers to resist all religious innova- 
 tions. But, being sensible of the opposition which would 
 be made, and that their religious tenets must be protected 
 by military force, they prepared themselves for a vigorous 
 defence. The earl of Argyle was their chief leader: the 
 earls of Rothes, Cassils, Montrose, Lothian ; lords Lindsey, 
 Loudon, Yester, and Balmerino ; distinguished themselves 
 on the same side ; and the marquis of Huntley adhered to 
 the king. War soon commenced, and continued with great 
 disadvantage on the side of Charles. 
 
 Heavy debts having been contracted, and the 
 treasury exhausted, a parliament, after above eleven 
 years' intermission, was summoned, as the only resource. 
 But the comjiions paid no regard to the distresses of the 
 king. Grievances were again the order of the day ; and, 
 again, the friends of the king were outnumbered by his 
 enemies; or, rather, the enemies of the nation were out- 
 numbered by its friends. No supply was voted; and a dis- 
 solution hastily ensued. 
 
 An army, undisciplined, disheartened, mutinous, and bad- 
 ly paid, was very unfit to contend with the enthusiastic 
 soldiers of the North ; and retain in subjection the zealous 
 and discontented inhabitants of England. Charles, in de- 
 spair of being able to stem the torrent, resolved, again, to 
 try the temper of the commons. In the month of Novem- 
 ber, the great council of the nation assembled; distinguish- 
 ed by the name of the long parliament; which immediately 
 entered upon business, and in its very first proceeding gave 
 an awful indication of what followed. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wentworth, who had so eminently distin- 
 guished himself in defence of liberty, had been, with many 
 other patriots, loaded with royal favours. These may be 
 regarded as the first attempts of the crown to lessen the 
 strength of opposition, by enlisting the ablest members on 
 its side ; a measure equally degrading to the monarch and 
 the subject. Wentworth had been created earl of Strafford ; 
 appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland ; latterly, he was made 
 commander of the forces against the Scotch; and, for many 
 years, was considered as chief counsellor of the king. But, 
 
142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in proportion as he gained the affection of the king, he lost 
 the confidence of the people; and, by a concurrence of ac- 
 cidents, laboured under the severe hatred of the English, 
 the Irish, and the Scotch. Aware of the danger of appear- 
 ing amongst his enraged enemies, he would gladly have 
 been excused from attending the present parliament : but 
 the king promised him protection ; and assured him, that 
 " not a hair of his head should be touched." On his arri- 
 val, the attack commenced. Pym, in a long, studied dis- 
 course, enumerated the national grievances; from the sev- 
 eVal oppressions, inferred, that a plan had been formed for 
 subverting the ancient constitution of the kingdom, and 
 mentioned Strafford as the most distinguished betrayer of 
 his country. He was impeached for high treason and ar- 
 rested. Westminster Hall was the place appointed for his 
 trial; where both houses sat: the commons as accusers, 
 the lords as judges ; and a close gallery was prepared for 
 the king and queen; who attended during the whole of this 
 important business. Four months had been employed in 
 framing the accusation ; yet, so great was the genius and 
 presence of mind displayed by this accomplished statesman, 
 that he gained over his accusers a decided victory. Find- 
 ing that, upon these charges it would be impossible to con- 
 vict him, a bill of attainder v/as voted in parliament, and 
 carried to the king for his assent. The populace flocked 
 about the palace, and accompanied their demands for just- 
 ice with the loudest clamours, and the most open menaces; 
 and every thing threatened an imminent convulsion. Charles 
 abhorred the idea of dooming to destruction his friend, for 
 whose safety he was pledged. But the queen, in tears, 
 pressed him to gratify the people ; and Strafford, himself, 
 wrote a letter to the king, entreating him "to put an end to 
 his unfortunate, though innocent, life." Charles, in an evil 
 hour, consented to the bill ; and by this act, consigned to 
 the scaffold his firmest friend, and fixed upon his own 
 memory an indelible reproach. The authority of the crown 
 was now annihilated : the government became purely de- 
 mocratical; and the king merely an instrument of form. 
 
 In the following autumn, Charles was employed 
 in Scotland ; endeavouring, by concessions, to ap- 
 pease the general discontent. When preparing to return, 
 he received intelligence of a formidable rebellion having 
 broken out in Ireland. On every side, he was pursued by 
 opposition and civil wars. The most effective portion of 
 the army having been withdrawn from the protection of the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 143 
 
 Irish government, the native race resolved to seize the fa- 
 vourable opportunity of driving out the new settlers in Ul- 
 ster: the flames of rebellion instantly spread over the whole 
 country ; so that, in a short time, Dublin, and a few other 
 fortified towns, were all that remained in the hands of the 
 English. 
 
 In England, affairs rapidly approached a crisis. To the 
 general amazement, the king, in order to arrest some ob- 
 noxious members, entered the house of commons ; having 
 left an armed retinue at the door. The speaker withdrew 
 from the chair ; of which, the king took possession. Hav- 
 ing made a short speech, he then demanded of that officer, 
 whether any of those persons w ere in the house ; but he 
 gave him no satisfaction. The commons were thrown into 
 the utmost disorder. When the king was departing, some 
 members cried aloud, privilege! privilege! and the house 
 then adjourned until the next day. 
 
 Alarming cries resounded through the city: tumult suc- 
 ceeded; and the king, dreading the result, retired to Hamp- 
 ton Court ; a royal palace, about fourteen miles from Lon- 
 don. The parliament immediately assumed the command 
 of the army, and of all the principal fortresses and towns ; 
 issuing their orders under " the authority of the king, sig- 
 nified by both houses of parliament." Charles then remov- 
 ed, still further, from the capital ; taking with him two of 
 his sons, the prince of Wales, and the duke of York ; and 
 sending his queen to Holland : whence, by pawning the 
 crown-jewels, and by the influence of her son-in-law, the 
 prince of Orange, she was enabled to return with artillery 
 and ammunition, 
 
 , With a degree of activity, neither expected by his 
 
 friends, nor apprehended by his enemies, Charles 
 prepared himself for defence, and roused up liis adherents 
 to arms. Above forty peers, of the first rank, attended him 
 at York ; and his court soon bore the appearance of dignity 
 and splendour. From that city, he advanced southwards, 
 to Nottingham, and there erected his standard — the open 
 signal of discord and civil war. 
 
 From Nottingham, the king marched to Shrewsbury. 
 Here, on mustering his army, he found that it amounted to 
 ten-thousand men. The earl of Lindsey was appointed 
 general : prince Rupert, his nephew, son of the Palatine, 
 commanded the light cavalry; sir Arthur Aston, the dra- 
 goons: sir Jacob Astley, the foot: sir John Heydon, the 
 artillery : lord Bernard Stuart was at the bead of a ti'oop of 
 N 2 
 
144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 guards ; and, besides these officers, he had, in the courst" 
 of the war, the assistance of the earl of Montrose, the duke 
 of Hamilton, and many more persons of distinction. 
 
 The parliamentary army was commanded by lord Fair- 
 fax, sir William Waller, the earl of Essex, and earl of Man- 
 chester. The earls of Northumberland and Warwick, were 
 intrusted with the navy. But the men, on whom the events 
 of the war finally depended, v/ere, sir Thomas Fairfax, sou 
 of lord Fairfax, and Oliver Cromwell; particularly the lat- 
 ter. This extraordinary man, already conspicuous in par- 
 liament, for his opposition to the Roman Catholics, was 
 born at Huntingdon, of a respectable family, who inherited 
 an independent landed estate. His mother, whose name 
 was Stuart, was related, it is supposed, to the family on 
 the throne. He had been sent to college ; but his gc^nius 
 was little suited to the elegant pursuits of learning. In his 
 ])erson, he was ungraceful : in his dress, slovenly : in his 
 elocution, tedious and obscure. 
 
 The first military affair took place near V\"orcester ; 
 where colonel Sandys, who commanded a body of cavalry 
 imder Essex, was defeated by prince Rupert. To this, suc- 
 ceeded the well contested battle of Edgehill ; in which, the 
 king himself bore a conspicuous part. He was there op- 
 posed by the earl of Essex ; and both sides continued the 
 action with the utmost bravery, until night ended the fury 
 of the combat. 
 
 Afterwards, there occurred, the battles of Stratton, 
 Roundway-down, Chalgravefield, (where the great Hamb- 
 den was killed) Atherton-Moor, and Copredy-Bridge ; in 
 which, the king was successful : those of Landsdov»n and 
 Newbury, undecided ; also, the battles of Wakefield, Gains- 
 borough, Horncastle, Selby, Cherington, Marston-Moor, 
 and a second battle at Newbury; those of Naseby, Torring- 
 lon, Sherburne in Yorkshire, Stowe, and Preston in Lan- 
 cashire ; in favour of the parliament. At Naseby, the roy- 
 alists were so severely beaten, as to render their affairs ir- 
 ■ctrievablc. In that engagement, the main body of the 
 royal army was ably commanded by the king himself, sec- 
 onded by prince Rupert. Fairfax led on the forces of the 
 parliament ; assisted by Skippon, Cromwell, and his son-in- 
 law, Ireton. 
 
 There were fev/ places, throughout the entire kingdom, 
 W'hich did not feel the effects of these dreadful commotions. 
 Bristol, Gloucester, and Hull; Nantwich, Newark, and Lin- 
 coln j York. Newcastle, Lyme, and Weymouth; experi- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 145 
 
 enced the hardships of a siege : also, Pomfret, Carlisle, 
 and Chester ; Taunton in Somersetshire ; Leicester, and 
 Bath ; Sherborn, Winchester, and Dartmouth ; Exeter, 
 Hereford, and Colchester. 
 
 Scarcely had the parliament acquired the ascendency, 
 when their meetings became scenes of faction and confu- 
 sion. A new party arose upon the ruins of the old. These 
 were called Independents; who aimed not only at the total 
 abolition of monarchy and aristocracy, but also of ecclesias- 
 tical distinctions, and every other rank in society. Tlieir 
 principal leaders were sir Harry Vane and Oliver Crom- 
 well. Essex, Northumberland, Warwick, and sir William 
 Waller, remained firm to the more rational opinions of the 
 presbyterians.^ The command of the army devolved upon 
 sir Thomas Fairfax, a moderate independent ; and, under 
 him, in appearance, upon Cromwell ; by whom, the former 
 was, for a long time, entirely governed. 
 
 In the midst of this confusion. Archbishop Laud was 
 executed. 
 
 Nearly four years had elapsed since the king 
 erected his standard at Nottingham ; during which 
 time, he had encountered every difficulty with the greatest 
 fortitude. W^hen driven from the field, Oxford may be 
 considered as his principal retreat. Here, he had, for a 
 short time, a distinct parliament ; and made many fruitless 
 endeavours towards a reconciliation. Henceforth, from the 
 independents, he had nothing to expect but death. From 
 the Scotch army, his countrymen, he had, he thought, some 
 claim to protection. Accompanied only by two gentlemen, 
 he passed, therefore, to tlieir camp, at Newark. But they 
 instantly placed a guard upon him, and soon afterwards 
 delivered him to the English parliament. 
 
 Most violent contentions had, for some time past, existed 
 between the parliament and the army. But the latter now 
 struck a blow which may be deemed decisive. Charles had 
 been conveyed to Holdenby in Northamptonshire; at which 
 place, by the directions of Cromwell, cornet Joyce, at the 
 head of five-hundred horse, appeared; and going up to the 
 king, told him, that he must immediately accom}:)any him. 
 »• Whither r" said the king. " To the army," replied Joyce. 
 *' By what warrant?" demanded Charles. — Joyce pointed to 
 his soldiers — tall, handsome, and well accoutred. " Your 
 warrant," said Charles, smiling, <<is written in fair charac- 
 ters — legible without spelling." He was then conveyed to 
 Triplo-Heath, near Cambridge, 
 
146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Cromwell now proceeded to London, in order to subject 
 the parliament. In this, he completely succeeded. The 
 government bccam.e, in reality, a military tribunal ; parlia- 
 ment, an empty name ; used rather to countenance the tur- 
 bulence of the army, than to curb its licentiousness, or ad- 
 minister justice to the people. Tedious negotiations en- 
 sued. The king granted more than was desired by the 
 friends of the nation, and nearly all that was demanded by 
 his own enemies. But, though he agreed to surrender al- 
 most every exercise of regal office, and almost entirely to 
 suppress the established religion throughout the empire, 
 and even within the precincts of his own house, he could 
 not obtain a restoration ; either because, from his equivo- 
 cal manner of negotiating, it was thought*imprudent to 
 confide in him, or that it was not the wish of the ruling 
 faction, that an accommodation should be effected, on any 
 terms. 
 
 In the house of commons, a vote was made, de- 
 claring it treason in a king to levy war against his 
 parliament; and appointing a High Court of Justice, to 
 try Charles for that offence. This measure was rejected 
 by the lords ; but the commons disregarded their dissent, 
 and unanimously passed an order for his trial. 
 
 The court sat in Westminster Hall ; and consisted of 
 one-hundred-and-thirty-three members, appointed by the 
 commons; of which number, there never met above seven- 
 ty. Amongst these, were Cromwell, Ireton, and many 
 other officers of the army. Bradshaw, a lawyer, was pre- 
 sident : Coke, (not sir Edward,) was solicitor for the peo- 
 ple of England. Having examined some witnesses, who 
 proved that the king had appeared in arms against the for- 
 ces of the parliament, they pronounced a sentence of death. 
 Three days were allowed him, between his sentence and 
 execution : which interval, he passed with great tranquil- 
 lity ; chiefly in reading and devotion. All his family who 
 then remained in England were allowed to see him. These 
 w^ere, the princess Elizabeth, and a little child, the duke of 
 Gloucester : the rest having escaped. 
 
 The awful scaffold, upon which this unhappy monarcli 
 was to expiate the errors of his government, was erected 
 in the street before '\Vhite Hall. Here, having attributed 
 his misfortunes, and his deatii, to the unjust sentence which 
 he had allowed to take effect upon the earl of Strafford ; 
 and freely forgiven his enemies, even the chief instruments 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 147 
 
 of his death ; at one blow, his head was severed from his 
 body. 
 
 Charles was executed in the forty-ninth year of his age, 
 and the twenty-fourth of his reign. His features were regular 
 and handsome ; though of rather a melancholy aspect : he 
 ■was of a middle stature ; strong and well proportioned. He 
 left six children : three males — Charles, prince of Wales, 
 James,^ duke of York, Henry, duke of Gloucester : and 
 three females — Mary, princess of Orange, Elizabeth, and 
 Henrietta. 
 
 The commons ordered a new Great Seal to be engrav- 
 ed ; with this legend : " On the first year of freedom, by 
 God's blessing restored, 1648." The king's statue in the 
 exchange was thrown down ; and, on the pedestal, was in- 
 scribed: '''-Exit Tyrannus^ Regum Ultimas.''^ [The tyrant 
 is gone ; the last of the kings.] 
 
 If we take an impartial review of this memorable period, 
 we shall find much to adniire, and much the subject of re- 
 gret and condemnation. We must admire the sincere 
 patriotism of the lamented Hambden, we must regret the 
 early obstinacy of the king, and condemn the deep dissimu- 
 lation of the detested Cromwell. 
 
 Pym and the earl of Essex died before the total over- 
 throw of their party : the former, in the beginning of the 
 war ; the latter, about two years previous to the death of 
 Charles. 
 
 Gataker, and Usher, archbishop of Armagh, who flour- 
 ished at this period, were highly eminent, not only as di- 
 vines, but for their general acquirements in literature. St. 
 Christopher's, Nevis, Antigua, and Maryland, were settled 
 in this reign. The latter colony was planted, under royal 
 authority, by lord Baltimore. 
 
 THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 1649 — 1660. 
 
 To give a clear delineation of the government, or the 
 religion, at this time existing in England, is a task to which 
 the pen of the historian is unequal. That the government, 
 shortly after the death of Charles, and the consequent ex- 
 tinction of the civil wars, assumed a degree of vigour, un- 
 known before in England, or, indeed, in any other country 
 of the world, the history of that period sufficiently evinces. 
 But, by what title this ruling power should be denominat- 
 
i48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ed, is a question, to which we are unable to reply. It was 
 not a democracy ; because, though the house of lords was 
 abolished, the semblance of a parliament, which yet re- 
 mained, was not the choice of the people. The members 
 were added, or expelled, at the caprice of its own majority; 
 and, instead of a republic, the best calculated for the hap- 
 piness of a virtuous nation, England now beheld herself un- 
 der the absolute control of a despot ; a many-headed des- 
 pot : having' exchanged the tyranny of one, for the more 
 odious tyranny of a number. 
 
 In matters of religion, almost every one had adopted a 
 system, which, not being derived from any scriptural au- 
 thority, was peculiar to himself — foimded, rather on imagin- 
 ary inspiration, than on a clear principle of human reason 
 — promulgated by vulgar declamation, and a bold hypo- 
 critical cant. 
 
 It was usual for the pretended saints of this time, to 
 change their names, from Henry, Edward, Anthony, or 
 William, which they regarded as heathenish, into others 
 more sanctified and godly : even the New Testament names, 
 such as James, Andrew, John, or Peter, were not held in 
 so much regard, as those borrowed from the Old Testa- 
 ment ; and sometimes a whole sentence was adoi')ted as a 
 name.* 
 
 The presbyterians, by v/hose credit the arms of the par- 
 liament had first been supported, being overthrown by the 
 treachery of the zealots, would gladly again have embrac- 
 ed a well regulated monarchy, in place of the present 
 mockery of freedom. But the great influence of Crom- 
 well ; his dark, designing, and impetuous manner, aided 
 by a well disciplined army of fifty -thousand men devoted to 
 his will ; and his uncommon talents as a general ; main- 
 tained, throughout England, a profound tranquillity. 
 
 No new writs of election were issued, except to places 
 
 * The following- are the names of a jury, said to have been on a 
 trial in the county of Suffolk. 
 
 Accepted Trevor, Return Spelman, 
 
 Redeemed Compton, Be fiiiihfiil Joiner, 
 
 Faint not llewit. Fly debate Roberts, 
 
 Make peace Heaton, F:ght the g-ood fight of faith White, 
 
 God reward Smart, More fruit Fowler, 
 
 Standfast on high Stringer, Hope for B-nding, 
 
 Earth Adams, Graceful Harding-, 
 
 Called Lower, Weep not Billing-, 
 
 Kill sin Pimple, Meek Brewer 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 149 
 
 where the commons hoped that their own friends would be 
 chosen ; and, though the Executive Council contained 
 many highly resj^ectable characters, we may safely affirm, 
 that, as Cromwell himself was a member of that body, 
 every important measure must have required his m-evious 
 consent. 
 
 In Ireland, the ascendency had been contended for by no 
 fewer than three parties — the king, the parliament, and the 
 natives. Butler, marquis of Ormond, lord lieutenant at 
 the time of the king's overthrow, had surrendered, by di- 
 rection of Charles, all the garrisons in that country, to the 
 forces of the parliament, in preference to the council of Kil- 
 kenny, by whom the Irish were directed. But, the earls 
 of Clanricarde and Inchiquin, dreading the ruin of their 
 country, as well from its own commotions, as from the do- 
 minion of the parliament, succeeded in uniting a powerful 
 body of the Irish and the Royalists, and successfully at- 
 tacked the towns of Dundalk and Drogheda. 
 
 In this situation of aftairs, Cromwell, having got 
 himself appointed lieutenant of Ireland, proceeded 
 thither with a numerous and well appointed army. He 
 landed at Dublin; and thence, hastened to Drogheda; then 
 well fortified and garrisoned v/ith three-thousand men, un- 
 der sir Arthur Asion. Cromwell was not fond of a long 
 protracted siege. Here, as in all other places, the busi- 
 ness was soon performed. Having effected a breach, he 
 ordered a general assault ; himself and Ireton leading the 
 attack. The town was taken, sword-in-hand ; and one, only, 
 of all the garrison, escaped the barbarous slaughter. 
 
 Wexford, and its defenders, experienced a similar fate; 
 and, in a few months, he made himself master of the entire 
 kingdom. Even to this day, his name is still fresh amongst 
 the Irish. There is not a ruined castle, or dilapidated 
 mansion, throughout the country, with which, the very chil- 
 dren are not taught to associate the name of Cromwell. 
 
 The whole authority in Scotland had fallen into the hands 
 of Argyle, and the rigid covenanters; a party, who, though 
 warmly opposed to the royal interest, were still more strong- 
 ly averse to the independents. They therefore proclaimed 
 the prince of Wales, under the title of Charles the second: 
 but on condition of " his good behaviour, and strict observ- 
 ance of the covenant." 
 
 Charles, poor and neglected ; living sometimes in Hol- 
 land, sometimes in France, and occasionally in Jersey ; was 
 glad to obtain a footing in the country, in any manner ; ac- 
 
150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ccpted the crown upon such terms as were prescribed ; 
 and, after his arrival in Scotland, joined in the most de- 
 grading declarations ag;ainst the conduct of his father, and 
 the religion of his mother I 
 
 Fai^x having resigned his commission, Cromwell was 
 declared, what he was really before, captain general of all 
 the forces in England; and entered Scotland with an army 
 of sixteen-thousand men. The command of his northern 
 enemies was given to Leslie ; an officer cautious and ex- 
 perienced. But the Scottish clergy, deceived by a frenzied 
 imagination, forced their general to an untimely battle, at 
 Dunbar; where Leslie was overthrown, \yith the loss of 
 nearly his whole army. 
 
 Now reduced to despair, Charles embraced a resolution 
 worthy of success. Accompanied by Hamilton and Les- 
 lie, with fovirteen-thousand troops, he entered England ; 
 and advanced as far as Worcester. Cromwell, leaving 
 general Monk to complete the subjection of Scotland, pur- 
 sued the enemy, and almost totally destroyed them. 
 Charles took refuge at Boscobel, a solitary house on the 
 borders of Staffordshire, inhabited by one Penderell, a farm- 
 er, and his four brothers ; to whom he discovered himself: 
 and, though death awaited the knowledge of their generos- 
 ity, or reward the betraying of their trust, those noblemind- 
 ed peasants were faithful to their guest. Here, Charles as- 
 sumed a rustic dress : and, for better concealment, mount- 
 ed upon an oak ; where he remained for twenty-four hours. 
 When hidden within the branches, he sav/ several soldiers 
 pass in search of him. This tree was afterwards named the 
 " Royal Oak ;" a rude painting of which, with the prince's 
 head seen amongst the leaves, is still used throughout the 
 British dominions, as an external appendage to an inn. 
 
 After many adventures, highly interesting and romantic, 
 he arrived safely at Fescamp in Normandy. 
 
 All the settlements in America, except New England, 
 having adhered to the royal party, a few ships were des- 
 patched for their reduction ; and the Bermudas, Virginia, 
 Antigua, and Barbadoes, were obliged to surrender. 
 
 By the universal pacification of the British do- 
 * minions, the parliament had leisure to look abroad 
 for employment; and the Dutch were the first that felt ihe 
 weight of their successful arms. A feeling of hostility 
 had, for some time, mutually existed ; but, what eventually 
 produced a war, v/as the famous Act of Navigation. This 
 prohibited every state from carrying into England any com- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Ibl 
 
 modity which was not the growth or manufacture of the 
 country to which the vessels employed in its transporta- 
 tion respectively belonged. In the English navy, Blake, 
 one of the greatest admirals of his day ; also Bourne, Penn, 
 Deane, Monk, and Ayscue; sustained the honour of the 
 British flag. On the side of the Dutch, were, the celebrat- 
 ed Tromp and De Ruyter ; with De Witte and Van Galen. 
 Though, however, the states defended themselves with ad- 
 mirable bravery, they were unable to withstand the valour 
 of the English, aided by the superior size of their ships of 
 war. 
 
 The parliament, grov/n jealous of the land-forces, 
 '^* had been, for some time, ardently working to de- 
 press the army, and exalt, by every means, the power and 
 character of the navy. But, Cromwell resolved to coun- 
 teract them. He entered the house, accompanied by a 
 strong guard, and loaded them with the vilest reproaches. 
 *' For shame," cried he ; " get you gone: give place to hon- 
 ester men ; to those who will more faithfully discharge 
 their trust. You are no longer a parliament: the Lord has 
 done with you." Then, having ordered his soldiers to clear 
 the house, he himself went out the last, andj putting the key 
 into his pocket, departed to his lodgings at Whitehall. 
 
 The whole power, civil and niilitary, of three extensive 
 kingdoms, was now in the hands of Cromwell. In propor- 
 tion to the increase of his authority, the talents of this won- 
 derful man seemed always to expand; and, every day, he 
 displayed new abilities, which had lain concealed until the 
 very event wdiich had called them into action. The name 
 of parliament, however, seemed a necessary cover to his 
 ambition ; and, at that time, a necessary instrument of na- 
 tional subjection. He summoned, therefore, a legislature 
 of his own appointment; the majority of which were the 
 very dregs of the fanatics. This body, from the mortified 
 appearance of its members, particularly of 07ie of its exalt- 
 ing hypocrites, received the name of Barebone's parlia- 
 ment. It was by them seriously proposed, to abolish the 
 Common Law, as a badge of the Norman Conquest: to 
 dispense with the clerical function, as being, in their opin- 
 ion, a remnant of popery : to eradicate learning, as heathen- 
 ish and unnecessary; and besides, that the records in the 
 Tower should be burned; that the memory of things past 
 should be effaced, and that the whole system of life should 
 begin anew. 
 
1^2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 But, at length, even Cromwell himself growing asham- 
 ed of his legislators, he sent to the house a party of soldiers ; 
 who dispersed them. 
 
 Through the influence of general Lambert, Cromwell 
 was, by the voice of a few military officers, declared chief 
 magistrate ; under the title of protector, with the honoura- 
 ble addition of highness; subject, in some matters, to the 
 control of a council of twenty-one. After this, a new par- 
 liament was summoned; chosen according to the ancient 
 constitution, but, ultimately, selected, agreeably to the pro- 
 tector's will. 
 
 England had never been so formidable as during 
 ' Cromwell's usurpation. Having compelled the 
 Dutch to sue for peace, the Spaniards next felt the vigour 
 of her arms. In this war, Blake had an extensive field, in 
 which to display his valour and abilities ; and every where 
 supported the national renown. Penn and Venables being 
 sent to the West Indies, annexed to the British empire the 
 island of Jamaica; one of the most valuable colonies that 
 England ever possessed ; if, indeed, the colonial system is 
 not rather injurious, than beneficial, to the parent country. 
 ,^ At length, the crown was tendered to the protect- 
 
 or. Many, even of the royalists, through a desire of 
 settling the nation, joined, on this occasion, in the address. 
 But the military became alarmed; and Cromwell was con- 
 strained to refuse what he would have willingly accepted. 
 Great discontents soon prevailed throughout the kingdom. 
 Lord Fairfax and sir William Waller, united with the roy- 
 alists in a conspiracy : the army were infected with the gen- 
 eral feeling; and every thing indicated a sudden and tre- 
 mendous eruption. The anxious mind of Cromwell began 
 to shake the firmness of his constitution : a slow fever was 
 produced; and, to that, succeeded a tertian ague; which 
 carried him off in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and the 
 fifth of his protectorship. 
 
 His eldest son, Richard, was appointed to succeed him> 
 Henry, the brother of Richard, being governor of Ireland, 
 ensured him the obedience of that kingdom; and Monk 
 supported his authority in Scotland. 
 
 But the new protector was ill-suited to uphold the crazy 
 grandeur of his father. Peaceable, amiable, unambitious, 
 he was calculated to live happily in the social enjoyments 
 of his family, amidst the delightful satisfaction of a coun- 
 try retirement ; to which he had long been accustomed. 
 He was soon deposed ; and willingly resigned the sceptre 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLANDo 153 
 
 for the plough. Having, therefore, returned to his estate, 
 he lived to an extreme old age ; contented and undisturbed. 
 Anarchy now held her dreadful reign. But, for- 
 tunately for the empire, Providence had prepared 
 a welcome agent for its relief. General Monk, with most 
 admirable address, appeared in London, with his army : a 
 free parliament was chosen ; and the temper of the new 
 members, wearied by commotions, clearly evinced their 
 wishes for the ancient constitution. 
 
 Every thing being arranged, the general directed An- 
 nesly, president of the council, to inform the commons, 
 that sir John Granville, had been sent over by Charles ; 
 and was then at the door, with a letter to the House. 
 Granville was called in : the letter was eagerly read ; with- 
 out a moment's delay, a committee was appointed to pre- 
 pare an answer; the lords hastened to reinstate themselves 
 in their accustomed authority ; and Charles, with great 
 solemnity, was proclaimed king. Thus, ended, after eleven 
 years' struggle, the Commonwealth of England. How dif- 
 ferent has been the fate of the American republic ; and yet 
 how similar were their patriots. But the latter owes the 
 stability of its admirable constitution, to the happy ar- 
 rangement of its territorial members, — sufficiently united, 
 to resist the severity of war: sufficiently detached, to de- 
 feat any rash experiments in peace. 
 
 The fixed annual revenue, at this period, was about two- 
 millions ; but, by forfeitures and other means, the national 
 income amounted to nearly two-millions-and-a-half. Inter- 
 est of money was now reduced to six per cent. 
 
 Tea, coffee, and chocolate, were lately introduced into 
 England ; also, asparagus, cauliflower, and a vaiiety of 
 other garden vegetables. 
 
 From rather an inauspicious beginning, that orderly and 
 respectable religious society, called Quakers, had their 
 rise, during the commonwealth. Of this sect, George 
 Fox, of Drayton in Lancashire, was the founder. 
 
 The poets of this age, were, Milton, Waller, Southern, 
 Cowley, and Denham. Milton, the great author of Para- 
 dise Lost, and the successful rival of the Grecian^ Homer, 
 ■was a zealous advocate of liberty. He was employed by 
 Oliver Cromwell, as Latin secretary to the council. Ed- 
 mund Waller, nephew of the patriot Hambden, is esteem- 
 ed the earliest refiner of English verse; and it is to him we 
 are indebted for the present form of our heroic rhyme, in 
 couplets. The measure generally used in the days of Eliz- 
 
154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 abeth, Jaraes, and Charles the first, was the stanza of eight 
 lines, such as Spenser employs, borrowed from the Italian ; 
 a measure very constrained and artificial. He was also 
 much admired for the force and beauty of his parliamenta- 
 ry eloquence. But, in the hour of danger, his timidity al- 
 lowed him to betray his party and his friends. Cowley, 
 though, in his life time, more praised than even Milton, Ls 
 now remarkable only for the display of a despicable taste ; 
 which, indeed, then too generally prevailed. Denham, in 
 his Cooper's Hill, has given to English rhyme, a loftiness 
 and vigour, which it had never before attained. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 RESTORATION^ 
 
 CHARLES THE SECOND. 
 
 1660 — 1685. 
 
 CHARLES the first had roused the indignation of the 
 people, by the stubbornness with which he contended for 
 unlimited prerogative. His successor deserved their ha- 
 tred, for the exercise of equalities, more reproachable to his 
 character as an individual, and more injurious to the na- 
 tion ; because more perfidious. The father offended througli 
 regard to principle: the son, through the odious failing of 
 private gratification. Charles, by his degrading compli- 
 ance with the Scotch, had already given a specimen of 
 his meanness; and his conduct throughout his reign too 
 well accorded with that early departure from the true 
 firmness of a man. 
 
 Now, in his thirtieth year, he united to the graces of his 
 person, a lively wit and sound understanding; but, being 
 of a careless disposition, he conferred his favours indis- 
 criminately ; without regard to the services of his friends, 
 or the injuries of his enemies. Monk, however, was not 
 forgotten ; having been created duke of Albemarle ; an hon- 
 our, to which, from his previous conduct, he was eminent- 
 ly entitled. Sir Edward Hyde, now earl of Clarendon, was 
 appointed chancellor and prime minister; and the marquis 
 of Ormond, advanced to the dignity of duke, was made 
 steward of the household. . 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 155 
 
 All judicial proceedings, transacted in the name of the 
 Commonwealth, being ratified by the new government, the 
 trials commenced of those who were active in the late revo- 
 lution. Charles, before his arrival, had agreed to confine 
 his prosecutions to those whom the -parliament should se- 
 lect ; and, accordingly, Harrison, Scot, Carew, Jones, and 
 Scrope, who sat as judges on the late king, Coke, the soli- 
 citor, and a fev/ others, were executed. Their sufferings 
 did not interrupt the festivities of the palace. Licentious 
 gayety and joy had banished every sentiment of decency or 
 humanity. Indeed, the manners of the court were soon 
 diffused throughout the kingdom ; so that it is difficult to 
 judge, whether the covered vices of the former hypocrisy, 
 or the open violations of decorum which succeeded, were 
 the most injurious. 
 
 In Scotland, the marquis of Argyle was chosen as a vic- 
 tim ; and, though no further criminal than many thousands 
 w^ho, also, had participated in the civil wars, he was con- 
 demned to die. At his trial, Albemarle produced the pri- 
 vate letters of the marquis ; a treacherous proceeding, 
 which has excited the indignation of every honourable mind. 
 
 The settlement of Ireland was a work of considerable 
 difficulty. Nearly all the valuable lands in that country, 
 had been given to those who lent money to the parliament, 
 as a means of suppressing the rebellion ; or to the soldiers, 
 in payment of arrears. But, to prevent confusion and 
 bloodshed, all parties seemed willing to make abatements 
 from their claims; and the new holders agreed to relinquish 
 a fourth of their possessions. 
 
 A new parliament was now assembled. The 
 majority consisted of high-churchmen and royalists. 
 Ancient establishments were restored, and efficient meas- 
 ures taken to prevent the smallest degree of toleration, to 
 all who refused conformance with the liturgy of the court. 
 Charles would willingly have dispensed v/ith this severity ; 
 not because he cherished the generous principles of indul- 
 gence, but, that if he harboured within his breast any feel- 
 ings of religion, they inclined towards the Roman Catholic; 
 %vhich, by the late regulation, was treated with as little re- 
 spect as the presbyterian, or the puritan. On this occasion,- 
 upwards of two-thousand clergymen sacrificed their tem- 
 poral interest to the dictates of an approving conscience. 
 
 In the ensuing year, the king concluded a bargain, by 
 which he received, in marriage, Catherine of Portugal ; 
 with a fortune of live-liundred-thousand pounds, and two 
 O 2 
 
156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ' 
 
 fortresses — Tangier and Bombay. The money produced 
 a seasonable relief to his private necessities ; and the for- 
 tresses, a eertain expenditure to his affectionate subjects. 
 TlTe festivity of the espousals was further enlivened by the 
 execution of three regicides ; Berkstead, Cobbet, and Okey : 
 who had eluded the former vigilance of parliament. Vane, 
 ■who had been passed over, fell a sacrifice to the opinions of 
 the present parliament ; and, contrary to a positive law, 
 suffered the punishment of death. 
 1 fifi4. '^ close union with Holland, which, with small 
 
 interruption, had subsisted nearly seventy years, 
 ■was again broken, in subservience to the views of com- 
 merce. The Dutch, by industry and frugality, being ena- 
 bled to undersell the English merchants in every market, 
 the government now endeavoured to usurp this advantage, 
 by the unjust influence of naval superiority. The duke of 
 York (himself a member of a commercial company, an ene- 
 my to the religion of the Dutch, and an «7«arci^7* of marine 
 enterprises) was an active stimulator of this iniquitous 
 attack. Sir Robert Holmes was secretly despatched to the 
 coast of Africa; where, he seized their shipping and their 
 settlements; thence, he steered for America, and took pos- 
 session of Nova Belgia, since called New Jersey and New 
 York. 
 
 The affairs of the Dutch were conducted by the virtuous 
 and celebrated John De Witt ; who lost not a moment in 
 retaliation. The British Channel became the scene of fre- 
 quent and well contested engagements ; in which, neither 
 party could boast of much superiority. The English fleet 
 was principally commanded by the duke of York, prince 
 Rupert, the earl of Sandwich, Albemarle, Allen, Berkely, 
 and Sprague : the Dutch, by De Ruyter, young Tromp, 
 son of the famous Tromp, killed in the former war, aided 
 by Tnany others of celebrity. The French king, Louis the 
 fourteenth, prepared a fleet, and declared in favour of the 
 States. In the Channel, an engagement ensued ; in which 
 the English, after a contest of four days, gained over the 
 combined fleet a decided victory. 
 
 A dreadful plague which occurred in London, 
 
 and, in one year, swept off a hundred-thousand in- 
 habitants, was now succeeded by another signal calamity. 
 A fire commenced in a baker's shop in that city, and con- 
 sumed four-hundred streets; comprising thirteen-thousand 
 houses. It has, however, proved beneficial. The old wood- 
 en buildings have been replaced by houses of brick or stone. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. isT 
 
 more regularly arranged. But there remains one trace of 
 that visitation, which is much to be regretted. The Monu- 
 ment, then erected, bears an inscription, falsely imputing 
 the destruction to the Catholics.* 
 
 Charles, having received a grant from parliament, of 
 nearly two-millions, embraced the first opportunity of end- 
 ing hostilities. He had a prospect of small benefit from 
 the war, but an urgent occasion for the supply. A peace 
 was concluded at Breda; by which, all that England gained 
 was Nova Belgia, in return for the blood of her citizens and 
 the honour of the crown. 
 
 As it was necessary that some minister should be sacri- 
 ficed, to appease the people and the parliament, the earl of 
 Clarendon was chosen for the victim. This eminent char- 
 acter laboured under the combined hatred of every party. 
 By impartiality, he had excited the enmity of the religious 
 sects; always jealous of each other: by opposing his licen- 
 tiousness, he had caused the displeasure of the king. He 
 was, accordingly, banished from the country, and retired 
 into France; where he composed his much admired histo- 
 ry of the civil wars. 
 
 It was now Louis's turn to attack his defenceless 
 neighbours. As he had already overrun the Span- 
 ish Netherlands, and it was evident that the States were the 
 next object of his ambition, Charles deemed it expedient 
 to restrain his advances, and formed a defensive alliance 
 with the Dutch. To this, succeeded a change in the ad- 
 ministration. All the virtuous ministers were excluded ; 
 and the national affairs intrusted to five persons — Clifford, 
 Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale ; known 
 by the appellation of the Cabal ; a title fonried by the initial 
 letters of their names. Of these infamous ministers, lord 
 Ashley, afterwards created earl of Shaftsbury, and the duke 
 of Buckingham, were the most corrupt. Over this dis- 
 honourable cabal, the gold of Louis easily prevailed. Even 
 Charles himself became a willing participator in the bribes 
 of France. By means of the dutchess of Orleans, who was 
 Charles's sister, and the caresses of a handsome mistress, 
 which she brought him, he relinquished every principle of 
 honour ; and made an arrangement for the destruction of 
 
 * This imputation is repelled by Pope, in the following- couplet •. 
 
 ** Where London's column, pointing" to the bkies. 
 Like a tall bully, lifts its head, and lies." 
 
158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Holland, and the overthrow of the national religion of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The duke of York at this time openly declared 
 
 * himself a Roman Catholic ; which acknowledgment, 
 as he was heir apparent to the crown, gave considerable 
 alarm. — Sir William Temple, the virtuous ambassador to 
 the States of Holland, is, soon afterwards, recalled : every 
 insult is offered to the Dutch : a piratical attempt is made 
 to intercept their Smyrna fleet ; and, without any ground 
 for hostilities, they are involved in war. Louis now pours 
 down his forces like a torrent, and enters their strong towns 
 in rapid succession. But the States, having appointed the 
 young prince of Orange to command their armies, he, as- 
 sisted by the Imperialists, drives the haughty Louis, with 
 precipitation, from all his conquests — A change in the Eng- 
 lish ministry soon followed. Shaftesbury was dismissed, and 
 sir Heneage Finch appointed chancellor, in his place. To 
 this, succeeded a separate peace with Holland ; and an ad- 
 journment of the parliament. 
 
 When the legislature was again assembled, the commons, 
 in appropriating the supplies, evinced an open distrust of 
 the king; and displayed the utmost jealousy of the duke of 
 York, as well as of all who professed a similar religion. 
 This body was now divided into the court and the country 
 party. Into the former, some were enlisted by offices and 
 bribes ; but many acted entirely from principle. To the 
 country party, several, likewise, were attached by private 
 views, or by faction ; but numbers had no other object than 
 the public good. 
 
 In the midst of those violent contentions, which again 
 threatened the nation with civil wars, the cry of a plot re- 
 sounded in the city ; and soon spread its baneful influence 
 throughout the kingdom. The detail, or even the mention 
 of an occurrence, at once so puerile and absurd, though 
 producing effects so sanguinary and disgraceful, we should 
 willingly omit ; but, that the recital may be, hereafter, use- 
 ful, in guarding against blind credulity and intolerance.— 
 w Whilst the king was walking in the Park, he was 
 
 * accosted by one Kirby, a chemist: "Sir," said he, 
 <■< keep within your company : your enemies have a de- 
 sign upon your life : you may be shot in this very walk." 
 Being asked the reason of this strange address, Kirby re- 
 plied, that two men, called Grove and Pickering, had en- 
 gaged to shoot him ; and that sir George Wakeman, the 
 queen's physician, had undertaken to poison him. An in- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 159 
 
 quiry was instituted. This brought forward many atro- 
 cious ruffians ; amongst whom, none were so highly infa- 
 mous as Titus Gates and William Bedloe ; men who had 
 been guilty of almost every crime in the catalogue of hu- 
 man vices. Gates said, that he had been employed by the 
 Jesuits : that he had received three blows with a stick and 
 a box on the ear, from the provincial of that order, for hav- 
 ing revealed their conspiracy ; and, dreading a still severer 
 punishment, had concealed himself, and nearly perished for 
 want of bread : that the pope had declared himself entitled 
 to the possession of England and Ireland, on account of the 
 heresy of prince and people ; that new crown officers and 
 churchm.en were appointed ; and immense preparations 
 made for invasion : that four assassins, at twenty guineas a 
 piece, were employed to stab the king ; and that Coleman, 
 secretary to the late dutchess of York, had given the mes- 
 senger who carried them the orders, a guinea^ to quicken 
 his diligence. 
 
 After this, the city prepared for defence, as if an enemy 
 were at the gates ; which induced sir Thomas Player, the 
 chamberlain, to exclaim, that were it not for such precau- 
 tions, all the citizens might rise next morni^ig with their 
 throats cut. 
 
 Sir George Wakeman and Coleman, with many others, 
 were brought to trial. The former was acquitted ; but 
 Coleman, and several more, were found guilty and exe- 
 cuted. Two years afterwards, the venerable loi*^ Staffi)rd, 
 a catholic nobleman, who had been confined as a participa- 
 tor in this pretended conspiracy, was impeached by the 
 house of lords; by whom, after a trial of six days, he was 
 pronounced guilty. In all these cases, the witnesses were 
 the most profligate of the human race : their testimony was 
 contradicted, not only by themselves, but by the clearest 
 evidence on the part of the accused ; and, still further, by 
 the solemn declarations of the unfortunate sufferers, at the 
 place of execution. 
 
 Charles now found it expedient to dissolve the parlia- 
 ment. It had existed, without any general election of the 
 commons, since the second year of his reign ; a period of 
 seventeen years; guided, rather by the impulse of party 
 violence, than the dispassionate influence of patriotic integ- 
 rity. But, in the following year, he was constrained to 
 summon a new legislature. Besides, that he might, in some 
 measure, appease the national ferment, he desired his 
 brother to withdraw to the Continent; to which request. 
 
