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 L O N D O N : • • 
 
 ]{ I >: T V. D r O R P R I V*A T E C I II C i; 1. A T 1 () N, 
 
 
Class Vl^^ 
 
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 DOBELL COLLECTION 
 
 
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 Al^lIii'X. 
 
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SHORT INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 NATURE OF LANGUAGE, 
 
 WITH A VIEW TO 
 
 ASCERTAIN THE ORIGINAL MEANINGS 
 
 SANSKRIT PREPOSITIONS; 
 
 ELUCIDATED BY 
 
 COMPARISONS WITH THE GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 BY 
 
 GRAVES C. HAUGHTON, 
 
 HON. M.A. OXON., F.R.S., &c. 
 
 LATE PROFESSOR OF HINDU LITERATURE AND THE HISTORY OF ASIA IN THE EAST-INDIA COLLEGE ; 
 AND SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION. 
 
 M.DCCC.XXXII. 
 
^u 
 
 
 % 
 
 .-^^ 
 
 205449 
 '13 
 
 L O N D X : 
 
 PRINTED BY J L. COX AND SON, GREAT QUEEN STUEKT, 
 
 Lincoln's-Imi-Fields. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The manner in which the writer of the following remarks had treated 
 the subject of Prepositions in his Bengdli Grammar, having met the 
 simultaneous approbation of such distinguished Oriental Scholars as 
 Shakespear, Chezy, Schlegel, and Bopp, he was induced, with 
 a view to the Election pending at Oxford for a Sanskrit Professor, to 
 reprint them with some short remarks on the nature of Nouns, Verbs, 
 and Prepositions in general. He now submits them to a few of his 
 private friends, with a view to a further discussion of the subject ; and 
 with the request that they will favour him with any observations that 
 may suggest themselves on their perusal. The writer conceives that the 
 truth can only be ascertained by a consideration of the mutual depen- 
 dance of the Noun, Verb, and Preposition, and he therefore entreats, 
 that no conclusion may be drawn as to any part, before the whole of this 
 very short treatise has been perused. 
 
SHORT INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 NATURE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In every inquiry which we make into the nature of language, we are bound to 
 ascertain its relation to the other phenomena of nature, and to consider it as some- 
 thing more than a detached and subservient instrument of thought. When we 
 examine it with care, it seems almost as mysterious as every thing which surrounds 
 us. We are apt to think that those things with which we are familiarised from 
 childhood possess nothing either profound or perplexing. When, however, we 
 inquire into the remote principles of language, we find that it shares in the mystery 
 and obscurity in which all the phenomena of nature are involved. 
 
 When language began to be employed by man, he was not yet aware of the 
 relation in which he stood to the rest of nature ; nor did he know that he was 
 himself formed and directed by laws that rendered him subservient to the circum- 
 stances by which he was surrounded, and to which his ovm nature bore a close 
 analogy. But when we investigate language, and rise from effects to causes, we are 
 compelled to feel that man was merely a passive instrument, if not in its forma- 
 tion, at least in its improvement; and we acquire the conviction that we must 
 thoroughly comprehend the nature of this first offspring of the human mind, before 
 we can hope to arrive at any legitimate conclusion as to the laws that regulate the 
 phenomena of mind itself. But if language has its basis in the principles of nature, 
 
 A 2 
 
INTKODUCTION. 
 
 we must not forget that its perfection is the result of Progression, which is 
 likevAdse the foundation of all improvement. 
 
 Man in the infancy of society, himself a mere infant in thought, was impelled 
 by the pressure of his wants to the formation of a medium by which he might 
 communicate with his own kind. The puppet of Nature, he was led by her to 
 the formation of an instrument that has enabled him, by affixing names to his 
 ideas, to turn general sentiments, which alone he could otherwise have felt, into 
 individual thoughts. His mind being a sort of mirror that reflected every thing he 
 felt and saw, he was driven by the principles implanted in his nature to the use of 
 articulate sounds, with which as with colours he painted his own perceptions. 
 
 That language adapted itself in its infancy merely to represent the physical phe- 
 nomena of nature, will be evident by an analysis of its parts. All things material 
 were designated by the Noun, while the motions of these objects were indi- 
 cated by the Verb in its simplest form. Such was the first step in language. The 
 next was to invent words that should limit and define the points to which the 
 motion implied by the verb tended, and thence resulted the Preposition ; and 
 it vdll be found that every subject may be conveyed intelligibly, though with some 
 tautology, by these three parts of speech, and they consequently constitute the foun- 
 dation of language. To express the physical qualities of the noun, it was only 
 necessary to join to it some other noun which possessed in .a prominent degree the 
 quality which it was wished to attribute to it. Thus to express the different colours, 
 such as green, red, white, &c. the names for grasa, rose, snow, &c. or some other 
 objects with the same qualities, were employed ; so also the name for a lion, a fox, 
 an ass, 8cc. served to designate the qualities of courage, cunning, stupidity, &c. ; 
 and these became the first Adjectives.* The Adverb was employed instead of a 
 
 * It was owing to his having considered the abstract nature of qualities, that Adam 
 Smith was led into the error of supposing that adjectives must have cost a great effort 
 to the human mind in their invention. The nature of qualities is of very difficult con- 
 ception ; but their designation by an adjective, it will be seen, was very easy. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 whole phrase to complete some accessory idea of the verb, such as the nature, 
 manner, quality, or intensity of its motion or action. From this it is evident that 
 the adjective defined the noun in the same way as the adverb did the verb. The 
 junction of one thing with another was intimated by the Conjunction. The Pro- 
 nouns for / and thou must have been of the earliest invention in language, as they 
 represented the speaker and the person spoken to, perhaps even before either had 
 a name. The Interjection was employed to rouse the attention of another, or to 
 mark the excitement felt by the person employing it. The Article (derived from 
 the demonstrative pronoun) was the last improvement of speech, and is only found 
 in those languages which have advanced to their utmost perfection of form. 
 
 But if we are anxious to push our enquiries to the utmost limits of human 
 investigation, we shall find a reason for the uniform and universal laws that govern 
 the philosophy of language in every varied condition and peculiarity of the human 
 race. It must be evident that speech was either conferred upon man at his crea- 
 tion, or arose imperceptibly as it was required by his wants. If the first, we must 
 suppose it was at once perfectly adapted to nature and to the social and intel- 
 lectual relations in which he was to stand to his fellow man. But if it arose 
 gradually, it was called into existence by the exigencies of his situation and the 
 circumstances by which he was surrounded ; and in either case it must be con- 
 sidered as the reflex of his sensations and perceptions, and consequently will be 
 in exact relation to the general laws of nature. It is on this account that the Noun 
 and Verb had each its archetype in matter and motion j and the Preposition 
 that marked local relation, and the Termination or Auxiliary that denoted the tenses 
 of the verb, had each its original in space and time long anterior to the appearance 
 of man on the earth. Language is thus forced to adapt itself to an abstract model 
 that eludes all investigation. Space and Time being the mere concomitants of matter 
 and motion, and having therefore a relative and not an absolute existence, language 
 will be often found to notice them only by implication ;* and this might be adduced 
 
 * It may be seen that language often only notices them by implication ; for when we 
 
b INTRODUCTION. 
 
 as a further proof of the dependence of language on those remote principles of nature 
 which influence man without his being conscious of their agency. 
 
