'>;_ -/ -^^ .^\ . ,■.*' -%,, •-> ^ .0^, •^o o'< '/'^ .^. ,---, y ^ .A ^3 ■*.„. :*- .,•,•<■ v^^ 0^" . » ^ •^* '■^-\.x^ oo X c -^z .V ''V^K'. -"■ v^ :, v^o OO^ .- .^^i:X'. -e.. .:'.-^o .■A' %^/,^'^-\\;;^Vf.^;_/ ^^ .^^ '% -^^ V ' .A ,p ^ •\ -r. .■\' V iiicksmith, carpenter, shoemaker, and tailor. If unmarried males and females were caught together at for- bidden hours or places, a severe castigation of both trans- gressors was sure to follow the detection. As very few of the missions provided a physician, the padre usually attended to the duties of medical adviser. A portion of the time in the morning and at evening was devoted to religious duties and ceremonies, at which every native was bound to be present under penalty of punish- ment. The adults had to listen to the recitation of the Latin prayers and services, and the neophytes were cate- chized, — the padre not only askmg, but answering, every question. All had to bow, kneel, cross themselves, and confess. On the Sabbath, one service was observed in the church; tne remainder of the day was devoted to amusement — the fandango * not unfrequently closing the scene. The landed estates, being generally very extensive, could not be protected by fences ; and the cattle of dififerent pro- prietors wandered unrestrained over vast fields. It was important to keep the herds belonging to the several estates separate, if possible : and, to distinguish the cattle of each, it became the custom of each proprietor, at a very early period, to brand his stock with his particular mark. So imperious was the necessity, in later years, for the observance of this custom, that a law was enacted regulating the whole subject, which made it the duty of each proprietor to adopt an " estate mark" (liierro f), and to brand it on all his stock. A record of these marks was to be kept, and a convenient number of officei's, who were styled (^Jiieces del Campo)^ " Judges of the Plains," were appointed, having * A lively Spanish dance with castanets or balls in the hands. t A mark made by burning with a hot iron. DOMESTIC INSTITUTIONS. 25 jurisdiction to enforce the law, and to hear and decide all disputes concerning marks and titles to stock. It was the duty of a proprietor, on the application of another, to i^odeo * his cattle, so that the latter could seai'ch among them for his own, which might have joined the herd. And, also, bjr the law applicable to the farming districts, each owner was required, at certain seasons of the year, to rodeo (gather) his stock, that all unmarked animals might be branded, and that the cattle might be accustomed to return to the estate. It was also made his duty to have a ranchero (herdsman) to each prescribed number of cattle, whose occupation was to look after the herd, and, if pos- sible, to keep it together. It is said that the cattle of the estates would become so accustomed to the voice of the herdsman, that, upon hearing it resound among the hills and over the broad plains, they would collect about him and follow him to the corral f of the proprietor for the rodeo. The corral is located on an extensive plain, is generally from two to four hundred feet square, and is formed by driving long timbei*s, standing closely together, into the earth, and leaving them about ten feet in height. A heavy stake is di-iven in the centre, and a large opening is left in one side, at which the collected cattle may enter until it is filled, when the aperture is closed, except a narrow way at which a single animal may be driven out. The ?'odeos are made holidays, and friends and acquaint- ances attend to assist on the occasion, which is often con- cluded with a fandango. * The act of going round ; a place where horned cattle are exposed for sale. t A yard ; closed ground adjoining a house. o ■ O 26 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Preparatory to the rodeo^ an aged sire of the herd is tied to the stake in the centre of the corral. He soon becomes uneasy, paws the earth, and bellows in a voice which has often been heard by his subjects, and, in that open country, resounds' over a large space. The herdsman, and others, mounted on horses, traverse the country in different direc- tions, and send forth the well-known call, starting off such cattle as may be met. In a short time the more distant of the herd, hearing the call, and seeing their companions in motion, start off on a run in the direction of the corral^ making the air hideous with their roar. Sometimes more than a week is consumed before all the cattle are collected. They stray into the mountains, and from long absence become wild. The search and pursuit are then toilsome and hazardous ; and many a romantic inci- dent and hair-breadth escape occur, which form the subjects of a long evening's entertainment after the rodeo is ended. The cattle, arriving at the corral^ and seeing the old patriarch of the herd in trouble, rush in to his rescue, and soon fill it to repletion. It is then closed, and, one at a time, those animals on which some operation is to be per- formed, are forced out at the narrow gateway. If any become furious and attempt to escape, they are ensnared witli the lasso ; to accomplish which, several horsemen, pre- pared for the occasion, start in full chase, yelhng like savages. While one throws the noose over the horns, others aim at the feet ; and, when the loop encircles either, a quick twitch secures the connection, and the horse stops short and braces back to receive the shock of the falling prisoner. The well-trained steed seems to know when to prepare for the final tumble. The rider retains his seat at the crisis by seizing the pommel, which is made high for that purpose. SKILFUL IN HORSEMANSHIP. 27 The lasso is made fast to a ring in the saddle-girth. When the victory is gained, the conquered beast is securely bound with the lasso. This relation is given in the present tense, because the rodeo is still continued in the country. The native Californians and Mexicans are classed among the most expert horsemen in the Avorld ; and they have been called " a nation of horse-killers." They usually ride upon a full gallop, and, having large numbers of horses, they do not treat them with kindness, or use them with care. In the phrase of the country, " they ride the animals down." Many stories are circulated of their fetes in horsemanship, one of which, as related, would scarcely be believed by the most credulous. It is said that many years ago a horseman in the pueblo, I think, of San Jose, wagered that, mounted on his steed, he could receive with one hand a salver con- taining a dozen wine-glasses filled to the brim with wine, place it on his head, start on a gallop from his position, ride at the same speed fifty rods to a hotel, stop suddenly, and hand the salver to a porter, without having spilled any part of the liquid. The same tradition asserts that he won the stakes. If these people were such masters in the use of the horse, they certainly were tyros in the management of cows. They always permitted the calf to run with the dam, believ- ing that necessary for the preservation of the purity of the milk. As each proprietor often possessed from one hundred to two thousand milch cows, and used but a comparatively small quantity of milk in their families, the custom was no serious evil. They were not regular in the time of milking, but sought the cows whenever a supply was needed. Goat's milk was preferred for domestic use, and large flocks of these animals were kept by the Californians, and 28 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. at the missions. In some instances the number owned on an estate would be several hundreds. Their milk is rich, agreeable to the taste, and very nutritious. They had no skill in the manufacture of butter, or of cheese; but had substitutes for those luxuries. For the latter, sour milk and its cream, stirred together, were formed with the hands into small cakes, and dried in the sun ; and for the former, sweet milk and cream were coagulated with rennet, and stirred until it acquired nearly the consistence of butter. Both of those preparations soon became rancid and unpalatable. Only small portions, comparatively, of the lands of any of the estates were devoted to grain, vegetables, or fruits. Pasturage, to sustain the numerous flocks and herds, Avas the chief object. The proprietors, living remote from each other, passed their lives in primitive pastoral simplicity ; and the family institution and order were strikingly patriarchal. The married sons took their spouses to their father's hacienda ; and, with their children and their children's children, formed parts of the one great family. Apartments were added to the parent mansion, from time to time, as the increase of generations crowded too closely for the general comfort. In some families a common table was spread, and the white- haired patriarch of ninety years dispensed its hospitalities to so numerous a posterity, seated around it, that his aged vision could not reach to the more distant of the group. Strong affection is said to be a distinguishing character- istic in these ancient family circles. The tottering progeni- tor is often employed for many hours in succession, among the collected multitude of his descendants, in bestowing COMMERCE. 29 expressions of regard, and receiving from each one some look or word of love. Since the Mexican revolution, considerable commerce has existed with this country in hides, horns, and tallow. The principal purchasers are the traders from the United States, Mexico, and Chili. Vessels formerly anchored about once a year in the harbors of San Francisco, Monterey, and San Diego, to receive cargoes of these productions; and they brought out for barter such merchandise as the inhabitants required. For the last twenty years, however, the returns of these vessels have been more frequent, and a portion of the sales have been made for cash. A few weeks previous to the arrival of the cargoes, agents were accustomed to visit the estates and make the purchases. To fill these contracts, the cattle were, of course, to be slaughtered ; for but few hides were, in ordinary times, ac- cumulated, except in special cases. Extensive preparations were required for these tasks, and those times were always regarded as great occasions. A large number of assistants were necessary, and the scene, during the progress of the work, was unusually exciting. The number of cattle required might vary from a thousand to tens of thousands. In some instances they were corraled^ and let out by tens or twenties, to be despatched with sledges, or by other methods. In later years they were sometimes felled, in large numbers, with bullets, while grazing with the herd on the plains. The hides, tallow, horns and hanks, were preserved ; but the carcasses were left either in piles, or scattered over the plains, to dry away and disappear under the scorching rays of the sun. No precaution is necessary, in this climate, to prevent disagreeable consequences from the presence of decomposing 3=^ 30 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. animal matter ; it shrinks away without any offensive smell. On many ranchos might be seen the bleached bones of slaughtered cattle, lying thickly over more than two acres of ground. The bones of the heads were sometimes used for the con- struction of fences around small lots m the vicinity of their dwellings. In one place, even at this late day, there re- mains such a fence nearly ten rods in length. The heads, most of which retained the horns, were set upright, as close- ly together as they could be placed, one upon another, in tiers to the height of about four feet. The fence was of the thickness of two heads ; and against it, on the inside of the lot, was thrown up a thin bank of earth. With the horns standing out in long regular rows, it was a novel sight. Duruig the seasons of slaughter, the ranchos were the scene of great animation. Many people, male and female, were collected; long tables were spread with the choicest dishes which could be obtained; and wine, the production often of the country, and other liquors, were furnished with a liberality which was manifested in the vivacity and hilarity of the evening's amusements. The senoritas* and los homhres f mingled in the merry dance, on these occasions, indiscriminately with mestizos and Creoles. The clarinet and violin discoursed sweet music, while feats of horseman- ship, and even races, were enjoyed under the clear sky and bright moon which succeed the setting sun in California. Within doors, cards were the ever-present attendants, and " Kind nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep," was almost a stranger ; at least, it was not welcome until late in the wane of the night. * Young ladie?. t The men ; gentlemen. COMMERCE. 31 Before the estates of the church were secularized, the missions monopolized the largest part of this trade ; and it is reported that, in anticipation of it, the padres, fearing that their stock as well as their lands would pass under the con- trol of the government, slaughtered immense numbers of cattle during the two years immediately preceding the pas- sage of the act of secularization, and in the year following, before it had gone fully into effect. It is estimated that in those three years there were sent from the missions to the ports thi-ee hundred thousand hides, with the tallow. After being stripped from the carcasses, the hides were " stretched fast" on the grass to be cured by the sun ; and, after being dried, were packed in long sheds. The tallow was placed in cool vaults, to remain until near the time of delivery to purchasers. The labor of transporting these articles of trade to the ships was light ; — the distance never exceeding fifty or sixty miles, and the roads lying over a level and charming country. The lading of the vessels was sometimes a scene of much interest and amusement. They were anchored off in the bays, at a distance of one or two miles from the shore, and the cargoes were received and discharged by the aid of lighters. These were often frail crafts, which would occa- sionally "part timbers" and discharge cargo, sailors, and other laborers, " short of the ship or shore." The Indian and Spanish assistants carried their burthens on their heads ; and individuals, who have been present on such occasions, state that a large number of hides, piled on each other, and weighing several hundred pounds, were borne in that man- ner more than half a mile. The number of domestic animals belonging to the mis- sions in the period of their prosperity, and to the private 32 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. estates, is almost incredible. It is stated that the mission of San Gabriel owned, at one time, more than one hundred thousand head of neat cattle, and many thousands of horses, sheep, goats, and hogs. On many of the private ranchos were from five to twenty thousand head of these domestic animals ; and the horses were often so numerous that the estates were overburthened, and it became necessary to destroy them for the preservation of the grass and cattle. Horses, sheep, and hogs, were permitted to run without the attention or care of the proprietor. They bore the owner's hierro, or hot-iron brand ; and the title could not be suc- cessfully contested, even by an actual purchaser, unless at the sale of the property, the venta^^ or "sale-mark," was also branded upon it. After the act of secularization, and the property of the missions had come under the control of the public adminis- tradorsf (one of whom resided at each mission), the numer- ous herds and flocks were very rapidly, and most iniquitous- ly reduced. The object of the government, in adopting that measure, was declared to be the exemption of the padres from temporal service, in order that they might devote them- selves exclusively to religious duties. For this purpose, the cultivation of the lands, and the care and management of the stock, were committed to the administmdors, for the joint benefit of the missions, which were to be sustained from the income, and of the state, which was entitled to the sur- plus. The Californians, however, declare that, although the stock disappeared mysteriously, the public treasury received little aid from that source of revenue. At a still subsequent period, before mentioned, when the * A sale, or vending. t Managers. MARRIAGES AND BURIALS. 33 quasi revolution of California was enacted by Juan Baptiste Alvarado, its master-spirit, the flocks and herds of the eccle- siastical estates were seized for the support of the new gov- ernment, without reference to the wants or the rights of the church. By these proceedings those establishments were reduced to comparative poverty. The padres, unwilling to make personal sacrifices of efforts and labor on the lands, merely to retain their spiritual flocks, abandoned, in many instances, their posts, and the missions declined. The Alvarado government expelled the Mexican agents and rep- resentatives from the mission estates, but left the padres and their Indian followers in the possession of a portion of the lands ; and, although the flocks and herds were mostly taken, yet much was left, which missionaries, ardently de- voted to the welfare of their people, would not have failed to make, in some degree, available to their great object. Marriages and burials were conducted after the forms of the Papal church. For a long number of years, the whole European population being papal, all these ceremonies were necessarily ordered in obedience to her ritual. The cemeteries in which the remains of the departed faithful were buried, are generally contiguous to the church. That at San Jose contains, perhaps, one quarter of an acre of land, and nothing in or around it discloses the purpose to which it is appropriated. No person visiting the place would mistrust that the dead Catholics of San Jose, during a period of fifty years, are ''sleeping their last sleep" with- in the narrow confines of that patch of earth. Not a monu- ment, not even a hillock, consecrates the ground, or rises to forewarn the careless visitor to tread lightly on the dead under his feet ! The dead bodies are deposited, one upon another, in this ground, to a great depth. 34 HISTORY OP CALIFORNIA. On an eminence, at a little distance from the cliurch. is another burial-place. Its clingy adobe walls are tumbling into ruins. The gate has fallen, and within its enclosure are cattle and sheep quietly chewing the cud among the weeds and briars. It is about equal in size to the other ground, and is similar in all respects. This is the reposito- ry of those who resided at the mission, but died out of the pale of the church. Unfortunate beings ! They lived in sight of the sanctuary, but have been denied the great bless- ing of a burial among the multitudes who moulder undis- tinguished beneath its shadow ! In concluding this brief sketch of the primitive history of Upper California, it is proper to be remarked, that, in trav- elling over the lovely plains which were the field of these Papal missions, and in mingling in the society which has been formed under their influence, the mind is involuntarily led to compare their fruits with those of a Protestant mission on the neighboring islands. The story of the Papal missions has been told in the preceding pages ; they are in ruins ! and the towns and settlements which they formed were, until the conquest by the United States, generally but the theatres of congregated ignorance, intemperance, gambling, Sabbath profanation, and kindred vices ! But the mission at the Sandwich Islands is one of healthful vigor and pros- perity. By its instrumentality, wandering Pagan tribes have been transformed into a Christian nation, have adopted enlightened laws, reared prosperous towns, established churches, schools, agriculture, and foreign commerce; and have secured the respect and consideration of the civilized world. It is less than forty years since this was organized. The former were founded by the munificence of a monarch ; the latter is the offspring of private benevolence. Surely, THE TAPAL MISSIONS. 35 soaie renovating, elevating principle must have been disre- garded by those Papal teachers, which was invoked and cherished by the Protestant missionaries. It cannot be doubted that the Mexican law which secular- ized the estates of these foundations, was a wise measure for the country, and a benevolent one for its whole population. It has, in late years, been quite fashionable for authors and declaimers to speak of the reverend fathers, who conducted the Papal missions in California, as men ardently devoted to the welfare of their spiritual flocks ; of their labors, 3.s a blessing to those Indians ; and to expatiate largely upon the improvement of the natives in the arts of civilization, in morals and religion, before they were freed from submission to the missionaries by the constitution of the Mexican repub- lic in 1824, and upon their rapid relapse into barbarism after that event. It is true that the constitution gave to Upper and Lower California, each, a representative in the national Congress, declared certain Indians free citizens, and gave them lands ; but no law denied to the missionaries the right, by persuasion and kindness, to retain these Indians upon the mission lands, or to instruct them in morals, religion, and the duties of citizenship ; nor were the missions deprived of their landed and personal estates. It was not until the year 1833, that the mission estates were secularized ; and the government, in that last act, made good provision for the support of the missionaries. It reserved from its operation the church buildings and a por- tion of land, yet the reverend fathers abandoned their charges and returned to Spain or Mexico. Indeed, it is reported in the vicinity of the missions that, in several in- stances, after the enactment of the act of secularization, many of the Indians who desired to remain connected with 36 UISTOKY OF CALIFOR>fIA. the missions, -vvoro foiviblj driven away bv the missiomu-ies, on the plea that thej could be no longer niiuntained. Of the objects of the fathers in sustaining the missions "while those institutions enjovetl the pativmage of the gov- ernment in the way of veiU'ly supplies, and of their devotion to the interests of religion in general, it is not the purjx>se of this history particularly to speak. But of the Indians as a community, acconling to the testimony of living wit- nesses among them and of reliable history, it may be affirmed that they were not improveii, either in morals or religion, by all the tutelage they received. They were forced, and very indifferent laborers in ordinary farming: and were never so ele\-iiteil in the a\ile of civilization, as to render the decline of the missions an event to be hmientorl on their account. Occasionally a native of mixcvl blood, and even an Indian, assunuxi. in some degive, the habits of civilized life, and acquired a moderate property; but the moral prwlivities which even these imbibeii. mor^^ than counterbalanced any benefits they ivceivcvi ; and it remains true that, as a race, the nati>-e Indians, and their descendants K>rn at the mis- sions, were moiv degnidcil in spirit, tuid were ivndenxl more vicious, than their uiuutoiwl bivthivn of the plains and mountains. CHAPTER II. Brief Statement of the priiioipsl Causes of the War between the United States *nd Mexico, Conquest of Upper California, Provisional Government, Irregular Proceedings at San Francisco, Territorial Laws and Judicia- ry ; — embracing the period between the commencement of hostilities, in May. lS4(,i, and the organiration of the State Government in Decem- ber. ISoO. The events ^vllioll k\i to the declaration of war by Mex- ico against the United States, do not. necessai-ily, demand a place in the liistorv of California : but as that territory- was the scene of a part of the succeeding military operations, a brief ivfei*ence to the causes of the Avar may not be im- pi\">jxn" in this connection. After the establishment of her independence, Mexico dis- couraged the settlement of foreigners in the country, and opposed their opening trading-houses in her ports. es^X'cially in those of Upper California. A lai-ge j.X)rtion of the in- habitivnts of that territory Avere unfriendly to the revolution ; tliey adhered to the mother country during three or four years after the close of hostilities ; and the new government was appi*ehensive that the influx of foi*eignei*s might result in its independence, or, at least, that they might enable the disiiffected successfully to i*esist her soveivignty. Accoixi- ingly, in die year 1S28, she oixieivd the seizuiv of several American citizens, at San Diego, and detained them as prisonei*s for the sjxiee of two yeai-s. till they were i-eleased by General Solis. the leader of iin insui'ivction in that terri- 4 38 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. tory, in the year 1830, which was designed to effect its independence of Mexico. This occurrence was followed by other acts, evincing strong prejudice on the part of that government against the people of the United States. Onerous assessments were imposed on Anaerican residents in Mexico; and partial, and very unjust, discriminations were made between them and other foreigners who frequented her ports for purposes of legiti- mate commerce. Out of this state of things originated large claims by American citizens against Mexico. These the United States ultimately assumed, and their liquidation by the former government was made the subject of tedious and perplexing negotiation. To add to these difficulties, Commodore Jones, the com- mander of the squadron of the United States in the Pacific, in October, 1842, received intelligence, which induced his belief that jNIexico had declared war against his country ; he accordingly appeared in the harbor of Monterey, with two vessels of war, and demanded the surrender of all forts, military defences, and munitions. The summons was obeyed, and the flag of the United States was raised over the custom-house; but, within two days, the American commander learned that the relations existing between the two governments were still peaceful, and he withdrew his forces to his vessels in the harbor. Texas, once a depend- ency of Mexico, achieving her independence, and, subse- quently, becoming an integral part of the United States, also tended materially to widen the breach between the two nations. And, finally, a military movement on the part of the United States, in March, 1816, when the forces under General Taylor took a position on the eastern shore of the Rio Grande river, resulted in the declaration of war. WAR BETWEEN THE UNITE1> STATES AND MEXICO. 89 Mexico claimed the territory occupied by General Taylor, and treated the advance of the American army as an inva- sion of her sovereignty. The President of the United States, on the 13th of May, 1846, issued his proclamation, declaring the existence of hostile relations betAveen the two countries ; and instructions were forwarded to Commodore Sloat, then the commander of the Pacific squadron, to occupy the ports and territory of Upper California. That order was promptly executed. On the 7th day of July, Captain Mervine was deputed to demand the surrender of Monterey, which being refused, he landed with a force of two hundred and fifty men, and hoisted the American flag on the custom-house. The commodore demanded of the Mexican governor the surrender of the whole country ; but, the latter refusing compliance, orders were sent to Captain Montgomery, then in command of the Portsmouth in the bay of San Francisco, to take possession of that port. Ac- cordingly, on the 9th of July, 1846, the flag of the Union was raised on the plaza at Yerba Buena. Many of the citizens enrolled their names on the lists of the American army, and, within the space of twelve days, Sutter's Fort, situated near the present city of Sacramento, Bodega, lying a few miles north of San Francisco on the coast, with Sono- ma and San Jose in the interior, were in the possession of the Americans. The inhabitants of these settlements were willing that the Americans should take possession of the country. About the middle of July, Commodore Sloat resigned the command of the Pacific squadron to Commodore Stockton ; and a " California Battalion of Mounted Riflemen " was organized, and placed under the command of Major Fremont. This force soon embarked at Monterey, in the sloop of war 40 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Cyane, Commaiider Dupont, for the port of San Diego; and Commodore Stockton sailed in the Congress for the port of San Pedro. The city of San Diego was occupied by the forces under Major Fremont; and, August 13, 1846, Com- modore Stockton entered the city of Los Angeles,* the seat of the territorial government, having been previously joined by Major Fremont and about eighty riflemen. The Mexi- can forces fled before the approach of the Americans — many of their officers being made prisoners of war. And thus was completed, within the space of two months, and by about three hundred and sixty men, a large proportion of whom were common sailors, the bloodless conquest of California ! In September of the same year Commodore Stockton, with his forces, returned to San Francisco, leaving at Los Angeles only a guard of about thirty men, under the com- mand of Captain Gillespie. The Californians, availing themselves of the favorable opportunity afibrded by the with- drawal of the American ai^my {!), assembled to the number of three or four hundred, overpowered the guard, and retook possession of the city — Captain Gillespie and his force retiring on board a sloop of war, and returning to Monterey. This brilliant achievement stimulated the enemy in other places, and in a few days their flag was flying over nearly the whole country south of Monterey ! As soon as preparation could be made, the frigate Savan- nah was despatched with reinforcements to the relief of Los Ang-eles. Lieutenant Talbot, who had been left with nine men in possession of Santa Barbara, maintained his ground, and bid defiance 'to the veterans of California ! On the arrival of the Savannah at the bay of San Pedro, her crew, * The city of the Angels. CONQUEST OF UPPER CALIFORNIA. 41 consisting of three hundred men, took up their line of march for the city of Los Angeles. When they were about half- way to their place of destination, they encountered the enemy drawn up in the order of battle, and were repulsed ; five of their number being killed and six wounded. Commodore Stockton returned in the Congress to the scene of his former triumphs, ' ' to fight his battles over again," and met with a much more serious opposition from the enemy. With the forces under his command, and six cannon, he marched for the " city of the Angels." At the rancho of Sepulvidad, he encountered a large force of Cali- fornians. A battle ensued and the enemy was routed — one hundred of their number being killed on the field, and one hundred taken prisoners. Preparations were immediately made for general military operations to regain possession of the conquered country ; and various encounters occurred at different points, from time to time, until the 9th of January, 1847, when the final battle was fought. After a long and fatiguing march over the plains and mountains of the interior. General Kearney had arrived at San Diego. In the latter part of December the Americans left that port for Los Angeles, numbering about six hundred men, composed of detachments from the Portsmouth, Cyane, Savannah, and Congress. General Kearney with a portion of his men, and Captain Gillespie with sixty mounted rifle- men, accompanied the expedition. On the 8th of January the Americans met the Califor- nians at a strong and well-chosen position, on the banks of the San Gabriel river, about twenty miles from Los Angeles. The enemy consisted of about six hundred mounted men, having four pieces of artillery. The Americans were obliged 4* 42 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. to wade the river, and drag their heavy guns, exposed to the constant fire of the Mexicans ; but, having gained the oppo- site shore, they made a furious charge and drove the enemy from their strong-hold. On the 9th of January, Commodore Stockton, on his march across the plains of Mesa, encountered the Califor- nians, who were concealed in a deep gorge. When the Americans approached the place of their concealment the enemy opened on them a heavy fire, and charged in front and rear. But " Greek met Greek," and the " tug of war" was short ; the Californians were routed at all points, and they scattered like a flock of terrified sheep. On the morning after this battle, the Americans reentered the capital of California, the city of grapes and of the an- gels. General Flores, acting as governor and commandant- general of the Mexican forces, abandoned his troops and fled; and thus was the conquest completed. Commodore Stockton, in virtue of his command, was the civil governor of the conquered territory, and established the seat of government at Monterey. In August, 1846, he imposed a tarifi" of duties of fifteen percentum on imported foreign goods, and a tonnage duty of fifty cents per ton on foreign vessels. /" The subsequent government of this territory was regu- / lated by instructions from the President of the United I States to the officers in command of the army of occupation ; I and was based on the principles of law which recognize the x^onquest of sovereignty. A governor was appointed for the term of four years, unless he should be sooner removed by the president ; and he was constituted commander-in-chief of the army, and superintendent of Indian affairs. He had power to pardon and to reprieve ; made all appointments to PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT. 43 office within tlie territory, and must approve of all laws, passed by the territorial legislature, before they could be- come efiectual. A secretary of the territory was commis- sioned, to preserve the laws of the legislative council and a record of the proceedings of the governor. The legislative council consisted of seven members — at first appointed by the governor ; but their successors were to be elected by the people. Their term of office was two years. The territorial laws existing at the time of the conquest, and the officers then in commission, were to be continued until changes should be made by the governor and council. During the existence of this territorial government, sev- eral functionaries conducted successively the public affairs of the country; viz.. Commodore Sloat, under whose com- mand possession was first taken, Commodore Stockton, General Kearney, Colonel Fremont, Colonel Mason, and General Riley. The latter continued in office until the admission of California as one of the states of the Union, and the election and qualification of a governor under the constitution adopted by the state. The multitudes of people, beginning to congregate at dif- ferent points in the territory, were unacquainted with the Mexican laws, and had no convenient facilities to learn the rules by which their conduct, and their business relations with each other, should be regulated. Many of the laws which they did acquire knowledge of they became dissatis- fied with ; and a large portion of the people believed that the conquest abolished all the laws and government previ- ously existing there, and restored to the people the right to form a new system for themselves in their sovereign capacity. Acting on this principle, while Congress was wrangling 44 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. on the question of slavery in reference to the newlj-acquired territories, and delaying the passage of any law to establish a better government, the people of San Francisco, Sacra- mento, and Sonoma, called an election, chose members to form a legislature, and clothed them with power to pass laws for the government of their respective districts. These legis- latures were organized, and they enacted many statutes to abolish existing Mexican laws, created public oflBces, ap- pointed officers, and imposed taxes. These proceedings were clearly revolutionary, and Gov- ernor Riley issued his proclamation, setting forth the exist- ing laws and requiring obedience to them. The people, after a time, complied, dissolved theii* legislatures, and anxiously awaited the action of Congress. But when they learned that this body had adjourned without making any provision for their relief, they took immediate measures to form a state government; the civil governor not only approving, but leading in the proceedings. Those measures, and the events which followed, will be considered in a sub- sequent chapter. Tlie conquest was soon followed by fundamental changes in the territorial law and its administration. Emigration thither pressed closely on the march of the army. Many of the first emigrants were American citizens, and they brought with them their partiality for the principles of law and order in which they had been educated. In a few months Upper California contained a large, intelligent, and powerful population. After several changes in the office of civil governor, General Riley, April 13, 1849, was invested with that com- mission. He subsequently, in connection with the legisla- tive council, changed, in many respects, the Mexican laws TERRITORIAL LAWS AND JUDICIARY. 45 of the territory, and conformed their administration more to the habits and customs of the new possessors of the country. Laws were enacted to regulate the occupancy of real estate, the conveyance of titles, to confirm in their commissions those judicial officers who were acting under Mexican appointments, and to prescribe the modes of legal proceed- ings. He established the offices of alcalde, justice of the peace, prefect, and the courts of First and Second Instance, as under the Mexican system : and. in the month of June, 1S49, he issued a proclamation inviting the people to nom- inate, by ballot, candidates to be appointed by him, judges of those courts. The request was responded to, the appoint- ments were made, and those courts were immediately, and for the first time, organized in San Francisco and other towns. A large amount of litigation originated in them, but in a few months they were supei-seded by the judiciary established under the constitution of the State of Califor- nia, which was adopted in November, 1849. During the three and a half years' continuance of the ter- ritorial or provisional government, great contrariety of opinion prevailed among the citizens of the territory re- specting many of the acts and regulations of several of the civil governors, their powers, and the validity of their offi- cial appointments. In some courts, the principles of the common law were applied : in others, those of the civil law ; and yet in othei-s, the Mexican law. Hence, during the provisional government, the inhabitants of the territory had, in fact, no generally accepted system of law or of legal pro- ceedings ; and, as a consecpience, the titles to large tracts of real estate are involved in doubt, and will, for many years, be a fruitful source of expensive and vexatious liti- gation. 40 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. The treaty of peace between tlie United State? and Mexi- co was exchanged and ratified, at the city of Queretaro. on the 30th day of May. 1S4S : and. by its terms. Upper California became, with the consent of the laner govern- ment, an integral part of the territory of the American Union. CHAPTEE in. Civil »zi P: Clir:i:e. S.:il C-Tiriry. i-s- . Agr TcAT I'iTisi::!;, Ci:ie5. P.i-riers. Mi ITLtiizJ . P:r:i:i: lie The Congress of the United States haTing adjourned, as before sratoi. ^thout piOTiding a territorial gOTemment for California, the people, wixh great nnanimitv. directed their afttoitioQ to the (HvaniiatMHi of a State £?DTermnent. Thev resolTed to help then^elves. The ciTil governor. Geneiul Eile V, approved of their res«Dlution, and issued his proclama- tioQ- dated at Monterey. June Sd. 1S49. reconnnending the election of delegates to a ccnvention for the drafting of a constitaticHi. / The time appointed for the election iras the first day of Angost, 1S49; and the convention was to assemble at Mcmterey m the fiist daj of Septonber follow- ing. The number oi delegates named was finij-ei^t, and thev were to be seit from that number of districts or settle- ments in the state. ^The elections were held, and the del^ates asembled in «mvention in accoidance with the governor's proclamaticm^ Br. Robert Semple. of the district of Sonoma, was chosen its presidait and William G. Marcv, Esq.. its secretaiy. After uniting in a declaration of ri^ts. embodyiog the great principles of lepublican goYenmient, manj of the provisioiis of the propDeed constitntion were w?irmly dkcuse*! : but 48 HISTORY OF CALIFOKXIA. the whole was finally adopted, and signed bj every member, on the 1-th day of October. After this, there were the usual formal and complimentary proceedings, and the con- vention dissolved. The booming of cannon, and other demonstrations, testified to the joy of all parties. In its general features, the constitution resembles that of the state of ^ew York ; but it contains several special pro- visions, deemed necessary because of the condition and geographical position of the state. It prohibits slavery. It grants to all ibreii:;nei-s, who become bona fide residents of the state, all the rights — in respect to the possession, enjoy- ment, and inheritance of propeity — of native-born citizens. There is under it no imprisonment for debt, except in cases of fraud, nor for militia fines in time of peace. The resi- dence of a white male citizen of the United States, six months next preceding any election, in the state, and thirty days in the county or district in which he claims to exercise the fi-anchise, qualifies him to vote at any election. Colored persons cannot become electoi-s : but the Legislature may, by special laws, admit Indians, and their descendants, to that right. The sessions of the Legislature commence annu- ally on the fii'st Monday of January : and elections are held on the Tuesday following the first Monday of November in each year. Senators are chosen for two years, and membei-s of the Assembly for one year. The nimiber of members of the Assembly cannot be less than thirty, nor more than eiirhtv : nor the number of senatoi^s less than one third, nor more than one half, of that of the members of Assembly. Xo pei-son who shall be convicted of the embezzlement or defal- cation of the public fimds. can thereafter hold office in the state. The Legislature cannot grant charters for banking purposes, nor can the bills or pajxn- issued by imy bank be STATE OFFICERS. 49 circulated in the state as money. The governor and lieu- tenant-governor are elected for two yeai*s : they must have attained the age of twenty-five yeai-s, and have been citizens of the United States and of this State for two years next preceding their election. The secretary of the state is ap- pointed by the governor and senate ; the comptroller, treas- urer, attorney-general; and surveyor-general, are elected by the people, and their terms of office, and eligibility, are the same as those of the governor and lieutenant-governor. The judicial power of the state is vested in a Supreme Court, and ui District, County, and Justices' Courts. The Supreme Court is the high coui*t of appeals in all cases in- volving an amount exceeding two hundred dollai^s ; and con- sists of a chief justice and two associate justices, — any two of whom constitute a court. The District Courts have each a single iudcre : and have original iurisdiction. in law and equity, of all actions which involve an amount exceeding two hundred dollars, and in all cases of felony. The County Courts have jurisdiction in appeals from Justices' Courts, and in certain special proceedings : and the county judge, with two justices, constitutes a Court of Sessions for the trial of such criminal cases as the Legislature may prescribe. Jus- tices of the peace have jurisdiction in personal action, Avhere the amount in controversy does not exceed two hundred dollai-s: and in actions concerninof real estate, where the subject matter arises out of •* mining claims."' The justices of the Supreme Court, and the district judges, respectively, hold their office for a term of six years : and the county judges and justices of the peace, for a term of four yeai-s. The constitution limits the power of the Legislature, in the creation of state debts, to a sum which, with any previous liabilities, shall not exceed .9300,000 : and it provides for 5 50 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. the accumulation of a school fund, for a system of common schools and for a university. The seat of government was declared to be the Puebla de San Jose. The salary of the governor was fixed at $10,000 ; that of the lieutenant-governor, at double the pay of a state senator; and the pay of members of the Legislature, at sixteen dollars per day for attendance, and the same sum for every twenty miles of travel to the place of holding the sessions of the Legislature. The foregoing statement embraces the principal provisions of that instrument, excepting the prescribed boundaries of the new state. The first general election was appointed to be held on the 13th day of November, 1849, to elect a governor and lieu- tenant-governor, members of the Legislature, two representa- tives in Congress, and to obtain the expression of the people on the adoption of the proposed constitution. The election was held at the time appointed, and the con- stitution was ratified by an almost unanimous vote. On the 12th day of December the executive of the existing territo- rial government made proclamation of that fact, agreeably to the requirements of the constitution, and from that day it became effectual as the fundamental law of California. As the result of the election, Peter H. Burnett was chosen governor, John McDugal lieutenant-governor, and Georgo W. Wright and Edward Gilbert representatives in Congress. Agreeably to the constitution the first Legislature convened, and its session continued until the 22d of April, 1850. The several state officers were chosen, and Colonel John C. Fre- mont and William M. Gwin, Esq., were elected senators in Congress. Certified copies of the constitution were furnished BOUNDARIES. 51 to the senators and representatives, with instructions to lay the same before Congress, and request that California be admitted a state of the American Union. Thus, every branch of the civil government of the state was organized, and nothing remained to complete her sovereignty but the consent of the powers at Washington. A long and angry discussion, connected with the provis- ion of the state constitution prohibiting the introduction of slavery, delayed the final action of Congress on the question of admission until nearly the close of its session ; but, final- ly, on the 9th day of September, 1850, the law was passed, and California became one of the states of the American Uniony^ The State of California is bounded as follows : — " Commencing at the point of intersection of the 42d degree of north latitude with the 120th degree of longitude west from Greenwich, and running south on the line of said 120th degree of west longitude, until it intersects the 39th degree of north latitude ; thence running in a straight line in a south-easterly direction to the river Colorado, at a point where it intersects the 35th degree of north latitude ; thence down the middle of the channel of said river, to the bound- ary line between the United States and Mexico, as estab- lished by the treaty of May 30th, 1848 ; thence running west and along said boundary line to the Pacific Ocean, and extending therein three English miles ; thence running in a north-westerly direction, and following the direction of the Pacific coast to the 4 2d degree of north latitude ; thence on the line of said 4 2d degree of north latitude to the place of beginning. Also, all the islands, harbors, and bays, along and adjacent to the Pacific coast." In more general terms, the state is bounded on the north 52 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. by the territory of Oregon ; on the east, by those of Utah and New Mexico ; on the south, by Lower California ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. In geographical position it lies diagonally in a north-westerly direction from its south- ern boundary, between 32° 20' and 42° of north latitude, and 37° 20' and 47° 40' of west longitude from Washington. Measured as it lies, in a straight line between the centres of its northern and southern boundaries, it is about 720 statute miles in length by 240 in breadth, and contains 173,800 square miles of territory; embracing the whole eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains, and all the islands adjacent to that part of the Pacific coast. The islands included are, Santa Catalina, Santa Clemente, Santa Bar- bara, San Nicholas. St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, St. Barnard, and Santa Rosa. They are principally uninhabited, but several of them are stocked with cattle, sheep, and goats. Civil Divisions and Population. — This state is divided into thii-ty-eight counties, and these are, at present, the principal civil divisions which have been made of its ter- ritory, — the sparseness of the population not requiring the formation of towns except in the vicinity of the cities and villages. The following are the counties, with their popu- lation, as they are stated in the State Census of the year 1852, — given in connection, for the convenience of refer- ence, and to exhibit the relative population of the different sections of the state. Since that year the new counties of San Bernardino, Alameda, Siskiyou, Sierra, and Humboldt, have been formed, by the division of the old counties of Trinity, Santa Clara, Shasta, Yuba, and San Diego. County of Butte, 8.572 inhabitants. '' " Calaveras, .... 20,192 " " " Colusi 620 " POPULATION. 53 County of Contra Costa, El Dorado, Kalmatli, . Los Angeles, Marin, . . Mariposa, . Mendocino, Monterey, . Napa, . . Nevada, Placer, . . Sacramento, San Diego, San Joaquin, San Francisco, San Luis Obispo Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara Shasta, . Sierra, . Siskiyou, Solano, Sonoma, Sutter, . Trinity, Tuolumne Tulare, Yolo, . Yuba, . Total population of the State 2,745 inhabitants. 40,000 530 7,831 1,036 8,969 416 2,728 2,116 21,365 10,784 12,589 2,932 5,029 36,151 984 6,664 1,219 2,131 4,050 4,855 2,240 2,835 2,337 1,207 1,754 17,657 8,575 1,307 22,005 in the fall of the year 1852, ; • • • 264,435 ^^'^ 54 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. This footing would doubtless be swelled by the emigration of the year 1853, to 300,000. In this enumeration are included 22,877 Indians, scat- tered over the state, and denominated in the census " do- mesticated Indians." By this, it is to be understood that they are the remnants and descendants of the mission In- dians. They are feeble, indolent, and extremely filthy. A very few of them will, occasionally, perform some kinds of manual labor ; but they prefer to loiter and beg around the villages, or to wander over the country and hunt and fish — of little use as a population. They are to be found chiefly in the counties of Calaveras, Los Angeles, Mariposa. Napa, Nevada, San Diego, Tulare, and San Bernardino. The number of foreigners included in this census is 65,244 ; of whom, 18.854 were in the city of San Francisco. Of these 9,923 were returned as Chinese : but as this pecu- liar people are not distinguished from other foreigners in the returns from most of the counties, and, as it is well known that they are very generally distributed over the populated portions of the state, they probably number, at least, 15,000. The census enumerates 2,120 negroes and mulatto.es; and 92,901 Americans over twenty-one years of age. Add- ing one fifth for the number of Americans under that ase, and the aggregate white American population in the state would about equal that of foreigners and of native Califor- nians. It is, therefore, strongly American, notwithstanding it was so lately an alien territory, and, since the acquisition by the United States, has ever been open to the free emi- gration of all the world. The native Californians and Indians having been already described, the foreigners will be more particularly noticed in a future chapter. POPULATION. 55 By the aid of these census returns, an inquiry, often made, may be answered with sufficient accuracy for general purposes, viz. , the number of the miners. If, from the general aggregate as stated in that document, we deduct the popu- lation of the cities and villages, the number of the Indians less 1000, the colored persons less 200, and 12,000 for the agriculturists, their families and workmen, the remainder will represent very nearly the force employed in the mines. By a computation made on this basis, the number, at the beginning of the year 1853, will be found to have been about 138,634. The census does not give all the items necessary to determine this question ; but careful inquiry was made in various parts of the state respecting the pop- ulation in those cities, villages, and other settlements, where they are not specified in those returns ; and the deduction of Indians and colored persons is made, because it is repre- sented by many of the miners, that only a few of those classes work in the mines. The deduction of 12,000 for the farming interest is ample, on the estimates contained in the census. The whole number of acres actually cultivated in the state, is only 110,748 ; and, allowing the family of each farmer to consist of five persons, the calculation will give 2400 families, each having only about forty-five acres under cultivation. It is probable that every farmer in the state has more than twice that quantity of cultivated land ; and, if so, the number which should be deducted in the cal- culation will be reduced to 6000, unless the families are taken at less than five persons — the usual number allowed in such computations. In round numbers, therefore, the mining class may be reasonably estimated at 140,000. [>Q HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. The coast of California is lined by an almost uninter- rupted succession of hills and lofty mountains, between which and the shore there is generally a strip of flat, fertile land, varying in width from three to twenty miles. These mountains are less elevated in the southern than in the northern part of the state ; where, in numerous places, they frown darkly over the ocean, which rolls its angry waves against their rocky base. In the south, many of these hills and mountains are covered with wild grass and oats, which, in the dry season, are of a deep yellow color, and present an arid and dreary prospect ; but, in the wxt season, they are clothed with a fresh mantle of beautiful green. Other mountains are adorned, especially on their sides, with an evergreen, called, in the country, the dwarf, or shrub-oak. A few of them, particularly on their western slopes, sus- tain pines, firs, and red-woods of great size, while others are only barren piles of rocks. In the northern portion of the state these mountains are more generally covered with trees of majestic growth ; but many of them are sterile elevations, capped with eternal snows. The bays and harbors of California, commencing their enumeration at the north, are the following, namely : Pelican Bay, near the boundary line of the state, and into which Smith's River empties. Port St. George and Trinity Bay, are yet unim- portant, in reference to commerce. Humboldt Bay is large and important, the third in rela- tive size in the state. It bears the name of Baron Hum- boldt, the celebrated early traveller in New Spain. It must BAYS AND HARBORS. 57 ultimately be the scene of considerable commerce. Several towns are already springing up on its shores, namely, Union Town, Eureka and Humboldt. It has not been sur- veyed and examined with such accuracy as to furnish materials for a particular description. Bodega Bay was discovered in the year 1775, by Bodega, a Spanish navigator, who named it in honor of himself. In the year 1815, a Russian trading company established a post here, and occupied it until the year 1840, when it was purchased by Captain Sutter, the pioneer Californian miner. He paid for the fixtures, cattle, artillery, &c., by annual instalments in grain. Sir Francis Drake's Bay is a small bay, discovered by this celebrated English navigator in the year 1579. The Bay of San Francisco is a magnificent harbor, and will be described in a future chapter, in connection with the city of San Francisco. The Bay of Monterey is an open roadstead, situated about seventy miles south from San Francisco. It was named in honor of Count Monterey. The name also liter- ally signifies king of the forest; and it is supposed that it should be attributed to the circumstance that the hills around the bay are covered with majestic pines. It is exposed to the sweep of the north-west winds and storms, but Point Pinos protects it from those which come from the south and south-west. Bay de los Esteros. This bay is situated in north latitude 35° 30', in the county of San Luis Obispo. In the same county are the bays of San Luis Obispo, San Simeon and Moro. Bay of Santa Barbara. This is a broad sheet of water, having a smooth, hard beach of nearly twenty miles 58 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. in circuit. It is surrounded by towering hills : but it can- not be made a safe anchorage for shipping, the south-west winds having a clean sweep across it. Bay OF Sax Pedro. This is about one hundred and thirty miles south from Santa Barbara, and is only an anchorage^ having no settlement on its shores. The near- est town is Los Angeles, twenty-five miles to the north. It is large and commodious, afibrding a safe anchorage and landing. Sax Juax. This is a small bay, about thirty miles south from San Pedi*o. Its entrance is made dangerous by rocks about a mile distant from it. Sax Diego. This is the largest, safest, and most com- modious bay on the coast of the state, excepting that of San Francisco. It is defended from winds and storms by a ridge of land about ten miles long, which, rising between it and the ocean, is an effectual barrier. The entnince is narrow, but deep. This bay is situated three miles north of the southern limits of the state, and will ultimately be to its southern, what San Francisco is to its northern inland trade. The country, washed by the rivers Colorado and Gila, is destined to be densely settled, and its productions will sustain a large and prosperous trade in cattle, hides, tallow, cereal grains, wines and fruits. There is good anchorage in this harbor, in from five to ten fathoms water. Sax Pablo Bay. This is a small bay, about ten miles in length by six in breadth, lying north of the bay of San Francisco. It is entered from the ocean through the same strait. Another strait, about seven miles in length, con- nects it with the bay of San Francisco. It is entered from the west between Point San Pedi-o on the north, and point San Pablo on the south : and the little island of Violate CAPES AND BLUFrS. 59 rises bright and green in the strait. Several writers have included both bays under the name of San Francisco ; but San Pablo is geographically connected with the latter, just as the latter is connected with the main ocean, and if it is proper to distinguish the bay of San Francisco from the ocean by a difterent name, it seems equally proper to dis- tinguish between the two bays. Suisrx Bay. This is a small body of water, situated seyen miles east of San Pablo, and is connected with it by the strait of Carquinez. It is about six miles long by three miles wide. The bays of San Pablo and Suisun. with their connect- ing straits, may with propriety be considered as portions of the river Sacramento, as amplifications of its chaimel, through which its waters are discharged into the bay of San Francisco. But. according to the common understand- ing, the mouth of that river is at the head of the several small islands or allu^-ial formations which lie in what may be called the extension of Suisun Bay. and about fifty-five miles north-east from the city of San Francisco. It would be, however, more mitm-al to regard the position of those islands as in the channel of the river. CAPES AXD BLUFFS. There are. on this coast, several capes and bluffs, which it is proper to notice : of which the following, commencing at the north, are the principal. PoiXT St. George. This cliff" forms the northern arm of Port St. Ge<3rge. It is a high pile of rocks destitute of vegetation. Gold Bluff. This has been so named within the last three years, from a report, at one time current, that the 60 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. sands on the beach at its base were rich in the precious metals. Gold was found there, but not in sufl5cient abun- dance to justify the '' gold story." Cape Mexdocixo. This is the most western point of land in the state, and is situated about one hundi-ed and eighty miles north from the city of San Francisco. It is a lofty snow-covered bluff, beetling over the ocean at about the 48th degree of north latitude. PoiXT DE LOS Reyes. This is the extremity of a long line of rocks, extending far out into the ocean in a southern direction, and forming with its sweep the northern arm of Sir Francis Drake's Bay. It is situated about thirty miles north of the city of San Francisco. PoiXTS BoxETA and de los Lodos are the northern and southern capes which form the entrance to the Golden Gate. Point Nueff, or And Nueva, is a very peculiar, iso- lated pile of dark rocks, surrounded by water, being separated from the main land by a narrow channel. It is about thirty rods in length by four in breadth, and about seventy-five feet high in the centre ; thence sloping in every direction doAvn to the water. The surf lashes its base with great violence. It is situated about equi-distant between San Francisco and Monterey. Point Pinos is the long and narrow southern arm of the bay of Monterey. The shore is low, but the land in the interior rises into very high hills, covered with stately pines. Point Conception is a long, high neck of land, which makes out into the sea in a southern direction, and forms the extreme south-western limit of the county of Santa Barbara. It is about ten miles south of the mission of La Purissima. MOUNTAINS. 61 MOUNTAINS. As a general feature, the face of the country is broken and rough, being a succession of lofty mountains and hills, interspersed with a comparatively small territory of plains or valleys. The principal mountains are in ranges ; but the spurs which extend out from them are so numerous, and so many isolated lofty elevations rise abruptly from the plains, that, at a single view, especially in the northern half of the state, they present an apparent collection of mountains without order ; embosoming sufficient low lands to mark distinctly their lines of separation. And yet the state is so large, that these valleys and plains are numerous, and a few of them are of great extent. The principal ranges are the Sierra * Nevada f or Snow MountainsV tl^e Coast Range, and a range of mountains com- mencing at the northern boundary of the state, and extend- ing diagonally across it, in a south-westerly direction, from the Sierra Nevadas to the Coast Range, which it meets at Mount Linn, near the 42d degree of north latitude. Mount Shasta, fourteen thousand four hundred feet in perpendicular height above the sea, is in this range, and has so given its name to it that it is now generally called the Shasta Range. The Sierra Nevadas, and also the Coast Range, are a continuation of the mountains which form the promontory of Lower California. They extend northwardly, from the mouth of the river Colorado, where they are comparatively low, being mere hills with wide valleys between them, until they near the eastern boundary of the state, at about the * A saw. A ridgo of mountains and craggy rocks. t A heavy fall of snow. 6 62 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. 89th degree of north hititude — from whence their coui-se is nearly due north into Oregon. Both slopes of this range are within the boundaries of the state. Many long spurs branch out, at unequal distances, from either side, like ribs from the spinal column of the human frame, extend- ing towards the south-west and south-east from the central range. The Sierra Nevadas rise to an average elevation of fifteen thousand feet above the sea, and many of the peaks are covered with perpetual snow. Some of these elevations are vast piles of naked primitive rocks ; others are covered with barren sands ; and others, particularly among the spurs, are composed of burnt rocks, their natural strata having been heaved out of their places, and containing lava, and other evidences of volcanic action ; while the sides of the mountains, and the chasms between, are strowrt with debris and arid sands. Among the peaks of this range, and of its collateral ridges, are Mount St. Joseph, in Shasta county, in latitude 40° 50' north, and 12,000 feet in height. In Butte county are Table Mountain, near the Feather river ; 8000 feet high; Saddle Peak, 7200 feet high; and the Buttes, near the south fork of the Feather river, 9000 feet high. The Three Buttes, a mountain with three towering shafts, rising, "solitary and alone," to the height of 4000 feet, in the Sacramento valley, are in the same county, and are visible from a great distance to the voyager on the river. In the northern part of the same county is Mount Hood, with its apex glistening in the regions of perpetual frost. The Coast Range. These mountains are generally inferior to the Sierra Nevadas, yet they send up a few peaks far beyond the region of clouds and storm. They are, prop- erly, a continuation of the range which commences at Cape St. Lucas ; but are low. for some distance, in the south of MOFNTAINS. 6B= the state. They extend longitudinally, through the state, at about an average distance of sixty miles from the ocean, having a wide valley on each side. At the northern limit of the state, it spreads out into a numerous collection of broken, craggy, and, in some instances, snow-clad piles. In its geological formation, this range resembles the Sierra Nevada and its spurs. Cape Mendocino is connected with the Coast Range, and, by some geographers, is considered as its termination. Mount San Bernardino, in this chain of mountains, is one of the highest elevations in the state. It is in the county of San Bernardino, in lat. 34° north, and 17.000 feet above the level of the ocean, in perpendicular height. San Gorgonio, situated about twenty miles to the south- east of the former, is scarcely less aspiring. Kalmatii Mountain, between Kalmath and Salmon rivers, and Mount Prospect, near the Kalmath river, each rise to the height of about 5000 feet, and are covered with snow during- eight or nine months of the year. Table Mountain, in the county of Marin, rises 2569 feet above the ocean. Mount Diablo, in the county of Contra Costa, seems to stand isolated from its companions, but is properly one of the Coast Range. As the traveller proceeds up the Sacra- mento river this mountain is seen in the distance on his right, about three miles from the shore. It rises several thousand feet above the plain, and is covered to its summit with wild oats. When the writer passed it, it was night ; the ripened crop had been fired by the Indians, and was all in a blaze. The surface covered by the fire, on both mountain and plain, was immense; and the smoke, burnished and lighted by the lurid flame, rolled from its lofty top, slowly 64 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. , away to the south, and shone in striking contrast with the deep, dark mantle, which night had spread over all the sur- rounding scene. Excepting Bernardino and Mount Linn, these mountains have an elevation ranging from 500 to 5000 feet. In the northern section of the county of Contra Costa, and the southern portion of the counties of Napa and Solano, this range, excepting an occasional high elevation, dwindles to inconsiderable hills, between which the melting snows are discharged by a single outlet. For a distance of four hundred miles in length, streams from the western slope of the Sierra Nevadas, from the eastern side of the Coast Range, and from their spurs, are discharged by the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers into the bay of San Francisco. The Santa Barbara Range, which terminates at Point Pinos, on the south-western side of the bay of Monterey, is a part of the line of hills and mountains which skirt the whole shore of the ocean. The high lands on the north end of the promontory of San Francisco are called the Sa?i Bruno Mountains. The Sierra Morino, or Brown Mountains, commence on the shore of the bay, about ten miles south of the city of San Francisco, and, extending down the coast, unite with a spur of the Coast Range in the county of Santa Clara. That spur, rising about two thousand feet, protects the beautiful valley of San Jose from the rough winds of the coast, and contributes materially to the renowned luxuriance of its vegetation, and to the salubrity of its climate. On the east- ern side of the bay is the Bolbona ridge of hills, an emanation from the Coast Range. About twenty miles below the city of San Francisco it begins to recede from the bay eastward- ly, and terminates in the main range; thus forming the FORESTS AND FOREST TREES. 65 north-eastern limit of the valley. At the head of Napa valley, in Napa county, rises Mount St. Helen, looking gloomily do\Yn upon the surrounding plains and hills from an elevation of 4000 feet. FORESTS AND FOREST TREES. The mountains and hills of this state abound in large forests of stately timber. The timber grows mostly on the slopes and in the gorges ; the summits, especially of the high mountains, being either barren sand and rocks, or cov- ered with a stinted growth of coarse grass. Very little under, or young growth, is found in any part of the state. A view of the forests conveys an impression that these mighty trees, now towering to the skies, are the only growth the soil has sustained, or will ever produce. The trees have a parched and sun-burnt appearance, and, if the expression may be used, look like Nature in old age and decay. Pine, spruce, white oak, live oak, red-wood, some maple, ash, beech, and laurel, are found in all sections of the state ; but timber is relatively more abundant in its northern and middle, than in its southern division; and on the lower hills and slopes of the Sierra Nevadas, than on the Coast Range. The Red-Wood is the most remarkable tree of the state. In color it very nearly resembles the red cedar of the At- lantic states, and, in solidity and grain, is like the pine. It grows to a great size. Specimens of them are often found which measure from fifteen to twenty feet in diameter. 