160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the duke readily consented. But Charles found the present 
 parliament, particularly the lower house, more refractory 
 than even the former. In concert, therefore, with sir Wil- 
 liam Temple, a new council was formed ; into which, were 
 admitted, many of those statesmen who enjoyed the confi- 
 dence of the people; and the king declared, that without 
 their advice, he would not transact any business of import- 
 ance. The earls of Essex and Sunderland, viscount Hali- 
 fax, and Temple, formed the cabinet ; and, contrary to 
 the remonstrance of the latter, Shaftesbury, who, after the 
 dissolution of the Cabal, had espoused, with violence, the 
 popular side, was made president of the privy council. In 
 the house of commons, a bill Avas passed, by a large ma- 
 jority, for totally excluding the duke from the crown ; but 
 it did not become a law. Soon afterwards, the two houses, 
 having a most violent altercation as to their respective 
 privileges, the king, without advising with his council, dis- 
 solved the parliament. 
 
 , „Q By the tyrannical conduct of Lauderdale and the 
 duke of York, the people in Scotland were at length 
 driven to open rebellion. Though prelacy had been abol- 
 ished, and the presbyterian form of worship established 
 there, soon after the reformation ; yet, an exact compli- 
 ance with the episcopal form of worship was now enforced 
 with so rigorous and severe penalties, that the people 
 rose in arms, and put to death the archbishop of St. An- 
 drews. English soldiers were dispersed over the country, 
 and power Avas given to all commissioned officers to com- 
 pel every one they met to take a prescribed oath ; and in- 
 stantly to shoot any person that refused. Three women, 
 who declared they would not take it, were condemned to a 
 capital punishment, by drowning. One of these was an 
 elderly woman, the other two were young: one of the lat- 
 ter was eighteen years of age ; the other, only thirteen. 
 Even these violent persecutors were ashamed to put the 
 youngest to death : but the other two were tied to stakes, 
 within the sea-mark, at low water ; a contrivance, which 
 rendered their death lingering and dreadful. The elderly 
 •woman was placed the farthest in, and, by the rising of the 
 waters, was first drowned. The younger, partly terrified 
 by the view of her companion's death, partly overcome by 
 the entreaties of her friends, was prevailed on to say God 
 sa-ue the king. Immediately, she was loosened from the 
 stake : but, the officer who guarded the execution, having 
 again required her to take the oath, on her refusal, he or- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 161 
 
 (lercd her instantly to be plunged into the water ; where 
 she was held until every sign of life was extinct. 
 
 To quell the insurrection in Scotland, the king despatch- 
 ed a body of troops, under the duke of Monmouth. This 
 popular nobleman, a member of the established church, 
 who makes a conspicuous figure in the history of that age, 
 was a natural son of the king, and by the intrigues of the 
 earl of Shaftesbury, was inspired with the hope of succeed- 
 ing to the crown. Monmouth encountered the Scottish 
 malcontents at Bothwel-Bridge, between Hamilton and 
 Glasgow; and soon put them to flight. — Shortly afterwards, 
 the king, being dangerously ill, was visited by the duke of 
 York ; at whose suggestions, Monmouth was sent out of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 . At this time, there was summoned another par- 
 
 liament; which, for the greater security of the king 
 and his adherents, against the violence of the people, was 
 ordered to meet at Oxford. The country party had lately 
 received the name of Whigs; the court faction that of 
 Tories ; and mutual animosity rose to so alarming a height, 
 that the king thought it expedient again to dissolve them. 
 
 There is the same difterence between the whigs and the 
 tories, as subsisted between the plebeians and the patrici- 
 ans of ancient Rome. The latter would have conferred all 
 power, honours, and riches, upon a few individuals, whilst 
 the great body of the people were kept in a state of pover- 
 ty and dependence : the former wished to preserve as much 
 equality amongst the different ranks of men, as is consist- 
 ent with the ends of civil government. 
 
 During the latter part of his reign, Charles continued to 
 rule without parliaments, and proceeded to invade, with- 
 out fear or remorse, the most valuable privileges of his 
 subjects. He deprived the city of London, and most of 
 the corporations in England, of their charters ; and, though 
 these were afterwards restored, yet, it was on conditions so 
 precarious, that the rights of the people were left entirely 
 at the king's mercy. 
 
 .^ There was nov/ formed a regular project of in- 
 
 surrection. A council of six was erected; consist- 
 ing of Monmouth, Russel, Essex, Algernon Sydney, lord 
 Howard, and John Hambden, grandson of the great par- 
 liamentary leader. These men differed extremely in their 
 views. Essex and Sydney were advocates for a common- 
 wealth : Russel and Hambden aimed only at the exclusion 
 of the duke of York : lord Howard was a man of no princi- 
 
i62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 pie ; and Monmouth intended to acquire the crown for 
 himself. Notwithstanding this discordance, their common 
 hatred of the duke of York united them into one party. 
 There was also an inferior order of conspirators, whose 
 meetings were called the Rye House Plot ; which, in addi- 
 tion to the insurrection, carried on other schemes, unknown 
 to the former. Through the treachery of some of these 
 subordinates, intelligence was given to government. Mon- 
 mouth absconded : Russel, Essex, Sydney, Hambden, and 
 Howard, were arrested. Russel and Sydney, both eminent 
 for their virtues, suffered death, from the i'jSdelity of How- 
 ard, and the violence and inhumanity of chief justice Jef- 
 feries ; wdio prevailed on a partial jury to give a verdict 
 contrary to the evidence. Hambden was fined forty-thou- 
 sand pounds : Essex was found dead in prison ; having, ac- 
 cording to the inquest, committed suicide. 
 
 It was supposed by some, that the king had at 
 length determined to dismiss his obnoxious minis- 
 ters, and throw himself on the affection of his subjects. But, 
 amidst these virtuous designs, (which, it is probable, he 
 never did entertain,) he was seized with an apoplexy; that, 
 in a few days, carried him off, in the fifty-fifth year of his 
 age, and the twenty-fifth of his reign. 
 
 On his death-bed, he received the sacrament from a Ro- 
 man Catholic clergyman. 
 
 In 1671, an officer Vv^ho had served in Cromwell's army, 
 named Blood, had nearly succeeded in carrying off the 
 crown and other regalia, from the Tower. He had wound- 
 ed and bound Edwards, the keeper of the jewel-office, and 
 had escaped from that fortress with his prey, when he was 
 overtaken and seized. This man had, a little before, been 
 concerned in an attempt much more criminal, and nearly 
 as hazardous. Having been attainted in Ireland for en- 
 deavouring to raise an insurrection there, and some of his 
 accomplices having been capitally punished, he determined 
 to be revenged upon the duke of Ormond, the lord lieuten- 
 ant. Having, by artifice, drawn off the duke's footman, he 
 attacked his coach, as it drove in the night-time, through 
 St. James' Street in London; and made himself master of 
 his person. He might here have finished his crime, had 
 he not meditated refinement in his revenge. He resolved 
 to hang the duke at Tyburn, the place for executing the 
 vilest criminals ; and, for that purpose, he bound him, and 
 mounted him on horse-back, behind one of his companions. 
 They were advanced some distance into the fields, when the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 163 
 
 duke succeeded in throwing himself to the ground, and 
 brought down with him the assassin to whom he was fast- 
 ened. They were struggling together in the mire, when 
 the duke's servants, whom the alarm had now reached, came 
 up, and saved him ; and Blood, with his companions, firing 
 their pistols in a hurry at the duke, rode off, and saved them- 
 selves by means of the darkness. 
 
 Blood having been soon afterwards imprisoned, the king 
 was moved, by an idle curiosity, to see and speak with a 
 person so noted for his courage and his crimes. Blood 
 might now^ esteem himself secure of a pardon. Charles 
 bestowed upon him an estate of four-hundred pounds a year; 
 encouraged his attendance about his person ; and, whilst old 
 Edwards, who had bravely ventured his life in defending 
 the regalia, was neglected and forgotten, this man, who de- 
 served to be detested as a monster, became a kind of fa- 
 vourite. 
 
 On the restoration, the king consented to turn all the 
 military tenures, established at the Conquest, (with only one 
 exception) into what is called socage, or payment of a com- 
 mon rent, in consideration of a settled revenue ; and thus, 
 the feudal system was abolished, though many of the rules 
 of English law, founded on its principles, still retain their 
 force. Many other salutary changes were extorted from 
 this tyrannical sovereign. Besides having their lands de- 
 livered from the slavery of military tenures, his subjects 
 had their bodies freed from arbitrary imprisonment, by the 
 Habeas Corpus act ; and their minds from the tyranny of 
 superstitious bigotry, by the abolition of the law for burning 
 heretics ; the last badge of persecution in the English law. 
 
 It is said, that Andrew Marvell, a member for Hull in 
 this reign, was the last person in England that received 
 wages from his constituents. Two shillings a day, the al- 
 lowance to a burgess, was so considerable a sum in ancient 
 times, that there are many instances in which the boroughs 
 petitioned to be excused from sending members to parlia- 
 ment ; and, it is remarkable, that from about the middle of 
 Edward the third's reign, to the end of Henry the fourth's, 
 the sheriff of Lancashire returned as an excuse, ^' that there 
 are not any cities or boroughs within the county of Lan- 
 caster, out of which any citizens or burgesses ought or are 
 used to go to the said parliament ; nor can they, by reason 
 of their inability and poverty."* 
 
 * "Non sunt aliqui civitates sen burq-i infra com Itatem Lancastrix, 
 P 
 
164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Immediately after the Restoration, Wilkins, bishop of 
 Chester, brother-in-law of Cromwell, w^ith a few other men 
 of philosophical taste, established the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. But, to this institution, Charles contributed only his 
 countenance ; for, though he was a great admirer of the 
 sciences, his courtiers and his mistresses kept him so ex- 
 tremely poor, that he was unable to give pecuniary assist- 
 ance. In this reign, was enacted, the first law for estab- 
 lishing turnpikes : sea-signals were invented by the duke 
 of York ; and a charter was granted to the Hudson's Bay 
 Company. 
 
 The poets, who properly fall under our present division, 
 are, Butler, and Cotton; Dryden, Otway, and Roscommon. 
 Samuel Butler was author of the celebrated satirical poem 
 of Hudibras ; the action of which is laid in the time of 
 Cromwell. The hero is a fanatical justice of the peace ; 
 who, through the confidence of authority, and the impulse 
 of zealous ignorance, ranges the country, to repress super- 
 stition, correct abuses, and prevent the exercise of inno- 
 cent amusement. Cotton wrote an amusing travestie of 
 the iEneid. — Scarcely any man has employed his pen so 
 variously as Dryden : he was a critic, and a dramatist ; a 
 modernizer of obsolete literature, and a translator. As a 
 poet, he was either serious, satirical, or encomiastic ; equal- 
 ly ready to praise the dark hypocrisy of Cromwell, or the 
 open licentiousness of Charles. His most esteemed work 
 is his translation of Virgil. — Otway, whose principal talent 
 lay in moving the passions, has afforded the admirers of 
 the tragic drama a rich feast, in his Orphan, and in his 
 Venice Preserved. — Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscom- 
 mon, has left some fine translations from the Latin ; amongst 
 which, Horace's Art of Poetry is thought to be the best. 
 Dennis is celebrated as a critic; Wycherley, as a contribu- 
 tor to the comic drama; and Bunyan, for his Pilgrim's Pro- 
 gress. The Oriental languages were indefatigably studied 
 by Dr. Thomas Hyde. Antiquities employed the indus- 
 trious Ware, Skinner, and sir William Dugdalc. Mathe- 
 matics were attended with increasing ardour : James Greg- 
 ory and Hobbes, Wallis, and John Flamsteed, rivaled the 
 most illustrious philosophers of the European continent. 
 Gregory was the inventor of the reflecting telescope ; and 
 
 de quibus aliqui cives vel burgenses addictum parliamentum venire 
 debent seu solent ; nee possunt, propter eorum debilitatem el pauper-^ 
 tatem.'' 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 165 
 
 Flamsteecl, for his extensive discoveries, was appointed as- 
 tronomer at Greenwich ; the observatory having been raised 
 under his directions. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale, chief justice of the king's bench, was 
 a highly respected character, and wrote on a variety of sub- 
 jects. Of his several works, the *' Pleas of the Crown,'* 
 and the " Original Institution, Power, and Jurisdiction of 
 Parliaments," are the most deserving of attention. In his 
 time, the judges were not so attentive as at the present day, 
 in preserving a clear conscience ; but this great lawyer form- 
 ed an amiable contrast to the votaries of corruption. In 
 one of his circuits, a gentleman, who had a trial at the as- 
 sizes, sent him a buck for his table. When sir Matthew 
 heard his name called, he asked, if he was not the same 
 person who had sent him the venison ; and finding that he 
 was, he told him, that he could not suffer the trial to go on 
 until he paid him for his buck. It was accordingly paid 
 for ; and the gentleman withdrew his record. 
 
 In consideration of admiral Penn's services, the king, in 
 the year 1681, granted to that officer's son, William, the 
 power of colonizing the great tract of country, called, after 
 the admiral, Pennsylvania. 
 
 A remarkable instance of longevity had been shown in 
 the reign of Charles I ; when, Thomas Parr, a labouring 
 man of Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns, completed 
 one-hundred-and-sixty years; and James Bowels of Killings- 
 worth, died in the time of the Commonwealth, at the great 
 age of a hundred-and-fifty-two. But a still more uncommon 
 length of years was attained by Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshires 
 who died in 1670; having completed one-hundred-and-six- 
 ty-nine. 
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 JAMES THE SECOND. 
 
 1685 — 1689. 
 
 The late king, not having had any legitimate children, 
 was succeeded by his only brother, James, duke of York. 
 Unfortunately for himself, and for the empire, he professed 
 a religion different from that of the established church ; the 
 members of which, in England, together with the presby- 
 terians, outnumbered the Roman Catholics in the propor- 
 tion of one-hundred to one. 
 
166 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 No declarations could appear more fair, than those which 
 the king made on assembling- the comicil. "It has been 
 reported," he said, " that ! have imbibed tyrannical princi- 
 ples : but I am determined never to violate the laws of Eng- 
 land. They are sufficient to make me as great a monarch as 
 I can wish ; and I shaii, as heretofore, venture my life, in de- 
 fence of the nation, and its just liberties and rights." 
 
 Amongst the numerous addresses, which James received 
 from his subjects, the congratulation of the Quakers is a 
 little singular. " We are come," said they, <'to testify our 
 sorrow for the death of our good friend, Charles, and our 
 joy for thy being made our governor. We are told, that 
 thou art not of the persuasion of the church of England, no 
 more than we. Wherefore, we hope thou wilt grant us 
 the same liberty which thou ailowest thyself: wliich doing, 
 we wish thee all manner of happiness." 
 
 Soon, however, the public suspicion was realized. He 
 issued orders for illegally collecting duties ; despatched to 
 Rome an agent, to make submissions to the pope ; and re- 
 ceived from liim a nuncio, though, by so doing, he infringed 
 an established law. He recalled the dukeof Ormond from 
 the government of Ireland ; and, in his place, appointed 
 Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel; who carried over with him, as 
 chancellor, one 1 itton ; a man who was taken from a jail ; 
 who had been convicted of forgery and other crimes ; and 
 who, as well as Tyrconnel, was chosen merely on account of 
 his great zeal for the religion of his master. The officers 
 and soldiers, in that kingdom, who professed the reformed 
 religion, were disbanded ; stripped of their clothing, and 
 turned out upon the public. In every department, through- 
 out the empire, men were appointed to official duties with- 
 out having taken the legal test. Corporations were de- 
 prived of their charters, parliamentary elections, in many 
 places, were made by the sole authority of the king; and, 
 still further, the parliament itself was threatened with the 
 royal prerogative, in case of opposition to his wishes. 
 
 The satisfaction which James enjoyed by these oppres- 
 sions, was suddenly interrupted. The duke of Monmouth, 
 having procured a few ships in Holland, arrived at Lime, 
 in Dorsetshire; and, alleging that his mother had been mar- 
 ried to Charles the second, openly declared himself the le- 
 gitimate heir of the English throne. Though, on landing, 
 he had scarcely one-hundred followers ; yet, so great was 
 his popularity, that, in a few days, upwards of six-thousanel 
 men crowded to his standard. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 167 
 
 To check his progress, three-thousand well disciplined 
 troops, under tlie command of the earl of Feversham and 
 lord Churchill, (afterwards duke of Marlborough) were sent 
 forward by the king. At Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater, a 
 battle ensued. Great bravery was displayed by the coun- 
 try forces; but, through the bad generalship of Monmouth, 
 and the cowardice of lord Gray, who commanded the cav- 
 alry, they were defeated. Monmouth fled from the field 
 of battle, until his horse sunk, exhausted b^ fatigue. He 
 then changed clothes with a peasant ; and, at last, was found, 
 covered over with fern, in the bottom of a ditch — his body 
 emaciated by hunger ; his mind depressed by the recollec- 
 tion of the past, and the prospect of the future. Soon, 
 however, this unhappy nobleman ended his career upon the 
 scaffold. He warned the executioner not to fall into the 
 error which he had committed in beheading lord Russei ; 
 when it had been necessary to repeat the blow. But, this 
 precaution served only to dismay him. He made a feeble 
 stroke at Monmouth, who raised his head from the block, 
 and looked him in the face, as if reproaching him with his 
 failure. He gently laid dovn\ his head a second time ; and 
 the executioner struck him again and again, without effect. 
 He then threw aside the axe, and cried out that he was in- 
 capable of finishing the bloody office. But the sheriff com- 
 pelled him to renew the attempt; and, at two strokes more, 
 his head was severed from his body. 
 
 Had Monmouth's design succeeded, the miseries of the 
 nation would have been increased ; not alleviated. Expe- 
 rience has shown, that it is a bad remedy to exchange ty- 
 ranny for usurpation. 
 
 The attempts of the marquis of Argyle, who, in concert 
 with Monmouth, had landed in Scotland, were equally un- 
 successful. That nobleman, who, after being condemned 
 in the preceding reign, had escaped into Holland, was now 
 taken prisoner, and executed. 
 
 The edict of Nantz, which Henry the fourth had enacted 
 in favour of the protestants, was, by the impolicy of Louis, 
 revoked ; and, in consequence, above half a million, of his 
 most mdustrious subjects, deserted France ; nearly fifty- 
 thousand of whom arrived in England. This measure of 
 the French king, whilst it established, in Great Britain, 
 many of his most valuable manufactures, especially silk, 
 served to increase the general apprehensions for the national 
 religion. Another event, too, occurred, which pro- 
 duced a considerable sensation. This was, the birth 
 P 2 
 
168 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of a royal heir ; who received the usual title of prince of 
 Wales. 
 
 National grievances were now at their greatest height. 
 The appellation of whig or tory was no longer heard. All 
 lovers of their country joined to throw off the oppressive 
 burthen, and applied to the prince of Orange for assistance. 
 The bishop of London, the earls of Danby, Nottingham, 
 Devonshire, and Dorset ; the duke of Norfolk, the marquis 
 of Halifax, the lords Lovelace, Delamare, Paulet, and 
 Eland ; Messrs. Hambden, Powle, and Lester ; besides ma- 
 ny eminent citizens of London — all these persons, though 
 of opposite parties, concurred in the application. 
 
 William, prince of Orange, was a maternal grandson of 
 Charles the hrst, and a maternal nephew and son-in-law of 
 James ; having been married, in the late reign, to the prin- 
 cess Mary. 
 
 With the utmost secrecy and expedition, the prince pre- 
 pared a fleet of five-hundred vessels, and an army of four- 
 teen-thousand men ; M'ith which, he sailed from Helvoet- 
 Sluys, and arrived safely in Torbay. All England was soon 
 in commotion. In a few days, the greater part of the Eng- 
 lish army had gone over to him. James, agitated and alarm- 
 ed, determined to escape to France ; and sent off, before him, 
 the queen and the infant prince. He himself, accompani- 
 ed only by sir Edward Hales, ^.disappeared in the night; 
 and, having thrown the great seal of England into the 
 Thames, endeavoured to reach a ship which waited for him 
 near the mouth of the river. But, being seized by the po- 
 pulace at Feversham, he was taken back to London. 
 
 All now was anarchy and suspense. The Dutch guards 
 took possession of the palace; and the king, deserted by his 
 friends, and despised by his enemies, was suffered quietly 
 to withdraw. He embarked at Rochester; and thence pro- 
 ceeded to Ambleteuse, in France. — Thus, was the deliver- 
 ance of England effected ; and with very little effusion of 
 blood : as only a few soldiers were killed, in an accidental 
 skirmish. 
 
 For the purpose of settling the government, a 
 convention was assembled. It consisted of all the 
 members who had sat in the house of commons, during any 
 of the parliaments of Charles the second ; as those of James 
 were not legally appointed : also, the mayor, aldermen, and 
 fifty of the common council of London. They made the 
 following declaration ; which received the concurrence of 
 the peers. « That, king James the second, having endeav- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 169 
 
 ouved to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by break- 
 ing the original contract between king and people ; and 
 having, by the advice of wicked counsellors, violated the 
 fundamental laws, and withdrawn himself out of the king- 
 dom, has abdicated the government; and that the throne 
 is thereby vacant." 
 
 A bill was then passed, which excluded Roman Catho- 
 lics from the regal office, and settled the crown on the 
 prince and princess of Orange and her issue ; the sole ad- 
 ministration to remain in the prince ; after their death, on 
 the princess Anne, second daughter of king James, and 
 wife of prince George of Denmark, and her issue ; and 
 lastly, on the heirs of the prince himself. 
 
 To this settlement, was annexed, a Declaration of Rights ; 
 in which, all those matters, between the king and the peo- 
 ple, so often the subjects of dispute, were finally determin- 
 ed ; and, thus, the royal prerogative was more narrowly 
 circumscribed than at any former period of the English 
 government. 
 
 James was twice married : first, to Anne Hyde, daugh- 
 ter of the earl of Clarendon ; and afterw^ards to Maria 
 Josepha, sister of the duke of Modena. By his first queen, 
 who was of the protestant faith, he had eight children ; two 
 only of whom were at this time living — Mary, married to 
 the prince of Orange, and Anne, the consort of prince 
 George of Denmark. By his second, who was a Roman 
 Catholic, he had five children ; of whom, there was now 
 alive one son, James, prince of Wales. 
 
 The national debt, at the revolution, amounted to about 
 a million sterling: the fleet consisted of one-hundrcd-and- 
 seventy vessels, and required forty-two-thousand men. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 WILLIAM AND MARY. 
 
 1689 — ir02. 
 
 THE principal ministers, at this time, were, the earls of 
 Nottingham and Shrewsbury, the marquis of Halifax, and 
 Bentinck, created earl of Portland; who was the greatest 
 favourite of the king. In religious affairs, William was a 
 man of considerable moderation ; and, being a presbyterian, 
 
;70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 naturally used his influence with parliament, to obtain, ibf 
 all sects of dissenters from the established church, some 
 degree of toleration ; in which, he was successful. That he 
 %vould have extended to the Roman Catholics the same 
 protection, we have just reason to believe ; but the ferment 
 then existing in England, would have rendered abortive 
 every exertion in their favour. 
 
 In Scotland, the duke of Hamilton, and all the presby- 
 terians, declared for William : the duke of Gordon, and 
 his friends, held out in favour of their old master. At 
 length, a smart engagement ensued, at the pass of Killy- 
 crankie, in Perthshire ; where, the Highlanders, headed 
 by lord Dundee, defeated the English under general Mac- 
 kay. In this battle, twelve-hundred of the latter were kill- 
 ed : but Dundee having fallen, the affairs of his party, 
 thenceforward, went to ruin ; and, in a short time, all the 
 clans submitted to the English. 
 
 Ireland, the population of which was then, as it is now, 
 mostly Roman Catholic, maintained allegiance to the exil- 
 ed monarch ; affording him a flattering prospect of success. 
 Having therefore received from the king of France every 
 assistance that such an expedition required, James, ac- 
 companied by a splendid retinue, sailed from Brest ; and 
 arrived, on the 22nd of March, at Kinsale. In a few days 
 afterwards, he made a public entry into Dublin. Then, 
 having summoned a parliament to meet in the ensuing 
 May, he departed for the north, and took his post before 
 the walls of Derry. 
 
 This city, being an English settlement, resolved to de- 
 fend itself to the last, against king James ; and maintained 
 one of the most obstinate sieges that history records. De- 
 serted by the commander, who saw no probability of suc- 
 cess, the townsmen chose for their governors, George 
 Walker, rector of Donaghmore, and major Baker. Their 
 situation was deplorable. Their fortifications were only 
 trifling : their cannon, which did not exceed twenty pieces, 
 were badly mounted : they had not one engineer to direct 
 their operations ; and were besieged by a king, in person, 
 at the head of a formidable army, with experienced ofii- 
 cers, and every engine either for a siege or battle. After 
 being many times repulsed, James returned to Dublin ; 
 having left the comm.and to the French general, Rosene. 
 This officer disgraced his memory, by his subsequent be- 
 haviour in the siege ; having acted in the most barbarous 
 manner, contrary even to the express orders of his employ- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, in 
 
 er. The garrison, for want of food, were now reduced to 
 extremity; but an English frigate, having broken the boom 
 which had been laid across the river, brought them a joy- 
 ful relief; and the besiegers abandoned the attack; after 
 losing before the place nine-thousand men. 
 
 By the inattention of the English administration, James 
 had been six months in Ireland before an army was sent 
 over to oppose him. In the month of August, duke Schom- 
 berg, with ten-thousand men, landed near Carrickfergus ; 
 of which place, he got possession, and, subsequently, of Bel- 
 fast, Newry, and Dundalk : but, in the neighbourhood of 
 the latter, he remained encamped, upon low, swampy 
 ground, until half his army fell victims to a contagious dis- 
 order. 
 
 Q In the middle of June, William himself, attended 
 
 ' by prince George of Denmark, the duke of Ormond, 
 the earl of Stair, and many more persons of distinction, 
 landed at Carrickfergus. Thence, he proceeded for Bel- 
 fast ; where he was met by Schomberg. Having rested 
 there for a few days, he passed through Lisburn and Hills- 
 borough, to Loughbrickland ; where, on reviewing his army, 
 he found that it amounted to thirty-six-thousand effective 
 men. He then marched to Dundalk ; and, taking the road 
 through Ardee, arrived on the left bank of the Boyne, about 
 three miles above Drogheda. On the opposite bank, 
 James was prepared to oppose him; with an army compos- 
 ed of Irish and French, nearly equal in number to his ad- 
 versary's. The ground on which James's army stood, was 
 much exposed to the fire of his enemy. Rising gradually 
 from the river, it forms an inclined plane, receding about 
 two miles ; so that every shot from the other side must 
 take effect : and its bank offers to an assailant not the 
 smallest natural obstruction. William had every advan- 
 tage that a general could demand. The bank upon which 
 he stood is elevated at least twenty feet above the river, 
 presenting, along its entire front, a commanding battery. 
 From this, his cannon could play upon the enemy, directly 
 over the heads of his own men, during the crossing of the 
 river ; which, with little difficulty, is fordable. On his right, 
 there winded a deep ravine, which extended to the Boyne, 
 and afforded a cover to the troops, when approaching to the 
 attack. William, when he had leisure to view from this 
 situation the surrounding country, delighted with its beau- 
 ty and fertility, exclaimed — " This, indeed, is a kingdom 
 -worthy of a battle." 
 
ir2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 In the morning, at six o'clock, general Douglas, with 
 the younger Schomberg and the earl of Portland, marched 
 towards Slane bridge ; and, with little opposition, passed 
 the river. The Irish troops then faced about, and hastily 
 retreated to Duleek. At this moment, king William's main 
 body, consisting principally of the Dutch guards and some 
 battalions of English, crossed the river, under a general 
 discharge of artillery. The elder Schomberg, who led on 
 the attack, being killed by the fire of his own men, the 
 battle was for some time doubtful ; but William, having 
 gone over with his left wing, after a hard contested action, 
 gained a complete victory. 
 
 In this memorable engagement, the French and Swiss 
 auxiliaries sustained the contest with intrepidity and per- 
 severance ; but the Irish displayed none of that undaunted 
 bravery, which has covered them with glory when abroad. 
 James, who remained during the action on the hill of Dun- 
 more, which overlooked the field of battle, retreated through 
 Dublin, to Waterford. There, he embarked; and, in a few 
 days, arrived in France. 
 
 At the scene of action, upon a small projecting rock on 
 the left bank of the Boyne, there is erected a handsome 
 obelisk, with an inscription commemorative of his defeat. 
 
 But William met a severe repulse at Limerick. This 
 place was commanded by Boisseleau; who, ably assisted 
 by colonel Sarsfield, drove the king from before its walls, 
 with considerable loss. After this, he embarked at Dun- 
 cannon, and returned to England. His affairs, however, 
 were soon retrieved. Marlborough having arrived in Ire- 
 land, in a few days reduced the towns of Cork and Kinsale. 
 At Athlone and Aughrim, the adherents of James werfc 
 equally unfortunate. General Ginckel, having taken the 
 former, proceeded to Aughrim ; where, after a most gal- 
 lant resistance by the French general, St. Ruth, who was 
 killed in the action, the Irish army were overthrown. They 
 then retreated to Limerick, resolved to make there a final 
 stand; in the hope of receiving from France succours suffi- 
 cient to restore their affairs, or of obtaining favourable 
 terms from the court of England. 
 
 , -Q. , Limerick was now the only place of importance 
 unsubdued. It was invested by general Ginckel ; 
 who, after a severe bombardment, forced it to capitulate ; 
 and, on the fourth of October, the articles of surrender 
 were completed. This celebrated treaty extended to all 
 places in the kingdom, that were yet in the hands of the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. \7J 
 
 Irish : it restored to the Roman Catholics, the same de- 
 gree of religious liberty, enjoyed by them in the reign of 
 Charles the second ; and their estates, privileges, and im- 
 munities. It allowed the inhabitants of all the garrisons 
 to remove their goods, without search, or payment of duty j 
 and all who were inclined, to leave the kingdom, and settle 
 in any country, except England or Scotland. In conse- 
 quence, twelve-thousand men emigrated to France; where, 
 James thanked them for their loyalty, and assured them, 
 that the French king had already given orders for their re- 
 ception. 
 
 To dwell upon the numerous conspiracies in England, 
 which successively kept the nation in alarm : to carry our 
 readers over that extensive field upon the Continent, in 
 which the ambition of the king of France was combated, 
 with various fortune, by the bravery of William and his al- 
 lies; or to detail the numerous operations of the contending 
 navies ; would produce neither interest, nor pleasure, nor 
 admiration. We can feel no interest in conspiracies, of 
 which the agents and the effects are alike forgotten : no 
 pleasure in the recital of massacre and ruin ; nor admiration 
 in the review of sea-fights, not conspicuous for a display 
 either of heroism or skill. Of all the admirals, the most 
 prominent character was Rooke : the most remarkable 
 sieges were those of Namur. This place, situated at the 
 confluence of the Mease and Sambre, was besieged by Louis 
 the fourteenth, at the head of one-hundred-and-twenty-thou- 
 sand men ; and taken, in sight of king William's army, af- 
 ter an obstinate resistance. Though, however, Vauban the 
 celebrated engineer, had exhausted his whole art in its de- 
 fence, it was retaken by the allied forces, under William's 
 command. 
 
 In the preceding year, the queen was seized with the 
 small pox ; which caused her death, in the thirty-third year 
 ©f her age. 
 
 After a tedious and sanguinary contest, peace was 
 concluded at Ryswick, in Holland. From this pe- 
 riod, nothing claiming particular attention, occurred, until 
 the death of James ; which happened at St. Germains, in 
 four years after that of his daughter Mary. Contrary to 
 an article in the treaty of Ryswick, Louis proclaimed the 
 prince of Wales, James's son, king of England ; which ac- 
 knowledgment, in the course of time, produced important 
 consequences. 
 
1-4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 In the following spring, the bustling life of the 
 * martial William closed. When he had reached the 
 fifty-second year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign, 
 he exchanged the gaudy trappings of the soldier, for the 
 plain habiliments of the tomb. This prince was of the mid- 
 dle stature : he had an aquiline nose, and sparkling eyes. 
 In the palace, he was unplcasmg and reserved : in battle, 
 free, spirited, and cheerful. 
 
 In this reign, the linen manufacture of Ireland was pro- 
 moted, and the Bank of England established; the notes of 
 which, owing to the public distress arising from the im- 
 mense expenses of the war, were, for a while, twenty per 
 cent, below their nominal value. About the same time, 
 •commenced also in England, the system of private banking ; 
 before which, all money transactions were managed by the 
 goldsmiths. 
 
 The celebrated Peter the Great of Russia at this time 
 visited England ; and attended chiefly to acquiring the art 
 of ship-building. 
 
 William had the honour of employing in his service, those 
 two transcendent luminaries of science — sir Isaac Newton, 
 and John Locke. Of all the philosophers, or mathemati- 
 cians, that the world ever produced, sir Isaac Newton was 
 the greatest. He was born at Woolsthorp, near Grantham, 
 in Lincolnshire, in 1642, and died in 1726, in the eighty -fifth 
 year of his age; universally admired for his amiable dispo- 
 sition. His great works are, his Mathematical Principles 
 of Natural Philosophy, his Optics, and his Fluxions ; of 
 which science, he was the inventor. If we say that Locke, 
 as a profound philosopher, has had no superior, except" 
 Newton, we accord with the general opinion. Flis most 
 celebrated performance is the Essay on Fluman Under- 
 •standing. 
 
 Robert Boyle was one of the most illustrious and virtu- 
 ous men that ever employed their lives in the development 
 of nature. His completion of the air-pump, in which he was 
 aided by the mechanical genius of the astronomer, Hooke, 
 deserves recording : though it is a very small portion of his 
 successful labours. Halley, also, and David, nephew of James, 
 Gregory, were accomplished mathematicians : Anthony 
 Ashley Cooper, lord Shaftesbury, grandson of the infamous 
 member of the Cabal, reflected lustre upon his title, by his 
 devotion to the cause of freedom, and by his admirable 
 " Characteristics :" nor can too much veneration be admit- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND). 175 
 
 ted for sir John Holt ; a lawyer, as bold and patriotic in the 
 senate, as he was learned and incorruptible on the bench. 
 
 Dr. Tillotson was archbishop of Canterbury ; and Burnetj 
 who wrote the History of the Reformation, enjoyed the sec 
 of Salisbury. 
 
 This, and the succeeding reign, are conspicuous for their 
 poetical productions. The poets of this period were. Pom* 
 fret, Garth, Lee, Prior, Co^igrcve, and sir Richard Black- 
 n:iore. The best written of the first mentioned, is his 
 <' Choice ;" a work which has been as much read as almost 
 any in our language. Garth was a patron of learning, was 
 distinguished for his own literature, his knowledge of medi- 
 cine ; and, still more, for his exertions in favour of the poor. 
 He is the author of the Dispensary ; a poem written prin* 
 cipally to defend the utility of assisting the needy with me- 
 dicine and advice. Prior was lirst brought into notice by 
 his City Mouse and Country Mouse, written, in conjunction 
 wilh Mr. IMontague, (afterwards lord Halifax.) to ridicule 
 Drydeirs Hind and Panther. This procured its authors 
 speedy |;referment at court. As a diplomatist. Prior's abili- 
 ties were of the first order; and he was employed in the 
 most diflicult negotiations. One day, whilst surveying the 
 royal apartments at Versailles, being shown the Victories 
 of Louis, painted by Le Brun, and being asked, v/hether 
 the king of England's palace had any decorations of that 
 kind : " The monuments of my master's actions," he repli- 
 ed, " are to be seen every where but in his own house." — 
 Congreve is to be considered as a dramatic writer ; in which 
 line, he was highly distinguished. His best productions, 
 are, his Old Bachelor, and Mourning Bride. But the gene- 
 ral tenor of his plays, in common with nearly all that were 
 written in his day, is reprehensible. However, by long con- 
 tinued critical attacks, in which Collier was the principal 
 assailant, the immorality of the drama was in a great meas- 
 ure overthrown. — Blackmore, as well as Garth, was an 
 eminent physician, and was employed in that profession by 
 the king. His Creation, a philosophical poem, has been 
 much admired, for the beauty of its versiiication and the 
 strength of its reasoning. 
 
 Dr. Edward Bernard, a learned critic, linguist, and as- 
 tronomer, composed many valuable nautical tables, and was 
 industrious in collecting and comparing ancient manuscripts 
 in different parts of Europe. — Few literary men have expe« 
 rienced more opposition than Dr. Bentley, an eminent critic 
 and divine of this period ; who, in a subsequent reign, filled 
 
 Q 
 
176 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the situation of royal professor of divinity, in the university 
 of Cambridge. Besides having the great Boyle as an an- 
 tagonist, he was assailed by the cutting satire of Swift, in 
 the Tale of a Tub and Battle of the Books, and in the far- 
 famed Dunciad of Pope. 
 
 It has been frequently observed, that king William's 
 ideas were all military. Two establishments, at Greenwich 
 and Chelsea, the one commenced, and the other completed, 
 in this reign, to which we may reasonably suppose he gave 
 particular attention, are adduced in corroboration. Green- 
 wich Hospital, upon the Thames, about six miles from Lon- 
 don, originally a favourite residence of the English princes, 
 especially of Henry the seventh, and Charles the second, 
 Avas now enlarged ; and, with a few acres of ground, appro- 
 priated for the residence of aged and disabled seamen, the 
 widows and children of those who lost their lives in the ser- 
 vice of their country, and for the encouragement of naviga- 
 tion. The present establishment consists of two-thousand- 
 four-hundred pensioners, and three-thousand out-pension- 
 ers, with a sufficient number of nurses, and other attend- 
 ants. In point of elegance of architecture, and liberal en- 
 dowment, there is scarcely so great an institution in the 
 world. Behind the hospital, is a delightful park, well stock- 
 ed with deer, in which is an observatory, furnished with all 
 kinds of astronomical instruments. — Chelsea Hospital, 
 sometimes called Chelsea College, is also situated on the 
 Thames, about a mile above the western extremity of Lon- 
 don. This noble building, as well as the addition to Green- 
 wich Hospital, was designed by the great architect and 
 mathematician, sir Christopher Wren ; and is exclusively 
 for invalids of the land service. The ordinary pensioners 
 are about five-hundred : but the extraordinary, or out-pen- 
 sioners, exceed twelve-thousand ; and are allowed each 
 twelve pounds a year ; which expense is supported chiefly 
 by a poundage deducted from the pay of the army, and one 
 day's pay in each year from every officer and private. 
 
 Bayonets, a French invention, were at this time first used 
 by the English army. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 177 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 Legislative Union with Scotland, 
 
 1702—1714. 
 
 IN conformity with the act of settlement, Anne, second 
 daughter of the unfortunate James, ascended the throne; 
 having the general approbation of the kingdom. She was 
 now in her thirty-eighth year ; being married, as we before 
 related, to George, prince of Denmark. She was rather 
 pleasing than beautiful ; and though, like the rest of her 
 family, she was fitted rather for the domestic employment 
 of a parent, than the public duty of a sovereign, few mon- 
 archs have swayed the English sceptre with more ability. 
 
 From the parliament, Anne soon received the most friend- 
 ly and flattering addresses. Then, with the usual solemnity, 
 she went to the house of peers ; and, in a speech to the 
 lords and commons, expressed her satisfaction at their 
 unanimous concurrence with her opinion, that too much 
 could not be done to encourage the allies in humbling the 
 power of France : she desired them to consider on the best 
 means of procuring a legislative union with Scotland ; and, 
 after some other remarks, concluded, by saying, " As I 
 know my own heart to be entirely English, I can very sin- 
 cerely assure you, that there is not any thing you can ex- 
 pect, or request from me, which I shall not be ready to do, 
 for the happiness and prosperity of England ; and you shall 
 always find me a strict observer of my word." 
 
 Sharp, archbishop of York, was her director in ecclesias- 
 tical affairs : the earl of Rochester was continued as lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland : the privy seal was intrusted to the 
 marquis of Normanby : the earl of Nottingham and sir 
 Charles Hedges were made secretaries of state. The prince 
 of Denmark was appointed generalissimo of all the forces, 
 both by sea and land ; assisted, as admiral, by a council, 
 amongst whom was sir George Rooke, Marlborough (to 
 whom we shall, henceforth, give the title of duke) was des- 
 patched to Holland, that he might animate the states to a 
 vigorous effort against France ; in which embassy, he com- 
 pletely succeeded. With them, in conjunction with the 
 
178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Imperial minister, he arranged, that war should be declared 
 against Louis, on the same day, at the Hague, Vienna, and 
 London ; and concerted the operations of the campaign. 
 
 Marlborough, who makes so conspicuous a figure in his- 
 tory, was first inured to the dangers of the field under 
 the famous French marshal, Turenne; in whose army, he 
 had been a volunteer. At first, more remarkable for the 
 beauty of his person, than the greatness of his talents, he 
 was known in the camp by the name of the handsome Eng- 
 lishman ; but his master, who saw much deeper than the 
 surface, perceived the superiority of his genius, and pic- 
 tured in his imagination the laurels which victory was pre- 
 paring for him. When appointed to command, Marlbo- 
 rough deviated from the established practice of the army, 
 by advancing the subaltern officers ; v.hose cbims had hith- 
 erto been neglected. With him, title, or seniority, was no 
 passport to promotion : he gave the preference to bravery 
 and talent ; by which means, merit was rewarded, and vic- 
 tory secured. 
 
 The name of Blenheim is intimately associated 
 with that of Marlborough. There, the greatest bat- 
 tle of that age was fought; and there he established his re- 
 nown. The allied army, at the head of which were the 
 duke, and prince Eugene, who commanded the Imperialists, 
 amounted to fifty-thousand. The French army, command- 
 ed by marshal Tallard, outnumbered their antagonists, by 
 at least eight-thousand. Tallard chose his station on a hill; 
 his right being protected by the Danube, and the village 
 of Blenheim ; his left, by the village of Lutzengen ; his 
 front, by a rivulet, the banks of which were steep, and 
 its bottom m.arshy. Marlborough, at the head of his Eng- 
 lish troops, having crossed the rivulet, attacked, with im- 
 petuosity, the cavalry of Tallard. Prince Eugene, on the 
 left, had not yet come in contact ; and nearly an hour 
 elapsed before he could bring up his troops to the charge. 
 The French cavalry being totally defeated, Tallard, at this 
 distressing moment, flew to rally some squadrons ; but, hav- 
 ing mistaken a detachment of the assailants for his own, he 
 was made prisoner. In the mean time, Eugene had joined 
 the battle, and assisted to increase the enemy's confusion. 
 The rout then became general. So great was the conster- 
 nation, that numbers of the F'rench plunged into the Da- 
 nube ; and thus, in avoiding one danger, embraced another. 
 Twelve-thousand of the enemy perished by the sword and 
 the waters; and thirteen-thousand were made prisoners. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 179 
 
 The next day, when the duke visited his prisoner Tal- 
 lard, the marshal, intending it as a compliment, assured 
 him, that he had conquered the best troops in the world— 
 *' I hope, sir," replied the duke, " you will except those by 
 whom they have been conquered." 
 
 Marlborough was received in England as the champion 
 of his country, and the retriever of its ancient glory. The 
 parliament conferred on him the manor of Woodstock; 
 where there was subsequently built for him a magnificent 
 palace, called Blenheim House. 
 
 At sea, also, the English were in general successful. But, 
 on that element, so rich a harvest of military greatness was 
 not gathered, as on land. They were not opposed, there, 
 by the same degree of talent ; nor were they equally free 
 from the mortification of defeat. A lasting monument of 
 their success remains, in the acquisition of Gibraltar. Be- 
 ing at war v/ith Spain, chiefly owing to an interference in 
 the choice of her sovereign; an interference always impoli- 
 tic, and always unjust; an English squadron, returning from 
 a fruitless expedition, under the command of sir Cloudesly 
 Shovel and su' George Rooke, made an easy conquest of 
 that celebrated fortress. Gibraltar was the Calpe of the an- 
 cients, and formed, in their puerile geography, one of the 
 Columnae Herculis, or pillars of Hercules. On the oppo- 
 site coast, in Africa, is Ceuta, formerly called Abyla ; dis- 
 tant only eighteen miles. These, by the Heathens, were 
 supposed to be the boundaries of the labours of Hercules ; 
 and, with equal fertility of imagination, were thought to 
 have been joined, until that hero opened a passage from 
 the Mediterranean into the Atlantic. If any station abroad 
 is valuable to England, it is Gibraltar. We are, however, 
 entirely opposed to such military outposts. In war, they 
 are certainly useful, by giving protection to trade ; but they 
 are a means of producing war. Had England fewer of these 
 bulwarks, she would be the less liable to conceive oftence, 
 and the less ready to commit violence. 
 
