\ > V A n . ^^ \ > . V <^ o . ^^ V ^ "* ^ ^' -* A ^ 2: ?• ,<3 5, *^, %^ P^ •Ol <> S ■" ^ <^. V >«^ ^<<< .S^^. ^^. -^^0^ fV „ -v * ,, N^^ 0^ .^^ 5. %. ^ THE MANAGER'S ASSISTANT BEING- A CONDENSED TREATISE ON THE COTTON MANUFACTURE, W ITH SUITABLE EXPLANATIONS, &c. TO WHICH ARE ADDED, VARIOUS CALCULATIONS, TABLES, COMPARISONS, &c. OF SERVICE TO THE MANUFACTURER AND GENERAL READER. By DANIEL W. SNELL. " And for this new and most prolific source of wealth, we are indebted to the extraordinary genius and talents of a few individuals." " Can we have a more exciting example, then, of what resolute mind may do in apparently the most hopeless circumstances 1" HARTFORD: PRESS OF CASE, TIFFANY & CO 1850. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year, 1850, BY DANIEL W. SNELL, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of Conn. % .^1^ h^ ^; / 3 ^ T O DANIEL SNELL, THESE PAGES ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED AS A FAINT EXPRESSION OF AFFECTIONATE REGARD, FROM THE AUTHOR, PREFACE. In the following pages, the author has aimed at practi- cal information rather than originality, and has therefore availed himself of the labors of others, whenever they would serve his purpose. Many points under consid- eration are treated in a different manner from what has been noticed elsewhere ; while others are condensed and practical in their arrangement. His object was to give a work better suited for circulation, than the volumes which have appeared on the subject. Many who do not feel interest enough in the subject, to buy and read so large a work, for instance, as the inimit- able Dr. Ure's, or Montgomery's admirable treatise, will read such a work as this. Due notice has been given of the various machines employed, their improvement, speed, &c., and such other features as were deemed practicable ; to which are added numerous tables, calculations, &c. Each step is explained and may be clearly understood by those who have but a limited knowledge of the art. Such a work has long been a desideratum with our managers and overseers ; and we trust they will not be slow to appreciate it. VI PREFACE. Most of it has been the labor of the author while engaged in his duties, and this is his excuse for its not being more worthy of patronage. Nevertheless, as a work, it may not be wholly impracticable, and is given to the public, with diffidence, for the want of a better. Plainfield, Conn., 1850. CONTENTS. NOTICES OF THE DIFFERENT MACHINES EMPLOYED. The Scutcher or Willow, The Lapping or Spreading- Machine The Carding Engine, The Drawing Frames, The Roving Frames, The Spinning Machines, The Spooling Machines, The Warping Machines, The Dressing Machines, The Looms, .... Common Speed of the Various Machines, Common Produce do. do. do. Water Wheels, . . . . , Steam Engine, ..... Central Forces, , . . . Measurement of Water, Calculations of Power, Calculations of Speed, Draughts, &c. Various Tables, Recipes, &c.. Miscellaneous Practical Questions, Problems worked by the Sliding Rule, Statistics of Manufacturing Districts, 9 14 16 25 32 41 53 54 56 59 61 63 64 71 76 78 83 86 124 139 149 174 THE COTTON MANUFACTURE AND MANAGER'S ASSISTANT THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. The operation of this machine serves to open and prepare the cotton for the Lapping or Spreading machine. If we could receive the cotton direct from the field, it would be found that the use of this machine might be dispensed with. But the cotton, when gathered, being compressed very strong to cheapen its transportation, becomes matted close, and its fibres completely entangled, so as to resemble an uniform fleece of knots or tufts. Nothing could be more injurious, both to machines and the quality of the work, than to use the cotton in this state. The Willow is peculiarly adapted for the opening of these fibres, and cleaning the cotton from sand and other impurities. Previous to the stock passing through this machine, a suitable quantity is spread upon the floor near by 2 10 THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. forming an uniform proportion of the different quality, strength and length of staple. Different managers entertain various opinions how this quantity should be formed to make uniform yarn. The general way is to open quite a number of bags and spread them one by one over the whole surface of the lap or bing — each layer forming a part of the desired section. When a sufficient number of these layers are placed upon each other, the lad who tends the machine commences his task, by taking the layer on the top of the bing, and presenting it to the opera- tion of the Willow. When he has run through this layer within his reach, he takes the next and serves it the same, and so on for the rest. In many mills, the bing is formed in the same way as above, and a kind of instrument similar to a rake is used to pull down the fibres at the side. This opens, and in a de- gree mixes the different qualities. Great care should be taken, and much skill is required in mixing stock, so as to improve the short and weak in staple, and combine the whole successfully for making perfect work. Much injury, in many mills, is done the soft loose- stapled cotton, by too much scutching. Short, open cotton, requires but little operation until the lap is formed, and often the yarn and goods are improved by omitting this operation, particularly on New-Or- leans, Boweds and light Uplands. Long, curly cot- ton, and that full of seeds, gins, &c., require more opening ; but too much of the tearing process injures the filaments. THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 11 It is not so much the tearing or hatcheling of stock, as the loosening of the fibres, and the separation of gins and other impurities, that is practicable. It is obvious that different qualities of cotton require dif- ferent degrees of scutching. To pass loose, open cotton through the same process of scutching as close, knotty Upland, would materially injure the former ; and to pass Sea-Island, or New Orleans with short inferior Upland, would produce anything but a desir- able evenness of yarn. And yet this is too common a practice in very many of our mills. When but two kinds of cotton are to be mixed, (and most managers deem this number sufficient,) a very good way is to incorporate them by an appara- tus attached to the doubler, or lapping-machine, or by passing the two different laps through the same card. This latter way is practised in many mills, and it forms an uniform and beautiful sliver ; where two or more spreading machines are employed, it is found to be much cheaper, as a poorer quality of stock can be worked into weft yarn. The best of cottons, such as Sea-Island, New Or- leans and Egyptians, are generally opened by the labor of the fingers — women and children being em- ployed. A quantity is thinly spread upon a table fitted with rods, or strung by cords drawn across ; through which the sand, seeds, &c. are made to drop by striking upon it with suitable rods — the elasticity of which aids in opening the fibres. In this way most of the impurities are separated. When the cotton is removed, the gins, leaves, &c. which may have re- 12 THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. I sisted the action of the rods, are carefully taken away. But a small portion of our mills work these qualities. Principally coarse and medium yarns are made, requiring a fair quality stock. Various machines have been presented for opening and preparing cotton. The most ancient of which we have any account is that of Normandy. It consists of a long round box made of slats fastened to the inner circle, so nailed as to leave interstices between the rods for the escape of all impurities. In some, these slats or rods run round the cylindrical box. An axis extends through this box, with cross-arms so se- cured as to form a line long in extent round the axle. One end of the box is higher than the other, forming an inclined plane. The cotton is thrown into the box at the top, and the axis, in its rotary motion by means of its arms, catches hold and carries it round the length of the machine, and gently drops it at its lower end. It is quite simple in its construction, and re- quires but little power to move it. This machine, however, has been superseded by those of more mod- em construction. Another machine, partaking of the nature of the above, has been introduced in some mills. It consists of a large cylinder set full of spikes passing between other spikes fixed on the front of the machine. The cotton is led by an apron to a pair of rolls, through which it passes to be scrutched or opened. The cyl- inder revolves rapidly, and the rolls having a firm steady hold upon the web, serves to open and clean the stock admirably. THE SCUTCHER OR WILLOW. 13 " Mason's Whipper," is more or less used, but those of more modern construction seem to merit a greater preference. It occupies but little room, and is a pow- erful machine. There is another powerful machine in use, called the " Conical Willow," invented by Mr. LiUie, of Manchester, Eng., a gentleman noted for mechanical ingenuity. It is more complex than either of the above mentioned machines, yet it possesses a remark- able power. It consists of the revolution of a cone inside of a concentrix box filled with spikes as in the common willow. It presents the novel feature of the cotton being drawn in at the smaller, and whirled along to the larger end of the cone, where it drops upon a moving strap, which lets it fall into a binn prepared to receive it. It occupies but little more room than the common square-framed willow. The motions of this truly elegant automatic machine, are a rich treat to a looker-on. One in viewing them, cannot resist the impulse within him to do homage to the spirit of im- provement which has effected a result truly so won- derful in comparison with that of the primitive willow of Normandy, patented in 1801. The " Bacon Willow," is an excellent machine, and a decided improvement in this branch. It is the most practicable in use for opening and preparing cotton. 14 LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. It is a fact well known by our competitors, if not acknowledged by us, that the opening and mixing of cotton is not so faithfully performed in this country as our interest requires. That spirit, which is our characteristic, of driving what we undertake, too extensively prevails in the preparing of stock previous to its being spun into yarn. The chief machine now in use for forming a lap, is that invented by Mr. Snodgrass, of Johnston, in Ren- frewshire ; this has been improved by Mr. Cooper, of the same place. In this, as in all improvements, the mechanics of New England are formidable rivals of the mother land. There are no machines of this, or indeed of any kind, which are more perfectly adapted to their office than those turned out by the Messrs. Whitins, of Mass. The movements of this machine are full of variety, and show most conclusively the triumph of genius. The cotton is regularly weighed and evenly spread upon the apron which carries it forward to the rolls ; of these there are two sets. As the stock passes through these, it is struck by a beater of two or more blades, which revolves with a rapid speed ; this opens the fibres, and winnows the gins, seeds, &c. from the cotton. These impurities are thrown back through an opening of the box by the action of the beater. LAPPING OR SPREADING MACHINE. 15 Directly in front is a large wire cylinder, which re- ceives and carries forward the fleece to another set of rolls, through which it passes, when another beater strikes it ; this opens and winnows still more the cot- ton. Three and often four of these beaters are used. It is an excellent practice to double the lap at this pro- cess. It equalizes the fleece and is much better pre- pared for the Carding Engine. There is a limited draught between the feeding rolls, for the purpose of stretching or drawing the stock in its operation. Too much of this operation, however, is injurious at this stage, as the fibres are not uniformly straight. After escaping the rolls and beaters, the web is run through two pairs of calender rolls, to smooth and compress it. As it leaves these rolls, it is wound on a wooden lap-roll, forming a compact and beautiful lap. The beaters require to be adjusted with precision. In using long-stapled stock, the arms are set a greater distance from the rolls, to prevent the fibres from being injured or broken. This point should be particularly adjusted. The most devoted attention is required by the tender, as the beaters run at a high speed, acquir- ing great friction, especially when a heavy lap is formed. The sand or dust of coarse cottons tend to clog the bearings, by inspissating the oil. The beater boxes are generally made of fine composition. This machine, though somewhat complicated, re- quires but one hand to tend it. It occupies a space 16 CARDING ENGINE. of some twenty feet in length, and from three to five in breadth. Previous to the introduction of this machine, much poor work was made, arising from an imperfect spreading of the cotton. Cleanhness of its parts, and expertness of the tender are very essential points to be regarded at this pro- cess. In viewing its operations, one cannot but mark the contrast it presents when compared with the old way of spreading the locks upon the apron of the breaker carding engine. CARDING ENGINE. This machine opens and equalizes the fibres still farther, and removes in a degree whatever gins, &c. may have resisted the action of the Willow and Lap- ping machine. The theory or principle of carding, is the alternate action of the surface of sheets set full of elastic wire teeth. These sheets are uniform in their thickness and in their length of teeth. The lap is led through a pair of fluted rolls, (some- times they are covered with wiry teeth,) when the small cyhnder called the licker-in, opens and delivers it to the main cylinder. Resting on the top of this cylinder are smaller ones, serving to clean and straighten the filaments called by different names, such as cleaners, strippers and urchins. The vacant CARDING ENGINE. 17 space on the top is filled up by flats or slats, upon which are fastened sheets, which aid in keeping what impuri- ties may have passed these cleaners from being carried over to the doffer. In some cards nothing but these flats are used to resist the gins, &c., and aid in equal- izing the fibres. The doffer revolves with a slow motion, taking from the main drum the finest of the fleece, and the comb in front strikes and causes it to wind on the lap-drum or pass through a pair of calender rolls, into a can or guide-box of the railway. This is one of the most beautiful operations in the process of manufacturing, and is the contrivance so unjustly claimed for Har- greaves, in the suit against the ingenious and perse- vering Arkwright. The feeding rolls are secured at each end by weighted levers. Motion to them is communicated by a range of wheels from the main drum axle, or by a rod from the doffer shaft. The top-slats rest upon the arch or frame of the engine, near in contact with the main drum. The distance berween the tops and cylinder is regulated by screws in each end of the frame work. In ordinary carding, those nearest the front rolls are about three-sixteenths of an inch from the main drum sheets, and the rest decrease from this to one-sixteenth of an inch, or thereabouts. In many cards two laps are led through the rolls. This is an excellent way of mixing the qualities of stock, and perfecting the card-sliver. The railway system, (which is a great improve- ment) is generally in use. This consists of a drawing 18 CARDING ENGINE. head, fed by the slivers dh'ect from the card. An endless band, running in a trough, for the reception of the slivers, brings forward the strand to the rolls, where it undergoes more or less extension, as may be practicable. Some managers deem a limited draught, others a considerable, the best way. At this process, the strand can be drawn, in our opinion, with advan- tage, the latter way. Where a railway is used, an independent motion drives the dofFer, and on many cards the feeding rolls. Between the breaker and finisher cards a machine is used in some mills, denominated a doubler, for forming the lap for the latter engine. The slivers from the breakers are run through a set of calender rolls driven by wheel work, which serve to compress and wind the lap. The lap-roll is weighted at each end by weights suspended on the cross-bearing of the loops, which rest on the end of the axis of the roll. When the lap is formed of sufficient size, a lever pro- jecting from the cross-bearing is raised, when a hook is made to catch hold and retain it until the lap is bro- ken off and a new one is replaced. Suitable guides are placed in front of the large rolls for separating and directing the slivers passing through them. Another machine for the same purpose has been presented, which performs its office admirably. It is of a harrow-like appearance, similar wheel work being employed at the wider end as in the above machine. The ends to be formed into a lap, are drawn by the motion of the rolls into one side of the frame. In this machine the slivers commence entering the rolls at CARDING ENGINE. 19 the narrow end. Rolls of the required length com- press these slivers as they pass to the other extrem- ity. This process equalizes in a great degree the lap at this stage. It has the advantage of doubling, and is a much better way to join the filaments. In some of these machines, a stop-motion forms a novel feature in its operation. When one of the ends are broken, or run out, a guide-lever falls which ope- rates upon a catch or spring so as to shift the belt on the loose-pulley, or along on the axis upon which it freely revolves. It is obvious that this is preferable to the first mentioned machine. The lap formed in this way is passed through another set of cards, going through the same operation as the breakers. The sliver or end formed by the different finishers, is drawn down more than that of the breakers. Various drawing-heads are in use ; some delivering the end into two or three slivers, which are com- pressed by calender rollers and delivered into cans ready for the drawing-frame. Motion is conveyed to the rollers by an endless band passing round two cones, their ends being inverted. It is not uncom- mon in some mills to regulate the size of yarn by shift- ing this band alternately as may be required. Another advantage over the old way of carding is here gained ; when the cylinders require to be stripped or cleaned, all that is necessary to be done is to shift the belt, and stop one card of the system and clean it, put it in ope- ration, and so on for the rest. This, it will be seen, ensures steady, uniform work, and prevents the many 20 CARDING ENGINE. stoppages attendant in the operation of cards mounted with the old fashioned lap-drum. In many mills, instead of a drawing-head and a sin- gle trough, there are two, three, and sometimes four of these troughs which convey their proportion of the sliver to the first head of the drawing frame. I have seen this working well on a system of twelve cards ; the drawing frame being placed so as to receive these slivers about midway of the range. No improvement has ever been introduced into the preparation depart- ment, which has proved more beneficial, or productive of more return than this railway system. It takes less power to drive it, makes more and cleaner work, does it quicker and more perfect, and with less expense than by the old way. Where eight to ten children were employed in tend- ing the old fashioned lap-drum, there is but one small boy required in using this admirable improvement. Single carding, or cards where the cotton passes through but one operation, is much in use in many mills, particularly on coarse work. These engines, when properly managed, furnish good carding, but most of carders seem to agree that the breaker and finisher are better adapted for furnish- ing an uniform sliver. Various patterns of mounting are in use both on the breaker and single carding engines. The common breaker card generally has nothing but flats, or flats and a licker-in : a second way is a licker-in, flats and cleaners, while in some no slats are used ; the surface being literally covered with urchins of two or more sizes. CARDING ENGINE. 