'A giant growth of other species is not uncommon. Arbor Vit^. The specimen of the Arbor Vit(B, which, until the last summer, had stood at least three 6^ (JG HISTOTIY OF CALIFORNIA. thousand years, at the head waters of the Stiinishius and San Antoine rivei-s, in the central eastern section of the state, among the Siernx Nevadas, measured 310 feet in height, and had lost at least fifteen feet of its top. It was at the ground, thirty-one feet in diameter and ninety-two feet in circumference ! One hundred men could conveniently stand erect within a section of its bark taken off at its base. Lumbering will for many yeai-s be extensively pui-sued in the state. The number of saw-mills now in opemtion, propelled by water or steam, is about one hundred : and a capital of §800,000 is employed in this branch of industry. MINES, MINERALS, MINERAL WATERS, QUARRIES, ETC., ETC. In the county of Marin, which lines north of San Fran- cisco, there have been found, in its mountains and hills, silver, copper, iron, and quicksilver ores, cinnabiu', steatite or soapstone, asphaltum, mai-ble, and limestone. In the county of Santa Clara, lying contiguous to the bay of San Francisco on the south, is the largest mine of quick- silver ever discovered. It will be particularly noticed in a subsequent chapter, in connection with a description of the gold mines. In Napa county, situated north of Pablo bay and about forty miles from San Francisco, is another rich mine of quicksilver, and also a hot sulphur spring. The latter is about seventy miles north from Napa city. The waters of this spring gush up fi-om the side of the mountain to the height of ten or fifteen feet, and heated gases are emitted with a loud hissing noise. This county also contains several other mineral springs which have not been an^ilyzed, and tlieir qualities are unknown. 07 In Yuba county, in the north-eastern part of the state, is a rich quicksilver mine, Avhich is reported to yield an ounce of quicksilver to a pound of rock. In Butte county, adjoining Yuba, are deposits of quick silver, platina, lead, and silver. A large bed of chromate of iron has been discovered near Nevada, and iron ore is also found in the vicinity of Feather river. In Contra Costa county, lying contiguous to the bay of San Francisco, are several hot springs, a sulphur, and a tepid saline spring. In this county a bed of gypsum and a quarry of freestone have been discovered. In Los Angeles county, lying in the southern portion of the state, is a spring which covers two acres of ground, and from which pitch or asphaltum boils up in large quantities, and it is used for coating the roofs of buildings. The In- dians call this spring Brca. On San Bernardino rancho, which is owned by the Mormons, is a hot spring. Lime- stone, and other building rock, are abundant in this county. In Mariposa county, lying in the central eastern section of the state, are quarries of excellent marble ; they are near the north fork of the Mercede river. In tliis county, also, are many mineral springs, but their characteristics have not been ascertained. In Monterey county, silver ore has been discovered ; and at the upper end of Salinas valley many sulphur springs exist. Silver, copper, and iron ores, it is believed, will be found in considerable quantities in the county of San Luis Obispo. A deposit of bituminous coal has been found in this county, on the ranch of Don Jose de Jesus Pico, near the small bay of San Simon. This county is situated on the coast in the south-western section of the state. 68 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Near the village of Santa Barbara, in the county of that name, on the coast, in the south-western part of the state, is a hot sulphur spring, the waters of which are at the tem- perature of 100° (Fahrenheit), as they issue from the rock. These warm and hot springs were, in former times, the grand panacea of the natives. In the " salinas " of this county salt is gathered in abundance during the months of August and September. Two asphaltum springs have been lately found within a few miles of the village of Santa Bar- bara; and the ocean throws up bituminous substances on the whole of this part of the coast. In Shasta county, sixty miles north of Shasta city, and near the Sacramento river, is a mineral spring, the predom- inant ingredient of which is soda. This county, situated in the north-eastern section of the state, also contains twelve salt springs, which are very large, and their waters are very strongly impregnated. Sierra county, adjoining the north-eastern boundary of the state, abounds in excellent limestone. In Solano county, bordering on Suison bay, and near Yallejo, is an extensive soda spring ; and in the neighbor- hood of Benicia, the present seat of the state government, is a strongly impregnated sulphur spring. ' » Bituminous coal has been obtained in the hills of the promontory of San Francisco ; but several gentlemen, who have directed some inquiries to the subject, express the opin- ion that it is yet, at least, doubtful whether iron ores, or any species of mineral coal, will be found in the state in sufficient quantities for general use. San Francisco offers a good market for these important articles ; but no person has evinced sufficient confidence that extensive mines of either exist in the localities where the deposits, or specimens, have VOLCANOS. — MOUNTAIN SCENERY. 69 been found, to embark in the enterprise, or to incur the expense of making an extensive and thorough examination. VoLCANOS. Although the mountains of this state are unquestionably of volcanic origin, yet nature seems to have very generally extinguished her fires on the surface when she finished her work of upheaving the earth in this region. Only two volcanos are reported with sufficient certainty to justify the statement that they exist. One of these is near the farm of Captain Thomas Robbins, in the county of Santa Barbara, and the other near the head- waters of Jack- son's Creek, in the eastern part of the county of Calaveras. Mountain Scenery. A person unaccustomed to moun- tain scenery of vast extent, will be very likely to experi- ence a feeling of disappointment on a first view of these sublimely grand elevations. The Sierra Nevada range is about fifty miles broad, and commences in a series of foot hills, which are succeeded by higher and yet higlier sum- mits, until, in the interior of the range, they rise in wild and craggy peaks far into the regions of perpetual frost and snow. The chain being so broad, the loftiest shafts are a long distance from the plain, and a correct idea of their altitude is only obtained by ascending them. In journeying up the mountains, the way at first rises gently. After a few miles the country begins to assume an uneven and undulating character, and occasional bould- ers of rock appear. As the journey is continued, the oaks begin to diminish in number and size ; an occasional pine or hemlock appears, and the path becomes more stony. In some places, the surface is level for a considerable distance, and then comes a steep ascent of fifteen or twenty rods in length. The rocks noAV begin to congregate, are larger and are covered with moss ; the wind blows more strongly and 70 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. is cooler, and vegetation is stinted and sparse. Thus trav- ellers proceed for many hours, beguiled hj the novelties of the scenery, without very sensibly realizing that they are toiling up thousands of feet into the skies. Occasionally the way will lie directly over an elevation of two or three thousand feet of very steep ascent. Up these acclivities the traveller must climb, or ride on little stubborn mules, zig-zag, to the top ; and perhaps he must descend half as far as he has travelled, on the oppo- site side of some of the elevations, before he can resume his ascent. It may be that the gorges between these lesser mountains, or their sides, are strown with debris, or frag- ments of broken rocks, which have also to be surmounted. At length a summit is attained, wliich appears to have no more lofty companion ; and the weary wayfarers pause and look back over the path they have trod. Now, for the first time, they become sensible of what they have accomplished. Around them is nothing but the arching heavens. Away in the smoky distance ahead, are other towering mountains, but they look like mole-hills ; behind and below no object is visible but revolving clouds; and, as far as the vision can reach, these, lighted by the sun, appear like a rolling silvery ocean. Sometimes they see the lightnings flash, and hear the thunder roll far down beneath. Surrounded by such a scene, the beholder fully realizes his immense eleva- tion, and feels that he is, while in, above the world." PLAINS AND VALLEYS. These lands constitute the agricultural territory of Cali- fornia ; and upon their quantity and adaptation to successful PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 71 cultivation, depends the question whether it can ever attain to the distinction of a first-class agricultural state. There are conflicting opinions on this subject. Ever since Cali- fornia began to attract the attention of the public, the size of its principal valleys, the eflect of its peculiar climate on the production of crops, the feasibility and relative expense of the necessary drainage of some portions and of the indis- pensable irrigation of others, have been subjects of much interest ; and so many conflicting reports have been circu- lated, that no satisfactory opinion could be formed. For these reasons the writer has omitted no opportunity to obtain on those questions the most reliable information. On nearly all of these lands are at least a few settlers ; among whom are persons of intelligence and practical expe- rience, who are familiar with the region in which they respec- tively reside. To such sources application has been made, and the communications received have been compared with such statements in the census as afibrd any aid to the inquiry. It is therefore believed that the following table presents as correct an estimate of the number of square miles of the valley and arable hill-lands in the state, as can be made without a practical survey. The measurements given are the average of the varying statements of difierent persons on the subject. Sacramento Valley, 200 miles long and 60 wide, 19,000 San Joaquin do. 186 Napa . do. 20 Suscol . do. 8 Green . do. 6 Suisun . . 6 Ulatta . . 8 60 ' ' 11,160 12 ' 240 3 ' 24 1 ' 6 6 ' 36 1 ' 8 T2 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Contra Costa, . . 40 miles long and 40 wide, 1,600 San Jose, ... 50 " '' 40 '' 2,000 Kalmath, ... 30 '' '' 25 '' 750 Trinity, .... 50 " " 40 " 2,000 " Monte " bottom lands, 20 " " 10 '' 200 Salinas Valleys, . 18 " " 12 " 216 Carmel, .... 15 ^' '^ 3 '' 45 San Juan, . . . 70 '' " 9 '' 630 17 missions with their presides, not embraced in the above, allow 325 square miles to each, . . 5,525 Lands in the south, imperfectly explored, lying east of Sierra Nevadas, in the counties of San Diego, San Bernardino and Mariposa. This tract is tri- angular, but, reduced to a parallelogram, it may be stated at 240 miles long by 90, 19,200 Small valleys lying among the mountains and along the streams in the mining region and on the coast, 2,000 Total, 57,670 Deductions. For Tale lands in Sacramento valley, an area 50 by 15 miles, 750 Clear Lake, in that valley, 30 by 5, 150 Short" spurs of mountains in the same, not arable, . 150 Tule lands in San Joaquin valley 60 by 20, . . . 1,200 Tulare Lake, in that valley, 40 by 15, .... 600 Spurs of barren mountains in same valley, . . . 400 Deduct for barren mountain lands, great desert, and Tule land in the southern unfrequented ter- ritory, 12,000 Total of waste lands to be deducted, 15,250 PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 73 This leaves, for the number of square miles of tillable land, forty-two thousand four hundred and twenty, or about one fourth of the whole territory of the state. The census returns give the dimensions of many of these valleys, and, in making the preceding estimates of quantity, the deductions for waste lands are stated at the lowest amount which the facts will justify. The surface of the two principal valleys, for a distance ranging between ten and thirty miles east and west from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, is very level ; but further back it becomes uneven, and this inequality increases until the valleys proper terminate in the more elevated, broken and barren foot hills of the two great mountain ranges. The soil of the first several series of hills into which the level surface rises, is the same with that of the plains, and equally productive ; but beyond these, it begins to be stony, and, although portions may be cultivated, yet it is not desirable for farming purposes. As a general thing, the San Joaquin valley is inferior, in several respects, to the Sacramento. It contains more wet land in the level portions, and, especially in the south- ern section, is more frequently interspersed with tracts of hard pan gravel and saline soil ; indeed, the mineral springs, which abound in the southern parts of the state, are, it is said, detrimental to vegetation in many places. Asphal- tum is contained in large tracts, and muriate of soda, like frost, is spread over others, both of which ar<^ injurious to farming. A much larger portion of the San Joaquin than of the Sacramento valley lies too low to admit of drainage, and the opinion of competent judges is that its cultivation will always be attended with more unavoidable expense than the lands further north or south. 7 74* HISTORY OF CALIFOIINIA. In the counties of Solano. Yolo, and Colnsi, are large tide swamps or lakes, which lie along the Sacramento river in the higher lands, and axe pi*obably irreclaimable. Both of these valleys are subject to. at least, one inun- dation yearly, which submerges them for a distance of from five to twenty miles from the rivers. The Sacramento val- ley, also, is subject to floods at diflerent times in the year, depending on the condition of the snows on the Sierra Kevadas. If during the winter they are covered very low down on their sides, the copious rains, which sometimes fall on them dui'ing the long summers, will dissolve tliis snow in immense ipantities : the swollen torrents then come tum- bling into the streams which empty into the Sacramento, and, in a very few days, swell it far above its banks. This event may happen at any season. But when the snows do not lall so far below the region of frost as to be dissolved by those rains, casual freshets do not occur. The difter- ence between the two rivei'S, in this respect, arises from the fact that the northern section of the state is more moun- tainous than the southern, and the tributaries of the Sacra- mento are larger and fiir more nimierous than those of the San Joaquin. These large valleys contain but few forest trees, except along the margins of the rivers ; but nearer the foot hills of the mountains, on either side, the country becomes gen- tly rolling, and aged oaks are scattered sparsely over the whole territory. These oaks are unlike those of the Atlantic states. They are a low tree. The trunk seldom exceeds ten feet in height, is often four feet in diameter, is very gnarly, and is coated with a substance resembling lime. The branches are immense, reaching in some instan- ces forty or fifty feet, their dark green foliage shading a PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 75 very large surface of ground. In general appearance and outline, they resemble the butternut tree. Winding among them are -ways or roads Avhich chance, or the con- venience of the traveller, has trailed over the plains in every direction. These oaks appear to be the only trees the soil has ever sustained, and there is no young growth. These "openings," the plains and the adjacent hills, are in some places endless seas of waving wild oats, and in others of wild grass. These oats, it is said, are not indige- nous to this country. They were introduced upon the mis- sion lands, by the Catholic missionaries from Mexico, eighty years ago, and from thence have spread over all the plains and hills along the coast, and back nearly to the Nevada Range. They grow to the height of about two feet on the hills, but reach three or four, in favorable situations, on the plains. The trees, which skirt the streams in the Sacramento valley, consist generally of oak, ash, and a species of but- tonwood ; and they form a belt, varying in width from ten to twenty rods. In many places they are completely cov- ered with luxuriant wild grape vines, which, in the season of fruit, hang gracefully and invitingly down over the limpid waters. The shores of the San Joaquin are skirted with the Cottonwood, a species of poplar, and an occasional willow. On these plains are found immense mounds of earth, which present evidences of their great antiquity. It is supposed that they were thrown up, by the Indians, for ob- servatories, from which to survey the floods, or as places of resort for safety when the plains became suddenly inundated, and the rano-inji; hunters were cauo;ht far in the interior. The tide^ which has been mentioned, is a species of rush, that is very rank, growing on overflowed lands. Its stalk is over twelve feet high, and from one to two inches in 76 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. diameter at the root. Its color is a very deep green, ap- proaching to black, and when spread over a large space, its dark tops, bending in the wind, remind the beholder of the gloomy waves of the fabulous river of death. The mission lands and their manner of cultivation have been described in a former chapter. As the first settle- ments of the country were at the south, the lands of that section of the state have been longer tilled and more ex- tensively improved than those of the central and northern sections ; but it is not believed that they are superior in any respect. The soil of all these valley lands is similar in its gen- eral characteristics. It is alluvial, composed of sand, clay and decayed vegetable matter. The general opinion is that all these bottoms were, at a former period, the beds of lakes and streams, and that the soil is the deposit of earth which was washed from the mountains through a succession of ages. On this hypothesis, those lakes or streams must have been very deep, and must have covered many of the hills which skirt the plains, whose surftice soil is simi- lar to that of the low lands. That portion of the state wliich lies south and east of the San Joaquin valley has a better soil, for agricultural purposes, than the valley itself ; and persons who have ex- amined the subject entertain the opinion that the soil of this valley is of volcanic formation, and contains in many places elements which are unflivorable to successful hus- bandry. Among the mountains in the "gold regions " are many beautiful valleys, which are abundantly watered, and are very productive. These vary, in extent, from one quarter of a mile to one or two miles square. On many of them PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 77 may be seen the white canvas cottage of some adventurous rancher^ who is here living "solitary and alone," engaged in the production of vegetables and cereal grain, to enable him to draw large profits from the miners' harvest of golden grain. In journeying on the rivers and over the extensive val- leys and rolling lands, which compose the agricultural por- tions of the state, travellers will see but little fencing, and but few frame dwellings, except in one or two localities and in the vicinity of cities and large settlements. As they pass along, at the distance of five or ten miles from each other, they will find small board, or log shanties, or canvas cabins, but seldom a barn or an out-house. The ran- cher^s wife and children may appear in the door, or the hut may be vacant, the lone tenant being "away to his work." These habitations are generally built near the river's side, or under a spreading tree ; or, if the place admit of it, at the base of a lofty mountain, whose rugged sides may serve to screen it from the rays of the burning sun. The farm- ing utensils are, in most cases, exposed to the weather, which, fortunately, during the long dry season of seven months, is not as detrimental as in a more changeable climate. Although the country has been thus occupied but four years, it looks, in all respects, as old as Massachusetts or Connecticut. In many sections no trees, except along the rivers, or in the "oak openings," no stumps, no corduroy roads nor other characteristics of a newly-settled region, are visible ; but luxuriant crops of grain and vegetables are flourishing in apparently long-cultivated fields. When the rancher selected his ranch^ there needed no clearing of huge forest trees ; but he could at once turn up 7^ 78 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. the furrows and deposit the seed in a soil which nature, ages ago, had enriched with an exhaustless compost twenty feet deep ! As often as a crop matures, it is harvested ; and, in the central and southern divisions of the state, another may be immediately sown or planted. And thus the succession may be continued through the circle of the year. The grounds around the solitary's cabin may be adorned with large stacks of wild oats and grass, which he has cured, and which he intends to sell at thirty or sixty dollars per ton, in the neighboring city. Perhaps upon a spot cleared for the purpose, are hundreds of bushels of threshed grain and ears of corn. These, in the dry season, require no shelter; for storms will not descend to injure them for many months. Irrigation is required, particularly in the south, on a large portion of the plains, during the long dry seasons, to produce a full yield. "When this is needed, the rancho be- ing favorably located, small sluices are dug, leading from the fountain or stream in various directions through the fields to all the low places, which thus become ponds. These fertilize the soil for a long distance around ; and from them other sluices are laid, conducting the water to still more remote parts. In this manner extensive fields of rich allu- vion are made to yield luxuriant crops, even though the winds which sweep over them be robbed of all theii* stores of moisture, far back among the snows of the mountain ranges. If no stream or fountain be near, the rancher must resort to artesian, or other wells, and this is often a very expensive means of supply. The most improved and beautiful agricultural portions of the state are in the country contiguous to the city of Sac- PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 79 ramento, and the valley of San Jose. The visitor can conceive of no better cultivated farms than those which surround that city. They are inclosed with substantial board or wire fences, are provided with spacious barns and other ap- propriate out-houses, and, in many instances, with large and commodious dwellings. No stranger, on riding over about four miles square of that region at this day, and judging from its appearance, would believe the statement that, four years ago. only a solitary fort, or Mexican out- post, was to be seen where now stands a city containing ten thousand inhabitants, and surrounded by an agricultural region, apparently as long tilled and as highly cultivated as any portion of New England. The valley of San Jose is situated on the east and south of the bay of San Francisco, and is about fifty miles in length by forty in breadth. The Catholic mission of Santa Clara was founded in this valley in the year 1777, and that of San Jose in 1797. These missions cultivated portions of their lands, planted vineyards and orchards, and formed, in their respective localities, the nucleus of future towns; but the Spanish and Mexican regime is not favorable to the rapid population of territory or growth of cities, and therefore, during nearly eighty years from the first settlement of this valley, it remained unimproved, excepting the lands in the vicinity of the mission buildings. But no sooner was the sovereignty changed, than tlie lovely plains and majestic groves of San Jose attracted the keen eye of the American farmer ; and the primeval silence of the little river Almeda was broken by the rush of 'the steamer, and the hum of a busy immigration. Four years have passed, and now visitors to that charming valley be- hold there a very diiferent scene. Good stage coaches con- 80 IIISTORr OF CALIFORNIA. vey them, on smooth, level roads, in the diy season, to San Jose, ^yhich, from a dii-tj Mexican village, has become a thi-iving city. Comfortable farm-houses are rising on every hand ; roads are laid out ; the adjoining lands in some in- stances are enclosed with substantial wire, board, or rope fences ; extensive crops of wheat, rye, coi-n. and vegetables, in various stages of advancement towards maturity, are growing to supply the constant demands of the markets of San Francisco ; and all around are seen the evidences of thi-ift and enterprise. From San Jose a good road extends around the bay, on the western side, to the city of San Francisco ; and, for the longest part of the distance, the snug cottaores and canvas cabins of the new settlers are rising on the plains and in the little valleys among the hills. Li some sections of this valley the sui-face is so level that a horse or ox, feeding on the plain, could be seen at any distance within the power of vision : not a tree, shi'ub, nor hillock intercepts the view ; and the soil is as rich as can be desired. In other places the majestic Californian oaks appear, standing at respectful distances apart, over a larore extent of countrv. Several of the streams are skirt- ed with poplars, others with willows, and all these, in con- trast with the vast ocean of wild oats, which, in their arid summer hue, fill the valley and cover the surrounding hills, irive a very ai2;reeable varietv and freshness to the scene. Near the bay, and between the mission of Santa Clara and San Mateo, in this valley, is the celebrated ranche, which was purchased by Commodore Stockton. It is re- ported that by the terms of the sale, he agreed to pay the wealthy Mexican r>on, one dollar for each head of the cat- PLAINS AND VALLEYS. 81 tie belonging to the estate, and that the land was not to be valued. Unexpectedly to the Commodore, the consideration amounted to ten thousand dollars ; but the purchase proved to be cheap at that price ; for the rapid influx of population raised the value of real estate, and, in a few months, it was worth four times the amount of the purchase money. Whether the purchaser ever troubled himself further about tlie cattle, has not transpired. In proportion to their size, there are, in the valleys of San Jose and Contra Costa, a larger number of acres under actual cultivation, than in any of the other plains of the state. In the former, nineteen thousand acres are now under tillage ; and in the latter, nine thousand and ninety- three; while in the great Sacramento valley there are yet only about twenty-three thousand, in the San Joacpiin, ten thousand, and in the San Juan, three thousand. The opinion prevails, that, in the Sacramento valley, a large portion of the interior cannot be farmed as profita- bly as many other parts of the state, owing to the expense which must be incurred in irrigation. Large sections, in which vegetation requires this aid, are, it is said, so remote from available streams, or are so elevated, that the necessary outlay to overcome this difiiculty must very seriously re- duce their value for farming lands. Along the streams, this objection is less formidable, irrespective of the relative elevation of the plain, because water can be raised by the aid of simple machinery, and conducted over the surface in sluices, and into artificial ponds. A large country in the eastern parts of Mariposa, Tulare, San Bernardo, and San Diego, counties in the southern section of the state, has been but imperfectly explored, and but little is yet known respecting its geography, or the 82 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. character of its soil. That a considerable portion of it is a desert region, has been ascertained, and also that it is inhab- ited by various tribes of Indians, unfriendly to the '-pale faces," and to their explorations of the country. It is believed that the Colorado river, ^vhich forms the south-eastern boundary of the state, flows through a fertile region. This belief is based on an inference which is drawn from the fact that its waters are highly colored. That circumstance is regarded as evidence that the river flows through alluvial land, as the streams which pass over sand or rocks are clear. The name, Colorado, signifies i^ed. and it is probable that an extensive fertile valley, bounded by the desert on the west, is watered by this river. The country lying between the Sierra JSTevadas and the boundary line of the state on the north-east, is but little known. ^liners who have visited it report that it contains considerable tillable land. The number of acres of land in the state, subject to taxation on the first day of January, 1854, was ...... 6.719.442 The assessed value of taxable property, §10,000,000 The direct tax, 60 cts. on each $100 of valuation. Taxable personal property, .... $21,102,391 State debt, 3,464,815,70 The receipts of the unexpired fiscal year are as follows : Direct tax, §600,000 Foreign miner's tax, 125,000 Poll tax, 60,000 Consigned goods, 50,000 Auction duties, 75,000 Passenger tax, 26,000 RIVERS. 83 Library fund, 2,000 Possessory claims, 2,000 Total amount, $940,000 Deduction for delinquencies and costs of collection, 160,000 Net amount of revenue, $780,000 Expenditures during the year, . . . $960,000 RIVERS. The State of California has no rivers of the first class ; nor, speaking in reference to its agricultural interests, can it be said that the state is well watered. It contains, how- ever, several rivers of considerable magnitude, and many smaller streams. Tavo or three of the rivers subserve very well, to a limited extent, the purposes of navigation into the interior ; but, though they flow through large valle^^s, their beds are so low during the dry season, that their waters cannot be made servicable, by any ordinary means, over some hu'ge tracts of adjoining land ; nor over many others, without a resort to machinery, more or less expensive. The small streams are less numerous, in all parts of this state, than in many other regions of equal extent ; and they are chiefly torrents, tumbling through the gorges of the moun- tain ranges, or of their spurs, into the rivers or the ocean. These tributaries, in some instances, traverse valleys of greater or less extent, fertilizing their banks and the adja- cent lands. On these, the sagacious rancher pitches his tent or rears his log cabin, in preference to the vast plains. In travelling oyer the state, especially in the middle and 84 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. nortliern sections, occupants will almost certainly be found on all these small valleys ; often with no assistant, and, per- haps, with neither wife nor children near, to sweeten his hours of leisure, he toils on through the year, or from year to year, with scanty fare, with no domestic comforts, with no confidential associates, looking impatiently forward to the time when he hopes to reap a golden harvest, and to return with it to his former home. Sometimes these small ranches will be seen far up among the mountains, wherever the plats of level ground are suffi- ciently large for farming purposes, and there the lone toiler can look abroad, from the same position, over his promising crops, smiling in the summer sun, or up to the regions of perpetual frost, where the snows are glistening like spangles, in the same genial beams. Streams are more numerous, and they are larger in the northern and middle sections of the state than in the south- ern ; and, although an inspection of the map will give the impression that the whole territory is well supplied with water, it must not be forgotten that many of the delineations of streams are but channels through which the wash from the hills and mountains in the wet season is conducted across the plains into the rivers, and that they are dry dur- ing the long summers. This fact shows that even the rivers must then be seriously reduced in volume. Indeed, several streams which have acquired the dignity of rivers on the maps, are, for more than half the year, little else than meandering rivulets. The miners are compelled, in many instances, to abandon claims located in the neighborhood of streams, until the wet season commences ; for without a good supply of water, they cannot collect their gold. The Sacramento is the principal river in the state. RIVERS. 85 Being the largest, it rises appropriately near one of the loftiest of her elevations, Mount Shasta, and among the spurs of the Sierra Nevadas, in about 41° 30' of north latitude. It communicates with the ocean through Suisan bay, the Straits of Carquinez, Pablo bay, and the Golden Gate. Its general course is about thirty min. east of south, and its length in a straight line is about 250 miles ; but it meanders through the great valley, in many long and grace- ful sweeps, in a channel of more than four hundred miles long. Its Tributaries, the principal on the east, commencing at the north, are, McLoud's fork, Pitt river, and Cow creek in Shastar county, Butte river in Butte county, Feather river, its largest tributary, and American river. Those on the west, are West fork. Rock, Salt, and Cotton Wood creeks in Shasta county, Oats creek, and Sycamore creek in Collusi county, and Cache creek in Yolo county. For many miles from its mouth, this river is of such uni- form width, that it resembles an artificial canal; and its banks are beautifully adorned with trees and vines. Voyag- ers on it, are charmed with the prospect, it is so novel in all its features. At one point may be seen a vast expanse of plain, covered with the green or ripened crop of wild oats, which wave in the wind like the ocean in a storm; at another, in the misty distance, is an isolated mountain, ris- ing in gloomy grandeur thousands of feet above all the sur- rounding objects. Here are the white canvas homes of the recent settlers ; there, the more aspiring tenements of the "49ers." Now, the light dip of the Indian's oar just ruffles the surface ; anon, the proud steamer comes dashing by, freighted with new adventurers, or with toil-worn miners. Of these, a few have realized their hopes : but the 8 86 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. far greater number, disappointed and sad, are bidding adieu to the country. Here, in the stream, is the rude wheel and machinery of the rancher, by which he forces the reluctant river to pay its tribute to the goddess of the future harvest. There, is an Indian settlement ; and among their earth-cov- ered burrows on the shore, are seen the feeble remnant of a f\\ding race. Here we find what was intended as the nu- cleus of a future town; but its dilapidation and solitude, remind the beholder of the days of romantic speculations ; and there, at "the Forks," is Sacramento, second in com- merce, population, and enterprise, only to her rival on the coast. Up to this city, a distance of about one hundred and thirty miles, by the channel from San Francisco, the Sacra- mento is navigabk for river steamers of a large size. Those of a less draught of water may probably ascend sixty or seventy miles further ; but its capacity has not been very thoroughly tested any considerable distance north of its junction with Feather river, about forty miles above Sac- ramento. Its annual overflows have already been referred to. Feather river, the principal branch of the Sacramento, has its sources among the Sierra Nevadas, in the counties of Butte and Sierra. Its course is south-westerly, and its length from its forks about one hundred miles. This river has three principal tributaries, called respectively the north, middle, and south fork. These forks are rapid streams, and in their course to the junction are swollen in the wet season by the torrents from the mountain gorges. Small steamers can ascend this river to its junction with the Yuba, a distance of forty miles ; and it is probably nav- igable for smaller boats a few miles beyond that point. RIVERS. 8T The Yuba lias three forks, called also, the north, mid- dle, and south, which rise in the counties of Sierra and Nevada, among the Sierra Nevadas. This stream has several smaller tributaries, but their beds are either dry, or nearly so in the summer. Of these, the most important are Deer Creek, Gold Run, and Spect Creek. Pitt river rises in Deer Lake, among the mountains in the north-eastern part of the state. It has not been thor- oughly explored, but is believed to be about one hundred and fifty miles in length. The American river unites with the Sacramento river at the city of the same name. It is about fifty miles from this junction to its forks. It is not navigated, if it be nav- igable, for vessels of any considerable draught of water. Its forks, like those of the Feather, are called the north, middle, and south. Its south branch has its source in Fremont's Lake, among the mountains in the romantic county of Eldo- rado ; but the middle fork is its principal tributary. The streams which communicate with the Sacramento on the west are chiefly creeks of small size. The Las Putas, which rises among the spurs of the Coast Range, in Napa county, is probably a branch of this river ; but it appears to be lost in the extensive tule swamps which lie between the hills and the Sacramento. It is reported to have its source in a large lake called Clear Lake, situated in that county, between the Coast range and one of its south-east- ern spurs. Kalmatii river is one of the largest streams in the state. It rises among the mountains in Oregon, near a lofty peak called Mount Pitt. Kalmath lake, on the eastern side of that mountain, probably communicates with this river. Its course is south-westerly for about one hundred 88 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. and seventy miles to its junction with Trinity river, in Kal- math county, the extreme north-western section of the state ; from that point its direction is north-westerly to the ocean, into which it is discharged at about 42° 10' north latitude. It is a rapid stream. Above its junction with the Trinity river, it flows through a succession of rocky gorges, alter- nating with small, fruitful, valleys ; but from thence to the ocean it has a deep channel. At its mouth it widens into a long, narrow frith, in which are several high rocks or islands. Its principal tributaries are Shasta, Scotts, and Salmon rivers, which are discharged into it from the east. Trinity river rises in Kalmath county, and, running south- westerly about fifty miles, abruptly changes its course and falls into the Kalmath, about fifty miles from the ocean. Russian river rises among the mountains on the west- ern side of the Coast range, in Mendocino county, and, after flowing south-westerly about eighty miles, is discharged into the ocean about twenty miles north of Bodega bay. At its mouth is Fort Ross, a post established by a Russian trading company while the territory was a dependency of Spain. Puttaloma and Sonoma creeks and Napa river, are streams about thirty miles in length, which, running south, empty into Pablo bay. Suisan river rises in the north-western part of Solano county, and, after a course of about twenty miles, empties into Suisan bay. The San Joaquin has its source among the Sierra Nevada mountains in Mariposa county. Its course is south- west until it enters the valley ; thence it SAveeps abruptly around to the north-west, and in a serpentine channel makes its way to a confluence with the Sacramento. The communication of the two rivers with Suisan bay, into which RIVERS AND LAKES. 89 they empty, is obstructed by several alluvial islands which divide their united waters into two principal channels, about twenty-five miles east of the bay. The mouth of the San Joaquin is a little south-west from that of the Sacramento. The difference in the length of these two rivers is not very great, but the volume of the former is less than that of the latter, which is only navigable for steamers of eight or nine feet draft of water, to the city of Stockton, about forty-five miles from the junction. Lighter steamers, however, may ascend it to a much greater distance. This river has a tranquil current, and near its mouth commences a series of sloughs, or back-water channels, formed by the junction of the two rivers ; the capacity of their communication with Suisan bay being too contracted to give a free discharge to their united currents. Tule lands abound along this river ; and its shores are not so beautifully diversified with foliage as are those of the Sacramento. A few large cotton-woods, or poplars, with bushes intervening, bend from its banks over its bright but sluggish waters. Tulare's Lake. South of this river, in Tulare county, and between the two great ranges, lies a large lake called Tulare's lake. It is a vast tule swamp, into which, on the eastern side, many streams from the mountains are lost. A succession of sloughs extends northwardly from this lake, and, according to the report of several persons who have traversed the country, these form a communication with the San Joaquin. All the important tributaries of the San Joaquin rise in the Sierra Nevadas and its collateral ranges. These are the Mokelumne river and Cossumnes in Sacramento county, the Calaveras in San Joaquin county, the Stanislaus and 8* 90 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Tuolorane in Tuolumne county, and the ^Mecede and Mari- pose in Maripose county. These rivers are not navigable ; and, with the numerous creeks which flow into them, are chiefly valuable as aids to the miner, rancher, and lumber- man. In the valley of San Jose are the Alemeda and Gudelapa. These are small streams flowing north-westerly into the bay of San Francisco. The Monterey or Salinas river rises among the spui-s of the Coast range in the county of San Luis Obispo, and is about one hundred miles in length. Its course is north- westerly through the San Juan, Salinas, and Carmel valleys, into the bay of Monterey. It is not navigable. In the county of Santa Barbara are the San Inez and the San Buenaventura, its northern and southern boundaries. These streams are about forty miles long, rise in the Coast range, and run in a south-westerly course to the ocean. Li the county of Los Angeles are the rivers Santa Anna, San Gabriel, and Rio de los Angeles. These are small mountain streams, rising in the Coast range and running south-westerly about thirty miles to the sea. The San Gabriel and Los Angeles empty into the bay of San Pedro. The Rio Colorado or Red river is, it is believed, one of the longest rivers on the western side of the Sierra Ma- dree mountains. Its numerous sources or branches — them- selves streams of considerable magnitude — rise among the spurs of that great range, in the eastern part of the territo- ries of Utah and Oregon. It forms the southern portion of the eastern boundary of the state, for a distance of about one hundred and forty miles, and empties into the Gulf of California at 32° of north latitude. CITIES AND VILLAGES. 91 The Mohave river, rising on the eastern side of the Coast Range, in the county of San Bernardino, falls into the Colorado about ninety miles from its mouth. CITIES AND VILLAGES. San Francisco is the principal city in the state. In commercial importance and enterprise in all the departments of business, it may be denominated the metropolis of the Pacific. A full description of" it would occupy more space than can properly be devoted to it in this connection, and it will be made the subject of a separate chapter. Sacramento. This, in importance, is the second city of the state. It is situated at the confluence of the Sacra- mento river with the American, on the eastern shore of the former, and about one hundred and thirty miles from San Francisco. Like its sister city it owes its origin and rapid growth to the discovery of the gold mines. At the time of that event, a small fort stood on the site of the present town ; and, after emigration commenced, formed a convenient " stopping place " for the miners on their journeys to and from the gold region. The first gold was obtained, in the year 1848, about forty miles east of this place ; and the direct route to those placers was through this city. During the wet seasons of 1848 — 50, large numbers of miners made this point their place of rendezvous ; and in the latter year the population had swelled to about 25.000. In the natural course of events, merchants and mechanics flocked to " The Forks," erected cheap wood or cloth cabins, and commenced business. On the return of spring the miners dispersed ; but this spot continued to be their most natural and convenient market through the year, and soon a large 92 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. trade was liere permanently established. Such is the origin of this city, now containing about 10,000 inhabitants. During the first three years from its settlement, it was the nearest point at which overland emigrants, on their arrival in the country, could obtain supplies, or find a comfortable place of repose after the fatigues of their long and perilous journey. This circumstance contributed largely to increase its trade and business. It will, probably, continue to receive material benefit from the overland emigrants — notwith- standing that Nevada and Marysville are now strong com- petitors. The city contains about twenty-five spacious streets, which cross each other at right angles, forming large regular squares. The majority of the buildings are low, and con- structed of wood in the cheapest manner ; yet the city con- tains many substantial brick tenements. Should it not be again destroyed by flood or by fire, it may, in a few years, aspire to divide the honors of preeminence with its great rival. There are no public buildings worthy of particular notice. The plain on which it stands is elevated only eight or ten feet above the low- water mark of the river ; and, to provide against disasters from floods, which occur every spring, and which may happen at any other time, a levee^ about ten feet high and eight feet broad, has been constructed on the banks of the Sacramento and American rivers, for a distance of two or three miles. The city is now engaged in filling all the streets to a level with that work. This city has, literally, twice been destroyed ; by fire in November, 1852, and by flood in March of the same year. On the last visitation, the Sacramento was swelled to the height of twenty-five or thirty feet above its ordinary level, CITIES AND VILLAGES. 93 and the whole city was submerged. The loss of property occasioned by these disasters was very great, amounting to several millions of dollars ; and the plain recital of the scenes of individual suffering which followed will ever fill a gloomy page in the annals of the city. Before the city are moored a large number of store-ships, which are used for ware-houses for the safety of merchants' goods against the accidents of fire. These can easily " slip their cables" and be floated across the river, or down the stream, if an occasion should occur. One of these ships is used, at present, for a prison. But little interest appears to be felt here in the cause of education. Stockton. This city was first settled by Mr. Charles M. Weber, in the year 1844, under a grant of lands from the governor of the territory of California. It was made a pueblo in 1845, and seven residences were erected ; but the settlement was abandoned in 1846. No further attempts were made to improve the place until the fall of the year 1848, when Mr. Weber erected a frame building. In a few months from that time the tide of travel to the southern mines wrought at Stockton, though on a much smaller scale, results like those experienced at Sacramento. The popula- tion soon rose to about 2000, and continued to increase, so that it now numbers more than 3000. The city is situated on the north-eastern shore of one of the sloughs which contain the back-water accumulated by the confluence of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers. It is about three miles from the main channel, forty-five miles from the junction, and ninety from San Francisco. The river is navigable as far as this city for steamboats and other vessels of eight or nine feet draught of water ; and its central location between the southern mining region and the 94 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. coast, will secure to it a large and constantly increasing trade. Being on high ground, it is not liable to the over- flows of the river. It, as yet, makes little pretensions to architectural taste, either in public or private buildings — they being mostly, and very cheaply, constructed of wood. Bexicia is, at present, the capital of this state. It was incorporated as a city in April, 1851, and consists of twen- ty or thirty ordinary buildings, situated on a gently-rising plat of ground, on the north shore of the straits of Carqui- nez, in the county of Solano. It is about thirty-five miles north-easterly from San Francisco. Vessels of the largest class can come up to its dock ; and its harbor is well pro- tected from storms. The town was laid out in 1848, im- mediately succeeding the discovery of gold ; and, during the rage of speculation which folloAved, lots were sold at high prices. The seat of government, fixed by the consti- tution at the pueblo de San Jose, was changed in February, 1851, to Vallejo, situated on the bay of Napa. In the year 1852 it was removed to Benicia ; but the question of another change is now seriously agitated, and, until it shall be finally settled, the chances for the present capital to be- come a large city will remain problematical. Monterey. This is an old Spanish town, situated in a cove, on the south-western side of the bay of Monterey, and surrounded by lofty hills, which are covered with towering pines. It is protected, partially, by Point Pinos from the south and south-west winds ; and, by lying near the point, vessels may be tolerably safe from the north-west storms. When the American army took possession of this city, it became the capital of the country. The houses then stand- ing were few, and were constructed of adobes^ the universal CITIES AND VILLAGES. 95 building material of the native Californians. Like those of other Mexican towns, the inhabitants of Monterey were a dancing, gambling people ; but the population was small, not exceeding three or four hundred. After the conquest, the tide of emigration reached this city to some extent ; but its remoteness from the great object of attraction rendered it an indifferent rival to San Francisco. The town being situ- ated under high hills, during the rainy seasons its streets are rendered almost impassable by the torrents of water which come rushing down from the surrounding elevations. Its present population is about 2000, among whom are many Americans, who are too apt scholars in learning the Californian vices of gambling and drinking. These, and less creditable vices, are far too prevalent in all the cities, vil- lages, and settlements, old or new, in the state, for the moral health of the body politic. Monterey is seventy miles south from San Francisco. Santa Barbara. This is also an old town, and has been long celebrated for its wealthy Dons and beautiful Senoritas. These Dons own large tracts of land and nu- merous herds in the interior, but pass their time in the town, riding, occasionally, for pleasure or business, over their estates. They are also celebrated for hospitality and fandangos. Living under mild and genial skies, they are fond of ease and leisure ; and life wears away in their quiet town with few disquieting cares. Situated at a distance from the accustomed route of travel to the gold region, this town has been little affected by the enterprise which is pop- ulating and enriching the north. It stands on a spacious plain, fronting a broad bay, with towering hills in the back- ground and on the right. It has no harbor ; and vessels at 96 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. anchor in the open roadstead are not safe during the preva- lence of south- Avesterlj winds. This town, like all the others of its date and class, is a collection of low adobe houses. The mission of Santa Bar- bara is about a mile distant from it, and the gray old pile retains more of the characteristics of the palmy days of Catholic domination over the simple Indians of these regions, than any other mission in California. The population of the town is about one thousand five hundred ; and it lies about two hundred and twenty miles south of San Fran- cisco. The channel between the main land and the island of Santa Cruz, is, in the country, called the Canal of Santa Barbara. It is frequented by vessels to take in cargoes of hides, tallow, and other productions — though not a safe anchorage. CiUDAD DE LOS Angeles. This is an inland tOAvn, also famous for its rich Dons and handsome Senoritas, for which reason it is considered, as its name imports, the '' City of the Angels." It is an old, aristocratic, Spanish settlement of wealthy rancheros and their lovely brunette wives and daughters. It is situated twenty-five or thirty miles north from the bay of San Pedro, and two hundred and eighty south from San Francisco. Its buildings are similar in ma- terial and structure to those of all the Spanish towns of California. The great valley, or plain, stretching between it and the ba}^, is remarkably fertile ; and, for that country, has long been highly improved. The facilities for irrigation are abundant, and have been applied to a considerable ex- tent. Large tracts of land are devoted to the culture of the grape, which, m this genial climate, produces abundantly — affording several thousand barrels of wine and brandy for annual exportation. Under the state government, hos An- CITIES AND VILLAGES. 97 geles has become an incorporated city, and contains about two thousand eight hundred inhabitants. San Diego. This is the most southern town of the state, being only three miles north of the boundary line. It is about three hundred and eighty miles south from San Francisco. It is situated on the fine harbor of San Diego, about three miles from the beach, and has long been a place of considerable trade in hides, tallow, wines, and brandy. Its favorable position and commercial facilities, in reference to the vast interior watered by the Colorado and Gila, render San Diego one of the most promising points on the coast of the state. In general characteristics it resembles the other old towns, and contains about two thousand five hundred inhabitants. Kalmath, at the mouth of Kalmath river ; Trinity, on Trinity bay ; and Uniontown, on Humboldt bay, are small settlements which have been originated by the com- merce, chiefly in lumber, existing between those regions and the southern ports. Marysville. This is one of the most prosperous of the towns in the interior. It is situated in Yuba county, on the north bank of the Yuba river, about half a mile from its confluence with Feather river. It is one of the new towns which have risen, and become places of commercial importance, under the influence of the mining interest, within the last three years. The buildings are much supe- rior to those in the majority of what are called the ' ' mining towns." Many of them are substantial and spacious brick structures ; and would be an ornament to any city. It has two principal streets ; but several others are opened, and good buildings erected on them. Its site is elevated about twenty-five feet above the low water level of the Sacramento 98 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. and Yuba rivers ; but, in the great freshet which devas- tated Sacramento, this city also ^vas submerged. Its hotels and restaurants are particularly commodious, and of a high order. Its location is central and commanding, in respect to mining operations ; and it competes strongly with Sacra- mento in the trade of the country. It is about one hundred and eighty miles north-east from San Francisco ; and com- munication between the two cities is constant and easy in small-class steamers. Docks are not yet constructed, but are much needed. It was incorporated as a city in 1851 ; and its present population is about 4500. It is one of the few mining towns which, it is believed, will enjoy a perma- nent existence and prosperity. Nevada. This is an incorporated city, of mining origin. It is situated among the Sierra Nevadas, on the north bank of Deer river, a branch of the Yuba, and at a distance of about sixteen miles east from Marysville. It is located on the mining grounds, and miners are constantly at work in almost every part of it except its streets. These are nar- row ; and the buildings are, with few exceptions, cheap wooden structures, only a little above mere cabins. It has no navigable communication. Its population is about 7000, and it is an important place of rendezvous for the overland emigrants. These sometimes fill its narrow streets to reple- tion with their cattle, horses, mules, wagons, and a multi- tude of people. DowNiEViLLE is situated on the east bank of the north fork of the Yuba river, in Sierra county. It contains about 1000 inhabitants, and is a place of importance for the convenience of miners. It is about sixty miles north-east from Marysville. Shasta. This town stands on the western shore of the CITIES AND VILLAGES. 99 Sacramento river, in Shasta county. In a direct line, it is- about one hundred and fifty miles north from the city of Sacramento ; but, by the course of the river, its distance may be near two hundred miles. It is a mining town, con- taining about 1500 inhabitants. The buildings are princi- pally small and cheap wooden edifices ; but, previous to the fire which destroyed the town, in the summer of 1853, it contained several spacious and commodious structures. The Sacramento river is not navigable so far up as this set- tlement. Yreka, situated in Siskiyou county, is the most remote settlement in the north-eastern part of the state. Auburn, situated among the foot hills of the Sierra Ne- vadas, in Placer county, contains about 900 inhabitants, and is a place of considerable trade with the miners. Sev- eral of the buildings are large, and, in a good degree, are ornamental to the town ; but they are all constructed of wood. It is situated about forty miles north-east from the city of Sacramento. Grass Valley. This is a new settlement, and owes its prosperity to the rich and extensive leads of quartz gold which abound in its vicinity. It is situated about four miles southerly from Nevada, and contains about seven hundred inhabitants. CuLLOMA and Placerville, in Eldorado county, are places of extensive trade with the miners ; and, in their general characteristics, are similar to the majority of the settlements in the mining region. Culloma stands on the south bank of the south fork of the American river ; and PlacerviUe is about eight miles distant, in a southerly direc- tion. The former contains about 2000 inhabitants, and the latter about 4000. 100 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. SoNORA. This is one of the most important inknd towns in the state. It was incorporated as a city in the year 1851, is well laid out in large squares, with wide streets, and contains a population of 4000. The erections are chiefly after the fashion of interior California, but the city contains a good proportion of substantial public and private buildings. Sonora may be called the metropolis or capital of the southern mining region. Business, in almost every branch, pays good wages to the laborer, and large profits to the tradesman. It stands on the north branch of Tuolumne river, in Tuolumne county, and about sixty miles in a south- easterly direction from Stockton. San Jose. This is an old Spanish town, situated about seven miles south of the bay of San Francisco, in the county of Santa Clara. It contains a population of about four thou- sand ; a large proportion of whom are Mormons, and Jews. The Gudelapa river, a fertilizing stream in the valley of San Jose, winds its northward course at a little distance south of the city, and empties into the southern extremity of the bay of San Francisco. When gold was first dis- covered in California, a considerable amount of the travel from the south, into the mines, passed through San Jose, and gave the first impulse to its improvement. Buildings were erected in the American style, new streets were opened, and a flourishing trade was soon established. The popula- tion rapidly increased; and, when the constitution was adopted, this town became an incorporated city, and the capital of the state. But suddenly, at the very opening of its apparently prosperous future, it w^as despoiled of its politi- cal dignity. From the time that it ceased to be the seat of government it has remained almost stationary ; at least its onward progress in population and business has been tardy CITIES AND VILLAGES. 101 and limited. Situated, however, in the centre of one of the loveliest and most fruitful valleys in California, it is becom- ing every year surrounded by an enterprising population of American farmers, who are enriching the country, by their success in skilful husbandry, and trade in all the depart- ments of business. From this source it will doubtless con- tinue to receive a steady and important support. Besides the cities and villages which have been specially noticed, there are many other places of less public impor- tance, in almost every section of the state ; and, also, there are some, which, having been born in the whirlwind of specu- lation, now exist only in name. Among the former, are Sonoma, in Sonoma county ; Napa, in Napa county ; Vallejo, in Solano county ; Martinez, New York, and Oakland, in Contra Costa county; Santa Clara and Alviso, in Santa Clara county ; San Luis Obispo, in the county of the same name, and Colusi, in Colusi county. Among the latter, are Fremont, Boston, Vernon, Eliza and Webster, on the Sacra- mento river, and Yuba city, at the junction of the Yuba and Feather rivers. In the mining region, every new place, gulch or bar, receives a name, and one or more tradesmen and mechanics establish themselves at the place; a restaurant and drink- ing house are provided, and the miners are sure to be hon- ored as the founders of a new village, and to be provided with abundant facilities and temptations to part with the fruits of their toil. These new villages, generally, bear the name of the first owner of the " mining claim," and appear on the next new map of the country ; but it must not be supposed that many of these continue even until the map is circulated ; for when the claim '' runs out " the village van- ishes. Such will be the history of a long catalogue of small 9* 102 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. settlements which have been formed among the mountains, and which now have a place on the map of the state. The communication between the cities and villages in the interior of the state is every year becoming more comfort- able, expeditious, and extensive. Good stage-coaches now run daily from Oakland, opposite San Francisco, to Stockton and Sonora. A line is also established, which makes a daily circuit of the bay of San Francisco. Coaches also run between Stockton and Sacramento ; between Sacra- mento, Marysville and Shasta; between Sacramento, Au- burn and Nevada ; between the latter city and Culloma ; and between San Francisco and Monterey. The aggregate number of miles of stage conveyance is about 800. The roads, in some sections of the state, are rendered heavy and almost impassable by the rains in the wet season. The clay bottom becomes a bed of mortar, and the wheels of loaded wagons, sinking often to the hub, become immovable without the united strength of many horses or mules. From Marysville, Sacramento, Nevada, Shasta, and other market towns in the remote parts of the state, the transpor- tation of passengers and merchandise to the villages and settlements further up among the mountains, is necessarily on mules ; and the romantic incidents, hair-breadth escapes, and desperate adventures, which transpire in those wild regions, are the subjects of rehearsal around the hearth- stone of many a ''returned Californian " at his home in "the states." March 3, 1854. — The seat of the state government is now changed from Benecia to Sacramento. CLIMATE. 103 CLIMATE. The climate of California is, in almost every respect, unlike that of either of the older states of the Union. The year is divided into two seasons, distinguished as the wet and the dry — each varying in length, according to the lati- tude of the several sections of the state. At San Francisco, the dry or summer season begins in May. and ends in November ; and the remainder of the year is the wet or winter season. To the south of that city, the dry season begins earlier than May, and closes later than November; and to the north, until we reach about 40° of north latitude, its commencement is later, and its termination earlier. North of latitude 40°, the climate is comparatively little influenced by the causes which control the changes further south. For this reason, irri- gation of the land for the production of summer crops is longer needed in the southern than in the central division of the state ; and north of latitude 40° it is not needed. At San Francisco, the temperature during the dry season generally ranges between a monthly average of 5Q° and 62° ; and during the wet season, between 49° and 56°. In Sep- tember (which is accounted the warmest month), the mercury has stood at 98° for several days successively, and an equally high figure has been indicated in April and June. The mean monthly temperature seldom falls below 49° in winter. In February, 1854, ice formed on ponds in the vicinity of San Francisco, for the first time within the knowledge of the oldest inhabitants. At San Diego, the most southern city in the state, the average temperature in the dry season is about 13° 104 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. higher than at San Francisco ; but it is believed that this great difference is produced by secondary causes, and that the difference occasioned by the latitude, alone, would not be so great, — perhaps not more than six or eight degrees. At Monterey the temperature does not differ very mate- rially from that of San Francisco, The average monthly temperature in the dry season, on the same parallel of latitude, is about eight or nine degrees higher on the Sacramento river than on the coast ; but in many places between the two ranges of mountains, during some days in June, July, August, and September, the ther- mometer ranges between 112° and 120° in the shade for several hours in the day. At Marysville, in June, 1853, the thermometer stood at 112° at the same hour on two successive days. Generally, however, during the dry season, the climate in all those valleys, as far inland as the Sacramento and San Joaquin, is delightful ; the air is dry, soft, and balmy, and the nights are cool and comfortable. But among the mountains, further to the east, the temperature, in the wet season, is much lower than in the valleys, or, indeed, than on the coast, in a corresponding latitude. During the wet seasons, snow falls and continues for one or two days in succession, as far down on the mountains as Nevada and Little York. Sleet has been seen at Sacra- mento, and ice is occasionally formed on still surfaces of water in the vicinity of that city. The following is the popular theory respecting the seasons in California. The prevailing winds, during the dry season, are from north-east ; and on their way towards the Pacific Ocean, they successively pass over the snow-covered sum- CLIMATE. 105 mits of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas. In their progress, these winds are deprived of their moisture by the lower temperature of those frigid summits to which they are subjected : so that when they reach the higher tem- perature of the plains and hills of California, they contain no moisture to be distilled in rain on the thirsty surface. On the contrary, they absorb the moisture from the earth over which they pass, which thus becomes more parched and dry. These winds also absorb the moisture from the atmos- phere of the Pacific Ocean for a great distance from the coast. When this wind ceases, the south-west current of air commences, and blows across the country, charged with the moisture of the South Pacific Ocean. These winds, from various causes, meet on the land a lower temperature than that of the ocean ; and their watery stores being con- densed, fall in gentle and genial rains on the earth. These rains are not constant, but fall at intervals, varying from a few hours to several days ; and they are sometimes copious. . These winds are produced by the attraction of the sun and the annual revolution of the earth, and are said to fol- low the line of this attraction. Thus, in March, the sun being then over the equator, and the diurnal motion of the earth being from west to east, the winds blow obliquely from the north-east and south-east toward this line of the sun's greatest attraction ; and this influence reaches to a considerable distance north of the tropic of Cancer, and south of the tropic of Capricorn. As the track of the earth around the sun gradually sends the line of attraction further north, the current of wind from the north-east extends ac- cordingly, producing the dry season in its progress ; so that, in June, when the sun is over the tropic of Cancer, its in- 100 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. fluence reaches bejond the northern limits of the state, and this north-east wind extends to an equal distance north. This attraction is felt at San Francisco about the middle of May. As the sun recedes, and the attraction is Avith- drawn, the north-east current ceases, and the south-'west Avind blows, producing the " Avet season." The sun re- passes the equator in September, and the north-east wind is withdrawn, about as low down as 40° of north latitude. In November the influence of the sun's line of attraction re- cedes below the latitude of San Francisco, and in December it passes the southern boundary of the state. The " fogs " which rise on the coast are explained upon the following theory. The cold ocean currents, which come from the northern regions, flow along the coast of the state, and come in contact with the air of a higher temperature, which absorbs the moisture, and causes it to rise in the form of fog. The dry wunds from the mountains, also, on reach- ing the Pacific, absorb the moisture of its atmosphere, and ])ecome united with this colder air of the great ocean cur- rent, and cause these fogs. When the heat of the interior, in the long dry seasons, becomes much greater than it is on the ocean, an under current is formed, which blows, inland, and bears these chilling fogs upon the coast hills, and, through the gorges, upon some parts of the lowlands. They prevail to a greater extent in San Francisco and its vicinity than at any other point. These fogs generally rise towards evening, and continue until late in the night. Heavy dews are rare in the middle and southern divisions of the state. The statements of individuals differ in respect to the appearance of the dew, in particular localities ; and, although the question of their prevalence has been made the subject of frequent observation, yet heavy dew^s are very CLIMATE. 