 The administration v/as, at this time, composed of the 
 two parties — whigs and tories. Of all who influenced the 
 public councils, the most powerful was Marlborough, who 
 was of the whig party. But he was removed from all liis 
 employments, by the intrigues of a female. The dutchess 
 of Marlborough, who, in the most imperious way, had long 
 ruled the opinions of the queen, was displaced, by the cun- 
 ning servility of a fawning rival — a Mrs. Masham. This 
 woman was related to the dutchess ; had been raised, by her^ 
 Q3 
 
isO HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 from indigence and obscurity, and brougiit to court to con- 
 tribute to the queen's amusement. But this hypocritical 
 dependant had a partner in her schemes. Robert Harley, 
 then secretary of state, having determined to ruin the credit 
 of the duke, and employed her as an instrument, she was 
 successful. In his career of ambition, Harley chose for 
 his coadjutor the celebrated Henry St. John : the one was 
 created earl of Oxford ; the other, lord Bolingbroke ; who 
 is much celebrated for his wit and eloquence; but, his 
 strong passions led him into many acts of indiscretion and 
 folly. 
 
 The duke of Marlborough was remarkable for his ava- 
 rice ; a blemish that is recorded in the following anecdote. 
 The earl of Peterborough, a general who liad highly dis- 
 tinguished himself at the head of some British troops in 
 Spain, one day driving through London, was much impeded 
 by an immense crowd, who had mistaken him for the duke. 
 The earl repeatedly assured them, that they v/ere in error; 
 that he was not Marlborough: but, they still persisted that 
 he was ; and were proceeding to take his horses from his 
 carriage, for the purpose of drawing it themselves, when 
 the earl, throwing a handful of money amongst them, ex- 
 claimed, " There, now, I hope I have convinced you that I 
 am not the duke." 
 
 After more than ten years of severe hostility, Eng- 
 ' '^' land and France seemed willing to change the deso- 
 lating scene.- .Louis, that arch-disturber of the continent, 
 was at length alarmed ; and begged with a suppliant tone 
 for peace. A treaty commenced at Utrecht, and on the 
 fifth of May, peace was proclaimed in London ; causing 
 great joy to the majority of the people. The Dutch and 
 the Imperialists, after complaining of the desertion of their 
 ally, found their interest in acceding ; the one, by the bar- 
 rier treaty ; the other, by the treaty of Radstadt. , 
 
 In the mean time, (May 1, 1707) the long projected 
 Union with Scotland was completed. The principal terms 
 of which were, that the two kingdoms should be represent- 
 ed in one parliament : that all subjects of Great Britain 
 tihould enjoy equal privileges and advantages : thai the lav/ 
 concerning public rights and civil government should be 
 the same throughout the united kingdoms; but, that those 
 laws which concerned private rights, should remain unalter- 
 ed ; except the alteration were advantageous to the people of 
 Scotland : that Scotland should be represented by sixteen 
 peers and forty -five commonei'S ; and should have the liber- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 181 
 
 ly, not before enjoyed, of trading with the British West In- 
 dia plantations. 
 
 The ministerial changes produced aserious alarm amongst 
 the whigs; who apprehended a design in favour of the Stu- 
 arts. Mr. Steele, (afterwards sir Richard Steele,) was ac- 
 tive in exciting the national fears. In a pamphlet, called 
 the Crisis, he vehemently declaimed against the ministry, 
 and spoke of the immediate danger of their bringing over 
 the exiled prince. For this, he was expelled the house of 
 commons. Steele was one of the celebrated wits of that 
 time; and a large contributor to the Tatler, Spectator, and 
 Guardian, of which periodical writings, he was the founder. 
 
 The queen's health was for some time past declining; 
 and her anxiety, caused by the turbulence of faction, hast- 
 ened her decay. She expired in the fiftieth year of her age, 
 and thirteenth of her reign ; having, to the last moment in 
 which she possessed her faculties, assiduously laboured for 
 the future welfare of her country. The prince of Denm.ark 
 had died about six years before, and none of their children 
 survived them. 
 
 This period was so prolific in writers of genius and ele- 
 gance, that it has been styled the Augustan Age of Eng- 
 land. Our language had then, and not till then, acquired 
 a degree of polish, which invited the whole poetical genius 
 of the nation, to celebrate the passing events of a busy age. 
 The poetry, of this time, will, most probably, never be ex- 
 celled. It seems to have attained all the strength, and all 
 the beauty, of the ancient. The prose, however, even up 
 to our own day, has been gradually improving. If, as a 
 specimen of the latter, we take the papers of the Specta- 
 tor; a work which employed the best talents of the king- 
 dom ; we discover humour, and wit, and learning, strug- 
 gling with the long continued dominion of grammatical im- 
 perfection. Few numbers of that celebrated compilation, 
 are equal, in point of style, to the daily effusions of a com- 
 mon newspaper. The English language had not been long 
 used in exalted subjects. In the preceding reigns, divinity 
 had been almost exclusively taught, and polemical dispu- 
 tation, conducted, in the Latin tongue: philosophy was dis- 
 seminated in the same ; and thus, the native language was 
 allowed to remain unpolished, until the impetuous feelings 
 of lord Boiingbroke raised it from its degradation, lopped 
 off its ungraceful and ambiguous incumbrances, and gave 
 it the majestic features, the perspicuous animation, of his 
 own mind. 
 
iS2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The brightest of the splendid consteilatioiij that appear- 
 ed then, was Pope ; the most mellifluous poet that Eng- 
 land has produced. His greatest work is the translation of 
 Homer, In this, he was assisted by Fenton and Broome. 
 To Fenton, were assigned, the 1st, 4th, i9th, and 20th : to 
 Broome, the 2d, 6th, 8th, Uth, 12th, 16th, ISth, and 23d 
 Books of the Odyssey; and so well have his associates per- 
 formed their part, that no reader can distinguish their books 
 from those of Pope. For this translation, ho received, hf 
 contract, ten-thousand pounds. His Essay on Criticism, 
 Rape of the Lock, and Dunciad, are instructive and am.us- 
 ing. — Of an interview with a noble lord. Pope gives the 
 following account. " The famous lord Halifax was rather 
 a pretender to taste than really possessed of it. When I 
 had finished the first two or three books of my Iliad, that 
 lord desired to have the pleasure of hearing them read at 
 his house. Addison, Congreve, and Garth, were at the 
 reading. In four or five places, lord Halifax very civilly 
 stopped me; saying, I beg your pardon, Mr. Pope — but 
 there is something in that passage which does not quite 
 please me. Be so good as to mark the place, and consider 
 it at your leisure — I am sure you can give it a little turn. 
 I went from his lordship's with Dr. Garth, and mentioned 
 to the doctor, that lord Halifax had laid me under a great 
 deal of difficulty, by such loose and general observations. 
 Garth laughed heartily at my embarrassment ; said, that I 
 need not puzzle myself much about looking those places 
 over, but, to leave them just as they were; to call on lord 
 Halifax in two or three months, and read them to him, as 
 if altered. I did so; and his lordship was extremely pleased 
 with them; and cried out ;. '^y, /zo-zy t/iey are fierfectly 
 right — nothing can be'better.'' " 
 
 Though Swift, the celebrated Dean of St. Patrick's, 
 stands high as a satirical poet, yet his merit as a political 
 writer, and a patriot, is still more exalted. His numerous 
 poems are witty and correct. His prose is unaffected and 
 perspicuous. As a patriot, he delivered Ireland, his native 
 country, from plunder and oppression ; showing, that wit, 
 Avhen combined with truth, is irresistible. His D rapier's 
 Letters, written against the nefarious coinage of Wood, will 
 long be admired for their argument, and respected for their 
 integrity. There is, however, one objection to his writings. 
 His satire is continually interwoven with indelicacy ; a 
 nieans which he used, to make impropriety the more dis- 
 gusting. His « Gulliver's Travels" abounds with that mode 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 183 
 
 of portraying the depravity of man. Swift did everything 
 in a manner peculiar to himself. A story told by Pope will 
 afford a specimen of his humour: — "Dr. Swift has an odd, 
 blunt way, which is mistaken by strangers for ill-nature. ' 
 'Tis so odd, that there's no describing it but by facts. I'll 
 tell you one that first comes into my head. One evening, 
 Gay and I went to see him : you know how intimately we 
 were all acquainted. On our coming in, 'Heyday, gen- 
 tlemen,' says the doctor, 'what's the meaning of this visit? 
 How came you to leave the great lords that you are so fond 
 of, to come hither to see a poor dean ?' — ' Because we would 
 rather see you than any of them.' — ' Ay, any one that did 
 not know you so well as I do, might believe you. But, 
 since you are come, I must get some supper for you, I sup- 
 pose.' — ' No, doctor, we have supped already.' — ' Supped 
 already ? that's impossible ! why, 'tis not eight o'clock yet.— - 
 That's very strange ; but, if you had not supped, I must 
 have got something for you. — Let me see ; what should I 
 have had ? A couple of lobsters; ay, that would have done 
 very well — two shillings — tarts, a shilling: but you will 
 drink a glass of wine with me, though you supped so much 
 before your usual time only to spare my pocket ?' — ' No ; we 
 would rather talk with you, than drink with you.' — ' But, if 
 you had su])ped with me, as in all reason you ought to have 
 done, you must then have drank with me. — A bottle of wine, 
 two shillings — two and two are four, and one are five: just 
 two and six pence apiece. There, Pope; there's half a 
 crown for you; and there's another for you, sir; for I wont 
 save any thing by you, I am determined.'— This was all 
 said and done with his usual seriousness on such occasions; 
 and, in spite of every thing we could say to the contrary, 
 he actually obliged us to take the money" 
 
 Addison has acquired great celebrity by his tragedy of 
 Cato ; but he is better known as the principal contributor 
 to the Spectator; a work that every one should read: the 
 subjects are literature, morality, and familiar life. In this 
 reign, he was under secretary, and in the succeeding, 
 principal secretary, of state ; an office, for v/hich, notwith- 
 standing his general talents, he was unqualified. 
 
 To those, we have to add, Parnell, Ambrose and John 
 Philips, Hughes, Tickel, Rowe, and Gay ; of whom, the 
 two last were the most eminent. Gay was the founder of 
 the English Opera. Of this poet, we shall, by way of 
 amusement, relate the following incident. — Having been 
 invited to read a tragedy, called the Captives, before tho 
 
184 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 princess of Wales, when the hour came, he saw the prin- 
 cess and her ladies all in expectation; but, advancing witli 
 reverence, too great to admit of any other attention, he 
 stumbled over a stool; and, falling forward, threw dov-n a 
 weighty Japan screen. The princess started; the ladies 
 screamed; and poor Gay, after all the disturbance, had 
 still to read his play. — The Drama is indebted also to Far- 
 quhar and Coliey Gibber, particularly to the former; who, 
 by such comedies as the Rivals, Inconstant, and Beaux 
 Stratagem, has enrolled his name amongst the most favour- 
 ed votaries of Thalia. Rymer is known for the volum- 
 inous compilation of state-papers in his Fcedera ; sir Hanse 
 Sloane, for his works on botany and medicine; and sir 
 James Thornhill, by the classical beauty of his paintings. 
 
 We recollect, with much pleasure, the names of Berke- 
 ley, the celebrated bishop of Cioyne, and the highly admir- 
 ed Arbuthnot. The former studied at Dublin College, of 
 which great establishment he was a fellow. His first pub- 
 lic essays were published in the Spectator and Guardian ; 
 which he adorned with many papers in favour of religion 
 and virtue. Amongst his other productions, are. The Prin- 
 ciples of Human Knowledge, A New Theory of Vision, 
 and Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher. Berkeley can- 
 not b« exhibited in a more favourable light, than by our 
 relating, that when offered a benefice more productive than 
 the see of Cioyne, he declined it ; saying, " My neighbours 
 and myself love one another, and I cannot think of forming- 
 new connexions in my old days, and tearing myself from 
 those friends whose kindness to me is my greatest happi- 
 ness." — Arbuthnot, a Scotch physician, joined with Pope 
 and Swift in publishing several volumes of Miscellanies; 
 in which, are the well-known Memoirs of Martinus Scrib- 
 lerus — an admirable satire on the abuses of human learn- 
 ing; and afterwards composed tables of ancient coins, 
 weights, and measures, besides other works of great utility. 
 
 An important act was now passed, to encourage learn- 
 ing. Copy-rights were, by this, secured, for a certain pe- 
 riod, to the respective authors; and placed beyond the 
 vague issue of common-law. 
 
 A statute of Henry the eighth had confined the interest of 
 money to ten per cent.; an act of James the first, to eight: 
 in the reign of Charles the second it was reduced to six; 
 and lastly, in the reign of Anne, to five per cent.; which is 
 now the highest rate of interest that can legally be taken. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 185 
 
 CHAPTER XVn. 
 GEORGE THE FIRST. 
 
 1714—1727. 
 
 WHEN reading the historic pages of the Henrys, the 
 Edwards, or the Williams — c^cn when we reach the less 
 remote period of Anne, we arc accompanied by a solemn 
 impression of Antiquity. Then, with a gently gliding, 
 and nearly imperceptible motion, the old times seemingly 
 retreat; whilst the mind diverges from the receding scene, 
 until the full, animating, and lively, prospect of our own 
 days, opens with increasing splendour. 
 
 The Stuarts had now completed their period of royalty. 
 A new branch of the regal family ascended the throne, in 
 the order of succession provided by act of parliament. 
 
 George was at this time in the fifty-fifth year of his age. 
 He was son of Ernest Augustus Guelf, first elector of 
 Brunswick, and the princess Sophia, grand-daughter of 
 James the first; and inherited Hanover; which, near the 
 end of the preceding century, had been made the ninth 
 Electorate of the Germanic Empire. 
 
 The new king was violently prejudiced against one par- 
 ty, and attached to the other. His confidence and affec- 
 tion where wholly given to the whigs. The duke of Or- 
 mond, who commanded the army, was now dismissed, 
 and Marlborough restored. The great seal was given to 
 lord Cowper; the privy seal to the earl of Wharton; and 
 the government of Ireland, to lord Sunderland. The duke 
 of Devonshire was made steward of the household : lord 
 Townshend and Mr. Stanhope were appointed secretaries 
 of state. The duke of Somerset was constituted master of 
 the horse; and the duke of Argyle commander of the 
 forces in Scotland. Mr. Pultney was made secretary of 
 ■war, and sir Robert Walpole, who had undertaken to iiian- 
 age the house of commons, paymaster of the army. 
 
 The king's partiality soon produced dissatisfaction. In 
 different places, seditious libels were dispersed; and alarm- 
 ing tumults raised. Birmingham, Bristol, Chippenham, 
 Norwich, and Reading, were disturbed with licentious riot. 
 The conduct of the late ministry became the 
 chief subject of parliamentary inquiry ; and a com- 
 mittee were appointed to examine all papers relative to 
 
186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the late negotiation for peace. When their report wua 
 made, an impeachment was voted ag;ainst lord Bolingbrokcj 
 the earl of Oxford, and the duke of Ormond. Mr. Har- 
 Icy, brother of the earl, and Mr. Foley, his brother-in-law, 
 defended the ministerial conduct of their relative. They 
 insisted, that he had done nothing without his sovereign's 
 command: that the peace was advantageous and honoura- 
 ble; sanctioned by the voice of one parliament, and approv- 
 ed by another; and they asked, what security couid be af- 
 forded to a minister, against the vengeance of his enemies, 
 if the sanction of a parliament, the great legislature of the 
 nation, were insufficient. The measures of the duke of 
 Ormond were ably advocated by Archibald Hamilton, Mr. 
 Hutcheson, general Lumley, and sir Joseph Jekyll. They 
 enumerated the eminent services performed to the crown 
 and the nation, by the duke and his illustrious ancestors : 
 observed, that, in the whole of his late conduct, he had 
 obeyed the queen's directions; and that the allegations, 
 even if substantiated, did not amount to high treason. 
 Bolingbroke, having observed the gathering storm, had 
 early secured shelter from its most dangerous effects, by 
 retiring to the continent. Ormond, fearing that it would 
 btirst upon him with overwhelming fury, remained not to 
 try so unequal a contest. The names of those two noble- 
 men were erased from the list of peers, and their estates 
 were declared to be forfeited to the crown. Oxford, after 
 tw^o years' imprisonment in the Tower, was brought to tri- 
 al; when, owing to a violent animosity between the two 
 houses of parliament, he was liberated M'ithout inquiry. 
 
 The chevalier St. George, (by which title, the son of 
 the late king James was known) conceiving this a favoura- 
 ble time for making an attempt upon the British throne, 
 used every means to increase the national ferment, and ex- 
 cite his partizans to arms. He was assisted by Ormond 
 and Bolingbroke ; but, his intrigues being discovered by the 
 earl of Stair, the English ambassador at Paris, the king 
 took effectual measures to oppose them. Another misfor- 
 tune arose, to thwart his attempts upon the peace of Eng- 
 land. This was the death of Louis the fourteenth ; who, 
 contrary to the treaty of Utrecht, had espoused his cause. 
 The regency having devolved upon the duke of Orleans, 
 he gave the chevalier very trifling assistance; and amused 
 his agents with equivocal expressions, tending rather to 
 frustrate than to forvv-ard his design. 
 
 But, the adherents of the chevalier had already gone so 
 
'HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 187 
 
 far, that to retreat with safety was impossible. Resolved, 
 therefore, to try their fortune in the field, many persons of 
 the first distinction called out their warlike clans. The earl 
 of Mar, as his lieutenant-ijeneral, the marquises of Huntley 
 and Tullibardine, the earls Marischal and Southesk, were 
 the first in arms. Meanwhile, two vessels had arrived from 
 Havre, with military stores, and a great number of officers; 
 who gave hiformation that the chevalier himself would very 
 soon arrive. Some of his partizans attempted to surprise 
 the castle of Edinburgh; but the vigilance of colonel Stu- 
 art, lieutenant-governor of that fortress, defeated their de- 
 sign. The duke of Argyle set out for Scotland, as com- 
 mander in chief of the royal forces in that country; and 
 many of the Scottish peers returned thither to signalize 
 their attachment to the existing sovereign. 
 
 In England, the Pretender had a number of respectable 
 supporters. Lords Lansdown and Duplin, sir William 
 Wyndham, and sir John Packington, Messrs. Harvey, and 
 Forster, Anstes, and Kynaston, members of parliament, 
 were ordered to be committed to prison, on suspicion of 
 disloyalty. Forster, joined by some gentlemen from the bor- 
 ders of Scotland, proclaimed the pretender in Warkworth, 
 Morpeth, and Alnwick, in Northumberland; and, being- 
 further reinforced by lords Kenmuir, Carnwath, and Win- 
 toun, with two-hundred Scottish horse, the whole rested at 
 Kelso in Roxburghshire. 
 
 The earl of Mar was now at the head of ten-thousand 
 well-armed troops. He fixed hu head quarters at Perth; 
 and made himself master of all Fifeshire, and the entire sea- 
 coast on that side of the Frith of Edinburgh. He then se- 
 lected two-thousand-five-hundred men, commanded by brig- 
 adier Mackintosh ; who, after displaying the greatest cour- 
 age and abiliiies in a series of difficult enterprises, joined 
 the forces at Kelso. 
 
 When arrived at Jedburgh, one-half of the Highlanders 
 declared that they would not quit their own country, and 
 returned home. At Brampton, Forster opened his commis- 
 sion of general, and then continued his march, through 
 Kendal and Lancaster, to Preston; of which town, (the royal 
 army having retired,) the rebels took possession. Here, 
 they were attacked by general Willis, with six regiments 
 of horse and one battalion of foot. But the assailants were 
 driven off with considerable loss. Next day, general Car- 
 penter arrived, with three regiments of dragoons ; by which 
 reinforcement, the rebels being intimidated, the whole army 
 R 
 
188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 surrendered at discretion. The common men were impris 
 oned at Chester and Liverpool ; the nobility and principal 
 officers were sent to London, and committed to the Tower 
 and Newgate. 
 
 The same day on which the rebels surrendered at Pres- 
 ton, the duke of Argyle and the earl of Mar were engaged 
 at Dumblain, in Scotland. There, was fought, the best con- 
 tested battle that occurred during the whole rebellion. The 
 latter nobleman, having been joined by the northern clans 
 under the earl of Seaforth, and by those of the west under 
 general Gordon, had resolved to pass the Forth, that he 
 might join his southern friends, and march with them into 
 England. Argyle, aware of his intention, determined to ar- 
 rest his progress; and, on the 12th of November, encamp- 
 ed, with his left on the village of Dumblain, and his right 
 towards Sheriffmoor. The next morning, Glengary and 
 Clanronald, two Scottish chieftains, who commanded un- 
 der the earl of Mar, charged the left of the royal army, 
 sword-in-hand, with so great impetuosity, that, in seven 
 minutes, both horse and foot were driven, with great slaugh- 
 ter, from the field. At the same time, the duke of Argyle 
 attacked the left of the enemy, at the head of Stair's and 
 Evans' dragoons, and drove them as far as the Water of 
 Allan. After much hard fighting, both parties desisted, and 
 fronted each other until the evening ; when, the duke drew 
 off towards Dumblain, the rebels towards Ardoch. This 
 was what is called a drawn battle; on each side were killed 
 about five-hundred men. 
 
 In another quarter, the hopes of the insurgents were com- 
 pletely ruined. Lord Lovat, having deserted their cause, 
 secured the important post of Inverness for the govern- 
 ment; after which, many of the pretender's principal ad- 
 herents were constrained to retire, for the protection of 
 their estates; and then, the clans, according to custom, re- 
 turned to their habitations. 
 
 Notwithstanding this desperate situation of his affairs; 
 the account of which was confirmed on the return of the 
 duke of Ormond, who had come over to reconnoitre ; the 
 chevalier determined to join his friends in Scotland. Ac- 
 companied by the marquis of Tinmouth and a few others, 
 he landed at Peterhead. Thence, having passed through 
 Aberdeen, he arrived at Feterosse ; where, he was met by 
 the earl of Mar, and about thirty noblemen and gentlemen; 
 ©f considerable rank. Here, he was solemnly proclaimed 
 ;king. Having visited Dundee and Scone, he stopped at 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 189 
 
 Perth ; where he formed a regular council, issued procla- 
 mations, and, for a while, enjoyed all the satisfaction of con- 
 scious royalty. But these golden days were of short con- 
 tinuance. The duke of Argyle was now approaching. Pro- 
 clamations on the one hand, congratulatory addresses on 
 the other, and pathetic speeches in reply, were unavailing. 
 Money, arms, ammunition, provisions, — even men, were 
 wanting. Thus circumstanced, the chevalier ahandoned the 
 enterprise ; and, accompanied by the earls of Mar and Mel- 
 ford, with several other persons of distinction, embarked at 
 Montrose, and, in a few days, arrived at Gravelines. 
 
 Ireland, though always branded as seditious, remained, 
 throughout the whole rebellion, completely tranquil. The 
 only event which then occurred in that kingdom, worthy of 
 relation, in this small work, was the precautionary order for 
 apprehending lords Antrim, Westmeath, Netterville, Cahir, 
 and Dillon. 
 
 Stuart's departure had given the signal for hostilities in 
 the field to cease. In a few days afterwards, impeachments 
 and attainders were voted against his principal friends. Sen- 
 tence of death was passed on lords Derwentwater, Ken- 
 muir, Carnwath, Nairn, Widdington, and Nithsdale. The 
 first two were immediately beheaded: the next three were 
 respited until the following month ; and, ultimately, par- 
 doned. Lord Nithsdale escaped in a female dress, which 
 had been brought to him by his mother. Forster, Mackin- 
 tosh, and several others, broke out of Newgate. Many were 
 hanged in London, Preston, and Manchester ; and about 
 one-thousand were obliged to settle in America. 
 
 It should be carefully remembered, that, in this rebellion, 
 persons of various religions were engaged — members of the 
 Church of England, the Church of Scotland, and the Church 
 of Rome. 
 
 As the present parliament was now drawing towards a 
 conclusion, and it was thought dangerous to hazard a gen- 
 eral election, whilst the minds of the people were in so great 
 a ferment, a bill was passed for discontinuing triennial par- 
 liaments, (which term subsisted ever since the sixth year 
 of William and Mary,) and establishing septennial. 
 
 The civil war had scarcely terminated, when a formida- 
 ble enemy was created on the continent. This was the cele- 
 brated Charles the twelfth, of Sweden ; a man equally re- 
 markable for the splendour, and the madness, of his ex- 
 ploits. The king, as elector of Hanover, having purchased, 
 from the opponents of that prince, the dutchies of Bremen 
 
190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and Verden, which had constituted a part of the Swedish 
 dominions, Charles determined to have revenge ; and en- 
 tered into a treaty with the chevalier St. George, to assist 
 him in another attempt upon the English throne. In con- 
 sequence, the king went over to the continent ; where he 
 remained a short time, that he might secure his Hanoverian 
 domhiions. In the following year, the SAvedish monarch 
 was killed in the trenches before Frederickshall, in Nor- 
 way ; removing, by his death, the apprehensions of invasion, 
 ^w But England seems to live only amidst the noise 
 
 of arms. She soon hastily embraced, what, a mo- 
 ment before, she so cautiously avoided. The king, having 
 been appointed by Philip of Spain an arbitrator in a dispute 
 with the emperor of Germany, made a decision unpleasing 
 to the former ; who, consequently, refused compliance. 
 This produced a war between England and Spain. Admiral 
 Byng was despatched to the Mediterranean, with twenty- 
 two ships of the line. Having performed the most signal 
 service, by relieving the Neapolitans and Sicilians, then 
 threatened by the Spaniards, the British admiral, after a 
 long chase, engaged the enemy's fleet, superior in number, 
 off Cape Passaro ; and, in a well contested action, captured 
 them all, except six or eight ships. For this achievement, 
 Byng was honoured with a letter of approbation from the 
 king, written with his own hand; and, for his further servi- 
 ces, ennobled, by the title of viscount Torrington. 
 
 The duke of Ormond having gone to Madrid, measures 
 were there concerted for exciting another insurrection in 
 Great Britain. These plans, however, being made known 
 to the English government, by the regent of France, every 
 precaution was taken to repel the danger. The duke sailed 
 from Cadiz with six-thousand troops, and arms for twelve- 
 thousand more ; but, when off Cape Finisterre, his fleet was 
 disabled and dispersed by a storm. Only two frigates arriv- 
 ed in Scotland; with the earls Marischal and Seaforth, the 
 marquis of Tullibardine, some field officers, three-hundred 
 Spaniards, and arms for two-thousand men. Being joined 
 by a small body of Highlanders, they took possession of 
 Donan Castle. General Wightman marched against them; 
 and, after driving them before him for some time, made 
 prisoners of all the Spaniards ; the Highlanders having pre- 
 viously dispersed. Marischal, Seaforth, and Tullibardine, 
 retired to one of the Western Isles; and thus ended the ex- 
 pedition, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 191 
 
 ,„,,, iDformation was now received from the duke of 
 '^~^' Orleans, of a fresh conspiracy. A camp was imme- 
 diately formed in Hyde Park : all military officers were or- 
 dered to join their regiments ; and the court was removed 
 to Kensington. Many persons of distinction were commit- 
 ted to the Tower, on charges of high treason ; amongst 
 whom, was Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, who was, by 
 an act of parliament, deprived of all his offices and digni- 
 ties, banished from the realm, and subjected to the penalty 
 of death, in case he should return. The other prisoners 
 were liberated on bail. A pardon was afterwards granted to 
 lord Bolingbroke ; who, as we have already mentioned, had 
 been impeached, in the beginning of this reign. 
 
 This year was distinguished by a remarkable in- 
 
 "'* cident — the trial of the earl of Macclesfield, lord 
 chancellor of England, It was reported to the house of 
 commons, that the chancellor had embezzled the estates of 
 many widows, orphans, and lunatics : that he had raised, to 
 an exorbitant sum, the price of situations of masters in chan- 
 cery ; trusting in their hands large sums of money belong- 
 ing to suitors, that those officers might be enabled to com- 
 ply with his demands ; and that he had made, in several cases, 
 irregular orders. He was accordingly impeached at the 
 bar of the upper house. The trial lasted twenty days, and 
 ended in his conviction ; by which he was fined thirty-thou- 
 sand pounds. — How honourable to the laws — how disgrace- 
 ful to the judge! 
 
 ,^,-j- The king, having appointed a regency, left Eng- 
 land to visit his Hanoverian dominions. But, on his 
 journey, he was seized with a paralytic disorder, and con- 
 veyed, in a state of insensibility, to Osnaburgh ; where he 
 expired, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and thirteenth 
 of his reign. In his person and address, he was plain and 
 unaffected: in his general deportment, grave and composed; 
 though, when removed from the cares of business, easy, fa- 
 cetious, and familiar. 
 
 This reign is remarkable for stock-jobbing projects ; and 
 particularly for the South-Sea speculation ; which involved 
 its numerous victims in ruin, and its managers in well mer- 
 ited punishment and infamy. 
 
 In 1722, died the great duke of Marlborough ; the only 
 general, either of ancient or modern times, of whom it can 
 be said, that he never fought a battle that he did not gain, 
 nor ever besieged a town that he did not take. 
 
 In the year 1723, the decorations of St. Paul's cathedral 
 R 2 
 
J92 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in London were completed. This is the most magnificent 
 protestant church in the world ; and one of the finest struct- 
 ures that any age has produced. It is said to have been 
 originally founded by Ethelbert, a Saxon prince, on the site 
 of a temple which the Romans had dedicated to Diana. The 
 old building was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. The 
 first stone of the present structure was laid by sir Christo- 
 pher Wren, in 1675. It is built of fine Portland stone, after 
 the model of St. Peter's at Rome. Its length from east to 
 west is five-hundred feet ; its breadth, three-hundred-and- 
 eleven, including the porticos; its height, from the ground 
 to the top of the cross, three-hundred-and -forty -four feet ; 
 occupying an area of six acres. The expense of building 
 amounted to more than seven -hundred-thousand pounds. 
 
 In 1716, John Lombe erected a silk mill at Derby; the 
 first established in England. The building in which his 
 machinery, copied from the Italian models, was placed, is 
 still used by the original manufacture. About the same 
 time, the astronomical instrument, called the Orrery, was 
 invented, by George Graham, of London ; and lady Mary 
 Wortley Montague introduced, from Constantinople, the 
 practice of inoculation for the small-pox. — The Royal Bank 
 at Edinburgh received its charter in the last year of this 
 reign ; being the second public money establishment in the 
 country of which that city is the capital. The first, called 
 the Bank of Scotland, was instituted in the reign of William 
 and Mary. 
 
 The poets who began, at this time, to attract public at- 
 tention, were. Watts, Thomson, and Savage. Doctor Watts 
 was a dissenting minister, and amongst the first who gave 
 the presbyterians a taste for the graces of language, in 
 the service of their church : he showed them, that zeal 
 and purity might be expressed and enforced in a polished 
 composition. His version of the psalms of David, is very 
 generally adopted. As a logician, he was particularly emi- 
 nent. His system of logic has been received into the uni- 
 versities. Every one must look back with veneration on 
 this truly useful and charitable man. He laid aside the 
 scholar, the philosopher, and the wit, to write little poems 
 of devotion and systems of instruction for children ; adapt- 
 ed to their wants and capacities, from the earliest dawn of 
 reason to the first approaches of maturity ; and, during a 
 great part of his life, gave to the poor a third part of his 
 annual revenue, though it did not exceed one-hundred 
 pounds. Thomson, may be rated amongst the highest 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 193 
 
 class of poetical writers. His Seasons, the most admired 
 of all his performances, display some of the sweetest pas- 
 sages that any poet has produced. An account of the life 
 and writings of Savage, will be found in Johnson's Lives 
 of the Poets. He was equally remarkable for his genius 
 and misfortunes ; which his biographer has recorded with 
 much effect and elegance. The life of Savage is almost 
 the only one that Johnson has given with impartiality ; and 
 is written with more perspicuity, and less affectation, than 
 any other in his collection. 
 
 Nathaniel Hooke had an extensive knowledge of foreign 
 languages, and wrote an admired history of Rome. De 
 Foe was equally ingenious either in politics, or in commer- 
 cial economy ; and was a strenuous advocate of the people's 
 rights : but, he is best known as the author of Robinsoa 
 Crusoe ; the most fascinating romance that has ever ap- 
 peared ; and not more conducive to entertainment, than to 
 the interest of morality. He has been accused of dealing 
 unfairly with Alexander Selkirk, upon whose adventures 
 the work is founded : but the charge seems to have been 
 framed by his political enemies ; as Selkirk printed his own 
 narrative, many years before the appearance of the imagin- 
 ary Crusoe. 
 
 GEORGE THE SECOND. 
 
 1727—1760. 
 
 George the second, only son of the late king, ascended 
 the throne in the forty-fourth year of his age. At this pe- 
 riod, lord Townshend was minister of foreign affairs, and the 
 interior government was conducted chiefly by sir Robert 
 Walpole ; a man who had raised himself to this high situa- 
 tion by his eloquence, and his talent for political intrigue. 
 Lord Torrington was placed at the head of the admiralty. 
 Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of Chesterfield, was nomi- 
 nated ambassador to the Hague. 
 
 The national debt of Great Britain was more than fifty- 
 two millions ; an alarming sum, when compared with her 
 eotemporary finances. The ministers, as at present, boast- 
 ed of their sinking fund, as a powerful means of reducing 
 the debt : but, as yet, this far-famed invention has been in- 
 effective. Theory is overthrown by fact. Arithmetical 
 calculation seems as much opposed to this method of re- 
 duction, as mathematical demonstration is to the attempts 
 
194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 at producing perpetual motion by the unaided agency of 
 mechanical power. 
 
 The system of corrupting the members of parliament, 
 was carried to a most shameful height. The immoral cus- 
 tom of voting large sums, under the name of secret service 
 money, had placed an engine of corruption in the hands of 
 the administration ; and patriotism was, by that means, 
 nearly extinguished. The most eminent opposers of the 
 ministry, at this period, were, sir William Wyndham, Mr. 
 Shippen, and William Pulteney. But their industry and 
 eloquence were unsuccessful. The treasury was still more 
 elocjuent. Subsidies were liberally given to continental 
 powers ; and treaties concluded, entirely uninteresting to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Lord Carteret, who had governed Ireland with 
 
 ^ ' much propriety, returned to England; being suc- 
 ceeded in his office by the duke of Dorset. The parliament 
 of that country had lately paid much attention to the interest 
 of agriculture, manufactures, and trade. 
 
 In the following year, seven Indian chiefs, of the Chero- 
 kee nation, were brought to England, by sir Alexander 
 Cumin. We may naturally imagine the feelings of these 
 rude people, from the novelty of all around them. Being 
 introduced to the king, they laid their regalia at his feet ; 
 and, by a regular deed, acknowledged themselves subject 
 to his dominion, in the name of all their compatriots, by 
 whom they had been commissioned. They were amazed 
 at the splendour of the court. They compared the king 
 and queen to the sun and moon ; the princes, to the stars 
 of heaven, and themselves to nothing. After finishhig a 
 treaty of friendship and commerce, these interesting visiters 
 were loaded witli presents, and conveyed to their own 
 country. 
 
 We pass over the detail of many violent debates in par- 
 liament, on finances, provision for the royal family, and il- 
 legal practices of the court to insure a majority. The op- 
 position had now acquired considerable strength. They 
 combated, with assiduity and manly eloquence, every at- 
 tempt upon the liberties of the people. A motion made 
 by Mr. Bromley, for repealing the septennial act, and for 
 the more frequent calling of parliaments, elicited the tal- 
 ents of both parties beyond any other question in this reign. 
 
 On that subject, sir William Wyndham delivered a 
 speech, plainly referring to sir Robert Walpole and the 
 reigning sovereign, which showed him to be the unrivaled 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 195 
 
 orator, and the unshaken patriot. — *< Let us suppose," said 
 he, in the conclusion, *' a man destitute of all sense of vir- 
 tue and honour; of no great family ; of mean fortune ; raised 
 to be chief minister of state by the concurrence of many 
 ■whimsical events ; afraid, or unwilling, to trust any but 
 creatures of his own making; lost to every feeling of shame 
 or reputation ; ignorant of his country's true interest; pur- 
 suing no aim but that of aggrandizing himself and his fa- 
 vourites ; in foreign affairs, trusting none, but those, who, 
 from the bent of their education, cannot possibly be quali- 
 fied for the service of their country. — Let us suppose the 
 true interest of the nation, by such means, neglected or 
 misunderstood; her honour tarnished ; her importance lost; 
 her trade insulted ; her merchants plundered; her sailors 
 murdered; and all these circumstances overlooked, lest his 
 administration should be endangered. Suppose, next, that 
 he is possessed of immense wealth, the plunder of the na- 
 tion, with a parliament composed chiefly of men whose 
 seats are purchased, and whose votes are bought, at the ex- 
 pense of the public treasure. In such a parliament, sup- 
 pose that all attempts made to inquire into his conduct, or 
 to relieve the nation from the distress which has been en- 
 tailed upon it, by his administration, are fruitless. Sup- 
 pose him screened by a corrupted majority of his creatures; 
 whom he retains in daily pay, or engages in his interest, by 
 distributing amongst them those posts and places which 
 ought never to be given to any but for the good of the pub- 
 li(>?'^ Let us suppose him domineering, with insolence, over 
 all the men of ancient families ; over all the men of sense, 
 figure, or fortune, in the nation ; as he has no virtue of his 
 own, ridiculing it in others, and endeavouring to destroy or 
 corrupt it, in all. With such a minister, and such a par- 
 liament, let us suppose a case, which I hope will never hap- 
 pen — a prince upon the throne, uninformed, ignorant, and 
 unacquainted with the true interest of his people — weak, 
 capricious, transported with unbounded ambition, and pos- 
 sessed of insatiable avarice. I hope that such a case will 
 never occur; but, as it possibly may, could any greater evil 
 happen to a nation, than such a prince on the throne — ad- 
 vised, and solely advised, by such a minister, and that min- 
 ister supported by such a parliament ? — The nature of man- 
 kind cannot be altered, by human laws: the existence of 
 such a prince, or such a minister, we cannot prevent, by 
 act of parliament — but, the existence of such a parliament, 
 I think we may prevent ; and as it is more likely to exist 
 
196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 while the septennial law remains in force, than if it were 
 repealed, I am, therefore, heartily, for its being repealed.'* 
 
 But, notwithstanding the nervous arguments in favour 
 of the motion, the advocates of liberty were overthrown by 
 a ministerial majority. 
 
 In the house of lords, the minority were not less vigilant 
 in detecting, and resolute in opposing, every measure inju- 
 rious to their country. The most remarkable object of 
 their attention, at this time, was a petition presented by the 
 duke of Bedford, subscribed by the dukes of Hamilton, 
 Queensbury, and Montrose, the earls of Dundonald, March- 
 niont, and Stair, complaining, that improper influence had 
 been used in the election of the sixteen peers returned to 
 parliament, for Scotland. The partizans of the ministry 
 would willingly have stifled the inquiry in the beginning; 
 but it was so strongly supported by the earls of Chester- 
 field, Abingdon, and Strafford, the lords Bathurst and 
 Carteret, that they could not so soon dismiss it, with any 
 regard to decorum. The petitioners stated, that a list of 
 the sixteen peers, called the king's list, had been made, 
 previous to the election, by persons in high trust under the 
 crown : that votes were procured for their favourites, by 
 pensions, offices, and money; and that, on the day of elec- 
 tion, his majesty's troops were drawn up, contrary to cus- 
 tom, in the Abbey-court of Edinburgh, without any appar- 
 ent cause, but that of overawing the electors. — Authentic 
 documents, taken from the journal of the election, were 
 then produced; which fully supported the allegations of 
 the petition. But all these proofs, though supported by 
 the charms and energy of eloquence, were exhibited in 
 vain ; and a motion was carried for adjourning, 
 y In this year, Great Britain was deprived of one of 
 
 her greatest ornaments — lord chancellor Talbot; 
 who, by his probity and professional acquirements, had 
 given additional dignity to his exalted situation. He was 
 succeeded in his office by lord Hardwick. 
 ^„ Owing to a disgraceful treaty with Spain, in 
 
 which the national dignity had been sacrificed, by 
 its not expressly providing that British ships, when trading 
 from one English colony to another, should not be search- 
 ed by the Spaniards ; that country paid little regard to its 
 fulfilment ; and her dereliction was succeeded by a war. 
 They now claimed the right of searching all British ves- 
 sels in the American seas, without exception. Admiral 
 Vernon was despatched to attack the town of Porto Bello, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 197 
 
 on the isthmus of Darien; which place he easily reduced, 
 and then demolished all its fortifications. But he was not 
 so fortunate in his subsequent operations. Being 
 ' joined at Jamaica by a lari^e reinforcement, under 
 sir C. Ogle, his fleet now amounted to nearly sixty sail; 
 one-half of which were of the line. With about twelve- 
 thousand land troops, under general Wentworth, he sailed 
 with the intention of reducing Havanna, in the island of 
 Cuba; but, changing his destination, he proceeded to the 
 attack of Carthagena. The attempt, however, proved abor- 
 tive. Owing to the want of co-operation between the sea 
 and the land forces, in which the admiral was in fault, the 
 troops were re-imbarked ; after suffering incredible hard- 
 ships, both from the fire of the enemy, and sickness: and, 
 in the end, only a tenth part of their number returned to 
 England. 
 
 /-Commodore Anson had been sent with a small squadron 
 to annoy the enemy in the South Sea. This enterprising 
 officer returned, after an absence of three years and nine 
 months; having made considerable prizes, and circumnavi- 
 gated the globe. His voyage, the particulars of which 
 were published, has been much celebrated ; and his con- 
 duct procured him advancement to the peerage. His fleet 
 being shattered by dreadful severity of weatlier, he took 
 shelter at the island of Juan Fernandez, off the coast of 
 Chili ; a place famous for having given rise to the story of 
 Robinson Crusoe. The following interesting observation 
 is extracted from his voyage. — " Former writers have re- 
 lated, that this island abounded w'nh vast numbers of goats ; 
 and their accounts are not to be questioned ; this place hav- 
 ing been the usual haunt of the buccaniers and privateers 
 that formerly frequ cited these seas. And there are two 
 instances, one of a Iviusquito Indian, the other of Alexan- 
 der Selkirk, a Scotchman, who Vv'^ere left there by their re- 
 spective ships, and lived alone upon the island for some 
 years; consequently, were no strangers to its productions. 
 Selkirk, who was the last, after a stay of four or five years, 
 was taken off the place by the Duke and Duchess priva- 
 teers of Bristol. His manner of life, in most particulars, 
 was very remarkable; and there is one circumstance he re- 
 lates, so fully verified by our own observation, that I can- 
 not avoid reciting it. He tells us, amongst other things, 
 that he often caught more goats than he wanted; some- 
 times marked then- ears and let them go. This was about 
 thirty-two years before our arrival at the island. Now, it 
 
198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 happened, that the first we killed there, had his ears slit ; 
 from which, we concluded that he had been formerly under 
 the power of Selkirk. This was indeed an animal of most 
 venerable aspect; dignified with an exceedingly majestic 
 beard, and with many otlier symptoms of antiquity. Dur- 
 ing our stay, we met with others, marked in the same man- 
 ner ; all the males being distinguished by an exuberance of 
 beard, and every other characteristic of extreme age." 
 
