^ ^ s:"^^ \\ \ ^^ v\N ^^ l^{^ %"'^ % S^. ^ :^^§:^SJSJJ^^JSSJ§JJ^;&§S;!^^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ®§iij[t..!^r... ©xip^riB^t T^n........ Slielf...^.?,._ ■\ > - > ' . i — _ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, V. COMMON SCHOOL Examiner and Review, A COLLECTION OF QUESTIONS USED BT STATE, COUNTY AND CITY SUPEEINTENDENT8 IN THE EXAMIXATION OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS ; ANSWERED IN THE CLEAREST AND BRIEFEST MANNER. *5~>^-v\xv V >aj" DESIGNED FOR EXAMINERS, TEACHERS, PUPILS AND INSTITUTE CONDUCTORS. I. Hi BROWlSr, APR 11 1887^ PRICE, ONE DOLLAR. ST. LOUIS: I. H. BROWN & CO. 1887. Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1887, by I. H. BROWN, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. Press of BecTctold (f Co. , Nixon-Jones Book Manufacturers, Priming Company, II^DEX. Arithmetic, Questions on . Aritiimetic, Answers to Questions on Botany, Questions on .... Botany, Answers to Questions on Civil Government, Questions on Civil Government, Answers to Questions on Geogi'aphy, General Questions on Geography, General Answers to Questions on Geography, Physical, Questions on . . ' Geography, Physical, Answers to Questions Grammar, Questions on . Grammar, Answers to Questions on History of U. S., Questions on History of U. S., Answers to Questions on Orthography, Questions on . . . Orthography, Answers to Questions on . Penmanship, Questions on . . . Penmanship, Answers to Questions on . Philosophy, Questions on . Philosophy, Answers to Questions on Physiology, Questions on . Physiology, Answers to Questions on Reading, Questions on ... . Reading, Answers to Questions on . Rules Governing Examinations Suggestions by the Author Theory and Practice of Teaching, Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching, Answers to Questions Zoology, Questions on ... . Zoology, Answers to Questions on . on PAGE. 33 43 25!) 2CA 240 245 100 111) 152 157 G5 76 175 194 8 11 28 80 327 334 278 284 18 21 5 7 348 353 302 308 (3) TO THE PUBLIC. The favor with which lormer editions of the COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER AND REVIEW has been received justifies the Pub- lishers in adding Theory and Practice of Teaching to the list of subjects. As in the preparation of other branches, a wide field has been culled for suitable matter. The questions are those used by Insti- tute Conductors, County and City Superintendents in the exam- ination of teachers. An effort has been made to include only those questions whose answering would occasion some difllculty. The work as now presented is peculiarly adapted to the use of 1. Candidates preparing for teacher's examination. 2. Scholars reviewing branches of school study. 3. Institute Conductors desirous of securing the best results in the shortest time; SENT POST-PAID TO ANY ADDRESS ON RECEIPT OF $1. Address all orders to I. H. BROWN & CO., St. Louis, Mo. COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER AND REVIEW. RULES GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS. The following rules will give the candidate an idea of the regula- tions governing examinations in different States, Counties, and Cities. 1. The object of this examination is to ascertain your knowledge of the subjects required by law, and your ability to present their principles correctly and clearly : the result of the examination depends upon your success in showing these conditions. 2. Provide yourself with paper, pens, and ink. 3. Be prepared to begin each subject at the time appointed. 4. No reference books or notes will be permitted in the examination room. 5 h RULES GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS. 5. Do not communicate during the examination in any manner with any one except the examiner : the papers of those who violate this rule will not be exam- i^ied. 6. Number and letter your answers to correspond with the questions and their subdivisions. 7. Write in a legible hand : no time can be spent in deciphering ambiguous expressions ; — all such will be considered as evidence of the writer's inability to spell or to use them correctly, and will be charged to his spelling and grammar. 8. Let every answer be clear, definite, and com- plete. 9. Divide your work into paragraphs, so that each answer shall stand out prominently. 10. If you do not understand a question, raise your hand for an explanation. 11. Pass such questions as you cannot answer, leav- ing a blank space numbered according to the place it occupies. 12. Ask no indulgences or allowances: such a re- quest implies presumptive deficiency. 13. Absence, except in case of sickness, will debar the candidate from examination in the branch of study missed. 14. Fold your completed paper, and write your name and subject on the back. [Some examiners re- quire the number by which candidates are designated to be written on the papers.] RULES GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS. Su|?gestious by the Author. 1. Observe propriety in dress, manner, and behavior: a fop, clown, or a boor is out of place in the school room. 2. Any unfairness in obtaining? answers deprives the candidate of the first condition required for a certificate — moral character. Be above suspicion. 3. The only favors you should expect will be of the nature of a premium for the neatness, order, and promptness you exhibit. 4. Examine the paper given you, answering mentally the ques- tions with which you are familiar before committing anything to paper. 5. Examiners take nothing for granted : be explicit. 6. Examiners' impressions decide all doubtful answers: they reason that what you know you can explain clearly. 7. Keep your manuscript till it is called for. See that it contains no errors which you can correct. 8. The minimum of speech during recesses, will give you the maximum of intellectual power when wanted. 9. To avoid embarrassment, the respiration should be full, deep, and vigorous. QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 1. Define the following terms: (a) Orthography, (b) Phonologyj (c) Orthoepy, (d) letter, (e) Elemen- tary Sound. 2. (a) How many elementary sounds does the Eng- lish language contain? (b) How divided? 3. Name the voice-producing organs. 4. Name the organs employed in speech. 5. Into what two classes are letters divided? 6. Into what classes are the consonants divided ac- cording to the organs employed in their production ? 7. (a) What are subvocals? (b) Name them. 8. (a) What are aspirates? (b) Name them. 9. Name the consonant combinations. 10. Define the following terms: (a) cognates, (5) liquids, (c) coalescents, (d) explodents, (e) continu- ants. 11. Name the uses of silent letters. 12. What is the distinction between the name and the power of a letter ? 13. Define the following terms : (a) Diphthong, (b) Digraph, (c) Trigraph, (d) Syllable, (e) Word. 8 QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. y 14. Classify the letters ^ in alien, ce in ocean, ti in notion. 15. When are w and y vowels? Consonants? 16. What is syllabication? 17. How should words be divided at the end of the line? 18. When is the hyphen most commonly used? 19. What is the essential part or base of a syl- lable? 20. Why are words divided into syllables? 21. Define orthographic synthesis and analysis. 22. What faculties does the exercise of spelling chiefly tend to cultivate ? 23. How are words classified with regard to the number of syllables they contain? 24. (a) How are words classified according to their formation? (b) Define the classes. 25. {a) Define accent, (b) What two kinds? (c) Tell how each fs denoted and where it is commonly placed, (d) State what effect a change of accent may produce. 26. (a) What are the significant parts of many de- rivative words? (6) Define each. 27. What is the usual office of Prefixes and Suffixes respectively ? 28. In the change of prefixes applied to certain de- rivative words for the sake of euphony or analogy, what is the usual practice ? 29. Mention some elementary sounds which have no single character to represent them. 10 QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 30. Under what circumstances is a word formed by prefixes or suflSxes primitive ? 31. (a) Which letters have no sound of their own? (6) Which letters are never silent? (c) When is m silent? (d) When is final £' silent? (e) What would be the result if final e was not silent ? 32. State the relative advantages of oral and written spelling as a drill exercise. 33. With the word incompreheyisihility ^ show the proper application of the terms penult, antepenult, etc. 34. What sounds has ^A? Give sounds illustrating each. 35. What advantage arises from a knowledge of the rules for the duplication of consonants ? 36. State and illustrate the rules for doubling the final consonant of words receiving a sufiix beginning with a vowel. 37. (a) Into what is final y preceded by a consonant usually changed upon receiving a suffix? (6) What occurs when the final y is preceded by a vowel? 38. Give rules for the spelling of words derived from radicals ending in silent e. 39. State a rule for spelling words derived from radicals ending with a double letter. 40. Give an orthographic analysis of the word dis- contentment. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 1. (a) Orthography is the art of writing words with the proper letters according to common usage, (b) Phonology is the science of uttering the elementary sounds, (c) Orthoepy is the art of uttering words with propriety, (d) A letter is the least distinct part of a written word representing one or more elemen- tary sounds, (e) An elementary sound is the simplest sound of a language uttered by a single impulse of voice. 2. (a) The English language contains forty-four elementary sounds, (b) They are divided into vocals, subvocals and aspirates. 3. Abdominal and Thoracic Muscles, the Dia- phragm, the Thorax, the Pleura, the Lungs, the Trachea and the Larynx. 4. The Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Palate and Nasal organs assisted by the respiratory organs. 5. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 6. Labials, or lip sounds; Linguals, or tongue sounds; Lingua-Dentals, or tongue-teeth-sounds ; Lin- gua-Nasals, or tongue-nose-sounds; Palato-Nasals, or palate-nose sounds, and Palatals. 7. (a) Subvocals are those sounds produced by the voice modified by the speech organs. (6) The sub- vocals are: Labials, b, v, w, m ; Lingua-Dentals, d, th, j,z, ^/i; Linguals, l,r; Lingua-Nasal, ?i; Palato-Nasal, ng; Palatals, g and?/. 12 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 8. (a) Aspirates are mere breathings modified by the speech organs, (b) The aspirates are: Labials, jp, y, loh; Lingua-Dentals, ^, th, ch, s, sli ; Palatals, h^ and h. 9. The consonant combinations are: c/^, gli^ ph, sh, th, wh, and 7ig. 10. (a) Cognates are sounds formed by the same organs in different positions, (b) Liquids are such sounds as flow readily into other sounds, (c) Coales- cents unite freely with other sounds, (d) Explodents are such sounds as do not admit of prolongation, (e) Continuants are sounds which are capable of an indefi- nite prolongation. 11. Silent letters are used first, to modify the sounds of other letters, and second, to show the origin or defi- nition of words. 12. The name of a letter is the term by which it is . known ; the power of a letter is the elementary sound it represents. 13. (a) A Dipthong is the union of two vowel .^ounds in the same syllable; as, ow, ow, oi, and oi/. (b) A Digraph is the combination of two letters to represent one sound; as ai, ph, etc. (c) A Tri- graph is the union of three vowels in the same sylla- ble, not all of which are sounded; as, ieu in lieu, {d) A syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds produced by a single vocal impulse, (e) A Word is a* syllable or a combination of syllables used as the sign of an idea. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 14. The i in alien is a substitute for y, and is there- fore a consonant, subvocal, palatal. In ocean and notion, ce and ti are substitutes for s7i, and are conso- nant, aspirate, lingua-dentals. 15. When w and y represent u and i they are vowels ; they are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same syllable. 16. Syllabication is the correct division of words into syllables. 17. Words should be divided at the end of a line by syllables only. 18. Between recently compounded words ; between syllables at the end of the line ; between syllables to show more clearly their pronunciation. 19. The vowel. There is an apparent exception in the second syllable of such words as table, castle, muscle. 20. To assist in their pronunciation. 21. Synthesis fs the process of combining elemen- tary sounds. Analysis is the process of separating a syllable or word into its elementary sounds. 22. The faculties of memory, observation and dis- crimination. 23. As Monosyllables, one syllable ; Dissyllables, two syllables; Trisyllables, three syllables: Poly- syllables, many syllables. 24. (a) Into Simple and Compound, Primitive and Derivative, {b) 1st. A Simple word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more words; as, son, father. 14 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 2nd. A Compound word is formed of two or more simple words; as, son-in-law , father-in-law . 3rd. A Primitive word is one not formed from any- other word in the same language ; as, man, rain. 4th. A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a primitive word some letter or syllable to modify its meaning ; as, manly, raining, 25. (a) Accent is' a marked stress applied to some particular syllable. (5) Certain words have two ac- cents, viz., a primary and a secondary, (c) The pri- mary is the more forcible, and, in words having more than one accent, usually follows the secondary. The primary is denoted thus ('), the secondary, thus ("), as in "-com-pat-i bil'-i-ty. (cZ) A change of accent sometimes changes the meaning of a word ; as, Au ' gust, the month, and au gust', majestic ; sometimes a differ- ent part of speech is indicated by a change of accent; as, in 'suit, the noun, in suit', the verb. 26. {a) Roots, prefixes, and suffixes. (5) The Root is that part of a derivative word modified by a prefix or a suffix. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which is placed before the root. A suffix is that part of a derivative word which is placed after the root. 27. Prefixes modify the meaning of a primitive word; while Suffixes, in addition, usually determine its part of speech. Ex. — /??2proper, not proper, an adjective. Proper??/, in a proper manner, an adverb. 28. The last letter of the prefix must often be the same as the first letter of the root, as, cor-rect, instead of co-rect. ANSWERS TO QUi:STIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 29. The sounds represented by the following combin- ations: o^, ou, oijy ow, ng^ tJi, cli (soft), s/z, zli, 30. When by the addition of prefixes or suffixes the meaning of both root and prefix or suffix is changed, the word remains primitive; as, re and proq/* in the word re;proof, which is a primitive word. 31. (a) (7, X, and q. (b) F,j, q, ?■, x, v, z. (c) In mnemonics, (d) When preceded by another vowel in the same syllable; as, mate, tape, rice, ride, (e) An additional syllable would be formed. 32. The exercise of oral spelling in young children cultivates a clear, distinct, and energetic articulation, and a readiness of speech. Written spelling fixes the forms of words in the mind and gives practice in writ- ing. 33. The last syllable (ty) is the ultima. The last but one (i) is the penult. The last but two (bil) is the antepenult. The last but three (si) is the pveante- penult, 34. Aspirate as in tJiin^ and sub vocal as in thine. 35. By an examination of the word we may deter- mine whether the final consonant should be doubled or not. 36. Monosyllables and other words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before a suffix that begins with a vowel ; as, spot, — spotted, begin, — beginning. 37. {a) The final y of a radical word when pre- ceded by a consonant, is generally changed to i upon the addition of a suffix ; as, try, — trial, happy, — 16 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. happiness. (^) If the final y is preceded by a vowel the y remains unchanged upon receiving a suffix; as, buy, — buyer, glory, — glorying. 38. 1st. Final e of the radical word is rejected when the suffix begins with a vowel, except in words ending in ce and ge\ as, moving, peaceable. 2nd. Final e of a radical word is usually retained when the suffix begins with a consonant, as, in hope, — hopeless, move, — movement. Exceptions. — Awful, judgment, truly, wholly, abridgment, acknowledgment. 39. Words ending in a double letter preserve it double in th.eir derivatives unless the syllable affixed begins with the same letter ; as, seeing, skillful. 40. Discontentment is a simple derivative polysyl- lable of four syllables, accented primarily on the third syllable, and secondarily on the first, derived from content. Content, the radical, is modified, first by the prefix dis, meaning not^ and, second, by the suffix menty meaning state of being. The word signifies * ' the state of being discontented.^^ d is a consonant-sub vocal-linofua-dental. i is a vowel, short sound, the base of first syl- lable. s is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental, normal sound. c is a substitute for k, a consonant-aspirate-pala- tal. o is a vowel, short obscure sound, base of second syllable. n is a consonant-subvocal-lins^ua-nasal. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 t is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental. e is a vowel, short sound, base of third syllable. n is a consonant-sub vocal-lingua-nasal. t is a consonant-aspirate-lingua-dental. m is a consonant-sub vocal-labial. e is a vowel, short obscure sound, base of fourth syllable, n and t same as n and t above. Some of the following words have been found in nearly every list examined. The candidate who as- pires to a creditable standing in spelling should master the list. ojauoje nonpareil mullein sadducee guerrilla indelible lachrymal Pleiades apostasy Pentateuch camomile gherkin bicycle mnemonics inoculate plebeian bowie-knife apocalj^pse isosceles apocrypha caisson idiosyncrasy caoutchouc dishabille euchre plagiarism purslain pusillanimous elecampane surcingle bacchanalian scirrhus exchequer mademoiselle anachronism scarify ghoul initiation corpuscle balustrade fusillade mayoralty chenille titillation cynical rescission corypheus superannuated inflammatory Pyrrhonism aphyllous syzygy cuirassier harelipped saccharine panacea porphyry millionaire cavalier hypocritical paraphernalia sanatory millennium daguerreian whimsey alpaca stadtholder mammalia exhilarate meerschaum colonelcy sibylline novitiate terrify hygiene holly-hock vicissitude beleaguer labyrinth secession QUESTIONS ON READING. 1. (a) How many and what kinds of reading are there? (b) What is the purpose of each ? (c)and(cZ) Name at least &ve requisites for each kind of reading. 2. Define Reading as an Art. 3. What is Elocution? 4. Why is Eeading less effectively taught in our schools than some other branches ? 6. State how Reading may be taught so as to secure results commensurate with the time it usually receives. 6. Upon what is voice dependent? 7. How can a clear', full, flexible voice be secured? 8. Give a description of the pupil's position while reading. 9. Explain the Word Method of teaching Reading. 10. What is the Phonic Method of teachino: Read- ing? State its distinctive purpose. 11. Describe the Sentence Method of teaching Read ing. 12. Is it possible for a poor reader to teach reading ? If so, to what extent? 13. What is Articulation? 18 QUESTIONS ON READING. 19 14. IIow can a distinct and correct articulation be acquired? 15. Name the Essential Elements of vocal ex- pression, and tell why called essential elements. 16. Define the term Resonance as used in Reading. 17. What is Quality of Voice? 18. Into what two classes may quality be divided? What does each embrace ? 19. Define the following: ((/) Pure Tone, (b) Orotund, (c) Plaintive, (b) Pectoral, (e) Guttural. 