 It is owing to this plastic influence exerted over language and its own imitative ten- 
 dency, as well as to the analogies to which the mind has recourse in all its deficiencies, 
 that words which were originally participles or adjectives are employed perma- 
 nently as nouns ; and that nouns themselves acquire the force and nature of verbs 
 or prepositions, and are classed, unconsciously by the mind, with those parts of 
 speech to which they have, by a new use, acquired an affinity. And in the same 
 way that such new words become either nouns, verbs, &c. so did the first primitive 
 sounds conform to that abstract model which existed before either words or man, and 
 which language adapted itself to delineate, and has, as it were, reproduced or 
 reflected with considerable accuracy and fidelity. Hence, whatever may be the 
 etymological sense of Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions, they must ultimately repre- 
 sent the various modifications of Matter and Motion, Time and Space : for language 
 would be a mere jumble of sounds, barely sufficient to indicate the more pressing 
 wants and sentiments of our nature, if it had not had some guiding principles to 
 which it originally conformed. 
 
 In consequence of the connection of the elementary principles of nature, and 
 to which language unconsciously conforms, every investigation respecting the 
 Noun, Verb, and Preposition* must be conducted with a due consideration of their 
 
 say he walked to town, both space and time are implied ; and wben we say the bird 
 flew over the Jield, though space is expressed by the preposition over, stilJ the verb to 
 fly implies both space and time; for all motion ma%\. he through space and in time. 
 But independently of the different tenses which specifically mark time, and the prepo- 
 sitions which designate the different relations of space, language necessarily compre- 
 hends one or other of these two categories in every primitive word. 
 
 * Though the Preposition only marks local relation, it can in no way be omitted in 
 an investigation into the basis of language, as the motions of all things in nature have 
 their limits, which are alone defined by this part of speech ; and it is as necessary to the 
 
INTHODUCTION. 7 
 
 mutual dependance. To consider any one of them without reference to the other 
 two must lead to a partial, limited, and unsatisfactory result. These three parts of 
 speech, therefore, being the mutual complements of one another, the truth can be 
 alone elicited by considering them together. If it is conceded that Prepositions origi- 
 nally implied local relations, and the position seems hardly possible to be denied, 
 Verbs must then be allowed to denote the different kinds of physical motion produced 
 by the objects represented by Nouns. Hence there is an indissoluble connection 
 existing between Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions. 
 
 Such is the nature of the first or primitive state of language ; but it deposes this 
 physical character as soon as it is employed to represent those abstract relations, 
 which, in propoiiion to the extent and accuracy with which they are comprehended 
 by any individual, raise him, in the scale of reason, almost as much above the rest of 
 mankind, as man is elevated above the brute. 
 
 Verb as those terminations or auxiliaries which mark time past, present, or future' 
 It is on this account that it is almost invariably found compounded with it, as in Sanskrit, 
 Greek, and Latin, or put immediately after it, as in English. 
 
( 8 ) 
 
 OF THE NOUN. 
 
 Nouns may be divided into two classes, that is to say into concrete and ahstract. 
 
 Concrete Nouns are the names of such things as are perceived by the organs of 
 sense, such as a house, a man, a tree, &c. As a further example, by the ear we 
 perceive a sound, by the eye a star, by the nose a scent, by the palate a taste, 
 and by the skin or touch the air ; not one of which could we have discovered by 
 any other organ than that which makes them respectively known to us. Concrete 
 Nouns, therefore, are the names of sensible objects. 
 
 Abstract Nouns are the names of mental perceptions, whether they relate to ac- 
 tions, acts, results, states, modes, relations, powers, qualities, quantities, numbers, 
 degrees, forms, colours, feelings, or passions.* It will be evident that language to 
 be definite, and therefore perfect, ought to have a precise and distinct termi- 
 nation for each class of abstract words. Such a provision is of wonderful aid 
 to abstract speculation, and relieves the mind from much unnecessary labour, as it 
 places the conceptions of the writer in the exact light in which they are intended by 
 him. Any one who will take the trouble of analysing the variety of senses in 
 which the word vision is employed in the English language, or still more paiticu- 
 larly the word motion, will see that the sense in which these words may be employed 
 by a writer or speaker, can alone be discovered by a painful application of thought. 
 In the same way the French have only one word for conscience and consciousness, 
 which must often be the cause of obscurity. The Sanskrit and Latin are both 
 particularly rich in such forms ; but some confusion is observable in both these 
 languages (though less in the former than in the latter) owing to the terminations 
 having been improperly added by careless or illogical thinkers. For this, however, 
 
 * Examples : The action oP striking, running, &c. produces the acts called a stroke, 
 a run, &c. ; so the action of bearing produces the result called a birth. The 
 STATE of sleeping results in sleep, and di/ing in death. 
 
OF THE NOUN. 9 
 
 every allowance is necessary, as mental perceptions do so closely approximate to one 
 another, that it is frequently very difficult to discriminate to which class they properly 
 belong ; and indeed, in some instances, the same idea may be referred to more than 
 one class, and some of the classes likewise would admit of subdivision, 
 
 A complete classification of the distinct perceptions of the mind has not yet been 
 made, and is a great desideratum towards a perfect analysis of thought. Were a 
 philosophic language ever to be invented this enquiry would be a preliminary step 
 of indispensable necessity ; as well as that of ascertaining the distinct local relations 
 for which prepositions are used, and by limiting each to one definite sense, thereby 
 preventing all chance of confusion and misconception.^ 
 
 The noun of itself, without some verb being expressed or understood, cannot form 
 a rational expression ; it is on this account that though the noun may seem the most 
 obvious part of speech, yet still its precise meaning can be understood only by a 
 reference to a verb ; it being by means of this part of speech that all the operations 
 of indicating, comparing, and reasoning are performed and determined. Hence 
 there is an obvious necessity for bearing in mind the reciprocal influence of Noun 
 and Verb, and also, as has been already shewn, of the Preposition, in every investi- 
 gation into the nature of any one of these three fundamental parts of speech. 
 
 * A systematic classification, such as is here contemplated, would be of great value 
 in forming the mind for metaphysical inquiries. An analysis of any process of reason- 
 ing, carried on with a reference to its distinctions, would afford the student a safe clue in 
 many of the intricacies of thought in which he is often bewildered ; and would give a 
 clearness, and a consequent conviction of abstract truth, which the mind in vain seeks for 
 when left to its own intuitive powers. Such an artificial aid would lead to the instant de- 
 tection of sophistry in abstract speculations; for without a clear conception of the distinct 
 differences of abstract words there can be no certainty in our conclusions. Tlie employ- 
 ment of such a system of analysis would be an excellent conclusion to ordinary grammar, 
 and might be termed abstract or transcendental grammar. In matters of feeling and 
 opinion men cannot of course be expected to agree; but abstract questions, if the 
 terms were properly defined, ought to be as capable of proof as the things from which 
 they are abstracted. 
 
 B 
 
( 10 ) 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 The following sketch of the verb in its different voices or states has been writ- 
 ten in a concise way, to explain its real nature to the enquiring student.* 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 In the infancy of language the verb merely denoted the modes of motion pecu- 
 liar to the simplest objects of nature, as to fly, to run, to strike, &c., but in 
 process of time, as language became perfect, the verb adapted itself to the ex- 
 pression of eveiy want of the human mind, and in this state it is considered 
 as denoting action, being, or suffering. But it is solely by a metaphorical use 
 that language is fitted for describing abstract ideas, and for this purpose the verb 
 divests itself of its essential attribute, which is motion in a physical sense. 
 