 The conthicnt of Europe was now alHicted with most 
 sanguinary contests; arising from a disputed claim to the 
 imperial throne, and the conquest of Silesia by the Prus- 
 sians. This is the period in which Frederick the Great, 
 king of Prussia, appeared so conspicuous, as an indefatiga- 
 ble soldier and a wise politician. His Memoirs of the Seven 
 Years War are highly interesting. In these contests, the 
 king of England found an opportunity of engaging, as elect- 
 or of Hanover; assisted In- British and Hanoverian troops, 
 in conjunction with a body of Dutch and other auxiliaries, 
 A great battle ensued at the village of Dettingen. The al- 
 lies, amounting to forty-thousand, were commanded by the 
 earl of Stair : the F'rench, by whom they were opposed, in 
 number thirty-thousand, were under the duke de Gram- 
 mont. The engagement was sustained, on both sides, with 
 distinguished bravery, and ended in the defeat of the enemy, 
 with considerable loss. George himself, and his second 
 son, the duke of Cumberland, were in this action, and ex- 
 posed themselves in the very hottest of the fight. 
 
 Meanwhile, the councils of the nation were most violent- 
 ly disturbed. A powerful party being formed against the ad- 
 ministration, Walpole and his adherents seemed tottering 
 on their seats. Mr. Sandys informed him, that, in two days, 
 he intended to bring a charge against him, in public. Sir 
 Robert received the intimation with great indifference, and 
 quoted the following, as a passage of Horace : 
 
 Kil conscire sibl, nulH ^lallescere culfise. 
 (To be conscious of no guilt, to turn pale at no charge.) 
 Mr. Pulteney who sat on the same bench with him, said, 
 that that was false Latin. Sir Robert wagered a guinea, 
 that it was not ; a copy of Horace being produced, and the 
 words of the author appearing to be, 
 
 JVil conscire sibi^ nulla pallescere culpa^ 
 Mr. Pulteney took the guinea, and, holding it up, said, 
 "vvith a sneer, that it w as the only guinea of the public mo- 
 ney, he had received for many years. — But these dissen- 
 sions were suddenly suspended. From the general dissatis- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 199 
 
 faction in Great Britain, the French were persuaded that 
 the people were ready for revolt ; and the court of Ver- 
 sailles having been informed, that if the chevalier St. George, 
 or his eldest son, Charles, would appear in that country, at 
 the head of a French army, a revolution would immediately 
 follow in his favour ; measures were accordingly concerted 
 by the minister, cardinal de Tencin, with the former ; who 
 then resided at Rome. The chevalier, being far advanced 
 in years, delegated his authority to his son. Young Charles 
 having arrived in Paris, preparations went vigorously for- 
 ward for the intended invasion. In order to protect the land- 
 ing of the troops, M. de Roquefeuille sailed from Brest, 
 with twenty vessels of the line ; directing his course up the 
 English Channel: but, on the approach of admiral Norris, 
 he quickly returned into port. Thus, England, for the pres- 
 ent, was saved from the horrors of civil 
 
 war. 
 
 Notwithstanding the battle of Dettingen, and this at- 
 tempted invasion, France and England were nominally at 
 peace. A British minister was still at Paris. War, howev- 
 er, was soon formally proclaimed. The French king, hav- 
 ing resolved to humbk the house of Austria, by making a 
 conquest of the Netherlands, sent thither an immense ar- 
 my, commanded by count Saxe ; and Louis himself, accom- 
 panied by the Dauphin, having arrived in the camp, they 
 invested the town of Tournay. The duke of Cumberland, 
 at the head of the combined troops, marched to its relief; 
 and came in sight of the enemy near Fontenoy. Here, a 
 dreadful battle ensued. The English and Hanoverians 
 fought with determined bravery ; but, being unsupported 
 by the Dutch, they were, in the end, defeated. 
 
 During these events, the administration had undergone 
 an important revolution. Sir Robert Walpole, having been 
 gradually losing his influence in parliament, was at length 
 overpowered by a decided majority. The next day, both 
 houses were for a short time adjourned : in the interim, he 
 was created earl of Orford, and, after being prime minister 
 for twenty years, resigned all his employments. Many of 
 the country party came into power. Mr. Sandys was made 
 chancellor of the exchequer; lord Carteret, secretary of 
 state; Mr. Pulteney was admitted into the privy council, 
 and created earl of Bath; and the earl of Stair, appointed 
 field marshal of all his majesty's forces. But this was a 
 change only of men — not of measures. Several of those who 
 had declaimed the most loudly against the court, now as 
 loudly opposed an inquiry into the past corruptions. Amongst 
 
200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 these, were lords Carteret, Bathiirst, the new earl of Bath, 
 and Mr. Sandys. Amongst the firm adherents of the people, 
 were, the duke of Bedford, the earls of Stanhope, Sandwich, 
 and Chesterfield. This nobleman was, afterwards, lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland ; and, principal secretary of state. During 
 his short government, his urbanity and mildness gained the 
 affections of the Irish people, and he contributed highly to 
 the improvement of the Phoenix Park. He was distinguish- 
 ed for his wit, eloquence, and polished manners, and for his 
 extraordinary address in negotiation : but he merits a se- 
 vere reproach, for having recommended his diplomatic sys- 
 tem of flattery and dissimulation, to aspiring youth ; from 
 their first introduction to the drawingroom, to their last 
 stage of national advancement. Man is, by nature, or by 
 gradual contamination, already too apt to become a time- 
 serving sycophant, and needs not the eloquence of Ches- 
 terfield to urge him on his march to dishonourable attain- 
 ments. 
 
 I'-Aii ^^"® ^^'^ ^^^^ approaching the most prominent 
 ^ ' event of this reign. Though more than half a cen- 
 tury had passed since the house of Stuart forfeited the 
 throne, yet the hope of regaining it was not extinct. Young 
 Charles determined to make another effort. The majority 
 of his friends, however, sent a messenger, advising, that, as 
 he could not then expect the necessary aid from France, 
 his enterprise might end in the ruin of himself and his ad- 
 herents. But this advice did not arrive in time to prevent 
 his embarkation. Being furnished with some money and 
 arms, on his private credit, he set sail, on board a small 
 frigate, from Port St. Nazaire; accompanied by the mar- 
 quis of Tullibardine, sir Thomas Sheridan, sir John Mac 
 Donald, with a few other Irish and Scotch friends ; and was 
 joined off Belleisle by the Elizabeth, a French ship of six- 
 ty-six guns, as a convoy. Having fallen in with the Lion, 
 an English ship of the line, there ensued an obstinate and 
 sanguinary action. The Elizabeth was so disabled, that she 
 with difficulty arrived at Brest ; and the Lion was render- 
 ed almost a wreck. The return of the Elizabeth deprived 
 Charles of a large quantity of arms, and a number of ex- 
 perienced officers ; but, he at length arrived at Borrodale, 
 where he was in a short time joined by a considerable num- 
 ber of hardy mountaineers, under their respective leaders. 
 
 On the 19th of August, the marquis of Tullibardine 
 erected the pretender's standard at Glensinnan. Charles, 
 himself, having assembled about twelve-hundred men, en- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 20i 
 
 camped near Fort William, situated on Loch Eil, in In- 
 vernessshire. Hostilities immediately began. In another 
 quarter, major Donald Mac Donald, at the head of a small 
 party of Keppoch's clan, encountered two companies of 
 newly-raised royalists ; whom he easily disarmed. Charles 
 was afterwards joined by the duke of Perth, the earls of 
 Kilmarnock and Cromartie, and viscount Strathallan ; lords 
 Nairn, George Murray, Elcho, Balmerino, and Ogilvie; 
 Pitsligo, Lewis Gordon, and John Drummond. The gov- 
 ernment, which, for some time, had doubted the truth of 
 Stuart's landing, was now effectually alarmed. A proclama- 
 tion was soon issued, offering a reward of thirty-thousand 
 pounds for his person ; whilst he, in another proclamation, 
 set the same price upon the head of the <' elector of Flan- 
 over." The Highlanders marched to Perth ; where the 
 chevalier St. George was proclaimed king of Great Britain; 
 and, on the 17th of September, Charles entered Edinburgh, 
 and too^ possession of the royal palace of Holyrood House. 
 
 Three-thousand of the king's troops, commanded by^n^ 
 John Cope, were now approaching. On the 20th of the 
 month, they encamped near Preston Pans. Early next 
 morning, the young pretender, with an inferior number of 
 half-armed Highlanders, attacked them, with so great im- 
 petuosity, that, in a few minutes, the royalists were totally 
 beaten, with the loss of their colours, tents, baggage, and 
 military chest. Five-hundred of the king's troops were kill- 
 ed on the field of battle. Amongst these, was colonel Gar- 
 diner ; who, when abandoned by his own regiment of dra- 
 goons, disdaining to save liis life at the expense of honour, 
 joined the infantry, and combated on foot, until, covered 
 with wounds, he fell, in view of his own door, bravely fight- 
 ing to the last. 
 
 After the engagement, the victor returned to Edinburgh. 
 Whilst he resided there, some of the presbyterian clergy 
 continued to preach in the churches of that city, and, with- 
 out meeting any interruption, publicly prayed for king 
 George. A minister, named Mac Vicar, having been so- 
 licited by some Highlanders to pray for their prince, promis- 
 ed to comply, and performed his promise in these words : 
 " And, as for the young prince, who has come hither^ in' 
 search of an earthly croivn — grant, O Lord, that he may 
 speedily receive a cro%vn of glory.^^ 
 
 Young Stuart had gained possession of nearly all Scot- 
 land : the number of his followers daily increased, and he re- 
 ceived considerable supplies of money, artillery, and ammu° 
 
202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 nition, from France. At length, having collected about five- 
 thousand men, he resolved to make an irruption into Eng- 
 land. He entered by the west border : invested Carlisle, 
 Avhich in a few days surrendered ; and, leaving a small gar- 
 rison in the castle, advanced to Penrith; marching, on foot, 
 in the Highland dress.* Thence, he proceeded, through 
 Lancaster and Preston, to Manchester; where, on the 29th 
 of November, he established his head quarters. Here, he 
 was joined by a small regiment under the command of col- 
 enel Townley ; and, apparently, was received with affection- 
 ate regard. Leaving Manchester, he forded the Mersey at 
 Stockport, at the head of his troops; passed through Mac- 
 clesfield and Congleton, and entered Derby ; which is within 
 one-hundred-and-twenty miles of London. — In the mean 
 time, general Wade, with a body of the royal forces, ling- 
 ered in Yorkshire; and the duke of Cumberland, with 
 another army, was posted near Lichfield. The capital was 
 j^w a scene of terror and suspense : but this alarm quickly 
 Subsided. Stuart was not supported in England as he had 
 expected. In a council of war, which he called at Derby, his 
 proposal, that his army should proceed to London, was re- 
 jected : it was determined to return into Scotland without 
 delay ; and, on the sixth of December, he commenced his 
 retreat. He was overtaken, at Clifton, by two regiments of 
 dragoons; whom he repulsed with great slaughter: on the 
 19th he reached Carlisle; and, having reinforced the gar- 
 rison, he crossed the rivers Eden and Solway, into Scot- 
 land ; after accomplishing one of the most surprising re- 
 treats that history records. 
 
 By this time, a considerable body of troops were 
 assembled in Scotland, under the command of gen- 
 eral Hawley. On the 14th of January, his army was at 
 Falkirk ; whilst the rebels were stationed at Bannockburn. 
 On the 17th, the pretender made a furious attack on the 
 
 * No infantry in the world have so lively, and so martial an appear- 
 ance, as the Highlandei's of Scotland. Their present full dress con- 
 sists in a bonnet, with a broad tartan edg-e, and a profusion of black 
 ostrich feathers : a scarlet jacket, a plaid thrown over the shoulder, 
 in the manner of a scarf: a tartan kilt, which reaches to within a few 
 indflies of the knee, of the same form as the ancient Uoman ; having a 
 handsome pouch in front: tartan stocking-s, which ascend only to the 
 calf of the leg'; their shoes being- fastened with brass buckles. For- 
 merly, they wore a dirk and a tremendous broad-sword ; and, when 
 rushing to the charge, threw away the musket, and attacked sword- 
 in-hand. Their officers still retain liie dirk and basket-hilted sword, 
 ■with all their other ancient appendages ; and, in this dress, appearnot 
 only in the field, but at the royal court. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 203 
 
 TO) al forces ; drove them off the field, and captured the 
 greater part of their tents and artillery. 
 
 On the 16th of April, the duke of Cumberland advanced 
 to attack the rebels ; who, headed by their young prince, 
 were stationed on Culloden Muir. Their number was only 
 about four-thousand ; and they were greatly confused and 
 disheartened, by an unsuccessful attempt, made by them a 
 fev/ days before, on the quarters of the duke. The royal 
 army was much more numerous, and in excellent order. — > 
 About one o'clock in the afternoon, the cannonading began. 
 The artillery of the rebels was ill-served, and did little ex- 
 ecution ; but that of the king's troops made dreadful havock. 
 After a vigorous resistance, the rebels were defeated. The 
 French picquets covered their retreat by a close and regular 
 fire ; and then retired to Inverness, where they surrendered. 
 Twelve-hundred of the rebels were killed or wounded ; and 
 the victorious soldiers exercised around the country the 
 usual barbarities of civil war. 
 
 The vanquished invader rode off the field with a few 
 friends, crossed the Nairn, and retired to the house of a 
 gentleman in Strattharick; where he conferred with old ferd 
 Lovat. Then, having dismissed his followers, he wandered, 
 in wretchedness and solitude, amongst the isles and moun- 
 tains, for the space of five months ; in which time, he un- 
 derwent a series of misery and dangers, such as it is scarce- 
 ly credible that a human being could withstand. He was 
 surrounded by armed troops, who chased him from hill to 
 hill, from rock to cavern, and from shore to shore. For 
 some days, he appeared in female dress. One day, he was 
 in the very centre of a party of the royal troops, whom he 
 heard relieving the guard, and conversing. Here, a young 
 man, permitting himself to pass for Charles, and refusing 
 to surrender, was killed on the spot. This contributed great- 
 ly to save the life of the pretender, who, being supposed 
 dead, afterwards traveled by several camps, and even pass- 
 ed between their sentinels. He was obliged to trust his life 
 to the fidelity of more than fifty individuals ; and, though 
 many of these were in the greatest indigence, they all nobly- 
 resisted the allurement of reward. 
 
 At length, a privateer, hired by Sheridan and other Irish 
 adherents, arrived in Lochnannoch ; on board of which the 
 vmfortunate young prince embarked, on the 20th day of 
 September; and, after passing unseen, during a thick fog, 
 through a British squadron, and being chased by two ships 
 of war, he arrived safely near Morlaix, in France. 
 S 2 
 
204 HISTORY OF EIsGLAND. 
 
 The victory at Cullodcn had extinguished the rebellion. 
 An act of attainder was now passed against the principal in- 
 surgents : courts were opened in difierent places for trying 
 the prisoners, and many persons were executed ; amongst 
 whom were, the lords Kilmarnock, Lovat, and Balmerino. 
 
 The behaviour of lord Lovat, on the scaffold, was re- 
 markably cheerful, and even facetious. He surveyed the 
 crowd with attention, examined the axe, jested with the 
 executioner; and, after repeating, though with very little 
 propriety, the famous line of Horace, Dulce et decorum est 
 pro patria inori^ (it is pleasant and honourable to die for 
 one's country,) he laid his head upon the block, with the 
 utmost indifference. 
 
 The naval operations, for some time past, were very fa- 
 vourable to Great Britain. But they were more advantage- 
 ous than glorious. In almost eVery engagement, she had a 
 superiority of force. The sea officers, recently the most dis- 
 tinguished, were, Anson, Warren, Hawke, and Boscawen. 
 Their victories, which had nearly annihilated the French 
 navy, and destroyed their commerce ; the sailing of Bosca- 
 wen against the French settlements in the East Indies, add- 
 ed to some military disappointments suffered by Louis ; in- 
 duced this monarch to think seriously of peace. Plenipo- 
 17AR tentiaries from the contending powers assembled at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle ; and, in the month of October, a de- 
 finitive treaty was signed, and hostilities ceased in all quar- 
 ters. 
 
 Notice was given to the young pretender, that, in conse- 
 quence of an article in this treaty, he must immediately 
 quit France; but, as he refused to comply with this order, 
 and even threatened to shoot the first person that would 
 presume to arrest him, he was, one evening, when stepping 
 out of his coach at the opera-house, in Paris, seized by a 
 party of French guards; who, having tied him with a cord, 
 like a common felon, conducted him beyond the frontiei's 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 The few years of peace which followed, were the most 
 prosperous and happy that Europe had ever known. Arts 
 and letters were successfully cultivated : manufactures were 
 improved, and commerce extended: the intercourse of man- 
 kind was rendered more frequent and easy, by means of new 
 roads and newly invented carriages. This was particularly 
 the case in France and England, and between the people 
 of these two rival kingdoms. Forgetting their past animos- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 205 
 
 ities, they seemed to contend only for pre-eminence in re- 
 finement and mutual civility. 
 
 But that harmony was soon interrupted. With monarchs, 
 the happiness of a people is, in general, of small import- 
 ance. A criminal ambition is, too frequently, the spring of 
 all their actions. When Louis signed the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, his ministers had formed a plan of encroaching 
 upon the principal English settlements in America and the 
 East Indies : as soon, therefore, as he had recruited his 
 diminished navy, he commenced his operations. 
 
 The province of Nova Scotia, in North America, to 
 which the French had given the name of I'Acadie, had been 
 ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht. But, the 
 soil being reputed barren, and the climate intensely cold, 
 only a few English families had settled in that country ; 
 notwithstanding its advantageous situation for the fishing 
 trade, and its abounding in naval stores; so that the French 
 inhabitants, having sworn allegiance to the British, had 
 continued to enjoy their lands and ancient privileges under 
 the government of England. As they were exempted from 
 carrying arms against the subjects of Louis, they assumed 
 the name of neutrals. But this peaceful character, they 
 shamefully violated in 1746, when France attempted to re- 
 gain possession of the province. It therefore became ne- 
 .„ cessary to people it with subjects of Great Britain; 
 and, in consequence of liberal encouragement, about 
 three-thousand families, many of whom were Germans, ar- 
 rived in Nova Scotia. The town of Halifax was then built, 
 and the harbour strongly fortified. 
 
 New disputes arose, of still more importance. These 
 related to the boundaries of the British provinces, (now in- 
 cluded in the United States,) on which the French had 
 systematically tried to encroach. Their plan was, to unite 
 Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts; and to confine the 
 English in that tract of country which lies within the Alle- 
 ghany mountains and the sea. Although the British col- 
 onists had then made few settlements beyond those moun- 
 tains, yet the inhabitants of Virginia considered that their 
 territory towards the west was unlimited, except by the 
 ocean ; having been partly occupied even before the French 
 discovered Louisiana; and the people of the two Carolinas 
 had never doubted that they might extend their plantations 
 to the banks of the Mississippi, without interfering with 
 any of the European powers. Their only care was to quiet 
 the jealousy of the Indians. 
 
206 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 _, Roused, at length, by the insults and invasion of 
 
 the French, the several colonies determined to sup- 
 port the British claims in every part of North America. 
 In consequence of this resolution, major Washington, whom 
 we have already mentioned in comparison with a great Eng- 
 lish character, was despatched from Virginia with four- 
 hundred men ; to watch the motions of the enemy, and re- 
 cover the places which they had taken on the Ohio. Wash- 
 ington encamped on the banks of that river, threw up some 
 works for his defence, and waited to receive a reinforce- 
 ment from New York. De Villier, having in vain sum- 
 moned him to abandon his post, attacked him at the head 
 of eight-hundred men; but Washington defended it with so 
 much skill and intrepidity, as to render all the eftbrts of 
 his enemy abortive. It was, however, agreed that both 
 parties should retire: the Americans towards Will's creek: 
 the French, towards the Monongahela. 
 
 In the following year, more important operations were 
 projected, for attacking the French forts along the Ohio. 
 The conduct of the forces was intrusted to general Brad- 
 dock; v»'ho, for that purpose, had been sent from Europe, 
 with two regiments of foot. This officer, having passed the 
 mountains at the head of twenty-two-hundred men, rapid- 
 ly advanced to attack Fort du Quesne, the chief object of 
 his enterprise. But, unfortunately, he did not use sufficient 
 caution in reconnoitring the savage country ; a country with 
 which he was as little acquainted, as with the nature of au 
 American war; in which, the danger of surprise is perpetu- 
 al, amongst woods, defiles, and morasses : and he was too 
 proud to ask the advice of the provincial officers ; for whom 
 he entertained a sovereign contempt. This enterprise ter- 
 minated in an awful misfortune. Within ten miles of the 
 fort, Braddock fell into an ambuscade of French and Indi- 
 ans; and, after a gallant resistance, in which his obstinacy 
 seemed to increase with the surrounding dangers, he was 
 mortally w^ounded in the breast, and defeated with the loss 
 of seven-hundred men killed. In this action, the Virginians 
 and other provincials, were not in the least affected by the 
 horrid yells of the Indians, which had paralysed the efforts 
 of the Europeans; and young Washington again gave proofs 
 of that bravery and presence of mind, which, amidst the 
 most appalling conflicts, always accompanied him in his 
 patriotic march. 
 
 Meanwhile, both parties made extensive preparations for 
 a vigorous struggle. Reinforcements successively arrived 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 207 
 
 in America. A detachment of regulars and provincials, 
 under colonel Monckton, quickly reduced the French forts 
 in Nova Scotia, and restored in that province perfect tran- 
 quillity. 
 
 ,-,- We shall now return to the affairs of Europe. 
 
 The island of Minorca, which Ent^land had held for 
 nearly fifty years, being threatened by the French, admiral 
 Byng, son of the celebrated lord Torrington, was sent into 
 the Mediterranean, to its relief, with a fleet of seventeen 
 sail ; eleven of which were of the line. Prior to his arrival, 
 the enemy had landed on the island fifteen-thousand men, 
 and were besieging the castle of St. Philip, which com- 
 mands the port and town of Mahon. On Byng's approach- 
 ing the harbour, he had the satisfaction to see the British 
 colours still flying on the castle ; but, notwithstanding this 
 animating circumstance, his attempts to relieve it were 
 feeble, and consequently ineffectual. When a French fleet, 
 very little superior to his in force, advanced to prevent his 
 landing troops, he remained at so great a distance, un- 
 der pretence of preserving his line unbroken, that his divi- 
 sion did very little damage to the enemy, and his own no- 
 ble ship, of ninety guns, v/as never properly in the action. 
 However, the division under admiral West defeated three 
 of the French ships; and, if supported, would have gained 
 a complete victory. Although the English fleet had lost 
 only forty men, Byng retired to Gibraltar, and shamefully 
 sufl'ered the whole island to be taken. The public voice 
 being now loud against him, he was superseded by sir Ed- 
 ward Hawke, and brought home to answer for his conduct. 
 He was, accordingly, tried by a court martial, in Portsmouth 
 harbour ; was found guilty, and shot in conformity with his 
 awful sentence. 
 
 Soon after that miscarriage, the king, urged by the cla- 
 mours of the nation, which were first caused by the disa- 
 greeable complexion of aff'airs in America, formed a new 
 administration. William Pitt, the most popular man in 
 England, accepted the office of secretary of state for the 
 foreign department, in the place of Henry Fox; and Mr. 
 Legge was made chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 The first measures of Mr. Pitt were highly patriotic and 
 wise. He procured an order for sending home the foreign 
 troops; so long and so justly odious to the kingdom ; and 
 assisted in establishing a militia, nearly on the present foot* 
 ing, as the best constitutional defence. 
 
208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ,-^- The duke of Cumberland was now on the conti- 
 nent for the purpose of guarding the Hanpverian do- 
 minions. But his measures were injudicious, and ended in 
 defeat. Being hard pressed by the duke de Richelieu, the 
 conqueror of Minorca, he was under the necessity of sign- 
 ing the singular convention of Clostcr-seven; by which, his 
 army, of thirty-eight-lhousand foreigners, in Biiiish pay, 
 was dissolved, and distributed into ciitierent places of can- 
 tonment, without being disarmed, or considered as prisoners 
 of war. After this unhappy occurrence, the Fiench w.^re, 
 for a while, in possession of all Hanover. To this, succeed- 
 ed several attempts on the maritime towns in France ; which, 
 in general, -vv^ere unsuccessful : nor were affairs in America 
 now more cheering. But, at sea, the gallant Hawke, and 
 other brave men, sustained the honour of their flag: in the 
 East Indies, the army were gaining ground, under colonel 
 Clive, captain Coote, and their active associates ; and at 
 Minden, in Westphalia, the British troops were highly dis- 
 tinguished. Not even at Blenheim, was more heroism 
 shown. The king of England having formed an alliance 
 with the Prussian Monarch, (his nephew,) prince Frederick 
 of Brunswick, was placed at the head of the combined forces ; 
 of whicJi, the British infantry and two battalions of Hano- 
 verians formed the centre. They were opposed at Minden 
 by the French army, commanded by marshal Contades. 
 After an obstinate engagement, the enemy, unable to with- 
 stand the intrepid charges of the centre, were defeated ; 
 with the loss of seven-thousand men, in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners. 
 
 The vigorous and enterprising spirit of Mr. Pitt, seemed 
 to communicate itself to all ranks and classes ; especially 
 to the oflicers of the army and navy. In North America, 
 where, in general, there had occurred delay, disaster, and 
 disgrace, affairs assumed a most favourable aspect. The 
 chief command in that c[uarter was now held by general 
 Abercrombie; who divided his men, amounting to thirty- 
 six-thousand, into three bodies — one division, of sixteen- 
 thousand, headed by himself, in person: another, of twelve- 
 thousand, by general Amherst ; and the third, of eight- 
 thousand, by general Forbes. The first was destined against- 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point : the second against Louis- 
 bourg, the capital of Cape Breton : the last against Fort 
 du Quesne. — Amherst, aided by a large fleet under Bos- 
 cawen, gained possession of the whole island of Cape Bre- 
 ton, and all the inferior stations in the gulph of St. Law- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 209 
 
 rencc. But Abercrombie was not successful : having made 
 a rash attack upon Ticonderoga, he was driven off with 
 considerable loss. Amherst, however, subsequently cap- 
 tured both this place and Crown Point ; meeting scarcely 
 any opposition. General Forbes marched from Philadel- 
 phia against Fort du Quesne, through a tract of country 
 very little known, and almost impassable, by reason of woods, 
 mountains, and morasses ; and, after incredible exertions, 
 surmounted every difficulty, though continually harassed 
 by the Indians ; and took possession of the place. Fort da 
 Quesne, which then received the name of Fort Pitt, is the 
 site of the present Pittsburgh. 
 
 .^ Q The most brilliant achievement during this war, 
 was the capture of Quebec. This city, the capital 
 of Lower Canada, is built chiefly upon a steep rock, at the 
 confluence of the rivers St. Lav/rence and St. Charles. 
 Naturally strong from its situation, it had received every 
 additional strength which the art of war could give ; and 
 was still further defended by its numerous garrison, the 
 bravery of its inhabitants, and a force, superior to the assail- 
 ants, advantageously posted in its neighbourhood, com- 
 manded by the gallant marquis de Montcalm. The reduc- 
 tion of this place, upon the fate of which important conse- 
 quences depended, was intrusted to general Wolfe; a young 
 officer, of amiable manners, already distinguished in several 
 engagements; beloved and respected by his army and his 
 country. His land forces did not exceed seven-thousand 
 men, British and Americans. 
 
 Passing over some bold but unsuccessful operations, in 
 which the enterprising commander lost about five-hundred 
 men, and was reduced to an alarming situation, bordering 
 on despair, we shall proceed to the attack. 
 
 The French commander, being apprehensive that the in- 
 vaders might make a distant landing, and come on the back 
 of the city, detached M. de Bougainville, with fifteen-hun- 
 dred men, to watch their motions. Meantime, a daring 
 plan was formed, by the three English brigadier generals, 
 Monckton, Townshcnd, and Murray, and presented to the 
 commander in. chief; which was, to land the troops in the 
 night, under the heights of Abraham, a little above the 
 town ; in hopes of climbing the rugged ascent before morn- 
 ing. The very boldness of this plan, which was made whilst 
 Wolfe was confined by sickness, recommended it to his 
 intrepid and generous spirit.~The stream was rapid, the 
 shore shelving, the intended landing-place so narrow, as to 
 
210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 be easily missed in the dark ; and the ascent so difficult, as 
 hardly to be surmounted in the day-time, even when unop- 
 posed. The French general could not think that such an 
 approach would be attempted. — Wolfe is amongst the first 
 that leap on shore : colonel Howe, with the Highlanders 
 and light intantry, lead the way up the hill; and the whole 
 army gain the summit before break of day. — The French 
 general is amazed, astonished ! But he hesitates not a mo- 
 raent. When he finds that a battle cannot prudently be 
 avoided, he bravely puts his troops in motion, and hastens 
 to the attack. — At first, the British sutTered severely by a 
 galling fire from the marksmen placed in the corn-fields 
 and bushes on the enemy's front. However, when the 
 main body of the French came up, they were so warmly 
 assailed by a shower of bullets, that they soon gave way. 
 At this moment, general Wolfe, whilst pressing on at the 
 head of his grenadiers, received a fatal shot in his breast, 
 and fell in the arms of victory. — On the other side, the 
 brave Montcalm and his second in command were killed. — 
 Under all the agonies of death, Wolfe's anxiety for the suc- 
 cess of the day was unabated. When told, that the enemy 
 were entirely routed, and fled on ail sides, — '' Then," said 
 he, " I am happy ;" and he instantly expired. Five days 
 afterwards, Quebec surrendered ; and, before the termina- 
 tion of the following year, Montreal, Detroit, Michili- 
 machinac, and every other place within the government of 
 Canada. It was stipulated, that their garrisons should be 
 conveyed to France; and that the Canadians should be se- 
 cured in their property, and in the free exercise of their 
 religion. 
 
 At length, the town of New Orleans, and a few planta- 
 tions on the Mississippi, were all that remained to France, 
 of her numerous settlements in North America. 
 
 Meanwhile, the French talked loudly of retaliating the 
 several insulls on her coast, by invading, at the same time, 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. For that purpose, they as- 
 sembled large bodies of troops, and collected men of war, 
 transports, and flat-bottomed boats, into their principal sea- 
 ports. In order to defeat their intention, powerful fleets 
 were sent from England, under Rodney, Boscawen, and 
 Hawke ; by whose vigilance, supported by the brave con- 
 duct of their seamen, all the enemy's vessels were either 
 sunk, taken, or dispersed. Hawke came up with twenty- 
 one sail of the line and four frigates, under De Conflans, 
 between Belleisle and Cape Quiberon. The French admi- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. m 
 
 ral, afraid to engage the English, tried to avoid a battle, by 
 keeping on a lee-shore, thick with rocks and shoals, with 
 which he was well acquainted. Hawke, however, regard- 
 less of every peril, bore down upon the enemy, and ordered 
 the pilot to lay his own ship, the Royal George, along side 
 that of the French admiral, named the Royal Sun. Con- 
 flans did not decline the combat : bui a French captain 
 gallantly threw his vessel between them ; and one broadside 
 ft'om the Royal George sent his noble ship Le Thesee, 
 with him and all his crew, to the bottom. The Royal Sun 
 drove ashore ; many others shared the same fate; and the 
 remainder of the enemy were indebted to a tempestuous 
 night for their escape. 
 
 .^. Thurot, rendered famous by his privateering ad- 
 
 ventures, had got out of Dunkirk a little before Con- 
 flans left Brest. His squadron consisted of one ship of 
 forty-four guns, called the Belleisle, and four small frigates; 
 carrying twelve-hundred land fordjlf^ After a series of dis- 
 asters, owing to inclement weather, in which he parted 
 with one of his ships, he sailed for the coast of Ireland, and 
 made himself master of Carrickfergus. Having victualled 
 his fleet and pillaged the town, he received intelligence of 
 the defeat of Conilans, and then put to sea ; steering to- 
 wards France. He was swiftly pursued by captain Elliot, 
 with the iEolus, Pallas, and Brilliant frigates, and overtak- 
 en near the Isle of Man. The force on each side was nearly 
 equal; and the engagement that followed was sanguinary 
 and obstinate. The death of Thurot determined the con- 
 test. The Belleisle struck her colours, and the rest of 
 the French squadron followed her example. 
 
 Great Britain was now every where victorious. She had 
 not only destroyed the power of France in North America, 
 but had reduced it in the East and West Indies, and in Af- 
 rica; and she triumphed on the waves. Yet all these con- 
 quests were thought insufficient by the people. They com- 
 plained that some islands in the West Indies were still in 
 possession of the French. With more justice, they were 
 incensed, that the war in Germany was continued, for the 
 protection of Hanover, and the assistance of Prussia. 
 
 In the midst of this clamour, the king, on the 25th of 
 October, was suddenly taken ill, and almost instantly ex- 
 pired, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and thirty- 
 fourth of his reign. "His character," according to an im- 
 partial historian, " is by no means complicated. Violent 
 T 
 
212 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in his temper, but humane and candid in his disposition, if 
 he failed to command the respect of those \vho were about 
 his person, he conciliated their affection. If his under- 
 standing was not very capacious, his judgment was sound; 
 and if he had little of the munificence of a great monarch, 
 he possessed the economy of a prudent prince." 
 
 This reign is distinguished by many writers of eminence. 
 The poets are, Somerville, and Christopher Pitt; West, 
 Collins, and Shenstone; Young, Akenside, and Gray; Her- 
 vey and Aaron Hill; Carey, Southern, and Allan Ramsay. 
 Hoadly, Simpson, and Maclaurin, were mathematicians ; 
 anatomy and physic engrossed the talents of Fordyce and 
 Cheyne, Monro, Cheselden and Meade. In his " Chace,'* 
 Somerville delights and interests us by his animated and 
 correct description of the various modes of hunting in dif- 
 ferent countries. — Pitt is known chiefly as a translator. 
 His versions of the jEneid and V^ida's Art of Poetry, are 
 harmonious and corrtH^n The former is, by many judici- 
 ous critics, preferred to that of Dryden. — West has given 
 an elegant translation of Pindar; and some valuable works 
 on religion. — Collins was a man of extensive learning, and 
 vigorous faculties ; but he has left no works of import- 
 ance. — The poems of Shenstone consist of elegies, odes, 
 moral pieces, humorous sallies, and ballads. His delight 
 was in rural pleasures, and in rural elegance ; to enliven 
 the prospect and diversify the surface of his grounds, by 
 forming the tedious labyrinth, and winding the channel of 
 the brook. — In the Universal Passion, Night Thoughts, 
 and Revenge, of Doctor Young, there is a copious dis- 
 play of the highest order of talent. The first, for which 
 he received three-thousand pounds, is a species of satire, 
 between that of Horace and that of Juvenal. It is related 
 of Young, that one day, being much engaged in reading a 
 book, he wandered, with it in his hand, into a military camp ; 
 where he had much difficulty in proving that he was only 
 an absent poet, and not a spy.— Akenside is best known by 
 his Pleasures of the Imagination ; and Gray, by his Elegy 
 in a Church Yard ; both of which are esteemed classical 
 productions. 
 
 Eminent, however, as were those candidates for poetic 
 fJime, the genius of Great Britain was still more highly 
 displayed, by writers of a different class. As a divine, 
 whose learning was solely employed in critical researches 
 appertaining to his own profession, Doctor Lowth must be 
 considered in the very first rank. Samuel Clarke, also. 
 
•'mSTORY OF ENGLAND. 213 
 
 was a critical divine, and published improved editions of 
 CsEsar's Commentaries, and Homer. 
 
 Richardson was intended to transmit his name to futuri- 
 ty by exercising his talents in a less serious description of 
 literature. This celebrated author, though acquainted 
 with no language but his own, stands in the very first order 
 of English writers. His epistolary novels — Pamela, Cla- 
 rissa, and sir Charles Grandison, have given him a just 
 claim to the title of founder of that species of amusement. 
 — Fielding, as a novelist, is not inferior to Richardson. 
 His characters are his own, and drawn with the pencil of 
 a master. He does not, however, rest his fame on his 
 novels, alone: before he reached his thirtieth year, he 
 had written no less than eighteen pieces for the stage ; 
 several of which have remained in public estimation — 
 Scotland has great reason to boast of Smollett. He is no 
 less remarkable for the greatness, than for the versatility, of 
 his genius. Educated as a surgeon, he served in that ca- 
 pacity at the siege of Carthagena; and, in his Roderick 
 Random, has given us an account of his expedition. His 
 early adventures seem to have impressed him with that ex- 
 traordinary turn for displaying the human character in so 
 many different situations, and in so just a colouring. But, 
 to the work already mentioned, as well as his Peregrine 
 Pickle, Count Fathom, sir Launcelot Greaves, and Hum- 
 phrey Clinker, some objections may be made, respecting 
 their occasional want of delicacy. We are much indebted 
 to him, however, for his fine translations of Gil Bias, Don 
 Quixote, and Telemachus ; but do not so highly admire his 
 continuation of Hume's History of England. 
 
 At Oxford, were first promulgated the doctrine and dis- 
 cipline of the numerous sect called Methodists; an appel- 
 lation given to them on account of the rigid system which 
 they pursued. Whitfield and the Wesleys may be consid- 
 ered as the great extenders of their church, though it is 
 said that Law was the original founder. Georgia, the last 
 settled of all the English colonies now under the govern- 
 ment of the. United States, was planted in the reign of 
 George the second. The first governor was general Ogle- 
 thorpe; who, with about one-hundred poor people, began 
 his operations on Savannah river. 
 
 In 1752, the year commenced, in England, on the first of 
 January, instead of the twenty-fifth of March; and the 
 third of September was reckoned as the fourteentli: by the 
 latter change, correcting an error in the kalendar, which 
 
214 HISTORY OF ENGLAND*. 
 
 had been increasing for many ages. This alteration, call- 
 ed the Gregorian, or new style, had not been adopted in 
 any of the protestant states until the year 1700 ; nor is it 
 yet used in the Russian empire. 
 
 The erection of Westminster bridge, over the Thames, 
 was completed in 1750, after nearly twelve years. being em- 
 ployed in its erection. This magnificent and useful build- 
 ing would do honour to the taste and public spirit of any 
 age or people. It consists of fifteen semi-circular arches, 
 is more than twelve-hundred feet in length, and costthrec- 
 hundred-and-ninety-thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 GEORGE THE THIRD. 
 
 FIRST rjRT. 
 
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 1760 — 1820. 
 
 IF the glory of a nation can justly be estimated 
 ' by its success in arms, the British empire was now 
 a brilliant object of admiration. The martial spirit of the- 
 people, directed by accomplished leaders, supported by 
 immense resources, which were industriously concentrated, 
 and skilfully applied by a patriotic minister, gave to the 
 young sovereign an exalted situation. 
 
 George the third, who ascended the throne in his twen- 
 ty-third year, the first prince of the Brunswick line that 
 was born in England, was son of the late Frederick, prince 
 of Wales, and grand-son of George the second. In the 
 ensuing year, he was married lo the princess Charlotte of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and their coronation was perform- 
 ed with the usual magnificence, in Westminster Abbey. 
 As yet, he was little known by the people. Brought up in 
 retirement, introduced neither to the pleasures nor the 
 business of a court, it seemed a leading object in his edu- 
 cation, to preserve him from the contaminating allure- 
 ments, thrown, at an early age, in the way of a royal heir. 
 The attention thus devoted to his welfare, was not un- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 213 
 
 profitably given. Whatever political impropriety we can 
 discover, through the almost impenetrable veil of ministe- 
 rial management, we can still trace the benefits of a careful 
 superintendence, in his morals. 
 
 No immediate change occurred, either in the national 
 policy, or in the cabinet. One of the first acts of royalty, 
 was introducing into the privy council the earl of Bute; a 
 nobleman who enjoyed an ascendency over the king's 
 mind, in consequence of the office which he had held in 
 directing his education ; a duty which he apparently dis- 
 charged with fidelity, however we may find occasion to 
 condemn his conduct in public. In the following spring, 
 the parliament, after appropriating the sum of eight-hun- 
 dred-thousand pounds as the annual expenditure of the 
 civil list, passed an act, in accordance with the king's re- 
 commendation, which gave additional security to the inde- 
 pendence of the judges ; by continuing their commissions 
 during good behaviour, without being liable to removal on 
 the death of the sovereign ; a salutary amendment to the 
 regulations made in the reign of William the third. Some 
 changes ensued in the administration. Mr. Legge was re- 
 moved from the office of chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 was succeeded by lord Barrington. The earl of Bute was 
 made one of the secretaries of state, and the vice-royalty of 
 Ireland was conferred on lord Halifax. 
 
 . An expedition, secretly prepared in the spring, 
 
 sailed in the month of March from Spithead, under 
 the orders of commodore Keppel and general Hodgson, 
 and in a few days arrived oW Belleisle on the coast of Brit- 
 tany. The first attempt to land was defeated. The next, 
 however, was successful ; but, so resolutely was the place 
 defended, that two months were employed in its reduction. 
 In the East and the West Indies, the British still main- 
 tained an overwhelming superiority. 
 
 During these hostilities, the belligerents were anxiously 
 attentive to promote a peace. Negotiations were for some 
 time going forward. Although the conduct to be observ- 
 ed with respect to the German allies, was a matter of con- 
 siderable difficulty, the English ministers having declared 
 their resolution of preserving their faith with the king of 
 Prussia and the neighbouring princes ; yet that obstacle 
 was gradually removing. But, unfortunately, the French 
 diplomatists introduced a highly offensive subject, relating 
 to the aftairs of Spain ; a power then neutral, and of course 
 not directly concerned in the deliberations. The interfcr» 
 T 2 
 
216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ence arose from a family connexion between the Frencli 
 and Spanish courts; which had long been a source of jeal- 
 ousy to Great Britain. Cordiality and confidence, there- 
 fore, were now destroyed, and the negotiation terminated. 
 
 The active and provident mind of Mr. Pitt conceiving 
 that Spain intended, on the first favourable moment, to be- 
 come a party in the contest, he urged the policy of includ- 
 ing that country in the war. But this measure his col- 
 leagues opposed, as not only rash, but unjustifiable. 
 Wherefore, finding himself unable to carry his point, and 
 being, from his temper and long continued success, inca- 
 pable of bearing contradiction, he resigned his situation, 
 and the office of principal secretary of state was given to 
 lord Egremont. 
 
 Although the measure proposed by Mr. Pitt, of an im- 
 mediate attack on Spain, -svhen considered with the cool re- 
 flection of an experienced politician, could not be declared 
 one of necessity; nor, when judged by the imperious dic- 
 tates of morality, could not be recommended ; yet, his pro- 
 phetic notice of that country's hostile inclination was cor- 
 rect. As soon as the negotiation with France was broken 
 off, the behaviour of the Spanish court left no doubt on the 
 minds of the British cabinet of its intention, and lord Bris- 
 tol, the ambassador at Madrid, suddenly took leave. The 
 , „ - usual festivities of the new year were scarcely ended, 
 when war was formally declared. Though already 
 loaded with heavy charges ; burthened by an accumulating 
 debt; without any expectation of assistance in the contest; 
 this great accession of hazard seemed little to affect the 
 spirits of the nation. Indeed, a war with Spain is generally 
 popular in England ; where, she is viewed, especially b)* 
 the navy, rather as a tempting prey than a formidable an- 
 tagonist. This dangerous, demoralizing avidity, first taught 
 a people by their monarchs, and now influencing many \vh© 
 lx>ast a higher degree of public virtue than is supposed to 
 prevail in Europe, is the despicable feeling of a pirate, not 
 the noble impulse of an offended patriot. 
 