107 rarely seen. In many places, vegetation, in the morning, occasionally exhibits slight collections of moisture, in great- er quantities in some sections than in others ; but no dews appear like those Avhich prevail in the Atlantic states ; and it is believed that, generally, in this climate, in the dry seasons, the mornings find vegetation as thirsty as at mid- day. There is an ocean breeze, which rises every morning at eight or nine o'clock, and continues to blow until night ; but, as it prevails in the region around San Francisco to a greater extent than on any other part of the coast, it will be explained in a future chapter, in connection with a view of that city. The peculiarity of this climate naturally suggests the con- clusion that agriculturists, who have been accustomed to farming in the Atlantic states, will be forced to abandon many of their former practices, and become learners in Cal- ifornia. As a general remark, the soil of all the valley lands is abundantly rich to produce, luxuriantly, any crop which may be grown in the Atlantic states ; but, as the perfect development of different crops requires different degrees of moisture, and at different stages during their growth, it will not be found an easy task, without experi- ment, to determine what localities, and what seasons of the year, are best adapted to the production of the different grains, roots, and vegetables. The arable hill lands of this country will, doubtless, be mostly devoted to grazing ; though some of the less elevated may be made to produce one yield annually of certain crops. Where irrigation may be cheaply applied, the difficulty sug- gested will be less serious ; but a large proportion of the farming valley lands either cannot be watered by artificial 108 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. means, or the expense of irrigation -vvill preclude the appli- cation of that substitute for timely showers. The effect of the dry seasons on vegetation may be fully realized at the tables in San Francisco. Those vegetables which flourish tolerably well in a dry soil, will be tender and of good flavor ; but those that require much moisture, will be wilted and tough. Radishes and potatoes are among the former, and green corn and cucumbers among the latter. In the markets, also, the same evidence will appear. Those vegetables which were grown on lands adapted, either natu- rally or by sufficient irrigation, to their natures, may be easily distinguished by their great size and fine general ap- pearance. On inquiry respecting these, it will be found that they were thus produced, while those of much inferior appearance are the growth of a dry soil. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. Under this head will be noticed the raising of cattle, &c., as well as the production of crops. For more than for- ty years, in the southern portion of the present state of Cal- ifornia, were produced vast herds of cattle, — called in the country black cattle, — besides horses, sheep, hogs, and goats. The native cattle are of an inferior breed, and, from the mode of farming pursued, are but little removed from wild cattle. In form they are long-limbed, large- boned, and deep, but thin ; and they were chiefly valued by the inhabitants for their hides and tallow. The native horses, sheep, and hogs, are small, and by the American farmer are but lightly esteemed. The native Californians still continue to raise them ; but the -eastern husbandmen are introducing stock from the Atlantic states. The re- AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 109 turns of the census, to which I have before referred, show the following results on this subject : — No. of Horses, 64,733 '' Cows, 104,339 " Beef Cattle, 315,392 <' Working Oxen, 29,065 '' Sheep, 38,000 " Hogs, 42,000 Three of the counties made no returns of stock. It has been asserted that farm-jard fowls, particularly hens im- ported from the Atlantic states, do not reproduce with suc- cess in this country, especially on the coast, and that chick- ens die without any apparent cause. The census returns show that large flocks of hens and turkeys are raised in the southern part of the state ; but whether they are from im- ported stock does not appear. The native poultry — hens, turkeys, geese, and ducks — are of very inferior quality. Mules are in general use in this state, as '' teams," and are of a superior breed. The census returns 16,578 of them. Wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes, are produced in nearly every county in the state. The census only shows the pro- duction of peas in one county ; and buckwheat is not men- tioned in that document. The following is the statement of the number of bushels of grain and potatoes grown in the state in the year 1852 : — Wheat, 291,768 Barley, 2,973,734 Oats, 100,497 Corn, 62,532 Potatoes, 1,393,170 On the coast, corn does not thrive, the nights being too cool. 10 110 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. Accor"'.ing to these returns, the principal grain-growing districts are in the central and southern divisions of the state, namely, in the counties of Sonoma, Contra Costa, Los Angeles, Napa, Sacramento, Santa Clara, Solano, Santa Cruz, and San Joaquin. It is believed that good hemp and flax may be grown, al- though the latter is not referred to in the census. Former- ly, hemp was cultivated in Los Angelos county for exporta- tion. Field beans flourish in every part of the state ; but ground vines require profuse irrigation on almost all the lands. On those naturally adapted to the production of the differ- ent cereal grains, or which are properly irrigated, a remark- able growth and yield may be produced. Li the year 1853, stalks of the Indian corn were found which measured four- teen feet in height, and yielding about one hundred bushels to the acre. Spears of oats, nine feet high, and of barley and wheat, eleven feet, were also found. Wheat, in some instances, yields sixty-five pounds to the bushel, and seventy bushels to the acre ; and barley, from one hundred to one hundred and forty bushels. Those, of course, are not the ordinary returns which the fields of California make to the husbandman ; but they are conclusive evidences of the strength of her soil. Horticulture receives considerable attention in several of the counties, particularly in Sacramento, Santa Clara, Marin, Sonoma, San Joaquin, and Monterey. In Santa Clara, in 1852, were produced 8,356,600 pounds of onions; and cabbages, carrots, beets, and garden beans, in propor- tion. The estimated value of the horticultural harvest in Sacramento county, in the same year, was $339,682. Every description of garden vegetable known in the Atlan- tic states grows here in great perfection ; and the land, if HORTICULTURE. Ill moist or well irrigated, requires no previous preparation for the reception of the seed. The following are the weights of single vegetables which were grown in the year 1853, viz. : — Squashes, weight in lbs., 121 lbs. Onions, 22 inches in circumference, . 6 " Beets, 18 inches in length, . . . . 51 " Sweet Potato, 20 " Carrot, 10 " Common Potato, one foot long, ... 6 " These specimens were raised in Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties ; and they are given merely to show 'the growth which the soil will sustain under proper cultivation. Cotton and the sugar-cane flourish in Los Angeles county, and the climate appears to be well adapted to their successful cultivation. No reason is perceived why they should not grow equally well in other of the southern coun- ties. The sweet potato is grown in abundance in several sections of the state. Fruits of various kinds have long been cultivated on all the Catholic mission lands. Apples, pears, peaches, olives, figs, apricots, limes, oranges, yams, cherries, quinces, and grapes, have been produced in those old orchards and vine- yards for more than half a century. It has been doubted whether the apple and peach would flourish in the state. Persons but imperfectly acquainted with this climate have suggested that the heat of the dry season is too great, and of too long duration, for the perfect development of the apple ; and the nights too cold for the tender peach ; but experiments, which have been made with grafts, and with fresh trees transplanted within the last three years, show the fallacy of those doubts. Large, fair 112 UISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. apples and peaches of difterent species and of excellent flavor, were gathered, in the season of 1853, from trees and grafts but two years of age. All that is necessary to secure success in this state, in the cultivation of any of the fruits which can be grown north of the tropic, is a sufficient knowledge of the nature of the several fruit-bearing trees, to be able to select for them fiivorable locations for planting orchards. The grape and pear are produced in great abundance and variety in the southern and central counties. In Los An- geles county are one hundred and five vineyards, all but twenty of which are in the city. Its vintage, in the season of 1852, was 2,250,000 pounds of grapes, from 450,000 vines. Of these, 1,000,000 of pounds were sold in the mar- kets of San Francisco, and the remainder were manuflictured into wine and a brandy, called, in the country, Aquadiente. The annual production of these two liquors in that county is about 2,000 barrels of each. The counties of Santa Clara, Santa Barbara, Marin, Solano, and San Luis Obispo, con- tain numerous old vineyards from which large quantities of grapes are annually gathered, and many barrels of wine and brandy are manufactured. AVithin a few years, several of these vineyards and fruit orchards have passed into the hands of private individuals, by whom their condition has been greatly improved, and their annual yields augmented. Many of them, while under the management of the missions, were neglected, and were comparatively unproductive. Every species of the grape grows equally well ; and as evidence of the peculiar adaptation of the soil to its cultiva- tion, and also of the pear, it may be stated that a single cluster of the former frequently reaches five, six and even WILD BEASTS. 113 twelve pounds in weight ; and that the latter, particularly the Pound pear, often exceeds two pounds. At San Jose, in the season of 1853, a cluster of four Sugar pears was gathered, the weight of which was seven pounds. The grape vine is generally allowed to trail upon the ground, or on a low frame ; and the vineyards are well irri- gated by small currents of water, which are conducted through them in all directions. When the soil is very porous, the water is conducted either in imbedded wooden or in earthen sluices. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, and gooseberries of several species, grow in the northern and middle sections of the state; and when transplanted, and properly culti- vated, yield heavy crops, and a very large berry. The currant is not a common production, but it has been ascer- tained that it will flourish. As the adaptation of the soil of California to the pursuits of general agriculture has not yet been very thoroughly tested, and as the results of most of the experiments which have been made to introduce foreign productions are satis- factory to farmers of intelligence and experience, the opinion may be reasonably entertained that when the pecu- liarities of the climate and the proper seasons for planting and sowing the different crops are better understood, the state will produce all the grains, fruits and other vegetables of the Atlantic states, and many of those which are denomi- nated tropical. WILD BEASTS. This branch of the natural history of the state of Cali- fornia has been less definitely and satisfactorily developed 10* 114 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. than a cursory reading of the various works written on the subject might seem to indicate. The early travellers in the vast regions which extend from the Mississippi to the Pacific, and from Mexico to an indefinite distance at the north, speak in their reports of vast tracts of territory ; and they give the names and descriptions of the wild beasts and birds which they saw in their extensive travels, without always being careful to specify the particular sections of country in which they find the various animals specified, while it is certain that the same species do not frequent all those regions. Mr. Farnham^ in his work entitled, "Life, Adventures and Travels in California," has doubtless treated this subject as definitely and correctly as any other writer. According to him the following wild beasts may be found in the moun- tains and on the plains of the state. The Grizzly Bear. This is the monarch of the for- ests. Specimens are often met which are five feet long, and will weigh from 500 to 1000 pounds. This animal is of a dusky brown color, is solitary in its habits, never climbs trees, and is very powerful ; but it seldom attacks man. The Black Bear. This beast resembles the correspond- ing species found in the forests of the Atlantic states. The Barren Ground Bear is probably a species of the Black Bear but is of a lighter color. The Baccoon is the same as the well-known animal of the eastern forests. The American Badger inhabits the northern parts of California. The Cougar is found in its deeply wooded mountains. The Wolverine. This is a savage, sullen animal and WILD BEASTS. 115 partakes of the nature of the bear, fox, and weasel ; but, from its size, is not formidable to man. The common weasel, the mink, the martin, the skunk, the common wolf, the gray wolf, the dusky wolf, the black wolf, the prairie wolf or wild dog, the red and the common fox, the northern lynx, the banded lynx or tiger cat, and the red lynx, inhabit various parts of the state. On the large plains are found bands of wild horses, elk, deer, and antelope. The antelope and deer are hunted for their hides and tallow. They are taken on the plains with the lasso ; and, with the deer, are used as food. The pub- lic tables at San Francisco are always supplied with this delicious wild game. The antelope is also found in the mountains. Deer. The black- tailed or gray deer, and the long- tailed or jumping deer, are found in various parts of the state. The Moose inhabits the mountains in the northern part of the state. The Prong-horned Antelope, and the Mountain Sheep or Argali, are found in the highest mountains. The former is larger than the common sheep ; the latter is less, and its horns are from two to three feet in length. Otters. The sea otter and land otter, abound on the sea-coast and at the mouths of the rivers. These are the most valuable fur-producing animals of the country. The common hair seal, the beaver, and muskrat are trapped in the Sacramento and San Joaquin, and their tributaries. The seal is also found on many parts of the coast. Of rats, mice, marmots, and squirrels, there are numer- ous species. The ground squirrel is the most common ; and in travelling on the plains, especially in the " oak openings." 116 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. immense numbers of these will be seen, running in all directions, and suddenly disappearing into the ground. So quick will they sink below the surface, that the beholder sometimes doubts whether the animal was really seen. The black squirrel, the gray-tailed squirrel, the flying and the striped squirrel, are also occasionally seen. San Francisco is the place for the naturalist to study the history of the Pouched Rat. That city swarms with them. They are of mammoth size and very bold. Hares. There are in the country several species of this fine wild game. The Lepus Glacialis, the prairie hare, and the little hare are the principal. The woodchuck abounds on the plains. The Bison and Polar Bear, although occasionally seen in the country, cannot properly be classed among the wild beasts of California. fish. No waters in the world contain a more numerous variety of fish than those of California. From the whale to the delicate smelt, the descending series seems complete. The whale, porpoise, sturgeon, halibut, pilchard, skate, turbot, bonito, mackerel, sardine, cod-fish, porgy, and black- fish, abound; the first two "out at sea," and the others named, on various parts of the sea-coast. The salmon of the Sacramento is the fish of California ; and none superior can anywhere be found. This fish often attains the weight of forty pounds, and specimens have been caught which weighed seventy. Oysters are found in several places along the sea-coast, but of an inferior quality. Attempts have here been made BIRDS. 117 to cultivate this shell-fish, but it is reported that every experiment has hitherto failed. Along the coast, however, within the Pueblo limits of Santa Barbara, a bed has been recently discovered, which is one hundred and fifty yards in length, twenty-five feet wide and two or three feet in depth ; oysters from which are of large size and of good flavor. Great quantities of muscles are obtained here, and are excellent eating. Other streams contain salmon trout, small trout, bass and large chubs. BIRDS. California is not so remarkable for the number as the va- riety of its feathered tribes. The miners and others who have passed considerable time among its mountains and plains, remark that, according to their observations, birds in the interior are comparatively rare, though aquatic fowls and those which frequent the coast are more numerous. This report is consistent with the teachings of ornithology. Birds abound in those districts or regions which are thickly wooded, and where foliage is abundant. The traveller up the Nicaragua river will see more birds on his passage, than in a tour of the entire state of California, — a large portion of which consists of leafless plains or dry mountains and hills, covered with lofty, sun-burned trees, which have com- paratively very little foliage. There is nothing on either to invest them with freshness, and to awaken in their solitudes the songs of happy birds : they choose to congregate where the forests are dense and luxuriant. There are birds which delight in the open plain, and oth- ers that seek the craggy mountain-tops ; there are those 118 HISTORY OF CAMFORNIA. which frequent the margins of peaceful inland streams, and many that make their home around the billows of the stormy sea ; but the number of all is small in comparison with the multitudes that love the deep green forests and the shady groves; the former are more particularly the birds of California, of which the following are the principal. The California Vulture is of enormous size, being often four feet in height, and ten feet from tip to tip of its wings. It is a solitary bird, building its nest on the loftiest trees of the highest mountains, and feeding on carrion. The Turkey Buzzard is a black and very filthy bird. It is called a scavenger because it feeds on ofial. The Black Vulture in habits and general appearance resembles the two previously mentioned. The Golden Eagle. This is a large bird, and has been from time immemorial the emblem of power and bra- very. The Bald EaCxLE. This is the well known "American Eagle," the emblem of the United States. Keen in vision, rapid in flight, bold, and inferior to none of his race in strength, his home is among the clouds, and on the beet- ling clifis. This bird is denominated " bald " from the circumstance that the head and neck are snowy white, while the remainder of the body is a deep umber-brown. It grows to three or four feet in height, and to seven or eight in extent, or stretch of wings. The fish-hawk, black-hawk, jer-falcon, pigeon-hawk, gos- hawk, great horned owl, great snow owl, black raven, north- ern shrike, robin, brown thrush, lark, three species of red- wing, snow-bunting, crossbill, magpie, three species of jay, woodpeckers, humming-birds, barn, cliff and bank swallow, nighthawk and kingfisher, are found in different parts of L SHRUBS AND PLANTS. 119 the state. Grouse of various kinds, such as the great cock of the plains, dusky grouse, rock grouse, ruffed grouse, white-tailed grouse, and pin-tailed grouse, inhabit the plains and mountains. The bays, inlets and rivers, contain a variety of water- fowl, such as geese, ducks, widgeons, teal, cranes and curlews ; while others, the snipe, sand-piper, plover, tatler, godwit, gull and phalarope, inhabit the shores. The Swan is the largest bird of California. Its color is a pure white, except on the legs and bill, which are black, and the forehead, which is orange. This is a bird of pas- sage, coming from the south generally as early as April, and returning in October or November. The White Pelican is a large bird, and frequents the sea-coast. It abounds on the island of Alcatrazes, in the Golden Gate. The Albatros. This bird is seen everywhere on the ocean. It is a huge, brown sea-fowl, having a very long bill and webbed feet. SHRUBS AND PLANTS. The flowering shrubs and plants of California are said to be various and beautiful ; but, in making the tour of a large portion of the state, it was not the fortune of the writer to see many flowers of any description ; and those seen emitted little fragrance. The dryness and heat of the climate may compel these glories of the field to withhold their principal charm during the dry seasons, and they may bloom when the spring returns in fragrance and beauty. The honey- suckle, lily, primrose, poppy, wild lupine, monkey-flower, bear-berry, mountain pink, willow-herb, beard-tongue and 120 HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA. larkspur, are named among the flowering shrubs and plants of the state. Another plant, too common in the country for the com- fort of strangers, ought not to be forgotten — the Yedra. This is a very poisonous shrub, small, slim and low, having a leaf like the three-leafed clover, excepting that it is scal- loped. It grows in shady places in every part of the country, and, if brought in contact with the skin, produces extensive inflammation. Some persons are proof against this venom ; but those who are not, often suficr severely from its effects. REPTILES. Little attention has been directed to the reptiles of Cali- fornia. They have not been classed nor described, probably for the reason that they are neither numerous nor large. Miners and others assert, that, in their travels through the country, they rarely meet with large serpents, nor, in fact, with any not common to the Atlantic states. The striped snake, black snake, adder, spotted or milk snake, rattle snake, and several species of water snake, are occasionally seen. PAET SECOND. DESCRIPTION OP SAN PRANCISCO.^ CHAPTER I. Preliminary Remarks, Origin of the City, View from the Bay, Population, Progress, Public and Private Buildings, Streets, Business Markets, Ship- ping, Improvements, Enterprise, &o. San Francisco, previous to the year 1848, was men- tioned in the geography, and appeared on the map of the world, only as the name of a capacious bay on the North American coast of the Pacific Ocean. Previous to that eventful period in the history of California, the word asso- ciated only the ideas of a far-off country, the unmeasured range of the hunter and trapper, and a wild, unfrequented and comparatively uncivilized region. When Discovered. The discoverer of this bay and the time of its discovery are not with certainty known. As stated in another connection, Don Rodrigues Cabrillo, a Spanish navigator, brought this coast to the knowledge of mankind in the year 1542, and explored it from the Gulf of California to about the forty-third degree of north lati- tude; but he did not discover the inlet. His failure is * St . Francis . 11 122 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. attributed to the dense fogs which prevailed in its vicinity. In subsequent years, and down to 1769, various adventurers succeeded Oabrillo in these seas, but the journals of several of the earlier of them are so imperfect, that it cannot be ascertained whether their authors discovered the bay, and therefore these facts remain undetermined. Sir Francis Drake explored the coast in the year 1578, and, according to some authorities, extended his explorations into the har- bor. If this navigator did so, he is among its earliest visitors, if he be not its discoverer. Origin of its Name. This bay received the name of San Francisco in the year 1769, from Don Gaspar de Portala, then governor of Upper California. He was the commander of an overland expedition which was sent out by the Marquis de Croix, the Viceroy of New Spain, to select locations for the settlement of Roman Catholic missions. Portala was charmed with the country border- ing on the bay, and christened the latter in honor of the patron saint of the Franciscan order of Friars. Pursuant to his recommendation, Father Junipero Serra, the mission- ary president of Upper California, founded, near the bay, the mission which has been described in another chapter. (See p. 4.) Previous to the year 1848, the wildest imagination could scarcely have conceived that a large and populous city would suddenly rise under the flag of the Union on that remote and alien shore ; or that the waters of that silent harbor would so soon be whitened with the canvas of every nation, and be vocal with the restless commerce of the world. But enterprise is not now the tardy nag it was forty years ago ; the sentiment, ' ' /)er5ei;eraw^ia vincit onmia^^^ is not, at this day, a merely literary flourish or NAME OP THE LOCALITY. 123 theoretic idea, but is a practical fact; and its truth has never been more signally illustrated than in the history of San Francisco — a history that has no parallel in the annals of the world. It is written that '' St. Petersburg was com- manded to be, and St. Petersburg was." By that imitation of a sublime figure in the Scriptures, the historian designed very forcibly to express the fact that the city was reared with all the expedition that a monarch could command. The Czar willed, and moved in the execution of his single will, with the treasure and sinews of an empire at his disposal. But, with San Francisco, the circumstances were very dis- similar. Individuals, strangers to each other, speaking different lang-uao^es, unlike in all the elements of social and political life, generally poor, and brought together by one of the most extraordinary and exciting of modern discoveries, have founded a city which now, only five years subsequent to the first general emigration to California, is larger and more populous than St. Petersburg became in thrice that period. Name of the Locality. The locality on which the city of San Francisco is situated, was at one time known by the name of Yerba Buena. According to several author- ities, it was once a municipality having that title ; accord- ing to others, it was always within the jurisdiction of the ayuntamiento of San Francisco, which held its sittings at the mission ; but other evidence is adduced to prove that the latter municipality was never formed, although a decree of the Mexican Congress authorized its organization. But these are questions of jurisdiction, important only to the owners of certain city lots, the titles to which are derived through officials, assuming to act under conflicting claims to authority. 124 DESCRIPTION OP SAN FRANCISCO. Its Signification. Yerba Buena signifies pleasant plant, and the term was applied to the site of the city, from the circumstance that the general barrenness of the sandy beach was, in former years, partially relieved in that place by a stinted growth of the wild peppermint. Commencement of the City. The first house erected here was built by Mr. Jacob P. Leese, an American, and was completed on the third day of July, 1836. On the next day he dedicated his new mansion to the cause of Free- dom, by celebrating in it the anniversary of his country's independence; his brother-in-law General Yallejo, and several American captains, whose vessels happened to be in the bay, cordially joined in the patriotic ceremonies. Subjection to the United States Sovereignty. On the seventh day of July, in the year 1846, the Ameri- can army took military possession of Upper California by landing at the port of Monterey ; and, on the thirtieth day of May, in the year 1848, the territory was ceded to the United States. Prior to 1846 the locality, now covered by the city, contained only ten or fifteen small buildings, con- structed of adobes ; and nothing then visible promised any sudden or considerable increase of improvements or popula- tion. In the month of May, however, of the year 1848, was made the great discovery of gold in Upper California ; and with that event properly begins the history of the city of San Francisco. Between the years 1846 and 1848, a population of sev- eral hundreds had collected there, who were, doubtless, in- fluenced in that direction by the belief that the territory would be ultimately attached to the United States. Effect of the Discovery of Gold. The news of the gold-discovery excited this population to so high a degree DISCOVERY OF GOLD. 125 that nearly every male adult in the place, able to walk, left occupation, home, and comforts, and repaired to the mines. Great numbers of the native Californians from the far south, with many Indians, wended their way towards the streams, gorges, and mountains of the north and east. The golden news soon reached the Atlantic states, and, " on the wings of the wind," was wafted throughout Europe, China, and even to the sealed empire of Japan. The world was electrified, and seemed to anticipate, as a reality, the fabled enchantments of "El Dorado."* Emigration to the land of gold immediately commenced. Vessels in large numbers began to turn their bows towards the " Golden Gate," and to discharge their multitudes of human beings, and freight, on the sandy shores of the bay. In a few months San Francisco became the rendezvous of adventurers from every nation. At this point they congre- gated to prepare for their labors among the valleys and moun- tains of the vast, unexplored interior. Here, also, they expected to find their necessary supplies in the future. The mechanic, of course, followed with his tools, and the merchant with his wares ; and labor and merchandise found a ready market at extravagant prices. As a necessary consequence of this new impulse given to trade, real estate, which before was worthless, needed now, almost, to be covered by dollars to represent its assumed valuation. Rentals were in large demand ; and long lines of temporary tenements appeared, like a dream of the morn- ing, along the sandy shore of the magnificent bay. Under laws of the American Congress which prevailed, lots were staked out on the public domain, in the valley and on the * The gold or gilding. 11* 126 DESCRIPTION OP SAN FRANCISCO. hill-sides, were slightly enclosed by the first lucky occupant, and claimed as individual property. Thus were laid, in the years 1848-9, the foundations of a city, which now contains fifty thousand inhabitants ! Twice since that time it has been almost annihilated by fire, and again seriously, though less extensively, impaired; yet. Phoenix-like, it has as often reappeared in augmented beauty, vigor, and solidity. When Incorporated. The city was incorporated in the year 1851. Its present limits are included within the following boundaries, viz. : "A line parallel with Clay street, two and a half miles distant, in a southerly direction from the centre of Portsmouth square. On the west by a line parallel with Kearney street, two miles distant, in a westerly direction, from Portsmouth square. Its northern and east- ern boundaries shall be coincident with those of the county of San Francisco." This county embraces only the promon- tory which forms the bay. The city is divided into eight wards, which are subdivided into districts. The municipal government consists of ''a Mayor, Recorder, Comptroller, Treasurer, Collector, Attorney, Marshal, Street Commis- sioner, three Assessors, a body of Aldermen, and board of Assistant Aldermen." These officers are elected annually. How Situated. The city is situated in a cove, on the western side of the bay of San Francisco, and near the northern extremity of the promontory which separates that body of water from the main ocean, in latitude 37° 58' north, and longitude 122° 27' west. The bay is entered through a narrow strait, between Point Boneta on the north, and Point de los Lobos on the south. Along the shore of this entrance the land is uneven and generally high ; and it rises gradually towards the in- APPEARANCE OF THE COUNTRYj ETC. 127 terior, into hills of considerable altitude. This channel is partially obstructed by several rocks and small islands, which render the navigation dilQ&cult in foggy weather. In the bay, opposite the city, is another similar island, called Yerba Buena, on which there was, formerly, a Spanish fort. The bay proper is about forty miles in length, in a south- easterly direction from the city, and twelve miles in its average width. The waters, which extend northwardly, are not strictly a part of it. Since the discovery of the gold deposits in California, this strait has been commonly known as the " Golden Gate," or " El Dorado." It is about five miles long, and its average width is about two miles. The Appearance of the Country contiguous to the strait does not produce, on the mind of a new comer, a very favorable impression. As the traveller proceeds up the nar- rows the prospect is unrelieved by the bloom of a flower, or scarcely by the flutter of a green leaf. Over all the hills, and on all the valleys, appear either cheerless sands, a few scrubby oaks, or a meagre covering of pale dwarf-grass. To weary voyagers, who have long looked out only on the watery waste and overhanging sky, the approach to land is associated with cultivated fields, lovely cottage homes, and other sylvan charms ; but none of these enchantments greet their wandering eyes as they near this city of their golden dreams. The Approach to San Francisco is, in some respects, like that to Newport, in the state of Rhode Island. A high bluff, or headland, extending out far into the bay, obstructs the prospect to the south, until the vessel rounds its eastern extremity, when the city suddenly appears, spread out like a picture on an extensive flat, filling the valley from the 128 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Avater's edge, and termiuating on the declivities of the adja- cent hills. The View from the Bay is unfavorable. Not a tree, shrub, nor flower greets the eye ; and nothing but long roAYS of buildings, clouds of dust, busj, crowded streets, and sand hills, as verdureless in the dry season as the Sahara, meet the vie-sv. In other respects, on a first visit to this city, strangers are generally agreeably disappointed. Their ideas of its appearance, order, and municipal rule, have been formed from articles which they have read in the public newspapers, and from the narrations of earlier voyagers. Kapid Change in its Appearance. Many persons, even at this day, associate with its name, huddles of shan- ties, cloth houses, '-rowdyism,*' robberies, murders, lawless vigilance committees, and the death penalty for all trans- gressions. But they soon learn that " the days of those things'' are passed away in San Francisco, and are chroni- cled only as the history of other years. Remembering its very recent date, the stmnger is aston- ished to see the large number of massive buildings which adorn many of the streets of the city. The original tene- ments are rapidly disappearing, and erections of stone, iron, and brick, are supplying their places. Bricks ai'e manufac- tured in the country, but the stone is brought from Sidney and China. The facility with which these new and costly edifices are erected, casts far into the shade all that has been seen of city improvements in the Atlantic states. In their dimen- sions and architectural beauty, many of tlie new structures will compare fiivorably with those devoted to similar pur- poses at the east; though, in genei-al, regard is liad more to RIGHTS OF PERSON AND PROPERTY. 129 durability and protection from fire, tlian to ornament or taste. Its present Appearance. Many parts of the city have now the appearance of an old town ; and, in passing through them, one often forgets that he is not in New York or Boston ! The crowds on the side- walks, the rattle of drays, the display of hacks, the roll of omnibuses, the ring- ing of bells, the fruit-stands on the corners of the streets, the cries of the various pedlars of small wares and knick- knacks, the long wharves loaded with merchandise, and the spacious harbor dotted all over and alive with the shipping of every clime, indicate a city, the origin of which might be covered with the dusts of time. But this is San Francisco, and these are the evidences of its energy and thrift, in the fifth year of its existence ! Rights of Person and Property. These are as se- cure here, and the violation of either is redressed with as high a regard to the forms and principles of law, as in any other city in the American Union. A more vigilant or a better organized police cannot be found in any city. For so numerous a population, crime is remarkably rare. This result is secured by the certainty of punishment, which always attends detection and conviction. Both the civil and the criminal branches of the law have, it is true, those imperfections which are incident to every new system ; but the promptness with which these are corrected, on discovery, shows that the people are desirous to enjoy, ultimately, the blessings of an efficient, sound, and pure judiciary. Security from Fire. The city is now considered as secure against extensive conflagrations. So severely have the citizens suffered from this cause in times past, that an efficient fire department has become an object of most serious 130 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. importance. Three great fires have occurred in the city, and two of them, from the vast amount of property which was destroyed, are worthy of particular notice. One of these, on the night of the 3d of May, 1851, extended east and west from Dupont to Battery street, and north and south from Broadway to Pine street, including sixteen entire squares and parts of four others. The value of the property then destroyed was estimated in San Francisco at $10,000,- 000 ! The other fire originated on Pacific street, in the forenoon of June 27th, 1851, and swept from Powell nearly to Sansome street, in one direction, and from Broadway to Clay street, m the other direction, consuming eight whole squares, and parts of seven others, including several new churches, the City Hall, and Hospital, and involving the loss of $3,000,000 ! The number of fire-proof buildings, now erected on almost every street, will largely contribute to cljeck the spreading of that destructive element in the future. The city has now fourteen large fire companies, furnished with twelve engines of the most approved pattern, three hook and ladder trucks, and all other necessary appli- ances. The individual members of these companies possess also the very rare but always indispensable prerequisite of ' the wish and the will " to be serviceable. With this good provision against the danger, the first stroke of the fire bell also starts every citizen, as if by an electric shock. This sensitiveness of the community in respect to fires is an ex- cellent preventive ; and it is nurtured by the fact that no insurance can here be efiected on property ; men of wealth are unwilling to embark in companies formed to take haz- ards of insurance against loss by fire. The "Fire Bell" has been mentioned, and the sig- nificance of its voice. That bell is an object of peculiar ' PLAN OF THE CITY. 131 interest, and will long be celebrated in the annals of the town. It now hangs on the City Hall, opposite the plaza, or public square ; but formerly it was heard from the cor- ner of Sansome and Burke streets. In its former location it often startled the citizens by a more solemn announce- ment, and summoned them to more appalling scenes than even to a general conflagration. Then it was the organ of the celebrated " Committee of Vigilance," — a self-consti- tuted tribunal, which, for a season, here exercised usurped judicial functions, and the history of which will be given in a subsequent chapter. Every peal of this bell announced a victim — guilty of some crime, it may be, but, nevertheless, a victim of an indefensible usurpation. This bell convened the committee ; and if, in their opinion, the public safety required a human sacrifice, this bell also notified that pub- lic of the set time for the immolation. The Plan of the City resembles, in some respects, that of the old Spanish towns. It has one principal plaza, or public ground, called Portsmouth square, situated in the central part of the city, and on which fronts the City Hall. There are several other plazas at more remote points. The streets are narrow, and intersect at right angles — about forty extending from the bay westerly over the hills, and about twenty extending from hill to hill, north and south, across the city. Many of these thoroughfares are com- pactly lined with buildings, on both sides, for the distance of more than a mile ; and on all the others, cottages and various erections exist in considerable numbers. Streets. The principal business streets lying north and south are Front, Battery, Sansome, Montgomery, Kearney, Dupont, Stockton, and Powell streets ; and those lying east and west are Valleyjo, Broadway, Pacific, Jackson, Wash- 132 DESCRiraiON OF SAN FRANCISCO. ington, Clay, Commercial, California, Pine. Bush, Sutter, and Market streets. Wharves. The principal public wharves are Market, Central, PaciiBic, and Broadway wharves, — they being ex- tensions of the streets of the same names. Besides these, there are Cunningham's, Buckelow's, Law's, and Cowel's, private wharves. The City Hall is a large, commodious and stately edi- fice, fronting on Poi-tsmouth square. It is about one hun- dred and fifty feet deep by one hundred broad — enclosing a spacious court, and constructed of brick, faced on the front with Sidney stone. This stone is gray and darkly clouded, and imparts to the building a sombre and solid ap- peai-ance. The hall has four stories, with commodious apartments. These are tastefully fitted up and furnished for the accommodation of the state and city courts, and the various public offices. It contains a library, which now numbers 3500 volumes of law books, and about 1000 mis- cellaneous volumes. The city prison also is in this hall. Churches. San Francisco contains eighteen churches, several of which are tasteful specimens of architectural skill. The Methodists have five churches ; the Presbyterians, Epis- copalians, Baptists, and Roman Catholics, have each two; the Unitarians, one; and the '' Sons of the Sea" have a '^ Bethel," which is moored in the bay. INIarkets. The city contains three public and several private markets — specimens of neatness and order, and none in the world are more abundantly supplied with all the necessaries, or with a greater variety of the luxuries of life. There may be obtained the cured provisions, the fruits, and many of the vegetables, of almost every clime. With China, the East and 'Vyest Indies, South and Central / 133 America, Mexico, the Sandwich Islands, Australia, the At- lantic American states, and Europe, the communication of this city is direct and constant ; and all these countries con- tribute to the supply of its markets. A visit to them is not only interesting but instructive. They exhibit the produc- tions and the rarities of the four quarters of the globe — being near the centre of the commercial world. The mar- kets of New York, although more extensive establishments, do not afford so great a variety as those of this city. Newspapers. There are here published twelve daily newspapers, two tri-weeklies, six weeklies, one commercial, one French, and one Sunday paper. Baths. Good public baths are numerous, and some of them are tastefully arranged and furnished. Nothing east of the mountains will be found to exceed them. Motive Power. The motive power here is steam ; and a large number of manufacturing establishments are in active operation. The suburbs of the city already resemble those of Birmingham or Pittsburg — the manufactories being confined to works in iron and wood. Ship-building has commenced, and will soon be a prominent branch of suc- cessful industry. Manufacture of Jewelry. It is believed that a larger value in gold is here wrought into jewelry than in any other city in North America ; and that the richest and most ex- pensive articles are here manufactured. The amount of gold wrought, as well as in its native state, here daily exposed in jewellers' and other shops, must equal several millions of dollars. It is stated by some writer that all the gold in the world could be contained in a room twenty-four feet square by six- teen in height ; and all which has been yet found in Cali- 12 134 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. fornia and Australia would only fill an iron safe of nine feet cubed. This estimate assumes the value of a cubic yard of gold to be $10,000,000. But this calculation, the last especially, must have been made at an earlier day in the history of gold-digging in those countries, than the present. The Commerce of San Francisco is with every civilized nation, and the aggregate of foreign and domestic trade is very large. The most wealthy bankers of the world have oflSces and representatives in the city ; and it is estimated that $5,000,000 of foreign capital are now here employed. Money commands from five to ten per cent, a month. Gold, tlie great production for exportation, is rapidly populating the interior ; and all the necessary merchandise for that population, augmenting in quantity with every succeeding year, is received through this port. Not only the ordinary supplies for 300,000 inhabitants now in the country and connected with all the trades and other pursuits of life, but also a numerous variety of articles, peculiar to the business of mining and the condition of the country, are here to be supplied. The total amount of imports in the year 1853 were $35,000,000 Exports— Gold Dust, . . . $60,000,000 '' Quicksilver, . . . 683,185 .$60,683,185 Freight to vessels coming into port, . . . $11,752,084 Duties collected at Custom House, . . . $2,581,975 No. of persons arriving at the port, . . . 35,000 " " leaving, 30,000 Vessels arrived during the year, . . . . 1,028 Departures, 1,653 In a commercial point of view, San Francisco may be ETC. 135 regarded as the whole of California and of the adjoining ter- ritories, excepting Oregon. Taxable Property. The amount of taxable city prop- erty, in the year 1853, was |40,000,000, while that of the preceding year was only $20,000,000. Real estate, merchandise of every description, and labor, are in demand at extravagant prices — prices higher than the demand for property will justify, on any legitimate permanent basis of calculation ; and the laws of trade must ultimately reduce them to a more reasonable standard. True, property is always worth what it will bring in the market, and that price is the gauge of its value ; but it is equally true that the price of property depends not only on the supply and demand, but essentially on the money market. It needs no seer to discover that several causes now oper- ating will, before the lapse of a very long time, largely reduce the amount of money now here in active circulation ; and, when that event occurs, the prices of property and labor — which, of course, affect the expenses of living — must correspondingly fall. It will be remembered that the state, by its constitution, prohibits the circulation of paper currency — a fact which will facilitate the result here pre- dicted. It is also worthy of note, that a large proportion of the gold now in circulation here is not the national coin of any government, but is native gold, assayed on private account and circulated as money. Withdraw even that sup- ply, and the want of coin would now be seriously felt in the circles of ordinary commerce. Present Prices. That prices in San Francisco may be compared with those of other cities of an equal population, several examples are here given. 136 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. A small half house, rent per month, . . . $250 00 A single room in do., for lodging do., . . 50 to 75 00 A first-class store-room, per month, .... 2,000 00 Common labor, per day, 5 00 Mechanical (skilful), per day, 10 00 Physician's visit, single, 10 00 Extracting a tooth, 5 00 A lawyer's word of counsel, 10 00 Drawing a deed, bond, or mortgage, ... 25 00 Special conveyances, 50 to 100 00 Board, without lodging, per week, . . . 15 " 20 00 Washing, per dozen, 400 Hair-cutting, 1 00 Shaving, 50 Eggs, per dozen (fresh), 3 00 Chickens, each, 1 50 Horse to ride, 5 00 Horse and buggy, 10 00 Horse on the Sabbath, 16 00 Double carriage and driver, 16 00 Do. on the Sabbath, 20 00 A cow, from 100 to 300 00 A horse " 300 " 1,000 00 A hat, 10 00 Shoes, per pair, 3 00 Boots, " " 10 00 Cleaning watch, 6 00 Do. with repairs, 12 00 Gold watches, from 100 to 8,000 00 Kings and pins, " 25 " 1,000 00 Pants, 10 '' 20 00 Dress coat, . 30 " 60 00 PRESENT PRICES. 137 Over-coat, $35 to 60 00 Shirts, per dozen, 50 " 70 00 A plain stock, 2 50 " 5 00 Paper, per ream, . 10 00 Hay, per ton, 30 to 50 00 Milk, per quart, 50 Butter, per pound, imported, , 50 Domestic, do., 1 00 Cream, per quart, 4 00 Potatoes, per pound (now extra cheap), ... 5 Turnips, '' '' ''"''... 7 Butcher's beef, per pound, 12 cts. to 30 Fresh pork, " '^ 15 " " 40 Salted " mess, '' " 40 Water, for domestic use, per pail, 10 Hams, per barrel, 29 00 Bacon, '' '' 25 00 Best pears, each, 10 Best Chili apples, each, 10 Second quality pears and apples, 5 Cheese, per pound, imported, 30 Domestic, do 50 Wood, prepared for stove, per cord, . . 25 to 35 00 Flour, per barrel, from 12 " 45 00 Corn, " " $9, per pound, 8 Sandwich Island oranges (best), each, ... 25 Brick, per thousand, from 25 to 30 00 Lumber, '' " " 80 " 150 00 In forming this catalogue, only the common articles of trade have been selected, but every other commodity is on the same scale. 12* 138 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Future Prospects. San Francisco has, in its location and unrivalled harbor, elements of prosperity which cannot be overcome by any other point on this coast. It will in- evitably become, on the Pacific, what New York is on the Atlantic. Whether or not a railway be laid across the continent, this city must be the emporium of a large and constantly increasing trade with the rising cities and towns in the interior of this state, with Oregon, and with the adjoining territories. A large proportion of all the supplies, which will be required to support the trade of the millions who will ultimately populate those immense regions, must pass through this port, and must be here transshipped. Should railway communication be constructed between the Pacific and Atlantic, the commerce of India, China, and Australia, with the Atlantic states of America, and even with western Europe, would pay large tribute to San Fran- cisco, — it being generally conceded that this city is the most natural terminus for the Pacific Railway. But should that communication be laid to San Diego, the result would not be much difierent. Private enterprise in this city would im- mediately open a similar communication from it to tha,t point, and then the greater economy of time and freight, in conveyance by railway than by the ocean, would reduce San Diego to a mere intermediate station. Trans-shipment of westward freight would not, as a general custom, be made at San Diego, to be again made at San Francisco where the largest part of all the merchandise is bound, for conveyance on the rivers into the interior. Its Climate. The climate of this city is peculiar. A strong, cool breeze, during the dry season, rises every morning at about nine o'clock, and continues until about sunset. This breeze does not extend far into the interior, and THE CLIMATE. 139 is limited to about seven miles north and south of the city ; nor is it felt in the valley of Contra Costa, across the bay. This peculiarity of climate is attributed to the ocean current of wind, which rises from the north-west every morning as the heat of the sun increases the temperature inland. This wind can blow in, unobstructed through the strait, while other parts of the interior, north and south of the city, are materially shielded against its effects by the high lands on the shore. During the winter, the winds blow from the south-west ; and being charged with the ocean moisture, bring the mild showers of that season. These winds, and the absence, in a great degree, of the north-west breeze, so temper and soften the atmosphere as to render it more agreeable than that of summer. Then, the streets and surrounding hills being composed of light sand, this breeze blows it in thick clouds over the city, and never fails — in the nose, eyes, and ears, of the citizens, to say nothing of soiled silks, satins, gauzes, linens, and broadcloths — to leave abundant evidence of its presence. But this summer-breeze is doubtless conducive to health. It reduces the mid-day temperature, which, but for its influence, would be very sultry, to a uniformity with that of the mornings and evenings, which are, almost with- out variation, cool and bracing. Woollen clothing is in use here throughout the year. Gentlemen clad in over-coats, and sometimes even in furs, may be seen in the streets on almost any day ; and the dress, in this respect, quite surely indicates the latitude of which the wearer is a native. The degree of the heat ordinarily ranges, during the dry season, between a monthly mean temperature of 56° and 62°: and September is accounted the month in which the ther- 140 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. mometer usually rises the highest. On a few days in that month the mercury has stood at 98° ; which is, I believe, the maximum for the last three years. These warm days are few, and sometimes occur in April and June. The temperature of the wet season ranges between the means of 49° and 56°. The summer evenings in San Francisco are delightful. The breeze is then still, the dust is laid, and the absent sun has left the temperature cool, but mild and balmy ; the sky being generally clear, so that the moon and stars shine forth with remarkable brightness. The beauty and fashion of the city are then abroad to enjoy the scene ; and mirth and gayety rule the hour. I can fancy that the Muse of Mont- gomery must, in some Olympian flight, have caught a glimpse of this golden land, and felt the soft influence of its evening charms, when he sang so sweetly his beautiful ode on " Night." Surely no person needs " a talent for sleeping " in San Francisco. The invalid has only to open his window and allow the soft wings of night to flutter in his cham- ber, " Stretch tlie tired limbs and lay tlie head Down on his own delightful bed." Unless " sleep has departed from the eyes, and slumber from the eyelids,'' forever, the sick here will soon forget the languors of the day, and be wandering pleasantly in '' Dream Land." Very satisfactory evidence of the salubrity of the city is contained in its bills of mortality, — the average number of deaths in it being less yearly than those in any other city, of equal population, in the Union. Mountain Lake. The citizens of San Francisco are STREETS. 141 inspired with a laudable ambition to beautify and improve it. A company is already organized to bring into it the water of Mountain lake, and the work is in successful progress. This improvement is much needed; water for domestic use is very scarce and expensive. The lake is situated about four miles out of town, and will afford an abundant supply. Its elevation is sufficient to give a rapid current to the duct of water ; and the head, it is believed, will sustain a fountain in the principal plaza. If that expectation shall be realized, and the plaza shall be orna- mented according to either of several plans which have been submitted to the corporate authorities, it will be the most charming "green spot" on this western coast. Streets and Sidewalks. All the principal thorough- fares are now substantially planked ; and the substitution of stone pavement is commenced at several points. This improvement was absolutely indispensable, as a defence against the waves of rolling sand which would otherwise render the streets heavy, if not unendurable. Good side- walks are provided in all the compact districts of the city. Much of the material used in their construction is brick ; but many portions are laid with fine stone, and long lines of plank are to be seen on every side. A gas company is also formed, and the stock taken. The streets of the infant city were first lighted with gas early in the present year. Reclaimed Streets. Several long streets, reclaimed from the waters of the bay in the lower sections of the town, are now lined with spacious warehouses and other stores, some of which are constructed of brick and others of stone or iron. When it is remembered that only two years ago 142 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. the angry -waves of the bay were lashing the strand as far up into the city as Montgomery street, and that now, four broad avenues and several alleys lie between that original limit and the present water-line, the labor which that single improvement must have employed, and the energy required for its execution in so short a time, appeal*, as they really are, herculean. The State Hospital is located in this city ; and its arrangements, provision and attendance, reflect the highest credit on the state. Sources of Supply. Reference has already been made to the public markets ; but a more particular notice of the sources of their supply may not be uninteresting. Though the soil around the city is unproductive, yet the old mission and national farms, and the lands in the vicinity of the pueblos or towns, were selected originally for their superior fertility, and have been settled and cultivated for a long series of years. Eut the valley of the Sacramento is not yet much occupied, and contributes, of course, little com- paratively, to the marketable supply. Considerable portions of the lands around Santa Barbara, Los xlngeles, San Diego, San Jose, Santa Clara, Dolores, and in the Contra Costa valley, have been improved by long though not very skilful cultivation. The most serious obstacle to their profitable culture for the supply of the markets during the whole year, on large portions of them, is the expense of necessary irri- gation in the dry season ; but the enterprise which has cre- ated the market, is active in superseding the old Mexican regime J by agricultural science and experience. Fruits, roots, and other culinary vegetables from the .Atlantic states and South America, have been introduced SOURCES OF SUPPLY. 143 upon these lands, and the markets of the city already draw the principal part of the necessary supply from this domes- tic production. Vegetables and tropical fruits are also brought from the Sandwich Islands, apples and pears from Chili and Syd- ney, and various luxuries from Mexico and South America. Butter, cheese, eggs, and bacon, are obtained from New York and Boston ; and lard, and a large variety of cured provisions, from China. California produces most delicious pears and grapes, abundance of game and fish, but an inferior oyster. The salmon of the Sacramento cannot be exceeded in size or excellence of flavor. Ice is imported from Boston ; but the principal supply is obtained from the Sitka Isles, lying off the Pacific coast of Russian America. Imported hens do not propagate with success in California, especially on the coast ; it is said that their young die without any apparent cause. The reason of the failure is not ascertained, and is an important question for examination. This accounts for the high prices of that kind of poultry, and of eggs, in the market. Vast quantities of gull's eggs are sold as a sub- stitute for the better article. They are nearly as large as those of the goose, and are of various colors. Oysters are not yet grown in the waters of this country. Several ex- periments have been made, but have proved failures. Pork, beef, and mutton, are plenty, but are of inferior quality, the country not being well supplied with the best of stock, which must be obtained from the western states and be driven across the plains. A portion of the supply of corn and meal has to be imported. It is not yet grown success- fully in many parts of this state ; but intelligent farmers believe it will become a sure crop, when the climate and 144 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. proper time of planting are better understood. Fresh peaches and plums are seen in the markets only in very limited quantities ; but, in the dried or preserved form, they are abundantly imported. Domestic butter and cheese can be obtained, but the supply is small and the price so high as to forbid their use, except as a luxury. The country is not yet well provided with milch cows ; and the long dura- tion of the dry season greatly increases the cost of their feed, and materially diminishes the quantity of their milk : hence the high prices of all the productions of the home dairy. The hay of the country is the native grass, and the wild oats of the plains and mountains. There is no limit to this supply. Both are cut and cured, as hay is made in the Atlantic states, and are fed to the cows with bran or meal, through the last two or three months of the dry seasons. Yet, notwithstanding the high prices of marketable provis- ions, no people in the world live " faster " or more sump- tuously than the citizens of San Francisco. CHAPTER 11. Public Morals, Social Customs, Religious Societies and Institutions, Cem- etery, Country contiguous and around the Bay, Vigilance Committee, Quicksilver Mine. One view of San Francisco has been given in the preced- ing chapter; but, to present the whole picture, another curtain must be raised. I refer to the moral, literary, social, and religious condition of this anomalous city, which, like Jonah's gourd, is comparatively the growth of a night. Material of its Population. Its population is from almost every nation. With few exceptions, the first foreign arrivals were not the best specimens of their respective nations, nor the most proper material to form the nucleus of a prosperous state — being from the lower classes of Aus- tralia, China, France, Mexico, Spain, Central and South America, and the Sandwich Islands. But native citizens of the United States also came, and brought with them the love of those great principles of morals and liberty in which they had been educated, and which are the basis of the great- ness and glory of their native land. The latter, probably, were in a minority at the end of a few months of emigra- tion ; but their force of character gave them the ascendency in the management of public affairs. Standard of Morals. These foreign masses intro- duced, on this new theatre, their social habits and practices, as well as their disregard of the rights of person and prop- erty; and the seeds of immorality and vice, thus scattered 13 146 DESCRIPTION or SAN FRANCISCO. broad-cast over the moral and social fields, were permitted to take deep root and yegetate. The consequence was the implied sanction, at least, of a low standard of private vii'tue by those whose duty it was to guard that vital element of public prosperity with uncompromising vigilance. It is needless to add, that, without high moral principle in the individual, there can be no permanent public virtue or security. As the majority of the population did not, in the beginning, possess this element, the natural consequences followed : and no city on this continent has equalled San Francisco in the prevalence of gambling, intemperance, licentiousness, and kindred evils. A decided improvement in public morals is said to have been made during the last year ; but, whoever, even now, takes a stroll through its streets, by night or by day, will be convinced that the unenviable reputation it has acquired is well deserved. What, then, is its condition at the present time 1 Theatricals. The city supports three theatres, two of which are open every night of the seven in the week, and many of the representations on the boards pamper to the lowest passions. Drinking Saloons. Ai-dent spirits, wine, and beer, are more generally used as a beverage in San Francisco than in any other city, perhaps, in the United States. About six hundred drinking-houses are so well sustained that the proprietors are made rich. Many of these places are attended, and frequented, by women, often luxuriously attired, who chat, and smoke, and smile, over the convivial glass, with as much zest and indifference as they would exhibit in the observance of any modest ceremony. These saloons are not unfrequently provided with a retiring room, where customei-s of both sexes while away the night with GAMING. 147 music, dancing, gaming and drinking ; and the walls of many of these rooms are adorned in a manner which our puritan mothers would not have approved. Licentiousness. A faithful recital of the prevalent licentiousness of this city cannot with propriety he placed on the pages of any book. The windows and doors of many dwellings, and even the public streets, at noon day as well as at night, testify to an excess of immorality far exceeding that to be found in other American cities ; the bearing, address and assurance, in all the public places, of the abandoned, a fearfully numerous class, too clearly shoves that, in their own belief at least, their presence is more than tolerated. Cities are often denominated ^' moral sores on the body politic ;" if so, San Francisco, in reference to this evil, is one of the ''sorest." Its corrupt issues have flowed to the extremities of the state, and into all the cities and villages far up in the mountains of the gold region. Gaming. The city contains at least six gaming houses, conducted on a magnificent scale, besides many smaller ones. These are sanctioned by law, — the practice of a few games only being inhibited. The state has recognized gambling as an employment, and has placed it on an equality of legal respectability with ordinary business, by imposing the obligation of a license upon many of the occu- pations of life, and including this in the list ; which is cer- tainly strange legislation for the middle of the nineteenth century, and for a state governed by American citizens. During the day, and until late at night, these houses are thronged with the old and young, who there drink, and occasionally win money, but are oftener beggared. The large saloons contain from six to ten tables each, and 148 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. the smaller ones from one to three. On one occasion, a computation, as near as could be, was made of the money then in bank on the monte tables, and the aggregate exceeded two hundred thousand dollars. More than that sum was in stake at other games. The Chinese have their separate sports among themselves, and are great gamblers. Indeed, it is scarcely more natural for a Chinaman, Mexican, Spaniard, or Chilian to eat, than to gamble. The city swarms with the Chinese, and they have their small dark rooms, in which they eat, drink spirits, and sport. They are very clannish, and congregate in par- ticular localities. This characteristic enables the curious to go among them, and learn their manners, customs, trades, habits, virtues and vices, almost as usefully and satisfac- torily as they could be learned on a visit to their own country. These people are very friendly, and are pleased to explain all their customs and practices for the improve- ment of " outer barbarians ; " — evidently feeling that they are the superior race. The following brief descriptions of two of these gaming houses, — an American and a Chinese, — will portray the manner of life pursued in this city by at least five or six thousand persons. American Gaming House. Several fashionably-dressed men, earnestly engaged in conversation, may be seen stand- ing on the sidewalk before a lofty door-way. Others are passing out and in. We are prevented from taking a view of the interior by a tall screen, of beautiful workmanship, placed a few feet within the portal. We enter and pass behind this mute sentinel. Now we behold a spacious hall, perhaps fifty feet by eighty in size. The walls are richly furnished, and in the centre of each side is suspended a magnificently- AMERICAN GAMING HOUSE. 149 gilded mirror, of the largest size. From the ceiling above hang in clusters many solar lamps, sparkling with brilliants, and on the sides and ends of the room are smaller lights of similar finish. In one corner is a spacious " bar," elabor- ately embellished ; and on its shelves are tastefully arranged, among a profusion of flowers and images of beasts and birds, hundreds of decanters, adorned with shining labels, and filled with tempting wines and other beverages of the most popular brands. Behind the counter are young men, attired with special taste and neatness, actively serving the ever- changing throng that worship at the shrine of Bacchus. Op- posite, and elevated midway between the floor and ceiling, is an orchestra, on which are a piano and six ''players on instru- ments," who are filling the spacious hall with the sweetest airs of their art. On the broad floor are arranged at proper distances eight large tables, covered with broadcloth, and on each is a pile of gold and silver coin, varying in amount from five thousand to ten thousand dollars. One of the tables is placed just before the screen, and another in range with it at the opposite end of the room. At each of these is seated a " lady," superbly clad, who smiles invitingly on every one. She gracefully waves her fair hand, sparkling with diamonds and gold, as an invitation to gentlemen to be seated, and to try their luck to win her '' pile," or lose their own. These "ladies" are in the service of the proprietor, and their wins are his gains. The "green one " who yields to the fascinations of these Delilahs, will surely be deprived of his golden strength. At the other tables are seated gentle- men who are playing, perhaps, for a very large stake, and whose mental disquiet is plainly visible in their faces, as the chances of the game vacillates between them. Hun- dreds are looking on, apparently interested in the result, 13^ 150 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. and betraying equally anxious apprehensions. Indelicate representations, upon the walls of the spacious saloon, are not wanting to complete the scene. It would seem that the designer of such pictui'es must have burned the '• midnight oil " long over the pages of Horace and Ovid ; and that the man who can display them, and the female especially who can tolerate the act by her presence, must have strangely forgotten, if, indeed, they ever learned, the distinctions between virtue and vice. Chinese GAMiNa House. Let us now enter a house of this kind, conducted by a Chinaman. Here is a row of frame buildings, two stories in height, with their sharp, steep roofs, presenting pointed gables to the street, and, as they rise in long succession, resembling the teeth of a huge saw. Attached to the upper story of each is a verandah, extending over the sidewalk, and rising to the height of the peaks. The spaces between the slender columns are so finished that the whole resembles a long series of open gate- ways, or doors ; and before each hangs a solar lamp, which, in the evening, is in full blaze. Within is no ornament, but all is as dingy as the faces that greet the visitor. In the room on the first floor are long, narrow tables, coarsely made, and in the centre of each is a pile of circular metallic plates, about an inch in diameter, with a hole in their centre. On each table stands a metallic burner, of very odd, though simple, construction. It resembles an old-fashioned iron candlestick, with an open vessel on the top, like a large saucer, in which the oil is deposited. In this vessel a large number of wicks are laid side by side, extending across it and rising about half an inch above the rim at one end, and nearly covering the bottom. The elevated extremities of these wicks are lighted. Around the oil vessel, and at the CHINESE DANCING SALOON. 