 In all inquiries into language, the origin and formation of the verb has ever 
 been deemed a subject of the highest interest. Either the first primitive language 
 consisted simply of Substantives, which were insensibly moulded into Verbs and 
 Prepositions, or the whole three sprang almost simultaneously into existence ; but 
 whether they are words originally and specifically invented to mark motion, or have 
 been adapted by degrees to this end, they at last acquire the same nature as if they 
 had been specially formed for the purpose. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 W^hen any sort of motion is expressed to be going on independent of the will 
 of the agent, as, the wood burns, the verb is termed neuter ; but the neuter 
 
 * These observations on Verbs and Prepositions are extracted from the Author's 
 Bengali Grammar. 
 
OF THE VERB. 11 
 
 state is in the agent, and not in the verb, vi^hich only conforms to the state of the 
 noun. 
 
 If a verb denotes any particular kind of motion depending, or conceived to 
 depend on the will of the agent, it is Active but intransitive ; that is, it implies 
 voluntary motion, which is commonly called Action, as, he runs, &c. ; and 
 when the motion passes on to an object on which it reposes, it is Active and 
 Transitive, as, he strikes the child. 
 
 Again, where motion is communicated from one agent to another, the verb 
 expressive of the motion is termed Causal ; as he caused the horse to gallop ; 
 but the Cause exists in the first agent ; the second is the Instrument ; and the 
 action of the verb remains unaltered in nature, but is marked in all languages 
 by some modification in the sound of the word, as ^T^'3 (karite^ to make, 
 <P<^ I'^^CsS {karaite), to cause to make, in Bengali ; or, as in our own language, 
 by compounding a verb implying agency with any infinitive expressive of the 
 particular motion to be produced. 
 
 When an object is affected by any action in which it has no agency, and is put 
 in the nominative case, the Verb expressive of the action is termed Passive ; but 
 the passion or suffering is in the object, and not in the Verb ; and in some lan- 
 guages this peculiar use of the Verb is simply marked by a modification of the 
 Verb itself, as amo, I love, amor, I am loved, in Latin ; and Jui (katala), he slew, 
 and J:LJj (kutild), he was slain, in Arabic. 
 
 In our own, and in most derivative languages, the passive sense is conveyed by 
 an attributive expressive of past time, i. e. by a passive participle, and the affir- 
 mation of the different times is expressed by an auxiliary verb. 
 
 The verb is termed Impersonal when it denotes any particular mode of motion 
 resulting from the spontaneous operations of nature, as it rains ; or from the 
 fitness of things, as it behoves me to go. Hence Nature and Necessity are 
 the real nominatives to such verbs. 
 
 It thus appears that the Verb, whether we term it Neuter, Intransitive, Transi- 
 tive, Causal, Passive, or Impersonal, was equally simple in its origin ; and that it is 
 
 B 2 
 
12 OF TflE VERB. 
 
 essentially the same in whatever voice it is used. The particular action, state, or 
 passion it is supposed to imply, exists only in the agent or object, and not in itself. 
 Still in almost all languages the sound of the verb is found modified to mark the 
 voice in which it is used, though it is occasionally to be met with unaltered in 
 sound, whether employed in a transitive, intransitive, or neuter sense. Our own 
 words to bear, to burn, to feel, &c. shew that this may be done without any mis- 
 conception. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks on the nature of the verb, it results, that Motion is 
 its essential attribute ; and that those who hold it to be a mere connective, have 
 not, perhaps, sufficiently considered its origin ; and have been led to observe its 
 apparent use, which is often metaphorical, rather than its essential quality, 
 which indicates different kinds of motion. But even when it is considered as a 
 mere connective, it would be more correct to call it an affirmative. 
 
 It would seem that the real cause why the nature of the verb has been so much 
 controverted, has simply arisen from the very partial and unconnected view which 
 has been taken of it in eveiy research into language. It is only by considering it 
 with reference to the Noun and the Preposition, which are its natural complements, 
 that we can arrive at any just ideas upon the subject. But viewed in connection 
 with these, its real nature becomes obvious. (See Remarks on the Prepositions.) 
 
 After use had fixed the first forms of the verb, the rest were easily brought into 
 existence by that love of analogy which is inseparably connected with the nature of 
 the human mind. In our own language we can by convention form any number of 
 verbs from nouns or adjectives. Thus we have made to shoe, to salt, to better, to 
 blacken, &c., a peculiarity that tends to a singular conciseness and precision of 
 expression ; and leads us to regret that a language so copious and simple, has been 
 adulterated by the admission of words from the French, the Latin, and the Greek. 
 Our language is still rich enough to rival, and in some cases to surpass the Ger- 
 man in beauty and simplicity, even after the rejection of almost every foreig:n 
 word. 
 
 These remarks on the Verb have been hazarded xmder the hope of putting the 
 
OF VOICES. 13 
 
 matter in a clear and consistent light to the learner ; for the Verb is the very life 
 of language ; the Noun is what it describes, and the Preposition, when requisite, 
 defines the tendency of its motion or action. Hence these three are the basis of all 
 language, and must be employed or understood in almost every proposition ; but 
 the other parts of speech may be either expressed by a circumlocution, or even 
 altogether rejected. 
 
 OF VOICES. 
 
 As it often becomes a matter of difficulty to ascertain the exact Voice to which a 
 verb belongs, the following remarks in addition to what has been just said are added, 
 with a view of putting the subject in a clear light.* 
 
 It is to be remarked, that in Sanskrit the fourth conjugation contains the great 
 body of the neuter verbs, while at the same time it is that which in its middle voice is 
 identical, in form, with the passive. My object is now to shew, that whatever purpose 
 is effected by the letter ^ ya, which is the distinctive sign of the passive voice, is 
 equally accomplished by the same letter for the fourth conjugation. In all lan- 
 guages there is an affinity between passive and neuter verbs, and there are some 
 that might be almost indifferently classed under the passive or neuter voice : such 
 instances frequently occur in Menu, the elucidation of which has led me to 
 treat the subject at length. 
 
 The verb ^T"^ ri jdyate, he is horn, is classed by the Sanskrit grammariahs 
 in the fourth conjugation, though, had they ranged it with the passive verbs, it 
 would not have been changed in the slightest degree in form. That they have 
 not done so shews the correctness of their notions of grammar. Dr. Johnson, in 
 his Dictionary of the English Language, states that the verb to he horn is 
 
 * These remarks on the voices of verbs are extracted from the Author's edition of the 
 Institutes of Menu, Vol. 1. p. 329. 
 
14 OF VOICES. 
 
 neuter-passive. The verb is originally passive, for when all its parts are supplied, 
 it means to he home hy a mother ; but in its popular and elliptical use, being 
 employed without any reference to its agent, as when we say, he was horn last 
 year, it becomes truly a neuter verb, for it then merely affirms the first appearance 
 of a child in the world. The verb nascor, in Latin, may be contested as belonging 
 to the passive by its form, and to the neuter by its use ; for it answers the con- 
 ditions of a deponent verb, which requires a passive foim without a passive sig- 
 nification. The French derivative of nascor, i. e. naitre, is laid down to be neuter 
 in the dictionary of the French Academy. In Hindustani the passive and some 
 other verbs are conjugated with \j\s>- jana, to go, and none but neuter ones with 
 O^Ji honu, to he ; and in that language to he horn is Oys Ijuj paida hona, and 
 therefore neuter. Thus we see that we have the analogy of language for con- 
 sidering to he horn as neuter by its use, whatever may be the conclusion we 
 come to by a reference to its derivation. 
 
 Perhaps the following reason for the solution of the equivocal nature of some 
 neuter verbs may be of service, as affording a clue for determining their classifica- 
 tion, and to shew why there is that similarity between the fourth conjugation and 
 the passive voice in Sanskrit ; and between all neuter and passive verbs. 
 