20. How does the quality of voice determine the emotions of the speaker? 21. What classes of sentiment are expressed by the following Voice Qualities : Pure Tone, Orotund, Plain- tive, Pectoral, Guttural, Aspirate? 22. What is meant by Force in Reading? 23. What relation does Stress bear to Force? 24. Define Pitch, and state its natural divisions. 25. What doeB the term Compass mean? 26. Define Movement, and name its divisions. 27. What is meant by the term Quantity? 28. What terms are commonly employed to desig- nate the different kinds of Stress? 29. Explain the difference between Slides and Waves. 30. Define Slur. 31. What is Emphasis? How is it effected? 32. State the difference between Absolute and Antithetic Emphasis. 20 QUESTIONS ON READING. 33. What is meant by Cadence? 34. Give a general rule for the use of the Downward Slide. 35. Give a general rule for the use of the Upward Slide. 36. State the general law governing the use of Waves. 37. (a) What is Personation? (b) What does it re- quire ? 38. What IS meant by Monotone? 39. State the difference between grammatical and rhetorical pauses. 40. (a) What is a Climax? (b) How should it be read ? 41. What is Transition ? 42. (a) What is a Series? (5) How many kinds ? 43. What is Modulation ? 44. Explain the term Grouping as applied to Read- ing. 45. How is Slide sometimes affected by emphasis? 46. Define a Parenthetical Clause, and state how it should be read. 47. (a) What physical habits ought a pupil to form from reading aloud? (b) What bad physical habits may be formed in reading classes under poor teachers ? 48. What are the chief objects to be attained in the study and practice of reading? 49. Describe the style of reading which may be considered in the highest degree excellent. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 21 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 1. (a) Two: Silent, or Intellectual, and Audible, or Oral, (b) The apprehension of the thought and the ex- l)ression of the thought. (c) For Silent Reading. (d) For Audible Reading. Quick Perception. All Required for Silent Reading. Keen Discernment. Respiratory Command. Clear C.jnception. Distinct Articulation. Vivid Imagination. Imitative Power. Good Taste and Judgment. Command of Voice. Expressive Action. Correct Personal Habits. 2. Reading as an art is the interpretation and ex- pression of thought, sentiment, and emotion as pres- ented in written or printed composition. 3. Elocution is the expression of thought, emotion, and passion by all the organs of the body, in an easy, graceful, and effective manner. 4. First, for the want of skill among teachers. Second, the absence of a definite standard of excellence in reading. Third, the lack of interest among pupils in the matter contained in their books. 5. The teacher should arouse the interest of pupils by first reading the lesson properly and effectively before the class, and then by skillfully questioning the pupils, concentrate their attention upon the thought and its expression. 6. Upon a proper and sufficient supply of air. 22 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 7. By a daily and systematic exercise in Respiration, Articulation, and Waves. 8. Book in left hand, thumb and little finger in front; first, second, and third fingers at the back of the book ; the elbow not touching the side. The book should be held in such a manner that a line drawn from the eyes toward the page would inter- sect the plane of the book at rio;ht ans^les. The full face of the pupil should be seen by the teacher. The weight of the body should be sup- ported, while reading, on BOTH feet, the left heel two or three inches in advance of the hollow of the right foot. The chest should be elevated and expanded, the position erect and easy. 9. TheWord Method con- sists in recognizing words as wholes without reference to the letters of which they are THE reader's position, composcd. 10. The Phonic Method consists in uttering each ele- mentary sound of words with exaggerated distinctness. Its purpose is to cultivate the speech organs rather than to give facility in distinguishing words. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 23 11. The Sentence Method consists in presenting an entire sentence as the unit of thoug^ht without refer- ence to the words of which it is composed. 12. It is possible to the same extent that dancing, singing, fencing, etc., may be taught by a tyro in those arts. 13. Articulation is the utterance of the sounds of a lano-uao^e. 14. Spell by sound with decided force and distinct- ness such words as contain many unharmonious sounds ; as, peremptory^ legible,, mangled^ st, obligatory , 15. Quality, Force, Stress, Pitch, and Movement are called Essential Elements, because they are found in the utterance of every sentence. 16. Resonance in reading me ans the location whence the sound appears to come. 17. Quality of Voice is the nature, character or kind of tone used. 18. Normal and Abnormal Qualities. The Normal qualities are Pure Tone and Orotund. The Abnormal qualities are Plaintive, Pectoral, Guttural, Aspirate, Nasal, and Falsetto. 19. (a) The Pure Tone is a clear, smooth, musical tone free from any aspiration or harshness, {b) The Orotund is the Pure Tone deepened and intensified to its utmost mao^nitude, with the resonance in the chest, (c-) The Plaintive is a thin, feeble tone, with the reso- nance in the forward part of the mouth. (fZ) The Pectoral is a rough, harsh, husky, hollow tone resem- bling the Orotund, (e) The Guttural is a grating, 24 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS OiV READING. rattling, discordant sound produced by a rigid com- pression of the muscles of the throat. 20. Different qualities arise from the ever changing sentiments that animate the human mind, and the varied physical conditions to which the body is con- stantly subjected. 21. The Pure Tone is employed to express solemn, serious, tranquil, narrative, descriptive, and didactic thought. The Orotund is used to express earnest, bold, grand, and lofty thought and emotions of grandeur, rever- ence, and sublimity. The Plaintive Quality expresses feebleness, exhaus- tion, languor, and affectation. The Pectoral is used to express sorrow, dread, solemnity, awe, remorse. The Guttural indicates fierce anger, hatred, con- tempt, scorn, loathing, malice, detestation. The Aspirate is used in the expression of secrecy, surprise, fear, caution, and expiring life. 22. Force is the degree of energy with which sound is sent forth from the vocal organs. It is not loudness. 23. Stress is the application of force to some par- ticular part of a syllable or word. It is not accent. Accent includes the entire syllable. 24. Pitch is the degree of elevation or depression of sound. Its natural divisions are Middle, High, Low. 25. Compass is the range of voice above and below the Key-note. ANSWERS TO QUESXfbNS ON READING. 25 26. Movement is the degree of rapidity with which sounds are uttered in continued discourse. Its divi- sions are Moderate, Rapid, Slow. 27. Quantity is the time occupied in the utterance of single syllables or words ; its divisions are Medium, Long and Short. 28. Radical, Median, Final, Compound, Thorough, and Intermittent. 29. Slides, sometimes termed Inflections, are changes of pitch either upward or downward on a single sound. Waves are compound movements of voice, embracing sometimes combinations of several slides. 30. Slur is a smooth, rapid and subdued movement of voice over certain phrases and clauses of less im- portance than others with which they stand associated. 31. Emphasis is the peculiar utterance of words, phrases, and clauses which renders them specially sig- nificant or prominent. It is effected by a change of Quality, Force, Stress, Pitch or Movement from the prevailing element. 32. Absolute Emphasis makes prominent some word or phrase regardless of its relation to other ideas con- tained in the sentence ; while Antithetic Emphasis ex- presses a contrast between two or more ideas. 33. Cadence is a general lowering of pitch, indi- cating the close of a sentence. 34. The Downward Slide is employed in sentences denoting (1) completeness of thought, (2) determina- tion, (3) certainty, (4) positive and decisive declara- tion, (5) emphatic declaration. 26 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 35. The Upward Slide is employed in sentences de- noting (1) incompleteness of thought, (2) indifference, (3) uncertainty, (4) doubt, (5) contingency, (6) negation. 36. The Waves, of which there are nearly two hundred varieties, are used in the expression of con- trast, double meaning, insinuation, wit, jest, drollery, irony, sarcasm, sneer, and contempt. 37. (a) Personation consists in representing the peculiarities of two or more persons in speaking.- (/>) The skillful personation of different characters requires a careful study of their peculiar temperaments, condi- tions, and circumstances, and the application of the appropriate vocal and facial expression. 38. The Monotone consists in the utterance of several successive words with the same elements, as quality, force, stress, pitch, and movement. 39. Grammatical pauses are the punctuation marks used to denote the grammatical relation of words and sentences, thus enabling the reader to understand the same; while rhetorical pauses are temporary suspensions of voice used to give effect to ex- pression. 40. (a) A Climax is a sentence or a succession of sentences so arranged that each idea rises in impor- tance, force, or dignity above that which precedes it. (&) It should be read with a gradual increase of inten- sity of all the vocal elements. 41. Transition is a change in the manner of ex- pression in obedience to the change of sentiment. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 27 42. (a) A Series is a succession of particulars hav- ing the same grammatical construction, (b) There are two kinds : the Commencing and the Concluding. 43. Modulation is the ready and perfect adaptation of the appropriate elements of speech to the sentiments designed to be conveyed. 44. Grouping is the skillful arrangement of words, phrases, and sentences, with regard to the elements employed in their delivery, into such groups as shall render their meaning clear, pleasing, and effective. 45. Words having the Upward Slide sometimes re- ceive the Downward Slide when emphasized. 46. A Parenthetic Clause is one thrown in to ex- plain, or it expresses something said aside from the o-eneral discourse. It should be read with a lower pitch and a more rapid movement than the other parts of the composition. 47. (a) A distinct articulation, correct respiration, control of voice, and graceful attitudes and action. {b) Careless articulation, unpleasant tones, and un- gainly attitudes. 48. To develop the power of grasping thought and to secure proper oral expression of written language. 49. That reading which inspires the hearer with emotions similar to those sensations one experiences while listening to the skillful recital of interesting events witnessed by the narrator, may be considered *' excellent." QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 1. What are the principal positions at the desk ? 2. Describe the correct manner of holding the pen? 3. What movements are employed in penmanship? 4. Which of the various movements is regarded best for general business purposes? 5. What should be the tirst lesson in writing with a pen? 6. Explain the following terms used in writing : (a) Base line, (b) Head line, (c) Intermediate line, (d) Top line, (e) Space. 7. (a) Define Main Slant, (6) Connective Slant. 8. From what authority is derived the Main and Connective Slants. 9. What is the unit for measuring the height and width of letters? 10. (a.) How many principles are employed in the Spencerian System ( or any other with which you may be familiar) in writing? (b.) Give their descriptive names. 11. How should the paper be placed upon the desk while writing? 28 QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 29 12. Into how many and what classes are the small letters, divided? 13. State the heights of the three classes of small letters. 14. Name in alphabetical order (a) the short letters, (b) the semi-extended letters, (c) the loop letters. 15. (a) Which is the longest of the small letters? (b) Which is the widest? 16. Where is the beginning of the small letters? 17. Where are the small letters finished? 18. At what point do the extended loops above the base line cross? 19. How far below the base line do the loops in g, j, etc., extend? 20. What is the height of the capitals above the base line? 21. What principles or elements are most prominent in the formation of the capitals ? 22. What distinc^on should be made between I and J? 23. What is the general rule for spacing and com- bining small letters ? 24. (a) What is the general rule for spacing be- tween words composed entirely of small letters? {b) Eule for spacing between sentences ? 25. State and illustrate the different forms of shaded strokes used in writing. 26. What is the height of the fiojures in medium handwriting ? 30 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 1. Front, Left Oblique, Eight, and Right Oblique. 2. Take the pen between the first and second fin- gers and the thumb, observing, 1st, that it crosses the second finger on the corner of the nail ; 2d, that it crosses the forefinger forward of the knuckles; 3d, that the end of the thumb touches the holder opposite the lower joint of the forefinger; 4th, that the top of the holder points toward the iHght shoulder \ 5th, that the wrist is above the paper, and the hand resting lightly upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers ; 6th, that the Doint of the pen comes squarely to the paper. 3. The Finger Movement, the Fore Arm, the Whole Arm, the Combined Fore Arm and Finger, and the combined Whole Arm and Finger Movements. 4. The Combined Fore Arm% and Finger move- ment. 5. Correct position and pen holding. 6. (a) The Base line is the horizontal line, real or imaginary, on which the letters rest. (5) The Head line marks the height of the shortest letters, (c) The Intermediate line marks the height of the semi-ex- tended letters t, d, and p. {d) The Top line marks the height of the extended loop letters b, 1, f, etc. ( (^ ) A space in height is the height of the shortest let- ters a, e, i, etc. A space in width is the distance be- tween the straight lines of small xi. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 31 7. (a) The main Slant is that given to the main or downward strokes ; it forms an angle of about 52° with the horizontal. (6) The connective slant is that which marks the lines connecting the downward strokes ; it forms with the horizontal an angle of 30°. 8. From the practice of a majority of the best pen- men. 9. The height of small ^ is called a space in height: the distance between the straight lines of small u is called a space in width. 10. (a) Seven principles or elements according to the Spencerian System, (b) They are 1st, a straight line on the main slant; 2d, a right curve, usually on the connective slant ; 3d, a left curve, usually on the connective slant ; 4th, an extended loop, three spaces in height; 5th, the capital O, or direct oval; 6th, the reversed oval; 7th, the capital stem. 11. The paper should be so placed that the right arm makes with the ruled lines a right angle. 12. Three: short, semi-extended, and extended or looped letters. 13. Short letters are one space, except r and 5, which are one and a quarter spaces ; semi-extended, two spaces ; extended or looped, three spaces. 14. (a) The short letters are a, c, e, i, m, n, o, 7-, 5, u, Vj w, x; (6) The semi-extended letters are d, p, q, t; (c) The loop letters are 5,/, g, h,j, h, I, y, z, 15. (a) /is the longest; (h) m is the widest. 16. On the base line. 17. At the head line. 32 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 18. At the head line. 19. The loop? extend two spaces below the base line. 20. Three spaces. 21. The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh, according to the Spencerian System. 22. The J should extend two spaces below the base line. 23. The connecting curve should be carried one and one-quarter spaces to the right of the preceding letter. 24. (a) The first curve Should begin on the base line one and one half spaces to the right of the final downward stroke of the preceding word, (b) The spaces between sentences should be twice as great as between words. 25. Five forms of shaded strokes are used ; they are exemplified in the letters t, p, Z, y, O. 26. One and one-half spaces, except the 6, which extends one-half space above, and the 7 and 9 which continue one-half space below the other figures. QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 1. Define the following terms: (a) Mathematics, (b) Arithmetic, (c) Integer, (d) Fraction, (e) Math- ematical Sign. 2. State the difference between an abstract and a concrete number, and illustrate. 3. What is the difference between a Simple and Compound Number? Illustrate. 4. Define the following: (a) A Power, (6 j A Root, (c) Demonstration, (cZ) An Axiom, (e) Analysis. 5. Name the fundamental operations in Arithmetic. 6. Why are ten figures used in the Arabic no- tation ? 7. What systems of notation are in general use? 8. Name the ^ve principles upon which the Roman notation is founded. 9. State the difference between the simple and local value of a figure. 10. Why, in adding, do we begin at the right ? 11. Why are the minuend, subtrahend and difference like numbers ? 12. Why must the multiplier be an abstract number? 3 33 34 QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC4 13. What is the difference between long and short division ? 14. Why do we begin at the left in division. 15. How find the true remainder by dividing by factors ? 16. Define the following: (a) Prime Factor, (h) Composite number, (c) Reciprocal of a number, {d) Cancellation, (e) Multiple of a number. 17. On what principle may we cancel the factors in the operation of cancellation ? 18. What is the difference between the G. C. D. and L. C. M. of two numbers? 19. How does the unit of a fraction differ from a fractional unit? 20. Define the following terms: (a) Fraction, {h) Common Fraction, (c) Proper Fraction, (d) Improper Fraction, (e) Simple Fraction. 21. (a) What is a Compound Fraction? (6) What does it indicate? (c) What is its sign? 22 . {a) Define a Complex Fraction . {b) What does it indicate ? 23. Give the meaning of the following terms : (a) Denominator, (h) Numerator, (c) Terms of a Frac- tion, {d) The value of the Fraction, (e) Mixed Number. 24. What is the Reciprocal of a Fraction? 25. Show how the general principles of division apply to fractions. 26. How is the G. C. D. of fractions found? 27. How is the L. C. M. of fractions found? QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 35 28. Upon what principle does the inversion of the divisor depend ? 29. In what case may we add two fractions by writing the sum of the denominators over their product, in the form of a fraction? 30. By what must we multiply a fraction, to have its numerator for the product ? 31. Are the powers of a proper fraction greater or less than the fraction itself ? Why ? 32. (a) Is there such a thing as a prime fraction? (h) Can two fractions be prime to each other? (c) What kind of fraction must the G. C. D. of two or more proper fractions be? (f7) Can a fraction or mixed number be properly called a common divisor of two integers? (e) Wliat relation subsists between the G. C. D., L. C. M. and product of two num- bers ? 33. What is a Decimal Fraction, and in how many ways may it be written? Illustrate. 34. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure depend ? 35. State the effect of prefixing or annexing ciphers to decimals. 36. What is the denominator of a aecimal? 37. How does a Mixed Decimal differ from a Mixed Decimal number? 38. Why does the product of two decimals contain as many decimal places as both multiplicand and multiplier? 