L V'-' ^0 , . * ,'\ ■0' V ,-^" ,' _, OKC -^^^--\^- .. i'^'.y 1 fl 4 "^^ -n- V^ <-'_,. ^; A -r-, Atf' J A^^' •^/> - Hi I' I'M' ' ^'=' Kl^ * ..V ,-A^#/ ••^ ^ A^^' '^z^. A^' "^o oo ^y^ V^ .-^ ^ .^^il^ '^ 4> "Cu ^^ :> .<^^ '^^ ^ ^. .^^ A' ,x^'"^ ^. ^#r^ ^^% ^ p ,A^ ■J' -\y V . ^ ' « 'o. TirCr^ :e ;p aA^ -I ^ \\ ■^^'"■P. -1 0^ .<'\,;* ,'^ o^"' '"1 ^-v ,s ^- A' \.^ UllfT'f—'^ I ^r r [ f r r r r r r Textile Building, Clemsorv College, S. C. ___ Ji £££&£ Textile Buildine. A. and M. College, Miss. Textile Building, A. and M. College, N. C. Textile Schools Desigrved and Organized by tKe Avithor. Fig. 1 COTTON MILL PROCESSES AND CALCULATIONS. An Elementary Text Book for the Use of Textile Schools and for Home Study. ILLUSTRATED THROUGHOUT WITH ORIGINAL DRAWINGS. Second Edition— Revised and Enlarged. By D. A. TOMPKINS.. CHARLOTTE, N. C. PUBI^ISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1902. ^ A^ THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two Copies Received 27 1903 Copyngh-t Entry CLASS' ft- XXo. No. COPY B. I Copyright i 899-1 902 BY D. A. Tompkins. Presses Observer Printing House, Charlotte^ N. C. I OJ f Ipjreface to first iBbttion* In the practice of my profession, Engineering, I have designed and 'had charge of the construction of a number of cotton mills in the Southern part of the United States. The organization of the necesairy force of emplotyees to operate these mills has involved the "breaking in" of large numbers oi people who had not been before accustomed to cotton mill work; as well as the advancing of others into more responsible places requiring fuller knowledge and bet- ter skill. These conditions have brought to me many inquiries from yoimg men and some from young wo^men for a book describing the machines and the processes used in the m'anufacture of cotton into yarn, sheetings, shirtings, drills, plaids and ginghams. It has been attempted in this volume to give a descrip^ tioo of the machines, and exhibit their various functions; also to give rules and formulas for making the calculations, in such 'a simple way that they may be followed out by any person of ordinary intelligence, and with only a limited com- mon school education. To the student and apprentice, foir whom this book is intended, it might noit be amiss to say that skill in opera- ting machines, and in keeping a manufacturing process well balanced throughout cannot be acquired by reading any book. Both knowledge and skill are necessary in the prodtic- tion of good music. So, in the mianufacture of cotton, is both knowledge and skill equally necessary to get the! best results. The best success will not come to the young man who IV PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. acquires the fullest knowledge, and omits the practice niec- essary to make him skillful. Neither will it come to the onie whoi works long'est and hardest, and never studies. But rather to the ooe who with discretion and energy devotes reasonable time to the acquisition of both know'tedgie and skill. It is the purpose of the Author to revise and enlarge this book in a future edition. It will be regarded as a favor if those engaged in or interested in the subject of cotton manufacture will call attention to errors, aind make sugges- tions as to any way in which the next edition' may be madte of better service to the cotton mill worker. D. A. Tompkins. Charlotte, N. C, March i, 1899. preface to Seconb jeMtlon. Having soM the entire first edition without exhiausting the dtemand for this work, I have most carefully revised the text for a second edition. A number of new engravings have been added to further illustrate some complicated parts. An entire neiw chapter, has been inserted on the subject of combing, which will be found useful in the mills which are contempiatting finfer work. The production tabl'els have been entirely revised, and mew computations made to bring them up to current piraictice, and also to reduce them to a ten-hour basis. A number of new tables have been added in the appendix. I have requested al readers of the first edition to point out -any errors they might find, so that they might be cor- rected in the next edition. I am gratified that so few errors have been found. The general make-up of this edition will be found superior to the first. The paper is softer and more restful to the eye, and the binding is better, I trust that this edition will meet with the favor afccorded its predecessor. D. A. Tompkins. Charlotte, N. C, Sept. 15, 1902. Contents, CHAPTER I. Page. INTRODUCTION i Cotton Classificatioo. Mill Processes. Draft Definied. CHAPTER II. THE PICKER ROOM 9 Mixing. Opening. Lapping. CHAPTER III. CARDING 34 Revolving Top Flat Card'. Wellman Card. Card Clothing. Double Carding. CHAPTER IV. COMBING 59 Heilmann Comber. Montforts Coimiber. Mull- hoiise Comber. Duplex Comber. Sliver tap- per. Ribbon Lapper. CHAPTER V. DRAWING 77 Stop Motions. Leather Covered Top Rolls. Metallic Top Rolls. Shell Rolls. CHAPTER VI. RAILWAY HEADS loi Eveners. Railway Tlroughs. Sliver from Cans. CHAPTER VII. HANKS AND NUMBERS 109 Definitions. Practical Methods. CHAPTER VIII. STUBBING AND ROVING 115 Bobbin Lead. Flyer Lead. Differentials. Taper. Lay. Short Methods. Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. RING SPINNING 175 Bobbins. Warp Winding. Filling- Winding. CombinatioiTi Framies, Speeds. Spindles. Rings. Travelers. Separators. Uneven Yarn. CHAPTER X. MULE SPINNING 214 Headstock. Soft Yarn, CHAPTER XI. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. ... 222 Spooler. Warper. Slasher. Drav^ing In. Col- ored Work. CHAPTER XII. W^EAVING 259 Plain Work. Tape Selvage. Reedy Cloth. Au- tomatic Looms. Twill Work. Dobby Looms. Jacquards. Box Looms. Designing. Laying Out Looms. CHAPTER XIII. LOOM SUPPLIES 293 Strapping. Shuttles. Temples. Reeds. Har- ness. CHAPTER XIV. THE CLOTH ROOM 302 Sewing Machine. Brusher. Shearer. Calender. Inspector. Folder. Stamping. Baling. CHAPTER XV. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR MARKET. ... 320 Twisting. Chain Warping. Beam Warping. ReeHng.' Cone and Tube Winding. CHAPTER XVI. ORANIZATIO'N AND EQUIPMENT 346 Range of Drafts. Two Ply Yarn. Cloth. Organ- ization Sheet. Equipment Sheet. APPENDIX. TABLES, RECIPES, RULES 359 Untrobuction. Commercial Cotton Bales. I. Upland cotton, such as is used in the average South- ern mill, is the raw material herein discussed. It usually arrives at the mill just as it comes from the plan- tation or custom gin house, in bales varying somewhat in size but averaging about 30 x 40 x 58 inches, and weighing from 400 to 600 pounds. There is at present no standard size or weight, but there is a movement on foot to induce all ginners to make their presses of uniform size, viz: 24 inches wide and 54 inches long. This still leaves one dimension undeter- mined, as this one depends upon how much cotton is put into the press, and how hard the press is run down. No standard weight is contemplated, but it is the intention to have bales weigh as nearly 500 pounds gross as is practicable. Cotton is sold throughout the United States by the gross weight. Bagging and ties on a bale of cotton weigh 25 to 30 pounds, so that there is a loss in tare of about 6 per cent, on bales of 400 to 500 pounds. If the bales are lighter, the per cent, of loss is greater. And, since the final worth of the cotton to the mill is based on its net weight, a restriction is placed by the trade as to minimum weight of a bale. Nothing under 350 pounds gross is considered technically a "bale," and there are local rules among cotton buyers prescribing a reduc- tion in price per pound for bales under 350 pounds. Lighter bales are in some localities called "pockets." A general rule is that for bales under 300 pounds one cent per pound is deducted from the standard price; for bales 300 to 350, one-half cent per pound. General cognizance is also taken of the average weights. If there are too many light weight bales (even above 350 pounds) in a lot of cotton, the buyer will not pay as much as for bales, averaging about 500 pounds. 2 , ' INTRODUCTION. Compressed Cotton. 2. For shipment by railroad or steamship for any great distance, cotton is compressed by specially heavy presses at central shipping points, so that the bales occupy only about half as much space as formerly. Within the past ten years there has been much new work done in trying to produce a bale at the gin house that would have sufficient density for export, and also be com- pletely covered with better material than the coarse jute bagging now in common use. Some of the presses designed to do this make "round lap," or cylindrical bales; others make spiral end packed round bales; others make "square bales." All these have a density of 30 to 35 pounds per cubic foot, which is somewhat denser than the old style bale, even after being compressed. None of the presses for making the new bales have yet reached a condition of com- plete commercial success. Several of them have done good work, and have reasonable promise of general adoption.* Neither the compressed bale nor the round bale are, as yet, a factor in the Southern cotton mill, so that here the cotton will be considered as arriving at the mill in the un- compressed state. The only difference is that the more compressed the cotton the longer time and greater care is necessary in mixing and allowing fibres to regain their original condition. *For detailed description of diflferent methods of baling cotton, see the author'i rk. "Cotton and Cotton Oil." work, "Cotton and Cotton Oil INTRODUCTION. 3 Classification. 3. The quality of cotton when brought to the market is usually expressed in the following classification, beginning with the highest. Quarter Grade. Half Grade. Three-Quarters. Full Grade. FAIR. Barely Fair, Strict Middling Fair, Fully Middling Fair, MIDDLING FAIR. Barely Middling Fair, Strict Good Middling, Fully Good Middling, GOOD MIDDLING. Barely Good Middling, Strict Middling, Fully Middling, MIDDLING. Barely Middling, Strict Low Middling, Fully Low Middling, LOW MIDDLING. Barely Low Middling, Strict Good Ordinary, Fully Good Ordinary. GOOD ORDINARY. Barely Good Ordinary, ^ Strict Ordinary, Fully Ordinary, ORDINARY. The above classification expresses the minutest differ- ences recognized in the most critical markets, but in most of the country markets quarter grades are not recognized. The discrimination, in fact, of quarter grades is an accom- plishment not possessed by many cotton buyers, though 4 INTRODUCTION. the half grades are readily distinguishable by good buy ers. The classification is based on length of staple, color and freedom from leaf, dirt or other foreign matter. It is a matter of individual judgment, and cannot be reduced to rule. There is another method of classifying cotton, which has come into quite extensive practice. This is by "type samples." Under this method, a cotton buyer selects a line of samples, representing the various qualities of cotton that his various customers require. He numbers these samples in an arbitrary way, usually beginning with No. I for the best quality, and No. 2 for the next best, and so on. He furnishes his customers with duplicates of these types, and also sends duplicates to smaller buyers from whom he may purchase. Then he can trade in cotton, with those who have his types, by writing or telegraphing references to his numbers. This system thus becomes a sort of cipher code. It is not a uniform or theoretically perfect system, but has the advantage of being a very cor- rect and satisfactory method of settling all disputes as tO' the quality, by simply referring the cotton in question to the numbered type in possession of both buyer and seller. It is important to remember, in the use of type samples that the action of light has a bleaching efTect on them, and that they must be carefully preserved. Even then it is best to renew the types from time to time, in order to insure uniformity. The first consideration in buying cotton for mill con- sumption is maintaining uniformity of grade. This is the first step toward turning out goods of uniform quahty. It is always desirable that purchasers of the mill products may feel sure of obtaining on every order exactly the same grade of goods. This uniformity is not always ob- tained when buying simply by the conventional "grades." The strength of individual fibres and the general spinning qualities cannot always be defined by the present system INTRODUCTION. 5 of grading. The most satisfactory results come from actual spinning tests. Mills within the cotton-growing region have the oppor- tunity to make these tests, and thus make discriminations in the cotton they buy, based on the actual spinning quali- ties. This is an advantage that they have not been fully appreciating. This induces apathy on the part of the planter, and he does not exercise individuality in his method of planting and handling cotton. He generally plants any kind of seed that he happens to have, and plants early or late, as it suits his convenience. He knows his price is regulated in Liverpool by the average of the Ameri- can crop, and does not largely depend upon the individual merit of the cotton, so long as it passes the conventional grading of the local cotton buyer. He is for the same reason indifferent about the ginning and the subsequent handling. But the conditions of the cotton market are changing. Liverpool is no longer the sole arbiter. Local mills are consuming so' large a proportion of the local cotton, that the price and the conditions of sale are being largely affected by them. Spinning tests show that care in planting and handling cotton is of great value tO' the mills, in the matter of waste, and of general appearance of the products. If a mill would take the trouble to pay higher prices to planters who are known to take special pride in the actual character of their cotton, and to pay lower prices to the others, there would arise an emulation among the planters that will most certainly improve the quality of cotton and of mill products. There are many facts about cotton that are now well known, but which have been disregarded on account of the market conditions. But these may now reach great prominence if properly stimulated by the mill men. For example, cotton that is planted late, has not time to mature the fibres, and attain uniformity of strength and smooth- ness and length. Even when it is planted in time the "top 6 INTRODUCTION. crop" is sometimes stunted by early frosts, and the same bad result is produced. Uniformity in length of staple is of prime importance, even more than length in the abstract. A mill with its machinery adjusted for -J inch staple has better results on fibres uniformly f inches long than with some i^ inches long. Uniformity in length, as well as in other characteristics, is most conserved by uniformity in the variety and matu- rity of the seed sown, though also influenced by uniformity of soil and culture and fertilization. Careful sorting of the grades, according to maturity and general appearance, while the cotton is being harvested, is of the utmost im- portance. And finally, the cotton thus carefully grown and assorted should be carefully ginned.* The great staple goods of the Southern mills has been brown sheetings, weighing about four yards per pound. For this, "middling" cotton is generally used. "Strict middling" and "good middling" are sometimes bought for finer goods. Finer goods are now being very generally made in the middle South. The extreme South and Southwest are now working the coarsest and heaviest goods.** Processes. 4. The process through which cotton must pass in the mill for making common cloths are: Mixing, Spinning, Opening, Spooling, , Lapping, Warping, Carding, Slashing, Drawing, Drawing In, Slubbing, Weaving, Roving, Finishing. *The above parasfraphs relating to character and spinning qualities of cotton are taken from the author's book, "Cotton and Cotton Oil." **For full discussion of the reasons which drive finegoods to one section of the country and common goods to another, see the author's book, "Cotton Mill, Com- mercial Features." INTRODUCTION. 7 The processes for making- common yarns are the same as the above, as far as spinning. These yarns are some- times referred to as "carded yarns," in contradistinction to "combed yarns."* Combing is a process intermediate between carding and drawing. It is used mostly with fine long staple cotton. The purpose is to sort out and reject the stray short fibres and leave only the uniformly long fibres. Draft. — Defined. 5. All processes, up to and including spinning, involve, among other things, drawing out or attenuating the cotton. The object is to take a mass of cotton like a bale, and by successive reductions, finally draw it out into a long thread. It may be considered that a bale of cotton (about i^ yards long, weigh- ing 500 pounds) weighs 333 pounds per yard. It is first passed through the picker room, where it emerges in a sheet weighing less than one pound per yard. The card reduces it to about i-ioo of a pound per yard, and so on through the various machines, until when the yarn is produced, it may require several miles to weigh a pound. Each machine must do its proportionate part in the drawing. The amount that it does is called its "draft." If a machine receives stock weighing 10 ounces per yard and delivers stock weighing i ounce per yard, the ma- chine is said to have a "draft" of 10. THE DRAFT OF A MACHINE, then, may be defined as THE QUO- TIENT OBTAINED BY DIVIDING THE WeFgHT PER YARD OF STOCK RECEIVED BY WEIGHT PER YARD OF STOCK DELIVERED. The same result may be arrived at, if more convenient, by dividing the weight of any number of yards (say 120) received by the weight of the same number of yards de- *This is not an entirely logical distinction, inasmuch as combed yarns must also be carded ; but these are common terms in the yarn market. 8 INTRODUCTION. livered, or by dividing the number of yards delivered by the number of yards received in a given time. There are Several ways of re-stating the same formula, which are re- viewed at length in another chapter. The draft which each machine must have depends upon the fineness of the yarn to be produced. The arrange- ment and tabulation of drafts throughout the mill for production of any particular goods is called its "organiza- tion." CHAPTER 11. tTbe picker IRoom* Mixing. 6. In the South the subject of mixing" cotton on the floor before putting through the opening machines is of not so much importance as in countries where cotton must be brought to the mill from great dis- tances, coming from various localities, and being in compressed bales. In this latter case it is necessary for the cotton to lie in the mixing pile on the floor, in order to expand to its original condition. The mixing itself is more necessary in that case, because each different bale may represent some difference of quality, either in color or staple. In order for the product to approach uniform- ity, therefore, the larger the mixing the better. In Eng- lish mills, in particular, there are elaborate provisions for mixing large quantities, and there the mixing of different grades of cotton at different prices to produce goods at a certain cost becomes a fine art. Mixing large quantities of loose cotton on the floor is, in any case, theoretically desirable, because, even where cotton comes to the mill from the immediate neighbor- hood, there are always some slight differences in quality, no matter how carefully bought. These would be mostly due to different degrees of care in ginning. Another ad- vantage also results in the equalization of moisture that is in the cotton. On account of the universally careless way in which baled cotton is handled before reaching the mill, some bales may stand in the weather a week or two weeks, or even a month. In this Avay, the bale may ar- rive at the mill entirely too wet, while another would be perfectly dry. If the two were intimately mixed the re- lO THE PICKER ROOM. suit might work very well. But there is a practical limit to the number of bales that may be mixed at one time. This is the limited room which can be spared for the pur- pose, and the danger from fire spreading in the loose cot- ton. It is usual to mix enough at one time to run the mill from two to six days, according to space available, the more the better. It is well, however, not to mix too much cotton when the air is extremely dry. If the pile should stand exposed to' the air too long under these con- ditions, it might lose some of its natural moisture and thus make it brittle and hard to spin. The use of artificial air moistening apparatus would, of course, remedy this trouble. When cotton arrives at the mill the number of bales to be mixed are laid on edge, the ties and bagging taken off, and a large handful or sheet of cotton is taken from one bale after another by hand, and thrown into the mixing, bin, so that the pile is a thorough average of all the bales. In the operation of the mill there is some stock wasted at each of the processes. This waste is carefully kept in boxes or bags, and such as is good enough is returned to the picker room for mixing with new stock and re-work- ing. Waste from the pickers themselves consists mostly of motes and trash that cannot be again worked. This waste is som. Loose cotton which may be wasted throughout the mill is very easily mixed and re-worked, but stock in which some twist has been introduced is more difficult to handle. In any case, the waste must be carefully scattered through the pile, so that it may not introduce important differences in the stock. In a large mill there is always a machine for working over the waste and delivering it in a perfect fleece for mixing. Such ma- chines are variously called "waste pickers," "waste open- ers," 'Vaste cleaners," "thread extractors," etc. The best term, in accordance with the name given cotton pre- parers in general, is "waste picker." 7. There are special tools in the market for removing THE PICKER ROOM. II cotton ties from the bale, but the most common tool is a small, short crow bar. The bar is stuck under the tie near the buckle, and with a twist, the tie may be easily pulled out of buckle and taken off. Great care must be taken not to lose the small iron buckles in the loose cot- ton, as they would be disastrous to the machinery. A good plan is to count the buckles before removing them, and then count the number when the work is all done, A box for holding these buckles should be provided in the room. The ties and bagging should be carried out at once to the waste house. There the ties should be straightened out and scrubbed with a brick to remove dirt and adhering cotton. They may be doubled once and put up in bun- dles of 30, fastened together with wire or iron bands, and having strung on one tie the whole 30 buckles. This is the usual shape in which new ties are sold. If old ties are carefully cleaned and bundled, and finally dipped in hot coal tar, they may be sold for about the price of new ties. The bagging when removed is always in bad condition, and it is not possible to put it in good shape to sell, ex- cept to local trade. It is full of small bits of lint, is often discolored with clay and with many marks, and it is al- ways cut in several places, where samples have been drawn. It is usually rolled up, enough for five bales in a roll, and sold to neighboring ginners. Opening. 8. Strictly speaking, the bale is "opened" when the ties and bagging are removed from the bale, and the cotton is torn off, but technically the opener is the first macliine into which the cotton is fed, and tV.at process is known as "opening" or "picking." The term "picker" is a general term comprising all the beater machines, known individually as "openers" and as "lappers." The English use the word "scutcher" in place of "picker." They also call this machinery in general "blowing room machinery," from the fact that the ma- 12 THE PICKER ROOM. chines all have fans or "blowers." These machines are always in a room apart from other machines, called by the English the "blowing room," and by the Americans the "picker room." Sometimes large mills cut open the bales of cotton in a warehouse, situated at some distance from the mill. They have a galvanized iron pipe leading from warehouse to picker room. A suction fan in picker room sucks the loose cotton from warehouse, and delivers it to the feeder of the opening machine. This is a very excellent plan. It econ- omises room in the mill proper, and it keeps the mass of loose open cotton at some distance from running machinery, and is thus in less danger of fire. In the great majority of mills the cotton bales are opened in the picker room, and there put in the hopper of the self-feeder and opener. Self-feeder and Opener, Fig. 2.— Lettering. A. Feed Box. B. Lattice in Bottom. C. Vertical Lattice. D. Upper or Evening Lattice. E. Clearer. F. Flue to Opener. G. Feed Rolls to Beater. H. Beater. J. Grids or Screen. K. Mote Box or Dirt Box. L. Delivering Flue. M. Lattice to Feed Roll. SEI.F-FEEDER AND OPENER — PROCESS. Cotton is thrown into feed box A. Spiked lattice C picks it up in a sheet. Evening lattice D scrapes off surplus cotton. In som.e machines this lattice is so arranged that it may be ad- justed nearer to or further from lattice C, and thus regu- O (U C/i THE PICKER ROOM. 1 5 late the amount of cotton that may pass through. Other machines have arrangements for varying the speed of various parts to regulate the feed. Other machines have no lattice at the top, but have an iron cylinder studded with teeth, so arranged with internal mechanism that the teeth automatically protrude and recede, in order to pick up and to discharge respectively. The amount of motion of these teeth may be regulated, according to weight of lap desired. Clearer E knocks cotton off clean and drops it into flueF. Feed rolls G deliver the sheet of cotton to beater H. Beater H, revolving about 1,300 revolutions per min- ute, beats the cotton down over the grids J. Motes and dirt fall through grids J into mote box K. Cleaned lint passes out through flue L, whence it is taken by suction to the next machine. Lapping. 9. A lapper is a machine for cleaning cotton and forming it into a "lap," or bat or roll. In the best mills there are three processes of lapping. The first machine is called a "breaker lapper," the next the "intermediate" (lapper) and the next the "fin- isher" (lapper). The breaker lapper receives cotton from the opener, beats it in the same way as the opener, and rolls it up into a lap. Generally this machine is set some distance from the opener, either on the same level or on the floor above. This is for the purpose of inter- posing between the two machines a "trunk." which is a flue about 8 inches deep and 36 inches wide, and varying length, according to the room that can be spared, but usually 20 to 40 feet. The bottom of the trunk is com- posed of grids, and under the grids is another tight flue for catching dust and other foreign matter that may sift through. 1 6 THE PICKER ROOM. lo. Breaker Lapper, Fig. 3 — Lettering. A. Suction Fan. B. B. Perforated Revolving Screens. C. Feed Rolls. D. Beater. E. Fan. F. F. Perforated Revolving Screens. G. Calender Rolls. H. Lap Roll. J. Lap. K. Grid. M. M. Dust Flues. Breaker-Lapper — Process. Suction fan A has its suction connected with interior of perforated screens B B. Air is thus drawn from inlet fiue^through the perforationsin screens. The inlet flue leads from the trunk and thus from the delivery flue to the opener. Suction thus draws cotton against screens. Screens B B slowly revolve and slightly condense the sheet of cotton between them. The dust in cotton passes through screen and through fan to dust flue M. Feed rolls C draw sheet of cotton in and feed it to beater. Beater D, revolving about 1,400 revolutions per min- ute, beats cotton down over grids K. Fan E, connected like fan A, draws cotton against screens F F. Screens F F condense cotton like screens B B. Calender rolls G condense the sheet harder. The sheet rolls up around lap roll H. There is usually an automatic stop motion so arranged that when 48 yards pass through the calender rolls the feed rolls and calen- der rolls stop. The lap is then removed by an attendant. The lap roll is pulled out and put back on the machine for forming the next lap. A rod, called the "lap-rod," is inserted in centre of lap just removed, so that when it THE PICKER ROOM. I9 is put on the succeeding machine it may unroll by re- volving on this rod as a centre. The upper feed roll C is held in place by springs or weights, so that if any foreign matter should by accident pass through, this roll would rise out of the way, instead of being bent. The top calender roll G is also weighted. These weights are arranged on levers, connected with the stop motion in such a way that, should any foreign mat- ter of too great bulk pass through, the machine would stop. II. The fans are all provided with regulating damp- ers, so that the cotton may be drawn with more or less force against the screens, according as the cotton is more or less damp, or according as a heavier or lighter sheet is passing through. In subsequent processes, when the rolled lap must be unrolled, it sometimes unrolls in a thicker or thinner sheet than the original lap, and hence splits. This causes irregular work, and should be cor- rected by regulating these fan dampers, and sometimes by adjusting the weights which are hung on the calender rolls. The air delivered by all the fans is more or less charged with dust and fine particles of short lint. The mill is usually designed with a large room in the basement, made tight and used as a dust room. All fans deliver into this room. A large chimney is connected with it, so that the air may escape. Before it does so, it deposits much of the dust and lint in the large room, so that practically pure air issues from the chimney. Care must be taken to have free exit of air from all fans. If they should in any way become stopped up, bad work will result. Some old- fashioned dust rooms have no chimney, but jillow air to escape through a horizontal flue; while still others have no dust room, and let the fans deliver into open air. Both of these arrangements are bad; they scatter lint and dust over the premises, and when the wind is in the direction to blow up the flues, the fans work badly. Especial at- 20 THE PICKER ROOM. tention must be given to the first fan in breaker lapper^ which has to draw the cotton from the opener through the cleaning trunk. A small leak in the trunk or a small obstruction in the discharge of the fan will cause the cot- ton to clog in the trunk, and sometimes to fill the trunk back as far as the opener, and choke that machine. Cleaning trunks are provided with glass windows, so that the attendant may easily see whether or not the passage is clear. Since the introduction of round lap cotton bales, several special machines have been devised for working them in the picker room. One machine is a combined opener and breaker lapper. This machine has attached to it an extra strong feed lattice (similar to Fig. 4),_ made to hold up about three round bales, weighing about 250 pounds each. The machine has two or more beaters, which beat the laps as they unroll. There is a draft between the beaters, so that when lap rolls up, and is delivered from the machine, it weighs only about one pound per yard instead of nine pounds (in the three laps). The spiral end packed bales and the compressed square bales, which are made at the ginnery, are worked in an ordinary opener, the same as cotton packed and com- pressed in the old way. 12. — Intermediate Lapper, Fig. 4 — Lettering. A. Lattice. B. Laps Being Fed. C. Evener Roll. D. Evener. E. Feed Rolls. F. Beater. G. Grids. H. H. Screens. J. Calender Rolls. K. Lap Delivered. L. Fan. M. Dust Flue. 22 the picker room. Intermediate Lappkr — Process. This machine is same as breaker lapper except that^ instead of receiving its feed in the form of a fleece, drawn automatically from the preceding machine, it is provided with a feed lattice A, on which laps from breaker lapper may be laid. These laps gqherally four, unroll, and the four sheets are together fed between fluted rolls E, to beater F. This machine has an automatic stop motion for "knocking off" when laps measure any required length, generally 48 yards. It has also an evener D, which is an attachment designed to- compensate for irregularities of feed, and thus make the delivered lap uniform in weight, irrespective (between certain limits) of the weight of cotton fed to it. This is accomplished by varying the speed of feed rolls E ac- cording as the sheet passing through them is thick or thin. These rolls are driven by a pair of cone pulleys. The mechanism for varying the speed is connected with a shifter operating on the cone belt. This mechanism is somewhat complicated. The general principle is that a series of narrow plates D rest against the roll C. The cotton passes between these plates and rolls C, on the way to feed rolls E. If a thick spot occur anywhere in the width of the sheet, the plate immediately over this spot is depressed, and operates to shift the belt so that the feed will go slower. A thin spot operates in the re- verse way, so that a thick sheet feeds slower and a thin sheet feeds faster, thus insuring a uniform quantity pass- ing through per minute. This is shown better in diagram Fig. 5. In this diagram one lever is shown entire at the left, while the other levers are broken away, to more plainly show the arrangement. the picker room. 23 Finisher Lapper. 13. This is a duplicate of the intermediate. Four laps from the intermediate are placed upon lattice and fed through the finisher in the same manner as through the intermediate. The object is to still further whip out the dust, and to make the lap still more uniform in weight. It is usual to have the draft of these machines about equal to the number of laps fed on the apron, so that the lap delivered by the machine will be about equal in weight to each of the laps received by it. If the laps fed to a lapper weigh 14 ounces per yard, and there are four of them, and the draft of the machine is 4, the lap delivered will weigh 14 ounces per yard. This does not take into ac- count the loss in weight due to motes and dirt. It is not necessary here to complicate the calculation with this allowance, because there is an easy way to make small adjustments in drafts on these machines, and this must be finally done by trial in order to get the weights just right. In fact, the adjustment must be frequently made to compensate for changes in the weather, and for cot- tons of various degrees of cleanness. The details of mechanism by which this adjustment is made vary with different builders. In all cases, however, the adjustment is made at the point where the evener levers connect with belt shifter. There is a long threaded rod which may be lengthened or shortened. This change of length tends to move belt toward one or the other end of the cone. If a heavier lap is wanted (that is, less draft) the screw must be turned in such a manner as to move the belt toward the small end of upper (or driven) cone. This runs feed roll faster. If a lighter lap (that is, more draft) is wanted, screw is turned to move belt toward large end of upper (or driven) cone. This runs feed roll slower. ^4 THE PICKKR ROOM. Some finisher lappers are provided with beaters and grids made with teeth or spikes, instead of with flat edges, in order to obtain a carding action on the cotton. They turn out a smoother lap, and are much Hked by many superintendents, while others claim that these toothed beaters make too much waste. On the whole, it may be said that, when properly adjusted, they are of consider- able value. The finisher lapper is usuall}^ arranged to turn out a lap about one inch narrower than the preceding machine. This is done by means of "selvage plates," which narrow up the lap by compressing it at the edges. This is for the purpose of making a lap with firmer edges, which will not so easily fray out when being carried forward to the next machine. Single-Beater, Double Beater. 14. The lappers above described are "single-beater" or ^'single-section" lappers. Each of these machines has but a single beater. There are also "double-beater" or "double-section" lappers. These have two beaters and two sets of revolving screens. When the cotton passes through the first beater and between the first pair o[ screens, a pair of feed rolls receives the sheet and feeds it to the second beater, which delivers it to the second set of screens, whence it goes (as in the case of single- beater lapper) to the calender rolls. This machine cleans the cotton as well as two single-beater machines, but it does not make laps quite as even, for the reason that in, the two separate machines there are two eveners, and aside from this in both machines four laps are doubled into one ; and this doubling tends to equalize irregularities, on the theory that a thick or thin place in one lap, which might amount to i per cent, of its thickness, would, when laid upon the others, amount to only ^ per cent, of the whole. On this theory it is common practice to double, in all the processes possible throughout the mill. The two-beater the: picker room. 25 lapper takes up less room and costs less and requires less attention than two single-beater lappers. Production. 