 The Subject both in the passive and neuter voice has no will or choice in the 
 action implied by the verb : thus, in the sentence he dies, the subject is affected 
 by a STATE over which he has no control, and which he would resist if he could ; 
 and in that of he is killed, he suffers from an action he cannot avoid. In 
 both these instances the subject is exposed to but one result, independent of his 
 will ; the having or not having which, constitutes the real distinction in all animal 
 sufferings and actions. It is on this account I conceive, that there is such a simila- 
 rity between the fourth conjugation and the passive voice, for whether the subject of 
 the verb be exposed to a state, or to an action, which he cannot avoid, he must be 
 the ohject. If a conjecture might be offered as to the sense of the increment H 
 ya, which is the distinctive sign of both the passive and the fourth conj ligation, I 
 would say, that it is connected with Hi yd or ^^ i, go, and that it fills the same 
 
OF VOICES. lb 
 
 office in Sanskrit which is done by the derivative jana, to go, in Hindustani and 
 the other dialects. 
 
 To define the distinction in doubtful cases between a neuter and a passive verb, 
 we have therefore only to consider whether the subject suffers from a state or an 
 action ; that is, whether there is the agency of natural causes, or of an individual, 
 in producing the effect implied by the verb. 
 
 But if it be necessary, on the one hand, to distinguish accurately between the 
 passive and the neuter, it is equally important to discriminate between the neuter 
 and the intransitive verb, in nice and doxibtful cases ; for the neuter verb holds an 
 intermediate place between the passive and the intransitive : and here again the 
 same test will give us the true definition ; namely, if the action implied by the 
 verb depends upon its subject, we may be certain it is not neuter, and that the 
 verb is consequently either transitive or intransitive. Had a rule of this kind, 
 which would afford a logical arrangement, been kept in view, we should not have 
 our grammarians differing about the nature of neuter verbs. That they have 
 been much perplexed by making distinctions upon imperfect grounds of judgment, 
 may be seen by referring to Mr. Lindley Murray's Enghsh Grammar, on the Verb. 
 The presence or absence of volition in the nominative can alone enable us to de- 
 termine the nature of the verb, and consequently by that test are we to be guided 
 whether the nominative is the agent or the object. Upon this view of the matter I 
 have arranged the different verbs as follows : and have given examples, lest any 
 doubt should arise as to their classification. 
 
 VOLUNTARY. 
 
 rp, r Intransitive, as He runs, stands, sits. 
 
 Nominative ] Transitive, — He kills, strikes, Sfc. 
 
 THE j Reflective, — He kills, Sfc. (^himself). 
 
 AGENT. (^ Causal, — He causes to kill, strike, Sfc. 
 
16 OF VOICES, 
 
 INVOLUNTARY. 
 
 _, r Impersonal, as It rains, thunders, snows, Sfc. 
 
 Nominative ) Neuter, — He dies, sleeps, drowns, Sfc. 
 
 THE I Passive, — He is killed, struck, Sfc. 
 
 OBJECT. L Causal Passive, — He is caused to he killed, Sfc. 
 
 Extract from the Sanskrit Grammar of Dr. Francis Bopp. Berlin, 1832. 
 
 PASSIVUM. 
 
 TEMPORA SPECIALA. 
 
 492. Passivum terminationibus personalibus J. imaree/>a(fi (middle voice) utitur, 
 quibus in temporibus specialibus syllabam H ya prsefigit; ita ut prorsus cum 
 quartse classis Atmantpado conveniat. 
 
 Annot. Cum quarta classis inaximam partem verba neutra comprehendat, quorum 
 significatio ad passivi naturam proximo accedit, (e g. I^H mriye, morior, 
 ^1*^ jdye^ nascor) : Haughtonius* apte hac in re causam quaesivit, cur 
 Passivum et quartae classis AtmanSpadum inter se non difFerant. Etiam Passivi 
 characteris H ya explicationem maxime probandam ofFert vir doctissimus, 
 qui a radice *^ i vel "^ I yd ire ilium descendere putat, cum revera 
 in HindostanS, aliisque dialectis Indicis Passivum circumscribatur per verbum 
 auxiliare ejusdem significationis et originis, et quidem per ^1*11 jdna (e. 
 M 1*1 ydna, itio) in Hindostana et "H I jd in Bengalica lingua. Dicitur e. c. 
 Bengalice "^llx 'M I *^ kdrajd'i, i. e. in actionem faciendi eo, pro fio. Con- 
 feratur Latina locutio amatum iri et verbum veneo ex ven et eo compositum. 
 
 In Sanscrito ipso legere memini 'i^"l*\'H'MI grahanam yayau, ivit in 
 captionem pro captus est. 
 
 * In Manuis editione, Vol. I. p. 329, et Grammaticae Bengalicce p. 68 et 95. 
 
( 17 ) 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 The various local relations of objects are denoted by Prepositions ; but though 
 all languages do not in every case make use of the same relations, yet there are 
 some primary ones that are common to all, as up, down ; in, out, &c. As those 
 persons who have not analysed language may find it difficult to attach a definite 
 idea to the w^ord relation, it may be rendered more intelligible by saying, it is that 
 idea which results from contrasting together two things with reference to their 
 mutual position : thus the sky is above the earth ; ahove therefore implies the relation 
 between sky and earth ; but by altering our point of view we may say, the earth is 
 beneath the sky ; beneath therefore implies the relation between earth and sky. It 
 is therefore evident that they were the first abstract words possessed by language. 
 
 The Noun is the name of the thing ; the Verb describes its mode of motion or 
 action ; and the relation expressed by the Preposition defines the tendency of that 
 motion ; that is, whether it is to, from, by, against, under, over, &c. any given 
 object. Hence its primary sense is that of local relation. 
 
 Thus Prepositions were originally employed to define the relative situations of 
 the different objects of nature, which were of course, in the infancy of society, 
 the first things that required the employment of speech for their description. But 
 in proportion as the impressions received through the senses began to be compared 
 and comprehended, the operations of the intellect were developed, and man 
 became a reasoning being ; and almost imperceptibly, a new application of 
 language was required to express the various relations of abstract ideas. And 
 though there may seem to be no necessary connection between abstract notions 
 and the relations of material things ; yet, as the comprehension of the former gra- 
 dually arises out of the consideration of the modes of material existence, so this first 
 and simple language, which had resulted from the necessity of describing whatever 
 
18 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 came within the scope of the senses, was at last employed to denote the abstract 
 conceptions of the mind ; because it afforded a natural analogy, and saved the 
 trouble of a new, and perhaps impossible, convention. Hence it must be purely 
 metaphorical, as often as it is employed in the description of mental perceptions. 
 
 The obvious distinction between language which had been invented to describe 
 natural objects, and its figurative application to denote abstract ideas, must never 
 be lost sight of in practice. For, when Prepositions are employed for the pur- 
 poses for which they were invented, they mark the relations of local position ; as, 
 " the bird flew to, above, before, behind, &c. the tree." But when the same 
 Prepositions are borrowed to express abstract conceptions ; as, " fancy triumphs 
 over reason," or " the mind revolts against oppression," they imply nothing more 
 than a mere mental contrast ; and by convention we agree to think that what we 
 assimilate in our minds to above and before, &c. is better than what we designate 
 by below and behind, &c. though there can be neither up nor down, before nor 
 after, in what is purely mental. 
 
 From what has been remarked above, it will be evident that Prepositions were, 
 in the origin of language, almost as indispensable as verbs ; for without their aid 
 few verbs could convey a definite idea, as the Prepositions alone denote the 
 tendency of the action of the verb. Perhaps" they had been more properly termed 
 definitives or limitatives than Prepositions. (See the Remarks on the Verb). 
 