21 Many experiments, but less real improvements, have been made from time to time upon this machine. A kind of fancy, similar to that used in woolen, is often used in cotton cards, for the purpose of cleaning the main cylinder. By the use of this, much labor is saved, as but once or twice cleaning of the main drum is necessary in a period of twelve hours. In many carding engines, it is not uncommon to have two doffers acting in concert upon one drum. These do quite well on large heavy machines. Frequently the main drum is made of sheet or cast iron, coated with a composition of chalk, glue, &c. Upon the former are fastened cast iron plates, fitted to its circumference, with strips of wood between, for confining the sheets or fillets. A better way, how- ever, is employed in the latter; the cylinder is turned perfectly true, and suitable holes are drilled therein and plugged with hard wood for receiving the nails of the sheets. This kind of cylinders are objected to by some, on account of their great weight. They are a perfect cure for the shrinking and swelling of drums, so much the pest in many mills. In some cards, a blade is made to rest near in con- tact with the main drum, directly under the top near- est the doflfer. It is bent so as to catch what gins, dirt, &c., may fall upon it ; a small roller receiving its motion from the dofier shaft is made to turn in this blade, so as to wind on the loose fibres, &c. caught by it. This is a greater improvement than at first it might 22 CARDING ENGINE. seem. I tried one of them on an eighteen inch card, the small roller revolving some six or eight times per minute, and during a run of but three hours, this roller was cleaned twice, and the astonishing quantity of ten ounces of the poorest waste made in the whole pro- cess of manufacturing was turned out. This, in a system of fourteen or sixteen cards, would amount to more dirt and other impurities, (exclusive of flowings and waste,) than all the urchins, slats, and licker-ins could, in the same time possibly clean out : this blade placed upon the whole range would take out from eight to nine pounds of this waste, unfit for any use, in the short space of three hours — being well nigh thirty- five pounds in a working day of twelve hours. That a result so great in its importance should spring froi^ so simple a contrivance, might well be discredited, if it could not be substantiated by a fair trial. This blade is stationary, and turned up at its top or edge, (being in close proximity to the main drum) creates a current of air, which serves to throw out these im- purities from the main drum, and deposite them on its hollow part ; the roller revolving quite slow, keeps the impurities from flying back again to the surface of the drum, and winds them into a fleece to be re- moved when large enough. Various other improvements are to be found in operation on many of the engines made at this time, which reflect much credit upon their authors. Long cottons require more carding than short, and in many cards, the feed rollers of the former are made to re- volve with a slower speed, or the main drum is driven 1 CARDING ENGINE. 23 quicker than in those of the latter. The main drum ought to run as near the feeding rollers as possible, serving to have the better hold of the fibres. The feeding rollers ought to be in diameter a little less than double the length of the staple to be carded. In this way the teeth will take hold of each fibre separately, and deliver it to the top slats as it was taken from the rolls. A regular system of cleaning and stripping is of essential importance. The common mode is to strip two, three or four slats on one card, and so through the whole system ; then to commence again on the first card, repeating the operation the third or fourth time if necessary. This course pursued, the top slats will better clean and separate the gins, &c. from the main drum, and uniformity of work is obtained. Other ways are preferred at the option of the man- ager. Some strip every alternate top : thus, the 1st, 3d, 5th and 7th, then the 2d, 4th, 6th and 8th, and so on for the rest ; while many think this the most prac- ticable, viz., the 1st, 4th, 7th and 10th, &c. The mode of grinding is various. In many modern mills an ingenious machine is used consisting of a small cylinder some four or six inches in width, made to traverse alternately from the right to the left, and vice versa. This performs its office with much pre- cision, and is coming into general use. The old mode, however, is as yet more or less used. It consists of a simple revolving wood or iron cylinder covered with emery, which is made to bear gently against the card to be sharpened. Frequently a board 24 CARDING ENGINE. or cloth coated with emery, is held upon the main and dofFer drums for the same purpose. Where the top slats are held by the hand to be sharpened, the utmost care and steadiness are indis- pensable. This, however, is done much better by the machine above mentioned. An uniform temperature should be maintained in the preparation department. In many mills this is accomplished by the use of steam. This mode, while it regulates, also purifies the air. The sheets are distinguished by the number of teeth in the breadth of wire — three and a half inches for the cylinder, and two for the top sheets — twenty of these are in an inch, forming a crown : hence there will be 70 teeth in the cylinder, and 40 in the top sheets. Explanation of the fineness of the sheets of diflferent carding, is given in Table X, under " Various Tables, &c." In a treatise like this, it will not be expected that all the features and technicalities of the art of carding wall be explicitly delineated. All practical carders are aware, that a train of ideas instructive in their nature, and almost illimitable in extent, are the result of experience and investigation. No machine employed in the art of cotton manu- facturing, is more important, or deserving of greater study, — no machine which performs more admirably its operations — so delicate in their nature and so tri- umphantly perfect in their adaptation ; no machine which does greater homage to the ingenuity of man, CARDING ENGINE. 25 and which yields, in a greater degree, a more produc- tive result, than the carding engine. To behold the movements of a system of these ma- chines, full of activity and obedience, is to gaze upon so many offerings of the reward of genius to those master-spirits, who gave birth to features so feeble in their beginnings, disasters and struggles, but which, like the sturdy oak planted in a rugged soil, have flour- ished and become mighty. A stranger gazing upon the crank comb-motion, of inimitable beauty, cannot but reverence the spirit of invention, which presided in the bosom of that great man, Richard Arkwright, its inventor. In his astonishment that so important a mechan ism — so ptactically philosophical, should have for its author a poor factory boy, he imagines every stroke a vibration of homage and respect meted out to him by the innumerable representatives of his sagacious mind and irresistible genius. DRAWING FRAMES. This machine serves quite a different purpose from the Carding Engine. Its office is to elongate the end or sliver delivered from the card, or railway drawing- head, to straighten the fibres, and lay them side by side parallel to each other. Its operation serves to 3 26 DRAWING FRAMES. make even the whole work by uniting many ends into one, and to draw down the shver previous to its being run through the fly or roving frame. The fibres of the end formed by the cards are not perfectly straight- ened by that process, being doubled or crossed on each other. When properly managed, the drawing frame straightens these filaments. Among its principal features, are the top and bot- tom rollers ; the former are covered with suitable leather, highly coated with a kind of varnish, to render them perfectly smooth ; the latter are some- what larger, and fluted so as to retain a firm hold upon the tender filaments. Most frames have three pairs of these rollers in front of each other, in one position, placed at proper distances as the length of staple may require. The bottom rollers are driven by wheel- work, with diflferent velocities, adapted to the length of draughts required. The top rollers are driven by the friction of the flutings of the bottom rollers. In some frames of recent construction, four pairs of rollers are used, serving to give three draughts. Another feature of this machine is the roller-beam, which supports the several heads. The front roller- stand is stationary, but the middle and back roller- stands can be moved so as to come near, or recede from, the front roller, or each other, suiting the differ- ent staples of cotton that may be used. This is an important improvement in all roller machines, and one which has not been very long in use in this country. The top rollers, driven by the friction of the flutings, DRAWING FRAMES. 27 rest their ends in the stands, and a suitable weight is made to bear them down in their middle by a wire, which holds firm upon them a wooden or brass bear- ing. Most commonly the front roller is weighted separately. Top brushes, made of suitable wood, and covered with cloth, rest against the top rollers to keep the sur- face smooth, and retain what impurities may have lodged upon them. In some frames, brushes com- pressed and held by a spiral spring, rest against the bottom rollers for the same purpose. The slivers to be drawn, are introduced to the back rollers, being sepa- rated by projecting pins from a cross bar. Sometimes two or four of these ends are run through the rollers, and drawn into one end. The end thus drawn, with increased doubling, acquires uniformity, and is well prepared for making even and perfect work. To draw the last end to its grist, in one operation, would illy perform its required office, arising from its great attenuation. This is done by degrees, while passing through the several heads ; the second serving to draw the first, the third the second, and so on for the rest. As many as eight heads are in use in some frames, but for common numbers not more than three or four. Different carding masters have as various views respecting the number of doublings, and extent of draught to be given the cotton ; some preferring but a few of the former, and others many, for the same quality of work. In most frames in this country, there is not a very extensive number of doublings, from the fact that most of our yarns are coarse and 28 DRAWING FRAMES. medium numbers. On very fine work it is common to extend the number as high as 100,000; this quan- tity is deemed sufficient for any number of yarn whatever. Excellent coarse yarns are made from roving of only sixty-four doublings. The different qualities of stock used require more or less doubling, as the manager may direct. Long straight cotton, whose filaments are uniform, requires but a few, while curly matted stock requires more doublings. It must be obvious, that a uniform quality of stock should be used. It is not uncommon however, in many coarse mills, to mix cotton of different length of staple, from the shortest Upland to fair New Orleans, and pass them through the same operation. Now a little reflection wull convince us that nothing more injurious could be done to the whole ; the longer fibres in passing through the lapping machine would be broken, the short would not combine, the stronger would throw out the short and weak in cai^ding, and much stock go to waste ; in the drawing and roving processes it would be im- possible to draw the filaments to an uniform sliver ; besides, extra labor is required, poor work obtained, and thereby the credit of the manufacture impaired. Many managers approve of mixing a number of qualities of cotton, but in our opinion two are sufli- cient, and one is more practicable to make an even warp. Where the preparation is ample, and two sys- tems are employed, it is an advantage to use two qualities, one for warp and the other for weft. This DRAWING FRAMES. 29 practice is coming into use, and is found to be cheaper, as a poorer cotton, (as previously intimated) can be run into the weft yarn. This presupposes the differ- ent machines adjusted to suit the staple of cotton used. In some drawing frames, a double roller beam, and therefore a double draught at the same doubling, has been introduced ; this does well on coarse, but answers not so well for medium or fine numbers. In many frames, the draught or extension of the sliver is th~e same in the several heads. In a frame of four heads, the three first putting up six, and the last four ends, and the draught in the proportion of 4.75 to 1, we have this ratio: 6 X 6 X 6 X 4 = 864 __ 4.75x4.75x4.7 5x4.75 = 517,57 ~ * Then with 864 doublings, the sliver is 1.66 times stronger. Suppose it weighed No. 25=//^= 15,06 showing that many more fibres are compressed and formed in the last sliver, from their being drawn and doubled. Various improvements have been made upon this machine, some of which are enumerated. The cans which receive the tender slivers from the rolls, are made to revolve slowly : this lays the draw- ing more carefully than the old mode. Some cans fill from the bottom, and many other ways are employed for this purpose. The most practicable machine for this purpose is furnished by Messrs. Dean and Morse, of Taunton, Ms, Large cans are coming into gen- 30 DRAWING FRAMES. eral use ; they save much bad work, piecing and labor. In many frames the front roll is made quite large. This though a novel, is an excellent improvement. The draught of each head is increased or diminished by changing the front roll wheel or wheels, denomi- nated " change wheels." Another feature in the class of improvements is the stop motion. It consists of a rest or guide supported by a rod or pin, upon which it is nearly balanced, re- quiring only the weight of the sliver to make it stand perpendicular. As the end breaks, this rest or guide drops down, and a projecting point bears upon the rod which turns partly round, another point presses a catch, this catch turns on its stud, when another point is lowered, and permits a rod to be forced ahead by means of a spiral spring, which serves to move the lever, through which runs the belt. This is quite an ingenious invention, and serves its purpose quite well. By the introduction of the large cans and this mo- tion, better^ and at the same time, cheaper work is obtained ; a saving of one or two hands is made, and frequently in mills where the drawing is but lightly drawn and adapted for fine work, it is not uncommon for a small girl to furnish drawing for eighty or a hun- dred looms. There have been introduced in some mills, a mech- anism to equalize the grist of the drawing. It appears to be practical, and promises to answer its purpose. Still as an invention it admits of improvement. It DRAWING FRAMES. 31 strikes us that the regulator-rod should be more prop- erly adjusted. Some other novel features are to be found on a number of frames, ingenious in their construction and quite serviceable in their office, among which is " the Coiler and Winder," a decided improvement. Close attention to the working parts is required, and an uniform degree of friction ought to be given the rollers. All the bearings ought to run as perfect and easy as possible, and cleanliness in this, as in all of the branches, demands its deserved supremacy. The rollers ought not to be too heavily weighted on light work — this, in all drawing, is a point which experienced carders know, requires judgment and care. A new mode of weighting the drawing is in use on many frames : it consists of a lever, upon the end of which is a ball, movable by means of a set-screw* This serves its purpose admirably, as the weight re- quired by the different grist of drawing and change of w^eather, can easily be given by moving the ball to the right or left. The spirit of invention, so prevalent in our day, seems to have thrown its mantle upon us as a nation, and no where in a greater degree do we behold its fruits, than in the progress of the art of Cotton man- ufacturing. This is clearly seen by contrasting the beautiful machines, so full of seeming magic power, of our own day, with those of Arkwright and Slater, so rough in their appearance, and, at best, imperfect in their operation. 32 ROVING FRAMES. ROVING FRAMES. The next machine employed in the process of man- ufacturing, is the Roving Frame. It serves to draw the drawing-sliver down to a proper grist, and give to it a small degree of torsion. The greatest care is required at this stage of the art in preserving the uni- formity of the rove, as upon this depends the evenness of the yarn. Various machines have been presented to the no- tice of manufacturers for performing this operation. The most important of them will be noticed ; and first, the Eclipse Roving Frame. This machine produces good rovings, and is much in use in spinning coarse numbers. It is quite simple in its construction, occupies less room and takes less power to drive it than any other rove frame I have ev^r seen. The ends as they descend from the rollers, are con- densed by the opposing surfaces of a traveling endless belt ; another similar belt, upon which rest the spools, serves to wind the rovings. This machine is capable of being driven at a very high speed ; the front roller frequently revolving from seven hundred to seven hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. There are but ten spools in these ma- chines, but from five to six hundred hanks per day can be turned out with ease. There are some objections made to these machines, some of which are their liability to collect considera- ROVING FRAMES. 