151 distance of about six inches from it, is a side shade, com- posed of oiled paper about four inches wide, and supported by wires passing into tubes attached to the broad, pan- like bottom of the lamps. This light is called " tong-toj." The lamps, and the delicate ^^ cigarettes ^''^ carefully rolled in white paper, and called " ins^^^ which the Chinese offer to every visitor, and constantly smoke, render the walls of the room as dark as the complexions of the orientals. Around each table stand ten or fifteen Chinese, while many others are passing in and out. At one end of the table sits the owner, with a pile of gold and silver coin before him, and at liis side stands a man, holding a short stick, who is the operator in the game. In the centre of the table is a piece of gilt cloth about a foot square, and between it and the opera- tor lie about two hundred Chinese coin, or chins ^ about the size of a cent, with a square hole in their centre. When the game begins, the bet, which may be any sum, is staked with the owner of the table, and as many may enter the circle as choose to risk their money. The corners of the gilt cloth are numbered from one to four, and the bet is made by ' ' board- ing" the stake on either of the numbers. When they are ''all down " the operator takes up a handful of the chins, lays them before him, and with the stick moves them in fours towards himself, until the whole number laid before him are thus moved. If the number of cliins which remain after the last series of fours has been moved, is odd, those parties whose money is laid on the odd numbers win the stakes, and tlie owner loses as much money as has been placed there, but he wins as much as the amount placed on all the even numbers. If no money is staked on the former numbers, he wins the whole stakes. This is the fashionable Chinese game, and is called fonton. It has, at least, the merit of fair chances for all the parties, 152 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Chinese Dancing Saloon. Now let us go into the second story. Here is a long, but plain room. On the sides are coarse benches, on which are reclining a number of Chinese lasses, richly attired in silks of various colors, after the fashion of their country. Their trousers are mostly white, not very full, but heavy around the ankle, with ingenious needle-work. Their shoes are of silk, with thick, pure white soles. Their principal garment, either black, blue or green, and not made very full, extends to the knee, and is also elaborately wTOught with the needle. It fits closely to the neck, and is fastened with a rich pin. This garment is not confined to the waist. Their long, glossy, black hair is combed sternly back, and bound in a knot on the crown. Each one wears a necklace, and a profusion of rings. The Chinese women are short in stature, and are by no means beautiful. At one end of the long room is a raised platform, on which are seated several musi- cians, each having a stringed instrument of singular con- struction, resembling a violin, except that the sounding- board is circular and small. It is an instrument of two strings, which cross each other below the centre. The bow- string is applied below the crossing ; or it is played with the fingers like the tambourine or banjo. The music made with the bow-string resembles that of the vegetable fiddle, with which lads are familiar in the gleesome days of child- hood. Suspended by a cord, hangs the discordant gong. Another instrument resembles a large wooden bowl, in the bottom of which is a circular opening, and over this is strained a hard, dried skin, in the form of a drum-head. It is the Chinese drum, and is played with sticks, discours- ing music about as inspiring as the ticking of a stout marine clock. The performers are males, neatly dressed in silks, CHINESE DANCING SALOON. 153 similarly to the females, except that the trousers fit more closely to their limbs. Like all the Chinamen, their heads are shaved to the crown, and from that point, when they stand erect, their hair extends, in a long, black braid, nearly to the floor, the end of the cue being tastefully ornamented with ribbons. This appendage is the Chinaman's chief honor, and in defence of it he will even sacrifice his life. Another personage, habited in sky-blue silk, sits near, like a tailor on his work-table. He holds a paper, about a foot in width by four feet in length, covered with rows of Chinese characters, and folded about three inches wide, like a fan. This is a book of songs, and the person is a singer — the paper unfolding as he progresses in the performance. Now commences the dance ; the young Chinamen, to the number of ten, each leads a lass upon the floor, and turns with much dignity to the tawny amateurs who are busily tuning their instruments. At this moment, another character, in green apparel, and not before observed, advances, with a very au- thoritative air, to a position on the right hand of the music and the figure. He looks about the room, appears to com- mand silence, and, at the stamp of his foot, the exercises commence, with a promptness, regularity, lightness, ease, and grace, which the " outer barbarian " visitor is not pre- pared to witness. It is sometimes asserted that the Chinese never dance, and probably the higher castes of the pure race do not. The amusement is by them esteemed a vulgarity. The Chinese in San Francisco are of the Tartar blood, and their dances, like their games, music, and money, are unlike those of any other people ; and consist, principally, in advancing and receding, changing sides, and moving down the figure, keep- ing constantly a kind of ambling step or motion with the 154 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. feet, and bowing slightly as they pass each other. They never join hands in the dance, and appear carefully to avoid any contact. Whether this caution arises from a feeling of superiority on the part of the males, or from respect for the females, is a question for the curious. The singer makes an odd exhibition of himself, sitting, as before described, with eyes riveted to his book, which he unfolds as he proceeds — carefully refolding the extending end to render the condition of his volume convenient. His voice is like that of a squall- ing child, while he shakes his head, screws his face, and stretches his jaws, as if really in great distress. After pass- ing, in the same manner, several times up and down the figure, various couples leave it and retire to an adjoining apartment, while their places are filled up by others. Chinese Restaurant. This retiring room is a restau- rant, and contains several circular tables, each sufficiently large to accommodate four persons. These tables are neatly spread in characteristic style, and are attended by males. In the centre of each table is a large earthen dish of meat soup, in which is a small metal vessel, containing ignited coals to keep the food warm. A pile of very small plates, several small saucers, an earthen ladle, two chop-sticks, and a bowl which will contain about as much as a common table-spoon, are placed for each person ; and four backless seats are set to each table. The variety of food is very ex- tensive, and consists exclusively of provisions imported from China. The arrangement and supply of the different tables are similar, and on each are set about forty different dishes — placed in a double circle around the soup ; and on the interior edges of these a third rpw is placed. The vessels containing this supper are all small earthen bowls. Every guest is provided with two metal tankards, which will hold CHINESE DINNER. 155 about a pint each. In one is the universal beverage. The other contains wan^ a Chinese brandy. Both are warnij and are taken clear. No condiments are placed on the tables — the food being always seasoned by the cook. The bread is prepared in the form of pancakes, about the size of a silver dollar. Each cake is doubled so as to form a half circle, and the opening is designed, at the option of the guest, to be filled with one or more of the various viands — the whole forming a very generous mouthful. Each table is separated from the others by screens. Chinese Dinner. Being once invited, with others, by a Chinese acquaintance, to dine with him, the writer was happy to gratify his curiosity by accepting the proiFered hospitality. The hour appointed was 8 o'clock, p. M., and the guests were prompt in their attendance. The whole scene was unlike that of any entertainment he had ever before witnessed, and corresponded substantially with the preceding description. Being unaccustomed to the use of the chop-sticks, resort was had to the earthen spoon — sup- plying one of the small plates from dishes truly recom- mended by the host as very good ; for his dinner was excel- lent. As often as the several courses of plates were re- moved by the dusky attendants, they were rinsed, dried, and returned to the pile before us. Once in about two minutes we were requested to fill the miniature bowls from one of the tankards, and, touching the former to that of " mine host" across the table, we drank the contents at a draught, and the empty vessels were then cleansed, prepara- tory to a repetition of the same ceremony. The Chinese, generally, " sit long at the wine ; " and, judging from the singing, chatting, and mirth, which greatly increased around as the " night wore away," we suspected that one 156 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. of the liquids contained opium, though our curious host did not readily admit '' the soft impeachment." Fearing the correctness of our mistrust, we left the table before our ap- petites consented — preferring the self-denial to the bewil- derment which might be consequent upon longer pro- tracted indulgence. The repast terminated with the metal pipe and the somniferous drug. The guests retired at mid- night, leaving the scene in its meridian ; and the morning probably dawned before the revelry ceased. Had they then returned, they would have met those jolly companions of the previous evening, "present in the body," lounging sillily on the benches, tables, and floor, but " absent in spirit" among the celestials of their own imaginings. The larger proportion of these gaming and other saloons is kept by foreigners ; in fact, the city, in its population and customs, is a foreign town. Citizens of the old states, passing through the streets of San Francisco, and noticing the great prevalence of dusky countenances, singular cos- tumes, strange languages and manners, and odd wares on every side, may well forget, at the moment, that they are in one of the states of this Union. Observance of the Sabbath. The Sabbath, m this city, is a desecrated day. The shops of the Jew. not a few stores even of •' the sons of the pilgrims," the drinking saloons, and other public resorts, are open and filled as on other days. The day is very generally devoted to fashion and pleasure. It is the set time for testing the speed of the noble horse over the race-course 07i the old mission grounds ! Hundreds are allured thither ; and drinking, betting and gaming prevail. The Sabbath is the favorite season for excursions among the green hills and over the bright bosom of the bay — beyond the barren sands of the OBSTACLES TO CHRISTIAN EFFORT. 157 city. Even the din of mechanical labor is mingled, during the sacred day, with " the sound of the church-going bell ; " and, «* At the sweet evening hour," the confused applause of the multitudes who are profaning in the temples of the drama, is heard above the voice of prayer and praise. But the friends of the Sabbath here, deserve commenda- tion for their earnest efforts to secure the better observance of the day. They are yet Comparatively few, but their labors are unremitted to check, in every form, the progress of immorality and vice, and to strengthen and extend the healthful influence of Christian principles. The pastors of the several denominations are well educated, efficient and devoted men, and, as I am informed, cooperate cheerfully " in every good word and work." Having that great pur- pose in view, Sabbath schools, and Bible and tract societies, are formed. It should, however, be remarked that much Christian husbandry may be expended in this city, and but little fruit be visible, or even be produced on the field of labor, the population is so very changeable. The pastor's congregation, or people, of this year or month, may be in far distant countries next year or next month ; and although his labors may have been blessed to individuals, yet the influ- ence does not remain to purify or improve the public morals of the city. Obstacles to Christian Effort. The manner of living and the social customs here are unfavorable to the success of Christian efforts. For so large a population, the number of families residing together in the " family home" is remarkably small. The majority of the inhabitants are 14 158 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. either unmarried or live here without their families — taking their meals promiscuously at the restaurants, and lodging for a month, a week, or, perhaps, for a night only, in the same place. It Avill be readily seen that such society is not easily accessible to Christian teachers or to the operations of moral and religious organizations. Indeed, acquaintances may be about the city for months without meeting ; and, if they casually come together, they are not sure of another interview, unless a time and place are then appointed. Such a people may be said to have no homes — to be, literally, a floating population ; and if brought within any particular influence, the occasion must be sought by themselves. It is lamentably true, also, that the appropriate observance of the Sabbath is often " dodged" here by persons who, at home, are regular, and even rigid, in their observance of it. The people have all come to gather gold ; and, as they " cannot serve God and Mammon" at the same time, they contrive some conscience-quieting excuse to kneel, while here, with idolatrous devotion at the altar of the latter ! A large proportion of the foreigners, resident here, are persons who have been educated in papal countries, who know no difierent faith, and who are accustomed to the practices of that church — a prominent one of which is to make the Sabbath a holiday. Much may be successfully done in such a community in the cause of moral and reli- gious truth, while the good results are not in general a local blessing. Prevalence of Crime. From the immoral state of San Francisco thus existing in the beginning of its settle- ment, the deplorable results which ultimately followed were the necessary consequence. The city soon became the resort of desperados from every land — thieves, robbers, COMMITTEE OF VIGILANCE. 159 incendiaries, and murderers, congregated there ; and crimes of every grade were daily perpetrated. In the spring of the year 1851 this state of things reached its crisis. The sev- eral courts of judicature, organized under the constitution, held almost uninterrupted sessions, and indictments and arrests multiplied rapidly ; but the trials progressed tardily, and convictions and punishments were of rare occurrence. The judges proceeded in the discharge of their duties accord- ing to the practice and rules of their respective courts. If the accused, on arraignment, showed good cause for the delay of trial until a future time, the application for post- ponement was granted ; if the same motion was made in another stage of the case, it prevailed, if, in the opinion of the courts, good cause was shown ; and if the jury finally acquitted the prisoner, the judges, of course, acquiesced. In some instances the accused would be " spirited away" without the knowledge of judges, sheriffs, or other officers ; and it is unquestionably true that, by various expedients, many rascals escaped the punishment due to their crimes. Formation of the Committee of Vigilance. At length the citizens became dissatisfied with the administra- tion of the laws in their courts, and, without just grounds, distrusted the integrity of the judges. About this time one Jenkins was suspected to be guilty of a crime, attended with aggravated circum- stances ; and the citizens, to the number of about one hundred, formed themselves into a court, styled the '' Committee of Vigilance." Professing to act in aid of the officers of the law, to secure more certain and speedy justice, they took this man from the custody of the courts, tried him immediately, and executed him capitally the same day. This body consisted of men who had large interests lt)0 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. at stake in the citj, and ranked among its most influential citizens. From this time, the committee assumed a permanent or- ganization, and soon its numbers swelled to five hundred. A constitution was adopted, defining the crimes of which it would take cognizance, the times of meeting for business, the order of proceedings, and the duties of each member. One quarter of the number composing the committee, was required in its turn to be on service, night and day, in ex- amining all places known to be the resorts of thieves, assas- sins, or other desperados ; to arrest all suspected persons, and to bring them before the committee, which could be convened for that purpose at any moment by the well-known stroke of the bell. Theft, robbery, and murder, chiefly occupied its attention ; but keepers of the resorts of idlers, or of mistrusted persons, did not escape its notice. Punish- ments were graduated according to the circumstances of each case, and were generally either banishment, whipping, or death. Sometimes the " notice to quit '* came without a previous trial, on mere suspicion, and was very laconic, thus : — "Mr. A. B. : You are hereby warned to leave this city within five days. " By order of the ' Committee of Vigilance.' " C. D., Chairman^ If- the person on whom this notice was served did not obey the order, he was sure to be shipped in the next clip- per that left the port for Australia, or to some other distant country. The committee was the executioner of its own decrees; and by its instrumentality a number of persons were hung, many were publicly whipped, and a multitude RESTAURANTS. 161 were banished from the citj. So great was the terror it inspired, that, in a few months, San Francisco was rid of all that class of scoundrels to which the committee turned its attention. Although this modern ''Areopagus" was composed of men of high respectability, whose decisions, abstractly con- sidered, were distinguished for impartiality and justice towards their victims ; and although crime abounded in the city, and the guilty had often escaped punishment in the legitimate courts ; yet its organization and action cannot be justified on any sound principles. They Avere anarchic and revolutionary; and their apology is the overthrow of all security of person or property founded on constitutional forms and proceedings. The energy which the commit- tee displayed in the exercise of usurped authority might have been directed in aid of the courts, consistently with the constitution and the laws, with equal if not superior efficiency. Restaurants. Many social customs prevail here, which will particularly attract the attention of visitors from the Atlantic states. The manner of life very generally adopted is peculiar. Both sexes often take their daily meals at the restaurants, mingling, for this purpose, in the public rooms. Parents with their children frequently live in this manner. The practice arose from the fact, that, in the beginning, the population consisted almost wholly of males, who of neces- sity took their meals at public houses. Families did not begin to arrive in large numbers during the first two years. Restaurants of course multiplied, and the habit of resorting to them became confirmed, and still continues. Families arriving take rooms, and a portion of them adopt the pre- vailing customs which they find in respect to board. 14* 162 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Disproportion of Males. The disproportion between the males and females in the city, at this time, is remark- ably great. According to the census taken in the fall of the year 1852, its population then stood thus : — White males, 29,165 " females, 5,154 Negroes, male, 260 " female, 52 Mulattoes, male, 99 " female, 33 Indians, male, 6 " female, 6 34,776 Estimated sojourners in the city at all times, 6,000 Total number in 1852, .... 40,776 Those sojourners were males, and they swell the number of that sex in the city, in the year 1852, to thirty-five thousand five hundred and thirty-one; — while the whole number of females was but five thousand two hundred and forty-five ! It is probable that this disparity has become somewhat less within the last year, and that the population has increased, at least six thousand ; but the number of families is yet comparatively very small, and many years will pass away before the population will attain the natural proportion between the sexes. Jewelry. The plain traveller from the east will notice the profusion of rich jewelry worn here by every class, and INDIVIDUAL OBSCUKITY. IGo by both sexes. To appear without jewelry might even excite remark. Much of this jewelry is sui generis, — specimen rings, pins, chains, and buttons. These articles are manufactured from the metal in its native state, by solder- ing into one mass many small nuggets, without the polish or embellishments of art. They are made strong and mass- ive ; and are sold at " San Franciscan prices." Fancy has indulged her highest and perhaps her wildest flight of inventive skill, in the construction of watch-chains and seals. They are made in the image of every variety of animal, whether man, beast, bird, fish, or reptile. Chains are displayed, the links of which are representations of dogs, deer, or birds, in full pursuit of each other; or of serpents coiled and hissing. Pins are manufactured, the heads of which are lumps of gold retaining their natural figure, and mixed with the quartz — rose, blue, gray or white — of the mine from which they were taken. These ornaments are pure, and many of them are in good taste, though nature has been permitted to be her own refiner and finisher. Individual Obscurity. The stranger will soon learn the somewhat singular fact, that very few citizens are ex- tensively known in the city. There are, of course, promi- nent individuals in public and in private life ; but the mass- es, even the larger portion of persons in active business, are not generally known to each other. Very many tra- ders have no signs to designate their places of business : many often change their places, and others have no locations. A reliable directory, therefore, cannot be made. The popu- lation, too, is constantly changing ; and on inquiry after a person, the far more frequent than convenient or agreeable 164 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. reply is : ''I don't know him/' or, "I know him, but don't know where he stops now." Hotels. The city is deficient in good hotels. The stranger may get a room to himself at the Oriental, the Crescent City, the Niantic, or at Wilson's Exchange ; but the more probable result of an application to either will be a lodging with five or six others. This is alike disagree- able to all parties. These hotels, except the latter, are constructed of wood, and, if they take fire, the lodger is fortunate who shall escape from the burning pile with the loss of all valuables but life. During the past season Wilson's Exchange has been thoroughly repaired, and ex- tensively enlarged ; and, being built of brick, should the table and rooms correspond with the exterior, it may be said with truth that San Francisco contains one safe and com- fortable hotel. Hours of Retirement. The prevailing late hours of retirement at night will probably be an annoyance 'to old- fiishioned people, until they become accustomed to the popu- lar habit. The streets on which dwellings are principally situated are narrow, and many houses are separated merely by a lane ; so that the confused intermingling of voices is heard, and lights and movements must be seen from house to house, through the long, open, swinging windows, during all the hours which ought to be devoted to rest. In this particu- lar, visitors often wish the city had more of the American and less of the foreign cast. The piano, the violin, and the guitar, are the continual tormentors of those who desire to rest after the good old Yankee fashion, in this dancing sporting city. The hours of the day are seriously shortened by this custom. HOURS FOR MEALS. — USE OF WINE. 1G5 Hours for Meals. The time to breakfast at the restaurants is generally nine o'clock, though many persons do not appear there until ten. The fashionable dining hour is six o'clock, p. M. ; but eight and nine o'clock find many of the devotees of this custom lounging at the dinner- table. The charming evenings are a strong temptation to late hours ; but still, •' Night is the time for rest." Use of Wine. The very general use of wine "at table " will astound the advocates of total abstinence. In all the restaurants, that beverage is furnished at the morn- ing and evening repast ; and in many of them it is provided without request, included in the charges, and the customer must pay for it whether pledge or principle does or does not forbid its use. This custom is one of the most serious evils prevalent in the city ; for its influence is the most permanent, and its consequences are by no means confined to the tempted, but are spread through all the circles of society. It may be called the parent of every other evil. A particular local consideration also renders this a doubly alarming custom. The opinion prevails that persons may here indulge in the use of ardent spirits, to almost any extent, without becoming intoxicated ; and observation induces this belief. More drunkenness may be witnessed in many country villages, in the eastern states, than is ever seen in San Francisco ; and why the usual consequences of excessive indulgence do not here follow, is a question which must be submitted to the decision of the learned on such subjects. It is asserted that the influence of the climate is an antidote to the poison, and neutralizes its intoxicating properties. But whether or 166 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. not the principal proposition be the truth, or the solution correct, the prevalence of the opinion here undoubtedly acts as a powerful inducement to many persons to indulge freely, who otherwise would seldom, or perhaps never, taste of wines or other intoxicating drinks. Habits are thus formed and confirmed, which sooner or later are carried away by temporary sojourners to deso- late once peaceful and joyous homes. Duelling. The "code of honor" is popular in this country — no less than three duels having occurred in the state since the 21st day of May, 1853, now about ten months. These arose from trivial causes, and certainly in- dicate any other qualities in the combatants than solid sense and true courage. The public law declares duelling to be a crime, but imposes no penalty except disqualification for office and the denial of the right of suffrage. The disrespect entertained for that law is illustrated in the fiict that office- holders here fight nearly all the duels, and its violators are the most popular candidates with the people. This expres- sion is predicated on the fact that office-holders are the duel- lists and yet retain their positions, and duellists are nomi- nated and are elected ! What other inference from such premises would be legitimate ? Education. San Francisco has. as yet, done little for the cause of education. Wealth is the great object with the masses. No colleges nor academies exist in the city, nor is public attention particularly occupied with the subject. A system of public instruction, adopted by the corporation, is in partial operation. About 1000 children, out of 4000 •which the city contains, have, at different times, been taught in these schools ; but no fund is provided for their support, and they do not prosper. The state has adopted a common YERBA BUENA CEMETERY. 167 Bchool system, and provided for the future accumulation of a literature fund ; but the latter is yet unproductive. Sev- eral institutions for the younger class of girls are also opened by individuals ; but parents here, generally, send their daughters to be educated at the "Academy of the Sis- ters of Notre Dame," in the city of San Jose. Cemetery — "■ Yerba Buena." About two miles south from the city, in the vicinity of the old Catholic mission, is a tract of rolling land, containing, perhaps, thirty acreSj which is sparsely covered with dwarf oaks — the beautiful evergreen which has been described on another page. Ex- cepting these, and a few patches of peppermint, the whole surface is as destitute of spontaneous vegetation as if the ground had been thoroughly weeded. It is the southern border of the sandy beach and hills on which the city stands ; but the prospect south and west is relieved by the cultivation and improvement which the mission lands have so long received. This " green spot" is the cemetery, and is named "Yerba Buena" — pleasant plant. It is truly a lovely place — a grateful resort for the denizens of a city built " where no verdure is." Walks are opened in many directions over the grounds ; and every facility is given to friends who visit there to place a flower or drop a tear on the graves of their " loved and lost." The selection of this spot for a cemetery is strikingly appropriate. Here, in a single view, is presented this bleak and barren world, in impressive yet consoling contrast with the freshness, fra- grance and beauty of the " better land." A quiet grove of deep, dark foliage that never fades, continually fanned by the cool ocean breeze, and bathed in the perfume of the " pleasant plant," is set down by the kind hand of Provi- dence in this dry, barren, cheerless waste ! Not a wild 168 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. flower in all the ground lifts its head, except the tiny blos- som of the peppermint — just to verify the sweet sentiment of the poet, *' There 's not a heath, however rude, But has some little flower, To brighten up its solitude. And scent the evening hour." This cemetery is now enclosed ; but individuals protect and adorn their lots according to their taste. These im- provements are attended with much expense in this locality : consequently but few lots are yet ornamented. Several, however, are surrounded by neat iron fences, and contain costly monuments, choice shrubbery, and bright flowers. The lots must be prepared for the support of this vegetable life, by excavating the loose sand to the depth of one or two feet, and substituting nutritious earth, which is obtained from the mission. Daily irrigation, also, is indispensable during the dry season. On the south-western side of this cemetery is the " field to bury strangers in ; " and here, among the long rows of nameless graves, attention will be attracted to a high, broad mound, covered with dry underbrush. Beneath this hillock are the bodies that were buried on " North Beach" before the cemetery was provided. Their number is more than eight hundred, and the larger portion were the victims of cholera, which made fearful havoc among the early adven- turers to the land of gold. This grave of a great multitude is situated in a low, secluded valley, and surrounded densely with evergreen oaks. It is a spot around which will long cluster the affections of many hearts ; fathers and mothers, sisters and brothers, in almost every clime, have here some " faded hope," some cherished treasure. YERBA BUENA CEMETERY. 169 I remember one, — Champion Spalding, an enterprising and vigorous youth, — whose golden dreams lured him at an early day to this distant shore, and who died in a few months after his arrival at San Francisco. He was buried on " North Beach," but now reposes among the undistinguished company of that crowded receptacle, as quietly sleeping as if his bed had been selected by the parti- ality of a friend, and been sanctified by the tears of affection. Another, who had died there, I knew ; and I inquired of my attendant, if he could conduct me to the grave of Ster- ling Mills, a young man who came to San Francisco, from Utica, N. Y., in the spring of 1852. After an inspection of his record of burials, he kindly accompanied me to the spot. The grave is numbered " 2307," and the date of the burial is " Nov. 27th, 1852." He is laid on a steep hill- side, in very close proximity to other bodies ; but the loose sand that covers him is well shielded from the burning sun by several oaks, which stretch their evergreen branches gracefully over his resting-place. A low tablet stands at the head of the grave, bearing the simple inscription which has been here repeated. No other memorial appears. Although these youthful adventurers were not my kindred, yet, in the places of their former abode, they had sustained social relations to me which imparted to their memory in that distant land a sweet and grateful fragrance. The latter had been a frequent guest in my family ; and both were mates of a beloved son, who, in the freshness of early manhood, had also passed away. " ! -what a shadow o'er the heart is flung, When peals the requiem of the loved aud young." 15 170 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Yes, sadly sweet were my memories there, and I love them still ! Precious memories of other years ! Cherished recollections of sunnier hours ! Peace to those youthful sleepers by the ocean's shore ! In the memory of loving hearts they are living still. The evergreen shall keep its ceaseless vigils where they rest, that no heedless foot tread rudely on their dust ; but who that loved them here " Can mourn their exit from a world like this ? " It is interesting to examine the inscriptions in this ceme- tery. Among the dead are the natives of every clime ; but China and South America are the most numerously repre- sented. The graves of the Chinese are distinguished by neat white fences, and generally by a single letter or char- acter of their alphabet — which, probably, tells a long story of the deceased. The fences around a few of these graves are ornamented with red or blue curtains, hung in festoons and reaching to the ground. The cross is visible in every direc- tion above the green foliage, but the various devices inscribed, indicate nationality as well as faith. How potent is the attraction of gold ! How limitless the dominion of Mammon ! Truly his votaries, his subjects, are all man- kind ! But three years have passed since this ground was consecrated, yet hundreds, whose ashes now moulder here, came from remote regions, and never, perhaps, heard of California until the golden trumpet sounded through the w^orld. When or where did ever legitimate commerce, or religious faith, or the principles of universal freedom, con- gregate so many natives of every nation on a barren shore, and rear so large a city in so short a time ? Human his- tory has no parallel in its annals. In the cemetery of a populous town the stranger expects FOREIGN POPULATION. 171 to see the shadows of olden time — moss-grown head-stones, crumbling tombs, and sunken graves. With a city, the mind easily associates antiquity, — a period far back in the ages, when the first rough tenements were reared where it stands; and, in the repository of its dead, very naturally inquires for the places where, " Each in his narrow cell forever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep." But here no such anticipations are realized. Every death is recent, every grave is fresh. No memorial appears of older date than the year 1849. The visitor casts his eye over the almost vacant cemetery, and the broadly expanded, crowded city, and asks, involuntarily, " Are these all the dead of this great city ? " The Foreign Population. The question is often asked, whether the Chinese, South and Central American, and Mexican population of California, will ever become reliable citizens ; whether any portion of the adults, among those who are now in the country, or who may hereafter arrive, can be safely invested with the rights of citizenship 7 All classes of Europeans are superior to them in those qualities which are essential to the security of a republican form of govern- ment. The Chinese are much the less objectionable, though American prejudice is stronger against them. But that prejudice arises from the very causes which constitute their superiority. The Chinese are industrious, intellectual, shrewd, and energetic. They engage extensively in honor- able commerce, acquire wealth, and husband their gains with commendable judgment. They exhibit a spirit of subordination to the law, are tenacious of right, and will 172 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. hazard fortune, and even life, in the resistance of wrong. They have their national peculiarities — the ideas of govern- ment, religion, and morals, in which they were educated ; but the fact that they are educated, and have acquired ideas on those subjects, is evidence that they possess the elements of improvement and reformation. Now, look at the other portion of this foreign material. In what do they engage ? Male and female, where are they found? With few exceptions, the dram-shops, gambling saloons, and brothels, fill their ambition, and are their chosen home. As a general characteristic, they are faithless. Re- sistance is an element of their nature, and it is almost a hopeless task to inspire them with an appreciation of the principle of submission to the majority. On the contrary, many of the Chinese already comprehend that idea, and the state made a great mistake when it excluded them from the right of sujQfrage, but left the much more dangerous portion admissible to the exercise of that responsible franchise. Suburban Localities. There are few interesting localities near San Francisco. The " bright little isle " of Yerba Buena that lies before the city, in the bay, has already been mentioned, and also Angel Isle, at the east- ward of the Golden Gate. At the north of the city, and just beyond its present limit, is Telegraph Hill. This is the highest point of land on the promontory, — forming, in fact, a portion of its northern termination. It is very broad at its base, circular, and runs with a smooth, regular surface to a small point, at the height of about one thousand feet above the water. Its apex is crowned with a marine telegraph, which, with the " Outer Telegraph," standing on another elevation near the shore of the ocean about six miles to the west, gives warning of ROADS TO THE PRESIDIO AND FORT. ITS the approach of shipping many hours before the canvas is furled, or the wheels are still at the wharves in the bay. Dolores. A broad and substantial plank-road leads out of the city, to the south, about four miles to the old mission of San Francisco, — sometimes erroneously called, " Dolores." On another page has been particularly de- scribed this ancient relic of ecclesiastical rule, and the neighboring presidio and fort. All these objects are inter- esting to the mind that delights to turn back the worn leaves of the old volume of Time, and to spell out on its pages the little that remains of their history, in the long story of the past. The Roads to the Presidio and Fort, are through a country singular in all its features to the visitor from the east. It is a vast unenclosed domain, an irregular succes- sion of green hills and lovely valleys. Here and there a quiet hamlet is seen, embosomed in the evergreen oaks ; and on either hand beautiful gardens appear in every stage of vegetation — from the sprouting seed to the matured crop. On the right hand are the waters of the Golden Gate, bright and sparkling in the summer sun, or lowering and dark under the shadows of the winter clouds. On the left hand, in the distance, are the high lands which skirt the plain. These are fresh and fragrant with waving oats and grass, or dingy and dry in the faded remains of their earlier glories. Flocks of domesticated goats are quietly cropping the hill- sides, and the low lands are dotted with numerous kine. The latter are not natives of the country but were driven across the plains from the east ; and the city depends on them for its partial supply of milk. They range here over unmeasured space — each owner having a recorded mark and a herdsman. 15* 174 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. Circuit of the Bay. If the citizen desires to leave, for a season, the dust and din of the town, it is a charming tour of about one hundred miles to make the circuit of the bay, — going down on the eastern shore and returning on the western. The ride will occupy about two or three days ; but the beauty and novelty of the view will amply compen- sate for the time and outlay. The water has lost the deep blue of the ocean, and the dark green of the soundings, and appears like that of the rivers which conduct into the bay the tribute of the snow- crowned Nevadas. As the steamer recedes from the city the expanse of water grows broader, and the swells roll with considerable violence, — the breeze always blowing fresh. Oakland and Alameda. Nearly opposite the city, on the eastern shore, lies the little village of Oakland, and its scattered white cottages can be distinctly seen as they stand on the sandy beach, without a tree or flower to relieve the view. And twelve miles below, is Alameda, surrounded by cultivated fields and lovely foliage. Valley of San Jose. From this point the mountains begin to recede from the bay, leaving a level country inter- vening, which continues to increase in extent until it becomes a broad valley — extending far below, and embracing the whole southern shore. This is the justly celebrated valley of San Jose. It lies west of the Coast Range, between it and a spur of those mountains that makes out to the ocean, and terminates in the promontory forming the bay. Valley of Alameda. Twenty-five miles below the city the steamer enters the Alameda creek, and proceeds south-easterly up its serpentine channel twelve miles into the valley, to the embarcadaro, or landing-place, at Union city. Steamers and sail-vessels are constantly plying on MISSION OF SAN JOSE. 175 this little stream ; and, as it is very narrow, and hidden by the long grass, and its course is very crooked, they appear to be moving like the figures of a diorama, mysteriously, yet gracefully, on a vast green meadow. The hills and mountains along the bay are, at this time (August), covered with the ripened crop of wild oats, and as the beams of light reflect from one yellow peak to another, they appear to be robed in a mantle of gold. Three months hence, this covering will be changed to the freshness and verdure of spring, or, as the season is known here, of winter. As the voyager penetrates the valley, ascending the little Alameda, the whole perspective is in the highest sense beau- tiful. A broad, level carpet, of bright green, is fringed in the misty distance with a high-raised bordering of shining yellow. The vessels on the winding stream, and the few small trees that wave on its shores, resemble embossed figures on a magnificent ground- work ; and the growing crops that are scattered over the whole, in various colors and stages of vegetation, give to the picture the charm of almost endless variety. It seems impossible that even nature, with all her skill, could have painted a more delightful or instructive scene. Mission or San Jose. From Union city the ride is nine miles, over a smooth, level road, in excellent stage- coach conveyance to the mission of San Jose (St. John). But few dwellings arc seen on the way, and those are gen- erally constructed of cloth. The little fencing necessary at present is composed either wholly of iron or of red-wood posts with iron wire. In this valley the husbandman has no labor to perform preparatory to fitting the land and putting in the seed. No dense forests of heavy timber are 17G DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. * to be felled, — nature having cleared tlie soil, and enriclied it ready for immediate occupancy. The records of this mission show that it was founded in the year 1797 ; but the grounds have been long neglected, and many of the buildings have crumbled into ruins. In the palmy days of ecclesiastical authority the walls enclosed about twenty acres, embracing the church, dwellings, out- houses, gardens, orchards, and vineyards. The domain was originally a tract of land containing about fifteen thousand acres, lying contiguous to the church. No benevolent mind can survey these dilapidated missions without experiencing a feeling of sadness ; not because their glory has departed, but that the simple children of nature, whose enlightenment and w^elfare was the profession of the priests, were not brought under a purer and more elevating influence. Visit to the Padre. These mission estates have been described in another chapter, and only a few lines will be here added, descriptive of a call upon the Padre of San Jose. He was found seated in a large, dark, floorless room, which had no finish or embellishment on its dingy, adobe parti- tions. In one corner was a cot, on which lay a mattress, one pillow, and a blanket. An ancient bench stood against the wall. In another corner were two barrels containing musty papers, and in the centre was an old-fashioned cross- legged table bearing a lamp, a few worn volumes of ancient Latin authors, and a pitcher. These constituted the " tout ensemble " of the padre's study. He rose when we entered, gave us his hand, and, through an interpreter, requested us to be seated. He is an aged Dane, and was very communi- cative on all questions respecting his church and vocation. He remarked, during the interview, that our countrymen are an uneasy people ; and he attributed to them the troubles THE CACTUS. — PUEBLA OF SAN JOSE. 177 of Mexico, and the decline of his church. It was replied, "that our system is to keep the church disconnected from the state;" to which he hurriedly remarked, " Ah! I mean indirectly, indirectly ;" by which, it is presumed, he in- tended that the moral influence of the United States on Mexico had led to the secularization, by the latter, of the church estates. The Cactus. The visitor to this mission will see the cactus in all its glory. The walls are literally, in many places, buried under this plant. The thick, clumsy leaves, or shoots, are from two to three feet in length, and put out from each other to the distance of sixty feet.' There are several species, one of which bears a fruit called the prickly pear. This fruit grows on the edges of the thick leaves, or shoots, to about the size of a hen's egg, and is sickish to the taste ; some persons, however, eat of it, and it is seen on the fruit-stands in San Francisco. The body of this mammoth vegetable is sometimes a foot in diameter, and as firm as that of the cedar or pine. In several places great labor with an axe would be required to get at the garden walls which were buried under it to the depth of ten feet. The plant grows along the ground and shoots off in all directions. One such specimen, in a northern lady's plant jar, would be really a great affair ! Pueblo of San Jose. Pursuing the excursion, the visitor proceeds to the pueblo, distant fifteen miles south from the mission. The country lying between the mis- sion and Pueblo of San Jose is uneven, and less improved than that just seen. Not more than one or two farms are under cultivation between those places ; and scarcely a tene- ment, excepting a few constructed of cloth, has been reared. The soil is a deep blue loam, rich and strong; but the 178 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. absence of springs and streams, with the long dry seasons, must ahvays abridge its productiveness. For the first eight miles not a tree, and scarcely a bush, rises to cast a shadow on the parched surface ; but, thence onward, a few majestic California oaks are standing in scattered groups, and impart freshness and variety to the prospect. The town of San Jose is remarkable for having aspired to be the capital of the state. It secured the prize, and actually retained it nearly two years ! It contains about four thousand inhabitants, principally Spanish, Mexicans, and Germans. San Jose is an old Span- ish town, but has grown to its present size since the dis- covery of gold in the country. Before that period, its pop- ulation was about eight hundred — Mexicans and Indians. The commerce was inconsiderable, being chiefly in grain and cattle. The houses and other buildings were small, and cheaply constructed ; the best being a few old adobe resi- dences. This city is situated about fifty miles from San Francisco by water, and sixty by land. It is about seven miles from the bay. The " CoUegio de Niiias,^^ or Cath- olic academy for young ladies, is located at this place, and is the only flourishing female seminary in the state. Village of Alveso. Seven miles north-west from the pueblo, on the shore of what may be termed a slough, com- municating with the southern extremity of the bay, is the eniharcadaro^ or village of Alveso. This little hamlet bears the name of a wealthy Californian, and was, at one period, regarded with favor as the future capital of the golden state. But the embarcadaro, like the pueblo, was abandoned for Benicia — the latter being the name of the lady of a Mexi- can general, who gallantly demanded the awarded prefer- ence. MISSION OF SANTA CLARA. 179 Mission of Santa Clara. From Alveso, tlie next object worthy of a visit is the mission of Santa Clara, situ- ated about three miles to the westward of the pueblo. In its general features it resembles the other missions, but the buildings are in a much better condition. Being the popu- lar church, and contiguous to the town, the grounds and structures have been kept in very good repair. A modest steeple is added to one of its front corners, and its exterior walls have been plastered and painted. The road-way from the pueblo to Santa Clara is shaded, on both sides, with ancient overhanging willows ; and a crystal brook, flowing along in its pebbly bed, adds cheerful music to the summer gales that rustle among the inter- mingling branches. It is a charming grove, and the tired admirer feels inclined to linger for an hour and cool his fevered brow beneath the consecrated shade. Quicksilver Mine. From Santa Clara, the distance is ten miles, in a south-easterly direction, to the mine of quicksilver at New Almaden [a mine]. This is the most extensive and the richest mine of quicksilver ever discov- ered. The locality has been known to the Indians more than twenty years, and they have been accustomed to use the ore to redden their faces, and their various implements. In the year 1845, a quantity which had been procured, at the solicitation of the padre of Santa Clara to adorn the church, was seen by a scientific Mexican, who forwarded a specimen to the city of Mexico for examination, and its character was then discovered. A company was soon after formed by several English and American gentlemen, who obtained a grant from the government to open and work the mine. Since that time a large amount of capital has been invested in the business, and about a hundred work- 180 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. men are now employed in raising and smelting the ore. It is believed that this mine will yield a quantity of quicksil- ver sufficient to supply the markets of the world for many years. The general process of smelting is to confine the ore in a close furnace or oven, and, by the application of heat, to rarefy the metal, which is conducted off through a condenser and caught in iron jars or pans. This mine is located on the eastern side of a spur of the coast range, in the county of Santa Clara, and about sixty miles south-east from San Francisco. The entrance is by a circuitous path, about a mile into the mountains, and the ascent is difficult ; but, having been accomplished, the visitor is amply rewarded for the toil. The mountain is penetrated horizontally, about nine hundred feet ; and the drift, or lead, is opened sufficiently to admit the -working of a small rail-way. From that point, the descent, relieved by occa- sional rests, is gradual for a long distance, and to a great depth, in several ramifications. The discovery of this mine was an opportune event for the mining interest of California. Quicksilver is almost an indispensable article in gold mining; and here is an inexhaustible supply where the demand is greatest. San Mateo. Returning to the pueblo, the visitor pro- ceeds along the southern shore of the bay fifteen or twenty miles, to San Mateo, the western extremity of the country generally known as the San Jose valley ; and this region may be called its garden and its crown. Venerable oaks with mighty arms, supporting a profusion of deep green foliage, are scattered widely over the vast level fields ; neat cottages, surrounded by commodious out-houses, are rising on either hand among the trees ; thousands of cattle, horses, mules, and sheep, are reposing in the shade, or feeding SAN MATEO. 181 quietly over the broad, luxuriant pastures ; and the Amer- ican farmer is opening sluices, placing wire or hide-rope fences, and providing facilities for irrigation in all directions. Seldom does nature make a grander display of her rural charms, or furnish a richer soil in a more congenial climate. On the bay between San Jose and San Mateo is the red-wood Embarcadaro. The lumber obtained from the forests known as '" the red- woods," and which are situated at the south and south-east from this point, is brought here for transportation to San Francisco and other markets. A short distance beyond San Mateo is a dilapidated out- post of the mission of San Francisco. It was built there as a protection against the incursions of unfriendly Indians. From this point, the face of the country changes rapidly, becoming more and more uneven, until the lately broad and smooth surface terminates in a narrow valley between two spurs of the mountains. This valley is uneven, rocky in some places, and continually rising and narrowing, until it terminates in the hills which surround the city of San Francisco. The ride from San Mateo along the valley on the promon- tory, is not, however, devoid of objects of interest to stran- gers. Large droves of Mexican wild cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs, will be seen wending their way to the city. These droves often move forward at the top of their speed, pursued by the mounted Californians on a gallop, and leave behind thick clouds of dust, which, reflecting the rays of the sun, appear, at times, like volumes of flame. Occasionally a corral or yard of some old Mexican rancho will be passed, where the cattle belonging to the estate are rodeoed. The country lying between San Mateo and San Francisco retains, in a great degree, its appearance under the Mexi- 16 182 DESCRIPTION OF SAN FRANCISCO. can regime. But few Americans have yet settled upon it, and for the reason that it is less inviting than other sec- tions ; yet parts of it are rich, strong lands, and may be made as productive as any other in the state. "The sight-seeing" in the ride around the bay, return- ing by land on the western side, closes with the San Fran- cisco mission, already described. The buildings ai'e sinking into decay, and doubtless they will soon be known only amonor '' the thin<:;s that were.'' But the hand of American enterprise, guided by American taste and skill, is at work in those lovely grounds. Neat cottages are rapidly multi- plying, among the green oaks, in every variety of style and finish. The long-neglected valley is assuming the dress, not only of thrift, but of elegance and refinement. The trees are trimmed, the gardens are renovated and arranged with regularity and taste, new streets are opened, ditches for drainage are sunk, and substantial bridges are substi- tuted for the rickety log- ways of the padres and their Indian husbandmen. One dwelling is worthy of special notice: The Cottage of Capt. Denison stands in a cluster of willows, and their arcliing branches, fringed with drooping moss, fill gracefully around it on every side. One of the trees passes through the floor and roof of the verandah, and the trunk of another is allowed to wind through the dining- room. Nothing could be in better taste, for the willow is ever associated, in the susceptible mind, with cooling breezes and babbling streams. No impression produced by external objects can be more happy. May the man who originated this novelty live long to bless others with the suggestions of his excellent taste ! Leaving the mission, nothing worthy of note remains to be seen but the view from the barren heights which overlook SAN MATEO. 183 the city. The sun is just sinking behind the western moun- tains, but the house-tops are glistening mirrors under his fiiding rays ; a dense mantle of dust and smoke hangs heav- ily over the scene, and is moving slowly away to the south- east on the evening breeze ; the hum of bustling thousands, mingled with the clatter of drays, the roll of carriages, the quick tramp of hurried horses over pavements and plank, the peal of bells, and all the complicated din of busy arti- sans, Ml suddenly on the ear ; beautiful islands are seen in the bay, rising gracefully on the bosom of the restless waters ; ocean steamers of the first class are lying at their stations, ready to depart at the appointed time ; six river steamers are about leaving their wharves for various places on the coast and neighboring rivers ; vessels from every clime, and of every size, form, and description, are swinging at their anchors, or gliding through the spacious harbor ; and the merchandise of every nation, the richest, and the rarest, constantly discharged at the wharves, is finding a ready market. Such is the scene presented at sun-set, from these heights, on a sandy beach at their base, where only five years ago a mere hamlet stood — an undistinguishablc point on the map of North America. PART THIRD. GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS, CHAPTER I. A Description of the several kinds of Placers and "Diggings ;" Prospecting for " Mining Claims ; " Dififerent Methods of " washing the dirt " and collecting the Gold ; Names, Construction and Operation of the Machines; Quartz Mills, Sluices, Flumes and other Fixtures ; Canals, Aqueducts, Appearance of the Mining Region, &o. Discovery of the Gold. In May, A. D. 1848, public attention ^yas first especially directed to Upper California as the depository of large quantities of native gold. The discovery was made on the south fork of the American river, at a point where Captain John A. Sutter was con- structing a. saw-mill. That locality is a few miles west of the present village of Culloma, in the county of El Dorado, and about one hundred and seventy miles easterly from the city of San Francisco. In that month, two men (Marshall and Weaver) were employed at this mill : and one version of the particulars of the discovery is, that to promote expedition in their work of digging the discharging race, they turned a powerful volume of water into a small sluice-way opened for that purpose, and thus, in a sliort time, washed away a large quantity of earth, leaving a broad and deep channel ; that, soon after this ex- GENERAL JOHN A. SUTTER. 185 ploit, several children, members of Mormon families residing near, while sporting in the channel, and throwing the sand and gravel of the bottom into the air, discovered many shining particles, and called the attention of those laborers to the circumstance. Another version of the storj is, that these men were engaged at the time in the enlargement of the discharging race of the mill, and, to promote the speedy execution of their work, they forced a powerful current of w^ater through the flume, by which a gravel bar was formed at the foot of the race ; that, several days subsequently, Mr. Marshall discovered on that bar many shining particles, and, believing them to be gold, collected a quantity, and communicated the intelligence to Captain Sutter ; that they together made a further examination, and soon ascertained that the shores and the bed of the south fork of that river were rich in deposits of gold ; and that other persons, who had watched the movements of these gentlemen, also made search with equal success, and thus the great discovery became generally known. Of Gen. John A. Sutter, so closely associated with this great event, being an early and prominent settler in California, a brief notice may not be deemed improper in this connection. He is a native of Switzerland, and was once a Captain in the Swiss Guards of Charles X., king of France. In the year 1833, he emigrated to Missouri, and in the year 1839 went to Oregon, across the plains. In the latter year he visited the 'Sandwich Islands, and came thence to Upper California. In that or the following year he obtained a grant of forty square miles of land in that territory, and located it in the great valley which is watered by the Sacramento and American rivers. Subsequently he 16* 18G GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. built upon liis Hacienda the walled mansion which has been described in another chapter. The laborers employed in that really extensive work were chiefly Indians, whom he conciliated and trained to some knowledge and skill in various branches of labor. Here he resided for many years, enjoying little home intercourse, except with those natives. They were encamped around his walls in burrows, formed by covering deep pits with a spherical roof of earth, and were his laborers, soldiers and companions. He left his family in Europe when he emi- grated to America, but they joined him in California a few years ago. At one period, he was supposed to be very wealthy, but subsequent difficulties respecting the practical extent of his grant, and other causes, have somewhat impaired his fortune. He has removed from his old Ilaoi- enda (New Helvetia), associated as it must be with many interesting recollections of the past, and now resides in a modest dwelling on the west bank of the Feather river, about seven miles below Marysville. His new habitation is surrounded by well-cultivated grounds, and at a short dis- tance from it are the burrows of the few faithful Indians who have followed the fortunes of their former master and protector. This estate is called ''The Hock Farm," from the circumstance that the proprietor is rearing upon it a large and flourishing vineyard. General Sutter is now past sixty years of age, but is yet hale and stalwart, and he holds the commission of Major General in the militia of the state. Previous Opinions. Long prior to the year 1848, the opinion was expressed, by persons who had traversed portions of the territory, that its mountains and " canons " * (gorges) * From Carlo, a subterraneous passage^ a mine. The word is in general use now to signify a ravine or gorge, and is often spelled canyon. NATURAL INDICATIONS OF GOLD. 187 contained deposits of tlie precious metals ; and the story is current in California, that a gold ''placer"^ was found many years before, near the mission of San Fernando, in the present county of Los Angeles, and that a quantity of gold was collected from it, but that the scarcity of water prevented its being profitably worked, so that it was aban- doned. It is also reported, that a '-nugget"! ^^^ g^-*^'^j weighing one or two ounces, was obtained fifteen years ago from the crevice of a surface rock, near the site of General Sutter's celebrated saw mill. Whether or not these stories are true, the opinion was cer- tainly very natural : — one, indeed, which would be necessa- rily formed by any explorer, familiar with districts in other countries, where gold and silver have been found. Natural Indications of Gold. The prevailing color of the soil, a reddish brown, and its dry and barren appear- ance ; the broken and apparently crowded position of the mountains, bearing testimony to the conclusion that they are ^'up-heaves^^ of some volcanic action; the smooth and worn appearance of the rocks, both above and below the sur^e, showing that they have been, at some remote period, long subjected to the action of water : the character of the deposit, which lies immediately on the '"bedrock," and is often exposed at the surface, having the color and consis- tence, in some instances, of pulverized bricks, and in others of leached ashes, both of which must have been moistened, powerfully compressed, and then hardened by heat; the *A plat of ground bordering on a p.treain, and which contains dcponits of gold. fUaed on the mining grounds to signify a lump of gold of conaidcrablo size ; larger than a walnut. The finest glofjule grains are called gold dust ; if the grains are flattened, they are called Hcah gold ; if the grains are larger than a pea, they are known commonly a? lump gold. 188 GOLD MINES, MIXING AND MINERS. presence of fragments of quartz and of decomposing lava, jutting up to view, but partially imbedded in the soil, affording evidence that internal fires have warred with other elements in that locality, are, it is asserted by miners who have had long experience in Mexico and Peru, signs of the presence of gold which seldom deceive. Traditionary Testimony. It is also said that, at a very early period, after the organization of the missions in Lower California, the Indians, who were sent into the ' ' upper country " to persuade the natives to submit to the guardian- ship and tutelage of the Catholic fathers, spoke, on their return, of the "shining sand " in the streams and gorges which they crossed in their journey. But those worthies were so deeply devoted to the spiritual conquests of the church, that they heeded not the story of "the shining sand ; " and the crown of Spain was then so rich in the treasures of her own mountains, and in those of Mexico nearer home, that the simple narrations of the poor Indians respect- ing a far-off and wholly unexplored region, were disregarded and forgotten. Hence, nearly a century passed before suflB- cient light was cast upon this subject to attract the attention of a people more energetic and enterprising than the Span- iards and Mexicans, though none could be more avaricious than they. It has been reserved, like almost all modern discoveries and schemes of human progression on the west- ern continent, for the restless Anglo-Saxons to penetrate the mountains of California, to lay bare the beds of her rivers, up-heave her valleys, and open the store-house of her exhaustless treasures. Peculiar Characteristics. The history of gold-min- ing in California, develops characteristics apparently peculiar and unknown in other localities where that metal is found. THE RED- ROCK. 189 The evidences on which miners in other regions rely, as the sure tests of its presence, are here distinctly marked ; but it is also found in large deposits where none of those signs appear. Not only in the mountains and " canons," but in the streams, on the plains far remote from any evidences of volcanic action, in clay and sand, as well as in volcanic masses, is gold daily discovered. Its Prevalence. California seems to have been Na- ture's favorite field, when she prepared her grounds for the golden harvest, and in the^spring-time of Creation sowed broad-cast over it the "yellow grains." Every day's "prospecting" in those localities which have been regarded as fruitless for mining purposes, tends to confirm the truth that the miner may expect to find gold anywhere in California. He may not always obtain it in sufficient abundance "to pay," as the phrase is; but the failure in quantity at first is not conclusive that a deeper "prospect," or another at a little remove, will not develop a deposit that would richly compensate for the labor and expense of " washing" the dirt. If there be an exception to this general rule, it is confined to sandy soil, which may not yield much gold. The Bed-Rock. The opinion is generally entertained by the miners that gold will not be obtained below one foot in depth of the " bed-rock." This bed-rock exists wherever gold is found. It often appears at the surface of the earth, but usually lies from two to ten feet, or even more below ; and' is either dark brown, approaching to black, or dark gray. The general opinion is that the brown rock is slate, and that the gray is granite. In the hills, canons, and some dry surface diggings, this bed appears to be rock that has been 190 heated until its original characteristics are destroyed ; and the superincumbent mass was probably thrown upon it in a hot state ; but some intelligent miners insist that this bed- rock is slate only, and that granite could not have been brought, by the action of heat and moisture, to the condition in which the gray bed is found. This apparently burned bed is soft, and may be easily broken with a light pick. The Hill Diggings. In the "coyote" hill diggings, the grains of gold are found in the crevices of this rock, and on its surface, mingled commonly with natural earth ; but they are occasionally obtained from the body of the rock itself In the majority of the ''surface" diggings, the bed-rock is in its natural state, and, of course, no gold is found in it. Location of the Leads. In quartz mines the " leads" are generally on the bed-rock, or in its crevices ; but they are sometimes found several feet above it. In all ' ' hill diggings " these leads or veins of gold vary in breadth and thickness from a few inches to many feet ; but their length depends on the locality. If the lead is struck high up on the hill or mountain, it generally terminates, or, in miner's lano-uao-e, "runs out," at the bottom of the first canon, or gorge, towards which the bed-rock inclines. Keeping on the latter, the miner " drifts," or penetrates, into the mountain ; following the lead in all its ramifications, which, especially in quartz leads, are as easily distinguished from the sur- rounding deposits, as would be a vein of pure gold. Under him is the bed-rock ; around, and above him, is the reddish or grayish deposit — soft, moist, and crumbly — which he excavates as he proceeds ; and on the bed-rock, in its crev- ices, or near the rock, surrounded by the deposit, is the quartz lead, a hard, smooth, glassy mass, abounding in THE QUARTZ. 