li:. ) m v\' '■-■^j-- ^^'^'^ ^^-^c.. ^^ "^^ .H -/, C' •"O 0^ ^ * , ;> * .0 0. ':i "^4' "n/- v*' \> ^ ^ '' " , XV o5 -^^ -f ijr^': '^x. v^' <. I '• \'': ?5 '^>. •v^«.-'> > i^'m^r^^mia^^ ^^^-^^ Technical Instruction. SPECIAL REPORT OF THE Commissioner OF Educatioi^. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, Janaaiy 19th, 1870. [incomplete.] A G o\ \> b( % (p ii y/^&,:.^^ Scientific and Industrial Education : an Account of Systems, Institutions, and Courses of Instruction in the Principles of Sci- ence ai>[)lied to the Arts of Peace and War in different Countries. SPECIAL REPORT OF THE CO.MMIS'^IOXER OF EDUCATIOIV, 1869. OONTEInTS. Page. Introduction, 17—32 Progressive De%'eloj)ment of Scliools and Practicii! Courses of Instruction in Science, 17 1. Government Institutions for Military and other Public Services, 19 2. Royiil and Privileged Academies of Science and Art, 21 3. Ueiilistic, Scientific, and Technical Museums, Schools, Classes, Laboratories, and Workshops devoted to National Industrie*;, 23 PART I. Systems and Institutions of Special and Technical Instruction, ..33—800 L AUSTRIA. Intkoduction, 33 Population and National Industries, 33 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 34 System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 35 Progressive Development of the System, 35 1. Industrial Element in Common Schools, 35 2. Sunday Improvement-Schools, 35 3. Burgher Schools, 3(5 4. Real Schools, 30 .5. Polytechnic Schools, 37 G. Sijecial Academies and Institutions, 38 Technical and Special Schools, 39 1. Elementary Improvement and Supplementary Schools, 39 (1.) Apprentice and Workmen's School at Vienna, 39 •^ (2.) Manufacturers' and Trade School at Prague, 41 (3.) Mechanics' and Weaving School at Brunn 42 2. Higlier Mechanic and Trade Schools, 43 (1.) Municipal Practical School in Vienna, 43 (2.) Provincial Practical School at Prague, 44 (3.) Imperial Practical School in Vienna, 45 3. Polytechnic Institutions, 46 (10 Polytechnic Institute at Prague, 47 General Programme of Instruction, fommcn to all pupils, 47 Division A. — Bridges and Roads, 48 Division B. — Architecture and Civil Constructions 48 Division C. — Construction of Machines,. 49 Division D. — Technological Chemistry, 49 (2). Polytechnic Institute at Vienna, ."iO Historical Development, , 50 Organization and Condition in 1836, 51 New Organization and Condition in 1868, 53 Subjects, and Extent of Examination for Admission in 1867, .53 Subjects taught and their Distribution into Courses, 57 Preparatory Division, 57 Division I — Bridges and Roads, 58 Division II — Architecture and Construction, 58 Division HI — Mechanicians 59 Division IV — Chemistry and its Application to the Arts, .59 4. Comparative View of Austrian and other Polytechnic Schools 61 (1.) Date — Location — Divisions or Schools — Professors — Pupils, 61 (2.) General Organization as to Subjects and Courses, 62 (3.) Preparatory Instruction 03 (4.) Mechanics — Theory and Practice ofJVTachine-building — Workshops, 65 (5.) Building and Architecture — Models and Modeling 08 (6.) Construction of Roads and Bridges 09 (7.) Chemistry and Chemical Technology 70 (8.) Board of Direction— Faculty— Director, 70 (9.) Classification of Pupils — Admission — Tuititm — Discipline, "73 5. Special Schools and Instruction in Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 75 (I.) Superior Schools at Krumman, Graetz, and Altenburg, 75 (2.) Intermediate Schools at Frossau, 75 (3.) Lower School, 75 (4.) Special Departments — Raising Bees, 75 6. Schools of Forestry, 70 (1.) Superior Forest Academies, 70 Imperial Forest Academy at Mariabrunn, 70 (2.) Intermediate Schools at Wiesevvasser, Aussen and Kreutz, 70 (3.) Lower Forest Schools at Pibram 70 8 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Page. 7. Schools of Commerce, 77 (1.) Academy of Commerce nt Vienna, 77 (2.) Academy of Commerce at Prague, 78 (3.) Academy of Commerce at Pesth, 78 8. Schools of Mines and Miners at Schemnitz and Leoben, 79 9. Schools of Navigation, '. 78 10. Schools of Art, Drawing, and Music, 79 11. Special Professional Schools for Women, 80 n. BADEN. Introduction, . 81 Population — National Industries, 81 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, » .82 System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 83 1. Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe, 83 (1.) General Scientific Studies, 84 (2.) Civil Engineers 84 (3.) Builders 85 (4.) Foresters, 87 (5.) Analytic Chemists, .' 88 (6.) Machinists, 88 (7.) Merchants, 89 (8.) Post and other Public Officers, 89 Management, Building, Laboratories, &c., 90 2. Trade Schools, 91 (1.) Trade School for Apprentices in Baden, 91 (2.) School for Watch and Clockmaking at Furt wangen, 92 (3.) Worksho])s for Practical Improvement at Furtwangen, 93 (4.) School of Straw-plaiting, 95 3. Schools of Agriculture and Rural Economy, 95 (1.) Agricultural School at Hochburg, 95 (2.) Agriculture in Common Schools, 95 4. Military Schools, 95 School of Cadets, 96 5. Normal School for Teachers of Gymnastics, 95 m. BAVARIA. Introduction 97 Population and National Industries, 97 General System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 97 System and Institutions of Technical Education 101 Historical Development of the System, 101 Existing Organization, 103 1. Trade-schools — Mechanical, Commercial, Agricultural,.. ■ 105 2. Real-Gymnasium in Provincial Towns, 106 3. Central Polytechnic School, 107 General Scientific Course of two years, 107 Special Divisions or Scliools, 108 (1.) Architecture and Building, 108 (2.) Mechanical Engineering, ". 