 In the foregoing concise view of the nature of Prepositions, it is not pretended 
 to give a decided opinion how they have come into their present form and use in the 
 Sanskrit language, but merely to say that the closest and most impartial considera- 
 tion bestowed on the subject confirms the belief already expressed, that as they 
 are the natural complement of the noun and verb, whether they are original words 
 or are borrowed, they at last express but one distinct relation, which is in its 
 primary use a local one, and implies either up or down, in or out, &c. A refer- 
 ence to some words employed in the Bengali, Hindustani, and other dialects 
 springing from the Sanskrit, is of great value in elucidating the manner in which 
 such words are divested of their original nature, and restricted to a given use. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 19 
 
 The word "*1^L^ samipa* originally meant, as is clear by its etymology, accom- 
 panied hy water, but it is now only used in Bengali for in the vicinity or near. 
 So the Bengali part. ^^^"3 ho'ite, being, as a preposition implies from. In Hin- 
 dustani (jAi pas, near, is a corruption of the Sanskrit form ^ '^ ^ parswe, in the 
 side ; and ^-^ men, iji, seems to be derived from the Sanskrit ^C<!J madhye, in the 
 middle. These instances, which we can still trace to the original language, are 
 sufficient to shew how words totally different in their nature may come at last to 
 imply but one relation ; and to this state they are brought by the very nature of 
 the human mind, and those external causes that control and force language into such 
 special classes, as Noun, Verb, and Preposition. The strongest reason that could 
 be assigned for the primitive nature of Sanskrit Prepositions is the fact of their 
 being often the shortest words m the language, and being incapable of decompo- 
 sition. It ought not likewise to be forgotten that the inseparable Prepositions, being 
 compounded v^dth verbs and nouns, have been preserved by this union from the 
 corruptions and changes which would have affected them in a separate state ; and 
 this may be one reason why there is less difference between the Prepositions in 
 Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit (when they are the same words) than between the other 
 words that are found to co-exist in these three cognate languages. That such very 
 short words should act as adjectives to nouns, when in composition with them, 
 leads to the idea that they are really primitives. 
 
 Prepositions are a very important part of speech ; and particularly in so pure a 
 language as the Sanskrit, A little attention to the etymology of the language 
 may finally save the learner much time and trouble ; as well as give him a more 
 perfect knowledge of its structure than he could acquire from merely learning the 
 words by rote. And in those instances where the words cannot be resolved by any 
 general rules of etymology, we must bear in mind that many must be founded 
 upon allusions which are lost in the remoteness of antiquity. It should not b'e for- 
 gotten, likewise, that words of more modem composition are generally less pure than 
 
 * Dr. Wilkins' Gram. Rule 1177. 
 c 2 
 
20 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 the more ancient ones, owing to the compounds being formed without a reference to 
 the distinction between the physical and the figurative senses of the elementary words. 
 It is owing to this defect, which comes on with the growth of language, that Greek 
 words compounded with a preposition admit of such unsatisfactory analysis. In- 
 deed though the Greek language has retained many of the peculiarities of the 
 Sanskrit, particularly in the forms of the verbs, yet in its words it is so much cor- 
 nipted, that we must be convinced that it was introduced amongst a people whose 
 organs of utterance were as unfitted for correctly imitating the original sounds, as 
 those of our Saxon ancestors were for pronouncing the Norman French. 
 
 In conclusion it remains only to say that in the foregoing view of the Noun, the 
 Verb, and the Preposition, the truth has been elicited by a reference to their 
 mutual dependence on one another ; and whoever considers the subject in the same 
 connected point of view must come to the same result. As a general rule, when- 
 ever any verb implies a physical motion, such as to fly, to run, to leap, &c. the 
 preposition employed will be found to express a local relation, as to fly up, to fly 
 down, &c. and that such simple senses of the prepositions must be their primary 
 significations is as clear as that the figurative meanings are those that are borrowed 
 from them. To find, therefore, the original sense of a Preposition or Verb, we have 
 only to consider whether it is employed in a physical or a figurative sense. 
 
 OF INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 In assigning the meanings of the following Prepositions, the primary, that is the 
 local relation which they convey is printed in capitals ; while those senses which 
 arise from the primary idea by implication, or by a figurative use, are printed in 
 italics. But it must not be thence concluded that they have really so many various 
 significations. The multitude of nicely discriminative Prepositions in our own lan- 
 guage, is the cause why we almost invariably reserve each of them to define but one 
 relation of things ;' though what denotes before would equally well imply first, or 
 against, and so on for the others. But even among our own Prepositions, though 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 21 
 
 we could (as far as regards meaning), most accurately substitute other particles 
 that should convey every signification of hy, as well as its primary sense of 
 NEAR, yet custom has determined that we must use it, instead of any other, in 
 veiy many instances ; and this word affords a good example of the way in which 
 the following primary and derivative meanings of the Prepositions are to be 
 understood. 
 
 If the figurative meaning assigned to one Preposition may seem occasionally to 
 encroach upon that laid down for another, it should be remembered, that a word 
 must necessarily, when metaphorically employed, be often equally capable of con- 
 veying the same idea as one whose primary signification is very different ; for this 
 reason the idea of excellence or superiority may be equally well denoted, in figu- 
 rative language, by the word hefore, as by above, or beyond. 
 
 ^ L 
 
 TO, AT, AS FAK AS. 
 
 * 
 
 This Preposition denotes the relation subsisting between two things which both 
 extend to the same point, hence it defines the limit of the action of any verb ; as he 
 went to the house: i. e. as far as the house. If prefixed to a root implying going, 
 it makes it to mean coming ; and if to a root signifying giving, it makes it imply 
 taking; because the root only expresses some kind of motion generally; thus 
 what goes to any one, comes to him; and again what is given to any one, is 
 implied to be taken. Its use as a prefix to all words but verbs, seems rather 
 obscure, except we remember that union implies perfection; thus ^t<Oi ahha, 
 splendour, from "sj i hha, shine. It is identified with the Greek a, and the Latin 
 ad, in which the d is pleonastic, as in prodesse and prodeo, without the same 
 
 * Agreeably to what has just been said, the primary local relation expressed by 
 the Preposition is printed in capitals, and the derivative senses are given in italics. 
 
22 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 necessity for its insertion, as in these two examples, where its use is to prevent any 
 hiatus in sound. 
 
 ^2kPl apa, OFF, or away : deriv. inferior, had. 
 
 This Preposition may be considered as the reverse of ^STl a, as it marks the 
 relation subsisting between objects which are off or away from one another ; hence 
 it denotes disjunction, and the commencement of action. Prefixed to a verb of 
 motion it makes it imply separation ; as ^5Pl iT^ apagata, gone away, or off; and 
 added to any other kind of root or word, it deteriorates, or reverses the sense ; 
 because disjunction implies imperfection; as ^^^Sr\i^^ apahrita, hindered, from 
 ^ kri, do. "SI^fSTI apacJiaya, loss, from T^ chi, accumulate. It is identified 
 in origin with the Greek «7ro, the Latin ah, and the English off. 
 
 A pra. FORE, or before : deriv. prior, exceeding, excellent, very. 
 
 Prefixed to a verb of motion, it will of course seem to imply progressive motion, 
 as forth, forward, &c. but the Preposition merely marks the direction of the 
 motion implied by the verb. As that which precedes, exceeds, and is generally 
 conceived to be hetter than that which follows ; and as that which is before, is 
 heyond the thing it is in contrast with, this Preposition serves to mark priority, 
 excess, excellence, and intensity. 
 