33 ble dirt, &c. in their operation, and the tendency of one end catching on and revolving with those nearest it. Still they are an astonishingly productive ma- chine, and answer quite well for coarse and medium work. Another machine which has been presented, is the Tube Frame, sometimes called the Taunton Speeder, and Dyer's Frame ; this latter name is more common in England, being the name of the gentleman who patented it there in 1825. The principal features wherein it differs from the Eclipse frame, are its complexity, and in its mode of twisting or condensing. In some of these frames two rows of spools form quite a novel feature. These perform their office very well, but are better adapted for coarse than fine yarns. The rovings made from this machine, are very similar to those of the Eclipse frame. Another machine, or rather an improvement on the Tube frame, is in operation in many mills, called the Plate Speeder. It consists of a pair of friction plates, through which the rove is made to pass, each sliver being provided with a pair. These plates revolve rapidly in opposite directions, serving to twist and untwist the rove in the same way as in the Tube frame. The surface of these plates do not press against each other more than three-eights of an inch from their circumference ; this part is beveled, so as to make the plates nearest the rollers stand from each other in order to bring the bevels parallel ; an angle 34 ROVING FRAMES. is thus formed, and the point presses the bobbin, mak- ing it to wind firmly. These plates are so constructed that they may be used for coarse or fine work. Some carders like them well, but it is generally acknowledged that the Taunton and Eclipse Roving frame, are better adapted for making a more uniform rove, and for turning out a greater quantity in a given time. In some mills, a machine denominated the Double Speeder, is used for making rovings. It is somewhat complex in its construction. The drawing is passed through a set of rollers, where it undergoes a suitable draught, and is made to receive a slight degree of twist by the spindle below. The rovings formed by this, are frequently passed through another machine similar in its nature, having a row of spindles on each side of the frame. These machines, when properly managed, make excellent rovings. A great improvement on this, and all other roller machines, has been introduced. It consists in the bevel of the rollers, whereby the front will be some- what lower than the back roller. The twist given to rovings, or yarn, is more properly distributed as it pro- ceeds up nearer the middle surface of the rollers. These machines are similar, though not so complex, as the Bobbin-and-Fly Frame of recent construction. In many fine mills, a machine called a Stretcher, is used to draw down the rove to its required fine- ness, performing the operation better than could be done in the Fly Frame. ROVING FRAMES. 35 But the most perfect and beautiful machine ever presented to the notice of manufacturers for making even rovings, is the Bobbin-and-Fly Frame of Messrs, Cocker and Higgins, improved by Henry Houlds- worth, jun. of Glasgow, Scotland.* It is quite complicated in its construction, and dis- plays the ingenuity of its builders, for which they are so deservingly celebrated. It possesses many novel and entertaining features for the study of the philos- opher and mechanic, and is generally acknowledged to be one of the most beautiful and scientific machines ever invented. Its various motions and windings, its perfect work, and its almost speaking triumph of gen- ius, are indeed a rich treat to a looker-on. A better explanation of its features and movements, cannot be given, than that of the noted Dr. Ure,^in his work on the Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain. There are two principal points which claim the at- tention of the reader — the mode of twisting and the winding-on motion. Speaking of these the learned Doctor says : " The twisting is effected by the revolution of the spindle to which the fly-fork is attached, while the sliver, in its passage from the roller to the bobbin, proceeds along the arm of the flyer, which, being of one piece with the spindle, revolves with it ; the quantity of twist given to the roving depends upon the ratio between the surface speed of the front roller and the revolu- * This machine has been materially modified and improved by American mechanicians. This remark will apply respecting most of British and foreign machines. 36 ROVING FRAMES. tiotis of the spindles. The winding-on was accom- plished in jack frames, by an uniform motion applied by a carrier roller to the surface of the roving on the bobbins, which was made to correspond exactly with the surface speed of the front roller ; but in the bob- bin-and-fly frame it is accomplished by giving to the bobbin such a velocity that the difference between the motion of the delivering end at the arm of the flyer shall equal the surface motion of the roller, or the supply of the sliver. This distinction between the action of the jack-frame (to which, in the winding- on the tube-frame may be assimilated,) and the bob- bin-and-fly frame, must be kept constantly in view. In the bobbin-and-fly frame, the bobbin revolves round the spindle, and not at right angles to it, as in the jack-frame, which circumstance removes many of the objections justly urged against the latter contri- vance. The first bobbin-and-fly frames were of a very complicated kind, containing three or four conical drums for producing the several variable motions. From the position of the bobbin upon the axis of the spindle, it is obvious that every revolution of the spin- dle or delivering arm of the flyer round the bobbin supposed at rest, or ahead of it supposed in motion, will wind up a length of roving equal to the determi- nate periphery of the bobbin, the end of the roving being previously attached to it. But as the number of revolutions of the spindle requisite to give the de- sired degree of twist has no necessary connection with, but, in fact, greatly exceeds the number of turns re- quired to wind up the length of roving delivered by ROVING FRAMES. 37 the front rollers, it will follow that, unless some scheme be contrived for lessening progressively the number of revolutions of the flyer round the bobbin, the ro- ving will be coiled up too fast, and will be infallibly stretched and broken. This scheme cannot consist in reducing the number of revolutions of the flyer, (for these must be proportional to the desired degree of torsion) but in making the bobbin revolve in the same direction with the spindle, but at a speed so much less than it as to cause the circumference of the bob- bin to fall behind the delivering arm of the flyer, so that the difference of their velocities shall equal the rate at which the roving issues from the front roller. Thus, if a given length of roving, equal, for instance, to the periphery of the front roller, or four inches, be equal also to one circumference of the bobbin at a cer- tain stage of its increase, then, to wind up this length, the arm of the flyer must revolve several times about the bobbin till it has got ahead of its surface rotation by four inches ; and this may be effected either by making the spindle turn once round while the bobbin stands still, or by making the bobbin revolve one turn less than the spindle, whatever may be the speed of the spindle. If the spindle, for example, makes ten turns while the above four inches are given out by the rollers, then the bobbin will require to make nine turns ; or, if the spindle makes twenty turns, the bob- bin will require to make nineteen. The same result will be produced whatever be the speed of the spindle, provided the difference between the circular space, percurred by the spindle and the bobbin, in the given 38 , ROVING FRAMES. time remains four inches. This difference, which represents exactly the requisite winding-on motion, is, therefore, dependent jointly upon the speed of the front roller, or delivering motion, and upon the size of the circumference of the bobbin at the particular stage of winding-on, and is quite independent of the twist or the velocity of the spindle. From the manner in which the first bobbin-and-fly frames were con- structed, every change in the twist required a corres- ponding change in the speed of the bobbin — a change not proportional to that of the twist, but such as would preserve the difference between the motion of the spindle and bobbin as it was, relatively to the roller. Thus if the spindle, turning ten times while the bobbin turned nine times, gave the proper differ- ence of motion = 1, for winding-on, then if the twist was doubled, the speed of the bobbin would require to be more than doubled, for, as the spindle would then turn twenty times, the bobbin ought to turn not eight- een, but nineteen times, in order to maintain the same difference of motion = 1, as at first. The object of the recent improvements of this im- portant machine, for most of which the world is indebted to Mr. Houldsworth, has been to get rid of the difficulty of making these perpetually recurring and very intricate adjustments of the speed of the bobbin, which were found in practice beyond the ca- pacity of most overlookers of the preparation room of cotton mills, who seldom arrived at the correct differ- ence till after an expensive and wasteful series of errors and alterations, whereby the quality of the work ROVING FRAMES. 39 was more or less damaged for several weeks at each change of the twist or of the cotton staple. In the coarse bobbin-and-fly frame, it is usual to make the spindle go quicker than the bobbin, and in the fine to make it go slower, by which the winding goes on backwards. Let us state a case in numbers for the sake of illustration. If 45 inches of roving are to be wound upon a bobbin whose barrel is 4^ inches in circumference, 10 turns will be required. Suppose that these 45 inches should receive 30 turns of twist, the spindle, and consequently its attached flyer, must give these 30 turns during the winding on of the roving. If the bobbin therefore is 1^ inch in diameter, it must make 10 turns for the winding on, and 30 turns in following the spindle ; in all 40 revolutions. If the bobbin be 3 inches in diameter, or 9 in cir- cumference, it must make only 5 turns to wind on the 45 inches ; these 5 turns added to the 30 turns required for twist, make 35 revolutions : and thus for any other dimensions of the bobbin. It hence results, that the number of turns of the bobbin, plus the num- ber of turns of the spindle, is a quantity always in- versely as the diameter of the bobbin. The motion of the bobbin and spindle is simultaneous and in the same direction, with a difference varying more or less according to the variable diameter of the bobbins. But to render the matter still plainer, suppose for a moment the spindle to be stationary ; then the bobbin must turn with such a velocity, that it shall wind the roving just as fast as the front rollers deliver it. This 40 ROVING FRAMES. roving comes forward at a uniform rate ; but the bob- bin growing continually larger in diameter, should turn with a velocity uniformly retarded. Let us now restore motion to the spindle : it is evi- dent that when the winding is forwards, as in the fine fly frame, we must deduct from the rotation of the bobbin, needed for winding on the roving, that of the spindle required for the twist ; for the circumference of the bobbin being 4|- inches, 10 turns take up 45 inches. These 10 turns deducted from the 30 made by the spindle, leave only 20 turns for the effective speed of the bobbin ; or, if the circumference be 9 inches, 5 turns will take up the 45 inches, if the spindles be at rest ; but if the spindle makes 30 turns for twist, the effective speed of the bobbin will be 30 — 6 = 25 turns. Hence for the fine bobbin-and- fly frame we find that the number of turns of the spin- dle, minus the number of turns made by the bobbin in the same time, is a quantity inversely as the diam- eter of the bobbins. In the coarse frames the bobbin should move faster than the spindle, and its speed should go on diminish- ing; while in the fine frame, the speed of the bobbin is less than that of the spindle, and it goes on progress- ively increasing. For this reason the cones of these two machines are set in opposite directions. This arrangement is not, however, indispensable, for the cone might be placed similarly in each ; but as the fine frame has a good deal of twisting to perform, the bobbin would need to turn still more rapidly than in the coarse frame, which would consume more moving SPINNING MACHINES. 41 force, for which reason it has been found more advan- tageous to make it revolve in the opposite direction." For a more faithful delineation and description of this complex and beautiful machine, the reader is referred to the works of this scientific man. One of these machines, with the improved spring presser attached, forms a striking contrast with the can and jack roving frame, constructed and used by Arkwright. SPINNING MACHINES. The spinning machines serve to complete the ope- ration of drawing and twisting. Of these there are many kinds, performing their office with much pre- cision. The Flyer-frame will claim our first attention. It is quite simple in its construction, and remains much in use. The roving is passed through a double set of rollers where it undergoes a suitable draught, when the spin- dle below draws it down and gives to it the requisite twist similar to the bobbin-and-fly frame, though in a greater degree. As it leaves the front roller, it is led through a guide directly over the centre of the spindle, when it passes round the arm of the flyer two or three times, -and through the eyelet, to the bobbin, which, by its fric- tion, serves to wind it firm. 4 42 SPINNING MACHINES. Good yarns are made from this machine, adapted, however, better for warps than wefts. In some, a twist is formed on the top of the spindle round which the end passes before it reaches the flyer ; in others, the rollers are beveled considerably, and other im- provements are found quite serviceable. These ma- chines will spin from four to four and a half hanks per spindle of 25's or 30's warp in a day. A machine called the Ca^^pinner, or Danforth's Throstle, is somewhat in use in many mills. Instead of the flyer, a hollow cylinder or cap is fixed to the spindle, which is stationary, the end pass- ing round its lower edge to the bobbin, which is made to revolve by the band running round the wharve of the spindle. A traverse motion is given the bobbin as in the flyer frame. Often weft yarn is spun on this machine, a suitable traveling apparatus being given to the straight bobbin. This machine is capa- ble of being driven at a very high speed, (frequently from 110 to 120 turns per minute,) and of furnishing from five and a half to six hanks of No. 28's per spin- dle per day ; some indeed with conical caps will spin from seven to seven and a half hanks per spindle per diem. It makes a soft, wooly thread, and is well adapted for fine warps. It presents quite a novel appearance in its operation, as the end is whirled so rapidly round the polished cone, " as to project in space the appear- ance of a continuous conical fleecy surface, inter- sected by four vertical lines, coincident with the cen- tre and the two lateral edges of the cone. SPINNING MACHINES. 43 Some objections are made to this machine ; damp, heavy air serves to draw too hard the end, and con- siderable waste is made. Yet many spinners think that all of the objections made, are more than balanced by the quantity of work it turns off. It is an ingen- ious invention, and reflects much credit upon its inventor. Another machine, called the Ring Spinner, or Ring and Traveler, has been introduced, and gives very good satisfaction. A steel spring clasp in the shape of the letter C, rapidly revolves round a polished ring, by the turn of the bobbin fixed on the spindle ; this is its principal feature wherein it differs from the cap spinner. Excellent yarns are made by this machine, and it will bear driving at a great speed. I have spun from i six to six and a half hanks of No. 28's per spindle per | diem on this machine. The yarn is adapted either for warps or wefts. Many managers prefer to throw aside the mule and use this mode of spinning for both kinds of yarn. As the spindle revolves rapidly, and the thread has no rest or guide but the traveler round the ring, the end is made soft and woolly, and is peculiarly adapted for the transverse threads of cloth. It requires less power to move it than the old flyer frame or dead spindle, to be mentioned. The driving bands require to be kept uniformly tight, to prevent their slipping, and making slack yarn. This is the greatest objection made to them ; it 44 SPINNING MACHINES. would be well to have a small tightening pully similar to that of the cap frame in this machine. This is a very productive machine, the front roller ranging from seventy to one hundred and ten turns per minute. Another improvement presented is the Dead Spin- dle, sometimes called " Montgomery's Patent Spin- dle," and the " Glasgow Patent Spindle." The spindle in this machine has no motion except the traverse motion for winding on the yarn. The flyer is longer and quite different from that of the flyer frame. Upon the bottom of it is fastened the wharve, which is turned by a band in the usual way. The yarn is wound on the bobbin as in the common throstle, or like the Danforth, on tubes, or straight bobbins. These machines do pretty well, but are not capable of doing the quantity or quality of work turned off" with the Danforth or cap frame. They have, how- ever, many zealous partizans in this and other countries. Still another improvement upon the spindle is that of Mr. Henry Gore, of Manchester, England. It consists principally in the bearings or collars ; they being made somewhat larger at the lower than the upper end. This machine requires about one-fifth less moving power than the dead spindle, and can be driven at a higher speed. The common speed of the front roller is from seventy to ninety-five on numbers between 12's and 25's, but it is not uncommon to run them as SPINNING MACHINES. 45 high as one hundred or one hundred and five turns per minute. On common numbers this machine will spin from five to five and a half hanks per spindle per diem. The Danforth and ring are used both on warp and weft. This latter machine is preferred by most man- agers, both for the quality and quantity of work it turns out. One cannot but perceive the marked contrast be- tween the Danforth and ring, and the water spinning throstle, invented and used by Arkwright and his cotemporaries. Other improvements of the throstle and ring are in the course of trial which are quite flattering, and the day may not be far distant when a machine may be presented capable of eclipsing all we behold of precis- ion, beauty, productiveness and profit. While strides for the climax of fame are so predominant with us as a nation — particularly as an inventive nation — it would be singularly incredulous not to entertain the advancement we have made. Genius, energy of pur- pose, and persevering devotedness of object, are so preeminently characteristic of the American, that we imperfectly know what invention we should question, or what believe, until frequently we are constrained to acknowledge the practical utility of the same. The next machine for spinning yarn is the Mule. Generally in this country, this machine is used for making weft, though in some mills where a particular kind of yarn is required, it is common to find both kinds made from it. 46 SPINNING MACHINES. Mules of different construction and of all sizes are in operation. No machine has been made the object of more investigation, and attended with more suc- cess, than the mule-jenny. In some, the head-stock is placed in the middle, in others, at one end. Many managers prefer to double two pairs together, one in front of the other, so as to be worked by one hand. Some prefer to lengthen the common mule so as to contain five or six hundred spindles, — one hand running a pair. Some prefer to have less than three hundred spin- dles in one mule. Many improvements, ingenious in their design, are to be found in operation on this machine. The mode of drawing out the carriage presents a novel feature on different mules. Upon some, the scroll-wheel is composed of two grooved circles, fast- ened to each other by means of screws, so as to suit itself to the different length of stretch that may be re- quired for the same, and different number of yarn. Counter bands, to prevent the slip of the drum band, are coming into general use. Weights to draw out, and to aid the spinner in put- ting up the carriage are much in use, relieving the labor of the spinner materially. Indeed, it would not answer our purpose in this little work, to name all the improvements which have been brought forward to the notice of the spinner; nor would it profit the reader without suitable explanations. Different spinners drive their mules at various speeds ; some prefer sixty and seventy as the means SPINNING MACHINES. 