109 (3.) Technical Chemistry, 109 (4.) Commerce, 110 Institutions and Classes of Special Instruction, Ill 1. Sunday and Holiday Improvement Schools, ;. Ill 1. Sunday Technical School at Nuremberg, 112 2. Sunday and Holiday Scliools in Munich, 112 a. Central Holiday School for boys, 112 b. Journeymen's School 113 c. Handicrafts School, 113 3. Female Holiday Schools 113 a. Central Holiday School, 114 *. Parish Holiday Schools, 114 2. Higher Trade Schools,' System— Cliissificaf ion of Schools— Collections of Tools, ice, i-'Oo 1. Intermediate Agricultural School at Aunaberg, 205 2. Superior Institutes of Agriculture , '20(5 (1.) Agricultural Academy at Moglin, established by Thner 2 Institutions of Special Instruction, 336 XVIII. WURTEMBERG. Introduction, .337 Population and National Industries 337 System and Statistics of General Public Instruction, .338 System and Statistics or Sveci.\l Instruction, 339 1. System and Institutions of Agricidtural Education, 345 2. Public Instruction in Drawing, 347 Systematic Technical Education, By J. Scott Russeil, 357 J. The Polytechnic University, 358 , 2. College for the Building Trades 358 3. Agriculture and Forestry Establishments, .3.59 Technical Instruction in detail : 300 1. Technical University in Stiittgard 300 2. College for the Building Trades, 3G2 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. jg Page. 3. High Trade School :«)-i Organization nnd Studies, 3<)4 I. Technical University, .■iG4 A. Miithematiciirand Mercantile Division, ;i(>5 B. Technical Division :)()G (1.) Mathematics and Mechanics, 3(i(> (2 ) Natural History 'MH\ (3.) Technology, 3fi7 (4.) Machinery; 3(i7 (5.) Engineering, ... SfiP (6.) Architecture 3(18 Drawing and Modeling ._ 368 Plan of Study in detail, and practice in each school, . . .' 3G9 A. Agricultural School, 3(iy B. Engineers' School 3l]<) C. Machinery School, 3C 691 Population, 091 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 091 System of Special Instruction, 093 1. Evening Burgher Schools , ()93 Higher Burgher Schools, 093 2. Agricyiltural Schools 094 3. Polytechnic Schools,. 094 Institutions of Technical Instruction, 094 1. Higher Burgher Schools ut Maastrict, 094 2. Agricultural School at Groningen 09,5 3. Polytechnic School at Delft, (597 4. School of Navigation, 098 XXIL DENMARK. Introduction, C99 Po!>nlation and National Industries, 099 System of Public Instruction, ; 099 Institttions and Classes of Special Instruction, 701 1. Royal Agricultural and Veterinary School, 701 2. Sunday Improvement Schools, 703 3. Technical Institute at Copenhagen, 703 XXIII. NORWAY. RonrcTioN 70.^ Pojiulation, 70.j Svstem and Statistics of Public Instruction TO.^S SvsTE.M and Schools of Special Instruction 707 1. Royal School of Arts and Design, 707 2. Provincial Drawing Schools, 708 3. Technical School at Horten, 709 4. Schixd of Mines at Kongsberg , 710 Plan for a System of Technical Instruction, 7J0 1. Sunday and Evening Schools, 710 2. Technical Elementary Schools, 710 3. Polytechnic Institute at Christiania 710 XXIV. SWEDEN. Introduction, 711 Population, •. 711 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 711 System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 712 1. Sunday and Evening School at Eskilstuna, 713 2. Elementary Technical School at Norkoping, 713 3. Industrial Schools at Stockholm and Gothenburg, 714 4. Mining Schools at Filipstad and Fahlun 71.5 5. Polytechnic School at Stockholm 715 0. Chalmers' Higher Technical School at Gothenburg 716 7. School of Naval Architecture at Carlscrona, 716 8. Evening Schools of Art, 716 IQ SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SI'ECIAL SCHOOLS. XXV. RUSSIA. Page. Introduction, 717 Population and National Industries, , 717 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, , '. 717 Special Schools for the Public Service, and the Arts, 719 1. Polytecimic School at St. Petersburg, 721 (1.) Mechanical Section, 721 (2.) (Chemical Section, 721 2. Polytechnic School at Riga, 723 (i.) Preparatory Course 724 (2.) Course for Manufacturers, • 724 (3.) Course for Merchants 725 (4.) Course for Agriculturists, 724 (.T ) Course common to Machinists, Architects, and Engineers, 725 (0.) Special Course for Constructors of Machinery, 72G (7.) Course for Architects, 72G (8.) Special Course for Engineers, 72() (9.) Special Course for Surveyors, 727 3. Schools of Mining and Miners, 727 (1.) Higher Institution for Mining Engineers, 727 (2.) Lower Schools of Mining, 727 4. Commercial Academy at Moscow, 728 5. Schools of Agriculture and Forestry, .• 728 (1 .) Higher Agricultural Academy at Gorygoretsk, 728 (2.) Forest Academies, 728 G. Schools of Law, Surveying, and Topography, 728 ( J .) Imperial Law School for Government Clerks, 728 (2.) Constantino School of Surveying, 728 7. Schools for the Civil and Diplomatic Service, 729 (1). School of Oriental Languages, 729 (2.) Schools for Civil Administration 729 8. Report of Jury of Paris International Exposition in 1867, 730 9. Museums available and useful in Technical Instruction, 733 XXVI. SWITZERIiAND. Introduction, 735 Population, , 735 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 735 Schools and Classes of Special Instruction, 737 1. Technical Institute at Lausanne, ; 737 2. Industrial School for Girls at Neuchatel, 742 3. Industrial School for Boys at Lausanne, 742 4. Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, ; ; 743 (1). Historical Development, 743 Re|)ort of Committee of Federal Council, 1852, 743 Law creating the Federal Polytechnic School, 744 Regulations of Federal Council in 1869, 748 (2.) Programme of Studies for 1856-7, , 749 1. Architecture, 749 2. Civil Engineering, 750 3. Industrial Mechanics,. • 751 4. Industrial Chemistry, 751 5. Forestry and Rural Affairs, 752 G. Philosophical and Political Science, 752 (a.) Natural Sciences, i 752 (b.) Mathematical Science, 7.52 (c.) Literary, Moral, und Political Science 753 (d.) Fine Arts, .752 ■ Apparotus — Laboratories — Cabinets — Methods, 754 (3.) Programme of Studies for 18G7-8, 756 Appendix, . . , 761 XXVII. ITALY. Introduction 791 Population 791 System and Statistics of Public histrnction 792 System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 793 XXVIIL SPAIN. Introduction, .' 