36 QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC; 39. Define the following terms: («) A Finite Deci- mal, (5) A Circulating Decimal, (c) Kepetend, ((7) A Pure Circulating Decimal, (e) A Mixed Circulating Decimal. 40. State the difference between an Account and a Bill. 41. What is the Metric System of measurement ? 42. What are the principal units of the Metric system ? 43. Name the prefixes employed with the metric denominations, distinguishing those used as multiples from those used as divisors. 44. M^hat is a Measure? How established? 45. What is the standard unit of value in the United States ? 46. State the standard unit of the following: (a) weight, (6) length, surface and volume, (c) capacity, (d) angles, (e) time. 47. Define the following terms: (a) A Line, (b) Surface, (c) Angle, (^d) Square, (e) A Cube. 48. (a) What is the difference between a square yard and a yard square? (b) Between three square yards and three yards square ? 49. (a) How many cubic inches in a wine gallon? (b) Cubic inches in a bushel? (c) How many feet in a mile? (d) How many square rods in an acre? (e) What is the value of a Pound Sterling in U. S. Money ? 50. What is a Gunter's Chain? Why so called? QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 37 51. How are the public lands of the U. S. divided and subdivided ? 52. State the number of pounds in a bushel of wheat ; a bushel of corn ; a bushel of oats ; a bushel of clover seed ; a bushel of potatoes. 53. How many pounds or ounces make a cubic foot of water ? 54. For what are the following measures and weights used: Linear Measure? Square Measure? Cubic Measure? Liquid Measure? Dry Measure? Troy Weight? Avoirdupois Weight? Apothecaries Weight ? Circular Measure ? 55. Compare the pound Troy with the pound Avoir- dupois. 56. Which is heavier, a pound of butter or a pound of silver? 57. As regards quantity, what is the difference be- tween a pint of chestnuts and a pint of claret ? 68. What are duodecimals? 59. Define the following terms : (a) Eatio, (b) The Terms of a Ratio, (c) Antecedent and Consequent, (fZ) A Simple Ratio, (e) A Compound Ratio. 60. What is a Simple Proportion? 61. What is Percentage ? 62. Name and define the elements involved in per- centage. ^ 63. Give short rules for the five cases of percentage. 64. Name the Applications of Percentage. 65. Define Profit and Loss, Commission, Consign- ment, Consignee, Consignor, Net Proceeds. 38 QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 66. What is the difference between a company and a corporation ? 67. What is a charter? 68. Explain the terms at par, above par, heloio par, 69. Define the following: (a) Installment, (b) As- sessment, (c) Dividend, (^d) Gross Earnings, (e) Net Earnings. 70. Name and define the U. S. Securities. 71. In what kind of money is the interest on bonds payable? 72. What is Insurance? 73. Name and define the different kinds of insur- ance. 74. What is a tax? 75. What are Duties? How many and what kinds? 76. What is the meaninor of Tare? Leakage? Breakage ? 77. Distinguish between Simple and Compound In- terest ? 78. Explain the difference between true and bank discount ? 79. What is Exchange? 80. What four parties may there be to a transaction in exchange ? 81. What is the Indorsement of a bill? 82. What is the Acceptance of a bill ? 83. What is the Equation of Payments? 84. State the difference between Simple and Com- pound Partnership. 85. What is Alligation Medial? QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 39 86. What is Alligation Alternate? 87. What reason may be given for a higher rate of interest being allowed in the new States than in the old? 88. How much longer will it take $100 at interest to double itself at 6 per cent., than it will $50? 89. What is the difference between Involution and Evolution ? 90. How does the Square of a number differ from its Square Root? 91. What is a Surd? Illustrate. 92. Distinguish Exponents from Indices. 93. State the difference between an Arithmetical Progression and a Geometrical Progression. 94. Name the elements of an arithmetical progres- sion, and write the symbol by which each is commonly designated. 95. What are, the elements and symbols of a geom- etrical series ? 96. {a) How find the area of a triangle when the base and altitude are given? (b) When the three sides are given? 97. How find the area of a trapezoid when its par- allel sides and altitude are given ? 98. How find the area of a trapezium, when the diagonal and perpendiculars are given ? 99. (a) How do you find the circumference? {h) The diameter? (c) The area of a circle? {d) The lateral surface of a prism or a cylinder? (e) The con- tents of a prism or a cylinder? 40 QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 100. How is the contents of a pyramid or a cone found ? 101. (a) How do you find the surface of a sphere? (b) The solidity of a sphere? 102. What is Gauging? 103. What must be a dealer's asking and selling prices of an article costing $7.20, in order that he may fall 20 % from his asking price, allow 10 % for delayed payments, and still make 20 % ? 104. If A. 's money is 20 % more than B.'s, B.'s money is what per cent, less than A.'s? 105. Bacon which costs 12 cents a pound wastes 15 % before it is sold; at what price per pound must it be sold to gain 25 per cent. ? 106. An article lost 10 % by wastage, and is sold for 30 % above cost ; what is the gain per cent. ? 107. Sent $5,128.05 to a broker in Cincinnati, with directions to purchase pork at $12 V2 per bbl., to in- sure it for 60 days at 15 cents a $100, to pay storage at 5 cents a bbl. for 10 days, and to deduct his com- mission of 2 % on the money expended. How many barrels of pork did he buy ? 108. Bought by Avoirdupois weight 10 lbs. of opium at 45 cents an ounce and sold the same by Troy weight at 50 cents an ounce ; how much was gained or lost? 109. Sold wheat at 2V2 % commission ; invested 2/3 of its value in coffee at IV4 % commission ; remitted the balance, $623. What was the value of the wheat, the coffee, and my separate commissions? QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 41 * 110. I wish to line the carpet of a room 21 feet wide and 24 feet long with canvas Vs of a yard wide. If the lining shrink 8 % in length and 5 % in width, how many yards must I buy ? 111. Sold some hemp on a commission of 5 %, in- vested the net proceeds in flour, commission 2 % ; my whole commission was $210; what was the value of the hemp and the flour? 112. If the relative value of oak wood to spruce is as 3 to 1, and that of spruce to pine as 7 to 9, how many cords composed of spruce and pine in equal parts will equal 60 cords of oak? 113. A citizen donated 3 acres of land, which was three-eio^hths as wide as lono- to a school district; what were its dimensions in feet? 114. An agent took a risk at 1^/4 % and reinsured Vs of it at 2V4 %, and V^ of it at IV2 %; what rate of insurance does he get on the remainder? 115. A draft payable in 30 days after sight, was bought for $352.62, exchange being IV2 % discount, and interest 6 % ; what w^as its face ? 116. A., B., and C. are partners; A. 's stock $8,000, B.'s $12,800, C.'s $15,200; A. and B. together gain $1,638 more than C. ; what is the gain of each? ^ il7. A. received of B. 700 lbs. of hides to tan at 6 cents per lb. tanned, and was to take his pay in green hides at 9 cents per lb. A. returned to B. 500 lbs. of tanned leather, and as th^re was 25 % waste in tanning, how many lbs. of raw hides must B. send to A. to pay him for his trouble? , 42 QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. . 118. The stocks of three partners, A., B., and C, are $350, $220, and $250, and their gains $112, $88, and $220 respectively. Find the time that each man's stock was in trade, B.*s being in two months longer than A.'s. 119. The amount of my capital for a certain time at 4 % is $360, and for the same time at 7 % is $405 ; required the principal and the time. 120. Sold a horse and carriage for $597, gaining 25 % on the horse and 10 % on the carriage. What was the cost of each, provided ^A of the cost of the*horse equals 2/3 of the cost of the carriage? 121. If 248 men in 5^/2 days of 11 hours each dig a trench that is 7 degrees of hardness, 232V2 ft. long, 32/3 ft. wide, and 2V3 ft. deep; m how many days of 9 hours each, will 24 men dig a trench that is 4 degrees of hardness 337V2 ft. long, 52/3 ft. wide, and 31/2 ft. deep? 122. Three-fifths of the cost of a house increased by V5 of the cost of the farm for two years at 5 %, amounts to $4,950. What was the cost of each, if % of the cost of the house equals 2/7 of V5 of the cost of the farm? 123. An agent sold a quantity of coffee on a cgm- mission of 6 %, and invested the net proceeds in pork at 5 %. His whole commission was $440 ; what was the value of the pork ? 124. A. and B. hav« an annual income of $400 each. A. spends each year $40 more than B. ; at the end of 4 years they both together have a sum equal to the income of either. What do they spend annually? ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 43 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 1. {a ) Mathematics is the ccience of quantity, (b) Arithmetic is the Science of numbers and the Art of computation, (c) An integer is a number composed of whole or integral units, (d) A fraction is a num- ber which expresses equal parts of a whole thing, (e) A Mathematical sign is a character indicating the rela- tion of numbers, or an operation to be performed. 2. An Abstract number is one whose unit is not named; as, 3, 4, 6, etc. A concrete number is one whose unit is named; as, 4 boys, 3 books, 6 apples. 3. A simple number is either an abstract number or a concrete number of but one denomination; as, 27, 28 days. A Compound Number is a concrete number expressed in two or more denominations ; as, 4 days, 8 hours, 28 minutes. 4. (a) A Power is the product arising from multi- plying a number by itself one or more times, (b) A Root is the factor repeated to produce a power, (c) A Demonstration is a process of reasoning by which a truth or principle is established, (d) An Axiom is a self-evident truth, (e) Analysis is the process of in- vestigating principles and solving problems independ- ently of set rules. 5. Notation and Numeration, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division. 6. Because in any scale of numbers there are as man}^ characters as are required to make any given 44 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. number of units equal one unit of the next higher or- der. In the Arabic notation ten units equal one unit of the next higher order. 7. The Koman and the Arabic. 8. 1st. Repeating a letter repeats its value ; as, XX equals twenty. 2d. A letter of any value placed after one of greater value adds its value to that of the greater; as, XXI equals twenty-one. 3d. A letter of any value placed before one of greater value takes its value from that of the greater; as, IX equals nine. 4th. A letter of any value placed between two of ofreater value takes its value from the sum of the two greater; as, XIX equals nineteen. 5th. A bar or dash placed over a letter increases its value one thousand fold ; as, V equals five thousand. 9. The simple value of a figure is its value when standing alone or in unit's place. The local value is its value arising from the order in which it stands. 10. We begin at the right because we can shorten the operation by adding the terms of each order, as we reach it, the units of that order (if any) contained in the sum of the terms of the next higher order. 11. Because, since the minuend and subtrahend have the same denomination, their difference expresses sim- ply the excess of like units in the minuend above those in the subtrahend. 12. Because the multiplier shows how many times the multiplicand is taken additively. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 45 13. In short division the several products are sub- tracted mentally y and the remainder is each time men. tally prefixed to the next figure of the dividend for a partial dividend; in long division the entire work is written. 14. We begin at the left in division because the re- mainder in dividing any pa,rt of the dividend must be less than the divisor, and it can be divided only by be- ing expressed in units of a lower order. 15. Multiply each remainder, except the^?'5^ by all the divisors preceding its own. The sum of these products and the first remainder will be the true re- mainder. 16. (a) A Prime Factor is one that cannot be separated into two or more factors, {b) A Com- posite number is the product of two or more factors, each of which is greater than 1. (c) The Reciprocal of a number is one divided by that number. (tZ) Can- cellation is a process of shortening division by reject- ing equal factors from divisor and dividend, (e) A multiple of a number is one which is exactly divisible by that number. 17. That dividing both divisor and dividend by the same number does not change the value of the quo- tient. When terms are cancelled they are divided by the same factor. 18. The Greatest Common Divisor of two or more numbers is the greatest number which will exactly di- vide them; as, 9 is the G. C. D. of 18, 27, and 3G. The Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers is 46 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. the least number which can be exactly divided by each of them; as, 36 is the L. C. M. of 9, 12, and 18. 19 The Unit of the Fraction is the unit or thing di- vided; as, the unit of the fraction of an apple is one apple. A fractional unit is one of the equal parts into which the unit is divided; as, one-third is the frac- tional unit of thirds. 20. (a) A Fraction is one or more of the equal parts of a unit, (b) A Common Fraction is one expressed in figures by two numbers, one written over the other with a line between them, (c) A Proper Fraction is one whose numerator is less than its denominator. (cZ) An Improper fraction is one whose numerator is equal to or greater than its denominator, (e) A Sim- ple Fraction is a fraction not united with another, and both of whose terms are integers. 21. (a) A Compound Fraction is a fraction of a fraction; as, Vs of ^A. (6) It indicates multiplica- tion, (c) Its sign is of or X • 22. (a) A Complex Fraction is one having a frac- tion in one or both of its terms; as -. (6) It in- dicates division. 23. (a) The number of equal parts into which the unit is divided is called the Denominator, because it names the parts, (b) The number of parts taken is called the Numerator, because it numbers the parts. (c) The Terms of a fraction are the numerator and denominator. (cZ) The value of a fraction is the ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 47 quotient of the numerator divided by the denominator. (e) A Mixed Number is a whole number and a frac- tion expressed together. 24. The Fraction Inverted. 25. 1st. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the denominator multiplies (lie fraction. 2nd. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the denominator divides the fraction. 3rd. Multiply mg or dividing both terms of a frac- tion by the same number does not alter its value. 26. Find the G. C. D. of the numerators and the L. C. M. of the denominators. 27. Find the L. C. M. of the numerators and the G. C. D. of the denominators. 28. Inverting the terms of the divisor and multi- plying the numerators for a new numerator and mul- tiplying the denominators for a new denominator, is the same as reducing the fractions to a common de- nominator, and dividing the numerator of the dividend by the numerator of the divisor. 29. When the numerator of each fraction is one. 30. By its denominator. Ex. 2/3X3=2. 31. They are less. The continued product of the numerator by itself, divided by the continued pro- duct of the denominator by itself, will give a quotient less than the numerator of the fraction divided by its denominator. 32. (a) No. (6) No. (c) A proper fraction. (d) Yes. (e) The product of the G. C. D. and L. C. M. equals the product of the two numbers. 48 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 33. A Decimal Fraction is a fraction whose denomi- nator is some power of ten. It may be written in three ways: 1st. Bywords; as, two-tenths. 2nd. By writino^ the denominator under the numerator, as a common fraction ; as, Vio. 3rd. By omitting the de- nominator and writing the fraction in a decimal form ; as, .3. 34. The value of a decimal figure depends upon the place it occupies at the right of the decimal sign. 35. Prefixing a cipher to a decimal diminishes its value tenfold, because it removes every decimal figure one place to the right. Annexing a cipher to a deci- mal does not alter its value, because it does not alter the place of any figure in the decimal. 36. The denominator of a decimal, when expressed is the unit 1, with as many ciphers annexed as there are places in the decimal. 37. A Mixed Decimal is a decimal ending at the right with a common fraction ; as, .GVs. A Mixed Decimal Number is an integer and a decimal written together as one number; as, 5.8. 38. Since the denominator of the product of two fractions is the product of their denominators, this must contain as many decimal places as the two de- nominators combined. 39. (a) A Finite Decimal terminates with the fig- ures written; as, .25. (b) A circulating Decimai contains a figure or set of figures repeated an unlimited number of times; as, .56731. (c) The repeated fig- ure or figures are called the Repetend. (d) A pure ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 49 Circulating Decimal is made up wholly of a repetend ; as, .1546. (e) A Mixed Circulating Decimal is a decimal in which the repetend is preceded by one or more figures, which form what is called the finite part. 40. An Account is a record of items of debt and credit between parties. A Bill is a written statement of goods sold or delivered, services rendered, with the price, quantity and cost annexed to each item. 41. The Metric System is a decimal system of weights and measures, having the meter for its base or unit. 42. The Metevy Liter, and Gram. To these are added, for square and cubic measures, the Ar and Ster. 43. The names of the higher denominations are formed by prefixing to the name of the unit, the Greek numerals, Deka, (10), Hekto, (100), Kilo, (1,000), Myria, (10,000). The lower denominations are formed by prefixing to the name of the unit the Latin ordinals, deci, (Vio), centi, (Vioo), milli, (Viooo). 44. A measure is a standard unit, established by law or custom, by which the length, surface, capacity, and weight of things are estimated. 45. The American dollar. 46. (rt) Of weight, the Troy Pound. (5) Of length , the linear yard ; for ordinary surface the Square Yard ; for land, the Acre; for volume in general, the Cubic Yard; for wood, the Cord, (c) The unit of capacity is the Gallon for fluids, and the Bushel for 4 50 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. dry substances, (d) The unit of angles is the Right Angle, or, practically, one degree of a circle, (e) The unit of time is the Day. 47. (a) A Line is that which has length only, (b) A surface is that which has length and breadth only, (c) An angle is the opening between two lines which meet at a point, (d) A Square is a rectilinear figure which has four equal sides and four right angles, (e) A Cube is a regular solid bounded by six equal squares called its faces. 48. {a) There is no difference, (h) Three square yards are three squares, each 1 yard long and one yard wide, each containing a square yard ; three yards square is a square figure three yards long and three yards wide, and contains 3 times 3 yards, or 9 square yards. 49. (a) 231 cu. inches, {h) 2150.42 cu. inches, (c) 5280 feet in a mile, {d) 160 sq. rods in an acre, (e) $4.8665 equal 1 Pound Sterling. 50., A Gunter's Chain, is 4 rods or QQ feet long, and contains 100 links. It is so called from the name of its inventor. 51. The public lands of the U. S. are dis^ided into Townships, which are subdivided into Sections, Half- Sections, Quarter Sections, etc. 52. The law or custom of most States is as follows: wheat, 60 lbs. ; corn in the ear, 70 lbs. ; oats, 32 lbs. ; clover seed, 60 lbs. ; potatoes, 60 lbs. 53. 