UBRARY OF CONGRESS 0DDl3fl^^7^^ ^o .<^ ^oV^ ^•^^/i^:;^^ ^. o /\:;;^.X >°/^a^'>o .y..-" • ■^^ «v^ ■ • • > 4-^ .."•♦ "^^ ^^-n^ ^°v . '* o'' *. , k'?-' •*• .i' ii •«5 ;aoth CONGRESS, r i-rr T Isr. ST!sSTmv. i- J i^l^l-^g FBOIME THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY, TBAlf SMITTING THE Information required by a resolution of the House of Representatives, of May 11> 1826, IJf EBLATIOJf TO THE GROWTH AlVD MANUFACTURE OF SILK, ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE UNION. .••^•;, a-A February 7, 1828. Communicated to the House of Representatives — Referred to the Committee on Agriculture, of tliat House. April 21, 1828. Printed by order of the Senate of the United States. Y WASHINGTON: ^ V^ PRINTED BY DUFF GREEN. 1828. C 175 J 3 ; >> / ^^ IN SENATE OP THE UNITED STATES. April 21, 1828. Resolved, That 2000 copies of the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury, communicated to the House of Representatives at the pre- sent session of Congress, relative to the culture of the White Mulber- ry tree and the manufacture of Silk, be printed for the use of the Sen^e» ^ 9^ 3 [ 175 3 I Treasury Department, February 5, 1828. Sir: In obedience to a resolution of the House of Representatives^ passed on the eleventh of May, 1826, directing that "the Secretary of the Treasury cause to be prepared a well-digested Manual, containing the best practical information that can be collected on the growth and manufacture of silk, adapted to the different parts of the Union, and con- taining such facts and observations, in relation to the growth and man- ufacture of silk in other countries, as may be useful," I have the honor to transmit to the House the accompany!'") ri rep-'^rt. This report, by an additional clause of tjie resolution, ought to have been made at the session immediately succeeding that at which the resolution passed; but the interval was found to be too short to ren- der this practicable. In order to procure the materials from which alone the Manual could be adequately prepared, it became necessary to institute a correspondence co-extensive with the Union, and to seek additional light in relation to the subject from several countries abroad. The returns to inquiries thus instituted by the Department, had not even been received, except in part, during the interval above-mentioned, although no time had been lost in instituting them. The work has since proceeded with as much expedition as was believed to comport with the care due to its preparation; which, amongst other things, included plates, for the better illustration of some parts of the machinery used in manufacturing silk. These explanations, it is hoped, may be received as satisfactory. I have the honor to remain. With high consideration and respect, Your obedient servant, RICHARD RUSH. The Honorable the Speaker of the House of Representatives U, S. / C 175 ] House op Representatives, December 29, 1825. On motion of Mr. Miner, Resolved, That the Committee on Agriculture be instructed to in- quire whether the cultivation of the mulberry tree, and the breeding of silk worms, for the purpose of producing silk, be a subject worthy of legislative attention; and should they think it to be so, that they ob^ tain such information as may be in their power, respecting the kind of mulberry tree most preferred, the best soil, climate, and mode of cul- tivation, the probable valueof the culture, taking into view the capital employed, the labor, and the product, together with such facts and opin- ions as they may think useful and proper. Resolved, That the same Committee inquire whether any Legisla- tive provisions are necessary or proper to promote the production of silk. House of Representatives, May 2, 1826. Mr. Van Rensselaer, from the Committee on Agriculture, to which the subject had been referred, made the following REPORT: The Committee on Agriculture, to whom was referred the resolution of Mr. Miner, to inquire whether the cultivation of the mulberry tree and the breeding of silkworms, for the purpose of producing silk, be a subject worthy of legislative attention ; and should they think it to be so, that they obtain such information as may be in their power respecting the kind of mulberry most preferred, the best soil, climate, and mode of cultivation, the probable value of the culture, taking into view the capital employed, the labor, and the product, together with such facts and opinions as they may think useful and proper; REPORT: That they have examined the subject attentively, and have taken such steps as they thought best calculated to obtain information which might be useful and lead to satisfactory conclusions. The facts developed in the course of their inquiries, tend to place the subject in an important point of view. It is an interesting fact, that the mulberry tree grows indigenously throughout the United StatCvS, and that silk may be raised with facility from the Southern to the Northern boundary of the Union. Formerly, considerable quantities of silk were produced in Georgia. In 1760 more than twenty thousand pounds of cocoons were exported from thence to England. The produc- 5 C 175 ] tion of the article was suspended, not from any difficulty experienced in the process, but from causes connected with the Revolution. Mea- sures have recently been adopted at Savannah, with a view to the re- newal of the cultivation of the mulberry tree and breeding the silk- worm. In Kentucky, the Committee learn that sewing silk is now produced in considerable quantities, and of excellent quality. Many years ago the attention of public spirited individuals in Pennsylvania was turned to the production of silk. The Persian mulberry was in- troduced into Belhlehem, Pennsylvania, by Bishop Ettwein, where it flourished and stiii flourishes. Silk was produced without difficulty. In Chester and other of the southern counties of that State, the experi- ment was also made v/ith success. The great demand and >high price of bread stuffis, owing to the wars growing out of the French revoiti- tion, rendered the cultivation of grain so profitable for manj^ years, that the mulberry was neglected. In 1779 two hundred pounds of sew- ing silk were made in the town of Mansfield, in Connecticut; and in 1810, according to the report of the marshal who took the census, the i'"a]ue of silk produced in Windham county was estimated at ^27,373. The Committee learn that the production of silk is still attended to and foimd profitable. Some beautiful specimens of sewing silk, the pro- duction of that State, have been exhibited to the Committee. Of the fact, therefore, that the United States can produce s"lk for its own con- sumption, and even for exportation to the extent of foreign demand, there appears no reason to doubt. There are few persons, the Com- mittee believe, even the most intelligent of our citizens, (who have not turned their attention particularly to the subject,) who will not be surprise i at the view presented by the following official statement of the value of silks imported into the United States the last five years: Statement of the value of silk goods imported and exported in the years 1821 to 1825, inclusive. Years. Imported. Exported. 1821 - - ^4,486,924 - - ^1,057,233 1822 - - 6.480,928 - - 1,016,262 1823 - - 6,713,771 - - 1,512,449 1824 - - 7,203,344 - - 1,816,325 1825 - - 10,271,527 - - 2,565,742 ^35,156,494 ^7,968,011 What a bounty is paid by us to support the agriculturist and manu- focturer of other nations, on articles which our country, with a few years of care, might supply! How important it is that the agriculturist should turn his attention to new objects of production, is very fully shown by the circumstance of the diminished and diminishing demand of bread stuffs abroad. In 1817, the exports of bread stuffs amounted to ^20,374,000 In 1818, 15,388,000 In 1824, 6,799,246 In 1825,, 5.417,997 [ 175 ] 6 An importation often millions of dollars of silk — an export of five millions of bread stuffs! The facts speak the importance of the subject^ and indicate the necessity that exists of awakening the slumbering agri- cultural resources of our country, by introducing new and profitable articles of production. Knowledge is power, in agriculture, no less than in politics; information is capital, and the means of valuable im- provement. The Committee conceive that the first and most import- ant measure to be taken, is to acquire and circulate clear, distinct, and precise information on these points: the relative value of the cultiva- tion of the mulberry, and the production of silk, compared with other agricultural productions in the different sections of the Union, capital and labor being considered. The kind of mulberry best suited to the object; the most advantageous mode of cultivation; the most approved manner of managing the silkworm, and an explanation of the process till the article is ready for market. The Committee incline to the opin- ion that the best mode of raising silk will be for every farmer and plant- er to appropriate a small portion of ground, as for a fruit orchard, for raising the mulberry tree, calculating to produce as many worms as his own family will enable him to manage without increasing his expenses, and without permitting it, until the experiment shall have been fully tried, to interfere with the regular course of his usual pursuits. A sin- gle acre planted with the mulberry will produce from 500 to 600 pounds raw silk, the value of which to the individual would richly compensate for the capital and labor employed^ and the aggregate to the country be of great importance. The fact is worthy of notice, that, notwithstanding the high price of land in Ireland, where a year's rent of land exceeds the price of the soil in many parts of our country, yet so valuable is the mulberry con- sidered, that importations of trees from the Mediterranean have been made during the last year, for the purpose of producing silk. Your Committee addressed inquiries to several intelligent gentlemen who were presumed competent to give them information upon the subject ; and among the papers received in reply, they beg leave to present to the particular attention of the House a valuable memoir, replete with interesting facts and useful information, from Edmund C. Genet, Esq. and also several communications from other gentlemen, to whose at- tention the Committee acknowledge their obligations. As the result of these inquiries, believing that knowledge on the subject is of the first importance, the Committee submit the following resolution; Resolved, That the Secretary of the Treasury cause to be prepared a well-digested Manual, containing the best practical information that can be collected on the growth and manufacture of silk, adapted to the different parts of the Union, containing such factsand observations in re- lation to the growth and manufacture of silk, in other countries, ne may be useful, and that the same be laid before Congress at the commence- ment of their next session. [ 175 ] HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, February 11, 1828. Mr. Van Rensselaer, from the Committee on Agriculture, to which the subject had been referred, made the following REPORT: The Committee on Agriculture, to which was referred the report of the Secretary of the Treasury, made in pursuance of a resolution of the House of Representatives, passed the eleventh of May, 1826, directing the Secretary to prepare a well-digested Manual on the growth and manufacture of silk, have agreed to the following resolution, which they have instructed their Chairman to submit to the House: Resolved^ That six thousand copies of said Manual and Report be printed for the use of the House. C 175 ] S A MANUAL ON THE CULTURE OF SILK, AND ITS MANUFACTURE, Prepared under the instructions and superintendence of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, in compliance with a resolution of the House of Representatives of the United States, introduced by the bionorable Charles Miner, of Pennsylvania, and adopted on the eleventh of May, 1826, in the following words, viz: Resolved, That the Secretary of the Treasury cause to be prepared a well-digested Manual, containing the best practical information that can be collected, on the growth and manufacture of silk, adapted to the different parts of the Union, containing such facts an-i observa- tions, in relation to the growth and manufacture of siik in other coun- tries, as may be useful, and that the same be laid before Congress at the commencement of their next session. ^J [ 175 ] The foilowing queries were propounded by the Secretary of the Treasury, to the various persons in the United States, to ivhom a copy of the Resolution of the House of Representatives was transmitted. 1. What efforts have been made in the State of , if any, and at what periods of time, to raise silk ? 2. Whence was the silkworm obtained ? Is this insect a native of — — , and, if so, in what respects does it differ, if any, from the oriental or foreign silkworm? Are there any varieties of this insect known in ? Please to describe whatever kinds there may be. 3. Does the mulberry flourish in , in its different varieties; what soil suits it best; is the white mulberry an indigenous tree? If not, has it been found to thrive as well in the United States as the red and black mulberry? Which of the latter is indigenous, or are both? 4. Does the silkworm feed as well upon the red and black mulber- ry as upon the white ? Is there any other leaf or plant known in this country upon which it does feed; and, above all, will it yield silk of equal quality when fed upon any other leaf or food, as upon that of the white mulberry? 5. Be pleased to state the best methods of raising and multiplying the several species of the mulberry tree; how it is propagated; how old it should be before transplanting; what particular modes of treating it are required; the age at which it should begin to furnish food for the worm; whence trees or cuttings can be obtained for transplantation; the price per hundred; how many trees should be planted on an acre; and would it, or would it not, be profitable to cultivate the mulberry, for the purpose of feeding the worm, in the form of a bush or shrub ? 6. What quantity of raw silk ought to be produced from an acre of full-grown mulberry trees, planted and reared in the best manner? How many silkworms are required to produce a pound of raw silk ? What quantity of raw silk can be produced from an acre of mulberr}-- trees, by other modes of cultivation than the full-grown tree ? 7. Be pleased to state, as much in detail as may be in your power, the methods of treating the silkworm, with a view to raising the best silk, and in the greatest quantity; embracing, particularly, the habits of the insect, as to appetite, cleanliness, position, or accommodations, whilst the cocoon is forming; the species of twig or branch on which it is best that it should be spun; temperature, and degree of light most favorable to the insect; and all other circumstances which may affect its health and strength, and its capacity to yield a perfect cocoon; al- so, a description of the process of forming the silk by the insect until the cocoon is completed; the best modes of treating the cocoon, and of obtaining the silk; and how far the labor of females, children, and old men, may be usefully employed in the culture of silk ? 8. What difference, if any, exists between Ihe Chinese and Italian or Spanish worm ; which country is reputed to produce the best insect, and what particular part of the country ? 9. Does the climate of admit of raising silk with full advan- tage in the open air; or is it best that the insect should always be housed' [ ITA J 10 If tlic latter, vvlial size and fornl of building ur apartment is beat fitted to its operations ? If the silk be raised in the open cur, is any .•ihelter, and of what kind required, as well from the rays of the sun as from wet, and to protect the insects from birds and other animals that prey upon them ? 10. Is there reason to suppose that, in some parts of the United States, the climate may admit of more than one crop of silk being raised from the silkworm, in the course of the year, as in Asia ? How will this inquiry apply to — ? 11. Have lightning and thunder been found to affect the silkworm in our climate, and how far, if at all ? Has any insect of our climate, or animal of any kind, been found to prey upon, or injure it, beyond those that are known to do so in other climates ? 12. What is the greatest quantity of silk that has been raised in the State of , in- any one year; into what articles or forms has it been manufactured; and have the manufactured articles been consumed at home or sent abroad, and where; where has th6"raw silk, been sent when ijiot wrougbrt into manufactures ? 13. AVhat prices have the raw or manufactured silks commanded in the market of the United States, as compared with similar articles im- ported from Europe, China, or the East Indies ? What progress has been made in the drawing, spinning, and twisting of sevying silk in any part of ? Have its strength and evenness been equal to the French, English, or Italian sewing silk? How have we succeeded in the coloring or dying ? Ail information on this head will be acceptable. 14. Will you be pleased to describe, with as much particularity as may be, the machinery most approved for winding off the silk from the cocoon; for forming it into organzine or thrown,silk; and for man- ufacturing silk into all its different forms, (includihg velvets,) whether for clothing, furniture, or any other purpose ? If withiA youf power and convenience to add a sketch or drawing, of any or all of the above machinery, it Would be acceptable. 17. Describe the difference in the quality of the silk produced from all the different varieties of the silkworm, and annex, if in your power, a drawing (colored) of all the varieties of this insect, in its moth and other states. Is the insect brought from abroad supposed to de- generate in the United States, and if so, to what causes is it imputed, and how are they best to be obviated ? What are the jDroper rules to be observed in the choice of eggs, in the choice of cocoons for seed, and in the choice of the insect for laying- eggs ? 16. If silk has been raised at any periods heretofore in ,'bul not at present, what are supposed to be the causes that have led to its discontinuance ? ^ 17. Please to state any other facts or circumstances that may bear upon the objects or spirit of the resolution above referred to, of the House of Representatives of the United States, though not specially "omprehended under any of the foregoing inquiries. RICHARD RUSH. Tbeasury Department. 29i/i July. 1S26. >i r i7". ) PREFACE. Ill considering the subject of the culture of silk, it was the hrst in- tention of the writer of this Manual to compose an entire treatise in his own language; and some progress in the collection of materials for it was made; when, upon a careful perusal of the work by Count Dandolo, of Italy, it was found to embrace every part of the art of rearing silkworms, so much more fully than any of the numerous treatises, in English or French, which the writer had read, and ex- hibited, throughout, such marks of method, so much pains, intelli- gence, and attention, such scrupulous accuracy, in all his proceed- ings and directions, that it was deemed most adviseable*to make it the basis of the intended Manual. The author wrote from ample expe- rience in the art upon whicl^he undertook to instruct others; and it appears from a late traveller,* and writers on silkworms, that his plan for their treatment has generally been substituted for those formerly adopted in Italy and France. Dandolo's work has, therefore, been earefully abridged; a measure rendered necessary from its diffuse nature, and the many details and particulars of minute inquiries into circumstances connected with the silk culture giyen therein, but which do Hot lead to any profitable result. These are omitted, and nothing inserted but that which is purely practical. Having the use of the original work in Italian, and the French translation, from which the English version was made, the errors of the latter were corrected. The directions and plans of this experienced author, refer to a large establishment of five ounces of eggs, but the intelligent culti- vator will readily apply them to a scale of any size; in all cases, the practical results will be similar. To the directions and observations of Dandolo, many others arc added, which were derived from an extensive correspondence insti- tuted by the Secretary of the Treasury, in all parts of the Union, on the subject matter of the riesolution of the House of Representatives, as well as from information taken from the most vakiable and recent publications obtained by the Secretary, from different parts of Europe, To these abundant sources of knowledge, were added others, which the writer himself was able to command; among these was a free access, during the past year, to a large establishment, conducted upon the plan pointed out by Count Dandolo. To the practical i)art are prefixed a short history, of silk in ancient times; an account of the former and present state of its culture in North America; and the ?iatural history of the silkworm. * Mr. ,T. Mnrray — Treatise on Silkworm^, Edinburgh, 182fi. [ 175 ] m On the subject of the manufacture of silk, all the information has been given which it was possible to obtain from books and other sources. It is now known, that very great improvements in the ma- chinery for the preparation of the raw material, have been recently made; but an account of some of them could not be obtained sujSi- ciently definite to authorize their insertion. Fanshaw's improvement,* of which a copy has been taken from a recent English publication, is spoken of in the highest terms by ** the trade. '* To this are added, plates and descriptions of a new tramming machine, and of two looms, both of which received premiums from the London Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts: one of them shows the improvements it contains, in connexion with the whole apparatus for weaving silk, as now employed in Spitalfields. The whole machinery for the manufacture of silk, is given in the French Encyclopaedia, published at the commence- ment and during the early part of their revolution, and is contained in one hundred and thirty-one quarto plates, and upwards of four hun- dred figures, some of which occupy a whole page: the letter press iills one hundred and seventy-two pages. Much of this machinery is now laid aside for others of a more simple nature; but the work may still be consulted with advantage by those who intend to engage in the business, from the minute accuracy of the figures of those parts which are still retained. It would have been impossible to copy these plates; and even the insertion of all the recent patents and improve- ments would have been inconsistent with the object of this Manual. They have, therefore, in part, been omitted, and references made to them, which manufacturers may find it their interest to consult. The subject of dying silk, although not expressly mentioned, was nevertheless considered as included in the spirit of the resolution of the House of Representatives. Accordingly, directions to prepare the raw material for various tints, and observations connected with the art, with receipts for different colors, have been given. It is hoped they will be found useful, as great pains were taken to collect and select them from the latest and most approved writers. Care has been taken to avoid repeating what has been said by Dr. Cooper, in his treatise on dying, as that work is to be easily procured. Upon the whole, the compiler can truly say, that he has endeavored to accomplish the task with which he has been charged, to the best of his abilities, and with all the zeal which a firm conviction of the im- portance of the silk culture could inspire. * For spinning, doubling", and twisting', or throwing silk. London Journal of Arts and Sciences, for July, 1827. 13 f 175 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Page. History of Silk, - - - - ., . . -17 " ** in the United States, - - - - - - 21 Natural Hisiory of the Silkworm, - - - . , _ - 2r CHAPTER H. CHAPTER VHL o'o Varieties in Silkworms, ------>. Of rearing" two or more crops in one season, in the United States, - o6 CHAPTER HI. Of other Caterpillars producing Silk, ----.. 39 Of the Bughy or Tusseh, and Arrindy silkworms of India, - .40 Of the Chinese worms, which do not spin cocoons, but produce threads Sind attach them to trees. ---.-- 41 Of the South American silkworms, _ . . - . 4^ Of the native North American silkworms, - - - - 42 CHAPTER IV. Of Mulberry trees, -------.42 1. Of the native red mulberry, and its varieties, - - - - 43 2. Of the white mulberry tree, and its culture and varieties,- - 44 3. On the proportion of leaves to an acre, and to silk produced from them; superiority of the leaves of seedling trees; cautions on picking leaves, - - -- - - - -51 4. On mulberry hedges, - - - - - - - 52 CHAPTER V- Of the Laboratory, - - - - - - --54 Description and cut of the Rev. Mr. Swayne's rearing frames, - ' - 56 CHAPTER VI. The art of rearing Silkworms: 1. Of the care necessary previously to the hatching, - - -57 2. Utility of a thermometer to fix the temperature of the room, - - 58 3. Of the hot-house, and utensils required, - - - - 59 4. Of the hatching of the silkworms* eggs, - - - - 61 CHAPTER VII. Of the small apartment in which the new hatched tuoms are to be received, - 68 Of their removal into the laboratory, or elsewhere, • - - - 69 Of the rearing of Silkworms in the four first ages, ^ ~ ■■ 7i 1. Of rearing silkworms in the first age, - - - - 75 2. •* *' second age, , » - 78 3 te tc tliird age, - - - - 82 4 '' *' fourth age, - » «'. C 175 ] 14 CHAPTER IX. Page. Of rcarins; SiUcwdrms m ihejifth agc^ until they prepare, io form their cocoon f, ■ 90 CHAPTER X. Of rearing Silkworms until the cocoon is perfected, • - - - 97 1. First preparation of the hedge, or espaher, - - - - 98 2. Cleaning of the hui'dles, and of the preparation for the rising of the silkworms, - - - - -- - -99 3. Separation of the silkworms which will not rise? last cleaning of the hurdles, - 102 4. Care of the laboratory, until the silkworm has completed its fifth age, 102 5. Quantity of vapor emitted by silkworms. - - - - 104 CHAPTER XI. Of the sixth age of Silkworms^ or of the Chrysalis: 1. Gathering and preservation of the cocoons, . - -. . 105 2, Daily loss in weight of cocoons^ •- - - - - 108 CHAPTER XIL Birth and coupling of the ?noths; laying of the eggs, and their prcservationy - 108 CHAPTER XIII. General view of all the facts stated in this ivork, immediately connected with the art of cultivating Silkworms: 1. Number of e^^= of different varieties of silkworms to the ounce, - 113 2. Space occupied by silkworms, from one ounce of eggs, in different ages, - - - - - _. - . 113 Quantities of leaves consumed by them in different ages, - - 114 3 . Facts relative to the cocoons containing the healthy chrysalides; diseased and dead chrysalides, - - - - - -114 4. Facts relative to the production of eggs, - - - - 115 5. Quantities of silk yielded by various parcels of cocoons, - - 116 6. Weights of cocoons; produce of cocoons and of silk from an ouHceof eggs, * - - - - - - - - 117 7. Proportion of eggs to cocoons, - - - - -118 8. Proportion of different qualities of cocoons, in various parcels, before and after being baked, _.---- 119 Abstract and condensed view of the mode of rearing Silkiuorms, - - 120 Means of producing early food for silkworms, and on the advantages of budding mulberry trees, - - - - - - 125 CHAPTER XIV. Diseases of Silkworms: 1. Diseases from defect of eggs, ------ 125 2. *' mismanagement of eggs, . - . , 126 3. *' bad air of the district m which silkworms are reared, - 126 4. *' . impurity in the air of the laboratory, ... 127 5. On purifying the air of a laboratory by acid fumigations, - - 127 6. Of the Hygrometer, a simple one described, with a cut, - - 129 7. Diseases from want of room for the worms, ... - 130 8. *' quality and quantity of food, . - - . 130 y. " change of food, , . . - . 131 10. *' peculiar constitution of the air, - - 132 11, " sudden changes of temperature, l"^ 15 t 1^^ J Fdrticuiar (U&ta^ts. Page- 1. The Passis, - - ^ - ^ , - 133 2. The Lusette, or Ciairette, ---.,. 134. 3. The Yellows, ---...-- 134- 4. The Muscardine, .--_._. I35 5. The Tripes, or Mort Blanc, .-.--. 135 CHAPTER XV. Preparations for reeling Silk: 1. How to take off the flos from the cocoons, ... - 135 2. Separation of the various qualities of cocoons, . , , 136 3. On heating' water for reeling by steam, with a cut, - - - 138 4. Utility of the thermometer to ascertain the heat of the water, - 139 5. On killing the chrysalis in the cocoons, by baking and steaming, 139, 141 6. Of royal, perforated cocoons, and scufflons, - - - - 142 Mode of reeling silk from the best cocoons , - - - - - 142 Of disbanding the silk from the reel, tying it in skeins, preparation of the silk foruscy - . ■ . - - .- - . 150 Doubling machine, with a cut, ------- 151 Of the preparation of the waste silk, spinning inferior qualities, - - 152-3 " of the silk to make organzine, . , „ . 151-2 Notice of the warping machine, - - - - - 153 Explanation of the plates: 1. Silk reel of Piedmont, and various utensils for rearing silkworms, - 155-6 2. Indigo cradle, -------- I57 3. Frames of split rattans to feed worms on, - - _ . 157- 4. SholPs improved silk-loom, ------ 157" 5. Winding reel, - - - - - - - - 158 6. Throwsting machine, to make organzine silk, - - - 159 7. Shenton's Engine for tramming silk, - - - - - 161 8. Richard's improvement in the silk weaver's* draw-boy, :; - 164 9. Loom for weaving figured silk, _ . _ . . 155 Notices of various machines, and i-ecent improvements in Silk machinery: 1. Thompson's improved ribbon loom; R'ench ribbon looms, - - 172 2. Jacquart's loom, ---..-. I73 3. Le Bran's loom, ._..,.. iy^ 4. English patents for improvements in Silk machinery, - - - 174 5. De Bergue's power loom, - - - - - - 175 6. Kendall's domestic power loom, . . _ - _ 175 7. Fanshaw's apparatus for spinning, doubling, and twisting, or throwing" silk, with a cut, - - - - - - -176 8. Sadler's improved power loom, . - - - . \';^y 9. American winding, doubling, and twisting apparatus, - - - 178 10. Other recent improvementfj in silk weaving, . - - - 178 11. Method of preventing the watering of silk, without the use of a knee roll, - - - - - - - - - 179 Extracts from minutes of evidence before the House of Commons, on the Silk trade and Silk manufacture, - - - - - -180 Appendix on dying Silk, - - - - - - - 182 Translation from a German treatise on dying Silk, - - - '20^ [175 3 1« LIST OF PLATES. Plate 1, %. 1. Silk reel of Piedmont. 2. Arrangement of feeding- frames for silkworms. 3. A double knife to chop mulberry leaves. 4. Box to hold silk moths, when not coupling". 5. Tressel to be covered with cloth, for silk moths to lay G^ggs on. 6. Rope frame, to hold the cloth or paper containing silkworm eggs^ when not wanted. 7. Hook to hft the worms. Plate 2,fig. 1,2. Indigo cradle. 3. Rattan slides or frames for silkworms. 4. Frames for silkworms to spin their cocoons, instead of bushes or twigs. 5. ShoU's improved silk loom. Plate 3, fig. 1. Reel to wind skeins of silk on bobbins. 2. Throwsting machine. 3. A single spindle of a throwsting machine. Plate 4. Shenton's tramming engine. 5. Silk loom, exhibiting Richard's improved draw boy, and the Spitalfields silk loOTTl" 17 [ 175 1 INTRODUCTION. HISTORY OF SILK. The silkworm, or, more properly, the silk-caterpillar, is a native of China. The people resident in the northern part of that country, called Seres, having been expelled by the Huns, in the ninety-third year of the Christian era, settled in Little Bucharia,* and were, for many centuries, the sole cultivators of the precious article, with which they supplied the rest of the world. The earliest mention of silk is in the translation of the Bible by Jerome, who enumerates it among the numerous articles which were imported from Syria by the Phoe- nicians, those spirited merchants and skilful manufacturers, who, al- though seated in a barren and narrow country, confined on one side by the sea, and by a range of mountains on the other, became a great naval and commercial power, which, for a very long period, rendered their *• merchants princes, and their traffickers the honorable of the earth, "t The singular lustre and beauty of silk, and the delicate structure of the fabric, could not fail to prove highly attractive to mankind: and hence it constituted one of the articles which were brought from China by traders, who, in caravans, performed long and toilsome journeys through the trackless sands and deserts of Asia, to the different ports of Syria and Egypt, which successively became the depots of commerce. For a long time, two hundred and forty-three days were consumed in these expeditions. Cosmas, himself a trader, speaks of the distance between China and Persia, as requiring one hundred and fifty days to perform the route. The cities of Turfan and Cashgar, were the rendezvous of these caravans. J The Seres themselves never left home, being " a gentle race who shunned mankind." The distance whence the article was brought, and the small quanti- ties with which the world was supplied, necessarily caused the price to be far beyond the reach of any but the rich; and even when thift Roman power extended over half the globe, as then known, this bril- liant and ornamental article of dress was scarcely known to them. It is probable, that they first became acquainted with its real nature from the writings of Dionysius Periegetes, the geographer, who had • The identity of Bucharia with the country of the Seres, is estabhshed from tlie description of it by Ammianus Marcellinus, a writer of credit in the third centmy. f Isaiah xxiii. 8. t Ptolemy speaks of Comedre, (the present Cashpar,) as the *« rcceptaculum eo- I'lim qui ad Seres nf^g-otii causa profisciuntur. pp7>e's Imaum Montis " Asia, tab, vji. .3 ' ' C 175 3 18 been sent, by Augustus to compile an account of the oriental region??, and who infornied his countrymen that precious garments were manu- factured by the Seres, from threads finer than those of the spider.^ Among all tlie articles of elegance belonging to the luxurious Cleopa- tra, none seemed to excite their admiration and astonishment, as the silk sails of her pleasarc-bargc, in which she visited th':;m at Alexaji- dria. For a long time after, it continued to be so scarce and dear, that, in the Roman dominions, it was confined to women of fortune. It was, moreover, deemed so eileminate an article, as to be unfit for the dress of men; and, in the reign of Tiberius, a law was passed, '* that no man should dishonor himself by wearing silken garments. ^'t Two hundred years subsequent to this date, the use of it constituted one of the many opprobrious charges which were made against the character of the emperor Elagabulus. Even fifty years after, another emperori refused his queen a garment of silk, by reason of the high price it bore — its weight in gold. For centuries, the Persians enjoyed a monopoly of the trade in silk: but, after they were subdued by Alexander, (300 years before Christ,) this valuable commodity was brought to Greece, and thence sent to Rome. The anxiety of the luxurious people of that nation, to trade with those from which the costly article was to be procured, induced the Emperor Marcus Antoninus to send ambassadors to negotiate a more direct commercial intercourse with their country, than the sub- jects of Rome had yet been able to accomplish; and, as the jealousy of the Parthians and Persians prevented the passage of all foreigners through their kingdoms to Chinn, the ambassadors were obliged to proceed by the tedious way of Egypt and India. Another was sent in the year 272, which led to more favorable arrangements, and a shorter }oute, viz: along the ranges of mountains, now called Hin- dopkho, and Cuttore. § But the price of silk, for a long tim.e, con- tinued a source of regret, and the article an object of increasing desire among the wealthy. Justinian made another attempt, shortly after he ascended the throne, to obtain it. He sent Julian as his ambassador to the Christipin king of Axuma, in Abyssinia, requesting that, for the sake of their common religion, he would assist him in a war with Persia, and direct his subjects to purchase silks in India, in order to sell them to the Romans, whereby the Axumites would acquire great wealth, and the Romans would have the satisfaction of paying their gold into the hands of their friends, instead of enriching their Persian enemies. Julian also urged the Homcrites in Arabia Felix, then un- der the vassalage of Axuma, to the same effect; and promised, on the part of the emperor, to purcliase silk from them, if, with their as- sistance, he could wrest the silk trade from the Persians, and they be- come the medium of intercourse with the country of the Seres. The kings of both the countries promised to comply with the emperor'^ * Perieg-etes de situ orbls, 6 v. p. 752 ■\ Nc Vcstis Scrica viros focdaret. Tacitus, book 2(1, cliap. o3. i Aurelian. Vopiscns in vilam Aurc-liuni, c. 45, libra cniin auri tunc librascvici fiuL § See Kennel's map of the countries between the Ganges a\)cl the Caspian St^a.' 19 I 175 ] j*equest; but neither were able or willing to fulfil their engagements. The alleged causes for their non-compliance, were some internal com- motions among the Homerites, and the recall of Belisarius, who, with an army, to which the Arabian auxiliary troops were joined, protected the East from the invasions of the Persians. * This nation, by having the command of the land carriage from the country of the Seres, still enjoyed almost an exclusive trade with respect to the western world, in Indian commodities, but more especially silk, with which it sup- plied remote nations at extravagant prices. From this distress, which was felt and lamented as a real misfortune by the Senators of the Ro- man empire, they were released in a very extraordinary and unex- pected manner. The preachers of the Nestorian doctrine, having been exiled by the persecuting spirit of the ecclesiastical government of Byzantium, fled to India. Their patriarch, w^ho resided in Persia, sent missions, and every where established convents and bishoprics. Two of his rnonks, who had been employed as missionaries in some of the Christian churches, which were established in different parts of In- dia, having penetrated into the country of the Seres, liad observed the labors of the silkworms, and become acquainted with the art of work- ing their production into at variety of elegant fabrics. Aware of the anxiety of the Europeans on this subject, they repaired to Constanti- nople, and imparted to the emperor Justinian, the secret which had hitherto been so well preserved by the Seres, that silk was produced by a species of worms, the eggs of which might be transported with safety, and propagated in his dominions. By the promise of a great reward, they were induced to return, and brought away a quantity of the silkworm's eggs, in the hollow of a cane, and conveyed them safely to Constantinople, about the year 555. The eggs were hatched in the proper season by the warmth of a manure heap, the worms were fed with the leaves of tlie mulberry tree, and their race propagated under the direction of tlie monks, t The insects thus happily pro- duced from this caneful of eggs, as if the little ark of the insect race, v/ere the progenitors of all the silkworms of Europe, and the western parts of Asia. Vast numbers of these insects were soon reared in dif- ferent parts of Greece, particularly in the Peloponnesus. The monks having also made themselves masters of the art of manufacturing silk, the business was conducted under the auspices of the emperor, and for his exclusive benefit: but the imperial monopoly could not long con- tinue, and mankind gradually became possessed of the precious insects, after the death of Justinian, in the year 565. :]: The people of the Peninsula, and of the cities of Athens and Thebes, enjoyed the profit of the culture and manufacture of silk, without a European rival, for upwards of 400 years; and the Venetians, during the continuance of their commercial glory, distributed the products of their industry over the western parts of Europe. At length, Roger, the Norman king of Sicily, after his return from the second crusade, in order to anticipate * Proco))ius, p. 34. f The Monks procured the eg-g-s fi-om the colony of tlie Seres, in Little Bucharja. i Procopius do Bello Gotliico, lib 12, cap. 17. [ 175 ] ^0 an attack, which the government of Byzantium was preparing against him, and to revenge the insult of the imprisonment of his ambassa- dors, whom he sent to form a treaty and a matrimonial alliance with the Emperor Comnenus, made war upon Greece, in the year 1146, with a powerful naval and military force. Corcyra, the present Corfu, first yielded to the arms of the invaders, and the surrender of the other cities of Greece, and all the Morea, followed in speedy succes- sion. The spoils were great. But what peculiarly distinguished this war from most others, which have no consequence than the exaltation of one individual, the depression of another, and the misery of thou- sands, was the capture of a great number of silk weavers, who were carried off and settled in Palermo, the capital city of the conqueror. By the order of the king, the Grecian prisoners taught his Sicilian subjects to raise and feed silkworms, and to weave all the varieties of silk stuffs; and so well did they profit by the lessons of their instruc- tors, that, in the course of twenty years, the silk manufacturers of Sicily were subjects of notice and of praise, by the historians of the age.* The Saracens had, before this time, obtained the knowledge of the various operations of the silk manufacture, and spread it over their widely extended dominions. Lisbon and Almeria, the two Saracen cities of Spain, were especially famous for their silk fabrics, and the islands of Majorca and Ivica paid their tribute to the kings of Arra- gon in silks. The Italian States soon after engaged in the culture and manufacture of silk, and in the year 1306, this business was so far ad- vanced, as to yield a revenue to the State. In France, Louis the XI. and his son Charles the VIII established a number of Italian work- men at Tours; but it is to Henry IV that France is indebted, for placing the culture of silk and its manufacture upon a solid basis. Having put an end to the civil wars of the nation, he determined to give every possible encouragement to this important branch of indus- try, by recommending and enforcing the general planting of mulberry trees, and the rearing of silkworms. The merit of Henry, on this occasion, is increased by the fact, that his views and measures were in direct opposition to the advice of his favorite and w^ise minister. Sully, who held the project in little consideration, as appears by his own me- moirs, in which he candidly records the discussions which he had with the king on the subject. In the year 1455, mention is made of a company of silk women in England. In 1504, the manufacture of ribbons, laces, and girdles, was so considerable, as to be protected by a prohibitory statute. In 1561, Queen Elizobeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings, with which she was so well pleased, that she never after wore any of another material. James I. was ex- tremely solicitous to encourage the silk manufacture, and recommend- ed it several times from the throne: and in the year 1608, addressed ii long letter on the subject, written with his owm hand, to the Lord Lieutenants of every county in the kingdom, to v,hom mulberry * Muratori Scriptor, Veter. vi. col. 668 — Macpherson's Annals, vol. 1, p. 322. 21 [ 175 3 plants and seeds were sent for distribution. He al^ had a book of instructions composed, on the rearing of the trees and the culture of silk, to promote the success of his project. The royal wishes do not appear to have been seconded by his subjects; but he had the satisfac- tion to see the broad silk manufactory introduced in the latter end of his reign. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, in the year 1685, which drove all the Protestants from France, permanently established the business in England; and the erection of the silk throwing mill of Sir Thomas Lombe, at Derby, in the year 1719, greatly promoted* it, by the rapid preparation of the raw material. HISTORY OF SILK IN THE UNITED STATES. The culture of silk first commenced in Virginia. Upon the settle- ment of that colony, it was deemed an object of the f.rst importance; and the attention of the settlers was strongly directed to it by the British government, by which silkworm eggs, white mulberry trees, and printed instructions, were sent over and distributed. Kine; James the First, in the 20th year of his reign, having, doubtless, seen the defeat of his plan to encourage the silk culture at home, was induced to attempt it in Virginia; and, <^ having understood that the soil naturally yieldeth store of excellent mulberries," gave instructions to the Earl of Southampton, to urge the cultivation of silk in the colony, in preference to tobacco, ''which brings with it many disor- ders and inconveniences." In obedience to the command, the Earl wrote an express letter on the subject, to the Governor and Council, in which he desired them to compel the colonists to plant mulberry trees, and also vines. Accordingly, '^ as early as the year 1623, the colonial assembly directed the planting of mulberry trees; and in 1656, another act was passed, in which the culture of silk is described as the most profitable commodity for the country; and a penalty of ten pounds of tobacco is imposed upon every planter who should fail to plant at least ten mulberry trees for every hundred acres of land in his possession. In the same year a premium of 4,000 pounds of tobacco^ w^as given to a person as an inducement to remain in the country, and prosecute the trade in silk; and, in the next year, a pre- mium of 10,000 pounds of tobacco was offered to any one who should export £200 worth of the raw material of silk. About the same time. 5,000 pounds of the same article was promised '^ to any one who should produce 1,000 pounds of wound silk in one year." The act of 1656, coercing the planting of the mulberry trees, was repealed, in the year 1658, but was revived two years after; and the system of re- wards and penalties was steadily pursued until the year 1606, when it was determined that all statutory provisions were thereafter unne- cessary, as the success of divers persons in the growth of silk, and other manufactures, ' 'evidently demonstrated how beneficial the same * In the early settlement of Virginia, tobacco was the circulating' medium, thr siibstitute for money, as aev/mj silk is, in part at pn^sent in \A'indl)am county, Con- necticut . [ 175 ] '22. would prove/' Three years after, legislative encouragements were revived, but subsequently to the year 1669, the interference of govern- ment seems entirely to have ceased.* The renewal of the premiums after the act of the year 1658, was, doubtless, owing to the recom- mendation of Charles II: for, in the year 1661, among the instruction^ given to Sir Wm. Berkeley, upon his reappointment as governor, and while in England on a visit, the king recommended the cultivation of silk, and mentioned, as an inducement to the colonists to attend to his advice, " that he had formerly worn some of the silk of Virginia, which he found not inferior to that raised in other countries/' This remark is probably the ground of the tradition mentioned by Beverly, that the king had worn a robe of Virginia silk at his coronation.t The revived encouragement given by the Colonial Legislature to the culture of silk, had the desired effect. Mulberry trees were gene- rally planted, and the rearing of silkworms formed a part of the regular business of many of the farmers. Major Walker, a member of the Legislature, produced satisfactory evidence of his having- 70,000 trees growing in the year 1664, and claimed the premium. Other claims of a like tenor were presented the same session. J The eastern part of the State abounds at present with white mulberry treesj and it is to be hoped the people will see their interest in renewing the culture of silk. Upon the settlement of Georgia, in 1732, the culture of silk was also contemplated as a principal object of attention, and lands were granted to settlers upon condition that they planted one hundred white mulberry trees on every ten acres, when cleared; and ten years were allowed for their cultivation. Trees, seed, and the eggs of silk- worms, were sent over by the trustees to whom the management of the colony was committed. An Episcopal clergyman and a native of Piedmont were engaged to instruct the people in tlie art of rearing the worms and winding the silk; and in order to keep alive the idea of the silk culture, and of the views of the Government respecting it, on one side of the public seal was a representation of silkworms in their various stages, with this appropriate motto: " Non sibi sed aliis."§ By a manuscript volume containing ''the account of the moneys and effects received and expended by the trustees of Georgia," to which the writer has had access, it appears that the first parcel of silk receiv- ed by the trustees, was in the year 1735, wlien eight pounds of raw silk were exported from Savannah to England. It was made into a piece, and presented to the queen. || * Ilenning-'s Statutes of Virg-inia, vol. 1 & 2. — Letter to the Secretaiy of the Trea- •sury in answer to the silk circular, from the Honorubki John Tyler, late Governor of Virginia. f Burke's Hist. Virginia, vol. 2. p. 125. - Burke, vol. 2. p. 241. § M'Call's History of Georgia, vol. 1. p. 22. 29. II •' The trustees of Georgia waited on her majesty witii some silk from Georgia, wUicli had ])roved very good. It is to be wove into a piece for her majesty." — Gen- tleman's Mag. Vol. 5, p. 448. The following entry appears in the manuscript book of the trustees, vnider date 1736: " The raw silk from Georgia, organzined by Sir Thos.. .Lombe, was made into a piece of silk, and presented to the queen." Under date 1738, i'/a charge *♦ for making a rich brc>cade, and dying the silk from Georgia, £26." S13 [ 175 ] From this time, until the year 1750, there are entries of large par- ifels of raw silk received from Georgia, the produce of cocoons raised by the inhabitants, and bought from them, at established prices, by the agents of the trustees, who had it reeled off under their direction. In the year 1751, a public filature was erected, by order of the trus- tees. *'The exports of silk, from the year 1750 to 1754, inclusive, amounted to $ 8,880. In the year 1757, one thousand and fifty pounds of raw silk were received at the filature. In the year 1758, this build- ing was consumed by fire, with a quantity of silk, and 7,040 pounds cocoons; but another was erected. In the year 1759, the colony ex- ported upwards of 10,000 weight of raw silk, which sold two or three shillings higher per pound, than that of any other country."* Ac- cording to an official statement of William Brown, Comptroller of the Customs of Savannah, 8,829 pounds of raw silk were exported between the years 1755 and 1772, inclusive.! The last parcel brought for sale to Savannah, was in the year 1 790, when upwards of two hun- dred weight w^ere purchased for exportation, at 18^. and 2Qs. per pound. J Some attention was also paid, in early times, to the culture of silk in South Carolina; and the writer has been informed, that, during a certain period, it was a fashionable occupation. The ladies sent the raw silk produced by them to England, and had it manufactured. "In the year 1755, Mrs. Pinckney, the same lady who, about ten years before, had introduced the indigo plant into South Carolina, took with her to England a quantity of excellent silk, which she had raised and spun in the vicinity of Charleston, sufficient to make three complete dresses: one of them was presented to the Princess Dowager of Wales, and another to Lord Chesterfield. They were allowed to be equal to any silk ever imported. The third dress, now (1809) in Charleston, in the possession of her daughter, Mrs. Horry, is re- markable for its beauty, firmness, and strength. "§ The quantity of raw silk exported as merchandise was small; for during six years, only 251 lbs. were entered at the custom house. || The quality of it was excellent: according to the certificate of Sir Thomas Lombe, the eminent silk manufacturer, it had as much strength and beauty as the silk of Italy. IF At New Bordeaux, a French settlement, 70 miles * M' Call's Hist. Georgia, vol. 1. p, 251. ■f- It will be seen that this statement differs fi'om that of Mr. M'Call. It first appear- ed in B. Koman's account of" Florida, and afterwards in Aikin's Pennsylvania Mag-azine, for July, 1775 , An opinion of the quality of the Georgia silk, may be formed from the following document: **A paper was laid before the Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, by about forty eminent silk throwsters and weavers, declaring", that, having" examined a parcel of about 300 pounds weight of Georgia raw^ silk, imported in February last, they found the na- ture and texture of it truly good, tiie color beautiful, the thread even, and clean as the best Piedmont, and will be worked with less waste than China silk.*' — Londoi.' Magazine for 1755. t The late Charles Harris, Esq. : letter to the Secretary of the Treasury. § Ramsay's History of South Carolina, vol. 1. p. 221. II Viz: in the years 1742, 1748, 1749, 175J, 1753, 1755. — Dodsley's Annual Regi*;^ ter, 1761. • ^ An Impartial Enquiry into thr» St'xte of Georgia. — London, \7A1, p. 79. ;[ 175 ] '24, above Augusta, the people supplied much of the high country with sewing silk, during the war of the Revolution.* In the year 1771, the cultivation of silk began in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and continued with spirit for several years. The subject had been frequently mentioned in the American Philosophical Society, as one of those useful designs which it was proper for them to promote; but they were induced to enter into a final resolution on it in consequence of a letter being laid before them on the 5th January, 1770, from Doctor Franklin, who was then in London as Agent of the Colony, and in answer to one which had been written to him on the same subject by the late Doctor Cadwallader Evans. In this letter from Doctor Franklin, he recommended the culture of silk to his countrymen, and advised the establishment of a public filature in Philadelphia, for winding the cocoons. He also sent to the Society a copy of the work by the Abbe Sauvage, on the rearing of silkworms. A committee having been appointed by the Society to frame a plan for promoting the culture of silk, and to prepare an address to the Leglslamre, praying for public v^acouragement of the design, they proposed to raise a fund, by subscription, for the purchase of cocoons, to establish a filature, and to offer for public sale all the silk pur- chased and w^ound off at the filature: the produce thereof to be duly accounted for, and to remain in the stock for carrying on the design. A subscription among the citizens was immediately set on foot, and the sum of £S75 I4s, obtained the first year;t eggs and w^hite mulber- ry trees were imported, and a digest of instructions composed, pub- lished, and distributed. Until the white mulberry trees were fit to allow of their leaves being plucked, the worms were fed upon the leaves from the native trees, and were found to agree perfectly well with them, and to yield excellent silk It is believed that all the silk produced during the continuance of the Society, was from food fur- nished hy native trees. A spirit for the silk culture was excited among the citizens, and many garments are still possessed by fami- lies which were made from silk raised by their forefathers. The war of the Revolution put an end to the patriotic association, and sus- pended, in a great measure, the silk culture — there being no longer a sale for cocoons; but many persons continued their attention to it, and others resumed it after the termination of the war. The knowledge of the proper mode of rearing silkworms, and of winding the silk, was greatly promoted by the publication of a paper on those subjects, in the 2d volume of Transactions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, which the late Doctor John Morgan procured from Italy, through a silk mercantile house in Lon- * Thomas McCall, Esquire: answer to the silk circular. yThe loss of the minutes of the Society prevents our knowing the amount subscribed '.a subsequent years. It is a proof of the anxiety of the Britisii Government, inres[)ectto the silk culture in the Colonies, that, in the year 1769, an act was passed for the* /tirMer* oKcourag-cmcnt of the g-rowth of silk in North America, g-rantiiig- 25/. for every 100/. value of raw silk raised for the next seven years, and smaller bounties during- the two following- periods of seven years. But no mention is made of this act by Doctor Franklin in his letter, nor docs it appear that any premium w&s claimed by the Society in coJiSeqvience of it. 25 [ 175 ] don. ^ During the last three years, a spirit has been revived and diffused on the subject, and promises to increase ; and there can be no hesita- tion in saying, that a ready sale for cocoons is alone wanting, to esta- blish the silk culture as a regular employment in several States of the Union. It was the want of this market which defeated, in a great degree, the patriotic attempt of Mr. Nathaniel Aspinwall, of Connec- ticut, about the year 1790, to revive the silk culture in Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey. But his memory deserves to be held in everlasting and grateful remem.brance, for the thousands of white mul- berry trees which he planted in those States, and for the commendable zeal he exhibited in the cause. In Connecticut, attention to the culture of silk commenced about the year 1760, by the introduction of the white mulberry tree, and eggs of the silkworms, into the county of Windham, and town of Mansfield, from Long Island, New York, by Mr. N. Aspinwall, who had there planted a large nursery. He also planted an extensive nur- sery of the trees in New Haven, and w^as active in obtaining of the Legislature of Connecticut, an act granting a bounty for planting trees; a measure in w^hich he was warmly supported by the patriotic and learned Dr. Ezra Styles. The premium was ten shillings for every hundred trees which should be planted and preserved in a thrifty con dition, for three years; and three-pence per ounce for all raw silk, which the owners of trees should produce from cocoons of their own raising within the State. After the public encouragement for raising t^ees was found unnecessary, a small bounty on raw silk, manufactur- ed within the State, was continued some time longer. A statute con- tinues in force, requiring sewing silk to consist of twenty threads, each two yards long.t It would be an act of injustice to omit noticing the generous en- couragement to the cultivation of silk in the American Colonies, which was given by the patriotic Society in London, for *^the Promotion of Arts," &c. From the year 1755 to 1772, several hundred pounds sterling were paid to various persons in Georgia, South Carolina, and Connecticut, in consequence of premiums offered by the Society, for planting mulberry trees, and for cocoons and raw silk.± After the war of the Revolution, the business was renewed, and gradually extended; and it is recorded, that, in the year 1789, two hundred pounds weight of raw silk were made in the single town of Mansfield, in Windham, Connecticut. § In the year 1810, the value of the sewing silk and raw silk, made in the three counties of New Lon- don, Windbam, and Tolland, was estimated, by the United States' Marshal, at g28,503;|| but the value of the domestic fabrics made * This excellent paper has been copied In all the British and Srolh Enc\ clopxdias, and was reprinted in a pamphlet, at Windham, Connectirnvt, in the year 1792. t Governor VVolcot's answer to the silk circular. t The particulars are not inserted in the transactions cf the Society, but may be seen in Bayley's Advancement of the Arts, London, 1772j and in Dossie's Mamoirs of At^riculturc, vol. 3. § Columbian Mag-azine, Philadelphia, 4, p. 61. II Statement of the arts and manufacUU'es of the United St .tcs for the year 1810. By Tench Cox^. 4 [ 175 ] 26 from the refuse silk, and worn in those counties, was not taken inte*- consideration. They may be fairly estimated at half of the above sum. In the year 1825, inquiries were made by the writer, in Windham county, as to the increased attention to the silk culture there, and it was found that the value of the silk, and of the domestic fabrics man- ufactured in that county, was double that of the year 1810. It was also found, that sewing silk was part of the circulating medium, and that it was readily exchanged at the stores for other articles, upon terms which were satisfactory to both parties, and that the balance of the account, when in favor of the seller, was paid in silver. The only machines for making the sewing silk, are the common domestic small and large wheels; but practice supplies the defects of these imperfect implements. With better machinery, sewing silk of a superior quality would be made. At present, ''three-fourths of the families in Mans- field, are engaged in raising silk, and make, annually, from 5 to 10, 20, and 50 pounds in a family, and one or two have made, each, 100 pounds in a season. It is believed that there are annually made in Mansfield, and the vicinity, from three to four tons. * The farmers consider the amount received for their sewing silk as so much clear gain, as the business does not interfere with the regular farm work of the men, or the domestic duties of the females, upon whom, with the aged and youthful members of the family, the care of the worms, and the making of the sewing silk, chiefly devolves. It is known also, that in the other New England States, Maine excepted, more or less attention to the silk culture is given. During the late war with England, Samuel Chidsey, of Cayuga county, New York, sold sewing silk to the amount of $ 600 a year, Mr. C. introduced the white mulberry tree in the town of Scipio, on. its first settlementt Silk was, also, formerly raised by the French in- habitants, in the country now the State of Illinois, but to what extent is not known, t The cultivation of silk has commenced in the States of Ohio and Kentucky, and there is every reason to believe that it will extend. The first mentioned State contains a great number of citizens who for- merly resided in the silk-growing districts of Connecticut and Massa- chusetts, and who will doubtless see their interest in renewing a branch of business from which they formerly derived so much profit. In the latter State, it is chiefly confined to those industrious people, the United Brethren, whose steady, persevering labors and intelligence, are the surest guarantees of success. * Z. Storrs, Epq. of MtvnsfieM: answer to tlve silk circular. The manufacture of liilk is chiirily confined to tlie counties of tVindham and To! land. The quantity made in five to'\rnt5, last season, 1827, according to an accurate statement, was as follows: Rlansneld 2,430 lbs. | Ashford 500 lbs. Coventry 350 lbs. Chapiin 559 do. j fiampton 467 do. V/orlb four dollars per pound. The val'ic increases one-foiirtli in manufacturing;. Several towns in which muci) silk is itiade, gave nou'eturns. Letter to the Secte tary of the Treasury, by D. IValkeley, l^sq. f Mr. David T/ioma'^: letter in answer to the silk circular. -- Goveinor Coles: letter in answer to tiiesilk circular. 