797 Population, ; 797 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 797 Institutions of Special Instruction, 798 XXIX. PORTUGAL. Introduction, 799 Population 799 System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 799 Institutions of Special Instruction, 800 INDEX TO VOTJJME I = 801 Natioxal Education: — An Account of Public Schools and other I nslitutious of Gen- eral Education in different Countries. Part I. The German Stales. SPECIAL REPORT OP THE U. S. COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATI0N-I869. CONTENTS. I. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. Introduction. Page. 1. Political Development of the German States,. . Jl 2. Educational System nnd Nomenclature, ....... 13 ANHALT. Area — Population, 17 Public Instruction, 17 I. Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen 17 Common Schools— Teachers' Seminary, 17 (Jvmnasiums — Girls' High School,. 19 Trades Schools, 19 II. Anhalt-Bernburg, 20 Common Schools — Teachers' Seminary, 20 Gymnasiums — Girls' High School, 20 AUSTRIA. Area — Population — Religion — Nationalities, 23 Public Instruction in German Provinces,. . 26 I. Elementary Schools 26 1. Historical Development, 1621-1863, 26 Schools of the Jesuits — Christian Brothers, 26 Piarists — Empress Maria Theresa, 26 Felbiger — Rabstein — Count Firmian, 27 Board of Education — Kiiulernmnn — Felbiger,.. . 29 Joseph II— Von Swieten— J. A. Gail 30 Leopold II — Von Martini — Board for Regulation, 32 Francis I — Count Rottenham, 32 Constitution of German Common Schools in 180.5, 33 Spendou — Ferdinand I, 34 Francis Joseph I — Baron von Feuchtersleben, ... 36 Concordat with the Pope, of 1855 39 Baron von Helfert and Board of Education, 40 2. Present System and Condition, 40 (J) Classes or grades of Schools, 40 (2) Denominational Character, 42 (3) Nationality of School Interest, 42 (4) Compulsory Attendance, 42 (5) Support of Schools, 43 (6) Superintendence, 44 (7) Buildings.School-room, Residence of Teacher, 46 (8) Teuchers-Gradation-Principuland AssistiJiits, 47 (0) Qualification and Selection of Teachers, 47 (iO) Salaries of'Teachers, minimum, 48 ( 1 1) Tenure of Office and Removal of Teachers,. . 50 (i.) Pensions— Widows and Orphans of Teachers, 51 (13) School classes, and assignment of Teachers, 51 (14) Teachers' Conferences, 51 ( 15) Terms and Hours of Instruction, 52 (16) Distribution of Studies, .52 (17) Text-books and Apparatus, 52 (18) Language of Instruction, 53 (19) Penmanship — Arithmetic — Music — Drawing, 54 (20) Object-teaching — Natural Objects, .54 (21) Needlework— Orchard and Garden Culture, . . 54 (22) Discipline — Incentives — Puni^Iiiiionts 55 (23) Tuition Fees — Amount and how collected,.. 55 (24) Regularity of School Attendnnce, 55 (2.5) Examinations — Promotions of Teachers, 55 (26) Private Schools, day and boarding, 50 Page. (27) Adult Instruction, ■. . . 56 (28) Burgher-school — h ighcsl grade of Ele. Schools, 57 (29) Seminaries for Elementary Male Teachers,. . 58 (30) Normal Departments for Female Teachers,.. 59 (31) Government Publishing House, 60 3. Statistics of Elementary Schools in 186J, 61 Defects of the System as shown by Statistics,. . . 62 4. Legislation of 1867-8, 66 II. Secondary Schools, 67 1. History of the Gymnasium, 1577-Jbul, 67 Aquaviva and the Ratio Studiorum, 67 Jacobus Strabo and Petrus Codiciilus, 67 Gymnasiums of the Jesuits — Piarists, 68 Joseph I — Maria Tiieresa — Gerhnrd von Swieten, 69 State Board of Education — ?i!'rtini — Marx, 70 Joseph II — Hess — Teachers' Association 71 Leopold II-Board of Educational f?efi:irm in 1795, 73 Gymnasial Code of 1808, 74 Plan of Rporganization of Gymn.-isiums, 1849,... 79 Vernacular and Classical languages, 81 2. Present Organization, 82 (1) Complete and Incomplete — l^.inguage, 82 (2) Supervision — Central find Provincial, 82 (3) Grades and Duties of Teachers 83 (4) Appointment, Salaries, and Pensions 84 (5) Branches and Plan of Inslruclion, 85 Latin — Greek — German language 86 Geogra^ihy and Historj' — iNlathemutics, 88 Natural History— Plivsirs— Philosophy, 89 Religion — Music — Drawing — Stenography,.. 90 (6) Text-books — Apparatus — Libraries, 90 (7) Terms — Vacations— Admission — Tuition, . . 90 (8) Discipline — Incentives — Punishments, 91 (9) Examinations — Pronmtions, 91 (10) Maturity or Leaving Examination, 92 (11) Private Schools, and Private Students, 93 (12) Training a,nd Examination of Teachers 93 (13) Funds and Expense of Gymnasial Instruction, 94 3. Statistics and Results of Secondary Schools, ... 95 HI. Real-Schools, 98 1. Historical Development, 1745-1861 98 2. Present Organization atid Condition, 101 (1) Classification — Complete and lower, 101 (2) Language of the Majority of Pupils used,.. 10.1 (3) Teachers— grades, appointments, privileges,.. J02 (4) Studies— Obligatory and optional, 103 (5) Practical Course of one year, , 103 (6) Funds and Expenses, . . .' 