15. Pickers are rated at a capacity of 1,500 to 3,000 pounds of cotton per day, depending on the weight of the lap. Lappers are usually speeded so' that they make a lap in about eight minutes. An allow- ance of two minutes per lap is about right for "doffing" (taking off) the lap and for other stoppages. If an 8 ounce lap is being made, the full lap of 48 yards will weigh 24 pounds, and the capacity of machine for this work will be 24 pounds every ten minutes, or 144 pounds per hour, or 1,584 pounds per ii-hour day. If a i6-ounce lap is made, the capacity of lapper is of course double the above. If a small mill works only about half as much cotton as the rated capacity of a lapper, one m.achine may be dispen- sed with; the laps from the breaker lapper may be put twice through the intermediate, instead of through inter- mediate and then through finisher. Some mills, making coarse work, use only three processes of picking instead of four, as above described. This would still further econ- omise machines. If a mill uses only about 1,000 pounds per day on coarse work, it is possible to got along Vv'ith only one picking machine. In this case the self-feeder is arranged to deliver cotton on to the lattice of a finisher lapper. The day's run may be put through in one-third of a day. The self-feeder is then stopped, and the laps put up on the lattice and run through; the new laps from this process are then run through again. Except as to quan- tity, the same result is attained as if three pickers had been used. 16. Having decided upon the weight per yard* de- sired for the finished lap, say 12 ounces per yard, the weight of 48 yards must be computed. ^^e'* ^"-^ 3^ *For discussion of proper weight per yard, see table of practical organizations in appendix. 26 THE PICKER ROOM. pounds. Each finished lap being measured by the auto- matic stop motion, will be 48 yards. Each lap should be put on the scales, and should weigh 36 pounds. It is not possible, with the finest evener, to make every lap of pre- cisely the same weight, but it should never vary more than ^ pound on either side of the desired weight, making a total allowable variation of i pound, or say about 2^ per cent. These variations should be closely watched. 11 the laps persistently run too heavy or too light, that is, if all the variations are one way, the feed should be adjust- ed until the variations occur first on the light side and then on the heavy side. Upon regular laps depend regu- lar yarn. If laps run uneven, nothing in the subsequent processes can ever entirely remedy it. General cleanliness is conducive to even work. Parts of the picker which are accessible while running should be kept constantly clean. At least once every week the machine should have a thorough internal examination and cleaning. Short cotton and waste have a tendency tO' accumulate in various corners. If oil has been carelessly allowed to waste out of the beater boxes it will run down the beater shaft and help to accumulate dirt. The screens must be carefully looked after. They must at all times be free over their entire surface, otherwise laps will run thickest where there is most air and thinnest where screens are stopped up. 17. Throughout the picker room there must prevail the utm-ost precaution against fire. This is the most dan- gerous place in the mill, because of the foreign matter li- able to be in cotton bales, and because of handling the cotton in loose form. Matches are sometimes found in- side of bales, and matches are sometimes carelessly drop- ped by operatives. If a match passes through a picker THE PICKER ROOM. 2/ it rarely fails to start a fire. All the conditions are favor- able, loose cotton is in abundance and the fans furnish a blast like a blacksmith's bellows. For the .«?a3iie reason, a small piece of iron will strike fire in a picker and set cot- ton ablaze. If cotton is delivered through a cleaning trunk, this furnishes for the flame a perfect passage to the next machine. Some cleaning trunks are provided with automatic sprinklers, which operate to put out a fire. Tjie machine should be stopped as soon as fire is discovered, thus stop- ping the air blast. The discharge pipes from all the fans are usually made of galvanized iron. Each one should run independently into the dust room, and should have a shutter on the discharge end in the dust room, which will automatically close in case of fire in the dust room or in the dust flue to which it is attached, thus preventing fire from passing up flue into picker room. The automatic shutter consists of a sheet iron plate, so hinged and weighted that in its natural position it is closed. But it is fastened open by a fusible link. In case of fire in flue or dust room this link melts and shutter closes. A barrel of water and two or three fire buckets should always be a part of the equipment of the picker room. Calculations. — Draft. 1 8. It is not often necessary in a cotton mill to make any calculations as to draft of a picker. When the specifica- tions for a mill are originally drawn up the weight of lap to be made is specified, and the maker of .^nachine sends with the machine the proper gears to produce the desired result. Any small changes that are ordinarily to be made in a mill may be made by adjusting the self-feeder and making a heavier or lighter breaker lap, or by adjusting the 28 THE PICKER ROOM. evener on the finisher lapper. But a diagram, Fig. 5, is giv- en with calculations to show how it ma) be done. This dia- gram is not intended to represent a picker in its exact me- chanical proportions, but is made with a view to separat- ing the gears so they may be readily seen in (he order in which they transmit their power. Only such gears are given as have an influence on the "draft" of the machine; that is, the relation of the stock fed to that delivered. The lap is fed between the evener bars, a, and the feed roll, b. It passes through beater and screens, and is finally de- livered through calender rolls d. The pulley A is driven from a small pulley on main beater shaft. This pulley A is on a shaft carrying gears, which drive both feed roll and calender rolls. The problem is to find the "value" of this train of gears. Draft Rule. 19. The rule for finding draft of a machine of any kind is to consider gear on feed roll or place where stock enters machine as the driver, whether it is, mechanically, or not* MULTIPLY TOGETHER THE DIAMETER OF DE- LIVERING ROLL AND ALL THE DRIVING GEARS FOR A DIVIDEND (OR NUMERATOR); MULTIPLY TOGETHER THE DIA^IETER OF RECEIVING ROLL AND ALL TtlE DRIVEN GEARS FOR A DIVISOR (OR DENOMINATOR). The quotient is the draft. Applying this rule to pickers, it will be noted that a pair of cone pulleys intervene, but in making- the calcu- lation the belt is considered as on the middle of the cones, *Most text books and machinery catalog'ues give a rule similar to this one, but omit to state clearly what is meant by the "'driver " In all these calculations rela- ting to gears, it is immaterial which gear the power is actually applied to : that is to say the real "driver." But in using the terms driver and driven in tVese rules and formulas, it is very important to clearly define them. Throughout this book, in all draft calculations, the "driver" is assumed to be on the feed roll or place where stock enters the machine. This gives the result as a whole number (as 4.1.5 in the example below). The formula could be worked out just as well on the oppo- site assumption ; but in this case the result would be in the denominator of a frac- tion. The example below would work out ^.■^-. This is an unnecessarily awkward way to express the result. ^ u flH U o MH bo ^ C jx,4- ;_, fo Js at i;c5 o i^--'^' T\'* 03 p bjo to 30 THE PICKER ROOxM. SO that the effect is just the same as if there were two o;-ears or two pulleys of same size. The worm U working into wheel Y is just the same as if the worm were a gear with one tooth; for one revolution of worm moves wheel V forward just one tooth. With the foregoing ex- planation, the formula for draft of a machine with gears as per Fig. 5, is 5 X 10 X 50 X 38 X 35 X 22 X 24 X 18 2 X 33 X I X 30 X 21 X 53 X 72 X 48 This works out 4.15, and means that i yard of stock received by machine (when belt is in middle of cone pul- leys) is 4.15 times as heavy as i yard delivered by machine. If cone belt is shifted to small end of top cone the draft would be 1x4.15=2.77. If on the large end of top cone, the draft would be f X 4.15=6.25. From the above it will be seen that the draft of this picker may be altered between the limits of 2.y'j and 6.23, without changing a gear. The eveners a are connected with a mechanism which shifts cone belt to equalize unevenness, as ex- plained in 12. (All the evener bars but one are shown as broken off in Fig. 5.) By adjusting this connection, the belt may be made to work at any given place when the lap is just right. It will play on both sides of this point according to the unevenness of feed. It is better to arrange it so the belt will play about the centre of the length of cones. Constant or Dividend, 20. Referring to Fig. 5, the gear T is marked "draft." On this particular machine, this gear is the one that is .generally changed when it is required to make a greater THE PICKER ROOM. 3 1 change in the draft of the machine than can be made by shifting the cone belt. The position of draft gear in Fig. 5, namely the position of "driver" (in the numerator of the formula) makes the condition that the larger the draft gear, the greater the draft. Since the gear 38 produces a draft of 4.15, double this gear would produce double the draft, and it may be said that each tooth of the gear makes a draft of *^\^ or .109. If this number .109 be multiplied by any gear, the result will be the draft produced by that gear. The number .109 is called the "constant" for this particular machine. Suppose it be required to find what draft a 40- tooth gear would produce, .109x40=4.36. Some other machines have the draft gear in such a po- sition in the train that a larger gear produces a smaller draft. The constant for that machine would have to be divided by the draft to find the draft gear. This is the usual arrangement for most of the machines in a cotton mill. A constant which has to be divided to give the result is also called a "dividend." Summary of Picker Room Processes. 21. Cotton is mixed in piles or in mixing bins. It is fed to opener. Opener beats it and delivers it loose into flue. Breaker lapper has a suction fan which draws cotton from flue of opener through cleaning trunk and delivers it to beater. Cotton then rolls itself into a lap on the same machine. This lap may weigh 6 to 18 ounces per yard, according to the organization. A number of these laps, (usually 4) are laid on lattice of intermediate. Intermediate beats them and forms them into other laps, weighing about the same as breaker laps, sometimes less. A number of these intermediate laps (usually 4) are put on lattice of finisher and formed into finished laps, weigh- ing about the same as intermediate laps, sometimes less. 32 THE PICKER ROOM. Thus cotton has been beaten four thnes, once at the opener, once at the breaker, once at the intermediate, once at the finisher. The same four beatings might be ac- compHshed by having the opener dehver to a two-beater breaker and taking laps from this machine to a single- beater finisher, or by having a single-beater breaker and a two-beater finisher. Where only a small production is required, the object may be attained by putting laps successively through one machine. It is not a fixed rule that there must be exactly four beatings. Common and coarse work might be done with three, or even two. Compressed cotton or cotton that is unusually dirty might require five beatings. But for the average class of cotton and the average class of goods made in the South, four beatings appear to have the pref- erence. It is quite possible to overdo the matter with more than four beatings. Excessive waste might be made, and the fibre might be damaged. General Data. 22. Floor Space. Weight Cost. .Self-feeder 6 ft. x 7 ft. 1,000 lbs. $250.00 One- beater Lapper 6 ft. x 16 ft. 6,000 lbs 700.00 Two-beater Lapper. ... 6 ft. x 22 ft. 8,500 lbs. 1,000.00 Different builders make machines with different dimen- sions and prices. The above figures are only intended as a general average. The maximum diameter of lap which will go on an aver- age feeding lattice is 20 inches. These machines are all furnished with countershafts which run 400 to 600 revolutions per minute. The re- ceiving pulleys on this countershaft are about 16 inches diameter, 4 inches face, tight and loose. The beater shafts are driven from countershaft, and run 1,200 to 1,400 revolutions per minute. Single-beater lappers require about 4-horse power and two-beater lappers about 6-horse power. THD PICKER ROOM. 33 specifications. 23. The builders of all machines have blank specification sheets for purchasers to fill out in making an order. The following is a sample blank: Number of Self-feeders Openers Breaker Lappers. . Intermediate Lappers. . Finisher Lappers. . . Breakers. Interm'd'tes. Fin'h'rs. Single or Double Beater, Speed Counter Shaft, Receiving Pulley on vCounter, . Kind of Beater, Kind of Evener, Width of Lap, Number of Laps Fed, Weight of Laps Fed, Weight of Laps Del'd, Kind of Trunk Distance betw^een floors where machines stand. Shipping Instructions Maker ' Purchaser Price Terms , Remarks CHAPTER III. Carbing. 24. In a modern cottcn mill the revolvnig top fiat card is the only one in use. It has displaced the older forms known as "Roller Cards," "Top Flat Cards," and "Wellman Cards." Revolving Top Flat Card. Fig. 6. — lyEjTTBRiNG. A. Fluted Feed Roll. B. Lap from Picker Room. C. Licker-in (or Taker -in). D. Cylinder. E. Doffer. F. DofTer Comb. G. Trumpet. H. Calender Roll. J. Condenser Rolls. K. Can. L. Chain of Revolving Top Flats. (Sometimes called "Slats.") M. Brush to Clean Flats. N. Roll of Toppings (or Strippings). P. Top Flat Comb. R. Teeth on Card Clothing. T. Teeth on Top Flats. U. Teeth on Licker-in. W. Feed plate (or "Dish Plate," or "Shell Plate," or "Shell Feed"). X. Mote Knives. Y. Grids under Licker-in. Z. Grids under Cylinder. 36 CARDING. Revoi,ving Top Fi.at Card — Process. Lap unrolls and is drawn between feed roll A and feed plate W. Licker-in C cuts it down and carries it over grids Y. Cylinder D takes it up in a thin sheet and carries it over in contact with teeth on top flats T. This action cards or combs it into some degree of parallelism. Top flats remove short fibres or "neps" (matted or im- mature fibres). Chain of flats move slowly forward, so that new flats are continually coming into action, while old Pats are leav- ing the cylinder. Comb P removes short fibres from flats. These fibres, called "toppings," roll up on rod N. This rod is held in contact with the teeth of flats by springs. Brush M finishes the cleaning of flats. Doifer E removes sheet of carded cotton from cylin- der. Doffer comb F removes sheet from doffer. Sheet is drawn through trumpet G by calender rolls H. The sheet is thus formed into a round mass, called "sliver." Condenser rolls J take sliver and deliver it to coiler head. Coiler is a revolving plate with a hole in it, revolving in such a way as to deliver sliver in coils in the can K. The can stands on a plate near floor, which revolves in the op- posite direction from coiler. Centre of can does not stand directly under centre of coiler. Fig. 7 shows how coils are laid in can. More stock may be put in a can in this way than any other. Fig. 7. Coils in Can. 38 CARDING. Fig. 8 shows how sHver is delivered from calender rolls R on card, taken to condenser rolls P, and delivered through hole T in coiler head to can U. By following the gearing, it will be seen that the coiler head turns 20 times in one direction while the can turns once in the other. This lays 20 series of coils in the can, as shown in Fig. 7. 25. The teeth on the Hcker-in are made strong, some- what like a gin saw. They whip out the motes and most other impurities. These fall through grids Y. The mote knives X are adjustable, and are set in such a manner as to intercept the motes, and not disturb the clean cotton. As the fibres pass around the cylinder, other impurities are sifted out through the grids Z, so that the sliver delivered should be reasonably free from all foreign matter. Setting up and adjusting a card is a delicate piece of work, and should be attempted only by an expert. New cards are sent from the shop "knocked-down," that is, in pieces. The builders always send a man to erect the card in the mill, clothe, grind, and adjust it, in the place where it is to stand. Clothing. 26. Card clothing consists of a heavy strip (called the "foundation") made of cloth or rubber, having teeth in- serted in it. The foundation is usually made of alternate layers of cotton cloth and sheet rubber, about four ply, and about 3-32 inches thick. Different makers use various materials and methods in making it. The teeth are made from fine tempered steel wire, about 34 gauge. The wire is bent in the shape of a carpet tack and driven through the foundation, then slightly bent again in the direction of the length of the strip. The points project through about 5-16 inches, and the bend is about 1-16 inch from the face of foundation. The points stand 200 to 600 per square inch. The strips (called "fillets") Fig. 8. Coiler and Can. 40 CARDING. are now made 2 inches wide by 275 feet long for a cylinder, and i^ inches wide by 200 feet long for a 24 inch dofler. 27. Formerly card clothing was made in strips 4 inches wide. The fineness of setting of teeth, or what is known as "counts" was based on the number of rows of teeth in this width of four inches. Counts 100 meant that there were 100 rows of teeth across the 4-inch strip. There was no variation in the number of rows lengthwise; all counts had formerly 10 rows per inch lengthwise. Since the intro- duction of 2-inch and i|-inch fillets, there lias been no change in the method of expressing the "counts," though it does not now express anything definite. On examin- ing a large number of samples of English card clothing now on the market, it appears that the different numbers all run about the same lengthwise, viz: 23 points per inch, while in the same "counts" of different makers, there is a wide variation in the number of points per inch of width. For example, 80 "counts," which should have 20 points per inch of width (to make 80 in 4 inches), has varying numbers from 18 to 20. Ninety counts averages about 21 points per inch of width, while 100 to 120 counts all aver- age about the same, viz: 23. Nominally no counts seems to be about 76,000 points per square foot. While there is not any unanimity of opinion as to what the best thing is it would be best in all ca^es, where there is any real pref- erence, to specify not the "counts," but number of points per square foot. After the teeth are inserted in the foundation, the points are ground off even. Clothing is said to be "plow-ground" when, after being ground off even, the sides of the teeth are ground with a thin emery wheel. so that the teeth are narrower across the fillet than the/ are lengthwise. This style of tooth is by m?.nv authori- ties considered the best, but it is not certain that it is of any great advantage for the class of work done in the South. Clothing is usually furnished by the builder of cards CARDING. 41 (though he does not make it), and it is included in the price of cards. 28. The fillet is appHed to cyHnders and doffers, by being wound on spirally, under considerable tension. The cylinder is turned with a crank by hand, while the tension on fillet is produced by a special machine ■'Ahich has a small drum around which fillet is wrapped, and a friction jaw through which fillet passes on its way to tlie cylinder. There is a hand-screw on the jaw, and an indicator to show how many pounds the fillet is pulling A pull of about 400 pounds is used for a fillet 2 inches wide, and 300 pounds for i^inches wide. The card cylinders are of iron, but they have wooden plugs inserted m the face at proper interv^als for tacking on the fillet. It is necessary to have the surfaces very clean and smooth, so that there may be no lumps in the clothing. It is also necessary to have cards and clothing in the room at an even tempera- ture of 70 or 80 degrees F, and to let them remain there long enough to assume the same temperature. Any great difference might cause clothing to pucker. 29. After fillet is carefully put on and partly tacked in place, the surface is ground. This is done by apply- ing an emery roll on adjustable brackets, and re- volving it 400 to 600 revolutions per minute, at the same time running the cylinder 150 to 200 revolutions in a direction opposite to that in which the teeth are set. The emery roll is carefull}'- set up until it touches the points of the teeth. If it toucher, too hard it will form hooks on the fine teeth and ruin them. It is run this way, being set closer to wire, from time to time for three or four days, or until the entire sur- face feels perfectly even and smooth. It recjuires good judgment and experience to do this work, and to tell when it is complete. After the grinding is finished, the tacking of the fillet is completed. The process of grinding while fillet was not completely tacked has helped it to evenly ad- just its tension over the surface of the card. 42 CARDING. There are two kinds of grinding rolls, the "Long Grinder" and the "Traverse Grinder." The long grinder is a cylinder a little longer than the face of the card, say 42 inches for a 40-inch card, and 5 inches to 6 inches in diameter. It is so arranged that while it re- volves it also has a slight reciprocal motion. This causes more even grinding. The traverse grinder consists of a hollow shaft carrying an emery wheel about 8 inches in diameter and 3 inches face. It is so arranged that while revolving, the wheel traverses from one end to the other of the shaft across the face of card. This shaft is mounted on adjustable brackets, the same as long grinder. The long grinder is first used for rough grinding the surface. Afterwards, the finishing is done with traverse grinder. These grinders are made of metal and covered with strips of emery cloth, wound on spirally. The strips are called "fillets." When one fillet is worn, it may be easily replaced. 30. After cards are ground, the top flats and other parts are put on. Then the various parts are "set" to their proper working positions. For this purpose, a set of gauges is furnished with the cards. It consists of a series of about four thin flat steel plates about 2 inches wide and seven inches long, lightly riveted together, form- ing a hinge at one end for convenience. The usual thick- ness of card gauges are 5, 6, 7, 10 thousands of an inch respectively. The figures 5, 6, 7, 10 are stamped on them. There are differences of opinion as to the proper settings of cards, probably arising from different conditions of stock, different speeds, etc. The following represents a. fair average rule for setting. CARDING. 43, Feed Plate to Licker-in 10 (Thousandths.) Licker-in to Cylinder 7 Cyhnder to Doffer 7 JDoffer Comb to Doffer 7 Top Flats to Cylinder 10 Upper Mote-knife to Licker-in 12 Lower Mote-knife to Licker-in 10 Bottom Screen near Doffer 3-16 inch. Bottom Screen near Licker-in 1-8 inch. It requires a delicate touch to perceive these minute differences. A point which is more important than set- ting the various parts at the exact figures given is paral- lel setting. Whatever gauge is determined upon for any part, let that gauge be the same at each end of card — that is, if the cylinder be 8 thousandths from the licker-in at one end, let it be 8 at the other end also, otherwise the web of cotton on card will be thicker in one part than another, and irregular work will result. It is considered better to set the screen a little wider open (or further from the cylinder) at the side nearest the doffer, than it is at point nearest licker-in. Some air enters between cylinder and screen near doffer. None should emerge from screen, and pass up between licker-in and cylinder. If it did, there would be a tendency for the sheet of cotton to blow against licker-in and go around with it, instead of being detached by the cylinder. The proper setting of the screen will cause the air to be expelled through the screen along Z. 31. When card is set up, ground and ready for work, if the mill is not ready to run, it is best to run a Httle cot- ton through, to fill up the wire. This will tend to preserve the teeth from rust. It is best to keep the card room warm, so that the air will be relatively dry, and less apt to deposit moisture on the delicate teeth. The greatest care must be exercised to keep the card dry. If there are overhead water or steam pipes, they must be carefully Fig. 9. Stripping Box. CARDING. 45 examined for leaks. A very small leak will ruin an entire set of clothing. 32. Very little attention is required to operate cards, after they are once set up and adjusted to do the work. Putting on new laps and replacing full cans with empty ones constitute the principal duties of the attendant. But the machine must be carefully watched, to see that no ad- justment becomes deranged. If the doffer is set too far away from cylinder, the web will become uneven and cloudy, and may have neps in it. If the cotton used is weak or short, the feed plate may to advantage be set a little further from licker in. The dof- fer comb may also be set a little lower. This lessens the strain on the sliver between doffer and calender roll, or has a tendency to lessen the draft at this point. If the lap is not good, it sometimes has a tendency to split and adhere to feed roll and lap around it. This same effect is sometimes caused from dirty or sticky feed roll. Stripping, Grinding, Burnishing. 33. About twice a day the cards are "stripped." Strip- ping is cleaning out from the wire teeth the short fibres that imbed themselves there. It is done by means of a re- volving brush, made of wire teeth, similar to card clothing, but with longer teeth. This brush is supported on the same brackets used for the grinding rolls, and is run by an endless rope, driven generally from a groove on the loose pulley of card. While the stripping roll is running, the belt is gently shifted from time to time on to the tight pulley, enough to produce a slow motion of cylinder for a few revolutions, so that the stripping may take place around the entire circumference of cylinders. The teeth of stripping roll naturally become filled with lint. This is removed with a hand card, or better, with a stripping box, such as is shown in Fig. 9. This is a box mounted on wheels, so that it may be rolled near each card, convenient for the purpose. The stripping roll is 46 CARDING. laid in the bearings, as shown, and turned backwards by- hand. The coarse card clothing on the board just below the roll combs out the strippings and drops them into the box in the form of a roll. The top fiats are kept constantly stripped while in op- eration, as shown in (24). The character of strippings from cylinder and from flats is about the same. The fibres are white and clean, but short. They cannot be with advantage mixed with new stock again. One of the purposes of carding is to remove these short fibres, so that to mix them again would be to defeat this object and to give the cards double work. The strippings are generally sold for working into coarser fabrics in a waste mill. They bring about 60 per cent, of the value of good cotton. The total waste around a card amounts to about 5 per cent, of the stock worked, of which the strip- pings (including "toppings") form about two-thirds. 34. After cards are run a month or two the teeth be- come dull, and require re-grinding. This may be done without dismantling card. The casing at R, Fig. 6, is opened on its hinge and fastened back, while an emery roll (usually a traverse roll) is put up on its bracket and run in the same way it was when the card was originally set up and ground. Now, however, only a few hours' grinding is sufficient. The teeth on clothing of main cyl- inder are inclined in the same direction in which this cyl- inder runs while at work. Hence when it is to be ground the belt must be crossed (or uncrossed, if it happens to be already driven with a cross belt) to reverse the direc- tion. The teeth on dofifer, however, are inclined in the opposite direction from its direction of rotation. (This may be plainly seen by reference to Fig. 6.) Hence the doffer must be ground while it is running in the same direction as when at work. Sometimes it is necessary to burnish the teeth. This is done with a revolving burnishing brush made like the stripping brush, except with straight teeth. This is run CARDING. 47 in the same way as stripping brush. The teeth are set to run about ^ inch deep in card teeth. Burnishing re- moves rust and any burrs that may have been formed by careless grinding. It is also necessary, at times, to grind and burnish the top flats. The long grinder is used for this pur- pose. Special appliances are sent with the card for grind- ing flats while they are running. Some makers have pat- ented appliances for grinding them while in their actual working position — that is, face downward. If ground with face uppermost the flat will spring by its own weight and by pressure of grinding roll, and the face side will grind convex — that is, with higher teeth in centre than at end. When flat turns itself over to its working position its weight will tend to sag the centre of the face still more, and ex- aggerate the convexity, so that the flat will be nearer card cylinder in its centre than at ends. On the other hand, if flats can be ground while in working position there will be no change, and flat will pass over cylinder, at same dis- tance, from end to end. Grinding, stripping and burnish- ing rolls are considered "extras" in the price of cards. They are commonly ordered in the following proportions : Traverse grinding rolls, 2 for 20 cards or less. Long grinding rolls, i for 20 cards or less. Burnishing rolls, i for 30 cards or less. Stripping rolls, i for 30 cards or less. 35. Card sliver as it is delivered into the can should weigh a definite number of grains per yard. This, to- gether with draft of card and other particulars are all laid out on the "organization" sheet of the mill, for produc- ing a certain grade of goods. The sliver should be weighed each day, and kept within 5 per cent, of the spec- ified weight. One yard is weighed at a time. It is either measured with a yard stick or with the roving reel described in another chapter. Variations in its weight will occur from variations in the weight of lap supplied; from 48 CARDING. the accumulation of too much fibre in the clothing; from naked clothing just after stripping; from variation in grade of stock, and from variation in the state of the weather. Of the above factors, those which are under control should be carefully managed so that the weight of sliver delivered shall be as uniform as possible. Calculations. — DRAFT. 36. Fig. 10 is a diagram of draft gearing on card. This is made for the purpose of illustrating the method of calcu- lating draft, and is not intended to exhibit the exact con- struction of the machine. Different makers have differ- ent details in gearing and different size gears, but the figures marked on the diagram will serve as a guide for calculating draft of any card of this type. Following the rule laid down in (19), multiply the diam- eter of delivery roll and the teeth of all driving gears, and divide the product by the product of diameter of feed roll and the teeth of all driven gears, considering the feed roll as the driver. i-| X 130 X 34 X 190 X 29 X 24 2| X 15 X 34 X 28 X 15 X 18 This works out 90.96, and means that i yard of stock fed to the card weighs 90.96 times as much as i yard of stock delivered; or, what is the same thing, i yard of the sliver delivered weighs -9-0 V^ of i yard of the lap fed. To ascertain the weight in grains of i yard of sliver that would be delivered by this card when fed with a lap weigh- ing 14 ounces per yard, reduce the 14 ounces to grains (there are 437^ grains in one ounce) thus: 14x437^= 6,125 grains. Divide 6,125 by 90.96, and the result, 67.3, is the theoretical weight in grains of i yard of sliver. As there is about 5 per cent, of weight lost in the card, the actual weight of sliver would be 5 per cent, less than 67.3. or 64 grains. The ACTUAL DRAFT of card is about 5 per cent, more than theoretical (on account of the CARDING. 49 waste), or say 95.50. Unless otherwise specified, the word "draft" always refers to theoretical draft. Constant. 37. Referring to Fig. 10, the gear C is marked "draft." This is the gear to change to make a change in the draft of the card. If we re-write the formula in 36 and leave out the draft gear 15, it would read: i| X 130 X 34 X 190 X 29 X 24 2^- X — X 34 X 28 X 15 X 18 This works out 1364.40. If this number be divided by 15, it gives 90.96, the draft of the card. Likewise, if this number 1364.40, be divided by the draft 90.96, it gives 15, the gear necessary to produce that draft. This number, 1364.40, is called the "constant" for this particu- lar card. On account of the fact that it has to be divided to give results, it is also called the "dividend" of that card. (Most constants in cotton mill machinery are divi- dends.) If there be required a draft of 100, the draft gear would be WY-=i4 as near as possible. Or if this card already had on it a draft gear of 20, the draft of the card would be computed thus : -^f f^-^ =68.22. 38. With the draft gear 15 on this card, using 14 ounce lap, it will be seen that the actual weight of sliver delivered is about 4^ grains per tooth of draft gear. This fact gives a rough basis for estimating the effect on weight of sliver which a change in draft gear would make, when other conditions remain the same. For example, suppose a carder, under above conditions, be called upon to make a 70 grain sliver instead of 64; he could estimate that a 16 tooth draft gear would make from same lap about 68^ grains. He could either make this change and a slight adjustment in the lapper to make lap a little heavier, or he could leave the same draft on card, and / \ bo .5 'u a a> O Q u o CARDING. 51 make the lap heavier. If he were called upon to make a 60 grain sliver, he would know that the change of one tooth in draft gear to 14 would reduce weight to about 6of grains, and so he would not disturb the card, but would make the lap lighter. 39. Before the introduction of coilers and cans, the webb from dofTer passed through trumpet and was led into a trough in which was traveling an endless belt, which carried the sliver along with slivers from sev- eral other cards, to the "rail-way head," where they were condensed and drawn out and delivered into cans. Under this arrangement it was necessary to compute the draft of card from the weight of sliver as it was delivered from dofifer, instead of, as in (36), from the condenser rolls. This has led to a general idea that drafts on cards of all kinds must be computed from doffer. As there is a slight draft between doflFer and condenser rolls, this would not be correct. It may be calculated in that way, however, and the result multiplied by the draft from doffer to con- denser roll. In order to do it this way, and also in or- der to illustrate the principle of partial drafts, the calcu- lation is submitted: Draft between feed roll (2^ inches diameter) and dofTer (24^ inches diameter over the wire): 24f X 130 X 3 4 2^ X 15 X 34 This works out 85.80. This would be the draft of the card if the sliver left the machine at that part. But as it does not, the draft must be calculated between the doffer and condenser roll. Considering the dofifer as driver, the draft is: i^ X 190 X 29 X 24 ^ 24^ X 28 X 15 X i8~ Now if the draft from feed roll to dofifer is 85.80, and 52 CARDING. the draft from dofifer to condenser roll is 1.06, the whole draft of card is 85.80 x 1.06=90.96, as before.*' It is obvious that the method of finding the whole drafts at once, given in (36), is much easier and more logical than finding two separate drafts and multiplying them to- gether. For good carding the extreme range of draft should not be less than 75 nor more than 125, while a draft of about 100 is considered best. Too little draft (which means faster feeding) crowds the card clothing, so that there are more fibres than can be properly carded. Too much draft is apt to leave too thin a sheet of fibres on the clothing and result in thin or "bald" spots. Production. 40. On all machines production is measured by two factors: Speed of delivery roll and weight per yard of stock delivered. Applying this to the card, the condenser roll would be the one to measure and count, but it has become customary to gauge the production of a card by the speed of doffer. This cus- tom arose at the time when the doffer was really the de- livery roll. As there is but a slight draft between dolTer and present delivery roll, the custom continues, and is near enough for the purpose. Dofifer speeds may vary between 10 and 20 revolutions per minute. A good average is 15. Slower than this makes a low production, and much faster crowds the card and makes poor work. A belt from main cylinder shaft drives licker-in; a belt from opposite end of licker-in shaft drives a small counter-shaft, carrying a pinion which drives a large gear on dofifer. The speed of dofifer may be varied by varying size of this pinion, which is called the "barrow-wheel." On account of the fact that this wheel controls the speed of dofifer (which itself controls the output or production of card), it is also *It is a common error to suppose that in a case of this kind, the drafts should be added, not multiplied. CARDING. 53 called the "production gear." The doflfer drives feed roll through side shaft, as seen in Fig. lo. It is thus plain that changing the production gear does not alter draft of card, because feed roll and doffer are changed proportionately. At a doffer speed of 15, and a diameter over the wire of 24I inches, the number of inches of sliver delivered will be 24I X 3.1416 X 15=1166.32. inches or — -|^^^-^ =32-39 yards per minute. This is 32.39 x 60 x 11=21,377 yards per day of 11 hours. If the sliver weigh 65 grains per yard, the total weight produced is 21,377 x 65=1,398,505 grains per day or (since 7,000 grains make i pound) l^^|/^^-^-=i98 pounds per day. This is the theoretical production, with no allowance for stoppage. At least 10 per cent, should be deducted for stoppage. This would leave the actual production at about 178 pounds. If the doffer be speeded faster or slower than 15 the production may be computed from the above by the rule of three. In the same way, the production may be figured if sliver is made to weigh more or less than 65 grains. Under the average conditions in the South, cards are figured at a production of 170 pounds per day of 11 hours. They may be crowded to 200 or even 225 pounds, but it is not ad- visable. Card clothing is so delicate, and the settings are so close, that in overloading there is always danger of damaging the clothing. Stationary Top Flat, or Wellman Cards. 