2T [ 175 ] CHAPTER I. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SILKWORM. The phalaena, or moth of the silkworm, or, more properly, the silk- i^aterpillar, is about an inch long, and nearly an inch and a half be- tween the extremities of the largest wings, when extended. The bo- dies of both male and female, are obscurely white, and thickly covered with short hairs. There are two antennae;* the stems are whitish, and lateral fillets pectinated, or like the teeth of a comb. In the male, they are unequally spaced, while in the female, they are smooth, less pectinated, shorter, and not so close, and, in a state of repose, they commonly lie on their sides. There are four transparent wings, of the same color as the body. In the male, the upper surface of the su- perior wings are crossed by two brown bands; the broadest one is near the extremity of the wing, and is continued on the under wing. Both bands are bordered with a line: on the under surface there is only one band. The superior wings are a little bent downwards at their ends. The inferior wings of both are reverse in a state of rest, and extend beyond the upper ones. The wings are covered with a white powder. The tail of the male is somewhat raised and square. The female is larger than the male; her wings are less strongly marked with bands, and on the exterior margin of the wings. On the wings of both, are several rays, which are as apparent on the under as the upper surfaces. These are termed nervures, and are hollow tubes, proceeding from the commencement of the wings, and diminish gradually in size, (the marginal one excepted) to their termination. The vessels contained in these nervures, consist of spiral threads, whence they appear to be in- tended to be air vessels communicating with the air vessels in the body.t The wings are flat, and incapable of contraction or dilatation. There are two black convex eyes, one on each side of the head. They are protuberant, and rise above the head rather more than a hemi- sphere. To the naked eye, their surface appears to be plain; but, by submitting them to the microscope, their true and admirable structure is ascertained. By the help of this instrument, it is found that the whole surface consists of a multitude of lenses, all separated from one * The antennae are commonly called feelers, from the circumstance of numerous insects touching- substances with them; but all antennae are not thus used, nor are they formed to answer this purpose. It is now supposed that they are, in some way, connected with the org-an of hear- ing"; and that they may collect and transmit sound to such an org-an, the minuteness of which defies investigation. This organ is suspected to be at the base of the an- tennae, the spot in which the same organ has been discovered in the crayfish. Kirby and Spence on Insects, vol. 3. pp. 43. 46, vol. 4. p. 216. ■j- These nervures are not peculiar to the raotji of th« si Ik -caterpillar, hj'.t rommoii to the wings of most insects. [ 175 ] as another by an hexagonal or six-sided figure, and placed in the most exact order. Leewenhoek counted thirty -five of these Jenscs on the fourth part of the sphere of one eye; the entire circumference will therefore contain 140; hence, he says, it follows, that each eye is com- posed of 3,000 optical organs; but, if both parts together constituted a sphere, they then contain 6,236. When the eye is separated and made clear, these hexagons are as transparent as crystal. Leewen- hoek having properly prepared and fitted an eye to a microscope, could see through it clearly, but the largest objects viewed, were di- minished to an incredibly small size. The steeple of the church in Delft, which is 300 feet high, at 750 feet distance, appeared no largej^ than the point of a needle, seen by the naked eye. Not hug-e Behemoth, nor the whale's vast form. That spouts a torrent, and that breathes a storm. Transcends in org'ans apt this puny fly. Set with ten thousand lenses.* — Evans, The construction of these compound eyes, is admirably adapted to the convenience of the insect; for, as they are immovable, they w^ould have lost sight of many objects, if their eyes had been framed like those of other animals; but, by their form, they can easily see sur- rounding objects. As we do not see double with our eyes, so the numer- ous inlets to sight in an insect, may increase their field of view. When the w^orm is first hatched, it is very minute, and of a brown hue, if healthy. This hue is derived from the hairs covering its bo- dy: they disappear in the course of a few days, when it assumes a light or d^.rk hue, according to the nature of the particular variety, "ehind the head, the skin is formed into six wrinkles. The body is composed of twelve articulations, or rings: each ring, except the se- cond, third, and last, is marked on the sides, and near the belly, with spots of a deeper color than that of the skin, and show oval openings through which the insect respires. These openings are termed spira- cula,t or breathing holes, and communicate, internally, with two air vessels, running the whole length ©f the body, one on each side, in a straight line, from one spiracle, or stigma, to another, and, uniting near the head, form one trunk. They serve, or perform, the office of lungs. In other words, these stigmata are eighteen mouths, which admit air into the principal air vessels in the large trunks of the tra- chea, or wind-pipes, whence it is led to the different and numerous ra- mifications of the air tubes, to the intestinal canal, to the other inter- nal parts, and to the skin. * The number of lenses in an eye, varies in different insects. Leewcnliock count- ed 8,000 in that of a common house fly. fa J Ilooke ftj computed 7,000 in a horse lly; and Vuget fcj 17,o25 in that of a butterfly. ■\ Malphitji and Ueaumur call them stigmata. (a) Select works, 4to. vol. 1. p. 62. Lon.1. 1790. 'J-^ Microgcapliia, p. 176. (c) Amsenitates Acadeinicie. vo^. 3. ji. 112. 29 C 175 ] The silk-caterpillar has sixteen feet. The three first pair are scaly and hard, and placed under the three first rings, one on each side. The next two rinajs are destitute of feet. The four succeeding rings have each two feet. These are soft and membranous, and swell, contract, and expand, at the will of the insect. The next two rings are with- out feet; the last ring has two feet. The extremities of the twelve membranous feet, are furnished with hooks, or claws, the number of which, according to the accurate Malphigi, are forty* in number in each foot. They are of difierent sizes, and are placed in double and equi-distant rows. The extremities of the six first feet, consist of curved nails, or hooks, which enable the caterpillar to hold to the spot to which it has been pushed by the contractions of the posterior rings. These feet are the envelopes of those which appear in the moth. The others remain with the cast off skin of the caterpillar. On the last ring but one, is placed a small horn, if that can deserve this name, says Reaumur, v/hich is used neither as a vveapon of attack nor defence. This accurate naturalist acknowledges his inability to point out its use. The head of the caterpillar is formed of two scalv spherical pieces, which do not touch, but leave a triangular space be- tween them. On each side of these pieces, and in front, six or seven black spots, arranged in a circle, may be seen: these are the eyes. The opening between these two pieces, below and in the forepart, is the mouth. It is armed with two parallel jaws, and with teeth, which move horizontally when the insect eats. The spinnaret, or silk hole, is near the summit of a pyramidal substance, occupying the middle of the lower lip, and terminates in a little papilla of a black form, from the point of which the silk filament issues that forms the cocoon. The canal which receives the aliment, proceeds, in a straight line, from the mouth to the vent, and is of different capacities, analogous to the gul- let, the stomach, and intestines, of animals. The vessels in which the silk is formed, consist of two parallel tubes of the same size, which are so extremely delicate near their termination, as to appear to unite in one tube; but, by immersmg and hardening the insect in spirits of wine, Rcaumurt found that they continued sej)arate to their ends, and that he could take them out entire: they are about one foot in length. The use of the microscope confirmed the structure: for, by tlie help of this apparatus, he discovered that the fibre of silk, minute as it is, in- stead of being round, as it would be if it proceeded from one vessel, had more breadth than thickness, and that, in the middle of each fibre, there was a kind of furrow, giving the appearance of two flattened cylinders glued together. In some threads, he even saw tlie separa- tion, or forks, at the end of the threadj From the contracted natun? * De Bombycibus, p. 9; Malpliisi Opera LondinJ, 1737. f Memoire sur insects, p. 147, Paris, 4to. l?o4. t Memoire, p 499. In tiiis admirable work, Keaiimur has sliowii tiji.s confirmatinn of the silk thread in mag-nificd fisj-ures. Plate 5, tig. 4; plate "2, fig-. 1.3, 14, 15; plate 33, fig. 1, 2, 3. Leewenhoek had, many years previously, demon.stiated this structure by the microscope. L\'onct, liowevcr, (JUf^stions the accuracy of both, and ins'sts that both silk Uibcs unite bcfc^re they reach the orH'ice. Traitc Analoniuqi.".- de la Chenille, &c. p. 55. A la Ilayc, 1762, [ 175 ] 30 of the sides, and the foim of the orifice, combined with the power the insect lias of moving it in every direction, results the difference we see in the breadth and form of the threads, and the various thickness of the same thread.* The silk reservoirs, following the course of the stomach, extend as far as the last pair of membranous feet, then fold back on each side, and proceed to the head, and, after two more turnings, the tubes less- ening in size, they end in a series of convolutions.! Each of these vessels is filled with a glutinous matter, near the time of spinning the cocoon, generally of the color of the silk which the caterpillar will spin. Sometimes it is of different colors in the same vessel; the up- per part containing a yellow liquor, and the lower portion of it a pale liquor. The quality of the leaves, and the constitution of the insect, are the piobable causes of this circumstance. While in the silk-secre- tors, it assumes the appearance of a viscid gum; but the moment it is exposed to the air, after being thrown out by the worm, it dries and hardens into a single thread. The silk-caterpillar, whose life is one continued succession of changes, casts off its skin four times before it reaches its full growth. Tliis is a wonderful provision of nature, although, as is well known, not confined to this insect, to relieve itself from the constriction it suf- fers from the skin, which does not expand in proportion to the gradual increase of its body. These changes are times of pain to the cater- pillar, which it shows by a state of languor, and by ceasing to eat. It prepares for the operation, by emptying the intestinal tube, and b)'' throwing out, at different parts of its body, silky fibres, and attaching them to the litter of its food, in order that, while it exerts itself, the skin may remain fixed in the spot where it is placed. The insect is now seen, at intervals, with its back elevated, or with its body stretch- ed to the utmost extent, sometimes raising its head, wdiich is swelled and pointed, moving from side to side, and then letting it fall. Near the cliange, the second and third rings are seen considerably swollen. By these internal efforts, the old parts are stretched and distended, pnd ;' Silt is made on the back, generally beginning at the second or third ring. The new skin may now be perceived by its freshness and brightness of color. The caterpillar tlicn presses the body into tlds opening, by which means, and a continuance of swellings and conti'itctions, a rent is made from the first to the fourth ring. Then^ bending the forepart of its body, and drawing it backwards, it disen- giges tlic head from its old covering, and throws it out of the slit. Filially, curving the posterior rings, and drawing them towards the head, the vrhole body escapes from its sheath. This escape is facili- tated by a moip.ture, which the insect emits and diffuses over its body. This laborious operation is the work of an instant; and the skin, when cast off, is so entire, that it might be mistaken for the larva or caterpillar itself, comprising, not only the covering of the trunk, but of the very skull, eyes, jaws, and legs. These changes are termed * Kirby and Spence°6 Introduction to Entomolog-y, vol. 3, p. 125, Lond. + AVben taken out and extended, they measure a foot hbU seven inches in length. 31 [ 175 ] moultings, and take place at different intervals, and continue for va- rious periods, according to the climate or temperature in which the insects have been kept, their particular nature, tlie quality of the food, and the quantity and regularity with which they have been supplied. " In this country, in a general way, the silk-caterpillars of four casts or moultings, which have been, in all respects, properly treated, show symptoms of their first moulting on the fourth or fifth day after tliey are hatched. The appearances which the worm assumes in the various stages of its life, will be mentioned in the course of the details of its progress to maturity, and therefore need not be here anticipated. Sometimes a part of the covering remains attached to the extremity of the caterpillar, which cannot cast it off. The insect then swells or enlarges in the part v/hich is disentangled, while the other part of the body continuing compressed, occasions its death. After having recovered from a moulting, the new skin is pale and wrinkled; the insect appears much larger than before, owing to the room given for distending its body under the new skin, and feeds with increased activity. This increase of appetite is in proportion to the advanced age of the insect; but, after the fourth moulting, it is very great, and the consumption of leaves is immense. The last casting of the skin, which is visible, being finished, and the caterpillar having attained its greatest size, and matured the silky material in its ves- sels, it loses all appetite, ceases to eat, and consequently to grow, and then diminishes in weight and size. It relieves itself of the contents of the alimentary canal, which are now soft and green, mstead of hard and black as before, and contracts its skin, and whole body, to such a degree, as to be readily perceptible. These appearances take place about nine or ten days after the fourth m.oulting. The caterpillar now begins to prepare for spinning the silky tomb in which nature has destined that it should enclose itself. It first wanders about, and Faises up its head, as if searching for a place to commence work, aiirl, having fixed on a suitable spot, it throws out some loose threads, and glues one end of them to an adjoining surface. These threads it next conducts to another part, and then fastens them; repeating this process, and interlacing them in various directions, until it lias sur- rounded itself with a slight and loosely spun netting. In the ccntrt* ef this, when contracted into a space sufficiently small, it lays thfv foundation of the interior cocoon. Fixing itself to some of the sur- rounding threads, it bends its body, and, by successive motions of the head from side to side^ spins a layer of silk on the side opposite to it-, when this is of the requisite thickness, the insect shifts its position, and repeats the same process in another quarter,t covering each layer, in lUrn, w4th a new one, until the interior cavity is reduced to tlie size desired. Thus, the silken thread wliich forms the cocoon, is not, as * In India, during' Summer, the moulting-s arc nnislicdin a tew houij. — Antlcison'!= Bee, Edin . vol. 8, ]). 39. t See Plate 3, tii;.s. 4 and 5, for :^ view of ftic precise mode irv whirh. fhc sJk fi'ircs are laid. [ 175 ] 32 might be supposed, wound circularly, as we wind the thread of a ball of cotton, but backwards and forwards, in a series of zigzags, so as to compose a number of distinct layers. Malphigi* distmguished six of tshese layers; and Reaumurt suspects there is often a greater number. Hence, when the cocoon is wound off, the unravelling proceeds in a very irregular manner. The inside is smeared with a gum of the same nature with that out of which the silk is formed. The construction of tlie cocoon is a work of three days, or three days and a half. During the first day, the insect forms the exterior envelope, which is merely the scaffolding, by means of which the in- ner and more solid covering is constructed. On the second, it forms the ball, and covers itself with silk. The third day, the insect is quite hid, and afterwards it is employed in thickening and strengthen- ing the ball. Having done this, tlie caterpillar has to undergo a second change of form, viz: into that of a chrysalis; that state in- tervening betv/een the larva, or caterpillar, and imago, or perfect moth, in which its parts and organs are fully prepared, and fitted for their final and complete developement in the last mentioned state. This state is assumed on or about the fourth day after having spun its eocoon. In this state it is quiescent, and apparently without life, but all this time a new organization is internally forming. The first ope- ration it performs, is to cast off the external skin, which covered it in the caterpillar state, with the head and jaws attached to it. This it does in one or two days after finishing its cocoon, and, according %o Malphigi, in the space of one minute and ten seconds;^ who adds, that the act is greatly promoted by a yellowish fluid, discharged from the cavity of the head, which enables the outward skin the more easily to slip over it, as the insect contracts and elongates. The 'fiaterpillar thus stripped, is called the pupa. The exterior cover- ing gradually becomes hard, while the interior remains so soft, that the slightest touch will decompose it. The stomach is filled with yellow mucus, w^hich is doubtless the source of nourishment to the pupa. The germs, or rudiments, of the future moth, which, according to Swammerdam, may be detected even in the caterpillar, near its last change, in a semi-fluid state, § gradually develop, and assume their destined form; the wings, rolled up, are lodged between the second and third rings; the antennse are placed alongside of them; the legs are actually sheathed in legs; and when they have acquired a proper degree of solidity, a slight inflation of the body is suflicient to split the membrane wliich covers them. A repetition of these motions x^nlarges the slit, and aflbrds the moth room to escape from its confine- ■* De Eombycibus, p. 24. Y Toine 1, p. 498. n: De Bomb3'cibus, p. 25. '5 Tc discover these, it is directed to drown tlie caterpillar, when about to assume '\\e pupa state, in vineg'ar, or spirits of wine, and to let it remain there for several days, to liardcn tl\e parts; or to boil it for a few minutes, then to dissect off the skin, v/hen the enclosed moth will appear, hut the parts are in a different manner from t'iiat in v.hich they lic-i^n the pupa. 3S [ 175 3 ment. If the cocoon be opened, it is easy to discover the efforts which the insect makes to free itself. When the operation begins, there -seems to be a violent agitation in the humors of the little animal; the fluids being driven with rapidity through all the vessels, the limbs and other parts are put in motion, and, by repeated efforts, it breaks through the brittle "skin that envelopes it. Another operation remains to be performed; this is, to penetrate the tough, silky cocoon, with which it is covered. It has been a question how the moth escapes from the cocoon. Malphigi^ asserts that it first wets the end of the cocoon with a liquid, calculated to dissolve the gum which glues the fibres together, and then employs its head to push them aside, and make an opening. But, as Reaumur has observed,! besides, that so obtuse a part as the head of a moth is but ill suited to act as a wedge, we find the threads not merely pushed to each side, but actually cut asunder. He there- fore infers, that the eyes are the instruments by which the threads are divided — their numerous minute facets serving the purpose of a fine file. The Rev. Mr. Swayne:}: supports the idea of Malphigi. He informs us that he has unravelled several pierced cocoons, but never found that the thread was discontinued in any one instance. He re- marks, however, that, whenever this is attempted, it must be with the cocoon dry, as the silk will be immediatelj^ entangled when put into hot water. Analogy is against the opinion of Reaumur, since other kinds of silkworms make their escape by means of a fluid, as the Jit- tacus Paphia, of India, described by Dr. Roxburgh. § Perhaps the two opinions may be reconciled, by supposing that the silkworm first moistens, and then breaks the iibres of the cocoon, by the united as- sistance of his jaws and head. This is the opinion of Mr. Swayne. The time occupied by the siik-caterpillar in going through its dif- ferent forms of existence, varies in different countries; and depends upon climate, the temperature in which they have been kept, food^ and the nature of the particular variety of insect. These circumstances, which are the true causes, will explain the different statements of various writers on the subject, all of whom pro- fess to speak from actual observation. It will be hereafter seen, too, that the temperature of the room in which the eggs have been kept, during the winter, affects the periods at which they hatch. In general, silk-caterpillars, of four casts, when treated carefully, according to the system laid down by the experienced Dandolo — that is, gradually brought to maturity by a due regulation of the heat of the apartment, experience their first change or moulting on the fourth and fifth days after they have left their eggs: the second commences on the eighth day, and ends on the ninth: the third occupies the thir- teenth and fourteenth days: the fourth, and last, is effected on the tvyenty-first and twenty-second days. The fifth age lasts ten days, at * De Bombycibus, p. 29. f Reaumur, Hist, des Insects, tome 1, p. 624. i Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 7, p- 132. % Trans. Linnxan Soc, Lond. vol. 7, p. 35 5 i; 175 ] 34 the end of which lime the caterpillars have reached their ultimate growl h, are three inches in length, and of the size of a swan's quill, or even larger, and prepared to spin their cocoons. Each moulting takes up about two days: making, in all, about thirty-two days from the hatching of the insect. In Pennsylvania, where artificial heat has not yet been generally Employed, the worms which have proceeded from stocks long among us, come to maturity in about forty-two days; in Mansfield, Connec- ticut, in about five weeks. The small white worms, of the same place, which produce beautiful and fine white silk, and two crops annually, feed twenty days. A part of the worms produced from eggs import- ed in the spring of 1826, from Genoa, by the writer, and reared in the Pennsylvania Hospital, came to maturity in twenty-six days. The length of time passed by the worm in the state of a chrysalis, depends much upon the degree of heat in which the cocoons are kept. If the temperature be about 66° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the moths will make their appearance after fifteen days; while, on the contrary, the experienced Abbe Sauvage informs us, that he has prevented them from coming forth for a month, by keeping the cocoons in a vault.* This is very important information, as, by having recourse to this ex- pedient, time will be given to wind ofi"the cocoons, without baking or steaming them to kill the chrysalis. In whichever way the cocoon is pierced, as soon as the head of the moth is out, the efibrts he makes to bring forward the rest of his body, increase the opening; his two forward legs are soon out, and then, at- taching them strongly to the exterior part of the cocoon, he uses this as a new support; other legs come out, and finally the whole moth escapes, leaving behind, in the cocoon, his caterpillar's skin, in a crumpled state, with the head and jaws attached thereto, and the shell of the chrysalis. Having gained their liberty, the moths discharge a red excrementitious fluid: neither of them attempts to fly: the male, anxious to fulfil the destiny of his nature, goes immediately in search of the female, fluttering his wings with great rapidity, and having found one? couples with her, continuing, for some time, to flap his wings. After difierent intervals of time, they separate, and the male soon after dies; the female crawls about, and lays from 200 to 450 minute eggs, and then she also dies. The eggs, when first laid, are of a pale yellow color; but, in the course of eight or ten days they as- sume a reddish gray hue, and, sometime after that, a pale slate color. The unimpregnated, and consequently sterile eggs, remain yelloWj,. and are more depressed on their surface than good eggs. *Sur rEdircation des Vers a Sole. 3d Memoir, p. 143. 35 [ 175 ] CHAPTER II. VARIETIES IN SILKWORMS. ( BoTiXhyx MoH. ) 1. Of small Silkworms of three casts or moult ings, I have reared, says Dandolo, a quantity of these silkworms sepa- rately, the eggs of which may be found in several parts of Lombardy. The worms and cocoons of this variety are two-fifths smaller than those of the common sort. His experiments demonstrated, that these worms consume, to form a pound of cocoons, nearly as much leav^es as the large species; and, although smaller when they have reached their full growth, they devour more fragments and shoots of leaves than the common sort. Their cocoons are composed of finer and more bf^auti- ful silk than the common cocoon: they are also better constructed, and to this is owing the greater quantity of silk, which, at equal weights, is drawn from those cocoons, than from common cocoons. This variety^ in the opinion of Dandolo, should be infinitely more cultivated than it has hitherto been: for, 1. These silkworms require four days less of care than the common silkworms. 2. They afford a saving of time, labor, and money. 3. They are not so long exposed to accidents — their life being shorter. Some imagine the species to be delicate, but they appeared to Dan- dolo to be strong and vigorous. Six hundred cocoons weigh a pound and a half. 2. Of large Silkworms of four casts. Dandolo reared many of these silkworms of a very large quality. The eggs came from Friuli: they* produce larger worms and larger cocoons, yet they are not much larger nor much heavier than the eggs of the common species. The worms, at their full size, weigh nearly twice and a half as much as the common worm. The cocoons arc in the same proportion: 150 of the large sort weigh a pound and a half, while it requires 360 of the common cocoon to weigh as much. The silk is coarser and not so pure as that of the common kind; the worms are five or six days later in attaining their full growth, and in rising, than the common silkworm. 3. Of the Worms that produce lohite Silk. *^ I have raised," says Dandolo, '*a large quantity of these, and found them, in all respects, equal to the common silkworms of four casts. If I reared silkworms for the purpose of spinning the silk myself, I would cultivate only the silkworm of three casts, and those that produce white silk, as preferable to all others; and every year would choose the very whitest and finest cocoons, to prevent the de- generation of the species." This species was introduced into France about forty-five years sincCj [ 175 ] 36 from China, but was not much cultivated until about seventeen year?^ past. It is now highly prized by the manufacturers, as appears by the report of the exhibition of French Industry, in the year 1819.* In Windham county, Connecticut, there is also a small pale white worm, which eats but twenty days, and produces fine white silk, though in less quantity than either the common large pale w^hite, or the dark colored worm; but it has the good quality of retaining its clear white color, ana does not turn yellow by washing, or by exposure to sun and air. These worms produce also two crops. It is highly probable that these white worms are of the same species as that last mentioned. The dark drab colored worms, which are very common in the United States, and called "black," live longer, and make more silk than the large white worms. 4. Silkworms of eight crops. At the silk establishment of the British East India Company at Jungepore, Bengal, Lord Valencia, besides the common annual silk-^ ivorm which gave but one crop, found two others; the one common- ly reared, and supposed to- be indigencvus, is called Dacey, producing eight harvests. Another and worst, the China, or Madrassa, also yields eight times a year.t This last may be the kind mentioned by Arthur Young, who says, he ^' obtained a silkw^orm from China, which he reared, and in tv/enty-five days- had the cocoons in his ba» sins, and by the twenty-ninth or thirty-first days, a new progeny feed- ing in his trays." He justly remarks, that " they would be a mine to whoever would cultivate them.''.^ The American who would in- troduce any of the best of these silkworms into the United St ies, would render an essential service to his country. If circumstances, however, should prevent the importation of the species before men- tioned, it is presumed there w^ill be no difficulty in procuring, from the' Isle of France, tlie eggs of those which came from Bengal in the year 1815, and were reared under the direction of Mr. Chazel, and which breed three times' a year;§ or the variety of Madrass, which, accord- ing to Dr. Anderson, finish their course in forty days, viz: six days in eggs, tw^enty-two a worm, eleven in the cocoon, and one a moth..|| Onrearingtivo or three crops of idorms in the United States, in one season. In those States where the heat continues long, more than one crop of worms can be obtained in a season without artificial means, as the following statement shows: " In the month of MarcJi, 18;36, Mr. Seth Millington,ir received a * Malphigi, long since, mentioned the existence of a variety of silkworms in Italy, which bred twice In a seuson. — De Uombycibiis, p. 43. "i" Travels to India in 1802, 180o, vol. 1, p. TS, Loiul. 1809. \ Annals of Agriculture, vol. 23, ]). 2S5 § Transactions Soc. Arts, Lomlon, vol. 42. il Anderson's Bee, vol. 8, p. 312, Edinburgli. \ Of Prairie Ilaut, St. Charles Co. Mi.-^iouri: letter to the Secretary oitlic Treasu- ry,- in answer to the silk clrcului , 37 [ 175 3 few silkworm eggs from Philadelphia, which were kept in an upper roorr.j without a tire, and hatched early in April: they w^ere fed the first weeu. on lettuce, afterwards on the leaves of the white and na- tive mulberry tree, and came to maturity within from twenty-four to thirt}' days, and spun their cocoons before the 12th of May. On the last days of May, and first of June, the moths came out and laid their eggs on paper, which was loosely rolled up, and placed in an up- per room. Within eight or ten days from the time the eggs were laid, they began to hatch, and, before the 15th of June, nearly one-twen- tieth part had hatched; the worms were healthy, fed well, grew^ more rapidly, and came to maturity in a few days less time than the first crop. They wound their cocoons in the first days of July; on the last of that month, and first of August, the moths came forth, and laid their eggs, which were placed in the same room as the first eggs. In about the same length of time, they also began to hatch, and all the worms came out between the 12th and ISth of August. They came to maturity, and spun their cocoons, in somewhat less time than the first, t-iz. before the middle of September:* the moths came forth, and laid their eggs the first days of October.'^ On the subject of these repeated productions, Mr. Millington says: *^ I feel confident that, in most parts of the Union, the climate will ad- mit of more than one crop of silkworms being raised in the course of a year, as in Asia. Our weather is equally favorable for their healthy for more than five months in the year, and if the leaves of our mul- berry trees are frequently taken from them, they will continue to put out fresh leaves for the same length of time. Between the three succes- sive crops which I raised the past summer, there were two intervals, each long enough to have raised other crops, when the weather was as favorable for their growth, and the mulberry trees were putting out leaves as luxuriantly as at any time during the summer. These inter- vals w^erefrom the 12th May to the 12th June; and from the 10th July to the 12th August, each long enough to have raised a crop of silk- worms which would have made five crops. I am convinced, from the produce of the crops, that when five crops are raised the same year^ the second, third, and fourth, will spin the largest and best cocoons. Our middle summer months are not too warm for such worms as arer hatched out in, and constantly live in this warm temperature: but the first and last crops will be more apt to experience frequent changes in the weather, and will be more liable to be injured by both heat and cold. '^ I do not doubt but that the following plan will effect the object of rearing successive crops: The eggs for the first cnjj), must be kept over winter, and be hatched, in the usual manner, about the middle oi* April. If the mulberry leaves are small, they may be fed a part of the time on lettuce; they will come to maturity, and wind their co- coons, within thirty days. The eggs for the second crop must also be kept over winter, and their hatching retarded in the spring, by * 0^yin§•, doubtless, to the Increased heat of the weather. [ 175 ] 38 keeping theiti in a very cold cellar, or ice-house, until within five c5^ six days of the time in which this crop will be wanted, when, by bring- ing these eggs into the room, they will readily hatch: or the eggs for this second crop may be provided by forcing a few worms to hatch about the middle of March, in a warm room, and by feeding them on lettuce until the mulberry trees will furnish leaves. These worms will grow slowly, and probably will not spin much silk; but if they are kept in a warm room, they will be healthy; and will fur- nish eggs which may be used for the second or following crop. The eggs for the third, fourth, and fifth crops of worms, will be furnished by the first and second crop of worms, or they also may be kept over winter, and their hatching retarded in the spring, by keeping them in an ice-house* until the worms are wanted. " The eggs of the silkworm will bear a greater degree of heat the same season they are laid, without hatching, than is required to hatch them the following spring, By being chilled during the winter, they seem to acquire a greater sensibility to heat, and a greater disposition to hatch. When we wish to hatch them the same season they are laid, this process of nature may be somewhat imitated by keeping them in a cold cellar, from the time they are laid, until wanted to be hatched; this will facilitate their hatching; yet if the weather is not very warm, artificial heat may still be necessary, and a constant exposure to a temperature somewhere between eighty and one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, in a moist atmosphere, will hatch them in five or six days.t The hatching of these eggs may also be facilitated, or rather, silk- worm eggs may be procured, which w^ill have a greater disposition ta hatch the same season, by putting the cocoons which contain the in- sects in their pupa state, in a cellar where the temperature is at about sixty degrees, and by keeping them there until they change to moths and lay their eggs; these eggs, soon after they are laid, might be kept in a temperature still lower, until wanted to be hatched. " That silkworm eggs, thus procured and kept, would have a greater disposition to hatch, I am convinced by the following late experiment. I had some eggs laid in June, when the thermometer ranged between ninety and ninety-six degrees; some laid in August, when the ther- mometer was between eighty-eight and ninety-four degrees; and some laid the first of October, when the thermometer w^as between fifty- eight and sixty-five. These three parcels of eggs I exposed to a tem- perature of between sixty-six and seventy-two, on the 10th of Octo- ber, and before the 20th, that parcel of eggs which were laid in Octo- ber, when the weather was cool, hatched out; but the two first parcels, which were laid in warmer weather, did not hatch. I have supposed that the whole of each crop of worms will be hatch- ed at the same, and will all come to their full growth at the same time, and each crop will occupy the shelves about one month. In this case,- (from their diminutive size,) enough of these worms to fill all the * The ejjg^smusf not freeze. J The propriety of ibis treatment is, however, questionable. See p. 64, on over- heating' og-j^'5. 39 [ 175 ] shelves when at their full growth, will fill only a small part; the first two weeks, therefore, where the object is to keep the shelves con- stantly filled with the greatest possible quantity of worms, something may be gained by having each crop hatched out on several different days, and each day's hatching kept by itself. Under this management, the hatching may be so arranged as to keep the shelves filled with worms of different ages, and of all sizes, which will enable the shelves to hold twice as many worms as they would otherwise admit of; and this management will also give the tenders constant and regular em- ployment; every few days they will have some new cocoons of silk to remove from the shelves, and some young w^orms to put on to supply their places. " Remarks, — In the w^arm States, which abound with many unem- ployed hands, the foregoing plan may be put in execution. But the trouble attending it will probably cause few, if any, to attempt it. Confusion and injury would moreover ensue, from having young worms on the same shelves with the worms spinning their cocoons, (a time when they require to be kept perfectly quiet,) even were it prac- ticable to accommodate both. Mr. M. has, however, demonstrated, that more than two crops of worms can be raised in those States where the heat continues long and steady. *' Messrs. Weiss and Youngman, of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, raised two crops during the year 1825. The worms of the second crop appeared more vigorous and healthy than those of the first. They also produced larger cocoons, the silk of which was of a better- quality. ''* Two attempts, viz: in 1826 and 1827, to rear two crops of worms, by Messrs, Terhoeven, Philadelphia county, failed. The worms, from the eggs laid in the early part of the season, hatched, but they soon died. CHAPTER III. OF OTHER CATERPILLARS PRODUCING SILK. • The larva of the silk-moth is not the only insect which yields silk. Other insects produce the same substance, which, in point of strength, far exceeds that of the common silkworm. These insects are natives of India, and bear the names of Bughy or Tusseh,t and Arrindyt silkworms, and have been fully described, and figured in colors, by the late eminent naturalist. Dr. Roxburgh. || Both exceed the common silkworm in size ; the first especially; and the silk of which appears to be more valuable than that of the other kind. The Tusseh silk is * Dr. stout: letter to the Hon. C. Miner, of the House of Representatives. \ Phalaena Attacus Paphia, of Drury. \ Bombyx Cynthia. D Trans. Linnjean Soc. Lond. vol. 7- [ 175 ] 40 found in such abundance in Bengal, and the adjoining provinces, a$ to have afforded the natives, from time inmiemorial, an ample supply of a most durable coarse silk, which is woven into a kind of clothj called Tusseh doot'hies, and much worn. The caterpillar, when full grown, is about four inches in length, and bulky in proportion; its color is green, with a lateral stripe of yellow, edged with redj when ready to spin, they envelope themselves in two or three leaves of the Jujube tree,* the vegetable upon which they feed. These leaves form an exterior envelope, which serves as a basin to spin tli^e cocoon in, which is then suspended, by a thick silk cord, from the branch of the tree. It remains nine months in the pupa or chrysalis state, and three months in that of the egg and caterpillar. The insect, when produced, expands to the breadth of five or six inches, and those of the female to eight inches. They immediately escape. The worms feed on the trees, and are watched day and night, to guard them agains^ birds. The natives of India pretend that these worms cannot be domesticated. The durability of the silk woven from it, is astonish- ing.! The arrindy silkworm is the Borahyx Cynthia of the natu- ralists. It is peculiar to the interior of Bengal, and is reared in a domestic state, as the common silkworms. The food of the caterpil- lar consists entirely of the leaves of the common castor-oil plant. X It is about three inches long when full fed ; the color pale green. The cocoon is white or yellowish, of a very soft and delicate texture, about two inches long, and three in circumference. The insect remains in the pupa state but twenty days. The filaments of the cocoon are so delicate, that it is impracticable to v«^ind off the silk; it is therefore spun like cotton, and woven into a coarse kind of white cloth, appa- rently of a loose texture, but of incredible durability ; the life of one person being seldom sufficient to wear out a garment made of it. The coverings of palanquins are made of this silk. Mr. Glass, British Army Surgeon,, sent some of it to his friends in England, and, upon being shown to some silk manufacturers, they gave it as their opinion, that it could be made into shawls, equal to any received from India. Another species is called Jarroo, the cocoons of which are spun in the ^^oldest month, viz: January; the silk is of a darker color. The inales, when hatched, invariably fly away, but the females remain on the asseen trees, upon which the worms are placed to feed. These are aot impregnated by the males bred along with them, which fly away; but, in ten or twelve hours, another flight of males arrives, and impreg- nate the females, which deposite their eggs on the branches. The natives are able to retain part of the Jarroo cocoons for seed, which * Rhamnus Jujuba, L. or Byer of the Hindoos. They also feed on the leaves of the asstea Iree^ the Tcrminulia alata Glabra of Roxburgh. I ri'om a Chinese paper, on the culture of the Tusseh silk, which Mr. Hazard lent Mr. Latreille, he is convinced tliat the insects producing- it were the wild silk-, worms of China; and he conjectures that a part of the silk stuffs which the ancients procured by their maritime conimeixe with India, was made from the silk produced by these insects. R"g-iie animal, par Cuvicr. Tome 3 J, p. 564, Paris, ISlf. I Ricinus Palma Christi. 41 [ 175 ] they hang out on the asseeii trees, when the proper season for the moth arrives. Du Halde"^ mentions that in the province of Chantong, there is found a species of silk in great quantities on trees and in tlie fields, which is spun and made into a stuff called Kient-chou. This silk is the production of little insects much like caterpillars, which do not spin cocoons, but very long threads; and, being driven about by the wind, hang upon the trees and bushes, and are gathered for use. The stuff is much coarser than that made of silk spun in houses. The worms are wild, and eat indifferently the leaves of the mulberry and other trees; they are of two kinds; one is much larger and blacker than the common silkworms, and are called Tsouen-Kien; the other, the Tyan-Kien, are much smaller. The silk of the first is of a reddish gray, that of the other is darker. The stuff made of these materials is between both colors; it is very close, does not fret, is vxry dural)le, washes like linen, and, when good, receives no damage by spots, even though oil be spilt on it. Dr. Robertson informs us, that the na- ture and productions of the wild silkworms are illustrated at greater length in the large collection of Memoirst on China, and by Pere de Mailla, in his voluminous history of China.! It must have been these worms to which Virgil referred: Velleraque utfolusdepectant tenuia seres. — Georg. Ub.n. 121. It was to the same species of silk to which Pliny refers, when he mentions '' the stuff made from a white downy substance, com.bed by the Seres from the leaves of trees, which differed from the wool-bear- ing trees (cotton) of the Island of Tylos in the Persian gulf." Don Luis Nee observed on certain trees growing in Chilpancingo, Tixtala, &c., in South America, ovate nests of caterpillars, eight inches long, which the inhabitants manufacture into stockings and handkerchiefs.§ Great numbers of similar nests, of a dense tissue, resembling Chinese paper, of a brilliant whiteness, and formed of dis- tinct and separable layers, the interior being the thinnest, and very transparent, were observed by Hum.boldt, in the province of Mechoa- can, and the mountains of Santarosa, at a height of 10,500 feet above the level of the sea, upon various trees. || The silk of these nests, which are the work of social caterpillars, was an object of commerce, even in the time of Montezuma; and the ancient Mexicnns pasted to- gether the interior layers, which may be written upon without prepa- * History of China, vol. 2d, p. 359, Lond. 1741. •j- Histoire des Sciences, les Arts, &c. des Chinois, torn. 2d, p. 575, &r. ^ Tom. 13, p. 434, Robertson's disquisition concerning ancient India, note 33- Mr. Dclalauze, the autlior of the essay on silkworms, in tlie " Couj's d'Atrricidture,'* by Rosier, mentions these Chinese worms, on the authority of Madam I.ouin, who published a treatise on silkworms in Paris, in the yeai' 1757; but takes no notice of Du Halde, although his history of China was published in France nearly twenty years before. . § Annals of Botany, 2d, p. 104. li Political Essay on New Spain, vol. 3d, p. 59. They wcsre 7 to 7^ inches long by 3 1 broad. '6 [ 175 3 4U ration, to form a white glossy pasteboard. Handkerchiefs are still manufactured of it in the Intendancy of Oaxaca. In the tirst volume of the Transactions of the American Philoso- phical Society of Philadelphia, is a paper by the late Moses Bartram, of Philadelphia, in which are recorded some experiments in propaga- ting caterpillars from cocoons, found on the black haw, alder, and wild crab tree. Pie did not attempt to reel silk from either those he found wild, or from others which were formed in his own house: but subsequent and recent trials to produce a continuous thread from va- rious native cocoons, have repeatedly proved abortive. The Rev. Mr. Pullein, of England, has indeed recorded,* that from the pod of the moth called " isinglass" by Madam Merian, and which he received from Pennsylvania, he produced a thread of twenty single fibres, which bore a weight of fifteen and a half ounces; while the thread of the common silkworm, of the same size, always broke with fifteen ounces. Mr. Abbot also says, that he had heard of the cocoons of the Bombyx Cecropia having been carded, spun, and made into stock- ings, which washed like linen ; but that the insect will not bear con- finement. It feeds on the leaves of the cherry tree.t On the outside of the cocoon, the web is coarse; the inside is covered with silk like a silkworm cocoon. Miss Rhodes could not succeed in winding any silk from one of the jiative cocoons, which she received from South Carolina. J Madam Humbert§ had some coarse strong silk from cocoons of na- tive wild worms in Louisiana, but, although the cocoons were larger than those of the foreign worms, yet the quantity of silk was less than that produced by the latter. For the above reasons it is clear th?ft they are unworthy of attention. CHAPTER IV. OF MULBERRY TREES. Botanists have, hitherto, discovered only one native species of mul- berry tree in North America, viz. the red, (7norus rubra,) which has an extensive range. Michaux assigns the same limits north to it as to the majestic and beautiful tulip tree, (liriodendron tulipifera,) viz. the northern extremity of Lake Champlain; but it also grows in Massa- chusetts. Southward and westward, it abounds in all the States, and has been recently found as far west as the lower part of the river Canadian. || The leaves of the red mulberry tree are large, generally * Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. 1759, p. 54. f The natural history of the rarer Lepidopterous insects of Georgia, by John Ab- "boti, 2 vols. 4to Lond. 1797, plate 45. + Anderson's Bee, Edin. vol. 11, p. 173. 4 Du Pratt's Hist. Louisiana, p. 187. II Found by Dr. James, of tlic U, S. Army. Annals of t|je Lyceum, New Yor^j vol. 2d, p. 246. 43 [ 175 ] Entire, but sometimes divided into two or three lobes, rounded, heart shaped, and denticulated, of a dark green color, thick texture, rough and uneven surface. The sexes are usually separate, though some- times they are found upon the same tree. The fruit is of a deep red fcolor, an oblong shape, and of an agreeable, acidulous sugary taste; it is composed of the union of a great number of small berries, each of which contains a minute seed. The tree often exceeds sixty feet ia height, and two feet in diameter. The wood is of a yellowish hue, approaching to lemon color, fine grained and compact, and when perfectly seasoned, is as durable as the white locust,* on which ac- count it is highly esteemed for posts, and, by ship and boat builders, for the upper and lower frames of vessels, knees, and floor timbers^ and the ribs of boats. In Tennessee, and probably in the other West- ern States, when a native forest is cut down, if the land be enclosed., a growth of red mulberry trees, it is said, soon takes its placet There are several varieties in the red mulberry tree, depending eE the letives and fruit: 1. Leaves all orbiculated, (round.) 2. do deeply lobed. 3. do with three short lobe5« 4. Fruit, berries nearly white. ' 5. do do bluish purple. 6. do do red and long. 7. do do blackish red. Mr. C. C. Robin, a French traveller, mentions a species with leavej^ similar to the red mulberry in shape, but rough and shining on the upper surface, and downy underneath, with white fruit, and growing in Louisiana. Travels in L. &c. Paris, vol. 3d, p. 379. Mr. Darby notices one which he calls M. scahra, or Spanish mulberry, which is found in Opelousas. Description of Louisiana. Both these may be varieties of the moras rubra. That the leaves of the native red mulberry tree agree perfectly with silkworms, and yield very good silk, is a fact so well established by the experience of more than a century, that, to doubt it, would amount to an absurdity. It appears, how^evcr, that the leaves do not suit the constitution of French worms, and the author,! of the experiment, Which he made to satisfy himself, on this point, therefore decider * Bohinia pseudo-acacia. ■{■The fact of the spontaneous succession of forest trees of a different kind from those which had formerly grown on the same land, when the first growth has been cut off or burnt, wa? known to the people of the United States from their early set- tlement; but when the enterprising ^t'Kensie (a) mentioned it, the truth of his state- ment was denied by the Edinburgh reviewer {h) of his work; although a similar fact had been, ten years before, noticed by Mr. Cartwright, in his Journal of a residence in Labrador, Lon. 1792, vol.3, p. 225. For some intea-estiug facts on this sul^jcct, see the p-ipers of Judge Peters, Mr. Adlum, and others, in the 2d vol, of the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture. i Mr. Delongchamps: Essai, sur I'llistoire des Muriers; etdcs Vers a Soic. Paris-, 1824, (o) Voyage from MonTrpal fo the Frcr/.ennml PaoTic 0i'ey-three years. — Mem. Phila. Soc. for Prom. Agric. vol. 5, p 190. The MS. jour- nal, left by the Rev. Mr. Baltzius, of the German settlement of Ebenezer, Georg-ia, under date of March, 1757, mentions, that two trees in front of the Parsonage^ which had been planted ten years before, measured three feet eight inches in cir- cumference, lie saw another five years old, which measured two feet round the trunk. 49 [ 175 ] upon the importance of annually pruning trees, for these reasons; and a gentleman, recently returned from an extensive tour through Europe and the East, states, that the cultivators of silk, particularly in Syria, were unanimous as to the superiority of the silk produced by worms fed on the leaves of trees annually pruned, over that made by worms nou- rished by trees, the growth of which was unrestrained. The American cultivator is urged to attend to this hint, whether he feeds silkworms on the native or foreign tree. The white mulberry trees which have been planted in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, grow well, and are not injured by frost* They have not yet been introduced into Maine, but there is no reason to doubt their flourishing in that State, and also in Vermont. Should, however, the cold prove injurious to them, the Tartarian mulberry, which is cultivated for silkworms in the silk-rearing province of Zac- syn, in Russia, might be easily introduced, t There are several varieties of the white mulberry tree, two of which have white berries, one red, and the other black. X There are two varieties in the leaf; one has a leaf deeply indented, and supposed to contain little nourishment; the leaf of the other is larger, and not much indented, nor lobed. The common grafted mulberry is a variety of the first of these two, and itself comprises the following varieties: 1st, with white berries; 2d, with red berries; 3d, with black berries; 4th, with a large leaf, called the mulberry of Tuscany; 5th, with a middle-sized leaf, dark green, called faglia giazzola; 6th, with a small leaf, of a dark color, rather thick, called double leaf, more diffi- cult to pick, and the best calculated for silkworms.§ Besides these, there are numerous other species and varieties in Europe, the result of cultivation; but the detail of their names, and their description, would be useless. A late French writer, and a practical man^|| after having taken up several pages of his work in describing them, decides in fa- vor of those called Colombasse and Colombassette, as being favorable to the health of the silkworms, and as yielding the greatest quantity and the best quality of silk. The leaves are small, thin, light, and silky. The fruit, when at full maturity, is yellowish, and very large. He also approves of the species called the rose mulberry; the leaves of which are larger, and of a deeper green than the preceding species: the fruit is reddish, and as large as that of the other species.lT * Answers to the silk circular. I The white mulberry tree stands the winter in Sweden — a country quite as cold, in the winter, as Maine; and also that of Scotland. — Anderson's Bee, Edinb. vol. 18, p.. 82. At Pekin, in China, it also flourishes, although the thermometer descends, al- most every winter, to 20 deg. below 0. — ib. % In New Jersey, there is a white mulberry tree with purple fruit. § Dandolo, p. 30. II Essai s\U' I'Histoire, &c. p. 23. \ Mr. William Prince, of Flushing-, Long Island, has imported from Europe, and has for sale, several of the most approved varieties of the wiiitc mulberry tree. A valuable addition to the stock of mulberry trees already in the country, li.is been re- cently made by Mr. F. Dusar, of Philadelphia, who opened a subscription for the purpose, and imported 400 young trees and 1000 plants from the South of France. The name of the species was not mentioned by liis correspond'^ut. [ 175 ] 50 There are five different substances in the mulberry leaves: 1st, The solid or fibrous substance: 2d, The coloring matter: 3d, Water: 4th, The saccharine substance: 5th, The resinous substance. The saccharine matter is that which nourishes the insect, and forms its animal substance. The resinous substance is that which, separat- ing gradually from the leaf, attracted by the animal* organization, fills the two silk vessels. According to the different proportions of the elements which compose the leaf, it follows, that cases may occur, in which a greater weight of leaf may yield less that is useful to the silkworm, as well for its nourishment as with respect to the quantity of silk obtained from the animal. Thus the leaf of the black mulberry (a native of Europe,) produces abundant silk, and strong, but coarse. The leaves of white mulberry trees, in high lands, exposed to cold dry winds, and in a light soil, produce a large quantity of strong silk, of the purest and finest quality. The leaf of the same tree, planted in- damp situations, and in a stiff soil, produces less silk, and of a quality less pure and fine; but the chief cause which influences the fineness of the silk, is the degree of temperature in which the silkworm is reared, as, it is hoped, will be demonstrated in the course of this work. According to Dandolo, the leaves of the broad-leaved white mul- berry, are little nutritious. The next has a middle size leaf, thick, and of a dark green color. The best mulberry leaf, of any species, is that which is called the double leaf; it is small, not very succulent, of a dark green color, shining, and contains little water; which may be easily ascertained by drying some of them: the tree produces them in great abundance. An old tree produces better leaves than young trees; as the tre^ grows older the leaves diminish in size. The leaf of the wild [seedling] tree, contains the greatest proportion of both the nutritive and silky substances.t This opinion of Dandolo, in favor of the wild mulberry tree in preference to the grafted tree, as food for silkworms, is thus supported: ^'Ihave^ says he, ascertained the following facts: ^^1. That 14i lbs. of wild mulberry leaves, will produce a pound and a half of cocoons, while SOJt lbs. of the leaves of the grafted rnulberry, ^re required to yield the same quantity. ^^ 2. That 72 lbs. of cocoons, proceeding from silkworms fed oa leaves of wild mulberry, give about 14 oz. of very fine silk; whilst generally the same weight of silkworms, fed with leaves of the graft- ed mulberry, only yield eleven or twelve ounces of silk. '' 3. That the silkworms fed on the wild leaves, are always brisker, and have better appetites. The result is, that of taking two trees of equal age and vigor, the grafted tree yields 50 lbs. of leaves, and the wild tree only 30 lbs. ; the weight of nutritious substance will be nearly equal in each." <-^ To this authority may be added that of Mr. Martlcroy, an expert- enced cultivator in France, who found that silkworms, fed with the * More correctly, decomposed, and assimilated by the worm. I Dandolo, chap. 3. 51 [ 175 3 leaves of the seedling mulberry tree, were more healthy, vigorous, and less subject to diseases, than those which are fed upon the leaves of the grafted trees. * On the proportion of leaves to an acre or more of trees, and to silk produced from ttiem,. Cautions on picking leaves. It is impossible to ascertain with any degree of tolerable accuracy, the quantity of leaves which an acre, or even a single mulberry tree will produce, owing to the operation of one or more of the numerous causes influencing their production: such as the particular species of trees; the greater or less care taken of them, in their early stages of growth; their position, and distance from one another, when planted out; the soil, and especially bad or injudicious pruning, or total ne- glect of this necessary measure. The estimates are, accordingly, very various. Mr. Fitch says, that one acre of full grown trees, set one and a half rods apart, will produce 40 lbs. of silk. One tree yielded food for worms, which gave four pounds of silk. Mr. Tufts confirms this calculation, but does not state the distance at which the trees stood from one another. Mr. Storrs says, that ^^ a full grown tree will feed 6,000 worms, which will produce one and a half pounds of silk. An acre of trees will produce 60 lbs of raw silk in one season." INIr. R. Falley, now of Ohio, had IS lbs. of silk from about 100 trees, part of which were young, in Massachusetts. In the year 1789, nearly four pounds were produced from seven trees, and one pound from eight trees, eight years old from the seed.t According to Dandolo, it is a certain fact, that, if silkworms are well managed, 21 lbs. of mulberry leaves will be sufficient to obtain a pound and a half of co- coons. Twenty pounds four ounces, will feed worms enough to pro- duce a pound and a half of cocoons. In Dalmatia, he obtained one pound and a half of cocoons from 15 lbs. of leaves, which yielded one pound and a half of silk: ninety-seven pounds eight ounces of leaves, will produce seven and a half pounds of cocoons. Miss Rhodes could scarcely support 10,000 worms on the leaves of twelve large trees in England. J According to Lambruschini, 100 pounds of clean leaves will feed worms which will produce six pounds of silk.§ Dandolo has prescribed the proportions of leaves which will be required for five ounces, and one ounce of silkworms in their progressive stages, and lays down the weight of wood which will yield certain quantities of cocoons, produced by different species of the insect: as he writes from ample experience, his directions and conclusions may be safely- relied on. [vSee chapter 13.] He recommends that the trees, when transplanted, be not stripped for three years, and to thin and prune the branches in the fourth year. In the fifth year, they may be stripped without danger; but he advises cultivators to permit a tree to rest one year after being stripped, in order to recover from the loss of its leaver * A Stephenson: Trans. Soc. Arts, F^ond. vol. 4,). ■f- Columbian Ma^. Pliilad. Vol. 4, p. 61. * \. Trans. Soc. Arts, Londoit, vo) -1, p. 153. ^ Mem. Soc. Georg^ophiles, of Florence, vol. 4, p. 41 T [ 175 ] 5^2 This reasonable caution should be attended to, particularly with young trees; for leaves are considered as the lungs of a plant or tree, and mainly contribute, by the absorption of moisture, and the principle of vegetation from the atmosphere, to promote their growth and vigor. If deprived of these organs, annually, their growth will be greatly im- peded. The people of Connecticut and Massachusetts are of opinion, that trees only two years old, may be stripped without injury, provided the leaves near the ends of the branches are left,* and the main stem be not touched.! Count Verri recommends to pass the hands from the lower part of a branch to the top, and to pick the leaves in a bag, the mouth of which is to be kept open by a hoop, with a hook to sus- pend it. As practical rules, these directions are worth attention; but, in observing the last, it is essential that the leaves be not bruised. The experiment was tried in Connecticut, of feeding worms with young mulberry plants, the seeds of which were sown broadcast, and the plants mown as w^anted. The roots soon died. As the leaves of such plants contain so much less nourishment than those of old trees, the measure cannot be recommended, except for early food. To form a Mulberry Hedge. Choose grafted mulberry plants of one year old, and place them eighteen inches apart, in a furrow prepared some months before. To these may be added grafted plants of two years old, which have grown well, and which have been cut off to increase their vigor: but they must be separated from the others, to prevent irregularity in the hedge. Cut them at four or six inches from the ground, leaving two buds op- posite each other: remove all the rest. In this way, the stalk has two vigorous branches the first year. In the following spring cut one of these two branches on the same side, at about one foot from the ground, so that each plant has a short and a long one. Bend, horizontally on the same side also, one after another, all the preserved branches, and fix them with willow-withs, so that they may form a line parallel to the earth, and leave untouched the entire branches. Experience has taught, that, if their extremities be cut, they grow slowly, and even die. At the commencement of the. third year, the plants will have branches to form a hedge. Then cut them about two feet from the ground, but do not use the leaves. This plan has the following advantages: 1. The mulberry plants being grafted, and well arranged, and those of the first year being separated from those of the second, the hedge will grow with force and regularity. 