105 (7) Sunday and Evening Schools, 105 3. Statistics and Results J 05 IV. Public Instruction in Hungary and other non-German States, 107 1. Hungary, 107 2. Transylvania 112 3. Croatia, 118 . V. Legislation of 1867-8, 120 BADEX. Area — Population — History, 121 Public Instruction, 122 Historical Development, 122 2 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. Page. I. Common or Elementary Schools, 122 Obligatory School-attendance of Children, 122 Duty of Parishes and Communes, 123 Supervision and Inspection, 125 Statistics and llesnUs, 127 Summary of Laws and Regulations, 127 School Authorities— School Attendance, 128 Studies and Internal Organization, 128 Plan of Instruction — Division of Time, 12i) Evening, Sunday, and Factory Schools, I'M Teachers — their Training, Conferences, Salaries, 133 Legislation and Statistics of IBOU, 135 II. Secondary Schools, l-'Jo Classification— Classical, and Burgher, 135 Management — High School Council, 136 Lyceum — Gymnasium — Preparatory, 137 Admission— Obligatory Studies 138 Distribution of Studies by Hours, 139 ReUgion — Devotional E.Kercises, 140 Latin — Greek — French -German, 141 History — Geography — Mathematics, 143 Philosophy — Singing — Drawing, 145 Books of Reference 145 Rank of Pupils — Classification 14(5 Discipline — Incentives — Penalties, 146 Terms — Vacations — Daily routine, 147 Titles— Professors — Special teachers, 148 Philological Seminaries for Teachers of Gymnasia, 148 III. Real Schools 149 Higher Bumher-schools 149 Gewerbeschulen, 151 IV. Higher Institutions for Girls, 152 Conventual — Municipal — Private, 152 V. Orphan AND other Special Institutions, 153 Astor Home for Neglected Children, 154 BAVARIA. Area — Population — Religion — Government, 157 Public Instruction 158 I. Primary OK ('i)MMON Schools, 158 1. Reorganizntion since 1802, 158 2. Present Organization 160 School Attendance — Parents and Communes,... 161 School-hours — Resilience and salary of Teachers, 161 Inspection — Lo al, Provincial, and State, 163 Four Circle Inspections— City School Inspection, 163 Rehitions of the Clergy to the Public Sclioi Is 165 3. Number of Schools, Pupils, Teachers, 166 Daily routine — Results as to Illiteracy, 167 4. Internal Organization 168 Tnjle Classification, and Subdivisions, 168 Studies, and their Distribution, 168 (1) Religion— Catechism, 169 (2) Biblical H istory 169 (3) Memorizing — Texts— Hymns, 169 (4) Reading, ". 169 (r-t) Penmanship I Private Schools, -J .1 II. Orphan and Rescue Houses ITT. Secondary Schools liilian College — Caroline College, Gyninasinl System— Superintendence — Pupils, Course of Instruction 210 216 ':] ; 2J (' 217 HANOVER. Area— Populition— Religion— Government, I. Primary Schools, 1. School Legislation German Writing and Cvpliering Snhoo's Ordinance of 1650— 1684— 1736— 1752— 1845,. . First Seminary for Teachers in 1751, Normal Schools in 18.57, 2. Present School L:uv., Duty of Parents and Guardians of Children Duty of Parishes to establish and support School, 219 221 221 221 222 223 22.> 227 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 3 Page. Local anil General Supervision, 228 3. School Statistics of 1855 228 Scliools— Pupils— Teachers— Salaries, 229 4. Timer Organization, 229 Gradation — Sexes— Subjects — Daily Routine,... 229 Monthly Record Book — Fines exacted of Parents, 230 5. Teachers — Candidates and their Training, .... 2iJ0 Examination—Location— Suspension— Assistants, 231 Teachers' Associations — Reading Clubs 232 Pensions — Widow and Orplian Funds, 232 G. Higher Female Schools, 232 7. Special Schools 233 Blind — Deaf-mutes — Imbeciles — Orphans, &c.,.. 233 If. SECONDARY Schools, 234 1. Historical Development from 783 to 1858 234 SciioJBP Grecae et Latinac, 786— Schola; Majores, 234 Latin Schools of 1528, 1546, 1586 236 Seminary for Gymnasial Teaciiers in 1737, 238 Labors of Ernest i and Gesner, 238 Study of Latin and Greek, 239 Influence of University and Teachers' Seminary, 240 Memorable words of Heyne 241 2. Existing Organization 241 (1) Final examination of Gymnasial Students,.. 242 (2) Sujjreme Board of Instruction, 244 3. Preparation of Teachers — Normal Seminary,.. 245 Mathematical and Physical Seminary, 246 4. Local School Authorities, 246 Governmental and Municipal Board— Board of Instruction, 246 Director— Ordinary or Class-teacher — Associate,. 246 5. Endowment, and annual State stipend 247 in. Statistics, 247 Gymnasiums — Pro-gymnasiums— Lyceums, 247 Latin Sclfool, 247 Real Schools -Higher Burgher Schools,. 248 Real classes in Gymnasiums, 248 Teachers and Students— Income and Expenses,. . 248 IV. Inner Organization, 249 Course of Instruction — Condition of Admission,.. 249 Devotional Exercises — Ueligious Instruction, .... 250 Latin— Greek — Hebrew— French — English — Ger- man, 252 History — Geography — Natural History, 2.52 Mathematics — Natural Philosophy, ' 2.55 I\Iusic — Drawing — Gymnastics, . ". 256 Lessons in Gymnasium, and Real Clas.s, 257 Progymnasiu'm and Real School 257 Study out of School-hours — Libraries of Reference, 257 2. Discipline — Incentives and Penalties, 258 Personal Influence of Teacher — Ordinary Routine, 258 3. Vacations — Final and Class Examinations and Exhibitions, 259 V. Teachers, 259 Grades and Titles, 2.59 Examinations — Trial Exercises, 259 State Relations — Salaries— Pensions, 260 Widows and Orphans' Funds, 261 Result of the Reorganization in 1830, 261 HESSE-CASSEL. Area— Population — Government, 263 General View of Education and Schools, 264 I. Elementary Schools, 265 1. Organization — Secular — Ecclesiastical, 265 2. School Authorities, 266 Local School Committee, 266 City Districts, 266 District School Councilor, 266 Provincial School Referee, 267 Minister of the Interior, 267 3. School Attendance 267 Parentul Obligation to send Children to School, 267 4. Internal Organization and Instruction 268 No General Regulation as to Hours, Lessons, &c., 268 Page. School Diaries and Records, by Teachers and In- 8j)ectors, 269 Inspection and Examination, 269 Punishments — Trespasses out of School, 270 Industrial Instruction in Evening Classes, 270 5. Teachers, 270 Seminaries for Teachers — Final Organization,. . 271 Practical Training in Gardening, &c., ,. . . . 271 Location — Salary — Sources of income, 272 Educational Course, and Selection, 272 II Secondary Schools non-Classical.... 272 1. Real Schools 272 Imperfect Development — Influence of Guilds,. . . 