62V2 lbs. or 1000 oz. make a cubic foot of water. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC 51 64. Linear measure is used in measuring lines and distances; Square Measure, in measuring surfaces Cubic Measure, in measuring solids and volumes Liquid Measure, in measuring milk, oil, wine, etc. Dry Measure, in measuring grain, fruit, etc. Troy Weight is used in weighing gold, silver, etc. Avoirdupois Weight, in weighing coarse articles as, groceries, hay, etc., and all metals except gold and silver; Apothecaries Weight is used in mixing medi- cines; Circular Measure is used in measuring angles, latitude, heavenly bodies, etc. 65. The pound Troy equals 5760 grains, while the pound Avoirdupois equals 7000 grains. 66. A pound of butter. 67. A pint of chestnuts is one-sixth greater than a pint of claret. 68. The divisions and subdivisions of a unit, result- ing from continually dividing by 12. 69. (a) Ratio is the relation of two like numbers with respect to comparative value. (6) The Terms of a ratio are the two numbers compared. (c) The Antecedent is the first term ; the Consequent is the second term, (d) A Simple Ratio consists of a single couplet, (e) A Compound Ratio is the product of two or more simple ratios. 60. A Simple Proportion is an equality of two sim- ple ratios, and consists of four terms. 61. Percentage is the process of calculating by hun- dredths. 52 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 62. 1st. The Base is the number on which percent- age is computed. 2d . The Rate is the number of hundredths taken . 3d. The Percentage is that part of a number which is indicated by the rate. 4th. The Amount is the sum of the base and the percentage. 5th. The Difference is tlie base less the percen- tage. 63. 1st. Base and rate given to find the percentage: Multiply the base by the rate. 2d. Base and percentage given, to find the rate : Divide the percentage by the bane. 3d. Rate and percentage given, to find the base : Divide the percentage by the rate. 4th. Base and rate given, to find either amount or difference : Multiply the base by 1 plus the rate, for the amount; and by 1 minus the rate for the difference. 5th. Amount or difference and rate given, to find the base : Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate; and the difference by 1 minus the rate. 64. Profit and Loss, Commission and Brokerage, Insurance, Taxes, Duties, Interest, Discount, Equa- tion of Payments, Averaging Accounts, Stocks, and Exchange. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 53 65. Profit and Loss are commercial terms, used to express gain or loss in business. Commission is the fee or compensation of an agent, factor, or commission merchant. A Consignment is a quantity of goods sent to one person to be sold on commission for another person. The Consignee is a person who receives goods to sell for another. The Consignor is a person who sends goods to another to be sold. The net proceeds of a sale or collection is the sum left, after deducting; the commission or other charojes. 66. A company is an association of persons for carrying on some business. Companies may be incor- porated or not. A corporation is a body formed and authorized by law to act as a single person. 67. A Charter is the legal act of incorporation, and defines the powers and obligations of the incorporated body. 68. Stock is at par when it sells for its first cost, or nominal value. R is above par when it sells for more than its nominal value. It is below par when it sells for less than its nominal value. 69. (a) An Installment is a percentage on the par value of the capital stock, required of the stockholders, as a payment on their subscription. (5) An Assessment is a percentage on the par value of the capital stock, required of stockholders, to meet the losses or the business expenses of the company. (c) A Dividend is a sum paid to the stockhold- ers from the profits of the business. 54 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. (c/) Gross Earnings are all the moneys received from the regular business of the company. (e) Net Earnings are the moneys left after pay- ing expenses, losses, and the interest upon the bonds, if there be any. 70. First, Bonds, of which there are two kinds; viz., first, those which are payable at a fixed date known by the rate of interest they hear ; as U. S. 6's ; and, second, those which are payable at a fixed date, but which may be paid at an earlier specified time, as the Government may elect. These are known and quoted by a combination of two dates ; as, U. S. 5-20' s, or a combination of the rate of interest and the two dates ; as U. S. 6's 5-20's; that is, bonds bearing 6 % interest, which are payable in 20 years, but may be paid in 5 years, if the Government so elect. Second, N'otes, of which there are two kinds; viz., first, those payable on demand without interest, known in common language as ** Green Backs;" and, sec- ond. Notes payable at a specified time, with interest, known as Treasury Notes. 71. The interest on bonds is payable in gold. 72. Insurance is security guaranteed by one party to another, against loss, damage, or risk. 73. Fire insurance, against loss by fire. Marine in- surance, against the dangers of navigation. Accident insurance, against casualties. Health insurance, pro- viding a weekly allowance in case of sickness. Life insurance provides a certain sum at the death of the insured, to be paid to some designated party. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 55 74. A Tax is a sum of money assessed on the per- son or property of an individual for public purposes. 75. Duties are taxes levied on imported goods, for the support of government and the protection of home industry. There are two kinds : Ad Valorem Duty and Specific Duty. 76. Tare is an allowance for the weight of the box or other covering that contains the goods. Leakage is an allowance on liquors imported in casks or barrels. Breakage is an allowance on liquors imported in bottles. 77. Simple interest is the sum paid for the use of the principal only. Compound interest is interest on both principal and interest, when the interest is not paid when due. 78. True discount on a fi^iven sum is less than bank discount, for it is a given rate per cent, on a smaller sum than that upon which bank discount is reckoned. True discount is the difference between the present worth and the face of the debt. True discount is reckoned on the present worth, — bank discount is reckoned on the face of the debt. 79. Exchange is a method of making payments at a distance by written orders, called bills of exchange. 80. 1st. The Drawer or Maker, who signs the bill. 2nd. The Drawee, to whom the order is ad- dressed. 3rd. The Payee, to whom the money is ordered to be paid. 4th. The Buyer or Remitter, who purchases the bill. 56 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 81. The Indorsement of a bill is the ivriting upon its back, by which the payee relinquishes his title, and transfers the payment to another. 82. The Acceptance of a bill is the promise which the drawee makes when the bill is presented to him to pay It at maturity. This obligation is usually ac- knowledged by writing the word *' Accepted," with his signature across the face of the bill. 83. The Equation of Payments is the process of finding an equitable time of payment of several sums, due at different times without interest. 84. In Simple Partnership the capital of the several partners is invested for an equal time. In Compound Partnership the capital of the several partners is in- vested for an unequal time. 85. Alligation Medial is the process of finding the average value or quality of a mixture composed of articles of different value or qualities. 86. Alligation Alternate is the process of com- pounding several articles of different values or quali- ties to form a mixture of an average value or quality. 87. In the new States capital is less abundant than in the old States. Opportunities for speculation being more favorable in the new than in the old States, money will command a higher rate than where enter- prises are less active. 88. No longer. 89. Involution is the process of raising a given number to a given power. Evolution is the process of ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 57 extractinor the root from a number considered as a power ; it is the reverse of Involution. 90. The Square of a number is its second power. The Square Root of a number is one of the two equal factors that produce the number. 91. A Surd is an indicated root that cannot be ex- actly obtained ; as, \/2r 92. The Exponent of a power is a small figure placed at the right of a figure, to show how many times it is to be taken as a factor. The Index of the root is the figure placed above the radical sign, to de- note what root is taken. 93. An Arithmetical Progression is a series which increases or decreases by a common difference. A Ge- ometrical Profession is a series of numbers which increases or decreases by a common ratio. 94. The elements of an arithmetical progression are five : the first term, a; the last term, I; the com- mon difference, d; the number of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s. 95. The elements and symbols of a geometrical series are, the j^rs^ term, a; the last term, I ; the ratio, r ; the number of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s. 96. {a) Multiply the base by half the altitude. {b) When the three sides are given: From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side respectively ; then multiply half the sum and the three remainders together, and extract the square root of the product. 97. Multiply half the sum of the parallel sides by the altitude. 58 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 98. Multiply the diagonal by half the sum of the perpendiculars to it from the opposite angle. 99. (a) The circumference = the diameter X 3.1416. (b) The diameter = the circumference -J- 3.1416. (c) The area of a circle equals half the circumference multiplied by half the diameter, or the circumference multiplied by one-fourth of diameter. (tZ) The lateral surface of a prism or cylinder equals the perimeter of the base multiplied by the altitude, (e) The contents of a prism or a cylinder equals the area of the base multiplied by the altitude. 100. The contents of a pyramid or a cone equals the area of the base multiplied by one-third of the al- titude. 101. (a) The surface of a sphere equals the circum- ference multiplied by the diameter, (b) The solidity of a sphere equals the surface multiplied by one-sixth of the diameter. 102. Gauging is finding the contents of casks and other vessels. 103. $7.20 X 1.20 = $8.64, Net price. $8.64 -V- .90 =$9.60, Selling price. $9.60 -^ .80 = $12, Asking price. 104. B.'s = 100 % : A.'s = 120 % : Difference 20 % ; .20 --1.20= 16| %. Ans. 105. 125 % of 12 cents = 15 cents ; 100 %— 15 % =85 %; 15 cents -^ .85 = 17j^ cents, Ans. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 59 Or 12 cents ^ .85 = 14^2^ cents, cost of 1 lb. after wastao^e ; 143.2^ cents X 125 % = 17ii cents, Answer. 106. 100 % _ 10 % = 90 %, what remains ; 130 % of 90 = 117, Selling price ; 117 % _ 100 % = 17 % gjiin. Ans. 107. $5128.05 -- (100 % + 2 %) = $5027.50, money to be expended after deducting com. 15 cents on $100 = IJ cents on $12i ; 5 cents storage + 1|- cents Ins. + $121, first cost of pork, = $12.56|, total cost of one barrel of pork. $5027.50 -^ $12,561 = 400 bbls. Ans. 108. 16 oz. X 10 = 160 oz. Av. : 160 oz. X .45 = $72, cost of opium ; 7000 grs. X 10 = 70000 grs. in 10 lbs. Av. ; 70000 ^ 5760 = 12|i lbs. Troy. 12 oz. X 12jJ = 145| oz. Troy; 50 cts. X 145f = $72,91|, Selling price ; $72.91| — $72 = 91| cents, gain. 109. 1| % of I = 1^ of |: I of the value or 66| % + 2J% + 1|% = 70^%: 100— 70^% = 29| % remitted. $623 = 29| %. $623 ^ .29| = $2100, value of wheat, I of $2100 = $1400, expended for cofPee. 2J%of $2100 ^$52.50 com. on wheat. 1|% of $1400 = $24.50, com. on coffee. 60 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 110. 21 ft. = 7 yds., 24 ft. = 8 yds., 100 % _ 5 % = 95 % ; 7 yds. -- 95 % = 7^^ = i_Y yds., required width of lining; 100 % — 8 % = 92 % ; 8 yds. -f- 92 % = 8J| yds. = "^^^ •) required length of lining. W X w -^ I = 96AV yds- ^ns- 111. 100 % _ 5 % = 95 % ; 100 % + 2 % = 102 %. 95 % -f- 102 % = 93^V % . 1.00 — .93/3- =,06|f whole com. : cost of hemp as the base. $210 -^ .06|i = $3060, value of hemp ; 95%of $3060=$2907 ; $2907 -^ 1.02 = $2850, value of flour. Or 1.02-^.95 = 1.07/^; 1.07yV — 1-00= -O^yV' whole com.: cost of flour as the base ; $210.00 -^ .0737_ = $2850, value of flour; $2850 X 1.02 = $2907; $2907 ^ .95 = $3060, value of hemp. 112. Value of 1 C. spruce = i value 1 C. of oak, <« 1 *' pine = f <* 1 ) How and by whom was the passage shortened, and to what extent? QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 177 24. Give names and dates of the first permanent settlements made by the nations engaged in exploring the future United States. 25. (a) What two companies were formed in Eng- land for colonizing America ? (b) What were their respective territorial boundaries ? 26. Relate the circumstances which determined the site of the first permanent English settlement. 27. Why were the first settlers at Jamestown poorly fitted for pioneer life? 28. What delusion among the people of Jamestown impaired the success of their first year's settlement? 29. For what were the three charters granted to Jamestown remarkable? Give their dates. 30. When was the " Starving Time " in Virginia? What was its cause and result? 31. When, where, and by whom convenea, was the first legislative body in America? 32. When was negro slavery introduced into America ? 33. When was the Navigation Act passed? When enforced ? What were its provisions ? 34. State the cause and date of Bacon's Rebellion. 35. Give the dates of the two Indian massacres in Virginia. 36. (a) Who was Pocahontas? (b) What influ- ence had she upon the Jamestown Colony ? 37. When, where, and by whom was New York settled? 12 178 QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 38. Name in order the four Dutch Governors of New York. 39. What people settled Delaware? Under whose auspices? By whom conquered? 40. What is the origin of the term Puritan, as ap- plied to the Plymouth settlers ? 41. (a) What was the character of the Pilgrim set- tlers? (6) How did it fit them to become the founders of a successful colony in the New World ? 42. (a) State the plan of working practiced by the early settlers of America, (b) What were its merits and demerits ? 43. From what religious disturbances did the colon- ists of Massachusetts suffer ? 44. (a) What colonies composed the famous <* United Colonies of New England? " (b) What was the purpose of the Union? 45. When did King Philip's War occur? 46. State the cause and result of King Philip's War. 47. Why was Massachusetts made a Royal Province ? Who was appointed governor ? 48. What social delusion occasioned great excite- ment in Massachusetts in the latter part of the 17th century ? 49. Who settled Connecticut? 50. When was the Pequod War? What was the principal action? How did it terminate? 51. Under whom and by what class of people was Rhode Island settled ? QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 179 52. What is particularly remarkable about the code of laws adopted by Rhode Island ? 53. State what you can respecting general religious persecutions during the 17th century. 54. How did New York come into the possession of the English? 55. By what different sects was Pennsylvania prin- cipally settled ? What reasons can you assign for this ? 56. What were the prominent principles of the laws established in Pennsylvania under the guidance of William Penn? 57. What remarkable feature can you mention in connection with Penn's celebrated treaty with the In- dians? 68. When, where, by whom, and for what purpose was Maryland settled? 59. What were the provisions of the Toleration Act passed by the Maryland Assembly in 1649? 60. How did the religious tolerance of Rhode Island and Maryland differ? 61. Give date and cause of Claiborne's Rebellion. 62. What religious troubles occurred in Maryland? 63. Explain the origin of Mason and Dixon's line. 64. After whom was Carolina named and by whom? 65. What was '* Locke's Grand Model? " 66. By whom and when was Georgia founded and for wdiat purpose ? 67. What restrictions were contained in the early laws of Georgia, and what was the effect? 68. By what people was Charleston largely settled? 180 QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 69. Name four missionaries among the Indians. 70. What was the character of Governor Andros*s administration in New England? 71. Give the dates of the introduction of some of the religious societies in the American colonies. 72. What may be said of educational provisions among the early colonies ? 73. What were the causes of King William's War? 74. What cause can you assign for the Indians usu- ally siding with the French against" the English ? 75. Name the principal actions and their results of King William's War. 7C. What treaty ended King William's War, and how did it affect the American Colonies ? 77. AVhat was the cause and duration of Queen Anne's War? 78. (a) Name the important events of Queen Anne's War. (b) By what treaty and upon what terms was it settled ? 79. State the date, cause and result of Kino^ Georgfe's War. 80. (a) What was the state of feeling between French and English settlers in the middle of the 18th century? (6) How had this condition been brought about ? 81. What was the geographical position of the French and English settlements at the opening of the French and Indian War? How did this compare with their respective claims? QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 181 82. Give some account of the ancestry of Washing- ton. 83. Name the physical, mental, and moral traits which fitted Washington for his destiny. 84. By whom and for what purpose was Wash- ington sent to the French commandant at Fort le Boeuf ? 85. What were the five objective points of the Brit- ish during the French and Indian War ? 86. (a) What gave Fort du Quesne its importance? (b) Who conducted the expedition against this fort? (c) With what result? (d) By whom and when was the fort taken? 87. State the result of expeditions against Louis- burf]^, Crown Point and Ticonderoo^a, and Niao;ara. 88. By what military action was the French and In- dian War terminated? By whom conducted? 89. State the results of the French and Indian War to-(rt) the French; (6) the English; (c) the Colonists. 90. What eminent revolutionary generals received their trainins: in the French and Indian War? 91. What was the population of the American col- onies at the beginning; of the Revolution? 92. What forms of government existed in the colo- nies prior to the Eevolution? 93. Name the Colleges of Colonial times, and state which of these owed its existence to the patronage of the home government. 94. Where and when was the first printing press in America ? The first ^er'tnanent newspaper ? 182 QUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 95. What differences in the customs and manners of the northern, middle, and southern colonies existed in Colonial times? 96. What noted events occurred on the followinonca^a, alligator; Lac- ertilia, lizards; Opliidia, snakes. 66. It is shorter in proportion than in warm blooded vertebrates. The transition from the oesophagus to the stomach is by a pouch-like dilatation. The small intestines have but few coils, and the large intestines are short. Digestion is sluggish. 67. The blood of reptiles is much cooler than in animals or birds. The heart has only three cavities instead of four, two auricles and one ventricle. The arterial blood from the lungs goes into the left auricle, and the venous blood from all parts of the body into the right auricle ; both are poured into the single ven- tricle, thus mixing the pure and impure blood; hence the sluggishness of these animals. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY 319 68. Reptiles having no diaphragm, there is no divi- sion between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and the lungs are not connected with air-sacs placed in various parts of the body. 69. The eyes of reptiles differ but little from those of birds; the hearing is less complete than it is in either mammals or birds ; the sense of smell is but little developed ; while the sense of touch is almost wanting. 70. Ichthyopterygia^ Sauropterygia, Pterosauria, Anojnodontia, Deinosauria. 71. The heart of a serpent has three cavities, — two auricles and one ventricle; while a fish has but two cavities, — one auricle and one ventricle, containing only impure blood. 72. The lower jaw articulates with the skull by means of a quadrate bone, and this in turn is movably jointed to the cranium. The two halves of the lower jaw are loosely united by ligaments and muscles. By reason of this peculiar arrangement serpents have the power of opening the mouth to an astonishing extent. 73. The upper jaw contains a pair of long, curved fangs, which, when not in use, are pointed backward, and concealed in a fold of the gum. Each fang is perforated by a fine tube, connecting with the duct of the *' poison-gland," located under and behind the eyes. When the snake strikes at any object, the poi- son is forced through the fang into the wound, partly by the contraction of the muscles of the glands, and partly by the action of the jaw. 320 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. 74. The alligator in the New World, the crocodile in the Old World. 75. The term '' amphibians " is applied to the Ba- ^rac/^m on account of their " double life," — the tadpole stage passed in water during which they breathe by gills like a fish, and a mature stage passed in air, dur- ing which they breathe by lungs. 76. Anoiira, as frogs and toads; Urodela, as sala- manders and newts; Amphipneusli^a , as siredons; Ajjoda, as the blind worm. 77. Th-e toad is an enormous eater; his daintiest food is the insect tribe that infest the gardens. A half dozen toads in a large garden will devour all the in- sects that destroy the young plants. 78. W^hile respiration in the land vertebrates is per- formed by means of lungs, in fishes it is effected by means of gills ; the limbs of fish corresponding to the locomotive members of land vertebrates are but little developed. Owing to the simplicity of the intestinal canal, digestion in fishes is very rapid. 79. The fins of fish are termed pectorals^ corre- sponding to the fore or anterior limbs of the higher vertebrates; ventrals, corresponding to the posterior limbs, dorsal, on the back; anal, beneath the tail; and caudal, at the end of the tail. 80. Into Salachians (cartilaginous skeleton), as Sharks, Rays; Ganoids (enameled), as Gar-pikes ; Sturgeons ; Telliosts (perfect bone), as Perch, Salmon, Marsipohranchii (pouch gills), as Lampreys, Lan- celet. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. 321 81. The so-called flying of this fish is due to an excessive development of the pectoral fins, by which it is enabled to sustain itself in air for only a few seconds. 82. The A7'ticulata ; the Moll usca ; the Echinoder- mata; the C oelenterata ; the Protozoa. 83. Insecta, as insects; Myriapoda^ as centipedes; Arachnida, as spiders; Crustacea, as lobsters; An- nelida, as worms. 84. The bodies of Articulates consist of a series of transversely jointed rings, more or less movable, com- posed of a substance termed chitine. The external parts are usually hard, and constitute the only skele- ton the animal may be said to have. The limbs, when present, are like the body — composed of jointed rings. Each distinct segment of the body possesses an inde- pendent nerve center, though these are all connected, both with each other and with the outer integument. 85. In the true insects the three divisions of the body, the head, thorax, and abdomen, are always dis- tinct from one another; there are never more than three pairs of legs in the adult, and these are borne upon the thorax ; the abdomen has no locomotive ap- pendages. 86. Breathing in insects is effected by means of air- tubes which branch throughout the animal, and which receive the air through air-holes, arranged along the side or posterior part of the body. The biood is aerated by absorbing air through delicate membranes of the tubes. 21 322 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. 87. The sting is a kind of hollow lancet connected with an internal sac of poison, which the insect injects into the wounds it inflicts when enraged. The oviposi- tor, or piercer, is a jointed tube used for conducting eggs into holes where they are left to be hatched. 88. The food in some insects is chewed by means of mandibles by a horizontal motion ; in others it is mere- ly sucked in, and passes into a more or less folded cavity, termed the crop^ from which it goes into a second muscular cavity or gizzard. The gizzard is adapted for crushing the food, by having, in many cases, teeth-like plates of chitine. From this the food passes into the true digestive organ, termed the chylijic stomach, and thence to the intestine. 89. The metamorphoses comprise three stages. The moth in passing from the ^gg state becomes a larva. If legs are present, the larva is a caterpillar ; if absent, a grub or maggot. In this state the larva is a voracious eater, and grows astonishingly, as may be seen in the common tobacco worm . At growth it usually rolls itself into an apparently lifeless oval or conical body called a pupa or chrysalis. After a time, varying in length in different species, it sheds its pupa covering and comes forth an imago, or perfect insect. 90. 1. Hymenoptera (membrane-winged), bees, wasps. 2. Lepidoptera (scaly-winged), butterflies, moths. 3. Diptera (two-winged), flies, mosquitoes. 4. Coleoptera (sheath-winged), beetles, weevils. 5. Hemiptera (half-winged), harvest-flies, bugs. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS OX ZOOLOGY. 323 6. OrtJioptera (straight-winged), locusts, crickets. 7. JSTeiiroptera (nerve- winged), dragon-flies, ant- lion. 91. They are not. Flies come forth in the imago full grown. The small flies belong to a different species. 92. AranecB, as the spider; Pedipalpi, as the scorpion; Acarina, as the mite, cattle tick. 93. Th3 Arachnids have the head and thorax closely united ; four pairs of legs ; they are without antennse or wings; and, in general, undergo no metamorphosis, but molt their skin six times before coming to ma- turity. 94. The Crustacea (hard covering) are covered with a crust or shell. The body consists of segments, most of which, in the higher orders, are united into one piece, called the cephalo-tJiorax. Most crustaceans live in water, and breathe by means of gills or hranchioe. 95. All Crustaceans have the power of repairino- injuries to themselves. Thus, if a leg or other ap- pendage is broken off another soon grows in its place. 96. As the Crustacean grows it becomes too large for its shell. A rent is formed through the back and the animal slips out, leaving a shell as much like itself as when it encased the living creature. 97. Decapoda, ten-footed, as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp ; Tetradecapoda, fourteen-footed, as wood-lice 324 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. and sand-fleas; Entoniostraca, insect-like, as horse- shoe crabs and barnacles. 98. Most worms multiply by eggs; some by self- division, called germination or fission ; while a few are viviparous. 99. The earth or angle worm eats the organic mat- ter found in the earth. The rejected worm casts too^ether with the burrowing^ and workino^ of the worms over the soil often converts barren wastes into pro- ductive land. 100. (a) The tape worm is without digestive organs or alimentary canal, hence all nourishment is absorbed through the walls of its body. (6) The worm grows by increase in the number of joints near the head, the older ones, containing eggs, ripening and falling away, (c) The detatched joints escaping to the world scatter the eggs, which enter the system of other animals, usually some omnivorous feeder like the hog. Here only the eggs will hatch. The embryo pierces the flesh and becomes hydatids. The meat of such tainted hogs, containing, the larvce of these is eaten raw or insufficiently cooked, and develop in the human system the tape worm. 101. Mollusks are neither jointed nor radiated in their internal structure, but are composed of yielding tissues of great concractile power enveloped by a mus- cular skin called the ma7itle. In most cases the mol- lusk is protected by a hard shell. 102. The circulatory system of the higher orders ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. 325 of the Mollusca consists of a distinct heart, having an auricle and a ventricle, arteries and veins. The auricle receives the colorless aersited blood from the gills, while the ventricle drives it through the body. 103. 1st. The Cephalojxjcla have muscular append- ages or arms around the head, two stout horny jaws; two large eyes ; and the body is sometimes covered by a shell. 2nd. The Gasteropoda have the abdomen provided with a single foot by which all movements are effected. While some are naked, most live in an univalve shell. 3rd. The Acephala or Lamellibran- chiata have no apparent head, and live in a shell com- posed of two valves. 4th. The Tuidcata ov Ascidians have a soft, elastic covering instead of a shell. 5th. The 5/•ac7^^o/?oc?a (arm- footed) have two ciliated arms, the shell composed of two valves, one above and one below opening by a system of muscles instead of hinge ligaments as -in the oyster. 6th. The Pohjzoa grow in clusters, hence the name (many animals). They resemble plants in their general appearance so much as to be sometimes called mass-animals. 104. The Radiata diverge in all directions from a central axis, — they are without ends or sides. The lateral symmetry observed in the higher forms is here replaced by a circular symmetry from the center, similar to the growth of plants, from which resem- blance the radiates are often called plant-animals. 105. The Asteroids force their prey into a cavity on the under side by means of tentacles, when the 326 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. stomach by a peristaltic movement protrudes and en- velopes the food, which by the action of the fluids secreted by the animal, goes through the process of digestion. 106. The Bathyhius, belonging to the Monera, a structureless living albuminous jelly. 107. Consult Tenny's Elements of Zoology or Steel's Fourteen Weeks in Zoology. QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 1. Define Natural Philosophy. Physics. 2. Give the general properties of matter. 3. What are the specific properties of matter ? 4. How does a molecule differ from an atom? 6. Name the great forces in nature. 6. State and illustrate the difference, between cohe- sion iiwd adhesion. 7. In what three forms does matter exist? 8. What is the -difference between annealing and welding? 9. State Newton's Laws of Motion. 10. What is the absolute unit of force? 11. Give the law of reflected motion. 12. What are the two laws of gravitation? 13. («) How does weight decrease above and below the earth's surface. (6) Where is it nothing? 14. Write the three formulas for falling bodies, ex- plaining the characters you employ. 15. How does the initial velocity of a body pro- jected upward compare with the final velocity of a fall- ing body ? 327 328 QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 16. What is meant by the random of a projectile? 17. How far will a body fall in ten seconds? 18. Give the laws of the pendulum. 19. (a) What is the length of a second's pendulum in the United States? (6) Where would it be longer? 20. Explain what is meant by a 10 horse-power en- gine. 21. What are the three general laws of machines? 22. Describe the three classes of levers. 23. Give formulas for the solution of lever problems. 24. With a lever of the first class in which the distance between the power and fulcrum is 4 feet, and the distance from the weight to the fulcrum is 2 feet, how great a weight can be balanced by a man weighing 150 pounds? 25. Write a formula for the wheel and axle. 26. State the law of wheel-work. 27. What is a pulley? How many kinds? 28. How do you find the weight balanced by a given power with a system of pulleys having a continuous rope? 29. Give rules for determining the advantage gained by using an inclined plane. 30. How is the advantage gained by the use of a screw estimated? 31. What means are employed for diminishing the friction between two surfaces ? 32. State the law of liquid pressure. 33. How is the pressure of a hydrostatic press found? QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 329 34. Give a rule for finding the liquid pressure on the bottom of any vessel. 35. How may the pressure of water against the side of a vessel be found ? 36. Upon what property of liquids is the spirit level constructed ? 37. State clearly what is meant by specific gravity? 38. How would you find the sp. gr. of a piece of iron ? 39. Give a rule for finding sp. gr. of a body lighter than water. 40. How is the weight of any substance determined from its specific gravity ? 41. (a) What is the pressure of the air at sea level? (5) How high a column of mercury does this pressure sustain? (c) What height does it raise water in a pump ? 43. Describe and state the uses of the barometer. 43. State the velocity of sound in air and in water. 44. With what velocity will water flow from an opening 64.32 feet below the surface of the water? Give the work, and state the law upon which this is based. 45. How would you determine the volume of water discharged by a river in a given time ? 46. Name the different kinds of water-wheels in use, and state how much of the water power is made avail- able by each . 47. What is Mariotte's law governing the compress- ibility of air? 330 QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 48. Explain the action of the lifting pump. 49. How is the earth's magnetism shown by polar- izing a bar thrust in the ground ? 50. State the law of electric action. 61. What is the velocity of light? 62. How does the intensity of light and heat vary? 63. Give three laws for the refraction of light, 64. Upon what principles are sounds transmitted by the telephone ? 56. Nameand define the methods of diffusion of heat. 66. Upon what facts does the action of the ther- mometer depend? 57. How much steam will a cubic foot of water make? 68. Give the law of thermodynamics. 69. How is the vibrating movement of the piston in a steam-engine produced? 60. How do images appear in convex mirrors? 61. Name the different kinds of lenses. Into what two classes may they be divided ? 62. Explain how objects are perceived by the organs of the eye. 63. A, who can row 6 miles an hour in still water, heads his boat straight across a stream flowing 4 miles an hour: how far and with what velocity does his boat move to reach the opposite shore, if the stream is 4 miles wide? 64. A body weighs 50 lbs. at the earth's surface; what is its weight 500 miles below the surface ? 65. What would be the difference in weight of a QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 331 100 lb. ball 1000 miles above the earth's surface and 1000 miles below the surface? 66. How far above and below the earth's surface should a Troy pound be taken to weigh 3 ounces? 67. How far will a two-pound weight fall during (a) the fourth second of its descent? (b) What will be the entire distance fallen ? (c) With what velocity will it strike the earth? 68. A body is thrown directly upward with a veloc- ity of 112.56 feet; (a) What velocity will it have at the end of the fourth second? (6) In what direction is it moving? 69. What will be the time of vibration of a pendu- lum 30 inches long, and how many vibrations will it make in a minute? 70. How long must a pendulum be to beat once in 22/3 seconds ? 71. A pendulum 5 feet long makes 400 vibrations during a certain time; how many vibrations will it make in the same time after the pendulum rod has been expanded V4 of an inch ? 72. What is the horse-power of an engine that can raise 2000 lbs. 4800 feet in 3 minutes? 73. How long wdll it take a 10 horse-power engine to raise 50 tons 200 feet ? 74. How far can a 20 horse-power engine raise 80 tons in 40 seconds? 75. What weight can be balanced by a lever having the following elements: power arm 7V2 feet, weight arm 8 inches, power 100 lbs.? 332 QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 76. Required the power to balance a weight of 150 lbs., and the class of lever, if the power arm is 3 feet and the weight arm 4 feet. 77. Two men, A and B carry a barrel of flour (weight 210 lbs.) suspended from an 8-foot pole be- tween them, but as B is only Vs as strong as A, it is required to know how far from each the weight should be placed. 78. Where should be the fulcrum of a 5-foot lever so that a weight of 40 lbs. at one end shall be balanced by 8 lbs. at the other? 79. What is the class and leno^th of lever and dis- tance from power to fulcrum of that lever with which a power of 1 kilogram will balance a weight of 4 kilo- grams placed 50 centimeters from the fulcrum ? 80. What power will be required to move the pilot- wheel of a boat if the resistance of the rudder is 80 lbs. and the diameters of the wheel and axle are 4 feet and 8 inches respectively? 81. A weight of 540 lbs. is balanced by 60 lbs. on a wheel 12 feet in diameter; what is the diameter and circumference of the wheel's axle? 82. How much power will be required to draw 10 gallons (80 lbs.) of water from a well with a windlass 12 inches in diameter fitted with a winch 20 inches long? 83. What weight can be balanced by a system of 4 movable and 5 fixed pulleys, the power being 100 lbs. ? QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 333 84. In a system of pulleys of two blocks, each containing 4 sheaves, the friction is Ve the power; required the power which will support 1200 lbs. 85. An inclined plane has a base of 12 feet and a height of 3 feet. What force acting ({/) horizontally, that is parallel to the base, will balance a weight of 3 tons ? (b) What force will be required if the force acts parallel to the plane? 86. A screw whose threads are I/4 of an inch apart is turned by a lever 6 feet long. How great a force will be exerted by a power of 25 lbs., applied at the end of the lever, allowing 200 lbs. for friction? 87. Find the pressure on the base of a cylindrical cistern whose diameter is 5 feet, the water being 6 feet deep. 88. A dam 20 feet high and 100 feet from shore to shore is filled with water ; what is the average pressure ? 89. What is the total liquid pressure on the sides and bottom of a prismatic vessel containing 2 cubic yards of water, the bottom of the vessel being 2 by 3 feet? 90. What is the pressure on the bottom of a pyra- midal vessel filled with water, the base being 3 by 4 feet, and the height being 10 feet? 91. The lever (2nd class) of a hyarostatic press is 8 feet long, the piston rod is one foot from the ful- crum; the area of the tube is V2 square inch, that of the cylinder is 120 square inches. Find the weight that may be raised by a power of 100 lbs. 334 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 92. The temperature of a school-room, as shown by a Fahrenheit's thermoneter, is 68 deg., what tem- perature would be indicated by a Centigrade thermome- ter? By Reaumer's thermometer? 93. What is the specific gravity of a piece of metal which weighs 88.19 ounces in air, and when placed in a vessel even full of water displaces 11 ounces of the liquid? 94. A 16-ounce ball weighs 7 ounces in water, but upon being transferred to another liquid, weighs 11 ounces ; what is the specific gravity of the second liquid ? 95. Find the specific gravity of a piece of ice from the following conditions: a lump of ice weighing 8 lbs. is tied to 16 lbs. of lead. In water the lead alone weighs 14.6 lbs., while the lead and ice in water weigh 13.712 lbs. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1. Natural Philosophy is the science which treats of all those phenomena of matter in which there is no change in the composition of the body. Physics is only another term for Natural Philosophy. 