2. The plants which have been cut down will push out near to the ground, and furnish numerous branches. When a plant dies, replace it by layers from an adjoining one; if a new plant be substituted it rarely succeeds. The leaves from the layers must not be pulled dur- ing the three first years.:}: *Mr. E. Williams, ^lansfield. Conn.; letter to the writer. Z. Storrs, Esq. Conn. \ Georg-e A. Tufts, Esq. Mass. \ Count Verri, Sur les Muriers. 53 [ 175 ] M. Bonafous* says, that the leaves of the paper mulberry tree agree perfectly well with silkworms in their fifth age. The character of this writer, and his great personal experience, entitle him to full confidence, and there can be no reason to doubt that the worms to which he gave these leaves eat them without injury j nevertheless, other silkworms were less fortunate. M. Deslongchampst says, " that, of 100 silkworms to which he gave nothing but the leaves of the paper mulberry tree, 92 died; and the remaining eight, which survived the rest thirty -six days, would also certainly have died, if, at this time, he had not sub- stituted the leaves of the white mulberry. This new food enabled them to live twenty and twenty-two days longer, and to spin their cocoons; but these were so small that eight of them did not weigh more than two ordinary cocoons. ^^ From the above statement, it appears that M. D. gave the leaves of the paper mulberr}^ to young worms; whereas Mr. B. confines their use to the fifth age— a time when they have ac- quired their full growth, and their appetite is voracious. This va- riation in the treatment may readily account for the different re- sults of the two cultivators.:]: The experiment with the paper mulberry leaves, in the fifth age, is worth trying with 50 or 100 worms; and, if made, it is requested that the result may be commu- nicated to the public. The black mulberry tree having been mentioned as suitable for the Southern States, it may be proper to say something on the subject. The leaves of this tree, it appears, are preferred in Spain, § where superior silk is made. They are said to be much more nutritious than those of the white mulberry; but a late practical writer || denies this position: for, in the year 1823, he fed some silkworms on the leaves of both these trees; and the cocoons of 100 of them which had eaten the black, weighed from two to three grains less, than others of another 100 worms which fed on the white. Mr. Nysten also says, that it is late in attaining its full growth, and difficult to propagate, either by grafting or by sowing the seeds. The leaves also come out full ten days later than the white. This is a serious objection, as early food for the worms is of primary importance: finally, the black is compar- atively a tender plant. For these reasons, it cannot compete with the native red, or the foreign white mulberry tree. * De I'Education des Vers a Sole, p. 11. Paris, 1824. f Essai, &c. p. 91. ^ Judge Bry, of Washita, says he tried to force his silkworms to eat the leaves of the paper mulberry, by starving them, and then offering- the leaver?: they bit them, and then left off eating. He believes they would have perisliod for food, had he act giren them the leaves of the native mulberry, on which they fed with avidity. § Townsend's Travels in Spain. Swinburne's do. U Deslongchamps, p. 6. CHAPTER V. OF THE LABORATORY. My laboratoiT, says Dandolo, is constructed to contain twenty ounces of eggs of silkworms; it is 30 feet wide, 77 long, 12 feet high, and, when reckoned to the top of the roof, 21 feet high. There are six rows of hurdles or wicker trays, about two feet six inches in width each, placed two and two, with four passages between them, each three feet wide. These hurdles or feeding frames maj^ be made of cane, or basket work, to admit air from below, and must, in course, be pro- portioned to the number of worms. Those of Dandolo, for five ounces of eggs, are from 29 to 37 inches in breadth, and from 18 to 24 feet in length, and of equal sizes, that, when put above one another, they may not extend out irregularly. They are covered with paper to hold the worms. On the ledges or borders, may be painted the number of square feet contained on the surface; for instance, supposing the frame to be 20 feet long, and three feet wide, the number to inscribe Would be ^'60 square feet.^' Posts are driven in between the trays, and strips of wood are fastened to the posts horizontally, to support the trays, between which there is a space of five inches and a half, to allow the air to pass freely.* There are 13 unglazed windows, with Venetian shutters outside, and paper window frames inside; under each window, near the floor, ventilators, or square apertures of about 13 inches, that they may be closed by a neatly fitted sliding panel, so as to permit the air to cir^ culate, and blow over the W'hole floor. When the air is not wanted, the paper frames may be closed. The Venetian shutters may be open- ed or shut, at will. When the air is still, and the temperature of the interior and exterior is nearly equal, all the window frames may be opened, and the Venetian shutters must be closed. There are eight' ventilators, in two lines, in the floor and in the ceiling, placed perpendicularly, opposite to one another, in the centre of the passages between the hurdles or trays. They have sliding pan- els made of thick glaes, to close them, and to admit light from above. As the air of the floor ventilators ascends, and that of the ceiling ven- tilators descends, it must pass through the trays. There are, also, other six ventilators, made in the floor, to communicate with the rooms beneath. Three of the thirteen windows are at the end of the house; and at the opposite end are three doors, constructed so as to admit more oi- less air, as may be required. These doors open into another hall, 36 feet long and 30 wide, which forms a continuation of the large laboratory, and contains hurdles sufficiently raised to facilitate the care of the worms. In this hall, there are six windows, and six ventilators under them, nearly on a level w^ith the floor, and also four ventilators in the ceiling. There are six fire-places in the great laboratory, one in each angle, and one on each side of the centre, and a largo stove in the middle; glass oil burners, that give no smoke, are used to give light at night. Between the hall and the great laboralorj', * Tlic mtule in which the trays are arranj^ed, is seen in plate 1, fi^. 2ci. 55 [ 175 2 ihere is a small room, having two large doors, the one commimicathig with the laboratory, 'the other with the hall. In tlie centre of the floor, there is a large square opening, which communicates witli the jow^er part of the building. This is closed with a wooden folding- door; this aperture is used for throwing down the litter and rubbish of the laboratory, ana for admitting mulberry leaves, which can be drawn up by a hand-puJley. Such is the construction of his laborato- ry, in which he places the worms after their third casting or mouiiiag. The above particular description of a very large laboratory, will be valuable to those who may hereafter engnge in the business upon au extensive scale. It will be seen that the great ol)jects aimed at, are convenience, the preservation of a proper temperature, and the free circulation of the air in the department; and the American cultivator must attend to these, as cardinal points, whatever may be the dimen- sions of the building or apartment in which the worms are reared. All buildings are proper for receiving the silkworms, provided that, in proportion to their sizes, there be one or more fire-places, two or more ventilators in the ceiling, on a level with the floor, and one or more windows, by which light may be admitted, and yet not sunshine. In the United States, the house erected expressly for the purpose of rearing silkworms, should be placed in the coolest and most airy situ- ation attainable, and in the shade of trees, if possible, because it r^ always in our power to increase the heat of the apartment, when ne- cessary, by means of a stove or open fire-place; but it is not so easy to guard against a sudden increase of heat in the weather, and wliich may nearly defeat the labors of the season, if it should occur in the fifth age, when the worms are nearly done eating, as will be seen hereafter. The apparatus of the Rev. Mr. Swayne* is to be recommended, on ac- count of the small space occupied by it, the neatness in wliich it ena- bles persons using it to keep the apartment, and the ease with which the caterpillars can be fed, and their litter removed. It is particularly valuable to those who are restrained in room. " This apparatus consists of a wooden frame, four feet two inches high, each side sixteen inches and a half wide, divided into eight partitions, by small pieces of wood, which form grooves, in which the slides run, and are thus easily thrust in or drawn out of the fro me. The upper slide {a) is of paper only, and designed to receive the worms ds soon as hatched; the two next, b b, are of catgut, the threads about one tenth of an inch distant from one another; these are for the insects, when a little advanced in size; the four lower ones, marked c, are of wicker work, the openings through which the chmg is to fall being about a quarter of an inch square. Under each of these, as well as under those of catgut, are slides made of paper, to prevent the (hmg of the worms falling on those feeding below them. JNlr. Swayne after- wards found that netting may be substituted ^vith advantage, in the room of wicker bottoms. The meshes of the netting were about ludf ;in inch square. * Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 7, p. 148. [ 1^5 ] 56 " The caterpillars are to be kept in the second and third drawers, until their dung and litter do not readily fall through, and then to be removed to the drawers with wicker bottoms, and fed thereon, till they show symptoms of being about to spin. Each wicker drawer will afford sufficient room for five hundred worms, when grown to their full size." In order to give room for an increased stock of caterpillars, spare drawers should be made to fit the three upper apartments with wicker bottoms, (or, in preference^ with bottoms of split rattans, ) which may be used for full grown v/orms. The annexed cut will give an accurate idea of Mr. Swayne's apparatus. The shelves of the feeding frames of Messrs. Terhoeven, of Phila- delphia county, are four feet square, and are fixed to upright posts; they have two sets in one room, with passages between and around them. This size enables a person to reach any part of them. Over the shelves, are frames, placed on elects, and filled with split rattans, at proper distances, to permit the litter to fall through. * '"'^ • mm il mw- — _____ m 111 a h b * See explanation of the plates, Plate 2d, fig". 3. Ai t 175 ] CHAPTER VI. THE AUT OF REARING SILKWORMS. Of the care necessary previously to the hatching of the Silkivoryir— Jive otmces. The first thing necessary to commence the operations of tlie year is to detach the eggs of the silkworm from the clotlis upon Vvijich they were deposited, and to prepare them for hatching.* In past times, the cultivators imagined ths^t the silkworm miglit be hatched at random, and spontaneously ; and that, if it were neces- sary to make an artificial climate, it was enough to use the heat of beds, or the natural heat of the body, or the kitclien fire, &:c. and similar means. t It is now allowed that these methods, at best unrer- lain, are often pernicious to the insect. However, since luxury has invented the hot-house, to enable us by an artificial atmosphere to raise exotics, it was surely natural to apply this invention to llic im^ provement of the cultivation of silkworms; and yet it is but vcry iately that this application of the invention has been thought of, which (Enables us in a few days to hatch, with ease and certain t}^, any given quantity of silkworms, and rear them favorably. It is proposed to state, in this chapter, the care which the eggs re- quire, to prepare them for the favorable developement of the worm, and the care necessary to fix and continue the requisite degree of tem- perature. We shall thus treat of, First. The preliininar}^ preparation of the eggs. Second. Of the necessity of fixing, by the thermometer, tlie tem- perature calculated to favor thfe hatching of the eggs, and the rearing of the silkworm. Third. Of the hot-house, or stove-room, in which they must be hatched. Fourth. Of the hatching. I. We suppose the eggs to be good, and well preserved, as shall bt> indicated in the course of this work. When the mulberry leaves are about to open, the cloths upon which the eggs are fastened, should be put into a pail of water, steeped up and down, that they may be thoroughly soaked, for nearly six minutes, which will be sufficient to dissolve the gummy substance by which the eggs are stuck to the cloth. There must be, in this room, tabiev*t> * These directions to scrape off the eggs from the cloth or paper upon which t]n>y were laid by the moth, are given in the European ])ookson silkworms, and yet would seem to be unnecessary. Careful observation of the insects when liatching, has satis- fied the writer that they even find less difficulty in leaving their sliells when Ihey re- mained fixed, than when they were detached. In tins opinion he is sustained by two persons familiar with the rearing of silkworms. f .This is the general practice, also, in the United States; but it is to be hoped that cultivators of silkworms will be convinced, after reading ihis Manual, of the greater advantages attending the mode pur.''uc«l and recommended by Cotint I)and«lo. I 175 ] 5S proportioned to the size of the cloths. The alx minutes elapsed, tlie cloths must be taken out, and the water allowed to drip from them^ by holding them up for two or three minutes. They should then be spread upon the tables. The cloth should be kept well stretched, while the eggs are separated from the cloth with a scraper. The scraper should not be too sharp, for fear of cutting the eggs; neither too blunt, lest it should crush them. The eggs do not stick fast on wet linen. When a good quantity of the eggs has been scraped off, they should be put into a basin; and this is repeated till all the eggs are scraped off, and put into the same basin. Water should then be poured upon the eggs, and they should be lightly washed, to separate them from one another. The water will be very dirty, as the eggs are always more or less soiled with the matter deposited by the moth. On the surface of the water will be seen floating the shells of a few eggs that have already cast their worms; also, many yellow eggs, which are not impregnated; and others, which, without being of that color, are very light. All these- that float should be skimmed off directly. If the eggs are collected in an unfiivorable season, particularly during cold weather, many yellow eggs, and even reddish ones, wiH sink to the bottom, although they are not impregnated. The water having been well stirred, it should be poured into a sieve, or upon some cloths, to drain off the eggs. Should the rooms have brick floors, the cloth may be spread on the bricks and changed every five hours. Bricks dry the eggs by absorbing' the moisture more quickly than any other substance. If the flooring is not of brick, hurdles of wicker work would be necessary, or basket work tables. In the course of two days, the eggs will generally be dry; they should then be put into plates, in layers of half the breadth of the finger, and left until it is needful to hatch them, being careful fx) preserve them from rats. It is essential to place them in a cool dry spot, in about from 46° to 59° Fahrenheit.* II. The necessity of determining, by the thermometer, the suitable degree of heat for hatching and rearing the silkworm. To produce, maintain, and regulate the degree of heat necessary in the space allotted to the hatching and progress of the silkworm, we must imitate the botanist in the management of the hot-house, and employ the thennometer. By this valuable instrument, we clearly see that it is of less importance that the silkworm should live in a tem- perature equal to the heat of its native climes, than that it should be preserved from, violent transitions, and in a uniform temperature in its different ages. The thermometer, which cannot be affected by the ca- price and will of man, is a certain method of attaining this important object of even temperature. For a large establlsliment, we shall re- * It has been thought proper to relaln tlie directions of Dandolo respecting the treatment of the eggs, preparatory to exposing them to heat, in order to hatch fhem, that comparati\e experiments may be made by them, and by the simple exposure of the t'ggs, while attached tp clotlis or paps-r, to the natural heat of the atmosphere. or that of a stove. 59 [ 175 ] ^uire several well-constructed thermometers. Tliose made with quick- silver are always the most desirable, because the expansion and con- densation of that metal are more exact than those of spirits of wine. The exterior sensations, and the disposition of the body, arc often in opposition to the evidence of the thermometer. These instruments are therefore indispensable. The American cultivator of silkworms must not be alarmed at being told, that a thermometer is an indispen- sable instrument to his success: for ample experience has proved, that it is impossible to ensure it without one; and no one should at- tempt the business upon a large scale, and expect all the profit which will result from his labors and capital expencjed, unless the heat of the rooms is thus regulated. We all knovv^ the extreme atmospheric variations which often take place in the course of twenty-four hours, and these are highly injurious to silkworms. The whole, or the greater part, of a crop of worms, may be destroyed by a cold night; or, if not destroyed, their growth will be checked, the spinning of their cocoons be delayed, or rendered irregular and tedious; and they will also be of a less size than when the heat of the room has been re- gularly preserved. Thus, whether amusement or profit be the object, a thermometer is essential. The instrument, as will be hereafter seen, is also necessary to determine the proper degree of heat in the water in which the cocoons are to be put to wind off their silk. It will be asked, do the people of Connecticut use therm.ometcrs? If not, do they not succeed without them? It is believed that they are not employed; and the consequences are, that millions of worms must die from the causes mentioned; that the profit is thus greatly dimin- ished; and that many worms which do survive, become debilitated, spin small cocoons, and produce diminutive moths, and bad eggs. Hence the race is liable to degenerate. The people of Connecticut are not aware of the importance of a thermometer, or they would not be without one; and it only requires a single person among them to use one, and thus to demonstrate his greater success, to induce the practice to become general. The expense of a thermometer is trifling, and be- sides its utility in the business of rearing silkworms, it will be found a source of amusement to the owner and his family, throughout the year, by enabling them to ascertain the precise temperature of the sea- sons, and to judge of the comparative degrees of it in different years. III. Of the hot-house, or room in which the silkworm should be hatched. The first use of the thermometer should be in the liot-housc, wliich is destined for the hatching of the eggs. As it may be more favorable to our interests that the silkworm should be developed whenever we find it cjonvcnicnt, and as this in- sect must be reared in a season which, in our climates, h:is not llie re- quisite warmth, it is therefore indispensable to create an artificial tem- perature suited to its progress. A. small room or spnco should bo pre- ferred to a large one, as it is thus more easy to regulate the heat, and ■as it abo saves fuel. Silkworm^' have been h^dclied in a .small apirt-* f 175 j 60 ment about twelve feet square, and capable of comrnodiously hatching not only ten, twenty, or thirty ounces of eggs, but even two hundred, if required. The small apartment must be particularly dry, and should contain all the necessary implements that may be wanted. The fol- lowing details may be thought too minute, but this should not deter from giving every explanation deemed requisite in so important an art. This small apartment should contain, ] St. A stove of moderate size, not made of iron, because the heat could not be regulated so accurately, but of thin bricks. It must stand out in the room. It ig calculated to raise by degrees, slowly, and at will, with little wood, the temperature of the room.* 2d. Several boxes or trays, either made of thick pasteboard, if they are not large, but if large, of thin boards.! The size of these boxes tjhould vary according to the quantity of eggs which are to be hatched. Foi" an ounce of eggs, the space of about ei^^.ht inches square is required. This may give an idea of the size and number of boxes that may be wanted, and we shall see hereafter how useful it is not to depart from this rule. The depth of the wooden trays or boxes, must, of course, be in proportion to their size. The boxes should all be distinctly num- bered. 3d. Some wicker trays or tables. These wicker trays should be placed horizontally against the wall, supported upon two pieces of wood fastened into the wall. When there are many of these wicker trays to be disposed of, they should be put one above another, with an interval of about twenty-two inches be- tween them. These trays are for the purpose of holding the boxes in which the eggs are to be hatched. The boxes must be so disposed as to allow of easy inspection, that they may be examined as often as jiecessary. Care should be taken that the wicker trays be not too close, 4th. A flat spoon for stirring the eggs well. 5th. Several thermometers. They may be hung in various parts of the stove-room ; or, still better, if laid by the side of the boxes, indicating the precise temperature of every part of the stove-room. For, it must be observed, the temperature varies in difierent parts of the room, par- ticularly between the part next the stove and that nearest the door. This observation may be of use, as it may enable the cultivator either to force or retard the silkworms by some days; thus to hatch them as the mulberry leaf becomes fit for their food, which, in some positions and soils, is earlier than in others. 6th. A few light portable trays, for moving the small boxes which contain the young worms, or for moving them when they are more ad- vanced. They should be made of thin board, about one foot in breadth, and long enough to fit across the width of the feeding frames or hur- dles: the handle should be fixed in the centre, so as to allow of their * The porcelain stoves imported from France, for about $10, or the tile stoves made at Betldehem, Pennsylvania, would answer well. Turf, tanners* waste bai'k;, orcharcoal, are the materials for fuel. i Shallow bandb3::cs are very convenient for a sioall quantity of eg'gs. 61 [ 175 ] l>eing carried firmly with one hand. They must be smoothly finished, that the silkworms may mount upon them without difficulty. The ledges around three sides ought to be about an half inch deep. The an- nexed cut will give a correct idea of their form. 7th. An air-hole or ventilator in the floor of the room with a sliding panel to open and close it, but which, in general, must be closed; it may be used to temper the heat, should it have exceeded the degree^ which will be pointed out as necessary for bringing forth the silk- worms. We have thus the means of making a gentle current of air be- tween this air-hole and the door, to correct the excess of heat indicated by the thermometer. 8. A glazed window to light the stove-room. It is a vulgar error to imagine that light is not as necessary to the animation of the silk- worm, as to that of every other living thing. The light does not in- commode the silkworm, until it has reached its perfect state of moth, as we shall hereafter mention. These are all that are required to furnish a store-room. This room may be used for rearing the silkworms, as well as for hatching tiiem; and being heated with little expense, might hatch silkworms for any number of persons. IV. Of the hatching of the silkworm. When the cultivator has observed the state of the vegetation in the mulberry leaf, and imagined it fitting to have his silkworms hatched in ten days, he w^ill put the eggs in the boxes in the proper quantities. -He must weigh them, and keep a register; in which he must note his observations upon the course and progress of the insects, and thus at once secure theory and practice; beginning by marking the day and hour upon which he sets the box in the stove-room, and also the num- ber of the box; and, in short, every thing that may be worthy of no- tice. The wicker hurdles should have paper laid inside of them, and tjie distance before prescribed to be left between the boxes, is to pre- vent the silkworm from going from one to the other. If the temper- ature of the stove-room should not reach 64°, on the day fixed upon to put in the eggs, it is necessary to light a little fire, that it may rise to that degree, which ought to be continued during two days. If the thermometer indicate that the exterior air is above 64°, the shatters should be closed, and the door and the ventilator opened, to create a draught and cool the stove-room. The third day, the temperature should be raised to 66°, the fourth day to 68°, the fifth day to 71°, the sixth day to 73°, the seventh day to 75°, the eighth day to 77°, the ninth day to 80°, the tenth, eleventh, and tweliih days to 81°."^ * The propriety of attending- to the g-radiial hicrease of heat in hatching- the eg-gs, is so reasonable, and so conformable to all experience, that it cannot be too strongly insisted on. Great heat, suddenly applied and continued, never fails to push on thit worms too fast, and to render them red when they first come out. The nearer the American cultivator is able to keep to the degrees of the thermometer which Dan- dolo has pointed out, the more f criaia will b? his success. [ 175 ] (x!Z The following are the signs of the speedy vivifi'cation of the silk- worm : The ash-gray color of the eggs grows bluish, then purplish; it then again grows gray, with a cast of yellow; and finally, of a dingy white. If the eggs of silkworms belonging to different persons, are put into the same stove-room, great differences will be observable, not only in changes of color in the eggs, but also as to the period of hatching the worms. The insects of the eggs that have been preserved through the winter in an even and gentle temperature, and those of the eggs which have undergone maceration,'"^ come forth in four or five days sooner, namely, at the 71st, 73d, or 75th, degree of temperature; whilst those that have been kept in a very cold atmosphere, appear some days later. This stove imparts to each egg the degree of heat necessary tg change the embryo it contahis into jthe worm. When the eggs have been kept in a certain degree of warmth, it requires less stove-heat to develope the silkworm. This is so true, and so worthy of notice, that we find, if, in the winter, the eggs have been kept in an atmo- sphere of 55^or59°, or heaped together, they spontaneously come forth, or without the aid of the stove, when the room is but slightly warmed, and before the mulberry tree has given any sign of vegetation. In this case, these worms must be thrown away, unless other food is at hand upon which they can be sustained for a time. This circum- stance is, ther^ore, of essential consequence, and should be noted to prevent its occurrence. A little delay in the hatching of the worms is no loss; whereas it may be a very serious loss, if we anticipate, by a few" days, the proper period of hatching. To backen them, when very near the time of coming forth, by altering the temperature, in- jures them materially. To prevent the loss of worms thus permitted to hatch too early, they may be fed on lettuce, upon which it is well ascertained that they can be well sustained in their early stage. The experiments of General Mordaunt, in England, were referred to long since, t Miss Rhodes fed them, upon two occasions, successfully, with this food. She gave it to the first parcel for the first week, and then substituted mulberry leaves. Upon a second occasion, the worms came out on the first of June, and were kept on lettuce until the 24th of the month. Mulberry leaves were then given; in less than a week after the change of food, they began to spin, and the cocoons were. as fine and as firm as any she ever had. She did not lose a dozen worms of many thousands.^ Her experience has recently been confirmed by * By maceration is commonly understood egg's preserved in bag-s, under cushions ormattresses, or in blankets, and similar tiling's, until the moment of putting them in the stove-house. This uncertain method must be injurious to the regular and secure developemcirt of the worms. It often happens that great quantities are spoiled by maceration, the worms coming forth, and shortly dying. It appears rational that, when there is a certain and regular method, we should not adopt another, the result of which is uncertain and irregular, paj'ticularly when ^his secure method is not attended by any g-reat expense. -|- Bee, by Dr. Anderson. Edinburgh, vol. 8. p. 262. 4: Trans. Soc Arts, Load. vol. 4, p. 149. €3 [ 175 j th&t of Miss Pether, who fed silkworms on cabbage lettuce, until the last change of their skins, when she substituted mulberry leaves until they began to spin their cocoons. The silk produced under this treat- ment was pronounced by a silk manufacturer, and three dealers in silk, to be equal to the average quality of the silk of the continent, and much superior to that of the East Indies. With an improved mode of reeling, it would have been equal to the better sorts of Italian silk. * Other food has also been employed with success. In the valuable paper on the silk culture, before referred to, in the second volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society ^t it is stated that, in Italy, rose leaves are used; but the late vegetation of that plant may prevent its general use. Mr. Loudont mentions, that M. Bonafous, an experienced cultivator of silkworms, found that •^ dandelion sustained them until the fourth change, when the leaves of the mulberry were substituted." If this plant should answer in the United States, the fact is important, as it is the first vegetable that appears in the spring. § Various works, during the last thirty years, have repeated the following statement, viz: that Dr. Bellardi, of Turin, after a number of experiments, found that young worms eat dried mulberry lea.ves with avidity. The leaves must be collected about the end of autumn, before frost, and in dry weather, and at a time when the heat is greatest; then dried in the sun, and laid up in a dry place, after they have been reduced to powder. When given to the worms, this powder should be slightly moistened with water, and a parcel of it placed before the worms. This practice, according to Du Halde,|| is pui^ued in China, with this difference, that the leaves are merely kept in earthen jars. IF When the egg assumes a whitish color, the worm is already formed, and, with a glass, may be seen within the shell. The eggs should then be covered with white paper, well pierced with a particular instru- ment;** the paper so cut as to cover them all. The worms will appear upon this paper, climbing through the holes. A clear muslin will do as well as paper. To collect the worms, small twigs of mulberry^ with only two or three leaves on them, should be laid on the paper, and they should be increased as fast as tlie worms come out upon them; * Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 44, p. 71. IMiss P. received a premium from the Society forlier silk. Mr. Swaync says that his worms, the eggs of wliicli came from Turin, obstinately refused to touch lettuce leaves, Trans. Soc. Arts, rol. 10, p, 187. t p. 352. i Gardener's Mag. vol. 2, p. 346. Lond. July, 1827. § Both lettuce and dandelion were long since mentioned, as food upon which young v^orms could be sustained. Essay upon the Silkworm, by Henry Baiham. London- 1719, preface. H History of China, vol. 2, p. 367. London, 1741. ^ The writer wishes it to be distinctly understood, that the above substitutes for the proper food of silkworms ought only to be used when this cannot be had. Diie attention, except in a very late spring, will always enable us to accommodate the iiatching of the worms to the vegetation of tlic mulberry tree. ** A pricker, similar to that of a biscuit baker's docker, will a^swPT perfectly "Hie ifse of the pi(»rcod paper must never be omitted. [ 175 ] 64 Ibr, if they do not find the leaves, they get out of the boxes. Fe\V worms appear the first day; and if the number of theixi is very in- considerable, they should be thrown away, because, when mixed with the later worms, they would grow faster, and become mature so much sooner that they would only be troublesome. The worms which may have been managed according to the method just stated, will always be healthy and strong. They will never be red nor black, but of a dark hazel color, or chestnut, which is the pro- per color they should have. When the worms are red at their first coming out, it is a sign the eggs have either been bad, or ill kept over winter, or overheated: that is, too much forced, when laid to hatch. Worms of this color are good for nothing, and should be thrown away, since they will not produce cocoons. ''^ To prevent the young leaves from drying, which they will do rapid- ly, they must be put loose in clean stone jars, if convenient, covered, and placed in a vault or cellar. A stock of leaves, at least for three days, should always be in the house, to secure food in the event of wet Aveather. The essential point is to cause the eggs to be hatched with the greatest ease. If the success of this operation be not complete, the worms will probably be subject to disease through their whole course of life, as will be shown. The appearance of the new hatched worms is that of a woolly sub- stance, of a dark chestnut hue, in which is perceptible a general stir- ting of minute animals, rearing up, and presenting a black and shining speck or head. While the eggs are in the stove-room, they should be stirred around with the spoon two or three times a day. This opera- tion hastens their coming forth. When the temperature of the stove- room is raised to 75°, it is advantageous to have two dishes, in which Water may be poured, so as to oifer a surface of nearly four inches diameter. In four days there will have taken place an evaporation of nearly twelve ounces of water; the moisture, which rises very slowly, moderates the dryness which might occur in the stove-room. Very dry air is not favorable to the developement of silkworms .t A prudent cultivator has done all in his power, when, on observing the season favorable, and the bud of the mulberry shoots in a proper degree of forwardness, he has put the eggs into the stove-room. Should the weather suddenly change, as it did in Italy in the year 1814, it is then of great use to have the power of backening the hatching of the eggs, without injuring the worms, and to prolong their two first stages by a few days. To obtain this, the only method is, after the worms have been removed into the laboratory about five hours, to lower the temperature to 73° from 75°; four hours after, further to lower it to 71°, and the following day to 68°, if necessary. * Step]ienson: Trans. Soc. Arts. London, vol. 43. f In tills place it in:i}^ be proper to caution the cultivator against exposing the worms to t!ie sin ell of tobacco, which is a cause of cei-tain deatli to them. A number was recently put in a box which liad contained segars, and many of tliem died, although the box was lined with clean paper. No smoking should be pennitted in the room in which silkworms are. 65 [ 175 j This cooling of the air diminishes the hunger of the young silk- worm by degrees, and without danger; and, by these means, the modifications are prevented, which, at 75% would have brouo-ht on the casting or moulting much more speedily. At 75°, the first moult- ing is effected the fifth day; whilst at 71° it requires six or seven days. The second moulting, which, at 75°, is wrought in four daySj at 69° and 71° takes six days for its accomplishment. Thus, by fore- sight and prudence, the proprietor will be enabled to gain seven or eight days, which prevents any ill effect from the unfavorableness of the season; and this time gained, it is evident, may be of the utmost consequence. In 1813, the silkworms were reared in thirty- one days, and it required thirty-eight days to raise them in 1814, to allow time for the growth of the mulberry leaf; and there are not comprised, in these seven days gained, the three days of delay in the hatching of the silkworms, having perceived that the whole season was bad. Those who are not careful thus to meet the accidental untowardness of seasons, and by art to prevent their injuries, would be obliged either to throw away the early hatched eggs, or to strip the mulberry tree too soon, and injure the leaves w^hich are to feed the silkworm in its adult stages hereafter. These considerations must strongly impress the necessity of delaying the hatching of the eggs by some days, rather than hurry their coming forth, particularly as there is no fear, when worms are reared in this secure manner, of their being injured. Should there occur two or three hot days, these would only accelerate the moulting a fev/ days sooner. It is also certain, that the later silkworms, in their last stage of progress, make choice of the leaves suitable to their age, and particularly those leaves which are quite ripened, which, for the proprietor's interest, is the most important period, as it is. at that last period the greatest con- sumption of the leaves occurs. It is easy to imagine that it may often require more than three days, even to bring forth the silkworms, from a given quantity of eggs. It will be seen hereafter, that the moths do not issue from the cocoons in less than ten days or a fortnight, according to the temperature to which they have been exposed; and it is therefore evident, there may be a difference of ten days or a fortnight in the laying the eggs. As the teggs put to hatch are not, therefore, all laid the same day, and are lia- ble to the same degree of heat in the stove-room, some must come out sooner than others;* hence, no one can say the late hatched eggs can be either better or worse than the early eggs, because the embryo has re- quired long6r to perfect itself into the worm: this period is always pro- * It does not appear correct to say that, because the eggs are not all laid in one day, they cannot be hatched in one day. If we may arg'uc by analog-y, it is well known that hens hatch eg-gs laid at various periods in a short time. Housewives well know, when they choose egg's for setting, that, provided they be good eggs, their having been laid at different times is of no consequence. It would appear thiit it is not because the eggs of the silkworms have been laid sooner or later, that they do not hatch at one time; but, more probably, this difference proceeds from the peculiar quality of the c^^, and of the care taken to surround it constantly with the degj'ce of hrat it may individually re- quire. t 1'5^5 3 ^6 portioned to the constitution of the eggs. These reflections should satisfy those who have one box of eggs, and one single room to rear the worms in, how much it imports that he should not reckon on the very late hatched eggs, that he may not have worms of a day old mixed with worms four days old, thus interfering with the general progress of cul- tivation. The proprietor, on the contrary, who has many boxes of eggs to bring forth, can dispose of the early or late eggs to other persons^ and, by these means, need never mix the silkworms of different ages. Then, if one person holds those of the first day^s hatching, and another holds the worms hatched the fourth day, no civil accrues; all proceeds with regularity and ease, as each person has equal-aged silkworms to attend to. When the proprietor has only a small box of eggs to hatch, it is bet* ter to cast away those that come forth the first day, and not to reckon on those that are not come forth the third day; and thus, by having only' those hatched in the tw^o intermediate days to attend to, much trouble will be saved. It is far better to lose a few worms of the first day's hatching, and eggs not hatched the third day, than to suffer the incon- venience, during the whole progress of rearing them: by adding a small quantity of eggs to those that are next to be hatched, the loss is easily made up. These directions are recommended to be exactly followed up ; they will guide, simplify, and ameliorate the cultivation of silk- worms. If they are not attended to, the exact proportion of eggs which produces the worms will not be known, and there will be constantly on the tables worms of different sizes, with differing necessities, and failure and trouble will ensue. It is thought proper, in this place, to give the practice of a gentle- man of Montauban, in France, who, according to Air. Stephenson, had uncommon success in rearing silkworms. Having long observed that the w^orms which were first hatched, turned out always to be more healthy and vigorous than those which were later in coming out, he made it a point to save no more than the J)roduction of the three first days, throwing away all the rest. He likewise made it a rule, upon their passing tiirough their different moultings, to take only the forward worms, throwing away regularly all those which remain long in recovering from them: having, for many years, observed that those worms which are hatched after the third day, always ^urn out weakly, and are tedious in all their opera- tions. For the same reason, he rejected all those worms which linger in getting over their moultings, which he ascribed to their weakness, or to their being infected, in some measure, with some disease, which generally carried them off before they could make their cocoons; or, if they did reach the length to make them, these were so light that they were not equal to the expense of the leaves. When worms were recovering from their moultings, he saved only such as carne away the first two days, and threw away all that were not ready at the close of the second day. 67 [ 175 ] It must be obvious, that this system is calculated to ensure a sound, vigorous, and annually improving breed.* When the worms are laid upon the papers, they should be given some young leaves, covering the spaces between the twigs with them, that, by degrees, the whole surface may be equally spread with silk- worms. In case they should get into heaps, a leaf might be put over them, to which they will adhere; and, being gently lifted, it may be put in any spot where the worms lie thinner. Whenever silkworms are added upon the paper where some worms have already been deposited, they should have food given them ; but the worms that were first on the paper should not be again fed until the other sheets of paper have been filled. Thus a fair number of the first worms will receive the second meal at one time. The worms take at least two days to come forth ; consequently, the first hatched will be larger than those that appear the second and third days. We have stated above, that the thermometer proves, that a room can never be heated to a degree exactly equal in every point of space. There will exist the difference of a degree, and even more. By put- ting the early worms in the coolest part of the room, and the late hatched worms in the hottest, and by feeding the latter rather higher, it is practicable to bring them nearly to an equality. It has been said, that, if the worms which appear the first day are in very small quantity, as it mostly happens, it is of no consequence, because the main portion comes forth the second and third days. How- ever, if it is required that those first hatched should be reared, they ought to be put in an angle of the sheet of paper belonging to the num- ber of their box, and only be allowed half the quantity of food which is given to those later worms, on the first and second day. In general, the silkworms come forth more abundantly in the fore- noon, when the sun shines warmly into the room; the room being then hotter than at night. The great alterations to which the eggs are ex- posed, occur in the night: if those who have the care of the silkworms at night, heap up the fire, that they may take their rest without having to make it up, the augmentation of heat afiects, and even spoils the embryo. It has been observed, that, some days, the hatching of the worms was most abundant in some boxes, and equally so in all the hours of the day as in the morning. Where worms are fed on shares, an easy and beneficial improvement would be, that all the eggs be hatched in boxescapable of holding twen- ty or thirty ounces, constructed in the proportions before-mentioned, and that as fast as the worms come forth, the sheets of paper should be * Notwithstandhig- Dandolo is our chief pilot in the rearing- of silkworms, it is deemed important to direct the attention of Jthe readerto tlic didVrcnt jiractice of the experi- enced cultivator rcfen-edto above. If the direction of Dandolo, to tlu'ow away the worms of the first and fourth days' hatching-, be not adopted, wc should never omit to keep the productions of those'days separate from the othei-s hatched on the two first d;<}S, in order that each parcel may be brought forward as equal as possible, and thatal| the worms contained in it, may be in readiness to form cocoons on the same day, or iVitliip two days of one anotUej. [ 173 ] t>8 arranged to receive the ounce of silkworms in regular order, as has alsd been before explained. By this method, each person would receive worms hatched nearly the same hour, perfectly equal. When all the silk- worms are hatched, they should be divided into ounces, as nearly as pos- sible, and put upon the sheets of paper. The earliest should be given to those cultivators whose mulberry trees are most advanced. Should the hatching continue three days upon this plan, it would make no difficulty, as different persons would take the worms of various ages, and thus each would have the silkworms of one period. It is a great error to imagine that it can be advantageous to give a person silkworms of various days hatching, to make up the quantity he is to receive and rear; because those of the first day's production are stronger than those of the second day, or of the third and fourth days. We repeat it, the essential point is to have the worms as nearly equal as we can bring them. CHAPTER VII. OF THE SMALL APARTMENT TO WHICH THE NEW HATCHED WORMS SHOULD BE REMOVED, AND OF THEIR REMOVAL. W^e shall, in this chapter, treat qf the following subjects: I. Of the apartment destined to receive the new hatched silkworms. II. Of moving the silkworms directly after they are hatched. I. Of the Laboratory destined to receive the silkworms newly hatched. This small habitation is to contain the silkworm until its third cast- ing of skin, or moulting."^ The room should be in exact proportion to the number of silkworms, and calculated for facilitating the attendance upon them. Thus proportioned, it will be economical, as there will not be that quantity of fuel used, which it would take to warm either one very large room or several small ones. The worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs^ require, until the first moulting of the skin, a space of about seven feet ten inches square. Until the second moulting, a space of about fifteen feet four inche« square. Until the third moulting, a space of thirty-five feet square. * In explaining the use of tlie small laboratory, it will be shown how much n^ore eco- nomicul it is, than apartments either too larg-e or too small. However, others must be guided by their own convenience, in making use of those rooms they find suitable. And, shoidd there be but one apartment for the rearing of the silkwoiTns until tlie cocoon be formed, it would be of small consequence, provided attention were given to maintain, ^vith exactness, the temperature, in all its degrees, which will be indicated. One room sufiices, particularly for those who liatcli but a small q\iantity of silkworms, if they have wicker tables enough to admit of sufficient space between the worms. These should be t\volumdred and ten feet square, for disposing of the silkwomis proceeding from one ounce weiglit. 69 [ 175 ] The hurdles or wicker trays should be placed above one anollier, at a distance of twenty-two inches at least; and as many should be put, as are required to give the space necessary for the quantity of silkworms which are to be accommodated. The worms must be kept upon paper, which should line the wicker trays, and extend a little beyond, to prevent the worms falling ofi\*' Upon this paper, which should be strong, ought to be inscribed the cor- responding numbers to those on the boxes; thus avoiding every chance of the silkworms of different boxes being mixed. According to the sizeof the room, there should be one or more ther- mometers, one or two small fire-places in the angles, one or two ventila- tors in the ceiling, or in the floor, and one or more windows; and also as many doors as may be convenient. In this room it might be proper to place a stove, similar to that in the stove-room^ as in cold weather it may be used to save fuel. The principal advantage of the small fire-places, is, not so much the warming the air, as the making a draught or current through it. as wq shall show hereafter. The temperature of this laboratory should be carried to 15P: about two degrees lower than the stove room heat which hatched the eggs. Experience teaches us that, as the silk- worm grows older, and gets stronger, it requires less heat. Such is the temperature that suits these insects shortly after they are hatched. Should the season be peculiarly unfavorable, and the vegetation of the mulberry tree checked, it might be necessar}'- to slacken the temperature, and thus gain a few days by gradually lower- ing the heat to seventy-one degrees, and even to sixty-eight degreesj fcut not beyond that. II. Of the removal of the new-hatched silkworm into the labora- tory, or elsewhere. The silkworm should be removed, as soon as possible, into the apartment in which they are to remain until their third moulting, un- less it is intended they should be reared in the stove-room.' If a dif- ferent room is proposed for the rearing of these insects, until their third moulting, it is because it is found both more convenient and more ad^ vantageous. When they are about to be removed from the stove-room, three cir- cumstances must be noticed, relative to the manner of transporting them. In the first place, whether the silkworms are to be reared in tlie same house in which they have been hatched. Secondly, if part of them are to be reared in the house, and the rest removed. And lastly, if all are to be removed. 1. Let us suppose all the worms are to be reared in the same place. • The edg-es should also be turned up about an inch and a half. £ 175 3 70 When the little twigs spread over the perforated paper which ce* vered the eggs of the silkworms in the small boxes, are loaded with the young worms, these boxes are all put upon trays made to carry them, and they are removed to the laboratory. When all the sheets of coarse paper, accurately numbered, have been laid on the wicker hurdles, the small box of the corresponding number, is put on the edge of the wicker hurdle, and with a small hook, the twigs, covered with the worms, are gently lifted off the per- forated paper on the box, and put upon the paper laid on the wicker hurdles. A hook should be used, as the touch of the hands might in- jure the insects. * In laying the twigs on the paper, care must be had to allow space enough for mulberry leaves to be put over the twigs and between them, that the insects may have room to stretch and pro- perly distribute themselves. It should be noted here, that the silk- worms produced from one ounce of eggs thus disposed, should occupy a space of twenty square inches. Each sheet of coarse paper, on the hurdle, will cover a space of nearly twenty-two square inches: being twenty-three inches long, and twenty-one inches wide. Having a care to lay the worms in squares of ten inches, four sheets of paper will be the number required to hold the produce of one ounce of eggs, which will exactly allow the w^rms the space they need, until after their first moulting. The sheets of paper will be four times the size of the small boxes, and those four sheets of paper must bear the same number as the box; and thus the worms will not want moving till their first moulting has passed. As fast as the silkworms come forth, they should be moved in this manner. 2, We are to suppose that a portion of the silkworms is to be reared in the house in which they have been hatched, and the rest to be reared elsewhere. When the cultivator shall have taken home with him his proportion of the silkworms upon these sheets of paper containing one ounce^ he must put the square of silkworms into four small squares of ten inches each, thus forming four quarters of one sheet, or rather four small sheets. This division is easily effected, by passing the hands under the litter of leaves to which the worms cling, and parting the leaves gently, when it is required to divide the mass; it separates easily, and may be subdivided at pleasure. The parts should be as even as possible. If, in the first ages, all the care described is not taken, numbers will be lost; they will be unequal, and contract numberless diseases. 3. We are to suppose all the silkworms are to be removed from the house in w^hich they were hatched. In a box calculated for removing easily, and proportioned to the size of the sheets of paper, should be put several of these sheets, jcovered with silkworms in layers above each other, at the distance of * The hook should be bltmt, to prevent injury to the worms. See plate 1, fig*. T, tl ( 175 3 a^early two inches; or common baskets may be used. The removal in baskets may be executed in safety, with the following precautions: 1. Lining the baskets thoroughly with paper well closed, that the exterior air may not strike the silkworms, particularly if it should be cold. 2. Preventing the sheets of paper covered with worms, from touch- ing each other, by putting slender sticks across to support the sheets of paper, and avoiding their pressing togetlier. This should be done in as many layers, from the bottom of the basket to the top, as there are sheets of paper covered with the young worms, leaving a distance of four fingers between each. 3. To cover the basket very completely with linen cloths, to keep off cold and sun. 4. To remove them between the hours of twelve and three o'clock, that being the hottest part of the day. 5 To give the worms a small quantity of young and chopped leaves if their journey is likely to be three or four hours long. The proportion of the boxes stated as necessary for hatching tha silkworms, should not be altered; as this proportion prevents any necessit}^ of ever touching the eggs, from the moment the silkworms begin to appear. The perforated paper being large enough to support a number of small twigs of mulberry, it consequently enables us to remove a large portion of the silkworms at once. In using these small boxes, the egg shells will always adhere together, and when the boxes are lifted, they should be slightly shaken horizontally, to move the' eggs. If, in moving them, some of the holes in the paper should be stopped up with the eggs, it is of no consequence, as it will not prevent the worms climbing up. Whenever a sheet of paper is prepared for the arrangement of silk- worms, there should be inscribed upon the paper itself, the hour in which the arrangement began; thus it will be seen in what time, and in what progression, the silkworms come forth. A pencil may be lised, for the purpose of noting the sheets of paper. CHAPTER VIII. ©F THE REARING OP SILKWORMS IN THEIR FOUR FIRST STAGES. In the preceding chapter it has been stated, that the space suitable to the number of silkworms proceeding from one ounce of eggs, should be, in the first age, that is to say, until the first moulting, 7 feet 4 inches square. Of about 14 feet 8 inches, until the second Tnoulting; and of 84 feet 10 inches, until the third moulting. The space required until the fourth moulting, is 82 feet six indies square. i 175 3 '^S Those who have the means of extending these allotted spaces, ma} do so by some feet; because it is certain, that the more room silkworms are allowed, the better they eat, digest, breathe, perspire, and rest. The spaces mentioned are sufficient, and present the advantage of fa- cilitating the attendance on the silkworms, and economizing their food. It may not be without advantage, exactly to know, what quantity of the mulberry leaf the silkworm consumes in its four first ages. For the quantity of food fixed, the following circumstances must be supposed to exist: That the silkworms are kept until the first casting or moulting, at 75° of temperature; between 73° and 75° until the second moulting; between 71° and 73° until the third; and, lastly, between 68° and 71° till the fourth moulting. One of the foundations of the art of rearing the silkworm, is to know and determine the various degrees of heat in which, accordipg to their ages, the silkworms are to live. If this precept is not rigidly enforced, nothing can be performed with exactness. The writer of an article upon silkworms, inserted in Hosier's <* Cour (P Agriculture,'''' Paris, 1801, article Vers a Sole, thus ex- presses himself on this subject: *< A sudden change from moderate heat to violent heat, or, in general, from heat to cold, and cold to heat, is highly injurious to silkworms. In their native climate they are not exposed to these vicissitudes, .and therefore thrive well, without requi« ring all the care we are obliged to bestow on them. With us, on the contrary, the temperature of the atmosphere is so variable, that, without artificial means, we could not fix it in our laboratories for rearing silkworms. If it should happen to be necessary to hasten the worms, in consequence of the advanced state of the mulberry leaves, it should be done gradually, so that they do not perceive the alteration.'^ All the practical writers, expressly consulted on this subject, are agreed. It is, moreover, conformable to the well known principle of animal life, (which is always more or less aifected by sudden changes of temperature,) to hatch the worms by the gradual exposure of them to heat. The American cultivator must always, therefore, bear it in mind, if he expects to be fully paid for the trouble, time, and expense bestowed on silkworms. The English translator of Dandolo, has indeed inserted a note in this place, containing a passage from the Abbe Sauvage, by which it Would seem that young silkworms will bear, with impunity, a much greater heat than the highest degree to which Dandolo limits them, in their early age. Sauvage sa5'Sj that " he gave them 100° of heat dur- ing the two first days after hatching, and about 95° during the remain- der of the first and second age, and yet had a most abundant crop.'' But the translator has omitted to say that Sauvage does not recommend the practice. On the contrary, this author expressly says, that " he leaves to his readers to follow as they please the two modes of rearing the worms pointed out by him;" one with a more gentle heat, and the other with an increased degree; and, in two places, (pages 22, 35,, .yB [175 ] ^d memoir,) advises a mean between them. The experiment of Sau- vage was a single one. Dandolo writes after years of practice, upon a very large scale, and recomriiends the degrees of heat which always ensured him success. Other practical writers ae;ree v*^ith Dandolo. No one, it is presumed, will be at a loss to decide which of these au- thorities is most worthy of being followed. The silkv/orms proceeding from one ounce of eggs, consume — 1st. In the first age, (that is to say, when all are hatched, removed, and, distributed upon the sheets of paper, which includes at least two days.) six pounds of leaves well sorted, and chopped very small. 2d. In the second age, they consume 13 pounds of leaves, chopped rather more coarsely than the food in the first age. 3d. In the 3d age, they consume 60 pounds, still less chopped. 