273 Real Classes in Gymnasium 273 Real School at Cassel with Eight Classes 273 2. Higher Female Schools, 274 3. Private Schools, 274 III. Gymnasiums, 274 Relations to the State— Number— Tuition, 275 Admission — Pupils — Studies— Recitations, 275 Discipline — Examination — Teachers 276 IV. Special Institutions, 277 Orphan Homes, 277 Rescue Institutions, 277 Deaf-mute Asylum, 277 HESSE-DARMSTADT. Area — Population — Government, 279 Public Instruction, 280 I. Primary or Common Schools, 281 1. Historical Development 281 Church Order of 1526, 281 Ordinance of I^andgrave George II, in 1634 281 School Law of 1832, 281 2. Existing System, 281 Duty of Parents— Obligatory Attendance, 282 Duty of Parishes and Towns — Expenses, 283 Supervision — Local — General, , 283 Loral or Parish Board, 283 District Commissioner, 283 Higher Directory of Education, 284 3. Schools— Scholars— Teachers, 284 4. Internal Condition, 285 Classification — Age — Sex — Attainments, 285 Lessons per week — Religious Instruction, 285 Public Examinations — Discipline, 285 5. Teachers, and their Training — Seminaries, 286 Model School — Conferences, 287 Permanent Settlement — Dismissal — Salaries, 287 Pensions — Widow and Orphan Funds, 288 5. Results, 288 TI. Classical and Higher Schools, 289 1. Historical Develo|)ment-Conressional character, 289 2. Students — Teachers — Expense, 290 3. Internal Condition, 290 Classes — Subjects, and their Distribution, 290 Religious Instruction — Devotional Exercises,. . . 291 Latin— Greek— Hebrew— French— English 291 German Language — History — Geography 292 Mathematics— Natural Sciences — Music, 292 G vmnastics — Swimming, 292 Class Teachers— Private Pupils 292 Discipline, in and out of School-hours, 293 Gymnasial Attendance and the Civil Service, . . . 293 4. Teachers " 2<)4 Conditions — Examination — Trial Year, 294 III. The Real and Trade Schools, 295 Modifications of the Gymnasial Course, 295 Mcnhanic School in 1822— Real Schools in 18.34,. 295 Higher Trades School, at Darmstadt, 296 Subjects, and their Distribution 296 Religious Instruction — Latin — German, 296 Modification of Subjects and Methods to Life,... . 297 Results of the System, 298 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. Page. IV. High Schools for Girls, 298 Origin and Extension of this class of Schools,. . . . 298 Intellectual versus Domestic Culture, 298 V. Special Institutions , 299 Orphan Asylmns — Distribution in Families, 299 Rescue Institutions, '. . 299 Schools for Deaf-mutes, and the Blind, 299 Infant Asylums and Schools, 300 LIECHTENSTEIN. Area — Population — History — Government, 301 Public Instruction, 301 I. Elementary Schools, 302 Schools— Pupils— Teachers— Studies, 302 LIPPE-DETMOLD. Area — Population — Religion — Government, 303 Public Instruction, 303 I. Primary Schools, 303 School Age — Obligation of Parents and Parishes, 304 Local JNIanngement — State Supervision, 304 Classification — Studies — Religion, 304 Common Science — Drawing, Knitting, &c., 304 Shepherds' Schools, 305 Infant Gardens — Spinning Schools, 305 Teachers and their Training — Seminary, 305 Location — Salary — Pension — Widow and Orphan, 305 II. Secondary Schools 305 Rector-schools — Number and Grade, .. . 305 G vmnasiums at Detmold and Lemgo, 306 Higher Female School at Detmold, 306 LIPPE-SCH AUMB URG. Popular Ignorance prior to the Reformation, 307 Schools under Ernest, 307 , 307 307 Obligation of School-attendanoe, 319 Duty of Clergymen and Magistrates, 320 Studies — School-rooms — Public Examination,.., 320 Teachers — Seminary at Mirow, .* 322 Silk, Garden and Meadow Culture 322 II. Secondary Schools 321 Gymnasiums and Labor Schools, 321 Burgher and City High School 321 High Schools for Girls, 321 NASSAU. Area — Population, Public Instruction, 323 323 I. Primary Schools, — II. Secondary Schools, LUXEMBURG AND LIMBURG. .Area — Population — History, 308 Public Instruction, 308 MECKLENBURG SCHWERIN. History — Area — Population, Public Instruction, 309 310 I. Primary Schools 310 Defective Condition of Schools as they were,. .'. . 310 Reorganization in 1756-1785, 310 Don-mnial, Manorial, and Landschuft Schools,. . . 311 Inspection and Management, 311 Duty of Parents and Parishes — School attendance, 312 Teachers — Seminary — Examination, .' 312 II. Higher Elementary Schools 313 III. Special Elementary Schools, 314 Trades Schools 314 Teachers' Seminary, 314 Niivigation Schools 314 Institution for Deaf-mutes, 314 IV. Secondary Schools, 315 Origin of Gymnasiums in 1541 315 Studies, and their Distribution by Hours^ 315 Higher City Schools, .- 316 Teachers — Salaries — Maturity Examination, 317 Real Schools— Studies, .' 318 MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. Area — Population, 309 Public. Inslf uction, 318 I. Primary School 318 Revised Lnw of 16.50, 1711, 177:1, 1801, 1816, 1826, 319 Teachers' Seminary in 1801 — Pensions, 319 I. Elementary Schools, 324 School Age — Dutv of Parents — Daily Routine,... 324 Duty of Purishes/as to House, «24 i Course of Instruction, 324 Teachers — Training— CJonfessional Character,... 325 Supervisioi; — Local and District, 325 Support of Schools, 325 II. Secondary Schools, 325 Pedagogium, 326 Gymnasium, 326 OLDENBURG. Area — Population, 327 Public Instruction, 327 I. Elementary Schools, 327 1. Priuiary Schools, 327 State Control 327 Age, and Extent of School-attendance, 327 Obligation of Parents, 327 Gradation of Schools, ^28 Studies in a School of one class, 328 Studies in School of two classes, upper and lower, 328 Teachers and their Salaries and Privileges,.. .... 329 2. Middle School— Studies and Teachers, 329 3. Higher Burgher Schools — Studies and Teachers, 329 4. Private Schools 329 5. Infant Schools and Orphan Houses, 330 III. Secondary Schools, 330 Gymnasiums and Pro-gymnasiums, 330 Professional and Special Schools, 331 1. Agricultural School at Manenburg, 331 2. Trade School at Oldenburg 331 3. Navigation School at Eisfleth, , 331 4. Teachers' Seminary at Oldenburg,.. 