 In expectation of this rupture, it had been determined to 
 curtail the power of France in the West Indies. Accord- 
 ingly, twelve-thousand troops under Monckton, and eight- 
 een ships of the line commanded by Rodney, were sent 
 against Martinico. A landing being easily made, the army 
 proceeded to Fort Royal; a place guarded by a strong cit- 
 adel, and by two powerful batteries. These, however, were 
 ivith great intrepidity taken by storm. The town then cap- 
 
HISTORY OP*^ ENGLAND. m 
 
 itulated. St. Pierre, the capital, was the next object of at- 
 tack : but further operations became unnecessary, as the 
 governor of the colony surrendered the whole island. This 
 success was followed by the easy acquisition of all its de- 
 pendencies ; and thus, the whole Caribeean chain were now 
 under the British dominion. 
 
 The next object of attack, in that quarter of the globe, 
 was Havanna ; the centre of the Spanish trade and naviga- 
 tion in the West Indies. The fleet destined for this import- 
 ant and dangerous service, consisted of nineteen ships of 
 the line, eighteen small armed vessels, and one-hundred- 
 and-fifty transports; carrying fourteen-thousand land forces : 
 the former, under the direction of admiral Pococke ; the lat- 
 ter, under general lord Albemarle. Fort Moro, which was 
 considered as almost impregnable, haviiig been stormed 
 through a breach made by springing a mine, Havanna, with 
 a district extending one-hundred-and-eighty miles, was 
 yielded to the victors. A richer conquest has rarely been 
 effected. Besides fourteen ships of the line, and four frig- 
 ates, the British deprived the enemy of money and merch- 
 andise amounting to three-millions sterling. In the same 
 month, an armament sailed from Madras, commanded by- 
 admiral Cornish and colonel sir William Draper, against 
 Luconia, the principal of the Philippine islands. Having 
 stormed the capital, Manilla, they made an agreement with 
 its inhabitants, by which their lives, liberties, and property, 
 were allowed them, on their promising a ransom of one- 
 million sterling. With the surrender of the capital were 
 included the whole country and depending settlements. 
 The ransom, however, was never paid. 
 
 By the rupture with Spain, an ancient ally of Great Brit- 
 ain was involved in war. This was Portugal ; a country 
 gradually declining into disorganization and debility. A 
 memorial, inviting the king of Portugal to join the alliance 
 against England, had been presented by the ambassadors of 
 France and Spain: but, as he refused compliance, his ter- 
 ritories were invaded by a powerful army. However, by the 
 assistance of a British force under general Burgoyne, the 
 feeble Portuguese were saved from the impending ruin. 
 
 Lord Bute's preponderating influence on the king's mind 
 being very sensibly felt by his ministerial colleagues, an 
 extensive change occurred in the members of the govern- 
 ment. The duke of Newcastle, who held the post of first 
 commissioner of the treasury, usually, though not always, 
 Gonsidered, as giving the title of *' premier," retired, and 
 
]is HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was succeeded by the favourite. The new minister, either 
 from the increased difficulty of continuing the war in the 
 face of a powerful opposition, or a desire of relieving the 
 nation from its burthens, was induced to treat for peace. 
 In this measure, the Bourbon courts agreeing, it was not 
 difficult to accomplish so happy an event. Preliminaries, 
 afterwards ratified, were signed at Fontainblcau on the third 
 of November. The most important articles related to North 
 America. The French ceded to Great Britain the entire 
 province of Canada, and that part of Louisiana situated east 
 of the Mississippi ; together with Cape Breton and the other 
 islands in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Spain yielded East and 
 West Florida, and all her possessions east and south-east 
 of the Mississippi ; and confirmed to the English a claim of 
 cutting logwood on the coast of Honduras. In return, she 
 obtained restitution of Havanna, and all the other conquests 
 in the late war. 
 
 In this treaty, the interests of Frederick were not entire- 
 ly neglected. France was withdrawn from the German war, 
 so that Austria and Prussia were left to settle their quarrel 
 by themselves; and, before the close of the year, an adjust- 
 ment was signed at Hubertsburg, giving the latter quiet 
 possession of all the territory belonging to her at the com- 
 mencement of hostilities. 
 _ The winding up of the war expenses, as usual, 
 
 exhibited large arrears of debt. To satisfy this, new 
 financial schemes were tried. Amongst these, was a tax of 
 four shillings a hogshead on cider, to be paid by the mak- 
 er ; a most unfeeling and impolitic tax. For, surely, no im- 
 posts can offer a greater outrage on the happiness and do- 
 mestic rights of mankind, than such as give an excise offi- 
 cer admission to a dwelling — the boasted " castle" of a free- 
 man. This obnoxious measure did not pass without strenu- 
 ous opposition. Lord Bute resigned his place, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Mr. George Grenville. 
 
 But the infiuence of the ex-minister was not, it was sup- 
 posed, lessened by his retirement. He was stili the object 
 of much virulent, and perhaps merited, abuse. Of this, the 
 chief vehicle was the '^ North Briton ;" a periodical publi- 
 cation set up by Mr. Wilkes, in opposition to the " Briton," 
 conducted by Smollett, which advocated the measures of 
 lord Bute. 
 ^^.. This period will long be remembered. Events of 
 
 1764. . , . , ^ r. ^, ^ -1 
 
 smgular nnportance arose trom the tyrannical sys- 
 tem of finance which now commenced. A severe, but salu- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 219 
 
 lary lesson, was given to a misguided sovereign. A lively- 
 prospect of relief was opened to the future exertions of the 
 C/ppressed. The bold experiment began, of laying taxes on 
 the North American Colonies. For levying them, the naval 
 commanders on the American coast were sworn to act as 
 revenue officers; the result of which measure was the con- 
 demnation of many cargoes, without any means of redress 
 in England. 
 
 In the following winter ; an interesting character 
 
 departed. The chevalier St. George, son of James 
 
 the second, ended an anxious existence, at Rome, in the 
 
 seventy-eighth year of his age ; leaving two sons — Charles, 
 
 the adventurer of 1745, and Henry, cardinal York.* 
 
 The marquis of Rockingham was now at the head of the 
 treasury: the duke of Grafton and general Conway were 
 secretaries of state. By the repeal of the cider tax, and a 
 modification of the obnoxious colonial imposts, the Rock- 
 ingham party obtained the general approbation of the peo- 
 ple. This, however, did not insure them the favour of the 
 court. The whole tenor of their administration was by no 
 means pleasing to the sovereign ; or, at least, to those by 
 whom he was secretly advised. Another change was made. 
 The duke of Grafton was appointed in the room of Rock- 
 ingham ; and Mr. Pitt, now raised to the title of earl of 
 Chatham, received the office of lord privy seal, and was re- 
 garded as the leading minister. 
 
 In the house of commons, this great statesman had op- 
 posed, by his uncommon powers of eloquence, the princi- 
 ples of colonial taxation. Alluding to the spirit which that 
 obnoxious measure had excited, "I rejoice," said he, "that 
 America has resisted. Three-millions of the people, so dead 
 to all feelings of liberty, as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
 would have been lit instruments to make slaves of all the 
 rest." 
 
 In the East Indies, a new foe was added, to those already 
 raised by commercial avidity and national ambition. We 
 mean Hyder Ally ; an adventurer, who, from the humble 
 condition of a private soldier, was now a powerful prince, 
 in possession of a large tract of the Malabar coast. 
 Near Trincomalee, this extraordinary man was, how- 
 ever, entirely defeated by colonel Smith, and sought a tem- 
 porary safety in the mountains ; from which, having de- 
 
 • Charles difd at Kome, in 1788; and Cardinal York, the last of 
 that royal house, about the year 181U. 
 
220 HISTORY OF ENGLANB. 
 
 scended, he was in the following year again beaten, by cole- 
 nel Wood. 
 
 Soon after this, Great Britain was surprised by another 
 change in the cabinet. Treated with disregard, either on 
 account of his bodily infirmities, or his stern, uncomplying 
 disposition, lord Chatham resigned the national helm, and 
 the privy seal was given to the earl of Bristol. 
 
 But the agitation of the public mind made it ne- 
 ' ' cessary for the king to make a further experiment. 
 This ferment arose from the distracted state of the Ameri- 
 can colonies, and a remarkable struggle between the house 
 of commons and Mr. Wilkes. Many resignations occurred. 
 Amongst the number, the duke of Grafton made room for 
 lord North ; who then commenced his long prime-ministry. 
 Mr. Wilkes, who has been already m.entioned, as editor of 
 the North Briton, was at one time lord mayor of London, 
 and was distinguished for the long political warfare which 
 he sustained against the court, and the government influ- 
 ence in the house of commons. His contest with colonel 
 Luttrel, (afterwards lord Carhampton,) who, by an extra- 
 ordinary stretch of parliamentary law, was admitted to take 
 his seat for Middlesex, in preference to Mr. Wilkes, the 
 fairly chosen member, is an important occurrence in the 
 history of England ; and occupies a large portion of the cel- 
 ebrated letters published with the name of Junius. 
 p._ In the month of February, a message from the 
 
 king to both houses excited considerable interest. 
 The immediate cause of this arose from two marriages 
 lately contracted by his two brothers, the duke of Glouce- 
 ster with lady Waldegrave, and the duke of Cumberland 
 with a widov/ lady, INlrs. Norton, Accordingly, a bill was 
 enacted, which, with some limitations, rendered void all 
 marriages of the royal family, made without the king's con- 
 sent, formally declared in council. 
 
 The situation of the colonies now claims undivided atten- 
 tion. For several years past, a high degree of agitation ex- 
 isted in America. But, that we might exhibit a narration 
 so very important, uninterrupted, and detached as much as 
 possible from the affairs of Europe, the history of the col- 
 onial misunderstanding has been, in a great measure, post- 
 poned. 
 
 Although the general feeling in England and America 
 had caused the repeal of some of the iniquitous impositions, 
 amongst which was a stamp-tax, yet the right of levying 
 taxes was not abandoned by the court. Accordingly, (in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 22 i 
 
 1767,) Charles Townshend, procured an act for laying du- 
 ties on glass, paper, painters' colours and tea, when import- 
 ed into the colonies. This revived the former discontents. 
 At a public meeting of the inhabitants of Boston, measures 
 ■were adopted for the encouragement of home-manufactures, 
 and the promotion of frugality, by restraining the use of 
 foreign superfluities. This salutary example was followed 
 in the other provinces. In the ensuing spring, the ferment 
 was increasing : by the king's order, the assembly of Mas- 
 sachusetts was dissolved: most of the colonies determined 
 against importing any English goods, during the existing 
 duties : the people of Boston again convened, and resolved 
 to prepare arms and ammunition ; and a convention from 
 ninety-six townships, held in that city, sent a statement of 
 their transactions to England. In September, a detach- 
 ment of artillery arrived from Halifax ; and, soon afterwards, 
 general Gage appeared, with two regiments from Ireland. 
 These seem to have produced a temporary calm, as the re- 
 mainder of the year passed in tranquillity. 
 
 Yielding a little to the mercantile voice, lord North with- 
 drew the obnoxious imposts, on all the articles except tea; 
 the duty on which was retained, apparently for the pur- 
 pose of still asserting the right of taxation. This impolitic 
 measure was a source of perpetual enmity, and caused in 
 several colonies the importation of tea to be prohibited. At 
 length, a regulation, providing that the salaries of provin- 
 cial governors and judges should be paid by the king, at 
 whose will they could, at any moment, be removed, aggra- 
 vated the public jealousy and dissatisfaction. — The tenden- 
 ,--o cy to riot was first displayed by an attack on a royal 
 schooner posted at Providence in Rhode Island, to 
 prevent smuggling. It was boarded by a number of armed 
 men, who put the captain and crew on shore, and burned 
 the vessel. The next indication of popular resentment oc- 
 curred at Boston. On the eighteenth of December, a par- 
 ty, disguised as Mohawk Indians, entered three ships laden 
 "with tea, and threw their entire cargoes into the water. In 
 consequence of this, the port was closed, the charter of 
 Massachusets new-modeled by the British government, and 
 additional forces were sent to general Gage, as governor of 
 the province and commander in chief-— Matters daily grew 
 more alarming — anarchy was rapidly increasing : general 
 Gage fortified Boston neck, seized the militia-stores at 
 Cambiidge, and conveyed them to Boston, 
 
222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Early in September, a Congress, representing 
 ' ' twelve of the old colonies, was held at Philadelphia. 
 The sentiments expressed by this respectable assembly 
 were constitutional and loyal, sensible and manly, in lan- 
 guage elegant and perspicuous. They expostulated, by 
 letter, with the British general, on his hostile proceedings; 
 published a declaration of rights, and an enumeration of 
 grievances; recommended, as a means of obtaining redress, 
 a non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption 
 agreement, to which they bound themselves and their con- 
 stituents ; and drew up a petition to the king, and a memo- 
 rial to the English people. 
 
 The sword was at length unsheathed. To it, re- 
 mained the paramount decision. Civil warfare soon 
 spread its desolating reign. When a party which general 
 Gage had sent from Boston to seize the provincial stores 
 at Concord, reached Lexington, a body of militia appeared, 
 to arrest their progress. A short skirmish ensued, in which 
 several of the latter were killed. The royal detachment 
 then proceeded; and, having destroyed some amm^unition 
 at Concord, they were attacked, and commenced a retreat, 
 which was a continued battle. At sunset, they arrived at 
 Charlestown, near Boston ; having lost, in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners, nearly three-hundred men. After this, the 
 whole province was roused : twenty-thousand militia invest- 
 ed Boston; a small party, under colonels Allen and Arnold, 
 surprised Ticonderoga; and Crown Point was taken by 
 colonel Warner. 
 
 The congress, having assembled a second time, chose 
 Mr. Hancock president, and took the most effectual meas- 
 ures for defending the United Colonies. 
 
 Near the end of May, the English generals, Howe, Bur- 
 goyne, and Clinton, arrived at Boston, with large reinforce- 
 ments, and the harbour was filled with ships of war. 
 
 Further hostilities, were, of course, mutually expected. 
 The post of Charlestown, separated from Boston only by 
 Charles River, being considered by the Americans an im- 
 portant acquisition, they sent a party, at night, to throw up 
 works upon a hill commanding the isthmus which joins the 
 peninsula to the continent. 
 
 This was effected, on Breed's, instead of Bunker's Hill, 
 with so great silence and expedition, that, before day-break, 
 the defences were nearly completed. A heavy cannonade 
 soon poured in from the vessels in the harbour; and, about 
 noon, a strong body of troops, under Howe and Pigot, was 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 223 
 
 sent to storm the place. As they approached, so hot and 
 well directed a fire was opened against them, that they 
 were thrown into confusion, and, for a while, general Howe 
 was left nearly alone. Being, however, soon rallied, they 
 made a furious attack on the American works, and forced 
 them at every quarter. The loss of the British, in killed 
 and wounded, was above one-thousand men — about a third 
 of their entire number: that of the provincials, above four- 
 hundred. Amongst the latter, was the brave general War- 
 ren, universally lamented by his countrymen. But this 
 defeat was not sufficient to dishearten the Americans. They 
 immediately afterwards formed redoubts in another situa- 
 tion. 
 
 In October, general Gage having returned to England, 
 the command of the British devolved on Howe. 
 
 Meanwhile, Georgia had joined the continental alliance^ 
 The Thirteen United Colonies were, New Hampshire, Mas- 
 sachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; New York, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware ; Maryland, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The era of 
 their determined struggle now arrived. At the head of 
 their armies was placed George Washington ; already ex- 
 perienced, and not less eminent as a soldier, than respecta- 
 ble as a country gentleman. 
 
 This year terminated in an unsuccessful attempt made 
 by the Americans on Quebec. General Montgomery, after 
 capturing fort St. John and Montreal, having attacked that 
 city by escalade, was, with most of the men near his per- 
 son, killed upon the spot, and a division of his army was 
 taken prisoners. The next important occurrence was the 
 jw^- evacuation of Boston. On the 17th of March, that 
 town was entered by Washington. In the month of 
 .Tune, generals Clinton and Cornwallis, aided by a fleet un- 
 der sir Peter Parker, attacked Sullivan's Island, in South 
 Carolina, in hopes of forcing their way into Charleston, but 
 were obliged to retire, after considerable loss. 
 
 At length, the flame of patriotism could neither be ex- 
 tinguished by the terrors of an army, nor damped by the 
 experiments of temporizing duplicity. The harshness of 
 the parent had rent the bands of natural afTection, and her 
 children no longer owed her either duty or respect. On 
 the 4th of July, the colonies renounced their allegiance to 
 Great Britain, and signed a Declaration of Independence. 
 This celebrated declaration, drawn by the philosophic Jef- 
 ferson, gives a particular detail of their grievances, and 
 
224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 has these memorable sentiments ; « We hold these truths 
 to be self evident — that all men are created equal : that 
 they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain un- 
 alienable rights : that, amongst these, are life, liberty, and 
 the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, 
 governments are instituted amongst men ; deriving their 
 just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
 ever any form of government becomes destructive of these 
 ends, it is the right of the people to alter, or abolish it, and 
 to institute a new government ; laying its foundation upon 
 such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as 
 to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
 happiness." 
 
 In the remainder of this, and throughout the succeeding 
 year, the chief military operations occurred at Long Island, 
 Trenton, and Bennington; Saratoga, Brandywine, and Ger- 
 mantown ; with various success ; but, on the whole, ra- 
 ther in favour of the British. However, the spirit of the 
 great Frederick, divested of its impurities, seemed diffused 
 amongst the colonies. Their energies, unrelaxed by dis- 
 appointment, arose more vigorous after every misfortune ; 
 and an event, which lord Chatham had predicted, inspired 
 them with additional hope. On the 6th of February, 
 ' the American commissioners at Paris concluded a 
 treaty with Louis, which was productive of most important 
 benefit, from the aid aiforded them, in extensive naval co- 
 operation, in military stores, and a large reinforcement of 
 veteran troops. — Of all the French officers in this war, the 
 marquis La Fayette was the most distinguished, and the 
 most entitled to the gratitude of America. His services 
 were rendered from a pure love of liberty. But the same 
 cannot be said of Louis. His aid was given through oppo- 
 sition to England ; not through affection towards the op- 
 pressed. 
 
 Other events, too, concurred in favour of the colonies. 
 The summer had scarcely commenced, before Spain, on 
 some slight and general charges, declared war against the 
 British ; and in the course of the revolutionary contest, Hol- 
 land was added to the number of their antagonists. Thus, 
 was England engaged, at the same time, with four enemies ; 
 without a single ally, except some German mercenaries. 
 
 The next principal occurrences were at Monmouth, Sa- 
 vannah, Stoney-Point, and Charleston ; Waxsaw, Camden, 
 Broad River, Guilford, Eutaw Springs, and Yovktown. 
 
 Although the latter was not the closing scene of this san- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 225 
 
 guinary contest, yet it was there that the Americans gave 
 the decisive blow. Lord Cornwallis having fixed on York- 
 town, situated on the peninsula between York and James 
 rivers in Virginia, as a place the best adapted to his plans, 
 took post there, with about seven-thousand chosen troops, 
 and commenced the necessary fortifications. In the mean 
 time, Washington, always vigilant and active, spread a re- 
 port, that his next object of attack was New York, and that 
 he had relinquished his intention of marching to relieve 
 Virginia. In conjunction, therefore, with the French com- 
 mander, Rochambeau, having given a hot alarm to that city, 
 he suddenly crossed North River, proceeded through New 
 Jersey to Philadelphia, thence to the head of Elk River on 
 the Chesapeake ; and, after there embarking a division of 
 his troops, pursued his march, with the main body, through 
 Baltimore, to Annapolis, in Maryland. — The French admi- 
 ral, De Grasse, having entered the Chesapeake, with twen- 
 ty-eight sail of the line, sent the welcome news of his arri- 
 val to the combined army ; blocked up York River, and 
 occupied James River, to a considerable extent, to prevent 
 Cornwallis attempting a retreat to Carolina. Soon after- 
 wards, a partial and indecisive engagement took place ofF 
 the mouth of the Bay, between the French and the English 
 fleet ; the latter of twenty sail, under admiral Greaves ; when, 
 the former being reinforced by a squadron from Rhode Island, 
 the English returned to New York. From this time, De 
 Grasse was entire master of the Chesapeake; and thus, all 
 the hopes of the blockaded forces were destroyed. Invest- 
 ed by an army more than double the number of his own ; 
 with no better cover than earthen works, hastily thrown up, 
 and assailed by nearly one-hundred pieces of heavy ord- 
 nance, the British general surrendered, and all his troops 
 became prisoners of war. 
 
 Cornwallis, who, with all his officers, was set at liberty 
 on parole, publicly acknowledged the liberal treatment ex- 
 perienced by himself and his whole army. 
 
 Meanwhile, the people of England were thrown into great 
 alarm. An extensive plan had been formed, by the united 
 powers of France and Spain, for an expedition to the Eng- 
 lish coast; probably intending an invasion, should a favour- 
 able opportunity occur. Accordingly, the combined fleets, 
 above sixty in number, with a vast attendance of frigates 
 and smaller armed vessels, having passed, unobserved, the 
 English fleet of thirty-eight sail, under admiral Hardy, then 
 rruizing in the Bay of Biscay, appeared for several days 
 
226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 before Plymouth. But, fortunately for that depot, no at- 
 tempt against it was made ; and the enemy, after suffering 
 much from sickness, returned to Brest. 
 
 Sir George Rodney, having been appointed, with a strong 
 squadron, to the chief naval command in the West Indies, 
 and ordered on his way thither to relieve Gibraltar, then 
 closely blockaded by the Spaniards ; when only a few days 
 at sea, captured a large convoy, bound from St. Sebastian 
 to Cadiz. Their lading consisted principally of flour; which 
 he sent to Gibraltar, at that time much in want of provi- 
 sions. Off Cape St. Vincents, he encountered a Spanish 
 fleet of eleven ships of the line ; seven of which, including 
 the admiral's vessel, he captured or destroyed. Soon after- 
 wards, admiral Parker had a severe action with the Dutch 
 fleet, under Zoutman, on the Dogger Bank. They were 
 of nearly equal force ; and, after an uninterrupted cannon- 
 ading for three hours and a half, both squadrons lay like 
 logs upon the water, incapable of further efforts. 
 
 In the month of May following, the British lost the prov- 
 ince of West Florida; one of the principal acquisitions re- 
 tained by the treaty of Paris. 
 
 Even their ancient possessions in the American seas were 
 ^vith difficulty preserved. Jamaica, however, was freed 
 from its perilous situation by the bravery and good seaman- 
 ship of Rodney; who, with thirty -six sail of the line, en- 
 countered an equal force, commanded by the French admi- 
 ral, De Grasse. In this action, which continued from seven 
 in the morning until sunset, Rodney practised a new ma- 
 noeuvre, since attended with so great success — that of 
 breaking the enemy's line. Both sides displayed deter- 
 mined courage. But, when the crew of De Grasse's ship, 
 the Ville de Paris of one-hundred-and-twelve guns, had suf- 
 fered prodigious carnage, he struck his flag to sir Samuel 
 Hood, in another vessel, the Barfleur; and the French fleet, 
 after losing five others, bore away for St. Domingo. 
 ^jon '^^^^ most interesting military scene, afforded in 
 this year, was the siege of Gibraltar. Although the 
 town had been already ruined, by the almost constant fir- 
 ing of the Spaniards during upwards of three years, yet 
 t>mall progress had been made in overpowering its terrific 
 defences ; and a sally, made in the preceding November, by- 
 its vigilant commander, general Elliot, had spread ruin 
 through the nearest works of the besiegers. They were, 
 however, still determined to persevere. To diffuse a spirit 
 of enterprise in their army, twelve-thousand French troops 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 227 
 
 were procured : the supreme command was given to the 
 duke of Crillon ; and the plan of attack confided to the 
 chevalier d'Arcon. The preparations now made, by land 
 and water, were immense. Volunteers and spectators as- 
 sembled from almost every part of Europe ; amongst wliom, 
 were two French princes of the blood, the count d'Artois, 
 and the duke of Bourbon. 
 
 The grand project of d*Arcon was founded on the con- 
 struction of floating batteries ; so contrived, that it was 
 thought they could neither be sunk nor set on fire. Be- 
 sides having timbers of extraordinary thickness, they were 
 fortified, on the exposed side, by a wall of cork and soaked 
 timber; between the layers of which, wet sand was inter- 
 posed; whilst a circulation of water was provided through 
 the entire mass. The vessels thus prepared, were ten 
 ships, from six-hundred to fourteen-hundred tons burthen; 
 cut down to accommodate the intended superstructure, 
 and furnished with brass cannon of unusual weight. On the 
 land side, new and powerful batteries Avere opened; and 
 forty-eight sail of the line, with many smaller vessels, were 
 brought to co-operate. — In the morning of the 13th of Sep- 
 tember, the ten battering ships being moored in a line, 
 from the old to the new mole, at nine-hundred yards from 
 the Rock of Gibraltar, there instantly commenced a can- 
 nonading and bombardment, by assailants and defenders, 
 more tremendous and awful than the imagination can con- 
 ceive. But the showers of red-hot shot, which issued from 
 the walls, were not to be resisted by any efforts of human 
 art. Confusion and distress were hourly augmenting : the 
 /lames broke out from stem to stern ; all the vessels, in 
 succession, blew up ; and not a vestige was left, on the fol- 
 lowing day, of an apparatus so novel and formidable. 
 
 When the affair was decided, the English displayed 
 most generous conduct, in saving their enemies who were 
 crying for help amidst the flames. 
 
 The possibility of subduing the Americans at length be- 
 came hopeless, even in the opinion of the crown; and 
 opposition to the unhappy measures of administration 
 was gradually increasing. The colonists had a large share 
 of popular regard in England, and many of the most elo- 
 quent senators espoused their cause. Edmund Burke and 
 Charles James Fox, (son of Henry Fox, created lord Hol- 
 land,) the ablest members of the lower house, had long 
 combated the unjust proceedings, with a strength and 
 brilliancy of argument, worthy of ancient Greece or Rome. 
 U ?. 
 
:-2& HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 General Conway, too, was active on the side of justice. 
 He succeeded in a motion, that an address should be pre- 
 sented to the king, expressing a hope that a reconciliation 
 might be effected ; to which, his majesty gave a satisfactory- 
 reply. This interposition of the commons produced an 
 agreeable effect : in a few days afterwards, the administra- 
 tion was dissolved. The marquis of Rockingham was ap- 
 pointed first lord of the treasury, the earl of Sheiburne and 
 Mr. Fox were made secretaries of state : lord Cambden, INIr. 
 Burke, Richard Brindesly Sheridan, the duke of Grafton, 
 lord John Cavendish, admiral Keppel, and the duke of 
 Richmond, also, were members of the new government. 
 The command of the forces was given to general Conway, 
 the vice royalty of Ireland to the duke of Portland, and 
 lord Thurlow was coiuinued in the office of chancellor. 
 
 Several highly commendable measures of economy and 
 reform succeeded. Revenue officers were disqualified from 
 voting at parliamentary elections, public contractors rend- 
 ered incapable of sitting in the house of commons, and 
 many sinecures abolished. 
 
 But, whilst engaged in these laudable improvements, the 
 new ministry received a fatal blow, by the death of the pre- 
 mier, lord Rockingham. To the vacant place at the head 
 of the treasury, the earl of Sheiburne was advanced; which 
 appointment was followed by the resignation of the most 
 distinguished members of administration ; amongst whom, 
 ■were Cavendish, and Fox; Burke, Sheridan, and the duke 
 of Portland. William Pitt, second son of lord Chatham, 
 (who died in 1778,) was made chancellor of the exchequer, 
 and lord Temple succeeded to the government of Ireland. 
 The former, afterwards so celebrated, had already given a 
 favourable specimen of his oratorical powers, in several de- 
 bates in favour of reform. 
 
 The pacific inclination to which we have alluded, aided 
 by the mediation of Russia and Austria, happily produced 
 a termination of hostilities. The dispute between Great 
 Britain and her colonies was the first subject of attention, 
 and the first matter that was accommodated. On the 
 thirtieth of November, preliminaries were arranged at Pa- 
 ris. By these, the Independence of the Thirteen United 
 States was acknowledged ; many concessions were made 
 to the new republic; amongst which, was the right offish- 
 ing on the banks of Newfoundland, and on all other fishing 
 grounds previously frequented by Americans. This memor- 
 able adjustment was ratified in the autumn of the following 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 229 
 
 year; and, at the same time, clcfinitive treaties were signed 
 with all the other belligerents. On the part of England, the 
 commissioners were, Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald. 
 Those of America were Dr. Franklin, Messrs. Adams, Jay, 
 and Laurens. Franklin, the great American Philosopher, 
 had been deputed by his countrymen to negotiate in Lon- 
 don ; where he was examined before the house of commons, 
 and completely baffled the antipacific members, by his un- 
 common sn-iartness of reply. 
 
 During the colonial war, the East Indies, also, displayed 
 a scene of miserable devastation. The calamity, usually 
 •suftered from the individual usurpations of the native prin- 
 ces, was increased by the collision of the French and Dutch 
 interests. The most distinguished military officer, in that 
 quarter, was sir Eyre Coote. But the army was deprived 
 of the services of this gallant officer, by his death ; which 
 happened at Madras; ai-ising from a constitution worn out 
 by long-continued attention to the arduous duties of a mili- 
 tary life. Latterly, he had frequent opportunics of show- 
 ing his activity and talents, in opposing Hyder Ally ; whom 
 he very frequently defeated. This noted sultan having died, 
 was succeeded by his son, Tippoo vSaib ; a prince who, with 
 the territorial acquisitions, inherited also the martial and 
 political genius, of his father. The government of the Brit- 
 ish possessions in the East, was, at this period, intrusted to 
 Warren Hastings; whose conduct in that important office 
 afterwards became a subject of much parliamentary dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Let us now turn from these miserable conflicts. Divest- 
 ed of her sanguinary passions, let us view human nature in 
 the occasional exercise of Christian meekness; and atoning, 
 in some degree, for her general depravity. In the Austrian 
 dominions, the spirit of improvement, had been operating, 
 in the most laudable manner, by the abolition of torture, 
 the introduction of religious toleration, the releasing of the 
 peasants in Bohemia from slavery, and granting them por- 
 tions of land at easy rents. This just and enlightened 
 policy of the emperor Joseph, having called forth, in the 
 Irish house of commons, the eulogium of Mr. Dillon of 
 J^iismullin, of which the emperor was informed through the 
 medium of the public journals, he handsomely conferred 
 upon that gentleman a German title — baron of the Holy 
 Roman Empire; an honour, approved by the British mon- 
 arch. In return for this attention, rather singular on the 
 part of sovereigns, the Irish member sent to the continent, 
 
330 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 his son, the present general Dillon ; with a request that his 
 imperial majesty would accept of the youth's services in 
 the Austrian army ; to which, he very graciously acceded. 
 That liberal spirit soon afterwards produced in England a 
 repeal of several penalties and disabilities affecting the Ro- 
 man Catholics. These included the punishment of offici- 
 ating catholic clergymen, as felons and traitors: the forfeit- 
 ure of the estates of catholic heirs educated abroad: the 
 power given to a son or near relation, being a protestant, 
 of seizing a father's or other relation's estate : and a restric- 
 tion on members of that communion from acquiring land- 
 ed property by purchase. The lenity of the times, how- 
 ever, had, in practice mitigated the rigour of these intol- 
 erant enactments. Yet, still, they were a national disgrace, 
 and a most serious grievance ; as the liability to incur such 
 penalties, was, of itself, a degrading hardship. This benev- 
 olent measure, brought forward oy sir George Saville, was 
 received with universal approbation. In a few days after- 
 wards, Mr. Gardiner having introduced the subject in the 
 Irish parliament, some concessions were obtained in favour 
 of his suffering countrymen. 
 
 But, in Scotland, these relaxations were not viewed with 
 the same degree of liberality. Associations were formed 
 there, inimical to Roman Catholic indulgence. At the head 
 of these, was lord George Gordon ; (brother to the duke of 
 Gordon ;) a man of singular character, compounded of en- 
 thusiasm, artifice, and folly. Through his exertions, the fa- 
 natical spirit was roused in London ; but his partizans in 
 that city were the very lowest dregs of the populace. Its 
 effects, however, were, for a while, extremely dangerous. 
 The demoniacal frenzy which impelled them, created not 
 only serious alarm, but extensive mischief; requiring the 
 aid of a strong military force, to arrest its progress. They 
 destroyed all the catholic chapels, in and around the city : 
 Ihey burned the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the 
 King's-bench, and many private houses; amongst which, 
 was the dwelling of that great lawyer, lord Mansfield, with 
 all his invaluable papers. Nearly five-hundred of these de- 
 luded wretches, by death or wounds, felt the consequences 
 of their diabolical behaviour. Gordon was tried on a charge 
 of high treason, but acquitted ; his crime not appearing to 
 the jury in accordance with the indictment. 
 
 This period is memorable on account of the removal of 
 those illiberal and unjust restrictions, which so long affect- 
 ed the trade of Ireland, and rendered her parliament de- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 231 
 
 pendent, in some measure, on the ministers of England. 
 The cause of this important victory, for in that light it 
 must be viewed, deserves attention. We shall, therefore, 
 trace it to its source. — A refusal, by the English parlia- 
 ment, to remove those grievous impediments, having caus- 
 ed meetings in Dublin, resolutions were there taken against 
 the importation of any British manufactures, or other arti- 
 cles, which could be made or produced in Ireland. But, as 
 the restrictions were not likely, by that means, to be re- 
 moved, something further became necessary. The next ob- 
 ject, therefore, was to strengthen the hands of the people. 
 This could now be readily accomplished. The country be- 
 ing threatened by a French invasion, an opportunity was 
 aftbrded of arming for national defence. Accordingly, (in 
 1779,) associations were formed for raising volunteer corps; 
 which soon became general, and included every party. To 
 join them, was justly regarded as an act of patriotism ; and 
 men of the first fortune served in the ranks. Government, 
 however, viewing with apprehension these numerous bands, 
 which might wrest the island from its control, attempted 
 to bring them under the regulation and authority of the 
 crowai. It was then too late. The people seemed to appre- 
 ciate their strength. Dreading, therefore, that the same 
 spirit which had nearly caused the loss of one jewel from, 
 the English crown, might deprive it of another, the minis- 
 ters apparently acquiesced in a scheme, now beyond their 
 power to defeat, and furnished the volunteers with arms. 
 The nation were resolved to have redress ; and, in calling 
 the attention of the throne, the Irish parliament declared, 
 that nothing short of a free trade could save the country 
 from ruin. Scarcely two months elapsed, before the British 
 legislature yielded to the demand ; and, in three years from 
 this period, the Irish parliament obtained its independence. 
 For his eminent services at this important era, Henry 
 Grattan, then a member of the Irish house of commons, 
 obtained from parliament fifty-thousand pounds, for the 
 purchase of an estate; a return which he well deserved; 
 but which has been proclaimed, by those who calculate ac- 
 cording to the meanness of their own hearts, to have been 
 the stimulant to his exertions. — Admirable reasoners 1 by 
 what precedent, could the Irish orator form the most dis- 
 tant prospect of pecuniary reward ? 
 
 The affairs of Ireland continued to be highly in- 
 
 ' terestingand important. Projects for a reform of the 
 
 parliamentary representation, had been for some time warm» 
 
232 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ly entertained by the volunteers. In September, a meeting 
 of delegates, from upwards of three-hundred companies iu 
 the province of Ulster, was held at Dungannon; at which, 
 a plan of reform being arranged, it was resolved that a con- 
 vention of representatives from the whole volunteer army, 
 should assemble on the 10th of November, at Dublin. This 
 meeting having taken place, Mr. Flood, on the following 
 day, brought the topic before the house of commons, by 
 moving for leave to bring in a bill for the more equal re- 
 presentation of the people in parliament. The motion, how- 
 ever, was received with much displeasure, as being a pro- 
 posal tendered at the " point of the bayonet ;" and was re- 
 jected by a large majority. An address to the king was 
 •next voted ; in which, the lords concurred ; expressing " the 
 happiness enjoyed under his government, and their deter- 
 mination to support the present constitution with their lives 
 and fortunes." The convention then agreed on a counter- 
 address ; beseeching, that their wish for remedying certain 
 perversions in the parliamentary representation, might not 
 be imputed to a spirit of innovation, but to an honest desire 
 of upholding the constitution, and perpetuating the union 
 of the two nations. This patriotic zeal was encouraged by 
 a great change in the administration. Mr. Pitt, for many 
 years a strenuous advocate of reform, was now, at the age 
 of twenty-four, made prime minister of the British empire; 
 and, from his influence, the friends of that cause had every 
 thing to hope. In the ensuing spring, therefore, Mr. Flood 
 again brought forward his bill, supported by a great num- 
 ber of petitions : but it was again rejected. Exasperated at 
 this defeat, the citizens of Dublin held a meeting, at which 
 another petition to the king, and a circular address to the 
 people, were prepared. In the address, it was proposed, 
 that five persons should be selected from every county, city, 
 and considerable town, to meet in Dublin, as a " national 
 congress." The very name of " congress" alarmed the gov- 
 ernment. Measures, therefore, were immediately taken to 
 counteract the intentions of the people, by fining and im- 
 prisoning the most active of the magistrates who had call- 
 ed meetings throughout the kingdom ; and by prosecuting 
 the publishers of those newspapers in which the resolutions 
 had been inserted. These means, however, were insuffi- 
 cient. The congress assembled in October, though in rath- 
 er an incomplete form; passed a number of resolutions; 
 earnestly recommended a future and more numerous meet- 
 ing, and then adjourned. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 2S3 
 
 There was another cause of discontent in Ireland, pro- 
 ceeding from the distresses of the manufacturing class. To 
 so great a height, had these arisen, in Dublin, that a state 
 of anarchy would have been the consequence, had not some 
 public measures been adopted for their relief. A committee 
 of the house of commons having been appointed to take 
 into consideration the state of the manufacturers, a proposal 
 was afterwards made, that protecting duties should be laid 
 on all piece-goods imported into the kingdom. The rejec- 
 tion of this motion having caused a great ferment amongst 
 the populace, at the next sitting of the house a mob broke 
 in, and reproached the members with having " sold them- 
 selves to England." They were, however, dispersed by the 
 guards, without bloodshed ; and, fortunately, their rage 
 gradually subsided, from the succeeding improvement of 
 their trade. 
 w„- From the period at which we commenced our al- 
 lusions to the state of Ireland, nothing very remark- 
 able occurred, until the impeachment of Warren Hastings. 
 Owing to the number of serious charges against him, for 
 improper conduct in the East, his situation excited unusual 
 attention. On no former occasion, was there so conspicu- 
 ous a flow of eloquence. The most remarkable speakers 
 were Sheridan and Burke. Indeed, the subject was particu- 
 larly favourable to that kind of impassioned eloquence, 
 v/hich the orators of antiquity, when acting as public ac- 
 cusers, displayed; and, it was universally agreed, that never 
 in the British senate, nor probably elsewhere, was a speech 
 of this class delivered of equal force to that, by which Mr. 
 Sheridan, during five hours and a half, riveted the atten- 
 tion of a full house, and an audience of distinguished visit- 
 ers. Mr. Burke declared it to be the most astonishing ef- 
 fort of eloquence, argument, and wit, united, of which there 
 was any record or tradition. Mr. Fox said, all that he had 
 ever heard, all that he had ever read, when compared with 
 it, dwindled into nothing, and vanished like vapour before 
 the sun. Mr. Pitt acknowledged, that it far surpassed all 
 the eloquence of ancient, or of modern times ; and possessed 
 every thing that genius or art could furnish, to agitate or 
 control the human mind. 
 
 The trial continued for seven years, but ended without 
 producing the expected, and, we have no doubt, merited, 
 conviction. 
 
 Amidst the preparations for that solemn arraignment, 
 the public mind was arrested by another event j the death 
 
234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of the Prussian monarch. Frederick, who has, of all mod- 
 ern princes, the best deserved the title of Great, sunk un- 
 der the rapid decline of an exhausted constitution, in the 
 seventy-fifth year of his a^e. Chargeable as all the early 
 part of his career may be, with despotism and rapacity, his 
 latter years exhibited him as a mild and beneficent sover- 
 eign, devoted to the happiness and prosperity of his sub- 
 jects ; and a patriotic asscrtor of the rights of the Germanic 
 body, of which he was the most illustrious member. 
 
 Amongst the remarkable domestic incidents, was an at- 
 tempt on the king's life, by a woman ; who, when present- 
 ing a paper to him as he was alighting from his chariot at 
 the garden gate of St. James', made a stroke at his breast, 
 with a concealed knife. The blow being happily avoided, 
 the king, humanely, exclaimed, " I am not injured — take 
 care of the woman — do not hurt her." On examination, she 
 was found to be a poor creature, named Margaret Nichol- 
 son ; whose reason was bewildered, by some idea which she 
 had formed of her having a right to the crown, 
 y The latter part of this year was made memorable 
 
 by an occurrence more serious than the preceding, 
 also affecting the person of the sovereign. We allude to his 
 mental derangement. This affliction, which threw so deep 
 a gloom over his later years, and by which he had been 
 many years before, attacked, though slightly, rendered 
 liim, now, totally incapable of business; and, being unpre- 
 cedented in English history, produced a general consterna- 
 tion, and occasioned extraordinary movements amongst the 
 different parties. When parliament, which had adjourned, 
 again assembled, it was proposed by Mr. Fox, that the royal 
 functions should be immediately vested in the Prince of 
 Wales : who, as heir apparent, he asserted, had an indisputa- 
 ble claim, as soon as the sovereign, from any cause, became 
 incapable of acting. To this opinion, however, Mr. Pitt, 
 who was not in so intimate a friendship with the prince as 
 Mr. Fox, was far from acceding. He declared the doctrine 
 to be little less than treason to the constitution. At length, 
 an arrangement was concluded, placing the royal authority 
 in the prince, under considerable restrictions ; amongst 
 which, the entire care of the royal person, and the appoint- 
 ment of the household officers, were assigned to the queeli. 
 But, in Ireland, different measures were adopted. In that 
 country, the easy manners of the prince had gained him al- 
 most universal affection. The people looked up to. him as 
 their future benefactor. In the liouse of commons, an ad- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 235 
 
 dress, proposed by Mr. Conolly and Mr. Grattaii ; and, in 
 the house of lords, one of similar import, introduced by the 
 earl of Charlemont, requesting the prince to take upon him- 
 self, without any restriction, the executive power in Ireland, 
 was carried by a large majority. When the deputies ar- 
 rived in London, with this address, the prince of Wales re- 
 turned his warmest thanks ; but, at the same time, inform- 
 ed them of his hope, that his father would very shortly be 
 able to resume the government. 
 
 These expectations were soon realized. In a fev/ days 
 afterwards, the king was perfectly recovered ; having been 
 ill about four months. 
 
 The attachment which the Irish nation had evinced for 
 the prince of Wales, was sincere and ardent; widely differ- 
 ent from the puerile feeling displayed in the indiscrimi- 
 nating vivas of a more recent period. How mistaken were 
 his early friends in the object of their confidence— the idol 
 of their future happiness !' 
 
 SECOj\'n PART. 
 
 GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE. 
 
 THE affairs of France, at this period, having had so mo- 
 mcntous an inihicncc on the political concerns of Eji gland, 
 in common with the impression made upon almost every 
 nation of the earth, require unusual attention. 
 
 The French people had long been struggling to recover 
 the small degree of legislative authority, wrested from them, 
 nearly two centuries ago, by a rapacious monarch. Their 
 first efforts were made in the reign of Louis the fiftecith. 
 That prince having, in 1763, issued an edict for the contiiiu- 
 ance of some war taxes, and the imposition of others, the 
 ■provincial parliaments refused their assent, and made a 
 strong remonstrance against a proceeding so tyrannical. In 
 consequence, the king sent officers into the several prov- 
 inces, to register them by force ; but the parliaments per- 
 sisted in their opposition, and even issued orders for the 
 apprehension of his agents. That monarch, equally detest- 
 able in his private and his public conduct, was succeeded 
 by Louis the sixteenth ; a-prince, naturally inclined rather 
 to indulge, than oppress, the people. But his good inten- 
 tions were often frustrated by his family, and by the interest- 
 X 
 
-36 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ed counsel of the neighbouring* sovereigns. In that respect, 
 the queen herself was considered highly culpable. The 
 duke of Orleans, also, than whom the history of Europe 
 scarcely affords a character more infamous, served greatly 
 to perplex his government. He has been charged even 
 with hastening the downfal of his relative, that he might 
 himself ascend upon his ruin. 
 