41. Fig. II is a diagram of the stationary flat card, as improved by the addition of the coiler. Formerly the sliver left doffer, passed through the trumpet, and was led into a trough with other slivers to a railway head. Now, how- ever, the coiler and can have been generally introduced in connection with stationary top fiat cards, in place of the railway troughs and heads. This arrangement allows each card to work as an individual machine, to be stopped and started at will, instead of being part of a series. This card does its work in the same way as the revolv- II •^"'V CARDING. 55 ing top flat card, though it is smaller, and has less produc- tion. The principal difference consists in the mechanism for stripping flats. Formerly the flats were lifted out, one at a time, and stripped by hand. An American by the name of Wellman invented an ingenious attachment for automatically lifting and stripping these flats at regular intervals. With this attachment, the machine is known as the Wellman card. It is still widely in use in old mills. But the revolving top flat card is now being introduced in new mills, and is rapidly supplanting all others in old mills. Double Carding. 42. With old fashioned cards it was in some cases neces- sary to card cotton twice. For double carding the com- bined slivers from several cards, instead of being delivered to a railway head, are taken to a lap head, which is a ma- chine like the calender end of a lapper. Here the slivers are consolidated and made into a lap ready to be carded again. The first lot of cards are called "breaker cards," while those performing the second carding are called "finisher cards." Double carding is also sometimes done with a double card, made for the purpose, where the webb from the doffer of the first cylinder is not compressed into a sliver, but passes to another cylinder, where it is carded the second time. With the introduction of more perfect machines, dou- ble carding is being abandoned. It is found that single carding with the improved machine^ is better than double carding with the old. General Data. 43. A revolving top flat card usually has cylinder 50 inches diameter (on the iron) and 40 inches wide on the face. The doffer is sometimes 24 inches, sometimes 26 inches, sometimes o.'j inches in diameter and 40 inches wide on face. It has a coiler for can 9 56 CARDING. inches, 10 inches or 12 inches diameter, as pre- ferred. The cans are 36 inches high. The floor space oc- cupied by card is about 5 feet 3 inches wide and 10 feet 6 inches long, over all, including 12 inch coiler and can on one end and a full lap in place on the other. Tight and loose pulleys are usually 20 inches by 3 inches, and should run 160 to 170. Power required about i horse power. Its weight complete is about 7,000 pounds, and cost about $600. Cards are being made with cylinder 45 inches wide on face instead of 40 inches. This card has -J more ca- pacity, and only occupies a space 5 inches wider. Many cotton mills have their cards between the columns, which are 8 feet apart. The 45 inch card can stand in this space as well as the 40 inch card, so the introduction of 45 inch cards generally effects a saving of floor space. One attendant can run as many large cards as small ones. Their introduction, however, would involve correspondingly wide lappers. For this reason wide cards will probably never be extensively put into old mills. Under average conditions, a card will use up a lap in about two hours. The sliver from it will occupy five or six 12 inch cans. Cans hold 7 to 8 pounds of sliver, and run full in about 20 minutes. The "hand" of a card is determined by standing in "front" of card — that is, at the dofTer — and noting where main driving pulley is. If pulley is on right, it is a right hand card, otherwise left hand. There is some confusion existing in the use of this term, arising from a difference of opinion as to which is the "front" of the card. Eng- lish builders generally call the front the end where the stock enters machine, while American builders call the front the place where stock leaves machine.* In view of this confusion, it is always better, in making specifica- *]t is more in accordance with the other notation Ihrougrhout mill to call the- "front" of a machine the place wViere stock leaves it. However illojr'cal it may- seem, there is no difference of opinion as to wh'rh is the front of a speeder or of a drawing frame. The "front roll" is where the stock is delivered from machine. CARDING. 57 tions, to state explicitly that pulley is to be on right hand side (or left hand, as desired) when standing at doffer. English builders refer to cards as "carding engines." Revolving top flat cards were formerly made with about 80 flats. They are now made with about 104 and some- times 112. Specifications. 44. Following is a sample blank specification sheet to be filled out in ordering cards: Number of Cards Number right hand (standing at dofifer) Number left hand Width of face Diameter of Doffer (on the iron) Diameter of Can Weight of Lap Weight of Sliver Production required per 1 1 hours Belted from above or below Size driving pulleys (20 x 3 standard) Speed driving pulleys Kind of Clothing preferred Number of Stripping Rolls ($20 extra) Number of Burnishing Rolls ($20 extra) Number Traverse Grinders ($60 extra) Number Long Grinders ($35 extra) Shipping Instructions Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER IV. 45. Until within the past two years, the process of comb- ing cotton in the United States has been confined to staples of not less than i;| inch. Lately some new machines are being introduced which are intended for use with shorter fibres; and hence the subject is becoming of wider interest. 46. The object of combing is to sort out fibres of cotton to a fairly uniform length. Fibres of cotton as found in nature, or as purchased in the market, have varying lengths. Cotton which is commercially graded as having i|^ inch staple will have mixed in it all lengths of fibre from l inch to if. The comber may be set to sort out and reject all (or any desired per cent, of) fibre below i^, or below any other specified length. This treatment of cotton conduces to much evener and smoother yarn. 47. All combers receive their stock in the form of nar- row laps or "cheeses," from 8 to 14 inches in width, usually about 8| inches. These laps are made from card slivers by special ma- chines called sliver lap machines. The sliver lap machine receives from 12 to 20 cans of card sliver, and spreads them out in the shape of a lap. This machine usually has a draft of 2 to 2^. It delivers a lap weighing about 300 grains per yard. This lap may- be fed direct to the comber, but the best practice is to put it through another machine called ribbon lapper. This ma- chine usually receives 6 sliver laps, and has a draft of 6. It lays the 6 sheets one upon the other, and draws out the delivered lap to the original weight of one of the laps, fed to it, say 300 grains per yard. The laps delivered by this machine are much more' even and smooth than those de- 6o COMBING. livered by the sliver lap machine, which latter have a ten- dency to be in shreds, marking the position of the card slivers from which they were made. Heilmann Comber. 48. The standard comber, which is in universal use at the present time for long staple cotton is the Heilmann, named from its inventor. This machine is to-day practically the same machine as when it was first introduced 50 years ago. The patents have all expired, and the machine is now being built by most of the prominent cotton machinery builders in England, and by one or two in the United States. Heilmann Comber, Fig. 12-13 — LETTERING. A. Lap. B. Wooden Lap Rollers. C. Unrolled Lap. D. Steel Feed Roll. E. Leather Covered Top Feed Roll. F. Nipper. G. Cushion Plate. H. Top Comb. J. Steel Detaching Roll. K. Brass Covered Detaching Roll. L. Leather Covered Detaching Roll. M. Combing Cylinder. N. Combing Needles. P. Fluted Segment of Cylinder. Q. Brush. R. Dofifer. S. Doffing Comb. Heilmann Comber. — PROCESS. This comber usually receives six (sometimes eight) laps, and is called a six (or eight) head machine. It has as many cylinders and other parts, shown in Fig. 12, as there are laps, or heads. The following description applies to each lap on the ma- '•'A. OH. Fig. 12. Heilmann Comber. 62 COMBING. chine, each lap being" worked separately in the same man- ner. The resulting sheets are led to a condenser and formed into a single sliver and delivered into a roving can. The narrow lap (8 to lo inches) is taken from the lap machine, and placed on the lap rollers. End of lap is fed between feed rolls. Machine is so constructed that feed rolls advance a certain amount (which may be varied according to length of staple) and stop. Nipper descends and forces the lap down against cushion plate. Cushion plate is held by a strong spring, which yields a little, and allows sliver to come within close range of action of comber needles. Either the nipper or the cushion plate is usually provided with a leather or rubber covering to insure a more uniform and less injurious grip on the cot- ton. While cotton is held by nipper, the cylinder revolves and the needles comb end of sliver. All rolls are still during this action. Upper part of Figure 13 shows this action. Nipper rises, releases the lap, and allows cushion plate to raise lap up. Detaching rolls revolve backward, and bring back the end of the lap that has previously passed through the ma- chine. Feed rolls are standing still during this action. The central part of Figure 13 shows this action, the roll J having revolved back just sufficient to present end enough to splice. Nipper comb H descends into the lap. Rolls L, J and K revolve forward and the bite between L and P breaks the lap at the bite of the rolls D, E. Meantime, the fluted segment of cylinder has come around to roll L, and this roll is lowered to come into contact with it. The broken piece of lap is thus drawn forward, the rear end combing itself through top comb H, which remains still during this action. Fig. 13. Heilmann Comber. — Process. 64 COMBING. As the broken piece of lap passes on, the front end is lapped over the broken end of the sheet of cotton which preceded it, thus automatically piecing it up to make a continuous sheet of even thickness. Feed rolls are still during- this action. The lower part of Figure 13 shows this action as just beginning. Rolls J, K, L, feed the sheet on to the position shown in Figure 12, when the same cycle of operations begin again. Figure 14 is a diagram to show the general principles of the piecing up. In the upper part of the figure, the sheet is shown passing from the detaching roll on the left, across the line to the right. Observe that the rear end of D has just crossed the line. The centre of the figure shows the next step. The rear end of D has backed across the line to the left a certain distance, so it can splice to the front end of the next tuft from the combs. The lower part of the figure shows the next step, where the new tuft E has been spliced to D, and the whole has moved for- ward a distance twice as great as the backward movement. This diagram is not intended to show the exact method of the splice, but will serve to show how the splices are made in a manner to keep the thickness of the sheet uni- form. The delivered sheet is condensed and drawn through a trumpet and delivered as a sliver, similar to a card sliver. The mechanism for this is not shown in the engravings. The combed sliver is carried in a trough (somewhat sim- ilar to trough system from old fashioned cards to rail- way heads) along with the slivers from the other heads (six or eight altogether) to a draw-box (not shown) where they are united and drawn* out until the weight of the delivered sliver is about the same as one of the original slivers. This sliver is condensed and delivered through a trumpet and coiler into a can, in the same manner as with cards. *For full discussion of methods and calculations for drawing out, see chapter on Drawing. m 111! ^ o O y ^ I (U a O P^ bo COMBING. 67 Brush Q removes from the needles the short fibres which have been combed from the lap. Doffer R is similar to a card doffer. It removes the fibres from the brush, and concenttrates them into a sheet. Doffer comb combs the sheet off and drops it into a box under the machine, or (in some makes of machine), rolls it up into a lap. Duplex Comber. 49. The foregoing description applies to combers, whose cylinders have one set of needles and one fluted segment. Combers are also made with two sets of needles and two fluted segments on each cylinder. These are called duplex machines. They work on the same principle as the simple machines, but produce about 50 per cent, more work. Settings. 50. It will be noticed that many of the motions on the comber are intermittent, and some of them reversing. The producing of these various motions by means of cams and gears is very complicated. The cylin- der shaft carries a setting plate with figures on a dial, so arranged that the shaft may be turned to a cer- tain figure on the dial to make one adjustment, and to another figure to make another adjustment. These various settings and adjustments are made to suit any de- sired condition of stock, amount of short fibre to be re- moved, etc. 51. The fibre which is removed by the combing needles and delivered by the doffer is known as the waste. This stock may be mixed with ordinary short cotton and worked in the usual way for short cotton. The amount of waste, that a comber should be set to make, varies with the kind of cotton, and also with the character of yarn to be made. If the cotton has been well ginned, and the fibres are strong and quite uniform in length, there is naturally less short fibre to be combed out 68 COMBING. than in inferior cotton. If the purpose is to make the very smoothest quaHty of yarn, the comber must be made to do its work thoroughly, and reject all the fibres below the desired length. Judgment must determine for each par- ticular mill where the most economical point of adjustment should be. The amount of waste ranges from 12 to 50 per cent. The general average is about 15 per cent. In any case, the comber is liable to comb out some of the long fibres with the short. This point must be guarded against by making the proper settnigs. Nothing but ex- perience can teach how all these settings should be made. 52. The whole draft of a comber is from 20 to 25. If the machine receives six laps, each weighing 300 grains per yard, there would be 1,800 grains fed to the machine. If the waste is 15 per cent.., this would leave 1560 grains. If the draft is 20, the sliver delivered would weigh i,56o-f-20=78 grains per yard. 53. The cans receiving sliver from a comber should not be more than 10 inches in diameter. They are fre- quently provided with spring bottoms (especially in case of slivers as light as 40 grains per yard). These cans have a false bottom, supported by a spiral spring from the solid bottom of the can. This spring is so adjusted that when can is empty it holds the false bottom within about six inches of the top of can. As sliver is coiled into the can, the bottom is depressed so that top of coil is always about six inches from top of can. When the sliver is drawn out of the can at the next process, the bottom gradually rises, still keeping top of coil in about the same position. The purpose of this arrangement is to put on the sliver at all times the least possible strain. Combed sliver is much more tender than card sliver, by reason of the more parallel condition of the fibres. . 54. The standard Heilmann comber is not provided with any stop motion to stop the machine in case any of the six laps should break or run out. Therefore there is always COMBING. 69 a liability that the sliver turned out will be of irregular weights. It would appear that the machine could be im- proved by adding some efficient stop motion, 55. The process of combing is usually followed by two or three processes of drawing. The object of drawing (as will be explained in the next chapter), is to double a number of slivers into one and stretch them to straighten out the fibres and make the weight per yard more uniform. The straightening out of fibres has already been well performed by the comber ; and if the slivers delivered were in some way rendered more uniform, there would be very little use for drawing to follow. As it is, the more recent desig-ns of railway heads (see Chapter VI.) would pro- duce better results (than drawing frames) in connection with combers. Production. 56. The production of a comber depends upon the number of "nips" per minute, and upon the weight of sliver de- livered.* Average practice is 80 nips per minute for simple comb- ers and 120 for duplex combers. These speeds may be increased 10 tO' 20 per cent, with extra skill and good stock. The average weight sliver is 60 to 70 grains per yard, and the production under these conditions would be about 60 pounds per day of 11 hours for simple, and 90 pounds for duplex combers. General Data. 57. A comber is generally supplied with tight and loose pulleys about 10x3, and run about 300 revolutions per minute. This varies with the make of the machine, on account of different methods of gearing it up. The real test of the speed is to so run the pulley that there will be about the right number of nips per minute, say about 80. Six head machines are better than 8 head, because when *The production is also in some degree dependent upon the length of fibre, be- cause this in turn regulates the amount of stock fed forward at each nip. yo COMBING. the machine is made long enough for 8 heads, the sliver from the heads farthest from the draw box have too far to travel, and are too liable to break. A six head machine occupies a space about 3I feet wide and 13 feet long, including the sliver can. The power required is about | horse power. A sliver lap machine occupies a space of about 3 feet by 5 feet. Pulleys are about 12x3, and run about 200 revo- lutions per minute. The production is about 500 pounds per day. A ribbon lap machine occupies a space of about 3^ feet by 14 feet. Pulleys are about 12x3, and run about 500 revolutions per minute. The production is about 800 pounds per day. 58. One sliver lap machine and one ribbon lap machine, (when ribbon lap machine is used) will supply about eight combers. The cost of a set of machines for the best work would be about as follows : I Ribbon Lap Machine $ 500 I Sliver Lap Machine 1,000 8 Combers 6,000 Total $7,500 The set would produce about 400 pounds per day of II hours, and would therefore supply about 3,000 spindles on No. 50, or 4,000 on No. 60. COMBING. 71 59. Specifications for Combers. Number of Machines Number of Heads in each Machine . Leather Covers on Nippers or on Cushion Plates Kind of Cotton Length of Staple Per cent, of Waste wanted Size of Cans Waste Cans, or Waste Lap Rolls Weight of Lap per Yard Weight of Sliver Delivered Total Draft Driven from Above or Below ...... Size Driving Pulley Speed of Same Nips per Minute Space Occupied Maker . . Purchaser Price Terms Remarks New Combers. 60. Two new combers are now being introduced from Europe into the United States. These are known as the "Montforts" and the "Mullhouse." These two machines have many points of similarity, but both are quite different from the Heilmann. These machines were designed primarily for short staple cotton; but it is claimed that they will also comb long staple They claim to occupy only one-fourth the space, require only half the attention, and produce twice as much as the Heilmann. The first cost is greater per machine, but some- what less, considered with reference to output. These machines have not been sufficiently tested in this country to verify all their claims. 72 COMBING. '61. riontforts Comber, Figs. 15, 16. — Lettering. A. Lap. B. Feed Rolls. C. Sheet of Lap being fed. D. E, F, G. Severing Rolls. H, Upper Movable Nipper. J. Lower Stationary Nipper. K. Comb Cylinder. L. Binding Roll. M, N. Rear Nippers. O. Fluted Segment on Comb Cylinder. P. Needles on Comb Cylinder. Q, R, S, T. Rear Rolls. U. Brush. V. Doffer Cylinder. W. Doffer Comb. Montforts Comber, Figs. 15, 16. — Operation. Lap is fed forward intermittently by feed rolls B to rolls D, E, F, G, and nippers H, J. When the proper length projects beyond the nippers, the rolls F, G stop, and the upper nipper clamps down. Rolls D. E revolve backward and break the sheet. The needles on comb cylinder pass through projecting sheet and comb the front end, as shown at X, Fig. 16. Comb cylinder continues to revolve until fluted segment catches the detached tuft. Roll L comes down on this, as shown in centre of Fig. 16. The tuft is carried forward and laid on the preceding sheets between the rolls O, R, where it is spliced by the pres- sure. Rear upper nipper M clamps down and holds the sheet while the needles comb the rear end as shown in upper part of Fig. 16. This view shows one part of the needles comb- ing, front end of one tuft, and another part combing rear end of the preceding tuft. Rolls S, T run somewhat faster than rolls O, R, Fig. 15. Montforts Comber. Fig. 1 6. Montforts Comber. COMBING. 75 and thus produce a draft, which evens up the sheet, between these two pairs of rolls. Brush and doffer cylinder and doffer comb operate in the same manner as in the Heilmann comber. Arrows on the rolls indicate the respective directions of rotations at the various periods. Where no arrows are shown, there is no rotation at that period. 62, The new combers differ from the Heilmann princi- pally in the following particulars: (i) There is no top comb. Both ends of the tuft are combed in the same man- ner, by the cylinder needles. (2) Only one nipper in a set is movable. This enables the nip to be very close to the combing- needles, and thus allows the combing of shorter staple, (3) They are equipped with metallic rolls, instead of leather covered. (4) The lap is very much wider. There would seem to be a wide field of usefulness for a machine that will successfully comb American cotton of I to I inch staple. This class constitutes the largest pro- portion of all the world's cotton. It is claimed that yarn made from |- to i inch staples, properly combed, is as even and smooth as that made from 1^ to 1 1 inch staple not combed. CHAPTER V. 63. Following the stock through the mill in logical sequence, railway heads come before drawing. But drawing will be treated first, because it is rapidly super- seding the railway head. As the latter is similar in prin- ciple to drawing, it will be briefly treated in the next chapter by reference to the principles laid down for draw- ing. 64. When the sliver leaves the card, the fibres of cot- ton have been laid approximately parallel; but, owing to a natural tendency to curl and twist, the fibres stand out in many directions, and are considerably entangled with one another. It is the purpose of the drawing frame to stretch some of the curl out of the fibres, and to finish the process of parallelizing, and to even up irregularities by the process of doubling and drawing out referred to in (14.) We have seen that the card delivers its product in the shape of a sliver coiled in a can. These cans are taken to the drawing frame and arranged so that several slivers may be fed between one set of drawing rolls. From 4 to 7 (usually 6) card slivers are fed together between rolls and drawn into one. This constitutes one "delivery" of drawing. One frame or "head" is built to contain 4 to 6 deliveries. The slivers fed to the machines are referred to as "ends," and the machine is described as having 4, 5, or 6 "ends up." A machine of 5 deliveries with 6 "ends up" will take its stock from 30 cans of card sliver and de- liver "drawn sliver" into 5 cans. Fig. 17 is a diagram show- yS DRAWING. ing how stock passes through a drawing frame. Like all the other illustrative diagrams, it is designed not to show the exact mechanism, but to illustrate the purpose for which the machine is made. It represents the action of one "delivery," in a frame having 6 ends up. Drawing Frame, Fig. 17. — LETTERING. A. Cans of Card Sliver. B. Slivers being fed. C. Separating Fingers. D. Sliver Spoon. F. Part of Stop Motion. K. Bottom Fluted "Front Roll," usually if in. diameter. G, H, J. Bottom Fluted Rolls, usually i| in. diame- ter. G', H', y, K'. Top Rolls. L. Cover Plate. M. Trumpet. N. Coiler Head. P. Calender Rolls. R. Trumpet Stop Motion. S. Stirrups. T. Weights hanging on top rolls. Q. Can for receiving drawn sliver. Drawing Frame. — Process Card slivers B, B, (4 to 7, according to the "ends up," usually 6), are laid up, each one in its own division of the plate C, that is, between the "fingers." Each one then passes over its own spoon D. They all pass together between the bottom and top rolls. The top rolls are held down on the sliver by weights hung with stirrups, as shown. The weights are usually 22 pounds for front roll, 20, 20 and 18 respec- tively for the third, second and back rolls. The front rolls K run faster than the back rolls and thus produce the drawing eflfect. a t-i be ci Q o o m bi> 8o DRAWING. Sliver leaves front roll K and passes through trum- pet M. Calender rolls P draw it through trumpet and deposit it through hole in cover plate to coiler N. Coiler N revolves in the same manner as coiler on cards (24) and coils the sliver in can O. Stop notions. 65. Drawing frames are provided with stop motions^ for the purpose of automatically stopping the machine whenever certain conditions are not exactly right. There are mechanical anl electrical stop motions. Fig. 17 exhibits portions of the usual mechanical stop motions.. To avoid complications, the entire mechanism is not shown. F is an arm, connected with shaft of machine in such a way that it oscillates around its pivot. As long as this arm is left free to oscillate, the machinery may run. But if this motion is interfered with, a strong spring is released, and shifts the belt to loose pulley and stops machine. The spoon D E is so weighted that when no sliver is passing, it assumes nearly a vertical position. When a sliver of proper weight is being drawn over it, the end D is depressed, as shown in Figure 17. If sliver can should run empty, or if sliver should break, or if it should be much too light, the heavy end E would drop down, and the claw would arrest the oscillating arm F and stop the machine. Thus the machine will not run unless each one of the entire lot of (say 30) slivers is in place, and of approximately the correct weight. This is known as the "spoon (or back) stop motion." The spoon stop motion is of great value for preventing what is technically (though erroneously) called "singles."* That is, the acci- *A "single," anywhere in the mill is the accidental feeding into a machine of a fewer number of doublings than is required. For example, a single occurs on a lapper when the machine is supposed to be working 4 laos, and 1 or 2 laps run out. so that only 3 or 2 laps are fed. A sin arle occurs in a drawing frame when 6 slivers are being drawn into 1, and one or more slivers, from some cause, fail, and 5 or less are fed instead of 6. The term originated in spinning and roving machin- ery, where only Sends are doubled into I. If one fails, of course what is left is "single." Its use has spread to include the broader cases. It is sotaetimes also called "singling." DRAWING. 8 1 dental feeding of 5 ends or less into one, where there should be 6. If this should occur, there would be a thin place in the drawn sliver, which would make itself felt throughout the succeeding processes, resulting finally in uneven yarn and cloth. A part of the "front (or trum- pet) stop motion" is shown at R. One end of R rests under trumpet M, while the other end is weighted, and connects with an oscillating arm in the same manner as the spoon. As long as a normal sliver is passing through trumpet, friction in the trumpet holds trumpet and arm down, as shown. But if a lump or an extra heavy place occur in the sliver, it cannot pass through the small hole in the trumpet. The sliver thus breaks and the weighted end of R drops down, engages the oscillator and stops the machine. A "full can stop motion" is also generally applied to drawing frames. When can runs full, the coils of sliver pile up under coiler plate and lift it a small distance. A lever connection similar to R is attached to the coiler plate, so that when this plate rises, the lever engages oscillator and stops the machine as before. Equipped with all of these stop motions, it is impossi- ble for a drawing frame to run, unless all of the conditions are right. Therefore one attendant, usually a boy, may run several frames. 66. Electric stop motions are sometimes supplied in place of mechanical. A small dynamo is driven from the machine. A dynamo generates no current unless its negative and positive poles are connected by a completed circuit. It is arranged that the cotton going through the drawing frame is passed between two extra or special rolls at whatever places a stop motion is desired. These rolls are insulated in their bearings one from the other. When the cotton is going through properly it acts as an insula- tor between the two rolls. One roll is connected bv «2 ' DRAWING. wire with the positive pole of the dynamo, and the other to the negative. In a normal working condition the electric circuit is incomplete, in consequence of the cotton holding the rolls apart. If, however, the sliver breaks, or for any reason the special rolls touch each other, the circuit is completed, the dynamo instantly generates cur- rent, and the current, in turn, makes a magnet which attracts a bar of iron so arranged as to stop the machine. Mechanical stop motions are mostly preferred, because they may be kept in order by the most ordinary workmen, while some familiarity with electricity is required in dealing with electric appliances of all kinds. There is actually less mechanism in an electric stop motion than in a mechanical, and it would always be preferred under conditions where the character of labor employefd would warrant it. Bottom Rolls. 67. The bottom fluted rolls are made of steel, in sec- tions, but are jointed into one continuous roll for the whole length of frame, having one boss for each delivery, and hav- ing necks for bearings between each boss, as shown in Fig. 18. Driving* pulley is on the extended end of front roll, as shown in Fig. 20. Top Rolls. — Leather Covered. 68. Top rolls are made in short lengths, one for each delivery. They are made of cast iron, and are covered first with felt, then with leather. They rest in open bearings on the bottom rolls, and are weighted down with stirrups, one on each end. The weights are so arranged that by turning a crank they may all be raised thus releasing top rolls. This is used at night, or when- ever frame is to be shut down for any length of time. If weights were to continually hang on the top rolls, while frame is not running, the flutes in bottom roll would form grooves in the leather covers and damage them. Top rolls should be cleaned and varnished about once a week. DRAWING. 83 The varnish* consists of ghie and a fine gritty paint. It preserves the leather and prevents its becoming too smooth. A traverse motion is provided for traversing the slivers from one end to the other of the boss of a drawing roll. This is to prevent grooves being worn in any particular portion of roll, and to utilize as nearly as possible the entire length of the roll. Shell Rolls. 69. Leather covered top rolls, as described in (68) may be either "solid," as at C, Fig. 18, or "shell," (or loose boss) as at D. Solid rolls are cheaper, and are supplied by the makers, unless otherwise specified. Shell rolls are some- times used for all lines of top rolls, but more generally for front line only. The advantage claimed for shell rolls is longer bearing surface, and better facility for lubrica- tion. The shell is made of cast iron, while the centre piece, called "arbor," is of steel. The weight stirrups hold arbor down stationary, while shell revolves. All shell rolls should be taken off about once a week and cleaned and oiled. Recently, some shell rolls have been made with ball bear- ings. They have not yet been sufficiently tested to show whether they are of any real advantage. Top Rolls. — Metallic. 70. Another style of top roll is shown at A, Fig. 18, known as "metallic top rolls." They are short lengths of steel fluted rolls made to take the place of leather covered top rolls. The object is to save the expense of covering with leather. Machines using metallic top rolls must have special fluted bottom rolls to match. The teeth mesh together, as seen at H, in Fig. 18, like gear teeth. To prevent meshing too deep, there are smooth collars at each end,matching similar collars on bottom rolls. When weights are hung on these rolls, no damage can result, no *See appendix for varnish recipe. 84 DRAWING. matter how long they stand, hence it is not usual to sup- ply weight lifting devices with machines using metallic top rolls. Neither is a traverse motion necessary as when leather covered rolls are used. Fig. i8 shows leather covered rolls at B. It will be seen that bottom rolls designed for use with leather covered top rolls are not fluted so deep as those for metallic top rolls. For fine work some mills prefer metallic top rolls for the front line, and leather covered shell rolls for the other. There is generally less "licking" around metallic top rolls than leather rolls. This term is used to denote the improper rolling up of sliver around the roll instead of passing between. Metallic top rolls have been widely introduced, and are much preferred by some superintendents, though some claim that the best work cannot be done by them. It is claimed by the makers that, owing to the positive grip of these rolls and their freedom from slippage, a greater production may be made than by the use of leather cov- ered rolls. It is evident that for the same number of rev- olutions of front roll, more stock must pass through the metallic rolls, owing to the crimping effect. It is further around the metallic roll, in and out of the flutes, than around the smooth leather roll. Care must be taken when using metallic rolls to see that the flutes are kept clean. If they should become clogged with lint, more or less cutting of fibre would result. For the same reason the rolls must not be allowed to rust or become other- wise rough or ragged. Setting. 71. Referring to Fig. 17, the stands which carry the rolls are fastened to frame in such a way that they may be moved nearer together or further apart as required. This constitutes the "setting" of the rolls. The exact distance required from centre to centre of rolls depends on the length of fibre being worked. 86 DRAWING. Fig-. 19 shows a set of drawing rolls, separated by a sliver much exaggerated in thickness. This is not inten- ded as a picture of actual cotton fibres, but is made to show the relation of fibre lengths to setting- of rolls. If A C are the front rolls, they are running faster than B D^ a pair of the back rolls, and hence they have a tendency to pull the sliver from rolls B D. If fibre is i inch long, and the distance from centre of A to centre of B is any less than that, each fibre would at some time be held by both pairs of rolls and would be broken by the pull. In order to avoid this, the rolls must be so set that the dis- tance from centre to centre will exceed the length of fibre being worked. The setting is usually farther apart between back roll (where the stock enters) and the second roll; a little closer between second and third ; and still closer between third and fourth (or front)*. This is for the reason that the stock is heavier and harder to draw when it enters than when it is discharged. If there are six ends of 60 grains each, the back roll receives sliver weighing 360 grains per yard, while (if the draft is 6), the front roll delivers only 60 grains per yard. The intermediate rolls (second and third) pass sliver of intermediate weights. ♦There is much uncertainty in common usa^e, as to whether the back roll or the front roll is to be called the 1st. Since the stock reaches the back roll first in entering the machine, it seems more logical to call it the 1st, and hence this is the plan followed in the text. oo DRAWING. The following list of settings represents good practice : 7/s INCH UPLAND.* Between back roll and second i^ Between second and third i^ Between third and fourth (or front) i^ 1% CARDED STOCK. Between back roll and second i|-| Between second and third i\^ Between third and fourth (or front) i^ 1% COMBED STOCK. Between back roll and second i4 8 Between second and third, ... i4 Between third and fourth (or front) if It will be noticed that in the case of combed stock, the roll settings exceed the length of fibre a smaller amount than in case of carded stock. This is because combed stock is weaker, and does not, hold together as well, and is not so hard to draw as carded stock. One of the objects of drawing is to stretch the curl out of fibre. There would be no stretching or drawing but for friction between .the fibres. When the stretching takes place, there is always some slipping among the fibres. If the points where pull is exerted are too far apart, friction between fibres will be less, the slippage will be excessive, and the amount of stretch will thus i)e reduced. Judg- ment and experience must determine the proper setting for drawing rolls, to suit the character of stock being worked. Repetition of Process. y2. It has become general practice in the South, when railway heads are not used, to pass the sliver through the ♦All of these settinprs are based on the usual diameters of drawing rolls, namely, front roll 1% and other rolls V/s. The setting between third and fourth rolls for % stock is here put at 1 5-10, which is as close as practicable for rolls of this size. The cotton would work better if this setting were reduced to about i}4. This could only be done by using smaller rolls. DRAWING. 