331 5. Normal School i'or Catholic Teachers at Vechta, 332 PRUSSIA. History — Area — Population, 333 Public Instruction, : 334 I. Primary or Elementary Schools 335 Historical Development, 335 ^1. .Inte-regol Period, 335 Mark of Brandenburg— Law of 1540, 1573, -335 Electorate of Brandenburjr — Ordinance of 157.3,.. 336 Duchy of Prussia, 1568,1.598 .336 Pome'rania, Writing and Girls' Schools, 1563, 336 Contuberninm in Wesel in 1687 336 Duchy of Magdeburg, Edict of Augustus in 1652, 337 B. Kivgdom of Prussia, 337 Frederic I, 1701-1713 337 Aid toTeiichers and Stricter Visitation of Schools, 337 Frederic William T, 1713-1740 338 Franke — Ratich — Comenius — Teaching, 338 Restrictions on Class of Candidates in 1732, 1738, 338 Normal School in Stettin in 173.5 — in Kloster- bergen, 1736 339 Royal Ordinance of 1713 and 171.5 339 i Teacherssent to Lithuania in 11 If^ 339 1 Grantof Land, free of rents and taxes, for Schools, 340 j Principin Resulativn of 1737— Mnns Pietatis, 340 I DutyofParishes— Obligatory School-attendance... 340 j Instructions for Pomerania— Berlin Circular of 1738, 341 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. Page. Frederic 11—1740-1786, 342 Lutheran Iligli Consistory, 342 Heguliitions of 1740— Hecker and Real Schools,.. .342 Normal School for the Kiirmark in Berlin 342 Ordinance of Schweidnitz, 343 General School Regulations of Sept. 23, 17G3 343 Opposition — Modifications — Additional Aid, 344 Catholic Schools in Silesia, difficulties with, 34G School Reform in Silesia — Von Felbiger— Sagan, 3415 Decree of Nov. 12, 1764, as to Normal Schools. &c., 347 Candidates for the INIinistry and Normal School... 347 Normal School iit Bresiau in 1765, 347 Catholic Sciiool Organization, Nov. 3, 1765, 348 Schools of the Jesuits— Dissolution of the Order,.. 349 Von Rochow — Better Schools and School-books,. 350 Fri;deric William II, 178G-1796, 350 Superior School-board — Reasons for, 351 Instructions to be modified according to occupa- tion, 351 Instructions in Economics and Hygiene .351 Schools declared State Institutions in 1794 352 Condition of Village and Country Schools in 1796, 352 Addition to Teachers' Income by Silk Culture,.. . 353 C. Frederic William HI, 1797-1840 3.^3 Wollner's Inslruct/Jons, and the King's Order, 1797, 353 Defects in Villiige Schools and Education, 354 Von Massow and Instructions of the King, 1798,. 3.55 Plan for a General Improvement of Schools 355 Preliminary Examination of their Conditiun, IfcOl, 3.56 Mission to Olivier, in Dessau, and to Pestulozzi,.. 356 A|)plication of the Results of these Inquiries, .... 356 Religious Instruction in the Schools, 356 Sunday-schooh for Journeymen and Apprentices, 357 Middle-schools first mentioned in 1799 358 Normal School for Female Teachers, by Gedike,.. 359 Institute for Governesses established in 1804, 359 Industrial Schools proposed and established, 359 Discussion on Improved Methods, 359 Demonstration of Pestalozzian methods byPlamann,360 Fichte proclaimed their superiority, 360 D. Period of Trav.^ition — Queen Louisa, 360 Period of National Reverses in 1806-1807, 360 Educational Policy of the King and Q,ueen, 360 Memorable Words' of the King, and Minister Stein, 361 Transference of the Supervision of Schools, 361 Third Section for School and Eccles. Affairs,.... 361 William von Humboldt, Nicolovius, and Silvern, 361 General Historical Summary, 362 Schools and Education — the foundation of Prus- sian Government, 362 Abolition of Serfdom — Education of the Subject, 362 Municipal Training of the Citizen, 363 Progressive Elements from Abroad — Zeller, 363 Letter of Altenstein to Pestalozzi, 363 Prussian Pestalozzian School — Characteristics,.. 364 Geography and history of Fatherland — Music,.. 364 Drawing— Physical Training — Native Language, 364 Corps of professionally trained Teachers, 365 Reorganization of Normal Schools, 365 Modern School Organization developed in 1820,.. 366 Teachers' Association, 366 Official Reaction against Pestalozzianism, 367 Educational Development in the New Provinces,. 368 I. Province of Saxony, 368 Area — Population — Educational Antecedents, 368 Franke— Zerrenner— Dinter— Harnisch, 370 II. Stralsund and Pomerania, 371 Town Schools — Free Schools in 1525, 372 School Organization by Bugenhagen in 1535,... 372 School in Barth in 1325, 1584, 1743, 373 Town School at Bergen, 373 Private Schools 374 Teachers and Teaching 374 Changes wrought by the Prussian System, 376 Country Schools — former and present condition,. 378 Obligatory School-attendance— Results , . 381 Deficient Education and Poor Pay of Teachers,. 382 I Page. III. Province of the Rhine, 384 Previous Condition of Schools, 384 I Difficulties of the Problem 384 Gradual Assimilation to the General System,.. 386 I Normal Schools established, 387 1 IV. Province of Westphalia, ?i87 I Detached portions of several diverse Governments, 387 Portions belonging to Prussia — Wilberg — Hecker,. 388 Episco|)Qte of Paderborn — Improvements, .388 I Education of C iris— Female Teaciiers 388 j Miinster — Regulation of Von Furstenburg, 1776, . 388 Normal School in 1790— Labors of Overberg,. . .. .388 I Paderborn— Prince-bishop Ferdinand H, 38S I Catechism — School-houses — FemaleTeachers, . . . ,388 Decree in 1788— Francis Egon in 1789 .389 Dnchv of Westphalia— Abp. Maximilian, 1656... 389 I Clemens Augustus. 1721-61 — ItineratingTeachers, 389 Feil)i£er's School Reform and Catholic Schools,. . .389 Free Instruction for Teachers at Bonn in 1787,... 389 Local Committee independent of Bonn, .389 Priests were to be found qualified to keep School, 389 First Industrial School at Honkhausen in 1769,.. 389 Archbishopric of Cologne — Hesse Darmstadt 390 School-attendance made obligatory on Parents,. . . 