4th. In the fourth age, 180 pounds, still less chopped than in the third age. Some circumstances may modify the proportions above specified, but these variations are not important, supposing the cultivator to act with considerate intelligence, and to time well the hatching of his silkworms with the springing of the young leaves, and then their growth with the progress of the leaf through the other stages of ex- istence. The only case in which the quantity of leaves fixed, in these general rules, for the consumption of the worms, will be found unnecessarily excessive, will be, if the worms have been ill attended and fail sick, pine away, and that many die. The quantity of leaves necessary for silkworms was determi'ied, after having made the most exact experi- ments repeatedly ; taking for granted, that the silkworms are maintained in the degrees of temperature indicated, and with the view, as much as possible* to economize the leaves; because, when an exact sufficiency of food is given to the wornij it eats with greater relish, digests well, and is strong. A great object in the art of rearing silkworms, is, to con- trive to obtain the greatest possible quantity of fine cocoons, with the least quantity of leaves. In managing upon this principle, the more leaves there are, the great- er will be the proportion of cocoons^ and consequently the greater the profit. Over-feeding, however, must always be guarded against: it not only causes a waste of leaves, but is the origin of many inconveniences which assail the silkworm, as we shall show hereafter. The careis which the silkworm requires in its four first ages, are neitlier numerous nor puzzling; although it is in those ages, and particularly in the two first, that the strength of its constitution is formed, upon which th* ultimate success depends. The two first days after it has cast the skin, it eats sparingly, and then becomes voracious: this hunger soon diminishes, and even ceases, These phenomena occur in ever}'^ moulting. Thus, notwithstanding the strength of its constitution, if it is not treated with the greatest care» at those times when it requires care, it siifiers, sickens, and dies: on this^'account, it is thought it might be usefid to giv<^ in this and the fol- lowing chapter, a diary of the earn tw bt^ tak^ij of silkworms, that it 10 [ 175 ] 74 may be known what is to be done for them day by day. A few genei*- al remarks, however, must be previously made, on the great difference in result, which real care produces.*^ The laboratories used, are of various sizes: that which will now be referred to, is calculated for the reception of the worms proceeding from five ounces of eggs. It must be allowed that the advantage of the mode of rearing silk- worms in question, might perhaps be trifling, if it were only in the product of the hundred and ten, or hundred and twenty pounds of co- coons from each ounce of eggs, which others obtain, consuming the same quantity of leaves, and differing only in the hatching of two ounces of eggs. But, as before remarked, the great and principal aim of the art of rearing silkworms, is to obtain from one given quantity of mulberry leaves, the greatest possible number of cocoons of the finest quality. It is not the trifling loss of an ounce of eggs which should induce a change of system of habits, but the following advantages: for it is a fact, that, 1st. When, with one ounce of eggs one hundred and ten or one hundred and twenty pounds of cocoons are obtained, about one thou- sand six hundred and fifty pounds of the mulberry leaf will be used. 2d. That when only fifty-five or sixty pounds of cocoons are produced from one ounce of eggs, about one thousand and fifty pounds of mul- berry leaves have been used. Under this supposition, it would appear that two thousand one hundred pounds of leaves are requisite to pro- duce one hundred and ten, or one hundred and twenty pounds of co- coons. 3d. That one hundred and ten, or one hundred and twenty pounds of cocoons, obtained from one ounce of eggs, are worth a great deal more than a similar quantity obtained from two ounces of eggs. It is easy to prove these facts. If one ounce of eggs shall have produced, by the means stated, one hundred and twenty pounds of cocoons^ they will be fine; three hun- dred and sixty, at most, will produce a pound and a-half; and eleven or twelve ounces, at most, of these cocoons, will yield an ounce of exqui- sitely fine silk. When only fifty or sixty pounds of cocoons come from one ounce of eggs, it may generally be presumed that they are of in- ferior quality to the above, and it will require four hundred at least to make one pound and a half; and above thirteen ounces of these cocoons, instead of eleven or twelve ounces, to form one ounce of silk. More- over, when the worms have not been properly managed, there is no certainty as to the quantitj?- of the cocoons that will be gathered; and it happens, continually, that the same cultivator will, from the same * The greatest enemy of the silkworm is the red ant, the attacks of which insects must be carefully g-uarded against. To this end, all nail holes in the walls of the apartment should be filled with mortar; the sides of the breeding- frames oug'ht not to touch the ^v•alls, nor oug-ht their posts to reach to the ceihng-. Streaks of thick molasses must also be made round the lower parts of the posts. If the worms be fed on tables, or move- able frames, similar to those of the Rev, Mr. Swayne, the same precautions may be used, or the legs may stand in a plate or bowl of water. Gockroachcs aiid mice must also be carefully g-uarded aguinst , 75 [ 175 ] quantity of eggs, and the quality of the leaves, obtain at one time a fl.umber of cocoons, at another time few, and sometimes none. This chapter shall be divided into four paragraphs: 1. Rearing of the hatched worms until the end of the first age. 2. Rearino; of the worms in the second age. 3. Rearing of the worms in the third age. 4. Rearing of the worms in the fourth age. 1. REARING OF THE WORMS IN THE FIRST AGE. We left in the small laboratory the worms hatched from the eggs at 75° temperature, and distributed upon sheets of paper, in squares of about ten inches. Let us now begin their training. Supposing it is required to rear five ounces, which form a good sized laboratory, the space and quantity of leaves must be proportioned to the stated number of silkworms. First day^s t7'aini7ig'.— When the worms have accomplished their first castingofskin, they should occupy a space of nearly thirty-six feet eight inches square; hence the sheets of paper containing the worms, should be put upon wicker tables or trays, of these dimensions. The first day after the coming forth, and the distribution of the silkworms, they should be given in four meals, about three pounds three quarters of single soft leaves, chopped very small, dividing the time, so as to allow six hours between each meal; giving the smallest quantity for the first feeding, and gradually increasing the quantity at each meal. It is very beneficial to chop the leaf very small during the first age, and to scatter it lightly over the worms. The more the leaf is chop- ped, the more fresh cut edges are there to which the young insects fiis- ten themselves. In this manner, a few ounces of leaves will present so many edges and sides, that two hundred thousand insects may feed in a very small space. In this state, they bice the leaf quickly, and it is consumed before can it be withered."^ A quantity of leaves, ten or twenty times more abundant, that is not chopped small, would not be sufficient for this quantity of worms; because they require to find at once, and in a small space, the means of feeding easily. * It would seem to be unnecessary to chop the very young- leaves, so repeatedly in- sisted on by Dundolo. When a whole yoxing' leaf is placed on worms recently hatched, they eat throug-h the middle of it, and ascend to the u]);-)er surface, on whidi t!>ey con- tinue to feed, until the whole leaf is consumed. After some days, tiie> prefer to cat the edges of the leaves: injury mig-ht even ensue from the quantity of moist'.'re, which the young insects would imbibe from the bruised edges of the young and chojiped leaves: cultivators must make comparative experiments to del ermine the point. When the leaves have attained some size, then the chopping of then» is indispensably requisite. For a small quantity, the semicircular douldc cliopping knife rccomnKiid- ed by Dandolo, and figured in plate 2d, fig. 3d, answers well. Upon a larg(- jcale, a (itraw cutting box may be used. In both cases, th- knives should bi kept very s. inches square.'^ When all the silkworms that are revived have been successively removed, there remain still some upon the 174 feet of hurdle, torpid, that have not the strength to climb upon the shoots or branches of leaves. The early roused worms being removed into the great laboratorj'y if they have eaten all the leaves on the young shoots and leaves that served to carry them, and they remain without food, they should then be given thirty pounds of leaves chopped a little: with these the in- tervals between the young shoots must be filled, and the strips formed into regular order, by sweeping into their place any boughs or leaves that are scattered irregularly. After this second meal, those worms that were heaped together will be seen stretching out evenly. The other thirty pounds of leaves * It is impoptant here again to caution the cultivator a£jaiiist giving; the worm5? branches or twigs with the fruit on them. If the worms eat the fruit they will become •^ick, and besides the litter is greatly increased by not picking the leaves clean. [ 17i3 J 8S should not be given uiilii the second meal has been consumed; and should the young shoots and leaves not be required, they may be given the next day. Although it is not a general custom to chop or cut the leaves for silkworms, in this fourth age, it has been found very beneficial to give it to them, coarsely cut up; fresh leaves, slightly cut up, by exhaling a stronger smell, stimulate their hunger, and the cut edges are more easy to bite. The late roused silkworms should be placed on hurdles, distinct from the earliest worms. At the end of this day, the worms begin to show some vigor; they move quickly to the leaves; they grow perceptibly, lose their ugly eolors, become slightly white, and assume more decided animal action. When all the silkworms are taken out of the small laboratory, the hurdles from which they have been removed should be well cleaned. This should be done quickly, if any of the silkworms are to be put into the small laboratory again for the convenience of space. Second day of the fourth age. (Seventeenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) For this day will be wanted 165 pounds of sorted leaves, slightly iiut up. The two first meals should be the lightest, and the last most copious. The worms grow fast, and their skins continue to whiten. In giving the meals, the space occupied by the worms should be widened. Third day of the fourth age, (Eighteenth of the rearing of the silkworm.) • For this day will be needed 225 pounds of sorted leaves, a little cut* The two first meals ought to be the most plentiful^ the last meal to be of about 75 pounds. Fourth day of the fourth age. (Nineteenth of the rearing of the silkworm. ) This day the distribution of the cut leaves should be 255 pounds; the three first meals of about 75 pounds each ; the fourth of 45 pounds only. The worms still get whiter, and at this time are more than 5)n inch and a half long. Fifth day of the fourth age. (Twentieth of the rearing cf the silkworm. ) iSo more than 128 pounds of picked leaves will be needed this day; because the silkworm's hunger diminishes much. The first meal should 89 I 175 ] ®e the most considerable. A great number of the 'worms become tor- pid on this day. The leaves should only be distributed as they are wanted, and only ©n those hurdles where the worms are perceived not to be torpid, that they should not be wasted uselessly. The worms are this day an inch and three-quarters long. Sixth day of the fourth age. (Twenty-rfirst of the rearing- of the silkworm.) Thirty-five pounds of picked leaves are enough for this day. It is easy to find out where, and in what quantities, the worms need feed. Since the preceding day, the silkworms begin to decrease in size, as they have cleansed and cleared themselves of all nutritive substances, before they sink into their torpor. The greenish color of the rings of their body has disappeared, and their skin is quite wrinkled. Seventh day of the fourth age. (Twenty-second of the rearing- of the silkworm. ) The silkworms rouse in this day, and accomplish their fourth age. In generalizing this paragraph, let us suggest the following observa- tions:* In about seven days, the worms have accomplished their fourth moulting, and cast their skins. They have consumed^ in that period, 207 pounds of leaves for each ounce of eggs. In the seven days of the fourth age, the worms which were about one inch long, have grown half an inch in length. In this age, their weight is augmented fourfold. After the third moulting, 144 insects weighed one ounce; it now re- quires only 35 to make up the ounce. After this moulting they are of a darker color: grayish, with a red cast. During tliis age, shavings of wood should be burnt in the fire-places three or four times a day; dry straw will answer the purpose also, as this is done to renew and lighten the air of the room, without particu- larly heating it; should it be necessary to heat the laboratory, that should be done either with the stove, or by burning large wood in the fire-places. * Mr. Stephenson directs, that "as soon as severa] of the worms have parsed their fourth mouhing-, all those which rouse during the two first daysshouhl be put on one hurdle, those of the next two days on another, that each parcel may be carried on as equally as possible. This remark may be useful to those who depend upon the pre- carious temperature of the air, and do not use a stove. According- to the systpro of Dandol^, the whole period will occi'.pv nnlv two d-iy^:. > 12 [ 175 ] 90 When straw or shavings are burnt, the ventilator should be opened for the circulation of the air. If the exterior temperature be not cold, and the weather calm, the doors and windows may also be opened ; when the interior temperature by these means is lowered half a de- gree, the windows and doors should again be closed, leaving the ven- tilators open, and the temperature will rise again. Those who have Venetian blinds to the windows, should open the windows to allow the air to enter. Persons who attend silkworms should breathe as freely in the great laboratory as in the open air; they should feel no differ- ence but that in the heat of the interior temperature, and the latter in temperature, not in the closeness. Therefore, should the air ap- pear heavy, the fire of straw or shavings ought to be lighted, to renew the air, which is done in a moment. In the laboratories described, the interior air is more pleasant than the exterior air, from the delight- ful smell of tlie mulberry leaves. In proceeding in the manner detailed, the silkworms will breathe continually a pure and dry atmosphere, which makes them healthyj CHAPTER IX. 0F" THE KEAaiXG OE THE SILKWORMS IN THE FIRST PERIOD OF THE FIFTH AGE, OR UNTIL THE MOMENT WHEN THEY PREPARE~TO RISE ON THE HEDGES. The fifth age of the silkworm is the longest, and most decisive. Previously, therefore, to resuming the description of the daily pror CTess of the silkworms, a few practical observations will be given. Should the worms die in the first age, the loss is trifling, because expense is not prolonged 5 while, on the contrary, should the worm? perish in the fifth age, the loss is considerable, leaves having been consumed, labor paid for, and other expenses incurred j besides seeing the hopes of ail that profit vanish, which had been reckoned upon. It is then very needful to know the condition of the worms in the fifth age, to learn how to manage, so as to ensure their health and strengtli against the efiects of a bad atmosphere, or other evils that assail them. As the silkv/prms grow in the fifth age, they are liable to three evils, which attack them according to their strength, and to their dis- tribution in the laljoratory, and may weaken them so as to cause their speedy destruction. These are, 1st. the great quantity of fluid dis- engaged from the insects, their dung, leaves and litter. 2. The damp hot atmosphere of the laboratory. These causes of disease, and the means of preventing them, shall be treated of in the chapter on th^ diseases of silkworms. 91 [ 175 ] OP THE REARING OF SILKWORMS UNTIL THE APPROACH OP THEIR MATURITY. The worms have now approached the time when they prepare to rise, and when they reject the food which they had lately so voracious- ly devoured^ First day of the fifth age. (Tv^enty-third of the rearing of the silkworm.) Since the preceding day, almost all the silkworms miist have ac- complished their fourth moulting, or casting of skin, and be already roused. The laboratory should have uniformly 68° or 69^° of heat. The silkworms proceeding from five ounces of eggs, until the termination of their fifth age, should occupy 917 feet of trays, or iS3 feet 5 inches for each ounce of eggs. The silkworms proceedmg from one ounce of eggs in the fifth age, consume about 1,098 pounds of sorted, picked leaves, which makes the quantity of leaves required by the five ounces to be 5,490 pounds weight. After the fourth moulting, the food should consist of the full grown leaves of the oldest trees: for the appetite of the worms is great, and they require the strongest nourishment to strengthen them, and to pro- mote their growth. Their last feed should be given late at night, or just before going to bed, and as early as possible in the morning.* To facilitate their removal, branches to which the leaves are attachedj may be given. As. soon as the branches are loaded with worms, they sliould be taken "off, and put upon the little portable trays. If the silkworms of one wicker tray are almost all roused, they will be sufficient to fill the space of rather more than two wicker trays; and there should be form- ed a space in the middle of the two wicker trays, of about half the width of the tray. When five hundred and eight square feet are filled, the trays that are left empty should be cleaned. The hurdles must be cleaned every two days during the fifth age.t If, in cleaning, any worms should be found roused, by putting some shoots or leaves, they may be taken off, like the others; should some lOuse after this, they may be taken up with the hand, and put with the others; but if any remain still in torpor, they must be cast away. The sheets of paper with the litter must be rolled up, as was done in the former age, and poured into the basket prepared for this, which is to be carried out at once. In observing the litter when it is removed into a dry place, should «omp roused worms be found in it, they may be placed distinct from * Stephenson. '; Nv«ter, p^g"*" ^.05 [ 175 ] 92 the others, in the warmest parts of the laboratory, with more space> that they may thrive faster, and be even with the early worms. The worms should cover rather more than half the space allotted to them. Of the six persons, required to perform this task, one or two of the most handy and neat should be directed to lift and put the silkworms on the portable trays; two should carry them, and one should remove and place them on the wicker, while the others roll the papers and litter, clean the hurdles, and carry out the dirt. If it is judged necessary, another person may be employed in distri- buting shoots to the later silkworms, which are but just rousing, that all things may proceed without bustle or confusion. Should it be deemed advisable to divide the operation of cleaning and removing, it may be done by cleaning only half the wickers in the morning, and the other half in the evening; in which case, the worms whose changing is deferred to the evening, must have one or two meals given themj yet changing them all at once, and it may be done in four hours, when the worm is steady, is deemed preferable. The ninety pounds of shoots and leaves on which the silkworms were removed, furnish them with an abundant meal; the other ninety pounds of sorted leaves should be divided into two meals, which should be given them every six hours. In giving the first meal, straighten the lines of the strips on the hurdles, by sweeping any straggling leaves or worms into regular order. At the third meal the strips should be widened a little. Should there be too many worms in some parts, they should be taken to cover the barer parts of the wickers. The silkworms appear tolerably strong this first day. If the exterior temperature be mild, and little different from that of the laboratory, it might be left open while cleaning, to admit, on all sides, a free current of air. Shavings must also be burned to- make a blaze; this is particularly necessary, when the cald or dampness of the weather precludes opening all the apertures of the laboratory while cleaning. In cases of cold and high winds^ the upper and lower ven- tilators may be kept open, which will renew the air as much as the blaze; and, in all cases, the thermometer and hygrometer must posi tively regulate all proceeding by their indications. Second day of the fifth age. (Twenty-fourth of the rearing of the silk worm.) For this day will be wanted two hundred and seventy pounds oF leaves, sorted, divided into four feeds; the first, which should be the least, of about fifty-two pounds, and the last, which is the most plen- tiful, of ninety-seven pounds weight. In distributing the food, the strips should be widened gradually. At the close of this dny the worms are much whiter and considerat- ely developed. 93 [ 175 ] Third day of the fifth age, (Twenty-fifth of the rearing of the silkworm. ; This day the silkworms will require about 420 pounds of sorted leaves. The first feed should be of 77 pounds; the last feed should k». ^e largest, and of about 120 pounds weight. The worms continue to whiten, and many appear upwards of two inches long. They could eat, on this day, a larger quantity than specified; but it is thought most beneficial not to add to this quantity, that they may thoroughly digest it; besides which, this treatment strengthens theiV constitution, and makes them livelier. The strips they occupy should be widened, whenever they are fed. Fourth day of the fifth age. (Twenty-sixth of the rearing" of the silkworm.) This day the silkworms will want five hundred and forty pound?? weight of sorted leaves; the first feed should be of one hundred and twenty pounds weight, and the last of one hundred and fifty. The worms now are beginning to grow voracious and stronger; some sre two inches and a half long. Fifth day of the fifth age, (Twenty-seventh of the rearing- of the silkworm.) The worms will this day want eight hundred and ten pounds of pick- ed leaves; the first feed of one hundred and fifty pounds, and the last meal of two hundred and ten pounds weight. If necessary, the silkworms should have some intermediate food; when the regular distribution of leaves is devoured in less than an hour and a half, the worms must not be suffered to fast five hours, but re- ceive some leaves in the interim; particularly if there should have been wickers on which the worms had not been as well fed as the others at first; for although the quantity of food for this day has been fixed, it is always necessary to be regulated by experience. Should the worms want more food, they must have it. In the course of the fifth age, the wicker trays should be cleaned. If the litter is dry and fresh, they need not be shifted till the evening of this day, or the beginning of the second day; but this must depend on circumstances, and the convenience of the cultivator. Cnre must be taken in distributing the last meal on this day, only to feed four wicker tra3^s at a time, to allow of time insensibly to lift off the silk- worms before they have finished eating the leaves given them. A.< this time the worms are not to be removed, the wickers must bt cleaned after nnother mar.rirr. Thf^ following i> the nrHiner oT clr':gi- ing them: i 175 ] 94 The portable trays are put on the edges of the wickers, and vvheii the leaves are loaded with silkworms, they are put in single layers ort the portable trays. When several of these are filled, the litter, with or without the sheets of paper, must be carried off in square baskets^ which are hung near the wicker trays; the litter being removed, the paper should be swept and cleaned with light brooms; the sheets ot paper are laid down again, one after another, and the leaves, with the worms, replaced on them. This is repeated until the litter has been entirely changed throughout the laboratory. Upon a small scale, the shelves or hurdles may be cleaned by placing a line of fresh chopped leaves the whole length of the hurdles, near the worms, which will immediately attach themselves thereto. They may then be taken up by means of the leaves and stalks they cling to, and be removed to. another hurdle or shelf, when the litter they have made can be swept away, and removed from the room. When one basket is full, it is carried out, and another substituted. Great care should be taken not to hurt or bruise the worms in re- moving them. Six persons, at least, should be employed to perform Ihis cleaning of the litter expeditiously, and in their number are not included those who carry the litter out. The silkworms that have been cleaned should be fed, and those that are to be cleaned last, may be fed before they are cleaned, that none of them, may fast too long It must not be forgotten that, during this period, as the case may require, there should be light blazing fires burnt; the fumigating bot- tle* should also be passed twice round in the laboratory, and the win- dows and ventilators opened according to the state of the exterior at- mosphere; but, in all cases, the ventilators in the ceiling and floor, and all the doors^ must be open. If the exterior air be very damp, the small blazing fires may be frequently repeated; and if they raise the temperature too much, it may easily be lowered by opening the ven- tilators and windows, being guided by the thermometer and hygrome- ter.* Sixth day of the fifth age. (T>venly-eighth of the reariiig- of the silkworm .) The silkworms should have 975 pounds of picked leaves, divided into fiv^e feeds; the last of which should be the most plentiful. The silkworms now eat most voraciously; If, after having distributed the leaves, the quantity appears insuffi- cient upon some wickers, and it has been devoured in an hour, an inj termed! ate meal should be added. Knowing the quantity of leaves to be given in the day^ it is easy to distribute them either into four or five m.eals, as it may appear to suit the silkworms best. If the wickers could not be all cleaned in thr- preceding day? the operation may be finished this day. * See the chapter on the diseases of silkworms 95 [ 175 J Some of the worms are now three inches long, and are become whiter; to the touch they present a soft velvety surface, and are strong and healthy. By giving more food to the worms last removed from the hurdles, and by allowing them more space, they will soon equal the earliest in size. Seventh day of the fifth age. (Twenty-ninth of the rearing of the silkworm. ) The silkworms will require this day 900 pounds weight of well sorted leaves. The first meal should be the largest, and those follow- ing should diminish; should there be any intermediate meals wanted, they must be given as before. Some worms will now be seen upwards of three inches long. The extremity of the insect begins to grow shining and yellowish, which shows they are approaching to maturity, Some of them begin to eat with less voracity. They this day at- tain their largest size, and their greatest weight. On an average, six silkworms now weigh an ounce. Thus their weight has increased five- fold in seven days since the fourth moulting, at which time thirty . three silkworms made an ounce. Eighth day of the fifth age. (Thirtieth of the rearing' of the silkworm.) The silkworms this day must have 660 pounds of well sorted leave:^. The proportion of leaves must diminish, as the appetite of the worrn.'^ decreases much. The food must, as usual, be divided into four messes, give them the largest meals first, and gradually diminish. The firsi meal of 210 pounds of leaves. That the maturity of the worms may be perfectly alike, some inter mediate food should be given according to necessity, to bring on thosf worms that are backward. During the last days of the rearing of the silkworms, they wshould bt fed with the best sort of leaves, always culled from the oldest trees The silkworms now advance towards maturity, which may be per- ceived by their yellow color, which increases from ring to ring. Their backs begin to shine, and the rings lose their dark green color. Th( advance to maturity is also denoted in some of them, by tlie dinnnu- tion of their bulk in the course of this day; and by their seeking to fix themselves to the edge of the hurdles to avoid the substances wit'j which they are loaded. This day, and more or less speedily, according as the signs of ma- turity increase, and that the litter becomes moist, the wickers should be cleaned in the manner before described, being very careful to take the worms gently with the leaves upon which they lie, that they ma\ not be bruised. Light firrs, and fumigate with the bottle, to purify [ 175 ] 96 the air; the ventilators, and the use of the thermometer and hygrome- ter are, in this change of litter, more essential than on any former change.*' Ninth day of the fifth age. (Thirty-firstoftlie rearing of the silkworm.) The silkworms this day need 495 pounds of leaves, which must be distributed as it may be wanted. The yellow hue of the silkworms grows deeper, their backs shine more, and, in some of them, the rings assume a golden appearance. The muzzle is become of a brighter red than it was in the beginning. From time to time, a gentle fire should be lighted, particularly in the night; twice a day the fumigating bottle should be passed through the laboratory; the ventilators should never be shut when the fire is lighted, nor indeed at all, that the air may be renewed entirely. Although the silkworms reared according to the methods described, have been exposed to every variation of seasons, and to many acci- dents that might have proved injurious to them, they have still been found to preserve their full health and vigor. It has already been said, that, should it be impossible, from the heat of the season, to keep the temperature at the degree fixed, it must be as nearly kept as may be possible, by using all means of cooling the air, and causing a free circulation in the laboratory. The preserva- tion of the proper temperature of the apartment, at this stage of the worm, cannot be too seriously impressed upon the cultivator. If sud- den and great heat in the weather should take place, as often happens at this time, serious loss may be suffered without proper precautions. The increased heat to which the worms are exposed, causes them to e.ease eating, to leave theirfeeding shelves, and to wander aboutthe room in order to find corners and places to form their cocoons, before the silk iluid has been fully elaborated or matured; thus defeating, inagreat mea- sure, all the care previously bestowed upon them. To guard against a sudden heat in the weather, the window shudders must be closed while the sun is beating on them, the ventilators in the ceiling, or other parts of the room, kept open, and, if possible, tubs of ice should be brought into the apartment, until the thermometer shows a diminution of temperature to Ike proper degree. The windows must also be opened every evening until sunrise next morning, and water sprink- led on the floor to promote evaporation, and, consequently, a freshness in the air. Under the head of the diseases of silkworms, it will be seen that great heat in the weather, at this stage, will even kill the worms. The cfi'ect'S de^icribed above, of a sudden increase of heat in the weather, which continued three days, were seen exemplified last s'jmmerjUpon the worms in a large establishment, by the writer. * If must be borne in mind, that the directions of Mr. Dandolo, constantly refer to ■ji large laboratory, in which worms, the prodvice of five ounces of eg-g-s, are rearing' When the air of the. apartment is sufficiently pvn-e, and tlie temperature properly regnilated by the thermometer, ther€ will be no necessity for ftret?, urslcss in damp \yeather, nor for fa rnig-at ions. 97 £ 175 ] CHAPTER X. ©P THE REARING OF THE SILKWORMS IN THE LAST PERIOD OF THE FIFTH age; that IS TO SAY, UNTIL THE COCOON IS PERFECTED. Observations on the subject, *- The fifth age can only be looked on as terminated when the cocooni is perfect. The cleanliness of the tables in these last days of the fifth age, re- quires great attention to preserve the health of the silkworms. It must be added, that, if the quantity of leaves ordered for the tenth and last day of the fifth age be insufficient, a very little more should be allowed them; for they should now be stinted, even if there chance to be some leaves left. And also, should the worms take eleven days, instead of ten, to come to perfection, the same quantity might suffice. There are causes we cannot trace, which hasten or slacken the progress of the silkworms towards maturity by some hours.* Tenth day of the fifth age, (Thirty-second of the rearing' of the silkworm.) Matured perfection of the Silkworm. This last day they attain perfection, which may be ascertained by the following indications: 1st. When, on putting some leaves on the wickers, the insects get upon the leaves without eating them, and rear their heads as if in search of something else. 2d. When, on looking at them horizontally, the light shines through them, and they appear of a whitish yellow transparent color. 3d. When numbers of the worms which were fastened to the in- side of the edges of the wickers, and straightened, now get upon the edges, and move slowly along, instinct urging them to seek change of place. . 4th. When numbers of worms leave the centre of the wickers and uy to reach the edges, and crawl up upon them. 5th. When their rings draw in, and their greenish color changes to a deep golden hue. 6th. When their skins become wrinkled about the neck, and their bodies have more softness to the touch than heretofore, and feel like soft dough. * The American cultivator must attend to this caution. The worms should be fed four or five times a day at this time, and no more leaves g-iven them than they can eat. If too many leaves are g-iven, they will dunjf on them, and, besides, increase the trouble of cleaning the hui-dle." 13 [ 175 ] 98 7th. When, in taking a silkworm in the hand, and looking through' it, the whole body has assumed the transparency of a ripe yellow plum. When these signs appear in any of the insects, every thing should be prepared for their rising, that those worms which are ready to rise' may not lose their strength and silk in seeking for the support they require. First preparation for forming the Hedge or Espalier. A week or ten days before the worms are ready to mount, bundles of twigs of chsstnut, hickory, oak, or of the birch of which stable brooms are made, must be procured and prepared. These should be arranged into bunches^ that the worms may easily climb up them, and fix themselves conveniently to pour out their first downy silk, and then work their cocoons. These bushes should be neither too thick set nor too bare. As soon as it is observed that the worms want to rise, the faggots should be put up against the inside wall,, above the wicker trays, on the most convenient side, leaving fifteen inches between each bundle. The twigs or top branches of the bundles should touch the lower part of the tray above that on which they are placed, and, by being beAt down by th€ tray above, form a species of arch, upon which we must observe? Ist. That the bundles should be placed a little aslant, so that the worms that climb up may not drop off. 2d. That they should be longer than the height between the floor and the wicker hurdles, or than the height between the lower wicker and that above; thus they form a curve when placed between them, and in this manner the worms that rise upon the curving part, do not soil the worms that are climbing perpendicularly under them, when they evacuate, which would be the case were the arch not made. 3d. That the branches should be spread out like fans, that the air may penetrate through all parts, and the worms may work with ease. When the worms are too near each other they do not work so well, and forni double cocoons, which are only worth half single cocoons. This inattention, which is almost universal, causes great loss every year, which is little known, except by the manufacturers who spin the silk, who are obliged to- separate the double cocoons from the single — the silk bein^'^ of an inferior quality. The bundles should be fixed into the wieker work of the hurdles and not into the paper, which requires only to lift the paper at the edge of the wicker, to put in the ends of the faggots through the wicker, so as to let them touch the edges. This arrangement is also convenient for the cleaning of the hurdles, which must soon occur. Mr. Stephenson directs that openings should be left at the tops of the curves, because the worms always make choice of them to form their cocoons. Another advantage arises from these openings, viz: that the cabins will contain a greater number of worms than when these Vacancies are small. The ver}^ small tender shoots must also be cut off, as they are not able to carry the weight of a worm, and might 99 [ 175 3 .occasion the loss of many of them by their tumbling off. The low- est shelf should project three inches on each side, be)^ond the one next above it, and the same difference must be made in all the other shelves progressively upwards, in order to receive the worms which may fall from the shelf above. These projections should be covered with brush, to break their fall: for the same reason brush should be placed on the bottoms and entrances of the cabins, to afford places for the worms to form cocoons, in case they should be stunned hy falling, and disabled from again mounting on the branches. Having thus placed upon each hurdle, and in their angles a sufficient number of spreading bundles, the first worms that are ready easily find their way up. If, in the course of this day, (which requires the very utmost care,) in watching the hurdles, some worms should be perceived rea^y to rise, they must be taken up and put near the ends of the bushes.. There should be also some dry twigs of oak, or other wood, put upon the wickers, and when the worms rise on them, they may be lifted and put close to the bushes, which will save the trouble of constantly looking for the worms that are ready to rise. It must be observed, however, on this subject, that, during the first three or four hours on which the silkworms give signs of rising, it is not necessary to be in a hurry to make them climb up; for, by re- maining some hours on the hurdles, they have time to cleanse them- selves by evacuation upon the litter. Whatever may be the method followed in the course of this period, it is always desirable that the little bundles of twigs should be well placed, well arched, clean and light, and not thick; that, as before said, the air may circulate freely, and t|iat the worms may work with ease in themo* Last feed to he given to the Silkworms. The 240 pounds of sorted leaves which are still in reserve, shoulcj be given by degrees, and according to their wants. The little appe^ tite of the silkworms, and their wish to rise upon the leaves, prove that, even were they given more food at one time, it would only add to the litter which would become dirty, because this is the period at which they evacuate most. From this it is better rather to stint them in each distribution. The hours of feeding cannot be fixed in this last day; it cannot even be known, whether there may not be required a small quantity of leaves for the following day. Cleaning of the hurdles; end of the preparatiorts for the rising of the Silkivoinns. As soon as the worms are prepared to rise, the hurdles should be * Instead of bushes, Messrs. Terhovcn, of Pbiladelpliia co-;nty, use fi-ames for the worms to form their cocoons in. Sec plate 2d, fig. 4, and the explanation of tljeui. [ 175 ] 100 cleaned thoroughly. This operation, although tedious, is easy enougk^ with the aid of the portable trays. These portable trays cannot now be put on the hurdles, because the cabins placed round them prevent it; however, they may be support- ed against the trays, so as to be able to use them within. When they are placed near the trays, the ripe worms must be carefully put upon them . Two or three portable trays should be filled. This done, the litter should be emptied from the sheets of paper into baskets. When one portion of the hurdles has been cleaned, the paper is to be replaced, and the worms gently slided down upon it by slanting the tray. Upon a small scale, the fully ripe worms may be picked one by one, and placed on the cabins, when they will immediately mount. Mr. Stephenson directs to place them at first in the middle of the ca- bin ; if the sides are begun with, or the outer ends of the cabins, it will be difficult to supply the middle with worms, without disturbing, and even destroying some of those which are mounting on the sides, in reaching in with the hand towards the middle. They should, strictly, only be given the quantity of food they may want, and that very sparingly. When the baskets are filled with litter, they must be directly carried out of the laboratory. In this manner, several persons may clean the hurdles in a few hours. The silkworms, when put on the portable trays, should be handled with the greatest gentleness and ease, leaving them on the twigs or bits of leaves to which they are fastened, not to hurt them in tearing them off. The slightest injury, at this age, is particularly hurtful to them, because the vital action is much diminished. . In sliding the silkworms upon the hurdles, they should be placed in squares of about two feet, beginning on the side upon which the es- palier or hedge, is already placed, and forming the squares close to them, so that the silkworm may find no difficulty in rising: a distance of eight or ten inches must be left between the squares. In the centre of these squares should be fixed bunches of small dry boughs. Thi3 operation may be performed by eight persons in eight hours. During the time of this operation, the exterior air should be freely admitted on all sides, and may be drawn in by lighting a blazing light fire in the chimneys. All the ventilators should be open, as well as the doors and win- dows, if there be no wind, and if the weather be not much below the jQSth degree of temperature, which is the prescribed heat of the labor ratory. Although, generally, the air at this time of the year is nei- ther cold nor windy enough to be obliged to shut up the laboratory, it becomes necessary to take great precaution in admitting air. In such cases, a part only of the ventilators should be opened at once. The fumigating bottle should also be passed once or twice through the la- boratory, and the hygrometer will show whether the air is grown i^uf- ficiently dry. During this time the worms continue to rise and climb, and thus it is indispensable to finish the hedge, and to fill the hurdles with rows 101 [ 175 2 0i cabins. The first row of inside bundles of twigs should be placed at six or eight inches distance from one another, to form the hedge; other small bushes must be stuck in between them, and form a species of vaulted roof under the higher hurdle; it should not be too thick; the small bushes may be stuck into the lower hurdle without taking off the paper. Across the middle of the hurdle, and between the squares into which the silkworms have been laid, should be stuck four twigs in a bunch, and spread out like a fan, to admit the air, and that the silkworms may be able to rise and climb into every part of them to make their cocoons. When the hedge is formed round three sides of the wicker hurdles, and the groups or bunches of twigs are placed in the centre of them, the worms should, with great care, be put nearer the hedge, that they may climb with ease. The cabins should be about two feet from one another, and will hold a great quantity of silkworms. As soon as the hedge and bunches are nearly laden with worms, other small twigs should be put between the hedge and bunches, and be- tween those bunches and the outside edge of the wicker trays. Thus are formed parallel hedges across the wicker trays, at two feet distance, and as all the top branches wave and bend under the wicker trays above, or the ceiling, the whole presents an appearance of small avenues covered in at top, and shut in at the end of the hedge, and are called '^ cabanes,^' or huts. This arrangement of cabins will generally suffice to receive all the silkworms of a wicker hurdle: should there, however, remain some silkworms on the tray when the cabins are nearly laden, a small branch may be put against them, and thus prevent their lying too thick together on the hedges. If care has been taken to provide long sweeping twigs, well curved at the top, and well spread out, that the air may pass through them, the number mentioned will be found quite sufficient to answer all purposes, and the silkworms will, with ease, work well, not huddle together, and will not touch one another, and not produce double instead of single cocoons. Two essential things should always be attended to. The first is, to put those worms near the cabins which are perceived to be ready to rise; and the second is, to give a few leaves to those worms that are still inclined to eat. One or two careful persons should be thus occu- pied. As long as the worms feel a wish to eat, were it only one mouthful, they will not think of their cocoon, and it will happen, that, after climb- ing, and even evacuating themselves, they sometimes go down again for more food; they will also sometimes stop when descending, and remain with their heads downward — the wish to eat having ceased bo- fore they reached the bottom; they should then be turned, so that their heads may be put upwards, as the down position is injurious to them. These attentions which appear too frivolous, often contribute, how- ever, to an abundant crop of the best cocoons, with few double onas. [ 175 ] lOS? Separation of the Silkivorms which will not rise: cleaning the wicker hurdles for the last time. Four-and-twenty or thirty hours after the worms have first begun to rise, and when four-fifths have risen, there remain on the wickers those that are weak and lazy, which do not eat, do not seem of the dis- position of those that have risen, but remain motionless on the leaves, without giving any sign of rising. These should be taken away, and put either in the small laboratory, or in any dry clean room of at least 73^ of heat, where there are hurdles covered with dry clean paper, and the hedge ready prepared for them. As sopn as they are thus placed, some will rise directly; others will eat and then rise, and so on till all will have risen. These worms will have acquired the vigor and stimulus they wanted, by being put in a warmer and much drier apartment. The great mass of silkworms in the large laboratory^ in evacuating themselves, often soil one another, which will destroy their vigor, and indispose them to rise; the best remedy is to remove them at once to a dry and tolerably warm place. Should these worms be very numerous, not only should there be the hedge round the hurdles, but also the clump and hedge across, that they may have every facility for rising ofTered to them. If only apart of these worms appear inclined to rise, they shbuld be covered with some leaves and some twigs put ovef them, that, when they climb upon these, they may be taken in the hand, and put upon the cabins, as thev are then ready to rise. With this assistance, the lazy worms will distribute themselves in the branches, evacuate, and begin weaving cocoons. i Before these few worms are put on the cabins, we may form a sort ,of support or couch of wheat or rye straw for them among the branches, to prevent their dropping off, and to give them time to fasten them- selves to the branches. In this manner have been attained cocoons from almost every silkworm. AH the silkworms being off the hurdles, having either risen or been .carried away, no time should be lost in cleaning the hurdles, which must be done with the greatest expedition. Care of the Laboratory until the Silkworm has completed its fifth age. 1st When the worms manifest a desire to rise, infinite care should be taken to prevent the temperature of the laboratory from falling: [or risino-:") it should be maintained between 68° and 71° by means of the ventilators in the ceiling and floor, which must be opened more op less, according to circumstances; and the air may be circulated from the contiguous apartments, by opening the dox>rs into them. It is proved that any violent agitation of air cramps the worms, stunts them, causes them to drop off, aild suspend the work they had begun. 4 lOS [ 175 ] 2d. When the worms are near rising, the air should be kept as dry is possible, that the paper on the wicker may dry when it is wet with the moisure of the evacuations; and that the vapor which exhales from the body of the insect, may be absorbed and carried off: the quantit}- of this is very considerable. 3d. Should any of the worms drop off that had risen, they should be taken up, and carried into the apartment where the other later worms were put, to prevent the late worms from weaving in the large labora- tory, when the early ones have finished their cocoons. 4th. When the silkworm has cast out the down which precedes the silk, and it has just begun to wind its cocoon, as the air does not then directly strike upon them, the air may be freely admitted now and then. 5th. When the cocoon has acquired a certain eonsistency, the labora- tory may be left quite open, without fearing the variations of the at- mosphere. The tissue of the cocoon is so close,- that the agitation of the air, far from being detrimental to the silkworms, agrees witli them^ even if it should be colder than the temperature fixes for the labora- tory. Mr. Stephenson directs that all diseased and dead worms should be removed immediately, as the first will infect the healthy worms, and the last, by causing a bad smell, would annoy those which are at work in making their cocoons. Although it may seem needless to those who inhabit warm climates.- that such minute details should have been gone into, yet, as in an ele- mentary work,' rules should be laid down applicable to all cases and to all places, in the art of which it treats — the endeavor has been made to Speak of every circumstance that might occur, and to provide for it All the care hitherto recommended, has tended — 1st. To preserve the silk, contained in the reservoirs of the silk- worms, in a constantly fluid state. 2d. To keep the skin or surface of the silkworm sufficiently dry^ and constantly in the degree of contraction necessary, and without? ^hich the silkworm would perish". 3d. To prevent the air from ever being corrupt, and which migh* make the silkworm ill, or suffocate it, at those very periods when it most needs its highest vigor to pour out all the silk it contains. If these rules are not observed with exactitude, there is danger of the accidents occurring which it may be useful here to state. 1st. Too cold or agitated an air, introduced into the laboratory, may instantly harden, more or less, the silky substance of those worms on which it may blow. This substance thus not being fit to pass through the silk-spinning tubes, the insect is soon obliged to cease drawing out its cocoon, and suffers. Then will many of those worms that are not sufficiently wrapt in the silk, be liable to drop off at any moment, and lessen the abundance of cocoons. 2d. Too damp an atmosphere, preventing the contraction of the skin of the worms, which enables it to evacuate itself, and to exude the silk through the silk-drawing tubes, causes them to suffer, weaken* [ 175 ] 104 them, slackens their work, and gives them numerous disorders, which cannot easily be defined. 3d. An atmosphere vitiated by the fermentation of leaves and dirt,, or by the later worms that lie on the litter, as well as by the defect of circulation in the interior air, which renders the breathing of these in- sects difficult, relaxes their organs, and also causes various diseases among them. In such cases, many worms drop off, others form bad cocoons, die within them when they are finished, and are spoiled. 4th. A case of very rare occurrence here, but which must be noted to complete the views on this subject, is, too warm and dry an atmos- phere, which dries up the worms, producing too violent a contraction ©f the skin, not proportioned to the vacuum which increases in the animal by the slow pouring out of the silky substance, and by trans- piration; and thus forces them to violent and fatiguing action in the formation of the cocoon; in which case they employ the reservoirs of silk too fast, forcing the silk-drawing tubes, producing coarser silk, which thus never can have that fineness which it possesses when pro- duced in a temperature of 69°. Having tried to expose a number of silkworms to very dry air, at 100 degrees of temperature, several thousand feet of the coarse downy flos, or have, were obtained from the cocoons by the common method of spinning*, the weight of this flos being six times greater than the flos obtained from cocoons form- ed in a temperature of 69°. This observation may explain why the silk produced in very hot climates is stronger and less fine than that produced in temperate re- gions, where the silkworms are reared at a lower degree of tempera- ture,* The fifth age is accomplished, when the silkworm pours out its silk and forms the cocoon. The fifth age is perfected, when, on touching the cocoon, it appears to have obtained a certain consistency. The silkworm has then cast its envelope, is changed into the chrysalis, and has entered its sixth age. Qxiantity of vapor and excremental substance emitted by Silk- worms, from the time they reach their full growth^until the form- ation of the cocoon. The calculation resulting from facts, will here be offered, by which may be ascertained the quantity of substance which issues from the silkworm towards the close of the fifth age, that this calculation may show the evils which are constantly likely to attack a laboratory. * The above remark applies to the East India silk, the inferiority of which will be noticed hereafter, in an extract from the Minutes of the Evidence taken before a Com- mittee of the British Parliament on the Silk Trade. Count Dandolo has omitted a very important caution, which it is essential to attend to when the worms begin to spin their cocoons. It is to preserve the utmost silence in the apartment, as the worms are very sensible to the least noise, and, if disturbed, will for a moment, cease to spin. Thus the continuity of the thread will be interrupt- ed, and the viluc of tlij:- cocoon greaOy diminished. 105 [ i75 ] In the space of six or seven days, the bodies of the insects requisite to produce only 600 pounds of cocoons, must have lost 700 pounds weight of vapor, or gas, solid and liquid excremental substance. This astonishing quantity of substance, execrated from the bodies of the silkworms in so short a time, is of greater weight than the total weight of the cocoons and chrysalis, which only weigh 600 pounds, It is scarcely credible that the bodies of the silkworms should yield so much noxious matter in a few days, were it not demonstrated by positive facts. This large body of exhalation, v/ere it stagnant in the laboratory, might, in the later days, generate disorders quickly, and cause great mortality at the very moment when the abundant crop of the cocoons was most confidently expected. We must, therefore, feel the deep ne- cessity of attentively following the prescribed directions for avoiding this evil. CHAPTER XI. OF THE SIXTH AGE OF THE SILKWORMS, OR OF THE CHRYSALISJ GATHERING- AND PRESERVATION OF THE COCOON. The sixth age begins in the chrysalis state, and ends when the moths appear, having left their shell in the cocoon that covered them. The following are the necessary things that remain to be done: 1. To gather the cocoons. 2. To choose the cocoons which are to be preserved for the eggs or seed. 3. Preservation of cocoons until the appearance of the moth; we shall then treat of 4. The daily loss of weight which the cocoons suffer from the time they are finished until the appearance of the moth, 1 . Gathering of the cocoons. Strong, healthy, and well managed silkworms, will complete their cocoons in three days and a half at farthest, reckoning from the mo- ment when they first begin casting the flos. This period will be shorter if the silkworms spin the silk in a higher temperature than that which has been indicated, and in very dry air. It is also more or less prolonged, if the silkworms are not well and healthy, or if they are exposed to a colder temperature than has been fixed: if they are exposed to transitions of heat and cold, to damp and vitiated air, or to draughts of wind, before the cocoon is sufficiently advanced to shelter them entirely; and, in short, if a great number of silkworms rise long after the first have risen, which is always the con- sequence of bad management and want of care. 14 [ 175 ] lOt) To avoid the losses which any slight inattention may have occasion- ed, it will be better not to take off the cocoons before the eighth or ninth da)^, reckoning from the time when the silkworms first rose. They may be taken off on the seventh, if the laboratories have been conduct- ed with such regularity that the time may be known with certainty when this may be done. Begin on the lower tier of hurdles, and take the cabins down gent- ly, giving them to those who are to gather the cocoons. Place a bas- ket between two of the gntherers, to receive the cocoons; another per- son should receive the stripped bushes, which may be laid by for an- other year. All the cocoons that want a certain consistency, and feel soft, should be laid aside, that they may not be mixed with better. Empty the baskets upon hurdles or trays, plticed in rows, pnd spread the cocoons about four fingers deep, or nearly to the top of the wicker ti'ay. When the cocoons are detached, the down or flos, in which the silkworms have formed the cocoon, should be taken off. If the co- coons are for sale, weigh them, and send them to the purchaser. The baskets, the floor, and all things used, should be cleaned. Pullein directs, wdicn githering the cocoons, to make four assort- ments. 1. Those designed for breed. 2. The dupions, 3. The firm- est of those which are to be reeled. 4. Those of a looser texture, 2. Choosing the cocoons for the production of eggs. About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of one pound and a l|alf of male and female cocoons. The small cocoons, of a straw color, with hard ends and fme webs, and which arp a little depressed in the middle, as if tightened \)y a ring or circle, are to be preferred. There are no certain signs to distinguish the male from the female cocoons: the best known are the following; " The small cocoons; sharper at one or both ends, and depressed in the middle, generally produce the male; the round full cocoon, with- out ring or depression in the middle, usually contains the female;. These, according to Pullein, may be distinguished from the dupions by the extra size, the clumsy shape, lather round than oval, of the latter. As, however, all marks may fail, an extra number may be kept of the best of those wiiich are spun double, and when the moths come out, the males and females being easily distinguished, an addi- tion can be made from them to the. defective side. By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may generally ascertaiji whether the chrysalis be alive. If it be dead, and loosened from the cocoon, it yields a sharp sound; when dead, it yields a dumb muffled sound, and is more confined in the cocoon.* Sauvage says, that the du})ions, or double cocoons, constantly pro- duce a moth of each sex; and, on this account, advises them to be se- lected for seed; but if is a mistake to suppose that this equality in thq sexes of the dupions takes place, for Mr. Nysten found, that of 20 dou- ]3le cocoons which he examined, seven contained two males; six, two ipmales; and seven, one male and one female, t * Cours fl'Agricnlture, vol. 9, p. 599. f Reclicrches sur des Vers a Soie, p. 168,. 107 [ 175 ] 3. Preservation of cocoons intended for seed. Experience shows that where the temperature of the room is above 73°, the transition of the chrysalis to the moth state, would be too ra- pid, and the coupling will not be productive. If below GC^, the deve- lopment of the moth is tardy, which is also injurious. Damp air will change it into a weak and sickly moth. The apartment should, there- fore, be kept in an even dry temperature, between 66^ and 73°. When collected, spread the cocoons on a dry floor, or on tables, and strip them clean of down or flos, to prevent the feet of the moth being entangled in it when coming out: while cleaning them, all those that appear to have any defect should be laid aside: this is the time, also, to separate the male and female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish them. Mr. Stephenson directs the selection of an equal number of males and females, and to keep the cocoons of the same day's mounting se- parate, that the moths may pierce them at the same time. If the good cocoons, taken from the whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the selection for those intended for breedino; be made from this general heap, many will be set aside, which were formed by worms that had mounted upon different days, and which will be pierced by the moths unequally, and hence there w ill not be an equal number of males and females produced at the same time. This irregular appearance may cause the loss of a great many moths or of several thousand eggs. Pullein orders the choice to be made from those shelves, or arbors in which the worms spun the earliest. But it is questionable, whether the circumstance of early spinning, would affect the worm next season, unless the temperature of the apartment in both seasons was equal. Dandolo says, that the strength shown by a worm in forming a cocoon, has no influence upon the fecundity of the male, nor upon the quality of the eggs. Cocoons of various tenuity and shapes, have equally af- forded him large quantities of well-impregnated eggs. Healthy worms, of equal weights, have given cocoons which varied in weight. When the selection has been made, the sorted cocoons must be put on tables, in layers of about two inches, allowing the air to pass freely through them, that it may not be necessary to stir them frequently; but it is beneficial to stir them round once a day if the air be moist- When the seed cocoons are not very numerous, they may be strung upon threads and hung against a wall, or suspended from a beam. Just so much of the middle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a nee- dle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread. The middle is chosen, because it Cannot be ascertained at which q,\\(\ the moth will pierce the cocoon. Place a male and female, alternately, upon the thread, that they may be near each other when they come out. "^ If the heat of the apartment is above 73°, every method of dimin- ing the heat should be tried; such as keeping all ajxMlurcs to the sun- ny sides carefully closed, to cause thorough (li-aught'=; of air to dry the * Stenhrnsnn [ 175 ] lOS humidity that exhales from the chrysalides. Should the temperature rise to 78° or 82°, the cocoons must be put into a cooler place, as a dry cellar. 