 It is identified in origin with the Greek tt^o ; the Latin pro and prce ; but pro 
 seems to express the primary idea, and prce the derivative senses. And, finally, 
 it is the same as the English /or or: fore. 
 
 "^"^y para, opposite: deriv. over, across, contrary, reverse. 
 
 The relation intended by this Preposition expresses the situation of anything 
 which is opposite to something else ; as the further bank of a river,* &c. hence it 
 
 * This is the only preposition which admits of analysis ; it is therefore of singular 
 
 value in throwing light upon the history of these primitive words. The preposition 
 
 *^' para implies the relation that exists between two lines that are exactly opposite and 
 
 therefore parallel (^raj' ayMMn) and equal to one another. In Sanskrit the near shore 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 23 
 
 implies, 1 . the position of any thing opposite or over the way ; so H <Tlr^ 
 parakrama (over-step^ :* any great exertion ; as strength, prowess, valour, &c. 
 and ^4 1*1 paraga (over-going^ : an eclipse ; dust, &c. 2. contrariety ; as 
 ^T^I^ "par ah (going across) : croohed, croohedly. 3. What is reverse ; as 
 ^^■pSSPcl paranmuhha, (/ace-reversed) : having the face averted ; and ^T^l^si 
 parabhuta, (become reversed) ; overcome. It might equally well denote what is 
 parallel, or equal to ; but it is very little used, and almost every instance of its 
 occurrence has been exhausted in the foregoing examples. It seems exactly to 
 correspond and to have a common origin with the Greek TrcepcB and the Latin par. 
 ^T< adhi. OVER : deriv. superior in station, quantity, quality, or degree- 
 It marks the relative position of something over, or above, another ; and hence 
 denotes that the action of the verb passed over, or above some given object ; as 
 ^<!I^ adhita (gone oi)er), i. e. perused. Prefixed to nouns, it denotes their 
 superiority in station, quantity, quality, or degree according to their meaning. 
 
 In ni. IN, or within, on, upon : deriv. entire, perfect, complete, ceasing, 
 refraining. 
 
 of a river is termed ^ '*^ vara, but the opposite shore is called ^ '*^ Pd^a^ almost the 
 very word we are considering ; the word i^ para too means other, beyond, and has 
 given birth to the Greek •ne^a. In Latin we have par, adj. equal, even, corresponding, 
 and from thence par, a pair, a match, an equal, and from this has sprung the French 
 pair, the English pair and peer : all these senses arise out of the idea of two things 
 exactly opposite and therefore equal to one another ; and this Preposition, whether 
 employed in Sanskrit or Greek, is so true to its origin, that it always implies a reference 
 to two things one of which is meant to be opposite and equal to the other : so a paradox, 
 Tra^aSolo? , is an opinion contrary to the usual one. The two banks of a river, called 
 vara and pdra, therefore naturally suggested the relation intended to be conveyed by 
 the Sanskrit ^*^1, and the Greek 9r«fa. 
 
 * The meaning put between parentheses is that which I derive from the word by Ety- 
 mology, but those which immediately follow it are from the Dictionary. 
 
24 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 This Preposition marks the relation between two things, one of which is con- 
 tained by the other ; as 1*1 1 0^ nichita, (^collected in) : full, complete, from To 
 chi, accumulate. The idea of wholeness, perfection, and completeness naturally 
 arises in considering any object as having all its parts within itself. As what 
 remains in, is implied to be in a state of cessation or refraining, this Preposition 
 is occasionally employed to express both these qualities ; so ri ^nj nivritta 
 {turned in) : ceased, from ^^ vrit, turn ; and |n^<l nivard (refraining from 
 a choice) : a virgin, from ^ vri, choose ; because anciently females had the right of 
 choosing a husband, hence called ^^ vara, which signifies a choice. It is 
 sometimes apparently confounded with Tn^ nir. In origin and meaning it is the 
 same as the Greek tv, and the Latin and English in. 
 
 \^^^nir. OUT, or without: deriv. void, or destitute of. T^o nih, In jl^ 
 nis, T*i *i^ nish, v^^^nis, are forms of which it is susceptible, according to the 
 nature of the first letter of the word to which it is joined. (See the rules for the 
 junction of letters at the end of the Author's Bengali Grammar.) 
 
 The relation existing between two things of which one is outside of the other, 
 is denoted by this Preposition ; hence it serves, without any ambiguity, to mark 
 destitution, or privation ; as Tn^^l^M nirdkriti (without a form) : formless. 
 But even its most literal meaning will convey, under another point of view, an 
 opposite sense ; as Tn<l 0*1 nirvachana, speaking out, a speaking or narrating, &c.* 
 It agrees exactly in sense, but not in origin with the Greek l^, the Latin ex, and 
 the English out. 
 
 ^ sam. WITH, or beside: deriv. complete, perfect. 
 
 *iX sang, ^*T^ san, ^^ san, ^T^ san, ^^ sam, are forms which it will be 
 
 * Here we have an instance of what has escaped notice, that the form of the word 
 to which the preposition is added reacts on the preposition and modifies its meaning : 
 in this instance, being added to the verbal noun the sense is reversed : this is one cause 
 of the obscurity in which this branch of grammar has been so long involved. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 25 
 
 found occasionally to assume, according to the letter with which the word to 
 which it is prefixed, commences. 
 
 This preposition denotes the relation existing between things which are beside 
 one another ; hence it conveys the idea of accompaniment, completeness, and 
 perfection. The Greek <rvv, and the Latin cum, con, seem perfectly identified with 
 it in origin and signification. 
 
 "^1"^ abhi. before: denv. first, better, against. 
 
 The relation existing between objects, of which one is before or in front of 
 the other, is expressed by this preposition; as 5tf%5I>y aM.MuUa (before ,>.e 
 face) : present. As what is before may be considered as first and better than other 
 things with which it has a relation, this preposition is sometimes employed for that 
 purpose; as ^T'^OvSl l\i abhijdta (first, or heii&c-borri) : noble. It seems to be of 
 the same origin as the Latin ob. The difference between it and h pra, may be, 
 that the latter expresses something before, without relation to distance ; while ^ T^ 
 abJii conveys the idea of what is immediately before, or in front. 
 
 ^T^ anu. AFTER : deriv. following, imitating, successive. 
 
 When of things one is after the other, the relation existing between them is 
 expressed by this preposition ; as "^"Jjl anuga ingoing after) : following. So what 
 is done after any thing else, implies imitation ; thus ^3In^T^ anukdra (a doing 
 after); imitation, resemblance. It further serves to mark regular succession, as 
 ^*lr^^ anukrama (step after step) : order, method. 
 
 v^, "^K^tit, or ud. up: deriv. high, elevated, superior. 
 
 This preposition agrees exactly with our up, and marks the relative position of any 
 thing that is up or above something else : hence its derivative senses. 
 
 ^^ ava. DOWN : deriv. low, contemptible, bad. 
 
 It is the reverse of the preceding Preposition, and marks the relation between things 
 one of which is below the other, and added to a verb implies that its action had a 
 downward tendency; as ^<1\3T4 avatdra, {passing down) descent, incarnation, from 
 ^ trt, pass, and ^*H T^ avagata, {gone down to the heart), i. e. comprehended. 
 The heart being conceived to be the seat of the understanding among the Eastern na- 
 
 O 
 
26 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 tions.* It deteriorates or reverses the sense of words to which it is prefixed, by the 
 same figurative use as ^i apa, because what is beneath another is considered in- 
 ferior when used in a figurative sense ; thus ^^•^T avarasa, a bad taste, fi-om ^^ 
 rasa, a taste, and ^SI^^Hs avarudha, dismounted, fi-om ^^ rwA, mount. It 
 corresponds in sense but not in origin to the Greek JcoiTot. 
 