390 Education and Support of Teachers — Girls, 390 Action of Prussian Government — Vincke-Natorp, 390 V. Province of Posen, 390 Aren— Pon.ilntion— Period of Prussia, 1773, 1793, 390 DistrictofBromberg— Political changes, 1807, 18J5, 390 Destitution of Schools — Condkion of the Peasantry, 391 Private Teachers for the Nobles, ". 391 Condition of Schools and the Popnlntion in 1773, 392 Cnlvinists (Lutheran) — Landed Proprietors, 392 Schools independent of the Church in 1773 392 Beneficent plans of Frederic II— Canals— Colonists, 392 Cabinet Order of 1774— School-houses, .393 New Schools in 1778 — Confiscated property, 393 Revenues from the sale of Tobacco 393 Action of Ecclesinstical Bodies and Nobles, 394 School atTrzemeszno, by Abbot von Kosmowski, 394 Franciscan School at Pakose in 1787 394 Action of Saxon Government from 1697 to 1763,. 394 Regulation of 1808-Polish language 395 Action of the treaty of Vienna in 18J5, 395 Grand Duchy of Posen out of Prussian dominions, 395 Condition of Schools in 1815 in Bromberg district, 395 Labors of Reichhelm, Runge, and Frank 396 Normal School nt Bromberg in 1817 — at Kosmin, 397 Public Schools in Bromberg, 397 Earliest Public Elementary School in 1807, 397 Condition of Public Schools in 1864 397 Population, as to Language nnd Religion, 399 Public Schools for both Confessions, 400 CircularNoteofMinisterofPub. Instruction, 1822, 400 Cabinet Order of the King in 1829, 401 Hostility of different Nationalities and Confessions, 4(ll Separate Schools, 402 L^se of Polish language confined to Polish children, 402 Order of the King, and Instructions of the Minister, 403 Instruction in botii Languages to certain extent,.. 403 Schools, and modifications, for Hebrew children,. 404 Mixed Constitution of the Local Committee, 404 Evangelic Preachers, and Catholic Priests 405 Evangelical Superintendents, nnd Catholic Deans, 405 Condition of Catholic Elementary Schools 405 Results in difference of Denominational Interest... 406 Number of enrolled Recruits not educated, 406 Difficulties with Proprietors of large landed estates, 406 Conflict of Saxon and Prussian regulations, 407 Special aid to Impoverished Communities, 407 Income for the Teachers' Salary, 408 Building and repair of School-houses, 408 Special aid to Normal Schools — Rectors' Classes,. 409 Increase of the Scanty Salaries of Teachers 409 Fund for the ^V^idows and Orphans of Teachers, 410 Superannuated and Emcritcd Teachers 410 Educational Statistics of the Bromberg district,. . 411 II. General History from 1817, 411 Ministry of Baron von Altenstein, 411 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. Page. Consolidation of the System — Improved Institu- tions nnd Methods, 412 Cenerul Revision of Law drafted, but not ordained, 412 Hegel — Plumann — Education and the Church,. . . 413 Becivedorf— Annals of Prussian Public Schools,^. . 413 Dreist—Kortiini— Development of the System,.... 414 Ministry of Eichhorn, 414 Eilers at the head of Elementary Bureau 414 Policv of Restriction on Primary Education, 414 Decree of the Ministry of Nov. 5, 1842 415 Gardening — Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers, 415 Dissolution of Normal School at Breslau, 415 Compulsory Resignation of Diestervveg, 415 Recent Jldministration, 416 Frederick Stiehl — his Special Aims, 416 Prussian Regulations of 1st, 2d and .3d of Oct., 1854, 416 Debate in the House of Representatives,. . 416 Petition of the Dortmund Circle 416 Report of Committee on Education, 417 Petitions and Debate in 1859 417 Regulations by Committee and the Government,.. 417 CircularNote of Minister von Holhveg, 417 Instruction — Religion— Overtasking the Memory.. 418 Bible History .418 Knowledge indispensable to Practical Life 418 Instruction in Arithmetic and Geometry. 419 Natural Philosophy, Botany, and Zoology, 419 German Language — Chemistry — Drawing, 4J9 Geography and History, especially of Prussia, 419 Debate in the House in I860, 429 Resolutions of the Committee, 42») Provincial Authorities requested to report, 421 Memorial of the Minister on the Reports, 421 Pamphlet by F. Stiehl, on the Regulations, 422 Gymnastics, and Pliysical Training, 422 Drawing — 422 Education of Girls— Needlework, &c., 422 Realization of Prussian National School in 1866,. 423 Catholic Public Schools, 423 Statistics of Prussian Public Schools,.. 424 Number of Primary Public Schools in 1819, 424 Town Schools and Village Schools, 424 Teachers of Primary Schools in 1819, 424 Salaries in Town Schools, 424 Salaries in Village Schools 424 Public Schools defined, 425 Charge of Instruction in Religion, 425 Classes, and Separate Teachers, 425 Public Elementary Schools in 1860-61, 425 Evangelic— Catholic— Hebrew — Total, 425 Towns— Villages— Total, 425 Schools and Classes — Total, 425 Teachers, male and female — Total, 425 Private Schools — Schools and Classes— Pupils, 426 Children — Enumerated, and in School, 427 Salaries of Teachers — Amount — Average, 428 Special Statistics of Berlin Teachers 429 Repairs and Construction of Buildings, 431 Funds for Widows and Orphans of Teachers,. , . . 431 Pension Funds, 432 Statistics of Elementary Schools in 1866, 433 II. System of Secondary Schools, 435 1. Historual Development of School Ad- ministration, 435 Ji. Supreme Administration, 435 Decree of Elector Joachim II, in 1552 435 Visiting Regulations of 1.573, 1662, 1687, 435 Spirit of Frederic II, ' 436 Decree of Frederic William I, in 1713, 1718 436 Department of Church and School Affairs, 1722,. 436 Education transferred to State and Law Dep., 1771, 437 SupreiTie School Board created in 1787, 437 Von Zedlitz, 437 Religious Edict ofWollner 438 Message from Frederic William HI to Wollner,.. 439 Third Section for Worship and Public Instruction, 440 William von Humboldt, chief, Dec. 17, 1808, ... 