2. Extension, Impenetrability, Weight, Indestructi- bility, Inertia, Mobility, Divisibility, Porosity, Com- pressibility, Expansibility, and Elasticity. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 335 3. Hardness, Tenacity, BritUeness, Malleal)ility, Ductility. 4. A moleule is the smallest particle of matter that can exist by itself; while an atom is the smallest parti- cle of matter that can enter into composition. 5. Internal or Molecular Forces, Attraction of Gravitation, Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, Vi- tal Force. 6. Cohesion is the force which holds together like molecules ; adhesion is the force which holds together unlike molecules. Cohesion preserves the forms of bodies, as the parts of a stone, while adhesion holds the crayon marks to the blackboard. 7. In the solid, the liquid, and the gaseo'ns forms. 8. Annealing is the process of rendering metals, glass, etc., soft and flexible by heating and gradually cooling. The process of welding is the union by cohe- sion of two pieces, of iron or platinum by heating and hammering them together. 9. First Law. A body unaffected by any exter- nal force continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. Second Law. A force produces the same effect whether the body on which it acts is at rest or in mo- tion, whether it acts alone or with other forces. Third Law. Action and reaction are equal and in opposite directions. 10. It is the force, which actino^ for a unit of time upon a unit of mass, will produce a unit of velocity. 336 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 11. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and lies in the same plane. 12. 1st. Gravitation varies directly as the mass. 2nd. Gravitation varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centers of gravity. 13. Above the surface of the earth weight decreases as the square of the distance from the center of the earth increases. Below the surface it decreases sim- ply as the distance from the surface toward the center increases. At the center of the earth there is no weight, because the influence of gravity there ceases. 14. V = velocity; s = space fallen each second; S = total distance fallen; g = 32.16 ; t = time; V = gXt; s = V2 g (2t— 1); S = V2 g Xt^. 15. It is the same for any given distance. 16. The random of a projectile is the horizontal dis- tance from its starting point to where it strikes the ground. 17. 8 = 1/2 gXt^; that is V2 of 32.16X10^=1608 feet. 18. 1st Law. Vibrations of small amplitude are made in equal times. 2nd Law. The times of vibrations of two pendu- lums are to each other as the square roots of their lengths. 3rd Law. The lengths of two pendulums are di- rectly proportional to the squares of their times of vi- bration, or inversely proportional to the squares of the number of their vibrations in a given time. 10. (a) 39.1 inches, (b) Toward the Poles. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 337 20. A 10 horse-power engine is one having power to do 10X33,000 foot-pouncls of work in a minute. 21. First. What is gained in intensity of power is lost in time, velocity, or distance. Second. The power multiplied by the distance through which it moves equals the weight multiplied by the distance through which it moves. Third. The power multiplied by its velocity equals the weight multiplied by its velocity. 22. In a lever of the first class the power and weight are at the ends, the fulcrum is between them. In a lever of the second class the power and fulcruvi are at the ends, the weight is between them. In a lever of the third class the weight and fulcrum are at the ends, i\iQ poioer is between them. 23. P (power) : W ( \veight) : : W F (weight arm) : P F (power arm). 24. P: W::WF: PF; 150: X:: 2: 4; whence X = 300 pounds. 25. The power: Weight:: the radius, diameter, or circumference of the axle: the Radius, Diameter, or Circumference of the wheel. 26. The continued product of the power and the radii of the wheels equals the continued product of the weight and the radii of the axles. 27. A pulley is a wheel usually fixed in a block, and turning on its axis by means of a cord running in a groove formed on the edo^e of a wheel. There are two kinds — fixed and movable. 22 338 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 28. Multiply the power by the number of folds of the rope supporting the weight attached to the mova- ble block. 29. P (power) : W (weight):: h (height): 1 (length). This rule applies only when the power acts parallel to the plane. If the power acts parallel to the base, we apply this formula: P: W:: h (height): b (base). 30. A given power will support a weight as many times as great as itself as the circumference described by the power is times as great as the distance between the threads. 31. 1st. By increasing the smoothness between the surfaces. 2nd. By placing some lubricant between the surfaces, as soap and black lead for woods, and oil for metals. 3rd. By making the surfaces of different material . 32. Liquids under the pressure of gravity only, press equally in all directions. 33. Multiply the pressure exerted by the piston by the quotient obtained by dividing the area of the cyl- inder by the area of the piston. 34. Multiply the area of the base in feet by the depth of the water in feet, and this product by 62V2 (the number of pounds in a cubic foot of water). 35. Multiply the area of the side in feet by one-half the height of water in feet, and this product by 62V2. 36. It is constructed upon the property of liquids to assume a horizontal surface. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 339 37. The specific gravity of a body is its weight compared with the weight of an equal volume of an- other body taken as the standard. 38. Weigh the piece of iron in air and in water: divide its weight in air by the loss it sustains by weigh- ing it in water. 39. Attach the lighter body to a piece of metal heavy enough to sink it ; weigh the combination in air and in water. Find the loss of weight of the combined mass when weighed in water. Weigh the heavy body in air and in water, and find the loss. From the loss which the combined mass sustains in water subtract tlie loss which the heavy body alone sustains in water; the remainder will be the weight of water equal to the bulk of the lighter body. Divide the weight of the lighter body by this remainder. 40. Multiply the sp. gr. of the substance by 62 V2 ; the product is the weight of a cubic foot of the sub- stance. 41. (a) 15 pounds per square inch. (&) It sup- ports a column of mercury 30 inches high, (c) Theoretically, it raises water 34 feet : practically about 28 feet. 43. The barometer consists of a straight glass tube about 33 inches long, filled with mercury and inverted in a vessel containing mercury. It is used to indicate changes in the weather, and to measure the heights of mountains. 340 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 43. Sound travels in air, at 32° Fahr., 1,090 feet per second; in water, about 4,700 feet per second. 44. 64.32 feet -^ 16.08 = 4 ; The square root of 4 is 2, the number of seconds; 32.16 X 2 = 64.32 ft., Ans. The law upon which this is based is: The veloc- ity of a stream flowing through an orifice is the same as that acquired by a body falling freely from a height equal to the depth of the liquid. 45. Multiply the area of a cross section of the river's bed by the velocity of the stream, and this product by the time. 46. The undershot wneel, using about 25% of the water power, the breast wheel, about 65 %, the over- shot wheel, about 72 %, and the turbine wheel, using from 80 to 85%. 47. The volume of space which air occupies is in- versely as the pressure upon it. 48. The lifting pump consists of a hollow cylinder, within which is a piston working air-tight. At the lower end of both piston and cylinder is a valve open- ing upward. The cylinder is attached to a tube or ''suction pipe" communicating with the water. As the piston is worked the air below it is gradually re- moved. The downward pressure in the pipe being thus removed, the pressure of the air, exerted upon the surface of the liquid, pushes the liquid up through the suction pipe and the lower valve into the cylinder. When the piston is again pressed down, the lower valve closes, the reaction of the water opens the piston valve, the piston sinking below the surface of the ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 341 water in the cylinder. When next the piston is raised, its valve is closed by the weight of the water, and at the same time the water is lifted toward the spout and thrown out. 49. If an iron bar be placed in the earth and struck a sharp blow upon the upper end, that end becomes polarized. 60. Two bodies charged with like electricities repel each other; two bodies charged with opposite elec- tricities attract each other. 51. About 186,000 miles per second. 62. The intensity of light and heat varies inversely as the square of the distance. 63. First. Light entering a medium at right angles to its surface is not refracted. Second. Light passing obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium is refracted toward the perpendicular. Third. Light passing obliquely from a denser to a rarer medium is refracted /rowz the perpendicular. 64. The sounds uttered cause air waves to beat upon the diaphragm and cause it to vibrate. Each vibration of the diaphragm produces an electric cur- rent in the wire. These currents are transmitted to the coil of the connected telephone, and there produce in the diaphragm of the connected instrument vibra- tions exactly like the original vibrations produced by the voice of the speaker. 55. Heat is diffused in three ways: Conduction, Convection, and Eadiation. Conduction is the trans- fer of heat from molecule to molecule. Convection 342 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. is the transfer of heat by circulation. Radiation is the transfer of heat by waves moving in straight lines in all directions. 56. The action of the mercurial thermometer de- pends upon the facts that heat expands mercury more than it does glass, and that when two substances of dif- ferent temperatures are brought into contact, the warmer one will give heat to the colder one until they have a common temperature. 57. About 1700 cubic feet of steam. 58. When heat is transformed into mechanical energy, or mechanical energy into heat, the quantity of heat equals the quantity of mechanical energy. 59. In a double-acting steam-engine, the steam is admitted by means of sliding valves, to the cylinder alternately above and below the piston. 60. In convex mirrors the images are virtual, erect, and smaller than their objects. 61. The Double-convex, Plano-convex, and Concavo- convex, or meniscus, are thicker in the middle than at the edges; while the Double-concave, Plano-con- cave, and Convex-concave, or diverging meniscus, are thinner in the middle than at the edges. 62. Eays of light entering the eye from an object, are refracted by the cornea and crystaline lens, and made to converge to a focus at the back of the eye, and form an image upon the retina. This image pro- duces a sensation on the optic nerve, and conveys, in some unknown way, to the mind, a perception and knowledjTje of the external object. ans\vt:rs to questions on philosophy. 343 63. (6 mi.)2+(4 mi.)2=:52 sq. mi.; V^=7.21 + mi. velocity. If he rowed with a velocity of 4 mi. an hour he would drift 4 miles, but he rows 6 miles an hour, and therefore drifts ^ or | of 4 miles, or 2| miles. (2|)2+ (4)^ = 23^ ; V^^^ = 4.8 + miles. 64. The weio^ht below the surface : the weisfht at the surface : : the distance from the earth's center : the distance from the center to the surface ; that is w: W:: d: D; X lbs. : 50 lbs. : :3500 mi. : 4000 mi. Ans. 43.75 lbs. 65. w: W :: d :D; a; : 100 : : 3000 : 4000. Weight 75 lbs. below the earth's surface. w: W :: B" '. d^ -, X : 100 :: (4000 )2 : (5000)2. Weight 64 lbs. above the earth's surface. 75 lbs. — 64 lbs. = 11 lbs., difference. Ans. 66. 10 : W : :d : B; 3 : 12 : : aj : 4000. Ans. 1000 miles from the earth's center. IV : W :: B' : d'' ; 3 : 12 :: (4000)^ :y?. X 12 X 16000000 = V^-iOOOOOO = 8000 miles from ^J 3 the center, or 4000 miles above the surface. 67. (a) 16.08 ft.X7 (twice the number of seconds less one) = 112.56 ft., distance fallen during the 4th second; {h) 16.08X16 (the square of the number of 344 ANSAVERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. seconds) = 257.28 ft., the entire distance fallen; (c) 32.16 (gravity) X 4 = 128.64 ft., velocity at the end of the 4th second. 68. 112.56 ft. (initial velocity) -f- 32.16 (gravity) = 3|^ seconds in rising. Since it rises but 3^ seconds, at the end of the 4th second it has been falling ^ sec- ond, and has a velocity of 32.16 X |- or 16.08 ft. 69. 39.1 : 30 : : P : t^, or t = .87 + seconds. Since the pendulum vibrates once in .87 seconds, it will vibrate as many times in one minute, or 60 seconds, as 60 -^ .87+ = 68.9-}-. Ans. 70. 39.1 inches X (2|)2 = 278-h inches. 71. The length of the given pendulum : the length of the pendulum increased by ^ of an inch : : the square of the required number : 400^. 60 inches : 60.25 inches : : x" : 400^. Ans. 399.04-I-. 2000 X 4800 ^^ p. . 72. Horse power = ggQ^Q ^ — 3- = 96.9. Ans. 73. 2000 X 50 X 200 = 20000000 minutes ; 33000 X 10 = 330000 foot pounds; 20000000 min. -^ 330000 = 60|| minutes. Ans. TT Weight X distance ,^, . . ,. 74. Horse power = 33000 x time in minutes. • W. X dis- tance = 33000 X time X H. P. ; that is, (2000 X 80) Xx= 33000 X I [40 sec] X 20. 160000 x = 440000, and X, or the distance, = 2| feet. 75. P:W::Wr:PF; 100 : a? : : 8 in. : 90 in. Ans. 1125 lbs. 76. P:W ::WF: PF; X : 150 : : 4 ft. : 3 ft. Ans. 200 lbs., lever of 3d class. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 345 77. 7 _j_ 8 = i_5^ strength of both compared with A. 210 ^ V = 112 lbs. carried by A ; 210 — 112 = 98 lbs. carried by B. If B acts as fulcrum and A as power, we have P : W : : W F : P F ; 112 : 210 : : x ft. : 8 feet. Performing indicated operation, we have 4y\ feet as the distance the weight is from B ; and 8 — 4^-^ = S\^ feet from A. 78. Since the weight is five times as great as the power, the power arm should be five times as long as the weight arm ; the weight arm plus 5 times the weight arm, or 6 times the weight arm, equals 60 inches, or the weight arm equals 10 inches and the power arm equals 50 inches. 79. The lever may be of the 1st or 2nd class. Of 1st class: P Tw :: WF :PF; 1 ks:. : 4 kcr. : : 50 cm. : x cm. The power arm, or distance from fulcrum to power, is 200 cm., and the length of lever is 200 cm. -f 50 cm. = 250 cm. As a lever of the 2nd class the whole length would be 200 cm. 80. P: W: : d (diam. axle) : D (diam. wheel); x: 80:: 8 inches : 48 inches. Performing operation, cc equals 131; but since the wheel is to be moved, the power must be anything greater than 13^ lbs. 81. P: W:: d: D; 60 : 540 : : x ft. : 12 ft. Diam. axle, li ft. li ft. X 3.1416 = 4.1888 ft., circumference of axle. o 346 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 82. P: W:: cl : D; x: 80: : 12 : 2 X 20; power equals 24 lbs., 83. Since the number of fixed pulleys is one greater than the number of movable pulleys, the number of cords is one greater than twice the number of mova- ble pulleys, or 9 ; and 100 lbs. X 9 = 900 lbs. Ans. 84. 4X2=8, number of cords. 1200 Ib.-^ 8 = 150 lbs.; 150 lbs.— 25 lbs. (deducted for friction) equals 125 lbs. Ans. 85. (a) P : W : : h (height) : b (base) ; X : 6000 : : 3 ft. : 12 ft. Ans. 1500 lbs. (b) (12ft.)-^=144sq. ft. (3ft.)2= 9 sq. ft. 144 + 9 = 153 ; V"!^ = 12.3+ ft. P: W: : h (height): 1 (length) ; x: 6000:: 3 ft: 12.3+ ft. Ans. 1463.4+. 86. 6 X 12 X 2 X 3.1416 =452.3904 inches circum- ference described by power. P : W : : d (distance between threads) : c (circum. ) ; 25: X :: J inch : 452.3904 in. Performing operation, x = 45239.04 lbs. ; subtracting 200 lbs. for friction, we have 45039.04 lbs. Ans. 87. Area of the base equals 19.635 sq. feet. 19.635 X 6 X 62.5 lbs. = 7363.12+ lbs. Ans. 88. 20 X 100 = 2000 sq. ft. 2000 sq. ft. X 10 (half the height) = 20000 cu. ft. ; 62.5 lbs. X 20000 = 1250000 lbs. Ans. 89. The water in the vessel stands (V = ) 9 ft. deep. The sides subjected to lateral pressure have an ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHILOSOPHY. 347 area of [(2 + 2 + 3 + 3) X 9] 90 square feet. 90 X 4| = 405, number of cu. feet in a column producing lateral pressure. There are (2X3X9)54 cubic feet in the vertical column. 405 -f 54 = 459 ; 62^ lbs. X 459 = 286871- lbs. Ans. 90. 3 X 4 X 10 = 120 cu. ft. 62^ lbs. X 120 = 7500 lbs. Ans. 91. The piston will move with a force of (8 X 100) 800 lbs. The area of the cylinder being 240 times greater than that of the piston, the weight will be 240 times 800 lbs., or 192000 lbs., or 96 tons. 92. The differences between the freezing and boil- ing points of Fahrenheit's, the Centigrade, and Reau- mer's thermometers are respectively (212 — 32) 180°, 100^ and 80° ; hence, 1° Fahr. = | C. and | R. Sub- tracting 32° from 68°, we have 36° Fahr. above the freezing point, f of this equals 20° C, and | of it equals 16° R. 93. 88.19 ounces -r- 11 = 8.01 + specific gravity. 94. 16 oz. — 7 oz. = 9 oz. ; 16 oz. — 11 oz. = 5 oz. 5^9=5. Ans. 95. Combined weight in air, 24 lbs. Combined weight in water, 13.712 lbs. Weight of water displaced by ice and lead, 10.288 lbs. Weight of water displaced by lead, 1.4 lbs. Weight of water displaced by ice, 8.888 lbs. Specific gravity of ice (8 -^ 8.888) = .9-|-. Ans. QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 1. Give a comprehensive definition of education. 2. What is the essential process of education? 3. Explain what is meant by the ** natural order of educating the faculties." 4. Show the difference between ** Learning and Education." 5. State as many fundamental educational truths recognized by educators as you can. 6. What three kinds of knowledge should the teacher possess ? 7. Into what three general classes are the mental powers commonly divided? Illustrate. 8. Define the following terms : Perceptive Facul- ties, Conceptive Faculties, Eeflective Faculties, Intui- tion. 9. Explain the distinction between a mental power and a mental faculty. 10. What is included in the '' Theory and Practice of Teaching? " 11. What items are included in the '* History of Education? " 348 QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE, ETC. 349 12. Name the six methods of instruction commonly recognized by educators. 13. Explain the difference between mere teaching and training. 14. State the commonly recognized requisites of a successful teacher. 15. What is meant by ** School Government? " 16. Is it true that good teachers, like true poets, are born, and not made by cultivation ? Give your reasons for your answer. 17. Explain how a good teacher may be a poor educator. 18. Enumerate the means through which the percep- tives are cultivated. With which is the teacher most concerned ? 19. What training should the reflective powers of children under 15 years of age receive? 20. Name the most prominent mental qualities sought in the cultivation of the conceptive faculty. Give your reasons. 21. What course should a teacher pursue during the first day of school ? 22. What items should be included in a teacher's contract? 23. Name four hygienic conditions which should receive daily attention by the teacher. 24. To what extent should a child of average mental power be trained during his first year at school? 25. Name five of the most common methods ii. teachins: children to read. 350 QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE, ETC. 26. Explain the advantages of instruction in phonics. 27. Explain the Word Method of teaching children to read. 28. Give the successive steps usually taken in teach- ing: the Word Method. 29. What should be the teacher's purpose in teach- in": readino:? 30. State how a teacher may learn his pupils' names during the first day of school. 31. Show whether it is or it is not necessary for teachers of the primary and intermediate grades to acquaint themselves with the higher branches. 