89 above described operation of drawing 3 times. This is known as ''3 processes of drawing." The object is to more completely accomplish the purpose of doubling, stretching and parallelizing. If 3 processes are used, each time with 6 ends up, there will be a total doubling of 6 X 6 X 6=216 ends into one. If the draft of each machine is 6, the final sliver will weigh exactly the same per yard, as the first, and, on the reasoning in (14), it will be much more even. In some mills only two processes are used. Four or five might be used, but practice has demonstrated that three are about right. Two do not completely straighten the fibre, while four or more stretch the fibres so much that the sliver will not hold itself together suf- ficiently for the subsequent process, being called "rotten sliver." It may be stated as a general proposition that — within limits — each repetition of the process makes the product more even, and at the same time more weak. Proper judg- ment must be exercised in determining the number of pro- cesses of drawing to be used in any special case. The smallest number should be used consistent with the degree of evenness desired. Variation in Weight. 73. A variation of 5 per cent, is allowable in the weight of card sliver, but not more than i|- per cent, should be per- mitted in drawn sliver from the third process, or say i grain per yard in sliver of 60 to 70 grains weight. Even this variation must not be allowed all on one side. Slivers should be weighed every day one yard at a time in the same way as card sliver (35.) If the weight runs continu- ally too heavy, or continually too light, the fault must be corrected. Variations are caused by variations in card sliver; by spoon stop motions being out of order, thus allowing "singles" to pass through; by weights not hang- ing free, thus allowing top rolls to slip; by some unauthorized change in draft gear. 90 JJKAWING. Calculations. — Draft. 74. Fig. 20 is a diagram showing how the several rolls of a drawing frame are geared together. The rolls are spread out in an unnatural position for the purpose of clearly exhib- iting the way the gearing is connected. To calculate draft, follow the rule in (19). Consider the back roll the driver, and calender rolls the point of delivery. With the dimensions given in Fig. 20, the formula for draft would be: 3 X 48 X 90 X 24 X 45 I^ X 40 X 22 X 51 X 45 This works out 6.16, and means that the weight of i yard of sliver delivered is g^.j-g- as much as the weight of i yard in length of all the combined slivers fed into that delivery. If 6 ends are fed together, the weight per yard of sliver delivered is -g-.y-g- as heavy as i of the 6 ends fed, or expressed decimally .97 as heavy. If the original card sliver weighs 65 grains, the first drawn sliver would weigh .97 X 65^63; the second would weigh .97 x 63=61; and the third .97 x 61=59. Constant. 75. Referring to Fig. 20, the gear 40 which is marked in the engraving "draft," is the one that is generally changed to make a change in the draft of the machine. In order to facilitate calculations in making these changes, the "constant" for the frame is found in the same manner as in (37), that is, by taking the formula for draft, given in (74) and leaving out the draft gear, thus: 3 X 48 X 90 X 24 X 45 i| X — X 22 X 51 X 45 This works out 246.4, which is of course 40 times the for- mer result. This number 246.4 is the "constant" or "dividend" for that particular machine. If draft is given, and it is required to find the draft gear that would produce this draft, divide 246.4 by draft. If draft gear "v^ tn "Vl. a <» u ^ 2 inches Length of Bobbin (measured on machine) .... 7 inches Pitch of Belt-Shifting-Rack (measured on machine) 2-y inch Pitch of Taper Rack (measured on machine) 2-7 inch. Pitch of Lifting Racks (measured on machine) 5-14 inch. Gears as numbered in Figs. 26 to 29 (counted on machines) Proceeding with the above data, the calculations will be made for finding the change gears to produce the proper motions. SLUBBING AND ROVING. 135 Draft Gear. 124. From the various discussions heretofore given on draft and constants, it may be seen that when the draft gear is inserted in the formula, the result is the draft, and that when the draft is inserted in the formula, the result is the gear. We use one or the other of the above figures accord- ing as the draft gear or the draft is known. In the present case the draft is known to be 5.56. We shall therefore in- sert it in the formula in the place where the draft gear would come, and the result of the formula is the draft gear required. Referring to Fig. 27, and following the rule, consider- ing back roll the driver, the draft gear is found by the formula : i| X 52 X 80 I X 5.56 X 20 This works out 42, and means that the draft gear neces- sary to produce a draft of 5.56 is 42. Contraction. 125.. The foregoing figures give what is called "theoretical draft." But in practice the twist which is put in the roving shortens the length after it leaves front roll, so that the length wound on bobbin is less than length delivered by front roll. This difference is called "contraction." The amount of it depends mostly upon the amount of twist put in the rov- ing. It cannot with certainty be calculated. It must be determined for each particular case by the man in charge. It is part of his skill. The result of contraction is that roving delivered by a frame weighs more per yard than calculations show. Some of the waste made by the frame would tend to make the roving lighter, but the final result of both tendencies is that ordinary roving weighs from I to 4 per cent, heavier than it should by the calcu- lations. 136 SI.UBBING AND ROVING. In order, therefore, to have the calculations come out right, the draft must be i to 4 per cent, greater than calcu- lations show. This corrected draft is called "actual draft." The draft gear to be used must have i to 4 per cent fewer teeth than calculated. In the above case, the draft gear, instead of being 42 as figured, must be 41, or else the draft instead of being 5.56, as figured, would be about 5.40. Speed of Spindles. 126. Referring to Fig. 2^, and noting from the data (123) that speed of driving shaft is 458, the speed of spin- dles is found from the fomiula : 458 X 40 X 55 37 X 22 This works out 1237. Twist Gear. 127. The flyer and spindle revolving with one end of the roving, while front roll holds the other end, produces a twist. If front roll delivers i inch per minute and flyer turns i time per minute, there will be a twist of I per inch. If front roll deHvers 10 inches while flyer runs 2 revolutions, the twist will be .2. If a twist of .2 per inch, is required, and spindle (and flyer) runs 2 rev- olutions per minute, the front roll must deliver 2^-.2=io inches per m.inute. From the above it will be seen that if a certain twist is required, and we know the speed of spindles, we may produce that twist by making front roll deliver a certain number of inches. As above shown, this number of inches is found by dividing speed of spindles by twist. Ap- plying this rule to the case in hand, we know from (123) that the twist should be 2.12 and we have found (126) that spindles run 1237. The amount of roving that must be delivered by front roll is therefore 138 STUBBING AND ROVING. 1237-^-2.12=583.5 inches. Since diameter of front roll is i-|, its circumference is i^ x 3.1416=3.53 inches, and it rnust run 583. 5-f-3. 53=^165 revolutions per minute in order to impart a twist of 2.12 per inch. The gearing must be so arranged that front roll will make that speed. From Fig. 27, it will be seen that the speed of front roll may be controlled by gear B, (marked "twist"). The problem now reduces itself to finding the number of teeth in gear B on shaft A, running 458 revolutions to run front roll 165. This may be expressed as a formula thus : 165 X 130 X 48 44^^^ ^^^ In this formula, the gear B, is unknown, and the prob- lem is to find what it would have to be to make the formula produce 458. It is a principle in mathematics that the un- known quantity of the denominator of a formula may be taken out and replaced by the known quantity at the right. The formula will then work out and give the value of the unknown quantity.* Thus: -^ 5 XX130X48 _g 44 X 458 Is a true formula and works out 51 as the value of B, and means that if the gear B has 51 teeth, the front roll will make 165 revolutions. We may prove this result by considering the main shaft (which runs 458) as the driver and giving the gear B 51 *The truth of this proposition may be easilj' established by 'experfment: 6^2 4 -„~^-=I2. Now change the 4 from the denominator with the 13 at the right, and we have „ I';-,=4) which is a correct formula, and shows that this kind. of a change does not change the truth of the formula. SI^UBBING AND ROVING. 1 39 teeth. Arranged this way, the speed of front roll would be calculated thus : 458 X 51 X 44 48 X 130 This works out 164.7, which is nearer 165 than either a 50 or a 52 gear would come, and so we choose 51. 128. To summarize the work in finding twist gear: 1. Find speed of spindles. 2. Divide speed of spindles by twist required, to obtain inches of roving delivered per minute. 3. Divide inches of roving by circumference of front roll to determine number revolutions of front roll per minute. 4. Find twist gear necessary to run front roll the proper speed. 129. All of the operations performed may be grouped together in one formula, thus: 40 X 55 X 130 X 48 37 X 22 X 44 X I-| X 3.I416 X 2.12 This works out 51, as before. The above formula may be stated as a general rule, thus : TWIST GEAR IS FOUND BY MULTIPLYING TOGETHER SPINDLE DRIVING GEAR, SPINDLE SKEW BEVEL, FRONT ROLL GEAR AND MIDDLE CONE GEAR. DIVIDE THE RESULT BY THE PRODUCT OF SPINDLE SHAFT GEAR, TOE BEVEL GEAR, END CONE GEAR. CIRCUMFER- ENCE OF FRONT ROLL AND THE TWIST RE- QUIRED. The Twist may be found by the same rule by inserting "twist gear" in place of the word "twist" in the above rule. 140 stubbing and roving. Speed of Bobbins. 130. Referring to Fig. 28, we see that bobbin is driven from main shaft by gear Q through the intervention of the differential train P, R, S, and that its speed is varied by varying the motion of the sun wheel P, which is itself driven from bottom cone through the train L, M, N, O, and its variations produced by changed positions of the cone belt. 131. The action of this differential train (which is known as the "Holdsworth Differential") will now be considered in itself, in order to enable us to see in what way it influences the speed of bobbin. If the sun wheel P were held still, and gear Q revolved in the direction of the arrow, which we will call "forward," it is evident that gear R would revolve loosely on the shaft in the opposite direction, which we will call "backward." The gear R, having the same number of teeth as Q, will revolve at same speed as Q. Now suppose O to be held still and P revolved backward. In this case, the intermediate bevel P' being pivoted in sun wheel P will be carried around by its centre, and the side next to Q will be held still, while the side next to roll R will cover twice the dis- tance made by its centre.* Therefore, if the sun wheel P revolve i time, it will carry the centre of P' a distance equal to i revolution of Q, and the outer edge of P' a distance equal to 2 revolutions of O. Hence, when P makes i revolution, P' will make 2 revolutions.** Since R has the same number of teeth as P' and Q. when P' makes 2 revolutions backward, R will make 2 revolutions backward. The result of the whole train is that when P is revolved backward i turn while O stands *This will be made plain by reference to the lower part of Pig-. 38. whicb is a top view of gears Q and P'. It the part of P' which is in contact with O be held still, and the centre moved a distance of 1 inch, as shown, the other side will move from R to R', a distance of:.' inches. **The usual way of stating this condition is, that P' makes 1 revolution on ac- count of its contact with the teeth of Q and 1 revolution on account of the revolu- tion of P, thus making: 'i revolutions tc 1 of P' as stated above SI.UBEING AND ROVING. I4I Still, R is revolved backward 2 turns. Noav if Q should go forward 458 turns while P goes backward i turn, R will go backwards 458 turns on account of O, and 2 turns on account of P, making 460 turns in all. 132. The above examples lead to the general rule for the Holdsworth differential : THE SPEED OF BOBBIN DRIVING GEAR IS EQUAL TO SPEED OF MAIN SHAFT PLUS TWICE THE SPEED OF SUN WPIEEL. The same rule in another form would be: THE SPEED OF SUN WHEEL MUST BE HALF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEED OF BOB- BIN DRIVING GEAR AND MAIN SHAFT.* 133. We found (127) that front roll delivers 583.5 inchesi of roving per minute. The speed of bobbin must be sc adjusted that it leads the flyer just enough to wind up this amount. When bobbin is empty, its diameter is i^ inches, and its circumference i^ x 3.1416=4.71 inches, there- fore when empty it must lead the flyer 583.5-^4.71=124 revolutions. We found (126) that spindles (and flyer) run 1237, hence bobbins must run when empty, or as it is called, "the beginning of the set," 1237+124=1361 revo- lutions. 134. The bottom cone is driven from top cone, while top cone is driven from main shaft through train B, C, D. Since speed of main shaft is 458, speed of top cone is 4S8 X 51 ^ =486.6, 48, And since large end of cone is 6^ inches and small end 3 *Ittnust be remembered that the whole of this discussion relates to bobbin- lead machines In flyer-lead irachiues, the sun wheel P revolves forward, and an entirely different set of conditions arise, the discussion of which, while interesting- as a stady ol mechanisin, would only serve to confiise matters without being of any practical value in the present circtimstances. 142 STUBBING AND ROVING. inches, the fastest speed that bottom cone can make is 486.6 X 6-1 3 And the lowest speed is 486.6 X 3 -=1054.3, =224.6. This is a difference of 829.7 revolutions between hav- ing the belt on large end of top cone, and having it on small end of top cone. Since the cone is 30 inches long, the traversing of cone belt 30 inches makes a difference in speed of bottom cone of 829.7 ^^' ^ difference per inch of belt shift, 829.7-^30=27.66 revolutions. It is usual to so adjust the machine that cone belt will not stand at the extreme end of cone when the set begins. It may start at say 4 inches from end. In this case the speed of bot- tom cone begins less than 1054.3 by 4 x 27.66=110.6. which would be 943.7. 135. We found (133) that at the beginning of the set, the bobbin should run 1361 revolutions, while the bottom cone runs 943.7; and the problem is to find the train of gears to insert between these two places to bring about this condition. We shall for the present consider all of the gears to remain, as marked in Fig. 28, except cone gear L, and reduce the problem to finding this gear. Differential. 136. Owing to the nature of the differential, the prob- lem must be broken in two parts, the first being to find the speed of the sun wheel P. Considering the bobbin as the driver and making 1361 revolutions, we find the speed of bobbin driver S from the formula : 1 361 X 22 X 37 55 X 40. This works out 503.5. According to the rule in (132) ;rzh Fig 28. Bobbin Drive. 144 STUBBING AND ROVING. the speed of sun wheel must be half the difference between speed of bobbin driver and speed of main shaft. This difference is 503.5 — 458=45.5, and half the differ- ence is 22.75. Hence sun wheel P must run 22.75. 137. The other part of the problem is now to: find what gear is necessary at L when P makes 22.75 revolu- tions and bottom cone 943.7. Proceeding exactly as in (127) where the twist gear was calculated, we may assume that sun wheel is the driver, and write the formula: 22.75 X 125 X 68 -=-943-7- 15 X L This latter formula presents exactly the case where, as in (127) we inserted the known amount in the formula in the place where the unknown gear would appear. Pro- ceding thus, we have the formula : 22.75 X 125 X 68 15 X 9437 This works out 13.6, and we may use a 14 gear and compensate for the slight difference by starting the cone belt farther from large end of top cone. 138. The result may be verified by putting the 14 in the formula in place of L. 22.75 X 125 X 6S 15 X 14 This works out 920.8 (instead of 943.7. The difference is due to using a 14 gear, instead of the theoretical one, 13.6). But the cone belt may be started far enough from SLUBBING AND ROVING. 145 large end of top cone to niake it run 920.8 instead of 943.7.* Continuing the verification, we have the sun wheel running 22.75 revolutions. According to (132) the bob- bin driving gear runs at a speed equal to main shaft plus twice speed of sun wheel. This would be 458+45.5= 503.5. Following the train from S to W, we have the speed of bobbin: 503.5 X 40 X 55 37 X 22. This works out 1360.8, which is within .2 of a revolution of the speed required as shown in (133), and proves the correctness of the work. 139. Flaving determined the speed of bobbin at beginning of set, and fixed upon the gears and position of cone belt to produce that speed, it is now necessary to determine the speed when the bobbin has grown to its full diameter of 3^ inches. And having determined this speed, it remains to find the position of the belt on the cones to produce this speed with the same gears in use as at first. Following the same course as in finding the speeds for empty bobbins, we know from (127) that front roll delivers 583.5 inches per minute. If full bobbin is 3-| inches in diameter, it is 3 J x 3.1416=11 inches in cir- cumference, and it must lead the flyer 583.5-^11=53 revolutions in order to wind up that amount. It must therefore run 1237+53=1290 revolutions. Considering the bobbin the driver, the speed of gear S may be compu- ted by the formula: 1290 x 22 X 37 55 X 40 ♦We found (134) that with belt at extreme end, the bottom cone would run 1054.8, and that it reduced its speed 27.66 revolutions for every inch the belt was traversed. We now want 920.^ revolutions, which is 133.5 revolutions less than the maximum. This would require belt to be moved from the end 133.5-^-27.66—4.8 inches 146 SIvUBBING AND ROVING. This works out 477.3. According to the rule in (132) the speed of sun wheel must be half the difference between speed of bobbin driver and speed of main shaft. This difference is 477.3-458=19.3, and half the difference is 9.6. Now the problem is to find the speed of cone that will run sun wheel 9.6 revolutions. Considering sun wheel the driver, the cone speed may be computed b\ the formula : 9.6 X 125 X 68 15 X 14 This works out 388.6. When the bobbin was empty at beginning of set, we found (138) the corresponding cone speed to be 920.8. At end of set it is 388.6, which is 920.8-388.6=532.2 revolutions less than at beginning. We found (134) that speed of cone was reduced 27.66 revolutions per inch traverse of cone belt, hence at end of set the belt must be a distance from the starting point of 532.2-=-27.66=:i9.2 inches. Ratchet Wheel. 140. We have determined that cone belt must start 4.8 inches from large end of top cone and traverse 19.2 inches during the filling of the bobbin up to 3^ inches diameter. We must now provide for the uniform distri- bution of this motion between these extremes. The rack Z, which controls the belt traverse, has teeth with 2-7 pitch, that is, the teeth are 2-7 inch from centre to centre. When belt rack moves 19.8 inches, the number of teeth moved is 19.8-^7=69.3. The pinion q' on upright shaft has 40 teeth and gears into this rack. While rack is moving forward 69.3 teeth, this wheel must turn 69.3-^40=1.732 revolutions. From Fig. 29, it will be seen that upright shaft carries a bevel p' with 31 teeth gearing into bevel o' with 18 teeth. The last bevel o' is on the little shaft carrying the ratchet that regulates the SIvUBBING AND ROVING. 147 movement of the belt rack. Whiie upright shaft turns 1.732 times, this little shaft will turn: 1732 X 31 o =^2.q8 times. 18 ^ We have seen (112) how the movements of the bobbin carriage operate to let off half a tooth of the ratchet for each traverse up or down, which means for each layer of roving. If we now determine how many layers there are on the bobbin, this gives us twice the number of teeth that must be let off by the ratchet during a set. Since we have just found the number of revolutions of ratchet shaft during a set, we may then find the number of teeth that must be in the ratchet in order to dehver the given num- ber of teeth in 2.98 revolutions. From data (123) there are to^ be 66 layers of roving per inch, counting from centre outward. We know empty bobbin is i^- inches in diameter, and full bobbin 3^ inches diameter. The roving is thus 2 inches thick on both sides of bobbin, or i inch thick on each side, and contains 66 lay- ers. Hence the bobbin carnage makes 66 traverses up and down, or 33 up and 33 down, and it v/ill knock off half a tooth of ratchet 66 times, and ratchet will pass 33 full teeth. Since it does this during 2.98 revolutions, it must have 33-^2.98=1 1 teeth. 141. With II teeth in the ratchet wheel, the belt rack will move forward 19.8 inches, and 66 layers of roving will be wound on bobbin. It must be borne in mind that there is a wide variation in the ratchet required, depending upon the state of the weather, the smoothness of the flyer, the character of stock worked, and the num- ber of times that roAdng is wrapped around presser foot. All of these things affect the tension with which roving is drawn on the bobbin. This affects the hardness of the bobbin and the number of layers that may be put on in a given diameter. This is more variable than any other 148 SI^UBBING AND ROVING. change about the machine, and should be allowed for by keeping on hand a number of ratchet wheels, to change when circumstances require it. The matter is easily adjusted by the attendant. If the bobbin winds up the roving properly at the beginning of set, but becomes too tight, with a tendency to pull apart toward the last of the set, it indicates that speed of bottom cone is not being reduced fast enough and that belt does not traverse far enough at each layer, and that teeth in ratchet are too near together. Hence a ratchet with fewer teeth is required. Having fewer teeth in the same diameter, spaces them farther apart and gives more belt traverse per tooth. A ratchet with more teeth is required when the conditions above are reversed. Lay Gear. 142. From data (123) the lay of 3 hank rov- ing is 22 rows (or turns on bobbin) per inch. The first layer is 7 inches long and contains 7 x 22=154 rows. The circumference of empty bobbin is if X 3.1416=4.71 inches, hence the 154 rows contain 154 X 4.71=725.3 inches. We found (127) that front roll delivers 583.5 inches per minute, hence the number of times that this first layer of 725.3 inches could be delivered per minute would be 583. 5-^725. 3=.8o, (that is, it could lay on a little more than f of a layer per minute. ) This means that bobbin carriage makes .80 traverses per minute up or down, and the problem is to find the neces- sary gears to make the carriage move at that speed. 143. Referring to Fig. 29, it will be seen that the racks u, attached to bobbin carriage are traversed up and down by pinions t, which are on the lifting shaft driven from bottom cone through the train L, M, N, g, h, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s. We know the speed of up and down motion of bobbin carriage. We must find what speed the pinion t must have to produce the proper carriage motion. SI.UBBING AND ROVING. 149 Then the train of gears must be determined that will give that speed. 144. We found (142) that the carriage makes a traverse of 7 inches in ,80 minutes. From data (123) the teeth in carriage rack are -^-^ inches from centre to centre. Therefore in 7 inches there are 7-^- j-^^ =19.6 teeth. These 19.6 teeth must pass in .80 minute, which is 19.6 -=-.80=24.5 teeth per minute. From data (123) pinions t on hfting shaft have 18 teeth. Therefore when 24.5 teeth pass, these pinions must revolve 24. 5-^ 18=: 1.36 times. This means that lifting shaft revolves 1.36 times per minute, and the problem is to find the gears necessary to give it that speed. 145. As in the other cases, we shall assume that all the gears in the train are as marked in the engravings, ex- cept the change gear, which is in this case the "lay gear" q. Proceeding as in similar cases above, we com- pute the speed of bottom cone by considering lifting gear s the driver, and inserting the letter in place of the unknown gear. The formula would be: 1.36 X 73 X 80 X 70 X 56 X 68 ^ ^ q X 13 X 15 X 44 X 14 Re-writing the formula, putting the right hand member in place of the unknown gear, we have: 1.36 X 73 X 80 X 70 X 56 X 68 920.8 X 13 X 15 X44X 14 This works out 19.1. 146. We shall therefore select 19 as the proper lay gear, and proceed to verify the work as in the other cases. STUBBING AND ROVING. 1 51 Considering the bottom cone the driver, and using the gear 19, we have: 920.8 X 14 X 44 X 15 X 13 X 19 68 X 56 X 70 X 80 X 73 This works out 1.35 revolutions of lifting shaft instead of 1.36, which would have been the case if we could have used a gear with 19.1 teeth. In the calculations for lay gear, the speed of bottom cone was assumed to be what it is at the beginning of the set; and the number of rows to be put on was what would be on the first layer at beginning of set. At the end of set, the speed of bottom cone is reduced, which also reduces the speed of carriage, and would, if same number of rows were to be put on, cause the rows to lie closer together. That is, larger number of rows per minute. But the number of rows per minute is less, because the number of revolutions of bobbin is less. As both carriage and bobbin are controlled in speed by bottom cone, one reduction is in proportion to the other, and hence there is the same lay at end of set as at beginning. This might be verified if desired, by going over all the calcula- tions for lay gear, and substituting the proper speeds at end of the set in place of the speeds at beginning of set. Taper Gear. 147. We found (140) that when the bobbin grew to its full size, 3-| inches in diameter, the roving was in 66 layers on the bobbin. The taper should be about equal to half the diameter of the roving at each end of bobbin. This makes each row shorter than the preceding one by i diameter of raving, or say by i row. As there are 22 rows per inch length- wise, each layer will be 1-22 inch shorter than the pre- ceding. In 66 layers, this would be 66^-22=3 inches. Thus the last layer on a full bobbin is 3 inches shorter 152 STUBBING AND ROVING. than the first la3'er. The first layer was 7 inches long so the last layer will be 4 inches long. 148. It was shown (113) that the taper rack is attached to the bobbin carriage by a pin at its end sliding in a slot, and that this taper rack, in. its motions up and down with the carriage, rocks the upper cradle of the builder containing set screws, which release the pigeon wings and cause reversing bevels to move, and change direction of carriage. In order to make the taper, the cradle must rock enough sooner at every traverse of carriage to make the total traverse 4 inches at end of set, instead of 7 inches, as at beginning of set. Taper Rack, Fig. 30 — Lettering. A. Lower Cradle. B. Outer End — Beginning of Set — Top of Traverse. C. Outer End — Beginning of Set — Bottom of Traverse. D. Outer End — End of Set — Bottom of Traverse. E. Outer End — End of Set — Top of Traverse. F. G. Pigeon Wings. H. Upper Cradle. K, K. Set Screws in Upper Cradle. L. Frame in which Pigeon Wings are pivoted. The taper rack is shown in Fig. 30 in four positions: top of traverse, beginning of set; top of traverse, end of set; bottom of traverse, beginning of set; bottom of traverse, end of set. To avoid confusion, only one posi- tion of top cradle is shown. To produce the required taper the extreme end of rack must move 7 inches at beginning of set and 4 inches at end of set. In order for the reversal of carriage motion to take place, the set screw K must raise pigeon wing G entirely out of notch in lower cradle. Therefore the pigeon wing G must be in the position shown when at the top of each \ I ISA STUBBING AND ROVING. carriage traverse whether at beginning or end of set. This means that set screw K must be in same position at top of each traverse, and hence the angle of top cradle must be the same. Hence at the end of set and top of traverse, the end of rack B will be in position E. 149. We want tO' find the size pinion necessary to draw the rack into position E during the building of the set. To do this, we must find the distance from B to E. Suppose, at beginning of set, the pin B measures 24 inches from centre of taper pinion in builder. We know that the points B and C are 7 inches apart, and that the points D and E are 4 inches apart. We may lay out the diagram to scale, as in Fig 30, and measure the distance B E, or we may arrive at it by rule of three;, because the distance H B must be to H E, as 7 to 4, thus: 7: 4: : 24: 13.7. Hence HE is 13.7 and the travel of point B is 24 — 13.7^10.3 inches. The rack contains teeth 2-7 inches apart, hence the number of teeth represented by a travel of 10.3 inches will be Io.3-^|=36. We found (140) that the little shaft in builder which carries taper pinion revolves 2.98 times during the build- ing of the set. This pinion must turn an amount equal to 36 teeth during 2.98 revolutions, hence the number of teeth it must contain is 36-=-2.98=i2. If taper pinion has more than 12 teeth it will in 2.9S revolutions draw the rack in more than 10.3 inches and thus make distance D E shorter than 4 inches. This means that outer layer of roving is less than 4 inches long, and that consequently there is more taper. Hence the more teeth in taper pinion, the greater the taper. Constant. 150. We found in all the instances where change gears have been calculated, that if the draft, for instance, is left out of the formula, the result is SI^UBBING AND ROVING. 155 the draft constant. In all the instances where draft gear appeared in denominator of the for- mula, the constant was a "dividend." That is, if constant is divided by draft, the result is draft gear recjuired. It follows from this, that if draft and draft gear be multiplied together, the result is the draft con- stant. This holds good in all cases where the unknown gear appears in denominator of formula. To save trouble, we may avail ourselves of this fact in determin- ing the various constants for the roving frame under discussion. For example, the draft gear as computed in (124) was 42 to produce a draft of 5.56. The draft constant is therefore 42 x 5.56=223.52. The twist gear, as computed in (127) was 51 to produce a twist of 2.12. The twist constant is therefore 51 x 2.12^108.2. Production. 151. By the same method as with other machines, the production is found by multiplying the circumference of front roll in inches by its revolutions per minute. This gives the number of inches delivered per minute. This multiplied by the number of minutes in an hour and the number of hours in a working day, and divided by the num- ber of inches in a yard will give the yards delivered per day. This divided by 840 will give the number of hanks per day. This divided by the "hank roving" (or number of hanks per pound of stock delivered) will give the result required, namely: the number of pounds produced per day per spindle. This is theoretical production if frame should run every minute of the day. But it is impossible for this to occur, because v/hen the bobbins are filled, the frame must be stopped to "doff" (or remove full bob- bins and put on empty ones.) Besides this, whenever the roving breaks, (or, technically, there is an "end down,") the frame must be stopped to piece up. Ten per cent is usually allowed for losses of time from all 156 STUBBING AND ROVING. causes. This is a fair average allowance, but in some cases is hardly sufficient. 152. Expressed as a formula, the theoretical produc tion per spindle per day for the frame discussed would be i^ X 3.1416 X 165 X 60 X II 36 X 840 X 3 This works out 4.24 pounds per spindle when running every minute for 11 hours. Deduct 10 per cent, and the usual rating would be 3.82: but 3.60 would be a safer estimate for ordinary operations. In figuring production of fly frames in general, the allowance for lost time must not be rigidly gauged by any fixed per cent. It will be readily seen that, in very coarse slubbing, the bobbins will fill quicker, and hence need doffing oftener than in fine roving. About \6 much actual time is lost in one case as in the other, but the per cent, is greater. Something like 15 minutes per set is right to allow for doffing and other stops. A slub- ber making .5 hank slubbing would run a set in about an hour, so that stoppage in that case would be 25 per cent., while 6 hank fine roving would run a set in about 5 hours, and a stoppage of 15 minutes per set would figure 5 per cent. Some difference may be made in production by the number of spindles under the care of one operative. If a mill is so designed that there is a liberal allowance for stoppage, fewer operatives are necessary than for the case where each machine must be pushed to the utmost for every minute of the day in order to keep up with the subsequent machines. The maximum speed of front roll that would be allow- able under certain conditions must always be determined by experiment at the time. Generally speaking, the liner the stock delivered, the slower the speed must be. If a machine runs faster than its maximum, the ends will SI.UBBING AND ROVING. 1 57 break down more frequently, and more production will be lost by stoppage than will be gained by the greater delivery of front roll at the fast speed. In the Appendix will be found tables giving what are considered proper speeds under average conditions for various hanks roving. Summary of Calculations. 153. Including the data in (123), we now have com- plete information for gearing up the roving frame as fol- lows : Speed of Driving Shaft 458 Speed of Spindles 1237 Diameter Front Roll i-^ inches Speed Front Roll 165 revolutions S^S-S inches Diameter Back Roll i inch Draft 5.56 Draft Gear 42 Draft Constant (5.56 x 42) 233.5 Twist 2. 12 Twist Gear 51 Twist Constant (2.12 x 51) 108. i Bobbin Diameter, empty i-| inches, full . . ■ -Zi inches Bobbin Circumference, empty 4.71 inches, full, iiinches Bobbin Speed, empty, 1361, full 1290 Bobbin Length, first layer 7 inches, last layer 4 inches Layers on Bobbin 66 Cone diameters, 6 inches and 3^ inches Cone Length 30 inches Cone Belt starts from end of cone 4.8 inches Cone Belt travels 19.2 inches Speed Bottom Cone, at start 920.8, at finish 388.6 Reduction of Cone Speed per inch of length 27.66 rev. Cone Gear 14 Ratchet 11 Lay 22 Lay Gear .' 19 158 sjuubbing and roving. Lay Constant (22 x 19) 418 Taper Gear 12 Production: Pounds per spindle per 11 hours, (10 per cent allowance) 3.82 154. Concerning calculations on fly frames in general, it may be said that very few overseers, or even superin- tendents in the Southern mills, have that easy familiarity with the subject that gives them the courage and inch-, nation to go through the calculations and see that every adjustment is exactly right. When machines are ordered the shop is generally given full information as to the character of work to be done, and they are supposed to send proper gears with the machines. Men are sent out from the shop to set the machines up and adjust them to the work required. Usually only small changes are necessary to fit the limited changes required in one mill. Overseers usually make changes by "rule of thumb." If one gear does not make the machine go right, another and another is tried until it seems right. It need scarcely be pointed out that this method is not the proper one. While the result may seem to be all that is necessary, much bad work developed in the after processes may be traced back to imperfect adjust- ment on the roving machinery. This is particularly true in regard to the matter of tension. As has been shown, the tension of roving between front roll and flyer depends upon the cone gear in use, and upon the position of cone belt. When the cone gear has been determined, the position of cone belt at beginning of set is adjusted to give the proper tension, and the stop adjusted so that every time a set is flnished and cone belt is run back, it will always go back to the same point, and it will start with the same tension. If the ratchet gear is properly selected, it wall feed the cone telt along in such a way that the tension started with, will remain uniform as the bobbin stows in size. If the STUBBING AND ROVING. 1 59 ratchet has too many teeth, the belt will not be moved along cone fast enough, and tension will grow too tight. The principal trouble comes right at this point. As the tension becomes tighter, there will be a stretch in roving, thus developing a false draft between front roll and bob- bin. Hence the stock will run lighter. The roving is strong enough to hold together under a considerable amount of draft, in some cases 20 per cent. When roving finally breaks down from too much stretch, the operative "lets off" a tooth or two of the ratchet by hand, and it runs on again with continually tightening tension until it is ready to break, and then the ratchet is again let ofif by hand. It is easy to see that this sort of work results in a great variation in weight of roving, and it should not be permitted. A ratchet with fewer teeth should be applied at once. On the other hand, if a ratchet with too few teeth is in use, the cone belt will be carried forward too fast and speed of bobbin will suffer too great a reduction; and the tension, however correct at beginning of set, will become too loose as the bobbin grows. The bobbin will not wind up the roving delivered, and roving will soon break down. The operative then stops machine and winds back the ratchet by hand a tooth or two. by guess. He will be more likely to wind it back too much than too little; because if too much, it may, by straining" the roving, keep running, while if too little, it will soon run slack, and break down again. The consequence is, that uneven stretching, or false draft, is again produced. Hence with a ratchet containing either too many or too few teeth, there will certainly be uneven roving, due to a constantly varying stretch between front rolls and bob- bin. Much ingenuity has been expended on roving machin- ery to make it automatic and regular in all its move- ments. If any particular machine requires constant manipulation to make it turn out regular work, either l6o SI.UBBING AND ROVING. the machine or the operative needs immediate attention. Too much stress cannot be laid on the matter of keep- ing the tension right. There is ahvays a temptation to let the machine rim as long as the ends will stay up, but this is no criterion; for it is quite possible for the ends to stay up, while there is great unevenness of tension. Short riethods. 