 Having thus given a sufficient sketch of the causes, we 
 shall next trace the progress, of the revolution. 
 
 The disordered condition of the French finances, occa- 
 sioned by the expenses of the late war and the extravagance 
 of the court, had suggested an application to the body of 
 The people, in the form of a convention of " notables," or 
 principal persons in the different classes throughout the 
 kingdom. This assembly met at Versailles, and was open- 
 ed with great solemnity by the king, accompanied by the 
 royal princes and the chief officers of state. But the pro- 
 posed manner of raising the supplies, was far from being 
 agreeable to the deputies, emboldened by the recent suc- 
 cess of the American patriots. Very little business was 
 transacted, and the meeting was dissolved. 
 
 In the mean time, the necessity of the government had 
 caused a recurrence to the usual mode of levying money, 
 by royal edicts; with which, the parliament of Paris refused 
 to acquiesce ; and the king having endeavoured to compel 
 their registry, all the parliaments of France denounced pen- 
 alties against those who should attempt to enforce their 
 execution. The royal authority being now at stake, the 
 king improperly retaliated, by banishing the Parisian dele- 
 gates to Troyes. But the popular resentment constrained 
 him to recall them. A compromise ensued, and the edicts 
 were withdrawn. However, this apparent return of good 
 understanding was of short duration. The government ne- 
 cessities becoming still more urgent, applications for sup- 
 ply were again made, and were again repulsed. The result 
 was, the imprisonment, by a royal order, of two of the mem- 
 bers ; followed by a bold remonstrance against this act of 
 power, and a demand, in the name of the laws, for their 
 liberation ; with which open assertion of the principles of 
 free government, the year 1787 closed. 
 
 The new year was productive of still more serious con- 
 tests. The crisis was rapidly approaching. The further 
 tyranny of the court was met by increasing opposition from 
 the people. All the royal ordinances were again suspend- 
 ed ; the minister of finance resigned his uneasy post, and ^ 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 237 
 
 nas succeeded by Necker, the celebrated banker of Gene- 
 va; who, at a former period, had held the office, and, more 
 than any other man, possessed the confidence of the nation. 
 
 At length, in 1789, the popular voice was entirely pre- 
 dominant in France. A large accession. of number in the 
 tiers etat^ or third estate, having been gained, this body, 
 now feeling their importance, and being joined by a few of 
 the clergy, who belonged to a distinct assembly, declared 
 themselves the legislative body, and assumed the title of 
 National Assembly. The king, however, supported by the 
 nobles, declared their proceedings null, and commanded 
 them to separate. Violent tumults ensued : in some of 
 which, the dangerous symptom of fallen authority appear- 
 ed, — an attachment of the soldiery to the popular feeling ; 
 which induced the king and the nobles to acquiesce in the 
 joint deliberation of the three orders. 
 
 Meanwhile, the court was collecting an army around 
 Paris; and, on the 1 1th of July, Necker was suddenly dis- 
 missed, with an order to quit the kingdom in twenty-four 
 hours. This event excited furious commotion. On the 
 fourteenth, the citizens, aided by some of the military^ 
 stormed the state prison, (called the Bastile,) massacred 
 the governor with several others, and carried their heads 
 in triumph through the streets. 
 
 Necker was immediately recalled ; several decrees were 
 passed by the national assembly, abolishing ancient institu- 
 tions; and a declaration of rights was agreed on, as the ba- 
 sis of a new constitution. This frame of government, as- 
 sented to by Louis, was a limited monarchy ; in which, the 
 legislative authority was made superior to the executive, 
 and the king was allowed only a suspensive veto. But the 
 general distress created fresh insurrections. With much 
 difficulty, the king and queen were saved from the fury of 
 the mob by the marquis La Fayette, at the head of the na- 
 tional guards; which corps he then commanded. Impor- 
 tant changes were again made by the assembly; amongst 
 which, were, the abolition of all titles, the annulment of 
 tithes, and the total dissolution of monastic establishments. 
 These transactions created alarm amongst the 
 continental sovereigns. The emperor of Germany 
 wrote a letter to the unhappy Louis, deprecating the late 
 decrees ; and prepared to assist him in their revocation. 
 An army of French emigrants, under the prince of Conde, 
 was assembling on the German border ; insurrections of 
 the royal party were occurring in diiferent provinces of 
 
238 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 France, and suspicions mutually increasing: the king, with 
 the queen, his sister, his brother, and the latter's wife, se- 
 cretly left the palace, by a subterranean passage, and set 
 off for the frontiers; leaving behind him a paper, in which 
 he protested against all the decrees sanctioned by him while 
 under a state of restraint, and recited the deprivations and 
 indignities which he alleged he had undergone from the 
 national assembly. But his journey was soon prevented. 
 He and his party were stopped at Varennes, and brought 
 back under an escort of national guards. His brother and 
 sister, having taken a different route, reached Brussels in 
 safety. 
 
 To enumerate the various negotiations which succeeded, 
 would carry us beyond our limits. In September, the na- 
 tional assembly having unfortunately dissolved itself, affairs 
 were thenceforth managed by legislative bodies, under va- 
 rious titles, much influenced by the famous Jacobin club ; 
 a society of about forty, who formed a kind of national as- 
 sembly in miniature, and an instrument of the most violent 
 faction. 
 
 France and Austria were now at open war. Hos- 
 tilities commenced with an attack on the Austrian 
 Netherlands, by a large body of troops under general Ro- 
 chambeau. Soon afterwards, it was announced, that the 
 king of Prussia had marched above fifty-thousand men to 
 co-operate with the emperor. Paris was filled with con- 
 fusion and alarm : the legislative assembly declared that 
 the country was in danger. The arrival at the capital, of 
 the provincial volunteers, increased the general tendency 
 to riot; and, in this inflammable state of the public mind, 
 appeared the two celebrated declarations of the duke of 
 Brunswick, commander in chief of the allied forces, dated 
 at Coblentz, on his way to Paris. These were drawn up 
 in a style of sanguinary menace ; and espoused the cause 
 of Louis and his ancient authority, in a manner which con- 
 firmed every suspicion of his consenting to the invasion. 
 A dreadful scene ensued. The palace was attacked: the 
 Swiss guards, the gentlemen ushers, the pages, and all who 
 came in the way of the insurgents, were cut to pieces. The 
 king and queen, with the rest of the royal family, having 
 taken shelter in the hall of the assembly, which was then 
 sitting, thus gained a respite from the fury of their enemies. 
 The executive power was now suspended, and Louis and 
 his queen were imprisoned in the Temple. In the next 
 place, royalty was declared forever abolished in France, all 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 239 
 
 distinclions in society were overturned; and every thing 
 which had graced and decorated polished life was abandon- 
 ed with contempt. 
 
 With the turbulence, the energies, also, of the French 
 nation, were increased. Dumorier and Kellerman were 
 successful, not only in checking the advance of the duke of 
 Brunswick, but in lowering his tone so completely, that he 
 acknowledged the right of the people to make their own 
 iaws, desired nothing further than the admission of Louis 
 into the government, however limited in power, and, before 
 the end of October, evacuated the territories of France. 
 
 Having gone thus far in portraying this memorable scene 
 of anarchy and bloodshed, we must turn to the effects pro- 
 duced in England. 
 
 In the house of commons, allusion having been made to 
 the late revolution, which Mr. Fox mentioned in terms of 
 approval, Mr. Burke rose, and delivered a severe and op- 
 probrious censure, not only on its conductors, but on its 
 principles. Mr. Fox and Mr. Sheridan defended the prin- 
 ciples of the revolution, whilst they joined in detestation of 
 the outrages by v/hich it had been accompanied; but Mr. 
 Pitt and several other members expressed their entire con- 
 currence with Mr. Burke. Similar oppositions of senti- 
 ment spread rapidly through the empire; producing a spirit 
 of hostility more acrimonious than that which prevailed 
 even during the colonial war. Every sect, and every rank, 
 felt interested in the contest. The anniversary of the popu- 
 lar triumph in France having been celebrated in different 
 places, Mr. Burke soon afterwards published his celebrated 
 work, entitled. Reflections on the French Revolution; by 
 which, he gave offence to all rational friends of political 
 freedom. On this occasion, his most able antagonist was 
 Thomas Paine; who brought forward his " Rights of Man," 
 which greatly contributed to the spreading of democraticai 
 principles, and a bold spirit of reform. In the following 
 year, the anniversary of the revolution was the cause of an 
 alarming riot at Birmingham. The populace there, being 
 averse to the cause of freedom, collected in a mob, and, 
 uncontrolled by the magistrates, burned several meeting- 
 houses, and the dwellings of the principal dissenters. The 
 house, books, papers, and apparatus, of that eminent divine 
 and philosopher, Dr. Priestley, were consumed; and he 
 himself was compelled to become a fugitive, in order to 
 preserve his life, 
 X 2 
 
:40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Ten years had elapsed, since the cause of the Roman 
 Catholics particularly engaged the attention of the Irish 
 parliament; since they took a serious review of those disa- 
 bilities, which the passions and prejudices, perhaps the 
 pressure, of an intemperate season, had entailed upon them. 
 An intimation from the throne united them to resume that 
 duty. The good offices which they ow^ed to each other; the 
 indulgence due to their fellow subjects, recommended by 
 the unimpeachable conduct of a century ; the consideration 
 demanded by national prosperity ; all, united, in again call- 
 ing them to a revision of that subject, at a time when the 
 public mind was becoming more enlightened, and prejudice 
 and jealousy were every day yielding to confidence and af- 
 fection. A bill, introduced by sir Hercules Langrishe, 
 which afterwards received the royal assent, happily re- 
 moved the most grievous restrictions from that numerous 
 and loyal body of their Irish brethren. By this, and a suc- 
 ceeding enactment, they were allowed the privilege of vot- 
 ing at parliamentary elections; serving on petit and grand 
 juries ; holding commissions of the peace, in counties ; 
 pleading at the bar, and rising to the rank of colonel in the 
 army. The honour of assisting in the national councils, 
 with their emancipation from every restriction, would be at- 
 tended with the highest benefit to the British empire. 
 
 But, whilst England was thus increasing the number of 
 her friends at home, she was creating a formidable enemy 
 abroad. On the deposition of the king of France, the Brit- 
 ish ambassador at Paris, lord Gower, had been recalled, 
 and the French ambassador at London was no long- 
 '^' er respected. Every thing, seemed tending towards 
 more serious hostility. It is, indeed, difficult to say, which 
 nation advanced with the greatest earnestness, to so dreadful 
 an appeal. The indications of one government were met by 
 the less ambiguous declarations of the other. A letter from 
 the French minister of marine, addressed " to all friends of 
 liberty in the seaports," contamed the following appeal ; 
 which, with some others, was quoted by Mr. Pitt in the 
 house of commons : " The king of England and his parlia- 
 ment mean to make war against us. Will the English re- 
 publicans suffer it? Already, these freemen show their dis- 
 content, and their repugnance to bear arms against their 
 brothers, the French. Well 1 we will fly to their succour : 
 we will make a descent upon the island: we will lodge 
 there fifty-thousand caps of liberty ; we will plant there the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 24i 
 
 sacred tree, and will stretch out our arms to our republican 
 brethren. Their tyrannical government shall soon be de- 
 stroyed.'* 
 
 The execution of the unfortunate Louis took place on 
 the twenty-first of January. When the intelligence of that 
 event reached England, the French ambassador was order- 
 ed to quit the kingdom ; and this marked avowal of dis- 
 pleasure was followed, on the part of the new Republic, by 
 a declaration of war; in which Holland, also, was included. 
 
 If we pause here for a moment, and view the immense 
 load of debt with which Great Britain was already burthen- 
 ed, amounting to more than two-hundred-and-fifty-millions, 
 we cannot refrain from commiserating her dangerous situ- 
 ation. The effect of the transition from a pacific to a hos- 
 tile attitude, on nearly every branch of manufactures, was 
 truly deplorable. The numerous dependents oh large es- 
 tablishments, generally improvident, had made no provi- 
 sion against a sudden stagnation of their trade. As the pa- 
 rent can no longer support his children, or be secure from 
 the horrors of a jail, in despair he rushes from their pres- 
 ence, and leaves them to their fate ; or, with an aching 
 heart, takes them as companions of his sorrow, and seeks a 
 temporary living from the charity of strangers. 
 
 A French army, under Dumorier, assembled at Ant- 
 werp, for the purpose of attacking the Dutch. Breda and 
 other places soon opened their gates. But, at William- 
 s»tadt, which commands the passage of an arm of the sea 
 into Holland, he was driven back by the garrison, aided 
 by a detachment of English guards and gun-boats. Gen- 
 eral Miranda invested Maestrecht, with a force of twenty- 
 thousand men ; and, after completing his works, summon- 
 ed it to surrender. The prince of Hesse, however, its 
 commandant, determined on a resolute defence. Clairfait, 
 the Austrian general, having passed the Roer, repulsed 
 the enemy in that quarter; and, soon afterwards, the arch- 
 duke Albert captured some of their batteries. These af- 
 fairs were followed by a complete victory, gained by the 
 prince of Saxe-Cobourg over the French army, at Aix la 
 Chapelle; from which, they were driven as far as Liege: 
 and, on the same day, prince Frederick of Brunswick de- 
 feated a body at Bruges. Miranda was therefore compelled 
 to raise the siege of Maestrecht, and hastily retreat. 
 
 The good fortune of Dumorier seemed to have deserted 
 him. All the splendid conquests made by that active com- 
 mander in the Austrian Netherlands, being, before the end 
 
2i2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of March, recovered by the allies, he was obliged to retirt 
 upon his own frontier. Dumorier was a moderate repub- 
 lican, and invariably opposed Robespierre, Marat, and 
 others of that ferocious party; who had used the name of 
 liberty for accomplishing the most sanguinary barbarities 
 in the annals of the world. He therefore formed a design 
 of marching to Paris, to effect a counter-revolution. But, 
 being suspected by the convention, he departed from his 
 army, and took refuge with the Austrians. Dampiere was 
 then appointed in his place. From his fortified camp at 
 Famars, near Valenciennes, the French general made an 
 impetuous attack on the allies, which ended in his defeat ; 
 he himself being mortally wounded. In this engagement, 
 the British troops, under the duke of York, second son of 
 the king of England, were highly distinguished. The 
 camp of Famars afterwards yielded to the allies; by which, 
 means, Valenciennes being left uncovered, the siege oi" 
 that place was intrusted to the duke; to whom, after it had 
 been reduced almost to ashes by a bombardment, it surren- 
 dered. But that officer, shortly after, met a severe repulse. 
 Having commenced the siege of Dunkirk, the delay in re- 
 ceiving his heavy artillery, and the want of an early co-op- 
 eration by a naval force, caused the loss of so much time, 
 that the enemy were enabled to collect a powerful army 
 for its defence, before any progress was made in its invest- 
 ment : the result of which was, that he was obliged to 
 raise the siege, and leave behind him his battering cannon, 
 with a large quantity of ammunition. 
 
 Toulon, in the south of France, became an interesting 
 and melancholy object. The citizens, in conjunction with 
 admiral Turgot, had given admiral Hood possession of the 
 town and shipping ; on condition that they should be re- 
 turned to the French monarchy, whenever it should be re- 
 established. But the appearance of a numerous republican 
 army, soon made it necessary for the British to retire. A 
 conflagration of the magazines, arsenals, and vessels in the 
 harbour, followed, under the direction of sir Sidney Smith ; 
 on which occasion, fifteen ships of the line, several frigates, 
 and an immense quantity of naval stores, were consumed. 
 
 In the month of October, Marie Antoinette, widow of 
 the unfortunate Louis, was taken to the scaffold. The 
 guillotine streamed with the blood of many others ; several 
 of whom deserved a better fate. But the execution of the 
 duke of Orleans, then known by the name of Egalite, (who 
 had been so active in procuring the king's death,) was re- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 24:3 
 
 gretted by none. Very different was the feeling for Ma- 
 dame Roland, whose character was the object of general 
 admiration. 
 
 The East and the West Indies had again a large share of 
 military operations. However, no useful knowledge would 
 be imparted, by our attending to them, in this early stage of 
 the great contest. The domestic transactions are the next 
 subject of importance. 
 
 In Scotland, a party zealous for reform had projected 
 what they entitled, rather injudiciously, a national conven- 
 tion. This society having thereby attracted the notice of 
 government, prosecutions were instituted against some of 
 its leading members; upon an old Scottish statute, of very 
 wide and dangerous application. In consequence, Mr. 
 Muir and Mr. Palmer received sentence of transportation : 
 which judgment, being the first instance of the imposition 
 of that punishment, for such a crime, and pronounced 
 against persons of respectable character, was regarded as 
 unreasonably severe. 
 
 About this time, the British government became involv- 
 ed in those disputes with the United States of America, 
 which, finally, were attended with so serious effects. Or- 
 ders having been given, by the former, for stopping all 
 vessels carrying corn or military stores, either to France, 
 or to her colonies, more than six-hundred of the American 
 shipping were consequently seized, within a period of five 
 months. This violation of neutral rights, accompanied by 
 the impressment of American seamen, was resented by an 
 embargo on the British shipping; after which, Mr. Jay, an 
 ambassador from the United States, having arrived in Lon- 
 don, the dispute was for the present adjusted. 
 
 The popular odium, which Mr. Pitt had already gained, 
 by his precipitate bres^ch with the French republic, was 
 now increased by another measure, highly oifensive to a 
 nation entitled to the privileges of freemen. This was, the 
 suspension of the habeas corpus act ; as a counterpoise to 
 the rapidly increasing spirit of reform. But, though he had 
 thus succeeded in bringing over a majority in parliament 
 to countenance his encroachments, he was entirely defeat- 
 ed in his next experiment. Indictments being found against 
 several members of the reforming societies, Mr. Hardy 
 was first tried ; and, after an investigation of eight days 
 continuance, in which the talents of his counsel, Mr. Er- 
 skine and Mr. Gibbs, were admirably displayed, he was ac~ 
 
J44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quitted. The trial of Home Tooke ended in the same 
 manner; after which, the other prisoners were discharged. 
 
 We are again called to the grand theatre of war. The 
 continent exhibited a spectacle no less interesting than aw- 
 ful ; unparalleled in the previous history of Europe. 
 
 France, amid the ferocious contentions of successive fac- 
 tions ; unaided by a single friend ; assailed, on all sides, by 
 the strongest energies of the surrounding kingdoms; pre- 
 served her territory uninjured. Austria, Prussia, and Hol- 
 land; Great Britain, Sardinia, and Spain; seemed to wage 
 against the republic an unequal contest. Their veteran 
 troops, their long experienced commanders, now yielded to 
 the soldiers of a day ; led on by generals just emerged from 
 the very lowest ranks. A degree of enthusiasm, bordering 
 on madness, had infused amongst the undisciplined armies 
 of France, an artificial courage, which nothing could resist. 
 Before the end of autumn, the whole of Austrian Flanders 
 and Brabant, with many of the strong towns on the Dutch 
 frontiers, had fallen ; and so disheartened were the Aus- 
 trian and Prussian monarchs, that they would have made a 
 hasty peace with their powerful antagonist, had it not been 
 for the interposition of British gold. 
 
 But, on another element, the French experienced a re- 
 verse. At sea, they had to meet a foe, certainly not inferior 
 in natural ardour, and far superior in skill and discipline. 
 Ou the first of June, lord Howe, with twenty-five sail 
 of the line, engaged the enemy's fleet of twenty-six, 
 off the coast of Brittany. The French steadily awaited the 
 attack; but, in less than an hour after the action became gen- 
 eral, their commander, whose immediate opponent was 
 Howe, in the Queen Charlotte, went off with crowded sails, 
 followed by most of his van who were able to carry canvass. 
 Of those which were left crippled, seven ships were taken; 
 the remainder having escaped, owing to the disabled or 
 separated state of the English. The slaughter in the 
 French fleet was very great. In the captured vessels, alone, 
 the killed and wounded amounted to twelve-hundred. The 
 total loss of the British was nine-hundred. 
 
 Early in the ensuing spring, Mr. Pitt brought forward a 
 plan for the augmentation of the navy ; requiring for that 
 service ninety-thousand men. The regular land-forces 
 amounted at this period to considerably more. So large a 
 military establishment, with the expense of maintaining a 
 majority in parliament, and subsidizing the continental sov- 
 ereignsj required upwards of twenty-sevcn-millions for the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 245 
 
 service of the year* With regard to the king of Prussia, it 
 was observed by the opposition, that he had misapplied the 
 assistance so largely given him ; having directed it chiefly 
 towards promoting his unjust designs against Poland : and 
 as to Austria, that the conduct of the emperor did not then 
 justify a much higher degree of confidence. 
 
 The conquest of Holland had become the great object 
 ■with the French ; an enterprise in which the power of Louis 
 the fourteenth had failed. But the present state of the prov- 
 inces rendered success more probable, than at any former 
 time. Since the forced restoration of the Stadtholder, by 
 the arms of Prussia, in 1787, disaffection to the house of 
 Orange, and its supporters, was a prevailing sentiment 
 amongst them ; and, in several districts, open declaration 
 had been made of their attachment to the French Republic, 
 and their aversion to Great Britain. The principal difficul- 
 ty which obstructed the French, was the crossing of the 
 waters between Holland and Brabant; for, when attempting 
 to pass on rafts, they were repulsed by the British and Ger- 
 man troops. At length, owing to a frost, more intense than 
 any experienced for several years, they were enabled to 
 transport a numerous army, on the ice, over the Waal, and 
 carry all the posts in the isle of Bommel. A gallant attack 
 by eight-thousand British troops, under general Dundas, 
 forced them to recross the river, with considerable loss. 
 But this was only a momentary check. Their numbers ren- 
 dered them irresistible. Part of Pichegru's army made good 
 their passage without opposition, and the British v/ere forc- 
 ed to retreat ; during which, until their arrival at Bremen, 
 where they took shipping for England, their sufferings, from 
 the weather, the pursuing enemy, and the inhospitality of 
 the country through which they passed, exceeded almost 
 any of the kind that have ever afforded matter for descrip- 
 tion. The French immediately took possession of Utrecht 
 and Rotterdam. The Stadtholder, with his son, escaped 
 with difficulty from the Hague to Scheveling; and, having 
 embarked in an open boat, on the following day reached 
 England. Pichegru, having received a formal invitation, 
 entered Amsterdam on the 20th of January. The independ- 
 ence of the United Provinces was then declared, and the 
 preceding constitution abolished. 
 
 This was soon followed by a peace between the French 
 Republic and the king of Prussia. The treaty, which had 
 been for some time progressing, was entirely in favour of 
 the former ; and gave her the satisfaction of being acknov/1- 
 
246 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 edged by a power which had stood foremost m the hostile 
 confederacy. Spain, too, completely dispirited by the last 
 campaign, found it necessary to sue for peace, and accept 
 of such terms as she could obtain. She yielded all her part 
 of Hispaniola, with its artillery and stores, acknowledged 
 the French and Dutch republics, and undertook to use her 
 influence in detaching Portugal from the alliance with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Although, since the downfal of Robespierre, Marat, and 
 their atrocious confederates, the internal relations of France 
 had been gradually improving, yet there still arose a con- 
 siderable degree of inquietude, from the successive colli- 
 sion of the factions which remained. The fifth of October 
 was a dreadful day at Paris. A conflict took place near the 
 hall of the convention, between the citizens and the regular 
 army ; and ended in the total rout of the people, after a loss 
 of about a thousand lives. On this occasion, Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, a native of Corsica, distinguished himself as a 
 commander, by his intrepid conduct. Tranquillity being 
 restored, a new constitution was formed, and the conven- 
 tion, after a continuance of three years, resigned its author- 
 ity. The executive power was now vested in five directors : 
 Reubel, Latourneur, Barras, Sieyes, and Larevelliere Le- 
 paux ; who were installed with regal pom.p, and, on public 
 occasions, displayed all the appendages of sovereignty. The 
 founding of the national institute, an establishment which 
 revived and included all the former celebrated academies 
 of science and polite literature, and the forming of central 
 schools for the superior branches of education in each de- 
 partment, honourably testified the enlarged views of the 
 new authorities. 
 
 The republic, however, with all its attention and energy, 
 was still unable to meet the British on the ocean. A fur- 
 ther reduction of its navy was made, by admiral Hotham 
 and lord Bridport ; by the one, off Genoa, and the other, oft' 
 Port L'Orient. But an exploit of more importance than any 
 during this year, v/as the capture of the Dutch colony, the 
 Cape of Good Hope, by general Craig and admiral sir G. 
 Keith Elphinstone ; its governor having rejected a proposal, 
 that it should be assigned to the protection of Great Britain. 
 
 Whatever consolation the minister derived from the in- 
 variable success of the navy, and the occasional triumphs 
 of the army, there seemed no reasonable hope of eventually 
 controling the formidable power of France. The people 
 were extremely desirous of peace. But every motion in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. -247 
 
 parliament upon that subject had been rejected. A petition, 
 therefore, to both houses, was voted in the Common Hall 
 of London, by a large majority ; and also in several towns 
 throughout the kingdom. Of course, the ministry and other 
 advocates of war, became daily more unpopular, and the 
 reforming societies acted with increasing boldness. One 
 meeting, in the fields near Copenhagen House, was distin- 
 guished by the daring spirit of the addresses, made to at 
 least fifty-thousand persons. In the autumn, when the king- 
 was proceeding through the Park to the house of lords, he 
 was surrounded by a crowd of all ranks, who clamorously 
 demanded peace, and the dismission of Mr. Pitt : one of the 
 glasses of his coach was broken by a bullet, and on his re- 
 turn he was treated with much rudeness and indignity. 
 
 The attention of all Europe was now turned to Italy. 
 That country, so frequently the theatre of hostile opera- 
 tions, became the chief ground on which the present bellig- 
 erents contended. Buonaparte, being placed at the head of 
 fifty-thousand troops, began, in the month of April, that 
 rapid series of victories, which overthrew the proudest ar- 
 mies of Austria, removed from his ancient throne the fath- 
 er of the Roman church, crushed the power of every other 
 sovereign beyond the Alps, and raised his military fame 
 above the greatest generals of antiquity. The enemies of 
 France will long remember Lodi, Mantua, Rivoli, and Ma- 
 rengo. 
 
 War was declared against Great Britain, by the Dutch, 
 (the Batavian Republic) in May, and by the Spaniards in 
 October. 
 
 The Dutch had already experienced the effects of their 
 attachment to the French. In the East Indies, their settle- 
 ments in Ceylon, with Malacca, Cochin, Chinsura, Am- 
 boyna, and Banda, were taken without resistance. In South 
 America, they were deprived of Demerara and Essequibo, 
 by general Whyte ; and afterwards of Surinam, by lord 
 Hugh Seymour. But these were not their only losses. Ad- 
 miral Elphinstone captured, at Saldanha Bay, several ships 
 of the line and frigates, with two-thousand land forces on 
 board. 
 
 ^ « Early in this year, another splendid victory was 
 gained by the British navy. In Spain, so m uh dili- 
 gence had been exerted, that a large fleet was soon prepar- 
 ed, with the intention of joining the French squadron at 
 Brest. It consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line ; six of 
 which mounted, each, one-hundred-and-twelve, and one was 
 Y 
 
-48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 even so powerful as one-hundred-and-thirty-six guns. The 
 squadron destined to intercept this gigantic fleet, was com- 
 posed of no more than fifteen ships of the line and some frig- 
 ates, but had much better seamen than the Spaniards, and 
 was commanded by admiral Jervis, an officer of first rate 
 abilities, seconded by many of the most distinguished offi- 
 cers in the navy. On the 14th of February, the enemy were 
 descried off Cape St. Vincent, on the coast of Portugal ; 
 and, before they had time to form, were attacked, and one- 
 third of their number was separated from the rest. An at- 
 tempt to rejoin their ships was prevented by commodore 
 Nelson ; who, at one time, had singly to encounter their ad- 
 miral and two other first rates ; and the engagement ended 
 in the capture of four of their vessels, and their return to 
 Cadiz. Jervis was rewarded with the title of earl St. Vin- 
 cent, and Nelson with the order of the Bath. 
 
 In the same month, the enemy sent over to the English 
 coast an armament, not less singular in its materials, than 
 unmeaning in its object. Fourteen-hundred men, who were 
 embarked at Brest in four vessels, three of which were 
 large frigates, entered the Bristol Channel, and anchored 
 off Ilfracombe ; but, when informed that a regiment of vol- 
 unteers was prepared to oppose them, they stood over to 
 Pembrokeshire, and landed in a bay near Fishguard. The 
 alarm was immediately given ; people assembled from all 
 parts ; more than three-thousand men, amongst whom were 
 a body of militia, were soon collected ; and to these, headed 
 by lord Cawdor, they immediately surrendered. The as- 
 tonishment of the captors may easily be imagined, when 
 they found that the invaders were mostly in rags, with eve- 
 ry appearance of having been taken out of prison. 
 
 Scarcely had the conversation excited by that mysterious 
 affair subsided, when a cause of serious alarm was given in 
 another quarter, and from a very different source. This 
 proceeded from a mutiny which broke out in the navy at 
 Portsmouth. Discontents had for some time existed ; aris- 
 ing from the smallness of the seamen's pay, the unequal 
 distribution of prize money, and the severity of discipline. 
 However, by the timely intervention of parliament, by 
 whom their grievances were redressed, order was happily 
 restored. But these concessions, to which they were enti- 
 tled, led the way to further demands, unreasonable and un- 
 just. A more dangerous spirit of insubordination shortly 
 afterwards appeared, amongst the fleet lying off the Nore. 
 The head of this revolt was one Parker ; a man of some ed' 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 249 
 
 ucation, and equally remarkable for activity and courage. 
 He informed the admiralty, that the seamen had resolved to 
 keep possession of the fleet, until they complied with their 
 request. It therefore became necessary, when every remon- 
 strance and an offer of pardon were ineffectual, to employ 
 force for their reduction. Accordingly, the buoys at the 
 mouth of the Thames were removed, batteries for throw- 
 ing red-hot shot erected, and proclamations issued, forbid- 
 ding all intercourse with them from the shore. One ship 
 after another at length submitted ; and Parker with his fel- 
 low delegates was seized. He and some of the latter were 
 condemned and executed ; after which, good order through- 
 out the navy was completely restored. 
 
 An opportunity was soon afforded the British seamen to 
 regain the confidence of their officers and the admiration of 
 their country. Duncan, with sixteen ships of the line, hav- 
 ing encountered, near Camperdown, a Dutch fleet of equal 
 force, under Winter, captured eight of the line, two of fif- 
 ty-six guns and two frigates. For this brilliant success, that 
 gallant officer was advanced to the peerage. 
 
 On the continent, the superiority of the French arms was 
 still increasing. The Austrians had been expelled from 
 Italy; and, though another army entered that country, un- 
 der the command of the archduke Charles, an officer brave, 
 skilful, and active, they were unable to contend with the 
 greater energies of Buonaparte, aided by numerous gene- 
 rals, scarcely inferior to himself in the art of war. Nor was 
 it in Italy alone that the Imperialists were beaten. The 
 French pushed their successes so far, that even Vienna was 
 in danger ; and thus compelled them to conclude a peace. 
 ,-,Qg The diminution of territory, suffered by the re- 
 
 volt of the American colonies, appeared to have 
 been soon forgotten by the English government. Further 
 and more serious warning was required, to make a perma- 
 nent impression. A rebellion in Ireland now raised its aw- 
 ful voice, to declare the wrongs and disappointments of an 
 oppressed and insulted people : oppressed by the continu- 
 ance of unnecessary restrictions : insulted by the hope of 
 redress, no sooner given than withdrawn. 
 
 To form a just decision, as to the innocence or criminali- 
 ty of the Irish people, almost the whole effective popula- 
 tion of the country, thus taking arms against a long estab- 
 lished sovereignty, it will be necessary to make a retro- 
 grade movement in our history. We have already shown 
 the effects of the American revolution, in producing a gen- 
 
250 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 eral spirit of resistance, and its influence in Ireland, by em- 
 bodying the volunteers. Their first object had been gained; 
 but much was yet to be accomplished. So early, therefore, 
 as 1791, an association, with a view towards parliamentary 
 reform, -was established in Belfast; called The Society of 
 United Irishmen : which consisted chiefly of protestant dis- 
 senters. Amongst these, lord Castlereagh, (then the hon- 
 ourable Robert Stewart,) was one of the most active mem- 
 bers. To that succeeded a society in Dublin, having a simi- 
 lar object, with the addition of a test. Of this, James Nap- 
 per Tandy was secretary, and Simon Butler chairman. Be- 
 sides their immediate object of reform, these liberal patriots 
 gave the most strenuous aid in gaining indulgence to the 
 catholics; a body entitled to the highest degree of political 
 confidence. The removal of several restraints which affect- 
 ed them has been already mentioned. For those acts, they 
 were indebted, it is generally supposed, to the sole orders 
 of the king : without whose desire, previously expressed to 
 the minister, no motion in their favour would have been 
 successful; as Mr. Pitt, notwithstanding his professions, 
 was inimical to their emancipation ; and the majority of the 
 Irish parliament, were, on that subject, invariably governed 
 by the ministerial nod. 
 
 The sudden recall, from the government of Ireland, of 
 lord Fitzwilliam ; a nobleman who had been selected, in the 
 year 1795, for the avowed purpose of healing its dissen- 
 sions, by reforming its representation and admitting the 
 catholics to a full participation of constitutional privileges; 
 was the cause of this rebellion. The king, possessing more 
 virtue in the design, than steadiness in the execution, of his 
 measures, was persuaded, by the insidious whisperings of 
 pensioners and placemen, to withdraw his generous direc- 
 tions. Of these self-interested advisers, the late Mr. Beres- 
 ford, who enjoyed a lucrative situation in the custom-house 
 at Dublin, was the most distinguished. All hopes, either of 
 emancipation or reform, were thus destroyed. Catholic and 
 Protestant thence aimed only at one object ; and, as redress 
 had been denied them, that object was revolution. The va- 
 rious names which had previously marked the contending 
 parties, became lost, in the two great divisions of United 
 Irishmen on the one side, and Orangemen on the other ; the 
 latter consisting of the very meanest of the established 
 church, led and infuriated by government dependents, un- 
 der the once respected banners of Nassau, to cover the 
 iijost atrocious persecution. For their cruelties, lord Qamb- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 251 
 
 den, the successor of Fitzwilliam, is responsible. He either 
 encouraged them by his countenance, or suffered them to 
 proceed by his neglect. 
 
 The management of the intended revolution was intrust- 
 ed to a Directory. Its first members were, lord Edward 
 Fitzgerald, brother to the patriotic duke of Leinster; Oli- 
 ver Bond, a merchant of considerable eminence in Dublin; 
 Counsellor Ernmett ; Arthur O'Connor, nephew of lord 
 Longueville; and Dr. M'Nevin ; all of whom, except the 
 last, were protestants. A correspondence was opened, and 
 an invasion of Ireland arranged, with the government of 
 France. This measure, however, had often been frustrated 
 by the vigilance of the English admirals ; and, when a large 
 fleet had escaped from Brest, with a powerful armament on 
 board, under general Hoche, it was so scattered by a storm, 
 that only a part reached Ireland : and even these, after wait- 
 ing a considerable time in Bantry Bay, for the general and 
 the remainder of the fleet, sailed without landing their 
 troops. An insurrection, unaided by the French, was not 
 intended, in the beginning. But, the chief leaders having, 
 been imprisoned, and the people goaded to the last stage 
 of desperation by the ministerial assistance of lord Castle- 
 reagh, that great political apostate, a rebellion was begun, 
 without heads to direct, or officers to execute. 
 
 The insurgents first assembled on the 23d of May. On 
 the following morning, they attacked the garrison of Naas, 
 in the county of Kiidare, fourteen miles from Dublin; from 
 which, after a warm contest, they were repulsed. Simul- 
 taneous attempts were made at many other towns; particu- 
 larly Carlow, Hacketstown, and Monasterevan ; in general, 
 with no better success. The insurrection then spread 
 through several of the southern and northern counties, 
 threatening a total dissolution of the government. Severe 
 engagements occurred at Wexford, Vinegar Hill, and New 
 Ross; Antrim, Saintfield, and Ballinahinch. 
 
 Happily for Ireland, the earl of Cambden was recalled, 
 and lord Cornwallis deputed to restrain the fury of civil 
 war. The system of moderation and mercy pursued by 
 this nobleman, was attended with immediate effect. Mili- 
 tary execution being repressed, and a general pardon offer- 
 ed, before the end of July the flames of rebellion were near- 
 ly extinguished. But, in the following month, an ill-timed 
 expedition from France raised disturbance in the west. 
 Eleven-hundred infantry, commanded by Humbert, seem- 
 td, for a while, to bid defiance to the whole military force 
 ¥3 
 
252 lilSrORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 of Ireland. It must for ever remain a humiliating reffecticG 
 on the power and lustre of the British arms, that so pitiful 
 a detachment should have routed a select army of six-thou- 
 sand men, marched one-hundred-and-fifty miles through the 
 country, ifnd maintained their superiority until surrounded 
 by upwards of twenty-thousand troops. Alter an obstinate 
 resistance, the gallant band surrendered to lord Cornvvallis, 
 at Ballinamuck. Historical justice, however, requires us 
 to state, that, in a previous rencounter, a small party of the 
 Limerick militia, under colonel Vereker, gave them a se- 
 vere check; and that no blame can be attached to the com- 
 mon soldiers. Their discipline had been so much relaxed 
 by the turbulent policy of a former commander in chief, 
 lord Carhampton, that his successor, the correct soldier, 
 sir Ralph Abercrombie, declared, " the army in Ireland was 
 formidable to every one but the enemy." 
 
 It was fortunate for the government, that, as the land 
 forces were so inefficient, the usual vigour and discipline 
 continued in the navy. On the 12th of October, a squad- 
 ron of one ship of the line and eight frigates, with troops 
 and ammunition on board for Ireland, was arrested in its 
 progress by sir John Borlase Warren, at Lough Swilly ; 
 where, after a smart engagement, the ship of the line and 
 three frigates were captured ; and, eventually, the whole 
 of the squadron, with the exception of two frigates, was 
 taken. 
 
 Thenceforward, the chief governor applied himself as- 
 siduously to retrieve the country from its devastation. 
 
 France being disengaged from her continental enemies, 
 the invasion of England became more than ever the object 
 of her rulers. It was the favourite theme of their public 
 orators. The conquest of their only remaining foe was 
 anticipated with all the boastful confidence of the nation. 
 Troops were collected on the opposite coast, and named The 
 Army of England: transports of every kind were prepared, 
 and a loan was negotiated on the credit of the English spoils. 
 These threats had a very injurious influence upon the funds, 
 and on the manufacturing class, already deprived of an ex- 
 tensive market, by the hostile situation of so large a por- 
 tion of their ancient consumers. 
 
 But the enemy, whilst alarming the domestic empire of 
 Great Britain, seemed to meditate a more distant blow. 
 Her settlements in India being viewed with an eye of jeal- 
 ousy, it was attempted to reach them by the way of Egypt, 
 For this purpose, a large fleet, carrying twenty-thousand 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, ij. 
 
 troops, sailed from Toulon. Accompanying them, were 
 artists of all kinds, men of science in all its various depart- 
 ments, with every requisite for the establishment of a great 
 colony; and the conduct of the whole was given to Buona" 
 parte. In his passage, he made an easy conquest of Malta; 
 an island considered as almost invulnerable. Egypt's be- 
 ing a province of the Turkish empire, then at peace with 
 France, created no objection to the scheme. Having land- 
 ed the troops, betook Alexandria by storm; gave the Beys 
 a defeat, which rendered him master of Cairo ; organized a 
 temporary government, and then set out in pursuit of the 
 fugitives, to Syria. 
 
 On the first of August, one month after the entry of the 
 French, admiral Nelson discovered their fleet, anchored 
 across Aboukir Bay, near the mouth of the Nile, consisting 
 of thirteen ships of the line and four frigates; a number, 
 superior to the English. Naval history does not record a 
 more awful combat than that which followed. The confla- 
 gration of the French ship, L'Orient, ended in a dreadful 
 explosion; in which, the admiral and his whole crew of 
 more than or.e-thousand men, perished; the terrific gran- 
 deur of the scene being heightened by the gloom of night. 
 Eleven sail of the line and two frigates testified the accus- 
 tomed heroism of the British seamen and their great com- 
 mander; who was loaded with honours of every kind: 
 amongst which, was the appropriate title of Baron Nelson 
 of the Nile. 
 
 Sir Sidney Smyth had already gained high reputation on 
 his proper element, the sea. The advance of the French 
 into Syria, gave him an opportunity of displaying his tal- 
 ents on land; by defeating Buonaparte, who, hitherto, had 
 been successful in every undertaking. Intrusted with the 
 defence of Acre, he compelled his antagonist to retire, after 
 a series of desperate attacks, during a two months' siege. 
 
 In the mean time, France was losing ground in Europe. 
 Eussia, induced by the pecuniary aid of England, had join- 
 ed Austria in another attempt to reduce her power; which 
 new war had considerably impaired the credit of the re- 
 publican arms, and her financial resources. In this state 
 of things, France was surprised by the sudden appearance 
 of Buonaparte from Egypt. The existing government was 
 y immediately dissolved, and the executive authority 
 committed to three Consuls;^ of whom, Buonaparte 
 was appointed chief, for a term of ten years. 
 
 He addressed a letter to the king of Great Britain, re- 
 
^oi HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 questing him to enter on a negotiation for a general peace 
 But his desire did not meet a corresponding return. After 
 some notes, passed between lord Grenville, secretary of state 
 for foreign affairs, and M. Talleyrand, the French minister, 
 the business terminated. 
 
 India next demands attention. Seven years had elapsed, 
 since Tippoo Saib had ceded to lord Cornwallis half his 
 dominions, to be held, by the British and their Eastern al- 
 lies, as the penalty of his hostile operations ; and, as securi- 
 ty for his submission, delivered to the former his two eldest 
 sons; an interesting pledge. Influenced by the French, he 
 again gave indication of unfriendly movements, and there- 
 by incurred the vengeance of his watchful enemy. At this 
 time, the governor of British India was lord Mornington, 
 (since entitled marquis Wellesley,) under whose directions, 
 generals Harris and Stuart, with an immense army, march- 
 ed to Seringapatam ; which they carried by assault. In the 
 attack, Tippoo himself was killed. His remaining territo- 
 ry was divided. The capital, with extensive districts, was 
 assigned to the English : a large portion was given to the 
 Nizam, and the rest to the ancient rajahs of Mysore, for- 
 merly dispossessed by Hyder Ally. 
 
 To the calamity of war, another, if possible more afflict- 
 ing, was at this time added. Owing to unfavourable har- 
 vest weather, the price of corn, and every other article of 
 food, had reached a height, in Great Britain and Ireland, 
 unknown at any former period. Not only was it impossible 
 for the labourer to earn the means of purchasing the hum- 
 blest necessaries of life, but the utmost dread existed, lest 
 there should not remain seed sufficient for the ensuing- 
 spring. However, by the humanity of those whom Provi- 
 dence had placed above the pressure of a season, and by a 
 general system of rigid economy throughout every rank, 
 the people outlived their heart-rending situation. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, one of the greatest philosophers and 
 statesmen, either of ancient or modern times, died at Phila- 
 delphia, in 1790, in his eighty-fifth year. 
 