32. What item should be daily recorded by the teacher? 33. What monthly summary is required to be re- ported by the teacher? 34. Enumerate five of the principal objects of a recitation, 35. Why should physiology and hygiene in some form be taught in all schools? 36. Name one or more studies which call into exer- cise the different faculties. 37. How far and when should the pupil be assisted in the preparation of his lesson? 38. Of what advantages is a daily programme? 39. What can you say regarding a teacher's tones in his school room? 40. Is a marked degree of excellence in the per- formance of reading, writing and arithmetic essential to success in teaching these branches? QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE, ETC. 351 41. Show clearly that the teacher is equally responsi- ble for the physical and moral training of his pupils as for their intellectual training. 42. Name and illustrate the three methods com- monly employed in conducting a school exercise. 43. State four advantages of school records. 44. How is moral responsibility best taught to pupils in school? 45. What methods should be employed in school to train the pupils in oral expression? 46. Is a teacher legally justified in correcting pupils, by punishment or other means, for misconduct on the road to and from school? 47. Is a teacher required to be at his school before the time of opening? 48. Name certain incentives to study which a teacher may not employ. 49. Enumerate what are commonly regarded as proper incentives to study. 50. In what respect are most unsuccessful teachers deficient? 51. Explain the Grube method of teaching numbers. 62. Why should Long Division be taught before Short Division? 53. How should written arithmetic be taught? 54. How should such subjects as long, square and cubic measures be taught? 55. How should dry and liquid measures and weights be taught? 56. What are the two chief purposes in studying the history of one's own country? 352 QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE, ETC. 57. How should writing: be tauo;ht? 58. What is the standard of excellence in teaching penmanship? 59. What are the advantages of oral spelling? 60. State briefly the advantages of written spelling. 61. How should the spelling lesson be prepared? 63. How may a written spelling lesson be most advantageously conducted? 63. Of what value is concert reading? 64. By what names should children in primary and grammar schools be addressed? 65. Of what advantage is the daily record of reci- tations? 66. State fully the disadvantages of keeping a daily record of recitations. 67. Why are pupils required to form lines in enter- in": iind leavinsr school buildinii^s? 68. Specify the advantages of the self-reporting system. 69. What objections may be urged against the self- reporting system? 70. Explain the phonetic method of teaching chil- dren to read, and state its chief advantage. 71. In what does the phonic method of teaching children to read consist? State its advantage. 72. Name five or more educational reformers. 73. Who was Froebel? For what is he noted? What particular educational theories did he advocate? 74. Who was the author of '* Emile? " What was the object of its publication? ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 353 75. For what is Roger Aschani chiefly noted? 76. State briefly the more promineat characteristics of Pestalozzi's educational principles. To what ex- tent have these principles influenced the education of the present time? ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS OX THEORY AXD PRACTICE OF TEACHIXG. 1. Education is the process of securing rational freedom through the subordination of every power of the mind and organ of the body to the laws of reason and morality. 2. Education from due, to lead, and the prefix e, out, is the leading out, or the developing of those powers whose germs are found in earliest childhood. 3. The natural .order of educating the faculties is in the order of their development and activity, viz. : 1st. The ** perceptives,'' 2nd. The *< conceptives," 3rd. The *' reflectives." 4. Learning is merely the possession of knowledge, as facts of history, science and literature ; while edu- cation signifies that mastery over one's own powers through training and development which enables him to accomplish more than would be possible with uned- ucated faculties. Learnino' gives us knowledo^e, but often leaves us with a barren possession. Education enables us to use whatever knowleds^e we have to the best advantage. 23 354 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 5. I. Any power under the control of the will may be cultivated or trained. II. The powers are trained in one way, and in one way, only ; viz., by wise use. This law of work is the one unchangeable law of progress everywhere. III. The wisest training will be directed to those powers which are conspicuously active at the time. IV. An indispensable prerequisite to any profitable training is careful attention to the matter in hand. [Hewett.] 6. First, a knowledge of the matter to be taught; second, a knowledge of the being whom he is to teach ; and, third, a knowledge of the methods by which the matter is to be tauofht. 7. First, the intellect proper, as the capacity to comprehend ; second, the sensibility as the capacity to sympathize with the sufferings of others ; third, the will, as the power to choose or determine. 8. The perceptives are those faculties by which we obtain a knowledore of the outside world throug^h the senses. The conceptive faculties enable us to conceive or reproduce the image of absent objects. The reflectives are those faculties by which we see the relations of objects through the agency of com- parison, judging, reasoning, etc. Intuition is that power by which we know certain truths or ideas without being: tausfht. 9. A mental power is the ability to perform an in- tellectual operation ; while a mental faculty is a mental ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 355 power acting entirely under the will; as observing, memory, judgment. 10. The Theory and Practice of Teaching includes the investigation of the various susceptibilities, powers and faculties of mind and the harmonious development of these powers and faculties so as to secure the best result of which they are capable. 11. I. The statement of the different theories, plans and processes of educators of the past. II. The suc- cess or failure of the theories described. 12. The Oral, Socratic, Text-Book, Discussive, Top- ical, and Lecture Methods. 13. Teaching is telling, explaining, illustrating ; and stops short of requiring any action on the part of the pupil. It is exemplified in the lecture method of in- struction. Training includes as a preliminary step all employed in teaching, and requires the pupil to repeat, illustrate, amplify and do until every detail is familiar and every act performed with facility and precision. 14. First, he must have good health : this ensures that cheerful buoyancy which inspires respect and love in the minds of pupils. Second, he must have a knowl- edge of the branches which he proposes to teach : without this he can not have the confidence of his pupils. Third, he must possess skill in teaching: the lack of this soon engenders indifference and discontent among the scholars. Fourth, he must be a master to manage and command : that is, he must possess skill in management. He must foresee and forestall every tendency toward the disintegration of his educational forces. 356 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 15 . School government is the subordination of all the elements involved in a given educational system to the demands of an enlightened and conscientious standard of human development of mind, body and heart. 16. This statement is often made by people of ex- tended observation among the educational classes. Some facts which may be given in support of its truth are, — I. The prominent characteristics of the most noted educators of all countries and ages were such as seem to have fitted them for their peculiar vocation and for no other. II. It is observed that those ladies and gentlemen of our own time who have great success in teaching possess certain peculiarities of disposition which dis- tinguish them by a marked contrast from their less successful colleagues. III. It has been noted that persons without the greater number of the following traits have never been successful in the work of teaching: patience, human sympathy, cheerfulness, self-control, kindness, moral courage, enthusiasm, persistence, order, method, pru- dence, energy, governing power, will, vigilance, firm- ness, tact and promptness. 17. The teacher who imparts facts and drills his pupils with reference to impressions to be made on visitors on examination day, may be regarded as a fair teacher, since he ** larns the scholars ; '* but if he confine himself to data, definitions and rules, and ignore the relation of these facts, the impulses, motives ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 357 and susceptibilities of his pupils, — if he neglect those mental germs of power whose development alone de- cides the cultured man, — in short, if he work not to secure that highest development of human power styled self-control, the results of his labors must class him as a poor educator. 18. The five senses: — seeing, hearing, feeling, tastino^ and smellino^. The teacher is much concerned with the first and second of these, since the successful mental training of children is largely dependent upon the cultivation of the sight and hearing. 19. Experience teaches that if the perceptive and conceptive powers receive the attention of the teacher during the activity of these powers, little time or oc- casion will bo afforded for the distinctive training of the reflective faculties of children under fifteen. The teacher should constantly avail himself of the pass- ing activities of perception, memory and imagination displayed by his pupils to impart impressions con- ducive to the noblest manhood. Of course the slight- est manifestations in pupils of any age to seek for causes, results and relations should never be dis- couraged. 20. I. Versatility y that the mind may have a wide range of observation and constant activity. II. Strength y that the attention maybe fixed in con- templation, and that impressions may be recalled with freshness and distinctness. III. Precision, that the ideas and impressions ob- tained by observation and experience may be properly 358 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. arransfed for service in the hio^her exercise of reason- ing and generalizing. 21. I. He should at once furnish every pupil some- thing to do. II. He should during the first half day learn the name of every pupil. III. Within three hours he should have every mem- ber of the school engaged in the regular order of bus- iness. IV. He should discourage disorder by his own de- liberate and methodical movements. V. He should at once establish the system he pro- poses to continue. 22. A teacher's contract should specify the time of opening, length of term, hours per day, holidays, wages, care of grounds, building and apparatus, and provisions for fuel, janitor work, suspension of pupils and agreement as to resignation of teacher. 23. I. The pupils' positions and movements in sit- ting, standing and walking. II. Proper and suflScient ventilation of the school- room. III. Sufficient light and proper position of pupils with respect to light. IV. Calisthenic exercises to bring into judicious use neglected muscles. 24. He should be trained to write on slate or black- board sufficiently well to have his writing easily read, to read without drawling words of one and two sylla- bles, to spell orally by sound and by letter, the greater ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 359 number of words found in his reading lessons, to count by ones and twos to 100, to write numbers to 100, to count and write by the Roman method to L, and to name the days of the week, the months of the year and his county and State. 25. The Word Method, the Sentence Method, the Phonic Method, the Object Method, the Alphabet Method. Two or more of the above are usually employed by nearly all teachers. 26. A daily drill in phonics for a few months gives to the pupil a clearness and precision of speech ^hich will permanently distinguish him from one who has not had this advantaii:e. 27. The Word Method consists in presenting words as objects and teaching children to recognize them as individual units of the sentence. This method has to a great extent supplanted the old method of teaching the alphabet before words. 28. The attention of the pupils is called to some familiar object, upon which many questions are asked. As soon as the children's attention is secured and in- terest aroused a picture of the object is displayed, or drawn upon the board. The picture is discussed for some minutes, when the name of the object is printed beside the picture, and the children are informed that this too is a picture, — a word-picture. After holding their attention to this for a few moments they are directed to find other word-pictures like this on the chart. This comprises the first lesson. The pupils are dismissed to their seats and directed to copy the 360 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. word-picture. At a later lesson other words are treated as the first, and words previously learned are reviewed, hunted for on the chart and formed into sentences. All words learned are printed on the board by the teacher and copied by the pu^Dils, at first in Roman and afterward in script, until their forms be- come familiar. 29. I. To develop clear, pleasant and impressive speech in the delivery of extemporaneous or written language. II. To cultivate the power of instantly grasping the thought as presented on the jDrinted or written page. 30. Send as many pupils to the board as can be ac- commodated, and require them to write their names at the top in their best writing. Assign some simple exercise, to be placed on the board ; when the work is completed, call pupils to face you. As each in turn is named to explain, his voice, face and name (written over his head) will associate themselves in your mind until you can, without difficulty, call the name of each pupil before you. 31. The so-called higher branches, all extend the teacher's intellectual resources, and strengthen his power over difficulties. As the teacher's work con- sists mainly in ** managing" his pupils, and cultivat- ing in them a desire for knowledge and improvement, his familiarity with the higher branches gives him ad- vantages in these efforts which render him infinitely more successful than he could be without them. 32. The daily attendance of all pupils belonging to the school. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 361 33. The total eniollineiit and average daily attend- ance of pupils, together with such special items as may be required by the officers of the school. 34. I. To test the pupil's knowledge of the subject. II. To cultivate the habit of careful preparation and accurate expression. III. To supplement the information gained from the text-book. IV. To direct the pupils in their preparation of the lessons. V. To stimulate the pupils, arouse their attention and cultivate in them habits of investigation. 33. That the pupils may early learn the function and care of every organ of their bodies, that they may know the necessity of pure air, sufficient and whole- some food, alternation of rest and exercise and under- stand the dependence of the mental powers upon bodily health, physical restraint and moral culture. 36. The perceptive faculties are exercised by writ- ing, drawing, spelling and botany ; the conceptive faculties by reading, history, geography and compo- sition ; while the reflective faculties are best exercised and developed by mathematics, rhetoric and logic. 37. Only so far as to aid a pa.rtial comprehension of principles, — never in their application to the as- signed lesson. A teacher may illustrate ix principle by its application to work similar to that required. As- sistance should be withheld until the teacher is satisfied the pupil has exhausted his own resources, and evinces signs of discouragement. Individual assistance should 362 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. be given rarely in the presence of the class. Explain difficulties to the class, and command the attention of every member. 38. *' A programme conduces to good order, dimin- ishes the teacher's labor, cultivates methodical habits, and makes his teaching more effective.'* 39. Clearness of voice and distinctness of speech are indispensable in the management of classes; but the force must be constantly subdued and the pitch slightly below the natural to secure the respectful attention of pupils. 40. It is diflScult to understand how a teacher un- skilled in rapid, elegant penmanship, natural impres- sive and effective reading, and accurate and rapid arithmetical calculations, can inspire his pupils with sufficient admiration for these arts to desire more than the teacher presents as models. The highest skill in these branches, upon the part of the teacher, is essen- tial to their successful teaching. Few teachers insist upon a higher standard than they, themselves, possess. Hence, but moderate skill in these branches may be expected from pupils whose teachers are not proficients. 41. To secure the highest intellectual attainments, certain previous conditions are essential: these are mental vigor and sensual restraint. The first of these is secured only through the judicious exercise and em- ployment of the mental and physical organs. The second condition is attained by the training of the moral faculties to acts of justice, duty and self-denial. The vigorous body gives energy to the brain, and the ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 363 self-poised conscience imparts accuracy and decision to the perceptions of the senses and conceptions of the mind. 42. I. Teaching,or instruction, by which the teacher- orally or through the text-book, presents the principles of the subject in definition and illustration. II. Development, or Socratic questioning, by which the teacher tells the pupil nothing, but by°a series of skillful questions, beginning with what is already clear to the pupil's mind, he leads him step by step to com- prehend the principle and its application. III. Training, or drilling, by which through instruc- tion, practice and criticism, the subject in all its details is fully mastered. 43. Accurate school records afford the following advantages: 1. They aid the teacher in classification and promotion of pupils. 2. They give information to parents and school officers. 3. They furnish im- portant educational statistics. 4. They exert a bene- ficial influence upon both teachers and pupils. 44. By first explaining the rights and duties of pupils, and then insisting that these shall be mutually observed and respected. In addition, pupils should be taught early in their school life that the greatest success and happiness come only from individual in- dependence, and that independence exists alone in a ready performance of duty, a cheerful self-denial and a conscious rectitude. 45. I. The pupils should be taught to breathe properly. 364 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. II. They should be drilled on the oral elements un- til every sound and combination can be distinctly and correctly uttered. III. They should be subjected to frequent drills in voice slides and waves. IV. The test of all reading exercises should be the ability of the teacher to understand every word read without referring to the text-book. 46. The Supreme Courts of a number of States have decided that school directors have the rio:ht to make rules governing the conduct of scholars on the grounds or on the road to or from school. The teacher is the directors' authorized assent and executive in all matters pertaining to the management of the school so far as their authority may be delegated to him. Before pun- ishing pupils for misdemeanors committed on the road to or from school, teachers should have this authority duly given. 