47 of the front roller speed per minute ; others, sixty-five to eighty, for numbers between 14's and 30's. It is not uncommon in this country to run mules from four to five stretches of fifty-four inches per minute, on numbers from 20's to 30's ; this is much quicker than mules are driven in England and Scot- land, on the same numbers. It is generally acknowledged that, on numbers from 14's to 30'"s, (being the numbers generally spun in this country,) we produce more yarn than our foreign competitors. A better quality of stock is generally used in this country on common numbers than in Britain. And it is not saying more than can be substantiated, that we make a cheaper and better article of common goods than our experienced rivals of Manchester. One in the time of Slater would have thought it a preposterous idea, that, in a period of less than forty years, from a beginning so feeble, we should be able to compete with adversaries so formidable. The spirit of genius, so untiring in its progress, which has presided in the breasts of those master spirits who have so well acted their part, has let fall its mantle upon those of our day who have proved themselves worthy of its protection and dignity. In proof of this, we refer the reader to the construction and operation of the great invention of the age in the art of cotton manufacturing, — the self-actor mule. This machine, so complex, so ingenious and perfect in its construction, and so beautiful and concise in its operation, has, after repeated trials, been perfected. 48 SPINNING MACHINES. The attention of mechanicians for a long time had been directed to the attainment of an apparatus which would dispense with the labor of the spinner, or ren- der the mule similar to the throstle frame, — requiring no manual labor to operate it, except the piecers to piece the ends, fill the creels, and keep clean the working parts, &c. William Strutt, Esq. of Derby, is said to have been the first contriver of the self-actor mule ; not many, however, were ever put in operation, owing to the want of necessary skill and workmanship at the time of the invention. This gentleman was eminently noted for his mechanical ingenuity. In the work of the noted Dr. Ure, on the Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain, is a faithful exposition of the origin, progress, and present state of this ma- chine. The reader is referred to the same for infor- mation on this and all other machines used in cotton manufacturing. Speaking of this machine, the writer says on page 196, vol. II : " Of the various attempts made to accomplish an object of so much importance to that great branch of business, cotton spinning, the inventions of the follow- ing parties only have been put into operation beyond the purpose of experiment ; viz. Messrs. Eaton, for- merly of Manchester ; Mr. De Jongh, formerly of War- rington ; Mr. Buchanan, of the Catrine works, Scot- land ; Mr. Brewster, of America ; Mr Roberts, a partner in the firm of Sharp, Roberts & Co. of Man- chester ; and Mr. Knowles, of Manchester. SPINNING MACHINES. 49 Of the self-acting mules invented by Messrs. Eaton, ten or twelve only were put in operation in Manches- ter, and at Wiln, in Derbyshire, and a few in France ; but from their great complexity and limited produc- tion, the whole were soon reUnquished, except four at Wiln. Mr. De Jongh obtained two patents for self-acting mules, and put twelve of them in operation in a mill at Warrington, of which he was part proprietor, but with an unsuccessful result, and they were conse- quently given up. Mr. Buchanan, it is reported, has several mules, partly or entirely self-acting, at work in Scotland ; but the principle of their construction has not been made public. Of Mr. Brewster's self-acting mule, nothing is known beyond the report that there are mules at work in America, of his invention, for spinning wool." These are not mules, but a kind of self-acting jenny, used in woolen mills. Some quite novel features were presented to view ; the spindles were placed in a horizontal position, some ten to fifteen inches from the floor ; the creels containing the roving rose and fell in a vertical direction, &c. None of these ma- chines, to my knowledge, are in use at the present time. " The first approximation to a successful accomplish- ment of the objects in view, was an invention of a self-acting mule, by Mr. Roberts, one of the principal points of which was, the mode of governing the wind- 50 SPINNING MACHINES. ing on of the yarn into the form of a cop ; the entire novelty and great ingenuity of which invention was universally admitted, and proved the main step to the final accomplishment of that object which had so long been a desideratum. For that invention a patent was obtained in 1825, and several headstocks upon the principle were made, which are still w^orking successfully ; but, from a combination of various causes, the invention was not extensively adopted. In 1827, Mr. De Jongh obtained a third patent for a self-acting mule; upon which plan, with the addi- tion of part of Mr. Roberts' invention, which was found to be essential, about thirty mules were made, part to spin cotton, and part woolen yarn. The greater part of these are continued at work, but, it is reported, with only a moderate degree of success. In 1830, Mr. Roberts obtained a patent for the invention of certain improvements ; and, by a com- bination of both his inventions, he produced a self- acting mule, which is generally admitted to have ex- ceeded the most sanguine expectations, and which has been extensively adopted." Such is a short sketch of the origin and progress of self-acting mules up to 1830 ; since that time the patent mule of Messrs. Sharp, Roberts & Co. has been extensively adopted, there being at the present time, (Dec. 1834,) in operation, in upwards of sixty mills, between 300,000 and 400,000 spindles, besides extensive orders in course of execution. It may be proper to observe, the adoption of the mechanism to SPINNING MACHINES. 51 render mules self-acting, does not involve a sacrifice of the whole of the hand-mule, but merely that part of it termed the head-stock, being in value about one- fifth of the entire mule, the self-acting mechanism being contained in the head- stock, which is adapted to be applied to the other parts, of a mule, as the roller- carriage. Spindles are termed the body of the mule. In considering the advantages resulting to the pro- prietors of cotton mills from the use of self-acting mules, it may be stated that, although the only, or at any rate the principal benefit anticipated, was the saving of the high wages paid to the hand " spinner," and a release from the domination which he had for so long a period exercised over his employers and his fellow work people, it soon became manifest that other and very important advantages were connected with the use of the machine. The various advantages attending the use of self- acting mule head-stocks, were enumerated in a state- ment submitted by Messrs. Sharp, Roberts & Co. to the proprietors of cotton mills, of the principal points in which the following is a copy : " First, the advantages connected with spinning. " The saving of a spinner's wages to each pair of mules, piecers only being required, one overlooker being sufficient to manage six or eight pair of mules or upwards. " The production of a greater quantity of yarn, in the ratio of fifteen or twenty per cent, or upwards. " The yarn possesses a more uniform degree of twist, and is not liable to be strained during the spin- 52 SPINNING MACHINES. ning, or in winding-on, to form the cop ; consequently- fewer threads are broken in those processes, and the yarn, from having fewer piecings, is more regular. " The cops are made firmer, of better shape, and with undeviating uniformity, and from being more regularly and firmly wound, contain from one-third to one-half more yarn than cops of equal bulk wound by hand ; they are consequently less liable to injury in packing or in carriage, and the expense of packages and freight (when charged by measurement) is con- siderably reduced. "From the cops being more regularly and firmly wound, combined with their superior formation, the yarn intended for warps less frequently breaks in winding or reeling, consequently there is a considera- ble saving of waste in those processes. " Secondly, the advantages connected with weaving. " The cops being more regularly and firmly wound, the yarn, when used as weft, seldom breaks in weav- ing ; and as the cops also contain a greater quantity of weft, there are fewer bottoms. Consequently there is a very material saving of waste in the process of weaving. " From these combined circumstances, the quality of cloth is improved, by being more free from defects, caused by the breakage of the warp or weft, as well as the selvages being more regular. " That the advantages thus enumerated, as deriva- ble from the use of self-acting mules have not been overrated, but in many instances have been consider- ably exceeded, the author, by extensive personal in- SPOOLING MACHINES. 53 quiry and observation, has had ample opportunity of proving, &c. &c." This is a beautiful machine, both in its construc- tion and movements. It removes all imperfections of the old mode of spinning, makes a better thread, and with less care and expense. Though complex, yet one endowed with mechanical skill and a matured judgment, will soon operate it to his credit. SPOOLING MACHINES. The office which this machine performs in the art of manufacturing, is to wind upon larger bobbins, or spools, the yarn from the smaller bobbins, or cops, and to smooth somewhat the surface of the same. The most common form in use, consists merely of a long cylindrical shaft, containing from 10 to 16 drums, upon which rest the spools. One drum fre- quently drives four spools. Arches rest over these drums, to keep the spools in their proper place. In some machines, the ends to be wound off are run through two or more pieces of cloth which smooths the thread and cleans it from dirt and other impuri- ties. The guide-pins through which pass the ends, are made to traverse alternately from right to left the length of the spools by means of a heart motion. These drums are covered with cloth, and require to be kept perfectly true. 64 WARPING MACHINES. This is a very simple machine and requires but little power to drive it. One of them of sixteen drums, running at a pro- per speed and well managed, will spool from 2,500 to 3,000 hanks per diem. A machine for the same purpose is in use in many mills of different construction. The spindles upon which the small bobbins are placed, are horizontal, and the spools which receive the yarn are perpendic- ular — being in both instances the reverse of the above mentioned machine. It performs its operations very well, requiring about the same labor and power as the common spooler. In some mills it is common to dispense with the use of this machine, — the small bobbins being taken directly to the warper. This is an unwise and ex- pensive practice ; for the great number of bobbins in the rack will constantly be running out, making a great deal of unnecessary labor and waste. WARPING .MACHINES. The next machine in the series is the Warper ; this, like the spooler, is quite simple in its construction. A suitable rack, generally divided into two parts, contains the spools taken from the spooler to be wound on the section beam : this beam is driven by the friction of a large cylindrical drum. WARPING MACHINES. 55 Most warping machines in use in this country, are furnished with a stop-motion, by means of which the machine is instantly stopped when a thread breaks. This is rather a curious contrivance and exhibits the inventive genius of its author. It is generally as- cribed to the inventor of the celebrated steam gun, Mr. Perkins. It is quite complex in its parts, being formed of levers, dropwires, tumblers, springs, rods, &c. An explanation of its movements cannot be explicitly given without suitable plates and references. This invention is clearly illustrated in " Montgomery's Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain and America contrasted." At first, in viewing its operations, one would imag- ine, that, from its complex construction, it might not answer its purpose : but this is not the case. It per- forms its office better and with less care than the old mode of warping. Quite an improvement on this machine, is the in- troduction of balance wheels at each end of the driving drums. I tried this on a wide warping ma- chine, and found that from 15 to 20 per cent, more yarn could be wound on in a given time, than in the usual mode ; besides being more compact and even. This machine, being subject to many stoppages, it must be obvious, that a gain is here obtained. The bearings of the section ought to be exactly weighted so that an uniform length of yarn will be run on at either end. This point requires rigid attention as the weight 56 DRESSING MACHINES. or lever may be moved by carelessness or accident. When a heavier weight is made to bear upon one end, that end will necessarily be smaller in circum- ference, and there is nothing makes worse work on the dressing machines : if there be but a small differ- ence in the diameter, in winding off, it will be found that one will gain on the other so that one part of the yarn will be drawn tight and the other as loose. This is an evil which will he found out by the dresser, if not attended to by the warper tender. The circumference of the long cylinder is gener- ally one yard ; upon the end of its axis is a worm playing into a gear wheel, the object being to meas- ure the warp. An alternate traverse motion is given the guide-bar. Close attention should be given this, to furnish even and uniform warps for the next ma- chine in the series. DRESSING MACHINES. The web to be woven in the loom, is formed by this machine. Sometimes four, but generally eight of the sections made by the warping machines, are run through rollers on to the top or centre beam ; one-half being at each end. Various patterns are found in operation. Some prefer to run them at a high, others, at a low speed. Some to keep the temperature of the room quite hot, others not above 60o. DRESSING MACHINES 57 In some machines a pipe is led along under the yarn, serving to dry it quicker than the common fans. Sometimes two of these fans are only found in operation : sometimes three, with a kind of heater placed under the centre beam. A species of upright fans similar to the windmill, have been introduced in many mills ; they move with less power and cause a purer current of air to flow, than the old mode. As in the mode of drying, so in smoothing or brushing, various ways are employed. In some ma- chines, two cylindrical brushes, one over, and one under the warp, are made to revolve in a direction the reverse of the yarn. In another kind, are to be found two flat brushes, one over, and the other under the yarn, moved too and fro in such a manner that they touch -the yarn only in one direction. On many machines but one of this kind of brushes is used, viz., the top one. This kind of brushing is deemed the most preferable. The yarn passes through heavy calender rolls, run- ning in the size, their great weight serving to expel the air contained in the filaments of the threads. An uniform thickness of paste or size ought to be used. A new and much admired mode of driving the brushes is presented to view in many machines of our day. It consists of two eccentric wheels fixed upon the driving shaft, with grooves, fitted to which* are clasps connected with the sweeps by means of vertical arms. This is an easy, delicate motion, and 5 58 DRESSING MACHINES. answers its purpose very well. Many other features are to be found in these machines, deserving the at- tention of the manager. A machine denominated "Lillie's Sizing Machine," has been presented, which bids fair to succeed the common mode of dressing. The trough is of iron ; on the bottom is cast a channel which serves to re- tain the steam fed by a large steam-pipe. There are openings on the upper side of this channel which are raised by the steam coming from the pipe. This steam finds its way to the yarn passing round 8, 12 or 20 rollers arranged in two rows, in order to make the warp travel up and down. After the warp has passed all these rollers, it is compressed between two larger ones by means of weighted levers. It is a powerful machine and displays the genius of its in- ventor. '' Mr. Lillie's sizing machines will dress a length of warps, upwards of one mile in the course of an hour. Each drying cylinder in the steam range makes 20 turns in the minute, with a diameter of 18 inches, or a circumference of 4-|- feet : but 4j x 20 = 90 ft. per minute, = 5,400 per hour, = 1800 yards. A common dressing machine does 10 pieces or cuts 60 yards each in a day ; which is at the rate of 3,600 yards in a week. * " One of these machines made by Mr. Lillie for Mr. Waterhouse, an eminent manufacturer near Man- * This is quite too low ; most of dressing machines in our coun- try furnish full 60 per cent, more length than this estimate. LOOMS. 59 Chester, dresses in 12 hours, 100 warps, each 370 yards long, which is no less than 37,000 in that time, being at the rate of 3,083 yards per hour, or If miles." No machine for dressing yarn has ever been pre- sented to be compared with this; but a limited num- ber has, as yet, been put in operation in this country. LOOMS. This is the last machine employed in the process of manufacture. Various improvements have been made upon the loom, the chief of which are, that of Horrocks' about 1813, that of Bowman's of Manchester, in 1821, — of Horrocks' again this same year, — of Roberts' in 1822, — of Buchanan's in 1823, — of Messrs. Stans- field, Briggs, Pritchard and Barraclough in 1823, — of Sadler's in 1825,— of Scholefield's in 1828,— of Gra- ham's in 1833, — of Stone's of Rhode Island in 1834, and of Messrs. Sharp and Roberts', &c., &c. All of these are important and valuable improvements. The crank loom of this country, is as perfect a machine, both in its construction and produce, as any in operation in Manchester, or any other place in Britain. This is acknowledged by competent judges ; and, indeed, some of the latest of American pattern looms, 60 LOOMS. with their improvements, exceed any in use, in the world, in any respect. The manufacturers of this country are behind no nation in this branch, and their attention is confined in a great degree, to those preparatory branches, which they have heretofore so much neglected. There is not a doubt existing, that America is destined to out- strip the parent country in the art of cotton manu- facturing. Her vast water-power, her great re- sources, together with her increasing supply of raw material, are proofs quite to strong of this assertion, to the minds of the English people. Common goods, such as are generally made in this country, are actually manufactured and shipped to Manchester, cheaper than the same style of goods can there be purchased. As yet, but a few mills are in operation in this country on fine numbers. But the experiments thus far, conclusively demon- strate that Yankee enterprize is formidable. The goods turned out from the New York, the Salem, Portsmouth, Newburyport and other mills of the East, will bear rigid competition from any quarter, both in cost and quality. The produce of the improved American looms is from 20 to 25 per cent, more than those constructed some 10 or 15 years since. The average number of yards turned out per loom, per diem, on No. 16's, 36 inches wide, 56 warp threads to the inch, or 2020 in the whole width, and 56 to 60 pecks per inch, is, from 34 to 40. COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. 