 "on upa. NEAB, or by: deriv. similar, inferior, subordinate. 
 
 When two things are near each other, their relative position is marked by 
 "^1 upa ; as O H 'Ts? upagata, (gone near) ; approached, from HsS gata, gone. 
 What is near another in kind, is similar but inferior ; therefore '3^*1 l*J^ upandma, 
 (near or almost a name) : a by-raamc, a nick-name. C5^i<?^ upadharma, (almost, 
 or similar to a law, a subordinate law) : a hy-law. There seems to be a perfect 
 resemblance between this preposition, in signification and origin, with the Greek vttq 
 and the Latin sub, though in the latter language the figurative has usurped the 
 place of the primitive sense. 
 
 T^ vi. APART : deriv. peculiar, distinct, different, without. 
 
 This preposition denotes the relation in the state of a thing that is apart, or 
 separate from another ; thus T'<1|^\3 vikshipta, {thrown apart) : scattered. 
 Hence it figuratively implies peculiarity, or distinctness. It expresses the 
 same idea as is common to our own and other languages, when we say any 
 thing has a " peculiar form ;" by which we mean that it has a form apart, or 
 distinct from something else, and which may be either good or bad by convention!, 
 but more commonly the latter. Thus I '^*^^ virupa (peculiar ybrm) : deformed, 
 monstrous. As the idea of privation naturally arises from that which expresses sepa- 
 
 * The Sanskrit word manas implies heart and mind, and is thought to be the original 
 of the Latin mens and the English mind. If the above analysis, making avagata refer to 
 manas, should be contested, it will not shake the original sense assigned to the prepo- 
 sition ; for in English to go to the bottom of a thing implies to understand it perfectly ; 
 and to understand a thing is to stand under, that is to be at the bottom of it. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 27 
 
 ration., this Preposition is frequently so employed ; as 1^'^'^ viphala (without 
 fruit) : fruitless ; and in this sense it is identified with the Persian ^j bi. It 
 seems to agree in sense and origin with the Latin de and di, which are perhaps 
 corrupt forms of ve, as found in vecors and vesanus ; but it is perfectly preserved in 
 the Latin vidua, which is identical with the word T<l<^i vidhavd, (vi without 
 dhava, a husband) : whence also the Saxon pi&pa, from which comes the English 
 widow. 
 
 I \^ pari. AROUND : deriv. entirely, thorougJdy. 
 
 This preposition denotes the relation between things one of which is around some, 
 thing else ; as ^1^1 ^\3 parikshipta (^thrown around) : surrounded, entrenched. 
 Hence it figuratively conveys the idea of any thing entirely done ; because what is done 
 all around implies completeness, or finish ; as ^T^/^^ paripurna, entirely, or 
 quite full. It seems to agree in every respect with the Greek Tvspi, and the 
 Latin per. 
 
 ^rc prati. AGAIN, or against : deriv. contrary ; repeated, several, returned, 
 reflected ; much. 
 
 It denotes the relation existing between things which by repetition return again 
 in a sort of order, and consequently stand against each other. This idea is 
 suggested by the winding back and forward of a rivulet,* or of a path, the 
 coil of a rope, &c. Hence it marks, 1. contrariety ; as ^Ml^\3 pratikshipta 
 
 * Mankind in the infancy of language must have found the idea of repetition extremely 
 difBcuh, and if we bear in mind that the English words two-fold, three-fold ; the 
 Latin duplex, triplex, and the Sanskrit dwiguna, triguna (two twists, three twists), 
 all convey ideas borrowed from some material objects, we shall be convinced that it is 
 to such things that the speaker must have had recourse to suggest this idea to another. 
 A folding screen or a fan conveys the idea exactly of a thing which is repeated in 
 exact order, but in the infancy of society a winding stream, the folds of the skin, or the 
 coil of a rope, would be the most obvious images. 
 
 D 2 
 
28 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 {thrown against) : rejected ; repelled, resisted. 2. repetition ; as h M*^^ 
 pratikrishta {ploughed again): twice ploughed. 3. distribution, as ^1^1 'In 
 pratidina, day against {day) : daily. 4. return ; as ^^^'^- pratyuttara 
 {answering again): reply. 5. reflection; as ^i^3u?l*lt pratichhdyd (reflected 
 shadow) : image, picture. And from repetition arises the idea of intensity ; as 6. 
 H^T"^!*-!^ pratisrishta {distinguished again and again): renowned. It is the 
 equivalent of the Latin re. 
 
 ^1^ ati. BEYOND : deriv. excessive, great, very. 
 
 The relation subsisting between objects, one of which is beyond the other, is 
 signified by this preposition ; as ^l^iCni atinau, beyond the boat, "^TM^^On 
 atipatana {going beyond) : transgression. Hence it conveys the idea of excess^ 
 as ^STFoXTn atiddna, excessive liberality ; and ^r3^T^ ativriddhi, great 
 increase, "511 ■3^^ atidura, very distant. It expresses exactly the same relation 
 as the Latin trans, and the Greek /^Jtoj .* 
 
 ■^in api. UPON. 
 
 This preposition, which is so common in Greek, is so rarely employed, that it 
 might have been omitted without inconvenience. It seems to denote the relation of 
 any object that is upon another ; as "^IT^n^ apinaddha, {bound upon) : accoutred. 
 As a conjunction its use is very common, implying moreover, also, likewise, 
 which seems to corroborate the sense here assigned to it. It is of the same origin 
 as the Greek Itti . 
 
 ^SM. GOOD :-j- deriv. proper, excellent, fit, beautiful, kind, easy, pleasing, 
 very, &c. 
 
 * If we bear in mind that the Sanskrit lina {one less), the Latin unus, and the 
 English one (pronounced reon) are the equivalents of the Greek /*o'vof , we may be 
 inclined to think that the Sanskrit ati and the Greek ^era have some connection more 
 than the mere identity of sense ; and that the ^ may in this instance be prosthetic, as 
 well as in /wovof . 
 
 + It must strike the scholar that the meaning of good assigned to this Preposition, 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 29 
 
 This preposition is only employed to enhance the value of nouns and adjectives j 
 hence it conveys, according to the nature of the word to which it is prefixed, the idea 
 
 and that of bad to the next, is contrary to the principle laid down that every preposition 
 implied local relation : this objection is so obvious that it requires explanation. The 
 prepositions, according to the nature of the word with which they were compounded, 
 acted either as adverbs or adjectives, and were consequently the earliest words of that 
 kind possessed by language. The first adjectives required would be good and bad^ 
 and the question immediately occurs which of the prepositions would best imply these 
 two ideas. Independently of the general reasoning that might lead us to a just conclu- 
 sion, we have the aid afforded by analogy. 
 