47. He is rarely required by law or contract to be present before the time of opening, but his interest in the welfare of his pupils and his zeal in his work should prompt him to be at his post early enough to forestall difficulties and make the necessary prepara- tion to begin on time. A good teacher, like a good scholar, is always a little ahead of time. 48. Ridicule, force, additional tasks, fear of punish- ment, prizes, merit marks, and the granting oi special privileges. 49. I. The desire for knowledge. II. The hope to secure perfection. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 365 III. The approbation of the te icher. IV. The approbation of parents and friends. V. The pleasure of overcoming difficulties. VI. The enjoyment of useful employment. VII. The prospect of a successful manhood. 60. They are deficient in management, otherwise termed tact, or governing power. 51. The Grube method consists in teachins: beirin- ners the combinations of numbers less than ten in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Various articles, such as buttons, beans, grains of corn, pebbles, etc., are at first employed until the children can perform the operations without these aids. 52. Since every step in the process of long division is placed before the pupil in figures, he can hold each step with his eye until the next is taken ; and if an interruption occur or the teacher wish to repeat or impress the operation, the work as far as completed, remains before the eye. This is but an application of object-teaching, and presents the principle of division much more clearly than the process of short division, in which the operations are carried on almost entirely in the mind. 53. Always in connection with mental arithmetic, and, as far as possible, with practical illustrations taken from the school-room, yard, and neighboring stores. A subject will be sooner mastered and longer retained if practically applied at the time and presented with small numbers which can be easily held in the mind. 366 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 54. By having pupils supplied with yard sticks divided into feet and inches, and hy requiring them to measure distances, surfaces and solids in and about the school-house. 55. The teacher and pupils may borrow pint, quart, gaUon, peck and bushel measures, and construct the usual tables by actually measuring water and sand. This practice fixes the relative capacity of these meas- ures as no drill upon tables and problems can ever do. The same course should be pursued with the various weiofhts. 56. I. To cultivate the virtue of patriotism. II. To teach the embryonic citizen that a certain train of causes produces certain definite results whose evils may be avoided or remedied by appropriate and timely action. 57. After the necessary instruction in position, pen- holding and movement is given, individual elements, letters, words and sentences should be presented on the blackboard. Attention should be called to one thing: at a time. The characters should be accurately formed and analyzed before the pupils are called upon to re- produce them. Much time and many efforts may be required to master one element or letter, but the ex- penditure will be amply repaid in the rapid progress secured as the pupil advances from letter to letter. Writing is an art and skill in its execution is possible to all who are to,ug7it. 58. The standard of excellence in penmanship to which every teacher should endeavor to bring his ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 367 pupils is the ability- to write a uniformly legible style of writing, free from meaningless flourishes, and exe- cuted with an easy, rapid, graceful, movement, which may be continued for hours without weariness. 59. Oral spelling, if properly conducted, cultivates the ear to hear quickly and accurately. If the teacher is a correct speaker and exacting in securing correct- ness in articulation, the pupil acquires a facility and accuracy in pronunciation that will dispense with much laborious research in later years. To secure these results the teacher should observe these cautions : Never repeat a word or a syllable, nor permit a pupil to repeat syllables. No pupil should try a second time to spell a word. Kequire pupils to pronounce the words correctly before and after spell- ing. Each letter and syllable should be distinctly and accurately uttered in passing, but not repeated, i.e., not uttered a second time. 60. Since skill' in spelling is required chiefly for writinsr, it follows that what one does most with a constant purpose of improvement in view, he does best. Hence, the practice of writing words through several years of school life, familiarizing their forms to the eye, finally fixes the order of letters composing a word permanently in the mind. 61. Correct spelling must be mastered through hand and eye. As soon as the child has learned to form the letters in script he should prepare all spelling lessons by writing the words two or more times on slate or paper. 368 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 62. I. Require pupils to use pen, ink and a blank- book. II. Pronounce each word accurately and but once. III. Require words written neatly in plain char- acters. IV. Allow no alterations, additions or erasures. All omissions, interlineations, or indistinct letters should be counted as errors. V. Have pupils exchange books and mark each other's errors with lead pencil, noting also the grade of the work, each corrector writing his name below. YI. Have monitors collect books for teacher's ex- amination. Vn. If violations of No. IV. are found mark the word zero. VIH. If any corrector has failed to correct an error mark him zero for the error he has failed to note. Another method equally good is to have each pupil correct his own work. This plan has the advantage of time, since the delay of exchanging is avoided, and, further, the teacher marks all the errors (the speller's and the corrector's), in a given book at once. 63. As a substitute for the reading exercise it is of too little value to justify its employment. As a means of developing purity, force and flexibility of tone, it is of sufficient value to warrant the teacher in using it occasionally at the beginning of the lesson. 64. Always by their Christian names — never as *< Brown," «« Smith," *« Jones," etc., nor Miss *' So and So," or Master *' This or that," nor *' Sonny," *' Honey " or *' Darling." ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 369 65. The pupils, conscious that a daily record of their recitations and deportment is kept, are dis- posed to recite and act more uniformly well than they would with an occasional record of these items. The cards of record being promiscuously arranged for each recitation, pupils are called unexpectedly and are kept on the alert. Again, the teacher, anxious to mark his pupils upon a common basis, assigns to each about the same amount of duty. 66. The teacher having to estimate the value of each answer, recitation or exercise, consumes in the calculation and record of such value, much time that were better spent in the management of his classes. 67. I. To secure better order in movements. II. To prevent the smaller children from being in- jured by the rushing of large boys. III. To train pupils to habits of order, system, and deliberate movements. 68. The better' class of pupils in whom the inliu- ence of conscience and love of approbation are strong, fearful of disgrace by prevarication, are restrained, and thus constitute the nucleus of a well ordered school. A large portion of well inclined, but weaker children, more or less under the influence of the former, out of consideration of dependence or *' pop- ularity,'' fall into the practice of their stronger neighbors. These two classes being left to govern themselves in a measure, the teacher has opportunity to attend to the idle, mischievous and dilatory pupils. 69. The report of conduct being left entirely with 24 370 ANSWEKS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. ' the scholars, there is, even among the well inclined, a daily temptation to violate the truth. Those pupils whose motives and habits are bad, seeing the opportu- nity afforded to stand as high as their more deserving schoolmates, do not hesitate to take advantage of this reliance upon their honor ; and unless they know their statement will be challenged, claim *' perfect," after doing their utmost to escape every requirement of the teacher. 70. The phonetic method, which might properly be termed phonotypic, requires modified characters rep- resenting all the sounds of the language. Its purpose is to enable the child after the sounds have been taught, to help himself in the pronunciation of each new word. 71. The phonic method consists in teaching the sounds of words through the powers of the letters composing them. It employs no modified letters. Words containinoc silent letters are at first omitted, the attention being confined to words containing short vowels. The advantages claimed for the phonic and phonetic methods are an earlier recognition of sounds and a greater skill and accuracy in articulation. 72. Eoo-er Ascham, Friedrich Froebel, Desiderius Erasmus, John Amos Comenius [Komenski], Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and Immanuel Kant. 73. Froebel, born in Thuringia, 1782, was the founder of the Kindergarten. Many of the improve- ments in primary teaching may be ascribed to him. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY, ETC. 371 The principles involved in his theory of education may be summed up in the single sentence: *'Free creativeness is at once the means and end of educa- tion/' 74. **Emile" was written by Rousseau (born in 1712), in which he portrays an ideal education accord- ing to his peculiar views. The book attracted much attention at the time of its publication, but the atheist- ical tendencies of the author's writings and his general erratic conduct brought condemnation upon this as upon his other works. 75. Roger Ascham was Queen Elizabeth's teacher of Greek and Latin. His only educational work of importance was the *' School Master" [Soholemas- ter], in which he advocated a milder and more careful training of youth than that in vogue at his time. The work deals mainly with the teaching of Latin and Greek. 76. Pestalozzi's principles of education were founded upon natural development. He considered and tauo^ht that the end of education is the harmoni- ous development of all the natural powers. Recog- nizing the existence of a certain order of growth and activity, he taught that all instruction should harmon- ize with this order in time and character. He has exerted a greater influence over the general theory and practice of teaching than any man of modern times. COMMON SCHOOL ELOCUTION. A MANUAL OF VOCAL CULTURE BASED UPON SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES PHILOSOPHICALLY PRESENTED AND FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH APPROPRI- ATE SELECTIONS FOR READING AND RECITATION. DESIGNED FOR CoMMo:^^ Schools, Academies, Colleges and Private Learners, WITH A KEY CONTAINING THE APPROPRIATE ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN READING THE SELECTIONS USED FOR ILLUSTRATION. BY I. H. BROWN, Superintendent Public Schools, Edwardsville, 111. lE^I^IOIE, OIvTIE HDOLXj-^I^ Sent postpaid on receipt of price. Address, I. H. BROWN, EDWARDSVILLE, ILL. COMMON SCHOOL EXAMINER AND KEYIEW. CONTAINS NEARLY 3,000 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON Orthography, Reading, Penmanship, Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography, U. S. History, Ci>il Government, Physical Geography, Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Philosophy, Theory and Practice of Teaching. Selected from 700 Examination papers used by STATE, COCTNTY AND CITY SUPERINTENDENTS of TWENTY-FOUR STATES. Answered in the clearest and briefest manner. The questions are arranged as nearly as possible according to gradation. No attempt has been made to multiply questions. The most familiar topics are omitted. From the great mass of material at hand, the author has se- lected only those questions and problems which are peculiarly difficult. Designed for Examiners, Teachers, Pupils, and Institute Con- ductors. It is indispensable to the teacher desiring to pass a creditable examination. The best arranged review for pupils Substantially bound in Cloth. 375 pages. Sent Post-paid on Receipt of $1.00. Address I. H. BROWN & CO., Publishers, ST. LOUIS, MO. TESTIMON^IALS. HOME INDORSEMENT. The following resolution, adopted by the Board of Education of Edwardsville, 111., the author's home, shows the appreciation of the work where it is best known : — Oct. 2, 1882. Resolved, That "Brown's Common School Elocutionary Series" be adopted for the use of the pupils of the VII and VIII grades of this school district from this date. From Roht. Allyn, LL.D., Pres. Southern Illinois Normal University: I have examined your " Common School Elocution" with some care, and am well pleased with its plan, and better pleased with its execution. It is a goori book, and not its smallest value, to my mind, is its small compass, com- paratively. People can afford to buy it and can And time to go through it. I approve it thoroughly. From E. L. McDowell, Professor of Elocution, Foster's School, St. Louis. Your "Common School Elocution" is indeed a very ingenious adaption of Elocutionary principles to the wants of schools, colleges and private students. In the hands of good teachers it will prove of inestimable value in forming an effective style of reading and delivery. From F. A. Fitzpatrick, Supt. City Schools, Leavenworth, Kan.: I am very much pleased with your "Common School Elocution," its careful gradation, the purity of its selections and its treatment of a subject of which we all know too little. I shall try to make a place for it in our course. You are to be congratulated upon the conception as evinced in the completed work. From the American Journal of Education, St. Lends: Ae we turn the pages of "Common School Elocution" we discover a new departure. The old stereotyped plan is ignored, and a rigid investigation of nature's laws substituted, in which the pupil is led to take an intelligent and responsible part. There appears to be no progress in pages possible until principles are analyzed and mastered. As a scientific work, developing the laws of human expression in a clear and philosophic manner, it deserves a place among the best books ever presented for school and college use. From the Illinois School Journal: The aim of the author has been that of most men who have written for the "Common School Teacher," namely, to produce a book which can be used to advantage by tne untrained teacher without the aid of practical instruction. It is this quality, mainly, that marks the financial success of any school book. That Mr. Brown has been more than ordinarily successful in this, we believe. He shows the skill of the real teacher by holding to one theme until it can hardly be misunderstood. The whole book is devoted to the business in hand, the teaching being continued to the close. An excellent feature is the fact that the author has not selected scraps for examples. Selections as long as those found in readers render the book fit to be used as a reading book. From Geo. A. Boyle, Principal of Marion Schools, Kan. : I have no hesitation in saying that " Common School Elocution " Is the best book of the kind I have ever seen. After an examination of several other works on the subject we have adopted your book in our sixth and seventh grades. TESTIMONIALS. From W. H. Hilyard, Oo. Supt. Monroe Co., III.: Teachers feel that something is needed to secure higher attainments to their pupils in their efforts to master the principles underlying a natural de- livery in reading; and such a demand is unquestionably met in part, if not entirely, by a recent vvork entitled, "Brown's Common School Elocu- tion." The treatise is designed and adapted for untrained teachers, pre- senting to such the requisite means whereby the subject of elocution can be acquired and successfully taught. The subject of Grouping receives special attention; and it is believed that few, if any, works are so well adapted as this to enable the reader to grasp effectively an author's ideas, and to give proper expressioa to the thought and sentiment. From G. L. Boioman, Prin. High School, Prescott, Wis. : "Common ychool Elocution " has the following good points: (a.) It pre- sents to the eye the entire work, by an excellent tabulation. (6.) It gives minute directions for breathing, and emphasizes that part of the work, (c.) It gives an idea of each quality of tone by likening it to some sound in nature familiar to the pupil, and gives minute directions for placing the organs to pi'oduce it. {d.) The selections used for illustrations are fresh, practical, and sufficiently comprehensive. From Hon. Jas. P. Slade, State Supt. of Public Instruction, III.: After having examined with some care your "Common School Elocution," I have to say that the definitions and directions are clear and concise and the illustrations and selections excellent. The book seems to me to be well adapted to the purpose for which it was prepared, that of helping teachers to learn and to teach the science and the art of vocal expression. Those desirous of excelling as teachers of reading will find the work suggestive and very helpful. From B. F. Sippy, Co. Supt. Madison Co., III. : I am pleased to say that, after having carefully reviewed your "Common School Elocution," it is the best book of the kind that I have ever examined. The suggestions which appear throughout the book will certainly prove in- valuable to the teachers of our common school in their efforts to teach that most neglected of all branches — reading. From S. B. Hood, Supt. of Randolph Co , III.: " Brown's Common School Elocution " is exactly adapted to our public schools. It is a nice mean between the too much of some authors, and the too little of others. Its definitions, though.K5oncise, are clear, comprehensive and suggestive. The arrangement of topics is natural and their analysis logical. The practical bears close and vitalizing relations to the theoretical. The work as a whole is a rational system of elocution, with copious and well selected exercises for the elucidation and enforcement of its principles. From James H. Brownlee, Prof, of Elocution and Literature, Southern III., Xor- mat University: I have carefully examined the " Common School Elocution," by Prof. I. H. Brown, and find it to be a thoroughly practical and scholarly work, and well calculated and adapted for use in the public schools. Just such a book has been needed, and it deserves a warm welcome from teachers, and a wide cir- culation. I am pleased to give my unqualified indorsement to so meritorious a wo'k. Its introduction as a text- book into our schools will not fail to greatly assist the pupils in mastering the noble and useful art of speaking and reading with ease, variety and impressive effect. From J. H. McDonald, Co. Supt. Crawford Co., Wis.: Allow me to acknowledge the receipt of your timely and meritorious work, "Common School Elocution." It must prove the thing in assisting teachers, students and public readers to step out of the present mechanical process of reading. I hope to seethe dayAvhen every school "in the land" will be skil- fully and practically following the observations and suggestions afforded by this laudable book. From Miss Amelia W. Platter, Teacher of Elocution, Jeffersonville {Ind.) High School: It has given me great pleasure to examine your excellent book. I like it very much. It is even better than I anticipated. -r- •t^' ' z- c * o <^0 'iS a ( .\^^' ^^ c 0^ <■■''" •^ -^ o X 0^ :£ o^ '^■' ^0o oo^ s ^ « ,'\ ■^' (--"' ^^1 ^0 c j^ ^. -v 2 ^' -V^ -' .' <' ^ .x^^' ^^ o\/k-^^ A ,^ '■^ 9 1 -I ^. .^^ is > - ._ -^ ^^ ^ 1} \ P-.r. -^^ v*^ =^ s "? -f // -^ •^^^ cJ^ -V ^^'^ A' '\^ 0^^' . - ■■ '. - ^^. • " ^ ° ■. x^^'