191 seams, and appearing to have been forced violently into its position. If the lead is struck near the foot of the mountain, or hill, its continuance can only be determined bj working it. This uncertainty presents one of the hazards of the miner. But he is not without some guide in such a case ; for, it is ascertained, and is, at these mines, a rule that, in general, the leads run in a north-westerly direction. By an^ inspec- tion, therefore, of the surrounding locality, he may approxi- mate towards a certainty as to what point the lead will probably terminate. If the lead be struck near the bottom of the first canon lying north-westerly from his '' prospect," and the bed-rock incline but little in that direction, he concludes that he is near the termination of the gold deposit ; and it will, prob- ably, "run out" in that canon; but if the inclination of the bed-rock is great, the lead may lie below the nearest canon, and run out in a deeper one beyond the intervening hill or mountain, through which the object of the miner's search may extend. Again, if the lead be struck near the foot of a canon with an indifferent result, and the bed-rock rise in a north- west- erly direction into the body of the hill or mountain, the miner concludes that it will be fruitless to open the mine — it being another general rule that the yield of gold increases towards the bottom of the canon ; and, if only a small quan- tity be found there, a larger quantity may not be anticipated at a higher elevation. The Quartz is gray in some leads, and rose, white, or brown in others. Some of it is coarse and very hard ; and a portion is fine and crumbly. It is generally opake, but in some leads specimens are found which are quite transpar- 192 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. ent. Quartz, bj many of the miners, is called the " ore of gold;" and they believe that the metal was created in com- bination with it. The particles of gold are often so minute as to be imperceptible to the eye, even on a clean, newly- broken surface of rock. Sometimes, however, the metal is found, in large deposits, in the seams and crevices of the quartz, and not unfrequently these deposits are a thin, continuous body, consisting of many ramifications running between a number of small pieces of the rock, serving as ligaments to hold them together. In such instances, by the stroke of a hammer, the quartz will fall out of its place, leaving a large pronged nugget of gold. Near the city of Nevada such a specimen was found, which weighed twenty- five pounds ! Standing in the chamber of the drift, or opening made into the mountain, the impression produced on the mind, by the broken, crowded state of the quartz in the lead, and its marked distinctness of formation from all the surrounding matter, is, that by whatever process the gold and the quartz may have become combined, the lead is not their original bed, but that the mass was thrown there by volcanic action ; that por- tions of it were crushed and subjected to intense heat, by which much of the fine gold was disintegrated, melted to- gether, and forced between the larger fragments of quartz ; and that thus were formed the irregular molten lumps which are found in the leads. Those masses of ejected quartz, surrounded by the red- dish, or ashy deposit, then also in a hot state, appear to have been thrown upon the bed-rock, and to have remained there for unnumbered ages, and until that rock, either by the action of heat and moisture, or some other cause, has itself become, in many instances, soft and crumbly. A strong « COYOTE DIGGINGS," ETC. 193 smell of sulphur exists in all the quartz leads ; and they are found principally in the hills and mountains. "Coyote Diggings." Those "hill diggings" which yield "grain" gold, unconnected with quartz, in which the metal is found in the seams of the bed-rock, and also in and upon the rock itself, are named " Coyote " [Kiote] diggings, from the coyote, or wild dog, which burrows in the hills. It is found, generally, that the bed-rock and the superin- cumbent deposit have some resemblance in color ; thus, if the latter resembles a brick mass, the former is dark brown, or nearly black ; but if the latter resembles ashes, the former is gray ; and because the dark bed-rock is generally located in a higher position than the gray, it is inferred that the former is slate, and the latter granite. Some persons, how- ever, maintain that the bed-rock in these hills is uniformly slate, and that the superincumbent material is quartz. The characteristics of the gray bed are very unlike those of the dark ; the gray being much harder than the dark, coarser grained, less moist, and uniformly lower in relative position. The gold on the dark bed is coarser, and, therefore, less pure, than that on the gray bed ; for the smaller the par- ticles of metal are, the less foreign substance will they contain. "Surface Diggings" are confined generally to the gorges and low lands. " Digging " is the miner's term for any description of land which contains particles of gold ; and the miner may, as a general rule, strike his spade in any place, with the reasonable expectation that he will find the object of his search. Many of the valleys and gorges lying east and north of the Sacramento river have been dug over without reference to the color or character of the soil ; and, in passing through them, it may easily be determined 17 194 MINES, MINING AND MINERS. where the miner's hopes "were realized, and where they were deferred. In the former instances, the ground has been up- turned to a great distance in all directions. — in some places to the depth of a foot, and in others to the depth of five or six feet. Here are numerous piles of clean rubble stones, which were separated from the earth in the process of washing. In some sections, the whole surface, as far as the eye can extend, is but a succession of deep pits, high mounds of washed earth, innumerable pyramids of stones, with lumber, broken sluices, toms, cradles, and other tools used in mining. The fortunate proprietors, judging that they had reaped the golden harvest here, have "abandoned," and gone to prospect in yet untried fields, for a richer yield. It is not, however, certain that they have collected all the gold in the old grounds. A subsequent occupier may gather a larger and finer harvest than the fonner. It is not uncommon that the same localities are washed over several times with profit; and latterly, since unoccupied claims have become scarce, it is customary to work as long as '• the claim will pay,'' even though the daily return may diminish; for nature did not sow her golden grains in Cal- ifornia with an even hand, and though the harvest to- day may be small, it may to-morrow exceed all fonner example. Low Lands. In the term, '-lowlands," are compre- hended all the valleys, even those which are in elevated situations among the mountains. Many of the latter are several miles in extent. Generally, in these groimds, the gold is found within the depth of two or three feet ; but it is sometimes obtained as far down as the earth is a coai*se mixture of gravel with occasional particles of quartz, even THEORIES OF THE GOLD DEPOSITS. 195 to the bed rock. The presence of the gravel and quartz is to the miner an indication that the localities were once covered with water. In all these surface dioro-ino-s the srold particle is fjrener- ally small, a mere scale, or a grain, varying from a size less than a pin's head to that of a pea. The larger pieces are known among the miners as •• lumps and nuggets ;* ' and some of these have been found which weighed many pounds. These scales and grains are generally elongated, and flat, sucli as would be formed by throwing a quantity of melted gold, with a horizontal sweeping motion, upon a sui'face of water ; and they are mingled witli the earth, more or less numerously, in leads or courses. Theories of the Gold Deposits. The opinion pre- vails, among those who have examined this mining region and are deemed competent judges of the subject, that the valleys, low grounds, and gorges, were formerly the beds of streams and lakes: that these streams and lakes were formed by some convulsion of nature, which uphove the foundations of the deep on this coast, and fused and grained the gold ; that the particles were thrown into those bodies of water at the time of the eruption : that, by the annual rains, and melting snows, other particles were afterwards washed gradually into them, from the volcanic elevations among which they were situated, and that the latter process was continued until the ''waters were dried up,'' or displaced by some other eruption, leaving the treasure to become imbedded by the lapse of time and the accumulations of the soil. This hypothesis is considerably supported by the fact that very little surface-gold, comparatively, is found on the sides of the mountains adjacent to surface-diggings. The theory is sometimes advanced that these lakes and 196 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. rivers existed from the beginning ; that they "were drained, and the gold grains simultaneously formed and deposited on their dry beds, by yolcanic action, and that in time the gold has been there covered by the annual accumulations of the soil, and its own specific gravity, which gradually sank it below the surface. These theories suppose the gold to have been created a native metal, its combination with quartz, and the quartz and coyote leads to be the result of the eruption which difiused the metal over the surface. (See pp. 192-3.) The idea is entertained by other persons that all the gold originally existed in the form of ore in quartz rock : that, by volcanic heat, it was fused, separated, and scattered over the immense gold region of Cahfornia ; that, by the wash of rains and its own gravity, it gradually sank into the earth, until its progress was stopped by the bed-rock, or by some hard soil ; and that often, particles were washed down the hill-sides into the ravines and streams, where they were covered with earth by the action of water. On this hypoth- esis^ the coyote leads and siiperincnmhent mass were formed by the same volcanic action. Another theory is advanced, which rejects the idea that either heat or volcanos had any connection with the subject. Starting with the proposition that gold was created in com- bination with quartz rock, it is claimed that rivei*s, in find- inoj their channels throuo:h hills, have come in contact with this rock, and, by constant action on it for ages, have cut the gold into particles and dust, and distributed it on the bars and eddies amonor the sand and crravel of their beds. It is further explained, on this theory, that the dry diggings are places where quartz, containing gold, has been exposed to the action of rains and the atmosphere, and has crumbled away, leaving the gold in the form of dust or grains scattered WET SURFACE DIGGINGS. 197 on the ground, into Avhich, by its own gravity and the an- nual rains, it gmdually sank. But this theory offers no explanation of the origin of the coyote and quartz leads — found, as they are. surrounded by a material of a secondary formation, which no agent but fire could have produced, and no power but a volcano could have thrown into such a posi- tion. Xor does this theory explain how the quartz, which crumbled to fragments and disengaged the gold, became scattered over these plains, gorges, and mountains. '•Wet Surface Diggings.'* The beds of streams are thus termed, and they are laid bare by "fluming," a process which will be described on a subsequent page. The watei-s, as well as the lands of California, embosom rich deposits of gold, and that which is obtained from the former is gener- ally finely gi*ained and very pure. Notwithstanding the surrounding suiface-soil of the country may be sand to the depth of a foot or more, the beds of the creeks and rivei's ai'e, to a great extent, gravel mixed often with reddish clay, which rests on a substratum of granite rock. The metal is principally found on the bars, and on the rims of eddies and whirlpools, and is very seldom, if ever, obtained in '-paying quantities,*' in the deep water. Before the discovery of this important fi\ct, many a miner expended all the accumulations of his previous toil in fruit- less fluming, on the supposition that the deposit would be found in the whole bed. and especially in the deep places ; but experience, at length, demonstrated that the specific gravity and shape of the gold particle is such, that the ordi- nary currents are sufficient to bear it along, until it passes upon a bar or point considerably higher than the general bed of the stream, when, owing to the check given to its pro- gress by that obstruction, it will sink sufficiently to be IT* 198 aOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. caught. If not arrested in this way by one bar, it may be by another. The theory is the same with respect to eddies and whirl- pools ; their motion is sufficient to float the particle until it reaches their edges, which check the progress of both the water and its burthen, and the greater weight of the latter causes it then to sink. Some of the streams have made rich returns for the labor of "fluming;" while the yield of others has barely paid the expense, and many more have proved to be a total failure. Diversion of Streams. In the northern and eastern sections of the state nearly all the creeks and rivers have been " flumed " at various points. The Feather, the Yuba, the American, the Cosumnes, the Mokelumne, the Calavera, with their forks and many of their tributaries, as well as a large number of the creeks that empty into the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, bear frequent and astonishing evi- dence of the mighty efforts, and great sacrifices which man will make, to secure a pittance of the glittering bauble ! The beds of many of the streams are laid dry at different points, for distances ranging from twenty rods to two or three miles ; and all the water which formerly flowed in them is now carried several feet above them in spacious plank ''flumes," while their old channels are covered with large stacks of clean rubble stones, piles of " washed dirt," deep pits, trenches, wooden sluices, various broken tools, household utensils, barrels, tubs, and cast-off clothing. Indeed, the more extensive works look like the encampment of a routed army, which had been careful to affix to every- thing left behind the seal of destruction and desolation. The survey is certainly rather gloomy than otherwise. Besides the gold obtained from these localities, — the EXTENT OF THE GOLD REGIONS. 199 quartz^ the coyote^ the dnj^ and the loet-surface diggings, where extensive leads are struck, — it is not unfrequently found in nuggets of considerable size and in grains, in localities where no leads exist, and no signs of its presence appear. Instances have occurred, in which persons, em- ployed in their domestic labor, have exhumed an isolated lump weighing many ounces ; and, in other instances, several hundred dollars in grain gold have been taken, in a few hours, from less than a square rod of ground. But at this point the charm dissolved. No more gold was to be found in either place. These may be called anomalies even in Cali- fornia, where nature has administered to the " wise in the wisdom of this world, so significant a reproof;" and they corroborate the prevailing belief here, that the whole coun- try has been the bed of streams and lakes. Extent of the Gold Regions. That portion of the state which is popularly denominated the ''gold region," comprises the counties of Klamath, Trinity, Shaster, Sierra, Butte, Placer, Eldorado, Yuba, Tulare, Nevada, Sutter, Calaveras, Tuolumne, Mariposa, Syskiyou and Humboldt. In general terms, these counties embrace the larger portion of the northern and eastern divisions, — being a tract of country about four hundred miles long from north to south, and about two hundred miles in average width. This region includes but a small part of the agricultural lands of the state. Lying south and west of the former, and mostly between the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers on the east, and the coast on the west, they are known as the " val- ley lands," being the great plain of the Sacramento, and the Nappa Suisun, San Joaquin, Contra Costa, San Jose, and San Juan valleys. The farming districts also include extensive plains in the extreme south, being in the counties of 200 OOLI> MIXES, MIXING AND MIXERS- San Louis Obispo. Santa Earlvu*a, Los Angeles, ;uid San Piego. These agrieultimil lands constitute about one quar- ter of the vrhole area of the state : and the \-alkn'Si w^aslied bv the Saonimento and San Joaquin rivei"^ an^ the larger portion of them. Gold has now been found in the Saenuuento and the San Joaquin \-allevs. and in the coast counties of S;m Diego. Santa lx\rbara. Monterey and Santa Cruz, and also in Xapa county. AMiy, then, should either be excluded fi\>m the *• gold region *' ? It is true that large quivntities have not been obtained in the two ^-alleys : but it is also true that a thorough examination h;is noi been there made — the minei^ having generally gone to the mountains, under the impivssion that the plains containeil little or no gv^ld. The only perceptible difference between the general fea- tures of these plains and the low lands forming the ** dry surface diggings*" — which have yieldcil so richly in the assumed '* gold region " — is that the former are very evea and level, and are mostly destitute of trees and foliage, while the latter aiv gently *• ix>lling" or uneven land, and aiv. in some places, sjxirsely wooded with oaks, pine, hem- lock, and spruce. The soil of K»th. though not generally. jS. in some respects, simihir — s;\nd. gravel, and clay, Knng common to both. All the high lamis of the state aiv uni- form in their essential chamcteristics — Wing an irregular succession of hills and mountains, sejxiratetl by craggy chasms and deep nwines, with n;u*row \-allevs interspei"^Hi, Many of these hills and mountains, in the north and east, are thinly coveiwi with agev.1 and sun-scoivheil phies and hemlocks : and those in the south i\4id west with similar tives. but princijxilly with immense iwiwixxls — a timlvr resembling pine except in the color, which is like that of DIVERSION OF STKEAMir!. l!01 rod codar. No young gro>vtli appears. Others, in both sections, are but huge elevations of ruptured and displaeed i*ock, covered with evidences of volcanic eruptions, and capped -with perpetual sno\YS. The surface soil of the moun- tains at the soutli and \vest, "where any exists, is a reddish sand and clay, varying in depth from one tVx>t to ten feet. That of the north and east has less clay in its composition. •The substratum of tlie former is almost invariably either a reddish or a grayish gravel, resting on a bed-rock : and that of the latter is, in some instances, like the former, and in othoi'S is composed of the brick-colored or the ashy de- posit already described. The whole state of California may. with propriety, be termed a volcanic region. The Sierra Nevadas. or Snow Mountains, extend through its entire length, entering at its south-eastern bomuhny and leaving at its north-eastern. A long spur or branch makes out from the latter point, iu a south-westerly direction into the state, and unites with tlie Coast Range at about the 40° of north latitude. That range is properly a continuation of the promontory of Lower California. It divides the state, longitudinally, into two divisions, at the mean distance of about sixty miles from the ocean, and. at its northern boundary, spreads out into a con- fuset.! collection of broken mountains, which cover a larijc extent of country. From the two principal ranges proceed several spurs, some of which traverse the state in a south- westerly and others in a north-westerly direction ; and the sliore of the ocean is lined by lofty elevations. In general terms, therefore, it may be said that the state is an irregu- lar succession of hills and towering, craggy, barren moun- tains, embosoming a proportionably small territory of low lands. All those mountains and hills, and man}^ of the val- 202 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. leys, present indications of a volcanic origin. While in some localities the rocks are natural, and the strata regular, in others they are broken and irregular. In frequent instances they appear to be of igneous formation, and, as well above as below the surface, are interspersed with a sub- stance which in some places resembles leached ashes, and in others wet brick-dust. Lava and fragments of quartz are often found embedded in the seams of the rocks and between the^ several strata. These characteristics are more strongly- marked in the north and east than in the south and west, but they exist throughout the state. The theories enter- tained of the origin of the gold lead to the conclusion that all the valleys may contain that mineral. This general view of the prevailing characteristics of the hills, mountains, and valleys, is presented to show that, so far as evidence derived from nature may tend to determine the point, the whole state, and, doubtless, a much larger territory, is a " o;old reo;ion." Prospecting. Before the miner can intelhgently " prospect" for gold, he needs to be made acquainted with the principal facts in the preceding history. Prospecting is a practical examination of the country, and test of the soil, for the purpose of locating a " mining claim." In pursuit of this object, the miner shoulders his spade and gun, and, with a supply of provisions for several days, sallies forth along the streams, through the valleys, over the mountains, and into the ravines. Perhaps he has a companion ; though he is often a " lone wanderer." At night he selects a place of repose beneath the spreading branches of some friendly tree, strikes a fire to keep oiF the bears and coyotes, and, after despatching his humble meal, " wraps the drapery of his " blue blanket around him, and " lies down to * * ^ * PROSPECTING. 203 dreams." He has accomplished nothing. In the morning he is early on his errand ; and, perhaps, wears away the day with no better success. At length, however, he '' strikes a spot " which prospects favorably. If it be in an eddy or a rift, he " pans the dirt" on the spot, until he has determined satisfactorily that it will probably "pay wages" above the expense of " baring the bottom," by " fluming," or other less costly- means. If it be in " dry diggings" of any kind, he has arrived at this inspiring conclusion by sinking a shaft about five feet square, " panning " as he descended, and has found that th^ nearer he approaches to the "bed-rock" the " richer the dirt pans." He thinks it will be safe to work the mine, so long as each pan of the dirt continues to yield the number of dimes which were produced by the few last " prospects." If the spot is on high ground, he has sunk his shaft to the bed-rock, has found that it inclines north- westerly, and has tested the dirt. Perhaps he has examined the rock itself, by breaking up its surface, and has found that it yields large grains or scales of gold ; or he may have struck a " lead " or seam in the rock, the dirt in which yields richly. If the spot be a "quartz lead," the pros- pector has powdered the quartz and separated the gold from the flour by the same process. The Pan used in prospecting and mining is made of sheet iron, and, in size and form, resembles the common tin milk- pan. Panning is performed by submerging a panful of the dirt in water, and then stirring and working it by the hands of the operator, to break the lumps and gradually dis- solve the whole mass, which is borne off in a thick, muddy cloud by the stream in which the pan is placed. This pro- cess leaves on the bottom of the pan all the gold which the 204 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. dirt contained — the specific gravity of the metal preventing it from passing off in the current which holds the dirt in solution. A skilful operator will lose very few of the grains. This was the primitive process of all mining in California. If water is not to be had on the spot, the prospector must, of course, seek it and convey his burthen to it in sacks or vessels. The miners generally estimate that the dirt which yields a dime to the pan pays good wages ; but mines are worked which yield less, while some dirt yields a dollar, and even a larger value, to the pan. " Getting Color." In " prospecting," when the miner finds gold, he " gets color," as it is expressed in mining terms ; and if it be but a single grain, he is stimu- lated to sink his prospect deeper. But sometimes he fails to ''get color" until he reaches the bed-rock, or within three or four inches of the bed ; and then all the gold found there will lie either on its surface or within those few inches ; hence a thorough miner seldom stops short of that limit, for some of the richest and most durable "leads" that have yet been struck in California were thus situated. Water. When the miner has located his claim, his next great object is water. In some localities he is not troubled for this essential article ; but in others, the outlay necessary to obtain it is a heavy mortgage on the first yields of the mine. During the winters, or rainy seasons, there is com- paratively little want of it ; but the long summers dry up many of the small streams. At first, the failure of the streams could not be remedied ; and water, in many places, could only be procured during the winter. But the match- less energy which has characterized the progress of every enterprise in California has, at length, to a considerable CANALS. 205 extent, obviated this difficulty, and it will ultimately be ■wholly removed. Many of the durable streams have been tapped at various points, and portions of their supply dis- tributed, in divers directions, at the expense of individuals for their own use. As mining increased, and miners multi- plied in number, distributing themselves more and more over the country, the demand for water became so great as to command the attention of capitalists, and many incorpo- rated companies have been formed to provide water for min- ing purpose. Canals. Nearly all the rivers, and most of their branches, in the region occupied by the miners, are laid un- der contribution by these companies, and by private persons. In some instances the natural beds of the streams are laid dry, except during the winter. The Pitt river, the Eeather and its north, east, middle and south forks, the Yuba and its three forks, the Bear, the American and its three forks, the Cosumnes, the Mokelumne, the Calaveras, and the Stanislaus rivers, and Deer creek, are sustained, during the long dry seasons, by the melting snows on the Sierra Nevada mountains ; and those rivers afford the miner a continual supply. The works of several of these companies may justly be termed stupendous, considering the rocky, broken, and moun- tainous country in which they are situated, and the great expense at which materials, labor, and implements for their construction, must have been procured. In many parts of the country no wagon roads exist, nor can they be ever made; and provisions and merchandise of every kind are " packed " into the mountains on mules, each bearing about two hundred and fifty pounds. The " Bear river and Auburn canal," in Placer county, 18 206 is a fiiir specimen of tliese works, excepting, perhaps, in the length of the main cut. That work distributes the waters of Bear river over several hundred square miles. The principal canal is six feet in width by four deep, is thirty-six miles long, and is connected with thirty-six miles of lateral canal. It has several reservoirs on elevated ground, from which, as from the lateral canals, the water is con- ducted in a great number of small ''ground sluices," from one "digging" to another, winding around on the moun- tain sides, and through the valleys, for very long distances. Tliese sluices are about a foot deep, and of the same width. Aqueducts. As a matter of course, in such a country, any canal of considerable length must be connected with frequent and often with long and lofty aqueducts. These must extend from mountain to mountain, often far up towards their summits, and across deep and wide gorges ; and they must be made sufficiently water-tight to retain, if pos- sible, every drop of that valuable current, the whole sup- ply being but a bare sufficiency. The "Bear river and Auburn canal " has several such aqueducts. One of them is not so remarkable for its general elevation as for its great length, extending more than two miles, at heights ranging from ten to thirty feet; but the trunk of another is re- ported to span about four hundred feet, and at the highest point to be more than one hundred feet from the ground. The water is brought to each "digging," and is furnished by the inch, measured on the graduated scale. The weekly cost of a sufficient supply for one "torn" or washer, is from ten to sixteen dollars, at present prices ; but in more extensive diggings, where several sluices or toms may be operated with advantage, three or four times that quantity is required. The water is often used several times over, SLUICES. 207 being conducted to several diggings through the same chan- nel ; and, in such cases, the price is graduated less and less, to the several miners in their order, until the water becomes worthless from the amount of earth it contains. There are at present in the mining districts about four thousand miles of principal and lateral canal. The '' ground sluices " or ducts cannot be easily estimated. The face of the whole country, on hills, plains, valleys and mountain sides is literally ribbed with them. The water of several large streams is used so many times over, that it becomes a sluggish volume of thin mud. The Feather, the Yuba, the American, and their branches, and many of the creeks, have not been clear for years ; and their contents, discharged into the majestic Sacramento, darken its waters for a hundred miles, so deeply, that, when agi- tated, they resemble slowly-moving clouds of dust. Indeed, fears are expressed, that its navigation will be injuriously unpeded by the deposit of this mud on its bottom ; and, but for the fact that the river is subject to, at least, a yearly flood, which produces a very rapid and strong current, the apprehension would, before many years, become a reality. Notwithstanding this, it remains a subject not to be disre- garded. Sluices. Having procured a supply of water, the miner prepares to " work his claim," by making such pre- liminary arrangements for convenience and economy, as its location and surrounding circumstances indicate. It may be that his claim is situated on ground so much lower than the stream from which he draws his supply, that he can get sufficient fall to answer his purpose, without resort to more expensive means ; but if it be not thus located, he must 208 elevate the water by cheap machinery, until it will flow into the higher end of his plank sluice. When the supply is purchased of one of the companies, it is usually brought at once to the proper point. If the surface of the claim is sand or other earth, showing no "color," the miner excavates down to the coarse strata, before he begins to wash, unless he thinks it cheaper to wash the whole mass. He then builds and locates his ''sluice," which is, in fact, a plank "flume." Flumes vary in length from forty to one hundred feet, and are about two feet in width, by one foot deep. They are constructed in sections, each being the length of a plank ; and one end of each section is so much narrower than the other, that the different sections may be readily united, thus forming one continuous open trough, of sucli length as the miner deems most effective to retain the largest proportion of gold. " Riffles." Across the bottom of this sluice, near one end, the miners place a small piece of board called a "rif- fle." It is about an inch and a half in height, and is re- tained there by a cleat on each side of the sluice, the whole forming a low dam. Some miners use two, placed several feet apart. On the mining grounds these are called "riffles."* The sluice is placed on benches, the lower end resting very near, and perhaps upon, the ground, and the upper end raised to an angle of about fifteen degrees. Generally, the riffle section is placed very nearly in a horizontal posi- tion, to make the current of water at that point more * Properly ripples. Their use is to check the current, and thus allow the graius of gold a longer time to sink below them, to the bottom of the sluice. THE ''TOM." — THE ''riffle-board." 209 smooth and cveiij so that the grains of gold, coursing along the bottom of the sluice, may not be forced over the riffles and lost. The current must be so graduated that the jBnest particles will sink to the bottom before they reach the riffles, and their specific gravity will generally bring them down, in a current which will bear away all the dissolved dirt. The longer the sluice, the better it will secure this result. Its upper end is placed near the spot from which the earth is dug, and its location is changed as occasion may require. This is all the preparation which some miners make for washing. They are content with the quantity of gold which is saved by the riffles in the sluice. The "Tom." Others, influenced by what they esteem necessary economy, add to the lower extremity a machine that is denominated the "tom." In its general outline it much resembles a small scow boat, and is about fifteen feet long by four feet wide, and ten inches deep in the centre, shallowing to a sharp or shovel edge, at one end, and the other having an end-board about five inches high. The bottom is as spherical lengthwise as those dimensions necessarily require ; and at the shallow or shovel end it is made of sheet-iron, extending back nearly to the centre of the machine, and thickly perforated with circular holes an inch in diameter. The "Riffle-Board." Under this " tom-iron," and about eight inches distant, is the riffle-board. This is about six feet in length, is of equal width with the tom, and is so attached to it as to receive the water from the tom-iron and conduct it in a direction opposite to that which it had in the plank sluice. This riffle-board has sides about four inches high, and riffles like those in the plank sluice ; l)ut 18* 210 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. placed much nearer to each other. The dimensions here given describe the largest size of this machine. Being thus prepared, the miner lets into his plank sluice a quantity of water sufficient to make a brisk running stream about two inches in depth. Thence it passes into the torn, and descends through the perforated iron into the riffle-board, from which it runs to the ground. With his long-handle spade, he digs up the coarse earth, and casts it into this stream, at the upper end of the sluice, filling it for the distance of about twenty feet to a point within three inches of its top. All the stones are thrown into the sluice ; for closely adhering to many of them are fine grains of gold. While the water is coursing its way through the sluice, an assistant, with a long-tined fork, is employed in throwing out the washed stones left by the cuiTent. In doing this, he always works in a direction up the stream, the object being not to disturb the earth in the sluice. One or two men are constantly replenishing it at its upper end, while the contents are dissolving and passing ofi" at the lower. The assistant also clears the tom, by removing the stones which were too small to be cast out of the sluice with the fork, and have passed down with the current. This process is sometimes continued for a week, without giving any atten- tion to the riffles. Some miners use only the tom in min- ing. The earth is then placed in it, and is stirred with a hoe or fork, the water being conducted upon it by a hose or other means. The Cradle. Another machine, much used in washing gold, is the "cradle." It stands on rockers, and, in form, resembles a common cradle without the head-top. The principle of its construction is the same as that of the tom, the perforated iron being placed about midway in its bottom. THE CKADLE. 211 Beneath that iron, and about four inches distant, is an apron placed in a slide, so that it may be readily with- drawn. The apron is a slight wooden frame, over which is stretched a piece of woollen cloth. Upon this the water running through the tom-iron first falls. At about an equal distance below this apron is set, by the same means, a riffle-board, like that used with the torn. One end of this board juts beyond the lower end of the apron, and the dis- solved dirt and water fall upon it from the latter and pass over the riffles to the ground. Under the whole the rockers are placed. The dirt is put upon one end of the bottom, in small quantities of about a common pail full, and the water is applied with a dipper in one hand of the operator, while, with the other, he rocks the cradle ; stopping occasion- ally to fork out the stones. When one supply of dirt is dissolved and it has passed through the iron and down upon the apron and riffles, another quantity is put into the cra- dle ; and the same process is repeated as often as desired. This machine was the first improvement made for wash- ing gold in California. It was intended as a process pre- liminary to the use of the pan ; which, in fact, can never be laid aside, but must always continue, as it ever has been, '' the cap-stone of the art." But the restless Anglo-Saxon could not long brook the idea of rocking his way to wealtli ; it was a process far too tardy to satisfy men who had left home and friends, and had come over the broad ocean many thousands of miles, to gather the shining dust. They de- sired to operate on a larger scale, and soon the plank sluice was substituted for the cradle, and subsequently still ap- peared the tom, which is the last flight of gen-ius in this direction. 212 GOLD MINES. MINING AND MINERS. The Chinese prefer the cradle, because they can easily carry it from place to place, and it is a cheap machine. Sometimes large diggings are found which are not very rich, but will pay wages with a moderate outlay of labor. In such instances, if the bed-rock is within one or two feet of the surface, a ground sluice is dug through the digging, and the rock made to serve for its bottom. In the sluice thus formed, the dirt is washed in the same manner as in the plank sluice, without the aid of the tom, the irregular- ities in the rock forming the riffles. The Use op Quicksilver. Some miners use large quantities of quicksilver in gold-washing, and it is deemed almost impossible without it to save the finest gold. The process is to insert two or three extra riffles on the bottom of the sluice, or in the riffle-box if the tom alone is used. These are made a little higher than the gold riffles. The former are called quicksilver riffles; and a quantity of quicksilver, varying from five to thirty pounds in weight, is poured above them on the bottom of the sluice, or riffle- board, which operates as a dam to retain it, and over which the water, containing the dissolved dirt and grains of gold, must, of course, pass in its way through the sluice. The gold being invariably at the bottom, the fine as well as the course particles pass over the surface of quicksilver, become amalgamated with it, and are there safely held against the action of the water. Some miners set two riffles so near together as, with the sides of the sluice, to form a box sufficiently capacious to contain twenty or fifty pounds of quicksilver. They con- tend that the upper side of the box forms, a gold riffle, which will hold the coarse grains, and leave only the very fine 213 gold to be amalgamated, and that, by tins mode, the quick- silver will be servicable for a much longer time. In some of the best diggings the earth is so mixed with clay that the process of washing is attended with much difficulty. In those cases, the tom is more frequently used, because it is necessary that the dirt should be broken and stirred to facilitate the w^ork, and it can be retained in that machine until it dissolves; whereas, if the sluice only is used, much gold, held in hard lumps of clay, is borne away and lost. '' Panning Up." When the miner has continued his washing for a day or two, or in poor diggings for a week, he stops to " pan up." The water is shut out of the works, and the riffles are examined. The bottom of that section of the sluice containino; them is covered as hio-h as their top with the fruits of the washing, mixed with fine gravel and water, from one or two panfuls. When the surface water is removed, the remainder is the collected wealth of thousands of tons of earth presented upon a surface of a very few inches, and disposed according to the laws of gravitation and motion. That section of the sluice being slightly elevated at the end opposite, the depth of the watery contents is greatest at the riffles, becoming less and less as it recedes, until it terminates in a sharp edge, or "runs out " about four feet from the riffles. This edge, about a quarter of an inch in width, is gener- ally the only place in the deposit where the presence of gold is visible, the remainder of the mass presenting only the fine dark gravel. The gravity of the gold being such that when floated down it glides close to the bottom of the sluice, the successive particles are deposited at the extreme edge of those already deposited, and are gradually covered 214 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINEEB. hj the fine gravel which secures them against further risk of loss. The gold is said never to mix with the gravel, but underlays it, spread over the bottom of the riffle. The contents of the riffles are next very thoroughly and carefully " dished out " into pans, — a spoon being used to collect the smallest remains. — and taken to the water, and "panned " by the hands of a skilful workman in the man- ner before described. In the bottom of the pans will be left only the shining fruits of the miner's toil, mixed, per- haps, with scales of mica, pyrites, and a few remaining particles of sand. In extensive w^orks, w^here the contents of the riffles are large, they are sometimes run through the " tom," and then, as well as when the tom only is used in washing, its riffle-board is drawn out, and the reduced volume is col- lected in the same way and panned. The whole is after- wards thoroughly dried and " bio wed " by a skilful miner, to separate the mica and sand from the gold. In the cradle much of the gold adheres to the woollen apron, and the contents are taken from that as well as from the riffle-board. If quicksilver has been employed in separating the gold, it is carefully collected by the same means, and strained through a buckskin bag. The quicksilver, with a little pressure, will pass through the buckskin, and may be caught in an iron vessel, but the gold will remain in the bag. The finest grains, even the "dust of gold," may be saved by this process. On examination, the quicksilver gold will be found mostly white, being covered with the silver. It is then deposited in an iron vessel, and heated until all the quicksilver is precipitated, and the gold is pre- sented with its yellow hue. If it is important to save this silver, a retort and condenser are required. DRIFTS OR TUNNELS. 215 Tailings. The dissolved earth discharged by the sluices, tomSj and cradles, is denominated "tailings," and so imper-^ feet are all the modes yet used here to collect gold, that these may, in most instances, be washed over with profit. They pass down upon the ground, the water evaporates, and the dirt returns to its original state, often rich in wealth which the first seeker failed to secure. Instances are known where "tailings" have been twice washed, and at each time with as much profit as the original washing of the dirt realized. The miners believe that all the operations of the past and present, in the mines of California, are but preliminary steps to the ultimate full development of her resources ; and that the millions which have been drawn from those mines are only as the mist before the shower, in comparison with the exhaustless store of treasure which the Creator has deposited in her rugged, rocky fastnesses. The opinion, formerly quite prevalent, that no gold is to be found below the bed-rock, begins to yield to conclusions predicated on later developments. It is reported that on Wood's creek, near Sonora, in Tuolumne county, a prospect has been sunk about seventy feet, through two strata of bed-rock, which were very different in their appearance, and that the earth below both strata contained gold. If this report be true, it begins a new chapter in the history of mining in California. " Drifts" or Tunnels. If the claim be a " Coyote," the miner drifts into the hill, forming a tunnel sufficiently large for two or three persons to labor conveniently together, and to admit the operation of a small rail or barrow- way — the bed-rock being the foundation. This tunnel takes the direction of the gold lead, which may be on the surface of 216 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. the rock, or in its seams and crevices; but its course is always clearly marked. The lead frequently ramifies as the drift is extended, and the miner can follow all its branches. Some of these drifts extend a thousand feet, and are Branched in two or three directions — forming long, winding, and damp passages, which remind the visitor of ancient laby- rinths, and those tales of under-ground horrors which are related in the romances of an earlier age. By the dim light of his candle the miner plies his toil — first digging down the superincumbent mass that surrounds him, and conveying it out of his drift. Then, with pick and hoe, he empties the crevices in the bed-rock of their con- tents, or digs the gold dirt wherever found, conveying it in his barrow, or on his railway, to the mouth of his drift, until he has accumulated many hundred cubic feet. He then washes this deposit, and separates the gold by one of the methods which have been described. The gold in these diggings is found in scales, rounded globules, grains, and often in nuggets. If the claim is a quartz lead, the miner must provide for another necessity, — tlie quartz must be,crushed ; and this is either a very expensive or a toilsome and tardy process. If a good mill is provided, it must be propelled by water or steam, and is attended with a large outlay. If hand mortars are used, the work proceeds very slowly; for the quartz must be pulverized to the fineness of flour, so that all the gold may be dislodged — the most of which, in quartz, is light dust. The quartz is obtained from the lead by drifting, in the same manner that gold dirt is taken from the " coyotes." The quartz yields readily to the stroke of the pick — falling in fragments of unequal size, and often of different colors. QUARTZ MILLS. 217 It is then conveyed, on hand-barrows or railways, to the mouth of the drift, and when a sufficient quantity is col- lected it is taken to the mill. It is there broken with hand- hammers into pieces about the size of a hen's egg, and thus prepared to be crushed. By this time the mass resembles a huge pile of broken, dirty stone, having become soiled with common earth. Quartz Mills. All the quartz mills are constructed on the same general principle, but differ more or less in their arrangements. The object is to crush the quartz, wash it, and separate the gold, by a single operation ; or, in other words, the rock is put into the mill, and seen no more till its treasure is deposited in the riffles and quicksilver, over which the water has been carried by the operations of the mill. This machine may be denominated a huge mortar and pestles, and may be described as follows, namely, 1st. The Mortar. This is a cast-iron trough, about six feet long, eight inches broad on the inside at the bottom, flaring to the width of a foot at the top, and about fourteen inches high. Its sides, ends, and bottom, are each about three inches thick. 2d. A massive timber frame is set upright, substantially like that in which the saw-gate of a saw-mill slides. The bed timber of this frame is constructed to receive and firmly hold the mortar. 3d. A large timber shaft has six or eight long wooden cogs, placed in serpentine order around the shaft, forming a circle, and extending along nearly its whole length. 4th. The stampers are heavy, straight timbers, on one end of which is fastened a cast-iron face, weighing six or seven hundred pounds. There arc as many stampers as 19 218 GOLD MINES, MINERS AND MINING. cogs in the shaft, and they are fitted to exactly fill and cover the bottom of the mortar, leaving about two inches of space between them and its flaring upper sides. 5th. The frame is set upright ; the mortar is firmly fitted in its place at the bottom ; the shaft is hung so that the several cogs, when in motion, will enter apertures made in the stampers; and the latter, placed perpendicularly, pass through slides in the upper end of the frame, so as to fall when lifted on the cogs by the motion of the shaft. 6th. The hopper is so constructed and placed as to guide the pounded quartz into the space between the stamper and the upper edge of the mortar. 7th. The water pipe. This is intended to keep the mortar filled with water when the mill is in operation. The stamp- ers, when in motion, constantly displace a quantity of the water which holds in solution the quartz flour and gold dust, and this loss must be supplied just as fiist and as regularly as it occurs. 8th. The riffle -board and quicksilver. The former, placed in a slightly inclined position, is snugly fitted to the upper edge of the mortar, on the side opposite the hopper, so that all the water displaced by the motion of the stampers shall be thrown upon its surface. A wire-cloth screen, about six inches in width, is commonly inserted on the same edge of the mortar, to prevent the water from passing off too rapidly. This riffle-board is three-sided, running to a small width at the lower corner or end, and across it are placed several riffles. 9th. To the end of this riffle-board is attached a wooden conductor, through which the concentrated stream is dis- charged into a vessel, called by the miners, "the amalgama- tor." This is a wooden box^ about six feet square and six THE AREATA. 219 inches deep, containing from twenty to one hundred pounds of quicksilver ; and it is so connected with the motive power, as to have a horizontal, zig-zag motion when the mill is in operation. The dissolved earth and its contents pass into this amalgamator, and are expanded over the broad surface of the quicksilver ; the gold sinks, and is retained, while the water passes off through an aperture formed for that pur- pose in one side of the vessel. The preceding statement is a general description of a quartz mill. Its Operation. When the motive power is applied to the shaft, the stampers are lifted about eight inches in rapid succession, and, with the weight of about fourteen hundred pounds, fall on the quartz, which is constantly supplied through the hopper. The crushed rock and gold dust pass with the water upon the several riffle-boards, and from these into the amalgamator, in which the gold is saved, and the great object of mining is realized. The '^ Arrata." The arrangements and details of these mills are as various almost as the views or the whims of the miners. Those who desire to reduce the quartz to the finest possible powder, in order to save the minutest dust of gold, sometimes use the Mexican machine, called an " arrata." It consists of a large tub, about ten feet in diameter and eighteen inches in height, in the centre of which is an up- right shaft, having four arms within the tub. To each of these arms is attached a heavy stone [arrata], having one smooth side, which lies on the bottom. The shaft is moved by the same machinery that operates the stampers, and the liquid passes from the riffle-boards into the tub, where the quartz is subjected to the pressure and motion of these stones, and is gradually forced out of an aperture in the side, through a conductor, into the ''amalgamator." 220 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. AYhen the quantity of quicksilver used in the mine is hirge, the gold is disengaged by the application of heat. For this purpose, a retort and receiver are necessary, — and the arrangements are generally made with due regard to economy. Two cast-iron kettles, of sufficient size, are pro- vided, to one of which a cover is closely fitted, having in its centre an aperture, over which a metallic tube is soldered. This tube is made to communicate with the other kettle when the cover is placed on the former, and thus the miner's retort and receiver are completed. The amalgam is poured into the retort, the cover fitted down, and the fire applied. As the quicksilver rarefies, it is conducted ofi" through the tube into the receiver, which is filled with water. The quick- silver being there condensed, may be again used, and the gold, freed from it, remains in the retort. The cover is then taken off, and the contents are stirred over the fire, to re- move any particles of quicksilver still remaining. The Miner's Safe. The miner, having obtained the gold, is next chiefly concerned for its safety. He is far up in the mountains and forests, surrounded by roving robbera and thievish, lurking Indians, and, in his frail shanty con- structed of boards or cloth, has no stone vaults or iron safes in which to secure his treasure. It is too heavy to be carried about his person, and if he secrete it in some hollow tree, or peculiar rock, or secret cave or crevice, the hiding- place may be discovered by the marauders who may chance to discover his visits to the spot. Under these circum- stances, he resorts to various expedients to secure his gold. Perhaps he digs a small pit under the stones on which he builds his fires, or under the " bunk "' on which he sleeps^ dreaming of home and loved ones, at night. So suspicious is he of treachery and wrong, that he keeps his place of VALUE OF THE GOLD. 221 deposit a secret from his companions, if any he has, and in frequent instances even his real name is not known to them, nor is he known bj the same name in different diggings. This precaution is practised to secure protection against the depredations or the malice of those with whom he may have had difficulty in other places. Value of the Gold. The miner's gold, when *' bag- ged," is a currency in trade, on the mining grounds at the standard of seventeen dollars to the ounce ; and its value among the bankers at Marysville, Sacramento and San Francisco, ranges between sixteen and nineteen dollars, — graduated by the condition of the gold, the method by which it was collected, and its fineness. Its precise value as pure gold, which depends chiefly on its relative weight, termed its specific gravity, is not determined in this traffic, but the whole is purchased with its alloys, at the scale weight. It is often mixed with mica, copper, iron or pyrites, or auriferous sands, and its marketable value is accordingly affected. Gold collected by the aid of quicksilver, is es- teemed less valuable than that gathered by other means, as more or less silver adheres to the particles. Fine gold is purer than coarse, as it must contain less foreign matter ; and coarse gold, especially the heavy nugget, is always united with, quartz. Purchasers generally pound the lumps in an iron mor- tar before they weigh them, and they also blow all the finer gold. For this purpose, it is placed in a brass vessel, shaped precisely like the housekeeper's dust-pan, in which the gold is thoroughly shaken, the blower gently blowing upon it at the same time. The motion tends to bring the lighter substances upon the top of the pile, and to dispose them around its outer edge ; and, being much lighter than 19* .222 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. • the gold J they are blomi off, while it remains in the pan. In this process of cleansing, the purchaser is careful not to blow too strongly, which would carry away, in the current of air, a portion of the miner's finest gold. Alloys. Gold, universally, is found alloyed to a greater or less extent with other metals ; and, generally, there is a uniformity of alloy in the gold of different countries. Silver, copper, and iron are common alloys, though less of the latter is found in combination with gold than of the two former. The gold hitherto obtained in California has yielded 89 58 per centum of pure metal. The miner may readily determine for himself, whether his gold is a mixture with mica, pyrites, or sand. These, being much lighter, can be readily detected, although they nearly resemble several shades of gold in color and lustre. If the whole mass be carefully poured on a clear surface of water, in a long glass vessel, the gold will be seen the first to sink to the bottom. If the water be thickened with earth, to the consistence of cream, the difierence of spe- cific gravity will be still more perceptible ; when the vessel is shaken, the gold, even its finest particles, will first disap- pear from the surface. Copper pyrites is not malleable, and breaks when pounded, whereas gold may be beaten into very thin sheets. Iron pyrites is hard, and does not readily yield to the stroke of the hammer ; but gold is al- most as soft as lead. These are the common tests, used on the mining grounds, to distinguish the gold from those counter- feits. To free the gold from these alloys, the usual practice is to place it in an open earthen vessel, and pour upon it ni- tric acid, and apply a strong gas or other flame to the bot- tom until nitric vapor rises. If the contents be pure gold IMPROVEMENTS. 223 they will not be discolored by the process ; but if the sub- stances mentioned, or brass filings, are present, the liquid will become thick, and of a green color, tinged withSbJack. After the gold has cooled, it is washed thoroughly, and the operation repeated until all effervescence disappears; when the gold dust is freed from those impurities. The miner does not often practically concern himself with the various alloys of gold ; but if he desires to purify it, and is disposed to incur the expense and labor of procuring and arranging the necessary instruments and materials, the process is simple, and easily performed. The metal is placed in a proper crucible, surrounded by charcoal, and subjected to the heat, which may be produced on that non-conductor, by the focus formed with the Compound Blow- Pipe. The intensity of the heat thus produced, especially when salt- petre is added, is sufficient to dissipate, in gaseous forms, the foreign substances usually found in combination with the gold; Improvements. During the last year, ingenuity has been active in experimenting to improve the machines used in mining. The desire is so to adapt them as to save all the gold particles which are contained in the earth that is to be washed. It is well known that, as now constructed, not more than two thirds of the gold, on the most liberal estimate, is collected from the washed earth ; and inventive genius cannot, therefore, be employed in a more benevolent or useful effort. An improvement is proposed in the loca- tion and construction of the riffles. These are the great points, in the opinion of skilful miners, to which attention should be directed, as the riffles are the gold-savers, and it is not probable that any substitute for them can ever be successfully adopted. 224 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS The model, to which reference is made, substitutes riffles of iron for those of wood, increases their number to eight or ten, gives to them the form of a prism, and pkices them in close proximity on the bottom of the sluice. The sharp or upper edge of the riffle is slightly curved against the cur- rent of water, with the view of eifecting a longer check in its downward passage, and thus securing more time for the gold particle to settle. The field of experiment not only embraces the saving of the gold, but the thorough washing of large quantities of earth in a shorter space of time. Wheels, to be propelled by water or steam, are constructed at an outlay of several thousand dollars, to raise the earth from its bed, and deposit it in spacious soaking vats, through which it is conducted upon the riffles. But experience has taught provident miners to be wary of embarking in these expensive operations ; and they, generally, and very wisely, prefer safety with slow gains, to the hazards of costly experiments, which may enrich them in a short time, but which oftener result in their ruin. The finest Gold is obtained from the quartz. In some of the rock the particles are so minute as to be invisible, and can only \q seen when collected. These are emphati- cally gold dust. The large specimens, often exposed in shop windows in the cities, are exceptions to the general rule. Rocks of quartz are occasionally found, which display their shining treasures in numerous seams and cavities. These are purchased at great prices by jewellers, and broken up into small pieces. They drop in various sizes, and shapes, and some of them assume forms resem- bling natural objects, as leaves, fruits, flowers, &c. — just enough of the rock adhering to the gold to give to the speci- 225 men life and effect. These pieces of quartz are manufac- tured into rings, pins, bracelets, &c., and are sold at specu- lators' profits. They are delicate and beautiful ornaments. A large part of the quartz gold is so fine that it can only bo collected by the use of quicksilver ; and but for the discovery of the mine at Almaden, the outlay which must have been made for this indispensable, even if the supply from other sources could have met the demand, would have materially abridged, if not wholly inhibited, quartz mining. That deposit of quicksilver ore was first opened in the year 1845, the particulars of which have been related in a pre- ceding chapter. That event so materially reduced the cost of quicksilver, that the Barons Rothschild, who own simi- lar mines* in Mexico and South America, which are una- voidably worked at fir more cost than that of Almaden, could not successfully compete in the trade. After long negotiation between them and the proprietors of the latter mines, Baron, Forbes & Co., of tlie city of Mexico, and several Americans residing in San Francisco, an arrange- ment was concluded mutually fixing the price of quicksil- ver, for a term of years ; and thus the matter remains. At that time California had not disclosed her golden treasures, and whether, in view of that discovery, the proprietors of the quicksilver mine at Almaden were fortunate or unfor- tunate in their arrangement, is a question which cannot yet be determined. It is believed that this mine can supply the demand of the markets of the world for many years. Art, the Imitation of Nature. The reader can hardly have failed to see, that all the various methods of gold-washing, which have been described in the preceding pages, are human attempts to imitate nature, and are copied from the action of water in creeks, rivers and ponds. The 22G GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. sluicej deemed by the majority of miners the best process, except, perhaps, for washing quartz gold, forms at its upper sections, a rapid, broken torrent of water, which, in its pas- sage, tumbles over the deposited dirt, and breaks and dis- solves the lumps. Below the dirt pile, the current, yet strong, but smooth, serves to convey its contents down upon the level sections, where the motion is more tranquil and even, giving the gold particles time to settle and collect. The riffles are so many eddies in the stream, by which the current of water is slightly checked, and a counter-current or back-water produced. The gold, also, impeded in its progress, by this check in the current, immediately sinks, and becomes securely lodged on the bottom of the sluice. The riffle-boards in the " tom," the "cradle," and the quartz '• mill," are examples of the same imitation on a more circumscribed plan. When falls are formed, by in- serting a higher riffle than the ordinary one, the " amalga- mators " are placed below it, so that the water, in passing over the fall, pitches directly on the quicksilver which re- tains the gold while the dissolved dirt is borne down with the current to the ground. The miners call water the great collector of gold, and they only imitate nature in their most ingenious and successful inventions to despoil her of her treasure. CHAPTER II. Miners' Courts and Laws, Customs, Self-denials, Successes, Numbers, Capi- tal Invested in Mining, Prospects, &c. Miners' Courts. When the country now occupied by the miners was first visited by them, it was uninhabited by any civilized people, and was far remote from the protecting arm of organized government. Adventurers flocked to it from every nation ; and many of them had no correct ideas of liberty and property, as regulated and secured by law ; and many more cared for neither, but were ready to violate the dearest private rights to promote their own advantage. Among this heterogeneous population were, of course, many American citizens. These, sensible that no security of per- son or of property could exist without some system of estab- lished government, and believing that they had the prepond- erance of influence, if not the numerical majority, met. in '• Miners' Meetings," at an early day, and adopted rules by which they would consent to be governed, and by which they would endeavor to regulate others. They established the courts known as " The Miners' Courts;" — very simple organizations in the beginning, but summary and signal in their proceedings. These courts were established in the mining villages and settlements generally ; and their juris- diction embraced all actions and proceedings, civil and criminal. To form this tribunal, on the first occasion for its existence in any place, a miners' meeting was called, an 228 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. alcalde and sheriff were elected for the mining district, and an official oath was administered to each officer by the chair- man of the meeting. In all civil actions pending in these courts either party could have a jury consistmg of six men ; and in criminal cases the accused could demand a jury of twelve. Process was issued by the alcalde and executed by the sheriff. All proceedings in these courts were conformed to those of an ordinary justice's court. Appeals were entertained only by the spectators at the time appointed for the execution. Upon conviction, in criminal cases, the degree of punish- ment to be inflicted was submitted to the discretion of the alcalde ; and it might be death for any offence. Each juror received about six dollars, and the alcalde sixteen, for the trial of a cause ; and Avitnesses, as well as the sheriff, received a compensation for services. These tribunals were, in all cases, sustained by the muiers, and judgments rendered in them were executed promptly and with energy. Although a judicial system has been organized throughout the state since the year 1850, under the provisions of the constitution, yet the Miners' Court is not entirely abandoned, especially in criminal cases. Upon the perpetration of crimes, attended with circumstances of aggravation, in the mining regions, it still happens, occa- sionally, that the tardiness of constitutional trials provokes a return to the more summary despatch of these primitive organizations. When the miner is arraigned, and his right to inflict capital punishment, in any case, through the instrumental- ity of these courts, is denied, he thus reasons: "What should we have done on the mining grounds in the beginning? Take the least doubtful case, larceny ; admit that our prop- MINING CLAIMS. 229 erty, acquired at so great a sacrifice, had been purloined ; we had no jails or prisons in which to confine the thief be- fore, or after, trial and conviction ; no constitutional court within one, two, or, perhaps, three hundred miles; this distance must have been traversed by witnesses and parties, through a country destitute of roads, over lofty, precipitous and craggy mountains, rapid, unbridged streams, parched plains, and through deep ravines. Should we have flagel- lated him and set him free ? We had no more right to inflict that punishment than the other; and, besides, we should, perhaps, have let loose a fiend who, on the first favorable opportunity, would have satisfied a long- indulged malice by the murder of the accuser, the witnesses, or jurors." Upon this argument the miner concludes : " Let our judges put themselves in our places, and then pass sentence on us." Since these courts were formed the country has become more densely settled, with a much superior population, and it may be supposed that, whatever force the preceding argu- ment may have originally had, it has none now. But if it was ever pertinent, it is so still. The territory occupied by the miners is extended with each succeeding year, and is now an area four hundred miles in length, by one hundred and fifty in breadth; but the facilities for judicial trials and punishments are not essentially improved in the remote parts of the state. Mining Claims. By the regulations or laws established, from time to time, at the " Miners' Meetings," the mining lands are divided into districts, which are named and record- ed; and the latter are subdivided into lots, called " Mining Claims." These claims are generally about sixty by one hundred feet in dimensions, and are numbered and reg- istered. Each district has its " Miners' Meeting," which 20 230 is a local legislature, and by ^Yllicll are prescribed all regu- lations respecting "mining claims" within its bounds. These regulations vary to meet the circumstances in each district ; but, generally, every person becoming a resident therein may appropriate one unoccupied claim, and retain it so long as he actually works it, or, if absent, procures it to be registered monthly, and keeps a notice posted on the premises, signifying that "he has not abandoned." If the owner " abandons j'' either intentionally or by neglect, any other person not having, in the district, a claim which he holds by appropriation, can '■^jump^^ the aban- doned claim, and retain it against the prior occupant. No claim, whether obtained by appropriation or by purchase, can be held more than a month unless it shall have been actually worked, or shall have been registered, with the required notice, within that period. Genemlly, no restric- tion exists against purchasers ; but any number of claims thus acquired may be held by the same person. The form and requisites of conveyances, the relative rights and duties of the ownei-s of adjoining claims respecting the occupation of their property, and the manner and order of rotation in which the supply of water may be used for wash- ing or dissolving the dirt, are prescribed by the miners ; assessments are laid for general purposes ; and many other regulations are adopted which a large colony of intelligent persons, accustomed to just government, and fiir removed from its protection, would deem indispensable for the pres- ervation of public order and the protection of private rights. A ready acquiescence has been always yielded, by the better portion of the miners, to all the enactments of the meetings ; and, indeed, the necessity for them was originally, MINING CLAIMS. 