 No man ever excelled Franklin in familiarly illustrating 
 an argument. He was once a member of a society, in which 
 it was contended that every person who gave a vote for a 
 member of the legislature, should possess a certain amount 
 of property; at least fifty dollars. The doctor was opposed 
 to the restriction. — '* To day,'* said he, *' a man owns a jack- 
 ass worth fifty dollars, and he is entitled to vote; but, be- 
 fbre the next election, the jackass dies. The man, in the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 255 
 
 mean time, has become more experienced: his knowledge 
 of the principles of government, and his acquaintance with 
 mankind, are more extensive, and he is therefore better 
 qualified to make a proper selection of rulers: — but, the 
 jackass is dead^ and the man cannot -vote. Now, gentle- 
 men," he continued, " pray inform me, in whom is the right 
 of suffrage, — in the man^ or in Xho. jackass ? 
 
 General Washington died at his seat, Mount Vernon, in 
 Virginia, on the fourteenth day of December, 1800, in the 
 sixty-eighth year of his age. He was the first elected Presi- 
 dent of the United States; in which exalted ofiice, his abili- 
 ties as a statesman were equally conspicuous with his former 
 conduct as a soldier." 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 Legislative Union with Ireland. — Peace of Amiens^ 
 
 g ONE consequence resulting from the rebellion, 
 
 was a legislative union between Great Britain and 
 Ireland; long a favourite measure of administration. No 
 subject ever met so strenuous opposition in the Irish parlia- 
 ment. Eloquence and intrigue failed to obtain a majority 
 in its favour. But titles and emoluments were lavishly- 
 employed, and hushed the new-born patriotism of many, 
 who, hitherto, had voted with the ministerial benches. It 
 was resolved, that Great Britain and Ireland should, on the 
 first day of January in the present year, be styled the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; that they should be 
 represented by one parliament: that four spiritual lords, 
 (bishops,) and twenty-eight temporal peers of Ireland, should 
 sit in the house of lords; the former by rotation of sessions, 
 the latter by election for life; and one-hundred representa- 
 tives in the house of commons. The regal title also under- 
 went a change ; being divested of the frivolous assumption 
 of " king of France;" which, for many ages, had been more 
 a subject of ridicule, than a mark of dignity. 
 
 On the continent, the talents of the First Consul had again 
 compelled the allies to conclude a peace. Each succeed- 
 ing treaty increased the dominion and the influence of 
 France. The "armed neutrality," re-organized under this 
 control, now assumed a formidable aspect. It threatened 
 to deprive Great Britain either of her arrogated dominion 
 of the sea, or the benefits arising from her commerce with 
 
1^56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the Baltic. Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia, were 
 leagued against her maritime encroachment. To defeat 
 this compact, lord Nelson made an attack on the Danish 
 fleet and batteries at Copenhagen; and, after one of the 
 most dreadful engagements ever witnessed, burned, sunk, 
 or captured, the entire fleet, and constrained the prince royal 
 to sign an armistice. This was the termination of hostili- 
 ties, in that quarter. The Russian emperor, Paul, whose 
 actions had long denoted insanity, became intolerable to his 
 subjects, and being found dead in his bed-chamber, was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Alexander; who immediately declared 
 for the political system of his grand-mother, Catherine the 
 second. 
 
 Though, by his hasty departure from Egypt, Buonaparte 
 had incurred the charge of desertion, he escaped the mor- 
 tification of defeat. England was not an idle spectator of 
 the French progress to the East. Eighteen-thousand men, 
 under sir Ralph Abercrombie, Hutchinson, and other ex- 
 perienced generals, were sent into Egypt, to check that 
 ambitious march. At no former period, were the valour 
 and discipline of the British army so conspicuous. The 
 finest of the enemy's regiments were there literally trampled 
 under foot; and in a short time the whole of their remain- 
 ing forces agreed to evacuate the country. This service, 
 however, was not performed without considerable loss, ag- 
 gravated by a mortal wound received at Alexandria by the 
 venerable commander; who thus ended a long series of 
 brilliant achievements; and the infection of ophthalmia, a 
 disorder, prevalent in the sandy regions, by which blindness 
 was spread through the British ranks, was a melancholy 
 addition to the usual miseries of war. 
 
 An exhilarating event soon afterwards occurred in Eng- 
 land. In the course of our history, it may have been fre- 
 quently remarked, that a change of ministry is the harbin- 
 ger of peace. The tone of decided hostility, which Mr. 
 Pitt and several of his official colleagues had maintained 
 against the government of France, rendered the formation 
 of another cabinet necessary, to insure success in the intend- 
 ed negotiation. Accordingly, they I'etired; and Mr. Ad- 
 dington, speaker of the house of commons, was placed at 
 the head of the new administration. 
 
 The avowed cause of resignation was, that the king, re- 
 ferring to his coronation oath, had refused to acquiesce in 
 their wishes for catholic indulgence; a declaration which 
 must be received with considerable doubt. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 257 
 
 J g „^ On the 27th of March, a definitive treaty, between 
 the French Republic, Spain, and the Batavian Re- 
 public, on the one part, and Great Britain on the other, 
 was signed at Amiens. By its conditions, the latter restor- 
 ed to the three powers all its conquests during the war; 
 "with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon, respectively 
 ceded by Spain and Batavia. Malta, which the British had 
 retaken from the French, was returned to the order of St. 
 John of Jerusalem ; under many stipulations, guaranteed by 
 the great powers of Europe. 
 
 Peace is at all times desirable by England. But it must 
 have been particularly welcome, at this time; when her 
 annual expenditure had arrived at thirty-five-millions, and 
 her national debt at five-hundred-millions sterling: a sum 
 so vast, that it cannot be contemplated by the human mind 
 
 FOURTH PART. 
 
 Renewal of the War. 
 
 THE peace of Amiens gave the French Republic an 
 opportunity of turning its arms against the negroes of St. 
 Domingo ; who, having, in the early stage of the revolution, 
 shaken off the bonds of slavery, were now, under Chris- 
 tophe and Tuissaint, rapidly establishing their independ- 
 ence. Nor were the British West India colonies free from 
 insurrection. Considerable bloodshed was committed in 
 many of these, by the same unhappy race, whom avarice 
 has doomed to unremitting toil and unrelenting cruelty. 
 
 Only a short time, however, could be exclusively devoted 
 to their reduction. The same pen which communicated 
 the intelligence of peace, is now employed in announcing 
 a renewal of war. 
 
 In October, the king of Spain annexed to the royal do- 
 mains all the property of the knights of Malta in his do- 
 minions, and declared himself, there, grand-master of the 
 order. This step, which created a new obstacle to the 
 treaty of Amiens, in addition to others which had before 
 occurred, was supposed to have been taken at the sugges- 
 tion of the French. Early in March, a royal message was 
 
 ^ sent to parliament, which was regarded as an imme- 
 diate prelude to hostilities. It mentioned, that great 
 preparations were going forward in the ports of France and 
 Holland; which, though professedly directed to colonial 
 
258 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 service, yet, as discussions of uncertain issue were subsist- 
 ing between the British and French governments, rendered 
 it expedient to increase the means of national security. A 
 corresponding address was unanimously voted, and a reso- 
 lution passed for an augmentation of ten-thousand seamen. 
 Parliament having adjourned during the Easter recess, 
 some weeks passed in a state of awful suspense. After its 
 re-assembling, his majesty informed both houses, that ho 
 had given orders to lord Whitworth, his ambassador in 
 France, that, if he could not, on a certain day, conclude the 
 negotiations, he should immediately leave Paris; and that, 
 in case of such an event, general Andreossi, the French am- 
 bassador at London, had applied for his passport to return. 
 
 On the part of France, the chief subjects of complaint 
 were, the delay of the British troops in evacuating Malta 
 and Alexandria, and the rancorous abuse of the first consul 
 in the English newspapers. These were dwelt on with con- 
 siderable warmth at a levee, in a conversation between Buo- 
 naparte and lord Whitworth ; when, the ambassador, feel- 
 ing indignant at the menacing gestures of the consul, pla- 
 ced his hand u<pon his sword. 
 
 Great Britain complained of severity and injustice prac- 
 tised towards her merchants, immediately after the late 
 peace ; of an army being kept in Holland, contrary to the 
 remonstrances of the Batavian government ; the violation 
 of the independence of Switzerland ; the annexation of other 
 territories to the French dominions ; the conduct of France 
 and Spain towards the knights of Malta ; and hostile indi- 
 cations against Turkey. But, perhaps the greatest incen- 
 tive to hostility, was a bravado, made by the first consul 
 and his ministers, that " Great Britain could not singly con- 
 tend with the power of France." 
 
 On the 17th of May, war was declared against the French ; 
 and, in the following month, against the Batavian, republic. 
 
 Whilst measures were taking for supporting these hasty 
 declarations, an insurrection broke out in Ireland. The 
 promoter of this was Robert Emmett. He was a brother of 
 Counsellor Emmett, who has been, for many years, one of 
 the chief ornaments of the American bar; son of Dr. Em- 
 mett, who once filled the office of state physician; and for- 
 merly a distinguished student of Trinity College, at Dub- 
 lin. The centre of this plot was the capital. On the evening 
 of the 23d of July, about five-hundred of the very lowest 
 classes, mostly armed with pikes, assembled; intending, in 
 the first place, to attack the castle. The probability of sue- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 25J 
 
 cess in such an undertaking*, with such materials, in a city- 
 garrisoned by upwards of five-thousand regular troops, may 
 easily be conjectured. Proceeding, however, through Thom- 
 as-street, lord Kil warden, one of the principal judges, and 
 his nephew Mr. Wolfe, unfortunately fell in their way, were 
 dragged from their carriage, and massacred. Some of the 
 yeomanry, when returning from parade, shared a similar 
 fate ; all, unquestionably, without the concurrence of Mr. 
 Emmett. In less than an hour, these infatuated people were 
 imprisoned or dispersed. Their leader, and nearly twenty 
 others of the party, were tried, and, after patient and im- 
 partial investigations, condemned and executed. The fate 
 of Mr. Emmett was particularly lamented ; though, even 
 his friends could not acquit him, for having thus disturbed 
 the peace of the country, whilst there existed no rational 
 hope of gaining the desired end. 
 
 Fortunately, that humane and respe<;ted nobleman, lord 
 Ilardwicke, at that time presided over the Irish counsels, 
 and checked the habitual malignity of those who then urg- 
 ed the necessity of suspending the trial by jury. 
 ^ The first occurrence in this year, essential to be 
 
 noticed, was the resignation of Mr. Addington, and 
 the resumption of his office by Mr. Pitt. In the new minis- 
 terial list appeared the name of lord Castlereagh, as presi- 
 dent of the board of control. 
 
 Intelligence being received, that some vessels, with treas- 
 ure, from the South American mines, were expected at 
 Cadiz, the Indefatigable and three more frigates were des- 
 patched, to intercept them. Four Spanish ships, of the 
 same class, being discovered steering for that port, the 
 English frigates took a situation, each along-side of an an- 
 tagonist ; and a shot was tired, to make them bring to. A 
 close engagement commenced ; and, within ten miimtes, 
 La Mercedes, the Spanish admiral's second, blew up, with 
 a tremendous explosion. All on board perished, except for- 
 ty, who were saved by the English boats. The others, after 
 considerable loss, struck their colours, in succession. It 
 was a peculiarly afflicting circumstance, that, in the vessel 
 which exploded, were the whole family of a South Ameri- 
 can, consisting of his lady, four daughters and five sons ; 
 with the exception of one of the latter, who, with his father, 
 had gone into another, and were thus spectators of the 
 dreadful catastrophe. The lading of the captured vessels 
 was of immense value; the destination of which for the ser- 
 Z 
 
^60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 vice of France, was the reason assigned for this act of pira- 
 cy, so much censured, both at home and abroad. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, the court of Spain commenced hos- 
 tilities. 
 
 Buonaparte had risen too high, to be contented with the 
 smallest inferiority. Title was yet wanting, to fill the pres- 
 ent measure of his ambition. This was easily obtained. The 
 senate, from his own suggestions, requested that he would 
 consent to become Emperor : addresses to the same effect 
 followed from the army and the municipal bodies; and a 
 motion in the tribunate, that he should be made Emperor 
 of the French, with hereditary succession, passed, with only 
 one dissentient voice ; that of Carnot ; who delivered his 
 sentiments with great force and freedom. The title of prince 
 and princess, was respectively conferred on all the branches 
 of the Buonaparte family ; Napoleon and his empress, Jo- 
 sephine, were crowned at Paris, by the pope ; and, in the 
 following year, the new emperoi' placed the regal crown of 
 Italy upon his head, at Milan. 
 
 Soon afterwards, Francis the second, emperor of Ger- 
 many, whose crown was previously elective, assumed the 
 additional title of hereditary emperor of Austria. 
 
 In the mean time, serious discussions occurred, between 
 the emperor of Russia and the government of France. Al- 
 exander remonstrated warmly against the usurping spirit of 
 the latter, and insisted that the French troops should evac- 
 uate the kingdom of Naples and the north of Germany. 
 But France remained firm in her determination. A 
 new league was therefore formed ; by which, Russia 
 and Austria joined with England, for the purpose of secur- 
 ing the independence of the different states. But Napoleon 
 resolved to strike a decisive blow against his Austrian an- 
 tagonist, before his troops could be joined by those of Rus- 
 sia. Accordingly, he entered his territory at the head of one- 
 hundred-and-fifty-thousand men, accompanied by marshals 
 Bernadotte, Marmont, Davoust, Soult, Ney, and Lasnes, 
 and took possession of Vienna; which, Francis with his 
 court had abandoned, on his approach. In tv/o days after- 
 wards. Napoleon set out to join a division w^hich was ad- 
 vancing to meet the Russians; and, without loss of time, 
 came in contact with the allies at Austerlitz. Here, was 
 fought the memorable battle, in which were present the 
 three emperors, of Austria, Russia, and France. This san- 
 guinary action ended in the defeat of the allies, with the 
 Toss of the greater part of their artillery and baggage ; and 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 26 i 
 
 produced the submission of Francis to an armistice : by the 
 terms of which, the victor was to retain all his conquests, 
 until the signing of a definitive peace. 
 
 Whilst the French were thus pursuing a victorious ca- 
 reer on land, their ambitious ruler experienced the defeat 
 of his hopes in gaining a superiority at sea. That element 
 still witnessed the almost unvaried triumphs of the British, 
 Off Cape Trafalgar, near the southern point of Andalusia, 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to 
 thirty-three sail of the line, were totally overthrown by Nel- 
 son, with twenty-seven. This great officer had laid a plan 
 of attack, a master-piece of naval skill. Having given the 
 memorable signal, " England expects every man to do his 
 duty," he bore down in a double column. The enemy, on 
 his approach, extended their line in the form of a crescent. 
 But, though the victory which followed deprived them of 
 twenty-four sail of the line, the British suffered a much 
 heavier loss, in the death of their commander. His coun- 
 try justly appreciated his services. The honours paid, by a 
 grateful and admiring nation, to the memory of Nelson, 
 were never surpassed, in any age. In the same degree that 
 they condemned the authors of the danger, they applauded 
 the heroes by whom it was repelled. 
 
 An anecdote is told, of one of the crew of a British ves- 
 sel engaged in that decisive battle, which is strikingly char- 
 acteristic of a brave seaman. A limb having been carried 
 off by a cannon-ball, when some of his comrades were bear- 
 ing him on their shoulders, to the surgeon's room, below, 
 he called out to one of his messmates — " I say, Jim, give 
 a look about the deck, for my leg : you'll find a brass buc- 
 kle in the shoe ; take care of it for me, that's a good fellow : 
 I'll do as much for you again." 
 
 About this time, lord Cornwallis, who had been appoint- 
 ed successor to marquis Wellesley, died, at an advanced 
 age, in India. 
 
 The death of those two prominent characters Avas 
 * followed by that of Mr. Pitt. In the preceding sum- 
 mer, having sensibly felt the decline of a constitution, orig- 
 inally delicate, and long severely injured by care, fatigue, 
 and the misfortunes of the allies, he retired to Bath, with 
 very faint hopes of recovery. On the 23d of January, he 
 expired, in the forty-seventh year of his age. This minister 
 has been styled, by his own party, '* The pilot who weath- 
 ered the storm ;" but, though we grant that he was a states- 
 man of considerable talent, it was he who raised the gale— « 
 
■262 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the people, Avho triumphantly survived it. He only assessed 
 the taxes — the people had the merit of paying them. 
 
 Lord HaAvkesbury having declined the offer of becoming 
 his successor, a total change was made in the administra- 
 tion. Lord Grenville became first lord of the treasury; 
 earl Spencer, Mr. Fox, and Mr. Windham, secretaries of 
 state ; lord Erskine, (the late commoner,) lord chancellor. 
 Important offices were also assigned to lords Fitzwilliam, 
 Moira, Sidmouth, and Hovvick, (Addington and Grey.) The 
 duke of Bedford was made lord lieutenant of Ireland; and, 
 in that kingdom, George Ponsonby was made lord chancel- 
 lor, Curran, the celebrated orator, master of the rolls. 
 
 One of the first measures brought forward by the new 
 cabinet, was an alteration in the military system ; particu- 
 larly in the mode of recruiting the army. By this excel- 
 lent arrangement, instead of being, as before, engaged for 
 life, the soldiers are now enlisted for a term of "years, with 
 privileges augmented in proportion to the length of ser- 
 vice; commencing with seven, and concluding with twen- 
 ty-one years. 
 
 That was an act of policy mingled with humanity. The 
 abolition of the slave-trade, which succeeded, was one of 
 humanity required by justice. More than tv/enty years 
 had passed, since Mr. Wilberforce commenced his annual 
 appeal to parliament, in behalf of the long oppressed Afri- 
 can. In that period, much had been done to lessen his suf- 
 ferings during the passage from his native shore; and this 
 total abolition of a nefarious traffic would have been voted 
 much sooner, but for the interference of commercial inter- 
 est, in the sea-ports. 
 
 In about a year after this, a similar non-importation 
 commenced in the United States of America. 
 
 Meanwhile, a splendid achievement was performed by 
 the British army, in Calabria. Near Maida, sir John Stu- 
 art, with a force of less than five-thousand, defeated seven- 
 thousand French infantry, under Regnier. This affair, 
 which caused the expulsion of the enemy from that quar- 
 ter, was decided on a plain, by the bayonet. 
 
 A horrid proposal of assassinating the French emperor, 
 having been intimated, by a foreigner, to Mr. Fox, this ex- 
 cellent man, with his characteristic generosity, disclosed 
 the infamous plot, in a letter to M. Talleyrand ; and, at the 
 same time, expressed a desire to treat of peace. But a dif- 
 ficulty arose. The British cabinet refused to act separate- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 263 
 
 ly from Russia, and, after much negotiation, the treaty was 
 abandoned. 
 
 Every day increased the political influence of Napoleon. 
 Having first succeeded in overawing all the inferior sover- 
 eigns of Germany, and forming an alliance, named the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine, of which he himself was the head, 
 he compelled Francis to relinquish the office of chief of the 
 Germanic body, and yield the precedence to France ; and 
 used a similar tone of authority to the king of Prussia. 
 Roused, however, from his long continued lethargy, Fred- 
 erick engaged single handed against Napoleon. But, this 
 spirit, which, at one period, might have preserved his dig- 
 nity, now hastened his degradation. The victory of Jena 
 gave his enemy possession of Berlin ; and the subsequent 
 operations, in which the Russians, too, were almost invaria- 
 bly defeated, enabled him to dictate his own terms in the 
 treaty of Tilsit. By this, the temporizing Frederick lost a 
 large territory, Alexander acknowledged the confederation 
 of the Rhine, and Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, Buonaparte, 
 as kings of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. It is said, 
 that a request, made by the queen of Prussia, induced Na- 
 poleon to relinquish a considerable part of his acquisitions. 
 When at dinner, on removing the napkin from her plate, 
 the concession was found, thus laconically expressed: "Si- 
 lesia." 
 
 " When I was at Tilsit," relates Napoleon, " with the 
 emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia, I was the most 
 ignorant of the three^ in military affairs. These two sov- 
 ereigns, especially the king of Prussia, were completely at 
 home, as to the number of buttons there ought to be in front 
 of a jacket, how many behind, and the manner in which the 
 skirts ought to be cut. No tailor in the army knew bet- 
 ter than king Frederic, how many measures of cloth it took 
 to make a jacket. In fact, I was nobody, in comparison with 
 them. They continually tormented me with questions 
 about matters belonging to tailors, of which I was entirely 
 ignorant; though, in order not to affront them, I answered 
 just as gravely as if the fate of an army depended upon the 
 tut of a jacket. When I went to see the king of Prussia, 
 instead of a library, I found he had a large room, like an 
 arsenal, furnished with shelves and pegs, in which were 
 placed fifty or sixty jackets of various modes. Every day 
 he changed his fashion, and put on a different one. He was 
 a tall, dry looking fellow, and would give a good idea of 
 Don Quixote. He attached more importance to the cut 
 
'264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of a dragoon or a hussar uniform, than was necessary foi;' 
 the salvation of a kingdom. At Jena, his army performed 
 the finest and most showy manoeuvres possible,- — but I soon 
 put a stop to their coglioiiei-ie^ and taught them, that to 
 iight,and to execute dazzling manoeuvres and wear splendid 
 uniforms, were different affairs. If the French army had 
 been commanded by a tailor, the king of Prussia would cer- 
 tainly have gained the day; from his superior knowledge of 
 clothing ; but as victories depend more upon the skill of the 
 general commanding the troops, than upon that of the tailor 
 ■who makes their jackets, he consequently failed." * 
 
 During these momentous transactions, the British ad- 
 mirals made several captures. Sir Home Popham, with a 
 body of troops under general Beresford, after assisting iu 
 the reduction of the Cape of Good Hope, ventured, without 
 any authority from home, to carry his whole naval force to 
 South America. In the beginning of June, he entered the 
 river Plata, and soon afterwards the general took posses- 
 sion of Buenos Ayres. Here, they found a considerable 
 treasure. But, being attacked by Liniers, a French colo- 
 nel in the Spanish service, the British troops, after a san- 
 guinary contest, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. 
 The succeeding operations, in that quarter, it is unnecessa- 
 ry to detail. We shall only mention, that, in the following 
 year, sir S. Auchmuty stormed Montevideo on the same 
 river; that, in a few months afterwards, general Whitelock 
 made an unskilful attack on Buenos Ayres, which ended 
 in the destruction of a great part of his brave soldiers, and 
 the evacuation of the country by the whole of the British 
 army. 
 
 Whitelock, on his return, was, by the sentence of a court 
 martial, cashiered, and declared totally unworthy to serve 
 his majesty, in any capacity whatever. 
 
 Within a very short period, w^e have recorded the death 
 of three conspicuous public characters. The great politi- 
 cal opponent of Mr. Pitt was carried off, on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember, in his 58th year, by a dropsy. Though the loss 
 of Mr. Fox was a severe blow to the administration, yet it 
 produced no change worthy of notice ; except the substi- 
 tution of lord Ho wick, as secretary in the foreign depart- 
 ment, and the admission into the cabinet of the deceased 
 statcman's relative, lord Holland. 
 
 • Voice from St. Helena, Vol. IL 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 263 
 
 J ., - „ Early in the spring, lord Howick made a motioil 
 in the house of commons, which caused a dissolu- 
 tion of the ministry. He proposed, that catholics, in Great 
 Britain, should be entitled to the same privilege of serving 
 and advancing in the army, that was possessed by those of 
 the same religion in Ireland. But this indulgence having 
 been represented to the king as impolitic, the conversa- 
 tions which arose on the subject, between his majesty and 
 the cabinet, made it necessary to form a new administra- 
 tion. The duke of Portland was placed at the head of the 
 treasury, lords Hawksbury and Castlereagh, with Mr. Can- 
 ning, were made secretaries of state, and Mr. Perceval was 
 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. Lords Eldon and 
 Manners succeeded Erskine and Ponsonby; and the new 
 chief governor of Ireland was the duke of Richmond. 
 
 Even the Ottoman court was now under French influ- 
 ence. The Dardanelles and the Bosphorus were closed 
 against English and Russian vessels. In consequence, a 
 fleet was sent under the command of sir J. Duckworth, 
 with orders to force a passage; and, if certain terms Vv'ere 
 not arranged, to bombard Constantinople. Having passed 
 the outer castles, and done considerable damage to the 
 Turkish fleet and batteries, the English admiral anchored 
 within eight miles of the city, and commenced a negotia- 
 tion. But his proposals were rejected. Formidable pre- 
 parations were made on shore, and a nearer approach to 
 the city was impracticable. Wherefore, he retreated, and 
 repassed the castles ; which assailed him with vast marble 
 shot; one of which, weighing eight-hundred pounds, cut in 
 two the mainmast of the Windsor. 
 
 That defeat gave less uneasiness to the nation, than a 
 succeeding victory. Fearing that the influence of Napo- 
 leon would turn the naval power of Denmark against Eng- 
 land, the ministry despatched to Copenhagen an immense 
 fleet; which, after enveloping that capital in P.ames, car- 
 ried off her entire navy and military stores. This flagrant 
 act clearly evinced the sentiments of the British ministry ; 
 who thus maintained the barbarous principle, that a meas- 
 ure, though morally wrong, may be politically right. 
 
 But, even in a political view, it v/as erroneous. In avoid- 
 ing an uncertain, they raised an immediate, enemy. The 
 emperor of Russia prohibited all intercourse with the ag- 
 gressors, and restored the armed neutrality. 
 
 When Napoleon had accomplished his present designs 
 in the north, he directed his ambition towards another 
 
.66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quarter. Portugal and Spain became the objects of attack. 
 Having entered the first, he obliged the court to seek 
 refuge in Brazil. In Spain, he seemed still more success- 
 ful. Through the perfidy of the queen, and her favourite, 
 Godoy, (styled the Prince of Peace,) and the weakness of 
 her husband, Charles the fourth, he conveyed that mon- 
 arch, with his son Ferdinand, to the interior of France, and 
 obtained possession of the throne. The Spanish 
 crown was then given to Joseph Buonaparte ; and 
 that of Naples, which, by his removal, became vacant, to 
 Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon. 
 
 As soon as this usurpation became known, an explosion 
 of indignant patriotism burst forth amongst the people, 
 from one extremity of Spain to the other. To give a regu- 
 lar organization to the popular eflbrts, provincial "juntas" 
 were established. Of these, the supreme junta at Seville 
 took the lead, proclaimed Charles's son, Ferdinand the 
 seventh, declared war against France, and solicited the 
 friendship and aid of England. Never was any foreign in- 
 terest adopted with more ardour and unanimity. Peace 
 with Spain was ordered on the 5th of July: the Spanish 
 prisoners were liberated, clothed, and sent to join their 
 countrymen. 
 
 In Portugal, a similar spirit of resistance was evinced, 
 and British aid requested. Accordingly, sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley, having landed at Mondego Bay, directed his march 
 towards Lisbon, then occupied by the French, and after de- 
 feating a corps under La Borde, at Roleia, encountered 
 Junot, at Vamiera; over whom, he gained a splendid vic- 
 tory, which obliged the enemy to consent to a total evacu- 
 ation of Portugal. 
 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley, who now began his career on the 
 Peninsula, by delivering Portugal from so dangerous an 
 enemy, had previously distinguished himself in arms, par- 
 ticularly at Assye, in India. He was born in Ireland, at 
 Dangan Castle, in the county of Meath. His father, the 
 late lord Mornington, had placed him, at an early period of 
 life, in that profession which enabled him to perform 
 achievements so important to Europe, and so glorious to 
 himself. 
 
 A charge made, during Mr. Pitt's administration, by Mr. 
 Whitbread, against lord Melville, paymaster of the navy, 
 and his secretary, Mr. Trotter, had produced their degra- 
 dation. There was, at this time, brought before parlia- 
 mcntj a subject of much greater, and more extraordinary, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 267 
 
 interest. Colonel Wardle, after mentionincj a system of 
 eor^upt^on ^vhich had long prevailed in the military depart- 
 ment, direetly charged the commander-in-chief, the duke 
 of York, with having suffered himself to be swayed by a 
 mistress, named Clarke; who had carried on a traffic in 
 commissions. He asserted, that Mrs. Clarke possessed the 
 power of military promotion ; and that she received pecu- 
 niary consideration, of which the commander-in-chief was 
 a partaker. During the proceedings in this remarkable 
 case, which occupied the greater part of two months, and 
 drew fuller houses than were almost ever known, long and 
 minute examinations took place, of persons of both sexes; 
 several of whom were of a description rarely seen at the bar 
 of a legislative assembly; and gave answers, (especially the 
 female most concerned,) which often more contributed to 
 the entertainment, than corresponded with the dignity, of 
 that body. That Mrs. C. had received sums of money for 
 obtaining promotions, clearly appeared ; but, the proof of 
 the duke's participation depended chiejfly on the credibility 
 of that female herself. As he was defended by the minis- 
 try, he was exculpated by a majority, of two-hundred -and- 
 thirty-five, to one-hundred-and-twelve. His situation, the 
 official duties of which he certainly performed much to the 
 general advantage of the army, he had in the mean time 
 resigned. 
 
 When this investigation was concluded, a vast armament 
 was prepared in the English harbours. Its principal object 
 was to gain possession of the islands commanding the en- 
 trance of the Scheldt, and destroy the French ships of war 
 in that river; with the dock yards and arsenals; on which, 
 great labour had been expended, as an essential part of Na- 
 poleon's project of contending, on equal terms, with the 
 navy of England. The command of this expedition was 
 given to lord Chatham; a general by profession, brother of 
 the late Mr. Pitt. The event accorded with this injudicious, 
 or rather criminal, selection, of an inexperienced leader ; 
 and too fully justified the anticipations of an indignant pub- 
 lic. Never was an enterprise so extensively fatal to a Brit- 
 ish army, and so disgraceful to its projectors. When, by 
 the commander's inaction, the opportunity of employing his 
 forces had been lost, the ill-fated soldiery were left in the 
 pestiferous marshes of Walcheren, without tents to cover, 
 or medicine to relieve, until half the land-forces were either 
 buried or expiring. 
 
 By a very surprising occurrence, Sweden, which, dur- 
 
358 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ing this war, had generally been favourable to England, at 
 length assumed a hostile attitude. Marshal Bei'nadotte, 
 prince of Ponte Corvo, was chosen Crown Prince, and there- 
 by became successor to the throne of that kingdom ; afford- 
 ing an example, unprecedented, in modern history, of an 
 ancient monarchy rejecting every branch of its royal line, 
 and choosing for its future sovereign a soldier of fortune ; a 
 stranger, of humble origin, known to the nation only by his 
 residence in the north of Germany, as an officer of Napo- 
 leon. Immediately, the Swedish court issued a decree of 
 non-intercourse with Great Britain, and declared its adher- 
 ence to the "continental system," which excluded every 
 article of British manufacture. 
 
 FIFTH PAR r, 
 
 REGENCY. 
 
 Co7itlnuation of the War — Peace of Pans. 
 
 THE latter part of this year was marked by the recur- 
 yence of a domestic calamity, producing a change in the exe- 
 cutive, which forms an era in the present reign. The king, 
 in consequence, it was supposed, of deep affliction, from 
 the sufferings of his youngest daughter, the princess Ame- 
 lia, which terminated in her death, was attacked by the 
 mental malady under which he had before laboured. It 
 therefore became necessary to appoint a Regent; and, on 
 the 5th of February, that important office was as- 
 signed, by parliament, to the prince of Wales. 
 
 A second enumeration of the inhabitants of Great Brit- 
 ain was now completed. This exhibited a population of 
 twelve-millions-five-hundred-thousand ; and an increase of 
 above one-million-and-a-half, in ten years. The census was 
 ordered to be made in Ireland ; but it was not very accurate- 
 ly taken. Its inhabitants, however, may be estimated, then, 
 at five-millions. 
 
 The annual expenditure of the empire, including interest 
 on the public debt, was, at this period, upwards of sixty- 
 millions sterling. 
 
 Contrary to general expectation, the early friends of the 
 Prince, amongst whom those able and upright Irishmen, 
 k>rd Moira and Mr. Sheridan, held a distinguished place, 
 
HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 269 
 
 were not treated with that degree of political confidence, 
 expected by themselves and desired by the people. The 
 administration proceeded unchanged, until deprived of its 
 leader by a most tragical and extraordinary event. As Mr. 
 Perceval was entering the lobby of the house of commons, 
 ^ a person named Bellingham, fired a pistol at him; 
 the ball from which pierced his heart. He stag- 
 gered, fell, and in a short time expired. It was soon dis- 
 covered that the act was in revenge of a supposed injury. 
 Bellingham, having, in a commercial visit to Russia, under- 
 gone losses, for which he thought the British govermnent 
 were bound to procure him redress, their refusal to take 
 any cognizance of his case made such an impression on his 
 mind, that he resolved to sacrifice a conspicuous member. 
 The assassin suffered death for a deed of atrocity, which 
 would have been a national stain, had it not evidently result- 
 ed from a degree of mental distemperature. 
 
 Since we last alluded to Napoleon, he inflicted addition- 
 al humiliation on the house of Austria. Francis had again 
 tried the fortune of the field, and had again been conquered. 
 The battle of Wagram, in which the archduke Charles and 
 Napoleon contended with more than three-hundred-thou- 
 sand men and twelve-hundred pieces of artillery, having 
 ended in the total overthrow of the Austrians, obliged them 
 to conclude a disadvantageous peace. This gave the vic- 
 tor, and the assisting members of the Rhenish Confederacy,, 
 a large portion of the Austrian dominions, constrained the 
 unhappy Francis not only to acquiesce in all his ambitious 
 projects, but, by a secret article of the treaty, to deliver, to 
 his enemy, a beloved and aft^ectionate child. In conformity 
 with this stipulation, Josephine, who had given no heir to 
 Napoleon, was divorced, and her place supplied by Maria 
 Louisa; the interesting sacrifice of an unworthy parent. 
 
 But, on the Peninsula, the French arms were opposed 
 with determined heroism. In Spain, victory in one quar- 
 ter was followed in another by defeat. There, they were 
 opposed, not by the cold calculations of political expedien- 
 cy, but by the ardent feelings of an insulted nation. The 
 ablest marshals of France, assisted by the national desertion 
 of an enervated nobility, though they might have ultimate- 
 ly destroyed, had as yet failed to intimidate, the people. 
 The disastrous retreat of the gallant Moore, upon Corunna, 
 Avhere he ended his misfortunes, and his remaining army 
 purchased their embarkation by the sword, was but a tem- 
 porary check to the British arms. The long series of sue- 
 
270 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cess which followed the cautious intrepidity of Wellesley, 
 (now lord Wellington,) aided by such officers as Hope, 
 Beresford, and Graham ; Hill, Sterrett, and Picton, obliged 
 the new sovereign to evacuate his capital, with slender 
 hopes of a return. The victories of Talavera, Buzaco, Fu- 
 entes d'Honor, Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and Salamanca, 
 were gained, in person, by lord Wellington. The battle 
 of Albuera was won by beresford; that of Baroso, by Gra- 
 ham: Arroyo del Molino, by Hill; and Sterrett, claimed 
 the honours of Tariffa. The commanders who opposed 
 the British, Spanish, and Portuguese combined armies, 
 were Joseph Buonaparte, and Soult ; Victor, Junot, Kel- 
 lerman, Sebastiani, Ney, Mortier, Suchet, Massena, and 
 Marmont. But, only the most remarkable conflicts are 
 here recorded. Nor, is any notice taken of the numerous 
 engagements fought exclusively by the Spaniards, under 
 their own officers. 
 
 Whilst these operations promised to wrest the Spanish 
 sceptre from the grasp of violence, the continued success 
 of the British navy, and of the land-forces on colonial duty, 
 had annihilated Napoleon's transmarine dominion. He had 
 liot now remaining a foot of land in either of the Indies, nor 
 a ship on the Indian ocean. Some consolation, however, in 
 these disappointments, was derived, from the birth of a son ; 
 Avho, even in his cradle, was advanced to the regal dignity, 
 as king of Rome. 
 
 As he was unable to preserve the ancient colonies in Asia 
 or America, Napoleon seemed anxious to gain an equiva- 
 lent in Europe. This equivalent was Russia. Alexander's 
 refusal to concur in his favourite scheme of excluding the 
 British commerce from the whole European continent, he 
 regarded as a sufficient cause for marching against that 
 country, with all the disposable force of his own territories, 
 or those under his influence. The mass of military power 
 thus collected, surpassed, probably in numerical amount, 
 certainly in discipline, any with which a European con- 
 queror had taken the field, since the ages of barbarism ; and 
 was undoubtedly designed to greater changes, than mere 
 commercial regulation. 
 
 The first movement connected with Napoleon's plan, was 
 the occupation of Swedish Pomerania. Twenty-thousand 
 French troops were stationed there, as a pledge for the con- 
 duct of Sweden in the ensuing contest. Early in the spring, 
 the grand army began its march towards Poland; and on 
 its way was joined by a body of Prussians. The emperor, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 271 
 
 Alexander, prepared to meet the storm, by quitting his 
 capital, and advancing* to Wihia; where, he met Barclay dc 
 Tolly, commander in chief of his first army. On the 16th 
 of May, Napoleon, accompanied by his empress, reached 
 Dresden; at which place, they were to hold an interview 
 with the emperor and empress of Austria. 
 
 At length, the invading army, commanded by the French 
 emperor, advanced in nine divisions; composing a total so 
 much superior to the Russians, that a defensive plan, only, 
 could be recommended by the cabinet of Petersburgh. This 
 was, to retreat gradually, and make a stand in favoural)le 
 positions. When the determination was taken, the danger 
 became still more imminent. Austria sent her stipulated 
 number of troops to act with the French, already strength- 
 ened by the sudden junction of the Poles. The first great 
 stand was made at Smolensko; from which, after a sangui- 
 nary effort, the Russians retreated. Moscow being now 
 the great object of contest, a strong position was taken 
 at Borodina. Here, an obstinate combat took place, and 
 each side claimed the victory; yet, whilst Te Deum was 
 singing at Petersburgh, the French, with only a little skir- 
 mishing, entered Moscovv'. So far. Napoleon seemed vic- 
 torious. Russia seemed united to his empire. But, whilst 
 its fate was trembling in the balance, the scale was quickly 
 turned against the invader, by an unexpected enemy — an 
 awful conflagration. To deprive the French of a place for 
 winter quarters, the governor of Moscow caused the city 
 to be set on fire, in many places; which occasioned a de- 
 struction, so extensive, that, within a few days, not more 
 than a tenth of the buildings remained unconsumed. No 
 shelter could be found amongst the ruins. On the 19th of 
 October, Napoleon left that scene of desolation. His re- 
 treating army were closely pressed by an exasperated foe; 
 and, what was still worse, by a Russian winter. Half bu- 
 ried in snow, stiffened by the frosty their sufferings were 
 extreme, their losses of every kind, prodigious. Horses 
 died in so great numbers, that nearly all their artillery were 
 abandoned, and almost the entire of their cavalry, dismount- 
 ed. Whole bodies of men, disabled by cold and hunger, 
 surrendered without resistance. Every thing wore the ap- 
 pearance of disaster and dismay. When the army reached 
 Wilna, Napoleon proceeded rapidly to Paris; where, such 
 was the impression of his former achievements, his re-ap- 
 pearance was attended with all the accustomed demonstra- 
 tions of reverence and attachment. 
 
27J HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 His totui losses, by capture, up to the 26th of December, 
 ■svere stated, in the Russian accounts, at thirteen-hundred- 
 and-thirty-nine officers, (amongst whom forty-one were 
 generals,) one-hundred -and -sixty-seven -thousand non-com- 
 missioned officers and privates, and eleven-hundred-and- 
 thirty-one pieces of cannon I 
 
 ,g, -, The king of Prussia now assumed the part of a 
 mediator between the belligerent parties. But, his 
 proposals for a truce, having met with small attention, he 
 took the decisive step of forming an alliance with Alexan- 
 der ; and in a few months they were joined by Austria. 
 
 The French senate having placed at Napoleon's disposal 
 three-hundred-and-fifty-thousand men, he caused the em- 
 piTss to be declared regent during his intended absence, 
 and in the middle of April departed for the army. Besides 
 the imperial guards, his forces were divided into twelve 
 corps. The viceroy of Italy (Beauharnois) was appointed 
 second in command, and Berthier chief of the staft\ The 
 second divisions were headed by marshals and generals 
 long known in the service, and no traces appeared of the 
 Russian disasters. 
 
 Passing over many serious conflicts, sometimes in favour 
 of the French, at other times in favour of the allies, follow- 
 ed by an abortive negotiation, we shall attend to the greater 
 operations which succeeded. Hostilities recommenced at 
 Dresden ; where the allies were defeated, with considera- 
 ble loss. The next important contest was at Leipsic ; for the 
 decision of which, a larger force was assembled, than had, 
 perhaps, ever acted, on so confined a theatre. The first 
 general attack by the allies, made to the south of the town, 
 after much slaughter, left the opposite arn)ies nearly in 
 their former position. Two days afterwards, another attack 
 was made, on the town itself. In this conflict, the French 
 lost seventeen battalions of German auxiliaries, by deser- 
 tion, and forty-thousand men in killed, wounded, and pris- 
 oners. Next' day, the 18th of October, Leipsic was taken 
 by assault ; about two hours before which. Napoleon had 
 escaped. The king of Saxony, with all his court, upwards 
 of fifty-thousand French troops, and their magazines, artil- 
 lery, and stores, were taken in the city. In a few weeks af- 
 terwards, fifty-thousand more surrendered ; making a total 
 loss, on the side of the French, within a month, ofonc-hun- 
 dred-and-forty-thousand men ; and, within a year, adding^ 
 their losses in the retreat from Moscow, and in Spain, oi 
 four-hundred-thousand. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 273 
 
 Meanwhile, the victories of Wellington, particularly at 
 Vittoria and St. Sebastian, had enabled him to drive the 
 enemy before him, and gain a firm footing in France. On 
 the 12th of March, a detachment, commanded by 
 ' marshal Beresford, occupied Bordeaux; where, the 
 mayor and principal inhabitants assumed the white cock- 
 ade, and declared for the Bourbons. 
 
 Notwithstanding the immense losses of Napoleon, which 
 enabled his northern pursuers, also, to enter France, the 
 result was for sometime extremely doubtful. However, be- 
 fore the end of February, they arrived in sight of Paris. On 
 the 30th of March, Joseph Buonaparte, assisted by mar- 
 shals Marmont and Mortier, took a position on the heights 
 near the city, in a long line; the centre of which was pro- 
 tected by several redoubts, and one-hundred-and-fifty pieces 
 of cannon. An attack being commenced, by the two prin- 
 ces of Wurtemberg, the French, after an obstinate resist- 
 ance, were defeated. Paris then capitulated ; and on the fol- 
 lowing day was entered by the allied sovereigns, with their 
 guards; the most exact order being every where preserved. 
 
 On the first of Aprils the French senate asBembled, and 
 formed a provisional government ; at the head of wdiich, 
 was Talleyrand, prince of Bcnevento. On the following day, 
 they pronounced, that Napoleon Buonaparte had violated 
 his compact with the people, that he had forfeited the throne, 
 and that the hereditary right established in his family was 
 abolished. 
 
 Whilst these great events were transacting, Napoleon, 
 learning the danger impending over his capital, moved his- 
 army from Troycs to Sens ; and, arriving at Fromont at the 
 time of the last battle, would have reached Paris on the 
 same day, had it not been in possession of the allies. He 
 then retired to Fontainbleau ; from which, on the 4th of 
 April, he sent a deputation to the senate, offering to abdi- 
 cate in favour of his son. 
 
 A treaty between the allied powers and Buonaparte was 
 signed at Paris ; by the articles of which, in return for his 
 renunciation of the crowns of France and Italy, he and Ma- 
 ria Louisa were to retain the imperial title for life : he was 
 to hold the isle of Elba, in full sovereignty, whilst he lived ; 
 and the empress was to have the dutchies of Parma, Gues- 
 talla, and Placentia, with succession to her son. To this 
 treaty, however, the British ministry refused their concur- 
 rence, further than respected the assignment of Elba and 
 the Italian dutchies. 
 