155. In the actual operation of a mill, it is not always necessary to make complete calculations as for a new machine. If a machme is run- ning and producing satisfactory results on a cer- tain hank roving, and it is required to change the gears to produce another hank, it is sometimes done by the use of constants and sometimes by the rule of three. The use of constants has been fully discussed in connec- tion with all of the preceding machinery. Draft. In makmg new draft calculation, it has been shown (125) that a certain allowance is neces- sary for contraction. But in the case of a frame already running, a calculation may be made by the rule of three, which will include all allowances and give the correct result at once. For example, a frame is making 3 hank roving and the draft gear in use is 58, what gear is neces- sary to produce 4.80 hank. The required hank is to present hank, as present gear is to required gear, thus : 4.80 : 3.00 : : 58 : ? This works out 36.2, and means that a 36 gear is as near as possible, with all allowances made. Twist. As there are no allowances necessary in tlae case of twist, the calculation by constants is the easiest. But if the con- stant is not known, or if for any other reason it is desired SIvUBBING AND ROVING. l6l to work it out by the rule of three, the required twist is to the present twist as the present gear is to required gear. For example, if the frame is now making roving with a twist of 4.10 per inch, and a twist gear 60: and a roving is required with a twist of 2.(X>, it is stated thus: 2.00: 4.10: : 60: ? This works out 123, and means that a twist gear with 123 teeth will produce a twist of 2.00 per inch. This question has usually been made much harder to understand than it should be, on account of mixing up square roots in the problem. When the twist per inch is stated in both cases, as above, squares and square roots have nothing to dO' with it. If a frame is now running with a 70 twist gear making 4 hank roving, and it is desired to change it to say 3 hank roving, the twists corre- sponding to these hanks vary according to the square root of the hank in each case; but it is better to find what these twists are from the table before taking up the question of the gears; and thus the question of square root is elimina- ted from the simple rule of three. But if desired, it can be all worked together, thus: square root of 4: square root of 3: -.yo: .•'; or 1.73 12: :70 : ? This works out 81, which is the twist gear required. Lay. Exactly the same methods may be pursued in working out a change of lay gear as in the case of twist gear. Other Differential Motions. 156. The foregoing calculations and engravings relate principally to the standard pattern of English fly frames, which have, for the most part, been the basis of the design in this country. The differential train that has been dis- cussed is known as the "Holdsworth." It is used in this country on the Saco, the Providence and the Lowell fly frame. In this motion some of the gears must revolve loosely on the driving shaft in a direction opposite tO' that 1 62 SI^UBBING AND ROVING. of the shaft. This is objectionable on account of friction. To reduce this friction, a number of differentials have been designed, all of whose wheels run in the same direction as the main shaft. Two of the most important designs will be discussed. The Tweedales Differentia l. 157. This mechanism is used on Tweedales and Smal- leys, and on Howard & BuUough fly frames. Figure 31 shows this differential, as usually geared up for a fine rov- ing frame. To simplify the discussion, the same speeds of main shaft, bobbin, etc., will be assumed as were used with the Holdsworth motion. Tweed Ai.ES Differential Fig, 31. — I^ettering. A. Main Shaft of Roving Frame. B. Gear (attached to bell wheel C) which imparts mo- tion to bobbins. C. Bell Wheel running loose on Main Shaft. D. Bevel Gear attached to Sleeve C. E. Pinion keyed on Cross Shaft. F. Cross Shaft which runs loosely in bearings through the Main Shaft. G. Bearing in Main Shaft to carry Cross Shaft. H. Gear keyed to Cross Shaft F. J. Pinion keyed on Sleeve K. K. Sleeve running loosely on Main Shaft. L. Cone-driven Gear keyed to Sleeve K. 158. The problem, as before, is to find what speed the cone driven gear should run in order to transmit to the bobbin the given speed 1361. As before, break the problem into two parts: First find the proper speed oi bell wheel C, and then analyze the ef- fect of the differential and with the speed of bell wheel, ^'6 J L G rnKJl34 MAIN SHAFT CONE Fig. 31. Tweedales Differential. 164 SIvUBBING AND ROVING. find the speed of cone-driven gear. Assume that the bobbin gear 2.2 as driver. Then speed of bell wheel is 1361 X 22 X 37 55 X 50. This works out 403,. 159. The action of the differential is as follows: If bell wheel should run at same speed as main shaft, the cross shaft, and the gears E, H, and sleeve L would all re- volve around main shaft, but the cross shaft F, and hence the gears attached to it, would not turn on their axes. Under these circum- stances the gear L would make same speed as main shaft. But the bell does not run as fast as main shaft by 55 revo- lutions. This has the same effect on speed of sleeve K as if bell wheel turned backward 55 revolutions. Find how much the speed of sleeve would be diminished if bell wheel run 55 revolutions backward. 48 X 30 ^^"^ 16 X 18 This is 55 X 5, or 275. Hence sleeve K runs 275 revo- lutions less than 458, which is 183, the required speed of cone-driven gear. It will be noticed that the value of this differential train is 5, and that the result may be expressed as a general rule for this mechanism thus: RUI.K FOR TWEEDAI.KS DiFFERBNTlAI.. 160. SUBTRACT SPEED OF BOBBIN DRIVING GEAR FROM SPEED OF MAIN SHAFT. MULTI- PLY THIS BY THE VALUE OF THE DlEEREN- TIAL TRAIN. SUBTRACT THIS FROM SPEED OF MAIN SHAFT. RESULT IS SPEED OF CONE DRIVEN GEAR. SLUBBING AND ROVING. 1 65 161. Expressed as a formula this would be: Speed of cone-driven gear, L;=A. — Value of train (A.-^B). The Dai ft * M m M t 1 m « M s «f 1? Hf , ' ^ m ft » » m W'^ If {&. It i» g m' B «r « 11 n 1*" M » m E » % w »r » 1 m » Ir »^ w m t m 1 g, « 1 1* « M » m m « « n 4( i» k ir » J» w m m JT It s n X % ,m IT )» « m m PR IT » » A % ■^.. » .^ Warp Hg-ht hand twist Filling* left hand twist SOFT CLOTH Fig. 40. Right and Left Twists. J. DRAFT CHkm Fig. 41. Spinning Frame Gearing. 208 RING SPINNING. roll 7 eighths,) and considering the back roll the driver, the formula for draft would be : 8 X 84 X 128 7 X 44 X 30 This works out 9.31. The draft constant would bfe 9.31 X 44=409.6. An increase of one tooth in draft gear reduces draft about .21, A decrease of one tooth in draft gear increases draft about .21. 212. As previously shown, the twist is quotient obtained by dividing spindle speed by inches delivered. On the spinning frame, it is usually calculated by assum- ing speed of tin cylinder to be i. On this assumption, the spindle speed may be found by dividing the diameter of tin cylinder by effective diameter of spindle whorl. But on account of possible variation of diameter and tension of spindle band, the best way is to actually turn the cyHn- der by hand, exactly one turn, and count the turns of spindle. Suppose this to count 7.75. Suppose the twist gear to be 28. The inches delivered by front roll for one turn of cylinder will be 30 X 28 X I X 3.1416 90 X 112 This works out .26. Dividing 7.75 by .26 gives as the twist 29.9. Written as a complete formula, the twist would be 90 X 112 X 7.75 30 X 28 X I X 3.1416 This works out 29.9, as before. An increase of i tooth in this twist gear decreases twist in yarn about i per inch. Decrease of i tooth increases twist about i per inch. RING SPINNING. 209 A good way to verify calculation on twist, or to quickly find out the twist on any given frame, is to find out revo- lutions of spindle per minute by actual count; find out revolutions of front roll by actual count; multiply speed of front roll by circumference to get inches per min- ute; divide revolutions of spindle by inches of yarn. The result is twist per inch. 213. The speed of a spinning frame is generally desig- nated by speed of front roll. When this is given — say lOO — the speed to run driving pulley on a frame geared as Fig. 41, would be obtained by considering the front roll as the driver, and writing the formula: 100 X 112 X 90 28 X 30 This works out 1200. With a given front roll speed, the tin cylinder (and driving pulley) speed will vary with the twist gear, the larger the twist gear the slower the pulley speed necessary. Production. 214. Speed of front roll per minute multiplied by its circumference in inches will give theoretical production in inches. This multiplied by 60 and 11 will give the inches per day. This divided by 36 and 840 will give hanks per spindle per day. Written as a formula this would be : 100 XIX 3.1416 X 60 X II 36 X 840 This works out 6,9 hanks per spindle per day of 1 1 hours, if running all the time. An allowance of 10 per cent must be made for doffing and other stops. The actual result to be expected is therefore 6.2 hanks. If spinning number 40, the pounds per spindle per day would be 6.2-^-40^.15. 2IO RING SPINNING. General Data. 215. Spinning frames are made 36 inches or 39 inches wide, as ordered. On account of allowing longer spindle bands the 39 inch frames are considered better; but on ac- count of saving in space, 36 inch frames have become prac- tically universal in the South. They are usually made about 2^ feet long and contain more or less spindles for that length according to the gauge. A common gauge for numbers 16 to 30 is 2f inches. The ordinary number of spindles for such frames is 208, being T04 on a side. There are 8 spindles between roll stands, and hence the number of spindles on a side should be a multiple of 8. Thus 104 spindles would require fluted rolls to be in 13 sections. Frames are made longer or shorter, and with greater or fewer number of spindles as ordered. Including space for alleys around frames, the flooi space for spinning is considered to average about i square foot per spindle. Floor space for 5,000 spindles would be about 5,000 square feet, or say 67 x 75 feet. Most modern mills have their floors supported by heavy timbers running across the building 8 feet centre tO' cen- tre. These timbers are supported by columns standing about 25 feet centre to centre. Hence there are rows of columns 8 feet apart one vv^ay by 25 feet the other. The width of the mill is some multiple of 25 feet, as 75, 100, 125, and the length is a multiple of 8 feet. It is usual to place 4 lines of spinning frames length- wise mill, in a 25 foot space. Allowing i foot for the thickness of columns, this would give 6 feet space for each frame: 3 feet for frame and 3 feet for alley. This is a fair allowance. It is feasible to place them nearer, even 2.\ feet; but this is not desirable, unless there is some special object to be attained. Mills are sometimes built with columns in rows 10 feet 8 inches centre to centre, with a view to placing frames crosswise. With round columns 8 inches in diameter, RING SPINNING. 211 the clear space in a bay would be lo feet. Two frames are placed in this space. As frames themselves occupy 6 feet, only 4 feet is left for 2 alleys, so they are only 2 feet wide opposite columns, and 2 feet 4 inches elsewhere. Some floor space is saved by this arrangement, and alleys are lighted better from the side windows; but a serious objection to it is the way columns obstruct the work of doffing and piecing. Every other alley with this arrange- ment, contains columns, while with the other arrange- ment, only eveiy fourth alley contains columns. Another objection is the way in which frames must be driven. Shafting always runs lengthwise building, and hence guide pulleys or quarter turn belts must be resorted to for frames standing crosswise. On account of more or less sag in floor beams, it is harder to keep crosswise frames leveled. The weight of a spinning frame is about 25 pounds per spindle. The cost varies with the specifica- tions, but will average about $3.15 per spindle. The net actual power for driving a spinning frame which is in perfect order, and having all bands of proper tension, is 100 to 120 spindles per horse power. But in actual prac- tice, it is not safe to calculate over 70 spindles per horse power. The character of spindle oil used, and the tightness with which spindle bands are tied on, and many other small de- tails make variations in the amount of power consumed. 216. Fluted rolls are made single or double boss (sometimes called short or long boss, respectively) and the top rolls are solid or shell (loose boss) in the same way as for roving frames. Single or short boss spinning rolls are more generally used in the South. 217. Top rolls are made with two bosses, and are reduced to a small diameter in the middle. The saddle rests on this small portion, across all three rolls. Stirrup 212 RING SPINNING. passes between front and middle roll, so that the most weight will be on front roll. Lever is made with notches for adjusting the leverage of weight. Front rolls on spinning frames, as well as other machines that have drawing rolls, are made larger than the back rolls in order to stand the heavier weighting on the front roll. Specifications. 218. Following is a sample specification blank to be filled out in ordering spinning frames. The same form answers for both warp and filling frames ; but warp frame specifica- tions should be filled out on one blank and filling on another : Number of Frames Warp or Filling Number to be Combination Frames Combination to be set for Warp or Filling Width of Frame (36 inches or 39 inches) Length of Frame over all Number of Spindles per Frame Gauge of Spindles Kind of Spindles Kind of Ring Burnished Ring or not (extra) Diameter of Ring Ring Holder (cast iron or plate) Separators Length of Traverse Saddle Lever Screw Thread Guide Rolls, Single (short) or Double (long) Boss Rolls, solid or shell Creels: one or two stories Single or Double Roving RING SPINNING. 21$ ] Size of Bobbin in Creel J Hank of Roving in Creel \ Number Yarn to spin i Twist per inch Size of Tin Cylinder i Size of Spindle Whorl ; Size of Driving Pulleys i Pulleys to be on Gear End or on Out End 5 Driven from above or below j Speed of Driving Pulleys ' Maker j Purchaser ! Price Terms ' Remarks CHAPTER X. ^ule Spinning. 219. As mule spinning has not been much introduced in the South, the subject will not be minutely treated. A complete elementary treatise on all the mechanism and calculations for the mule would make a book in itself. While the mule, as an automatic machine is complica- ted, the broad principles involved are the same as in the oldest hand spinning. The roving is drawn out while being spun, and is spun intermittently, and is wound on "cop" (or bobbin) intermittently. Spinning Mule. — Fig. 42. — LETTERING. A. Creel. B. Bobbin in Creel. C. Skewer for Bobbin. D. Bottom Fluted Rolls. E. Top Rolls. F. F.' Spindle. G. G.' Cop. H, H.' Whorl on Spindle. J, J.' Tin Cylinder. K, K.' Carriage. L, L.' Wheels under Carriage. M. Head Stock. N. Fallers. P. Yarn being spun. Spinning Mule — PROCESS. 220. Roving is put up in creels, and drawn through rolls, same as in ring spinning. Spindles, instead of being in a stationary rail, are moun- ted in a carriage, which alternately moves away from and back to the rolls, a distance of about 5 feet. 2l6 MUI.E SPINNING. Spindles revolve right or left handed as desired. As yarn emerges from front roll, it is twisted over the top end of spindle, being held there by the "fallers." Spindles and carriage recede as fast as yarn is delivered, in some cases about 5 per cent, faster, making an addi- tional draft. The movement of carriage is called the "stretch." The amount that the movementof carriage exceeds the amount of yarn delivered by the front roll is called the "gain per stretch." At end of stretch, rolls are automatically stopped, spin- dles are stopped and reversed in motion, while the falling rods guide yarn away from point of spindle to the place where it is to be wound up. This is called "backing off." After pausing at end of stretch, carriage approaches rolls again, while spindles revolve in the original direction again, this time winding (generally on the bare spindle) the yarn that was spun on outward stretch. 221. The character of winding is controlled by action of "fallers" or "falling rods." They move upward quickly, and wind a layer of yarn in coarse rows; and move downward more slowly, winding a layer in fine rows. The result is that one layer is tO' some extent crossed over another. This holds the cop together after it is removed from spindle. On account of the fact that there is no bobbin to hold yarn, the shape in which cop is wound is very important. Fig. 35 C, shows the manner of building a cop. The lines indicate successive layers of yarn. The "chase'' of fallers (extent of their traverse) is short at first, say i inch, and puts short layers on spindle near the bottom. Grad- ually the chase is increased, and its starting point raised each time in the same way as filling wind, ring spinning. This action continues until the full size of cop is attained at lower part. This is called the "cop bottom." The amount of chase then remains the same, but it con- MULE SPINNING. 217 tinues to start higher, with each successive layer, in such a ratio that most of the cop will be cylindrical. Toward the upper end, the amount of chase begins to decrease, and make the taper of the yarn layers less sharp. This proceeds until the top end of spindle is reached. 222. Cop is now doffed, and is a mass of yarn with a small hole through the centre. In order tO' keep it in 5hape, a small wooden pin or ''skewer" is sometimes run through it. It is then said to be "skewered." 223. There is no harsh treatment of yarn, or unequal straining in its production on the mule, and hence it is possible tO' spin a finer, softer and more even yarn on the mule than on ring frame. The limit of fineness on a ring frame is its ability to resist traveler pull. Ordinarily No. 60 is the finest that is spun on a ring frame, though it is possible, under the best circumstances, with good stock, hard twist and slow speed, to spin No. 100. With a mule No. 500 has been spun, even with soft twist. Advocates of mule spinning claim that as high as No. 700 can be spun on mules. A certain degree of hardness or twist is necessary on a ring frame, to give the yarn strength to stand traveler pull. The absence of this strain enables the mule to spin with less twist. This also enables the mule to spin stock with exceedingly short staple On the ring frame, a thin place occurring in yarn between front roll and spindle will naturally receive more twist than the thicker parts, and thus accentuate the thinness. On the mule, the thin place will receive the most twist at first. But by reason of this twist, it will become stronger than the thicker part, and will resist the stretch- ing process between front roll and spindle. The thicker part will thus become more stretched and equalized with the thin. The finest yarn in the world is spun in Asia by hand on 2l8 MUI,E SPINNING. a spinning wheel, whose principles are those of the mule. The greatest skill is necessary for this fine hand spinning. This same skill is in a measure, necessary for fine soft mule spinning; and the limit of fine work for the mule is mostly in the skill of the spinner. Headstock. 224. Power is transmitted to the various parts of the mule from the "headstock," which is a frame, as shown at M, Figure 42, fastened to the floor. A belt from line shaft or countershaft drives pul- leys in the headstock, called "rim pulleys." The driving shaft, on which these pulleys are, may be parallel with the carriage of mule, or it may be at right angles with it, according as required to suit existing shaft- ing. The former arrangement is described as having "rim at side," the latter as having "rim at back." A series of ropes, winding on drums, driven from head- stock, impart the required forward and backward motion to the carriages. A headstock is usually near the centre of mule, and 'drives a certain number of spindles on each side of it. Mules are usually set up in pairs, facing each other, and far enough apart, so that when the carriages are at their out- most point of travel, there will be room for the spinner tO' walk in the alley. Fig. 42 shows only one mule. The carriage shown in full lines is at its outward stretch, while the dotted lines show the same carriage when at nearest point to the rolls. Each one of a pair of mules has its own headstock. They are designed so that headstocks will not come- exactly opposite each other. When the mule is built, the position of the headstock is usually determined to conform to the position of posts in the mill where it is to^ run. The amount that headstock lacks of being in the centre of mule is called its "offset." MUIvE SPINNING, 219 225. The entire distance from back of creel on one mule to back of creel on the other is about 20 feet. Each mule requires about 9 feet from back of its creel to the end of carriage stretch. 226. A mule may be set crosswise the mill, that is par- allel with the floor beams; or it may be set lengthwise. In the former case, there is not room between the columns for a mule in an ordinary 8 foot bay. Buildings designed for mules generally have bays 10 feet 8 inches from centre to centre, and sometimes 11 feet. If mules are placed lengthwise, only one pair may be set in one span between columns. Spans are generally 25 feet from centre to centre, and a pair of mules occupy 20 feet, and there is some waste room. Hence the crosswise setting is more economical of room. There is another reason why crosswise setting is pre- ferable. In mills lighted mainly from the side, a mule setting across the building will receive light down the alleys both back and rear, in all positions, and will not cast shadows and obstruct the light to the same extent as if set lengthwise. In the rare cases where mule rooms are well lighted through the roof, there is not so much difference in this respect. General Data. 227. Mules may be made any length up to about 125 feet. An average length is about 100 feet. The number of spindles in that length varies with the gauge. The head- stock and end frames take up. about 5 feet of the length of a mule, hence its length may be approximated by multiply- ing the gauge by number of spindles (and dividing by 12 to reduce to feet) and adding 5 feet tO' result. Thus a mule with 480 spindles and 2 inch gauge would be about 85 feet long. A mule with 800 spindles and I5 inch gauge would be about 88 feet long. Mules are ordered with small gauge for fine numbers 220 MUI.E SPINNING. and larger gauge for coarse numbers. Mules may be ordered with smaller gauge than ring frames for the same numbers. This is for the reason that, with the mule, it is not necessary to provide space for ballooning, or for thickness of rings. For No. 20 yarn, the mule gauge would be about if, and ring gauge 2f . 228. The floor space occupied by mules de- pends upon the manner of placing them in the building, as well as upon the gauge. For spin- ning numbers from 10 to 30, with the best econ- omy of room, mules occupy about i-| square feet of floor space per spindle. In a building not designed for the purpose, they would occupy about 2 square feet per spin- dle. The production of mules is about 10 per cent, less per spindle than ring frames. The cost of labor is about 10 per cent, more per pound of product. The value of pro- duct is 10 to 20 per cent. more. The cost of the mule is about 20 per cent, less per spindle than cost of ring frames. Specifications. 229. Following is a sample specification blank to be filled out in ordering mules. Number of Mules Number spindles in each Mule Gauge of Spindles Kind and Length of Spindles Length of Stretch Amount of Gain in Stretch Number Spindles each side of Head, (Ofifset) Diameter Fluted Rolls, Front . . . ; Middle . . . ; Back. . . Top Rolls .... Direct or Lever Weighted .... Shell or Solid MUIvli SPINNING. 231 Creels, i, 2 or 3 stories high .... For Double or Single Roving Number Threads to i Boss Length of Creel Skewer Size of Bobbin in Creel Hank of Roving Roving tO' be single or Double Range of Yarn Numbers to be Spun Number ta start on Range of Draft Draft to start on Range of Twist Twist to start on Rim Pulley to be at Back or Side Diameter Rim Pulley Speed To Belt from Above or Below Send sketch showing position of mill columns, for loca- tions of headstocks Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER XL preparation of l^arn for Meavino* 230. Yarn is spun either for utilization on the premi- ses — in weaving, knitting, etc. — or for shipment to mar- ket as yarn. In either case, it requires a certain amount of preparation. Considering first the preparation of warp for weaving brown goods (or goods not dyed,) tlie processes are: Spoofing, Warping, Slashing or Sizing, Drawing-in. Spooling. 231. The object of spooling is to take yarn from bob- bins, on which it has been spun and wound with irregular tension, and to rewind it regularly on spools, which hold the yarn frojn 10 to 15 bobbins. Spooler. — Fig. 43. — Lkttkring. A. Spinning Bobbin, in Holder B. Bobbin Holder C. Traverse Rod D. Thread Guide E. Spool, being wound F. Tin Cylinder G. Rock Shaft H. Rock Arm J. Connecting Rod K. Lifting Rod L. Bobbin Box. M. Empty Spool Box N. Full Spool Box. Spooler. — Process. 232. Bobbins are supported on spindles, or in some special form of bobbin holder, which allows it to revolve. Fig. 43. Spooler, 224 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. Yarn from bobbin passes through thread guide, which, is fast to the traverse rod. Traverse rod moves up and down, a distance equal to the "lift" or length of spool barrel, and guides the yarn evenly on the spool. Spindles are driven from tin cylinder with stout twisted yarn bands. Spindle is made with a broad flange on which the spool rests. Spool fits loosely over spindle, and rests on the broad flange of spindle. It is made to revolve by the friction of its weight on this flange. The fact that spools are driven, not by any positive grip, but by light friction of its own weight on spindle flange, causes yarn to be laid on with light and fairly uni- form tension. There is danger of badly stretching the yarn by excessive speed of machine. This should be guarded against by providing spooler spindles enough to take care of the yarn. From the fact that a spooler will run and wind yarn with apparent success at a speed considerably greater than is best for the yarn, there is a temptation to run the machine too fast. A spooler runs at a uniform number of revolutions per minute, and therefore the yarn is wound on the barrel of a full spool with greater velocity (or greater number of yards per minute) than on empty spool. The speed of machine must therefore be fixed at such a point as not to strain the yarn when at its greatest velocity. This speed varies with different num- bers of yarn and with different kinds of stock. On the average, however, for numbers i6 to 30, the spindles should not exceed 800 to 700 revolutions. As the tin cylinder or driving shaft is usually 3 or 4 times diameter of spindle whorl, its speed should not exceed 250 to 175. Coarser yarns will stand higher speed and finer yarns should have slower speeds. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 225 233. There are a number of different mechanisms in use for producing the traverse motion, most of which are so arranged as to be adjustable for various Ufts of spool, and so designed as tO' pile up the yam rather higher in the middle of spool than at ends, thus winding a barrel shaped spool, which naturally holds more than a perfect cylinder. Xhe lifting rods are placed about four feet apart, and are actuated by arms fastened to^ rock shaft. The point ot attachment of connecting rods tO' rock arms is movable, so that amount of traverse may be adjusted. The point of attachment of lifting rod to connecting rod is also mov- able SO' that the position of traverse may also be adjusted. Thus it is possible to adjust amount of traverse, say from 5 to 7 inches, and also the point at which traverse begins. Both of these adjustments are important, and should be independently made, first the amount, and then the posi- tion. The amount should be about ^t inch less than lift of spool. The position should be such that this Yt ^^ch is equally divided between the two flanges of spool, thus guiding the yarn to vnthin gV inch of each flange or head. If yarn runs closer than this, the head will grow too large, and yarn will tangle when being wound off. If it stops much short of this amount, the yarn will wind shorter for awhile but finally jump over into the space at ends and tangle when unwinding. 234. Ther'e is a vari^ety of threaid) guides. Soime of them not only guide the yarn on spool, but serve to break it whenever knots or lumps occur. This guide is made in two parts, so that the space through which yarn passes is adjustable, thus limiting to any desired extent the size of knot or lump that may pass. These guides are also adjus- table as to position on traverse rod; so that should any one spool wind too high (having yarn rub and pile up against top flange of spool,) or too low, the individual guide may be moved to correct the trouble. 226 preparation of yarn for weaving. Production. 235, For average Southern conditions, a spool is 6 inches long between heads, and heads are 4 inches diameter. It is known as a 4 x 6 spool. The barrel is i^ inches diameter, and the hole in centre f inches in diameter. The diameter of spool when half full is about 3 inches, and its circum- ference at that point about 9J inches. If spindle runs 800 revolutions per minute, the hanks wound per day of 11 hours would be theoretically. 9^ X 800 X 60 X II 36 X 840 This works out 166 hanks per spindle per day with no allowance for stopping. Allowing 30 per cent, this would be 116 per day. Spooling No. 20, this would be 5.8 pounds. If No. 30, it would be 3^ pounds. Generally speaking, i spindle of spooler will wind yarn produced by 12 to 15 spinning spindles. General Data. 236. Spoolers have spindles on both sides, same as spin- ning frames. They are about 4 feet wide, including bobbin boxes and vary in length according to- number of spindles and gauge. A spooler for 4x6 spools would have a gauge of 4f . Its length may be estimated by multiplying half the number of spindles by the gauge in inches and dividing by 12 to reduce to feet. To this result add i^ feet for end frames and driving pulley. Thus a 100 spool spooler would measure +ii ^21 feet 7. inches 12 "^ -^ The weight is about 40 pounds per spindle. The price per spindle varies according toi gauge. A spooler of 100 spindles and 4f gauge costs about $3.00 per spindle. Smaller gauges cost less, larger ones more. Driving pulleys are usually 12 x 2 tight and loose. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 227 One operative can tend 40 to 50 spindles. A 4 X 6 spool will hold about 18,000 yards of No. 20, or the yarn from 10 warp bobbins, i| x 6^. It will hold double this length of No. 30. 237. In ordering spoolers, it is always well to send to the shop a sample spool if spools are already on hand. If ordering a new outfit, request the maker of spoolers to send to spool makers specifications or sample, so that spools will fit machine. The English call spoolers "Bobbin winding machines." Specifications. 238. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in or- dering spoolers : Number of Spoolers Number of Spindles on each Machine Kind of Bobbin Holders Kind of Spindles Gauge of Spindles Amount of Traverse Kind of Bobbin Boxes (wood or iron) Number of Yarn to be Spooled Diameter of Bobbin of Yam Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Belted from Above or Below Send Sample Bobbin Send Sample Spool Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 228 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 239. The next process after spooling is unwinding a number of spools and laying the strands or "ends" evenly on a "beam," which is, in effect, a large spool. The machine for accomplishing this work is known as a beam warper. Beam Warper. — Fig. 44. — I^ETTERING. A. Spool in Creel B. Ends, unwinding from Spool C. Back Guide D Back Reed E. Slack Roll F. Rack for operating Slack Roll G. Pinion, Shaft and Weight for Slack Roll H. Measuring Roll J. Drop Wire K. Front Reed or Wraith L. Warp Beam M. Cylinder Beam Warper — Process. 240. Spools are put up in creels on skewers, so- they may freely revolve. The creel may hold 300 tO' 60O' spools, but usually 400 to 450. The creel consists of a pair of upright frames joined at one end, and opening at the other like the letter V. A creel for 450 spools will hold 225 in each wing of the V, 1 5 spools high and 1 5 spools long. A creel for more than 450 spools is made longer, but not higher. Fifteen 4x6 spools, placed one above the other, with space to be handled in and out make a creel as high as can well be worked. The various ends are brought together from the creel and passed through back comb, and over and under the various rolls shown. Each end is threaded through a drop wire J, and through a dent in front comb and finally in a sheet around barrel of beam. & a & & bp 230 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. There are usually 4 countersunk pins on the barrel of beam, to which the yarn in 4 divisions is attached. Barrel of beam rests upon the cylinder and is turned by friction. 241. The front comb is made expansible. Its teeth are mounted on a movable device so' that by turning a lit- tle crank at one end, the fineness of the teeth may be regu- lated. This is for the purpose of uniformly distributing the sheet of yarn, (no matter what the number of ends) over the whole width of machine or length of beam upon which it is wound (generally 54 inches.) If 400 ends are being warped, the comb is adjusted to 400 teeth in 54 inches; if 300 ends, comb is stretched out so that only 300 teeth occupy 54 inches. "Reed" and '"heck" and "wraith" are other names for this front comb. Stop Motion. 242. A most important adjunct to the warper is the stop motion. It is necessary that the entire number of ends con- tinue to be wound throughout the beam. To accomplish this, and not have some ends break and be discontinued, each end must pass through some kind of an eye, ("drop wire") which is connected to a stop motion in such a way that when an end breaks, the eye will drop and stop the machine. As in the case of the drawing frame there are mechanical and electrical stop motions. The drop wires shown in Fig. 44 belong to a mechanical stop motion. The bars J are caused to oscillate by the running of machine. As long as each end is passing properly through its eye, the bars continue to oscillate. If one end breaks down the corresponding eye falls and obstructs the oscillation. These bars are so arranged that when they stop oscilla- ting, they liberate a latch which normally holds belt shifter in such a position that belt is on tight pulley. Belt shifter is weighted so that when latch is released it moves X Y Fig. 45. Electric Stop Motion on Creel. 232 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. belt on to loose pulley. Thus, when an end breaks, a drop wire falls and stops the oscillating bar. This in turn shifts belt and stops machine. 243. The electrical stop motion is made on the princi- ples explained in (66). Fig. 44 shows the warp ends pass- ing through drop wires on the machine. This is the me- chanical stop motion. The electrical stop motion is shown on the creel in con- nection with the Denn warper. The detail is shown in Fig. 45. The ends pass through drop wires on the creel. Each creel rod z has two copper strips, x, y, fastened to it. The drop wire w is hinged on strip y, which is connected by wires to one pole of dynamo. The strip x is connected to the other pole. When the machine is running and all the ends are up, the drop wires are pulled up as shown in full lines' in Fig. 45. If any end breaks, itsi corresponding drop wire will fall into the position shown by dotted lines. This makes the electrical connection which enables the dynamo to generate current. The current makes a mag- net which operates to shift the belt on loose pulley. Sometimes, in connection with this stop motion, there is an annunciator which shows which particular end is down. It works exactly like the annunciator in a hotel office, which shows in which room a button has been pressed. Knock-Off Motion. 