61 Looms running on No. 28's, printing goods, with a 64 slaie, and 60 to 64 pecks per inch, will turn out on an average 5 to 6 pieces of 32 yards per week. The general speed of the Lowell and Eastern pat- tern looms, is about 115 to 120 pecks per minute; some on light goods run as high as 125 or 130 pecks per minute. Beyond this speed prudence and inter- est teach us that it would not be advantageous to go. COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. The speed of the Willow, ranges from 400 to 600 revolutions per min., with a diameter of 30 inches. Those with larger cylinders, or beaters, of course re- volve with a slower speed ; one 3 J to 4 feet in diam- eter, runs from 350 to 450 turns per minute. The beaters of the Lapping machine are generally regulated from 1200 to 2000 turns per minute; and 80 to 100 turns of the beater for one of the feeding rollers. It is often the case that two or more of the beaters revolve with the same speed. The common speed of the main cylinder in Card- ing engines, is from 115 to 125 revolutions per min., in some engines it is common to run them as high as 150 or 160 turns per min., — this is too high, as the great surface speed of the main drum, would prove injurious to the fibres. 62 COMMON SPEED OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. The front rollers in the Drawing Frame from 1 to 1|- inch in diameter, run from 250 to 300 revolutions per minute; with rollers of If or If inches in diam- eter, about 150 to 170. It is not uncommon to find drawing frames delivering at the rate of 60 to 75 feet per min. Most carders prefer using the large sized rollers. The front rollers of the Eclipse Roving Frame, of 1^ inch in diameter, revolve from 550 to 700 or even 750 turns per minute. The front rollers of the Tube Frame revolve from 475 to 600 turns per minute ; some are found running as high as 700 turns per minute. The speed per min. of the Bobbin and fly-frame front rollers is from 130 to 150 or even 170 turns. The front rollers of the common Throstle Frame of 1-g- inch in diameter revolve from 55 to 65 on com- mon numbers, — the Danforth and Ring Frames from 65 to 90 on medium numbers, and frequently as high as 100 to 115 on lower numbers. The speed of the Mule is various, being regulated by circumstances.; on mules making 3 or 3 J stretches of 56 inches per min., the common speed of the front rollers is from 60 to 70, and that of the spindles from 3,700 to 4,500 turns per minute. Some rollers revolve from 80 to 85 turns per min., on low number. These are common speeds, but they are often varied at the option of the manager. COMMON PRODUCE OF VARIOUS MACHINES. 63 COMMON PRODUCE OF THE VARIOUS MACHINES. The Eclipse Roving Frame of 10 spools will fur- nish with ease, 900 to 1000 spindles for the Mule or Throstle frame. Each spindle of the Bobbin and fly-frame will furnish rovings for 135 to 145 mule spindles. Each spindle of the Tube frame will fur- nish rovings for 400 to 450, or more, mule spindles. Each mule spindle spinning on No. 28's will turn out 22 to 24 hanks per week of 69 hours. Each spindle of the common Throstle frame will turn out 20 to 25 hanks of No. 32 per week. Each spindle of the Danforth frame will turn out 32 hanks of No. 30 per week. The produce of the Ring Spinner is about the same, viz., 30 hanks per week of No. 28's to 30's. PRODUCE OF SPINNING MACHINES. COMMON THROSTLE. | RING SPINNER. ] DANFORTH FRAME. CO O !2; & o >^ Ph o Hanks per week. o m O ■p o td ^ M o o ^ d Ph p Ph o 20 65 27 20 65 38 20 65 39 25 60 26 25 60 36 25 60 36i 28 60 24 28 60 33 28 60 33i 32 55 22 32 55 31 32 55 32 36 51 21 36 50 29 36 50 30 40 50 18i 40 45 26i 40 45 28i 64 WATER WHEELS, WATER WHEELS. There are three kinds of water wheels, — the over- shot, undershot and breast. When the water drives the wheel by 'its weight, it is demonstrated an over- shot, when it drives the wheel, by its velocity, an undershot, and when in part both of these agencies are employed it is denominated a breast wheel. The overshot wheel is the best mover, as from the same quantity of water there is obtained a greater power. It often happens that we cannot use this wheel, from the smallness of the fall. We then em- ploy the breast wheel, delivering the water somewhat lower than the top of the wheel. The undershot wheel is used when the breast will not answer ; the water being delivered at or below the centre. In the undershot wheel the power is to the effect as 3 to 1. Of an overshot wheel, the power is to the effect as 3 to 2, — double the effect of an undershot wheel. To find the velocity of the water acting upon the wheel. V(height of the fallx64.38)r=the velocity in feet per second. 1. Suppose the height of fall be 16 feet; then the V16x64.38=Vl030.08,=32.09 feet per second. To find the area of the section of a stream. Divide the number of feet running in one second, by the velocity in feet per second^:=the section of stream in square feet. WATER WHEELS. 65 1. Suppose there be 38 feet flowing in a second, and the velocity of stream is 5 feet per second, then 5)38 7.6=the area of stream in sq. ft. The power of the fall is found by the following rule: The area of section where it acts upon the wheel Xheight of fallx62i=:the number of pounds the wheel can bear, acting perpendicularly at its circum- ference. This weight will keep the wheel equapoised : if diminished, will cause the wheel to move. Suppose the area of section of a stream be 5 feet, and its velocity 4 feet per second, with a fall of 17 feet ; then 5x4=20=the cubic feetrunningper second. V (17X64. 38)=:33=: the velocity of the water at end of fall ; 20 .60,6=:the section of stream at the end in ^ 33"~ square feet. Then, .60,6x17x621=644 pounds,=:the weight the wheel will sustain in equi- librium. The following is an extract from Banks, on Mills, p. 152. "The effect produced by a given stream in falling through a given space, if compared with a weight, will be directly as that space ; but if we measure it by the velocity communicated to the wheel, it will be as the square root of the space descended through, agreeably to the laws of falling bodies. ''Experiment 1. A given stream is applied to a wheel at the centre ; the revolutions per minute are 38.5. 66 WATER WHEELS. '' Experiment 2. The same stream applied at the top, turns the same wheel 57 times in a minute. "If, in the first experiment, the fall is called 1., in the second it will be 2 ; then VI : V2 :: 38.5 : 54.4, which are in the same ratio as the square roots of the spaces fallen through, and near the observed ve- locity. " In the following experiments a fly is connected with the water wheel. " Experiment 2. The water is applied at the cen- tre, the wheel revolves 13.03 times in one minute. " Experiment 4. The water is applied at the ver- tex of the wheel, and it revolves 18.2 times per minute. " As 13.03 : 18.2 :: VI : V2 nearly. " From the above we infer, that the circumfer- ences of wheels of different sizes may move with velocities which are as the square roots of their di- ameters without disadvantage, compared one with another, the water in all being applied at the top of the wheel ; for the velocity of falling water ■ at the bottom or end of the fall is as the time, or as the square root of the space fallen through ; for example, let the fall be 4 feet, then, as V16 : 1" :: V^ : i", the time of falling through 4 feet. Again, let the fall be 9 feet, then, V16 : 1" :: V9 : f, and so for any other space, as in the following table, where it appears that water will fall through one foot in a quarter of a second, through 4 feet in half a second, through 9 feet in three-quarters of a second, and through 16 feet in one second. And if a wheel 4 feet in diame- WATER WHEELS. 67 ter moved as fast as the water, it could not revolve in less 1.5 seconds, neither could a wheel of 16 feet diameter revolve in less than three seconds ; but though it is impossible for a wheel to move as fast as the stream which turns it, yet, if their velocities bear the same ratio to the time of the fall through their their diameters, the wheel 16 feet in diameter may move twice as fast as the wheel 4 feet in diameter. TABLE. Height of the Time of falling Height of the Time of falling fall in feet. in seconds. fall in feet. in seconds. 1 .25 14 .935 3 .432 16 1. 5 .557 20 1.117 7 .666 24 1.22 8 ^ .706 25 1.25 9 • .75 30 1.37 10 .79 36 1.5 12 .864 40 1.58 45 1.67 " The power water has to produce mechanical effect, is as the q«iantity and fall of perpendicular height. The mec^hanical effect of a wheel is as the quantity of water in the buckets and the velocity. The power is to the effect as 3 : 2, that is, suppose , ^ .„ 1. 9000X2 the power to be 9000, the eflect will be= — ^ — = 18000 — ^ — =z6000." o I. What power is a stream of water equal to, of the following dimensions, viz., 11 inches deep, 21 68 WATER WHEELS. inches broad, velocity 80 feet in 13 seconds, and the fall 54 feet ? Ans. 30.2 H. P. z=1.60 square feet: — area of stream. 144 ^ 13" : 80 :: 60" : 369.2 lineal ft. per min., velocity. 369.2x1.60—590.720 cubic feet, per min. 590.720x62.5=36920 pounds per min. 36920x54=1993680, momentum at a fall of 54 feet. 1993680 .__, — — — — —r=45.3 horse power. 44000 ^ 3 : 2 :: 45.3 : 30.2, effective power. By allowing one foot above the wheel for the ad- mission, and one below the wheel for the escape of the w^ater, we find that 54 — 2 = 52 feet diameter of wheel that can be used or applied^to this fall. 52x3.1416=163.3632=circumf of wheel. 60x6 =360 feet per min.mvelocity of wheel. 590.720 — oT^Tj— =1.641=area of buckets; the buckets being but half full — 1.641x2=3.282=the area, say this wheel is 4 feet wide ^-—=.8205, depth of shrouding.* ir.o o^o^ =^-^ revolutions per min. of wheel. Ido.ooo-4 P'r of water=45.3 H. P., i diam'r, 52 feet. Effective p'r of water, 30.2 H. P., \ Br'th, 4 " Depth of shrouding, .8205. * The depth of shrouding here given would be none too much in practice. WATER WHEELS. 69 2. Required the power of a water wheel 15 feet in diameter, 12 feet wide and shrouding 15 inches deep. Ans. 25.5. 15x3.1416=47.1 240, circumference of wheel. 12x1^=15 square feet, area of buckets. 60x4=240, Hneal feet per min.^velocity. 240x15=3600 cubic feet of water with full buck- ets,=1800 when half full. 1800x62.5=112500 lbs. of water per minute. 112500x15=1687500, momentum falling 15 feet. 3:2:: 1687500 : ^^ =25.5, horse power. To find the centre of gyration of a water wheel. Find the radius of the wheel and the weight of its arms, rim, shrouding and float boards. Multiply the weight of rim by the square of the radius, and double this product. Next, the weight of the arms, into the square of the radius, and doubled. Then the weight of the water in action, by the square of the radius. These products form a dividend. Double the sum of the weights of the rim and arms, and add the weight of the water to them, for a divisor. 1. Required the radius of the circle of gyration of a water wheel 22 feet in diameter ; the weight of arms being 3 tons, shrouding 4 tons, and the water 3 tons ? 70 WATER WHEELS. R=4tonsXlPx2=: 968. A-3 tonsXlPx2= 726. W=3 tonsxlP= 363. 2057=a dividend, then, 2x(4-l-3-i-3)=20=a divisor. ^2057 — ^io3=rl0.198 nearly. "It is desirable that the millwright should possess short, easy rules, which would answer the purposes of practice rather than the conditions of mere theory. The following will be found useful, as they give the power with allowance for friction and waste of water. 1. For an undershot : — Height of fallxqu antity of water flowing per min. 5000 ~^~ the number of horse power which the effect is equal to. 2. For an overshot : — Power of an undershotx2j:=rhorse power. 3. For a breast wheel : — Find the power of an undershot from the top of the fall to where the water enters the bucket ; then for an overshot for the rest of the fall, — the sum of these two is the power of the breast wheel. Note. — The quantity of water flowing per minute, and the height of tlie fall are botli taken in feet. Ex. What power can be obtained from an under- shot wheelj the fall being 25 feet, the sectioji of the STEAM ENGINE. , 71 stream being 9 feet, and the velocity of the water 18 feet per minute ? 9x18x25 4050 ^, ^ , , - -^^^ — =^K7vrv7A=.81 01 a horse power, one horse 5000 5000 ^ power being unit. And an overshot in the same situation would be . 81x2. 5=:2. 025 horse power. And if in a breast wheel, the water enters the bucket 10 feet from the top of the fall, then we have, 1^^^^2i_2?ix2i=i^^=.36 for an over- 5000 ^2 5000 5000 shot, and for the undershot we found it before .81 ; hence, .36H-.81 = 1.17 horse power for the breast wheel."* STEAM ENGINE. The remarks which follow are practical, and may- be found of service to the millwright. Some of the ideas advanced, however, are not wholly original, but have been gathered from the works of eminent mech- anicians. The most common proportions of the boiler are, viz.; width 1, depth 1. 1, or 1. 2, and length 2. 5 : the size or capacity being somewhat more than the power of the engine for which they are intended. Boulton and Watt assume 25 feet of space for each * Grier's Mechanic's Calculator, p. 213. 72 STEAM ENGINE. horse power. Some other engineers allow 5 feet of surface of water. In Watt's common low pressure engine, steam is admitted into the cylinder whose elastic force is about that of the atmosphere, which is 15 lbs. to the square inch ; but the effective pressure is generally reckoned 12 lbs. or four- fifths of this number to the square inch, allowance being made for friction and imperfect va- cuums. The working pressure is generally reckoned at 10 lbs. to the circular inch, and Smeaton only makes it 7 lbs. The effective pressure is generally taken between these extremes, being equal to 9.42 lbs. to the circular inch. Mr. Tredgold gives the following table, showing how the power of the steam, as it issues from the boiler, is distributed. In an engine which has no condenser : The pressure on the boiler being . 10.000 1. The force necessary for producing motion of the steam in the cylinder, .0069 2. By cooling in the cylinder and pipes, .0160 3. Friction of piston and waste, .2000 4. The force required to expel the steam into the atmosphere, . . . .0069 5. The force expended in opening the valves, and friction of the parts of an engine, 0622 2920 6. By the steam being cut off before the end of stroke, .... .1000 Amount of deductions, 3920 Effective pressure, . . 6080 STEAM ENGINE. 73 In one which has a condenser : The pressure on the boiler being . 1000 1. By the force required to produce mo- tion of the steam into the cyUnder, .007 2. By the cooKng on the cyHnder and pipes, . . . . . . .016 3. By the friction of the piston and loss, .125 4. By the force required to expel the steam through the passages, . . .007 5. By the force required to open and close the valves, raise the injection . water, and overcome the friction of the axes, ..... .063 6. By the steam being cut off before the end of the stroke, . . . .100 7. By the power required to work the air pump, 050 368 Effective pressure, . 632 Different engineers form various opinions as to the power of a horse. Smeaton supposes a horse able to raise 32,000 lbs. avoirdupois 1 foot in a minute. De- saguliers makes it 27,500 lbs. Boulton and Watt 32,000 or 33,000, and the usual estimate is 44,000. To find the horse power of the engine. The effective pressure on each square inch X the area of piston in square inches X length of stroke in feet X number of strokes per minute -^ 44000 =: the number of horse power of the engine. 1. What is the power of a low pressure engine, 6 •74 STEAM ENGINE. whose cylinder is 30 inches diameter, length of stroke 6 feet, making 16 double strokes in the minute ? Ans. 37 H. P. Note. — An easy rule to find the area of the piston hi square inches, is this. The diameter X circumference — — - — ^area. 4 Here we have, 30X(30X3.1416) =2827.44^ _ ^^^ 4 4 ' area of the piston in square inches ; and 12 the effect- ive pressure, 6 the length of stroke, 16 the number of double strokes in a minute ? 706.86 X12X6X16X2 _ 1628605.44 ^^^ ^^^^^ 44000 44000 power. If the cylinder of a high pressure steam engine has a piston of 5 inches diameter, with a twelve inch stroke, making 32 double strokes in a minute ; steam being admitted of an elastic force equivalent to 7 at- mospheres on the inside of the cylinder, its effective pressure will be 7 X 15= 105 lbs. to the square inch without friction ; but allowing one-fifth for friction, the effective pressure will be 105-21 = 84 lbs. to the square inch. here 5 X 3.1416 X 5 in£.o+u r ^u -4. . -— il_= 19.63 the area of the piston; hence, 19.63x84x1 X32x 2 105530.88 ^ , = =2 horse 44000 44000 power. The pressure of the steam in a boiler is 30 lbs. per STEAM ENGINE. 75 square inch, the diameter of cylinder 12 inches, length of stroke 3 feet, and the engine making 30 double strokes per minute. Here the area of piston will be 113.097, the velocity of piston ===3x30x2=180 feet per minute, and since 0.9x30-6=21, then, 0.9X30—6X113.097X180 427506.66 ,^p, . z=: -=10.7 horse 4000 4000 power. It has been stated by Mr. Thomas Tredgold, that to ascertain the velocity of the piston when the engine performs its maximum, we may employ the rule, 120x Vlength of stroke=velocity. If an engine has a two feet stroke, then, 120X \/2=120xl. 4142=169.704, or, we may say 170, as the velocity of the piston per minute in feet ; wherefore, as the engine has a single stroke of 2 feet, we have, 170 = 421 strokes in the minute. 4 ^ If an engine have a four feet stroke, then we have, 120X V 4—130x2=240= the velocity of the piston per minute, and, =: 30, equal the number of strokes per minute. The following table shows the length of stroke and the number of feet the piston travels in a minute, ac- cording to the number of strokes the engine makes, working at maximum. 76 CENTRAL FORCES. Length of Number of Feet per Stroke. Strokes. Minute. Feet. 2 43 172 " 3 32 192 " 4 25 200 " 5 21 210 " 6 19 228 " 7 17 238 " 8 15 240 " 9 14 250 1 To find the power to lift a weight at any velocity, X the weight in lbs. by the velocity in feet, and -^ by the horse power ; the result is the number of horse power required. CENTRAL FORCES. The central forces are as the radii of the circles directly, and the squares of the times inversely ; also the square of the times are as the cubes of the distan- ces. When a body revolves in a circle by means of central forces, its actual velocity is the same as it would acquire by falling through half the radius by the constant action of the centripetal force. From these facts the following rules for central forces are derived. CENTRAL FORCES. 71 Veloc. of rev. body ^ x weisht of body ^ -r r ^ c> j^ — cciitrii. lorce radius of circle of revolution x 32 velocity of revol. body ^ x weight of body _,. r centrifugal lorce x 32 weight of the circle of gyration. centrif force x 32 x rad. circle veloc. of revolving body ^ the revolving body. ^ / (rad. circle x 32 x centrifugal force) ^ ., weight There will be no difficulty in applying what has been said to practice. There are two fly wheels of the same weight, one of which is 10 feet diameter, and makes 6 revolutions in a minute ; what must the diameter of the other be to revolve 3 times in a minute ? Here 6 ^ : 3 ^ :: 10 : 2.5 z=z the diameter of the second. What is the centrifugal force of the rim of a fly- wheel, its diameter being 12 feet, and the weight of the rim 1 ton, making 65 turns in a minute ? 