74 HISTORY OF ExNiGLAND. 
 
 When the fallen emperor was on his way to his little in- 
 sular dominion, the Bourbon sovereign, now recognised as 
 I^ouis the eighteenth, left his retirement in England, and 
 made his solemn entry into Paris. 
 
 The general peace, between France, and the allied pow- 
 ers of Austria, Russia, Great Britain, and Prussia, was 
 signed at Paris on the 13th of May. The principal acqui- 
 sitio'ns retained by Great Britain, were, Malta, Tobago, St. 
 I^ucia, and the Isle of France. In a distinct article between 
 France and Great Britain, Louis engaged to join his efforts 
 with the latter, for procuring the total abolition of the slave 
 trade, by all the Christian powers; and to abolish it with 
 Fegard to France at the end of five years. In August, an 
 arrangement was concluded with the prince of Orange, 
 then restored in Holland, as king of the Netherlands ; by 
 which. Great Britain retained the Cape of Good Hope, 
 Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. 
 
 Thus, peace was happily restored in Europe. But Amer- 
 ica was still suffering the calamities of war. Great Britain 
 and the United States were in the midst of a sanguinary 
 contest. 
 
 SIXTH PART. 
 
 PEACE OF GHENT. 
 
 THE various decrees of the two great European bellig- 
 erents, intended to retaliate distress, had been carried to a 
 degree so destructive and humiliating, that neutral rights 
 were no longer regarded. Acquiescence or submission, on 
 the part of those affected, was alike impolitic. That was 
 commercial ruin : this, national dishonour. The Embargo, 
 and other defensive experiments, in the United States, un- 
 der the administration of Mr. Jefferson, and the serious ne- 
 gotiations under his successor, Mr. Madison, had served 
 more to inflame than conciliate. It is not entirely agreed, 
 which of the rival powers was the most unjustifiable ag- 
 gressor. The oiTended power, however, had a right of 
 choosing her antagonist. On the 18th of June, 1812, the 
 Congress passed an act, declaring the " actual existence of 
 war between the United States and Great Britain.*' 
 
 An attack on Canada was the first grand object of the 
 American government. Operations against it commenced 
 in July. General Hull entered the upper province, and js- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ^^75 
 
 sued a proclamation to the Canadians, in a style expressing 
 confidence of success. But his campaign ended in disg;'acc 
 — not to his soldiers, but himself. Having proceeded to 
 Fort Maiden, he was foiled in his attempts to invest it ; and, 
 when the British general Brock, had collected a force for 
 its relief, he retired to Fort Detroit ; which he surrendered, 
 with twenty-five-hundred men, before he gave them an op- 
 portunity of contending. There ensued in that quarter 
 many severe engagements ; in some of which the Ameri- 
 cans displayed considerable bravery, and evident improve- 
 ment in discipline. On Lake Erie, the American commo- 
 dore, Perry, gained a complete victory over captain Bar- 
 clay ; and, on Lake Champlain, M'Donough was equally 
 successful against an English squadron commanded by 
 captain Downie. 
 
 On the Atlantic, the British found in the American frig- 
 ates an enemy more vigorous than any that they had ever 
 encountered. The loss of a few vessels of the same de- 
 scription, considered in the ordinary way, was of no im- 
 portance. But the cause of that loss was unusually interest- 
 ing. If it proceeded, as the English seamen declare, from 
 an effective superiority on the side of the enemy's ships 
 engaged, (a point too delicate for our discussion,) much 
 blame attaches to the Admiralty, in subjecting their ves- 
 sels to surprise. To say more on this subject, is hot requir- 
 ed. It would be improper, and superfluous : improper, as 
 tending to animosity ; superiiuous, as the bravery of either 
 nation cannot for a moment be contested. 
 
 The attack on Washington must always be a subject of 
 deep regret. The destruction of the public buildings, in a 
 city rendered venerable by so illustrious a name, might well 
 accord with the previous barbarities of Cockburn, but form- 
 ed a lamented contrast to the Peninsular achievements of 
 the gallant Ross. Even in revenge for asserted injuries re- 
 ceived in Canada, the measure was impolitic. The most 
 glorious retaliation, on a reflecting enemy, is forbearance. 
 
 In the following month, (Sept. 12,) admiral sir A. Coch- 
 rane and General Ross made an attack on Baltimore. The 
 fleet commenced a tremendous bombardment against Fort 
 M'Henry : the army landed at North Point, about eight 
 miles below the city. But the utmost efforts of the fleet 
 were unable to make the least impression on the fort; and 
 the purpose of the attack by land was abandoned; either 
 from the lo|s of the commander, or the expectation of a 
 spirited resistance, near the city. As the van-guard wa^; 
 A a 2 
 
276 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 engaged with the American riflemen, general Ross receh— 
 ed a mortal wound, in the breast. Sending for colonel 
 Brooke, the second in command, he gave him some insiruc- 
 tions, recommended his young children to the protection 
 ©f his country, and exclaiming, " My dear wife," expired. 
 
 The war with the United States being extremely unpop- 
 ular in the British empire, injurious to her commerce and 
 manufactures, and, since the continental pacification, easily 
 concluded, proposals of peace were made, in a letter from 
 lord Castlereagh, and accepted by the American President. 
 The commissioners at Ghent having, after a long negotia- 
 tion, come to an agreement, a treaty of peace and amity 
 •was signed on the '24th of December; which was afterwards 
 ratified by both governments. The articles of this treaty 
 related chiefly to the disputes respecting boundaries; for 
 the determination of which it was agreed that comm.ission- 
 ers should reciprocally be appointed. Both parties cov- 
 enanted to persevere in their efl*orts for the abolition of the 
 slave-trade, but no notice was taken of the circumstances 
 •which had occasioned the war.* 
 
 This year was rendered memorable by a concourse of 
 illustrious visiters to the English capital; in number and 
 rank surpassing any modern example ; at the head of whom 
 were the emperor of Russia and his sister, and the king of 
 Prussia with his two sons. 
 
 The administration had now leisure to contemplate the 
 situation of the country; which, even the return of peace 
 had not restored to internal happiness, or commercial pros- 
 perity. The sudden change, from hostile to pacific rela- 
 tions, produced, in every class, a degree of pecuniary dis- 
 tress, unequalled even at the commencement of the war. 
 —The annual expenditure exceeded seventy-five-millions: 
 the funded debt of the nation, eight-hundred-miliions ster- 
 ling. — The navy comprised above one-thousand vessels ; 
 of which, more than one-hundred were of the line, and 
 ubove three-hundred were frigates. 
 
 * The most Imporlant military event thjit occurred between the 
 belligerents, after the sig-ning of the treaty, was an a'bortive attack 
 on New Orleans. In this, (on the 8th of January, 1815,) the British 
 loss amounted to at least two-thousand, in killed, wounded, and pris- 
 oners : amongst the slain were general Packenham, the commander, 
 and general Gibbs. The Americans were commanded by general 
 Jackson ; and displayed extraordinary coolness,. and uncommon accii- 
 lacy of tive. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 277 
 
 SEVE.YTH PART, 
 
 RExiSCENSION AND SECOND DETHRONE- 
 MENT OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 FAMILIES who had been disjoined by a war of 
 more than twenty years, awaited, with delightful an- 
 ticipation, a re-union. The soldier who had exchanged the 
 bloom of youth for the silvery hairs of age, hastened to 
 view the country of his birth, and enjoy a long continued 
 peace. But, the field which had been abandoned, was yet 
 to be regained. The banners, which necessity had furled, 
 were again raised, when opposition was withdrawn. The 
 meteor, which had illumined by its splendor, and amazed 
 by its rapidity, was not extinguished. Napoleon emerged 
 from his political eclipse, and made another revolution. 
 
 The terms on which Louis had ascended the throne of 
 France, he did not faithfully observe. Questions had been 
 debated in the legislative chambers, particularly those rel- 
 ative to emigrants' property and the freedom of the press, 
 which, though carried, there, in favour of the court, were 
 determined on other principles, by the nation. Nor, was 
 the idea of being ruled by a dynasty, restored by foreign 
 arms, the least revolting to their feelings ; nor, the army as 
 contented to remain inactive under an imbecile monarch, 
 as desirous to aid a venerated chieftain in retrieving their 
 military honour. Napoleon was not unapprized of the gen- 
 eral wish. On the 26th of February, under the shade of 
 evening, he left Elba, in a sloop of war, with 1100 men, 
 chiefly of his old guard ; and, on the 1st of March, landed 
 in the small port of Juan. On the 7th, after meeting a tri- 
 fling resistance near Antibes, he was joined by the garrison 
 at Grenoble, and on the 9th, by the troops at Lyons. When 
 he reached Auxerre, he was strengthened by marshal Ney, 
 with 12,000 men. This step was decisive. All confidence 
 in the army being lost, the king and royal family left Paris 
 on the 1 9th ; which was entered, on the following day, by 
 Napoleon, without having had occasion to fire a musket. 
 
 But, it was not to be expected, that those powers which 
 had united in dethroning him, would acquiesce in this re- 
 sumption. In the same month, Austria, Russia, Great Brit- 
 ain, and Prussia, determined, each, to keep in the field 
 150,000 men, until he should be again expelled. 
 
irs HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 From the commencement of the alarm, troops had been 
 unremittingly sent from England, into Belgium; to rein- 
 force the British garrisons already there : and the duke of 
 Wellington had arrived as commander of these, and of the 
 auxiliaries in that country. The principal French army 
 was, at this time, posted at Avesnes, in Flanders. Buona- 
 parte, after promising a free constitution to the French peo- 
 ple, left Paris on the 1 2th of June. He determined to attack 
 the British and Prussian armies, whilst the Austrians and 
 Russians were yet too distant to aftbrd them succour. On 
 the 1 5th, he drove in the Prussian posts upon the Sambre ; 
 and the next day, defeated their chief, marshal Blucher, on 
 the heights between Brie and Sombref. In the mean time, 
 lord Wellington had directed his whole, army to advance 
 on Quatre Bras; where, the first division, under general 
 Picton, had arrived ; followed by a corps under the com- 
 mand of the duke of Brunswick, and by the troops of Nas- 
 sau. It was the duke of Wellington's desire, to afford as- 
 sistance to Blucher; but, he was, himself, attacked, by a 
 large body of cavalry and infantry, with a powerful artillery, 
 under marshal Ney, before his own cavalry had arrived. A 
 warm action ensued. The repeated charges of the French 
 were steadily repulsed : yet, considerable loss was suffered, 
 including the duke of Brunswick. 
 
 Blucher retreated, during the night, to Wavre ; and lord 
 Wellington made a corresponding movement to Waterloo ; 
 his left communicating slightly with the Prussians. 
 
 Napoleon was now entering his fiftieth battle ; in forty- 
 nine of which, he had been victorious. But, in none of these 
 had he encountered Wellington. The meeting must have 
 been full of solicitude to both. On the morning of the 18th 
 of June, he assembled his whole force, nearly equal, in num- 
 ber, to his enemy, consisting of 70,000 veterans, and 240 
 cannon, upon a range of heights opposite to the British 
 army ; with the exception of one division, under marshal 
 Grouchy; which had been defached to observe, and pre- 
 vent the junction of the Prussians. At ten o'clock. Napo- 
 leon began the action, by a furious attack on Hougomont ; 
 which was renewed, by different efforts, during the entire 
 day ; but resisted with so much firmness, that the position 
 was effectually maintained. At the same time, he kept up 
 a heavy cannonade against the whole British line ; and 
 made repeated charges on several other points, which were 
 uniformly repulsed, except at the farm-house of La Haye 
 Sainte. Late in the evening, a desperate eifort was made 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. :irv 
 
 near that place, against the left of the centre. This pro- 
 duced a severe contest. For a time, it appeared dubious, 
 whether the resistance would be effectual. But the English 
 Avere at length relieved. A distant cannonade was heard. 
 The Prussians appeared, and the right flank of the enemy 
 retreated. Wellington seized the moment, and advanced 
 his whole line of infantry, supported by cavalry and artille- 
 ry. The French were soon forced from every position, and 
 fled in the utmost confusion ; leaving on the field of battle 
 150 pieces of cannon, with their ammunition. They were 
 followed by the victors, until long after dark ; when, the 
 pursuit was continued by the Prussians. Nothing could be 
 more complete than the discomfiture of Napoleon's army ; 
 of which, the remains, consisting of about 40,000, partly 
 without arms, and carrying with them no more than twen- 
 ty-seven pieces of artillery, made their retreat through 
 Charleroi. 
 
 This, was the issue of the battle of Waterloo. But, such 
 a victory, over so brave an enemy, could not be cheaply 
 purchased. In no action, of the previous war, had so many 
 British officers been slain. Two generals, Picton and Pon- 
 Ronby, besides four colonels, were killed; nine generals and 
 five colonels were amongst the wounded ; and the total 
 number, killed and wounded, of the British and Hanoveri" 
 ans, was above 12,000. 
 
 Finding that all was lost, Napoleon hastened back to 
 Paris ; and, assembling his council, requested to be made 
 dictator. This desire being, however, resisted by La Fay- 
 ette, and other leading members of the legislature, Buona- 
 parte, perceiving that he was no longer the object of pub- 
 lic confidence, issued a declaration ; in which, " offering 
 himself a sacrifice to the hatred of the enemies of France," 
 he proclaimed his son emperor, by the title of Napoleon 
 the second. The nomination of his son was not so readily 
 accepted, as the abdication of himself; and commissioners 
 repaired to the allied armies, with proposals of peace. The 
 victors, however, would treat only under the walls of Paris. 
 They accordingly advanced ; and entered that city, after 
 considerable opposition from the adjoining heights, follow- 
 ed by a capitulation, on the 3d of July. 
 
 Thus, was the capital of France a second time in posses- 
 sion of the allies. 
 
 Buonaparte was, in the mean time, occupied with the 
 care of his own safety ; endeavouring to gain a sea-port, 
 nnd embark fur the United States. Accompanied by a 
 
280 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 general, he arrived at Rochfort. The place, however, be- 
 ing closely watched by EnL>lish cruizers, after some at- 
 tempts to elude their vigilance, he determined to throw 
 himself on British protection. On the 1 5th of July, ho 
 went, with his suite and baggage, on board the Bellerophou 
 man of war, captain Maitland. Upon intelligence of this 
 event reaching the allied sovereigns, it was determined that 
 he should be carried, as a state prisoner, to St. Helena; a 
 British island in the southern Atlantic: there, to be retain- 
 ed, under the strictest guard, within specified limits for 
 recreation. Accordingly, the Bellerophon sailed for Tor- 
 bay; where, the dangerous captive, with a few of his most 
 attached adherents, was transferred to the Northumberland, 
 captain sir George Cockburn ; who conveyed him to his des- 
 tined abode. 
 
 At this time, fell also Murat, a brother-in-law of Napo- 
 leon. He had been suffered to remain as king of Naples ; 
 the only individual that was allowed to continue as sove- 
 reign, except Bernadotte, now on the throne of Sweden, of 
 all the friends who had risen with his elevation. Being 
 defeated by the Austrians, and taken prisoner, by his own 
 subjects, in Calabria, he was condemned by a military com- 
 mission, and shot. Lucien, Jerome, and Louis Buonaparte, 
 are settled in different parts of the European continent; and 
 Joseph resides in the United States. 
 
 A portion of the great naval strength of England, was in 
 the following year employed in a most beneficial duty. The 
 barbarians who occupy the immense northern coast of Af- 
 rica, were compelled to abandon their inhuman piracies. 
 The United States had nobly caused them to respect her 
 vessels: Britain was now called on to achieve, for the other 
 civilized nations, what they were unable to accomplish for 
 themselves. The Barbary corsairs seldom or never mo- 
 lested British ships or subjects: since the first treaty made 
 with the barbarians, in the reign of Charles the second, no 
 English vessel had been captured by their public ships of 
 war, nor had any English subject been made a slave. But 
 the forbearance was, in some measure, purchased. Great 
 Britain had been paying them a disgraceful tribute. This, 
 however, the existing spirit of the age required should be 
 discontinued, and the practice of sea-plunder and enslaving, 
 relinquished, as regarded every nation of the world. Lord 
 Exmouth (admiral Pellew) was accordingly despatched with 
 a fleet, to Tunis and Tripoli; at which places, he was com- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 281 
 
 pletely successful : a treaty was signed, without a battle. 
 But, the dey of Algiers was more powerful. He would 
 agree only to a part of the proposed terms. The admiral, 
 therefore, returned to England, and sailed with a more com- 
 manding force ; in all, seven ships of the line and a propor- 
 tional accompaniment of frigates and gun-boats; supported 
 by a fleet of the Netherlands, under admiral Capellan. Ex- 
 mouth entered the bay of Alg-iers on the 27th of August j 
 and, having anchored within fifty yards of the mole, in front 
 of their tremendous batteries, mounted with cannon of un- 
 usual size, and defended by 50,000 men, continued, with 
 uninterrupted fury, for nearly three hours, so destructive a 
 storm of shells and bullets, that their contiguous works were 
 entirely ruined, and 7000 of the garrison killed or wounded. 
 The dey was completely humbled. The loss of the brave 
 assailants was, however, lamentably great. No squadron, 
 had been, at any time, exposed in so awful a situation. But, 
 the consequences of the victory were more cheering, than 
 its effects to be lamented. The dey immediately restored 
 to liberty above a thousand captives, refurided all the money 
 which he had previously received for ransoms, bound the 
 state to relinquish piracy for ever, and the practice of con- 
 demning prisoners to slavery. Thus, was accomplished, an 
 achievement, in attempting which, the emperor, Charles 
 the fifth, had lost 150 vessels, and expended the lives of 
 30,000 men; which had, three several times, in the reign 
 of the first James, baffled even the English navy; and again, 
 a numerous fleet under admiral Du Quesne; when, the dey 
 committed the atrocious act of binding the French consul 
 to the mouth of a mortar, and firing him ott' amongst the 
 bombarding squadron, 
 
 Britain had acquired a large share of military glory, by 
 these signal triumphs : but her internal situation soon after- 
 wards became alarming. Her taxation is enormous; the 
 difliculty of employing her population, greater than was 
 ever known. Dissatisfaction to the government is annual- 
 ly increasing. The meetings, under the influence of such 
 leaders as Hunt and Watson, Thistlcwood and Wooler, 
 caused serious edarm, even to patriots of established repu- 
 tation : but, the conduct of tlie armed yeomanry, who as- 
 sailed, with deplorable efl'ect, a vast assemblage of both 
 sexes at Manchester, has branded, with everlasting infamy, 
 not only themselves, but the sanguinary magistrates, by 
 whose orders the murders were committed. 
 
 The princess Charlotte, only daughter of the regent, and 
 
032 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 presumptive heiress of the crown, -vvho had been married 
 to prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, died, in her twenty- 
 second year, universally lamented. The queen, havinjj 
 reached her 75th year, died in November, 1818. 
 
 The king, who had continued since 1811 as only a nomi- 
 nal sovereign, was insensible to every occurrence. His bodi- 
 ly health was unimpaired, but his intellectual malady had 
 been long confirmed. Corporeal weakness at length be- 
 
 ^ came visible: he rapidly decluied; and, on the 29th 
 
 " * of January, expired at Windsor, in the 82d year of 
 his age, and 60th of his reign. The king's fourth son, the 
 duke of Kent, died only a few days before his father. 
 
 Besides five daughters, and the prince of Wales, vvho has 
 succeeded him, under the title of (ieorge the fourth, the 
 deceased monarch left five other sons; the dukes of York 
 and Clarence, Cumberland, Sussex, and Cambridge; the 
 first of whom is now presumptive heir to the crown. 
 
 That long protracted warfare, was unable to repress the 
 growing spirit of national improvement. Every species of 
 literature, science, and manufacture, was cultivated with 
 unceasing ingenuity. Even those manufactures, invented 
 and asssiduously cherished on the continent, have almost 
 invariably admitted of refinement in Great Britain. France 
 has been an exceedingly prolific inventor; as an inventor, 
 perhaps unrivaled; but she must yield to England the cha- 
 racter of completing and finishing, with permanent ele- 
 gance, what she had previously commenced. 
 
 As a scientific manufacturer, Wedgewood has displayed 
 most admirable research, in the article of porcelain. This 
 sumptuous production was first brought from China and Ja- 
 pan, and received its English appellation, (probably through 
 the French,) from the Portug\iese /2orcf//a?7a, which signi- 
 fies a cup. The illustrious Reaumur, the first who attend- 
 ed to its manufacture, as a science, published his discove- 
 ries in France, at the beginning of the last century; but, 
 before that period, it had been brought, in that country, to 
 considerable perfection. 
 
 No branch of industry ever had more powerful influence, 
 in extending the commerce, congregatmg the inhabitants, 
 and, at the same time, corrupting the morals, and increas- 
 ing the misery of the British, than the Cotton Manufacture. 
 It seems to have reached its highest point of excellence. 
 The most ancient mode of spinning, that we can discover, 
 was by the distaff; an emblem in the Heathen mythology. 
 From the distaff, the material was drawn by the revolution 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 283 
 
 of a ball, held underneath ; which twisted and received the 
 thread. We next perceive the addition of a frame; in 
 which, the spindle was supported, and set in motion by a 
 band that encompassed a wheel, and received an occasional 
 impulse from the hand; forming the domestic machine used 
 in spinning wool. To this, followed the common linen- 
 wheel; invented in Germany in the year 1530; which pos- 
 sesses the advantage of a flyer, and a uniformly steady mo- 
 tion from the action of the foot. At length, hi 1767, James 
 Hargrave, of Blackburn, in Lancashire, constructed a ma- 
 chine, by which a great number of threads can be spun at 
 once. This, called the Jenny, is the best that has hitherto 
 appeared for making verv coarse weft. About the s* me 
 time, cylinder carding was introduced; an invention claim- 
 ed by many individuals. The next improvement was de- 
 rived from a clockmaker of Bolton. But the fruits of his 
 ingenuity were reaped by another; a person named Richard 
 Arkwright, who was knighted for the invention. Ark- 
 wright followed the business of a village tonsor; and, dur- 
 ing his morning visits to the mechanic, was enabled, by the 
 loquacity characteristic of that profession, to become mas- 
 ter of the secret. We here allude to what is called the 
 Warp-spinning-frame, distinguished by the application of 
 rollers. The latest modification, which is perhaps the most 
 important, certainly the most ingenious, received the name 
 of Mule; by its combining the principles of the Jenny and 
 the Warp machine. From this, can be produced a thread 
 equal in fineness to the most delicate of India. The first 
 cotton mill erected in England was by Arkwright and Har- 
 grave, at Nottingham; in Scotland, by Peter Brothcrston, 
 at Pennecuic, near Edinburgh. In Ireland, the first twist 
 machinery was made at Grcencastle, under the direction, 
 and for the use of, Nicholas Grimshaw; and the first cotton 
 mill erected (in 1784} at Whitehouse, near Belfast, by the 
 latter, in conjunction with Nathaniel Wilson. Several of 
 these improvements have been successfully applied to the 
 spinning of fl^ax and wool. The printing of calicoes held 
 a simultaneous progress, in point of extent; and in regard 
 to brilliancy and variety of colour, went hand -in-hand with 
 chemistry, its parent science. 
 
 Eerthollet, a French chemist, has enabled us to curtail 
 the time formerly used in bleaching linen and cotton fab- 
 rics. The oxygenated muriatic acid, first applied by him 
 to that purpose, will produce as much eftect in a few days^ 
 B b 
 
.84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 as the old method of atmospherical exposure, m as man/ 
 v/eeks. 
 
 The Steam "Engine next demands our notice. The first 
 account of this great invention, is in a book published by 
 the marquis of Worcester, in 1663; with which nobleman, 
 it unquestionably originated. From that period, it has re- 
 ceived many improvements. Its present high state of ex- 
 cellence, indeed its application to any purpose, with a due 
 degree of economy and effect, is owing to the chemical and 
 mechanical knowledge of Mr. Watt, a pupil of Dr. Black, 
 He commenced his experiments upon the steam-engine in 
 1763, about the time w^hen this great chemist promulgated 
 his discovery of latent heat. The greatest mechanical pro- 
 ject that ever engaged the attention of man, was on the point 
 of being executed by this machine. The States of Holland 
 were treating with Bolton and W^att for draining the Haer- 
 lem Mecr, and even reducing the Zuyder-Zee, until pre- 
 vented by their revolution, 
 
 Francis Egerton, duke of Bridgewater, is celebrated as 
 the person who began, in England, the cutting of naviga- 
 ble canals with locks. Assisted by Brindley, a man of as- 
 tonishing powers of mind, but without the polish of educa- 
 tion, having surveyed his estate at Worsley, he obtained 
 an act of parliament, authorizing him to open a communi- 
 cation between Manchester and Worsley, and return over 
 the river Irwell, to Manchester. Though a solid rock op- 
 posed their progress, the opulence of the one and genius 
 of the other overcame every obstacle. Air funnels were 
 made through the hill, to discharge the noxious air from 
 below; and this great canal was. conveyed, not only more 
 than a mile under ground, but over an arch forty feet above 
 the surface of the Irwell : so that whilst vessels pass through 
 the dark subterranean cavity, others sail on the canal above. 
 Thus, the coals of the duke's estate v/ere carried to the 
 iieighbouring towns, and the commerce of Liverpool was 
 \mited by the Mersey, to Manchester. 
 
 The year 1782 is remarkable for having produced the 
 first effective Air-Balloon. Stephen and John Montgolfier, 
 of France, were the successful experimentalists, after many 
 suggestions and trials, by various persons, durhig more 
 than a century. Bishop Wilkins, in 1762, undoubtedly 
 gave the first hint. His idea was pursued by Cavendish; 
 by whom, the specific gravity of inflammable air was as- 
 certained, and communicated to Doctor Black. The same 
 thought afterwards occurred to Cavallo; who has the hon- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ^85 
 
 <Mir of making the first practical experiment; thougli he 
 proceeded no farther than blo^ying up soap-bubbles with 
 hydrogen gas. The Montgollicr Balloon, however, was 
 distended by rarefied air, formed by burning straw and 
 wool; not by the hydrogen gas; that having been adopted 
 afterwards. Lunardi ascended from London, in 1784; 
 Blanchard and Dr. Jefferies made a voyage in a balloon, 
 from Dover to Calais, in the year following. In the late 
 revolutionary war, the French established an Prostatic In- 
 stitute ; from which, issued skilful aeronauts, for the use of 
 the armies. Coutel ascended in 1794, accompanied by an 
 adjutant and a general ; and conducted the wonderful and- 
 important service of reconnoitring the enemy's manoeuvres 
 at the battle of Fleurus. He remained, at each of two pe- 
 riods, four hours in the air; and, by means of signals, car- 
 ried on a correspondence with Jourdan, the commander of 
 the French army. The experiment, however, had nearly- 
 proved fatal. His intended ascent had been made known 
 to the enemy; who, at the moment the balloon began to 
 take its flight, opened the fire of a battery against it. The 
 first volley was directed too low ; but one ball afterwards 
 passed between the balloon and the car. 
 
 The mails, which had been previously conveyed on 
 Jiorseback, were, since 1784, by the recommendation of 
 John Palmer, carried in regularly established coaches : 
 three years after the beginning of the great revolutionary 
 war, telegraphs were copied from the French plan : in 
 1800, the vaccine inoculation was perfected in England, 
 by Dr. Jcnner : about the same time, public buildings were 
 heated by steam, and lighted by carbureted hydrogen gas ; 
 and Lancaster spread his amazing system of elementary 
 school-education. 
 
 In 1787, the British government established the colony 
 of Botany Bay ; as a residence for convicts. The progress 
 of this settlement has been rapid. It has now a population 
 of almost 50,000 : amongst a large portion of these, the 
 cause of transportation is not observable ; they have acquir- 
 ed habits of industry and good conduct, and use the arts 
 and luxuries of polished states. 
 
 Nearly all Flindostan is at length comprised within the 
 British empire. / Her colonial subjects number one-hun- 
 dred-and-fifty-millions 5* which are computed to be one- 
 fourth of all mankind, covering a fifth of the habitable globe. 
 
 The medical science had many accomplished professors, 
 its greatest ornaments were, Cullen, Cleghornc, Hunter, 
 
286 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Smellie, Fordyce, and Mac Bride. In the fine arts, we dis- 
 tinguish Boydell, Strange,.and Woolet, as eni^ravers; Ho- 
 garth and Barrett, Barry, Stubbs, and Opie, Gainsborous^h, 
 Moreland, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, as painters. Ilogjarth 
 was also conspicuous in the graphic, and Stubbs in the 
 anatomical, school. Tiie former, though not remarkable 
 for elegance, stands unrivaled for originality of conception 
 and strength of expression; either in delineating the fol- 
 lies, or the dangerous vices, of mankind. On the establish- 
 ment of the Royal Academy, in 1769, none seerncd so well 
 entitled to the honourable office of president, as Reynolds; 
 and he was accordingly appointed. Sculpture acquired 
 cotemporaneous improvement. Besides the accession of 
 foreign talent, England may justly boast of the correct and 
 expressive chissel of her native Bacon. In Music, the 
 compositions of Arnold and Arne will be admired, whilst 
 there remains an ear to appreciate, or feeling to sympa- 
 thize with harmony. 
 
 At the head of astronomy and mechanics, by universal 
 concurrence, is placed James Ferguson ; a mian who learn- 
 ed to read by hearing his father teach his elder brother, 
 and, during his whole life, had not above half a year's in- 
 struction at school. His " Lectures, '^ which are so per- 
 spicuous that they cannot be misunderstood, will be found 
 equally instructive and amusing. 
 
 Amongst the dramatic writers are Colman, general Bur- 
 goyne. Murphy, and Cumberland ; Home, Foot, Garrick, 
 and Dibden. The last three were distinguished also as per= 
 formers. 
 
 Foot was an ever-flowing fountain of colloquial wit. He 
 had the misfortune to require a wooden leg. Being once 
 on a visit at a friend's house, near London, at Christmas, 
 he found the rigour of the season little softened by the 
 influence of a blazing hearth. He resolved to shorten the 
 period of his intended stay, and was one morning, very 
 early, preparing to depart. "What is the matter, my dear 
 Foot," exclaimed his fuel-saving host: "what can be the 
 reason of this unexpected hurry !" — " Oh, there is no rea- 
 son at all," replied his half-frozen guest; " only, that as 
 coals are so very scarce here, I was afraid that, some 
 morning, before I was up, Betty might thrust my right leg 
 into the fire." 
 
 Garrick was unrivaled for a quick perception of proprie- 
 ty, and a consequent observance of the ways of nature. He 
 was always seen <' to suit the action to the word," and " the 
 
KISTORY OF ENGLANB. 28r 
 
 word to the action." No public speaker, however emi* 
 nent, was above listening- to his precepts, and profiting by 
 his example. A young clergyman having requested him 
 to notice the manner in which he administered divine ser- 
 vice, Garrick very kindly attended. On leaving the church 
 together, Gari'ick took hold of his friend's arm, whose 
 countenance and gait betokened self-applause. — " Have 
 you any urgent business, to attend to, after service?"^ in- 
 quired' Garrick. " No ; none at all 1" replied the divine ; 
 <' why, do you ask me such a question ?" — I thought you 
 had something pressing, from your going up into the pul- 
 pit in so much haste. — What was that book^ on the desk 
 before you ? — That book 1 — why, only the Bible I — " Only 
 the Bible^'" rejoined his acute monitor : '« I thought it had 
 been a merchant's leger, or a journal, — some common ac- 
 count book, left accidentally in your way, from your toss- 
 ing it about with so much indifference." 
 
 In poetry, the most successful candidates for lasting 
 fame, are, Falcojier, Graiuger, and Armstrong ; Glover, 
 Mason, and Chatterton; Goldsmith, and Johnson; Churchill, 
 Burns, Cowper, Darwin, Beattie, and Walcott. With the 
 first five names, it is sufficient to associate, respectively, 
 The Shipwreck; A Poem on the Sugar Cane, and a trans- 
 lation of TibuUus ; The Art of preserving Health; Leonl- 
 das ; Elfrida, and Caractacus. A more extraordinary youth 
 has seldom appeared than Chatterton, He published a 
 number of poems v/hich he described as written about 
 three hundred years before, by Rowley, a monk of Bristol ; 
 declaring, that he had received them from his father, 
 whose family had held, for nearly one-hundred-and-fifty 
 years, the office of sexton of Redclift church ; and that they 
 had remained buried in dust, in an old chest, above the 
 Chapel. 
 
 The Traveller of Goldsmith abounds with animated de- 
 scription ; his Deserted Village exhibits beauties peculi- 
 arly its own, and, for harmony and softness, is not inferior 
 to the happiest lines of Pope. As long as the simple tale 
 of indigent nature and suffering humanity can interest 
 the heart, so long will the poetry of Goldsmith continue to 
 be read. This amiable man studied at I'rinity College, 
 Dublin; for whicli university he was prepared by the Rev. 
 Mr. Hughes, of Edgeworthtown, in the county of Long- 
 ford, the district of his nativity. In his last journey to 
 school, he had an adventure, which is thought to have sug- 
 gested the plot of his admired comedy. She Stoops to Con- 
 B b 2 
 
388 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quer, or the Mistakes of a Night. Some friend had given 
 him a guinea ; and, in his way to Edgeworthtown, (about 
 twenty rniles from his father's house,) he had diverted him- 
 self by viewing the gentlemen's seats on the road, until, at 
 the approach of night, he reached a small town, named 
 Ardagh. Here, he inquired for the " best house" in the 
 place, meaning the best inn; but, being understood too lit- 
 erally, he was directed to the house of a private gentleman ; 
 Avhere, calling for somebody to take his horse and lead him 
 to the stable, he alighted, and was shown into the parlour; 
 supposed to be a guest come to visit the master. The gen- 
 tleman immediately discovered the mistake ; and being a 
 man of humour, and also learning from him the name of 
 his father, who happened to be his acquaintance, he en- 
 couraged the deception. Goldsmith accordingly <' called 
 about him," ordered a good supper, and generously invit- 
 ed the master, his wife and daughters, to partake ; treal:- 
 ed them with a bottle or two of wine, and, on going to bed, 
 ordered a hot cake to be prepared for his breakfast ; nor 
 did he, until at his departure, when he asked for the bill, 
 discover, that he had been hospitably entertained in a pri- 
 vate family. Doctor Goldsmith died in 1772, in his 46th 
 year. Many scenes of his life are extremely interesting. 
 In his Vicar of Wakefield, the philosophical wanderer is 
 supposed to be drawn from his own adventures ; and, in his 
 Citizen of the World, he gives an account of his worthy 
 father, under the character of" the man in black." 
 
 Dr. Johnson was born at Lichfield, and died in 1784; 
 having attained the age of 75. He studied for about three 
 years at Oxford ; where his collegiate exercises displayed 
 superior powers. He first visited London with his pupil, 
 Garrick; who, like himself, was in quest of employment. 
 In 1738, he published his "London," in imitation of Ju- 
 venal's third satire ; which was so favourably received, that 
 it passed to a second edition within a week. But, were wc 
 to consider Johnson merely as a poet, we should form a 
 very inadequate estimate of his erudition, talents, and per- 
 severance. Although his Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage, and his Rambler, are only a small portion of his la- 
 bours, they are sufficient to elevate him to a high degree of 
 fame. The former was published in 1775. The Rambler, 
 he continued for two years ; writing a Number for every 
 Tuesday and Saturday: during which period, he was en- 
 gaged with his dictionary, only five papers were contribut- 
 ed by others, and he was frequently distracted by anguish 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 289 
 
 and disease. His dictionary, however, would admit of con- 
 siderable improvement. The derivations of words, from for- 
 eign languages are too frequently given from compounds; 
 the definitions and examples exhibit rather the various sen- 
 ses in which words have been written, than the classical ac- 
 ceptation in which they viay he used w4th propriety and 
 elegance ; a large number have been admitted which are 
 obsolete ; and many, of his own forming, that are both use- 
 less and pedantic. It might, with advantage, be curtailed 
 to half its present size. — Johnson has been justly entitled 
 the great Moralist. In his Rambler, we perceive the most 
 profound and elevated ethics; and the style exhibits the 
 English language in its highest state of sublimity and mag- 
 nificence. But that work was not so splendid or correct, 
 on its first appearance. The assertion of Mr. Boswell, his 
 minute biographer, is erroneous, when he says that a copy 
 printed at Edinburgh, from the periodical papers, "is the 
 most accurate and beautiful edition." It received, in the 
 second and third editions, several thousand alterations; ma- 
 ny of which seem indispensable, to protect it from the ani- 
 madversions of the most liberal critic. Boswell was fond 
 of inflating trifles, and recording even the infirmities of his 
 illustrious patron ; as if he had despaired of transmitting his 
 name to posterity, by his own merits, but sought, like the 
 destroyer of the Ephesian temple, to gain associated im- 
 mortality amongst ruins. 
 
 Robert Burns, though literally a ploughman, rose to high 
 poetic fame, by the strong powers of his genius; and was 
 soon drawn from his agricultural profession, to the compa- 
 ny of men of letters. Since the days of Shakespeare, per- 
 haps not any have portrayed the nice shades of the human 
 character with so masterly a hand, as Burns; especially in 
 those poems wn^itten in the Scottish dialect. No readers, 
 however, except those of Scotland, or of the northern coun- 
 ties of England and Ireland, where that dialect is familiar, 
 can fully appreciate the beauties of this poet. His country- 
 man, Dr. Curric, long knov/n as an eminent physician in 
 Liverpool, published in 1800, four years after the death of 
 Burns, a fine edition of his works; and benevolently assign- 
 ed the entire profit to his widow and children. 
 
 Beattie is deservedly admired for his Minstrel: Cowper, 
 for his translation of Homer, in blank verse, and his Task : 
 Walcott, for his satires, with the assumed name of Peter 
 Pindar. Cowper, is also the author of John Gilpin, a popu- 
 
290 • HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 iar ballad ; thc'stoiy of which was related to him, as amubt- 
 ment in a tedious hour, by his friend Lady Austin. 
 
 Robertson and Gibbon, are to be considered as historians : 
 Hume, in addition to the character of historian, ranks high 
 in the abstruse philosophy of metaphysics. Of these great 
 writers, the last two may be pronounced the more acute 
 and elaborate reasoners; the first the most generally es- 
 teemed. Hume's great performance, is the History of 
 England ; Gibbon's, the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Emph-e. The most admired works of Robertson, are the 
 History of Charles the fifth, and the History of America. 
 Sterne, by his Tristram Shandy, and Sentimental Journey, 
 has obtained the honour of introducing a new species of 
 composition ; and, whatever may be objected to particular 
 passages in these, he stands pre-eminent in awaking the 
 noblest sympathies of the human heart. Besides the writ- 
 ings which Blair and Paley have left, connected with re- 
 ligion, the former has given us the most valuable lectures 
 on rhetoric and belles lettres; the latter, the most popular 
 work on moral philosophy, that Great Britain has ever pro- 
 duced. The English language owes much to the profound 
 researches of Bishop Lowth, son of the eminent divine, 
 mentionef^ in the last reign ; and to John Home Tooke. In 
 his Gramii^ar, though it is now nearly obsolete, Lov.'th has 
 shown a philosophical knowledge of our language, and giv- 
 en a foundation on which subsequent improvements have 
 been raised. He is still more eminent for his lectures on 
 the sacred Flebrew poetry, delivered at Oxford. Home 
 Tooke, in his Diversions of Purlcy, has inquired into the 
 derivations of English words, from the Saxon, with extra- 
 ordinary, and successful, minuteness. He was also one of 
 the most active politicians of his day. Having been occa- 
 sionally of a different opinion from Junius, he opposed him 
 with so much ability, that, notwithstanding the powerful 
 logic of this unknown author, every unprejudiced reader 
 must assign the victory to Horne. Of the powers of mind 
 and comprehensive information evinced by Adam Smith, 
 his Wealth of Nations will be a memorial to the latest pos- 
 terity. Graves is the author of lucubrations in prose and 
 rhyme, published under the name of Peter Pomfret ; and 
 of an ingenious performance called the Spiritual Quixote. 
 No lawyer ever contributed so much to lessen the difficul- 
 ties of his profession, as sir William Blackstone. His 
 Commentaries are invaluable, and should be studied by 
 every gentleman who feels inte-restcd in the laws of Eng- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 291 
 
 land. In a different walk, lord Kaimes is alnnost equally- 
 distinguished. His elements of Criticism, and Sketches, 
 are not less calculated to give amusement than instruction. 
 
 Postlethwaite and Anderson wrote on commercial ccono- 
 jiiy: Grose was equally devoted to antiquities. Hawkes- 
 worth is author of the Adventurer, besides, a Narration of 
 Discoveries in the Pacific Ocean; and sir William Jones, 
 by his Oriental Researches, has excited very general ad- 
 miration. The church was adorned by the unrivaled ap- 
 peals of Kirwan. "He called forth the latent virtues of 
 the human heart, and taught men to discover in themselves 
 a mine of charity, of which their proprietors had been un- 
 conscious. He came to interrupt the repose of the pulpit, 
 and shake one world with the thunder of another." 
 
 The female pen, if it did not contribute to the advance- 
 ment of science, was, at least, conducive to amusement. 
 Many females, however, achieved no more than mere com- 
 mon-place romances. But, the names of More, Hamilton, 
 and Inchbald; Opie and Barbauld; Williams, Burney, and 
 Edgeworth; will be respected : they have combined morali- 
 ty with recreation.* 
 
 Whilst those were following the retired inclinations of the 
 closet, others sought renown by exploring the i-p-^t distant 
 regions of the globe. Of these, some chose tiVe burning- 
 desert, some the boisterous surface of the deep. The one 
 has given celebrity to Bruce and Park ; the other to Byron, 
 Wallis, Carteret, and Cook. The Royal Society, wishing 
 to observe the transit of Venus, over the sun's disk, from 
 some of the islands in the Pacific, captain Cook was appoint- 
 ed to command the ship Endeavour. Accompanied by sir 
 Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander, and Mr. Green, he reached 
 Otaheite in April, 1769 ; the place where the observations 
 were to be made. In his third voyage round the world, 
 after making many useful discoveries, he was killed in a 
 quarrel with the natives of Owyhee, one of the Sandwich 
 Islands, in 1779. 
 
 Every one is familiar with the name of Howard, the cele- 
 brated philanthropist. On his way to Lisbon, to view the 
 dreadful consequences of an earthquake which destroyed 
 that city in the year 1755, being captured by a French pri- 
 vateer, the severities of confinement he enduried in France, 
 excited that sympathy for suffering captives, which has 
 rendered his memory so illustrious. A statue, erected in 
 
 * Several of these accomplished females are still living". 
 
:-^ HISTORY OF ITNGLAND. 
 
 St. Paul's, represents him in a Roman dress, holding- in 
 one hand a scroll of v/ritings on the improvement of prisons, 
 and in the other, a key; whilst he tramples upon chains 
 and fetters. 
 
 Two remarkable instances of longevity are noticed. Colo- 
 nel Winslow died, in Ireland, aged 146, and Conscst, in 
 England, at the yet more patriarchal age of 150 years. 
 
 Architecture, useful as well as ornamental, has in this 
 reign employed very general attention. Black Friar's 
 Bridge, in London, combines both utility and elegance. 
 The first stone of this important means of communication, 
 which is eleven-hundred feet long, and was finished at an ex- 
 pense of more than one-hundred-and-fifty-thousand poimds, 
 was laid a few days after the late monarch ascended the 
 throne. The Irish capital, however, especially in the Cus- 
 tom-House, on which was expended seven-hundred-thou- 
 sand, and the Four Courts, which cost five-hundred-thou- 
 sand pounds, exhibits the most classical and magnificent 
 public buildings, that have been erected, perhaps in any 
 country of Europe, since the finishing of St. Paul's cathed- 
 ral. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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