244. There is another stop motion on a beam warper, which is made to stop the machine when a certain number of yards of yarn has been beamed. As will be shown in con- nection with the slasher, it is of the greatest importance that each warper beam shall contain exactly the same num- ber of yards. This stop motion, is called the "knock off motion," and is illustrated in Fig. 46. On the end of the measuring roll H, Fig. 44, is a worm V, Fig. 46. This worm turns a gear N on a shaft carrying it! O I (J o Pi M to 234 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. another worm P, which also turns a gear Q on the shaft R, carrying a coarse square threaded screw. A bar S rests in this screw, and is fed along as the screw turns. The bar S will finally run off the end of screw R and drop down. As it does so, the other end T operates the stop motion, and the machine stops. The length of time required for S to feed out to end of screw depends upon how far from the end of screw, S is placed when machine is started. The bar S slides along shaft U, and when the beam is started, may be lifted out and put anywhere on the screw. All of the yarn that is beamed passes over the measur- ing roll. This roll ismade^ yard in circumference. There- fore if we can determine how many times measuring roll turns to I of screw R, we will know how many yards of yarn is represented by each thread of the screw R. Consider each worm as a gear with one tooth, and take the gears as marked in Fig. 46. Considering the screw R the driver, the number of times H turns to i of R is determined by the formula 100 X 80 I X I This is 8,000. The number of yards measured is ^ of 8,000, or 2,000. By changing either of the gears, any other number of yards may be arranged for one revolution of R. Whatever this amount is, it is called a "wrap." If on this particular machine a wrap is 2,000 yards, and it is desired to wind 10,000 yards on a beam, 5 wraps are required. The bar S is placed 5 threads from the end of the screw. In 5 revolutions of screw, S will drop down and stop the machine. 245. The wrap gearing must be so calculated that the warp beam will run about full with a whole number of wraps. For example, if a beam will hold 16,000 yards, the knock off motion above described must be set to 8 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 235 wraps. If, however, the beam will hold only 15,000 yards, the gears must either be changed, or it must be set at 7 wraps and wind 14000 yards and stop. This is done so that each beam will stop with the same number of yards on it. 246. Whenever the warper stops, the spools, by their momentum will continue to run for a moment, and some yarn will be unwound from spools which cannot be taken up by the machine, because machine is stopped. The slack roll E, Fig. 44, is designed to evenly take up this slack, and prevent the yarn from becoming loose and kinky. There are two kinds of slack rolls: the falling roll, and the rising roll. The latter is the one shown in Fig. 44. The yarn passes under a roll which is in a fixed journal, and over the rising roll, which is mounted in a frame weighted in such a way that when yarn becomes slack it will rise and take up the slack. The falling roll accomplishes the same purpose in a simpler way by merely lying on the top of the sheet of yarn, and having the journals work in upright slots in the frame of machine itself. When yarn becomes slack, its weight carries it down in the slots until yarn is tight. While the falling roll has the advantage of simplicity, and is more generally used, the rising roll has the advantage of adjustabihty for different degrees of slackness. The amount of slack that will occur when machine stops, depends largely upon the friction of spools on their skew- ers. This is variable, according to smoothness of skewers. It may thus become desirable to adjust the amount of motion of slack roll. In the case of rising roll, this adjust- ment may be made by varying the amount of weight hung on. Slow Motion. 247. When the machine is ready to start (after it has stopped and slack roll has taken up the surplus yarn) if it 236 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. should start suddenly at its usual speed, the slack roll would easily and quickly pull down to the bottom of its travel before any tension is exerted on spools. The consequence would be that the spools would be subjected to a sudden jerk which would break down many ends. To avoid this trouble, the machine is provided with a "slow motion." As the same mechanism is used on the slasher, the detail is shown on Fig. 49. A is a tight pulley, B, slow pulley, C, loose pulley. Loose pulley is mounted on one end of a hollow sleeve. On the other end of sleeve at D, is a small pinion driving a large gear E. This gear is moun- ted on a short shaft, the other end of which, carries a small pinion F, driving a larger gear G, which is fast on main shaft. When the warper is first started, the belt may be shif- ted on the slow pulley which will start the machine at a reduced speed. When the slack is all taken up, the belt may be shifted on to the regular fast pulley. The belt shifter is usually connected to a treadle, so that the whole operation of starting slow and speeding up may be performed in a moment with the foot. 248. When beam has run full, it is taken off ("doffed") and carried away on a beam truck, and an empty beam is put in place. The old spools are taken out of creel and full ones put in their place, one at a time, tying the end from each new spool, as put in, to the corresponding yarn from old spool. Generally, the spool does not run empty; but as it does not hold enough for two warp beams, it is found better to take it out and fill it up again at the spooler. It requires about two hours tO' doff, re-creel and start a new beam. Production. 249. The cylinder is usually about 18 inches diameter, and runs 30 to 50 revolutions per minute. Its surface speed is therefore 50 to 70 yards per minute. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 237 Since the yarn beam revolves by surface contact \vith this cylinder, the surface speed of cylinder, as above, will be the number of yards per minute that will be warped from each spool. If machine is running 70 yards per jTiin- ute, the yards per day of 1 1 hours from each spool would be 70 X 60 X 1 1^46,200, if running all the time. From 30 to 40 per cent, must be allowed for stoppages, so that the actual production would be about 30,000 yards of warp per day. If there are 450 spools in creel, the grand total of yarn warped per day would be (30,000 x 450=) 13,- 500,000 yards, or 16,000 hanks. This is about the right speed for No. 20. If the yarn is No. 20, the weight would be 800 pounds. Finer yarn should run slower. No. 30 should not exceed 60 yards per minute. The production per day would at this speed be fl of 16,000 or say 14,000 hanks or 466 pounds. 250. An average warper beam has a barrel 9 inches in diameter and 54^ inches long. The heads are 26 inches diameter. Of No. 20 yarn from 450 spools, it will hold 12,000 yards or 321 pounds. Thus a day's produc- tion of No. 20 is a little more than 2 beams. Of No. 30 yarn from 450 spools, it will hold 24,000 yards or 429 pounds. Thus a day's production of No. 30 is about i beam. The speed of driving pulley must be determined by the gearing, if any, between it and the cylinder. 251. As in the case of the spooler, a warper will run at a much higher speed than is good for the yarn. The speed decided upon is generally a compromise between quantity and quality. It is made faster or slower, accor- ding as the one or the other is most desirable under the circumstances. Generally speaking, one warper will take the product of 1,200 to 1,500 warp spindles, or 100 spooler spindles. 238 preparation of yarn for weaving. Generai. Data. 252, A beam warper, including creel for 450 spools will occupy a space of about 10 feet wide by 15 feet long. The length may be reduced i foot if desired, by placing creel nearer the machine. About 18 warp beams are necessary for each slasher in use. From the fact that warp beams are carried for the next process to the slasher, they are sometimes called "slasher beams.'' They are sometimes also called "section beams." The weight of a warper, complete with creel and beams is about 3,000 pounds. The cost complete as above is about $400. The machine is usually driven with a 2 inch belt. The speed of the driving pulley is usually 15O' to 200. The power required is about -J horse power. The "hand" of the machine is determined by standing in front, (or at beam) and noting whether driving pulleys are on right or left hand. Specifications. 253. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in or- dering beam warpers : Number of Warpers Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Diameter of Cylinder Length of Cylinder Diameter of Beam Heads Diameter of Beam Barrels Number of Beams Number of Yards wiante'd per Wrap Diameter of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 239 Belted from Above or Below I Number of Yarn to Start on I Size of Spool in Creel j Length of Skewer in Spool j Number of Spools in Creel , Iron or Wood, or Glass steps in Creel i Rising or Falling Slack Roll ! Send Sample Spool ] Send Sample Skewer .| Maker ! Purchaser j Price I Terms I Remarks 240 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. 254. The next machine to the warper is the slasher, v/hich is a machine for putting "size" or starch on the yarn. Slasher. — Fig. 47. — LETTERING. A. Superfluous Beams in Creel. B. Warp Beams (in use) in Creel. C. Immersion Roll. D. Squeeze Rolls. E. Top Rolls. F. Small Cylinder. G. Large Cylinder. H. Hollow Shaft of Cylinder. K. Friction Wheels for Shaft. L. Lease Rods. M. Fan. N. Reed, or Heck. Q. Front Roll. S. Loom Beam. T. Presser Roll. U. Presser Roll Counter Weight. S1.ASHER — Process. 255. Having predetermined the number of ends of warp to put on loom beams to produce the required cloth (as explained in the chapter on organization,) and having made up the warper beams to correspond, say 5 with 408 ends each, these 5 beams are placed in the creel. The beams are adjusted endwise with the hand screws until the heads are all in line. The sheet of warp is unwound by hand from the rear beam and carried over the next beam, where it is united with the sheet of warp from that, and so on with the other beams. The whole sheet is drawn through the starch box. The top rolls E are lifted ofif squeeze rolls and put in the rests at the side of the bearings. The sheet is divided into about 4 parts. A small rope o o e mixed with starch in size kettle. Recipes for mixing size will be found in the appendix. When size is cooked and stirred sufficiently (the proper time— about 15 to 40 minutes — can only be determined by experience.) It is drawn through a 2^ inch or 3 inch pipe 244 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. to the size box of slasher. This is a wooden box lined with copper and provided with perforated steam pipes for keeping size warm. It holds about 80 gallons. This amount will size 700 to 800 pounds of yarn. Steam inside the copper cylinders dries yarn as it passes around. These cylinders are 60 inches wide. The large one is 7 feet diameter, the small one 5 feet. Steam is admitted through hollow shaft of cylinder. It first passes through a reducing valve, which is adjustable so that boiler pres- sure may be reduced to 5 to 15 pounds, or when desired entirely shut off. The reducing valve is connected to the belt shifter in such a way that when machine is stopped, steam is entirely shut off. The opposite side of cylinder from steam inlet serves as an outlet for condensed steam. Inside the copper cylin- der, close to the shell are cups, extending across entire cylinder. These cups are so set that they lift the conden- sed water and deliver it through a pipe out of hollow shaft of cylinder. It is important to have cylinders put in the frames correctly when machine is first set up, so that they may run in the right direction for cups to lift the water. The makers commonly put arrows on the out- side of cylinder to indicate the proper direction of revo- lution. The pipes leading condensed steam from the hollow shafts lead to steam traps which are for the purpose of allowing only the water to escape, and thus prevent waste of steam. Cylinders have steam valves in the heads, which may be easily opened to allow steam to escape in case the machine has to be stopped. This cools the cylinders, and to some extent, prevents browning the yarn. It is important to occasionally try the pet cocks in end of cylinders to see that trap is properly working and that the steam inside cylinders is dry. There is a gauge to indicate pressure of steam in cylinders, but it is possible for the gauge to indicate pressure while cylinders are cold. n n n cnrn n n n Fin n n n inn] n n n Fig. 48. Improved Starch Kettle. 246 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. because of the presence in them of condensed water. Steam must be kept dry in order to properly dry the yarn. The fan M dries the yarn. The large wooden hood (which is built over the machine after it is set up) carries away the steam arising from the yarn drying on the hot cylinders. Whenever possible this hood should lead through the roof. If slasher is not in a room next to roof a large wooden flue from hood may be run out the side of building and turned up a few feet. The flue leading from slasher should incline toward the outside of building, so the condensed steam will run out of the building. Sometimes, when a number of slashers are run in the same room, an exhaust fan is attached to the hoods, to^ draw out the steam. This is a good arrangement in any event. S1.ASHER Gearing. — Fig. 49. — IvETTERIng. A. Tight Pulley. B. Slow Pulley. C. Loose Pulley. D. Slow Pinion. E. Slow Gear. F. Reducing Pinion. G. Shaft Gear. H. Pawl. K. Ratchet Gear. L. Driving Cone. M. Fan. N. Driven Cone. P. Cone Pinion. Q. Front Roll Gear. R. Beam Gear. S. Friction Plates. T. Hand Screw Wheel. U. Loom Beam. V. Bearing for Loom Beam. S RG4 w Fig. 49. Slasher Gearing. 248 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. W. Dog to Drive Beam. X. Front Roll Bevel. Y. Side Shaft Bevel, Front. Z. Side Shaft Bevel, Rear, a, b. Squeeze Roll Gear, d, e. Squeeze Rolls. f. Worm on Side Shaft. g. Gear tO' Drive Cut Marker. h. Change Gear for Cut Marker. k. Intermediate. 1. Gear on Cut Marker. m. Cut Marker. Sif X X X fe X X X X X a X X X >r X X 1 t 3 4- 5 G 7 «8 Fig, 53. Point Paper. 286 WEAVING. and sometimes simply "draft." In plain 2 harness weave, and in simple twills, the drawing in is so easy and regular, that no draft plan is needed. But in more comphcated weaves, it is important to have it plainly indicated. 326. It is also necessary in complicated designs to show the order of Hfting for the harness. This is also shown on point paper, and is called the "lifting plan, or, in case of dobby looms "pegging plan." In simple weaves the drawing in draft and lifting plan are not laid out on point paper, but are indicated by fig- ures. For example, a drawing in draft marked i, 3, 5, 7, would mean that the first warp thread is drawn in harness I, the second in harness 3, the third in harness 5, the fourth in harness 7. The fifth thread would repeat and be -drawn in harness i . A lifting plan marked 2-4, 1-6, 3-5, would mean that at the first pick, harness 2 and 4 are lifted, at the second pick I and 6, &c. For weaving cloth of complicated design, it is necessary to have 3 different plans worked out and put on paper to guide the operations. These are (i) The design of the ■cloth; (2) The drawing in draft ; (3) The (harness) lifting plan. 327. The foregoing paragraphs are intended only as a bare outline of the subject of designing, to sketch out some of the general principles. The scope of the subject is infinite, involving the treatment of colors, materials" and methods even into the field of fine arts. It extends into a technical comprehension of the scope and limita- tions of dobbies, Jacquards and other fancy looms. A full discussion may be found in books devoted entirely to this subject. There is but very little original designing done. Most of the so-called designing is but copying and adapting. WEAVING, 287 Calculations. 328. Connected with the subject of proJncing' a certain kind of cloth of a certain weight per yard, numerous cal- culations are necessary, such as finding the numbers of yarn to spin and the right harness and reed?. These partic- ular calculations are fully described in the chapters on Or- ganization, and on Harness and Reeds respectively. The principal calculations involved in the weaving of common cloths relate to finding the proper gear to pro- duce the required number of picks per inch; and conversely the number of picks per inch produced by a given gear; and finding the production of loom. Pick Gear. 329. Referring to Figure 51, the ratchet gear A is driven by a pawl actuated ty a cam or eccentric on cam shaft. At every pick of loom it moves up one tooth of ratchet gear. The pick gear is fastened on same stud with ratchet gear and drives gear on €nd of sand roll. Assuming gear on sand roll to have 80 teeth, pick gear 20 teeth, and ratchet 80 teeth, the num- ber of picks per inch of cloth may be found as follows: One revolution of sand roll takes up I2| inches of cloth, and turns ratchet wheel 8cK-20=4 times. Since ratchet contains 80 teeth, 320 teeth must pass in 4 revolu- tions, and pawl must move forward 320 times. Pawl is driven from cam shaft and makes one forward motion for every 2 picks, hence there are 640 picks in I2f inches of cloth or about 50 picks per inch. 330. Expressed as a formula this would be 80 X 80 X 2 20 X I2f =50 In this formula the 20 in the denominator is the pick gear. Treating this formula as we did similar ones where change 288 WEAVING. gear appeared in denominator, and leaving change gear out, the result gives the constant, thus: 80 X 80 X 2 -ZZZZ1004 I2| This constant 1004 divided by pick gear will give number of picks per inch that the gear will put in cloth. The constant divided by any number of picks per inch will give the pick gear required. One tooth more in pick gear gives about 2^ fewer picks per inch in cloth; one tooth less gives about 2^ picks more. 331. The take up gearing shown in Fig. 51 is only one of several ways of arranging this motion. Some pick gears are arranged in the train so that the larger the pick gears, the more picks per inch. Some are arranged this way, and so geared that an increase of one tooth in pick gear gives an increase of 2 picks per inch. On these looms no constant is required. This is a good practical arrangement. Production. 332. The theoretical production of a loom depends upon the number of picks that it runs per minute, and upon the number of picks per inch in cloth produced. The number of picks per minute multiplied by the minutes in a day, divi- ded by picks per inch and inches in a yard, will give the total number of yards possible to weave per day under these circumstances. For example, suppose a loom runs 180 picks per minute, and weaves cloth with 50 picks per inch, the possible production in 1 1 hours is expressed by the formula: 180 x 60 X II -p. — =66 vards. 50 X 36 This is called "100 per cent production," or "possible pro- duction." An allowance must be made for stoppage. A WEAVING. 289 good average allowance for plain work is 15 per cent, in which case, the looms are said to be making "85 per cent, production." It is possible to make 90 per cent., but 80 is more common. 333. In cases where abnormally large per cents are claimed, investigation will generally show that the actual number of picks per inch in the cloth is less than is stated. Sometimes this condition is brought about by fraud on the part of the weaver, who is paid by the piece. He might occasionally move up the sand roll a few teeth by hand, and thus cause fewer picks per inch. Sometimes it is brought about intentionally by the management of the mill. They might have an order for cloth with 64 picks per inch, and so calculate the gears as to produce only 63, or even 62I' per inch, gaining some in the production of loom, and turning out a cloth so near the requirement that it may pass on the market. General Data. 334. A common sheeting loom is about 42 inches wide from breast beam to whip roll. A 40-incl! loom is about 54 inches long and 30 inches high to top cf breast beam. The lay is about 7 feet long. For a 40-inch loom running 165 picks per minute the usual allowance is about | horse power for driving. The driving pulleys are about 12 x 2, tight and loose, but may be had any size from 8 to 20 inches. They may have a clutch pulley instead of tight and loose pulleys. This loom weighs about 1,000 pounds, and costs about $50. Attachments for making twilled goods, such as auxihary shaft, gears, cams, jacks, &c., cost about $10 extra. Looms for producing other varieties of cloth vary so much in detail of construction, that it is not easy to tabu- late their cost, &c.,without giving detailed description. 335. Looms may be driven from a shaft vinder the floor, or from one above. In the latter case, the shaft must be 290 WEAVING. carefully located over the alleys, and never directly over the looms, on account of the liability of oil dripping frora the bearings on to the cloth or the warp. No matter what kind of bearing or oil pan is used, some oil will drip on the cloth at some time, if the shaft is over the loom. One oil spot on a piece of cloth or on the warp will cause the cloth to pass as "seconds." Looms are generally arranged in parallel lines length- wise building, about as shown in Fig. 54, half of them being- right hand and half left hand, to throw the driving pulleys together. The pulley ends of loom are placed as close together as possible, while an alley of 16 to 18 inches is left between the projecting lays at the other end. The breast beams are placed 24 to 26 inches apart, making the "weaver's alley." The distance between backs of looms is somewhat greater, generally 30 to 36 inches. This is the "back alley." It may be much narrower but should be as wide as the space will permit, to facilitate the hand- ling of yarn beams. Four lines are placed in one span between columns, as shown. The width of back alleys is regulated, therefore, by the width of loom, and the dis- tance between columns. The overhead driving shaft is over the middle of back alley. The looms are placed staggering, or zigzag, as shown, so that one shaft may drive two lines of looms. The hand of a loom is determined by standing at breast beam and noting whether driving pulley is on right or left. Specifications. 336. The following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering common looms : Width of Cloth to Weave Number of Looms Number Right Hand Number Left Hand For Plain or Twilled Work Heavy or Light Pattern WE AVER S ALLEY 3-^ ..I — i ., I r . BAC K ALLJCT ffl Dl ^ K^l i 0) " "-e: -r^ jL^-fZZZZHL .L- »a« [[]r{tj==a»C3==: =[KB=*^ ={[jJ||===:™^0=^.-.=^^ ■"p if o-^ot © #^- ■^'5s JiaSE;:r;:n:;r. fci | ■j:.-x~.3>«;{tj Ftzi: Fig. 54. Arrangement Oif Ivooms. 292 WEAVING. With or Without AuxiKary Shaft How Many Cams on Auxiliary Shaft How Many Harness to be Up .Down Kind of Take-up Kind of Let-off Kind of Whip Roll Reed Space Width of Loom over all, Including Yarn Beam and Full Cloth Roll Length of Loom Frame Length of La}^ Size Beam Heads Distance Between Heads Number Beams (i-| per loom is usual) Size of Pulleys Speed of Pulleys Shuttle Binder (or Swell) to be Wood or Iron Cloth Roll Arranged for Long or Short Cuts Diameter Cloth Roll When Full Style and Construction of Cloth to AVeave Three pick Gears Furnished to make from to picks per inch. The following parts are considered to belong to the loom without extra charge: Lease Rods. Jack Sticks. Connector Blocks. Treadle Stirrups. Lease Rod Weights. Picker Sticks. Maker to send purchaser full set of samples to cover '"supplies" necessary to start one loom. Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER XIII. %oom Supplies* 337. Unlike other machines in the mill, the loom comes to the purchaser in what seems to be a half made condition. It cannot possibly rim without the addition of a lot of straps and hooks and buckles &c., together with shuttles, reeds and harnesses, all collectively classed as "supplies." Each particular make of loom requires its own special kind of supplies. Each maker differs more or less from the others as to exactly what constitutes "supplies," as distinguished from the loom itself. For example, some makers include, as part of the loom, the lease rods, and some consider that lease rods properly belong to supplies. It is important to have these things understood in order- ing the looms, so that the purchaser may know what to expect when looms arrive, and know what supplies are to be ordered. The only safe way when putting in new looms, is to order the loom manufacturer to send a com- plete sample set of supplies necessary to produce the par- ticular kind of cloth desired. These samples may then be sent to the supply dealer, and there will be a fixed respon- sibility as to the fit of all supplies furnished. Strapping. 338. Under the head of strapping is included all the various pieces of leather or canvass about the loom, and sometimes also the necessary buckles and hooks for fastening them on. II is not safe to venture on ' ordering strapping except by sample to suit the particular loom and the particular goods to be made. Strapping is sometimes taken to include the pickers and picker loops. 294 IvOOM SUPPWES. Most of the strapping is of leather, but lug straps and picker loops are sometimes made of canvass. The leather is sold by the pound (at 30 to 50 cents,) and the canvass strapping by the piece. Shuttles. 339. These have been discussed in the chapter on weav- ing. Sample shuttles should invariably be famished by the purchaser before the looms are made. Shuttles for common cloths cost from. $4.00 to $6.00 per dozen Shuttles for heavy canvass, carp'ets, etc., coist much more. It is useless to get any but the very best that can be found. They have to stand hard usage, both in the loom and at the hands of the operatives. Temples. 340. Usually the manufacturer of temples can give good advice as to the special form of tem- ple to use for each particular kind of cloth to be woven. It is a subject that has not been given sufficient attention except by temple manufacturers; but it is of great importance to have the temples not only to fit the loom perfectly, but to suit the cloth. The temple is shown in position on the loom in Fig. 50 The heel R should be long enough to reach well down on the lay, and it should be set just far enough forward to strike the lay, or the strip of leather on the lay at a time when the temple roll is about -^^ inch from the reed. The temple should be examined to see that these adjust- ments are possible for the case in hand. A great mistake is to order temples with rolls too short. This is frequently done to save in the first cost, but it will lose in the character of cloth woven. For common sheet- ings and print cloths up to 28 inches wide, a roll 2 inches long will answer. For the same goods up to 40 inches wide, a roll 2-| to 2f inches long should be used. Heavier or wider goods require longer rolls, or special forms of temples. LOOM SUPPIvlES. 295 Reeds. 341. Great care is necessary in making specifi- cations for reeds. The number of dents per inch must be calculated for the kind of cloth to be woven. There can be no fixed rule for this, on account of the numerous conditions to be fulfilled. But the general principles will be discussed. 342. Two warp ends (in special cases 3 to 8) are usu- ally drawn in one dent of reed. This means that there must be half as many dents in reed as there are ends in the warp yarn; or, what is the same thing, half as many dents per inch as there are ends per inch in the warp yarn. This is not the same as ends per inch in the warp of the woven cloth, because of the fact that the cloth is narrowei than the sheet of warp from; which it is woven. Tlrc- process of weaving contracts the cloth. This contraction varies with the character of cloth, and the tension with which it is woven — both in warp and filling. It varies from 5 to 15 per cent. For common sheetings, a fair average is about 8 per cent. If sheeting is to weave 36 inches wide, the warp yarn should be spread in the reed about 39 inches. Suppose the cloth is to contain 60 warp ends per inch. Not counting the extra ends for selvage,, the number of warp ends in the whole width of cloth will be 36 X 60=2160. If 2160 ends are drawn through the reed, two in a dent, for a space of 39 inches, there will be 1080 dents in 39 inches or (Io8o-^-39=) about 28 per inch, and so the reed must be ordered with 28 dents per inch. But it ought to be ordered longer than 39 inches, because the reed forms a guide for the shuttle in its passage through the shed, and the longer the reed, the better it acts as a guide. It is a very good plan to order the reed as long as the reed space in the loom. In addition to forming the guide, it allows a chance for weaving goods somewhat wider than that for which reed is at first ordered. 296 LOOM SUPPIvlES. The reed space is generally 6 to 7 inches longer than the rated size of the loom. Thus a 36 inch loom has reed space 42 to 43 inches long. Counts. 343. In making the order for reed's, according to the above calculation, it might be specified as a 28 dent reed, 43 inches long; cr as a reed with (28 X 43=) 1204 dents "spread" on 43 inches. The width of reed over all (4 to 4.^ inches) should also be speci- fied. It is also well to state in the specifications what cloth is intended to be woven with the reed. This gives the reed maker a chance to correct any error that might be made by the purchaser. 344. For the purpose of producing the cloth at (an infinitesimal) smaller cost it is the practice of some mills to steal a few warp ends per inch, that is, weave it with less ends per inch than the specifications demand. For example, instead of weaving the cloth above men- tioned with 2160 ends in 36 inches, it wih be calculated to contain say 2100, and the reed accordingly made coarser, say 1 1 50 spread on 43 inches. This is 26.7 dents per inch. and is irregular. These fractional count reeds are called "bastard reeds." But after all the calculating on reeds, if the weaver does not maintain uniform conditions of ten- sion &c., the cloth will not count as desired. It is possi- ble for the weaver to take warp that is drawn in 39 inches wide in reed, and make cloth anywhere from 34 to 38 inches wide. 345. Reeds should be designed with a view to ordinary and normal contraction in weaving, and the weaver should be made to maintain such conditions on the loom as will produce that contraction and hence the required width and count. In unusual kinds of cloth, such as is not entirely familiar to the weaver, it is best, when possible, to first order one LOOM SUPPIvlES. 297 or two sample reeds according to the best calculations, and weave some of the cloth to see that it produces just the character of cloth desired. 346. In oirdering reeds for special cases where 3 or more ends are to be drawn in one dent, the calculations proceed as before, except the number of warp threads is divided by 3 or more, as the case may be, instead of by 2, as when only 2 ends were to be drawn in a dent. 347. In England, there is no uniform way to specify the count of reeds. There are several methods in use in the various milling districts, one of which is to specify the number of dents in a quarter of an inch. In this country it is almost a uniform practice to specify reeds by the dents per inch. Bier. 348. Reeds are bought by the "bier," which is :an arbitrary term, generally meaning 20 dents, but not uniformly so. Some few reed makers call 19 dents a bier. Ordinary reeds are worth about i^ cents per bier of 20 dents. A reed with 1200 dents would have •60 biers and would cost about 75 cents. In ordering a new set of reeds, an equipment is consid- ered to be about i^ reeds per loom. This allows the loom to be full, some to be in use at the drawing in frames, and some extra. Specifications. 349. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering reeds : Number of Reeds Length over all Width over all Dents per inch Warp Ends per inch in Cloth Kind of Cloth 29'8 I,OOM SUPPIvlES. Cloth to be P'ull Count or Scant „ Make of Loom ,. Total Number of Biers (20 dents each) Price Per Bier Price for the Whole Order Maker Purchaser Terms Remarks Harness. 350. There is more latitude allowable in the specifi- cations for harness than for reeds. They oug-ht to be ordered just right for each particular count of warp; but considerable variation from the correct specificatiom may- still make the cloth count right, provided the reed is right.. 351. ' To prevent the chafing of warp threads in the act of shedding, it is customary to spread the warp on a wider space in the harness than in the reed. There is no- fixed rule about this, but good average practice would be- an increase of spread of 2 or 3 per cent. Thus for weaving a 40 inch cloth that would be spread 43 inches in the reed,, the warp would, for the best results, be spread on 44 inches. It would be possible to weave with the warp on 40 or on 45 inches; but the former would produce some chafing of the warp on itself, and the latter would strain the reed, and produce chafing of the warp in the reed. Counts. 352. If the reed has 30 dents per inch and- has the warp drawn in on 43 inches, there will be (43 X 30 X 2=) 2580 warp ends. In the harness these 2580 ends should occupy a width of say 44 inches, and hence the harness eyes (in all the harnesses) will stand (2580-^-44=) about 59 per inch. If there are 2 harnesses- in the set, each harness would have about 29^ eyes per LOOM SUPPLIES. 299 inch; if 3 harnesses, each harness would have about 19 2-3, eyes per inch. Harness should generally be ordered as wide as the loom will take, even if the cloth to be woven at first should be narrower than the full capacity of loom. This gives an opportunity to use the same harness in case at some other time, wider goods should have to be woven. In the case above, the harness would be ordered about 45 inches wide,, with ej^es spaced as above. This would be (45 x 59^) 2655 e}^s in all the harness usied in the set. The practice in making specifications is not uniform; but generally the eyes are not designated as so many per inch, but as spread on so many inches. In the example above, the most approved specification would be "2655. eyes per sec, spread on 45 inches — 2 (or 4 as the case may be) shades per set." * Parts. 353. The threads in which the harness eyes are- knit are called "healds." The wooden bars to which the healds are attached, top and bottom, are called "shafts." In these shafts are "screw eyes" for hooking the harness up in the loom. The harness straps have hooks that fasten in the eyes in top shaft; and the jack hooks fasten in the eyes in bottom shaft. It is necessary in ordering harness to send sketch showing the spacing of these screw eyes, both top and bottom. Harness may be made up of a series of wires, having loops or eyes for the warp, and having loops, top and bottom for hanging on the shafts. Such wires are called "heddles." They are not fastened to the shaft or heddle frames, and hence may be spread at any desired *The word " shade " in this connection means one single harness of the set. The same word is sometimes used in place of the word '* shed " in weaving. The two terms are frequently used one for the other. But the best usage seems to justify the distinction observed in the text. 300 I.OOM SUPPIvlES. distance. The use of wire heddles gives the greatest lat- itude in the usie of harness., enabling one set to be used for various weaving. But they have not proven entirely satisfactory for plain white weaving. Bier. 354. The word "bier" in connection with har- ness is an arbitrary and somewhat indefinite term usually denoting 40 eyes, but sometimes 38. Its use in this country is mostly confined to the harness makers. They price harness at so much per bier. The price of harness is usually made up in a complicated manner, con- sisting of so much per bier (about 2^ cents) and so much per inch for shafts (about i mill) and so much per screw eye (about i cent.) Shafts are usually ordered about an inch longer than the spread of the harness. 355. One set of 2 shade harness with 1363 eyes per set .spread on 44 inches, with 45 inch shafts, wih 6 screw eyes per shade would be billed about as follows : I Set of 2 Shade Harness. 34 Biers @ 2^c 'J" Shafts, 180 inches @ i mill 18 12 Screw Eyes @ ic 12 1.07 Specifications. 356. Fcillowing is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering harness : Number of Sets Shades Per Set • • • Number of Eyes Per Set Eyes Spread On ■ inches. Length of Shafts Width of Harness Over All LOOM SUPPLIES. 301 Number of Screw Eyes Sketch the Spacing of Screw Eyes Warp Ends Per Inch in Cloth . . . Kind of Cloth Make of Loom Total Number of Biers Price per Bier Total Inches of Shafts Price Per Inch Total Number of Screw Eyes . . . . Price Per Screw Eye Price for Whole Order Maker Purchaser Terms Remarks CHAPTER XIV. 357- When the cloth leaves the loom it is in rolls. As it was woven, it was rolled up on the cut roll until as large as desired, or as the loom would permit: generally 2 to 3 cuts, but sometimes 4 to 5. The cut roll is slipped out of the roll of cloth and put back on the loom. A "cut" is the length into which the cloth is finally cut and folded in the piece, commonly known in the retail trade as a "bolt." It varies in length from 40 to 60 yards, according to the requirements of the trade, for that particular kind -of cloth. The rolls are taken to the cloth room, where the cloth is put in shape for the market. The processes in cloth room vary according to the kind of cloth and the market for which it is intended. The processes here described are ..about what ordinary Southern undyed goods should receive. Sewing Machine. 358. There are several varieties of sewing machines in use for sewing together the cloth from several rolls to make .a long continuous piece in a larger roll for convenience at the succeeding machine. Besides the actual sewing mech- ..anism, there is generally a rolling attachment to the sewing machine, for making the large roll out of the small ones, as fast as the ends of cloth are sewed together. Some- times the rolling mechanism is on another machine, for example, the inspecting machine. In this case the cloth is inspected as it slowly winds from one roll to the other. In its passage, it goes over a wide smooth board, painted .'black, so that the cloth inspector may more easily see any •defects. Sometimes the cloth, in small and badly equip- THE CLOTH ROOM. 303 ped mills, is sewed by hand. About 20 cuts or 1,000 3^ards is commonly put into one roll. In any case it is necessai*y to be careful, in making the large rolls, to see that the edges of cloth are kept even at the ends of roll. It is very easy to make a roll uneven at the ends. This causes unevenness in all the after pro- cesses, and is apt to turn out bolts of cloth at the folder with edges very uneven. In this case, the folds have to be straightened out by hand, at considerable expense, and are never quite so good in appearance as they would have b)een if good even rolls had been made in the first instance. 