2 X 3 1416 XG5 _ ^^ ^^ ^ bO the velocity in feet per second ; hence, 40.84 - X 1 ^3 ,3, 32 X 6 the tendency to burst. Let us employ the centre of gyration. If the fly above mentioned is in two halves, which are joined together by bolts capable of supporting 4 tons in all their positions, the whole weight of the wheel is 1|- tons, the circle of gyration is 5.5 feet from the axis of 78 MEASUREMENT OF WATER. motion ; what must be its velocity so that its two halves may fly asunder ? The force tending to separate the two halves will be -J- of the whole force ; wherefore by the rule, 32 X 4 X 5.5 X 2 ^^qq^q ^ the velocity. 1.5 11 X 3.1416 == circumference of circle of gyration, wherefore, 34.5576 : 30.636 :: 60 : 53.191 revolutions in a minute. — Grier. To measure the quantity of Water running in a River. Choose a part of the channel where the banks are of a determinate figure, and where they contract the channel to a uniform breadth and depth, for a distance of 30 or 40 feet, or more, (the longer the better,) and the more regular the bed of the river, the more exact the result of the experiment. Measure the breadth and average depth of the river, to find the area or section of the passage through which the water flows. Take these measures at several difl^erent places ; and if there be any difference at different places, find the area at each place, and take the average between them. Then proceed to find the velocity of the mo- tion, by throwing into the stream any substances of the same specific gravity of water, as pieces of turn- ips, gooseberries, &c. which will sink to different depths in the stream, and will indicate the velocity of the current at such depths. These trials must be re- peated several times, and the mean of the diflferent results must be taken for the average velocity of the stream. The portion of the river selected for the ex- MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 79 periment should be marked by strings stretched across it, by which the observer is enabled to note more accu- rately the instant when the floating body passes the upper line and reaches the lower one. By a stop- watch, the number of seconds required for the stream to flow through the given length of channel, may thus be ascertained, with considerable accuracy. Dr. Robinson gives the following table of the rela- tive velocities of currents at the surface and bottom, and the mean between them, which will save the trouble of calculation in some of the most frequent questions of hydraulics. He takes the velocity of the surface of the middle of the stream, which is very easily measured, by any light small body, as cork, floating down, &c. From this he calculates the retarded velocity of bottom of the stream, and finds the medium velocity by the following rule : The velocity of the substance floating on the sur- face of the stream is taken in inches per second. From the square root of the number of inches per second, he deducts 1, and then squares the remainder, which gives the velocity at bottom, and he finds the mean by taking the medium between these two sums. Thus ; if the velocity of surface in middle be 25 in. per second, its square root is 5, — deduct 1=4. Square of thisi=:16 inches per second, the velocity at bottom, and 25+16=41; ^ of which=20|-=mean velocity in feet per second. [See Table E.] When it is desired to measure the quantity of water afforded by a stream in order to calculate the power of it with a given fall for mill purposes, or the quan- 80 MEASUREMENT OF WATER. tity of water it will afford per second for feeding canals, &c., it is usual to make the experiment during the drought of summer, when the streams are dimin- ished in their beds. It must be evident that this is the only proper time that can be taken for calculating the regular power afforded by a water fall. When a stream is measured during any stage of its floods, and the standard of its powder is assumed from this ad- measurement, disappointment will certainly follow. Whenever the flood- waters subside, the mill wheel must remain idle for want of the calculated supply of water. During the drought of summer, a considera- ble river becomes so much diminished, that it may be made to pass through a sluiceway, or over the edge of a plank, whereby the quantity of water can be very exactly measured. The rules for measuring the quantity of water thus discharged, through sluices under a given head, or over the edge of a board, or weir, with the stream open at the top, will be also given, that either of these modes of admeasurement most convenient to the en- gineer, may at pleasure be adopted, or all of them, to correct any error that might arise from taking one of the experiments singly. The knowledge of the velo- city at the bottom of a stream is of use to an engineer to enable him to judge of the action of a stream on its bed. Every kind of soil will bear a certain velo- city without changing the form of the channel. A greater velocit}^ would enable this water to tear it up, and a smaller velocity would permit the depos- ite of more movable materials from above. It appears from observation, that a velocity of 3 inches per sec- MEASUREMENT OF WATER. 81 ond, at the bottom, will just begin to work on fine clay fit for pottery, and however firm and compact it may be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more stable than clay, when the velocities do not exceed this ; for the water soon takes away the impalpable particles of the superficial clay, leaving the particles of sand sticking by their lower half in the clay, which they now protect, making a very permanent bottom, if the stream does not bring down gravel or coarse sand which will rub ofi" this very thin crust and allow another layer to be worn off. Six inches per second will lift fine sand ; 8 inches will lift sand as coarse as linseed ; 12 will sweep along fine gravel ; 24 inches will roll along rounded pebbles, 1 inch in diameter, and it requires 3 feet per second, at the bottom, to sweep away shivered angular stones of the size of an egg. Rules for calculating or measuring the quantity of water flowing through sluices or apertures, in this, as in former instances, we must multiply the area of the aperture by the velocity with which the water rushes through it. The velocity of water flowing out of a horizontal aperture, in the bottom of a cistern, is as the square root of the height of the water above the aperture ; that is, the pressure, and consequently the depth, is as the square of the velocity, and the force required to produce a velocity in a certain quantity of matter in a given time, is also as that velocity ; therefore, the force must be as the square of the velocity. Hence the following Table, showing the velocity in feet per minute, with which water should issue from an 82 MEASUREMENT OF WATER. aperture, at any given depth beneath the surface, from 1 inch to upwards, calculated according to the theory of falling bodies. Depth in Velocity per niin. Depth in Velocity per min. inches. in feet. inches. in feet 1 138.6 151 547.2 H 170.1 16 555.6 2 196.2 161 564. n 219.6 17 572 6 3 240.6 17i 580.8 H 259.8 18 589.3 4 277.8 181 597.6 ^ 294.6 19 605.4 5 310.3 191 613.2 H 325.8 20 621.1 6 340.2 201 628.8 6i 354. 21 636.6 7 367.4 211 644.4 71 * 2 380.4 22 651.6 8 392.7 221 658.8 84 405. 23 666.1 9 417. 231 673.2 n 428.4 24 680.5 10 439.3 241 694.2 101 450.1 25 708. n 460.8 251 721.8 111 471. 26 735. 12 481.2 261 748.2 12i 491.4 27 760.9 13 501. 271 773.4 131 510.6 28 786. 14 519.6 281 798.1 14i 529.2 29 810. 15 538.3 291 822. 30 834. CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 83 CALCULATIONS OF POWER. L Required the power of a stream of water of the following dimensions, viz. 12 inches deep, 20 inches broad ; velocity 75 feet in 12 seconds, and fall 40 feet. Ans. 23.6 12X20 _ .^ . ^ . - — —=zl.66 square leet :=:area of stream. 144 12" :75::60" : 375. lineal feet per min.=:velocity. 375.xl.66=622.50 cubic feet per minute. 622.50x62,5=38906. 250==:pounds per minute. 38906.250X40=1556250.000 momentum at a fall of 40 feet. 1556250.000 ^^ ^ . =35.4 horse power. 44000 ^ 3:2:: 35.4 : 23 6 effective power. 2. Required the power of a water wheel, 16 feet diameter, 14 feet wide, and shrouding 14 inches deep . Ans. 25.4 16x3. 1416=50. 2656=circumference of wheel. 14x1^^16 J- square feet, area of buckets. 60x4=240 lineal feet per min.=veloc., 240x14=: 3360 cubic feet water, when buckets are full ; when half full, 1680 cubic feet. 1680x62.5=105000.0 pounds of water per minute. 105000.0xl6=1680000=moment. falling 16 feet. 84 CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 3:2:: 1680000:^^^^^^^— 25.4 horse power. 44000 3. Required the power of a stream of water, 12 inches deep, 23 inches broad ; velocity 62 feet in 1 1 seconds, and fall 32 feet. Ans. 19.9 . =1.96 square feet :=area of stream. 144 ir': 62 ::60": 335.4 lineal feet per min. — velocity. 335.4x1. 96=657. 384 cubic feet per minute. 657. 384x62. 5=41086. 5000=avoir. lbs. per minute. 41086.5000X32=1314768.0000 moment, at 32 ft. 13 14768.0000 ^^Q Q horse power, then, 3:2:: 29.9: 44000 19.9 effective power. 4- Required the power of an engine, the cylinder being 40 inches diameter, and stroke 5 feet. CALCULATIONS OF POWER. 85 ■ = 59.9 horse power. 44000 ^ Or, 40 40 1600 .7854 6400 * 8000 12800 11200 1256.6400 10 12566.4000 210 1256640000 251328000 44000)2638944.0000(59.9 or say 60 horse power. 220000 438944 396000 429440 396000 33440 5. What size cyhnder will the above 60 horse power engine require, allowing the stroke to be 6 feet ? 44000x60=2640000 ^.o- u r i- i 2-28^a0=-^28r^'^'^ ^^'^''=="^^""^"^^^^^^ 6. What diameter is the cyhnder of a 60 horse en- gine, common pressure ? 86 CALCULATIONS OP V60X25* =43.7, say 43| inches diameter. .7854 * 25 inches of the area of cylinder = one horse power. When the effective pressure on each inch of piston is The area equal to one horse power will be When the effective pressure on each inch of piston is The area equal to one horse power will be 53 lbs. 3.7 28 lbs. 7.14 48 " 4.17 23 " 8. 7 43 " 4.65 18 " 11.11 38 " 5.26 13 •' 15.46 33 " 6.06 8 " 25. CALCULATIONS OF SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &c. These calculations, though quite simple, are in- serted for the benefit of the practical man. The speed of the driving shafts is assumed while treating of the machines ; the reader can readily substitute any other as the case may require. To find the speed per minute of the upright driving shaft. Multiply the number of teeth, or cants, by the speed per minute of the water wheel, and divide by the number of teeth in the wheel on the foot of the upright. 1. Suppose the number of cants to be 480, the speed per min. of wheel 3 turns, and the number of teeth in the wheel on the foot of the upright 36. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 87 480X3 36 -=40, speed per min. of upright shaft. To find the speed per min. of the main cross shaft. Multiply the number of teeth, or diameter of the wheel on the upright driving shaft, by its revolutions per min., and divide by the number of teeth or diam- eter of wheel on main cross shaft. 1. Suppose the wheel on the upright shaft to con- tain 76 teeth, revolving 40 turns per min., as above, and the wheel on the main cross shaft to contain 40 teeth ; required the speed per min. of cross shaft. 76x40 , . ^ , r T .^ - =76, speed per mmute oi cross shaft. It will be seen that nothing is here gained. 2. Suppose the number of teeth of the wheel on the upright shaft is 80, the speed of upright 40, and the driven wheel on cross shaft 32 ; required the speed per min. of cross shaft. 80x40 _ Or thus, 80 32 — ^^^ 40 32)3200(100, speed per min. of 32 cross shaft. 00 Showing a gain of 100 — 40=60. 3. Suppose the wheel of 80 teeth on this shaft, running 100 turns per min., drives another wheel on second shaft of 64 teeth ; required the speed per min. of second cross shaft. 80X100 , ^ ^ , . — ^j— =125, speed oi second cross shaft. 88 CALCULATIONS OF Or, suppose the shaft running 100 turns, has upon it a drum of 24 inches, driving another drum of 20 inches on second cross shaft ; required the turns per min. 24x100 20 inches. Or, as 20 120, speed required. turns. inches. turns. 100 :: 24 : 120. 24 20)2400 120 4. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 120 turns per min., with a 24 inch drum ; required the diameter of a drum to produce 160 turns per min. 120x24 . , 1. — ^-^— = 18 mches, diameter oi drum. 5. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 120 times per min., with a 24 inch drum driving another shaft 200 times per min. ; required the size of drum. 120x24 — ^„^ =14| mches," diameter. 200 ^ i Or, 200 : 24 :: 120 : 14|. To find the speed per minute, of TVillow. 1. Suppose the driving shaft revolves 200 times per min., with a 16 inch drum driving the beater pul- leys of 8 and 9 inches in diameter ; required the speed of the beaters. 200 speed per min. of shaftxl6 ^ =355.5 speed of 1st. And, 200 speed of shaftxl9 , . , Q =400, speed of 2d. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, tC. 89 2. Suppose the driving shaft goes 300 rev. per min., with a 24 inch drum, driving a Bacon Willow by a pulley of 12|^ inches ; required its speed. /300X24 14400 \ l-i2r''^"'25-=^^^'^^^-j To find the speed per min. of the Scutching and Spreading Machine. 1. Suppose the driving shaft to revolve 225 turns per nain., upon which is a 24 inch pulley driving the beater pulley of 4 inches; required the speed per min. of beater. 225x24 ^ . '. — -T =1350, speed per mm. of beater. To find, the draught of this Machine. Count the number of teeth of the wheel on the end of feeding roller shaft, call it the first leader, and also the number of teeth on the pinion which it drives, call this the first follower, and so on to the last follower on the calender roller shaft, omitting all intermediate wheels, then, product of leadersxdiameter of calender roller product of foUowersxfeeding roller ^^ draught. 1. If the leaders be 140.20 and 18, the followers 85.20 and 36, the diameter of calender roller 5, and feeding roller 2 inches ; then, /140x20xl8x5\ 252000 , , V 85X20X36X2 j= 122400 =^'^^==^^^ ^"^"§^*- Again, if the leaders be 136.21 and 18, the follow- 7 90 CALCULATIONS OP ers 90.21 and 40, the diameter of calender roller 4|-, and feeding roller 1 J inches ; then, / 136x21Xl8x4n _ 231336^2^4 j^^^ V 90x21X40xli / ~ 113400 ^ Tojind the speed per min. of Main Cylinder in the Carding Engine. 1. Suppose the driving shaft to revolve 120 turns per min., upon v^hich is a 16 inch pulley driving the cylinder pulleys of 15 inches; required the speed of cylinder. 120 turns per min.xlO in., diam. of driving pulley_ 15 inches, diameter of driven pulley 128. Thus, 120 16 720 120 15)1920(128, sp'd per min. of main cyl'r. 15 42 30 120 120 Tojind the draught of this Machine. 1. Suppose the v^heel on doffer shaft to be 28, and to play into another upon the side shaft of 32, and on the lower end of this side shaft a 20 that works into the wheel on feeding roller of 140, the doffer cylinder SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 14 inches, and feeding rollers 1 J inches ; required the draught. (l^^X^^XfV74.6, draught, V 28X20X1* / ^ 2 Or, 28 140 20 14 560 560 1 2 Ih 140 280 1960 560 32 840 3920 5880 840)62720(74.6=draught. 5880 3920 3360 5600 5040 560 Where motion to the dofFer and feeding rollers is communicated by a range of wheels from the main drum axle, the mode of calculating the draught is similar — taking the drivers and driven v^^heels sep- arately, as above. When wheels of the same size or number of teeth occur both as leaders and followers, they are omitted in calculation. 92 CALCULATIONS OP To find the speed per min. of the Doffing Cylinder. 1. On the railway shaft revolving 8 times per min. is a pulley 9 inches in diameter, leading to another of 3 inches in diameter ; on the side of this smaller pul- ley is a stud wheel of 16 teeth, working into the dof- fer wheel of 40 teeth ; required the speed per minute of dofFer. Multiply the speed of railway shaft by the diam- eter of the pulley thereon, then by the number of teeth in the stud wheel ; then multiply the dofFer wheel by the small receiving pulley, and divide the former by the latter ; thus, (^?^^?^^=2??V6.4-speedofdofFer. V 40x3 120/ ^ Or, when the dofFer is driven by a range of wheels from the main drum axle : multiply the number of teeth in the pinion on the end of main drum axle, and that of the small stud wheel (driving the dofFer,) together, then by speed per min. of main drum ; — this will form a dividend. Then multiply the dofFer» and large stud wheel together for a divisor. 2. Suppose the pinion on main drum axle to con- tain 18 teeth, the small stud wheel 46, and speed of main drum 120 turns per min., the dofFer wheel 138, and the large stud wheel the same ; required the dof- fer speed per min. / 18X46X120 \ 3 3^ rev. per min. of doffer. \ 138x1382/ SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 93 Or, 138 138 18 46 1104 414 138 19044 108 72 828 120 19044)99360(5. 95220 41400 38088 33120 19044 14076 To find the speed per min. of the Feeding Rollers, 1. The wheel on the end of dofFer shaft is 28, re- volving 6.4 times per min., and drives another on upper end of the side shaft of 32 teeth ; on the lower end of this shaft is a 20 working into a 140 on the end of feeding rollers ; required the speed per min. of feeding rollers. Multiply speed of dofFer 6.4 by its driving wheel, then by the 20 on the lower end of side shaft for a dividend ; thenxthe 32 and 140 for a divisor ; thus, / 6.4x28x20 \ Q^^ rev. per min. of feed rollers. • \ 32X140 / Or, as teeth, turns, teeth, turns. teeth, turns, teeth, turns. 32 : 6.4 :: 28 : 5.6 then, as 140 : 5.6 :: 20 : .80 Or, when the rollers are driven by a range of wheels from the main drum ; multiply the number of teeth in the driving wheels together, and this by the turns 94 CALCULATIONS OP of main drum per min. : then multiply the driven wheels together for a divisor. 2. Suppose the drivers to be 18, 16 and 16, and speed per min, of main drum 115 turns, the driven vs^heels 32, 140 and 140 ; required the speed per min. of feeding rollers ? Thus, / 18X16X16X115 \ ^ ^ \ 32X140X140 / .84. Or, "Wheel on main axle 18 Second driver, . 16 Third driver, . . 16 R-ev. per min. of main drum. Wheel on main drum axle. Second driviiig vi^heel. First driven wheel, . 32 Second do. do. . " 140 Third do. do. . 140 Teeth in 1st wheel, 32 115 18 920 115 2070 16 33120 16 do. do. 2d do. 140 3d do. 1280 32 4480 140 179200 4480 627200 627200)529920(0.84+rev. per minute. 5017600 2816000 2508800 307200 To find the revolutions of the Main Cylinder for one of the Doffing Cylinder. 1. On the main drum axle, is a pinion of 18 teeth, driving a large stud wheel of 140 teeth, upon the side of this last wheel is a 40 driving the doffer wheel of 140 teeth; required the proportion. Multiply the 18 and 40 together for a divisor, and the 140 stud, and 140 doffer wheel for a dividend. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 95 First driver. . 18 First driven, 140 Second do. 40 Second do. . 140 720 J 720)19600(27.2 pro 1440 5200 5040 1600 1440 160 The revolutions of the main drum for one of the doffer, are generally from 14 to 34, varying according to the quality of stock, and work required. To find the revolutions of the Main Cylinder for one of the Feeding Rollers. Begin at the pinion on the main drum axle and trace out all the driving and driven wheels to the feeding rollers. Multiply the former together for a divisor, and the latter for a dividend. 