 In l^atin props means near, and from it arises the adjective proprius, and thence 
 comes likewise the French propre and the English proper^ meaning good, fit, &c. 
 From proprius likewise descends proprietas, property. In Sanskrit too the preposition 
 ^SM seems to have entered into the adjective "^"^l^sM + as, own, and the noun <1 
 SU + am, property, hence we see why we have the Latin suus (su + us) his own, 
 implying also proper, due, lawful. Now if we were to ask how land would be appor- 
 tioned out among a population beginning to feel its value, certainly the law \»''»Mld be that 
 each man should take that which was nearest to him, and thence vicinage would be held 
 to confer the highest right in the division of the yet unappropriated earth. As an illus- 
 tration, let us suppose for a moment men thrown upon an uninhabited island : as long 
 as the hope of escape remained, if they had families, they would simply confine them- 
 selves to the preparation of some means of shelter from the weather ; but as soon as 
 the conviction arose that they must pass their lives where they were, an allotment of the 
 land would take place, and each would claim that which was nearest to his own dwelling, 
 and which on that account would be considered as his own property. The connec- 
 tion of this word with the idea of nearness is thus established, as well as with that of 
 property. Its original signification therefore seems to be close, and the difference 
 between it and '^\ upa is that the latter mevin's proximity in a general sense, while "^ 
 $u implies close contact / an idea supported by the English verb to meet, which gives 
 
30 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 of 1 . perfection, or goodness : ^^jT^ supatha, an excellent, or good road. 2. 
 fitness, or propriety; as ^*XTR> suhhddya (fit, or proper to he eaten): whole- 
 some. 3. beauty ; as '*|^'^Tl suranga (beautiful in colour^ : the orange. 4. 
 kindness ; as ^^^ suhrit (a kind heart) : a friend. 5. facility ; as ^^^ 
 sukara, (easy done) : practicable. 6. pleasingness ; as "^U sukha (pleasing ^Ae 
 senses): pleasure. 7. superiority; as ^!^ • suvarna (superior cZass, or colour (to 
 silver): gold (Compare '^'^ • silver). 8. intensity; as^^I^ sutikshna, very acute. 
 
 rise to the adjectives meet, proper, right, good, &c. ; and to be fitting, that is, to be 
 right, proper, good, &c. and which springs from the idea of things that^i together. The 
 sense of good springs naturally from the idea of what belongs to ourselves in relation to the 
 individual, the family, or the nation; thus our own opinions, our own family descent and 
 customs, our own national qualities, we must from our very nature consider as better than 
 those of others ; and so true is language to this leading idea, that we call our property 
 our goods (in French nos Mens). This subject may be further illustrated by a reference 
 to the Persian : M. Burnouf's researches have demonstrated that the Sanskrit ^ K^"*!^ 
 swa-daitas, self-given, self-manifested, (Latin sui datus) is the original of the Zend 
 kadata, from this comes the modern Persian \Ss- khuda, which is identical with the 
 Saxon and English God. In a similar manner, the Sanskrit ^l"^ sm + as, own, having 
 given birth to the Persian iiyi- khii + d, own, self, (the letter J d being the pleonastic 
 letter in Persian as in Latin) would lead to the belief that this last word is the original 
 of the Saxon gob and English good. 
 
 The truth of the foregoing inquiry is singularly confirmed by a reference to the 
 Greek; for the preposition tu good gives birth to the adjective kui good, and the con- 
 nection of Eo'f his own with el good, in the same way as "^ su, good, with ^"^ 
 iu + as, his own, is thus brought to light perhaps for the first time. The Greek aspirate 
 in the above and other instances takes the place of the Latin and Sanskrit s, and is 
 therefore quite distinct from the digamma. If there is any truth in this argument, the 
 original sense of "^ must be close or near, from which is derived the idea of own^ 
 and from own good. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 31 
 
 It is exactly the reverse of dur or dv^s^ and agrees in signification and origin 
 with the Greek iJ. 
 
 "^^ dur. BAD :* deriv. improper, vile, unfit, difficult, displeasing, paucity, &c. 
 
 ^o duh, \^ 1^ dus, '^'^ dush, ^^X^ dm, are forms which it must assume accord- 
 ing to the consonant with which the word it is prefixed to may begin. 
 
 As it is exactly the reverse of ^«m, it is employed to depreciate the nouns and 
 adjectives to which it is joined ; on this account it denotes 1. vileness, or badness ; 
 as 1*^^ duradhwa, a bad roa<?; 2. unfitness ox impropriety; as^'^ ''^ ^ durdldpa 
 (improper speech) : abuse. 3. difficulty; a,s\^^^ duschara (difficult to go^ : im- 
 practicable. 4. displeasingness; as '^o U duJikha, (displeasing to the senses) : pain. 
 5. paucity; as ^^^ durbala {of little strength): weak. 6. inferiority; as '^'^n 
 durvarnai^vaS&ciox class, or colour {to gold) (compare ^^^ go W): silver. The Greek 
 ^vg, and the Latin dis, seem to have a perfect analogy with it, in sense and origin. 
 
 These Prepositions cannot be added at pleasure to a root or word ; but their uses 
 must be determined by the custom of the language. Two or three are very often 
 prefixed to one root, and, though rarely, even four may be found added, as in 
 
 * Nearly all that has been said regarding ^sm will, in a reversed sense, apply to this 
 preposition. Whatever was distant, was considered as bad : in this way, foreign, out- 
 landish, strange, &c. are always used by the vulgar with a deteriorating sense, and 
 hence I have little doubt that this preposition is connected in origin with the Sanskrit 
 ^^ d'dra, distant. The English word bad is evidently the same as the Persian JJ bad, 
 and if we had any evidence that the Scandinavian nations migrated from the shores of 
 the Caspian after the intermixture of the Medes and Persians, I would without hesi- 
 tation refer the origin of the Persian Ja bad to some Syriac form connected with the 
 Arabic SxJ buad, distance; for we know that the Pahlevi or fiorrfer language was a 
 mixture of a Syriac dialect with the old Persic, and this supposition would satisfactorily 
 account for the many words apparently of the Semitic stock found in the Teutonic dia- 
 lects. The original signification of '^"4.^ dur must therefore be far, from which is 
 derived the idea of bad. 
 
32 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 the word ^T^T^^^T'^^ surrounded, attended upon, in which there are ^°, '^1^ , 
 T^ and "SIl prefixed to the root ^ take. 
 
 Though, strictly speaking, the following words are adverbs, yet as they are very 
 frequently used in the same manner as prepositions, they are on this account inserted 
 immediately after them. 
 
 '^^^^adhas. down, downwards, below: deriv. low, vile. "^I^o adhah, 
 ^^■^l^ adhar, ^<! ]^ adhas, "^IC^ adho, are forms which it may occasionally 
 assume when in composition. 
 
 ^^^, antar, ^v3o antah, ^^^^\ antas, &c. Within, between, among. It 
 is the same as the Latin inter. 
 
 O ill^ upari. above or over. 
 
 It is identified in origin and signification with the Greek oVif , the Latin super, 
 the Gotliick ufar, and the English over. 
 
 ^^■^^ pur as. IN FRONT, before: deriv. prior, first. i^o purah^ i^^K 
 puras, *3^ ' pui'o, are forms which it may occasionally assume. It seems identified 
 with the Greek ir^og. 
 
 ^\<^\vahis, or wahis.* Out, outwards, external. ^T^o vahih, ^<^ vahir, 
 ^A\ J^ vahis, are fonns which it may occasionally assume. 
 
 * This word seems to be the original of the Latin ex and the Greek l|. The letter 
 <s h was anciently very guttural, approaching to the Arabic ^ khe} hence wahis would 
 be soon corrupted into wakhs, and then softened into ex and s^- Its occurrence in both 
 Greek and Latin is almost decisive as to its being referable to the Sanskrit stock. For 
 a similar reason we must refer the Greek aMoj and Latin alius to the Sanskrit "^l'"*!^ 
 anyas, other. 
 
^;j^<j;^:'^^ 
 
 LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 
 
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