4. Daily loss in weight of cocoons^ from the time of their forma- tion till the moth escapes froin them* It is a common opinion that the weight of the cacoon, after diminish- ing, increases for a certain period. This old error induces persons to give their cocoons too soon to the spinner, before they lose their weight, or too late, when they keep them back, in hope tliey will soon recover weight The following is the result of the decrease of 1,000 cocoons, in a temperature of between 71° and 73°. Gathered from the cabins and cleaned, the cocoons weighed - - 1,000 ounces. First day following - - - - - 991 Tenth day -■--"-- - 925 The decrease in weight was gradual, but not regular. The cocoons lose, in ten days, seven and a half per cent, by the drying of the chrysalis alone. The four first days, they lose three per cent, in the the last days, they lose rather more. It is a loss for the purchasers of cocoons to receive those that are of different ages, because, when in some cocoons the moth is prepar- ing to come forth, and other cocoons are not so forward, the spinners are at a loss whether to let it come directly, or to kill the chrysalis to preserve the cocoon.* If the rules which have been recommended are exactly followed, this loss will be avoided, and the cocoons will be perfectly formed, and ready to be reeled off at the end of seven days, reckoning from the day they first rose upon the bushes or frames. Great care must be taken to preserve cocoons from ants, which will destroy them as certainly as they do the silkworm. CHAPTER XII. SEVENTH AGE OF THE SILKWORM. Birth and coupling of the moth; of laying the eggs, and the preser- vation of the eggs. This seventh and the last age of the silkworm, comprises the entire life of the moth. *In making a contract, therefore, in the early part of the season for cocoons, the cultivator should attend to the above points. 109 C 175 ] The formation of the moth, and its disposition to issue from the cocoon, may be ascertained, when one of its extremities is perceived to be wet, which is the part occupied by the head of the moth. A few hours after, and sometimes in one hour after, the moth will pierce the cocoon and come out. Occasionally, the cocoon is so hard, and so wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to come forth, and dies in the cocoon. Sometimes the female deposites some eggs in the co- coon before she can get out, and often perishes in it. This circum- stance has induced some to extract the chrysalis, from the cocoon by cutting it, that the moth may only have to pierce its thin envelope. But Dandoio disapproves of the practice, (although he has performed the operation with success,) because it is tedious; and should the moths be put on a plain surface, five in a hundred will not be able to get out, but will drag the envelope along, and at last die, not being able to disen- cumber themselves. If the surface be not smooth, the moths will is- sue with greater ease. It is very favorable to the moths when they put forth their head and first legs, to find some substance to which they may fasten, and thus facilitate clearing out of the cocoon by the sup- port; for this reason they should be spread out very thin on tables, covered With a muslin or linen cloth. The life of the moth lasts, in Italy, ten, eleven, or twelve days, according to the strength of its con- stitution, and the mildness of the atmosphere. With Mr. Dusar, of Philadelphia, the moths lived from five to eight days. A hot tempe- rature accelerates their operations, and the drying which precedes their death. Hatching of the moths ^ and their preservation. Cocoons, kept in a temperature of QQ°, begin to be hatched after fifteen days; those kept in a heat between 71°, and 73°, begin to come forth after eleven or twelve days. The room in which the moths are produced should be dark, or at least there should be only sufficient light to distinguish objects. This is an important rule, and must be carefully attended to. The moths do not come fortli in great numbers the first or the second day: they are chiefly hatched on the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh days, according to the degree of heat of the place in which the cocoons are kept. The hours when the moths burst the cocoons in greatest number, are the three and four hours after sun- rise, if the temperature be from 64° to QQ°. The male moths, the very moment they come out, go eagerly in quest of the female: when they are united, they must be placed on trays covered with linen, and made in such a manner as to allow it to be changed whgn soiled. Mucli care must be taken in raising the united moths. They must be held by the wings, in order not to separate them: if this happens, they niUv^t be replaced on the tables of the moths of their own sex. When one small table is filled with moths in a state of union, they arc to be carried into a small room, sufficiently airy and fresh, and whicli can be made, very dark. Having employed the first hours of the day in selecting and carrying the united moths, the males and feinalcs which are found se- [ 175 3 110 parate on the tables, arc to be brought into contact, put on otirer frames and carried into a dark room. It is easy to ascertain if there are mor;i females than mal(i!s. The body of the female is nearly double the size of that of the male; besidiis, the male which is single, beats about its wings at the least approach of light. The hour must be noted, at vvhicK the tables containing the united moths were placed in the dark room. If, after this Operation is over, there still remain some moths of each sex, they are to be placed in the small perforated box, plate 1, fig. 4, until the moment fav^orable for their union arrives. From time to time they must be looked at, to see if they separate, in order that they may be brought anew into contact. When any thing is to be done in the dark chamber, as little light as possible must be admitted, only suf- ficient to distinguish objects. The more light there is, the more the moths are disturbed and troubled in their operations, as light is too stimulating for them. • The boxes are very convenient to keep quiet the males which remain, and thus prevent the fine powder ad- hering to their wings from flying about,' and the destruction of their wings, and consequently, the loss of their vital power. The cocoons must be removed as fast as they are pierced by the moth; for being moist, they communicate their humidity to those which are still en- tire. The paper, also, on the trays, when soiled, is to be removed, and fresh supplied. Constant attention is required during the whole day, as there is a succc'=^'sion in the process of hatching and union of the moths, which occasionally vary in relative proportion to one an- other. Instead of a frame, paper may be used for the purpose of re- ceiving the eggs. A few good cocoons will not produce a moth, ow- ing to their hardness, which prevents the moth from making a hole by a draught of air, and put them in one or more shallow boxes, lined with paper; which place, if possible, in a small room, of the tempera- ture of 64°, and keep it up to that degree for the two first days, by means of a fire in the chimney, or, still better, in a brick, tile, oj* porcelain stove; or, for want of these, in an iron stove; and use tan- ners' waste-bark, turf, or charcoal, for fuel, to promote and keep up a regular heat, day and night. The third day increase the heat to 66* the fourth to GS"", the fifth to 71°, the sixth to 73°, the seventh to 75°, the eighth to 77°, the ninth to 80°, the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth, to S2°.* It is im.possible to expect regularity in hatching, if reliance be placed upon our very variable w^eather; and it is the regularity of the worms coming forth, which will ensure their uniform growth, savei much trouble in feeding and attending those of various ages, and cause the whole, or the greater part, to form their cocoons at the same time^ provided proper care be given during their progress. * For the importance of a thermometer, see p. 59- 121 I 175 3 When the eggs assume a whitish hue, the worm is formed : cover the eggs with white paper, (never use a newspaper,) pierced full of holes the size of a large knitting needle; the worms when hatched will creep through them : turn up the edges of the paper to prevent their crawling off. Lay twigs of the mulberry, having two or three dry and young leaves, on the paper, to collect the worms, and more as they continue to mount. For want of mulberry leaves, feed for a short time upon lettuce leaves, perfectly dry; if large, they should be cut in strips, and the mid-rib thrown aside. The worms first hatched are the strongest: nevertheless, if only a few come out on the first day, give them away, to save trouble, and depend upon those which appear on the second and third days. Give away, also, the produce of the fourth day, and then the whole stock will go on regularly. If it be wished to rear all that are hatched, endeavor to keep the produce of each day separate, by numbering the boxes and shelves. When the leaves on the twigs are loaded with worms, the boxes containing them are to be removed to a new apartment, and the worms gently placed on clean stout white paper, laid on frames filled with crossed rattans, (see plate 2, fig. 3,) giving them a plenty of room. The shelves over which these frames should slide, may be four feet square, and fixed to upright posts, (p. 55;) or the apparatus of the Rev. Mr. Swayne may be used to great advan- tage; (see p. 56, and the description.) They may be multiplied as re- quired. Whether a distinct building or apartment in a dwelling house be devoted to a large parcel, it is absolutely necessary to secure the command of a gentle circulation of air, by having ventilators in the windows,* floors, and doors. (Seep. 55.) Red ants are deadly ene- mies to silkworms. To prevent their attacks, the posts containing fixed shelves ought not to touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reach the walls; their legs should be smeared with thick molasses; those of Mr. Swayne's moveable frame may also be thus treated, or they may stand in a plate of water. Guard also against cockroaches and mice. The worms being all hatched, whether they are to remain in the first apartment, or be removed to a distinct building, the heat must be re- duced to 75°, for as the worms grow older they require less heat. When a large quantity of worms are to be removed from the boxesy the task is to be performed in the manner directed in p. 69. The mode of transporting a parcel to a distance, is also given in p. 70. That is, until the w^orms have passed their first moulting, or changed their first skin. The apartment must be light, but the Sun must not shine on the worms in any stage. Feed the worms with the most tender leaves, four times a day, al- lowing six hours between each meal, giving the smallest quantity for * One or more tin circular ventilators, in place of panes of glass, would always se- ure a regular circulation in the apartment; they could be stopped when their motion -; not required. 16! L 170 ■{ i'2^ the first feeding, and gradually increasing it at eacli meal between tiie moultings. In about an hour and a half, the silkworms- devour their portion of leaves, and then remain more or less quiet. Whenever food is given, widen the space for them. Scattered food may be swept into its place. Experiments may be made, as to the (comparative advantage of using chopped or whole young leaves. Danaolo insists upon the necessity of the former. If chopped, a sharp knife must be used, to preven': the leaves from being bruised, and thereby causing the exudation of water from them, which would prove injurious. On the fourth day, the skin becomes of a hazel color, and looks shining; their heads enlarge, and assume a silvery bright appearance. These are marks of their approaching first change. Their food, on this day, therefore, may be diminished, or when these appearances take place, but not be- fore. Enlarge the spaces as the worms increase in size. The leaves ought to be gathered a few hours before they are used, that they may lose their sharpness. They keep very well in a cool cellar three days. The leaves ought to be gathered over night, for the morning's meal, to prevent the danger of collecting them in rainy weather. The leaves must be pulled carefully, and not bruised. On the fourth day, the appetites of the worms begin to decrease, preparatory to their iirst moulting, and their food must be diminished in proportion as the previous meal has not been completely eaten. If the precarious heat of the w^eather has been depended on, the first change may not appear until the sixth or seventh day. In the course of t\ie filth day, all the worms have been torpids During this period, they must, on no account, be disturbed. A few begin to revive at the close of it; some leaves may be then given. After the first moulting, the worms are of a dark ash color. - Second tdge. As the worms are fond of the young twigs, some of these should be spread over them with the leaves attached, upon which the worms will immediately fasten, and they may then be removed to a clean paper; or lay a strip of chopped leaves near the worms, and they will leave the old food. The litter is to be taken away; but, as some of the worms often remain among the old leaves, they ought to be ex- amined; to this end, the litter should be removed to another room, spread out on a table, and a few twigs placed over it, on which the worms, if any, will mount, when they may be added to the others. This rule must be attended to after every moulting. The two first meals of the first day, should be less plentiful than the two last, and must consist of the most tender leaves. These must be continued for food until after the third moulting. If, between the moultings, any worms should appear sick, and ceasG to cat, they must be removed lo another room, where the air is pure, and a little Vv^armer than that they have left, put on clean paper, and some fresh leaves, chopped fine, given to them. They will soon re- cover, and tbeu mav be added to the others. ±23 I 115 J Qn the third day, the appetite of many worms will be visibly di- minished; and, in the course of it, many will become torpid. The next day, all are torpid: on the fifth, they will all have changed their skins, and will be roused. The thermometer should range between 73° ard 75° in the second age. The color of the worms in the second age, becomes a light gray; the muzzle is white, and the hair is hardly to be seen. It.m.ust never be forgotten, that, during the time the worms are oc- cupied in moulting, the food should be greatly diminished, and no more given than will satisfy those which have not yet become torpid on the first day, or those which have changed their skins before thf others. Third Age, During this age, the thermometer must range between 7i° and 73°. All the worms should be roused before anv are removed. The re- vived worms are easily known by their new aspect. The latest worms should be placed apart, as their next moulting will be a day later also: or they may be put in the hottest part of the room to hasten their growth. This rule must also be observed in \h^. next moulting. In- crease the spaces. The second day, the two first meals are to be the least copious, the two last the greatest, because towards the close of the day, the worms grow very hungry. The third day will require about the same quan- tity as the preceding last m.eals; but, on the fourth day, as the appe- tites of the worms sensibly diminish, not more than half of the form- er feed will be required. The first meal is to be the largest: feed those which will eat at any time of the day. The fifth day still less will suffice, as the greatest part are moulting. The sixth day tliey begin Xp^ rouse. Fourth Jige^ The thermometer should range between 68° and 71°. If the weather be warm, and the glass rise several degrees higher, open the ventilators, exclude the sun, and make a siiglit blaze in the chimney, to cause a circulation of the air. Widen the spaces for the worms. The leaves must now be regularly chopped in a straw cutting box, or with the chopping knife. The food is now to be greatly increased on the second, third, and fourth days: on the fifth, less will be re- quired, as, in the course of this day, many become torpid: the first meal, on this day, should therefore be the largest. On the sixth, they will want still less, as nearly all will be occupied in effecting their last change of skin. Renew the air in the apartment hy burning straw or shavings in the chimney, and open the ventilators. If the evenings be cool, after a hot day, admit the external air for an hour. None but full grown leaves should be hereafter given to the worms; and they must all be chopped. Avoid the fruit, as they would prove injurious, and add greatly to the litter. On the seventh day. all the wo,rm«! ^viP have rni.ised. and thus finish thoir foiTrth oji'e. !_ 115 J iM4 Fifth age, or until the ivorms prepare to mount. In a large establishment, the exhalations from the worms and their litter, united to the heat of the atmosphere, sometimes cause great mor- tality among them; the means of preventing which, are treated under the head of diseases. But if proper cleanliness be observed, and a free circulation of the air permitted, no sickness is to be feared. The ther- mometer should be about 68°. The constitution of the worms being now formed, they begin to elaborate the silk vessels, and fill them with the silky material, which they decompose and form from the mulber- ry leaves. Give abundance of room; do not let the worms lie so close as to touch one another; for their respiration will thereby be impeded; con- tinue to feed regularly and fully, as the appetite of the worms now becomes voracious; rather give food five times a day than four; even six small meals will not be too many. The last meal should be late at night, and the first of the next day, in the morning, at an early hour. The worms are not to be again moved, and the hurdles must be clean- ed, as directed in page 94. On the seventh day of the fourth age, they have attained their largest size, viz: three inches long, and begin to grow shining and yellow. The appetites of some diminish; but that of others continues, and must be supplied, to hasten their maturi- ty. The effects of a sudden increase of heat in the weather, at this time, will be highly injurious — see p. 96. For the mode of preparing the cabins for the formation of cocoons, and the treatment of the worms; ths gathering of the cocoons; the selection and preservation of those intended for seed; the birth and coupling of the moths; the laying and preservation of the eggs, see p. 97, and following. With respect to the temperature of the room, in which the cocoons intended to produce moths, are kept, the rule prescribed by Dandolo should be attended to. If it exceed 73°, they should be put in a place in which the thermometer will remain within the limited degrees. Moderate temperatures are, without exception, best adapted to the silkworm, the chrysalis, and the moth. Notwithstanding the difficul- ty of ascertaining the male from the female cocoon, yet the advan- tages of separating them are such, that the attempt is recommended by Dandolo to be made. The benefits arising from the separation are, 1st, that, before the moths unite, they would have leisure to evacuate the excrementitiouB fluid they contain, the retention of which, as will be seen in the chapter on the diseases of silkworms, is injurious to the eggs. 2d, That the moths not united are only handled once. They must now be watched, and after they liave evacuated the fluid, they are to be united, and put on a frame covered with linen, which, when full, must be carried into the dark room, to remain during the time they ought to be united. If, through inattention, a store of leaves has not been provided, and they are collected during rain, they must be thoroughly dried before being given, as they will inevitably sicken the worms, if fed with them when moist To dry a large parcel, see the chapter on diseases of silkworms. l^a [ 175 I On early foocL Sow the seeds broad cast of the white, or of the native red mulberry tree, in well prepared ground, as soon as ripe; they will soon vegetate. If the winter be cold, cover the plants with straw, or long manure. The first season, they will afford a small quantity of leaves; but, if wa- tered in dry weather, the leaves will be abundant in the second year. The plants will grow better if the seed be sown in drills, thinned out to proper distances, and kept clean. The leaves of these seedlings are only recommended for the young worms, and as a resource for food until the leaves of the standard mulberry trees have put forth. They have already been proscribed as food for silkworms during their wholr- course— p. 5.9. CHAPTER XIV. DISEASES OF SILKWORMS. A careful perusal of the principal practical authors upon the rearing of silkworms, and attention to their progress during the last season, in a large establishment, have led to the conclusion, that the diseases to which vsilkworms are subjeot in their various stages, may be referred to the following causes: 1st. Errors in hatching the eggs, and treatment of very young worms- 2d. Bad air of the district in which they were bred. 3d. Impurity in the air in v/hich they are kept, arising from defi- cient ventilation, from exhalations of the litter of the worms, and of their manure, which has been permitted to accumulate. 4th. Too close crowding, owing to which cause their spiracles or breathing holes, were stopped, and the expiration and inspiration of air prevented. 5th. The quality and quantity of food. 6th. Improper change of food. 7th. Peculiar constitution of the air in certain seasons, against which no precautions can avail. 8th. Frequent changes of temperature in the room in Vv-hich they are kept. I. Diseases from defect in the eggs. 1st. When the apartment destined for the coming forth, and laying of the eggs of the moth is too cold, (54° or 59°,) the impregnating li- quor will not be perfected; and, consequently, does not sufficiently act upon the eggs, to give them the ash color, which, in the course of Rftpfn or twenty xlays, indicates the perfect imprejination. The un- impregnated eggs produce no worms, and those imperfectly impi-eg- Dated, bear in them the seed of diseases which destroy the silkworm in various stages of its existence. 2d. When the room is too hot, (77° to 81°:) if the male delays coupling, it loses much of the impregnating liquid. If united to the female too soon, upon issuing from the cocoon, she has not time to evacuate a superabundance of excrementitious fluid with which she is loaded. She therefore becomes disordered, and the impregnating li- quor of the male is weakened, by admixture with this matter of the female; consequently, the eggs are imperfect. 3d. Dampness prevents the eggs from drying, the embryo becomes affected, and diseases engendered. 4th. When the place, where the eggs were kept, or hatched, has been or is damp, the slow and gentle evaporation of the matter con- tained in the shell, by which it insensibly attains the state assigned to it by nature, is prevented. 5th. When the eggs are too thickly heaped together, they heat, even at a low temperature, and the embryo becomes injured. No disease will occur, 1st. if the temperature of the place where the moths are kept, be maintained between 68° and 75°. 2d. When the apartments are dry. 3d. When cloths on which the eggs are deposit- ed, are not folded too much, and are hung on the frames which have been described. 2. Diseases from mismanagement of good eggs, and treatment of very young loornfis. 1. When the embryo just verging to the worm state, in a moderate temperature, is suddenly exposed to a much greater heat, its organs Ijecome decomposed, and the shell of the worm will appear more or less red, which ia a certain sign of future disease. 2. When, on the point of transformation into the worm, the embryo is suddenly exposed to a lower temperature; the damage is then pro- portioned to the length of time the heat has acted upon the embryo. 3. When silkworms being just hatched, are exposed to a higher temperature than that in which they come forth, or the contrary, when the worm.s are exposed to a colder temperature than that in which they come forth. If. Diseases from th e bad air of the distinct in ivhich Silkworms arc reared. Low marshy places, and those in which the air is liable to stagnate, are very liable to produce disease. The combination of heat and mois- ture is death to them. On the contrary, it is universally agreed, that high and dry places are not only peculiarly favorable to the growth and health of the insects, but that the silk there produced by them, is much preferable to that from worms reared in places less elevated. 1^7 [ 1^^ J 111. Jjistases of 6'llkwonns from impuriiij in the air of the laboratory. When the air of the apartment is not renewed, particularly in the 'fourth and fifth ages, the damp stagnates in it, the transpiration is checked, the dung and litter ferment, and emit noxious exhalations:" the skins of the worms become relaxed, and disease follows in a few hours. The necessity of preserving a free circulation of pure air in the apartment, has been often insisted on, in the preceding pages. The prevalence of a superabundance of damp air, may be known by the use of a hygrometer, or indicator of moisture, and it is easy to re- move this, by employing the means suggested for expelling the heavy air, and replacing it by light fresh exterior air. On the means of purifying the air, Hitherto it has been reckoned a good method of purifying the air of a laboratory to burn some odoriferous or vegetable substance, to produce a grateful smell, while, instead of purifying or improving the air, by these means, they were rendering it considerably worse. It has been erroneously imagined, that what usually occurs in our per- ception of offensive effluvia, should be equally applicable to the noxious qualities of the air, which, as they affect the lungs, have great influence on the general system of animal life. The case is however dissimilar; in producing a pleasant smell in the room of which the air is vitiated, we do but disguise to the sense the bad quality of the ai-r we breathe, but the lungs are not less affected. We are then mis^ taken in employing such means in the laboratory. In whatever manner any odoriferous vegetable may be burnt in the centre of the room, and not in the grate, and however grateful the odour may be, it will consume a part of the respirable or vital air contained in the room, and consequently must injure the air.t We should here speak of the harm which may be done by the smoke of chimneys which spreads often through the laboratory, and remains stagnant in it. It is very certain that, if the smoke often infests the apartment, it is to be feared we may see all the silkworms of a labor- atory perish in a moment. Let us now mention the means of pui ifying the internal air of the laboratory, and of neutralizing and destroying, in some degree, the poison which exhales from the fermented substances on the wicker hurdles^ and to produce the drying of those that are inclined to fer- ment. It must first be observed, that this remedy will not cost above .30 cents for a laboratory of worms proceeding from five ounces of * It is surprising to find how larg-e a portion of niephitic nli' disen;jagcs, j)anicu larly in the iiftli age, from the silkworms, in an establishment spacious enough to con tain the worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs. f Mr. Nysten also gives his opinion, as to the total inutiiity of all perfumes to V purify the air of an apartment in which silkworms are kept, p- 105. ^ The a.-:e of the fiiiTiiga'-inp; L)ot.t'^;aiid thehvi^'ioiuetor, can only he-, necessary ')v. ^ejy large establishments. Pure ah", food regulavly given, ckanliness^ abundance of space, and a proper tempcrii'Mre, are n'l 'V ' 'b": silkworms rt^qn'Tc*, to ^u^v.:-"^ •■■heir health. [ 175 J US Take six ounces ot common salt, mix it well with three ounces ot powder of black oxyde of manganese; put this mixture in a strong bottle, with two ounces of water, cork it well with a common cork. Keep this bottle in any part of the laboratory farthest from the stove or fire-places. In a phial put a pound and a half of sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) and keep this phial near the other bottle, with a small cordial glass and an iron spoon; and this is the manner of using it: Put into the small glass, two-thirds of a spoonful of oil of vitriol, pour it into the large bottle, and there will issue a white vapor. The bottle should be moved about through the laboratory, holding it high up that the vapor may be well spread in the air. When the vapor ceases, the bottle may be corked, and replaced: even should there be no perceptible difference between the interior and exterior air, during the fifth age of the w^orms, it is good to re- peat this fumigation three or four times a day in the manner just ex- plained. When repeating the fumigation, the quantity of oil of vitriol poured into the large bottle may be diminished. The stated quantity of ingredients will be sufficient for a laboratory of five ounces of eggs. The bottle may be left open an hour or two in the last days of the fifth age of the silkworms; and placed here and there in the labora- tory, and even on the corners of the wicker hurdles, to diffuse the vapor thoroughly. This remedy may be employed, whenever, on going into the labora- tory, the air appears to have an unpleasant effluvia, and that there is any closeness, or difficulty of breathing. 1st. It may take place when the litter of the silkworm is removed^ particularly in the fifth age. 2d. When in moist weather the air of the laboratory continues damp, even after having made the blaze, which renders the fermenta- tion still quicker/ This fumigation may be of use also towards the end of the fourth age, if the air be perceived to be impure. It may not be needed in all cases, until after the fourth age of the silk^vorms, and at the be- ginning of the fifth age. If there are several small fire-places in the laboratory, and that blazes are frequently made in them to agitate the air, fumigations will not be so much required. It must be observed that care should be taken not to drop any of the oil of vitriol, either on the skin or clothes, as it burns; and to hold the bottle above the height of the eyes and nose, when it is open, be- cause the vapor is very searching, and would be dangerous and un* pleasant. Should the substances in the bottle harden, a little water may be added, and stirred with a small stick. This easy remedy is more powerful than all perfumes commonly used, and produces five advantages in the laboratory. 1st. The vapor in spreading immediately, destroys any unpleasant effluvia. 2d. It diminishes the fermentation of the litter, and dries it up. 3d. It neutralizes the efibct of all the miasmata, and deleterious 'emanations that might attack the health of the silkworms. 129 [ 175 ] 4th. It revives the silkworms, gently stimulating them, because it iS composed in a great measure of pure, vital air. 5th. The vapor is not alone favorable to the health of the silkworms, but influences the goodness of the cocoon.* Of the Hygrometer, Scientific men have invented various instruments fitted to measure the quantity of moisture which the air may contain in any circum- stances, using, in their construction, bodies which attract the dampness from the air easily, and stretch by degrees, and which contract again when the air is dry. A plate of common table salt, coarsely pounded, may answer to show the moisture or dryness of the air. Hygrome- ters of various materials have been constructed. The annexed cut, will give a good idea of a useful, sim- pie, and cheap one. The principle upon which it is constructed, maybe thus briefly illustrated. The effect which a moist atmosphere has on any twisted cord, is that of diminishing its length, by causing the spirals to approach each other. If, therefore, a long piece of string be attached to the peg at B, ond conveyed round the pulleys C, D, E, F, G, with a weight stispended beneath, we may, by referring to the index hand and scale, readily ascertain the amount of moisture that has been absorbed by the vegetable fibre. If the string be soaked in a solution of common salt in water, it will more readily indicate any slight accession of humidity in the atmosphere, t It would be desirable to have two hygrometers in a large laboratory, placed within a certain distance of each other, to ascertain the various degrees of moisture in diflerent parts of the laboratory. * So much Importance is attached to the use of the acid famigations by Dandolo, and others, that it has been thoug-ht right to retain his directions respecting- them, but it is proper to remark, that Mr. Nysten, after a course of laborious experiments with them, and with other famigations, comes to the decided conchision, that they are totally inefficacious as means of curing the actual diseases of silkworms. He even found, in an experiment with two thousand sick worms, that more died in a room where the famigations were continually used, than in another, in which the pure air was allowed to circulate freely among a similar number. He allows, however, that the fumigations may act as a preventive remedy, by neutraiizing the bad air of tlie apart- ment. It is with this view that Dandolo uses it. He confirms the repealed posi- tions of Dandolo, and the experience of all practical writers and cultivators, that to prevent the diseases of silkworms, it is only necessarvto hatch the eggs in a regular- ly increased heat, to feed the worms v/ith good and dry leaves, to keep them in a pure air of the temperature prescribed above, and, finally, to observe rigid cleanli- ness. He remarks that, it was not Paroletti who first used ai;id fumigation;, for worms, but lligaud do Liiie, who cays that he thereby diminished the mortality among them; but candidly acknowledger,, that he freely admitted the external aii" at the akme time. — Nysten sur la Maladies des Vers a Soie, pp- 101, 103. t>'l'". Williams. 'Hie .Scientific Gazette, p^rt 2d, p. 81- j^yndon, 1825. 17 [ 175 ] 130 When the 113'grometer indicates a very damp state of~ the atmos- })]iere, wood shavings or straw should be burnt in the fire-places, to absorb the humidity, and replace it by the external air which is dried ])y this same blaze. Blaze is preferable to mere fire, for two reasons: the first is, that, for instance, with two pounds of shavings, or of dry f^traw, there can be attracted, from all points, towards the chimney, a large body of air, which issues at the flue of the chimney. While, in the meantime, this air is replaced by another quantity of exterior air, which spreads over the wicker hurdles, and revives the exhausted silk- worms. This change of air may take place without efiecting any ma- terial variation in the degree of heat in the laboratory. If, on the contrary, thick wood were employed, it would require more time to move the interior air; ten times more fuel might be consumed, and the laboratory w^ould be too much heated. The motion of air, all cir- cumstances being equal, is in proportion to the quantity of blaze of the substances that burn quickly. When wood shavings or dry straw cannot be procured, small sticks of dry and light wood may answer. As soon as the flame rises, the hygrometer shows that the air has be- come drier, and the degrees of it can be seen distinctly. The second motive which should lead us to prefer the blaze, is the light it diff'uses. It cannot well be imagined how beneficial this light is, which penetrates every where, nor how much it influences the healtli and growth of the silkworms. lY. IHseases from ivant of r 00771, When silkworms lie so thick on the wickers, or feeding frames, that they cannot feed with ease, a difference in their development will re- sult, and large healthy worms will be found mixed with small and sick- ly worms. This mixture affects the periods of their transition ; some will be lively, some torpid, and others still requiring food previously to their transition: this confusion kills great numbers, or causes them to drag on a sickly existence. Silkworms, as stated in their anatomical description, do not breathe by the moutli, but by small apertures, which are placed near their legs, and called stigmata, or spiracles. These breathing holes are al- most all stopped when the worms are heaped together; hence their breathing becomes difficult, their transpiration ceases, and sickness takes place. ^' V. Diseases from the qualily or quantity of food. Remarks and cautions on tliis head, will be found in the course of instructions for rearing the silkworm; but it is proper to notice the mode in which the food affects them. * Several thousand worrtis were killed m. one case last summer, from the above cause, near Philadelphia. See the account of the disease called tripes. 131 [ 175 ] i. The preservation of the health of silkworms, depends essentially on the leaves being perfectly dry when given to them. AVet leaves in- variably produce a diarrhoea. In the four first ages, the leaves may be easily kept two or three days; but on the days when the silkworms are voraciousj a number of persons must be continually at work to provide for their daily con- sumption, and dry the leaves a day or two before they are wanted. - To dry in a day several hundred pounds v/eight of mulberry leaves, proceed in the following manner: When the wet leaves are brought in, have them spread on brick floors, or on earthen floors, which should be as clean as possible. Then, according to the quantity, one or two persons must spread them witli wooden forks, turn them, throw them about, and move them much. This, often repeated, very soon shakes off" the w^et. If the floor is not of bricks, and the ground becomes wet, the leaves should be raked ofl* to another and drier part of the floor. Although the leaf appears quite dry after this operation, it still con tains a great deal of water in its folds, and even on its surface. Then twenty or thirty pounds of leaves should be spread upon a large coarse sheet, and doubling it into the shape of a large sack, two persons should hold the four corners, and shake the leaves well about from one end of the sheet to the other, until they appear to be quite dry, which will be the case in a few minutes. Should it be required further to dry the leaves, by burning a large heap of shavings, and some faggot sticks, and placing the leaves nearly all round the fire, taking care to turn them well with clean pitch-forks, they will become, by these means, as dry as if they were gathered at noon on a fine day; it may be efiected, as is required, in either way. Should the leaves be only wet with dew, drying them with the sheet will be sufficient. 2. The experienced Pullein says, that the leaves of mulberry trees which grow in moist grounds, or in places shaded from the sun, and those from suckers produced from the trunk, roots, or principal arms, being full of sap and moisture, crude and immature, will produce fatal distempers in silkworms: even by giving them only one feeding, they are surfeited, and throw out of their mouths a greenish liquor, and a clear humor out of the pores of their skins, and out of the little point growing near the tail. This clammy moisture, by rubbing against one another, closes up the spiracles, or breathing holes. 3. Young worms should invariably be fed upon young and tender leaves. The strong nourishment derived from full grown leaves, as has been already mentioned, produces disease in them. Old leaves must be reserved for worms in their advanced ages. 4. Over feeding and scantiness of food, are the remote causes of dis- ease. Unceasing attention should therefore be paid, to have the worms regularly supplied with food, and in proportion to their appetites. VI. Diseases from change of food. When silkworms have been fed upon the leaves of the native red mulberry tree, they sometimes become diseased, when these leaves [ 175 ] 132 are changed for those of the white species: and the same effect takea place when the order is reversed. In the first case, if permitted, they will eat so ravenously, as to be deprived of the ability to digest their food, and will burst; in the latter, a derangement of their functions, and general debility takes place. From the facts detailed in page 44, of the leaves of both species of the mulberry being indiscriminately eaten, when mixed, and given to the worms, it might be supposed that no injury would arise from a change of the leaves of the white to those of the red species, but the following case, among others which could be cited, shows that the experiment is not safe, ^' On one oc- casion, a neighbor being deficient in white mulberry leaves, about the time the wor ns were preparing to spin, gave them a quantity of the black [red] mulberry leaves. The worms fed readily upon them, but immediately sickened, and performed their task of winding very im- rjeriectly.'^* It is possible, that, in this case, a partial cause of the effect produced, may have been the quantity of the food given to the wQi ms. The change of nourishment, when rendered necessary, should be gradual. The danger arises, as in the preceding case, from a sub- stitUtioQ of one leaf for another, in the late stage of their existence: for ii has been already observed, that, before this time, silkworms can be supported upon lettuce and other leaves, and that afterwards resort can be had safely and beneficially to those of the mulberry. A recent experiment shows that, until this critical epoch no injury will attend a change of the foreign for the native leaf. Mr. Prince, of Flushing, Lon"- Island, ^' fed some silkworms until they were half-grown, upon the white mulberry, and then finished them upon the native species; they grew so rapidly, that they commenced spinning in twenty-one days, and produced excellent silk." VII. Diseases from peculiar constitutioji of the air. The injurious influence of certain states of the air upon the produc- tion of fruits, has long been observed by farmers and horticuituristSy particularlv in respect to grapes: and the same influence is often ex- perienced by the cultivators of silkworms. Dandolo has noticed the extremely unfavorable state of the atmosphere in Italy in the year IS 14. These pecaliar states of the atmosphere in certain localities, not beino- referrible to its sensible qualities, renders it impossible to guard against the injurious effects produced by them on silkworms.! When such a state of the atmosphere takes place, we must be the more particular and attentive in guarding against the usual and known causes of disease. * Georrs-e A. Tuffts, Esq. of Worcester county, MassacIiusettG: answer to the silk- circular. + it is mucl) to be regretted that science has not yet enabled \\^ to ascertain the pre- cise causes to wiiich the bad air, in paiticular places, is to be ascribed. The Eudio- meter will g'ive the constituent proportions of the air of a place? but repeated experi- ments with it, on lar.d and sea, in balloons, and steeples highly elevated, and in deep caves, in an orchard in bloom, and in tlie cliamber where a malignant fever prevails, give results so very nearly similar, that it is impossible to ascribe the health of one place, or the prevalence of an epidemic in another, to the greater or less abundance CI ;tny porijou of the airs v/fiich enter into the cpmpositicn of the atmospherCb 133 [ 175 1 VIII. Diseases from sudden changes of temperature. The great importance of preserving silkworms uniformly in that particular degree of heat which ample experience has proved to be most proper for each particular stage of their short existence, has been fully pointed out in the course of the instructions for rearing them; and as no cause will more certainly produce disease, than inattention to this point, it is proper to notice it in this place. To ensure regular growth to the worms, and the gradual evolution of their fine organs, it is essential to protect them against sudden changes of temperature, which often amount to 40°, in the United States, in the course of twen- ty-four hours. Hence it is absolutely necessary to regulate the heat ©f the apartment by a thermometer, and to warm it by means of a stove of brick, tile, or porcelain, in preference to one of iron; be- cause the heat communicated by any of the three first, will be much longer uniform, than when one of the last is used. The tender na- ture of the insect causes it to be extremely sensible to a diminution of temperature, and when this takes place, to the extent of several de- grees, they become chilled and torpid, they cease to eat, the digestion of their food is interrupted, their growth is checked, and the founda- tion of disease is laid. Again, danger to their health will arise from an incautious increase of heat, after being thus chilled; and exposure to sudden and great heat, w^hen near the time of spinning, will cause silkworms to cease eating, to become enfeebled and relaxed, and sometimes to die. The Abbe Sauvage* particularly notices the danger to their health from this cause. In the summer of 1825, vast numbers were killed froni it, in Mansfield, Connecticut.! PARTICULAR DISEASES OP SILKWORMS. The Passis. — This disease appears after the first moulting, wherc- the v/orms advance unequally in growth; they are observed to be short, thin, and without vigor or appetite: it is ascribed to their being too much heated in their early state. The remedies consist in separ rating them from the healthy worms, putting them in another apart- ment which is well ventilated, giving them tender leaves, and in pre- serving them in a uniform temperature, which ought to be a little higher than that in which the healthy ones are kept; for although heat^, unduly applied, was one cause of their disease, yet, when feeble, they require more warmth than healthy worms to restore their vigor. The Grasserie. — This appears towards the second moulting, and in the third or fourth ages. It is ascribed to the food being too substan- tial or nourishing for the young worms. They eat, but they do not digest their food: hence they swell, their bodies become opaque and of a green color, and their skins tear from the least touch, and some- * 3d Memoir, p. 70. T John Fitcbj Esq. [ 1^5 3 134 times spontaneously from over distension. Their bodies are also covered with a viscous oily humor, which transudes the skin. Mr. Nystcn says, that it is owing to the too gkitinous nature of the food given to the worm in the second and third ages; because he has seen the disease attack worms when thus fed, which those that had eaten tender leaves escaped; and from the prevalence of the disease in Pied- mont, and in the Department of the Mouths of the Rhone, where the Spanish mulberry, which has hard and large leaves, is cultivated, whilst it is seldom seen in the Department of the Drome and Isere, where that variety of the mulberr}?^ is rare. If this theory be correct, -(and it certainly is very rational,) the remedy is obvious: to feed the worms in their three first ages with tender leaves, and to avoid the variety of mulberry mentioned: this, by the way, it is thought, has not been introduced into the United States. The Lusette. — About the. fifth age, silkworms are sometimes attack- ed with a disease called lusette,OY clairette, from the shining appear- ance of their bodies. Their heads also increase in size; they cease growing, and die without forming cocoons. On opening them, their stomachs are found full of a glairy transparent fluid, without any re- mains of food; and hence it has been justly ascribed to a neglect of the sunply of mulberry leaves. This tlieory was proved by Mr. Nvsten, who produced the disease by starving some worms for twenty- four hours. The means of prevention and of cure are therefore ob- vious. Care should, however, be taken to separate the affected worms from the healthy ones, and to supply them with food in a gradual man- ner, to prevent an opposite disease arising from too sudden repletion. * The Yellows. — This disease appears toward the end of the fifth age, when the worms are filled with the silky fluid, and are about to spin. The Abbe Sauvage ascribes it to exposure of the worms to sudden and oreat heat. It consists in a yellowness and sw^elling of the body, an enlargement of the rings, an appearance of the feet being drawn up from "the puffiness of the surrounding parts. The worms also cease to eat, and run about, leaving stains of a yellow fluid, which exudes from their bodies. The yellowness first appears round the spiracles, or breathing holes, and gradually diffuses. It is a kind of anasarca or dropsy of the skin, arising from the infiltration of the nutritive fluid throuvhich sometimes petrifies it, and, at other times, reduces it to a fine white powder, without in the least damaging the silk. On the contrary, these co- coons produce more silk tlian the others, because the worm is lighter. They are to be distinguished by the noise the petrified w*orm makes when the cocoon is shaken. In Piedmont, they sell for as much more as the others. It is very rare to see a parcel of 25 lb. of them at a time: 6 lb. 3 oz. of these cocoons have produced 1 lb. fine silk, of five and six cocoons. 8. The good choquette, consists of those cocoons in which the worm dies before it is brought to perfection: they are to be known by the worms sticking to one side of the cocoon, which is easily to be per- ceived, when, on shaking it, the chrysalis is not heard to rattle. These cocoons are of as fine silk as the others, but they are to be wound se- parately, because they are subject to furze out, and the silk has not so bright a color, nor is it strong and nervous. 9. The bad choquette is composed of defective cocoons, spotted cr rotten; many of these cocoons may be wound together; they make very foul, bad silk, of a blackish color. To jud^e whether a cocoon be good, observe if it be firm and sound; if It has a fine grain, and the two ends round and strong, and capable o£ resisting pressure between the thumb and finger. The cocoons of a bright yellow yield more silk than the others, because they have iTiOre gum; but this accounts to the winder only, because all the gum is lost in dying. Pale cocoons have less gum, lose less in winding, and take a better white or pale blue.* To the foregoing kinds of cocoons, another is mentioned in recent French works, and called sattiny. Its tissue is coarse and like flannel^ 4nd the surface shines. The silk of this cocoon is bad. As it will be useful to know the precise dimensions of a stove and basin used for heating water for cocoons, the following details are given by "Mr. Stephenson, of an establishment at Montauban, in France: Height of the stove from the ground, twenty-two inches; length of the stove, twenty-nine inches and a half; breadth, twenty- fpur inches; height of the iron bars for supporting the charcoal from the ground, for holding the fire, twelve inches; width of the door, or cnening at the bottom of the stove for taking out the ashes, and fc: • Trans Amf^r- V\v\o°. 9or. vol. ^. 4a . ^ , £ 175 3 138 giving air to the fire, nine inches; width of the door to put in the chai^ eoal, seven inches and a half; length of the oval copper basin built on the top of the stove to hold hot water, twenty inches and three quar- ters; width of the basin, sixteen and a half inches; depth of basin, three inches and three quarters; breadth of the rim of the basin, one inch and a quarter. Instead of using a common stove or furnace to heat water for the cocoons, steam has been proposed and used by Messrs. Gensoul and Aldini. Upon the plan of the first, the steam is admitted directly into the water containing cocoons intended to be reeled; but the last adopts another mode, which, upon a large scale, is certainly to be pre* ferred. A copper boiler covered, and w^ith a hollow bottom, has a vertical tube adapted to the centre of the cover, w^ith a cock, by means of which, the water intended to furnish steam is admitted. This boiler will hold four pints,* (French) and at the beginning of the process, it is to be filled to nearly two-thirds. The vertical cylinder has a tube with a cock, through which the steam is introduced into a wooden tube, placed on its vside, to the external surface of a vase above it, and gives out steam at its extremity through a series of small boles turned towards the bottom of the vase; the holes are to avoid the inconve- nience arising from the too rapid escape of the steam. This vase is of copper, and contains six pints of water. The steam-box is tinned on the bottom inside, and a little inclined to the side of the boiler, with which it communicates by a tube, with a cock, conveying back the condensed steam to the bottom of the boiler. Thus the water in which the cocoons are put, is regularly and permanently heated, without any loss of water, supplying the steam, and without the injurious ebulli- tion of the water which takes place when steam is introduced directly into it, and which causes the rapid and irregular motion of the cocoons in the basin, t The annexed cut will give an accurate idea of the construction of thf. apparatus of Aldini: ''^ri:'a ^r'giro-jL^:.riii!;'ij ' ^-.i:, the more readily to admit the steam. To this grate and cauldron, ac- cess is had by a door opening above the entrance of the fire. The fur«» nace is arched with bricks, that, when the door is shut^ the steam may be retained within; which, in the space of eight minutes, is found efiec- tually to kill the insects in the cocoons. The basket is then taken out and put aside, to let the cocoons dry; another basket is then placed in the furnace with more cocoons, taking care to keep up the fire so as to have the v>'ater in the cauldron always boiling.'' If the furnace be arched, a safety valve should be fixed on the top; a wooden cover would be safer, over which a vvoollen rug may be thrown. The foundation ought to extend beyond the body of the brick work, and an opening in it left to admit air to the fuel, and to take out the ashes. It should be provided with a sheet iron door with hinges,havinga smaller door in it, after the manner of the door of a close stove; over this opening a fire stone, or cast iron plate, must be placed, to support the brick work above, and to prevent it from being injured when tlie wood is put in. A vacancy of two inches must be left be- tween the boiler and the surrounding brick work, to cause the flame to pass round it, before the smoke is permitted to escape. Fuel will thus be saved, and the regularity of the heat be more certainly kept up, v/hich is an essential point to ensure the death of all the chrysalides. That no doubt may remain on this head, the cocoons should be cover- ed instantly, after being taken out of the furnace, with a wOolIen cloth^ one or two hours to confine the heat. They must then be dried with=> out delay, or the silk will be injured. Exposure to the air in dry weather vvill effect this; in damp weather, they may be put in an oven^ <»-cntly hcatedj on clean cloths of linen or muslin, or in baskets. • The 'rrenzh writer from whom tliis accouiil is taken, does not luentloh the tiier- mometer used on tlijs occasion. It was eitlier that of Celsius, called the Centigrade, or of Reaumur, both of which are used in France. The scale of Celsius, between the freezing and boiling points, is divided into 100°. The freezing- point is marked 0, the Boilinf^ point 100° 75° of this, then, would be equal to CQ° of Reaumur, or 167° of Fah= renheit. In Reaumur's scale, the space between the boiling- and freezing' points iat divided into 80°. The freezing- point is marked 0, the boiUng point 80°; on this iScale 75'^ is equal to 202° of Fahrenheit, or 94° of Celsius. It is probable tlie writer rtiers to Reaumur's scale. t This leng-th of time is quilfc unnecessar}'. and even injurious to the cocoons. 4 TraUc •^omnlctdeniccbanique, parBorgni". tom- 7, p, 15. I^aris.. J^'^ , « •^i'- I4i [ 175 ] To hake Cocoons, in five or six days after the cocoons have been detached from the branches or frames, carefully pick out all the spotted cocoons, and put the rest in long flat baskets, filling them within an inch of the top; cover them v^^ith paper, and a wrapper over it; put these baskets in an oven, the heat of which must be as near as possible to that of one from which the bread is just drawn, after being baked, * After the cocoons have remained an hour therein, draw them out, and to ascer* tain if the worms be dead, take out from the middle of the baskets a dupion, and open it; if the worm be dead, it may be concluded all the rest are so, because the contexture of the dupion being stronger than that of the other cocoons, it is consequently less easily penetrated by the heat; it ought to be taken from the middle of the basket, because, in that part the heat is the least perceptible. After the baskets have been drawn out of the oven, cover them with a thick woollen rug, leaving the wrapper as it was; and pile the baskets on one another. If the baking has succeeded, the woollen cloth will be covered with large drops of water, the thickness of the little finger. The baskets may stand covered thus for five or six hours, in order to keep in thfi heat, which stifles those worms which have resisted the heat of the oven. It is a favorable sign when some of the butterflies appear alive among the baked cocoons, because it is certain the others are not burnt; and in the attempt to kill the last worm, many cocoons might be burnt, as they woiild be exposed to more heat than that particular worm. If there be some strong and some weak cocoons, and there has not been time to wind them while they are fresh, (that is, without baking,) give the preference to the weak cocoons for winding, and bake the strong ones; because the latter, containing more gum, sup- port the baking better, and suffer less than the weak ones. If the cocoons are bought, put them into baskets, and set them in the sun- shine, (if any,) in case the oven be full, in order to stun the worms, and prevent them from injuring the cocoon during that time; place them also for an hour or two, in the open air, before they are put into the oven; because, when they are brought in and heaped on each other, they become heated and soft, and the exposure to the air restores their firmness. When the cocoons are thoroughly baked, spread them in thin laj^ers on shelves, distributed into as many f^torics as the cham- ber will admit, two or three feet apart, above one another, and turn them every day; for, if this be neglected, they would become mouldy, and moths would destroy them. It is necessary to pick out the spot- ted cocoons and the bad choquettes, which would communicate their infection to all the rest that may be near them; these should be wound as soon as possible, to prevent them growing worse. • The heat should be a few degrees under Uvst of boiling" vi-atcr, or 212*' of Tah- renheiti 80° of Rea'JLmur- The oven should not be hot enoug-h to scorch n sheet cf r 17a J 14 Of royal, perforated Cocoons and Soujfflotis. Tiie royal cocoons are those kept for eggs. The worm having made a hole for his passage, the silk is cut, the continuity of the fibre interrupted, and cannot be wound, and is in the class of the perforated cocoons. Neither can the soufllons be wound, because their silk, being the produce of a weak, sick wornn, has not the necessary gum; besides, it cannot be wound, because the fibres are interlaid and entangled. These cocoons may, however, be profitably employed for carding and spinning, when subjected to particular treatment, which shall be here- after described. To calculate the value of these sorts of cocoons, the following calculations may be observed, viz: If the good cocoons are worth = - - lOO The perforated are worth - . - 33^ The soufflons do. - ., „ 25 The royal cocoons do. ^ , „ 250 But if the royal cocoons are not picked out of the best for eggs^ tbey are worth only 200. The best fleurett is made of royal cocoons^ next in value is that of perforated; and the worst, of soufflons.*' Mode of reeling silk from the best Cocoons. Preliminary Remarks. — The reeling must be performed in dry weather, and when the air is perfectly calm. If done in a building or ghed, it should be open on one side, to enjoy sun and air, and willed on the other, to screen ofi' the wind, which would blow about the fibres and thread So The softest water must be chosen for soaking the cocoons. The proper temperature for it cannot be ascertained until the reeling is eommcncecl, owing to the difierent composition of the silk. Some co- coons will require water heated from 168° to 190°; others from 190° to 202°. Some point between these extremes may be chosen to which the water should be heated in a first experiment. One thing is certain, that, in the United States, it must never reach the boiling point, or 212° The good cocoons, the white and yellow, are the easiest to wind. The sattiny and the cocalons require water less heated than the others, Ifhot water be used for the last, they furze out in winding. The dupions, the choquettes, the steamed cocoons, and those which have been kept a long time after being baked, require the hottest water. The dupions require to be soaked five or six minutes before they can be reeled. The cocoons in which the chrysalides have not been killed^ by either steaming or baking, give out their silk very easily, and in v/ater less heated than the last mentioned sorts. The temperature of Hie water most proper for each particular species of cocoon being as- '•sjrtairr.-d by the thermometer, it must be kept to that degree by dir»- ■* Tran". Air.er, Vlnl Poc, vc! V 14d [_ 175 2 pmg the instrument in it frequently; and the lire under the basin must DC lessened or increased as occasion may require. A little attention will soon enable the person who has the management of the basin, to preserve the water at the proper degree of heat The reeling is effected by the use of the apparatus represented in plate 1, fig. 1.