1. Suppose the drivers are 18, 16 and 16 ; and the driven wheels 28, 140 and 140 ; required the pro- portion. First driver. . 18 Second do. . . 16 288 First driven. .28 . Third do. . 16 Second do. . 140 1728 288 Third do. 3920 140 4608 4608)548800(119.09 pro. 4608 8800 4608 41920 41472 44800 41472 3328 96 CALCULATIONS OF Most cylinders revolve considerably slower for one turn of the roll. This is only intended to show the mode of ascertaining the relative speed. To find the length of the card-slivevy or end delivered per min.from the Carding Engine. Multiply the circumference of the doffer cyhnder, by the number of revolutions it makes per min. Or, where there is a drawing head or calender roller through which the end passes ; trace the drivers from the main drum axle to the calender rollers, and multiply their product by the revolutions of the main cylinder ; multiply the driven wheels together and divide the result of the former operation. 1. Suppose the drivers to be 18 and 44, and the driven wheels 140 and 20, the speed per min. of cyl- inder 120 turns ; required the length delivered per min. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 97 Speed of main drnm. 120 18 960 120 2160 44 8640 8640 140 20 2800=divisor. 2800)95040(33.94 rev. per min. 8400 of cal'r rollers. 11040 8400 26400 25200 12000 11200 800 This operation gives the revolutions per min. of the calender rollers, which multiplied by the circum- ference of the delivering ball shows the length of the sliver. Allow the diameter of the ball to be 2f in. ; what is the length in inches produced per min. ? 2f inchesx3.1416 the circumference of one inch,x 33.94 the rev. per min. of calender rollers=293.221= length produced per min. 98 CALCULATIONS OF To find in what proportion a card should furnish the spinning with sufficient preparation in changing from one number to another. 1. Suppose a pair of mules (or any number of spin- dles) are spinning 75's weft, with 80 turns in a cer- tain length of lap, weighing 8|- lbs., and it is required to change the yarn to 85's warp with 100 turns. What is the weight of lap of the same length ? Now, 85's twist requires a lighter lap than 75's weft, and 100 turns require a lighter lap than 80 turns: then we multiply the 100 by 85's for a divisor, and the 80 turns by 75's, then by 8^ pounds, the weight of the lap, for a dividend, thus: 100X85.= 8500= divisor, and 80x75= 6000x8^= 5 1 000=dividend^8500= 6 pounds=weight of lap. To find the speed of the Drawing Frame Cylinder. 1. Suppose the main shaft revolves 95 times per minute, with a 16 inch pulley driving a 14 on the cross shaft, which drives the cylinder pulley of 10 inches : required the speed per minute of shaft. X95xl6^14=: 108=the speed per min. of cross-shaft Xl4-f-10=151.2=speed per min. of cylinder shaft. Or, X the driving drums 16 and 14x95 speed per min. of main shaft and-^10xl4 the driven pulleys,= speed per min. of cylinder shaft. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 99 To find the speed per minute of the Front Roller in the Drawing Frame. 1. Suppose the cross shaft revolves 108 turns per min. with a 14 inch drum driving the cylinder shaft by a pulley of 10 inches, which drives the front roll- ers by a pulley of 7 inches : required the front roller speed. Xl08xl4-^10=152=speed of cylinder shaft, x10-h7 =217=front roller speed per minute. Or, where there is a stud gear on side belt pulleys, working into a wheel or front roller, thus : 2. Suppose the stud gear wheel to contain 74 teeth, the front roller wheel 56, and the cylinder and bell pul- leys 8 and 7 inches. Multiply 152, speed per min. of cylinderx8=1216-l- 7=174,=speed of bell pulleysx74=12876-f-56=: 229.9 say 230 speed of front rollers, per min. Or, (152X74X8-^56X7)=229.9. To find the draught of the Drawing Frame. Begin at the wheel on the back roller of the back beam, and trace out all the leaders and followers to the wheel on the delivering shaft ; multiply the num- ber of teeth in all the leaders together, and the product by the diameter of the delivering roller on the deliv- ering shaft ; then in the same way, multiply the num- ber of teeth in all the followers together, and the pro- duct by the diameter of the back roller. The former divided by the latter is the draught of the drawing frame. 100 CALCULATIONS OF 1. Suppose the wheel on the back roller of the back beam is 40,* the wheel on front roller of back beam 16,t the wheel on front roller of back beam 40,* the wheel on back roller of front beam 38,t the wheel on back roller of front beam 38,* the wheel on the front roller of front beam 16,t the wheel on front roller of front beam 36,* the wheel on delivering roller 74t teeth, the diameter of delivering roller 2 inches,* and that of the back roller 1 inch,f in diam.; required the draught. *Leaders. Back roller, back beam, 40 teeth. Front *' " 40 " Back " front beam, 38§ " Front " " 36 " Diam. ofdelivering ball, 2 inches. 40 40 1600 36 9600 4800 ^[ Followers. Front roller, back beam, 16 teeth. Back " front *' Front " " " Wheel on deliv. shaft, Diam. of back roller. 57600 2 18944)115200(6.08 Draught of the 113664 Drawing Frame. 153600 151552 38§ " 16 " 74 « 1 inch. 16 16 96 16 256 74 1024 1792 18944 2048 § These occur both as driver and driven, and for this reason are omitted in the operation. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 101 To find the revolutions per minute, of the Bach Roller in the Drawing Frame. Begin at the pinion on the front roller of front beam and trace out all the leaders and followers to the wheel on the back roller of the back beam ; multiply the leaders together and their sum by the rev. per min. of the front roller for a dividend : then multiply the followers together for a divisor. 1. Suppose the wheel on front roller of front beam to contain 17 teeth, the wheel on back roller of front beam 40, the wheel on back roller of front beam 40, the wheel on front roller of back beam 42, the wheel on front roller of back beam 17, and the wheel on back roller of back beam 44 teeth ; the revolutions per minute of front roller 217 : required the revolutions per minute of back roller. 102 CALCULATIONS OF Leaders. Pinion on the front roller of front beam, . . 17 teeth. Wheelonbackrol. ofdo. 40 " * Pinion on front roller of back beam, . . 17 teeth. Revolutions of front rollers per minute, . . . 217 Pinion on frt. rol. frt. beam, 17 1519 217 3689 Pinion on frt. rol. back do. 17 2582^ 3689 Followers. "Wheel on back roller of front beam, . . 40 teeth. Wheel on front roller of back beam, . . 42 teeth. Wheel on back rol. ofdo. 44 " Wheel on front roller of back beam, ... 42 Wheel on back rol. of do. 44 168 168 1848 1848)62713(33.93 revolutions of back rollers 5544 per minute. 7273 5544 17290 16632 6580 5544 1086 To find how many Carding Engines are necessary to supply the Drawing Frame. Multiply the inches taken in by the back rollers per min. by the number of slivers or ends put up, and di- vide the product by the inches delivered by each card per minute. Thus : rev. per min. of back rollers 33.93x3.1416, the circumference of roll. xl2=no. of ends put up, =1291.13=a dividend, this-i-293=the length produced * Driver and Driven. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 103 per min. of card, =4.4 or about 4^ cards to the draw- ing frame. This number, however, in practice would not be quite sufficient, owing to stoppages, &c. To find the size of end after going through a Draw- ing Frarm. Multiply the doublings at each box one into another for a divisor, and the draught of each box one into another for a dividend, the product will be the size of hank. 1. Suppose the card-sliver to be Jth of a hank, and goes through 3 boxes of drawing, and puts up 6 ends at each box, and the draught of the boxes to be 4.75. Required the size, or count. 1st box 6 endsx4=24 4.75 or 4|- 6 4 144 3d box. 16416 16416(1 or i of a hank. Consequently, nothing is here gained but doubling. 104 CALCULATIONS OP To find the number or counts when the last box draw- ing has gone through a coarse stubbing machine. 1 . Suppose the last box drawing by J- of a hank as above, and go up single at the slubbing machine, with a 21 pinion wheel on front roller, a 56 top carrier, a 42 back roller wheel, and a 28 change wheel : Re- quired the counts. Multiply the 21 pinion wheel by the 28 change wheel for a divisor ; then multiply the 56 top carrier by the 42 back roller wheel for a dividend. Thus : 21 Pinion Wheel. 28 Change " 168 42 588 56 Top Carrier. 43 Back roll, wheel. 112 224 2352(4 dra'htsor 1 hank. 2352 To find the change wheel when the last box drawing has gone through a slubbing machine. 1. Suppose the last box of drawing be as above, \ of a hank, and goes up single to the slubbing machine with a 21 pinion wheel on front roller, and the top carrier 56, and the back roller wheel 42 teeth, and the draught or extension of sliver 4 : required the change wheel. Multiply the 21 on front roller by the draught 4 for a divisor, and then the top carrier 56 by the back roller wheel 42 for a dividend. i SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 105 Thus : 21 Pinion. Ii 56 Top carrier. 4 Drauglit. 42 Back Roller wheel. 84 1 112 224 84)2352 (28= change wheel. 168 672 672 To find the counts after going through a roving hilly. 1. Suppose a bobbin of 1 hank be drawn into a roving and put up two ends, with a 20 pinion wheel and an 80 top carrier, and a 60 back roller wheel and a 30 change wheel : required the counts. Multiply 20 pinion wheel X 2 ends put up X 30 change wheel for a divisor: then x the 80 top carrier by the 60 back roller wheel for a dividend. Thus: 20X2X30=1200, and 80x60=4800-1200= 4=:no. hanks. To find the change or altering wheel 1. Suppose a bobbin df 1 hank be drawn into 4, and go up double to the billy, or stretcher, with a 20 pinion and an 80 top carrier, and a 60 back roller wheel : required the change wheel ? Multiply 20 pinion X 2 ends put up, = 40x4 hank roving,= 160 =a divisor ; and X 80 top carrier X 60 back roller wheel, = 4300-160 = 30= the change wheel required. 8 106 CALCULATIONS OF To find the revolutions per minute of front rollers in fly frame. Multiply the number of teeth in the pinion wheel on the frame shaft by the revolutions per minute of the shaft, and divide this product by the number of teeth in wheel on front roller. 1. Suppose the pinion on frame shaft to contain 30 teeth, the revolutions per minute of frame shaft 210, and the wheel on front roller 54 teeth : required the revolutions per minute of front rollers. No. teeth in pinion wheel, 30 Rev. pr min. of frame shft. 210 No. t'th in fr. rol. wh'l. 54)6300(116.66 rev. per min. 54 90 54 360 324 360 324 • 360 324 36 To find the revolutions of the spindle per minute. Multiply the speed per minute of frame shaft by the diameter of the twist pulley, and divide the product by the diameter of the spindle wharve, or pulley. 1. Suppose the speed per minute of frame shaft is 210, the diameter of twist pulley 9, and that of the SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 107 wharve, or pulley, 3 inches : required the speed per minute of spindle. Rev. per min. of frame shaft, 210 Diameter of twist pulley, 9 Diameter of spindle pulley, 3) 1890 630 speed of spindle. It is obvious that when gears are employed, the same rule is to be observed, — substituting the number of teeth, in the room of inches in diameter. Most of this kind of machines are now driven by wheel- work. To find the twists per inch on the roving in the Fly Frame. Multiply the circumference of the front roller by its revolutions per minute ; this will give the length in inches produced per minute : then divide the revolu- tions per minute of the spindle by this product. 1. Suppose the turns per minute of front roller to be 116.66, the circumference 3.80 inches, and the revolutions per minute of spindle, 630 : required the twist per inch. Rev. of front roll, per min. 116.66 Circum. of front roller, 3.80 933280 34998 443.3080=a divisor. 443.31)630 (1.42 twists per inch. 443.31 186690 177324 93660 88662 4998 108 CALCULATIONS OF To find the speed per minute of the rim, orfiy, on the mule jenny. Multiply the diameters of the driving drums and pulleys together, and their product by the speed per minute of driving shaft for a dividend : then multiply the diameters of the driven drums and pulleys for a divisor. 1. Suppose the driving drums are 18 and 16, the speed per minute of driving shaft 100, and the driven drums 16 and 14 inches : required the speed per min. of the fly. Speed of driving shaft, 100 I First driver, 18 I 1800 j Second driver, 16*1 First driven, 16* Second do. 14 224=divisor. 224)28800(128.5 speed per min. of fly. 224 640 448 1920 1792 1280 1120 1600 1568 32 * These wheels may be omitted and the same result is found. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 109 To find the revolutions per?mnute of the front rollers in the mule jenny. Multiply the driving wheels together, and their pro- duct by the speed per minute of the rim, or fly, for a dividend ; then multiply the driver wheels together for a divisor. 1. Suppose the driving wheels to be 84 and 40, the speed of rim 128, and the driven wheels 80 and 72 teeth : required the turns per minute. First driver on axle of rim, 84 teeth. Second do. on lower end of diagonal shaft, . 40 " 3360 Rev. per nain, of rim, 128 First driven on upper end of diag. shaft, 80 te'h. Second do. on frt. rol. 72 " 160 560 26880 5760 6720 3360 5760)430080(74.66 front roller speed. 40320 26880 23040 38400 34560 38400 34560 3840 To find the revolutions per minute of the spindles in the mule jenny. Multiply the drawing wheels and pulleys from the rim to drum band pulley, and their product by rev. per min. of rim for a dividend ; then in the same way multiply all the driven wheels and pulleys for a divisor. 110 CALCULATIONS OF 1. Suppose the diameter of rim is 38 inches, the large twist pulley 16 inches, the small twist pulley 10 inches, the rim of drum band 9 J inches, the drum band pulley 10 inches, the wharve on spindle Jths of an inch in diameter, and the rev. per min. of rim 128 : required rev. per min. of spindles. Thus : 38xl0xl0xl28=486400=dividend : and 16x9|xi=114=divisor: then 486400^114=4267 nearly= speed of spindles. To find the twists per inch on yarn of mule jenny. Multiply the turns per minute of front roller by its circumference, and divide the turns per minute of the spindles by this product. 1. Suppose the turns per minute of front roller are 74.66, the circumference 3.80 and the rev. per min. of spindle 4267 : required the twists per inch. Rev. per min. of fr't roL, 74.66 Circumference of " p 3.80 597280 22398 283.7080)4267. sp. prm. of s.(15.04 ts. pr in. 283.71 142990 141855 113500 113484 16 To find the draught of the mule jenny. Multiply the change or altering wheel by the pin- ion on front roller, and this by diam. of back roller for a divisor ; then multiply the lop carrier by the back SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. Ill roller wheel, and this by diam. of front roller for a dividend. 1. Suppose the pinion on coupling shaft is 21, the top carrier 116, change wheel 36, back roller wheel 60, the diam. of back roller f of an inch, and the front roller f : required the draught. Change wheel, 36 teeth. Pinion " 21 36 72 756 Diam. back rol. f 6048 Top carrier wheel, 116 teeth. Back roller " 60 " 6960 Diam. of front rol. f 6048)62640(10. 35==draught. 6048 21600 18144 34560 30240 4320 To find the counts after going through the mule jenny. Multiply the pinion wheel by the change wheel and this product by the length of yarn turned out from the front roller for a divisor ; then multiply the top carrier by the back roller wheel, then by the length of stretch put up, and this by the number of hanks rov- ing for a dividend. 1. Suppose a roving of 4 hanks be drawn into yarn with a 21 pinion wheel, a 116 top carrier, a 60 back roller wheel, a 36 change wheel, the length of the stretch put up 58 inches, and the length of yarn turned out from the rollers 50 inches : required the number of hanks. 112 CALCULATIONS OF Pinion wheel, 21 teeth. Top carrier. Chansre do. 36 do. 126 63 756 Len'h tr'd out, 50 in. 37800 Back rol. wheel, . Leufj-thof stretch. 116 teeth. 60 do. 6960 5S in. No. of roving. 556S0 34800 403680 4 37800)1614720(42.71. ^ws. 151200 102720 75600 271200 264600 66000 37800 28200 To find the number of hanhs of roving from the number of hanks of the mule yarn. Multiply the number of hanks of yarn by the gain of carriage, and divide this by the number of inches put up ; this gives the alteration of hanks by the gaining of the carriage ; subtract this number from the number of hanks mule yarn, and multiply the product by the pinion and change wheels for a divi- dend ; then multiply the top carrier by the back roller wheel for a divisor. 1. Suppose the number of yarn to be 42.71, the gaining of carriage 8 inches, the number of inches put up 58, the pinion wheel 21, the change wheel 36 teeth, the top carrier 1 1 6, and back roller wheel 60 teeth : required the hanks roving. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. iia Top carrier, Back Roller, 116 teeth. 60 do. 6960 No. of yarn, Gain of Carriage, Inches put up, 42.71 5.89 36.82 21 42.71 8 in. 58)341.68(5.89-1- 290 516 464 528 522 3682 7364 773.22 36 463932 231966 6960)27835.92(4 hanks roving. 27840 To find a wheel to put on the bottom of the diagonal shaft, to make the front rollers turn out a certain length, or number of inches in a certain number of revolutions. 1. Suppose the rollers turn out 54 inches in 57 turns, with a 56 wheel on rim shaft, a 54 on top of diagonal shaft, a 100 on coupling shaft, and the cir- cumference of front roller 3.14 inches ; required the wheel on bottom of diagonal shaft. Multiply the wheel on the rim shaft by the turns, and the circumference of the front roller, for a divi- sor ; then multiply the wheel on top of diagonal shaft, by the inches turned out, then by the wheel on coup- hng shaft for a dividend. 114 CALCULATIONS OF Wheel on rim shaft, . 56 teeth. No. of turns, 57 392 280 Cir. frt. rol. 3192 3.14 12768 3192 9576 10022.88 Wheel on top diagonal shaft, Inches turned out, . 54 teeth. 54 216 270 2916 Wheel on coupling shaft, 100 10022.88)291600.00(294- 2004576 9114240 9020592 93648 It will be seen that the decimal of the circumfer- ence of front roll, has made the true result vary somewhat. The proper wheel is 30 teeth. To find the change wheel in altering from one number to another, without changing the roving. 1. Suppose the mule jenny, (or throstle frame,) be spinning 30 hanks in the pound, with a 28 change wheel, and it is required to spin 40 hanks in the pound ; required the change wheel. Now, a little reflection will convince us that the latter number will require a less change wheel, than the former ; therefore, we multiply the 30 hanks and 28 change wheel together, for a dividend, and divide the result by the number of hanks required. Thus, 30x28-^40=21 -change wh'l. Or, as 40 : 28 ;: 30 : 21. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 115 To find the change wheel in altering from one number to another when the change wheel and roving 7'equire to he altered. 