359. Such a sewing machine as described above would weigh about 1,500 pounds, and cost about $200., There are smaller and cheaper machines without cloth rollers. Brusher, Shearer, Calender. 360. There is a variety of machines and combinations of machines for cleaning and finishing cloth. Fig. 55 shows one machine combining all the operations con- sidered necessary in finishing "gray" goods. By finishing, in this connection, is meant the ordinary processes of brushing, shearing and calendering on "gray" goods. The word "finishing" is sometimes used to desig- nate bleaching, starching, printing, dyeing, etc. These last processes are also called "converting," and goods made for this purpose are sometimes called "converter's goods." 304 THE CLOTH ROOM. Brusher. — Fig. 55. — IvETTERiNG. A Roll of Cloth to be Brushed. B Emery Roils. C Beaters. D Cloth Spreader. E Card Rolls. F Brushes. G Shears. H Measuring Roll. J Vapor Cylinder. K Bottom Calender. L Top Calender. M Roll of Finished Cloth. N Latch Bar. P Pressure Rack, Pinion and Brake. R Line of Cloth. S Cloth Lifting Bar. Brusher — PROCESS. 361. The cloth is unwound from the large roll A, and "threaded" through the machine, as shown by the solid line R. Each side of the cloth is operated on by one or more of the cleaning devices. The emery rolls consist of wooden cylinders covered with coarse emery grains, held in place by glue, or in some cases covered with fillets of emery cloth, tacked on. These rolls grind off the rough places on the cloth. The beaters come next. They are steel blades with sharp corners, which beat loose any thread ends that have been carelessly left in the cloth. The cloth next passes over a spreader, which is a bar with grooves running diagonally across it in such a way as to continually stretch the cloth from the centre toward each edge. This keeps the cloth smooth and free from wrinkles while passing through the machine. The card brushes are wooden rolls covered with fillet- ing of wire clothing similar to card clothing, but with longer teeth, set farther apart. THE CLOTH ROOM. 307 The shearer is a cyhnder carrying spiral blades with sharp corners. These blades run very close to a station- aiy blade with sharp edge. The cloth passes over revol- ving cylinder and presses on stationary blade. The revol- ving cylinder has a traverse motion lengthwise as it revolves. It cuts off the loose ends of threads that have been beaten loose by preceding operations. This machine has two shearers on bottom side of cloth, and one on top. In front of each shearer is a lifting bar, operated by a handle at side of machine. When a seam in the cloth comes to the shearer, this handle is pulled and the lifting bar raises the cloth from all the shearers, and thus prevents the seams being caught between the blades. Any care- lessness on the part of the operative in this respect will cause the seams to catch and wind up and cut to pieces a lot of cloth before machine can be stopped. The bristle brushes, one on top and the other on bottom, are wooden cylinders filled with stiff bristles for giving a final brushing to the cloth. The cloth next passes over the measuring roll under another spreader and over the vapor cylinder and over another spreader to calender rolls, where it is wound up into a large smooth hard roll of cloth. 362. Vapor cylinder is a horizontal brass tube with a number of fine perforations in the top. A small amount of steam is admitted in the tube, and sprayed out through the perforations on the cloth. The steam valve is connec- ted with the belt shipper, so that when machine is stopped, steam is shut off; and when started, steam is turned on again. 363. Calender rolls are heavy cast iron rolls, ground very smooth on the surface. They are hollow for the admission of steam to heat them. They are driven by gear at one end, and are arranged so that either the sur- face speed of one roll is the same as the other; or so that 308 THE CI,OTH ROOM. one is running faster than the other. In either case there is an ironing effect on the cloth; but when one roll is faster than the other, there is a slipping on the cloth which gives it a smoother finish. But this process also stretches the cloth, and would in some cases be objection- able. 364. C'otli roll is of wood, and has iron g'udgeo'ns in the end which run in the half boxes formed in the lower ends of pressure bars. Pressure bars slide up and down in the upright frame. They are controlled by the pinions working in the racks shown. The pir.lons are on a shaft carrying a brake wheel at one end. Brake is adjusted so that the down pressure on cloth roll may be adjusted to make a roll of any desired hardness. I 365. When cloth roll has become as large as desired, the latch bar N is turned down on its pivot, the pressure bars are run up out of the way, and cloth roll rolled out on top of latch bar and removed. 366. An exhaust fan, working in the lower part oi the machine, draws out the dust and lint made by the vari- ous operations, and blows it out through a pipe which may lead into the dust room. The various rolls are driven by endless belts from main driving shaft, passing under and over the pulleys on ends of rolls. These are generally 2 inch bf\ts. Some are on each side of machine. It will be noticed that some of the rolls run with the •cloth and some against the cloth. It is necessary in starting a new machine to get full instruction from the manufacturer as to which direction the various rolls run. In the machine illustrated by Fig. 55, arrows show these directions. The theory of this arrangement is that the brushes immediately in front of the shearer blades shall THE CIvOTH ROOM. 309 run with the cloth and with a greater surface speed than cloth in order to lay the fibres forward so that shearer may catch them. The brushes immediately behind the shearers run in the opposite direction from the cloth in order to brush loose any fibres that shearers may have cut. 367. The calender rolls are driven by a belt from a countershaft on the main machine. A pulley on calender roll drives the measuring roll. The pulley on measuring roll is adjustable in size, so that speed of cloth delivered may be adjusted to suit the speed of calenders. The measuring roll is generally run a little slower than calen- der, to ensure a tight smooth winding. 368. Sometimes a considerable draft is introduced between measuring roll and calender, thus stretching the goods as much as 8 to 10 per cent. But this much is injurious to the goods, and is of no advantage, as goods are now all sold on the basis of weight. A draft of 2 to 3 per cent, is about right. If goods are to go direct into consumption, without further manipulation, the question of stretch, within iTioderate limits is immaterial. But ii goods are to be sold to a bleachery, the trade imposes certain limits on stretch. A common requirement is that goods shall stand without damage a stretch of 4 per cent, at bleachery. This would not permit of much stretch in the mill, and would entirely prohibit the use of differential speeds of calender rolls. 369. If for any reason it is desirable, the calender rolls may be run cold, and the vapor cylinders also dispensed with. The calender rolls may be left off the machine entirely, and the cloth rolled up on a device near the measuring roll. The shearing part may be left off entirely or the number of shears reduced. The same applies to all of the various 3IO THi; CLOTH ROOM, rolls. Machines are made with simply bristle brushes or with brushes and beaters, and in many combinations of the elements shown, according to the thoroughness of the cleaning required. 370. The drawing shows more operations on bottom side of cloth than on top side. It is intended that the bottom side of cloth in ihis machine shall be the side that was woven up, in the loom. This is called the "thread side" of the cloth, and is also the "face" of the cloth. The broken threads and ends of filling are more numerous on this side than on the other, and so the machine is designed to do more work on that side. General Data. 371. The machine shown is made to take cloth, up to 44 inches wide. It occupies a space of 6-| feet wide and 13 feet long. It requires about 3 horse power to operate it. It is driven by pulleys 14 x 3^ and should run 400 revolutions per minute. At this speed, it will finish about 125 yards per minute. It may be run 500 to 600 revolutions per minute; but this is too fast for good work. It may be run slower than 400 if desirable. 372. The " hand " of the machine is determined by standing in front or at the point where cloth enters the machine, and noting whether pulleys are on right or left hand. To avoid confusion as to which might be called the "front," it is better, in referring to the hand, to state whether driving pulley is on right or left hand side when standing where cloth enters. 373. The price and weight of these machines vary greatly with the specifications. The machine shown in Fig. 55 weighs about 8,000 pounds, and costs about $1,000. Without steam calender, it would weigh about 4,000 pounds and cost about $700. THE CLOTH ROOM. 3II A machine with i beater and i brush on each side would cost $250 to $300. Specifications. 374. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering brushers : Number of Machines Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Widest Cloth to be Brushed Yards Per Minute Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Driven from Above or Below Number of Steel Beaters: Top of Cloth Bottom, Number of Emery Rolls: Top of Cloth .... Bottom . Number of Bristle Brushes: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom, Number of Card Brushes: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom, Number of Shear Blades: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom , With Cloth Roller or Steam Calender If with Steam Calender Size of Bottom Rolls ; Top Rolls With or Without Differential Gears With or Without Vapor Cylinder Space Occupied: Width Length Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 375. In some cases, cloth is sold to converters in the form of rolls, just as delivered by the brusher. In most cases, however. Southern undyed goods are put up in yard folds. 312 THE CLOTH ROOM. Folder. — Fig. 56. — Lettering. A Roll of Cloth. B Feed Roll. C Zinc Scray. D Folding Blades. E Crank. F Stationary Upper Jaw. G Spring for Lower Jaw H Jaw Rod. J Jaw Openers. K Cams. L Jaw Treadle. M Cloth, Being Folded. Folder — Process. 376. Lnrge roll of cloth is taken from the brusher and put up on stands behind folder. Cloth is fed between two wooden rolls and delivered by them into the scray, which is a zinc trough for holding a surplus of several yards, for the reciprocating arms of the folding mechanism to draw from. Cloth is threaded through machine as shown. There is a guide on top of machine for each edge of cloth. It is passed through blade of folder, the treadle is pressed to open a jaw and receive one end of a fold. The treadle is fastened and machine started. 377. The jaws on table are made to open and receive and hold each fold as it is delivered. The folding bar is operated from a pair of cranks on the crank shaft. The jaws on the table are opened and closed by means of cams on the crank shaft, 378. The jaws hold the cloth at each end of the folds. The central part of cloth not being held down, will appear thicker. If only 40 to 60 yards are to be put up in a piece, this does not matter. But if "long cuts" (100 to 120 2 'o ■4-1 o O 314 THE CI^OTH ROOM. yards) are to be folded, this puffing up in the middle of cloth would tend to pull it out of the jaws. To obviate this, the table is sometimes made with a "drop centre." The centre of the table has a hinge in it, which allows the centre to drop a trifle below the ends, and the puffing- effect is on the under side, instead of top side; and there, it does no damage. 379. The cranks are adjustable within a small range, so that the length of cloth m a fold may be varied a small amount to suit the requirements. Ordinarily cloth is put up in I yard folds. Some Superintendents want to give ^ inch short measure, and some ^ inch full measure. It makes but little difference in the income to the mill, how the measure runs, for the reason that the stated number of yards in a piece must weigh a stated amount. If the goods made are to be 4 yards to the pound, the weight of yarn in the cloth must be so adjusted that what is put up for 4 yards (be it long or short) must weigh a pound. But there is a difference when it comes to the retail trade, for the reason, generally speaking that no attention is paid to small differences in weights — a yard being a yard. Hence a mill must be governed, in the matter of long and short measure, by the requirements of the purchaser. For some purposes, cloth is required to be put up in i^ yard folds. This would require a machine made for the purpose. 380. The man who runs the folder watches for the "cut marks" on the cloth, and stops the machine and cuts the cloth at the cut marks. Generally he counts the folds as they are being made and when the piece is cut off, marks the number of yards with a pencil on the piece. Some- times, when the machine runs very fast, he counts the folds after taking piece out of folder. 381. Frequently the folder is used also as an inspecting machine. This is not the best practice, but will answer THE CLOTH ROOM. 315 very well for common goods if folder is run slow enough, say 50 yards per minute. In a small mill, where one folder can do all the work required, this slow speed is not objec- tionable. If twice this amount is required, it is better to run the folder at 100 yards per minute, and get an inspec- ting machine. About 75 yards per minute is a good average speed. 382, The machine shown in Fig. 56 has what is known as a "low back." The back at M stands about 5 feet from the floor. Machines are also made with "high front," in which the cloth roll is put up behind the operator, and cloth is fed over his head. A 40 inch folder weighs about 1,500 pounds, and costs about $300. It is about 5 feet wide and 12 feet long, including cloth roll. Specifications. 383. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering folders : Number of Machines Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Widest Cloth to be Folded Length of Folds For Long or Short Cuts Drop Centre or Plain Table Low Back or High Front Number of Yards tO' Fold per Minute Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Belted From Above or Below Space Occupied: Width Length Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 3l6 THi; CI.OTH ROOM. Stamping. 384. When cloth goes from the mill to the bleachery, it is not stamped. When it is made for consumption without further treatment each piece is usually stamped. Mills with less than 300 to 400 looms generally stamp goods by hand. Larger mills have stamping machines. The usual hand stamping outfit consists of a "head- piece," name, weight mark and yard mark. The head piece is some fanciful design, used as a sort of trade mark. The name may be the corporate name of the mill or any other name not already in use by some other mill. The weight mark is for the purpose of indicating the weight per yard of the cloth. It may be any arbitrary letter or combination of letters, as AA or LL. It may also be figures, as 2.85, indicating that there are 2.85 yards per pound. This is the simplest and best way. The yard mark simply shows the number of yards in the piece. Mills always have at least two different sets of stamps; one for the first quality and one for the second. If differ- ent kinds and weights of goods are made, different stamps are required. A full outfit for hand stamping in a small mill making only one kind of goods costs $1 50 to $250. A stamping machine alone costs $400. to $500. It may be arranged to use the same stamps that are designed to use by hand. The stamps are generally made of copper strips inserted edgewise in the face of a block of hard wood. Each design should be on a separate block, so that no one block will be too large. Most sheetings are put up in yard folds. The piece is folded once over itself, thus showing 18 inches face. For goods folded this way, none of the stamps should be more than 15 inches wide. The yard mark is usually two figures on one block, say 40, 50, 51, 5 1 1, &c. This requires a large number of blocks to cover the range of variation in length; but it is the; cloth room. 317 a better way than to have single figures made on a block, as 4 on one block and 5^ on another, to mark 45^. The ink for stamping is distributed with a brush on the ink pad. The pad may be made of folds of soft cloth, but the best pad is an iron box filled with water, with a sheet of rubber clamped down on the top like a cover. One thickness of flannel is laid on this, and the ink put on with a brush. The water forms a firm smooth back to the pad, and ensures an even distribution of ink on the stamp. Ink. 385. Tlie ink is commonly blue and is made of ultramarine mixed with gum Arabic or some other gum, to give it body and make it adhere to the cloth. Sometimes red ink is used; but it is much harder to mix and use than the blue. English vermillion is the most common pigment for making red stamping ink. Recipes for making stamping ink may be found in the Appendix. Baling. 386. Goods are put up ini bales of various kinds and sizes to suit the requirements of the purchaser. If they are baled to go to the converters, the kind and style of bale is not of great consequence, except as a mat- ter of uniformity. Such goods are generally in double cuts 100 to 120 yards, and about 20 pieces to the bale. Goods for domestic consumption are generally in single cuts, 50 to 60 yards and about 20 pieces to the bale. Col- ored and fancy goods are put up in various ways, according to the custom for any particular style. Some are baled, and some put up in wooden boxes or "cases." 387. The proper way to pack any kind of goods is to lay the pieces on a scale, making note of the number of yards in each piece, until there are as many pieces as are required for the bale. The net weight is then noted, together with the total number of yards. The exact average weight per 3l8 THE CI.OTH ROOM. yard is thus found for each bale. This record governs the operations of the whole mill. It shows each day how well the weights and numbers are regulated throughout. A piece of gunny cloth is laid in the press, and on this a piece of stout paper. The pieces of cloth are then piled carefully on this. Another piece of paper and another piece of gunny cloth are put over the top of pile and the press run down on it. The paper is arranged to cover the cloth, and the gunny cloth is drawn smoothly over the bale, and the ropes tied on. The pressure is then relieved and the bale rolled out and the heads sewed up and stenciled with a serial number and any other shipping mark desired. 388. The size, shape and style of bale varies according to whether it is intended for a foreign or domestic market. Almost any neat looking bale that will hold together passes muster in the domestic markets. But the require- ments and restrictions on bales for foreign shipment are numerous and exacting. They vary according to the countries for which goods are intended. In all cases, however, the bale must have a certain "density" or weight per cubic foot, and i't must have enough ropes on it to hold the bale in shape. This is about one rope f inches in diam- eter every three or four inches, or say 1 1 ropes for 36 inch goods. Bales for domestic markets frequently use quarter inch ropes 6 inches apart, or say 6 ropes for 36 inch goods. 389. Presses ma)'' be operated by a screw, by toggle joints, or by hydraulic pressure. Toggle joint presses are the most popular in the South. They are made to suit all requirements as to size and shape of bale, and as to pres- sure required. They are rated at so many tons pressure. A hundred ton press would answer for domestic use, while a three hundred ton press would be required for the export trade. Tut CI . 340 PREPARATION OE YARN FOR MARKET. Speed of Driving Pulley Maker , Purchaser Price Terms Remarks Beam Warping. 419. Coarse yarns are soimetimes put on cheap home- miade beams, with a beam warper, and sent to the market in that shape. These beams are built up of wooid, similar in shap'e to regular slasher beams. The ends are bored to re- ceive iron gudgeons to uste in winding. These are removed when beams are shipped. At their destination, other gudg- eo'U'S are inserted, and beams are mounted in the slasher creel. This method of shipping yarn i? not much in use, except where the mill is comparativel)^ near the market, so that empty beams may be returned to the mill. Reeling. 420. Fig. 63 shows a reel, winding 3'arn from bobbins into skeins. The yarn passes through the thread guide on the frame, and through thread guides on a traversing bar, which spreads the yarn on the arms oi the "swift" as it re- volves. 421. The arms of the swift are usually adjustable, so that the size of skein may be varied from 54 to 72 inches. The most common size skein is 54 inches, or i-J yards in circumference. The amount of yarn in a skein is usually the amount that comes from one bobbin, but the pur- chaser sometimes requires skeins of a certain weight, say I, i| or 2 ounces. It costs more to furnish skeins of a certain uniform weight than to furnish random weights. A special stop motion m^ay be had with the reel, to knock ofif after a certain amoimt of varn is reeled. Fie'. 6^. Reel. ^s- '^J 342 PREPARATION OF YARN FOR MARKET. 422. Such a red as shown in Fig. 63 will take yarn from warp or filling or twister bobbins. The spindles, on which bobbins are held, are stationary, and the yarn pulls off over the top. This style is called "dead spindle." Reels are also made with "live spindles," which are suppor- ted in bearings, and revolve with the bobbins, as the yarn pulls. The yarn from live spindle reels usually pulls square off the bobbins from the side, to the traversing eyes, and does not pass through the upper eyes. Production. 423. About half the time of the reel is consumed in doffing and re-creeling, so that its actual produotion is oinly about half the theoiretical. Reels may run 150 tO' 200 revo- lutions per minute. At 150 revolutions, and' wlith i^ yards circumference the theoretical production per spindle in 11 hours would be : ISO X lA X 60 X II -^ =177 hanks, 840 and the actual production about 88 hanks. Of No. 20 single yarn, this would be 4.4 pounds; of No. 30, it would be 2.9 pounds. Thus one reel spindle will take the pro- duct of about 12 spinning spindles, even at 150 revolu- tions. The production may be increased in proportion by increasing the speed to the limit that the machine will run, or that the yarn will stand without undue stretching. GeneraIv Data. 424. Re'els are rarely made with more than 50 spindles, for the reason that the swift would be too long to run steadily. They may be made with fewer spindles, but 50 is the usual size. This reel is about 2 feet wide and 16 feet long and weighs 700 pounds. The driving pulleys are about 12 inches in diameter, and made for i^ inch belt. The dead spindle reel costs $80 to $100, and live spin- PREPARATION OE YARN FOR MARKET. 343 die reel $io extra. The hand of reel is determined by standing in front of the swift, and noting whether driving pulley is on right or left hand. SpEcieications. 425. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in or- dering reels: Number of Reels Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Number Spindles in Each Live or Dead Spindles Size of Swift With or Without Stop Motion : Size of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley Width Over All Length Over All Send Sample Bobbin Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks Cone and Tube Winding. 426. For knitting and some other purposes yarn is re- quired in "cones." These are made on the "coiue winder," which is a machine with horizontal revolving cyhnders or drums. Bobbins from the spinning frame or twister are put vertically in the creel below the drum, one bobbin for each winding drum. There is a mechanism for holding a con- ical paper tube in contact with the revolving drum. The yarn is attached to the tube, and winds on it by contact with the revolving drum. A traversing motion moves rapidly back and forth and guides on the yarn in crossed layers, thus winding a firm cone usually about 8 inches 344 pre;paraTion of yarn for market. long and 5 inches diameter at one end and 7 inches at the other, weighing about 2 pounds. The same machine may wind the yarn in cyHnders instead of cones. This is gen- erally called a "tube" oif yarn. The cone winder may also be arranged to take yam from skeins instead of from bobbins. 427. The machines have drums on each side, and may be made with any number of drums. One hundred drums is a common size. Such a machine is about 4 feet wide and 30 feet long, weighs about 6,000 pounds, and costs about $1,000, or $10 per drum. One drum will wind tiie yarn made by 15 to 20 spinning spindles. The above relates to the ordinary drum winding mia- chines, which produce what is known as "open wind" comes and tubes. That is, the yarn croisses and re-crosses indis- criminately, making a somewhat soft package. Another form of miachime, with special traversing motion makes what is known as "close wind" cones and tubes. That is, the layers of yarn lie evenly side by side, like sewing thread on a spool, except that the layers run diagonally and thus cross each other to make a firm and self-supporting package. This is much more dense than the open wind, and hence a larger number of pounds may be packed in a case of the same size. These machines occupy less space per pound of production; and it is claimed that the cost of operating is less. The first cost of the machines is very much more per spind'le. Specifications. 428. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in or- dering cone and tube winders : Number of Machines Number of Drums in Each Machine To Wind Cones or Tubes or Combination To wind From Bobbins, Cops, Swifts or Combination PREPARATION O]? YARN I'OR MARKIlT. 345 Size of Cone Number of Yarn Production Required per Drum Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Width Over All Length Over All Maker , Purchaser Price Terms , Remarks CHAPTER XVI. ©rgantsation an^ jequipment. 429. The term "organization" is a somewhat ambigu- ous one, when relating to cotton mills. It might mean the arrangement and composition of a corporation. But the technical significance relates to the physical arrange- ment of machinery in proper details to make some certain kind of product. It is always desirable to lay out the organization sheet, in the case of a new mill, before any work is done on the drawings or the plant. Equally in the case of remodeling an old mill, or of making a considerable change in the work to be done by an old mill, the organization for that work should be carefully drawn up. 430. Having as a starting point a certain piece of cloth, or a certain kind of yarn to produce, it must be determined what combination of machinery is necessary to produce the result, and in exactly what way all the drafts are to be distributed, from the first lap to the finished goods. The general plan of the work is somewhat empirical, that is, not founded on any exact rules but following rather the lead of experience. Range of Drafts. 431. The ordinary range of drafts for each machine in the mill, has a'lready been discussed in comnection with other features. It is not necessary 'here to enter into the reasons for these ranges. It will be asisumed that under ordinary conditions existing in Southern' mills, the range of drafts now in use is right. They are about as follows: ORGANIZATION AND DQUIPMENT. 347 Machine. Doublings. Drafts. Lappers (3 processes) 4 2 to 6 Cards i 75 to 125 Drawing (3 processes) 6 4 to 7 Slubbing I 32 to 5 Intermediate 2 Si to 5 Fine Roving 2 4 to 7 Spinning 2 6 to 15 Spinning i 6 to 10 The whole draft in a mill from breaker lap to spun yarn would be according to above table — minimum: 2 X 2 X 2 X 75 X 4 X 4 X 4 X 3I X 3^ X 4 X 6=1 1,289,600; and maximum : 6 X 6 X 6 X 125 X7X7X7X5X5X7 X 15^=24,310,125,- 000. But as there are doublings in most of the processes the effective draft in the whole mill would be the draft as above divided by the product of all the doublings. In the minimum, the doublings are: 4x4x4x6x6x6x i x2x2x 1=55,296. The minimum effective draft then is: 11,289,600-^55,296 ^204. In the maximum, the doublings are the same as above except in the case of spinning, in which there are 2 doublings, so that the total doubHngs are: 2 x 55,296= 110,592. Hence the total maximum effective draft is 24, 3 1 0,1 2 5, 000-=- 1 1 0,59 2=2 1 9,822. 432. Theoretically, therefore, the total range of drafts in a mill, according to established custom is from 204 to 219,822. On account of contraction from twist in various processes, this would be in practice about 170 to 170,000. The weight per yard of laps to start with may range from 8 ounces to 20 ounces. The total maximum draft throughout the mill would reduce an 8 ounce lap to yarn weighing yttu'o^ ounces per yard. This weight would correspond to number 400 yarn. 348 ORGANIZATION AND E^QUIPM^NT. The total minimum draft would reduce a 20 ounce lap to yarn weighing yto ounces per yard. This weight would correspond to number .16 yarn. 433. The above figures are not given as in any sense a guide to the actual organization of any mill, but merely to show the wide range of possibilities of the work. In ordinary Southern work the range of practical require- ments is for yarn between number 2 and number 60, so that it does not become necessary to approach either of the extremes of lap weight, or either of the extremes of drafts. 434. On numbers of yarn below 12, it is usual to omit the intermediate roving. On numbers above 40 it is advisable to add another process of roving, called "jack roving." Considerable variation in yarn numbers may be made by running the same roving single or double in the spin- ning frame, it is always best for the yarn, to use double roving; but for the sake of cheapness in first cost of machinery, and also in cost of manipulation, single roving is often used for common work. To illustrate the way in which this cheapness is brought about, suppose it is desired to spin number 24 on spinning frames with a max- imum draft of 8 for single roving or 12 for double roving (which is an ordinary condition.) With double roving it would be necessary to make (24 x 2-=-i2=) 4 hank roving, while with single roving it would be necessary to make only (24 x 1-^8=) 3 hank roving. It requires fewer rov- ing spindles to produce a given amount of 3 hank roving than 4 hank. Thus there is a saving both in first cost of roving machinery and in the cost of operating it. But it must be remembered that the saving is at the expense of quality of goods produced. 435. To give greater flexibility to an organization and to prevent the necessity for making too many sizes of rov- ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT. 349 ing in a mill, single roving is sometimes allowed. This is especially the case in mills that weave their own yarns. As will be shown later, the filling is generally spun 3 to 10 numbers finer than warp. When a mill is regularly running on one kind of cloth, in most cases it makes the same hank roving for the filling as it does for warp ; but the roving is put up single in the spinning frames for making filling, and put up double in the frames for making warp. This method is not recommended for fine cloth, contain- ing yarns above No. 30. The requirements for evenness in this kind of cloth are greater than for coarser cloths, and hence the double roving is recommended for both warp and filling. Sample Organization. 436. A table is given in the appendix to show examptes of the way organizations may be designed to proiduce certain numbers of yarns. There may be many variations made in tlie detail of the organization, and still produce the same yarn number. This is shown in the table. Two Ply Yarn. 437. Having shown how to arrange drafts '&c., to pro- duce any required yarn, it remains to sho^w what yarn num- ber is required for certain goods to^ be put on the market. If a certain 2 ply yarn is wanted, the proper single yarn must be decided upon to make it. Suppose it be required to make 2 ply 30s. The weight of this must be twice as much per yard as single 30s. If there were no contraction or extension of the yarn in the twisting process, it would simply be necessary to spin single 30s. But in twisting, there occurs sometimes a contraction in length, and sometimes an extension. In the case of number 30, there is a contraction of about i per cent, so that it is necessaiT to spin about number 30.3 single to twist into 2 ply 30s. 438. The operation of twisting has a tendency to make the yarn shorter, as was shown in the discussion of spin- 350 ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPME;nT ning. But as the twister turns the yarn in the opposite direction from the first twist put in the single yarn on spinning frame, there is also a tendency in the twister to untwist the single yarn and thus lengthen it. With coarse yarns, up to about number 24, this lengthening by taking out twist in the single yams is greater than the shortening made by putting in new 2 ply twist and there is "exten- sion." At about number 24, the two tendencies are equal, and for finer yarns the shortening tendency is greater than the lengthening, and there is "contraction." It is difficult to exactly define the amount of extension or contraction to allow in all cases on account of various degrees of twist per in<:h in various yarns. In practice, it is generally determined by trying a few bobbins in each •case. 439. As a genieral guid'e, to show about what the aver- age allowance should be the following figures are sub- mitted for contraction and extension. Numbers i to8 3 per cent, extension. Numbers 8 to 16 2 " " Numbers 16 to 24 i " Numbers 24 No extension; no contraction. Numbers 24 to 30 i per cent, contraction. Numbers 30 to 40 2 " " " Numbers 4c to 50 3 " " " This means that for making yarns for 2 ply less than 24, the single yarn must be spun coarser than the designated 2 ply number; number 24 must be spun about 24; num- bers higher than 24 must be spun finer than the designated numbers. Cloth. 440. If it is required to produce cloth of a certain con- struction and weight, calculations must be made, to show the ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT. 35 1 proper number oi yarn to spin for warp and for fiUing, to produce this cloth. By "construction" of cloth is meant the number of warp threads per inch, (sometimes called the "sley" of the cloth, and sometimes expressed as so many "ends per inch;") and the number of filling threads per inch, generally called the "picks per inch." 'ilie warp is expressed first: thus a cloth 46 X 48 means 46 warp ends, and 48 filling picks per inch. The weight of cloth is generally expressed as so many yards per pound. In heavy goods, like ducks and denims, the weight is expressed as so many ounces per yard. 441. Assuming cloth 46x48, 39 inches wide, 3 yards per pound, what numbers of warp and of filling are required? The calculation involves finding the number of yards of yarn in one yard of cloth, and finally in one pound. The number of yards of yarn in a pound being divided by 840, (the number yards of yarn in a hank) will give the hanks per pound or "number" of yarn, if both warp and filhng are to be the same. If there is to be a difference, the above calculation gives the "average number." 442. Disregarding, for the moment, the weight due to sizing and the shortening of yarn due to the filling being bent partly around the warp, and the warp being bent partly around the filling, ("contraction") the yards of yarn in a pound of the above cloth would be found as follows: As there are to be 46 warp threads per inch, there would be (46 X 39=) 1794 in the width of the cloth. In addi- tion to this there are some extra threads (from 6 to 8) put in each edge for selvage. If there are to be 12 extra threads in all, there will be (1794 + 12=) 1806 threads. In a yard in length of cloth, there will be 1806 yards of warp. As there are to be 48 filling threads per inch, in 352 ORGANIZATION AND KQUIPM^NT. one yard in length of the cloth there will be (36 x 48=) 1728 filling threads 39 inches long. This makes (1728 x 39-^36=) 1872 yards. In one yard in length of this cloth there will be 1806 yards of warp and 1872 yards of filling, or 3678 yards of yarn in all. In one pound there will be (3678 x3=:) 11034 yards or (ii034-=-840=) 13. 1 hanks. Hence, not allowing for contraction or sizing the average number required is 13.1. Expressed as a formula the yards of yarn in one yard of cloith would be : ^ 48 X 36 x 30 46 x 39 + 12 +1 ^- ^ 36 This is the same as (46 + 48) 39 + 12, and works out 3678 as before. 443. Hence, TO FIND THE THEORETICAL AVERAGE NUMBER TO SPIN FOR ANY GIVEN CLOTH, WE HAVE THE RULE: ADD THE NUMBER OF WARP ENDS PER INCH TO THE NUMBER OF PICKS PER INCH. MULTIPLY BY THE WIDTH OF CLOTH. ADD THE NUMBER OF THREADS FOR SELVAGE. MULTIPLY BY THE NUMBER OF YARDS OF CLOTH PER POUND. DIVIDE BY 840. But, on account of sizing and contraction, the actual average number to spin is somewhat higher than that given by the rule. The amount of allowance varies accor- ding to the amount of sizing put on the warp, and upon the construction of the cloth and upon the tightness with which the cloth is held in the loom while being woven. 