* The person ch?crged with the management of the cocoons in the basin, must be provided with a small whisk of broom-corn, or of birch twigs cut sharp at the points, and, being seated behind the ba- sin previously filled with soft hot water, and the basin placed upon a furnace containing burning charcoal, she must throw into the water a handful or two of cocoons of one sort and degree of firmness, and press them gently under the water for two or three minutes, in order to soften the gum of the silk, and thereby to loosen the ends of the fila- ments. She is then to stir the cocoons with the end of the whisk, as lightly as possible,t until one of the fibres, or filaments, adheres to it^ when, disengaging it, and laying aside the whisk, she is to draw the filament towards her, until it comes ofl' quite clean from flos, or coarse s'lihj which always surrounds the cocoon, and the fine silk begins to appear: then, breaking ofi^ the thread, and collecting the fios first taken off, she must put it aside. The whisk is then to be applied again* to get hold of the fine fibres, all of which must be set apart, each fibrn hy itself, by fixing it to a piece of wood kept near to the furnace for that purpose, or to a frame of wood placed all around, and on the edgB of the copper, till the whole, or the greatest part, are arranged in this manner, which are thus in readiness to be thrown in, to form the thread of silk to be wound off. This done, she is to unite a number of tho fibres, according to the fineness of the intended.t thread, and delivers the compound thread to the reeler, who puts it through one of thc^ holes in the iron plate, placed horizontally above the basin containing the cocoons and water. Another thread is, in like manner, to be pre- pared; and passed through the adjoining hole. This process is repeat- ed with the two other holes at the other end of the plate; the two threads are then crossed twenty or twenty-five times, and the ends of each thread passed through the guide-hooks, (rampins,§) MM, of the traversing bar I, and on the contrary side to the hole in Uie iron plate through which it had previously been passed. They are then to be * There are several kinds or patterns of reels. The one here referred to, was \m^ ported by the wrter from Genoa into Philadelphia, m the year 1826, and answers perfectly. Mr. D. Tees, No. 150, North Front street, and B. F. Pomeroy, corner of Walnut and Dock streets, Philadelphia, are recommended to those who wiali to have silk reels made. f 'l"he cocoons should be juist touched. If they be struck roug-hJy, the fibres of the silk, in place of coming off singly, cling together in lunipK, ;,hich preventa it from winding off. t For fine silk, four fibres, from four cocoons, are to be passed through each of two holes in the iron plate, most distant from each other. The rule for inferior cocoons will be hereafter mentioned. Two skeins of silk, from good cocoons, arc always reeled at the same time, whether the silk be fine or coarse. Sec plate !, fig. 1. § If these were made of brass wire, the threads would more readily p.Tw throngl^ .>'^!TP, and not be ?o liable tornst. ss when iron v.iv^ is W'"], i: 175 j 144 carried forward, and made fast to one of the arms of the reel N. Tiie points of attachment of the two threads will be regulated by the dis- tance betvveen tlie rampins.* Both threads being fastened to the reel, it is to be turned with a regular, even motion, at first slowly, until the threads are found to run freely and easily: for it will happen that some of the ends, which w^cre taken to compose the thread, were false, be- cause, in taking oiT the flos, there may be two or three breaches made in the beginning of the fibres, which, in winding, will soon end, and must be added anew to make up the number designed for the thread. It might, therefore, be proper, in the beginning of the thread, to put a few more cocoons than it is intended to continue, which will soon be reduced to the proper number. The crossing qf the threads is so essential to their perfection, that it must not, on any account, be omitted. It is necessary to promote thq dissipation of the moisture imbibed by the fibres, and thus prevents the injurious glueing of the threads upon the reel. The friction of the threads also removes the knots, inequalities, and roughness 6n them, and causes a perfect adhesion of their fibres, and hence ensures their strength, their uniform thickness, and cylindrical form, which other- wise would be fiat.t Figure 1, in plate 1, will give a perfect idea of this first step in the preparation of silk. It represents two threads formed from 16 cocoons. As soon as the pods begin to give the thread freely, the reel is turn- ed with a quicker motion. If the pods leap up often, and beat against the iron plate P, the motion of the reel must be slackened; and if the threads come ofi* in burrs, it must be turned quicker. Of this the spinner, who has her e^^e upon the bails and thread, must, as she sees occasion, apprize the reeler, and, at the same time, the fire must be increased or diminished, that the reel may be allowed a proper mo- tion, which ought to be as quick as possible, without endangering the breaking of the thread, or hurrying the spinner, so that she cannot add fresh cocoons as fast as the old ones are ended. The quicker the motion of the wheel is, the better the silk winds ofi', and the better the end joins to the thread. One might imagine that the rapidity of the motion would overstrain and break the thread; but, from constant experience, it has been found that the thread never once breaks from the rapidity of the motion, but, on the contrary, that the quicker the motion is, the more advantageous it is for winding the silk. * The person having the manag-cmcnt of the cocoons in the basin, should have v2ry smootl^ finders, as the most trifling- rou,^hness of the skin will cause great em* bairassment. If the skin of the finf^-ers, thereforej of the person mentioned, be- rough, it must be rendered smooth, by being rubbed with sand-paper, or dog-fish skin. •(■ Nouvelle EncyclopKdie Metliodique, iU't. Soicrie, p. 21. From this work it ap- pears tliat the number of these crossings is prescribed by the 4th section of the law in Piedmont, of long standing, for the regulation of the reeling of silk, to be 18 or 20 times at least. For coarser silk, tlie number of crossings is to be increased. The various processes of the manufacture of silk in Piedmont, are regvdated by law, (the result of long experience as to the best mode of procedui'e,) and are enforced by a strict inspection of public officers, in order to pteserv? the charact'iT ^vhirh the r\\\' nlkand '^.■•■n'n''s of thnt rni)?i''fv hR<»ion£r^nioved. 145 [ 175 ] While the reel is turning, the spinner must continually add fresh ribres to each thread as fast as she can find the ends, not waiting till some of the number she began with are ended, because the internal fibres are much thinner than those constituting the external layers; but must constantly prepare fresh ends, by dipping the whisk among fresh cocoons, of which such a quantity must be occasionally thrown into the basin, as will suffice to supply the two threads which are reeling, but not more; because, by being too long soaked in the hot water, they would wind off in burrs. The cocoons thrown in, must be often forced under the water, that they may be equally soaked: for, as they swim w4th their greater part above water, that part would remain hard and stubborn, while the part which is under water would be too much soaked; or some hot water may be thrown upon them frequently with a brush, and also on the cocoons which are reeling, v%^hen they grow dry at top, and yield the fibres with difficulty. The supplying fresh ends, when the cocoons are exhausted, or diminish, or the fibres break, is performed by taking one end of a fibre, and throwing it lightly on the one that is winding, and rolling them between the thumb and the finger, or gently pressing them. As often, therefore, as the cocoons are partially wound, are exhaust- ed, or the fibre breaks, fresh ones must be joined, to keep up the num- ber requisite, or the proportion: thus three new ones may be wound, and two half wound, or four new ones, and the silk will then be from four to five cocoons. The adroitness in adding fresh threads can only be acquired by practice. The difficulty of keeping the thread even is so great, owing to the increased fineness of the fibre inside, that, (ex- cepting a thread of two cocoons,) we do not say a silk of three, of four, or of six cocoons, but a silk of three and four, of four and five, and of six to seven. In coarser silk, we do not calculate so nicely, as one cocoon more or less: we say, for example, from twelve to fifteen, from fifteen to twenty cocoons. In beginning a thread of ten cocoons, from sixteen to twenty will sometimes be required to preserve a uni- form thread, after a portion of the first layer has been wound off. The quantity of silk which can be reeled in any given time, is in pro- portion to the quickness with which the spinner can add fresh cocoons. Thus, if we suppose that every cocoon, at a medium, will either break or be wound off at the end of five hundred feet, then, if five such pods are reeled together, a fresh end will be wanted at every hundred feet that are reeled; if ten are reeled together, one will be wanted at every fifty feet; if sixteen together, then at thirty-one feet, and so on. The seldomer that cocoons end or break, the greater number of them can one spinner attend, which shows the advantage of sound cocoons, of an expert manager, and of every artifice, which can hinder cither the breaking of the single fibres, or of the whole thread. When, in the progress of reeling off a set of cocoons, the fibre is ob- served to diminish in size, in place of supplying additional fibres from more numerous cocoons than were at first in play, in order to keep up 19 [ 175 ] 146 the uniformity in the size of the thread, the following practice is adopted in the Cevennes, a famous silk district of France.* '' In preparing fine silk, the cocoons are not wound ofl entirely, so as to leave the pellicle of the chrysalis bare, for two reasons: first, be- cause the additional fibres required to be added, when the first and strong part of the fibre is observed to be spent, might make the com- pound thread too stout, and would thus cause a waste of silk; secondly, because the fibre of a cocoon, which has been entirely wound off', be- sides being weak, also abounds in knots, which would cause it to break in winding, and injure its uniformity, in which the goodness of the thread mainly consists. Therefore, in winding fine silk, when the co- coon has given off' three-fourths and a half of silk,t it must be replaced by another cocoon ; the remainder of the first cocoons are to be set aside, and their silk added to that of an inferior quality. When the first parcel of cocoons is nearly finished, take out, with a ladle, all those on which some silk has been left; let them be opened, the chrys- alides taken out, and the shells put in a basket, with the coarse fibres first pulled off" with the hands from the cocoons, which were ordered to be laid aside. These cocoons, which are partly wound off', must on no account be permitted to remain in the basin: for they will obscure and thicken the water, and injure the color and lustre of the silk, which can then be used only for dark colors: besides this, the consist- ence of the silk is injured, and waste ensues in the winding." J The shells are to be buried, to prevent them from becoming offensive ; or they may be added to the manure heap. As a general rule, the water must be changed when it is discolored. When the spent cocoons leap up, and adhere to the iron plate, they must be immediately taken away, else, by choking the passage, they will endanger the breaking of the thread. When the reel has remained any time idle, the thread between the basin and the wires or rampins, must be wet, to cause the thread to run easily. Keep also the teeth of the wheels, and the mortises, in which the traversing bar plays, wet, to ensure regularity and ease in their movements. In winding the good cocoons, some defective ones will be found among them, which will not wind off", or are full of knobs; these must be taken out of the copper, and kept by themselves; they are called bassinats, and are to be wound apart as coarse as possible; they make a foul silk. The breaking of the fibres is principally owing either to bad cocoons, viz: being ill formed, (as they will be when the worms were disturbed and interrupted during their spinning,) or the fibres may break by an *This appears to be a preferable mode, as reg-ards ease of performance, and the preservation of a uniformity in the thread, to the old plan of increasin.^r the number of fibres from fresh cocoons, to add to others which may be nearly spent. ■j" lieynaud says, p. 237, that a cocoon will preserve a uniform fibre for 300 feet. A Frencli foot is equal to 13 American inches. T De Vers a Soie etde leur Education, selon la pratique des Ccvcnncs: par M. Rey- naud, p. 234, Paris, 1824, In Italy, the pellicle or shell is used to make artificial flowers, which are said to surpass those from any other material. Essui surllistoire, &c. par Dclongchamps, p. r3. 147 [ 175 ] improper regulation of the heat in the water: first, when it is not suffi- cient to make them wind off easy; or, second, when it is too great, and occasions burrs, which may stop at some of the holes throuo-h which the thread runs. Cocoons, also, which have two worms enclosed, will perpetually break. The whole thread may also break, by burrs stop- ping at the holes in the plate, or by the reel's being turned by jerks. It may be fastened, like the fibres, by layir^g the parts on one another, and giving them a little twist. To avoid the breaking, occasioned by burrs, the rampins should be just so wide as to let them easily pass. It would be convenient for the spinner to have a little stick erect- ed close to the side of the basin, to hang her whisk on, and also a sharp fork, with which she may draw away the spent cocoons; or such, as being near spent, stick at the holes in the plate: and as the whisk will frequently take up more ends than are immediately to be added, and as the spinner will sometimes have occasion to employ both her hands, the brush will, at that time, conveniently hang by the ba- sin, while the cocoons, which are attached to it, remain in the water, and the ends will be in readiness as they are wanted. When cocoons rise to the iron plate, they are to be drawn down between the fingers of the spread hand. If the spinner be under the necessity of leaving off work for any length of time, the cocoons should all be raised with a skimming dish out of the water, till her return; otherwise, by oversoaking, they would wind off in burrs; but it is best to continue the reeling without interruption, and to let fresh^ but equally experienced persons succeed those who are tired. The person who turns the reel, should have an eye to the threads^ and to the guide-wires (rampins) through which they pass, that he may apprize the spinner when any thing is wrong: for her eyes will be sufficiently employed about the cocoons. The reeler might also Rectify any thing discovered to be amiss in those parts of the thread which are near the reel: for one hand will always be unemployed, and a stop must occasionally take place. Though the reeler can change hands, as they tire, by turning, yet, for ease, he might have a support for his arm opposite to the axle of the reel, and so turn the handle only by that motion which can be given to it by the arm moving upon the elbow as a centre. As the heat of the water in the basin will require to be varied, ac- cording to the ease or difficulty with which the different sorts of co- coons give off their silk, the spinner should always have some cold water within reach, in order to cool that in the basin quickly, whofi the silk comes off too easily, and in burrs. The water is also neces- sary for the woman managing the cocoons, to cool her fingers, and to sprinkle the iron bar when it becomes heated. Some chips or shavings should also be at hand, to increase the heat quickly, when the cocoons do not yield their vsilk readily. If there should happen to be any sand in the water, the heat causes it to rise to the surface and fix on the cocoons — the thread of which will break as i^ cut; for this reason, the utmost care must be taken to [ 175 ] 148 guard against it, and to remove it. Previously to being boiled, the water should be j3ermitted to .settle, and the pan must be carefully wiped; if necessary, the basin should be covered while the water is heating. If sand be perceived in the water, it must be poured off, and the sand wasHed out, for a single grain may cause the fibre to break. When the cocoons are first put in the water, if the silk rises thick upon the brush, or comes in lumps, it is a sign that the water is too hot; if the thread cannot be caught, the water is too cold. When the cocoons are in pla}^, if they rise often to the holes in the iron plate, the water is too hot; if the cocoons do not follow the threads, it is too cold. Keep an equal number of cocoons working at each end of the basin, in order to preserve the thread of silk of an equal size. When there are fewer on one side than the other, the silk becomes smaller at that side, and the thread will break. Therefore, throw in the cocoons one by one, and never more than two at a time. It will be seen, by observing the position of the thread upon the reel, that the different layers do not lie parallel to, nor upon, but cross one another. This is owing to the mechanism of the apparatus, and is particularly contrived to effect this object, which is essential to the perfection of the process, and one to which the acknowledged superi- ority of the Italian silk is to be ascribed. It is effected by the see-saw or horizontal motion of the traversing bar, and is produced by the different number of the teeth in the pinion of the axle, and in the wheels at the ends of the shaft E, and in the pinions on the top of the post K, which catch and work upon one another. Without this cross- ing, the threads, from their gummy nature, would inevitably adhere, and render the subsequent windings and twistings of the silk very- difficult; causing the threads frequently to break, and, when joined, to form knots, which, in weaving, cannot pass through the reeds, and hence injure the beauty of the stuffs. But the mechanism mentioned of the traversing bar, prevents the threads lying over each other upon the reel, until after it has made many revolutions. Borgnis* says, that a thread cannot be found to occupy the same place it had at the com- mencement of the reeling, until after eight hundred and seventy-five turns of the reel. During this time, the exposure of the threads to the air, causes the first layer to dry completely, and hence no adhesion be- tween them can take place. The double irregularity of movement which takes place between the traversing bar, and the axle which moves it, forms al^o an internal motion, the effect of which is to imi- tate, in the unravelling of the cocoon, the same method employed by the silk caterpillar in forming it: for it is a fact, as before said, that the silk fibres of the cocoon are spun on it in zig-zags, like those formed by the silk reel, and, consequently, the operation of the reel is an imitation of nature, of which the industry of the caterpillar, in- structed by her, is the prototype. With the view of increasing the facility of drying the threads, the law of Piedmont requires the distance between the posts or supports * Traite de Mechanique, applique aux ArtSj vol. 7. 14^ [ 175 ] of the axle and the traversing bar, to be <'two aliprand feet/' or three feet four inches and two-fifths, American measure.* Seven rotations of the reel, cause the traversing bar to move five- times from side to side. Dandolo says, it is a well known fact, that, of two reelers, each reeling 7^ pounds of cocoons of the same quality, one will obtain only six ounces and a half, or perhaps still less, while another will turn oil eight ounces Mr. Nouailie says, that ^*a woman at Novi, (Italy) experienced in the business, with the assistance of a girl to turn the reel and attend the fire under the caldron, can, with ease, reel ofi* one pound of silk, consisting of four or five cocoons, of the most perfect quality, in a day.t When a desired quantity of silk has been wound on the reel, pick off all the loose silk; then take a little handful of the coarse silk, and, after washing and squeezing it, dip it in cold water, and rub over the silk on the reel, stroking up also the silk with the palm of the hand: then turn the wheel with all possible velocity, with open windows, if the reeling has been done in a room, for about eight or ten minutes, to dry the silk effectually; which done, take off the reel, put it in a dry, airy place, but not in the sun. This is done to clean the silk and give it a gloss. X When one reel is taken off, another should be put on, that the work may not be delayed. Every winding apparatus must have two reels. In preparing the dupions for winding off, more are put into the basin at once than of the finest kind. They must be first well cleaned from the flos on their outsides. The water also must be boiling hot ; and, as the silk they yield is of a coarser quality than the other, and has a good deal of flos upon it, the person who turns the reel must take the opportunity, while the one who manages the basin is preparing the cocoons for winding, to clean and pick off the loose silk from that which is on the reel. The dupions intended for ordinary sewing silk, are to be wound from 15 to 20 cocoons. The rest may be wound as coarse as possible, that is, from 40 to 50 cocoons. These serve to cover and fill up coarse stuffs, and are likewise used for sewing silk. The good choquettes are to be w^ound according to the uses they are intended to be put to, but not finer than from seven to eight. The bad choquette maybe wound fronn 15 to 20. The sattiny cocoons, so called from their resemblance to satin, require water only moderately hot. The proper heat will be found by observing the manner in which the silk comes ofi" from the first of them which are put into the basin; and, as already said of cocoa ns generally, if it come ofi" thick, cold water must • This reg^ilation cons dtutes the 6th article of the Piedmont law of April 8, 1724, ©lithe silk manufacture. The distance between the axle of the reel and the travers- ing" bar, in the appai'atus imported into Philadelphia, in 1826, by the writer, is fom- feet eig-ht inches. -j- Trans. Soc. Arts, Lond. vol. 6, p. 177. i This is the practice in France, according- to Mr. Stevenson; but the'l 8th article of the law of Piedmont, for the reg'ulation of the silk filature, expressly forbids the. smoothing" to be done in iiny way except with t!\e dry hand. — Nouvelle Kncy. M^^- thodique, article Soie. [ 175 ] 150 Tbe added, until the proper temperature be attained. They must not be allowed to remain long in the water^ and there should be only a fe\V of these cocoons put in at a time. The water for the dupions and cho- quettes must be changed four times a day. 0/ disbanding the silk from the reel, and tying it in skeins: pre- paration of the silk for use. One cannot consider attentively the manner in which the silk is jceeled from the cocoons, without observing that the single fibres of which the thread is composed are liable to suffer very different de- grees of stretching as they are wound from the cocoons.- If the co- coons are not well sorted, this different degree of extension will be the greater; and, even when they are sorted, they must still be subject to the same, because some are a little longer in the water than others,. and therefore give their silk easier; and also the weak latter ends of some cocoons wind off with the strong first part of others. The fibres being thus stretched unequally, will occasion (when the skein is taken from the reel too suddenly) those fibres which are most stretched, to contract more than the others, by which their union will be in some measure destroyed, and the thread composed of them ren- dered less compact and firm, the fibres appearing in several places dis- joined from one another. To remedy this, the skein should remain there six or eight hours, until the unequal extension which it suffered in winding, is, by the stretch which it undergoes on the reel, brought nearer to an equality; and, until the thread, by being well dried, has its fibres firmly united. When the skein is finished, there should be a mark tied to the end of the thread, otherwise it may be difficult to find it, if it mixes with the threads of the skein. When the skein is quite dry, proceed to disband it from the reel. First, squeeze it together all round, to loosen it upon the bars; then, with a thread made of the refuse silk, tie it on that place where it bore on the bars of the reel; then slide it off the reel, and make another tie on the part opposite to the one first made; after which, double it^ and tie it near each extremity, and then lay it by for use or sale, in a dry place. After the silk has been taken from the reel, it undergoes the follow- ing operations, to prepare it for putting in the loom: 1st. It is wound from the skein upon bobbins, in a winding machine, (plate 3, fig. 1.) 2d. It is twisted on a mill, in the single thread — the twist being in the direction of from right to left, and very light. 3d. Two or more threads, thus twisted, are doubled, or drawn together through the fingers of a woman, who, at the same time, clears them, by taking out the slubs which may have been left in the silk by the negligence of the reeler. 4th. It is then thrown^ or organzined; that is, two or more threads are twisted together, either slack or hard, as the intended manufacture may require; but the twist is in an opposite direction to the first twist, and it is wound at thQ same time in skeins 151 [ r75 ] ypon a reel. 5th. The skeins are sorted according to their qualities, and then dyed. Before the silk is wound upon the bobbins, it must be prepared by- breaking the gum at the four corners of the skein, which lay upon the reel when wound off from the cocoons: this is done by rubbing the silk in those places between the fingers, until the threads are entirely sepa- rated. It must then be opened and spread out upon the wheel, and all the straggling ends cut short, and the gouts cleared away. The twisting of the compound thread is intended to unite the consti- tuent fibres more firmly than they can be by the gum alone. This is effected by the tramming machine, and the thread is called tram. It is used for the filling of stuffs, and for other purposes, and is, more or less, twisted according to the objects for which it is intended. The whole process, as at present commonly performed, is described in the preamble to Mr. Shenton's account of his improved tramming machine, to be given hereafter. His own apparatus will probably take the place of those hitherto in use. The annexed cut gives a view of an apparatus* to double and twist silk thread, which will be found very useful for domestic work. The operation of it is apparent from its construction. In place of working it with the bobbins placed between the two upright posts, they may be fixed upon their basis, as seen at a h. In this case the threads are conducted over a glass rod, on the top of the frame c d, and, from that to the spool e, placed above the box before the wheel. The axis of the wheel is not parallel to that of the spool; hence, the band passing over the wheel makes an acute angle with the axis of the spool. This ar- rangement secures the point of the spindle in a hole which receives it. To organzine silk, the thread is first twisted from right to left, as al- ready said. The silk, in twisting, turns off on other bobbins, some- * From the Nauvelle Encyclopaedic Mcthodique, article Soierie. [ 175 ] . 15i what larger than the first. These bobbins are then to be exposed ta the steam of water, to which have been added two ounces of white, or still better, Castile soap two ounces, eighteen ounces of olive oil, and four or five pounds of wood ashes. The bobbins are to be put in a kettle, the bottom of which is pierced, and placed over the vessel of water, when it boils, with a cloth over it, and permitted to remain un- til the silk begins to swell and to detach from the bobbins. They are then to be taken away? and the second throw or twist given to the threads, from left to right. The combination of these two throws is called ihe. pearl, as the organzine looks like a string of small pearls or beads. It is easy to know if the second throw be perfect, by untwist- ing pa.rt of the organzine, and when it is open, on slackening the hand a little, each thread twists round itself in obedience to the first throw or twist. The water may be filled up as it wastes, but the ashes, soap, and oil, are to be renewed every day. The warping machine is described in Rees' Cyclopaedia, article Silk. The figure is in the 4th volume of plates of that work. The operation of organzining is described at large, in the explanation of the plate of the throwing machine. It is probable that Fanshaw's new invention, a sketch of which the writer has fortunately obtained from a very recent publication, will supersede much of the old complicated and expensive silk machinery.* F reparation of Vie waste silk. All the cocoons v^^bich have been pierced by the moths, those formed with holes at one or both ends, the light cocoons deemed improper for windhig, after the insects have been cut out, or threshed out, and the ])ellicles remaining after winding off the silk, are to be collected; and if it be wished to retain the yellow color, they are put in a copper kettle with water, and tramped with the feet, turning the cocoons, and adding 'a little fresh water from time to time, until it be found that the silk se- parates properly, upon tedding it out with the fingers. They are then tied up in a clean cloth, which is dipped in a clear stream, or water is poured on them, until it runs off without color, and spread out to ihy in the sun. Waste silk, intended to remain white, is to be treated in the following manner: Put the cocoons in a kettle of cold water, and let them lie twenty- four hours: then boil them in a copper kettle, adding a quarter of a pound of soapt for every pound of cocoons: when the soap is dissolved, tie up the cocoons in a clean cloth, put it in a kettle, and boil until the cocoons have become white. The water should entirely cover the cloth; then take out the cloth, and dip it in a clear stream, or pour water on it till it comes off' clear; then spread out tbe cocoons in the sun to dry. Mr. Stephenson, from whose paper these directions are taken, says the merchants prefer the silk cleaned by means of cold * Seethe explanation of the plates. . I The quality of the soap is of great consequence: brown soap must not be used. iS3 i; its 3 water, to that which is boiled; alleging that the tirst loses less of its na- tural gum, and takes all manner of dies better than that which has been boiled. Before being spun, it is beaten with a rod upon a table, ac> cording to Reynaud. A hatter's bow would probably open and sepa- rate the fibres more effectually. Would it not then easily form into rolls by being passed through a cotton carding machine? On spinning inferior qualities of silk. In every filature, one or more reels are devoted to the spinning with the carrelet,* the inferior qualities of silk which cannot be spun on the common reel. The frame of the carrelet is longer than the silk reel, and has commonly awheel with four arms; but awheel with eight will do equal service, if two of them are moveable. The most essential difference in the frames is that of the head pieces. To these are adapt- ed a board which carries two or four bobbins. If there are only two, they are placed longitudinally, one above the other. If two threads are to be wound at a time, two other bobbins are added, and placed between the other two, in the same position. After the cocoons have been thrashed, a number of the fibres are collected to form a thread, which is passed through one of the two eyes of the board of the bobbins, of the same form as that of the traversing bar of the silk reel; then it is wound round both bobbins at the same time: being first carried to the first and returning round the second, it passes between them, giv- ing a twist to the part of the fibre which was extended from one bobbin to the other. This is the only twisting which these threads receive. The spinner then takes the same end and passes it through the eye of the traversing bar, and, attaching it to the wheel, it is set in motion. If it be wished to wind two skeins at one time, a second thread is pre- pared, and attached to the second pair of cylinders or bobbins, whence it is passed through the second eye of the traversing bar, and then fix- ed to the wheel at a proper distance from the first end. The silk has little uniformity, is of an obscure hue, and causes much waste in wind- 7-ng. It is used for black stufifs of an inferior quality. Many manufacturers spin all their good silk, and that of an inferior quality, upon the carrelet, to make the thread called tram. This is slightly twisted, and is used for the filling of stufis, and for inferior silks for bonnets. One pound of cocoons is required to make one pound of this silk. This thread wastes in winding, but as it is slightly twisted, it parts with its gum more readily in boiling, -and takes a finer color than other threads. The dupions or double cocoonsj are also reeled ou the carrelet. They require to be immersed five or six minutes in hot water, to soften their firm texture. They are used to make sewing silk. * This apparatus is not mentioned in the French Encyclopxdia, nor in Borgni's re- cent work expressly devoted to the machines used in the arts. The most diligent in- quiry failed in obtaining- an account or draught of it. The notice given above of its use, is from the work before quoted by M. Reynaud. Any American would render a ser- ".'ceto hip country bv importing the carrelet *^0 i 175 ] 154 The coarse tibptis, whicli are first taken off from the cocoons, (as directed in the passage on reeling,) and laid aside, are called in France.? the fantasie. Two pounds of cocoons commonly yield about four ounces and a half of this material, and sells in France for about a dollar and a quarter for two pounds. It is first boiled to deprive it of gum, then carded and spun. The best of it is used for the filling, after be- ing slightly twisted, and the inferior quality for the chain of stuffs. In Connecticut the coarse threads of the cocoons are made into a ball, then reeled, boiled in soap and water, rinsed, dried, cut into one and a balf inch pieces, then carded on cotton cards, and spun like wool or cotton. The thread called in France filoselle, is made in part from pointed cocoons, formed by feeble worms, or in cold seasons; the ends are slightly covered with silk, and, not being entirely close, the water en- ters and precipitates them, to the bottom. More or less are met with in every parcel. They are first deprived of their gum, by being im- mersed in plain water, or in soap and water, when the filoselle is wish- ed to be white, as before directed. When dried, this filoselle is spun upon the distaff in France, and practice enables the women to form an even and fine thread. The filoselle thread, made from the tow of the seed cocoons, is es- teemed of the first quality, giving no waste. It is spun upon the dis- taff, in France, but may be spun on the wheel. It is prepared as above directed, and is used to make stockings. The bourre, or waste, is the produce of the remains of the various manipulations which silk under- goes when manufacturing, as reeling, doubling, aftd milling. It is carded and spun upon the distaff, and sometimes on a wheel. * In France, the perforated and inferior cocoons, and the waste, are all mixed, and prepared by an apparatus called a devil, to make sewing silk. No description or draught of this could be obtained. The best threads of cocoons are reserved for silk fabrics. In Connecticut, fami- ly sewing silk is made from the good cocoons, from which the moths have escaped. The shrivelled case of the pupa, and any eggs which may have been deposited in the cocoon, are first taken out; they are then boiled in soap and water, rinsed, gently squeezed, dried, and spun on a foot wheel. Knitting thread for stockings and mits, is also made from them. They make the best sewing silk, by doubling the thready reeled fram good cocoons, and twisting it on the common wool-wheel. The skein is first boiled in soap and water, and it lies in a dish contain- ing enough soapsuds to keep it moist, while the process of twisting is going on. The Dpllowing communication on this subject, was made by Daniel Bulkeley, Esq. of Hampton, Connecticut, at the request of the Secre- tary of the Treasury : " The raw silk is first spooled on bobbins, the number of which is in proportion to the size of the intended thread from the first spinning; and, to facilitate the operation, they are put into warm water. The • Beynaud, p. 251. 265. OD 'i 17o J silk is again spooled, taking two or three bobbins, according tothesize of the intended thread. After being spun, it is reeled into skeins, each of forty yards in length, or half a knot of the country reel, as required by a law of the State. About twenty-five of these skeins are put to- gether, like a skein of cotton or woollen yarn. They are then boiled, adding a small quantity of soft soap, or ley of wood ashes, to cleanse them from the gum. They are then ready for dying. <* Silk twist is spun in the same manner, except that it is always of three cords. The winding of twist is done on a machine imported from England. << We have a small establishment for spinning by water, with a ma- chine similar to a throstle frame of a cotton mill. The silk is first spool- ed by hand, on bobbins, which are placed on the top of the frame; the thread of raw silk passing from it under a wire, through a trough of water, then through rollers to the spindle. A single frame may con- tain from thirty to fifty spindles, and can be attended to by one per- son. The doubling and twisting may be done on the same frame, at the same time, by giving the bands to a part of the spindles a contrary di- rection. As many threads are put to a spindle as are required to make a thread of two or three cords. Silk spun in this way is far supe- rior to that done by hand. The machine will spin from two to three pounds in a day. A pound of silk, after being spun and cleansed, will weigh about ten ounces, and form one hundred and seventy skeins; the threads of sufficient size to sew woollens. If spun finer, it will make more. It increases little or nothing in weight when died. Silk is sold by the skein; one hundred of which will measure one-third more than half a pound of Italian or English silk of the same sized threads. One woman can make from twelve to fifteen pounds of raw silk, in a season of six weeks.'' EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate I — Figure 1. Silk Reel of Piedmont. — The frame is 6 feet 5 inches long, 4^ hf 3 inches thick. Distance of the upright posts A B, 4 feet 4i inches. C C. Length of the braces of the frame, 20 inches in the clear. D D. Legs of the frame, 2 feet 3^ inches long. E, shaft with a crown wheel at each end. The wheel F, 9 inches and -^^ in circum- ference, has 22 teeth. The wheel G, 10 inches and 2^^ in circum- ference, has 25 teeth. This shaft has an iron pin at each end, 1 inch long. The pin at the end G, plays in a hole in a shoulder near the top of the post 0, so as to enable the teeth of the wheel to catch and work in those of the pinion at the end of the axle of the reel, which axle, by means of a pin at the end, also plays in a hole in the post 0. The pin at the other end of the shaft, plays in a hole of the post K, and the teeth of the wheel F work in the pinion H, fixed on the top of the post K, by means of a burr screwed on the pin projecting from the post. [ 175 j 15^ and passing through the centre of the pinion. This pinion has 3o feet. On the top of the pinion H, is a crank, having a sweep of 4 inches, and receives, on its top, the end of the iron wire-carrier of the traversing bar I. The crank is fixed half an inch from the commence- ment of the grooves of the pinion. This crank is shown in the figure H. I, a traversing bar, 2 feet 10 inches long, I of an inch wide, f of an inch thick, playing through the posts B K: height of the post, from the frame, 17 inches. L. An iron carrier of wire. No. 1, 18 inches long, fixed to the bar I, to work free by a screw. The other end is fixed by a burr, to the pin passing through the centre of the pinion H. M M. Two wire hooks or eyes, (rampins,) 7 inches and i apart, at equal distances from the ends of the traversing bar, through which they pass. The wires to the commencement of the turns of the hooks, are 5 inches in length. N. The reel; arms, 2 feet 2 inches and -^^ long in the clear; !§ inches widCj and -f^ of an inch thick: rails 20 inches I long, 2 inches broad, -^^ of an inch thick; two of the arms are jointed, to allow the skeins of silk to be taken off, when reeled and quite dry. There ought to be an extra reel to put in the place of the one taken off, to prevent the work stopping. 0. Upright support for the axle of the reel, on the ends of which the pinion is fixed, to work with the wheel G, at the end of the shaft E. The pinion of the axle has 22 teeth. P. An iron plate with four holes, 12 inches long, slightly hollowed, projecting 3^ inches from the bar: the outside holes are 3 inches from the ends; from the centre of one hole to that of the next, f of an inch. Distance from the two in- side and nearest holes, 4 inches and r?^. Q. The copper basin to contain hot water, in which the cocoons are immersed, when reeling off. It is 18 inches long, 1 foot broad, and 4i inches deep. R. The furnace to contain charcoal, to keep the water hot. Distance from the centre of the posts A B, and K, 36 inches and a half. Circumference of the reel 6 feet 11 inches. Distance from the top of one arm, where it enters the rail, to another arm, 18i inches. From the axle of the reel and the traversing bar I, four feet eight inches. Figure 2 shows the arrangement of the frames for rearing the silk worms, in Dandolo's laboratory. Figure 3. A semicircular chopper with two blades. Figure 4. Pierced box to place the moths in. See p. 109, 110. Figure 5. Frame or tressel to be covered with a cloth, on which the moths are to lay their eggs. Figure 6. Rope frame to place the cloths on, containing the eggs to preserve them until the spring. Figure 7. Hook to remove the silkworms, when necessary. 157 [ 175 >) Plate 2d — Figure 1 axp 'z. Indigo Cradle. — The end of the upright, lever is attached to a cross bar, the ends of which play in a bearing fixed on each side of the cradle, and secured by screws. From near the ends of the bar, a claw extends to, and embraces, the journals, or arbors, at each end of the middle roller, lying on the bot- tom of the cradle; the ends of the claws are divided for this purpose, and permit the journals to play in them. The roller is 12 inches long, and 4i diameter. There are two other rollers, each a little longer, lying loose, and moved by the one fixed to the claw. The whole is of cast iron. Mr. Johnson, at the Foundry, Broad-street, Philadelphia, casts these indigo cradles. Twenty pounds of indigo are put in water, in the cradle, over night, and then ground, either by hand or other pow- er, until the indigo is reduced to the state of thick cream, and perfect- ly smooth. Plate 2d — Figure 3 and 4. A frame filled with split rattans, used by Messrs. Terhoeven, of Philadelphia county, to feed silkworms on. The ends of the rattans are put through holes in the frames, and fast- ened by wooden pins, in the manner of rattan chair-bottoms. The rat- tans are crossed by iron wires, and woven in by fine wire, rolled round small pieces of wooden rod. Fig. 4. A frame used by Messrs. Terhoeven, in preference to bushes, for the worms to form their cocoons in. It is made of four slips of wood, half an inch thick, and as long as the feeding frames are broad. Their ends are pointed, and pass through two pieces of wood, half an inch thick, four inches high, and three broad. Under the whole length of the frame is a thin strip of board, nailed to the end pieces. When one of these frames is filled with cocoons, it must be removed^ and an empty one put in its place. Plate 2d — Figure 5. SkolVs improved Silk Loom. — A A, the sills. B B, the breast rolls. C, the cut tree. D D, theuprights. E, the burdown. F, thebatton. G, the reeds. H, harness. I, the breast rolls. K, the cheese. L, the gibbet. M, treadles. N, tumblers. 0, short counter meshes. P, long counter meshes. Q, the porry. R R, cane roll posts. S, cane rolls. T, the weight bar and weight. N N, counter weights. W, the breaking rod. X X, cross rods. The several advantages of this loom are stated by Mr. Sholl to con- sist in the following particulars: 1st. It is not liable to unsquare, and yet is more easily moved than the old loom. 2d. It admits more light than the common looms to the workman. 3d. As the cane roll posts are fixed to the floor by screws, the porry may be made of any length. [ 175 ] 158 by only screwing the cane roll posts nearer, or further from, the breast roll. 4. The gibbet is formed in the loom, and therefore the trou- ble of fixing it is prevented. 5. The bridge of the battons are not nail- ed to the block, but iron pins are put in the block, and partly go through the bridge, fastened with glue, so that the silk cannot be injured as formerly. 6. The battons rise as the work rises, and keep more true than in the old looms. Trans. Soc, •drts, London, for 1790. Plate 3d. — Figure 1. Winding Reel, — To wind the silk off from the skeins, in which it is imported or made up, upon wooden bobbins. The reel figured, is calculated to wind six threads at once, but, by in- creasing the length, it may be made to receive any number. Each of the skeins is extended upon a slight reel A A, called a swift: it is composed of four small rods fixed in an axis, and small bands of string are stretched between the arms to receive the skein; but, at the same time, the bands admit of sliding to a greater or less distance from the centre, so as to increase the effective diameter of the reel according to the size of the skein ; because the skeins which come from different coun- tries, vary in size, being generally an exact yard, or other similar mea- sure of the country where the silks are produced. The swifts are supported upon iron pivots, upon which they turn freely when the silk is drawn off from them ; but, in order to cause the thread to draw with a gentle force, a looped piece of string or wire is hung upon the axis withinside the reel, and a small leaden weight e be- ing attached to it, will cause a sufficient friction. B B are the bobbins which draw off the threads; they are received in the frame, and are turned by means of a wheel beneath each; the bob- bin having a small roller upon the end of it, which bears by its weight upon the circumference of the wheel, and the bobbin is thereby put in motion to draw off the silk from the twist. D is the layer, a small light rod of wood, which has a wire eye fix- ed into it, opposite to each bobbin, so as to conduct the thread upon; and, as the layer moves constantly backwards and forwards, the thread is regularly spread upon the length of the bobbin. The motion of the layer is produced by a crank fixed upon the end of a cross spindle, E, which is turned by means of a pair of bevelled wheels from the end of the horizontal axle upon which the wheels for turning all the bobbins are fixed. These winding machines are usually situated in the top building of a silk mill, g(when water or steam power are used,) the frame being made of great length, and also double, to contain a row of bobbins and swifts at the back as well as in front. The winding ma- chines require the constant attention of children to mend the ends or threads which are broken, or, when they are exhausted, to replace them by putting new skeins upon the swifts. When the bobbins are filled, they are taken away, by only lifting them out of their frame, and fresh ones are put in their places. ib^ I ltd 2 Plate 8d — Figure 2. A throwsting machine* intended to be worked by hand. B is the handle. It is fixed on the spindle R, which carries a wheel D, to give motion to a pinion upon the upper end of a vertical axle E; this, at the lower end, has a drum or wheel F, to receive an endless strap or barfd a a, which encompasses the oval frame G, and gives motion to all the spindles at once. The spindles b b are placed perpendicularly in the frame G H; their points resting in small holes, in pieces of glass which are let into the oval plank G, and'the spindles are, also, received in collars affixed to an oval frame H, which is supported from the plank G by blocks of wood: fl?and a are small rollers, supported in the frame G H in a similar man- ner to the spindles. Their use is to confine the strap a to press against the rollers of the spindles with sufficient force to keep them all in motion. The thread is taken up as fast as it is twisted by a reel K, which is turned by a wheel h and a pinion i upon the end of the principal spin- dle R. The threads are guided by passing through wire eyes fixed in an oval from L, which is supported in the frame of the machine by a single bar or rail / /; and this has a regular traversing motion backwards and forwards, by means of a crank or eccentric pin k, fixed in a small cog wheel, which is turned by a pinion upon the vertical axis E: the opposite end of the rail /, is supported upon a roller to make it move easily. By this means the guides are in constant motion, and lay the threads regularly upon the reel k, when it turns round and gathers up the silk upon it, as shown in the figure. One of the spindles is shown at r, without a bobbin, but all the others are represented as being mounted, and in action. A bobbin is filled upon each spindle, by the hole through it being adapted to the conical form of the spindle, but in such a manner that the bobbin is at liberty to turn freely round upon the spindle. A piece of hard wood is stuck fast upon each spindle just above the bobbin, and has a small pin entering into a hole in the top of the spindle, so as to oblige it to revolve with the spindle. This piece of wood has the wire flyer b fixed to it: the flyer is formed into eyes at the two extremities; one is turned down, so as to stand opposite the middle of the bobbin e, and the other arm b is bent upwards, so that the eye is exactly over the centre of the spindle, and at a height of some inches above the top of the spindle. The thread from the bobbin e, is passed through both eyes of this wire, and must evidently receive a twist when the spindle is turned; and at the same time by drawing up the thread through the upper eye b of the flyer, it will turn the bobbin round and unwind therefrom. * This 19 taken from Rees'a Cyclopsedia, and is precisely the same as that repit- sented in the French *' Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," printed atNeufchatel, 1765^ and in the Nouvelle Encyclopsedie Methodique, Paris, i786. The figures of the vari- ous parts, and the elevation of the machine, fill two folio pages. In France it is called an "ovale." [ 175 ] 160 The rate at which the thread is drawn off from the bobbin, compar- ed with the number of revolutions which the flyers make in the same time, determines the twist to be hard or soft, and this circumstance is regulated by the proportion of the wheel h to the pinion z, from which it receives motion; and these can be changed when it is required to spin different kinds of silk. The operation of the machine is very •simple: the bobbins filled with silk in the winding machine, are put loose upon the spindles at e, and the flyers are stuck fast upon the stop of the spindles, the threads are conducted through the eyes of the iiyers h, and of the layers L, and are then made fast to the reel K; upon which it will be seen, that there are double the number of skeins to that of the spindles represented, because one half of the nurnber of spindles is on the opposite side of the oval frame, so that they are hid- den. With this preparation, the machine is put in motion, and con- tinues to spin the threads by the motion of the flyers, and to draw them off gradually from the bobbins until the skeins upon the reel are made up to the requisite lengths. This is known by a train wheel work atn op, consisting of a pinion n, fixed upon the principal spin die R, turning a wheel o, which has a pinion fixed to it, and turning a larger wheel />; this has another wheel upon its spindle, with a pin fixed in it, which, at every revolution, raises a hammer, and strikes upon a bell s, to inform the attendant that the skeins are made up to a proper length. When this machine is employed for the first opera- tion of twisting the organzine, the wheel h must be larger, and the pinion i smaller than is represented, in order that the reel K may be turned slowly, and the threads will thereby receive a stronger and closer twist. Also, the handle B is turned in an opposite direction to that in which it must move for the final throwing off the two or three twisted threads together: and, as it must also move for twisting the raw threads together for the warp of silk stuffs, and for weaving stock- ings, this reverse movement makes no alteration in the machine, except that it will give twist in a contrary direction; for it is always necessary, when two or more twisted threads are combined by twisting, that the twist of the original thread shall be in an opposite direction to that twist which unites them into one thread, in the same manner as for making ropes: organzine silk being in fact small rope, and stocking silk or warp being only yarn. The silk intended to be died is previ- ously twisted very slightly in this machine; and of course in that di- rection which will suit the purpose for which it is ultimately intended; viz: whether for yarn or organzine. Figure 3 represents a single spindle of a thro wsting machine, G and H represent portions of the rails or circles of the stage which supports the spindle, and « a is a part of the rim of the great wheel of the cen- tral axle. This wheel is not made in segments, but is made very truly circular, and covered with leather on the edge, that it may act with more force to turn the roller t of the spindle. The point of the spin- dle rests in a glass lap, supported by the rail G, and the roller f is al- ways made to press against the rim of the great wheel « «, by a small ^ever d, and a string, which, after turning over a pullev, has th^ weight 161 [ 175 3 c made (ast to it, to press the spindle always towards the wheel. In this machine the thread is taken up by a bobbin K, is put into a frame m^ wiiich moves on pivots, and by a weight n is pressed down, so as \.o make the bobbin bear upon the edge of the wheel A, which is kept in constant and regular motion by means of wheel work, which cannot be well described^ The intention is that the action of the wheel A, to turn the bobbin, being communicated by pressure against the part upon which the silk is to wind, will be constant, and will not drav/ more when the bobbin is large and full, or less when it is empty, as must be the case when the motion is given to the axis of the bobbin. After the silk is twisted in a riaht hand direction, if it be intended for yarn or for dying; or in a left hand direction if it be prepared for organzine, it must be wound on fresh bobbins, with two or three threads together, preparatory to twisting them into one thread. This is done by women, who with hand v/heels wind the threads from two or three large bobbins, upon which the silk is gathered instead of the reels, and assemble them two or three together, upon another bobbin of a proper size to be returned to the twisting mill. Machines are now in use for winding two or three threads together. This operation is slightly represented and described in Rees's Cy- clopaedia, a work which has a general circulation in the United States. The bobbins being filled with double or triple threads, are carried back to the throwsting machine, and are there twisted together: the manner of doing which does not diiler from the operation before de- scribed. In this second operation, the silk is taken up by reels instead of bobbins, and is thus made into skeins. The degree of twist varies with the purpose for which the silk is intended, and the wheels which give motion to the reels, are for this purpose adapted to the degree of twist which the silk is desired to have. The silk being spun, requires only the preparation of boiling, to discharge the gum, and to render the silk fit to receive the die. Figures 4 and 5 represent the zig-zag man- ner in which the silkworm spins the fibres of which the cocoon is formed. Figure 5 show^s how the worm after working for some time in one part, will suddenly extend the silk fibre, and begin at another quarter. IMPROVED ENGINE FOR TRAMMING SILK.^ By W. V. Shenton, of Winchester. Transactions of the Society of Arts, London, Vol. 41, p. 169, 1823. [t/^ silver medal was granted for this invention.'] The only preparation which the raw silk imported into England has previously undergone, is that of being wound off the cocoons; * One of these machinery, imported by the Secretary of the Treasury, is now in h^a office. 91 [ 175 3 162 but as the filament of the srikworca is of cytrcnio temiity, it i^ neces- 8ary, in the winding, to conjoin the filamcnt^i of from five to seven co- coons, in order to obtain a single thread of the requisite staple. The raw silk, thus composed, is still, however, too slender for the })urposejT of manufacture; and accordingly, the first process which it undergoes, is that of uniting two, three, or four threads into one, previously to giving it that kind of twist which is technically termed organzining. The machine by which the union of the required number of threads is effected, is denominated a tramming engine, and admits of a considera- ble variety of structure: but the conditions absolutely essential in all, are the following: lirst,^that the silk may ])ass off easily, and without entangling, from the delivering bobbins: secondly, that a small and equal degree of tension be applied to the threads as they pass from the~ delivering bobbins, to the receiving one, so that the compound threads shall be perfectly even ; which obviously would not be the case, if one of the component threads were quite loose, while the others were drawn straight; thirdly, that the receiving bobbin ceases to revolve as soon as any one of the component threads happens to break — an accident which not unfrequently occurs; as, without such contrivance, a thread v/oulcl be produced of variabfe thickness, from the casual omission of one or more of the component threads. The operation af tramming^ in some of the best constructed mills, is performed in the following manner: The delivering bobbins (varying in number from two to four, accord- ing to the intended thickness of the component thread) are placed upon as many vertical spindles, the vertical position allowing the threads to quit the bobbins without any motion or revolution of the bobbins them- selves. Some way above the bobbins, the threads pass singly betv/eeii two horizontal slips of cloth or felt, which, by their friction, give at the- same time a certain degree of tension to the threads, and clear them from any du«t or other light matter. Each thread then passes throu-gli- the eye of its own drop-wire, whence they all converge and unite in the eye of the guider, from which the compound thread is distributed on the surface of the receiving bobbin as it revolves. Each drop-wire consists of a piece of wire turned up, so as to form a right angle, of. which the vertical leg is. about tvro inches long, and is terminated by an eye through which the thread passes; and the horizontal leg isabout four inches long, terminating likewise in an eye, through which passes a pin, connecting all the four drop-wires, and forming a pivot, on which- each is capable of moving freely. Each thread, in passing through the eye of its drop-wire, slips down a little, and, being in a state of mode- rate tension, supports it at the elevation of half an inch or more above the position to which it would otherwise descend. When, therefore, a thread breaks, its drop-wire immediately falls, and strikes on the edge of a wire-frame, moving on a horizontal pivot, and so adjusted that the weight of the drop-wire immediately inclines downwards that side which it touches, and consequently raises the opposite side. To this opposite side a tail of wire is attached, which, when raised, catches on a kind of ratchet-wheel, fixed on the same spindle as the receiving. 1G3 C 175 3 bobbin, and consequently stops it. The broken thread being repair- ed, is again passed through the eye of the drop-wire, and supports it above the frame; the opposite end of the frame then becomes prepon- derant; the tai], or stop, descends out of the way of the ratchet-wheel, and the revolution of the receiving bobbin immediately recommences. This apparatus is very simple and efficacious, but is liable to two in- conveniences; first, that the thread usually breaks close to the pieces of clotli by which it is compressed, and some trouble and loss of time are occasioned in drawing the thread out previous to tying it: second- ly, that, when a smaller number of threads than four are trammed, the vacant drop-wires must be removed, otherwise their unsupported weight would, as above described, throw" up the stop, and prevent the revolution of the receiving bobbin. The contrivance by whicli Mr. Shenton effects the operation of tram- ming, and avoids the above-mentioned inconveniences, will be evident by referring to plate IV, of which figure 1 is an end view, and figure 2 a bird's-eye view of his machine — the same letters of reference denoting the same parts in all the figures; a «, the axis which gives motion to the receiving bobbins /*/, by means of wooden rollers dd; they are mxade of any required length to suit a continued series of succeeding bobbins, with a roller under each; the wooden axis w^hich carries the receiving bobbin, has a leaden roller e fixed on it, which receives motion by mere contact, on account of its weight. This axis is shown separate in figure 3; p p are two pins fixed in the leaden roller e ; s, another pin, or hook, which holds on tlie bobbin by hooking under the staple ^, of the bobbin figures 3 and 4. As the receiving bobbin revolves, it draws the threads from tv^^o, three, or four bobbin ^ ^ ^ ^, as previously de- termined; and in order to lessen the friction of these bobbins, which are fitted on wooden pins u it ic u, the pins are perforated, and ride upon a wire r, and the bottom of these pins, and the loops which hold the wires, are rounded: leaving just friction enough to keep the threads extended. They are shown separate in figure 5. Now should any one of these threads break, it is reauisite that the receiving bobbin should immediately stop; for this purpose, a crank-wire m, with a ketch 72, and a fixed crank o, is placed near each roller; on this, four light drop-wires kkk k swing freely, and they have eyes to hang on the threads, which are their only suppori;: these wires are shown a quarter their real size in figure 6. Now^, should either of the threads break, the drop-wdre which hung on it, w^ould fall on the crank o, and cause the wire m to revolve, and bring the catch n forwards from its position, figure 8, to lay hold of the pin 7? of the roller e, as shown in figure 7, and stop it immediately; then, as soon as the thread is mend- ed, the thumb is laid on the t^ils w of the drop-wires, to bring up the fallen one; the thread is then put in the eye, and the catch is withdrawn by turning back the end 7n of the crank wire, and the work goes on. There are tw^o spare notches x x io lay the bobbin in, while joining the thread, that it may be out of geer, and move freely till set right by hand. Now, the silk threads, on leaving the bobbins^ ^^^, pass separatelj'- I 175 3 lb4 over a glass rod i, aud through the eyes of the drop-wires, and thew gather together in passing thi-ough tlie eye of the guide-wire /. In order to distribute equally over the bobbins the silk threads thus ga- thered together, an alternating motion is given to the sliding bar cc, which carries the guide-wires /, by means of a pin r, working in an oblique or spiral groove in the block by fixed on the end of the axis a; and the obliquily of this groove corresponds with the length the silk is to be distributed on tlic bobbin, and therefore causes the sliding bar to move to and fro that length every turn of the wooden roller, or every four turns of the bobbin- — the bobbin rollers being one quarter the size of the v/ooden rollers ^fif. The bars h hh h, which support the supplying bobbins, are so placed as to make the bobbins stand at right angles with the thread when it passes from their middle to the glass rod. It is best to m.ake the four eyes of the drop-wires lie parallel to the glass rod, as their vibrations on the threads will be more equal. Figs. 8 and 9 show the tinned iron facings which are coiled round ander the bars aty, to support the crank- wire. Fig. 10 shows how the guide-wires are bent and fixed in the sliding bar. qq, Fig. 2, are two sliding wires: it will be seen that where four threads are tramming, it is drawn back; but where two threads are tramming, it is pushed in to support the two drop- wires that are out of use, and prevent their acting on the crank-wire. Fig. 11 shows the manner of riveting the wooden rollers on the axis, by cutting up a burr with a chisel on the angles ^z. Fig. 1 and 2 are a guard-rail. Fig. 1 and 2 are one-sixth, the others are one- fourth the real size. Improvement in the Silk Weaver^ s Draw Boy. — By ISir. E. Rich^ arclsy of Bethnal Green. Trans. Soc. Arts, London, vol. 40, p. 185. In weaving plain goods, of every description, composed of silk> wool, hemp, cotton, or flax, the threads composing the warp are form- ed into two sets: the 1st, 3d, 5th, &c. forming one division, and the alternate ones, the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. forming the other: each set is alternately raised and depressed, and at every crossing of the sets, the shuttle, containing a spindle full of thread, is shot, or thrown from one hand to the other, distributing the thread in its passage, in front of every intersection of the threads that compose the warp; but in figured sifc, the threads of the warp are formed into more divisions than two — the number varying according to the pattern; and in order ^hat each division may be raised or depressed with the necessary accu- racy, each thread of the warp is passed through a loop in a vertic^ cord, furnished with a weight at bottom, to keep it properly stretchedj and passing over a support at top. These vertical cords are called the monturc, and are collected into as many sets or lashes as the pattern ,?