1. Suppose you are spinning 30's with a 4 hank roving, and a 26 change wheel, and it is required to change to 36's with 5 hank roving : required the change wheel. Multiply the 36's by the 4 hank roving for a di- visor ; then multiply the 30's by the 5 hank roving, and this product by the 26 change wheel for a divi- dend. 36 and 4 oq 30 and 5 and 26. | 5 150 26 900 300 4X36=144)3900(27. Ans, 288 1020 1008 12 To find the diameter of the mendoza pulley to move the carriage uniformly with the surface speed, or delivery of front roller. Multiply the diameter of the front roller by the teeth in the mendoza wheel, and divide this result by the teeth in pinion on the front roller that drives the mendoza wheel. Subtract from this product the 116 CALCULATIONS OF diameter of the mendoza band, and the result is the diameter of a pulley that will move the carriage out as fast as the yarn is delivered by the front rollers. 1 . Suppose the number of teeth of mendoza wheel to be 118, the diameter of front roller 1-g- inches, the pinion on front roller 21 teeth, and the diameter of band f of an inch : required the diameter of pulley. thus : I . ^ — ^-l=5.695=the diam. of pulley to V 21 8/ ^ -^ move the carriage as fast as the delivery of yarn. 2. Suppose the length of stretch is 56 inches, the gain upon the same 6 inches ; required the pulley to move the carriage with a gain of 6 inches on the stretch. thus : 56x5.695 the diam. of pulley to move the car- riage as fast as the delivery of yarn=3 18.920^-56 — 6, gain of carriage==6.374, or say 6f inches diameter of pulley required. ' 3. Suppose the length of stretch is 58 inches with a gain of 7^ inches ; required the pulley. thus : /5QX5^^^L6.54 in. diameter. \ 58— 7i / To find a wheel to put on the middle roller, for the middle roller to draw from the hack roller 6 into 7, and 6 into 8. 1. Suppose the diam. of the back roller is | and the diam. of the middle roller is -J of an inch, and back roller wheel 24 teeth ; required the middle roller wheel. (24x7=168-^8=21x6=126-^7)=18=wheel required. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 117 2. Suppose the back roller wheel is 32, the diame- ters of the back and middle rollers |- and J inch, and you wish to draw the middle in the proportion of 6 to 8. thus : (32x7-224-^8-28x6=168-^8)=21=wheelrequ'd. To find the number of stretches upon a cop. 1. Suppose a cop runs 10 leas with 80 turns of the reel in one lea, and 54 inches in one turn, and the number of inches the mule puts up is 58 ; required the stretches. 10 leas X 80 turns X 54 inches and -f- 58 inches put up=the number of stretches. thus: 10x80=800x54=432000-^58=74411 stretches- To find the draught of the Spinning Frame. 1. Suppose the drivers are 26 and 30, the driven wheels 116 and 56, the back roll J, and the front roll I of an inch in diameter : required the draught. 1st driver, 26 teeth. 1st driven wheel 116 2d do. 30 2d do. do. 56 780 diam. back rol., ^ 696 580 5460 6496 diam. frt. rol., | 5460)58464(10.52 5460 28640 27300 13400 10920 2480 118 CALCULATIONS OF The twist, produce, &c. of this machine, are found in the same way as the mule, and one acquainted with the preceding operations will readily perform others of a similar nature. To find in tvhat proportion to put twist in yarn per inch, in changing from one number to another. A good rule is to add 2j- revolutions of the spindle for every 10 hanks. For instance : suppose you are spinning 30's twist with 20 revolutions of the spindle per inch, and it is required to change to 45 twist ; required the revolutions of spindle per inch. Now, 45's — 30's=15 hanks finer than present spin- ningx2|=3.75 and 3.75-4-20-23.75 or 23f twist per inch of number 45 twist. Suppose you are spinning 40's weft with 16 J rev. of the spindle per inch, and it is required to change to 50's weft ; required the rev. of spindle per inch. Thus : 50 — 40=10 hanks finer than you are spinning, X2j=2.5-j- 16.5=1 9 twist per inch of number 50. The number of twists given to the yarn varies with the fineness of the fibres and yarn, and whether or not it be required for warp or weft. A good prac- tical rule for finding the twists per inch of any num- ber of yarn, is the following, viz. : V number of yarn x for the twists per inch of warp, and Vnumber of yarn 3.75x3.25 for weft yarn. Thus : for number 25 warp yarn, we have V25=5x 3.75=18.75 twists per inch : for 36 weft, V36=6x3.25= 19.50 twists per inch of 36 weft. I SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 119 Computation of the length and fineness of cotton yarn. Yards. Threads. 1^ = 1 Skeins. 120 = 80 = 1 Hanks. 840 = 560 = 7 = 1 Spindle. 15120 =10080 = 126 = 18 = 1 Thus : number 20 yarn contains 20 hanks, or 20x 840 yards ==16,800 yards in one pound : number 35 contains 35x840 yards=:29,400 yards in one pound : and number 11 yarn contains 11x840 yards ==9,240 yards in one pound, &c. When we wish to determine the fineness of yarn, we take a few cops or bobbins and reel them, and find their weight, then say as the weight of cops or bobbins : 16, the number oz. in the pound :: 18, the number of hanks in spindle : weight or number of the yarn. Suppose the weight of spindle to be 5 ounces, then, 5 : 16 :: 18 : 57f, number of yarn. Again : suppose the weight of spindle to be 8 ounces, then, 8 : 16 :: 18 : 36, number of yarn. 2SR ^""^ weight of spindles m oz.= ^^' ^^ y^^^' ' "no. of yarn ""^^^g^t of spindle in ounces. Computation of the length and fineness of woolen yarn. Yards. Knots. 80 = 1 Skeins. 320 = 4=1 Run. 1600 = 20 = 5 = 1 120 CALCULATIONS OF To find the speed j^er minute of the power loom. Multiply the diameter of drum Or pulley on driving shaft by its revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the diameter of the puUies on loom shaft. 1. Suppose the diameter of drum on driving shaft is 16 inches, the revolutions per minute of shaft 100, and the loom belt pulleys 14 inches ; required the speed per minute of loom. thus: 16x100=1600-^14=114/4. inch. inch. rev. rev. Or, as 14 : 16 :: 100 : 114/-: 2. And, 100 revolutions per minute of driving shaftxl6 inches driving pulley h-1 4 inches loom pul- leys =125| revolutions of loom shaft. 3. Suppose the wheel on end of loom shaft to be 56, driving the cam shaft by a wheel of 112: re- quired the turns of cam shaft. (X114, rev. of loom shaft x56 =6384-^1 12)= 57 turns of cam shaft. Or, (114-^(1 12-^56)= 57. Suppose the loom makes 120 pecks per min.= a single peck in half a second. Hence the loom shaft makes a turn in half a second, or two turns in one second; .and the cam shaft makes a turn in one second ; now this cam shaft must make -^-^ of a revolution to open the shades sufficiently : this movement will require /g of a second : it remains open \ or y^o of a second and requires ^-^ of a sec- ond to return : so we perceive that ^ or y\ of a second elapse between the time when the warp begins to open, and the time of closing, leaving ^ or ^\ of a second, as the time it remains open. The shuttle is SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 121 thrown at the time when the tappet-pin or roller strikes the treadle underneath, &c., &c. To find the weight of a Warp. Multiply the length by number of beers, then by number of ends in a beer:=the number of yards ; then divide the number of yards by 840= number of hanks ; then-j-by the number of yarn and it will give the number of pounds required. 1. Suppose a warp to contain 18 cuts of 30 yards each, with 35 beers, and 60 ends in each beer and the number of yarn 28's twist ; required the weight of warp. Ans. 48 lbs. 3 oz. 12 drs. 18 cutsX30yds.= 540 No. of beers 35 2700 1620 18900 No. of ends in beer, 60 h'ks. lbs. oz. drs. No yds. in hank 840) 1 134000() 1350(48— 3— 12. 840 112 2940 230 2520 224 4200 6 4200 16 96(3 84 12 122 CALCULATIONS OP To find the weight of Weft to fill this Warp, Multiply the length by the breadth, then by num- ber of pecks per inch=the number of yards ; then divide this by 840= the number of hanks ; then divide by number of yarn=the weight. Suppose the breadth to be 28 inches, the number of pecks per inch 60, and the number of weft or filling 30 ; required the weight ? Ans. 36 lbs. Length of warp, 540 Breadth do. 28 4320 1080 15120 No. pecks per inch, 60 j^'j^g /OU 840)907200f) 1080(36 pounds. 840 90 6720 180 6720 180 2. Suppose the length of a warp be 500 yards, the breadth 36 inches, the number of pecks per inch 56, and number of weft 17 ; required the weight of weft to fill this length of warp. Ans. 70 lbs. 9 oz. 7 drs. SPEEDS, DRAUGHTS, &C. 123 Length of warp, 500 Breadth do. 36 18000 Pecks per inch, 56 108000 9QQQQ h'ks. lbs. oz. drs. Yds. in h'k,840)l008000(^^)1200(70— 9— 7. 840 119 1680 10 1680 16 00 160(9 153 124 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. VARIOUS TABLES, &c. TABLE A. Showing the relative power of Overshot Wheels, Steam En- gines, Horses, Men, and Windmills of different kinds, by Fenwick. l-«^- . « oT C A s s >^ c» c _c c t;^ X ti, . vera 10 f nute, 5 c .s '1 — . G -§ a (N .E D. i-H 60 .^i C O . cc a> « 5^ S CO — _, »-* — *" 0? c c3 1— 1 > CO C ce '^ a — (U 03 CD .15 TO qj CD £ t3 CD *" § '^ ^ a> .5 ^ — ID O to a; T3 S b£0 ii •S E-g 3 o ■g - ^ -• CD -^ S ^ > >. -tiJ .C OJ — O K <^ >, =) c ^ O ? S O 3. of Ale gal on oversho diameter, e O CO C C (D OJ C O ■>^ — c S S -5 S c c « > o £S.S i/j rt ti d 0-5 s « ° 1 Q g ^ S aj :-' . .=! OJ CD i<5 to > ^ > 5 O cS ^ '^ • O ai ■^ *j XI ■^ O) O iz; O Q 7^ ^ Pi Pi P5 ffi 230 8. 6.12 1 5 21.24 17.89 '15.65 13 390 9.5 7.8 2 10 30.04 25.30 22.13 26 528 10.5 8.2 3 15 36.80 30.98 27.11 39 660 11.5 8.8 4 20 42.48 35.78 31.30 52 720 12.5 9.35 5 25 47.50 40.00 35.00 65 970 14. 10.55 6 30 52.03 43.82 38.34 78 1170 15.4 11.75 7 35 56.90 47.33 41.41 90 1350 16.8 12.8 8 40 60.09 50.60 44.27 104 1455 17.3 13.6 9 45 63.73 53.66 46.96 117 1584 18.5 14.2 10 50 , 67.17 56.57 49.50 130 1740 19.4 14.8 11 55 70.46 59.33 51.91 143 1900 20.2 15.2 12 60 73.59 61.97 54.22 156 2100 21. 16.2 13 65 76.59 64.5 56.43 169 2300 22. 17. 14 70 79.49 66.94 58.57 182 2500 23.1 17.8 15 75 82.27 69.28 60.62 195 2686 23.9 18.3 16 80 84.97 71.55 62.61 208 2870 24.7 19. 17 85 87.01 73.32 64.16 221 3055 25.5 19.6 18 90 90.13 75.90 67.41 234 3240 26.2 20.1 19 95 92.60 77.98 68.23 247 3420 27. 20.7 20 100 95.00 80.00 70.00 260 3750 28.5 22.2 22 110 99.64 83.90 73.42 286 4000 29.8 23. 24 120 104.06 87.63 76.88 312 4460 31.1 23.9 26 130 108.32 91.22 79.81 388 4850 32.4 24.7 28 140 112.20 94.66 82.82 364 5250 33.6 25.5 30 150 116.35 97.98 85.73 396 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 125 TABLE B. Showing the quantity of water discharged in one minute by orifices differing inform and position. "5 5 03 o o o .2 •S s Form and position of the orifice. ~ o ^ Constant bei| above the orifice. O s S No. of cub] charged in ft. in. lin. Lines. 11 8 10 Circular and Horizontal, 6 2311 Circular and Horizontal, 12 9281 Circular and Horizontal, 24 37203 Rectangular and Horizontal, 12 by 3 2933 Horizontal and Square, 12 side. 11817 Horizontal and Square, 24 side. 47361 9 Vertical and Circular, 6 2018 Vertical and Circular, 12 8135 4 Vertical and Circular, G 1353 Vertical and Circular, 12 5436 5 7 Vertical and Circular, 12 628 126 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. TABLE C. Containing the quantity of water discharged over a weir. dge of below nglish schar- every board, Buat's r dis- by ev- vaste- to ex- Scot- dge of below nglish schar- every board, Buat's schar- every board, ments V. IB '■^ a> 05 c3 rt 3 & O ^ S5;5'3 05 H I- -3 05 i: a 3. £ cS 3 ^ O '3 t»> 05 ^- _: r^ XI S 05 -a eS 3 p 05 S he u ste 1 face .5 O 03 3 -9 05 i O 05 « ,cd '-' CO <<-! P.S 05*^ & .5 05 a g 'S 2 5 M?B *- C3 b . ■^ cS <« .E cs 0) -3 O " G ^ S 3 . «rtv--5rt -^ a ^ .)s a 't-' > s «> o > <" (x> •fl 95 a) "o 05 _ O rrj -> 05 C I, 3 «2; — J3 o c O "3 o ^ j; 05 05 C _ 05 •^^ be -i^ T3 3 . 'S ^ " ?, O 05 -3 05 05 "o ^ *- *^ .-, ^ 6JD.S ta tg ^ o 05 ,a cJs y « *^ •« •3 05 H '-' O •^ bo .3 cS « ■3 0> C O £ Q O O Q o O V 1 0.403 0.428 10 12.748 13.535 2 1.140 1.211 11 14.707 15.632 3 2.095 2.226 12 16.758 17.805 4 3.225 3.427 13 18.895 20.076 5 4.507 4.789 14 21.117 22.437 6 5.925 6.295 15 23.419 24.883 7 7.466 7.933 16 25.800 27.413 8 9.122 9.692 17 28.258 30.024 9 10.884 ] 1.564 18 30.786 .32.710 TABLE D. Showing the height of the fall in feet and the time of falling in seconds. Height of fall Time of falling Height of fall Time of falling in feet.j in seconds. in feet. in seconds. 1 .25 12 .864 2 .352 14 .935 . 3 .432 16 1. 4 .5 20 1.117 5 .557 25 1.25 6 .612 30 1.37 7 .666 36 1.5 8 .706 40 1.58 9 .75 45 1.67 10 .79 50 1.76 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 127 TABLE E. Showing the average velocity of the current of Rivers, cal- culated from the velocity of the surface in the middle of the streajn. — Robinson. Surface. Bottom. Mean. Surface. Bottom. Mean. 1 0.000 •0.5 31 20.857 25.924 2 0.172 1.081 32 21.678 26.839 3 0.537 1.768 33 22.506 27.753 4 1. 2.5 34 23.339 28.660 5 1.526 3.263 35 24.167 29.583 6 2.1 4.050 36 25. 30.5 7 2.709 4.854 37 25.827 3L413 8 3.342 5.67 38 26.667 32.333 9 4. 6.5 39 27.51 33.255 10 4.674 7.33 40 28.345 34.172 11 5.369 8.184 41 29.192 35.096 12 6.071 9.036 42 30.030 36.015 13 6.786 9.893 43 30.880 36.940 14 7.553 10.756 44 31.742 37.871 15 8.254 11.622 45 32.581 38.79 16 9. 12.5 46 33.432 39.716 17 9.753 13.376 47 34.293 40.646 18 10.463 14.231 48 35.151 41.570 19 11.283 15.141 49 36. 42.5 20 12.055 16.027 50 36.857 43.428 21 12.830 16.837 51 .37.712 44.356 22 13.616 17.808 52 38.564 45.282 23 14.202 18.70 53 39.438 46.219 24 15.194 19.597 54 40.284 47.142 25 16. 20.5 55 41.165 48.082 26 16.802 21.401 56 42.016 49.008 27 17.606 22.303 57 42.968 49.984 28 18.421 23.210 58 43.771 50.886 29 19.228 24.114 59 44.036 51.818 30 20.044 25.022 60 45 509 52.754 128 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. TABLE F. Of the elasticity of Steam. — By M. Arago and others. Elasticity of ste'm, the pres. of the atmos- phere being 1. Corresponding temp. in deg. of Fahrenheit. Elasticity of ste'm, the pres. of the atmos- phere being 1. Corresponding temp. in deg. of Fahrenheit. 1 212. 13 380.66 li 234. 14 386.94 2 250.5 15 392.86 21 263.8 16 398.48 3 275.2 17 403.83 3i 285. 18 408.92 4 293.7 19 413.78 4| 300.3 20 418.46 5 307.5 21 422.96 5i 314.24 22 427.28 6 320.36 23 431.42 6i 326.26 24 435.56 7 331.7 25 439.34 n 336.86 30 457.16 8 341.78 35 472.73 9 350.78 40 486.59 10 358.78 45 499.24 11 366.85 50 510.6 12 374. VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 129 TABLE G. Showing the force and heat of Steam. O c^ fccii ■i-j j2 -— < M CS O 0) d d ■^ d «i S c£ "' O '■^ T^ O (U ,d tH -M Oi r-<^ > O ;> O t^ IS ^ S ^ ^ rri ft r/j 0) 5' 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35 ^40 tn CD rn 3 S3 a; as c o '2271 230i 232f 235i 2371 2391 250| 2591 267 273 13 \ 278 1^ ^283 '% 130 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. TABLE H. Showing the expansive force of steam, expressing the de- grees of heat at each lb. of pressure on the safety valve. Degrees of Lbs. of Degrees of Lbs. of Degrees of Lbs. of heat. pressure. heat. pressure. heat. pressure. 212° 268® 24 298^ 48 216 1 270 25 299 49 219 2 271 26 300 50 222 3 273 27 301 51 225 4 274 28 302 52 229 5 275 29 303 53 232 6 277 30 304 54 234 7 278 31 305 55 236 8 279 32 306 56 ' 239 9 281 33 307 57 241 10 282 34 308 58 244 11 283 35 309 59 246 12 285 36 310 60 248 13 286 37 311 61 250 14 287 38 312 62 252 15 288 39 313 63 254 16 289 40 313i 64 256 17 290 41 314 65 258 18 291 42 315 66 260 19 293 43 316 67 261 20 294 44 317 68 263 21 295 45 318 69 265 22 296 46 319 70 267 23 297 47 320 71 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 131 TABLE I. Showing the elastic force of steam, — hy Dr. Ure. Elastic Elastic Elastic Elastic Temp. force. Temp. force. Temp. 1 force, Temp. force. 24 0.170 155^ 8.500 1 242° 53.600 218.8° 104.400 32 0.200 160 9.600 245 56.340 283.8 107.700 40 0.250 165 10.800 245.8 57.100 285.2 112.200 50 0.360 170 12.050 ! 248.5 60.400 287.2 114.800 55 0.416 175 13.550 250 61.900 289 118.200 60 516 1 180 15.160 251.6 63.500 290 120.150 65 0.630 185 16.900 : 254.5 66.700 292.3 123.100 70 0.726 190 19.000 , 255 67.250 294 126.700 75 0.860 195 21.100 ' 257.5 69.800 295 129.000 80 1.010 200 23.600 ! 260 72.300 295.6 130.400 85 1.170 205 25.900 ! 260.4 72.800 297.1 133.900 90 1.360 210 23.880 262.8 75.900 298.8 137.400 95 1.640 212 30.000 264.9 77.900 300 139.700 100 1.860 216.6 33.400 265 78.040 300.6 140.900 105 2.100 220 35.540 267 81.900 302 144.300 110 2.456 221.6 36.700 269 84.900 303.8 147.700 115 2.820 225 39.110 ^ 270 86.300 305 150.560 120 3.300 226.3 40.100 271.2 88.000 306.8 155.400 125 3.380 230 43.100 273.7 91.200 308 157.700 130 4.366 230.5 43.500 275 93.480 310 161.300 135 5.070 234.5 46.800 1 275.7 94.600 311.4 164.800 140 5.770 235 47.220 ; 277.9 97.800 312 167.000 145 6.600 238.5 50.300 279.5 101.600 312 165.5 150 7.530 240 51.700 280 101.900 132 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. TABLE J. Showing the velocity of motion for horing and turning. BORING. TURNING. Inches Revolution of shaft Inches Revolution of shaft diameter. per minute. diameter. per minute. 1 25. 1 50. 2 12.5 2 25. 3 8.33 3 16.67 4 6.25 4 12.50 5 5. 5 10. 6 4.16 6 8.32 7 3.57 7 7.15 8 3.125 8 6.25 9 2.77 9 5.55 10 2.5 10 5. 15 1.66 15 3.33 20 1.25 20 2.50 25 1. 25 2. 30 0.833 30 1.667 35 0.714 35 1.430 40 0.625 40 1.250 45 0.56 45 1.12 50 0.5 50 1. 60 0.417 60 0.834 70 0.358 70 0.716 80 0.313 80 0.626 90 0.278 90 0.556 100 0.25 100 0.50 It will be seen that the velocity of turning is double that of boring. Many turners prefer different veloci- ties, but the above is generally considered to be ad- vantageous. The progression of the cutter is from y\th to gVth for the first, and -^-^ih. to 2Vth of an inch for the second cut. VARIOUS TABLES, &C. 133 TABLE K. Of the Specific Gravity of Metals. Specific Specific gravity. gravity. Arsenic, . 5763 Cast bismuth. 9822 Cast antimony, . 6702 Cast silver, . 10474 Cast zinc. 7190 Hammered silver, . 10510 Cast iron. 7207 Cast lead, . 11352 Bar iron. 7788 Mercury, 13568 Cast tin. 7291 Jeweller's gold, . 15709 Cast nickel. 7807 Gold coin, 17647 Cast cobalt. 7811 Cast gold, pure, . 19258 Hard steel. 7816 Pure gold, hammered. 19361 Soft steel, . 7833 Platinum, pure, . 19500 Cast brass. 8395 Platinum, hammered. 20336 Cast copper, 87SS Platinum wire, 21041 TABLE L. Specific gravity of Gases, that of atmospheric air heing=l. Specific Specific gravity. gravity. Hydrogen, 0.0694 Carbonic acid, 1.5277 Carbon, 0.416G Alcohol vapor. 1.6133 Steam of water, 0.4S1 Chlorine, 2.500 Ammonia, . 0.5902 Nitrous acid, 2.638 Carburetted hydrogen. 0.9722 Sulphuric acid. 2.777 Azote, 0.9723 Nitric acid. 3.75 Oxygen, . 1.1111 Oil of turpentine, . 5.043 Muriatic acid, 1.2840 TABLE M. Showing the No. of Wire generally used in carding, from 12'5 to 40'5. Top sheets, 24, 28, 32, three or four of each kind to the card. Main cylinder sheets, 90 to 100, or 105, four inches wide. Filleting, or fillets for Doffer, 115 to 120 do. do. Do. do. Licker in, 75 do. do. Do. do. Cleaners, 85 to 90 do. do. 134 VARIOUS TABLES, &C. TABLE N. Showing the scale of Sheets and Filletings. — Montgomery. X! J3 1 1 00 ^ ■a CO r-1 c a; -a .c Cfl S To Card for all sizes of en 03 ^ D- Yarn, 0) C m ai tn •s m 01 w c ^3 a C C C *~ C ■^ CO fS K IS m '<< a 1— 1 D. 3 s •S2 ri .£2 cS ,22 etf ca O « a Q o ft o Q 20 17.6 24 14.69 28 12.64 32 11.03 21 16.8 25 14.10 29 12.18 33 10.70 22 16.0:3 26 13.56 30 11.77 34 10.39 23 15.33 27 13.07 31 11.39 35 10.09 TABLE Q. Showing the distances at which the rollers should he set in using different lengths of cotton. faJD ® r 7 "^ 8 ^ o f U to 7^ a:" i "o 'f r 7 8 toll -l ?i ?^ 0) ^ Q 1 1 1 73 ^ 1 l| to 7 lito7 I CD ^ ^ J 1 tolA to If > 9 ^ 1-3- ;ri t^ -^16 OJ 3 lito7 |sis It^o to If 73 ^ 1 li J ■-i 'Tj .lito7j O rj^ C; ifi ' -1 J ■ S ^ 5 o *- -'•4 to 1/^ J B^ TABLE R. Showing the gain of carriage necessary for spinning vari- ous nmnhers. be '^ .3 O f 25 to 30 ^ 0) be be S ^ 1^ r li to 2f ^ O 7J 35 to 45 -%%^t 2i to 4-1- !-4 VO (D 45 to 55 \ '^- '^ 2 «^