231 and is still, in many parts of the gold regions, so imperious, and they have become so connected Avith the titles to a large majority of these claims, that the Legislature of the state has felt the necessity of recognizing them by a public law. In the year 1851 that body conferred jurisdiction, in all cases of " mining claims," upon the justices of the peace; and provided that " in all actions respecting such claims the proceedings of the miners' meetings should be regarded by the court, so far as they are not inconsistent with the laws and constitution of the state." These meetings arc still held annually, and oftener if a necessity arise ; and their deliberations are conducted with gravity and talent. Their enactments are published and circulated, and a careful record is kept of all the pro- ceedings. The miners, as a class, are an intelligent and energetic people. In general, while they are exceedingly watchful over their own rights, and in that wild country are very jealous of every approach the purpose of which they do not fully understand, yet they are regardful of the rights of others, and lend a cheerful aid to procure the redress of every serious wrong. They are hospitable and kind. Among them will be found the people of almost every na- tion, but it is doubtless the fact that a moiety, if not the decided majority, are natives of the United States ; and these give character and direction to all the public affairs of the mining regions, and are the only reliable guarantees of social order. The miners are principally persons in the humbler walks of life, but among them are no inconsiderable number con- nected with the learned professions. "Whoever attends one of their political conventions (for they are not so fiir out 232 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. of the world but that they attend to politics, and politicians attend to them), or one of their miners' meetings, will be convinced that neither the fools nor the drones go to the mines. Let the visitor here wend his dark way into almost any of the numerous mountain drifts, damp with the accumu- lated moisture of ages ; or clamber over heaps of rocks and earth, and leap wide artificial drains, to reach the point of operations in any one of the ten thousand dreary gorges ; or let him go to some river, where a wide rift, or a deep, broad eddy, has allured the hopeful miner ; or travel over miles of upturned earth to the place on the low lands where the solitary is toiling under an exhausting sun to separate the shining dust, and it is as probable that he will meet the grave divine, the skilful physician, the shrewd lawyer, the professor, the philosopher, the gentleman of leisure, or the student, as that he will meet the farmer, the mechanic, or the common laborer. Some of these adventurers have come to recuperate, if possible, a dissipated fortune, others to gratify curiosity, and a few to investigate and study ; but they are all inspired with the hope of acquiring more wealth in a shorter time than they could accumulate it in their ordinary avocations. Here they will be found, clad in straw hats, '' shack shirts," coarse overalls, and rubber boots, — muddy and wet, unshaven and unshorn. In pursuit of the great object of their hopes, many of them have left comfortable and pleasant homes, devoted friends, and the priceless enjoy- ments of enlightened and refined society. In the wild and rocky fastnesses of the mines, their days are passed in pre- carious toil, and their nights in loneliness and disquietude. Even the sacredness of the Sabbath is too often either for- THE miners' home. 233 gotten or entirely disregarded ; and all are devoted wor- shippers at the gilded shrine of Mammon. The sentiment seems to prevail among the miners, that adventurers to California are exempted, during their sojourn, from the duties and obligations which should control their action in other countries ; and hence, except for the protec- tion of life and property, the code of morals is generally a dead letter. There are, of course, worthy exceptions to the application of this remark ; but whoever visits the mining regions, will be soon convinced of the truth of the general statement. The Miners' Home. It was about three o'clock in the afternoon of a pleasant day in June, 1853, that a company of travellers among the mountains, in the county of Nevada, descended into a small valley, which had been mostly dug over, and in which the stones and dirt lay in many a long, broad pile on its bottom and sides. For the distance of half a mile, and until the falling of stones and gravel and the hum of busy industry were distinctly heard, their practised mules jumped from rock to rock, and from bank to bank. In a few moments three miners Avere discovered, engaged at their sluice, and the company were inclined to pass by un- noticed ; but, on a little nearer approach, they were hailed by these dwellers in the mountains, who kindly invited them to "heave to, and rest their mules." Of course the travellers complied ; labor was immediately suspended, and under the tall pines, where the miners took their daily sies- tas^ many inquiries were made respecting " the States," and the events which had occurred since the anxious interroga- tors came to California. Bolognas and sea biscuit were served to the company, and these proved a very acceptable civility, after the fatigues of a long morning mule ride. 20^ 234 Two of these miners were farmers, and the other a physician, and they had beeif three years in the country. The visitors were treated to die best fare which the place afforded. It was spread on the lid of an ancient chest, and the seats at table were blocks of timber set on end. This mountain home was a floorless shanty, having but a single room, with a canvas spread loosely over the top to break the burning rays of an almost vertical sun. On one side was a pile of stones, which were laid to serve as a fire-place, and an aper- ture was left in the canvas above for the escape of smoke. On the opposite side of this room four low stakes were driven firmly into the ground, and connected by rails nailed upon them, so as to form a square frame, and over the whole a canvas was stretched, to complete the miner's bed. Three coverless pillow^s and an equal number of blue blankets composed the complement of bed furniture. Cool water from a neighboring spring was served to the guests, in a rusty tin cup ; and at that hour of the day, and among the burning sands, the draught was a truly acceptable offering. In one corner of the cabin were several worn volumes, trea- tises on geology, mineralogy, mining and materia medica. Along the banks of a rivulet, which flowed through the valley, lay a small strip of fertile land, which might have contributed, by cultivation, to the comfort of these miners ; but they regarded their time too valuable to be devoted to the mere gratification of the palate. While they were spending it in growing lettuce, corn, cabbage, turnips, etc., they might find their "pile" in a single lump from the mine. The nearest neighbors to these men were located at the distance of five miles, and their only intercourse with the world was derived through the occasional visits of travellers. OUTLAWS. 235 Such is the business of mining, and such are the miner's circumstances on the mining grounds. Their occupation is, undoubtedly, one of the most fatiguing, uninviting, and hazardous, of all the pursuits in which mankind engage to accumulate wealth. To show the home comforts of the miners, the foregoing example is selected from the best provided and most prosperous class ; and the self-denials of the less fortunate may therefore be the more readily appre- ciated. They occasionally have opportunity to take several kinds of wild game, and to obtain fish ; but their time is esteemed too precious to be occupied in hunting or fishing. Outlaws. The murderers in the mountains are vaga- bond Mexicans, w^ho are outlawed at home, and dare not be seen on the coast ; they are too indolent to labor, and nat- urally too covetous of gold to permit another to possess it if they have none, and the miners are their frequent victims. When the " poor Indian" is engaged in robbery and mur- der, it is generally in connection with these Mexican rascals ; and, usually, the latter secure the spoils, while the former swing by the neck. Restrictions on Chinamen. In what has been noted respecting those who actually labor in the mines, are included the foreigners, even the swarthy Chinamen. With respect to the latter, however, the Legislature has made a distinction, the justice or propriety of which is not read- ily perceived. Three years ago it assumed jurisdiction of the mining lands within the state, and imposed an onerous tax on all the Chinese who should work in the mines. The assessment was at first about twenty dollars a month ; but it has been reduced to three dollars, and is not now objec- tionable except in the principle upon which it rests. It is asserted that, as a class, they are hirelings, sent from China 236 by wealthy men to work on low wages ; that the gold which they obtain is carried out of the country, and that the pub- lic derive very little advantage, comparatively, from their sojourn. It is, however, equally true, that very few miners of any class settle in the state, and all the gold acquired by those who do not is taken or sent out of it. Many Ameri- cans, Mexicans, and Europeans, dig gold here under con- tracts with other parties at home, who furnish capital, and those miners receive a return for their labor very little better than the wages of ordinary laborers. The justice of the discrimination is not therefore clearly perceptible, even if the right of the state to impose restrictions, by any means, upon mining in territory acquired by the United States, is conceded. The Chinese rank with the most skilful and successful foreigners in the mines. According to an esti- mate, which is made from the census of the state, taken in the year 1852 and filed in the office of the Secretary of State, the number of persons, in the fall of that year, who were engaged in mining within its limits, was about 140,000; but from their representations, it appears that this force had diminished within the past year, although the population of the state and the annual product of the mines had in- creased. This apparently inconsistent result is attributed to the amplification of the facilities for mining, by the more general distribution of water over the mining region, the multiplication of quartz mills, and the greater experience of the miners. Uncertainty of Mining. From what has been said in the preceding pages, the inference is quite direct, that success in mining for gold in California is subject to many contingencies ; and, therefore, that mining, as a business, should be classed with the very hazardous pursuits. At an UNCEHTAINTY OF MINING. 237 earlier day in its history, if the prospecter " obtained color," and especially if the prospect improved in the descent, it was deemed certain that an expenditure could safely be made to work the mine ; but the sad experience of thousands has since proved that in every instance the result of fur- ther operations is at least doubtful. A good prospect does not insure a good mine. Gold may be there found to a very large amount ; but it may also happen that after the miner, relying on the evidence given by his prospect, has toiled for months, and expended a large sum of money in making the necessary preparations to work his mine, he is doomed at last to irremediable disappointment, and perhaps is made penniless. There are no rules of science which can here be invaria- bly consulted, with the confidence that they will not mislead the inquirer, or which can be always applied with the cer- tainty that their results will confirm her teachings. All tlie signs generally received as indications of the presence of gold, may appear in a locality, but, when tested by exper- iment, may, and very often do, only verify the uncertainty of human hopes. In other places none of these signs may be present where a large amount of gold may be subse- quently found. One of the heaviest nuggets ever obtained in California was casually dug up, about a foot below the surface of the ground, in a locality which presented none of the evidences of the presence of gold. In another place, destitute of those indicia, $5000 were obtained in three days by a person who was digging for another object. In an open cultivated field of farming land, the occupier un- expectedly struck a "placer," from which four baskets of the earth yielded, respectively, $500, $400, $380, and $360. But in each of these cases, the mine was at the 238 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MINERS. point given exhausted. Gold-hunting is, therefore, much like game-hunting, — an employment, the results of which are mere chances. In further corroboration of these views, it can be stated that at Grass Valley and Nevada, — the country around which has thus far been regarded the most fruitful in gold, and where quartz mining, especially, has been prosecuted more extensively than in any other section of California, — several quartz mills are now useless ; the mines having failed, for a long time, to yield a paying supply of gold. One of these mills at Nevada was erected at an expense of ten thousand dollars ; and each of several others there cost from three to five thousand dollars. All these quartz mines opened rich- ly, and, for many months, were very productive ; but, at length, the supply decreased, until the product did not pay the expense of mining. It is possible that these leads may be followed until they will again pay a profit, but the necessary cost of the experiment cannot be foreseen. Other quartz mines at Grass Valley and Nevada still continue to yield abundantly, and several mills are in motion at each place. The same may be said of other parts of the gold region. Scarcely a district can be mentioned, where mines have been opened to any considerable extent, in which miners have not been ruined by the erection of expensive mills, canals, flumes, or other fixtures for mining, in leads and places which prom- ised well at first, but which, too soon, disappointed their ex- pectations. Notwithstanding the acknowledged uncertainty in respect to the richness of leads or placers, and to their continuance to yield gold, the amount of capital invested in mining operations is very large. According to the report of the UNCERTAINTY OF MINING. 239 officers appointed to take the census in the state, and to which reference has been made, the amount of capital em- -ployed, in the year 1852, was, In quartz mining, . . . $5,871,405 In placer and river mining, . . 4,174,419 In canals, flumes, and sluices, . 3,851,623 $13,897,447 Number of quartz mills, . . . 108 The principal placer-mining counties are, Nevada, Placer, Sierra, Yuba, and Eldorado; and the chief quartz-mining counties are, Mariposa, Nevada, and Butte. But, with all the discouragements which attend mining, a very large amount of native gold is yearly obtained from California ; and the question may be asked, Why do not all the miners become rich ? What disposition do they make of the treasure? These inquiries are readily answered. If those who go to the mines, and are successful, would save all the gold they obtain, above reasonable expenses, they might, in the course of one or two years of labor, possess a comfortable estate. But they do not retain it. They pay enormous prices for provisions, clothing, and other necessa- ries. Being far from the large markets, they make their purchases of the small merchants who establish themselves in the neighborhood of the miners for the sole purpose of speculation. These speculators sell their goods at two or three hundred per centum of profits, and receive payment in " dust," at one or two dollars the ounce below its real value ; and the same result attends the miner's sale of his gold to the bankers. These are, perhaps, disadvantages which the miner cannot avoid. The great " rocks," however, on which they split, are 240 GOLD MINES, MINING AND MlNKllS. those always in sight, but which arc, nevertheless, strewn with the wrecks of many a golden fortune. As a general remark, successful gold-diggers are not satisfied to be doing well; their good luck stimulates their desire to do still better, and after obtaining a handsome amount of gold, they are prone to embark in some more expensive mining enter- prise, and, perhaps, to unite their interests with other persons. As the result, they almost invariably lose all their former accumulations, and are often left with a large debt to be paid by their subsequent labor. They do not learn wisdom by their own experience, nor hy that of otlicrs. Daily observation, also, justifies the remark, that too many of these hard-working men arc l)cguiled, by tlieir loneliness perhaps, to visit, two or three times a month, tlie little shanty village, whicli is sure to spring up in every mining district, and there to drink, ganil)lc, and often to descend to more disreputable vices. If this truth did not stand out prominently in the " mining region," it Avould not be introduced here ; but it is well known that the Avhole accumulations of many an unsuspecting miner have been carried away from the dram-drinking, gambling dens, in those villages, hy cut- throats, who lie in wait there to despoil him of his gold. The expression of regret has often fallen but too late, over the recital of errors into which the miner was precipitated by the convivial glass, and which deprived him of the golden fruits of montlis, and even of years of toil, in the dark mines, among the lonely moun- tains of California. It is frequently said that the successful miner may avoid these indiscretions, if he will, and save his money; and, therefore, that his failure to return to his home, possessed of an ample fortune, is chargeable only upon himself. While AMOUNT OF (J OLD HIIIPPED. 241 this allegation is admitted to be true, the concession does not change the answers to the proposed (questions. If the miner has thus wasted his gold, he has lost it, notwithstand- ing all his toils ; but the amount makes up its proportion of the $200,000,000, which, according to a calculation made upon reliable statistics, have been dug from t])os(5 mines, by 140,000 miners who arc now on the mining grounds, and 00,000 others who have returned to th(;ir homes, or have died on the field of their hopes. The amount of gold shipped fi'om the port oi' San Fran- cisco, in the year 1858, as '' manifested " at the Custom House, was .$02,300,889, of which .$r>0,(;7rj,780 were con- signed to the city of New York. This shipment is an in- crease, above that of the year 1852, of 1)14,555,814. When the fact is considered, that a large amount of the yearly produce of the mines is never entered at the Custom House, but is carried away by the owners themselves, these statistics present clear evidence of the immensity of the golden resources of California, and of the rapid jirogress which has been made in their development. 21 PART FOURTH. JOURNAL OE THE VOYAGE, ETC CHAPTER I. Voyage from New York to San Juan-del-Norte, the Ship, Incidents, Views, etc. etc. April 20th, 1853, at two o'clock, p. m., I embarked at the port of New York, in the steamer Prometheus, Capt. Churchill commander, for "the land of gold." At three o'clock, the ship left her dock at pier No. 2, North river, bound to San Juan-del-Norte in Nicaragua, with 470 passengers ; and sailed down the magnificent bay like "a thing of hfe," attended, doubtless, by the prayers and kind wishes of many hearts, whose fathers, and moth- ers, sisters, brothers, or other friends, she is bearing away, perhaps forever, from home, kindred, and country. The day was cloudy, and the darkened sky seemed to have a depressing influence on the feelings of the multitude who were assembled to witness the departure. No shouts went up ; no loud, long, spirit-stirring cheers, which, * on such occasions, seem to imply the petition that the Almighty Being, " Who vides upon the stormy sky. And manages the seas," DEPARTURE. 248 would restrain the winds and waves, and bear the bark and her burthen safe into her haven of hope. The disregard bj all parties of this very popular custom, when a vessel leaves port bound on a long voyage, disturbed my mind, at the moment, with unpleasant apprehensions. I had often witnessed such scenes, and had heard the " wel- kin ring" with the huzzas of the crowd, and the hearty responses of the voyagers ; but now, when I was about to commit my life, under God, to the fitful bosom of the treacherous ocean, the accustomed invocation was unuttered ; and, as we passed down the bay, and the city receded from my view, I could not repress the thought, the fear, that we may be bound on the unwritten voyage, to *' That undiscovered country, from whose bourn No traveller returns." The novelty of the passing scenes on board soon occupied my mind, and the gloomy impressions passed away. I turned to take a view of the ship and of the multitude who are to be my companions in perils and hopes for many future days. Among them, I know but one ; a bold, hardy fellow, generous and confiding ; having formerly made the voyage to California, he is just the man for me. My room- mates are two gentlemen, father and son, from the glorious little state of Rhode Island, — the land of my forefathers, and of rye and Indian bread, and cider-brandy ! They are full of life, fun and frolic, social and intelligent ; and I an- ticipate, in their society, a pleasant relief from the tedium of our long, monotonous voyage. The first two or three hours after we "got under way" were industriously occupied in arranging our luggage, and putting our room in proper order for comfort ; and when, 244 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. just at night-fall, we went on deck, all points of the coast had faded from the view. No objects were visible but the good steamer Prometheus, the arching, clouded skj, the shoreless ocean, and the evening sun, sinking in golden splendor into her ever-restless bosom. Yielding to the power of the enchantment, as evening closed around the contemplative scene, we retired to our " ocean- rocked couch," and bid good-night to native land. April 23d. The sky is clear, the wind " in our bows," the sea considerably rough. The vessel rocks very uncom- fortably, very. I did not begin to write up my journal until the third day of the voyage. It requires no Yankee to guess the rea- son. Soon after the steamer started, many of the passen- gers began to exhibit decided evidence of an uneasiness peculiar to a large majority of freshmen on shipboard ; and before bed-time some were prostrate on the decks, and oth- ers hastily casting up accounts — very different, in their nature and effect, from those of dollars and cents. Contrary to my anticipations, I remained unaffected by the motion of the vessel, and, about ten o'clock at night, retired to my state-room with the confident belief that I was one of the favored few who would be permitted to laugh at the fickle sea, and "throw physic to the dogs." But, "Alas! poor Yorrick ! " How delusive is hope ! The morning came, bright and beautiful ; but my head had lost its balance ; the stomach of your humble servant was in a state of complete rebellion. Sea-sickness ! It never has been adequately described ; it never can be ! The poet Moore, in Lalla Rookh, alluding to paradise, thus sweetly sings, — " Take all. the pleasures of all the spheres, And multiply each through endless years, One minute of heaven is worth them all." SEA-SICKNESS. 245 Parodied thus, these lines may be well applied to our sub- ject: *' Take all the ills of all the spheres, And multiply each through endless years, One minute of this exceeds them all." Sea-sickness is a paradox. The unhappy subject is neither one thing nor the other; neither sick nor well; craving food, but loathing every dainty which the hand of kindness can offer. Unhappy victim ! thy condition is that of unsatisfied and unsatisfiable " betweenity." Whoever shall fully succeed in describing that undefinable "evil of the sea," in all its features, by the power of rhetoric, will deserve a pension for life ; and whoever shall delineate it faithfully on the canvas, will earn a name to live in the annals of the sea, as long as that fabric shall be spread on its bosom. But I am becoming eloquent, and beg pardon, for eloquence is here quite out of place. The truth is, I am just restored to consciousness, after two days of sea-sickness ; and the impressions of that brief time rise before my imagination, as the ghost of Banquo rose before Macbeth ! But I am yet quite unprepared to practise his cool philosophy on the occasion, and say, •« Can such things be. And overcome us like a summer's cloud, Without our special wonder ? ' ' Those never-to-be-forgotten days did not pass over me " like a summer's cloud." I can rather exclaim to their spectre, still flitting before my mental vision, — "Avaunt ! and quit my sight ! Let the Earth hide thee ! Thy bones are marrowless, thy blood is cold; Thou hast no speculation in those eyes Which thou dost glare with ! " 21* 246 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. All I know of the incidents of those two days is derived from othei-s. I learn that the steamer had made 173 miles on the 21st, at meridian, the time from which the ship's reckoning is calculated ; and that on the 22d she made 208 miles, and on the 23d but 185 ; the wind being continually ''strong ahead." At noon, therefore, on the 23d, we were 566 miles from the American emporium. About this time the wind subsided, the surface of the waste of waters be- came smooth, that ever-to-be-hated rock of the vessel ceased, and I was enabled to leave my berth, make my toilet, and go on deck. Now, for the first time, I thought of my valued friend, Dr. B., and his kind advice respecting my health. Ah, doctor ! your counsel was good ; a thousand thanks for it. Could you see me now, seated in an easy-chair on the hurri- cane deck, a hundred miles from the nearest land ; the broad, blue sea as calm and placid as " the smile of God; " the staunch Prometheus, under canvas and steam, making her steady way onward, further and further to the sunny south ; expressions of joy beaming from every countenance ; the softened air, so balmy and grateful to the debilitated and sickly body — I repeat, could you see this scene, you would exclaim with me, " Wlio thus surrounded, that retains but the 'breath of life,' could fail of material improvement in health? " Had you the gift of divination, Dr. B., you could not have more fully foretold, than you did, the effect of the sea- voyage on my divers ailments. May you be equally prophetic in the future ! Soon after I was able to be about, I took a survey of our ship, and made myself acquainted with its several depart- ments and order. We have three classes of passengers, each having its separate privileges and restrictions, except that the first class has aecess to all parts of the vessel, and. STEERAGE PASSENGERS. 247 of course, to all the ship's company. The classes are dis- tinct in all the arrangements of the ship, which contributes essentially to the general quiet and comfort. The third class are the steerage passengers. These are generally the majority, and are confined to the steerage and forecastle. I am compelled to record the fact that their accommodations are not comfortable. Many are poor, and some, I regret to say, are not inclined to be cleanly. For these reasons, the owners of all vessels, engaged in the carriage of passengers, should provide against that dangerous negligence — dan- gerous, because it often begets disease which may, and frequently does, extend to the other classes. The steerage of any ship is a terrible place, as now con- structed, ventilated, and provided. Here the largest portion of every ship's load sleep ; here they lie when sick — men, women, and children, huddled promiscuously together. It is situated in the very bottom of the vessel ; a damp, dark, poorly-ventilated hole. Here, often, from three to five hundred human beings are congregated for a voyage, often of twenty days ; and when they stack themselves up to sleep for the night, it is almost impossible to go into the place. It cannot be denied that the love of money is the root of this evil. If, for any cause, the steerage of these steamers cannot be better provided and arranged, the dic- tates of common humanity suggest that there should be a less number of occupants. Only a limited number should be admitted. I have seen the steerage of the Illinois, and of the Georgia — both of which, I am assured, are inferior to that of the Prometheus. I presume the commanders of these vessels do everything in their power to mitigate the evils to which I have alluded. I know this is true of Capt. Churchill, 248 than whom I have never met a more kind, considerate, and sympathizing man ; he is, undoubtedly, one of the best men for his position. But the fault is not in the officers. They have nothing to do with the sale of tickets of admission for the voyage. They receive all who present tickets, and give them the places indicated. There is now, in the steerage of the Prometheus, a very sick passenger. His first attack was sea-sickness ; but, being weakly, it has reduced him so low that some other disease is induced, and great fears are entertained that he will die. He should never have been admitted as a steerage passen- ger ; none but the most hardy can endure the exposure and privations to which all are subject who take passage in that apartment. With respect to the first and second classes, their accom- modations are as comfortable as they can be on ship-board. The state rooms and cabins are cleanly and well provided ; and the arrangements and supply of the table are quite equal to those of any of our best hotels. The passenger who should complain of Capt. Churchill's table, would betray unmis- takable evidence that he was ambitious to be esteemed, what he is not, a ''travelled man." The lady passengers are well attended by waiting-maids, who cheerfully give every attention and assistance necessary to render a sea- voyage comfortable and pleasant. April 24th. It is the Sabbath. The sun in the firma- ment, the natural creation, like the Son of God in the spiritual, has risen bright and beautiful upon the darkness that so lately rested upon the world. In harmony with this sentiment, Capt. Churchill gave notice that, at ten o'clock this day, he would present a Bible and tract to every passen- ger who would receive them. A large number were distrib- BIBLES AND TRACTS. 249 utedj nearly if not every passenger accepting the offer, and many, apparently, with much pleasure. The influence of this benevolence, whoever may have been its author, must be good ; for both the Bibles and tracts were generally read during the remainder of the day ; and this occupation of the sacred hours rendered the ship as quiet and orderly as a church. The Bible and Tract Societies are making mighty move- ments to diffuse the word of truth and religious knowledge through the four corners of the earth. Consider the beauty and potency of this one act to that important end. Once in every fifteen days, two steamers leave the port of New York for California, carrying out from four to nine hundred passengers, most of whom will probably continue there. If to each be given a Bible and tract, their influence goes as fur into the outermost borders of civilization as the adven- turous settler, and remains there, to do its perfect work, where no voice of the living herald breaks the deep silence of the forest. The sea, to-day, has been calm ; the wind, as usual, "dead ahead," but not strong. During the last twenty-four hours the ship. has made 218 miles, putting us 784 miles from our port of departure. After tea, I loitered ' ' in musing, mel- ancholy mood " upon the quarter-deck. Others were seated indifferently about, either alone, like myself, or in circles of half a dozen ; and no inclination was manifested to dis- turb this quiet Sabbath scene. About eight o'clock in the evening the scene suddenly changed. The heavens, just now so clear, are, in a surpris- ingly short time, overcast with scudding clouds. The wind breezes up smartly from the east, the waves begin to rise higher and higher, and beat with a force and violence to 250 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. me hitherto iinkno-^n. The Siuls are all spread, the steam is up : and the strong ship, taking advantage of these aids, flies, like a sea-bird, over the rough surtace of the troubled watei*s. She careens deeply, and seems to say, '' Blow, bi'eezes, blow ! " Now her bow looks upward, inquiringly, into the threaten- ing darkness, and anon peers fearfully down into the ftithom- less depths below. Every officer and sailor is at his post. His glance is rapid, his step frequent and hurried ; but he betrays no fear. Xot so, however, with me. I must con- fess that all my previously acquired feeling of security Tanished in a moment. I vividly realized my true situation ; many hundi-ed miles from the nearest land, no other sail in sight, surrounded with almost total dai'kness, confined to a structure, though strong and sound, yet only the Avorkman- ship of man ; in a storm of wind and mn, with the waves of the limitless waters beating fearfully and heavily against her massive timbei-s. These reflections were impressing my mind deeply with the truth of the frailty and littleness of the mightiest human agency, when the captain, who had kept his room except at meal times during the day, appeared on deck, gazed up into the darkened heavens, and tiu-ning himself to the assembled passengei'S, very coolly said, ** A clever blow, but it 's about over." I then took a long breath, and retired to my bed, thinking of those sweet lines : " Home, home, there "s no place like home ! " April i^oth. I left my room this morning earlier than usual, the excitement of the preceding evening not having entu'ely subsided. Weather clear and pleasant. Break- fasted with an improved appetite, and went to learn '• the ship's reckoning.'' "\Vc are now, eight o'clock, a. m., yet 261 north of Cuba, but will stand off it before dark, and distant, east, about sixty miles. Wc shall not, therefore, be favored with a view of Iler Most Catholic Majesty's jewel, *' The bright little isle of the ocean." As time begins to lag heavily, I will amuse myself by taking a peep into the ladies' saloon, my sea-sickness having so far subsided as to enable me to go below without inconve- nience. Wc have fifty-two lady passengers, with seven small children. Two of the ladies and one small child are very ill from the effect of sea-sickness. They recover but slowly, and fears arc entertained for their safety on the Isthmus. Two of the ladies are residents in California, and are return- ing from a visit to their friends at the east ; one of these has the care of two small children of her sister, now in the new state. They and two others are without any male escort. They say they can travel as safely to California as to Boston or New York ; and they apprehend no difficulty. One of them is the mother of the largest and finest male child I ever saw of its age, eighteen months. She says it was raised in ''the gold diggins," and that all the children raised there are just like hers ; she " wouldn't go back to York state, to live, anyhow ! " The remainder of the ladies are adventurers, full of hope and animation. One of them, more especially, cannot fail of success in the Pacific state. She is about forty, strong, healthy, unmar- ried, drinks champagne at her dinner with the gusto and smack of a connoisseur, plays a crack game of cards, dances gracefully, talks politics and pistols with the gentlemen, and smokes ! Now there 's a woman for you ! Think of a state populated with the descendants of such mothers ! We anticipate much enjoyment in seeing this lady cross the 252- JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. Isthmus. Woe be to the mongrel Spaniard who shall dare to lay his black hand on her ! Some of the ladies are reclining listlessly on sofas, dis- turbed by the ship's motion ; others are chatting ; but many more are occupied in reading the trashy literature of the day, of which there is a large supply on the steamer. The wonder is that they can find pleasure in such employment. The vessel contains no library. At noon, to-day, the steamer had made, in the preceding twenty-four hours, two hundred and eighteen miles. We are, therefore, one thousand and two miles from New York. Our general course, up to yesterday, had been nearly di- rectly south ; but it is now south, half west, and will con- tinue so until we pass Cuba. "We were, for two days, in the gulf-stream. This, I find, is distinguished from the ocean generally, by the peculiar grass that is always found floating in it in large quantities. This substance is called grass, but it resembles large leaves. They are in a fan-like form, of net-work, of various sizes, from a few inches to a foot broad. They are of an orange color, and float, some- times singly, at other times in a compact body, when they resemble an immense carpet swimming on the surface of the sea. It is said that the water of this stream is warmer than the main ocean, is relatively higher, and has a more rapid current. We have seen but four vessels since we left port. The finny natives of the great deep, also, have been remarkably coy ; only one, a huge porpoise, having condescended to give us a view of his fishship. The sailors tell me that all fish avoid the gulf-stream, from a dislike to the temperature of the water ; but it is evident they must enter it in passing NEARING THE EQUATOR. 263 to and from the vicinity of the shore — yet it may not be so congenial to their natures as the cooler regions. To-day we begin to have decided evidences that we are nearing the equator. At meridian, the shadows we cast were very short. The sun has blistered both my hands and my neck. The passengers admitted upon the quarter-deck begin to huddle together under the awnings, and those not admitted to this privilege are seeking protection from the burning heat in the covered passage-ways on the lower deck. The saloons and state-rooms are vacant, unless the occupant is too feeble to leave. Ice, ice begins to have peculiar charms, and many devices are adopted to procure the lux- ury. If we complain, the honest tar exclaims, '' Och, och ! if ye thinks this hot weather, what '11 ye say when we gets to Juan 7 't "ill bui-n your face to a blister, and crumple yer hat ! " 0, for one, but one of the myriads of cool, cool breezes that are wandering uselessly about in my vigorous, beloved, native North ! 'T is evening. The sun is sinking fi-om the western sky. Scarcely a zephyr ruffles the smooth surface of the broad, blue ocean. In the distance, a sail appears. All eyes are turned to greet her welcome coming. What is she? A brig ! — a brig ! How beautifully she rides upon her native element ! Her sails are all set, and her ensign is floating proudly from her mast-head. Whence is she ? and whither is she bound 7 Bears she not in her ample bosom some message of love, some memento of affection between hearts far sun- dered, and "Which else, Like kindred drops, had mingletl into one ' ' ? As I muse, the beautiful spectacle is lost in the distance, 22 254 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. enveloped in the burnished cloud that hangs so heavily down from the evening sky ; the sun has disappeared, and night is folding her mantle of stars over the gorgeous glories of the sun'ounding scene. April 26th. The last night was one of uncommon beauty. The moon and stars were very bright, the wind was still, and the surface of the water shone like a limitless silver mirror. I remained on deck until after midnight. Arose this morning at six o'clock. Weather fair ; a sail in sight, but at a great distance from us. Land, also, the first we have seen since we left port. It is the eastern side of the island called Great Inagua, and down the coast of which, at the distance of about twenty-five miles, we are now sail- ing, south about one point west. Here, then, we are ; not as far south as the captain assured us, yesterday morning, we should be before the sun-set. The land in sight has the appearance of a continuous snow-bank piled against the sky, and glistening in the morning sun. This peculiarity is caused by the reflection of the rays of light ; a nearer ap- proach dispels the illusion, and shows us the dark summits of the island shore. I have just been presented by Capt, Churchill with the general track of the steamer from New York to San Juan- del-Norte. It is due south to the island of Mariguana, one of the Bahama group ; thence south-westerly through Ma- riguana Passage ; thence south-easterly between Inagua and Caicos islands; thence south-westerly through windward passage, leaving Jamaica to the west, and continuing down to 10° 57' north latitude ; thence west to San Juan. The Aspinwall steamers make nearly the same track down to about 10° north latitude ; thence they go southerly to that port, which is situated seven or eight miles from the old ORDER AND SYSTEM. 255 city of Chagres. The distance from New York to San Juan-del-Norte is, in general terms, stated to be two thou- sand miles, and to Aspinwall to be eighteen hundred miles ; but as the former port is about six hundred miles nearer to San Francisco than the latter, the friends of the Nicaragua route insist that it is the shorter and cheaper. But it must be remembered that the distance across the country to the Pacific is considerably greater by San Juan than by Aspin- wall, — the former being stated at two hundred and seven miles, and the latter at fifty-six. The navigation of the Nicaragua river and lake, however, leaves but twelve miles of travel by land ; whereas the twenty-five miles by rail from Aspinwall leave fourteen miles of communication by water on the Chagres river, and about seventeen miles on the old Spanish road to Panama. The voyager will admire the order and system which pre- vail among the officers and crew of the steamer. The gov- ernment has its judicial, administrative and financial depart- ments, each distinct, but all subject to the captain, who is absolute sovereign. The ship is really a miniature mon- archy. The common sailors are under the immediate direc- tion of the first and second mates. The latter are a kind of lieutenant-governors, and take the captain's command in their order if he be absent or incapacitated. The captain holds them responsible for any disorder among the sailors, and gives no personal attention to the latter. The engineers have the control of the engine, the speed of the vessel, and of all the firemen. The captain looks only to the engineers. The purser is the treasurer, receives and disburses all the moneys, provides the supplies, and keeps the accounts and "reckoning" of the ship. The steward is head of the larder, and chief lord of the kitchen and dining-saloon. 256 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. All the cooks and table-waiters are his subjects. The pas- sengers regard this official with peculiar interest ; and he and his troupe regard the passengers precisely according to the length of their purse-strings, and the kind of knot into which they are twisted. They all have a strong dislike to the hard knot, but smile complaisantly at the bow knot, which is easily untied. When difficulty arises here, the steward is amenable to the captain. The watch is a very important and responsible department, and is under the direction of the mates, — the deck officers. The twenty -four hours ar^ divided into a certain number of " watches." The division is not the same on all vessels, nor is it always alike on the same vessel, being regulated by the circumstances. There is the " fire watch," and the "deck watch." The sailors compose the latter, the firemen the former. On sail vessels no "fire watch " is needed. The mates answer for all de- linquencies in the important duties of " the watch." Four are always on duty, at the same time, on the Prometheus. In sailor phi-ase, "they are four on and four ofi*." The table-waiters and chamber-maids keep the state-rooms and saloons in order, and perform the duties of house-servants generally for the passengers. At "reckoning-time," to-day, the ship had made two hundred and twenty-seven miles in the preceding twenty - four hours, carrying us, therefore, one thousand two hun- dred and twenty-nine miles from the Empire City, and I close my journal for this day at eight o'clock, p. M., off the isle of Cuba, where, it was prophesied, the steamer would have been yesterday, at this hour. But the "jewel" is not in sight, and it is clear we are a long distance away from it, as we are beyond "soundings." I am told that " sound- ings,"- on the eastern coast of Cuba, extend many miles ST. DOMINGO. 257 into the ocean. '' Soundings" is the term used by sailors to signify a depth of water in which it is not certain the vessel may sail with perfect safety. This point is generally indicated by the color of the water. If that be green, it is said the vessel is in "soundings," — that is, on water so shallow that the bottom may be found with an ordinary sounding-line ; and although at the particular locality she may safely float, yet, owing to the great inequality of the bottom of the ocean, it is not known how far she may safely go, and therefore the soundings, or trial of depth, must be constant. On the contrary, if the vessel be on blue water, she is said to be out of ''soundings," — that is, on water so deep that no danger can possibly exist, and therefore no "soundings" are necessary. With the sailor, the color generally determines that point. The term "soundings" is used figuratively. When the lead is cast, the act is an inquiry, How deep is the water 1 When the lead strikes bottom, a sound — really, or figura- tively, by the effect made on the sense of feeling — is given, and the answer is indicated in feet and inches on the line. April 27th. Left my berth at six. Weather fine, sea calm, sky bright and clear. We are passing along the coast of St. Domingo, distant about half a mile. The point nearest is Cape Dona Maria. Many sail-boats are in sight, and come so near that we can exchange salutations with the woolly heads in yellow shirts, who are superintending their "fishing tackle," located in these waters. I distinctly see the inhabitants moving on the shore, and small animals re- sembling dogs. The land appears to be covered with under- brush, scattered among which are many towering trees. I discover a tall plant, with long, corn-like, arching leaves, and the sailors tell me these are pine-apple stalks. Here 258 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. is the mouth of a river, whose ^vinding course is visible between the mountains, far into the interior. I can trace it by the ever-changing cloud that rests above its waters, and, in the beams of the morning sun, appears like a silver canopy of dissolving views. No dwellings are in sight, ** But I know by the smoke tliat so gracefully curl3 Above the green " trees " that a cottage is near." This coast is mountainous. Two, and in many places three ranges appear. Those on the shore are the lowest. The ranges are at a considerable distance apart, and luxuri- ant flat lands lie between them. The highest peak in view is, according to Captain Churchill, more than five thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is certainly very lofty ; for its summit is much obscured by the clouds through which the sun is shining brightly. I could not learn its name, if, indeed, it has one. The shore along the whole southern promontory of St. Domingo is very bold, the blue water coming quite up to the rocky barrier which the Cre- ator has reared for its protection, and which in silent and solid grandeur very imperatively says to the ever-restless invader at its base, '-Hitherto shalt thou come, but no farther, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.-' The green foliage here has a peculiar brightness. It may be that a week's confinement upon the ocean has rendered my feelings more susceptible to the beauty of land scenery than they would otherwise have been ; but sure it is, the green leaves never before appeared in so bright and rich a hue. As a general characteristic, the foliage here is of a liojhter orreen than that of the more northern American latitude, with a slight mellow tinge of omnge. This ren- ders the effect, when viewed in the distance, pecuharly FAUSTIN FIRST. 259 grateful and pleasant. We look upon it, and experience a feeling of satisfactory, happy contentment while the scene is before us. All the tropical fruits grow here spontaneously, and in luxurious abundance. The soil is not, however, cultivated with much industry or skill. The inhabitants, principally colored, are characteristically indolent and ignorant. The island has considerable foreign commerce, and owes a large foreign debt. The governments on it are a great drawback to its prosperity. Two exist ; and strong hatred is indulged between them. If these governments are not in actual hos- tility, they are constantly occupied with schemes to cripple each other ; and the consequence is, that the vital interests of both are neglected. This western portion of the island is the dominion of Faustin First. This monarch came into notice, and subsequently into power, amid the revolution which drove Boyer, then president of the republic, into exile. The contending parties could not unite upon a suc- cessor, and after long and angry wrangling, Solo que was taken up as a third man, and made president. He was a common drayman, bold, reckless, and uneducated. A more unfit individual to be trusted with power cannot be named. The sequel proves this. No sooner was he made president, than he began to use his official influence to change the form of the government, and concentrate in his person ab- solute authority. Finally, he turned monster, and on this insignificant theatre, by the promiscuous slaughter of his felloAV-citizens, was proclaimed emperor. A more ridicu- lous spectacle w^as never exhibited. The sovereigns of Europe must have felt honored by this new accession to their number, — this ''bright particular star" (ebony of course) in the galaxy of crowned heads ! Since that time, 260 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. his heart has been intent on subjugating the neighboring government, and foreign powers have been constrained, from motives of humanity as well as of justice, to interpose their kind offices. Comparative tranquillity has since prevailed. The government of the eastern portion of the island has been internally more peaceful, and attracted less of the world's attention. The people are Catholics, and are called Domin- icans. They are believed to be more intelligent and stable than their uneasy neighboi*s. The principal city, on the southern side of the island, is St. Domingo. But the bright scene is fading away. Nothing of St. Domingo now appeai-s, but a long dull cloud, resting in sombre grandeur upon the eastern horizon. Fare thee well, lovely isle ; I may see thee no more, But in dreams of the night, when my -wanderings are o'er. Thy green hills and sweet vales were enchanting to me ; May the incense of Freedom be wafted to thee, From her altars that blaze on my own native strand, May her glory illumine thy beautiful land, And the halo they cast over ocean and main. Win thee back in her temple to worship again. To-day, a flying-fish, in its way over the vessel, came in fatal contact with the burnished cheek of one of our hardy tars, and fell lifeless on the deck. It is about ten inches lono-. Its head resembles in fiii^ure the fro2:"s: its back is dark brown, approaching black, and the remainder of the body is white. Its wings unite with its sides a little back of the frills ; thev are nearly as lonor as the bodv, and in shape and proportion very nearly resemble those of the bat, thoush the membranes connectino; the ribs are white and transparent. They spread, fold, and are used like the bat's. "When folded they lie very close to the baly. and are scarce- A STORM. 261 \j discoverable except on particular examination; this proves that thej are not used as fins in swimming. It has two regularly-formed fins, situated back of its wings, and of ordinary size. Its tail is similar to that of other fish. It is an interesting curiosity, and the generous tar has pre- sented it to one of the passengers, who intends to preserve it in spirits. It is a specimen of the largest size. During the voyage I have seen many flocks of this fish. They rise out of the water in great numbers, and fly from twenty to fifty feet, keeping generally about two feet above the surface. Their white bodies, being constantly in motion, often reflect the light with almost as much power and bright- ness as a mirror. They are, it is said, excellent food. A sail in sight, at a great distance, over our ' ' larboard bow ! '' She is a brisj standinor to the north-east : her stud- ding-sails set. Her hull is not distinguishable from the dark element on which she rests ; but her canvas, standing beautifully relieved against the burnished sky, and lighted by the rays of the setting sun, looks like broad sheets of shining silver spread out upon the evening clouds. The Prometheus has not kept her '' speed good" for the last twenty-four hours, having made only two hundred and eight miles ; she was, therefore, at noon to-day, one thou- sand four hundred and thirty-seven miles from the city of New York. It is eight o'clock ; my shipmates are assembled on the quarter-deck, impatient to arrest any fitful zephyr that may chance to wander down from the north ; and I must join them. Good-night. April 28th. I was awakened at four o'clock this morn- ing, by the usual rock and heave of the vessel, and the cre^ikins of her massive timbers. The noise and confusion 262 JOURNAL or the voyage, etc. on deck plainly told me of a change in the -feather. I " turned out.'"' and, behold ! a ne^y subject for my journal. No clear skies, calm seas, and gentle breezes ! Old Nep- tune has roused from his six days' siesta, and left his coi-al caves. He comes blustering up from the south-east, shak- ing his dripping trident angrily over his briny empire. The waves run fearfully high, and throw their white spray completely over the ship. She rolls, and pitches, and trembles. But the stanch old sea-bird bears herself man- fully in the conflict. With eyes fixed on her true course, she ploughs her rapid way onward, regardless of the war of the elements. Though the seas dash over her, and heavy clouds hang down upon her pathway ; though the swells heave her, or she settle deep into the trough of the ocean ; though the winds would head her off, nor sun, nor moon, nor stars shine out upon her, yet she deviates not, but minds her helm well, and proves her fidelity by her air-line track visible fiom her stern as far as the eye can reach. I love the good ship, and begin to feel assured that, under God, she will bear me safely on my journey to her destined port. We have now what at sea is called a blow, and the sailors are spreading a portion of the ship's canvas to aid her engine. All is excitement and joy, for we are flying on our waning way to San Juan. May it continue to blow until we get into port ! The increased motion of the vessel disturbs me a little, but " Bear me on, thou restless ocean, Let tlie winds my canvas svrell ; Heaves my heart with strong emotion, While I go far hence to dwell." In a storm or blow, the steamer "rocks and heaves;" SEAS, SWELLS, ETC. 263 that is, it rolls sidewise and rises and falls at the same time. The heave or rising motion is the principal cause of sea- sickness ; for persons -v^'ill be sea-sick in calm as well as in stormy weather. The steamer always heaves more or less, even in a calm time, owing to the ceaseless swells of the ocean. The '' eyes of the vessel " are two cylindrical holes in her bows. These, in sail-vessels, are generally called hawse- holes, and through them the anchor-cables are led out when she is in port. " Seas " are waves that break over or dash upon the vessel — when she is said to "ship a sea." Swells are long, regular, rolling waves ; they are followed, of course, by cor- responding hollows or " troughs." They are produced by the tides and the winds. These swells are often very uni- form in size, and regular in their succession. The ocean is never at rest ; the tides necessarily producing motion or a current in the water at all times. From these influences, constantly operating, the wide, wide waste of waters, so much more extensive than the land, can never become un- wholesome, but must remain a changeless ocean of health — its ceaseless motion bringing every drop into frequent con- tact with the atmosphere, and imparting to it life and purity. Salt would not preserve it without motion. The '' blow " is over. It subsided while we were at din- ner, and the tars are " ho-heo^^-ing at the ropes to give all the ship's canvas to the breeze. A ship is a busy place — even in a calm no one is idle. If all the sailors are not required to direct her motions, those not thus engaged, or " turned in " for rest, are at work repairing ropes, mending sails, painting or mounting small boats, sweeping the decks, or in some other similar employment. 264 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. Sevenil occurrences have distinguished this daj on ship- board. A steerage passenger climbed into the rigging — a violation of a law of the ship. Two of the tars were sent up to '-make him fast" there, and did so after a smart tussle, as they express the idea. He was kept in durance only a short time, but when he reappeared on deck his manifestations were any other than placid. The tars called him " green," laughed at, and left him to hum over the couplet, "0, if I dare, I couldn't, And if I could, I shouldn't ! " It was announced that an L'ish lad smuggled himself on board ship, while in port, to make the voyage to San Fran- cisco : that he had been discovered, and -s^as then employed in deck-ser\'ice to pay his passage : but that he had no means to make the land transit, and appealed to the sym- pathy of the benevolent for aid. He has resided three years in California, and has a mother, in indigent circumstances, in the city of Xew York. His youthful imagination had been fired by the tales of gold to which he had listened at her widowed hearth-stone. He left her unbidden, and embai'ked, as in this instance, clandestinely, for the land of his young dreams and filial hopes. He was quite successful. It might almost be said that Providence forgave the youthful adven- turer his violation of parental duty, in view of his noble ob- ject and resolution. He returnal from his fii"St visit, after a year, to receive the blessing and embrace of his mother, and relieve her poverty with the sweet fruits of his toils Having done this, he is now on the Siime errand, for the same holy purpose : and, although we xaay not approve the means by which he seeks to accomplish it, we cannot but PICKPOCKETS AND ROBBERS OX BOARD THE SUIP. 265 admire his ambition and manly perseverance. Suffice it to saj, the little fellow will go with •* the crowd.*' and ** His fiice is as bright As his heart is light." This evening we are stai'tled by the rumor that several pickpockets and robbei's are on board the ship. I learn they have been suspected, and closely watched, during the voyage, but no certain proof appeared until to-day. The captain is now catechizing them very minutely. They are everywhere present, but not long in any place; consulting together, looking into the state-rooms, even those of the ladies ; the first to be up in the morning, and the last to be in bed at night. One of them says he is a doctor, the other, that he is a schoolmaster. The doctor, we presume, administei'S bullets and bowie knives, and the schoolmaster teaches state-prison sciences. They are, however, powerless now. The captain told them, to-night, he would put them in irons before the vessel gets in port. The vessel at noon had made 225 miles since the last -'reckoning; *' she was, therefore, 1662, by her '' log,'' from New York. Another day is gone. The sun, whose orient was ob- scured and threatening, is sinking beautifully in the western sky. His broad, full disk just tips the restless surflice of the silver waters. The horizon and the arching clouds are burnished with his mellow beams. Now he is seen no more ; but his rays are still reflected in hues inim- itable, broad, and high around the scene of his descending glory. Thus may it be with us. When we shall retire this night, may some deed or word of oui-s be active for good ^^hile we sleep. " Count that day lost whose low desceadiug sun Views from thy hand no worthy action done." 23 266 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. April 29th. The daj-god was abroad in his majesty this morning long before I left my pillow — the thief and robber excitement had kept me up to a late hour. No wind, not even a breeze or zephyr, and the ship moves slowly. The captain has just expressed a wish that it might blow from some point of the compass, even if it should come "hard ahead," — for, with a head wind, we should make more progress than we now do, because the fires would gen- erate more steam. To-day the passengers are preparing to leave the ship. They are going from room to room, looking up stray proper- ty, and packing all articles not required for constant use. They are also obtaining provisions to sustain them on the journey across the country. There is a general inspection of fire-arms. My employers handed me a revolver just as I went on board ; but, as I have no skill in the use of it, I shall deliver it to my friend, and say to him, that he must do all the shooting and I will do the running, for I feel that I have a talent for that. To-day, at noon. Captain Churchill informed me that we were crossing the sun's track, and I saw it north of me for the first time. It will, of course, be more and more appar- ent as we sail further south. The heat is oppressive, and the breezes are not cool and refreshing, but warm, and there- fore impart no invigorating influence. I presume their effect is different on the land, especially in the evening. This afternoon nearly every passenger is employed in writing letters. We use lead pencils, for want of ink. A letter-bag hangs by the window of the purser's office, and all letters deposited in it will return with the ship to New York, and be there deposited in the post-office. The bag is FIRST VISIT TO THE FORECASTLE. 267 not closed until the ship leaves port at San Juan-del-Norte for that city. A cry is heard from the quarter-deck ; " Ship-ahoy ! " (What, and where from 7) '' Brazilian man-of-war ! " Up jump the passengers, hand over eyes, and eyes strained in the direction of a vessel standing off to the leeward. It was discovered by the " green-ones " to be only a fishing vessel, named " Brazilian man-of-war," and then Jack- tar shook his fat sides with laughter while the '' gulls " went silently below. I made my first visit to the forecastle this evening. I knew the number of steerage passengers, but did not realize their condition until I went among them. Two hundred and eighty-seven human beings are there congregated. There they eat and sleep, and take all the exercise they can have. At the time of my visit they were on deck, men, women, and children, enjoying all they could enjoy of the evening air. The men were clad in shirts and pants only. Several children were nude above their hips. These passengers were crowded so closely that it was with considerable diffi- culty I could pass among them. Many appeared careworn and exhausted, and w^ere negligent of personal cleanliness ; a very few only of the men had afforded themselves the luxury of " a shave " since they came on ship-board. Among them were found many intelligent, even well-educated per- sons. The greater proportion were individuals who had been unfortunate or unsuccessful in business in the places of their former abode, and who had now just enough means to land them upon the shores of California, if no accident should befall them. A few were strong and vigorous young men. These were in pursuit only of wealth, and entertained the hope of " making their pile," and returning to enjoy it 268 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. with their former friends. Several were far advanced in years, and yet were depending wholly on themselves to ob- tain the object of their desires. I presume these persons are a fair sample of the majority of the adventurers who go to California. As I looked over the multitude in the dusky twilight, my mind involuntarily travelled back to see them in their former homes. I could well imagine that all of them, perhaps, had left behind privileges and blessings more precious than all the treasure of the golden hills ; that many were doomed to sore and irremediable disappointment, and that some, even of the strongest, would never behold the land of their glowing hopes. At noon to-day, the ship had made 240 miles, and we were, consequently, 1902 miles from New York. " Night is the time for I'est ! 'T is sweet, -when labors close, To draw around an aching br&\st The curtain of repose, Stretch the tired limbs, and lay the head Down on our own delightful bed." April 30th. Land ! Land ! Land ! Delightful sound ! AYelcome sight ! The first division of my long, long jour- ney will be accomplished before mid-day, and the scene will be greatly changed. The weather is fiiir, and the sur- face of the ocean is smooth, but the temperature is very oppressive. The sun is directly overhead, and it is impos- sible to obtain a shade without an awning. Objects cast no shadow. "We have a late breakfast this morning, because the steamer will arrive at San Juan before noon, and it is expected we shall go on board the small boats immediately to ascend the river. On this route travellers provide and prepare their own provisions. I have a supply for three ARRIVAL AT SAN JUAN. 269 days, which, on the assurance of the agents of the Transit Company, is the longest term of time occupied in making the journey across the country. I will, therefore, now await the events of our debarkation from the faithful old steamer Prometheus. 10 o'clock, A. M. The ship has just •' let go her anchor,'^ in the small bay or mouth of the river San Juan (San "VYan). The steamer Daniel "Webster, from New Orleans, is also here, and her passengers are to go up the river at the same time with those of the Prometheus. We have made, since noon yesterday, 195 miles. The whole distance, therefore, from port to port, by the ship's track, and it was generally direct, is 2097 miles, and the time since we set sail is nine days and a half 23* CHAPTER 11. Sau Juan-del-Xorte ; River and Lake Xiearagua ; Seeuery ; Mule Eide ; Climate, Ac. April 30th, 3 o'clock, P. M. This is the locality dis- tiiiijuished bv the Clayton discussion in Coni^ress, knomi as that of the Mosquito Question. As the steamer lies in the bay. her bo-ws directed up the riyer, on the starboard or right hand side, in a small cove, is the old Spanish town of San Juan-del-Xorte. now often called Graytown, and on the left is Pimta Ai-enas. a long, narrow strip of land which appears to be an island. On the latter is the depot of the Yanderbilt Steamship Company, where it has made large outlays in fixtures and improve- ments, and has deposits of coal and other property. Sov- ereigjjtj over this point was claimed by three petty powers, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and '-'Mosquito." Great Britain, some time ago, interfered in support of the Mosquito claim. In virtue of corporate privileges gmnted by the Mosquito king, the authorities of Graytown threatened to seize Punta Arenas for public use. The Company, relying on a title derived from the government of Nicaragua, resisted the attempt. Hence the controversy in Congress respecting the interference of John Bull. The land here is very low and level. "N'iewed from the ship, the buildings on both sides of the bay appear to rise out of the water. The country, as far as I can see. is ACCIDENT OX TUE RIVER. 271 covered with a clingy green foliage down to the water's edge. It is not variegated, but is peculiar. I shall speak of it again hereafter. The clunate is warm, damp, and unhealthy for foreigners. A sad accident has just happened on ship-board. One of the steerage passengei-s, a young man, about twenty-five years of age, in passing from the forecastle to the midship, attempted to jump over a horizontal iron brace, raised about two feet above the deck, but, his feet hitting it, he was thrown violently upon his breast, and expired in less than half an liour. ffis name is George Culver, and he had resided latterly in Chicago. He was bound for California. Surely, '-in the midst of life we are in death." As I looked upon his prostrate form, my mind reverted to the visit made to his quarters only two evenings since, and to my reflections as I surveyed the promiscuous multitude. How feebly was the thought then realized, that doubtless more than one of them would not live even to see the land of their hopes ! How sudden, how fearful, has been the exempli- fication ! And in this ''region and shadow of death," is it too much to believe that the "King of Terrors"' will demand still another victim before we shall round the " Golden Horn " ? The unfortunate man expired about one o'clock, p. M, and at two he was resting in his grave. His body, enclosed in a cofiin of rough boards, was borne fi'om the steamer in a small boat, rowed by two sailors, and attended by only one of the mates, and another person. By these four individ- uals it was deposited in a damp and lonely grave, in the Company's grounds, on this foreign shore. Xo kindred eye was there to drop a tear over the stranger's dust ; no voices to unite in a funeral hymn, but the wild sea-bird's and the ocean's. 272 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. I have said that the foliage around Gmytown is peculiar. The grass is a curiosity. It grows in tufts, — many broad, hard blades springing from a common root. These tufts are crowded very closely together, and the spii-es lie nearly in a horizontal position, giving the whole the appearance of a green matting. The bark of the trees is almost universally smooth, and the limbs of many of them grow like the blades of grass from a common centre, and branch out like a spread umbrella. The forest trees are not remarkable for either size or height. I have not seen any which could be man- ufactured into lumber or used for timber. The trunks of many of them are surrounded with a singular vine, which seems to grow downwards, the lower ends having no con- nection with the orround ; I raised several of them. The body of the vine resembles that of the cactus, but the foliage is like that of the woodbine. I tried to learn the names of the difierent trees and of this ™e, but was unsuccessful. The natives have no knowledge of the names. The ground in the forests is densely covered with underbrush. I observed, scattered thickly around, a plant having very broad and long leaves, resembling somewhat those of the northern pie-plant, but they were much larger. Some of the stocks were fifteen feet in height, and the leaves more than a foot in breadth, and four feet long. Another plant resembles the brake, but often stands twenty feet in height. The foliage here is of a lighter green than that of the north, and is often blended with orange. As a general remark, vegetation is here more majestic and showy than at the north, but is less suitable for use. No husbandry is visible. I have travelled a mile into the country this afternoon, but have not seen a cultivated field, a gaixlen flower, or a fruit tree. The inhabitants raise no SAN JUAN-DEL-XORTE. 