^cquiresj it being understood tliat the cords of those 'threads which 165 [ 175 ] are to be raised or lowered together, are to be included in the same lask The number of lashes required for very simple patterns, on very, narrow silks, is considerable, amounting to forty, sixty, or more. It is obviously, therefore, in these cases, impossible to give motion to the warp, by attaching a treadle to each lash. The way in which the lashes were actually raised, was to pass the end of each lash through a hole in a horizontal board, to fix to the lash a piece of wood like a bell-pull, and to employ a boy (thence called a draw-boy) in pulling or drawing down each lash in succession, so that the weaver had only to throw the shuttle and give directions to his boy. Each cord of a lash having a weight hung to it, the aggregate weight of the whole lash is considerable, so that the la!)or incurred by the tlraw-boy was great, and considerable dexterity (the result alone of long practice) was required to prevent mistakes, and much loss of time. Hence the weavers were very dependant on their draw-boys, and the idleness or illness of one of them threw the weaver, for the time, out of work. Various ineffectual attempts had been made to supersede the living draw-boy by machinery, but with little if any success, till Mr. Duff brought forward an engine for the purpose, which was rewarded by the Society of Arts in London, in ISIO. Mr. Duff's engine, by means of a very ingenious contrivance, enables the weaver, by pressing al- ternately on two pair of treadles, to produce the regular elevation and depression of the lashes without the assistance of the boy. The weight of the lashes, and the friction of the machine being con- siderable, it was necessary to adjust, accordingly, the length of the levers or treadles b}:^ which it was put in motion; in consequence of which, a tread of ten inches was thought necessary, that the weaver might not be oppressed by the weight. It was soon, however, found, in practice, that the exertion of rais- ing the feet ten inches for every motion of the treadle, was excessively fatiguing to the weaver, and apparently occasioned a predisposition to rupture, so that the machine came only into very limited use. About two or three years ago, Mr. Jones, since dead, (an engine maker) attempted to shorten the tread, hy fixing on the axis of the driving wheel two cranks, each about two thirds of the length of the radius of the wheel; but the m.echanical disadvantage at which they worked, and the manner in which they were connected with the trea- dles, increased the weight and friction so disproportionately to the ad- vantage gained by shortening the tread, as- to render it wholly inap- plicable in practice. About last Christmas, (1822) Mr. Hughes, a weaver, fixed a small grooved wheel on the axis of the driving wheel, and connected it to the treadles by means of two cords passing over pulleys. It might be supposed that any advantage thus gained by shortening the tread, would be counterbalanced by the increased weight required to be over- come. This, however, is not practically the case. When the thigh of the weaver is raised, so as to be nearly horizontal, as necessarily liappens at the commencement of a tread ten inches in height, the [ 175 ] 166 muscular force which can Ijc t^xerlcd hy a given cffoil, is far iuicrior to that which an equal ellbrt will produce in a tread of five inches; and hence, although the weight to be raised increases in proportion to the difference between the diameters of the driving wheel, and of the small wheel or pinion, yet the muscular advantage gained nearly counterbalances this increase of weight. A real practical advantage, therefore, resulted from Hughes's in- vention, (although the mechanism employed is unnecessarily compli- cated, and not judiciously disposed,) since, by means of it, work which could not before be wrought by the machine, may now be performed by it. In order to relieve the weaver still farther, by diminishing the weight on the treadle, and thus adapting the machine to heavier pat- terns and wider silks, Mr. Richards, in lS20j attached to the pro- longed axis of the machine, an arm, carrying a leaden weight of such a magnitude as to counterbalance that of the lashes. The practical advantage of this contrivance, was, however, diminished by the weight being fixed in an inconvenient situation, and being liable to jar the machine; in consequence of which, in March, 18.21, Mr. Hughes removed it from its original place, and fixed it within the frame, on one of the driving wheels. A still further improvement in its position, was subsequently made by Mr. Richards, who has pro- longed the axis of the driving wheel, giving it the form of a quadri- lateral prism, and, on any part of this axis, which local circumstances may point out as most convenient, the counter weight may be fixed by screws farther from, or nearer to, the centre of motion, according to the magnitude of the weight required to be counterpoised. In order to render the above-mentioned improvement more intelli- gible, not only to the silk weaver, but to the public in general, it has been thought fit to give a representation, showing the connexion of the immediate subject of reward, with the wdiole apparatus for weav- ing silks as now employed in Spitalfields. The Committee of Corres- pondence and Papers were the more readily induced to adopt this measure, as, hitherto, no correct representation of the silk-loom and jdraw-boy had been published. JReferences to the engravings of a Silk Loom for weaving figured silky ivilh Mr. Richard^ s vmprovcinents on the Draw-Boy. PLATE v. Fig. 1 represents a cross-section of the draw-boy at the dotted line ffl a, lig. 2, with a side view of the loom, &c. Fig. 2 is a section of the loom at the dotted line h b, fig. 1, toge- ther with a side view of the draw-boy. Fig. 3 is a plan of the draw-boy, with part of its frame. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section of the axle, &c. of the draw-boy. 167 [ 175 3 Fig. 5 is a cross-section of the axle of the draw-boy and figure box. Figures 1 and 2 are drawn to a scale of three-fourths of an inch to a foot; and figures 3, 4, and 5, to a scale of two inches to a foot. The same letters of reference refer to the same parts in each figure. AAA is the frame of the loom; B, the roll or beam on which the v^^arp is put; C, the cloth or breast roll; D D, the lay or bottom; E, the reed; F F, a frame which supports and regulates the table of mul- lets; G^, the table, which consists of a number of thin bars, fixed in a frame nearly in a vertical position, but which can be elevated or in- clined at pleasure, by a hoop H. Between each of these thin small bars, are placed one, two, three, or more, small mullets or pulleys c cc. over which pass the horizontal strings or tail d d d, by which the lambs or beadles II, J J, and K K, are suspended. To weave plain cloth, only two leaves of beadles are really neces- sar}?-; but, in fine webs, where many threads are contained in the warp, the number of headles required in one shaft, would be so great, that tbey would be crowded together, which would cause unnecessary friction, and strain the warp. For this reason, a greater number of leaves is used in weaving figured silks, &c. The number of these leaves is so great, that the shafts on which the headles are placed, are obliged to be arranged in two, three, or more stages, one above an- other, as shown in figures 1 and 2, at 1 1, J J, KK; so that, when the lowest set of beadle shafts 1 1, are raised to make the sheds, or opening in tlie warp, through which the shuttle passes, they are in the situa- tion of those at / i, and do not rise so high as to interfere with those at J J; and, wben those at J J are raised ^.ojj, they do not interfere with those at K K; and those at K K will be raised to kJc. So, by this arrangement, there will be three times the number of the leaves o? headles, in nearly the same space, as when placed on the same level. To each of the lower treadle shafts, are suspended three long, fimall leaden weights / / /, so as to keep the treadles straight and perpendicular. The strings d d d, which suspend the treadles, arc extended across the room, and are made fast to a horizontal rod L.; which is also fixed by cords to the side of the room. M is a bar or roll, which is suspended from the ceiling of the room, to support the string or tail d d, &c. N is another roll, which is, itself, supported {>y a frame from the upper part of the loom, and supports the strings d d, &c., when the depression is made on them by the action of thn foot on the treadles 0, P P, Q Q, from which the motion is com- municated to the draw-boy, &c. R R is the frame of the draw-boy, which must be fixed to the floor. S is a square wooden bar or axle of the draw-boy, mounted so as to turn backwards and forwards on two screwed centres e c, figures 2, 3, 4, fixed in the ends of the frame R R. There are also fixed to each end of the frame R R, and concentric to the axis of tlic screwed cen- tres e c, a cylindrical ring m and ?^, figures 3, 4, of brass or iron. One end of each ring is made flat, with an internal flanch, for fixing it to the. end of the frame, and the other ends of the rings are formed into in- clined planes. On the upper side of the 9xle S are inserted, in two i 175 ] 168 parallel grooves, two wootlcn racks/" and f^, figure S, so a6 to slide ea-* sily backwards and forwards. The upper edges of the racks have tfeeth similar to those of saws, but the inclined side of the teeth, in each rack, is in contrary directions. To one end of each rack is fixed a piece of brass o* and/>, and rounded off on the end, so as to act smooth- ly on the circularly inclined planes m and n. Beneath the racks are concealed two spiral springs h h — the action of which tends to press the brass ends of the racks against the inclined planes m and n. T is iho, draw-boy or bow, seen best in figure 5, vv^hich consists of a semicir- cular piece of iron or brass, with a groove in the periphery, like a pul- ley; and each of its ends is divided, so as to form cleft hooks or claws, which clip the strings or lashes above the knots r r; so that, when the axle S is made to vibrate, the hooks q q first draw a lash or string on one side, and then on the other, alternately. The draw-boy, or semicircle T, is fixed en a carriage U, called the figure box, which slides easily upon the axle S, and has two clicks, or catches s and t, in the inside of the box, with a string pressing on the upper side of each, and causing the clicks to act on the teeth of the racks, /'and^. V is a roller, supported by its pivots, on the upper side of the carriage U, having the two pins, or levers ti and v, fixed in it, opposite to each other, and projecting over the ends of clicks that act on the racks; on the upper side of each click, is fixed a hook or sta- ple, which connects the clicks to the levers u and v, so that when the lever u is depressed, the click -s- is at liberty to act on the teeth of the racky, and at the same instant, the lever will be raised, and disengage the click t irovo. the rack^; and when the lever v is depressed, the click t will be at liberty to act on the teeth of the rack g, and the click s will be disengaged from the rack /"; consequently, only one of the clicks can act on the racks at the same time. The roller V, is kept in either situation, by the action of a spring I, figures 3 4, fixed on the upper side of the figure box, or carriage U, and having a double inclined plane on the under side of it, near the point; the middle of which is situated over the pivot in the end of the roller V, and it acts on a small pin. which is fixed in the end of the roller, and on the upper side, and also over the centre of the pivot, when the lever u and v are horizontal; con- sequently when the lever u is depressed, the pin, in the end of the roll- er, will be turned in the same direction, and the inclined plane, near- f^st the point of the spring I, will retain it in that situation, till the lever V is depressed, which will cause the pin to raise the spring 3, and pass to t-hc other side of the inclined plane, when it will again be detained till the carriage has arrived at the other end of the axle S. On the under side of the roller V, and at right angles to the levers u and v, is fixed an- other pin, or lever w, which passes through a hole, or a short slit in the middle of a small bar x, which is placed a little below, and at right an- g;les to the axis of the roller, and also passes through each end of the hox U, and is at liberty to slide backwards and forwards; so that when the box, or carriage U, has traversed over the number of teeth requir- •^d in the rack, the end of the bar x comes in contact with a spring y., * The letter o, uges not appear in the original plate. — Editor. 169 [ 175 ] (which is fixed on the axle S, hetween the racks,) and depresses It till it overcomes the resistance of the har x^ &c. which will be thrust for- wards, and act on the pin as in the underside of the roller V, and also turn the roller in the same direction, as by depressing the lever f, which will disengage the click s, and engage the click t in the rack^: then the carriage will be in proper trim for traversing to the other end of the axle S, which is performed by the action given to the treadles, which is also communicated to the pulley 2, on the end of the axle S, and therefore causes the axle to vibrate half a turn, each motion of the treadles: as the axle is in the act of turning in the direction of the arrow, the circular inclined plane n^ acts against the end of the rack g, and pushes it along the groove in the axle S, together with the car- riage U, &c. equal to one notch or tooth of the rack; when the axle has returned half way, the spiral spring h presses back the rack g to its former situation, without moving the carriage U, on the axle S, (as the rack is at liberty to slide in that direction under the click, without butting against one of the teeth;) and by repeating another vibration of the axle, the carriage will be moved forward another tooth, one tooth each vibration, and so on, till the carriage has arrived at the other end of the axle S, then the other end of the bar x, will be brought in con- tact, and pushed against a spring z, (which is fixed on the upper side of the axle, between the racks, at any required distance from the spring ?/, between the racks, according to the number of strings or lashes r r, that the figure may require,) till the spring overcomes the resistance of the bar cT, &c. which turns the roller V, and changes the action of the clicks s and t\ then the carriage U will traverse back one tooth for each vibration of the axle S, by the action of the circular inclined plane m, on the rack y, till the end of the bar x comes in contact with the springy, when the action of the clicks s and t will be again changed. The racks y an d^, both slide backwards and forwards, the extent of a tooth, by the action of the two circular inclined planes m and w, for * each vibration of the axle; but, as only one of the clicks is allowed to act on the rack at the same time, the motion of the other rack does not interrupt the progress of the carriage U, &c. The frame which con- tains the joint end of the click s^ can be so adjusted by the screw 3, that the carriage U will be stopped by each vibration of the axle S, in a situation differing by half a tooth, according as it traverses one way or the other; so that a different set of strings or lashes r r, &c. will be drawn at each vibration of the axle, till the carriage U has traversed backwards and for- wards on the axle S. W and X are two rails of wood, fixed on the upper side of the frame R R of the draw-boy, and parallel to the axle S; on the inner edge of the rails are fixed double the number of wire staples 44, &:c. to that of the teeth in the racky and g; the staples 4 4, &c. act as guides to the'strings or lashes r r, which pass through them, and are fixed to the rail Y, which has four rows of holes, through which the strings r r, &c., are passed and retained by a knot on the under side of the rail; the number of holes is equal, and opposite to those of the sta- ples 4 4, &c. and is also parallel to the axle S. In the end of the rails W and X are slits, through which, the screws 5 pass, that fix them to I 175 ] 170 the frame; so that the staples 4 4, &c. in the rails, can be adjusted op- posite to the groove in the periphery of the draw-boy; 6 6 are 2 thin rails, or false tail boards, which are also fixed on the upper side of the frame R R, and parallel to the rails W and X; the strings rr, being made fast to the rail Y, and passed through their respective staples 4 4, &c. have another set of strings tied to them at 10 10, called the false tails, which are passed over and through guide staples on the upper side of two sniooth round rods, or arms 8 8, and then passed through the holes in the rails 6 6 ; and to the ends of the strings are appended small leaden weights, or lingots, 9 9, &c. which draw the strings 7' r, &c. so as always to keep them straight; one of the rods, or arms 8 8, is attached to the upper part of the frame of the loom, and the other ends are suspended by strings from the ceiling of the room; to the upper ends of each of the strings r r, at 1 1 1 1, is tied another series of smaller strings or lashes 12 12, the upper ends of which are also tied to certain horizontal strings d d, &c. which pass over the pulleys in the table G, and have the lambs or headles suspended from them : by this arrangement, it will be seen, that when one of the strings r, which is fastened to the rail Y, is pulled down, (by the action of the draw -boy, op^ow, on the upper side of the string r,) it draws one of 10, lifts one of the Weight 9, and raises such an arrangement of the lambs, or headles, as is proper to produce the figure which is to be woven. When the draw-boy T, and axle S, are returned to the situation, as shown in fig. 5, the weights / / /, which are suspended from the lambs, and those at 9 9 will replace the lambs, lashes, &c. in their former situation. In weaving heavy silks, or what is termed three, four, or more doubles, that is, so many double threads between each split of the reed, the power required to depress the treadles is so great that the weaver was obliged to have the assistance of a boy to turn a winch, which was fixed on the end of the axle S, which passed through the end frame of the draw-boy. The application of the winch to the draw-boy, was the invention of John Sholl, who was rewarded by the Society of Arts, &c. in the year 1810. Mr. Richards, being a machine or loom maker, observed the great difficulty of getting boys to attend their work, together with the ex- pense, which caused him to turn his attention to the subject, and he has been successful in making the machine so perfect and powerful as to supersede the necessity of a boy. The following are Mr. Richards' improvements on the draw-boy: The power which is to be applied to the tr'eadles 0, is commu- nicated to the treadles P P, by the cords 13 13, and from the treadles P 1^ to Q Q, by the cords 14 14; and from the treadles Q Qto the pulley 2, (which is represented by the dotted circle) by the cords 15 15, which are tied to the treadles Q Q, and passed over two small guide pulleys, the frames of which are affixed to a cross bar of the frame R R; then one of the cords is passed under, and the other over ^he pulley 2, and fixed to the heads of two screwed nails, which are 171 [ 175 } screwed into the grooves in the periphery of the pulley 2; the pulley 2 is fixed to the side of another pulley 18, eccentric to the axis of the axle S, by which means the power to turn the axle of the draw-boy increases as the treadles are dep.^ssed. Z, is another axle which turns on two conical steel centres, similar to those which support the axle S; to one end of the axle Z is fixed an iron wire 19, having a slit along it, through which a screw passes for fixing a weight 20, at any required distance from the centre of the axle; on the other end of the axle Z, is fixed a pulley 21, perpendicular to the pulley 18 on the axle S, each of which has two grooves on their respective peripheries j 22 and 23 are two cords, which are passed round the pulleys in con- trary directions; the upper ends are fixed to the pulley 18 and the lower to 21; by which means the motion of the axle S is commu- nicated to the axle Z. Now, suppose the treadles were level with each other, the weight 20 would be perpendicular above the axle Z^ and would tend to turn it either way; consequently, as one of the treadles is depressed, the weight will pass to one side or the other of the axle, and its leverage power will be increased till the centre of gravity of the weight 20 has arrived horizontal with the axis of the axle Z; it will be obvious, that either by increasing the weight 20, or extending it further from the axle, the power will be increased; and by combining the eccentricity of the pulley 2, with the eccentricity of the weight 20, the power applied to the treadles may be increased so as to counterbalance any number of lambs or beadles, and the weight appended to them, and to the false tail, together with the power required for raising or opening the warp for the shuttle to pass through. Another of Mr. Richards' improvements, is the application, with certain modifications, of box 24, called the tabby box, which is fixed to the axle S, and has a semicircle 25 fixed to it, similar to the figure box, but without the clicks, &c. To the under part of the box 24, is fixed a wire rod 26, which passes easily through the figure box, and is supported by a staple 27, near the end of the axle, through both of which it is at liberty to slide to and fro. 28 and 29 are two sliding sockets, which can be fixed on the wire in any required place, by a set screw in the side of each. The use of the tabby box is to raise a certain set of the lambs, or headles, to work the plain part of the silk, between the figures, with- out having so much lash tied to each of the strings, r r, &c. To ad- just the tabby box for weaving figured cloth with a plain ground, the two sliding sockets 28 and 29 must be fixed on the wire rod 26, in their situations as shown in fig, 4; two strings, or lashes, must also be fixed, in a similar manner as those already described at r r, on each side of the axle opposite the tabby box, and passed through the staples 30 and 31; see fig. 3, (only part of the rails on one side of the axle which the staples are fixed in, is shown here, but the other side is fitted up in a similar manner. ) Suppose the loom was already prepared to weave the figure as represented at fig. 6, and to commence at the line 30; the treadles being put in motion, will cause the axle to vibrate, the drsAv. [ 175 ] 172 boy or bow T, ou the figure box U, will draw every other string or lash r r, on each side of the axle S alternately, till the box U has ar- rived at the spring Z, and raises such an arrangement of the lambs, or headles, as is proper to produce'the figures in the squares 33 33; at the same time the bow, or semicircle 25, on the tabby box, is drawing the strings or lashes 31 31, on each side of the axle alternately, and raises such an arrangement of the lambs as to produce the plain part of the cloth in the squares 34 34. At the instant the end of the small bar x, in the figure box U, comes in contact with the spring z, (on the upper side of the axle S,) the same end of the figure box on the under side of the axle also comes in contact with the socket 29, and at the next vibration of the axle, the rack g, will press the figure box U, together with the tabby box 24, forward on the axle, equal to one tooth of the rack, when the action of the clicks in the figure box will be changed, and the bow or semicircle 25, on the tabby box, will be opposite the sta- ples which contain the strings or lashes 32 32, and will remain there, and draw the lashes on each side of the axle alternately, and raise such an arrangement of the lambs, as to produce the plain cloth in the squares 35 35; and at the same time, the figure box U will be travers- ing to the other end of the axle, and the semicircle T will be drawing the lashes r r, on each side of the axle, alternately, which it skipped when it traversed the other way; by which means, a new arrangement of the lambs will be raised, so as to produce the figures in the squares 36 36. When the other end of the small bar x shall be brought in contact with the spring y, at the same instant the end of the figure box will be in contact with the socket 28 : and the next vibration of the axle will cause the rack F to push the figure box, together with the tabby box, along the axle S, equal to one tooth of the rack; then the tabby box, together with the wire rod and sockets, will be in their former situations, as shown in fig. 4; and the action of the clicks, in the figure box, will again be changed, and the whole figure completed, and the machine ready to produce a similar set of figures to those al- ready described. Improved Ribbo7i Loom. In the 40th volume of the Transactions of the Society in London, for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, an.d Commerce,* Mr. J. Thompson, of Coventry, gives a full and very minute account of his recent improvements on the ribbon loom, illustrated by four plates. The advantages stated to result from these, are — 1. It produces figures much finer than any loom heretofore made in England, and of larger size. 2. Eight treadles do the work of thirty-two treadles, in the com- mon loom. 3. The common loom is limited to forty lashes, the improved one extends to 180 lashes; so that it is capable of producing work of great- ly superior richness and fineness. * London, 1823. p. 195. 173 [175 ] 4. The common loom makes only one ribbon at a time, and produces at the rate of about H piece per week. Mr. T.'s make four at once. Mr. T.'s loom allows the weaver to put any quantity of plain work that he pleases between the pattern, without changing the figure. 6. The weaver may instantly throw off the figure altogether, and produce plain ribbons, whenever work of this kind is required; whereas, all the present figure looms must continue making the particular figure for which they have been mounted. Fifty guineas and a gold medal, were presented to Mr. Thompson for this great improvement in the art of ribbon weaving. In the 7th volume of the elaborate work by Borgnis, on arts and manufactures, there is another description of a ribbon loom, for weav- ing many pieces at the same time, with plates. The Nouvelle Ency- clopedie Methodique contains ten double quarto plates, equivalent to twenty single plates of machinery, for the manufacture of several pieces of ribbon at once. It is probable that they represent the old ma- chinery, but they may doubtless be referred to with advantage, as they are large and very distinct. These three works are in the library of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, and may be con- sulted by artists, upon application to the Librarian, Mr, John Vaughan. Improved French Looms. In the year 1808, Mr. Jacquart, of Lyons, in France, invented a loom intended to do the work commonly effected by draw-boys, in the manufacture of figured stuff* for which he received a premium of 3,000 francs from the Society for the Encouragement of National In- dustry. This admirable invention remained unknown to the English until the year 1816, when it was seen by Mr. William Hale, and men- tioned by him to several silk manufacturers; one of whom, Mr. Ste- phen Wilson went over to France, and introduced it into England, t with improvements. The loom is applicable alike to silk, cotton, woollen, and linen stuffs. The specification of Mr. W. 's patent is in- serted in the Repertory of Arts, vol. 44, p. 257, with a plate. It is also described, but without a plate, in Borgnis' work, vol. 1, p. 267. The great advantages of Jacquart's loom, consist in — 1. Enabling every plain weaver to become a figured weaver, to make goods which they have the greatest difficulty in making in Spi- talfields. 2. In their being but one treadle. Instead of a number of treadles, or cords, which a boy stands to pull up and down, as in the common loom, the weaver has only to tread on that one treadle, and to throw the shuttle. 3. In enabling the weaver to change a pattern in a few minutes, while the common loom requires many days or weeks. * That is, pulling- down the cords, to work a number of treadles at a time. •j- Minutes of the evidence taken before the Committee of the Lords on the Silk Trade, June 25, 1823, p. 12. Do. July 3, 1823, p. 174. <9^ I 175 ] 174 The great superiority of this loom over the common kind, is further proved by the following facts: One man can make one hundred yards of figured stuff in twenty-five days. Mr. Stephen Wilson, who intro- duced this loom into England from France, in his examination before the Committee of the British House of Commons, on the silk trade, said, " here are a number of works that have been made with it, (pro- ducing a shawl;) this shawl has one thousand two hundred Cords. I never knew of a loom of that number of cords in Spitalfields. Here is another work (producing another shawl) of six hundred cords; the vvreaver does all himself. It is also adapted for damask, which is one of the heaviest kinds of work. I always consider two yards and a half a good day's work for a weaver; and I have had made from three to four yards a day; and this is shot with worsted, which requires a stronger blow. Generally, they are drawn every four shoots; but this is drawn every shoot, which makes it a more difficult work : this pat- tern is three yards long, but it can be made of any length whatever. I have now a pattern going on with 7,000 lashes. If I am not too sanguine, my idea of this machinery is, that it is of as much conse- quence to the silk manufacture of this country, (England) as Ark- wright's machine was to cotton ; and that it will supersede a great deal of the machinery now in use." Le Brunts Loom. Mr. Le Brun, of Lyons, has more recently invented a loom, with objects similar to those effected by Mr. Jacquart's apparatus. It is composed of five stages, and the mechanism, which is simple, allows one man to weave five pieces at the same time. Borgnis, speaking of it, says: *'This apparatus is highly ingenious, easy of execution, and costs but little : it accomplishes fully the object of the inventor, with- out increasing the trouble of the workman, who is enabled to dispense with the aid of a draw-boy, as the machine performs his duty with the greatest precision. The harmony of the work, of the several parts, and the order of the design, are admirable."* Borgnis gives an out- line of a description of Jacquart's and Le Brun's looms; but the utter impossibility of finding any who could translate the technical phrases into English, prevented its insertion, t A manufacturer of figured stuffs would be amply repaid by going to Paris to procure one of these looms, models of which are deposited in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metieres." English Patents* Philip Shell, of Kensington, for improvement in machinery for drawing, roving, and spinning hemp, flax, and waste silk| — Februarv, 1823. * Vol. 1. p. 265. •[• No dictionary contains the names of the numerous parts- t Repertory of Patent InventionSt vol. 2d, p. ^&5: 1826 175 [ 175 ] William Godman, of Coventry, for ^^ new arrangement of the shut- tles in the slays, as connected with the batton, and the suspending of the knotted parts of the lashes, on one set of shafts, to arrange with the same. This invention applies to that description of looms called ** Dutch engine looms," employed to weave narrow articles"* — Sep- tember, 1822. T. Wm. Stansfield, of Leeds, for improvements in looms for weaving fabrics composed, in whole or in part, of woollen, worsted. Cotton, linen, silk, or other material! — July, 1825. Richard Badnall, Jun. of Leek, Staffordshire, for improvements in the manufacturing of silk, including the winding of silk, and for spin- ning, doubling, and throwing it, by one operation — July, 1825. J Be Bergues^ Power Loom. In the London Register of Arts, vol. 3, p. 83, § is a series of cuts representing this new loom, which was the subject of a lecture by the President of the London Mechanic Institution. It may be used either as a hand loom or a power loom, and is entirely composed of cast iron, with the exception of the axis, which, carrying all the moving eccentrics, or cams, requires great strength, and is of wrought iron. When used as a power loom, motion may be communicated to it by a wheel, which is turned by the hand, by steam, or water. A single wheel will give motion to several looms, and a steam engine will, of course, work a much larger number. The machine was worked be- fore the audience. In two minutes, one inch and sixteenths of a web were manufactured. When worked as a power loom, by means of a fly-wheel, one of the silk threads broke, and the motion immediately ceased. The manner in which this was effected was described. One advantage of this loom is, that no inconvenience is ever experienced from the uncertain stroke of the lay and shuttle, as it is uniform and invariable. Another is, that one movement does the work, and one hand is sufficient to work it. Thus, a weaver with his family, may become a power loom weaver: for by a wheel in the corner of his room, and one child, or a laborer, to turn it, he can superintend two or more looms. The receding motion of the lay being slower than the advancing motion, (an advantage which is absolutely necessary for weav- ing silk,) gives a greater time to the shuttle to pass slower, and, con- sequently, enables the weaver to put a more tender shoot in his shuttle^ or to weave a broader cloth. The shuttle will pass from 60 to 130 times per minute, according to the will of the weaver, and always with the same uniformity. Another recommendation is, the ease with which the weaver can regulate its different motions by tightening or loosening the pressing screws, on the only axis there used, by which the motion must always be uniform and regular, one part with another; * Repertory of Patent Inventions, vol. 44, for 1824, p. 8. I Do do vol. 2, for 1826, p. 96. t Bo do vol. 2, p. 227: 1826 ^ 1826.. I 175 3 176 to this may be added its probable durability, without repair; those parts which are most likely to be deranged will not require two shil- lings to repair them. KendalVs Domestic Power Loom. In the Register of Arts, vol. 3, p. 11 3, is a figure and description of this loom. It is said to be effectual and simple: a boy of twelve years of age, with a proper fly-wheel, will find no difficulty in turning six or eight of them when the work is plain. For rich works, an able weaver, with good materials, will be able to work two looms. The machine works steadily, and with few stickings. In one experiment, two pieces of silk were made, with a very slight application of the hand. It operates exactly as the common hand loom, and every de- scription of fabrics can be woven by it. The arrangements prepara- tory to weaving are similar to those of a common loom. The patentee resides at No. 8, Pater Noster Row, St. Paul's, Lon- don. Patent toH. R. Fanshaw, London, silk-em,hosser, for his invention of improved apparatus for spinning, doubling and twisting, or throwing Silk. — Passed August 12,1825.* The subjects of this patent are described as consisting of four par- ticulars; first, a new arrangement or disposition of vertical or horizon- tal bobbins, to be employed for the purpose of spinning and doubling silk: second, a new mode of forming the flyers, with double arms, for guiding the threads on to the bobbins: third, a contrivance for throwing the bobbins in and out of action; and fourth, a mode of retaining the horizontal bobbins against the bearing board. The annexed cut shows the arrangement of the several parts of the machine; a a, are the verti- cal bobbins, turning loosely upon the spindles h b, which, with the fly- ers c c, are made to revolve by means of the cords extending from the rotary pulley d. The silk passes from the bobbins a, upwards, through eyes e, over a glass rod f, between the drawing rollers g, which ar- rangement of the parts, so far, is the same as in ordinary machines for throwing silk. The silk threads from the two or more bobbins a a, are delivered from the drawing rollers to the bobbin flyer of the horizontal bobbin h, which being turned by a cord from the before-mentioned pulley d, Causes the silken threads to be doubled and wound upon the horizontal bobbin; the traversing of the bearing plate ^, causing the bobbin to be slidden along the spindle, so that the silk shall be evenly wound upon the bobbin. Such is the disposition of the machinery which, though not new in its separate parts, is herein claimed as new in its arrangement, and is employed in the way described for the production of organzine, or of '^ From the London Journal of Arts and Sciences, by W. Newton, vol. xiii, p. 265 177 [ 175 ] sewing silk; but, when another description of silk, called Bergam, is to be prepared, then only one of the vertical bobbins is to be put in opera- tion, and another thread is to be drawn from the stationary bobbin A,v When very delicate threads are to be twisted, and doubled, it is pro- posed to use a flyer, similar to that shown at figure 2, with the ends turning down, and forming loops or eyes for the fine threads to pass through. In case of any of the threads breaking, it would be necessa- ry to stop the bobbin connected with it. This is done by moving the lever /, which turns upon the fulcrum pin 7?i, fixed in a stationary bar crossing the machine. This lever embraces a clutchbox ?^, attached to the rotary shaft on which the pulley d turns, and by moving the lever / to the right or left by the handle o, the pulley d is locked into gear, with the rotary shaft, or taken out of gear, and made stationary. As any sudden starting of the bobbins would endanger breaking the threads, it is contrived that the pulley d, shall be gradually put into gear, which is done by a circular inclined plane, on the face of the pulley, and a pin on the inner side of the clutch. The clutch being slidden by the lever towards the pulley, its pin moves upon the circular inclined plane un- til it comes to the end, and there, striking against the raised edge, car- ries the pulley round with it. The lever is held in its proper position by a spring catch at o. The bobbin is held against the bearing board by a spring latch jo, which falls into a groove at the foot of the bobbin. These new ar- rangements are deemed by the trade very important improvements. Improved Power Loom. By J . H . Sadler, of Middlesex, machinist The object of the patentee, is to give motion to the operative part? of a loom, by means of a rotary power, so applied, that its mecha- nism shall occupy no greater space than is required for the standing of an ordinary loom. To effect this object, the main rotary shaft, which I 175 ] 178 receives its motion from a steam-engine, or other first mover, is placed at the top of the loom; and, by means of cam.s and tappots affixed to the main shaft, the headles are moved up and down, which open the sheds of the warp; the lay or batten is made to oscillate, and the shut- tle is projected to and fro, at the proper intervals of time. This loom is also adapted to the weaving cotton, linen, wool, flax, and hemp, and mixtures thereof.* Plates accompany the specification. Jimeriean Winding, Doubling, and Twisting Machine, The Messrs. Terhoeven, brothers, of Philadelphia county, have re- cently invented a simple and ingenious machine, for winding silk from cocoons, and for doubling and twisting the thread at the same time. These operations, it is believed, have never before been united in the same machine. It answers the object intended perfectly. A fringe weaver, who has seen the silk thread finished on this machine, pro- nounced it equal to any imported. The Board intrusted with the management of the fund left by the late John Scott, of Edinburgh, to the corporation of Philadelphia, for the distribution of premiums ^' to ingenious men and women, who make useful inventions and im- provements," have awarded a medal and twenty dollars to the in- ventors. Recent Imjrrovenient in Silk iveaving. Stephen Wilson, a silk manufacturer, when examined before the Committee of the House of Commons on the Silk Trade, July 3, 1823, stated, that the following improvement had been made in Eng- land and Scotland In Scotland and Norwich they have shifting boxes, which save much trouble in changing the shuttles, so that a weaver can shoot dif- ferent colors as ^ast as he could a single one. They have also lifting boxes. The shifting boxes are generally confined to three or four shuttles; the lifting boxes go as far as twelve or sixteen colors, which the weaver shoots with the fly, one after another. In Scotland they have also many improvements in w^caving, which we know very little of in Spitalfields. They have what they call lappets, a quantity of needles that rise near the battens, and serve instea4-of brocading. They have also another very ingenious plan, which they call circles. In Spitalfields we brocade each of these figures with small shuttles, separately; but in Scotland the circles do all at one time, which is a great improvement in lessening labor. They have also what they call the cylinder or barrel weaving, which enables the weaver to dispense with a draw- hoy in heavy works. And they have another method of weaving in the old damask loom, which is a very important one; and which is done by what they call a comb: this species of mounting is very much introduced for damask table cloth weaving. A gentleman * London Journal of Arts and Sciences. Bv W, Newton^ Jiilv. 1P.?7 179 [ 175 ] from Westmoreland a few days ago, informed me he had a work mak- ing on this plan, with 14,000 lashes; that he had heen in Spitalfields, and was surprised to see how far behind they were in damask weav- ing: for that they had no improvement upon the old looms. There is also a loom invented by Mr. Roberts, of Manchester, for which he has taken out a patent, of which I have heard a great deal, but have not seen it. Question. Are the shawls )"ou have produced, made by the improved machinery to which you have alluded? — They are; I never could get them made on the old plan; owing to the immense weight, and the quantity of lash, it never would work clear. They are now made with one treadle, and the facility with which the weaver changes his pattern is such, that he makes four, five, and six different patterns in one week, besides changing his figure at the border. Method of preventing the loateinng of Silks ivithout the use of a knee roll. * There are two imperfections which silks, especially plain ones, are liable to acquire in the loom. One called cocldin, is merely an un- evenness of the surface, and arises usually from one longitudinal edge or selvage of the piece being more stretched than the other, in conse- quence of its not being wrapped evenly round the roll or cylinder of the loom. The other imperfection, called watering, is a wav}'^ or streaky appearance, produced by a play of light on the surface of the silk, though that surface may be quite smooth. The cause of this wavy appearance is not completely understood, but appears, in a great mieasure, to depend on unequal pressure being given to the piece while on the roll. It is well known that the highest polish and gloss is given to silk in the hank by twisting it hard, and, at the same time, giving it a kind of oscillating movement, so that each individual thread may be rubbed repeatedly on those with which it is in contact, whereby they mutually polish each other. Now, a piece of silk, in the pro- cess of manufacture, may be conceived to be placed in circumstances considerably favorable to the production of this partial polish, if, when rolled tight, and rather unevenly on the roll, it is subject to th-e vibra- tion occasioned by the stroke of the lay upon the weft, which take,? place after every throw of the shuttle. The contrivance which used to be resorted to, in order to prevent the watering of silks, was by means of a knee roll. The five or six yards, which constitute an average day's work, being first rolled on the large or breast roller, during the weaving, were every evening transferred to a smaller roll, called, from its position, a knee roll. In doing this, great care was required to lay each fold precisely upon the preceding one, a manipulation that occupied about half an hour; and the silk, by frequent handling, was apt to become soft and less sale- .^ble. Of late years, attempts, more or less successful, have been made * Trans. Society of Arts, London, vol.. 4?- [ 175 ] 180 to avoid the use of the knee roll, by inserting a sheet of thin glazed pasteboard, at certain intervals between the folds of silk on the breast roll, which, from its elasticity, yields to the vibration of the loom, without communicating any motion to the silk, while its own smooth surface allows it to move a little on the surface of the silk, without any injurious friction. The most successful application of this contri- vance, has been made by Mr. Peter Caron, which, although perhaps, in part, to be attributed to his own individual dexterity, (for, by the testimony of the foreman of Mr. Leveque, for whom he works, he ap- pears to be a remarkably careful skilful weaver,) has been considered by the society worthy of being made public for the benefit of others in the same trade, both workmen and masters. The process is the following: After a porry (a quantity of five or six yards) has been wove, and rolled on the breast roll in the usual way, during the weaving, it is to be unrolled, and carefully rolled again as evenly as possible; a sheet of pasteboard, or pressers' paper, being put in the last turn. When a second porry has been finished, it is to be again rolled as above describ- edjthe sheet of pasteboard inserted in the last fold of the former porr}'-, be- ing first removed ; but, at the end of every second porry, or twelve yards of work, the pasteboard which has been inserted is to remain until the piece is finished, especial care being taken that the pasteboard lies as close on the roll as the work itself does. Mr. Caron has practised this method for three years, and, during that time, has not had a piece in the slightest degree watered. The kinds of work to which it has been applied, have been Gros de Naples, Florentines, and double-twilled sarsnets. Extracts from the Minutes of Evidence taken hy Committees of both Houses of the Parliament of England, on the subject of the Silk trade and Silk manufacture, in the year 1821.^ Enoch Durant, a silk broker. — Silk is principally imported from Bengal, China, Italy, and Turkey. The average, of late years, amounts fully to a million eight hundred thousand pounds. Bengal sends about eight hundred thousand pounds, somewhat under; China about one * when any subject of commerce, manufacture or internal improvement, is brought before Parliament, the House, instead of considerin.^ itself ex officio inspired, and fully competent to decide on the occasion, appoint a committee to examine and report on it, with authority to send for persons and papers. This committee, if they find it necessary, sit durin^^ the recess, and examine intelligent men, practically ac- quainted witli the subject before them, from \a horn all the information )-equisite to elucidate it, is obtained; and, after athoroug-li and patient inveariei-ation of it, a bill, founded thereon, is brought forward. The minutes of the evidence are reg-tdarly pub- iished, to show the grounds of the provisions in the bill laid before the House. In this way the despatch of tl»e public business is not only greatly promoted, but thou- sands of pounds are annually saved or gained to the nation, not in the way of daily pay, by preventing debates of weeks or months, (for the members receive no pay,j bat by the proposed improvem.ent Uking place, nrby a wise lawgohiginto speedy operation, or by the repeal of one which has been proved to be injurious to the prosperity of the country. Boc. ns^-page 180. TABLE of the rearing of Silkworms to the Sixth Age, from, one ounce of Eo-g-. 1st (lay-1 2d do ■ 3il do 4th do 5tli do f lstday-1 2rl dn I I'ltlH Age .< .1.281 Tender young leaves, chopped fine; four meals, progressively increased. '' " " tl'e first the largest, the last the smallest ** '* four meals. The first meal of 9 oz. the others less, if tlio leaves h,ave not been eaten. Tender leaves, chopped fine. Worms casting their first skins. Half tender branches and half leaves, cut fine; the first meal twelve ounces, the other leaver in t«-^ ^. i Tender leaves, four meals; tlie two first less than the two last. Enlarge the spaces "'"''■ *' *' the two first the largest. " ." distributed as wanted. Worms casting their second skins. Half tender branches, half leaves a little chopped; second meal 1 lb. 14 oz. Chopped leaves, four meals; tlie two first less than the two last. Enlarge the spaces. " ** the two first the largest. " ** " " the last, least. " " distributed as retjuired. Third casting of their skins. ** ** " ** Worms are roused. 9 lbs. of branches, 14 lbs. of leaves, cut coarsely; give the branches first. Leaves coarsely cut, fom- meals; the two first tlie smallest. Enlarge the spaces. " " three meals; the tln-ee first the least, the last 17 lbs. 4 oz. Whole leaves, four meals; the three first 16 lbs. 4 oz. the last lOilbs. Picked leaves distributed as wanted; the first meal the largest. ** " " *' Worms prepare to cast their skins. Leaves as wanted. Worms are roused. Half branches and half leaves. Enlarge the spaces. Picked leaves, four meals; the first the smallest, 12 lbs. the last 22 lbs. " the first meal 2S lbs. the last 27 lbs. 12 ounces. " " 27 lbs. 12 oz. the last 37^ lbs. ** ** 37i lbs. tile second 46 !bs. 14 ounces. ** four meals, die last the most abundant. ** ** the first meal tlie largest, the rest to lessen gradually. ** four or five meals, the first the largest, 46 lbs. 14 ounces. " distributed as wanted. Worms approach maturity. " • *< ** if not enough, give more. The table is taken from the work by Bonafous, of Piedmont, on Silkworms. Lyons, 1824. The measures and weights are French. The French foot is divided into 12 inches, and the inch into 12 lines. It is nine lines more than the American foot, or one foot 7-100 American, nearly. Six French feet are six feet four inches American; twelve French feet are twelve feet nine inches American, fractions omitted; 93.89 French feet make 100 feet American. Those who intend to regulate the spaces by the rules of either Dandolo or Bonafous, may easily do so, by noting the dimensions of each hurdle or feeding frame. (See chap. 5 ) It will be seen, by referring to chap. 13, tliat the spaces prescribed by Bonafous, are greater than those marked by Dandolo. The dimensions of this author, may be considered, as a minimum, or the least that can be allowed, to secure the health of silkworms. It cannot be too often repeated, that the constant role to be attended to, is to give the worms ample space, ai)d never to permit them to be crowded. The spaces, as set down in the table, when reduced to American measure, are as follow, fractions omitted: Feet. Inches. Feet. 9 6 21 52 124 272, The quantities of leaves marked for the several days andages, are those which have been found sufficient. The knowledge of the precise proportions may be usefiil, if a great quantity of worms be reared, when leaves are bought; or when persona are hired to collect th«m, by enabUng the proprietor to make his contracts for the daily supplies; and by preventing the unnecessary waste of leaves, and surfeiting the worms, when he owns the trees. It should always be kept in mind, that, besides these reasons, a superabundance of food greatly in- creases the trouble of the attendants, from the litter it produces. The proportions prescribed by Bonafous, when reduced to American weights, are as follow, omitting fractions; lbs. lbs. oz. 12 21 210 229 8 1,281 - 1,400 In Chap. 8, it will be seen, that the weights of leaves are greater than those prescribed by Dandolo. ~3aaHB4P|pA 181 [ 175 ] hundred thousand pounds; Turkey the same. The remainder comes from Italy — about eight hundred thousand pounds. The duties on raw silk are as follow: Bengal 4s.; Italian, Turkey, and China, 5s. Ihd. per pound. Italian organzine, 14:S. 6d. to 14,9. I^d. per pound. Prices paid for organzine silk in England, 7^. to 10^. per pound; the waste is from three to fifteen per cent. No organzine is made in France; they prepare their own trams and singles. China silk is applicable to hosiery — the Italian is not. John Thorpe, rihhon manufacturer. — The price for making organ- zine in Italy, is from 3,^. to 4^. per pound. There is a great difference in the size and goodness of the silk to work. In England it costs from 7^. to \0s. per pound to make it. The French are superior to the En- glish in ribbons, but inferior in hosiery. China silk goods are heavier than English, but not of a better quality. The China ravv^ silk is equal to most Italian, and better than any J3engal. John De Ferre, a silk merchant. — In the Bengal silk there is a kind of cottony or fuzzy substance, which is thrown up into a pile or knap when woven. This is not perceived in the raw silk of Italy, France. or Turkey. The price of Bengal silk per pound, duty included, is from 14.?. to 2>0s.; that of Italian raw silk, from \Ss. to 35,y. Stephen Wilson, a silk manufacturer. — Nearly two millions of pounds weight of raw and thrown silks are annually imported into England; it gives employment to 40,000 hands, in throwing it for the weaver, and their wages are ^6350,000. Half a million pounds of soap and a large proportion of the most costly die stuffs, are consumed at a further expense of £300,000; and £265,000 more are paid to winders to prepare it. The number of looms may be taken at 40,000, and the weavers, warpers, mechanics, &c. will- employ 80,000 more persons, and their wages will amount to £3,000,000. Including infants and dependants, 400,000 mouths will be fed by this manufacture; the amount of which I estimate at £10,000,000. The price of dying white at Lyons, is fifteen sous, or seven pence half penny per pound; and colors 24 sous, or one shilling. In England the price of the first is 2s., and of the latter, from 2s. 6d. to As. The drawback on silk goods, in England, is \2s. per pound — ribbons lO-y. English silk goods are exported chiefly to the Brazils, and other parts of South America. The labor in preparing raw silk, affords much more employment to the country producing it, than any other raw material. The defect complained of in the Bengal gilk, is in the preparation- There is nothing in the nature of the silk, which should not render il applicable to every purpose of Italian silk/ [ 175 ] lSi2 APPENDIX. TREATISE ON DYING SILK. To cleanse Silk. This operation consists in depriving silk of the principles which af- fect its whiteness and flexibility. Monsieur Roard read before the Institute of France a very interesting memoir on this subject; of which the following is the result.* 1. That all unbleached yellow silk contains gum, coloring matter, wax, and a volatile odoriferous oil, analogous to essential oils, extract- ed from many vegetables. 2. That all white, unbleached silks, yield, also, gum, wax, and oil, slightly colored, which seems to bear some relation to the liquor contained in the chrysalis of the silkworm. The gum is dry, friable, and, when powdered, is of a clear, yellow- ish, red color, soluble in water, but scarcely soluble in alcohol. It amounts to from 23 to 24 per cent. The coloring matter is resinous, of a reddish brown color, and of a beautiful yellowish green, when powdered, and of a strong odour; soluble in boiling soap and water, i^carcely in caustic alkali. It exists in the proportion of from -^-^ to -^^ per cent. The wax is hard, but brittle, and slightly coloured: insoluble in wa- ter, but easily soluble in alkalies and soap. The fine silks of China, Saint Ambroix; and of Rocquemarre, have much less of this substance than the other unbleached silks of France, and especially those of Ital}-. The proportion of wax is from ^^o ^^ T^o °^ ^^^^ weight of silk. 3. That the silks which yield the finest white, are the very white unbleached silks, and the yellow unbleached silks of a fine golden co- lor: and that all the other silks, which are more or less dull, and in which the gum has undergone any change of condition, either by rea- son of sickness, or bad nutriment of the worms, or by the destruction of the chrysalis in too great a heat, or by winding, ill-conducted, will never attain more than a dull white, always somewhat colored, unless they be exposed, in the unbleached state, to the action of sulphureous gas. 4. That light bleaches the yellow and w^hite silks, without altering their lustre, or their solidity; and that this agent may be employed to much advantage, either before or after they are cleansed. Four or five days exposure to the sun is sufficient to efiect this object. * Memoirs of tlie Tnstitute, for the year 1808, (class of Mathematical and Physical Sciences,) vol viii. p. 552. It gives all the particulars of the experiments which led to the above interesting results. Monsieur Hoard is a practical chemist, and was formerly director of the diei's' department in the Gobelin manufactoiy of Paris. 183 [ 175 'J 5. That water, alcohol, the acids, and even the alkalies, do not en- tirely dissolve, equally well as the soap, the matters contained in the silk; and that this agent ought to continue to be exclusively preferred in the cleansing of silks, to all the above substances. 6. That the oxi-muriatic acid changes the properties of the gum, di- minishes its affinity to water, and assimilates it to the resins^ by rcn- dering it soluble in alcohol. 7. That the silk, after being separated, by cleansing, from all the substances which concealed its whiteness and its brilliancy, loses af- terwards in this bath, by the continued action of the soap, all the pro- perties that it acquired by it; becoming dull, stiff, and colored, by the solution of more or less of its texture; a solution which is effected by all liquids, and which takes place even in boiling water. It is to this cause, hitherto unknown, that we must attribute the impossibility of impregnating the silks, whilst hot, with alum, and the destruction of apart of their brilliancy, in all the colors somewhat brown, for which we are obliged to employ the heat of boiling water. 8. That these great inconveniences may be obviated, by causing the silks to be boiled no longer than is necessary for cleansing them com- pletely; and by submitting them only to moderate heats, in all the operations of dying. 9. That copper vessels cause some trouble, owing to the ease with which they oxidate, and discolor the silk, as has been shown in his memoir on aluming. 10. That it is highly important to employ very pure water, free from calcareous impregnation, but not in unnecessary quantities, in order not to increase the proportion of injurious salts, and not to weak- en the force of the solvent. The proper proportions for this operation,, as ascertained after many experiments on a large scale, are seven or eight pounds of water to one of silk; and one-twelfth, or one-sixth, is sufficient for the greater num- ber of colors: for yellow unbleached silks, and, above all, for those of Grenada (Spain) it is necessary to add from 50 to 60 per cent. The greatest quantities do not produce a very sensible effect upon those silks: for we cannot make them as white as those unbleached white silks cleansed with 25 per cent, of soap, even by the combined action of equal weights of soap and sulphureous gas. 11. Experiments have shown that all silks are completely cleansed in less than an hour; and that they lose their coloring and waxy mat- ters, in proportion to the quantity of soap which the cleansing bath contained. 12. The operations of ungumming, boiling, and bleaching, which take up six hours, may be reduced to one operation, of an hour, with t)he same quantity of soap. I propose, then, the following method to cleanse silks. To boil, for an hour, all yellow and white silks, with five parts of water to one of silk, and a quantity of soap, which may be determined according to the colors intended to give them; to put the silks and soap in the water only half an hour before the moment of obuUition, taking core 1o turn them nften. Lon^; boilins: causes the [ 175 ] 184 silk to lose a portion of its substance, and, in doing so, it also lose« its brilliancy and solidity. Dr. Bancroft says, that " silk ought never to be subjected to a boil- ^'ing heat, either when the mordant is applied, or afterwards, in the *^ dying operation; where a high temperature, besides injuring the ** texture and lustre of the silk, would detach and separate the mor- **dant before the coloring matter could have combined, and produced **an insoluble union with both.''