444. In calculating yarn number for any given cloth, the particular circumstances must be considered which govern that particular case. Under ordinary circumstan- ces, such cloth as above calculated would contain about 5 per cent, of starch and would contract in weaving about ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMKNT. 353 5 per cent., so that altogether the yarn should be about 10 per cent, lighter than would be shown by the rule. Thus mstead of the average number being 13. i, it would be about 14.4. If filling is to be lighter than warp, say 2 numbers, then for the above cloth, we might spin number .T3-I warp and I5-| filling. In this example, there was 11034 yards of yarn per pound of cloth, which amount we divided by 840 (yards in I hank) +0 arrive at the theoretical number. We then added 10 per cent, to this number. Approximately the same result may be obtained by deducting the 10 per cent, from 840, dividing the yards of yarn by 756. This would give 14.6 as the average number. 445. Theoretically the above way of averaging num- bers and dealing with per cents is not strictly correct, but there are so many other points involved in the problem, all of which are subject to variation, that it is useless in practice to strive for too great refinement of theory. 446. A weaver may make several points difTference in the weight of two pieces of cloth woven from the same warp and filling. This may be done by weaving with vary- ing tension in the warp. 447. Manufacturers learn by experience what average allowance should be made for contraction in the various lines of goods they make. This allowance is fixed upon, and the weavers are m.ade to work in such a way that the final weights and widths stay right. In the South, the allowance is mostly made by adding something to the the- oretical number of the yarn. In England, and to some extent in New England, the allowance is made in dividing the number of yards of yarn in a pound of cloth by some arbitrary number (derived from experience) less than 840. This gives the average actual yarn number at once. 354 ORGANIZATION AND I^QUIPM^NT Equipment. 448. Having- decided upon the kind of goods to make, and decided upon the oirganization, it remains to find the proper arrangement of machinery to produce the desired re- suh. 449. The unit oi capacity for a cotton mill is the spin- dle. In the South, a mill is frequently alluded to as being a 5,000 or a 10,000 spindle mill, irrespective of whether it also contains looms or not. In working out the equipment for a mill, it is usual to begin with the given number of spindles and keeping the organization sheet in mind at all points, (i) compute from production tables the number of pounds of yarn that these spindles will deliver. (2) Find the number of fine roving spindles necessary to produce say 2 per cent, more in weight than the yam; (3) the number of intermediate spindles for say 4 per cent, more than yarn; (4) the number of slubber spindles for 10 per cent, more than yarn; (5) the number of drawing deliveries for 10 per cent, more; (6) the cards for 15 per cent, more; and (7) the pickers for 20 to 25 per cent. more. These allowances are for waste and various accidents liable to occur to the preparation machinery. There may, with propriety, be even more than the above allowances to provide for changes in the organization. On the other hand, the allowances might be diminished, with a view to finally making finer goods than those on which the mill is to start. This is because the finer the yam, the fewer pounds can be spun, and the smaller the amount of carding and other preparation machinery required. 450. After the equipment is determined upon for making the yam, as above, the machines must be compu- ted for further disposition of the yarn, whether for weav- ing on the premises, or for sale as yam. If in the former case, the number of spoolers, warpers, slashers, looms and ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT. 355 cloth room machines must be determined. If in the latter case, it is necessarry to determine (with the aid of produc- tion tables,) the number of spoolers, twisters, warpers, reels, cone winders, &c., according to style in which yam is to be sold. Finally will be determined the amount of power to ope- rate the mill. 451. The following- example illustrates the method of filling out an organization sheet. It is only one of several ways to accomplish the result. In specifying the drafts, allowances have been made for waste and contraction. In starting a new mill, it must not be expected that the drafts and weights will all come exactly as shown on the sheet. The stock must be weighed after each process, if necessary and correction made in the gears to bring the weights right. Organization Sheet for Producing Sheeting 4 Yards per Pound ; .36 inches Wide ; 56 Warp Threads per inch : 60 Filling Threads per inch. Average Yarn No. 22 ; Warp No. J9 ; Filling No. 25 . Finished Laps: Ounces per yd.»3 i-3 ; Grains per yd. sooo Cards: Draft93-4 ; Grains per yard 60 .. Drawing: Process .3 Draft 6 Doubling .6 ;Hank .•1.389 Slubbing: Draft..4-o8; Hank .55 ; Twist..!.85 . Intermediate: Draft..4-88 ; Doubling 6 ; Hank .i;.3o . Twist.i-37 . Fine Roving: Draft 5'55. Doublings 2 .; Hank .3-50 ; Twist .2.24 .; Warp: Draft." -.9; Doublings 2 ; Number 19; Twist 2o-.7; Filling; Draft 7-6 ^ Doublings »; Number 25 ; Twist..i6.3. 452. The following example illustrates the method of filling out an equipment sheet for a mill to produce the goods according to the organization given in (451.) 356 ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT Equipment Sheet for }9*99?.. Spindle Hill to Produce 4 y^T**^*'®®**''?®' as per Attactied Organization. Production per Day of 10 Hours: 3.??olbs; i?'.?.?.?. yds. Openers and Self Feeders: 2. Breaker Lappers (Single Beaters) 2... Intermediate Lappers (Single Beaters) 2 . Finisher Tappers (Single Beaters) ^2.. Revolving Top Flat Cards (4o-inch)...2^_ . Drawing: ( 3 .proc. ; ..*?, frames) Deliveries 72 . Slubbing (4 frames; 44 Sp. each) Spindles_.176.... Interm. Roving (4 frames ; .J_9^.. Sp. each) Spindles .432 . Fine Roving (.»oframes ; . '^S Sp. each) Spindles.'^So . Spinning ( 4^ frames;.. 2.0?.. Sp. each: .^a "Warp; j?.^ Filling, .4 Combination) Spindles^.9.?84 . Spoolers (. 4. .Machines . .1.00... Sp. each) Spindles..4oo... Beam Warpers ..1. Slashers J.. Drawing In Frames ..4 . Looms . .3^9. Sewing Machines J.. Brushers J. Inspectors }_ Folders ..'.. Cloth Presses ...>. Waste Presses ....'.. Stamping Machine .f^.?.?®. Band Machine J_ Motive Power Shafting Belting Supplies Machine Shop Equipment Heating Lighting ORGANIZATION AND EjQUIPMElN'r. 357 Pl^UMBING Water Supply .... Fire Protection . . . MoiSTERiNG Apparatus Sundries In effecting a reduction in weight of the lap to the weight of the finished yarn, it is easy to see that the total draft necessary from beginning to end may be distributed in a variety of ways, and produce the same final result. Just the proportion of the total draft to be assigned to each machine may be varied. The distribution, as set out in the above organization, is only one way. The equipment is designed to correspond with that way. BppenMx. Containing tables, IRecipes ant) Short IRniee, The tables have been compiled from the experience of some of the best Southern superintendents, and are there- fore in accord with current Southern practice. Most of the production tables now current have been elaborately worked out to 3 or 4 places of decimals. There must always be an allowance for time lost in piecing up, dof^ng, &c., which allowance must be estimated, and which will vary according to skill of operative. It does not seem consistent, therefore, to make an appearance of refinement in decimal p'^aces, when there are other ele- ments which might make differences even affecting the whole numbers. The production tables ;n this volume are made with but few decimal points. It is hoped that they may be more easily used on this account. 360 appe;ndix. 1Rectpe0, stamping Ink. I Pound Ultra Marine. 1 Pound Gum Arabic. 2 Quarts Water. Dissolve Gum Arabic in the water. Let stand 24 hours. Stir in the Ultramarine, and boil slowly 15 to 20 minutes. Use when cold. This amount will stamp 300 to^ 400 pieces of cloth. Stampi'ng ink may be bought ready for use ; but it is more expensive than the above. Varnish for Leather Covered Top Rolls. I Pound Best Pulverized Glue. I Quart Acetic Acid. 1 Quart Water. ^ Pound Venetian Red. -| Ounce Oil of Origanum or Oil of Cloves. In place of i quart each Acetic Acid and water, 2 quarts good' vinegar may be used. Size Mixture for Slasher. For sizing i set of beams, 1,500 to 2,000 pounds medium numbers 16 to 30, for sheetings. It adds 3 to 6 per cent, to weight of warp. 100 Pounds Starch. 160 Gals. Water. 20 to 40 Pounds Sizenie (according tOi make.) 2 to 10 Pounds Tallow (according to results.) APPENDIX. 361 IRules, To Find the "hank" of roving. Divide 100 by the weight in grains of 12 yards. To Find the number of yarn. Divide 1,000 by the weight in grains of 120 yards. To Find circumference of a roll. Multiply diameter by 3.1416 or, for an approixinration, 3 1-7- To Find approximate production of spinning and roving machinery. Multiply diameter of front roll by the speed and divide by 16. Result is possible hanks per spindle in 10 hours, without allowance for stops. Or, multiply diameter of front roll by speed, and divide by the hank or number. Result is possible ounces per spin- dle per day of 10 hours, without aillowance for stop. NOTE. — In all calculations with gears, the "driver may for convenience be assumed to be at either end of the train, without regard to^ where the actual power is applied. To Find draft of spinning or roving frame. Consider gear on back roll the driver (i) multiply the diameter of front roll by all the drivers. (2) Multiply the diameter of back roll by all the drivens. Divide ( i ) by (2.) To Find draft constant on spinning or roving frame. Proceed as in last rule;, leaving the draft gear out of the calculation. 362 APPijNDIX. To Find twist on spinning frame. Consider g'ear on front roll the driver, (i) Mu'ltiply diameter tin cylinder by all the drivers. (2) Multiply diameter of spindle whorl by all the drivens and by circum- ference of front roll. Divide (i) by (2.) To Find twist constant on spinning frame. Proceed as in last rule, leaving twist gear out of the cal- culation. To Find draft gear to use when changing from one number to another. Multiply number being spun by draft gear in use. Dividie by number to be spun. To Find twist gear to use when changing from one number to another. Multiply twist gear in use by the twist per inch in the stock being spun. Divide by twist per inch in the stock to be spun. Or multiply twist gear in use by square root oif number being miade. Divide by square root of number to be made. NOTE. — The rule now in common use is as follows: "Multiply square of twist gear in use by number being spun. Divide by number to be spun. E:»tract square root of result." T'his involves the work of squaring a number and of taking square root of a number. The rule in the text ooly involves looking up square roots of yarn (or roving) num- bers in the tables. To Find draft when a draft constant i» known. Divide constant by draft gear. Ai^figNDIX. 363 To Find draft gear to use when draft constant is Icnown. Dividie constant by draft required. To Find twist when twist constant is known. Divide constant by twist gfear. To Find twist gear to use when twist constant is known. Divide constant by twist required. NOTE. — For exceptions to tlie rules about constants, see paragraph 90. 365 PRODUCTION TABLE— CARD. DOFFER 24K [NCHES DIAMETER OVER Al.L. Weight in Grains of Sliver. ^ 40 45 So 55 60 65 70 75 V Pounds in 10 Hours 9 66 75 83 91 100 108 116 125 10 74 83 93 102 111 120 139 139 II 81 91 101 113 l;?2 132 142 153 13 89 100 110 123 133 144 155 167 ■ 3 96 108 120 133 144 156 168 181 14 104 116 129 143 155 168 181 195 >5 111 125 138 152 166 180 194 208 16 118 133 147 163 178 192 207 222 17 126 141 156 173 189 204 220 236 18 133 150 166 183 200 316 233 250 19 141 158 175 193 211 228 246 264 20 148 166 184 203 223 240 359 278 UOFFER 21%. [NCHES DIAMETER OVER AI,L. 9 75 84 93 103 112 121 131 140 10 83 93 103 114 124 135 145 155 II 91 103 113 12) 137 148 160 171 13 99 113 124 137 149 161 174 186 13 108 131 134 148 162 175 189 202 14 116 130 144 160 174 188 203 317 IS 124 140 155 171 187 202 218 333 16 133 149 165 183 199 315 232 248 «7 141 158 176 194 212 229 247 26 « 18 149 168 186 205 224 242 261 379 19 158 177 196 216 237 256 276 294 20 186 186 207 228 249 270 290 310 This lab'-e is calculated with 10 per cent, allowance. The production is based as usual on surface speed of doffer. If there is a draft from doffer to delivery roll, the production will be more in proportion to such draft. See paragraoh 40. 366 PRODUCTION TABLE— DRAWING. FRONT ROI,!, 1% INCHES DIAMETER. Weight in Grains of Sliver. a 2 4o 45 SO 55 6o 65 7o 75 U Pounds Per Delivery in 10 Hours. 250 82 92 103 113 123 133 143 153 260 86 96 107 118 128 138 149 160 270 89 100 111 123 133 144 155 166 280 92 103 115 126 138 149 160 172 290 95 107 119 131 143 155 166 178 300 99 111 123 135 148 160 173 184 3«o 102 115 127 140 153 165 178 190 320 105 118 131 145 158 170 183 196 330 108 122 135 149 163 176 189 202 340 111 126 140 154 168 181 195 208 350 115 129 144 158 173 186 200 214 360 118 133 148 163 177 102 206 220 370 121 137 153 168 183 197 212 287 380 125 140 156 173 187 201 318 2S8 390 128 144 160 176 192 204 224 240 400 131 148 165 181 197 312 230 246 This tabic is calculated with 20 per cent, allowance. The production is based as usual on surface 9peed of front roll. If there is a draft from front roll to delivery roll, the production will be more in proportion to such ij&tt- Pot Metallic Top Rolls, add one-third. 36; SLUBBINQ AND ROVING TABLE. Bobbin Bobbin Bobbin Bobbin Bobbin Bobbin ■s a 12x6 llx5ii 9x4yj 8x4 7x35i 6x3 Id a a a Id ifl "h o m ui O tn 0) 01 "O • d S .X u .i. 1- ..H u .H ^1 •w U V p. ^^ . -aw ^3? ^S s: . "g :k '"0 ;^ . :S . '*■* 3 u CO "1^ ^.^ ^05 ^p«s ^W '-'« '53 >» ^3 3 '$ Oo v% 2s lufn' 22 v% 2S U 2S v% Oo H! CO iH Pi fU « Hh « p^ « 111 « (ii « ll .20 500. .45 .54 308 54 .30 333. .55 .66 351 39 2:?6 37 .4o 250. .63 .76 330 29 251 28 .50 200. .71 .85 195 22 331 22 1 .60 167. .77 .93 179 i8 204 19 .70 143. .84 1.00 164 ■4 187 IS .80 135. .89 1.07 154 12 175 13 319 i5 .90 111. .95 1.14 144 lO 163 11 219 '3 1.00 100. 1.00 1.20 138 9 157 10 307 12 370 12. 1.10 90.9 1.05 1.36 1 152 II 300 10.8 260 II. 1.20 83.3 1.09 1.31 19+ 98 350 10 1 1.30 76.9 1.14 1.37 , 1 83 8.9 340 93 1.40 71.4 118 1.43 175 8o 330 8.5 1.50 66.7 1.33 1.47 161) 72 3.:o 7-6 1 60 63.5 1.27 1.53 168 65 314 70 1.70 58.8 1.30 1.56 157 6.0 208 65 1 80 55.6 1.34 1.61 202 6.0 1 90 52.6 1.38 1.66 196 56 2.00 50.0 1.41 1.70 190 5-2 215 5.5 2.10 47.7 1.45 1.74 186 4.8 210 5.1 2.20 45.5 1.48 1.78 183 4.5 205 49 2 30 43.5 1.52 1.83 178 4.2 200 4.7I 2.40 41.7 1.55 1.8« 174 4.0 195 4.4 2.50 40.0 1.58 190 170 3 9 190 4 1 3.00 33.3 1.73 2.08 1 155 3.0 177 3.3 190 3.3 3.50 28.6 1.87 2.24 160 2.7 175 2.8 4.00 25.0 2.00 340 150 2.2 160 2.3 4.50 23 2 2.13 2 54 143 1.9 150 1.9 5.00 20^0 2.34 3 68 135 1.6 145 1.7 5.50 18.2 2.34 2.81 130 1.5 140 1 5 6.00 16.7 2.45 3.94 125 1.3 135 1.3 6 50 15.4 2.55 3.06 130 1.2 7 00 14.3 2.65 3.18 135 1.1 The production in this table is calculated with an allowance of 15 minutes per set. The twist is calculated at 1.20 times square root of the hank. The speeds are average American practice, which are somewhat greater than recommended by English builders. 368 RING SPINNING TABLE— lo HOURS. en V Warp Filling Warp or Filling: ^1 V IH p. o i; P. D 01 .2 ui.Ho £1 a 3 tr to ^1 <5h 1-5 P.N s p atco 3 1." 1; Q 3 4 250.0 2.00 9.50 3J4 13 6.50 1 \% 180 2.5 ~~4 S 200.0 3.23 10.62 7.37 ' 176 1 9 5 6 166.7 3.45 11.63 7.96 173 16 6 7 143.9 2 65 12.56 10 8.6.. 8 169 1.3 7 8 125.0 2.83 13 43 9.19 1 166 1.1 8 9 111.1 3.00 14.25 9.75 163 1.0 9 10 100.0 3.16 f 15.03 2 8 10.37 _A5?_ 6 160 .89 10 11 90.9 8.32 15.75 10.78 157 .79 11 12 83.3 3.46 16.45 11.36 154 .71 13 13 76.9 3.60 17.12 11.73 151 .64 13 14 71.4 3.74 17.77 6 13.16 5 148 .58 14 15 66.7 3.87 18.39 1% 13.59 145 .53 15 16 62.5 4.00 19.00 13.00 143 .49 16 17 58.8 4.12 19.58 4 13.40 139 .45 17 18 55.5 4.24 20.15 13.79 136 .41 18 19 52.6 4.36 20.70 3 14.17 4 133 .38 19 20 50.0 4.47 21.24 14..=JH 130 .361 30 21 47.6 4.58 21.76 2 14.89 3 138 .34 31 22 45.5 4.69 23.27 15.34 2 1.36 .33 33 23 43.5 4 80 22.78 15.59 1 134 .30 23 24 417 4.90 23.27 1 15.92 1.33 .38 24 25 40.0 5.00 23.75 16.35 K/3 2—0 130 .36 25 26 38.5 5.10 24.22 m 16.57 119 .35 26 27 37.0 5.20 24.68 1— t 16.89 3-0 118 .34 27 28 35.7 5.29 25.13 17.20 117 .33 28 29 34.5 5.39 25.58 17.50 4-0 116 .33 29 30 33.3 5.48 26.02 3-0 17.80 1 115 .31 30 31 32.2 5.57 26.45 18.10 6-0 114 .30 :sl 32 31.2 5.66 26 87 18 38 113 .19 33 33 30.3 5.74 27.29 6-0 18.67 8-0 112 .19 33 34 29.5 5.83 27.70 18.95 10-0 111 .18 34 35 28.6 5.91 28.10 19.33 i,^ 110 .17 35 36 27.8 6.00 28.50 10-0 19.50 13- -0 109 .17 36 37 27.0 6 08 28.89 19.77 108 .16 37 38 26.3 6.16 29.28 m 13-0 30.03 14-0 107 .16 3s 39 25.7 6.24 29.66 30.30 106 .15 39 40 25.0 6.32 30.04 15-0 20.55 16-0 105 .15 40 41 24.4 6.40 30.42 30.81 104 .14 41 42 23.8 6.4S 30.78 31.06 103 .14 43 43 23.3 6.56 31.14 21.31 102 .13 43 44 22.7 6.63 31.50 31.56 101 .13 44 45 222 6.71 31.86 16-0 21.80 17-0 100 .13 45 46 21.7 6.78 33.31 1V2 33.(.)4 99 .13 46 47 21.3 6.86 32.56 33.28 98 .13 47 48 20.8 6.93 33.90 ~i.!)2 97 .11 48 49 20 4 7.00 33.25 33.75 96 .11 ! 49 50 20.0 7 07 33.58 17-0 33.y8 18-0 96 .10|; 50 51 J9.6 7.14 33.92 23.21 95 .10 51 52 19 2 7.31 34 35 33.44 95 .10 53 53 18.9 7.28 34 58 3. -.66 1 94 .10 53 54 1 18.5 7-35 34.91 23 t'8 ! 94 .10 54 55 i 18.2 7.43 ;i5.23 m 18-0 34.10 ! 19—0 93 .«9 55 56 1 17.8 7.48 1 35.55 :U.'i:l i S13 .09 56 57 ! 17.5 7.55 35.86 19-0 34.54 20-0 92 .09 57 58 1 17.2 7.62 1 36.17 1 34.75 93 .09 58 59 i 16.9 7.68 ! 36.49 1 34.96 91 .09 59 60 16.7 7.75 36.79 1 1 20-0 35.16 91 .08 60 The production is calculated on an average of 10 per cent, allowance. The warp twist is calculated at 4.75 times the square root of the number, and the filling at 3.35 times the square root of the number. The sizes of rings and travelers, are inserted only to give a general idea. Exact sizes must depend on circumstances The front roll speeds are based on average conditions now existing m Southern mills. Other published tables give somewhat faster speed, especially lor filling. But to maintain the above standard of twist, no considerable increase in production may be gained by speeds above those aiven. 369 nULE SPINNING TABLE. Pounds per Spindle in 10 Hours. vt 01 b a ?. S s ^K*! i:-B ort; fc 6 6 1.14 1.20 8 e .86 .90 10 6 .68 .73 12 6 .56 .60 14 5.50 .43 49 16 5.50 .39 .41 18 6.50 .35 .87 20 6.50 .31 .83 23 5.50 .28 .30 24 5.50 ,26 .37 26 5.25 .23 .24 28 5.35 .22 .23 30 5.35 .19 .21 32 5.25 .18 .20 34 6.25 .17 .19 36 5.13 .16 .17 38 5.13 .15 .16 40 5.00 .14 .15 42 5.00 .13 .14 44 4 75 .13 .13 46 4.75 11 .12 48 4.50 .10 .11 SO 4.50 .09 .10 The production is calculated on 10 per cent, allowance. 370 PRODUCTION TABLE— SPOOLER. Pounds per spindle in 10 hours, with 30 per cent, average allowance. Spindle 8W k pvolniinns_ Kevoluiions. No. Yarn No. Pounds 4 S3. 6 13. 8 10. 10 8.4 13 7.1 14 5.9 16 5.3 18 4,6 20 4.2 No. Yarn No. Pounds 3.9 24 3.5 36 3.3 38 3.0 30 3.8 33 2.6 34 3.5 36 3.3 38 3 3 No. Yarn No. Pounds 40 2.1 42 2.0 44 1.9 46 1.8 48 1.7 50 1.7 53 1.6 56 1.5 6<> 1.4 PRODUCTION TABLE— WARPER. Pounds per machine in 10 hours for each 100 spools in creel. 18-inch cylinder run- ning 30 revolutions per minute, 30 per lent. allowance. No. Yarn No. Pounds 4 750 6 500 8 373 10 300 13 350 14 310 16 186 18 167 30 l.jl) No. Yarn No. Pounds 23 136 34 135 26 115 38 107 30 100 33 94 34 89 36 K4 38 7:) No. Yarn No. Pounds 4«l 75 42 71 44 68 46 65 48 63 50 60 52 58 56 54 6 > 50 PRODUCTION TABLE. 54=«NCH REEL— SINGLE YARN. Pounds per Spindle in 10 Hours. Fifty per cent allowance. o a REVOLUTIONS a REVOLUTIONS a •so i6o 170 180 190 200 150 160 170 180 190 200 4 i 20. 16. 13 11. 10. 9. 8. 31. 17. 14. 13. 11. 9. 8. 23. 18. 15. 13. 11. 10. 9. 34. 19. 16. 14. 12. 11. 10. 35. 30. 17. 15. 12. 11. 10. 27. 21. 18. 15. 13. 12. 11. 28 29 30 2.9 2.8 2.7 3.0 3.9 3.8 3.3 3.1 3 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.8 3.7 3.6 7 8 9 lO 31 32 33 34 35 3.6 3.5 2.4 2.3 2.3 26 3.5 2.4 3.4 3.9 3.H 3.7 3.7 2.6 31 3.0 3.9 2.8 2.7 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.0 39 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.0 II 7.3 66 6.3 5.7 5.3 7.7 7.1 6.5 6.1 5.7 8.3 7,6 7.0 6.5 6.0 8.7 8.0 7.4 6.9 6.4 9.2 8.4 7.8 7.3 68 9.7 8.9 8.2 7.6 7.1 »3 ■4 »S 36 37 38 39 1 40 2.2 3 2 2.1 2.1 2.0 23 3.2 33 3.1 3.1 3.5 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 3.4 2.8 2.7 3.7 2.6 35 3.0 2.9 2.8 38 3.7 i6 5.0 4.7 4.4 4.3 4.0 5.3 5.0 4.7 4.5 4.3 5.7 5.3 5.0 4.8 4.5 6.0 5.6 5.4 5.1 4.8 6.3 6.0 5.6 5.3 50 6.8 6.3 6.0 5.6 5.3 i8 19 20 4« 42 43 44 45 30 1.9 1.9 18 1.8 3.0 3.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 22 3 2 3.1 2.1 2.0 2.3 3.3 2.2 2.2 2.1 3.5 34 2.4 3.3 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.4 21 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 ;-i.0 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.1 4.3 4.1 39 3 8 3.6 3.5 3.4 4.6 44 4.3 40 3.8 3.7 3.6 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.2 40 3.9 3.7 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.5 4 3 41 4.0 23 24 25 26 27 46 47 48 49 50 60 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.4 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.5 2.1 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.9 1.6 32 3.2 2.1 3.1 2.0 1.7 2.8 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.2 371 TWISTER TABLE— lo HOURS. Two Ply Three Ply >. >. h "o bo ^ h i J bo >i B M 3 2 m > V Square Root % Single P Number Pounds ] Spindle 10 Hours M.2 OPS Square Root Ys Single P Number 4J 0. ts 0) ^ 0) 4) ^A «.5 0.11 4 125 1.41 7.07 4.60 1.15 5.77 6.90 H'A 4 5 116 1.58 7,91 3-6o 1.29 6.45 4.80 5 6 110 1.73 8.66 2.90 1.41 7.07 4.S5 6 7 105 1.87 9.85 2.40 153 7.64 3.60 7 8 101 2.00 10.00 2.00 I.R3 816 3.00 8 9 97 2.12 10.61 1.70 1.7.i •8.66 3.55 10 94 2.24 11.18 1.50 1 83 9.13 2.35 10 U 92 2.34 11.73 1.30 2% 1.91 9.57 1.95 6 11 12 90 2.45 13.25 1.20 200 10 00 1 80 13 13 88 2.55 12.75 I. 10 2.08 10.41 1 65 13 14 87 2.64 13.23 I. GO 2.16 10 80 1.50 14 15 85 2 74 1.169 .90 3.24 11.18 1.35 15 16 84 2.83 14.14 .84 2.31 11.55 1.26 16 17 83 2.91 14.58 •78 3.38 1190 1.17 17 18 82 3.00 15 00 •73 2 45 12 25 1.09 18 19 81 3.08 15.41 .68 2.52 12 58 1.03 19 20 80 3.16 15 81 .64 2.58 12.91 .96 30 2i 79 3 24 16.20 .60 2.65 13.23 .90 2% 31 22 78 3.32 16.58 •57 2M 2.71 1-154 .85 33 23 77 3.39 16.96 •54 2.77 13.84 .80 33 24 76 3.46 17.32 ■5« 2.83 14.14 .76 34 25 75 3.54 17.68 .48 2.89 14.43 .73 35 26 74 3.61 18.03 .46 2.94 14.72 68 j 36 27 73 3.67 18.37 •44 300 15 00 .65 1 37 28 72 3.74 18.71 .42 3.06 15.28 .62 38 29 72 3.81 19.04 .4o 3.11 15.55 .59 39 30 71 3 87 19 37 .38 3.16 15.81 .56 30 31 71 3.94 19 69 36 3.21 16.07 .54 2J4 31 32 70 400 20.00 •35 2 3.27 16 33 .52 33 33 70 4.06 20 31 •34 3.33 16.58 .50 33 34 69 4.12 20.62 ■33 3.37 16.83 .48 34 35 69 4.18 20.92 •32 3.42 17.08 .46 36 36 68 425 21.21 •3« 3.46 17.32 .44 36 37 68 4 30 21.51 •30 3.51 17.56 .43 37 38 67 436 21.79 .29 3.56 17.80 .40 38 39 67 4.42 22.08 .28 3.61 18 03 .39 39 40 67 4.47 ::;2.36 .27 3.65 18.26 .38 40 41 66 4.52 23.64 .26 3 70 18.48 .37 41 42 66 4.58 22.91 .25 3.74 18.71 .36 43 43 66 4.64 23.18 ■25 3.79 18.93 .36 43 44 65 4.69 23 45 .24 3.83 19 15 .35 44 45 65 4.74 23.72 .24 lU 3.87 19.36 .34 2 45 46 65 4.79 23.98 •23 3.93 19.58 .34 46 47 64 4.85 24.24 .33 3 96 19.79 .33 47 48 64 4.90 24.49 .22 4.00 20.00 .33 48 49 64 4.i.5 24.75 .22 4.04 20.21 .33 49 50 64 5.00 25.00 .31 4.08 20 41 .33 50 51 63 5.f5 25.25 .31 4.12 ::0.63 .31 61 52 63 5.10 25.50 .20 4.16 30.83 .31 52 53 62 5.15 25.74 .20 4.20 21.02 30 53 54 62 5.20 25.98 •19 4.24 21.21 .30 64 55 61 5.24 26.23 .19 4 28 2141 .39 55 56 61 5.29 26 46 .18 4.33 2160 .39 56 57 61 5.34 26.69 .18 4.36 21 79 ■38 67 58 60 5.39 26.93 •«7 4.40 31.98 37 68 59 60 5 43 27.16 •«7 4.43 32.17 .37 69 60 60 5.48 27.39 •7 4.47 33.36 .37 1% 60 The loss in doffing is a greater per cent for coarse numbers than for fine. The production in this table is calculated with an allowance, varying from 15 per cent in coarse numbers down to 5 per cent in the finest numbers. The twist is calculated at 5 times the square root of the twisted number: (that is, Vz square root of single ply number for 2 ply, and ji for 3 ply). This is an aver- age requirement. Some yam is required with less, and some with more twist. The roll speeds are average now in use for Southern work. Unless speed of driving pulley is changed, every change of twist alters speed of roll. There is coo- siderable latitude allowable in this respect, depending upon ekill of operative, and ch aracfter of stock. 372 TABLE SHOWING WEIGHT IN GRAINS OF lOO STANDARD TRAVELERS. Number. ■Weight Number. Weight. 16 420 5-0 6.i 14 390 6-0 60 IS 360 7—0 55 12 330 8-0 52 11 300 9—0 50 lO 260 lO 4 48 9 220 11-0 45 8 200 12-0 42 7 180 13—0 40 6 160 14—0 38 6 140 15-0 35 4 130 16-0 32 3 120 17—0 30 S 110 18-0 28 1 100 19 O 25 l-O 90 20-0 22 a— 80 21-0 20 3— o 75 23—0 18 4—0 70 23 ~0 15 24-0 13 373 TABLE SHOWING LAYERS PER INCH ON SLUBBINQ AND ROVING BOBBINS. o o K V Layers per Inch M a OS 1 u u d 3 O* (0 Layers per Inch M a o Bii Sen 15 H 3 o mas a M a a 2 n CD te 01 u » a 2 U3 s Q 1 >< 1 18 94 80 .104 4,0 .40 5.2 1 2 18 94 80 .104 4.0 .40 10.4 2 2 3 18 94 80 .104 4.4 •45 13.8 2 3 3 18 94 SO .104 4,0 .40 7.8 1 3 4 18 94 80 .104 4.0 .40 10.4 1 4 5 18 94 80 .104 4.0 .40 5.3 1.0 10.4 3 5 5 18 106 70 .119 4.8 •55 9.5 1 5 6 18 106 70 119 4.0 ■45 5.4 i.a 10.4 2 6 6 18 106 70 .119 4.0 •45 4 0.8 7.9 1 6 7 18 106 70 .119 4.0 •45 5.4 1.3 12.1 2 7 7 18 106 70 .119 4.0 •45 4.7 I.O 7.3 1 7 8 18 106 70 .119 4.4 •50 5.8 1.4 11.9 2 8 8 18 106 70 .119 4.4 .50 4.1 I.O 8.3 1 8 P 18 106 70 .119 4.4 •50 6.3 •5 12.6 2 9 9 18 106 70 .119 4.0 •45 4.7 1.0 9.5 1 9 10 16 103 65 .128 4.0 SO 4.5 I.I 5 3.6 8.1 2 10 10 16 103 65 .128 4.0 4.0 •SO 4.1 I.O 10.5 1 10 12 16 102 65 .128 •SO 4.5 1.1 5 3.6 9.7 2 12 12 16 102 65 .128 4.0 SO 5.3 « 3 9.7 1 12 14 16 103 65 .128 4.0 •50 4.5 1. 1 5.0 a.7 11.1 2 14 14 16 102 65 .128 4.0 50 5.3 "3 11.6 1 ■4 16 16 103 65 .138 4.0 •50 5.1 I.a 6.0 3-4 10.3 2 16 16 14 97 60 .139 4.1 •55 4.1 I.I 4.1 2.1 8.0 1 16 18 16 103 65 .128 4.0 •SO 5.5 1.3 6.0 38 10.3 2 18 18 16 103 65 .128 4.0 •SO 4.5 I.I 5.0 2.6 7.5 1 18 ao 14 97 bO .139 4.1 ■55 5.4 1.4 6.0 4^1 10.8 2 20 ao 16 103 65 .128 4.0 •50 4.5 I.I 5.0 a.6 8.3 1 30 aa 14 97 60 .139 4.1 ■55 5.4 1.4 6.0 4.1 12.0 2 22 aa 16 103 65 .138 4.0 •50 4.5 I.I 5.0 2.6 9.3 1 22 24 13 100 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.9 IS 6.3 46 11.5 3 34 24 16 102 65 .128 4.0 •50 4.5 I.I 5.0 a.6 10.0 1 34 26 12 100 50 .167 4.3 •70 5.0 < 7 6.1 SO 11.3 2 26 26 16 102 65 .128 4.0 50 5.1 1.2 5.3 30 9.4 1 26 a8 12 100 50 .lti7 4.3 .70 5.0 1-7 6.1 5.0 13.1 2 28 aS 12 100 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.4 i"4 5.1 36 8.6 1 aS 30 12 100 50 .167 4.3 .70 5.0 «.7 6.1 5.0 13.2 2 30 30. 12 100 50 .167 4.0 ■65 4.5 • 4 5.1 3.5 9.5 1 30 Sec Bote on next page. 377 SOME PRACTICAL ORGANIZATIONS— Continubd, t Card Slubber Interme- diate Roving Jack Roving Spin- ning S3 a a a u a > w V d So u M a X cd M 5 M P M a ci X ci: Q 11.8 bo _a S 3 n 2 a a u 01 > 32 10 92 45 .185 4.4 .80 5.2 8.0 6.2 6.0 32 34 10 92 i5 .185 4.4 .80 5.2 2.0 6.2 6.0 12 5 2 34 36 10 92 45 .185 4.4 .80 5.2 2.0 6.2 6.0 13.2 2 36 38 8 83 40 .208 4.9 1.00 5.2 2.5 5.3 6.6 12.5 2 38 40 10 10 83 83 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.4 1.4 5.0 3.4 5.6 9.0 9.8 11 2 2 40 46 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.4 1.4 5.0 3.4 5.6 9.0 46 60 10 83 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.4 1.4 5.0 3.4 6.2 lO.i) 11 3 60 66 10 83 50 .167 4.0 .65 4.9 1.5 5.2 3.8 6.0 11.0 11 2 66 60 8 95 35 .238 4.2 .95 4.3 2.0 4.9 4.8 5.2 12.0 11 2 60 66 8 95 35 .238 4.2 .95 4.3 2.0 4.9 4.8 5.7 13.0 11 2 66 70 8 95 35 .238 4.2 .95 4.3 2.0 4.9 4.8 6.0 14.0 11 2 70 76 8 95 35 .238 4.2 .95 4.3 2.0 4.9 4.8 6.5 15.0 11 2 76 80 8 95 35 .238 4.4 1.00 4.9 2.4 5.1 6.0 5.5 16.0 11 2 80 85 8 95 35 .238 4.4 1.00 4.9 2.4 51 6.0 5.9 17.0 11 2 86 90 8 95 35 .238 4.4 1.00 4.9 2.4 5.1 6.0 6.2 18.0 11 2 90 96 8 95 35 .238 4.4 1.00 4.9 2.4 5.1 6.0 6.5 19.0 11 2 96 100 6 100 25 .333 4.0 1.30 4.7 3.0 5.1 7.6 5.5 20.0 11 2 100 Thf draUs in these tables allow for contraction and waste. Contraction in spinning is variable according to stock and twist. Allowances above are for average warp twist. In spinning tilling the drafts should be 3 to 5 points less than in table , , .^.. ^. This table is made to illustrate the variations that can be made within the limits of practical dralts on each machine. The range of draft for each machine makes the combinations that are practicable well nigh infinite. At each separate process different superintendents might differ in opinion Some might prefer more dratt at the card and less at the s ubber, or more at the spinning and less in the rt viiig. It becomes evident, thereiore, that the table can only be worked out for exhibiting to students and apprentices what is the oidinary range in practice. Experienced superintendents will in most cases have preferences ol their own, based upon their practice. 37^ SUnriARY OF GENERAL DATA— APPROXIflATE. Machine. Picker, 1 beater Picker, 2 beater Picker, 3 beater Card, 40 inch Drawing Frame, per del'y Slubber, llx5V^, 52 sp., per sp Intermediate, 9x4%, 100 sp., per sp Roving, 7x3%, 144 sp., per sp Jack Roving, 6x3, 176 sp., per sp. . Spinning, 2Ji gauge, per sp Spooler, per sp . Beam "Warper - . .. Slasher , I,oom, 40-inch , plain Cloth Brusher Cloth Folder Twister, dry, '6% gauge, per sp Denn Warper, single head S5to 100 140 170 55 10 1% IH % y* % 150 280 25 90 50 600 boa •04 6,000 8,500 11,000 7,000 400 100 75 50 35 35 40 3,000 10.000 1,000 8,000 1,500 30 3,000 $ 750.00 1,100.00 1,500.00 675 00 60.00 14.00 10.00 7.00 6.00 3.40 3.00 300.00 1,500.00 60.00 1,000.00 350.00 4.00 1,000.00 The horse powers in above table are based upon average results as observed in actual operations ol Southern mills. It is theoreticallv possible, by having ma- chinery in perfect order, to run with less. In calculating the power necessary to operate any particular mill, the machines should be listed with the power, as above set opposite. The sum total should be increased by 15 per cent, as an average allowance for friction The following list shows approximate power required for whole mill for average Southern conditions: Kind of Goods. Plain White Cloth, Two-Ply Yarn, Single Yarn, Average No. of Yarn. 6 to 14 14 to 30 30 to 60 6 to 14 14 to 30 30 to 60 6 to 14 14 to to 30 to 00 Spindles per H. P. 18 30 21 20 22 25 «5 s ZnUcB of Co0t0 of ButlMng ant) ©perating Cotton niMll0, T'he first cost per spindle of a complete cotton mill de- pends upon the sire of the plant, and the character of goods m'adle. The cost of ope'ratingf a cotton mill depends largely upon the same facts and, besides these, depends upon the management. The profit to be rhade in a cotton mill depends upon all of the above and, besides these, depends upon the state of the market for cotton and for manufactured product. In the aaithor's book, "Cotton Mill Commercial Features," published in 1899, there is a series of cost and' profit tables, constructed on the basis of average results of the cotton mill business as conducted in the Southern States. These tables are re-produced here. The prices of building material, labor and machinery have fluctuated considerably since that date, so that the figures shovni' in the tables m'ay not be actually correct at any given time, but they show the relative condi- tions and the effect of any given fluctuation on the final costs and profits. > (^ w h-l «J o « Q I? < s W t3 h^ S «0 ^ Q < P 8 « o o o w g O !ZJ O n to '^naa a»j Wox •spooo IBIOX spooo psqsini^ puB ■l«?oX •spnno,! ^2 •spooo 1 p> I" •spooo 33j bs aipn{ds 3ad%nvid}0%soo a I 8 I 8 I a ffOI S9- Oi-6 8f8 S6-I re I8'f 09-1 S0*6 86-1 39- 8 I S Zf9 eo-g SST 6S'0T S6"T ss-i g8"9 iS-S 8SZII i-in U-OT iS-TT SI'S ST-S I 8 I S OS-9 6i-9 f^-9 OX'S SI'S S9'i OOO'SI I OWSX f O00'?T S — ..'* \>* >- oi tt ►-( Oi o W Q iz: -< to eu p< w p S CO g O CO O I— I <5 Pi W Pm o o iz; o Id o Pi > w Q p PQ *)S39 M^ mox •Bpooo ■wox spooo paisinu pnB ispooo IBIOX '8pnno^[ ^2 •epooo •i«?ox si •spooo •IBiox •spooo •IB^OX •jaqranti •spooo CO 1— 1 ;?; o u !z; h-f o »4 M S D Q S Q M ^ s fe w o CO J', Pi o w >-( > H < < Pi Oi, W w cu « O J^ ^ z i-H ^ O w CO pq -)D33 J»a IWJOi •epooo •Wox spooo paiistniji pnB IBiox -spanoj CD HI i< (0 •spooo > k4 P4 W rn ^ % o n s O 1— 1 Q O O ^ U H S :^ P o § 1— 1 ►4 ^ ►4 t— ( (—1 ?5 S w X ;?; o «*i lO % t3 o 1— 1 tn M Yi «^ Z a! ^ Q o ?^ w P ■^oao .19.3 ^ 1 S 1 8 1 S 1 s 2 ^ s s g > •X«>oi S s S U3 in "\ r-( M t- ^ t- ^ 2 -^ 01 •spooo <& -I3 •IB^ox « © N r- « « Tj< CO N H Ai <«» •0 O § S g o o g O o •spnnoj s s 00 CO S s to !0 Q W 11. 1 5=5 •spooo ca J3* » M ■* a> CO w T 'A CI u V p. 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Card Clothing.. 40 Harness 298 Reeds 295 Roving Ill Twists 326 Cut Marker 248 D DALY Differential 165 Defective Cloth 273 Density of Bales 2 Denn Warper 328 Designing 284 Differential 140, 162 Dividend 30 Dobbies 281 Doffing 181 Double Carding 55 Double Link Warper 339 Double Beater Lapper 24 Double Roving 348 Draft Card 48 Comber 68 Drawing 90 Lapper 27 Metallic Rolls 93 Roving 130 Rule 7, 361 Spinning 206 Drawing 77 Calculations 90 Constant 90 Draft 90 General Data 97 Production 96, 366 Roll Settings 84, 88 Specifications 98 Stop Motion 80 Ziz-zag Setting 98 Drawing-in 255 Drawing-in Draft 284 Drop-boxes 283 Dry Twist 323 Duplex Comber 67 Dust Room 19 Dyeing 256 E EFFECTIVE Diameter, Metallic Drawing Rolls 95 Electric Stop Motions 81,336 Equipment Sheet 356 Evener 102 Extension and Contraction of Twisted Yarns 350 F FEEDER 12 Filling — Bobbin 178 Builder 184 Cup 192 Stop-motion 276 Wind 178. Finisher Lapper 23 Fire Risks 26- Floor Space 378: Fluting of Metallic Rolls 95 Flyer Lead 119 Folder 312 Folded Yarn 320 G GINGHAM Loom 283 Grading Cotton 4 Grinding Cards 45- Grinding-rolls 42 H HANKS and Numbers. . . 109, 113, 361 Harness 298 Headstock of Mule 218 Healds 299 Heddles 299 Heilmann Comber 59 Holdsworth Differential 140, 168 392 INDEX. I INEQUALITIES in Spinning 201 Ink 317, 360 Introduction 1 Intermediate Lapper 20 Roving 115 J JACK Roving 116 Jacquard Loom 282 K KNOCK-OFF Motion 232 L LAPPER 15 Layers of Roving 373 Lay-gear 148 Leasing 330 Lease-rod 262 Leather-covered Rolls 82 Letting-off 259 Licker-in 38 Lifting Plans 286 Loom 260 Arrangement 290 Automatic 279 Gearing 264 General Data 289 Magazine 279 Production 288 Shuttles 294 Spacing 290 Specifications 290 Stop Motion 275 Strapping 293 Supplies 293 Temples 293 Long Chain Dyeing 256 Long Grinder 42 M MAGAZINE Loom 279 Marking Ink 317, 360 Measuring-motion 335 Metallic Rolls 83 Minimum Weight of Bales 1 Mixing Cotton 9 Montf ort's Comber 71 Mule Spinning 214 Table 369 Mullhouse Comber 71 N NORTHROP Loom 279 Number of Yarn 109, 352, 361 Numbered Cotton Samples 4 o OPENING Cotton 11 Opei'ating costs 379 Organization 8, 346, 355, 376 P PATTERN Chain 281 Pegging Plan 286 Pick-glass 326 Gear 287 Picker 12 General Data 32 Production 25 Specifications 33 Summary of Processes 31 Pin Lease 332 Plow-ground Card-clothing 40 Ply Yarns 320, 349 Power 378 Preparation of Yarn for Weaving 222 Preparation of Yarn for Market 320 Price of Machinery 378 Process of Milling 6 Production Tables 365 Q QUALITY of Cotton 3 R RAILWAY Heads 101 Range of Drafts 346 Ratchet Wheel on Roving Frames 146 INDEX. 393 Raw Stock Dyeing 258 Recipes 360 Reeds 295, 375 Reedy Cloth 273 Reeling 340, 370 Rings for Spinning 193 Ring Holders 193 Setting 194 Sizes 197, 368 Spinning 175, 368 Travelers 198, 368 Roll— Flutings 95 Settings 88 Varnish 83, 360 Round Bale 2 Roving Bobbin Taper 133 Calculations 130 Contraction 135 Diameters 373 Differentials 141 Draft 135 Gearing 121 General Data 168 Lay 161 Production 155 Reel 112 Short Methods 160 Specifications 173 Speeds 136 Summary of Calculations. . . . 157 Twist Gear 136 Weighting 171 Rule- Average Yarn No 352 Differentials 141 Draft 7, 361 Roving Twist 139 s SAMPLING Cotton 1 Sample Equipment 356 Organization 349, 355 Scutcher 11 Self Feeder 12 Selvage 280 Separators 196 Setting Rings 194 Sewing Machine 302 Shade 299 Shafts 299 Shed 299 Shedding 259 Shell Rolls 83 Short Staple Comber 71 Short Chain Dyeing 256 Shuttles 294 Shuttle Marks 272 Singles 80 Single Beater Lapper 24 Single i^ink Warper 339 Size of Bales 1 Size of Rings 199, 368 Size Mixture 360 Sizing 243 Slasher 246 Sliver Lap 59 Slubbing (see Roving). Spinning Bands 192 Bobbin 178, 192 Bobbin-cup 192 Builder 178, 184 Calculations 206 Doffing 178 Draft ; 208 Filling Wind 178 Gearing 182 General Data 210 Mule 214 Production 209, 368 Rings 193 Separators 196 Specifications 212 Speed 186 Spindles 190 Tables 188, 368 Twist 187 Spooler 222 Square Root Tables 367 394 INDEX. Standard Weight of Bales 1 Stationary Top Flat Cards 53 Stamping Cloth 316 Stamping Ink. 360 Strapping 293 Stripping Cards 45 Supplies 293 Summary of General Data 378 TABLE— Breaking Strength 374 Card Production 365 Card Settings 43 Cost of Mills 379 Drawing Roll Setting 88 Drawing Production 366 General Data 378 Layers of Roving 373 Mule Spinning 369 Organization 376 Power to Run Machinery 378 Profit in Mills 379 Reeds 375 Ring Spinning 368 Slubbing and Roving 367 Spooler 370 Twister 371 Warper 370 Weight of Travelers 372 Take-up Motion 274 Tape Selvage 280 Temples 294 Terry Weaving 283 Thread Lease 330 Tie Cutters 11 Top Roll Varnish 360 Towels 283 Travelers 189, 325, 372, 368 Trunks for Lappers 27 Tube Winding 343 Turkish Towels 283 Tweedales Differential 162 Twill Weaving 279 Twist in Spinning 187 Twister 322 Twister Table 371 Two-ply Yarn 349 Two-ey Cloth 274 U UNIT of Capacity 354 Uniformity of Grade 4 Uniformity of Staple 6 Upland Cotton 1 VAPOR Cylinder 307 Varnish 83, 360 Velvet 283 Vertical Rings 323 W WARPER 228, 328 Warp Bobbin 178 Warp Builder 184 Warp Cup 192 Warp Wind I'^S Waste 1^ Weaving 259, 351 Weight- Bales 1 Bagging and Ties 1 Machines 378 On Rolls I'^l Travelers 372 Wellman Card 53 Wet Twist 323 YARD Marks 316 Yarn Reel 112 ZIG-ZAG Setting for Drawing. 98 APR 27 1903 ^ , X * , 0^ f-. .«^ ;^^' ..^f^ >? ., *^. * -•* ^€i|s^;^ y '^, -."I ^ ^>. -^'W#',^* " . '