273 stock. I saw not a cow. slieep nor hog. Two dwarf horses, mere carcasses, were feeding on the common. I saw a diity goat, a monkey, a fliwn, two dogs, and clouds of tui'kej buzzards. The latter are regarded with veneration bv the natives, because they consume all the offal, and thus promote the public health, and relieve the necessity of its removal by manual labor. They are a wild, black bird, about the size of the turkey.. and appear in flocks on the house-tops and in the streets, no one molesting them. The natives claim to be descendants of the Castilians. but they resemble the northern Indians in complexion, though they are inferior in stature and strength. They speak imperfect English and Spanish. The town contains, besides these natives, some Americans. Spaniards. Por- tuguese and Africans. They live and associate promis- cuously. I entered many dwellings, and in none were all the inmates of the same extraction or complexion, but they appeared to be contented and happy. They are indolent — the effect, I presume, of the climate. The Europeans and Americans dress respectably, but the natives are grossly negligent. Some of them, especially the children and the Africans, can scarcely be said to wear clothes, though all have some covering. It is claimed by a party here that the port of San Juan- del-Xorte is in the ten*itory of Mosquito, and that the latter is a sovereignty independent of Nicaragua. We called to-day on the Patriarch, or ^lentor of the town, Capt. Samuel Shephard. He is an aged and decrepit man, a blunt old sailor: but interesting, nevertheless, for his knowledge of the primitive history of the place. At the time of our visit he was swinging leisurely in his hammock, and received us with unaffected cordialitv, 274 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. retaining, however, from necessity, his place of rest. A native of the United States, and in all his feelings strongly American, he vrarms up vehemently at the mention of the name of Great Britain, or of her connection with the Mosquito difficulty. He claims the country, or some portion of it, as his own. Its form of government is regal, and its present sovereign is George "William Clarence, an Indian. This pei-sonage has visited England, where he probably found his name and received some education. Exclusive of the population of the to"v\Ti, the subjects of this dusky potentate are a few Mexicans and Spaniards, and a filthy, lazy, naked tribe of Indians and negroes. The town of San Juan-del-Norte contains about five hundred inhabitants. It has only one principal street. More than half its present size has been added since the intercourse with California by steamships was established. It has no schools nor church. If the lower-classes have anv relidous knowledo^e it is Roman Catholic. The streets are not worked, but are covered with the native grass mat- ting, like the fields. The old structures are low. having sharp, thatched roofs, extending fir down over the dooi^. They are built of bamboo or cane, are generally small, and in a square form. The modern houses are larger, and have shincrled roofs. None of the old structures have srlass windows, and but few of the modern have glass in the fii*st story. The windows are a simple square hole in the sides and ends of the buildings, which are neither lathed nor plastered. No house that I have seen contains more than two rooms, — the partition being placed about midway across it. Almost every building in the town is either a tavern, grocery, store, bowling alley, billiard, or other gaming house. The families appear to live amongst the goods to SAN JUAX-PEL-XORTE. 275 be sold, or the games to be plajed. The modem houses have their -^-indows guarded about half way up with small iron rods. The great object to be attained by the arrange- ment of the interior appears to be the free circulation of air. Provisions of every kind here are imported. They are principally roots and fruits, which are procui'ed about sixty miles to the eastward, and are, of course, only tropical productions. I saw no flour, and only a few sea-biscuit. All the animal food used, and which is but a little, is salted, and is brought from the northward. The trade is chiefly with the passengers arriving and departing on the steamers. These arrivals and departures are one each every fifteen or twenty days. The steamer usually remains in the bay from one to ten da^'s, but the passengers continue on board, and only go ashore for amusement or curiosity. As I have stated, groceries and taverns are numerous ; ardent spirit is the "crack article'' on sale, and is drank to great excess by residents and visitors. It is said that this trade has increased tenfold in three years. A few Americans and Europeans are engaged in the coasting trade, to supply their small market with provisions and clothing. This, with the retail at home, is about all the private business that is done, except that some natives and foreigners are employed in transporting visitors in sail- boats to and from the vessels in the harbor, as the town has no ship dock. This is a port of entry. The climate is very unhealthy. Foreigners often from carelessness sicken and die here in a few days. But two seasons are recognized, the rainy and the dry. The former begins in the last days of May. and continues until December. During this season it rains almost constiintly, and the sky continues overcast ; yet those who reside here prefer this portion of the year. 276 JOURXAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. for its more comfortable temperature. Thej wear India- rubber or oil-cloth over-garments, and go about Tvith j:>erfect unconcern. In the dry season, the thermometer stands with much uniformity where it now is, at about 90° at noon. Then it seldom rains. There are, however, some i-ainy days in this season, and heavy mists fall during the nights. It is often said, at the north, that the fruits here are unhealthy for northern people : but the statement is erroneous. The belief has originated from the fact that many travellers have indulged immoderately, and in consequence have sickened and died. The same imprudence would probably have produced the same result in any climate. Foreigners here assure me that the tale of danger -"is but a tale.'' This remark is true of all the tropical fruits. They may be enjoyed by foreigners with impunity, if used with prudence. " Night, sable goddess, -welcome thine embrace." May 1st. Another Sabbath. We are yet in the bay. I am informed that the river steamei'S are aground about nine miles away. It is hoped they will pass down with the next tide. As we are at rest in the ship, and it is "the day of rest,'" I went down among the passengers, in search of books, and to my surprise learned that they, like myself, had omitted to provide themselves. Few valuable books are on board. The steamer has no library. I could only find a copy of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," the book that is everpvhere present. In these circumstances, beginning to fear I might neeii a good degree of patience, I sat down under the awning, and read the book of Job. I then read the tract distributed at noon, entitlai "Why should I read the Bible ? "' Strange question! Why should an accountable, immoi*tal being SAX JUAX-DEL-NORTE. 277 look into the mirror of immortality ? Mirror, because in the Bible himself is reflected ; of immortality, because there that great mystery is brought to light. *' Read and i-evere the sacred page ; a page "Where triumplis immortality ; a page "Which not the whole creation can produce, "NVhich not the conflagi-ation can destroy." May 2d. "We are yet in the bay. But we have received information that one at least of the river steamers will arrive this day. Good news ! Xothing is more unpleasant than delay on a journey, especially in an unhealthy country. To make the best of a disagreeable necessity. I accompanied a number of my travelling companions on a second visit to the town. The natives here have a strong prejudice against Americans and the United States. They are partial to the English. Some of the Americans also sympathize with this feeling. They say their government is more regardless of its citizens in foreign countries than any other nation : that Grreat Britain is prompt and decided in reference to her own. and that this foct is undei-stood over the world. They say that their government often makes a bluster, but very seldom acts while action can be beneficial to the citizen. I know not how well founded this censure may be. I took to-day a more careful survey of the town and its suburbs. Many of the old houses, to which I have before referred, are built by driving stakes into the ground at exact distances, and then weaving long withes, about one inch in diameter, compactly between them. The thatch is generally made of the long, broad leaves of plantain, banana or palm. In the town are several buildings of modern con- struction, which are finished on the exterior with good taste and painted white, but the interior contains nothing worthy 24 278 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. of note but a very highly ornamented bar, and its usual sparkling concomitants. The flags of several nations are floating at difi*erent points, and among them I notice the " stars and stripes." That ensign always gives me a home feeling, and whatever prejudices parties here may indulge, I never look upon it without emotions of pride, that the Union it represents is my native land. Many of the people here sleep in hammocks, constructed of a kind of weed resembling hemp, but when prepared it is a beautiful net- work. I passed many dwellings about three o'clock, P. M., and saw men, women, and children (natives), nearly nude, reclining listlessly in the suspended hammocks, and swing- ing gently to produce a little circulation of the air. By the river's side were many women employed in w^ashing for the passengers. A little higher civilization would mate- rially improve their appearance. They use only cold water at their work, but the washed articles are very white and clean. In one place, where women were thus employed, I discovered, floating on the w^ater only a few yards from the shore, two huge crocodiles. The women had their eyes on the monsters, and remained near the margin of the river, but continued their labor. Those animals make no attacks on or near the shores. Thousands of lizards appear. They are from an inch to two feet in length, a.nd are harmless. I observed in the woods a peculiar tree. Generally it is very large, with widely-extending branches loaded with very small leaves. Thickly scattered over, and growing on these branches, are clusters of long green stalks and leaves resem- bling those of the pine-apple. I examined these clusters, and found them to be a part of the tree, but I could learn nothing of their nature, name, or qualities. It may be remarked, generally, that the furniture in the NICARAGUA RIVER. 279 houses, except in two or three instances, is simple and poor ; and that domestic order and taste are strangers in the dwellings of the natives. O" " The night comes down, and in his panoply Of clouds foretells a glorious morrow." May 3d. A bright and beautiful day. I left my quarters early, the craft in which we are to proceed on our journey up the Nicaragua river having come down after the close of my journal last evening. It is a small pro- peller, and is a frail structure, though it may safely convey two hundred of us, because it has done as much at other times. We have occupied two hours in getting under way in it, and are not oiF yet. The cabin passengers of two large steamers, the Prometheus and Daniel Webster, are to be accommodated, or unaccommodated, in this one diminutive aifair, for the distance of seventy-five miles on our way, being to the outlet of the lake. Two barges attend the steamer to convey the luggage, and as a provision for any accident. Good-by, a long, and I hope a last, good-by to Gray- town. We have left the bay and are headed up the river. As we progress, the scenery becomes more and more magnificent. My young friend at my side is completely enchanted. " ! " says he, "if I had only brought my angel along, her happiness and my own would have paid doubly for all the outlay. What a dolt was I to leave her behind ! " Both shores of the river are deeply shaded with a species of lofty palm, having long tasselly branches, which, bending gracefully over, lave refreshingly in the lonely waters. Intermingled with these are various other splendid trees, with broad, regular, arching tops. Now, a lovely island is passed, and its foliage and perfume bring back to 280 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. the mind of the beholder his early readings of '' Arcadian vales and fields of Arabian spices." Here is the graceful cocoa-nut, whose tall, branchless trunk peers far up among the surrounding trees, and presents the mammoth fruit pen- dant from its slender top, in seemingly proud relief agaicst the sun-bright clouds. There is its still loftier fellow ; straight, with not a twig to mar its symmetry, until from a single point it sends still higher its slender, leafless branches, and terminates in a broad round top covered with deep green foliage. Intermingled with the leaves are massive blue and white flowers, that nod unceasingly, as if in approval of the admiration manifested in our eager gaze. But in the midst of all this magnificence, suddenly we are aground ! motionless. The sublime and the ridiculous, the pleasing and the perplexing, strangely commingled ! The tenders are beating about in search of a suitable depth of water. The twin steamboat has just heaved in sight ahead, on its do^raward passage, loaded with returning and I hope satisfied Californians. We take the track pursued by it, and are again making comfortable headway. Bananas and plantains begin to contribute their presence to diversify the scenery. Their long, broad, smooth leaves are plainly distinguishable. A species of sugar-cane is scattered along the shore. It is a beautiful plant, about ten feet in height, with a crest of leaves resembling a tassel. Occasionally a tree is seen, of considerable size and height, the body and limbs of which are nearly white, while the leaves, which are few and small, are pale-green. The shade side of the foliage is bright, and as it flutters in the sun the tree appears to be covered with moving spangles. Two large birds in bright crimson plumage are flying gayly over the stream. Their fun feathers are very long, and are tipped THE SETTLER. 281 in black. They are called macas (macaws), a species of parrot. A plant about twenty feet high is in view, having leaves long and narrow like those of corn. On the top is a large, bright-red flower. It is about eighteen inches broad and two feet in length. Whether this flower is odoriferous, I cannot determine ; but, judging from its shape and figure, being long and straight, I believe the flower leaves are stiff and emit no perfume, and that it is a kind of bur. A noise on deck calls my attention, and I see all eyes directed to the nearest shore, where a monkey is exhibiting himself on a tree. His tail is twisted round a limb, which is hanging far over the stream, and he is sw^inging violently. Now he drops and catches with his tail and hands upon the lower limbs ; and now he leaps to a higher, and looks down on us inquisitively. The little black rascal ! how he chat- ters ! He is an accomplished ground and lofty tumbler. We have reached an island. It is cultivated, and is the first evidence of civilization we have seen. This island is eighteen miles from Gray town. The steamer ''woods" here. The proprietor has a comfortable dwelling, and has tried to have a garden. His house is small but neat. It is clapboarded, shingled and painted white, but is neither lathed nor plastered. It is very conveniently furnished. The inmates are Americans, and are clad in a material as gauze-like and thin as modesty will permit. In the garden are squash vines full-grown, but which bear no squashes. Corn is growing, having ears not only in the silk but appar- ently fit to be boiled ; yet they are sickly and imperfect. Here are, also, turnip plants, cucumber vines, plantains, bananas, lemon trees, and various other species of tropical vegetation. This fruitless attempt to grow northern vege- tables in this latitude suggests the doubt whether they can 24* 282 be successfully cultivated. But the soil has some strength, or it would not sustain so large a growth of vegetation. It must be admitted, however, that this characteristic relates more particularly to the foliage than to the plant. I have seen no forest tree which at the north would be called large. I have observed none that are more than fifteen inches in diameter. Height, disproportionate to girth, is the striking peculiarity of the trees. Cabbage trees are numerous. They are of various sizes, some of them being thirty or forty feet in height and very straight. Their only foliage is at the top of their trunks, and consists of four or five branches, which are about five feet in length, and bear long, slim leaves. The lignum vit93 tree abounds, and grows to a great height. Its bark is deep red, and its foliage, of which it has but little, is very dark. Several specimens of the caoutchouc or India-rubber tree are seen near the margin of the river. Large, bright-red and yellow flowers abound. It is now late in the afternoon, and the monkeys are hold- ing a perfect jubilee on both sides of the river. The trees are full of them, and their chatter is heard from a great distance. They are of various colors, gray, brown and black, and are of all sizes. They are jumping from the ground to the limbs and from one tree to another, scream- ing at the top of their voice. Now, all is still. Night is closing around our frail bark, which is about forty miles up the river. No signs of culti- vation, or of civilization, meet the voyager's eye ; no objects but the muddy stream, and the solemn, now silent, prime- val forest. " Solitude ! where are the charms Tliat sages have seea in thy face ? " A NIGHT ON THE BOAT. 283 May 4th. About ten o'clock last night, our frail craft "let go" her anchors until morning. A dangerous rock lies in the stream, a few miles ahead, and the pilot dared not attempt to pass it without the aid of daylight. I cer- tainly commend his caution, for shipwreck at that place, at midnight, might prove not merely disastrous, but fatal to many of the passengers. So there we were, and there we sat until four o'clock this morning, " like Patience on a monument Smiling at Grief." " What a night was there ! " Huddled together, in our diminutive craft, were two hundred passengers, of both sexes, all colors and all ages. Some were " anchored" or '' half seas over," others sick, all weary, and not a few positively lost their tempers ! Much of the vessel's room is occupied by her enginery and fuel, and tons of luggage are stowed in her cabins. Not a bed nor sleeping-place is on board, except a few hammocks belonging to passengers. Was not that " a halcyon place of rest" ? We packed ourselves away as well as we could, on the coal, the luggage, the seats, the floor; men, women and children, promiscuously. But at length the day dawned, the sun rose clear, and " our griefs of the night" were soon forgotten amidst the constantly increasing magnificence of ther surrounding scenery. The lan'd is here much higher, rising at a little distance in the interior into mountains. The forests are more stately, but are yet unbroken by the woodman's axe, uncheered by the curling chimney-smoke of the adventurous settler. Years may pass away before this scene will be changed. But it is the prevailing opinion that these lands are susceptible of successful cultivation, and that the increasing spirit and 284 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. vigor of this age will ultimately reduce them to its domiu- ion, and transform them into cultivated fields. The commu- nication opened between the great oceans by the "Transit Company" may be the dawn of a bright future to this now dark but interesting land. I will not attempt to describe the music of the bn-ds with which we were greeted this morning. Its tone, sweetness and variety, can be heard in the mind long after the song- sters are gone ; but language has no words to express, the pen no adequate skill to convey, a correct idea of the reality. Birds of every imaginable hue, form, size and species, cov- ered all the trees and darkened the sky in their flight from shore to shore. I observe a remarkable vine, common along the shore. It is white, about the size of a common bed-rope, which it resembles, and is without foliage. This vine often reaches from the top of the tallest trees to the ground, in a line so straight as to suggest the idea that it has been stretched and fastened. Sometimes it is gracefully twisted and coiled, and extends for a long distance from tree to tree. About noon we overtook a bongo (oar-boat) on the left shore, in which were a number of natives. It belongs to the "Transit Company." The natives are tawny, like the northern Indians, having long hair, and are naked. Their size is less than the ordinary northern stature. A short distance onward was another bongo, managed by natives. It was aground, and they were engaged in the effort to "get her off." Their nudity was favorable to their business, wKich was mostly in the water. They gave us a hurrah as we passed. "We have come to Machuca Rapids, and are now to land on the right shore of the river. Here are four "bongos," MACHUCA RAPIDS. 285 each manned by six natives. Our luggage is conveyed in the small boats, and the passengers proceed on foot across a portage of about one mile. The path along the margin of the winding stream, — over- hung by the beautiful foliage of the tall trees, and studded on one side by the dense and, to me, novel and interesting undergrowth, — is pleasant, and the walk adds an agreeable variety to the journey. Arrived at the station above the rapids, we find two smaller steamers than that we left, and a house constructed of poles, and thatched with plantain and banana ; and here are offered for sale, beer at two dimes the glass, coffee at one dime the cup, pies, cakes, herring, cheese, etc. Nothing is sold for less than a dime, and fifty cents is accounted but four dimes ; a shilling being but a dime. A similar '• catch-penny" is kept at the other end of this rapid. As we "penetrate the interior," the country presents a better appearance, — evidences of a stronger and more pro- ductive soil. We have seen, this afternoon, several majestic trees ; one of them, it is judged, is fifty feet in circumference near the ground. It is one of a species very numerous here. The trunk is not, however, a regularly round body, as might be supposed from the statement of its girth ; although its measurement is fifty feet, yet the thickest solid place in the body will not exceed eighteen inches. It is formed so as to give it the appearance of a trunk supported by three, and often four immense bastions, with very deep hollows between them. We have arrived at Castillo Rapid, twelve miles from Machuca, and have passed, without difiiculty, over two others, Yalos and Mice rapids. At Castillo we embarked in a larger steamer, above the 286 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. rapid, for Lake Nicaragua. This place is a military post. The old fort Castillo stands on a hill, and in the days of its glory must have been a strong defence and protection of the communication by water from the Atlantic into the lake. It is now a romantic ruin. It is constructed like all the military structures of the age and people with whom it originated. The material is principally brick, although sections of it are composed of stone. The bricks are very large and durable, and the cement is harder than the bricks. This structure is quadrangular and consists of three stories or sections, each of which, above the lowest, is smaller in dimensions than that on which it rests. The top is a broad, flat surface, having a parapet, about six feet in height, with embrasures on each side. The remains of a deep moat or ditch are perceptible at its base, and also on the interior circumference of the first section. It contains many damp, dark rooms or vaults, connected by narrow passages. This defence was erected by the Spaniards, in those chivalric days when Spain, England, and France, were expending millions of treasure, and shedding seas of blood, in the struggle for supremacy in the western hemisphere. I could not ascertain, from either native or foreign residents, the year of its erection ; but the former were quite ambitious to relate many traditions connected with its history. The fair conclusion to be drawn from their statements respecting its age, is, that it was built about one hundred and seventy years ago. They informed me that the rapid here is artifi- cial, the work of an old Spanish commander, and that it was designed to prevent the transportation of supplies for an English or French expedition, then penetrating the region. The story is not very plausible, for the rapid is long, the rocks are massive, and the fall, for a quarter of a CASTILLO. 287 mile, is so great as apparently to countervail the probabilities that it was formed by human agency. The age of the ruin might have been ascertained on the spot, but for that vandal spirit which despoils every relic on which the hands can be laid. The year and reign in which it was founded were graven on a stone tablet, which was placed in the masonry over the main entrance ; but some American, regardless of those dictates of propriety which should restrain the indul- gence of this passion for relics connected with the early history of a neighboring nation, forced the interesting record from its rest of ages, and brought it to the city of New York. The people of Castillo are not pleased with the act. But there, on the frowning summit of the highest hill, command- ing an extensive view of the beautiful San Jupn in either direction, romantic by its associations with the shadowy past and venerable from its dilapidation and decay, the dark old ruin stands. There may it be permitted to continue, undespoiled, " A footprint on the sands of time," upon which the future generations, who may inhabit this land, shall gaze with pride and satisfaction, while they com- pare themselves, their achievements in the peaceful arts of civilization, and their consequent superiority in moral and political power, with the rude triumphs and ruder virtues of their ancestors. Castillo contains about one hundred inhabitants. It has two principal and several secondary hotels. The " stars and stripes" are flying before a spacious wooden building con- structed in the modern style, situated at the landing, and into which the luggage and goods of passengers are sometimes de- posited for safety. ^lany of the natives here are respectably 288 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. clad; but those employed in the Company's service, like those below, generally appear in undress. Some of them wear a small strip of cloth around the waist. The captain of a gang is generally dignified with the ornament of a pair of red drawers. We tarried for the night at the '' Castillo Hotel." It is a frame building, clapboarded, and thatched with palm leaves. It has a gaudy bar, the shelves of which are studded with well-filled, fancy decanters. The upper story is divided, lengthwise, equally by a long hall, on one side of which are rooms, each containing two or three cots ; and on the other is an apartment containing as many as fifty similar conveniences, placed in rows of two each, one above the other. Every cot is furnished with one blanket. Those who desire may be provided with a hammock. For the privi- lege of spending the night in one of the small cloth rooms five dollars is charged, and one dollar for a similar privilege in the general room. Meals are one dollar each. After the fatigue of the past toilsome day, I anticipate sweet sleep on one of these humble beds. My own is situated before a latticed window, overlooking the river ; a fine breeze comes in upon it, and the roar of the tumbling waters w^ill be a lullaby to my excited nerves. Before I retired, most of my companions had sought their pillows. Pillows ! How strong is the force of mental association ! No, the weary wanderers had no pillows ! I went to take a survey of their sleeping apartment, and there they were, sixty-two by my own count, scattered promiscu- ously, men, women, and children, over the floor. Above these, swinging gracefully in their suspended hammocks, were many others. Up starts a mother: "Billy, where are you?" No answer from Billy. Away goes the inquirer, wading through the recumbent multitude, and crawling A NIGHT AT ''CASTILLO HOTEL." 289 under the suspended sleepers, till Billj is found and taken to the maternal embrace. "0 dear!" cries another, "I shall surely melt ! " " Hope ye may," growls a crusty old voyager ; " then ye '11 be quiet." "Ha! ha! ha ! " from a good-humored fellow away in the corner ; "no melting here to-night, can't stand that." Scratch, scratch, scratch, in this cot ; slap, slap, slap, in that. "Well!" exclaims a spirited female voice, ' ' I believe this is the ' mosquito coun- try,' sure enough." "All mosquito," responds another. "Rightly named," cries a third; and so the scene pro- gressed until I left and went to my own quarters. Every other cot here was filled, and many were " taking it cool " . on the floor. I took my place in this act of the farce, and was soon wandering in the land of dreams. '* The -world 's a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his turn plays many parts." May 5th. Another morning has dawned on our Babel. I say Babel, because too many among this multitude are employed, I ween, in building " a castle in the air; " and they are of nearly every nation, and kindred, and tongue, and people, under the sun. The confusion of language is complete. After breakfast I took a solitary ramble to enjoy the mild morning air from the summit of old Castillo. Enchanting picture ! The quiet native cottages are scat- tered in rustic simplicity around the mountain's rocky base. " The rolling river " foams and roars until its fury is calmed in the peaceful level far below, where the native skims his light canoe gracefully over the silver waters, while the dip of his fairy oar is scarcely seen to ruffle its surface. Away in the distance two misty mountains lift their summits, 25 290 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. and look majestically down upon the green hills, that stand, like youthful watchmen, at their feet. One of these moun- tains, I am informed, was once a volcano ; but, if the story is true, it is certain the fires that may have raged within its bosom were long since extinguished by the power that kindled them. New and pleasing voices of strange song- sters are pouring forth their mellow notes, in the deep forests, directing my thoughts upward to the benevolent Author of this beautiful landscape. At this moment the steamer's bell warns me to be on board, and the wheels are in motion. We proceed about ten miles, are landed on the right shore, and "foot it" about two miles, — the depth of water being insufficient to float the steamer. But the walk is delightful, affording one a good opportunity more minutely to examine the trees and foliage. Here are several species of palm ; the smooth is the common species, but the velvet or ribbon palm is a rarity. From the ground, up three feet, the body is composed of a great number of green twigs, giving to the tree the semblance of a splint broom, the splints entering the earth and forming the roots. The trunk, above the point of junction with these twigs, runs up sometimes thirty feet, and appears as if a ribbon two inches broad, and of a whitish color, was wound around it, at intervening distances of about four inches. The broader spaces are dark, and are covered with soft velvet moss. At the top of this tree are many arching leaves, some of which are twenty feet long, and resemble those of the common palm. There is also the prickly palm. Its peculiarity consists in the fact that the body or trunk is smallest at the base, and is covered with long stiff thorns, which point towards the ground. The lipibs grow down- wards. We have seen another of those stately trees before UNPLEASANT DETENTION. 291 described. Its trunk is about eighty feet in girth, measured on the surface, and yet in no place is the distance through the body, distinct from the bastions, more than two feet. Those bastions are about six inches in thickness and ten feet in depth at the bottom, tapering gradually to the point at which they meet, about fifteen feet from the ground, and form a cylindrical column, rising forty or fifty feet. We have completed our "transit" by the Company on foot, and are on board the craft which will convey us to Virgin Bay, the point on lake Nicaragua at which we take mules for San Juan-del- Sud. But here we are detained, and compelled to submit to most oppressive exactions, until the arrival of the steerage passengers. This is a wild spot ; no human habitation accessible, no possibility of obtaining one, even, of the indispensables to sustain life, except to purchase of the agents of the Company. But as every dark picture has some light shades, so our troubles are mitigated by the beautiful scenery that surrounds our solitude, and the novelties that constantly appear. The huge alligator makes us frequent calls. He swims silently around the vessel, blinking his treacherous eyes as he watches every article dropped into the water, and waits an opportunity to become better acquainted with his visitors. The sharks are not inattentive to us, but float slowly at a respectful distance, as if they had some recollections of small boats and har- poons. Large fish, of many varieties, are continually ex- hibiting their shiny sides, and the mellow notes of unnum- bered songsters tend materially to alleviate the irksomeness of our delay. The Transit Company will doubtless claim the credit of providing those blessings, as we prob- ably should not have enjoyed them, if we had not been imprisoned in these forests. 292 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. A gentleman has just exhibited a species of the cane, culled, by those assuming to know its name, bamboo. The specimen has been accurately measured, and found to be eighty-eight feet in height, and but three inches in diam- eter at the root. It is very tough and perfectly straight. It abounds here, and is the material of which the sides and ends of many of the largest buildings are composed. Another night is upon us, contributing its darkness to the gloom of the double solitude by which we are sur- rounded. It has rained to-day, for the first time since we arrived at San Juan-del-Norte ; but the heat is, if possible, more oppressive than it was before the shower. This cir- cumstance is unfavorable to our comfort through the night. The vessel has no sleeping apartments or conveniences, and gives no food to the hungry. Each individual must "shift for himself" in both of these particulars. But many of my companions are much less vigorous than myself, and I should, therefore, be thankful for my good measure of strength, in these untoward circumstances. May the morn- ing dawn on us with some prospect of progress ! " Patience and resignation are the pillars Of human peace on earth ! " ******* " What can we not endure When pains are lessened by the hope of cure ? " May 6th. Here we are, just as the night found us, except the fatigue of our rest. What a night we have had ! Two hundred persons crowded on the open decks of a small steamer, and taxing their ingenuity to obtain a recumbent position ! Mosquitos ! The lice of Egypt were blessings in comparison, both in number and vexation ! THE NICARAGUA RIVER. 293 Their probosces, for point and comparative proportions, cast the elephant's completely into the shade. We neither slept nor rested; but through the ''live-long night " rolled and tumbled, slapped and scratched, kicked and scolded, until daylight brought relief, when, on stepping before the mirror, I was faced by an entire stranger! The scene reminded me of the two Paddies, who, meeting on the high- way, thought they knew each other; but, on closer in- spection, discovering their mutual mistake, one of them says, "Well, honey, I thought it was you, and you thought it was me ; but faith it 's nather of us ! " My face was almost a continuous red blotch. But not being alone in the meta- morphosis, I made a virtue of necessity, and, acting on the principle that ''misery loves company," assumed as compla- cent an air as I could. The steerage passengers arrived about ten o'clock, and now our little craft is truly " Confusion worse confounded.'* Five hundred souls are on board ! the boat is "firing up," and we are to be " under way " by two o'clock. It is two o'clock, and we are off. Countenances begin to brighten. Sweet smiles are taking the places of forbidding scowls on many a fair face, and happy hearts are peering through bright eyes, as we begin to realize that our oppres- sive quarantine is ended. The Nicaragua river is broad, but shallow, and is broken by the rapids which have been named. It is widest and deepest at its source, the lake, and its volume diminishes gradually as it nears the gulf. For the distance of fifteen or twenty miles from Graytown, it is much obstructed by sandbars. At this point the river is separated into two 294 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. channels. One of these, named the Colorado, is discharged into the Gulf of Mexico, a few miles south of the port, and the other, retaining the name of Nicaragua, empties at the town. The latter channel is also divided by the Taura Creek, a few miles from the gulf But above the sand- bars, the river is subject to the peculiarity which has been mentioned, although it receives, in its course, the waters of several large tributaries and of many small streams. The steamer in which we now are, is, at least, four times larger than are those in which we left Graytown, and three times larger than those which were used above the first rapid ; but yet she rides here as safely from all danger as she would in the deepest lake. The beauty of the scenery diminishes as we approach the lakes. The shrubbery is chiefly low, bushy palms, bordered along the river with a plat of short, coarse grass. The land is low and level. Fish are plenty, and are readily caught with a hook. Large salmon, bass and perch, abound. The water used for culinary purposes, and for all domestic uses, is taken from the river. Fruits have disappeared since we left Castillo, and no agricultural or other signs of civilization break the monotony of the primeval scenery. Birds of singular figure and plumage frequently salute us on our way, and seem to regard us as strangers in their strange land. No culinary vegetables are raised along this river, nor are any set on the tables, except beans. Dried peaches are imported. The food is principally salted meats, and fresh fish from the river, with bread occasionally made here of flour brought from New Orleans. The tables, generally, are but indifferently supplied, and the charges are enormous, as I have before had occasion to state. At Castillo, we saw ARTIFICIAL STIMULUS. 295 poultry in the yard of our hotel, but it was inferior in size and general appearance. Two chickens were dressed and placed before our company, at dinner, but the flavor did not very forcibly remind us of home. Fowls, of any descrip- tion, are very few. We have seen no milk nor cream, and we are informed that none is used. Butter is imported, and, when placed before us, is but a single remove from oil. It has none of its native rich taste and fragrance. Tea and coffee, with sugar, are abundant. Liquors of all kinds, and of the best brands, are still more abundant, and are in uni- versal use by natives, resident foreigners and travellers. Most travellers, particularly those of weak constitutions, actually require artificial stimulus to defend them against the very depleting effect of the heat. I resolved to make the transit without the aid of alcohol, but the third day out (the day before yesterday) my energies were so much ex- hausted by the heat that it was feared I would fail to accomplish the journey. I drank a common foot-glass of brandy, seasoned with lemon and sugar, and in the space of half an hour recovered my ordinary degree of strength. I have since used three glasses daily, and have endured the constantly increasing fatigue equally as well as my more robust companions. It is a singular fact that persons can, in this climate, drink, without feeling the least intoxicating influence, a quantity of brandy or wine which, at the north, would deprive them of sensibility. The draught produces immediate and profuse perspiration, but it imparts energy and vigor to the system. I am no advocate for the habitual use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage, but I am fully persuaded that the principle of total abstinence must allow a wide margin for exceptions in the low latitudes. Northern fruits are not seen here, the tropical being, 296 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. with fresh fish, the chief subsistence of the natives. They also eat certain portions of the alligator and lizard. The native fruits are much sweeter and richer in flavor here, tlian they are when brought to the north. We have this moment arrived at Fort San Carlos (St. Charles), at the outlet of Lake Nicaragua. It is an old ruin, standing on high ground above the town, and almost out of sight. It would not command much respect from any small war vessel of modern construction and armament. It is a military defence, designed to enforce the observance of inspection laws and custom-house regulations, by vessels entering the lake. We '' came to," and sent a boat ashore. No other ceremony was required. The castle is built of stone and brick, and is similar in construction to Castillo. Between it and the lake is the town, consisting of about twenty-five small thatched houses, which resemble an old distillery, with its out-houses of pens, sheds and barns, in the northern states. The lake is a beautiful sheet of water, about eighty miles broad and two hundred miles in length. As we proceed on our course, a large range of lofty mountains is visible on the left hand. The decreasing temperature of evening has concentrated the clouds that float around their summits, and given to them the appear- ance of smoke issuing from a crater and floating heavily away in the distance. The whole view very much resembles a volcano, and is a truly sublime object. Near us, on the right, are two solid masses of rock, rising bold and high out of the lake ; and before us is the island of Ometepe, with its two frowning peaks, Madera, four thousand one hun- dred feet high, and Ometepec or Cono-Eptio, five thousand one hundred and fifty feet high. These mountains were once volcanoes, but the war of elements, that "far back in IMPROVEMENTS. 297 the ages " raged within them, has ceased, and now, like the conquered heroes of an hundred victories, they stand, sullen and majestic, amid the trophies of their former grandeur. The sun is now shedding his setting rays over the fair surface of the placid lake. I have enjoyed the mild influ- ence of his morning beams, endured the "heat and burthen" of his mid-day glory, and I would fain go down like him this night to my repose, leaving behind the beautiful influ- ence of a well-spent day — " A peace above all other dignities, A still and quiet conscience." May 7. Arose at four o'clock, this morning, and went on deck ; no, — I slept last night in the open air, on the upper deck, and I should, therefore, say I arose on deck. Five hundred sleepers crowded the two decks of the steamer last night ; no, — another mistake ; — how potent is the force of association ! Five hundred weary travellers, who would gladly have been sleepers^ crowded the two decks. We laid down by turns. I endeavored, by searching, to find six feet by two where I might plant myself ; but the bodies were stowed so closely together, on both deckS;, that I could with much difiiculty put my feet between them, and I remained up, to gaze on the novel exhibition, until after two o'clock, before my turn came. And such decks for human beings ! A heavy dew had fallen, and well moist- ened the dirt and dust, which, by bed-time, were very equally distributed over the whole surface. We literally slept in the mud ! The mosquitos were careful not to be absent on this interesting occasion, but added their comforts to fill the picture. At ten o'clock, we came to anchor near a beautiful island 298 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. in the lake, twelve miles from Virgin Bay. This island is quite large, and is very productive in tropical fruits. A mountain, rising to a great height, comes boldly to the water's edge, and in the darkness of the night frowns gloom- ily down on our little steamer at its rocky base. We an- chored at this point, in obedience to a regulation of the port which prohibits the entry of any vessel after sundown. At five o'clock this morning, we were again "under way," and at ten o'clock were before Virgin Bay. The town is located prominently on the bold shore of the lake, and much resembles Castillo and San Carlos, though it is the largest town. A few Americans are settled here, who have erected dwellings and other buildings, in the modern style, with roofs covered with Spanish tile. Several of our enterpris- ing countrymen have purchased large tracts of land in the vicinity, and intend to cultivate the native fruits, and, if possible, the northern grains and vegetables. A saw-mill is built, and is doing a good business. The forests must therefore produce timber trees. The town has no public buildings or schools. The American, English, Spanish and Mexican flags are flying, and the bustle at the landing- place of the " Transit Company," where the baggage is re- ceived and weighed, together with the herds of mules which are collected for the use of the passengers, imparts an air of enterprise that strangely contrasts with the inaction which elsewhere prevails. Travellers should not part with their mule-tickets until they are astride their mules and are ready to leave ; for, if they do so, the animal will probably be missing among the crowd when it is wanted, and an extra five or twenty dol- lars will be exacted by the dishonest owner for another beast. This is a trick often played here. LANDING AT VIRGIN BAY. 299 From the appearance of the markets, the country is pro- ductive. Oranges, limes, lemons, figs, bananas, yams, plan- tains, egg-plants, cocoa-nuts and other tropical fruits, are on sale at almost every house, and in the streets. The ar- rival of the steamer has doubtless increased the supply in the market. The natives are generally black, and are bet- ter clad than those I have before seen, though the lower class, even here, are nude, excepting the scanty covering about their hips. The women are generally " undressed" to the waist, and their garments reach nearly to the knee. We were landed from the steamer in a launch connected with the shore by a rope, the Company having no dock. Passengers are detained on board several hours, awaiting the landing of the baggage, and when that is done, the rush to ''go ashore " is so great, that life is often jeoparded ; chil- dren and feeble passengers are trampled upon; the launch is overloaded, and is sometimes upset; and valuable property, and even human life, is often lost in the transit from the steamer to the shore.* In the first case, it is adding in- sult to injury to tell the passenger that the " Transit Com- pany" may be answerable for the damages; for the injured parties are far from home, in a strange land, on a long jour- ney, and they must leave in the connecting steamer in a few hours. The luggage having been weighed and marked, is here packed on mules across the country, at fifteen cents the pound. The load is bound on the animal's back, a trunk or other article being placed on either side, with sometimes a third one between them. Two hundred pounds is the common burthen. Small articles are deposited in large * In Feb., 1854, a launch was capsized at Virgin Bay, Lake Nicaragua, and twenty-four passengers were drowned. 300 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. bags, made of dried hides. The riding mule wears a rope bridle, and a tolerable Mexican saddle, with wooden stir- rups. About one o'clock, p. m., we were "on our winding way " to the Pacific. This is the portion of my journey which I had dreaded most, and I started with many mis- givings and fears. I had listened to the tales, related by other travellers, of their dangers and hair-breadth escapes, and great fatigues. But the mule-ride from Virgin Bay to San Juan-del-Sud was the glory of the whole voyage, un- attended with fatigue, safe, and delightfully romantic. The heat was oppressive, but the road was excellent. For about one-half of the distance the country is very level, and the road is nearly an air line ; but the remainder of the way is a winding track through undulating or rolling land, which rises, at length, into a lofty mountain. Along the side of this mountain, and over it, the path is laid. There we were, scattered along for several miles, chatting in groups, singing and laughing. Now a mule would start off at the top of his speed, despite the rider's power of con- trol. Suddenly it would turn short and run for the woods. Off would go the rider and his carpet-bag, if he carried one, and after the stubborn donkey would start two or three muleteers, followed by the merry laugh of the crowd. Now a mule would stop short, when neither pats nor blows could start it, but one word from the muleteer, so well understood by the beast, would put it in motion. In this way we went forward, halting occasionally at the thatched hovels on the way for rest and refreshment, until five o'clock, when we caught from the lofty hill-side our first view of that mighty ocean whose waters wash nearly half the globe. It was a thrilling sight to me ; one which, until twenty days ago, I had never even hoped to behold. Now THE GOVERNMENT OF NICARAGUA. 801 the roll of the restless surf falls upon our ears ! How regular its return ! How heavy and solemn its dash upon the sand ! How high and broad it comes in from the coral caves ! The country along the transit road is not cultivated, but in the interior fruits are grown, and cattle, sheep, swine and poultry, are raised. The live stock, however, is inferior in quality, and is never in the condition which a northerner would call fat. An inferior breed of horses is here groAvn. The distance travelled by us on the lake is eighty miles, being from Fort San Carlos to Virgin Bay, thence the distance is twelve miles to San Juan -del- Sud. The true length of way, therefore, from ship to ship, on the word of the Company's agent, is two hundred and seven miles. The government of Nicaragua is what I should call a military republic. An executive is elected biennially, and has the title of president. The legislature consists of two distinct bodies, one of which may be regarded as the senate or executive council, and the other a house of repre- sentatives. But to sustain this legislature the military is necessary, owing to the factions and jealousies which are continually at work to overturn the government. The shadow of a judicial organization exists, but confidence can- not be reposed in the courts. No ofifences but the political are punished with death, and any criminal can purchase pardon, after conviction, by consenting to shoulder his musket, and become a partisan of the administration. A system of common schools is established by law, but they are opened in only a few of the larger cities. The native Indians of this country claim to be of Cas- tilian descent, but their physiognomy and physical forma- tion, however, too certainly indicate their extraction. The 26 302 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. Indians, Negroes, and Spaniards, by intermarriage, have produced a race superior to either, and which holds control of political affairs. The ancient city of Leon was the capital, but the seat of government has been lately removed to Managua, though I am told it is still practically at the former place. The people, especially the lower classes, are small, well-formed and athletic, but they are not cour- ageous. I had an example at Virgin Bay. My luggage being weighed and its transportation paid, I mounted my mule and started, taking with me, by consent of the proper agent, a carpet-bag containing my valuable papers. When I had proceeded about one third of a mile, a native in regi- mentals, and bearing an old musket, approached me, and by signs ordered me "to stand." I did so. He looked at my bag, and by signs also showed that something was wi'ong, and that I must return. Here was trouble. My company was ahead, and the return would bring me far in the rear, too far, I feared, for my safety. " Being sure that I was right," I resolved to "go ahead," and accordingly spurred on my donkey. The militaire then seized my reins. In a moment, and with as bold a look as I could assume, I drew a revolver, and pointing it directly at his hand, signified by motions that he must let go his hold. Contrary to my fears, he dropped the rein and politely bowed me on my journey ! My pistol, by the way, was unloaded, but he of course was ignorant of that fact. My companions ahead, who witnessed the encounter, set up a shout at the result ; and, on looking back at my assailant, lo ! he was shouting as loud as any of them ! The higher classes in the cities and interior are refined and intelligent, and many of them are well educated. The lower classes are very ignorant and vicious; are THE NICARAGUANS. 303 much addicted to theft, profanity, gambling, and licentious- ness, but they are seldom guilty of robbery or murder. Generally these more daring and aggravated crimes are perpetrated by foreigners ; and, I regret to record, on the statement of Americans who live here, that our own coun- trymen are not an exception. It appears to be as natural for the Nicaraguans to play at cards as to breathe. Many of the lower classes may with propriety be called heathens. That they worship idols, not referable to any Roman Catho- lic ceremony, is certain. I conversed with several of them, who have some knowled^ie of the Eno;lish lano;uao;e, and found them as ignorant of a Supreme Being, and of any gospel creed, as the most benighted heathen in the darkest portion of the earth. They knew positively nothing on those subjects ; and, certainly, any pagan knows as much. The majority of the Spanish and the mixed races are Roman Catholics ; and I deem it justifiable to say that Popery in all this country is practically a very different institution from Popery in the United States. It is imperious and exacting to the last degree of severity. "Money, money, money," is the continual cry of the priests; and to get it indulgences are sold like goods in the market, and even for it the churches are defiled with prostitution. The chime of bells is heard several times daily, when both sexes are seen wending their way to the old, crumbling piles. The call is doubtless to a regular ceremonial, — the mass or the con- fessional ; but no traveller in this country needs to be told of the scenes which sometimes follow among the lower orders. Popery has cast over the mind and conscience of the mass of this people the dark pall of venality and igno- rance. Years must pass away before much improvement can be made in either their social or political condition, 304 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. even under the influence of the enterprising and purifying spirit of this age. I must here close my journal for the day which is gone. It has been one of the most eventful of my life. When this lovely spring returned with its promise of '' sweet birds and sweet flowers," I expected to enjoy it with my family at home. I had not then dreamed that the seventh day of May would throw its evening shadows around me on a for- eign shore ; that I should then be gazing at sunset on the rolling surges of that vast ocean, whose waters lash the western borders of my native land. Truly, " There 's a Divinity that shapes our ends, Rough-hew them as we will." CHAPTER III. San Juan-del-Sud, Continuation of the Voyage, Pacific Ocean, Incidents, Views, Debarkation at San Francisco, etc. May 7th. San Juan-del-Sud, in general characteris- tics, is not distinguishable from the other towns on the way. It is situated on the shore of a small bay, and is surrounded on all sides, except that which opens to the ocean, by high mountains. It has no streets ; — about thirty buildings, stand- ing along the border of the sandy beach, and distant from the water about ten rods, being the whole town. They are framed and clapboarded, have shingled roofs, and are painted on the weather side ; but have no interior elegance nor con- venience. The town has no churches, schools nor public buildings. The population consists of about two hundred natives, Mexicans and Americans. The Pacific is the best hotel, but this is not as good as either public house at Virgin Bay or at Castillo. We see no salted meats on the tables. All the viands are fresh, and of the hardest quali- ty. No vegetables but red beans are set before the guest. Butter cannot be kept here, the temperature of the climate being too high. Fruits of many kinds are on sale, and are freely used by all classes of people. With respect to these luxuries we adopt the invariable practice of the natives. They eat fruits freely in the morning, but not at any other times. May 8th. The first day of another week, the Sabbath. 2G* 306 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. But how different its observance by the multitude around me, and its influence on my own feelings, from all the pre- vious Sabbaths of my life ! Even the last had charms which are strangers to this. I was then on ship-board ; the ship in port. Those who felt no respect for the day were on shore; and although no Sabbath bell summoned the professed disciples of the Redeemer to his " temple, made with hands," yet comparative quiet and decorum pre- vailed. But now confusion reigns. The mules with their burthens are arriving from Virgin Bay, and the passengers are anxiously watching to find their luggage. To look after it, is deemed a work of necessity. No ti-aveller's mind is at rest until he and his property are safely on the vessel. At ten o'clock the boom of a cannon on board the Brother Jonathan (Captain Baldwin commander), which lies far out in the bay, announced that her decks were ready to receive her burthen. The small boats, manned with na- tives and sailors, were put in motion to convey the passen- gers and baggage on board. The steam-ship company is probably too poor to build a wharf either there or at Virgin Bay. Those who are too timorous to wade three rods to the small boats, in water perhaps three inches deep, are carried on the backs of natives for two bits, or twenty cents. Ladies should be carried ; but I must confess that a man weighing, perhaps, two hundred pounds, astride the neck of a slender native of not half that solidity, is in my eyes a laughable sight. One leg thrown over the narrow shoul- der of the little bearer, the other held by the latter to his opposite side, and both the rider's sturdy arms clasped around the native's neck, were a combination which remind- ed me of an uncouth animal I have seen about the hotels LEAVING SAN JUAN-DEL-SUD. 307 here, called the house-crab. This creature has a very large body and two strong legs, but he walks about the floor on two slender ones, that tremble at every step beneath the over-burthen ! Taking advantage of the receding surf, I walked safely to the small boat on the clean white sand, wetting only the soles of my boots. The '' go-aheaders " waded far out into the surf, and so great was their anxiety to reach the steamer that the lives of all were put in jeopardy by over-crowding and thus upsetting the treacherous crafts. Travellers must procure the conveyance of their property to the beach from the " Transit Company's" store-house, where it is delivered to the owner on the receipt of a check. The distance is about twenty rods, and the cost " two bits " for each article. From the beach it is conveyed on board the steamer by the Company. The labor of selecting your own from the great mass of luggage with which it is mixed, and getting it upon the beach, requires your personal atten- tion and vigilant watchfulness. The embarkation is labori- ous, expensive, and dangerous. At one o'clock, p. m., all was ready; the cannon boomed again ; the huge iron wheels began to revolve ; the steamer veered from her mooring to her course of N. w. half w., and in a few minutes San Juan-del- Sud was but a dusky speck upon the surface of the ocean. Now we are out to sea, and the same scene is commenced on ship-board that I witnessed on the Prometheus. The purser is assigning state-rooms and table-seats to passen- gers, and the deck hands are arranging and stowing away luggage. The ship's order is the same, substantially, as that of the Prometheus, but the Brother Jonathan is much the larger vessel. 308. JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. We are now in sight of the western shore of this conti- nent. It presents a broken range of mountains of consider- able elevation, with no perceptible level between them and the water. In the interior more lofty mountains are seen, the tops of some of which are lost in the clouds. The sur- face of the nearer ones is of a yellowish-green color, resem- bling that of northern lands in autumn. Those more distant appear like immense clouds, and, being illuminated by the sun, they shine with great brilliancy. Sometimes they look like huge mountains of silver looming up alone and unap- proachable, against the blue sky. It is now evening. This Sabbath has not been one of rest, either to the body or to the mind. Confusion and excitement have ruled the day. But I am soon to disrobe for the first time since I left Graytown, and lay my head on a cleanly pillow for repose. As I look at the middle berth in state-room "J," assigned to me, I long to stretch my weary limbs upon it. It is on the " starboard " side of the ship, abaft the wheel, and as the breezes here come from the land, they must always give me a call. *' Thou boundless, shining, glorious sea ! With ecstasy I gaze on thee ; And, as I gaze, thy billowy roll Wakes the deep feelings of my soul." May 9th. " The sleep of the laboring man is sweet," and so was mine during the last night. Refreshed and thankful, I left my pillow at five o'clock. The weather was clear and the ocean calm ; but about midnight the wind blew violently, the waves ran high, and the old vessel rocked like a cradle. A man sleeping out on deck barely escaped, by the aid of a fellow-traveller, a briny bath over the side of the steamer. PIG OVERBOARD. 309 We are in the broad blue ocean, no land is in sight, and we are making good progress. Thousands of blackfish sur- round the vessel. They are close under her sides and dis- tinctly visible. Occasionally, they show ten feet or more out of the water. They resemble the porpoise in figure and color, and the largest is about fifteen feet in length. A swine has just escaped from the pen and jumped over- board. Away it swims in the track of the ship, and it is impossible to recover the rash porker. It sinks and rises with the swells, and its legs are flying like the paddle-wheels of a steamboat. The sharks will feast on its fat sides, unless it sink below the level of their accustomed range before they " snuff the scent." In the romantic days of my boyhood, I had a passion for tales of the sea. The fictions of "Robinson Crusoe" and " Sinbad the Sailor," with remarkable shipwrecks and the narratives of voyages to distant countries, inspired my young imagination, and I often resolved to have " A life on the ocean wave, A home on the rolling deep." But time passed on ; my age matured ; the stern realities of life were cast upon me, and my early tastes became changed. But this wild adventure of mine has, in a remarkable degree, revived my young desires, and I often find myself seated with the sailor, late at night, listening with deep and increasing interest to his " long yarns," or his songs of the sea. The tar delights in relating to the credulous landsman his stories of hair-breadth escapes, and to sing his ditties of love, as he paces the lonely deck, or swings in his hammock during the hours of his rest. The dry distinctions of " me- um and timm'^ he never studied ; but he " carries his heart 310 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. in his hand," and is always what he appears to be. What he possesses is freely another's, and he feels that another's should be his own. That is his interpretation of the " Golden Rule : " '' Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." A practical and con- venient application of the text to be made on ship-board. One of the steerage passengers cannot be found. Search has been made in all parts of the vessel. He was not missed until to-day, at dinner. None of his companions have seen him since last evening. He has, probably, fallen overboard. The presumption is, that he came on deck in the night, and, either by accident, or with the intention of destroying him- self, stepped over the side of the ship. Thus, two of our fellow-passengers, who sailed from the port of New York with higher hopes and fairer prospects than my own, have disappeared, in fearfully rapid succession, and in the full vigor of health and manly strength, from the world of illu- sions and dreams ! This event occupied the attention of the company for an hour; many surmises were expressed, many regrets; but now it is not mentioned ; the children are sporting on the decks, some of the passengers are gaming, others reading, and I am writing up my journal. When we become familiar with death, how slight is the impression it produces on the mind ! We are prone to feel that it is another's fate, and not our own ; and banish the subject as one in which we have no concern. We forget the admonition so beautifully expressed by the Christian poet : " The world can never give The bliss for which we sigh ; 'T is not the whole of life to live. Nor all of death to die ! " A WHALE. 811 " A whale ! A whale ! " resounds from a dozen voices on the starboard. Yes, at the distance of about two miles I see the monster. Now he throws up a large volume of water to a great height. While it spreads and falls, he dives, and, in going down, shows about twenty feet in length from his tail. He remains below a few minutes, and again performs the same evolutions, slightly changing his place. With the whale scene the day closes. The ship at noon had made one hundred and seventy-six miles from our port of departure. An accident happened to her larboard wheel about mid-day, but it was soon repaired, and she is now under headway, with a fair wind, and the prospect of a blow during the night. At this still evening hour, where are my cherished ones 7 What, and of whom, are their thoughts ? " My friends, do they now and then send A wish or a thought after me 7 ' ' May 10th. I was out at five o'clock. The sky is over- cast, but the ocean has resumed its calm, smooth surface. The steamer is yet on her course of w. N. w. half w. About ten o'clock, last night, the wind breezed up from the west, and for about two hours was high and strong. It rained copiously, and the swells ran high. I observed that the motion of the ship was steadier than it is in a calm. She varied not her course, as I could discover, a hair's breadth. Just before the rain our state-room received a visit from the schoolmaster who gave us lessons on the Prometheus. I knew him by " that same old hat," and the peculiar " cut" he gives it on his " Capitumy He very coolly examined my pockets, which fortunately contained nothing of value. While he was thus employed, one of my room-mates discov- 812 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. ered him and made a noise, upon wliich our instructor seated himself on the door-sill. Mj companion, supposing the per- son he saw was myself, gave no further attention, but when the visitor took his seat, the former called to me, and receiv- ing an answer from my berth, began to suspect that all was not right, and cried " Who 's there ? " The dignitary said, " I did n't know as this was a state-room. I am sitting here to enjoy the breeze." This reply was manifestly false, for we had seen his proceedings among my clothes. On being interrogated whether he found the breeze in my pockets, he vamosed^ leaving us to our dreams. The dark clouds have disappeared ; the sky and water have put on their silvery brightness, and all faces around me are smiling and cheerful in the prospect of a fairer and cooler day. I say cooler day, because a cool one here is not among the possible blessings to be enjoyed. The days and nights are not only warm but hot. The breezes are warm, but they promote our comfort essentially, the motion being an agreeable change in the usually inactive state of the air on the ocean, as well as on the land, in these latitudes. No land is in sight, nor have we descried a sail since we left port. We are approaching the locality known by sea- faring men as the Pacific whaling ground, but at this time nothing is visible but the monotonous scene of sky, water, and vessel. A novelty to the northerner, in these low latitudes, is the apparent relative position of the North Star. In the state of New York it appears at an angle of about 40° above the horizon. At San Juan-del-Norte it was found to be at an elevation of only 12°. As the equator is neared, the voyager rises on the earth's surface and the horizon also rises. Thus A RUSE. 313 the distance between the horizon and that star is constantly diminishing until the equator is reached, when it is but just visible. "A whale ! a whale ! " cries a passenger, who had been long on his feet on the quarter-deck. Up jump a dozen or more, curious to catch a view of the ocean king. •' Where, where 's the whale?" is the general inquiry. "Who's seen a whale? Who cried whale?" inquired a silk-stock- inged gentleman of a passenger who was then seating him- self in the easy-chair which the inquirer had just vacated. " Who cried whale, sir? " "I did, if you please," said the comfortably-seated gentleman. "Where is he?" "That, sir, is the question I can't answer ! " The point was dis- covered. A general laugh, and resolve not to jump up again at the cry of " whale," ended the joke. "A little nonsense, now and then, Is relished by the best of men." The steamer at noon has made 222 miles, thus bringing us 398 miles from San Juan-del-Sud, and 2716 miles from New York. May 11th. A bright and lovely morning. A mild breeze from the N. w. The ship is yet on her original course of N. w. half w. The surface of the ocean is smooth, and young whales, porpoises and black-fish, are keeping us merry company. The last night was stormy, the rain descended in torrents, the wind was high, fitful and bluster- ing. I was awakened during the conspiracy of the elements to disturb my slumbers, by the spray they cast upon me through the window and door ; but the bath being rather grateful than otherwise, I adjusted the curtain to protect my face and pillow, and bade old Neptune and Boreas 27 314 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. " Fan me briskly while I 'm sleeping. Sprinkle o'er your briny dew; You shall never catch me weeping. The good ship shall bear me through! " The tables of this steamer are better supplied than were those of the Prometheus. The variety of dishes is greater. The beeves and other stock are taken on board alive, and slaughtered on the way, when animal food is wanted. May 12th. Another bright morning dawns to delight the hearts of the weary voyagers in the Brother Jonathan. Here we are ; no land in sight ; no sail, nor whale, nor even a bird. Our course is yet w. N. w. half w. The steamer is thus put "out to sea " to avoid the breakers Avhich surround cape St. Lucas, the southern extremity of the promontory of California. We are now off Acapulco, in Mexico. This is the most important city of that government on the Pacific. It stands on a beautiful bay, protected from winds by lofty hills or mountains, and contains, now, about four thousand inhabitants, though it formerly numbered fifteen thousand. It is built in the style of all the old Spanish cities, having a large plaza or market-place, on one side of which is the principal church, and on the other sides are the public buildings and offices of the various function- aries. The streets are narrow and very irregular. But little attention is paid to education. The Catholic priesthood at- tend to that department, which is regarded as belonging appropriately to the church. It is not strange that a peo- ple, thus educated and indoctrinated, cannot preserve either a representative form of government or public tranquillity, which is so essential to prosperity under any other form. The business of the city is small, but is increasing yearly ACAPULCO. 