* The injury of subjecting silk to a boiling heat, is further proved by the experiments of those eminent French chemists, Thenard and Ho- ard, which show that " alumed silks take color more intensely when **they are died at a low temperature, than when they are plunged at *^ once into boiling water. The reason is, that, in the first case, the "action of the boiling water on the mordants is so quick, that the co- " loring matter has not time to be fixed on it, in order to give insolu- '*bility to the combination; but, in the second case, this cannot take *' place. '^t Of unguniming and boiling Silk for white.X Make up the silk into hanks, that is to say, run a thread around each hank, which consists of a certain quantity of skeins tied together. After that, the hanks are to be untied, and several of them to be bound together to make up a bundle, the size and names whereof vary ac- cording to the nature of the article to be manufactured. This precaution of making up into hanks is necessary, that the silk may be more easily managed, more conveniently handled, and to pre- vent them from being entangled. After this operation, soap is to be dissolved in water, heated in a kettle, in the proportion of thirty pounds to every hundred weight of silk. (A dier of silk, to whom these directions were submitted, says, ^Uhat 15 lbs. of soap are enough for 100 lbs. of silk; more would '^ destroy its lustre." The kind of soap will cause difference in re- sults.) Cut the soap into small slices, to promote its solution; after the soap has been dissolved, the kettle is to be filled up with fresh wa- ter, and the doors of the furnace closed, leaving only a few live coals in it, in order that the bath may be kept quite hot, but without boil- ing; for, should the bath boil, it would cause the silk to open, and t© become flossy, more particularly the fine silk. Whilst this bath is preparing^ the hanks are to be put upon the pegs, or pins, and w^hen the bath is ready, the silk is to be put into it, and left therein, until all the part dipped is wholly freed from its gum; which will be easily seen, by the whiteness and flexibility which the silk acquires when deprived of it. The hanks are then placed again on the rods, to undergo the same operation in the parts not yet steeped; they are then to be taken out of the bath, in proportion as they are * Philosophy of Permanent Colors, vol. 1. p. 289. \ Aniiiiles de Chimie, June, 1810. \ Nouveau Manuel du Teihturier par Balllot, Maitre Teinturier. — Paris, 1810. iba i 175 J lound divested of their gum, because the hanks which have been first soaked, are always sooner freed from the gum than the other. The silk, being thus ungummed, is to be wrung upon the pins to remove the soap in it; then to be dressed; that is to say, it is to be ar- ranged upon the pins, and upon the hands, in order to disentangle it; then a cord is to be run through the hanks, to keep them down during the boiling: this is termed putting on the line. About eight or nine hanks may be placed upon a cord; after this, the silks are to be put into bags of strong coarse linen. These bags are to be fourteen or fif- teen inches wide, and four or five feet long, and closed at both ends, but open the whole length of the side. When the silk is placed in them, they are to be stitched up the full length of the side with pack thread, W'hich is to be knotted at the end when the sewing is done. From twenty-five to thirty pounds of silk are put into each bag: this operation is called bagging. After this, a new soap bath is to be prepared like the former, withi the same quantity of soap per cent. ; and when it is dissolved, and the boiling stopped by means of fresh water, the bags are to be put into it, to undergo a strong boiling for a quarter of an hour; when it begins to boil over, it is to be checked by a little cold water. During the boil, care must be taken to stir often with a bar or stafif, and to bring up to the top such bags as are at the bottom, to prevent the silk from burn- ing, by lying too long at the bottom of the caldron. This move- ment causes the silk to boil with more uniformity and readiness. This operation is performed with silks which are to remain white.* Of the boiling of Silks which are to he died. For boiling silks intended for common colors, we put twenty pounds of soap to each cwt. of raw silk. The process of boiling is the same as the one just described, with this difierence only, that, as the silk is not to be freed from its gum, the boiling is to continue three hours and a half, or four hours, taking care to fill up, from time to time, with water. If the silks are intended to be died blue, or iron gray, sulphur, or other colors, which require to be set in a very deep white ground, in order to acquire the desired beauty, there are to be used thirty pounds * The process for ungiimmlng and boiling silk for white, is more fall in Homasse^ and may be seen in Dr. Cooper's work. The process for dying fine crimson is that long since published by Macquer, and is given by Dr. Cooper, Vitalis, Berg^ues, {a) and Baillot. The passage having been translated from the last author, and printed before this fact was discovered, it is retained; the receipt is probably the best extant. Before diers condemn any process, they ought to reflect upon the following causes, which more or less influence their success. 1. The purity of the water. 2. The de- gree of heat to which it is raised. 3. The nature of the metal of the boiler. 4. Its state of cleanliness. 5. The length of time in which the article is boiled. 6. The quality of the vegetable die, as connected with its growth, preparation, time of dn^- ing the plant, the age of the infusion. 7. The purity of the mordant, and of the acids and salts used to fix it; mode of using them; the proportions used. 8. Tho state of tlie atmosphere when the dying process is going on. There may even be other causes, which contribute to success or defeat. 'aH-Mrtrtu Teintorier, Pari?. 1827. 24 I 176 ] iSb of soap per hundred weight of silk, and the boiling is to continue, as before, during three or four hours. When the silks are boiled, they are to be taken out of the kettle. For this purpose, a stick is put under the bag, resting the stick on the edge of the kettle; and the bag raised gradually, and then to be placed upon a shelving table of white pine. It is then to be ripped or unstitched, and the silks taken out, in order to examine if they be well boiled, or if there be any part of them biscuit, (improperly so termed by the diers,) that is to say, if there be any parts which the liquid has not sufficiently penetrated. This is easily seen, by the yellow and a certain kind of slime remaining on those parts. Should this defect be discovered, they must be put in again, to boil during some hours; and when the silk is found to be well boiled, the bags are to be taken out, in the manner already de- scribed. The silkc ommonly loses one-fourth of its weight in boiling; there are some silks, as the wefts in Spain, Valencia, &c., w^hich lose two or three per cent. more. Of White. There are five sorts of white, or rather principal shades of white, which are called China white, India white. Paste white, or milk white, silver white, and blue azure white. All these kinds of white differ only by very slight shades, but which, however, are perceptible when compared with one another. The three first whites are boiled and freed from their gum, in the manner before described; but as to the silver white, and the blue white, it is proper to put some blue (azure) in the process of ungumming, which is done in the following manner. Some fine indigo is to be washed twice or thrice, in moderately hot water, then pounded in a mortar, boiling water poured over it, and left to settle till the gross parts of the indigo subside: the clear water only is used: this is what is termed azure by diers. When the boiling goes on, the silk is to be stirred up and down, and movedl round about by the means of the pot stick or half-bar; but, instead of placing the silk on a shelving table to drain, the bags are put into the long trough, (barque) full of clear water, opened, and taken out of it, leaving the silk behind. The silk is then spread out on a cord in the water, after which it is to be taken out and put on the shelving table, which is to be laid across the trough over which the silk is drained. After that it is to be dressed, and formed into hanks, in order to be wound or twisted. The bleeching is to be done as foh lows: A large kettle is filled with clear water: to thirty buckets-full, about one pound and a half of soap are to be added and boiled, and when the soap is dissolved, the silk is to be put into the kettle on rods, and passed through it as follows: For the China white a little annotto is to be mixed with the bath, if we wish to have somewhat of a reddish tint. All the skeins arranged on the rods, are to be put into the bath, j^nd the rods to be placed with their ends on each brim of th^ vessel; 187 [ 175 J the skeins hanging vertically in the bath; then, one after another, the other ends are to be turned and dipped, in order that the parts of the skeins which were out, may be soaked in their turn. This operation (lisen) is to be repeated until the silk shall have uniformly assumed the tint that we wish to give it. For the Indian w^hite, a little azure is added, if it be desired to have the silk of a blueish cast. With respect to the thread white, and the other whites, a little azure iS added, in proportion to the shades which may be wanted. During the whole of this process, the bath should be hot, but not boiling; and the working is to be continued till the silk shall have acquired a uni- form or equal shade, which is usually effected after four or five work- ings. In proportion as the silks become equally finished, they are to be wrung upon the peg; after which, they are to be put upon the sticks in the drying room, or fumigated with sulphur, should it be necessary, as follows: Sulphuring. The silks which are to be sulphured, should be extended on poles placed at seven or eight feet from the ground, in a high apartment; without a chimney, or else a lofty garret where the air may freely cir- culate, by leaving the windows and doors open. For every hundred pounds of silk, nearly one pound and a half, or two pounds of roll brimstone are to be put into an earthen pan, or iron kettle, at the bot- tom of which a layer of ashes is to be placed. The rolls of brimstone are to be coarsely pounded, and placed in a heap upon the ashes; one of the bits of brimstone is to be lighted at a candle, and then applied to several parts of the heap to be set on fire. The apartment is then to be well closed; if there be a chimney in it, care must be taken to •stop it up well, to prevent the fumes of the brimstone from escaping; the brimstone is to be left burning under the silk during the night. The next day, the door and windows are to be opened, in order to let the smell of the brimstone escape, and to dry the silk, which will suffice in summer. In winter, after the smell is dissipated, the windows are to be closed, and live coals in chafing dishes, placed there to dry the silks. The fumigation with brimstone gives a certain firmness to the silk. There are stuffs which are always manufactured with raw silks, that is, silk reeled off dry from the cocoons, retaining all their gum and their natural stiffness, because those stuffs are designed to be firm ; such as the silk laces, known in commerce by the name of blond laces, gauzes, and others of the kind; nor are these silks boiled; all the other preparations for dying, are however applied to them. But then those which are naturally the whitest must be chosen, and immersed in the water, then wrung and sulphured; and after that they must receive the azure in the clear water, be wrung again, and fumigated with brimstone the second time . Experience has taught, that we may proceed as well by plunging Ihem into the soap bath, as for the bleaching, and heated to such a de- gree that the hand may be kept in it. [ 175 ] 188 They may be worked in this bath, adding a little azure to it, if ne cessary. When they are at the proper point, they are to be well washed in the river, which gives them the firmness they had lost in the soap water; afterwards they are to be wrung and sulphured. The fine Nankin or China silks, which are naturally of a very fine white, are in no need of this operation.* We owe to Beaume the discovery of a process by which the natu- ral stifihess of the silk is preserved, while it is rendered perfectly similar to that of China, with which they manufacture gauzes, blond lace, ribbons, &:c. This process consists in digesting, for twelve hours, six pounds of silk, in a mixture of forty-eight pounds of alcohol, at thirty degrees, and 12 ounces of muriatic acid, at fifteen degrees of concentration. ' This liquor is poured oflf when it has become slightly colored, and replaced with alcohol, which we pour over the silk until no more co- loring matter passes oflf with it. It is then covered with a similar mix- lure of alcohol and acid, as at first, which is allowed to stand on it two or three days, or until the silk be perfectly white. It is then freed from any remains of the acid and alcohol, by washing it in cold water. The silk bleached by this method and loosely dried, is without lus- tre. It ought to be strongly extended while dripping wet, and left to dry in this state of extension.! Of Mwniing. After having washed the silks, and divested them of the soap by giving them a beetling, a line or cord is passed through them, as when they are put to boil. They are put into the alum, all strung together, taking care that the hanks be not too much rolled up, or folded upon one another, and that the bundles, (cordees,) be not too much in the air, or at the surface, so that the whole may be well steeped. They are to be left in this state during eight or nine hours, commonly from night till morning, J afterwards they are to be washed and wrung with the hand, over the vessel: they are then carried back to the river to be washed, which is called refreshing; and beetled when necessary. The proportion of alum to be used, for a cask or tub of forty or fifty buckets full, is forty or fifty pounds, which should be first dissolved in a kettle of hot water; care must be taken, in pouring the solution of alum into the tub, to stir up and mix it, because the coldness of the water might produce a crystallization or congelation, as diers term it. We may put into such a bath about one hundred and fifty pounds of silk, without being under the necessity of adding more alum; but when we perceive that it begins to be weak, then there must be twenty or twenty-five pounds of alum dissolved in it, with the same precau- * Baillot, p. 98. t Chemistry applied to the Arts, by ehaptal, p. 422. Paris, \W17. ^ A dier says that four hours of the alum steeping' is enou.^h- 1S9 C 175 3 lions as bel'ore given; and we should continue thus to add more alum, in proportion to the silks which are to be impregnated therewith, until the bath begins to have a bad smell; it is then to be drawn off, after steeping in it the silks intended for deep or dark colors, as brown, chestnut, &c. &c. and thrown away, the long trough (barque) cleaned, and a new bath to be got ready. The silk must be steeped in the alum water whilst it is cold; if it were warm, the silk would lose its lustre. Observations on Mum. As alum has been emphatically termed the "soul of dying," it is of immense importance to use it in a state of purity; on this account the following remarks are given. It is often combined with a portion of iron, which defeats the inten- tion of the dier. To free it from this metal. Dr. Cooper* directs to '^dissolve it in boiling water, and expose for a week or a fortnight in shallow vessels to the air. The iron will gradually be oxyded, and separate in the form of rust. Filter the solution, evaporate the water, and re-crystallize it." M. Vitalis directs to dissolve the alum, and crystalizeit: pour off the liquor that remains, and dry the crystals on absorbent paper. The presence of iron in alum is easily discovered by dissolving a small portion of this salt in distilled water, or in rain water, and add- ing a few drops of a solution of prussiate of potash. If the alum con- tains iron, a blue precipitate will immediately take place, which will be more or less deep, in proportion to the quantity of iron contained in the alum. Alum varies much in its composition; sometimes it is an acid sul- phate of alumine and potash: at others, in place of the latter, ammonia is found; and finally, both potash and ammonia enter into the com- pound, but although thus variously formed, it is equally proper for dying.* The regular form of alum is inoctoedral crystals; and when thus found, it is a definite compound. Inquiry has been made of the writer, as to the proper quantity of alkali to neutralize the excess in alum of sulphuric acid, which is inju- rious to colors. No positive quantity can be prescribed. The only certain mode to neutralize the acid, is to add a solution of alkali, until the earth of alum begins to precipitate. We may then be sure that the acid is fully neutralized. The Indigo -Blue Vat. For eight pounds of indigo, take six pounds of the best potash, from three to four ounces of madder, for each pound of potash, and eight pounds of bran, watered several times, in order to carry off its flour. When washed, press it to carry off most of its water, and place it at • Treatise on Dying, page 25, Philadelphia, 1815, t Vitalis, Cours Elementairc de Teinture, page 107 — Paris, 1827. [ 175 ] i9U the bottom of the vat; boil the potash a quarter oi an hour, in a kettle containing nearly the two-thirds of what it will hold; then leave it to settle, and put out the fire. Two or three days previously, eight pounds of indigo should have been set to steep in about one bucket of hot water; in this, it is to be carefully washed, changing the water, which assumes a reddish color. Some diers begin by boiling indigo in a ley made of one pound of potash, and two buckets of water: after which, it is to be pounded, wet as it is, in a mortar; when it begins to form a paste, some of the liquid just boiled is to be poured quite hot over it, till the mortar be full, and then rubbed for a certain time; the liquid is left to settle for some mo- ments, and the clear part taken off and set apart in a kettle, or put into the vat; then pour an equal quantity of the boiled liquid over the indigo, remaining in the mortar, which is to be rubbed again, and the clear part taken off, and put into the kettle, as at first. Repeat this opera- tion till the whole of the indigo be used, with the greatest part of the liquor of the bath. It is then to be poured by kettles-full over the bran in the bottom of the vat: then pour over it the rest of the brevet or re- freshing liquor, with its sediment or grounds. The whole is then stir- red or mixed with a stick, or wooden hoe, and left without fire, till the degree of its heat moderates, so as that we can bear the hand in the bath ; then a little fire is to be set round the vat to keep up the same degree of warmth; it must continue thus till it be perceived that the li- quor begins to turn green, which may be discovered by the help of a bit of white silk dipped in it. When it is in a state indicating that the process goes on well, give it a stirring with a stick, or hoe, in order to forward it, and to see if it in- cline to be mature; then let it settle till a scum, or brown and coppery pellicle is seen rising to the surface, which shows that the bath is ready. In order to be sure that it is ripe, observe if it be well crusted, and if, on blowing upon it, there be instantly a cream or scrum re-produced, instead of that which has been just set aside, it is then left to repose for three or four hours; after which make a new liquor: for this purpose the necessary quantity ot water is to be put into a kettle, and boil in it two pounds of potash and four ounces of madder, as was done the first time; this new liquor is to be stirred up, then left to settle during four hours, at which time the tub is in a condition for dying. Silk diers commonly have no other bath than that which has been just described; however, they might employ another for the green colors. This liquor is made like the preceding one, excepting that a half pound of madder is to be used for every pound of potash. This die is much greener than the former, and the color it gives is more lasting on silk, with a lustre equal to that given by the usual die. When the liquor of this vat has exhausted its coloring property, it becomes ruddy, like beer; whereas the liquor of the former becomes blackish. The vat for the above quantity of indigo must be five feet deep, from two to two and a half diameter at the mouth, and from one to one foot, and a half at the base, so as to resemble an inverted sugar loaC 191 I 115 ] To make the ditierent shades of blue, put into this new vat the shades intended to be the deepest; they are to be died by keeping them more or less time in it, in proportion as the liquor becomes weak, until it be- gins to be exhausted, and the shades which the silk takes, after having remained in it two or three minutes at most, begin to appear faint. When the liquor is so far weakened that it begins to lose its green, re» fresh it, to give it new strength, by a kettle-full of a decoction composed of onepound of pearl ash, two ounces of madder, and one handful of wash- ed bran, boiled together for a quarter of an hour in water, or in a por- tion of the liquor in the vat, if it be still full enough for that. The li- quor is to be stirred up, after these additions, and left to settle at least for two or three hours, before we begin to die with it. In order to die fine blues, it is proper to have a fresh vat: the light blues colored in this fresh weak liquor, are always more lively than those which arc made in a liquor which has served for coloring deep blue. Fine CiHmson^ The silks intended to be died in crimson with cochineal, should be boiled in the proportion of twenty pounds of soap to an hundred pounds of silk, without any azure, because the slight yellow tint which remains in the silk, when it is freed from its gum, only with this quantity of soap, is favorable to this color. After washing and beetling the silks at a stream, in order to clear them from the soap, they are to be put into the alum solution in its full strength; and left in it from night till morning, or about seven or eight hours. After this, the silks are to be washed, and twice beetled at the river. During this interval, the bath is to be prepared in the following manner: The long trough is charged with river water, about one-half> or two-thirds, and, when boiling, some gall-nuts, powdered are to be put into it, and suffered to boil for a while; then put from four drachms to two ounces of them for every pound of silk; if the gall-nuts are pounded very fine, and passed through a hair-sieve, they may be put in at the same time with the cochineal. When the silks are washed and beetled, they are to be put upon rods by hanks: these hanks may be thick, because the crimson color is not subject to be unequally set. The cochineal, pounded and sifted, is then to be thrown into the bath, and well stirred, and must receive live or six boils; from two to three ounces for each pound of silk, are to be put in, according to the required shade. In order to give the most common shade or color, the proportion of cochineal is two ounces and a half: there are seldom put more than three ounces, except when one dies some particular variety. These ingredients are to be put into clear, pure, and soft water, in a kettle of pure tin, and not of copper, or brass tinned. This is a rule from which the diers of the British East India Company never de- viate. When the cochineal and the galls have undergone a boiling, put into the bath, for every pound of cochineal, one ounce of a solution of tin Iq cqita regias called composition, which is made in the follow [ 175 J 19ii ing manner: one pound of spirits of nitre, (nitric acid,) two ounces ot sal ammoniac, six ounces of grain tin. The tin, and the sal ammoni- ac, are to be put into a sand-stone pot of sufficient capacity ; upon these pour about twelve ounces of water, then add the spirits of nitre, and let the solution take place. This composition contains much more sal ammoniac and of tin, than that which is employed for the scarlet of cochineal upon wool. The composition is added in the proportion of one ounce to a pound of silk, when the galls and the cochineal have been made to boil. The kettle is left to cool a little, by opening the door of the furnace or stove: the silk is put into the vat, and to be worked from five to seven times; after this, the bath must boil during two hours: in that time, care must be taken to work the silks now and then. At the expiration of this time, the fire is to be withdrawn, and the silks are to be wholly im- mersed; they are to be left there five or six hours, and even if the crim- son be died in the evening, they may be left in it till the next morn- ing. By this means they receive a fine half die: they are to be wash- ed, and to get two beetlings, wrung as usual, and then spread upon the perches to be dried. Chaptal says, that, by giving silk a ground of yellow, before dying it in the above manner, a poppy, or flame color, may be obtained, as handsome, and more solid and economical than that produced by the use of the carthamus, or bastard saffron,* Of Green. This color is composed of yellow and blue: it is difficult to give it to silk, by reason of the inconvenience attending the blue bath, which is subject to be checkered, or to take a variegated color which becomes still more perceptible in the green than in the pure blue. In place of applying the yellow on the blue, we give the blue upon the yellow, and proceed thus: The boiling of the silk for these colors is the same as for the common colors. After the silk is boiled, it is to be well impregnated with the aluminous water, then rinsed in the river, and distributed in little hanks of four or five ounces. This precaution is necessary to give the yellow ground to all silks in general which are intended to be died green; because the silk being thus distributed, has the advantage of be- ing uniformly died. Weldt is to be boiled as for the yellow, (which see:) and a bath of it prepared with clear water, and to be so strong as to give a good ground of lemon color. The silk is to be worked in the bath, with great attention, because the inequality of color in the ground is easily perceptible in the green: and when we judge that the ground is nearly at its height, some fibres of the silk should be dipped, in or- der to see whether the color has sufficient plenitude or ground: if it has not enough, add the decoction of weld, and make a new trial. • Chemistry applied to the Arts, p. 466. !• Dier's weld — Reseda Luteola. 193 [ 17^ J "When the color takes well, the silk is to be wrung, washed in a stream and beetled, if it be thought proper. The silk is then to be dressed, re-formed into hanks suitable for the vat, then steeped, one hank after another, in the blue vat; finally, wrung and dried with care and celerity. The fifteen or sixteen clearest shades of this kind of green, need only to be steeped in the vat, in order to be entirely completed. •For the Pistachio green, if the vat be too strong, air the hank, when taking it out, without washing it, clap it with the hands; that is, hold- ing it in one hand, and clapping it lengthwise with the other, to sepa- rate the threads, and thus receive the air, which causes the color to brighten uniformly: some threads are to be washed, in order to prove whether the color be good : the silk is then washed. For deeper greens, of this shade, add to the weld a decoction of logwood, or of Venice- sum ach. For very deep greens, such as duck-green and bottle-green, add a little copperas.* The apple-green and sea-green, require a light yel- low. We shall be less liable to give too deep a shade of yellow, by taking the precaution to die in the weld baths, which have already been used, for the silk being strongly alumed, will be apt to take too strong a hue in the new bath. Raw silk, reeled off dry, {soie crue,) is died precisely in the same manner, after having been immersed.t JLilac. As lilac is a very light and brilliant tint of the violet, or of the pur- ple, we must apply the blue with much caution, or sparingly; and, as commonly the baths are too strong, it is the custom to mix a little of the fresh or new bath, with some potash in clear cold water, in order to prepare a bath on purpose for blueing the lilacs at will. When the liquor has been put into the bath, it is to be immediately stirred up, then it assumes a green color which imperceptibly dimin- ishes; we wait till the bath begins to lose a little of its first green color, and approaches to that of indigo, in order to put the silks into it. The potash helps to make the archil blue, because it is in general the effect of all the alkalies to render every red more of a violet tint ^^nother Process, The process consists in employing the chemical blue with a quantity of archil, in proportion to the intensity of the die that is desired. Violet with Logwood. Take died silks impregnated with the alum water, and washed in the usual way, boil water with logwood cliips, as done with respect *o Brazil wood: it is destined to give a blue. * Baillot, page 115. ' Vitalis: Cours Elementaire de Teinture, p. 50? [ 175 j iy4 This die ought lo be made cold, because, when the logwood is warm jr the color it gives is spotted and not equal; besides it is much more dull and less handsome. The decoction cannot be preserved more than three weeks or a "rtionth. Violet with Brazil ivood and Logwood. To make this violet, the alumed silks, after being rinsed, as common, are put into a bath of Brazil wood of the usual degree of heat, and af- ter they have undergone this bath, add a decoction of logwood, and work them therein, and when the color is as full as desired, add to the bath a little potash ley j then wash the silks, wring and dry in the usual manner. If we begin by the logwood, we should use the bath cold, on ac- count of the uneven die it gives when it is hot, and which it is even subject to produce when taken from the bath and exposed to heat. This does not take place in the method we have given for it: for it is not necessary to give the logwood a cooling by this process, because the silks are impregnated with the die of the Brazil wood. Instead of putting the potash into the bath, it is sometimes proper to make a bath of alum, with clear water, for the alteration of the tint. This ought to be adopted when wc apprehend the silks may be too much charged with the die, by leaving them long in the bath. Violet with the Brazil wood and Archil. After having boiled and impregnated the silk with the alum water, it is to be put into a bath, more or less clear, of Brazil wood, according to the shade intended to be given; and, when it is taken out, the silk is to be beetled in a river, then to be put into a bath of archil, in order to complete the color. It is to be washed a second time, and to receive a beetling. After this it is to be put into the blue vat, then wf ung and dried with the same despatch and precision as the greens and blues. Of Yellow on Silk in hanks. Silk destined to be died yellow, is boiled in the proportion of twenty pounds of soap to each hundred pounds of silk. After the boiling, it is to be w^ashed and put into the alum> and after being washed again, as usual, (called refreshing,) and dressed; then io be put upon rods in hanks, of about seven or eight ounces each, and worked in the yellow bath. For dying clear yellow, (jaune franc,) called by diers yellow in grain, they commonly employ no other ingredient than weld. Put into the caldron about two pounds of weld to each pound of silk; and, in order that the bunches of the plant may mix well with the water, lay on them large blocks of wood. After a quarter of an hour of boiling, the bath is to be strained, and left to cool till the hand can be borne in 19o [ I7d ] it J then put in the silk, and work it therein until it become of an evert color. If the liquor be not enough to fill the long trough (barque,) add water, and before the bath is cold, so that there may be the same degree of heat mentioned above. In general, all the long troughs or caldrons, in which dying is to be effected, should be full; the silk being plunged in, till about two inches distance from their brims. Whilst this operation is going on, weld is to be boiled a second time in a new water, and then taken out at one end of the long trough, and placed on a shelving white pine table, or else on the top of the trough. Then about one-half of the bath is to be thrown out, and to be supplied with the second liquor from the new bath of the plant, in the same quantity that has been taken from the first, taking care to stir up the bath, in order to mix the whole well. This new bath may be employed somewhat hotter than the first; still, however, the heat must only be moderate, because, if it were otherwise, we would destroy one part of the color which the silk had already taken. Work in this new bath, as on the former occasion; and, during this time, dissolve potash, in the proportion of about one pound for twenty pounds of silk. For this purpose, put the potash into a small kettle, then pour into it some of the second weld liquor boiling hot, stirring up the potash. This little bath is to be left to settle, and when it is clear, lift out a second time the silks, putting them on the slielving table, and throw into the bath two or three ladles-full of the clearest part of the pot- ash water. The bath is to be well stirred up, and the silks to be dip- ped again, and worked* anew. After seven or eight workings, one of the hanks is to be wrung upon the pin, in order to see whether the color be full enough, and of a proper yellow. If it be not sufficiently so, add again a little of the potash bath, and proceed as directed above, until the silk receives the desired shade. To die a yellow approaching to that of Jonquille, at the time of putting the potash into the bath, we must add also to it some annotto, in proportion to the color required. The slight shades of yellow, such as pale lemon, or Canary bird color, ought to be made on a very white ground; for this purpose, the silks are to be boiled with thirty pounds of soap for every hun- dred weight of silk. If they be not sufficiently blued (azured) for giving them these shades, some ladles-full are to be taken out of the bath of boiled weld, and some mixed with clear water, with a small portion of the liquor of the vat. The silks are then to be put into this bath, and steeped and washed as usual; and, if it be perceived that the shade is not deep enough, some of the weld liquor must be added, and from the vat also, till the desired shade is obtained. For the deeper shades of lemon color, boil the weld the same way as for the yellow, and add a certain quantity of it to clear water, in proportion to the desired fulness. Put into it also some of the liquor in the tub, if the shade require it: but the deep lemon colors may be boiled in the usual way like the yellows. It must be noted that the * In the edition for the House of Representatives, tbesf words ^vere improper!}- printed, <' washed," and ** wa^'hes." — Kpitdb. f^ 175 j i^r» blue is not to be added from the vat in these colors, except only wiiei^ we desire to have a greenish tint. These shades are often liable to be too deep, when they are impregnated with too much alum. In order to avoid this inconvenience, instead of applying the alum like the others, we may make apart for them a weak and small alum bath, in which they may be worked ; or else, without giving the alum water separately, only a little alum may be put into the same weld-bath. To die Blue. The folio wmg proportions of the articles necessary for a cold blue vat, were given by an extensive silk dier of Philadelphia. "^ '^One pound of indigo to every pound of copperas: to 120 gallons of water, add 16 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of indigo/' Blue. By Mons. Raymond.\ Previously to the year 1811, the silks died blue were dull; but, in that year, M. Raymond invented a method of giving silk a deep and brilliant color, which is now generally adopted, and is known by his name. Here follows the process. When the silk has been cleansed, immerse it for a quarter of an hour, at the ordinary temperature, in ■water containing about one-twentieth part of its weight of the sul- phate of the peroxide of iron,:|: wash, and hold it for half an hour in a bath, nearly boiling, of soap and water; wash it again, and put it in a cold and very weak solution of prussiate of potash, soured by sul- phuric acid, or by muriatic acid. As soon as it is immersed, it be- comes blue, and nothing more is wanting, than, in about a quarter of an hour, to wash and dry it. In this operation, the silk imbibes a »iertain quantity of feruginous salt; the soap in the water destroys or neutralizes the acid of this salt; the sulphuric acid, or the muriatic acid, unites with the potash of the prussiate of potash, and the prus- sic acid is transferred upon the oxide of iron retained by the silk. Silk thus died becomes dull in time, when much exposed to the sun, but will regain its brilliancy by being kept in the dark. Chaptal says, in order to obtain the Turkish blue, which is the deepest of all, it is necessary to immerse the silks in a very strong warm bath of savory, before putting it into the vat. * The late Mr. John Dougal. •y Traite de Chimie, par J. L. Thenard, torn. 4, p. 214. Paris, 1826. \ According to Thenard, the sulphate of the peroxide of iron is procured in the following mode: <» Expose a solution of green copperas to the air: it then slowly absorbs oxygen, and the sulphate of the peroxide is precipitated in the form of a yellow powder: tlic neutral sulphate of the peroxide remains in the solution, to which it gives a red tinge." A manufacturer of Prussian blue, in Philadelphia, procures it in this w.iy : dry cop- peras by exposing it to a heat; then submit it to a more violent heat, until it is con- verted into a grayish red-colored substance, which is the red oxide of iron, combined with a portion of the red sulphate. As it is deliquescent, it must be carefully kept from the air until it is about to be used. 19/ [ 175 ] When our object is to obtain the royal blue, which is also very deep and permanent, cochineal is employed in place of savory. This last blue may be successfully imitated, by first immersing the silk in a solution of 1 oz. 7i drs. of verdigris, to 1 lb. 4 oz. 4 drs. of silk; the silk is afterwards disposed in a bath of logwood, in which it assumes a blue color, which is fixed by passing it through the vat. Silk to be diea blue, is usually boiled in a bath composed of 44 lb. 2 oz. 4 drs. of soap, to 110 lb. 5 oz. 10 drs. of silk; it is carefully washed, and twice put through running water, after which it is made up into skeins, and plunged into the vat by means of the wooden roller, until it has acquired the desired shade. It is then wrung by the hand, shaken out in the air, afterwards washed, and again wrung and hung up to dry. When silk is to be died blue without boiling, the whitest kinds are chosen; they are dipped in water with a view of disposing them more readily to imbibe the die. Yelloiv^ Alum, 3 oz. to 1 pound of silk; sugar of lead, 1 oz. to one pound ot alum; fustic, one pound, to one of silk; water, one or two gallons, in proportion to the required shade. Immerse the silk over night in the solution of alum and sugar of lead, take it out, wring and die it in the fustic: the high price of weldt prevents the use of it: when used, the proportion is the same as that of fustic. Chaptal says, that silk intended for a yellow color, is boiled with 22 lbs. 1 oz. 1 dr. of soap, to 110 lbs. 5 oz. 10 drs. of silk; it is after- wards washed, alumed, and put on the rods. The yellow bath is prepared by boiling 2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 drs. of weld to the pound of silk, during a quarter of an hour. This bath is strained through a sieve, and cooled until the hand can be kept in it, before the silk is immersed in the vat. The weld is boiled a second time, with a fresh portion of water, and employed to supply the waste, and keep up the heat of the first bath, into which more silk is put until it be sufficiently exhausted. With the view of extracting every particle of color from the weld.l and of imparting a golden hue to the yellow produced by it, 1 lb. 4 oz. 4 drs. of potash, to 22 lbs. 1 oz. 2 drs. of silk, are put into a caldron; the second bath of weld is poured boiling hot on these ashes, and well stirred, to hasten the solution. When the bath is become clear, they gradually transfer a portion of it to the first bath, and after stirring It again, immerse the silk. A golden hue may be imparted to yellow by means of annotto.§ The United States abound in vegetables producing a yellow color, and, with proper mordants, may be found highly valuable. * Mr. John Dougal. I The weld plant should be cultivated by our farmers: no crop will pay better ■^ Absurdly called " woad," in the London translation of Chaptal . ■^ Chemistry applied to the Arts, p. 484. [ 175 J i9b The following are worthy of serious attention: — 1. Xanthoriza Jlpiifolia, or x. tinctorla, parsley-leaved root, yel- low root. See Dr. Woodhouse's experiments on this plant in the Do- jnestic Encyclopedia, article Xanthoriza. 2. H37drastis Canadensis^ yellow root. The simple tincture of the roots imparts to silk a rich yellow, and, with an appropriate mordant, might be permanently fixed. 3. Hopea tinctoria, horse laurel, horse honey, yellow leaf. This tree abounds in the low parts of Virginia, in West Tennessee, the up- per parts of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and, according to Michaux, generally in the limits of the pine barrens.* This author says, that, with alum, it dies a beautiful yellow on wool and cotton; it would doubtless succeed equally well on silk. The •leaves only are used. Dr. Ramsayt says, that the late Mr. Felder, of Orangeburg, procured a paste from the leaves, and those of a species of cassia, called yellow indigo, for which he obtained a guinea per pound, during the American war. Unfortunately the process died %vith him. Dr. R. mentions several other plants, which yield a yellow color. 4. Bow wood, yellow wood, Osage apple tree: Madura «/2wrazi/2«c«. This abounds in Missouri, J and, according to Mr. Nuttal,§ also, in the Arkansas Territory, near Style's farm, a few miles from the Kia- mesha river, on the great prairie. 5. Hypericum perforatum, St. John's wort. This plant is not a native of the United States, but like the pretty, but troublesome weed ransted, was imported from Europe, and has become a pest to the farmers of Pennsylvania. The flowers and summits, filled in with seeds, contain a juice, soluble in water, in spirit of wine, and vinegar. It diffuses through the first two liquids a red color, and in the latter a most splendid crimson: when combined with acids or metallic solucions^ it presents a beautiful yellow color. To die cloth, wool, silk, and cotton, yellow, it is sufficient to im- merse them in water, properly impregnated with the juice of this plant, and a certain quantity of mordant. The best mordant is alum and potash, in which the stuffs are to remain for some time: for it is on the length of the time, the quantity of mordant, and the heat employed, that the fixity of the color, and the shades resulting from it, depend. When little mordant is used, the die is of di yellow color; by increasing the mordant, it inclines to green, and, by adding a solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid, it assumes rose, cherry, and crimson shades, all very beautiful. The alum generally employed for all extractive dies does not succeed well in the process here alluded to; the addition of pot- ash is essentially necessary,|| because it decomposes this salt, precipi- tates its earth, dissolves a considerable, portion of it, and it is this alkaline * North American Sylva, vol. 3, p. 54. It also abounds in the Mississippi State, f History of South Carolina, vol. 2, p. 249, :f Bradbury *s Travels. % Nuttal's Travels.. i Sep nntf on AT'im 1^9 [ 1'^ J biiit, with ail earthy base, which, in this operation, becomes the true mordant, especially as the coloring principle resides in a matter almost purely resinous. The juice of St. John's wort, united to the mordant here mentioned^ gives to paper a beautiful yellow color, and to skins."* The comparative merits of the foregoing yellow dies with one an- other, and with the inestimable quercitron bark, may be tried by prac- tical diers. Toppy, The poppy color is procured by precipitating the red of bastard saf- fron,! held in solution by potash. With this view, when silks are washed, drained, and put on the rods, lime juice is poured into the bath, till it acquire a cherry color. It is then well stirred, and the silk repeatedly worked in it, until it has acquired a sufficient color. To produce a lively, full poppy, the silk is wrung on coming out of the first bath, which it exhausts, and is then put into a second. Five or six baths are requisite to impart to it a flame color. The poppy color is heightened by putting the silk through tepid water, acidulated with lime juice. A ground of annotto, three or four shades paler than aurora, is requisite for silks, before exposing them to the coloring principle of the carthamus plant. The poppy color communicated by this last die, maybe successfull}- imitated by the employment of Brazil wood. The color thus produced is termed false poppy, to distinguish it from the true. To the silk is given a good ground of annotto, by boil- ing it with this die; after which it is washed, refreshed, passed through alum, and then worked in a bath of Brazil wood, to which a small portion of soap water has been added, j: Black. The following directions are given by a late author to die silk black, -iiich, take it out, WTing, and lay it by, wet, for further use. Put eight buckets of water in a kettle, pour the solution of indigo into it, and mix it well, work the silk well in this blue liquor for the space of half an hour, then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring and lay it by, wet, for further use. J3y this process, the sijk will re- ceive a handsomp light blue colqr. 219 [ 175 ] To deepen this blue, or to change it to a dark blue, proceed in the .following manner: boil a kettle with sixteen buckets of water, add four pounds of logwood, and boil it well for about three quarters of an hour; then take out one half of the liquor, and run it through a sieve into a vat; let the other half or eight buckets of the same remain in the kettle for further use; put into the liquor in the vat, a quarter of a pound of alum, which has previously been dissolved in some ves- sel; stir the whole well, steep the light blue silk in it, and work it well in the liquor a quarter of an hour; then take it out, wring and keep it wet for further use, and throw out the liquor as useless. Lastly: pour into another vat the remaining eight buckets of the logwood liquor left in the kettle, after having first run it through a sieves steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for the space of half an hour; then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring and dry it. By the above process, you will obtain a dark blue, in every respect equal to any of the blues which have been colored by means of tlie keep. The above blue is likewise applicable to the dying of any other goods; and not alone in this respect is it of advantage, but it like- wise saves you the trouble and expense of preparing a keep for dying a small quantity of silk to a dark blue; and if the risk of missing a keep, and the consequent loss thereof be taken into consideration, the above receipt is of considerable advantage to the dier as well as to the manufacturer; particularly as the smallest quantity may be colored equal to the coloring of a keep, by reducing the ingredients in pro- portion to the quantity of the silk which is to be died. Ji handsome Violet Blue, after the maimer of the foregoing. Take 1 oz. of indigo, 2 lb. of oil of vitriol, i lb. of alum, 4 lbs. of logwood, and 1 lb. Guinea or red wood. The indigo must be dissolved in oil of vitriol, as directed in the ibregoing receipt, and kept ready for use. Dissolve in a kettle, with eight buckets of water, a pound and ono- quarter of alum; then pour the solution into a vat, and work the silk well therein for the space of one hour; after which time, take it out; wring, and keep it in its wet state, for further use. Fill a vat with eight buckets of water, put the above-mentioned solu- tion of in-digo in it, stir the whole well, work the alum-dressed silk therein, for the space of half an hour; then take it out, rinse it in running water, wring it, and set it by, wet, for further use. Lastly: take a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it four pounds of logwood, and one pound of Guinea or red wood, and boil the whole well, for about three-quarters of an hour; then run tlie de- coction through a sieve into a vat, steep the bhie colored silk in it, and work it well in the same for the space of half an liour; after which take it out, rinse it in running water, wring and dry it. Note. — I deem it necessary to arid to the lifxuqr of the lofwoqa and vcfl wood, r quarter of a pgund gf alum. [ 175 ] 220 c^ deep Red. Take 5 oz. of annotto, 1 lb. of potash, 2h lbs. of alum, and 5 lbs. of madder. into a kettle with eight buckets of water, put five ounces of madder^ ivhich has previously been finely powdered, add thereto a pound of potash, boil it well for a quarter of an hour, run it through a sieve into SI vat, steep the silk in it, and work it well therein for an hour; then take it out, rinse it, and let it dry; dissolve two and a half pounds of alum in a kettle, pour the solution into a vat, steep the silk in it, work it well therein for two hours, then take it out, wring and dry it. Lastly: fill a kettle with eight buckets of water, add five pounds of madder, heat it, but do not let it boil ; while this is doing, moisten the silk well in warm water, so as that all of it may be equally satu- rated with the water; take it out and wring it; then steep it in the above prepared lukewarm liquor of madder, work it well therein until it begins to boil; let it boil a quarter of an hour longer, during which time the silk must be worked continually; then take out, wring, and dry it. The above process will produce a very handsome red. Ji Green. Take li lbs. of alum, 1 lb. of potash, and 8 lbs. of turmeric. The silk must be first died in a cold keep, to a handsome light blue; but caution must be used to lay the color equally throughout the whole of the silk, and that no stains remain in any part of it; rinse it in running water, wring it, and lay it by wet for further use. Immerse the silk in warm water, in such a manner that it will be equally and uniformly saturated with the water; then wring it, and lay it aside in its wet state for further use. r After this, prepare a kettle with eight buckets of water, put into it one pound of potash, and one and a quarter pounds of turmeric, and let the whole boil well for about ten minutes; then pour the liquor through a sieve into a vat, steep the silk in the liquor, and work it well therein for the space of half an hour. At the expiration of this time, it must be taken out, wrung, and put by for further use, in its wet state. Lastly: dissolve a kettle with eight buckets of fresh water, one and a quarter pounds of alum, pour the solution into a vat, and work the silk well therein for the space of a quarter of an hour, which will change it to a "handsome green; then take it out, rinse, wring, and dry it in the shade. 221 C 175 ] INDEX Abstract and condensed view of tlie art of rearing silkworms, - - 120 Acid fumig-ations purify tlie air of a laborator}', .... 127-8 Aluming of silks, .-.,.... igg American native yellow dies, ---.-.. igg Analysis of tlie leaves of the white mulberry tree, - - - - 50 Ants, red, great enemies to silkworms, - - - . - 68 Apparatus for feeding silkworms, by the Rev. Mr. Swa3^e, - , - -56 Art of rearing silkworms, whole process of - - - - - 71 Baking of cocoons, - - - - - - - - 141 Birth and coupling of the silk moth, - - - - - - 108 Black, to die - - - - - - - . - 199 process by Vitalis, ----_._ 201 Blazing fires, utility of, in damp weather, - - - - 89, 96, 123 Blue, to die - - - - - - - - - 196 by Raymond, - - - .... 196, 217 Turkish, - - - - - - - - 209, 216 Brown, to die - - - - - - - - - 212 Budding of the mulberry trees, recommended, - - - - 47 Buff, to die - - - - - - - - - 209 Bughy, or Tusseh, and Arrindy silkworms of India, - - - - 39 Cabins, to prepare, for silkworms to spin cocoons, - - - - 98 Calculation of labor and profit of worms, fed on the leaves from an acre of trees, in Connecticut, ..-.-.._ 119 Carrelet, an apparatus to spin inferior silk, ----- 153 China, native silkworms of- - - - - - -41 Chrysalis state of the silkworm; changes into the pupa state, - - - 32 Cleanliness essential to health of worms, . - ... 97 Cleansing of silk previous to dying, - - - - - - 182 Cocoons, construction of -------32 escape of the worms from them, how effected, - - - 33 gathering of, - - - - - - - - 105 selection of those intended for eggs, - - - - 106 preservation of, ------ - 107 daily loss of weight of, ----- - 108 facts respecting, containing healthy, diseased, and dead chrysalides, 114 weight of various parcels, produce of, from an ounce of eggs, 116-17 proportion of different qualities of, before and after baking, - 119 division of, into various qualities, ... - - 136 to judge of their qualities, ------ 137 how to kill the chrysalis, - - - - - -139 by steaming, .----. 139 by baking in aa oven, - - - - - 141 royal, perforated, and soufRons, . - - . - 142 reeling off, apparatus for, and whole mode^of procedure in, - 142 daily task of reeling, in Italy, . _ . - - 149 Cradle, indigo, description of the figure of, - - - - - 157 Crimson, fine, to die, - - - - - - 191, 210, 211, 213 Crops, two or more, of worms in one season, on rearing, - - -36 Dandelion will sustain young worms, ------ 63 Darkness essential when the moths are hatched and coupling, - - - 109 Disbanding the silk from the reel, on - - . - - 150 Q9 [ 175 ] 2^2 Page Diseases of silk worms, ....-.- 125 from defect of eggs, - - - - - - - 125 mismanagement of good eggs, ----- 126 bad air of the district in which silkworms are reared, - - 126 want of room, - - . - . - - 130 quality and quantity of food, ----- 130 change of food, - - - - - - - 131 peculiar constitution of the air, ----- 132 sudden changes of temperature, . . . . 133 particular diseases of --...- 133 Doubling machine, and cut, - = --.-- 151 Draw-boy, improvement in, - - - - - • - 164 Dying of silk; see the various colors, - - - - - - 182 Early food, to secure - - - - - . - - 125 Eggs, preparation for hatching, - - - - - - 57 signs of vivification of the worm, ----- 63 Eggs, preservation of, - - - - - - - - 112 number of, in the varieties of silkworms, - - - - 113 facts relative to the production of, - - - - -115 produce of silk from an ounce of, - - - - - ' 113 proportion of to cocoons, ....-- 118 Evidence, minutes of, on silk, before the House of Commons, - - 180 Fanshaw's apparatus for spinning, doubling, and twisting, or throwing silk, and cut, - - - - -.- - - - 176 Feeding, frequent, necessary in the fburth and fifth ages of silkworms, 97, 123 Fires, light blazing fires of shavings, straw, or light wood, useful in damp weather, to promote warmth and a circulation of air in the laboratory, 89, 96, 125 Food, on securing early, for silkworms, . - _ - . 125 diseases from quantity and quality of - - - - - 130 change of - - - - - - 131 table of, for silkworms in different ages, . . - - 181 tirasserie, a disease of silkworms, - - - - - - 133 Green, to die ..--...- 192, 217, 220 Hatching of silkworms, - - - ' - - - - 61 moths, - - .... 109 History of silk, - - ..... 17 in the United States, - - - - - - 21 natural} of the silkworm, ------ 27 Hedges, espaliers, or cabins, to prepare ----- 98 Hot-house for hatching silkworms, ------ 59 Hurdles, or feeding frames, to clean, - - - - - - 99 Hygrometer, use of, a simple one described with a cut, - - - 129 Improvements in silk machinery, - - - . . 155^ 177 India, East, native silkworms of ------ 36 Indigo blue vat, to prepare - - - - - - -189 Laboratory for silkworms, construction of - - - - - 54 newly hatched worms, - .... 68 Leaves, young seedlings of, not proper for old worms, - - - 52 only to be given to young worms, - - • - -75 chopping of, deemed necessary, but doubted, - - 75 importance of picking clean, and without fruit, - - - 81 old, to be given to worms after the fourth moulting, - - - 91 quantity consumed in diflTerent ages, by worms from an ounce of eggs, (See also the table, p. 180,) - - . . - 114 calculation of labor and profit from an acre of, in Connecticut, - 119 should be gathered a few hours before being used, ... 122 Lettuce, will sustain young worms, - - - - . - 62 Lig'ht, injurious to silk moths when hatched, and when coupling, - - 109 Lilac color, -----.-.. 193 Loom, Sholl's silk, explanation of figure of, ... - - 157 for weaving figured stuffs, - - _ - - - 166 for weaving ribbons, - . - ^ , . , 172-3 223 [ 175 •] Page. Loom, Jacquart's improved, •• - - - ■ - - 173 LeBrun's, ........ 174 De Bergue*s power loom, ------ 175 Kendall's domestic do. - - - - . - - 176 Lusette, or Clairette, a disease of silkworms, ----- 134 Machinery, silk, description of, and references to, - - - 155, 177 Moths, birth and coupling- of, ------- 108 darkness necessary for them, ------ 109 Moulting-, or change of skin in the silkworm, - - - - - 30 Mulberry trees, on, ........ 42 red, or American, and varieties of, - - - - - 42 produce good silk, - - - - - - 43 white, and culture of, ------ 44 propagation of, by various methods, - - - - 45 analysis of the leaves of, - - - - - - 50 proportion of leaves to an acre, - - - - - 51 required for various numbers of silkworms, - - 51 hedges of, to form, ------- 52 paper, said to be proper for worms in the fifth age, - -53 black, not equal to the white, for the United States, - -53 Muscardine, a disease of silkworms, ------ 135 Nankeen color to die, -------- 216 Natural history of the silkworm, ------ 27 Oak leaves useful for sick worms, ...--- 135 Orange color, to die, - - - - - - - - 208 Organzine, how to steam the silk intended for, , . - 151, 152 Passis, a disease of silkworms, - - - - - - 133 Patents for improved silk machinery, ------ 176 Plants, aromatic, burning of, useless in a silkworm laboratory, - - 127 Pink color, to die, - - - - - ' - - - 209 Plates, explanation of- - - - - -- -155 Poppy color, to die, ----•--.- 199 Preparation of silk skeins after reeling, - - - - - 150 Pupa, what, how different from the chrysalis, - - - - 32 Quercitron bark, to die with, - - - - - . - 214 Red color, to die, .-..--- 211, 213, 220 Reeling sUk from cocoons, process of, - - - - - 143 Reel, silk, of Piedmont, described, ------ 155 to wind the skeins from bobbins, - - - - - 153 Ribbon looms, improved, ------- 172 Silkworms, natural history of, - - - - - - - 27 duration of the life of, - - - - . - - 34 varieties of, - - - - - - 35 of India, - - - - - -- -36 China, --------41 North America, - - - - - - 42 South America, , . - - . - 41 whole process of hatching and rearing the common kind - 61 appearance of, when newly hatched, - - - - 64 removal of, from the room where hatched, - - - 69 rearing of, in their four first stages, - - - - 71 cleanliness and fresh ah' essential to their health, - - 54, 97 noise stops their spinning the cocoons, - - - - 104 preparations for their rising on the cabins, - - - 99 separation of those which will not rise, - - - - 102 do not degenerate in the United States if well kept, - - 112 abstract and condensed view of the art of rearing, - - 120 diseases of, - - - - - - - 125 Space in square feet, occupied by worms, from an ounce of eggs, in different ages, (see also the table, page 180,) - - - - - 113 Steam, apparatus for heating water by, - - - - - 138 C 175 3 224 Page. Stove, essential to the regular hatching of silkworms, - - - 60 Stove and basin, for heating water, dimensions of, * , . . 13/ Sulphuring silk, of, - - - - . - . . 18T Silk, history of, - - - - - - - - If in the United States, - - - - - - 21 weight of a single fibre of 506 feet, - - f - - 114 quantities of, yielded by various parcels of cocoons, . - - J16 preparations for reeling, - - - . >. - - 135 disbanding of from the reel, -._,.. I50 preparation of, after disiianding from the reel, - - - - 150 waste, and inferior quauties to spin, ... - - 152 reel, description of, and figure, - - - - - - 155 to wind from the skeins on bobbins, ^ . , . 158 improved machinery for weaving, . - « . 172, 177-8 to spin double and twist, apparatus for, ----- 178 watering of, to prevent, - -- -- - -179 to cleanse, previously to dying, - . . - - - 182 ungumming and boiiing for white, - - - - - 184 boiling of, which is to be died, - - - - - - 185 sewing and twist, mode of making in Connecticut, - _ - 154 'I'emperature proper for hatching eggs of silkworms, - - -65 for silkworms in various stages, - - - - - 72 high, im.proper for hatching the eggs, - - - - 72 bad effects of a great or low in the fifth age, - - - 96 of the water, for reeling cocoons, causes which regulate it, - 139 Terhoevens' American winding and twisting machine, - . - 178 Thermometer, essential in the hatching- and rearing of silkworms, - - 58 Throwstmg machine, figure of explained, - - - - - 159 Tramming engine, figure of explained, - - - - - 161 Tray, portable, cut of one: See table, p. 180, - - - - 61 Tripes, a disease of silkwomas, - - - - - - 135 Twist, how made in Connecticut, - - - - - - 154 Utensils useful in hatching and rearing silkworms, (and table, p. 180,) - 60, 61 Vapor emitted from silkworms and litter, - - - - • 104 Varieties in silkworms, ....... 35 in India, --------36 in China, -.------41 in the United States, and South America, - - - - 41,42 Ventilators requisite in the windows, floor, and ceiling of the laboratory, - 54 Violet, with logwood, to die, - - - . . - - 193 ' > Brazil wood and logwood, to die, - . - - 194 Warping machine, - - - - - - - - 152 Watering of silks, without the use of a knee roll, method of preventing, - 179 Weaving of silks, improvements in, ------ 178 Weights of various parcels of cocoons, -. = - - - H^ W^hite, different shades of, ------ - 186 Winding, doubling, and twisting apparatus, . - - 167, 169, 176, 177 Yellows, a disease of silkworms, ------ 134 Yellow, on silk dying of, in hanks, ----- 194, 197, 205 citron, --.---.. 206 otlier processes, - - - - 206, 207, 208, 214, 215 dies in the United States, - - ~ - - - 198 PLA.TE I. Fi'i. y. Fin. 5. T-iq. 2. (jlf^Jia/r C-raJ/i' n^ fid 171 ay TLATE JV C^/iento?i'^) t/ziU^nvTru/fia/ Cna^me. Fuj.O. <'/,'//■ S/or^ ..////Xy ( /L'!l^,'J.r. ,/,>:> /j,^/r,rr.y/^ / ■,,,fr/^,. /7,c II 267 90 i i »fll ^o .0^ A' o • ^"^ ♦-'•' <.^ o * a ^- ''^..^^ ;:^ • < 1 V ^^ ' • • ■ « ' ,1°^ O M O 4 V Xj» ,H^^ ^-^