315 from the intercourse of the world with California. The American mail-steamers, and many other vessels, touch here to "coal and wood," get fresh water, and other sup- plies. Scarcely a week passes in which this place is not shaken bj an earthquake. Last December a large portion of it was destroyed by one of these terrible visitations, and the principal church, which, with all the other buildings, is built of stone, was rent from foundation to steeple-top. It now appears liable to fall at any moment. It is said that the weather is more oppressively hot at Acapulco, during the long dry seasons, than in any other city in North Amer- ica, the thermometer often standing at 120° in the shade, at mid-day, for many successive weeks. It is surrounded by high hills which deprive it of the aid of the winds to cool the air, and it is literally " founded on a rock," which, with the stone buildings, strongly reflect the rays of the burning sun. In the palmy days of the city, when Cortez occupied it, the celebrated opening through the hills of a passage to let in the air, called the " wind gap," was cut. It also serves as a road, and at that early day must have been a great work, requiring the labor of thousands of men for many years. The citizens are mostly swarthy Mexicans, who appear to be ignorant, treacherous and indolent. These, with a few more intelligent merchants and officials, and about two hundred foreigners, make up the population. The Mexicans indulge a strong prejudice against Americans. It is difficult to define the government. The department or district is ruled by '' aman in regimentals," who is wealthy, and lives in the city. He speaks of the people as his sub- jects, decides all questions of law or duty, and resists or obeys at pleasure the requisitions of the executive at tlie 316 capital. I understand he was one of Santa Anna's general officers in the war of Mexico with the United States. He controls directly or indirectly the inferior civil officers, and is in fact dictator. Acapulco has no charms. The last day's distance made by the steamer is 236 miles. She is, therefore, 874 from her last port, and 3192 miles distant from the city of New York. May 13th. Left my pillow this morning at five o'clock. What a cerulean sky and brilliant sun ! Not a cloud, even "as big as a man's hand," is to be seen. How inimitably the horizon blends in the misty distance with the deep-blue surface of the ocean ! And such a surface ! So calm and smooth ! Not a zephyr presumes to ruffle it ! So broad, and pure, and bright ! It looks a celestial mirror, radiant with reflections from a brighter world. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the Pacific is this calm surface. It will often last several hours, particu- larly in the morning, when it looks like a limitless expanse of liquid glass. Its motion is then sluggish and heavy, like molten metals. To this appearance its name is attributed. But this ocean is sometimes heaved by storms, though they are less violent and destructive than those on the Atlantic. When w^e are favored with breezes or winds, they generally blow in the night, but are back to their sources on the land before morning. This has been a very still, uninteresting day on board. The heat has been oppressive, and the passengers have gen- ally kept their beds or lounged lazily around the decks. But * " Patience and resignation are tlie pillars Of human peace on earth." The ship has made but 212 miles, putting us 1086 miles GULF OF CALIFORNIA. 317 from ''the Sud," and 3304 from New York ; and here I close mj record of this. " melting time." May 14th. 0, fickle, fickle ocean ! when last I bade thee good-night, thy face was like Beauty's. Not a line of disquiet was on it, not a breath disturbed its repose. Sur- rounded by the glories of a lovely evening, unnumbered twinkling stars, a full-orbed moon and the pallid, silver sky, I took my leave, resolved to meet thee at the earliest dawn ! The morning has appeared, but where are thy evening charms ! " Gone like the baseless fabric of a vision, And left not a wreck behind ! ' ' We have arrived within the influence of the blows and rough seas which are so common in the Gulf of California. This gulf is affected by land-winds from the north, east and west. They sometimes increase to considerable storms. We shall be in them for one or two days. The swells roll heavily. But few of the passengers are able to be on their feet, and all are drooping. We have a revised edition, improved and enlarged, of the comical scenes of the first three days of the voyage ; long faces, neglected toilets, and stomach qualms. What a mystery is sea-sickness ! What a medley of con- tradictions — inexplicable contraries ! Now, the voyager is in fine spirits, impatient for dinner. But suddenly a ripple darkens the ocean ; in a few minutes the wind rises and the steamer begins to roll and rock. He is prostrate, languid and pale, disturbed by no word so much as dinner ! The blow ceases. It was but a blow. The steamer rocks and rolls no more, and the voyager is well, regretting nothing so much as the loss of the dinner. But I am about "anchored" myself, and my curiosity to understand the philosophy of sea-sickness is ebbing fast. I 27^ 318 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. am every moment becoming more immediately concerned with its practical mysteries. At noon the ship had made but 186 miles in the preced- ing nautical day. We are, therefore, 1272 miles from our last port of departure, and 3490 miles from New York. My head is dizzy, my hand trembles, my stomach fails, I am done ! May 15th. The Sabbath. The ocean is yet rough, but its violence is spent. The white caps are no more seen, but the long swells are annoying. I am sea-sick. That one word contains a long chapter, and I will lay my journal aside for the day. merely remarking that the wind is from the north-west. We are crossing the Gulf of California, and expect to be off Cape St. Lucas by three o'clock, after which we hope for a calmer sea. Seven o'clock, p. M. We have now passed the cape, and are again on the broad ocean. We begin to feel a sensible change in the weather. On no day of the voyage, at this hour, has it been so cool. We shall see no more very warm days. The temperature is at this moment twelve degrees lower than that of noon ! We are going out to sea ; no land is in sight ; no objects but sky and water are visible ; the surface is dark and rough ; the white caps are thickly scattered over it ; but the swells g^re greatly reduced, and the steamer rides smoothly and fleetly on them. Our sea-sickness is passing away, and we anticipate a night of comfortable repose, for *' Weariness Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth Finds the down pillow hard." May 16th. A bracing morning. The surface rough, MARGARITA. 319 the sky clear, the "wind north-west. Land in plain sight, at the distance of about six miles. It is a long, continuous bank of yellow sand ; but not the golden sand. It is piled up in very uniform height, about five hundred feet, against the sky, and appears in beautiful contrast with the dark water and bright white clouds. The summit has a darkish fringe, which, I presume, is vegetation ; but the view is so distant that this point cannot be determined. It is the west- ern shore of the promontory of California. This promontory is about six hundred miles in length, by one hundred in breadth. It belongs to Mexico, but is, at present, of very inconsiderable importance, except in respect to the future. Contrary to my hopes, we are receding from the land. It is now scarcely distinguishable from the clouds, appearing only a narrow, yellow streak, just above the surface of the water. Ahead, and more clearly visible, is one of the islands of Margarita, lying near to the main land. The view is much more picturesque than that of the promontory, but we are to approach still nearer. The southern extremity is a bold and lofty mountain, stretching far off to the west, until it sinks down and is lost in the bosom of the ocean. It appears like a dark, dense cloud resting on the water, and sloping back in irregular elevations, which are distinctly marked by the bright clouds behind and above ^ the view. Upon nearer sight, the formation of the island is easily apparent. It is, undoubtedly, volcanic, and now exhibits nothing but dry, barren masses of yellow clay and coarse rocks. It has no springs, and is inhospitable. It sustains no vegetation. The white surf is dashing wildly upon its rocky shore. About two months ago, on the western point of this island. 320 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. the ill-fated steamship "Independence"' was wrecked. The ship being old, many people believed, at first, that she was intentionally run on the rocks, to enable the owners to collect the amount of insurance which had been taken upon her ; but Capt. Baldwin discredits the story. He says the commander did not deviate from the ordinary track, but misjudged as to his distance from the rock, which is discov- erable at low tide but is flooded at high water. The acci- dent occurred about five o'clock in the morning ; the weather was hazy, and it was the commander's first trip. He de- signed to pass the rock a mile ofi*, but mistook liis position. The ship struck, and was run in shore as far as possible, in the hope of saving the lives of the passengers, but she took fire, and by the double calamity about one hundred and twenty lives were lost. The Brother Jonathan was run close in, that we might see the wreck and rock. The island is just fading from view. It appears to be either a chain of barren rocks and clay, about twenty miles in length, or one connected mass running down at several points to the surface of the water. A cousin of mine, by marriage, was on board the lost ship, but I have not learned his fate. His residence is in Ohio, and he went to California as an adventurer. He left a pleasant home, a competence, and a lovely family. " Man never is but always to be blest." The ship to-day has made 203 miles. We are, therefore, 1675 miles from San Juan-del-Sud, and 3893 miles from New York. May 17th. A bright morning. The ship is yet on her course of w. N. w. half ^y., and is a long distance from land. We have again a real Pacific surfiice. — smooth and glassy. WHALES AGAIN. 321 with a gentle, heavy, rolling motion. It is_covered with spangles produced by the reflection of the rays of the sun from the water. If the eye is fixed on them for a few min- utes, they look like a shower of sparkling brilliants falling into the ocean. The illusion is so complete that they seem to strike and rebound before they disappear. A whale ! a whale ! cry numerous voices around me. Yes, there is a whale ! a real monster, over our starboard bow ! It is so near us that we can distinctly see its form, dimensions, and motions. It is just ahead, and is crossing our track. It is a large, " right whale." Now it rises, discovering about a third of its length, swims for a few moments on the surface, blows a large, scattered volume of water into the air, dives, exhibiting its huge tail, and is out of our sight. The same scene is often repeated as it ploughs its lumbering course through the briny element, and passes away to its undiscovered haunts " In the deep, deep sea." Last night, for the first time since I left New York, bed- covering was necessary. I have put on my flannels, which, during the last fifteen days, have been laid off. The ladies appear in warm dresses, and we have a season of general rejoicing. The breakfast- table presented agreeable evidences of the happy change, the butter being no longer a yellow oil, but having a very natural consistence. The thermom- eter stands twenty-five degrees below its point for the last eighteen days. Whales ! whales ! whales ! is again the cry. Yes, three of their whaleships are now in sight over our starboard. One of them is a " soggy" old veteran. It leads the van, and, in the judgment of several persons present who are '6ZZ JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE. ETC. accustomed to see them, is eighty feet in length. It swims very much out of the -water. The other two are, I think, younger, as they spout and dive much oftener. The flat tail of the largest, as it is lifted to our view when the whale sinks, appears to be about ten feet broad. We are now passing over the Pacific whaling grounds. It is not uncom- mon to meet many vessels "lying to" here, taking and " cutting in " whale, but none have yet been seen by us. The change we have experienced in the temperature has corrected an error which I have always entertained respect- ing the liability of persons to take colds at sea. Many of the passengers are now affected w^ith severe colds. "V\Tiile the course is east or w^est, the temperature is quite uniform ; but when it is north or south, changes must, of course, be met, and no good reason can be given why they should not aifect the voyager as well as the landsman. We have this day made two hundred and fifteen miles, and are now one thousand eight hundred and ninety miles from San Juan-del- Sud, and four thousand one hundred and eight miles from the city of New York. Thus, every set- ting sun drops his sable curtain around us, further and further away from our homes, but nearer and nearer to the haven of our hopes. He is sinking again into his western bed, leaving behind a clear sky and peaceful sea, with no object in view so beautiful as his own retiring glories. " The stars beam from their vaulted dome, And glitter in the glassy wave, The wandering night-bird leaves her home, And seeks the pebbled shore to lave. The mountain breeze from off the height, Surcharged with fragrance rich and free. Wafts ambient through the silent night, And spreads an incense o'er the sea." WHALES — TRACK OF THE STEAMER. 323 May 18th. A cloudy, misty morning, with a cool atmosphere, but with very unpleasant swells. The course of the ship is north-west, the breeze from the west. No sail or other object in sight. The sailors are hoisting can- vas to give the impetus of the winds to our speed. The passengers have greatly abated in vivacity and activity ; the fall of the mercury having produced a corresponding depression of animal spirits. The gentlemen wrapped in over-coats, and the ladies in shawls, are seated before the doors of their state-rooms, employed in efforts to be social. A fire would be very agreeable ; it is almost necessary. This is the first time that whales have been numerous: They are spouting and diving in every direction. Many of them are small, but several are very large. They appear like families that are abroad to take the fresh mornino- air, or they may have come out to pay their respects to the s^teamer, whose majestic course through their native fields cannot but attract their attention. I have just been viewing with admiration the track of the steamer. It is about forty feet wide, and no view con- nected with the ocean can be more beautiful. It presents three distinct colors, inimitably intermingled and constantly changing position, proportion and hues. The ground is deep blue, thickly clouded and waved with a light, bright green. Over the whole floats a delicate pearly-white froth, or frost-work. Occasionally, the rays of the sun striking upon them burnish all these colors, and tip the white edges of the frost-work with sparkling spangles. Nature is truly a perfect limner, and she has the advantage over her imita- tors in her powers to invest the touches of her pencil with motion and ceaseless variety. This gorgeous ocean-ribbon 324 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. is the production of the paddle-wheels and action of th^ steamer. The ship to-day has made two hundred and twenty miles. We are, therefore, two thousand one hundred and ten miles from our last port of departure, and four thousand three hundred and twenty-eight miles from the Atlantic emporium. *' Slow sinks, more lovely since his race is run, Along * the ocean's verge,' the setting sxm ; Not as in northern climes, obscurely bright. But one unclouded blaze of living light ! O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws, Gilds the ' blue ' wave that trembles as it glows.'' May 19th. " Morn slowly rolls the clouds away." The last night was dark and gloomy. A chilly dense fog rested over the face of the deep. But the sun has risen clear and bright, and foretells a fine, fair day. He is gradually folding up the storm curtains, and hanging out, for our admiration, his most beautiful morning drapery. The ship's course is changed. She is now headed to port — north-west one point west. We are not far from shore ; hence the night fogs. The mail steamer John L. Stephens, from San Francisco at noon on Monday last, passed us outside at seven o'clock this morning, bound to Panama. She gave us a fine idea of our own appearance on our upward way. Under the power of steam, no canvas spread to aid her, regardless of wind and wave, she flew by us like an ocean bird. Her foaming track, straight as the arrow from an Indian's bow, was plainly visible upon the water for a long distance behind her ; and the dense smoke from her lofty chimney trailed in graceful undulations far away in her rear, until, expand- ISLE OF ST. SALVADOR. 325 ing in the air, it rested against the sky, a white and shining cloud. As this majestic specimen of human skill faded in the distance and disappeared, I turned from the scene with enlarged conceptions of the perfectibility to which science and art are rapidly bringing the inventions of genius, and the complete dominion to which they are reducing the natural elements and applying them to promote the interests and happiness of mankind. It is not many years since a calm was the sailor's dread ; now, wdth steam for a propeller, he speeds on his course, and laughs at the storm-king asleep in his caves. Now, when winds oppose him, he need not beat a hundred miles to advance thirty; but, with this agent at his command, he defies old Boreas, and yields not a point of the compass, though the blusterer roar and lash the waves into mountains. The voyage from New York to Liverpool or London is not now one ranging between sixty and a hundred days, but is reduced to ten or twelve days ; and friends, three thousand miles apart, may determine the time of their meeting with almost as great certainty as they can at the short distance between New York and Boston. Time and space, and the ocean's storms and calms, have become minor hindrances to human enterprise and ambi- tion. The beautiful island of St. Clemente, or St. Salvador, is I'ust appearing over our larboard. I say beautiful island, because it rises fair and graceful out of the ocean, and stands so lofty and relieved against the sky. At the dis- tance from which we have the view, it does not look like land, but resembles a darkish cloud ; yet, as we approach, the appearance is constantly changing. The bright clouds around and above it very distinctly mark its outline. Now 28 326 it presents the character of its soil, barren clay and rock, with sparse, stinted vegetation. This island is said to be about fifteen or twenty miles long, and is not inhabited. Our track is between it and Santa Catalina, an island lying several miles to the east, but not in view. The shore is very bold, the base of the mountains or highland being washed by the sea. The captain informs me that a portion of the interior is considerably fertile, and that cattle are raised there by the Dons, or gentlemen residing on the main land. A faint blue outline of Santa Catalina may now be seen over our starboard. It is an island similar in formation to St. Clemente, but more fertile. They are both volcanic elevations. Catalina is the higher and larger. The latter, I am told, is inhabited by a few families of Spanish origin ; and cattle and some other stock are pastured in its grass fields. Back of the shore range of mountains is a single elevation peering up, barren, dry and desolate, high into the clouds, and a little to the north of this is a long range of similar peaks extending far into the interior. Immense numbers of very large birds are flying around these summits, and occasionally they swing off over the water and around the steamer, coming so near that we can clearly see their shape, color, and even their eyes. Several of them will measure, I am persuaded, twelve feet from tip to tip of their wings. Their bodies are comparatively small. They have long beaks and webbed feet. They are of differ- ent colors, but mostly of a dark burnished brown. I am informed that the whitish spots appearing on the sides of the mountains are bird-lime, or a species of guano, that the birds are the fabled albatross, and that they will OLD SPAIN. 327 follow vessels for days in succession, especially in stormy weather. There are two smaller islands lying contiguous to these, and they are known as the Santa Barbara and St. Nicholas isles. The steamer, at mid-day, had made 240 miles, and we are thus 2350 miles from our Pacific port of departure, and 4568 from New York. These islands were named by the Spaniards. It may be truly said of old Spain : her empire has extended around the world. But what is her dominion now ! How circum- scribed her ambition — once so vaunted! How humbled and broken her sceptre ! ' ' Clime of the unforgotten brave ! Whose land, from plain to mountain cave, Was freedom's home or glory's grave ! Shrine of the mighty ! can it be That this is all remains of thee! " Except the second and third lines, this stanza of the noble bard would do very well for a requiem to the departed grandeur and glory of the kingdom of Ferdinand and Isabella. May the day yet dawn in which her sons, regenerated and united, shall proclaim her rugged moun- tains and fertile valleys, " Freedom's home or glory's grave ! " We passed the little isle of Santa Barbara over our lar- board, just at night-fall. It is similar in formation to the others. May 20th. A glorious morning ! The surface of the water smooth and bright ; scarcely the ruffle of a zephyr is 328 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. seen. The Brother Jonathan, headed N. w. by N., has both eyes eagerly set on San Francisco, distant about twenty hours' sail. The mail steamer Northerner, from Panama, is in sight, and we are both pressing ahead, in a trivial effort to arrive first within the golden gate. Our position is deemed the more favorable, being further from land, and about ten miles in advance, and our burthen being less than' that of our rival. What a bundle of inconsistencies and contradictions is man ! During the whole voyage several passengers have constantly expressed fears of the unseaworthiness of the steamer, and apprehensions of the integrity of her enginery and the competency and caution of the officers. It has been continually declared among them that the supply of coal was undoubtedly deficient, and numberless ingenious spec- ulations have been rife upon the means of "getting on" when the wheels should stop. But no sooner is the North- erner discovered, than every eye is directed far over the water to learn her true position and speed. "She'll not beat us," says one. "No, she's too far behind," says another. " Our engine is one of the most perfect ever put together, — the same that was in the Atlantic wrecked on the Sound a few years ago." " She '11 go it," cries a third ; "we took in sixteen days' coal at the Sud, and are but twelve days out." In the mean time, the decks are cleared, ropes adjusted, masts slushed (greased), sj^arsset, and every preparation is made to secure the utmost speed. All fear has fled, and the one great desire is to " beat the North- earner." Excitement has dethroned judgment and led captive prudence, among passengers ; ]:»ut confidence may be reposed in the officers of the ship. They are cool and firm. VIEW OF THE COAST. 329 and they will doubtless control her speed within the limits of safety. I am now taking my first distinct view of the land of gold and graves. We are within a few miles of the coast. It is skirted with high mountains, but between these and the shore lies a belt of fertile land, varying in width from one to twenty miles. From the steamer, however, the view is unfavorable, this interval being imperceptible, and the high lands presenting a barren, dry surface, and sparsely covered with a scrubby vegetation. Along the summit of the coast, as far as the eye can reach, hangs a ponderous cloud, which, lighted up by the sun, is snowy white, and in striking contrast with the sombre outline of the broken and sterile mountains. Every few miles, as we proceed up the coast, the lofty chain is broken by valleys which extend back into the interior. These present evidences of fertility and cultiva- tion, — cottages being seen, surrounded with trees, shrub- bery, and many of the comforts of civilization. The mountain sides are covered with wild oats, and the crop, now ripening, gives the dry appearance to the country. These oats are small, and not of any account. Opposite us, at this moment, and far back in the interior, rises a very lofty peak. It stands dark and frowning far above the surrounding points. Clouds hang around the top, and, stretching far down the sides, reveal its rugged gran- deur obscurely to the view. On these mountains are numerous elk, antelope, deer, grizzly bears, and goats. This entire coast is said, by those who have explored it, to be volcanic, and is probably rich in the yellow treasure. As a general characteristic, the mountains rise from their 28* 330 base irregularly and in broken clusters, to heights varying from two hundred feet to two thousand, and sloping grad- ually back against the sky. They are also divided longi- tudinally by deep canons or gorges, at unequal distances, from their summits, to the interval along the shore. In many places they resemble a great number of separate mountains, thrown promiscuously together, and piled one upon another, thus presenting a broken, confused, and ragged scene. We have now arrived before a singular isolated rock, called Point Neuff. It is surrounded by water, is about thirty rods in length by four in breadth, and about seventy- five feet high, in the centre, sloping gradually on all sides down to the water. The surf beats against its rocky base on the ocean side with considerable violence. Herds of cattle are feeding on the shore contiguous, which is a pleasant, green interval. It is now four o'clock, p. M., and we are fast receding from the shore, which is a dingy line scarcely distinguishable from the sky and surrounding clouds. The steamer is standing off Monterey, celebrated as the rendezvous of the American army of occupation in California. Intervening us and the city is Point Pinos, a long stretch of low land, making out into the ocean and forming one arm of the bay. We are now, again, and I presume for the last time, beyond the sight of land. If no delay occur, the Brother Jonathan will, before to-morrow morning, be safely moored at her dock in San Francisco. This pleasant company, fellow-travellers, for thirty days, over pathless oceans, and through semi-civilized regions, partners in toils, fatigues and perils^ will shortly separate, with but doubtful expectation of reuniting on the journey of life. Their hopes are, perhaps^ the same ; but their schemes are as different as their cir ARRIVAL AT SAN FRANCISCO. 331 cumstances ; and their success will be as different as their schemes. Some are returning to their homes in California, and these will rejoice when the long voyage is ended. But a far greater number have left peaceful and quiet firesides and happy family enjoyments, in search of gold ; and to them the perils of the sea will be succeeded by the more hazard- ous risks and treacherous hopes of the miner's life. May none of them ever regret the step they have taken ! May their desires be realized ! But it is not unreasonable to presume that such wishes will be disappointed in respect to many of these adventurers. The history of thousands who have preceded them, will be their history. A very few may be the favorites of the fickle goddess, but a much larger number who have yielded to her allurements will either make their dreamless beds among the treasures that eluded their search, or will return, with broken constitutions and empty pockets, to homes which they ought never to have left for the uncertain results of the miner's life. The steamer has, to-day, made 264 miles. We are 2614 miles from San Juan-del-Sud, and 4832 miles by her track from New York. May 21st. Arose at four o'clock, and found a foggy morning. The steamer had ''laid by" from nine o'clock until the hour of my rising, because it is dangerous to enter the bay of San Francisco in a dark night or a fog. The mail steamer, however, was brought through, and passed us in the night, very much to the chagrin of our passengers. But the captain acted the wiser part, — regarding the safety of the ship and her burthen, of more importance than the empty shouts of a multitude over a victory achieved at the risk of their existence. 11 o'clock, A. M. The steamer has now arrived at Pacific Wharf All is bustle and confusion. The mate is hoarsely 332 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. giving the order to "make fast," and the sailors, in obe- dience, are busy with the ropes and cables. The wharf is crowded with the multitude, hand-carts, drays, and hacks. Many persons are pressing their way on board in search of expected friends, and the weary passengers are collecting their valuables, and preparing to bid the good steamer a joyful farewell. The distance made since noon yesterday is 150 miles. It is, therefore, 2764 miles by the steamer's track from San Juan-del- Sud to San Francisco, and 4982 miles from that city to New York. The voyage is ended. Its perils and pleasures ar^ past. The passengers, excepting the two young men who died, have landed in safety and comfortable health. And, now, of the five hundred companions by whom I was, an hour ago, surrounded, not one is present. They are all scattered abroad. I am alone in the midst of thousands ; a stranger, and almost a foreigner, within the broad sweep of the " stars and stripes." The stars and stripes ! Talismanic words ! Significant of tireless energy, overshadowing dominion, fadeless glory ! No, I am not a stranger ; for where that ensign waves, there is my home ! I am not a foreigner ; for whatever land the Union embraces, which my forefathers formed and Washing- ton sanctified, that is my country ! " Our country, 'tis a glorious land ! With broad arms stretched from shore to shore. The proud Pacific chafes her strand, She hears the dark Atlantic roar. Great God ! we thank thee for this home ! This bounteous birth-land of the free ; Where wanderex's from afar may come, And breathe the air of Liberty." - OBJECTS OF THE JOURNEY. 333 The items of interest recorded during the three months of my sojourn in California, have been incorporated in that portion of this volume which is comprised in Parts I., II., and III. This supersedes the necessity of giving the Diary for that period, which would be an unnecessary repetition. It may be proper, however, to add, that I pro- ceeded at once to the performance of the duties of my com- mission; which were, 1st, to secure commercial claims held by houses in New York against various individuals located in different sections of California ; and, 2d, to gain informa- tion respecting all parts of the state, so that merchants at the east might iearn the condition of trade here, the extent of the market, the kind of goods marketable, the resources of the state, its agricultural, mineral, and commercial pros- pects, &c., &c. In collecting information on such a variety of subjects, I necessarily visited a majority of the points of interest in the state, and had access to the various sources of information from which the preceding pages have been compiled. On the completion of my labors. I arranged for returning home — the diary of Avhich will be given in the following chapter, which completes the book. CHAPTER IV. Homeward Bound. General Remarks, Embarkation, Steamer, Incidents at Sea, Acapulco, Landing at Panama, Transit of the Isthmus, Scenery, Aspinwall, Voyage thence to New York, Burial at Sea, Conclusion. Having performed the duties of my commission, and taken full and cai-eful notes of all subjects which might bo advantageous to my principals, or interesting to my friends or to myself, when " my wanderings are o'er," I am about to set my face eastward — towards the home of my affec- tions. Doubly dear to me, at this great distance beyond the dark blue ocean, is the land of my youthful hopes ! " 'T is distance lends enchantment to the view, And robes the mountain in its azure hue." Yes, much as I love my home and friends, they are doubly dear to me as I recall to mind their far-off land, and anticipate, under Providence, a reunion with them. It is by leaving them for a season that I have learned how dear they are to me, and their influence over me. In the midst of the matchless energy and enterprise by which I have been, for months, surrounded, I have some- times imagined that the scenes in which I was moving were not enacting in the old world in which I was born and reared; but that, by some Pythagorean transmigration, I had become the subject of a new existence. Here, virtue shines out so dimly in contrast with the dark deformity of over- shadowing, stalwart vice; flices, complexions, costumes, GENERAL REMARKS. 385 customs, habits, and business intercourse, manners, trade, laws, legislation, skies, air, earth, ocean — all things are so strange, so peculiar, so unlike my old associations, that the doctrine of the ancient philosopher seems, at times, plausi- ble. "Wealth abounds, but thousands are poor. Labor is in demand, but troops of idlers throng the streets. The necessaries of life are abundant, but beggars accost the pas- ser at every turn. The advocates of temperance are active, but dram-drinking prevails to an elsewhere unheard-of ex- tent ; the preacher of righteousness statedly lifts his voice, but Sabbath desecration is almost universal ; and gambling and licentiousness feel neither shame nor restraint at noon- day. Criminal laws are stringent, and are enforced, but crimes of every grade are constantly perpetrated over the whole land. And yet, despite these seeming inconsistencies and incongruities, the state of California is increasing in wealth, population, and commercial influence, more rapidly than .any other in the Union ! But, if History is not a de- ceptive teacher, this state of things cannot endure ; there must be a more elevated standard of moral virtue, or the prosperity of the state will be ultimately checked. The duties of my commission having called me into almost every section of the country, I have been enabled to visit most of its cities and villages, to view its extensive plains, the principal rivers, the lofty mountain ranges, the snow-clad sier- ras, and the hoary forests ; have mingled with the miners in their toil, and wrought in their mines ; have beheld with ad- miration their extensive and costly erections and operations ; have enjoyed the cool bracing summer breezes of the Pacific coast, and endured the depressing influence of the interior climate; have seen the heaps of gold, and the mammoth productions of the soil ; have wandered abroad beneath the 336 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. bright moon and stars that illumine the inimitable evening sky ; and have witnessed, on the right hand and on the left, the rising, as if by magic, of warehouses, dwellings, halls, and churches. I have seen California as it is, and am sat- isfied. In all this it is but just to say, that I have found much to approve, to admire, and even to love. I have formed many valuable acquaintances, with whom I should be happy to meet again ; and have enjoyed many social interviews, which will ever associate the Pacific coast with other cher- ished recollections of the past. "But now, whate'er my fate may be, And time alone that tale can tell, May'st thou be ever blest and free From every stain ! Bright land ! farewell ! " August 16th. This day embarked in the steamer Win- field Scott, Captain , for home. Having made the voyage out by the tvay of San Juan, and desiring to see as large a portion of the southern country as possible, I return by the Panama route, in the '' Pacific Mail Steamship Com- pany's Line." At one o'clock, p. M., all were on board; the cannon's voice gave the parting signal, and the good ship slowly rounded to her course up the bay. In a few moments the crowds, which had assembled on the wharves to witness our departure, were no more to be seen from the steamer ; and soon the magic city itself was lost to view, behind the beet- ling clifi'that forms the south-eastern shore of the " Golden Gate." The Marine Telegraph, at the base of which I have often stood to enjoy the wide and varied prospect below, was the last object, associated with San Francisco, that filled the voyager's eye. THE ^'WINFIELD SCOTT." 337 Slowly and cautiously the steamer finds her way among the rocks that obstruct the passage between the city and the ocean ; and, one by one, the crags and hills, and vales, that line the shore, are lost in the distance, until, at six o'clock, no part of the "golden land" is visible, save the summit of "old Diablo," towering in gloomy grandeur among the clouds, which play around its summit, and, lighted by the descending sun, shine like sheets of silver flame. And now, even the lofty mountain has disappeared ; and California, with all its vastness, its wonderful past, and its mighty future, is again a distant land to me, one to which doubtless I shall no more return. The "WiNFiELD Scott" is a noble ship, stanch, airy and commodious in all her arrangements. She is well of- ficered and manned, but she carries only a few passen- gers on this voyage, owing, it is supposed, to a report cur- rent at San Francisco at the time of sailing, which charged the captain of the "Golden Gate," a steamer belonging to the same line, with unkindness and cruelty to one of her passengers, on his last trip. The merits of this charge had not been investigated when we left the country. It is doubtless false. (It has since been proved so.) I have only one companion in my state-room, and shall be alone after we pass the bay of San Diego. It is not my purpose to describe on my return voyage the things noticed when I came out ; and rJiall only record such incidents as may occur on the way. August 24th. We have arrived in the bay of Acapulco, an important port of the Mexican States. The steamer takes in coal here, and we shall be detained nearly a day. This is a beautiful bay; but was described, with the city, on pages 314 — 316. From the ship, the hills which 20 338 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. surround the city, clad in their garniture of perpetual spring, are an agreeable relief to the monotony of the ocean scene ; and the beautiful cocoa-nut groves, which line many parts of the shore and stretch far up on the mountain-sides, awaken, even in the mind of the frigid northerner, the wish that he might breathe their perfume and dwell forever in their shade. The dark-skinned native boys are floating skilfully around the steamer, crying, " Dime, dime, throw dime," and diving gracefully down far below the surface of the crystal waters of the bay, as often as their avaricious wish is gratified by some fun-loving passenger. The ship's coal lies in huge piles on the shore, and is conveyed on board in lighters, by the labor of the naked natives. Huge gold-fish, and fish equally large but of a shining silvery whiteness, are sluggishly swimming in great numbers near the surface, and catching at fragments of fruit and other food which are thrown upon the water to attract them. Seven o'clock, p. M. The cannon has just summoned the truant passengers from the shore ; and now the ship, having ''coaled up," has turned her dark bows again towards "the deep blue sea." August 25th. Last night the rain fell in torrents, the thunder rolled, and the forked lightnings held a perfect revelry in the heavens. In these southern latitudes, the evenings are generally illuminated, until a late hour, with flashes of electricity, without reference to the condition of the sky in other respects : cloudy or clear, the flashes are seen. About midnight, and in the midst of the tempest, the steamer took fire ! As most of the passengers had retired PANAMA. 339" before this occurrence, the tumult which would naturally attend such an event was comparatively small. Only a few of them knew of the accident at the time. Nearly all the wood-work around the chimney was burned, or neces- sarily cut away in the effort to extinguish the flames ; and the ship sustained considerable damage. The pumps were briskly worked for about half an hour, and the commands, prompt and fast, of the captain, were given to the ready sailors, whose hurried tread upon the deck betokened the urgency of their errands. It was reported in tlie morning, how truly I do not know, that before the accident occurred the fires had been crowded beyond the usual degree of in- tensity, with a view to recover the distance which had been lost in coaling the ship. " What next ? I know not, do not care ; Come pain or pleasure, weal or woe, There 's nothing which I cannot bear, Sbice I have borne this startling blow." August 31st. To-day the ship's bows were turned northward towards the bay of Panama. The land, covered with its rich carpet of deep green, was seen over our lar- board, rising just above the surface of the sea. As we pro- ceeded, the elevation of the shore increased, and gently rising hills appeared in the interior. About noon, we dis- cerned the dusky outline of a lofty mountain, called by the sailors Mount Darien. The passengers are engaged in ar- ranging their luggage, and preparing to leave the steamer. All is bustle and anxiety. The steward's bell summons all delinquents to his office for the settlement of their dues, contracted for extra luxuries during the voyage. We pass many islands, some of which are piles of naked moss-grown 340 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. rock, but others are studded with trees and luxuriant shrubbery. On the isLind of Taboga, is the depot of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Being at considerable distance from the main land, its climate is salubrious and delightful. Invalids resort here to await the arrival of steamers from San Francisco. September 1st. The city of Panama is now in sight, — distant about six miles. It appears to rise directly out of the sea. Five o'clock, p. M. The steamer is riding at anchor in the bay, about three miles from the town, and cannot approach nearer because of rocks and shoals. Old Spanish ports seldom have docks, and passengers and luggage are conveyed to the city in btnigos, rowed by dark-slcinned and darker minded natives of the country. Three dollars a passenger are demanded for this service ; and he is landed with his luggage upon a platform about twelve feet long, on which he walks to the shore, and is charged a " bit," or ten cents, for the use of this contrivance. The same price is demanded for each article deposited upon it. During my transit from ''ship to shore," some thievish native rascal purloined my rubber garments, and I was compelled to cross the Isthmus in the rain without them. More than once did I wish, in the wickedness of my heart, that the burning sun of the tropics might stick the rubber fast to the black hide of the thief during the remainder of his life. Having safely landed from the over-laden, treacherous ^^ bungo,'^ we sent our eifects by a native to the ofiice of ''Joy & Co.," who are employed by the Mail Steamship Company to transport the United States' Mail and the gold PANAMA. 341 freight across the Isthmus, to Aspinwall. We contracted with this express company for the hire of riding mules and the conveyance of our luggage, paying them sixteen dollars for the former, and fourteen cents a pound for the latter. These terms are regarded as exorbitant ; but they are cer- tainly more economical for the traveller than the payment of a less price and the loss of his goods. The experience of thousands will attest tbat it is unsafe — indeed, it is down- right rashness to entrust property to the custody of the natives or Spaniards, who keep mules for the transit of the Isthmus. Our next great concern was breakfast. It was now eight o'clock, and we wandered up a narrow, dark, filthy street, to a restaurant which is kept by an American, by whom we were very substantially and kindly served. After sufficiently replenishing the " inner man," we devoted about two hours to viewing the town. Ko place can be more dirty, dingy and dilapidated than Panama. The streets are nai'row, and paved with rough stone, which have been worn, without being repaired, for ages. They are lowest in the centre, and all the refuse of the dwellings is cast into them. The buildings, constructed generally of brick or stone, are plas- tered or are painted of a color which once was white, and they are from two to six stories in height. These several stories, as they rise, project past each other over the streets, and thus form a partially covered way, which shuts out the sun in summer and shields the inhabitants from the rain in winter. The ground rooms of the houses of the black natives, and of the Spanish, are used as stables : and, in many instances, the occupant and his family are boon com- panions with the mules ! The founding of this city is attributed to Fernando Cor- 342 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. tez, more than three hundred years ago.* He raised around the old town a wall of rock and earth, a portion of which yet remains ; and it is curious to observe that the cement used in its construction is more durable than the rock. The latter is worn away by the action of time, leaving the former protruding far beyond it. The old cathedral still stands, venerable and gloomy in its dilapidation and decay, and romantic for its mysterious connection with the cruel annals of the shadowy past. Its dome is covered with shells of the pearl-oyster, which re- flect the rays of the sun, and glisten in his beams as brightly and silvery now as they did two hundred years ago. The comparatively modern cathedral, fronting on the grand plaza, is now being renovated and improved. It is a very impos- ing structure, having two towers and a front ornamented with many images placed in niches. The old one is reputed to be the repository of immense wealth, in gold and other mineral treasure. During all the revolutions which the country has experienced, this church has remained unde- spoiled, it being a prominent papal doctrine that the desecra- tion or plunder of a church is a sin which may not be re- mitted. About eight o'clock, all the bells of the city began to chime, and the noise was so great that no other sound could be heard. Very soon the inhabitants were seen wending their way, in great numbers, to the several churches ; and * It is stated, by some writers, that the original city of Panama was built at a point on the coast about nine miles to the south of the present city ; but others affirm that the lower town was but an outpost for the protection of the city at the head of the bay, against the attacks of the buccaneers, and that it was abandoned when it was no longer needed for that purpose. PANAMA. 343 priests, clad in long, black gowns, small clothes, white stockings, pumps and three-cornered hats, passed hy us at every turn. As we omitted to comply with the general custom of raising the hat, in token of respect, these gentry stared at us with countenances indicating, as we thought, any other impulses towards heretics than love and kindness. The ruins of the old Jesuit college and of several mon- asteries, covering a large extent and overgrown with ivy, are interesting and prominent objects for examination. How many thousands, thought we, have been educated within these crumbling walls, have worshipped here, and have passed away, believing that prostration before a gilded altar is adoration acceptable to God, and that " an inheritance, incorruptible and undefiled, and that fadeth not away," in the "house not made with hands," can be purchased with tithes of gold. How little better was all this than the faith of the simple Indian, who roamed over this beautiful land before it was pressed by the foot of the white man or was coveted by his avarice ! Why mourn we, then, that these schools of learn- ing are in ruins 1 What good have they accomplished 7 Ah, rather, what irreparable evil have they not wrought ! The battery or fort, a structure in the old Spanish style, fronts the bay, and looks much more formidable than it really is. This town, especially the modern portion, is very regularly laid out, the streets intersecting at right angles. A few of the dwellings are enclosed by high walls, and the cocoa-nut trees, vines and other foliage, rising above and blending over them, relieve the dry and gloomy exterior, and are suggest- ive of the fragrance and comfort which reign within the enclosure. The population of the city is estimated at six thousand. 344 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. The number of Americans and Europeans does not exceed three hundred. The inhabitants are principally negroes and Indians ; but, by intermarriages with European Spaniards, a mixed race has been produced, which inherits a few of the good and many of the bad qualities of both original stocks. Ignorance, treachery, dishonesty, cowardice and indolence, are universal characteristics. The devotion to- gambling amounts to perfect mania. As in other tropical countries, the year here has but two seasons, — the dry being between December and June, the remainder of the year being the wet season. The climate is very unhealthy for foreigners, especially for those from the north. The temperature is stationary for many weeks in the dry season, at 95° and even 100°. Bilious fever and dysentery prevail, and a sickness called vomito ; and their attacks are, in the majority of instances, fatal. Sev- eral kinds of tropical fruits are abundant and cheap. Oranges, figs, plantains, olives, egg-plants, cocoa-nuts, ba- nanas, grapes, etc., are exposed for sale on the corners of the streets. 11 o'clock, A. M. Our revolvers are buckled to our backs, we are mounted on our mules, and, in long proces- sion, at unequal distances, are leaving the town through the Gorgona Gate. This passage is a lofty arch of stone, open- ing through the old walls of the primitive city, and is sur- mounted with a cross and a bell. Our whole cavalcade, dressed and equipped for the toilsome ride, presents a novel and interesting appearance. The mules are by no means elegant animals, nor are they very obliging or comfortable conveyances for freshmen on the Isthmus. Several of the experienced among the ladies are clad in those masculine nether garments which " woman' s-rights women " claim as CROSSING THE ISTHMUS. 345 belonging equally to themselves ; and our heroines, very properly, carry out the principle, by assuming the position of the sterner sex on the back of the mule. The road over which we are to travel, for at least seven- teen miles, was constructed by Cortez, to expedite the passage of troops and munitions of war from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; and it has been used from that period until the present, unimproved and even unrepaired. It was, originally, a paved way, the stones being set edge-wise. It was probably about five feet in width, and was intended only for footmen and mules. Wheel-carriages are not in use in the country. The time of its construction cannot be ascertained with certainty, but its existence can be traced back more than two hundred and thirty years. At the present time, the world may be safely challenged for another road so bad. The first two or three miles out of the city, being over level land, are comparatively tolerable ; but the remainder, as far as Cruces, by one route, and Gorgona by the other, can never be so graphically described as to convey a cor- rect idea of its real condition. The person who travels over it in the " wet season" will never be able to forget tlie adventure. In some places the paving has been pressed so far below the surface, that the way is a canal, filled with mud and water to the depth of one or two feet, in the bot- tom of which are loose stones. Over these the little mule stumbles, and often falls, bringing itself and the rider upon the bottom, and covering both with mud from head to foot. In other places, where the soil is more firm, the paving is loose and much displaced ; and although the mud is not very deep, the rider is liable to be precipitated upon the stones, at the hazard of bruised flesh or broken bones. 346 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. In some parts the road appears to have been either worn down by water or by the feet of mules to a depth varying from two to thirty feet ; and at the bottom it is not more than one or two feet wide, increasing gradually towards the top of the gorge to six or eight feet. Several of these deep passes are a mile in length, and the mud and water in them are from one to two feet deep. While passing through these, a shout is occasionally given, that no traveller may enter from the opposite end until the first has emerged, or that one may stop at some small '' turn-out," and await the approach of the other. In these passes the traveller must keep his feet well bent under the mule, or he will be exposed to many bruises or more serious wounds. Occasionally a train of pack-mules will be met here, when the unlucky traveller has no alternative. His mule must be turned in the narrow passage, and its steps retraced to the nearest ''turn-out," or the pack-mule, with its burden of trunks, bags or boxes, will go pell-tnell over donkey and rider; for, in such a dilemma, it knows no duty but to "go ahead," and the greater the obstacle, the more ungovernable and resolute it becomes. In these encounters valuable prop- erty is often damaged or destroyed, and many accidents occur to travellers. If, to an account of the impediments, difficulties, and dangers to be experienced on such a road, we add the temper- ature of the climate at perhaps 90°, and frequent and copious tropical rains, with some well-grounded apprehensions of robbery or murder, the whole will give only a faint descrip- tion of the transit of the Isthmus at Panama. Mules often fail on the way, and the rider is obliged to proceed on foot. I saw one lady, whose beast had fallen and been abandoned for the safer progress of the pedestrian. CRUCES. 347 She was literally covered with mud. Her hair was hang- ing negligently over her shoulders, her garments had been clipped to the knees ; and, with her dripping bonnet in hand, she was resolutely making her way in the company of sev- eral hardy men, who had chosen to cross the Isthmus on foot. Along this road are several houses, built of cane and thatched with palm or plantain, at which travellers may rest and obtain poor refreshments. Our company arrived at Cruces at about eight o'clock in the evening, muddy, wet and weary. I divested myself of my soiled habiliments, and made the principal part an offer- ing to the shade of Fernando Cortez, — the immortal author of this undescribable road. Cruces is a city, inhabited principally by negroes and Spanish emigrants from the West Indies. Its population is about four thousand. It has two or three streets, well lined with huts constructed of cane, and plastered, in some instan- ces, with mud. Several Americans have erected two com- fortable hotels, on the modern plan, and the entertainment is as good as the market can supply. At the best, it is a wretched place. Its only public building is the Roman Catholic church, which is situated on a knoll in the plaza. This is a long, low, narrow edifice, covered with a roof of thatch and constructed of stone. It is difficult ^o tell what constitutes the commerce or trade of the city. The inhabit- ants are indolent and poor. Sept. 2d. Slept last night on a cot, without pillow or covering. Arose at eight o'clock, and, after partaking of a poor apology for a breakfast at the West Indian inn, to which I was obliged to resort for shelter, I sallied forth in search of my luggage, but ascertained that it had not yet 348 arrived. At eleven o'clock, the first gang of mules came ambling down the street and stopped before the office of *' Joy & Co.," laden with trunks, and with boxes of gold. Among the former I found mj own. At three o'clock, p. M., I bade adieu to the dusky city of Cruces, and, in company with several other passengers, embarked with my effects in a canoe manned by three rude oarsmen, on the green bosom of the Chagres river, for Bar- bacoa, distant about fourteen miles. The current is so rapid, that our little bark sped like a sea-bird on her way, and soon we passed Gorgona, situated seven miles below Cruces on the left bank of the river. This city stands on high land, at a short turn in the stream, and in its general characteris- tics resembles Cruces, but is less in population. At seven o'clock, p. m., we reached Barbacoa, and took lodgings at the principal hotel. Being the first arrival, we had our choice of accommodations. The southern terminus of the Panama rail-road is at this place, but the company are extending it rapidly to Cruces. Barbacoa consists of a few cane huts, scattered promiscuously among the cocoa-nut trees. The population, principally negroes, is about one hundred. The locality is low, wet, and unhealthy. The scenery along the river is varied and beautiful. Groves of cocoa-nut, palm, and orange, are seen on the shore ; and in the distance are gently- rising hills covered with dense and magnificent foliage. Occasionally a lofty mountain towers against the sky, and heavy clouds, the offspring of the hu- mid climate, are resting darkly on its rugged sides. Huge alligators are numerous in the river, and sometimes approach within a short distance of our tiny craft. But ''night, the time for rest," has again returned. FLEAS, SPIDERS, ETC. 349 " The king of day 1ms clipped his weary head Within old father Ocean's billowy bed, And twilight gray has spread its dusky veil O'er all terrestrial objects, hill and dale." Sept. 3d. Another night is passed ; and what a night ! I paid " mine host " three dollars for a private room, that I might, if possible, take some repose ; but I enjoyed my privacy with six others ! My coverless cot was beset with fleas from below, and mosquitos from above ; and about mid- night a huge spider had found his way to my person, and was marching with his multitude of crawlers leisurely up my back ! I bounded out of bed. and, by the joint aid of the light which was burning, and of my companions who were roused by my movements, the loathsome intruder was captured and despatched. The body of this animal was an inch and a quarter in length, and half an inch broad : and was covered with red hair, like that of the horse or cow ! " My blood ran back. My shaking knees against each other knocked." Sleep, of course, forsook the whole company, and the re- mainder of the long, long night, was occupied in relating snake-stories and horrible sights which the relaters had wit- nessed in tropical climes. Morning at length dawned, and the weary voyagers left their couches, feeling more fatigued than they did when they sought their pillows. After despatching a meagre breakfast of coffee, without sugar or milk, salt ham in a bad state, and poor apple-sauce, we repaired to the depot, and learned that we could not leave before two o'clock, p. M. Twelve o'clock, m. The welcome sound of the whistle announces the approach of the railway train from Aspin- 30 350 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETO. wall. It brings over the passengers of the steamer Illinois, on their way to California, and we shall return in her to " the States." We paid our bills at our hotel for two meals and lodging, seven dollars; purchased our tickets for Aspinwall at eight dollars ; and, at precisely two o'clock, were on our rapid way to the Atlantic shore. The length of the railway is now about twenty-five miles. Five o'clock, p. m. We are at Aspinwall, sometimes called Navy Bay, — a new port established by the Steamship Company, at a place about six miles east from the old town of Chagres. At this port the Company have a large and commodious ofiice, and an extensive dock and depot. The town contains but one principal street. The buildings are of wood, one and two stories in height, and are painted white. Several of them are spacious and imposing struc- tures. The population of the town is, perhaps, five hun- dred. The land on which it stands is low, and the foliage is deep and luxuriant. The place is chiefly sustained by the operations of the Company, and will, probably, never be a post of general commercial importance. Six o'clock, P. M. The cannon summons the passengers to embark on board the ship. Besides those of the Winfield Scott, the Illinois receives several from Australia, who have been tarrying at this port for several days, awaiting her departure for New York. Again the cannon booms, the wheels are in motion, and the noble steamer, with her precious freight of human life and gold, swings gracefully from her moorings, and is on her appointed course homeward. We have several sick passengers on board, but it is hoped that thei breezes of the higher latitudes will restore them to health and happiness before we reach port. DEATH ON SHIP-BOARD. 851 The track of this ship, after the first few days, will be about the same as was that of the Prometheus on my out- ward voyage. All is bustle and confusion now among the passengers, who are taking possession of their state-rooms or berths, and making arrangements for comfort during an eight days' sail. Our number is about three hundred and ninety, — only about forty of whom have cabin tickets. The Illinois is not so fine a ship as the Winfield Scott. She rolls more, and is less airy. Her cabins are not so spacious, and her ports are very small. Sept. 7th. A death has occurred on the ship. One of the sick passengers has ended the voyage of life. How sad thus to die, far away from home and kindred, with no affec- tionate hand to wipe the death-damp from the fevered brow, no loving lips to whisper words of hope and comfort in the dying ear ! Even in seasons of health and prosperity, how dear are all the associations of home ! "0, pleasant is the welcome kiss, When day's dull round is o'er, And sweet the music of the step That meets us at the door." How doubly dear when sickness prostrates or adversity over- takes us ! But the dark-winged angel respects not time nor place. " All seasons are thine own, Death ! " " The sceptred king, the burdened slave, The humble and the haughty die; The rich, the poor, the base, the brave. In dust, without distinction, lie." As the last rays of the sun were fading from the sky, the body was brought on deck, appropriately attired for the 352 JOURNAL OF THE VOYAGE, ETC. burial. It was securely rolled in canvas, and a heavy weight attached to the feet. The cot on which it rested was then brought to the side of the ship. No prayer was ofiered, no funeral hymn was sung. Slowly and solemnly the body was raised, and, at the appointed signal, disappeared beneath the swelling waves of the " deep, deep sea ! " One plunge, the sea rolled on, the winds swept over its restless surface, sighing a requiem in the trembling shrouds, the passengers silently retired from the scene, and all was over. Sept. 12. The emporium of my native state is in sight ! At this distance from the steamer, the outline presents, in fine relief, its high and its low grounds, its lofty spires and glittering domes. A dense cloud hangs over it, like a bur- nished canopy of ever-changing hues ; and the main land and islands around are smiling in the first mellow tints of their autumnal glory. Vessels of all descriptions are plying to and fro on the bright bosom of the ample bay ; and the shore on every side is girt with a broad forest of masts and spars, and ever-waving streamers. Fair city! The tribute of the world is paid to thee. The cofiers of all nations are unbarred to the enterprise and energy of thy merchant-princes. Science, literature, and the arts, in their highest walks, have found their congenial home in thy halls of learning. Thy press is second to none in efficiency, influence, and strength, and the streams of thy charity are flowing to the needy of every clime ! 3 o'clock, p. M. The steamer is moored at her wharf. The passengers are leaving, and crowds of citizens are pressing their way on board, in searcli of expected friends. Commotion and excitement rule the hour. Happy greet- ings, kind salutations, and smiling faces, indicate, more TIME AND DISTANCE OF TRAVEL. 353 strongly than words could express, the general joy that the voyage is ended. The time, since we left San Francisco, is twenty-seven days and two hours ; and the length of our track, according to my reckoning, is 5382 miles. 30* CONCLUSION. AT HOME. I HAVE now travelled over two of the ocean routes to California, — going out through Nicaragua, and returning through Panama. By the friends of the respective steam- ship lines, it might, perhaps, be deemed invidious in anj traveller publicly to record his preference for either, espe- cially so to express it as to betray a desire to influence others. I feel no such desire ; but, as I am daily inter- rogated on the subject, and know that it is one of much interest at this day, I have simply added to my history of the state the journal which I kept of the voyages. In that journal all the incidents and experiences deemed worthy to be noted are faithfully described, and from them others may form their own opinions respecting the routes. It is, however, proper to state, that the accommodations and facilities for accomplishing this tedious journey are constantly improving. These lines are rival competitors for public patronage, and it is not reasonable to suppose that one will permit the other to excel in any point which can be improved. It is at the hardships incident to crossing the Isthmus by either route, and the provision made to mitigate them, that the traveller is to look in determining his preference. '' Steerage passengers" in the ocean steamers very often complain of their food ; and this is the case on both lines ; but, after having sailed on two ships in each, I am convinced ACCOMMODATIONS AND FACILITIES OP TRAVEL. 355 that, generally, this complaint is made without any just cause. The truth is, that many persons, who are accus- tomed to live well, and even sumptuously, at home, will purchase a steerage ticket, from motives of economy, for $50 or $70, without bestowing a thought upon the fact that their fare is to correspond with the price ; and they murmur because they do not live equally well with those who have paid $300. It is very common, during the voyage, for steerage passengers to pay the difference in fare, and come to the first cabin table. They are then able to see that the discrimination is reasonable. The railway is now in use from Aspinwall to Cruces, — seventeen miles from Panama ; but these seventeen miles have always been the most difficult and fatiguing portion of the Panama route. When this railway is completed, when mules are superseded by stages on the Nicaragua route, and the navigation of the Nicaragua river shall have been im- proved, the two lines will possess very equal facilities for a quick, safe, and comfortable voyage to California. The time gained by means of the railway will be about consumed in makinor the sail between Panama and San Juan-del- Sud, — the port on the Pacific at which the passengers by the Nicaragua route take or leave the steamers. It is believed that the distance between New York and San Francisco is about five hundred miles further by the way of Panama than by Nicaragua, and that excess is equal, at least, to two days' time. Respecting the preparation necessary to be made for the comfortable transit of the Isthmus, little need, at this day, be said. Formerly, when a longer time was occupied, and accommodations by the way were less, this was a subject of considerable importance. A stock of dry provisions, and 356 AT HOME. some conveniences for sleeping, were deemed necessary, as the companies do not board their passengers on this part of the journey ; but money will now procure a sufficiency of food, either good or poor, on any portion of these routes, and the time occupied (not exceeding two days, unless some acci- dent occur) is so short, that even an extortionate price for necessaries is not an object of very serious moment. If the traveller desires to adopt a rigid economy, or has a large family with him, he can purchase a few pounds of crackers and herring, a jar or two of pickles, some tea and ground coffee, and, in the wet season, a dress of India-rubber cloth, and with this store he can make the journey, independent. I do not account the rubber dress a necessary. A revolver is generally esteemed a valuable auxiliary. If the weapon is worn in sight, the natives will understand that Americano is ready for them, and will let him alone. ^ -^^ ^ '' ^ .<^ -% ^r:\^\/;...,X^-o>^^ -oo^ ^ ^* •. s It ^ ^^^' ^*.'*" ),y ./- :\" \^" 0- ,./ <', .-^^ s .. > ^«- ..^^ ^. ^' V a r^\-'.S ^'^ ,0 c -^^^ 'X rf 1^ ■/:. ■•■ o ^oc* .^^ ^V (-2^ -/^ ^ ^,cO^^^,X'"^".c/^.«-«.^ ^'-^\.N^ 0^ s» A^^^ ^^.^ 0^ . f °'..>°- \ •J' -\> .?. ^.::'.-.o^' •*^. c*''