440 Nicolovius and Ecclesiastical AflTairs, 440 Silvern and School Affairs, , 440 Page. Von Schuckmann's Administration, 18 — , 441 Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, 441 Baron von Altenstein, 441 Hegel and his Philosophy, 441 Mandate of Minister of the Interior and Police,... 442 Testimony of Cousin and Thiersch, 444 Dr. J. A. F. Eichborn, 1831 to 1850 444 Contest between the Classical and the Scientific,. 445 Hegelian Philusopbv, 445 Von Raumer, 1850 "to Nov. 8, 1858, 446 Von Bethman-Hollweg, iKoB to March 10, ]862,. 447 Von Miihler, 1862 447 Su])erintendent of Catholic School Affairs, 447 B. Provincial Admini-'tration, 447 Departments of Territorial Admiriistraticm, 17J3,. 448 Consistories of the Provinces, 4-18 Higher Consistory of Berlin, 1750 448 Provincial Deputation of Worship, 1808, &c 448 Scientific Deputations for Public Instruction. 181I), 448 Duties of Chief President of the Eij;ht Provinces,. 448 Literary Commissions for Examination in 1817,.. 448 School-collegiums in 1826, 1845, 1848, 448 General Superintendents of the Consistories,.. .. 449 Provincial Development of Higher Education, ... 449 I. Province of Prussia 449 Schooisofthe Reli-rious Orders in 1351-J381,.. . . 449 Latin Schools, 1510-1568, 449 Schools ol" the. lesu its converted intoGvmtiasiums, 449 Obstacles in the Polish districts, .' 449 II. Province of Posen, 449 Increase of Higher Schools since 1815, 449 German and Polish language, 450 III. Province of Silesia, 451 High School at Goldberg, under Trotzenriorf, 45] Schools of the Jesuits converted into Gymnasiums, 451 Religious Education, .' 448 University of Breslau. 451 Studies in Catholic Schools 4.52 Confessional Character of Existing Institutions,.. 452 IV. Province of Pomerania, 452 University of Greifswald in 1456, 452 Latin Schools after Bugenhagen's Regulations,... 452 Polytechnic feature in new Secondary Schools,.. 453 V. Province of Saxony ; 4.53 Early School Foundations — Schulpforta — Halle,. 4.54 VI. Province of Westphalia,. 4.54 Oldest School Foundations in the Kingdom, 454 Latest Evangelical, at Giitersloh, 1851', 4.54 Labors of F. Kohlrausch, 1818-1830,. , 455 VII. Province of Rhine andHohenzoll'rn, 455 Early Schools of the Jesuits, ^ 455 Alternate Sway of French and German Ideas, 450 Number of Gymnasiums in 1814, 455 Classical and Modern studies, 456 Training and Schools for Teachers 456 Gymnasium at Cologne, 457 Real Schools and Higher Burgher Schools, 459 Founding of the University at Bonn, 459 Proclamation of Frederic William III, 459 VIII. Province of Brandenburgh, 459 Frankfort on the Oder, 1505— Gray Convent, 1574, 460 Joachimsthal Gymnasium, 460 Higher Institutions at Berlin, 460 C. Local Jldministration and Right of Patronage, 460 Institutions of Royal Foundation, 460 Institutions under City School-deputation, 460 Influence of the Berlin School regulations, 460 Right of Patronage belongs to the Magistrate, 460 Special City School Commission, 461 Cabinet Order of 1862, as to Directors and Teachers, 461 Z). State Regulation of Higher Institutions,... 462 Declarations of the Common Law, 1794, 462 Public Character — Right of all to admission, 462 Liberty of Conscience — School-attendance, 462 Teachers Officers of State— Right of Fathers,. . . . 462 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. INTRODUCTION. Since the cession of the Lombardo-Venetian provinces to Italy, the Austrian monarchy has an area of 227,234 square miles, and a population in 1864 of 34,432,890, distributed throughout — I. The Empire of Austria^ comprising the provinces of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Illyria, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Buko- wina, Dalmatia ; and II. The Kingdom of Hungary, comprising the provinces of Hun- gary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, and the Military Frontier. Each of the two great divisions has its own ministry, parliament, and entirely separate administration, and every province has its own provincial diet. Austria [Empire] has, on an area of 124,116 square miles, a pop- ulation of 20,602,736, and the Kingdom of Hungary, on an area of 103,118, a population of 13,830,154. The national industries are as varied as the climate and soil, and have called into existence a large number of special schools. The total expenditure in 1864 was 508,781,793 florins, of which sum 2,951,523 florins were expended for public instruction of all kinds, viz., 139,828 fl. in Hungary, and 2,580,670 fl. in Austria. The institutions of public instruction, both in Austria proper and in Hungary, are under a separate and special minister, except such as are specially connected with the administration of other depart- ments, such as those of war, finance, &c. The system of public instruction is comprehensive,* and in every department at the present time there is progress. The recent school code (1869) will compare favorably with the most advanced legis- lation of any country in respect to elementary instruction. The following statistics are gathered from the latest oflScial doc- uments. *For a historical development of public instruction in Austria, see American Journnl of Edu- cation, vol. xvi [). 1—32, 609; xvii. p. 129. Special Report on JsTational Education : Part L Germany — Austria. 3 34 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 1. KLKMENTARY SCHOOLS IN 1864. SCHOOU. TEACHERS. PCPIM. Male. Female. Total. Boys. Total. • Austria, . 14,587 14,642 29.229 24,079 31,078 55,157 621 2,446 3,067 24,700 33,524 877,181 610,984 1,488,165 1,656,939 1,089,478 58,224 2,746.417 Connected with these schools, and taught by the same teachers, are 1,472 Female Industrial schools ; 382 Apprentice schools; 15,752 Sunday Repetition schools ; 2,777 schools for instruction in fruit culture 352 for bee culture 169 for silkworm culture. 2. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. GYMNASU • KEAL-GYMNASIA. REA1.-SCHOOM. TOTAL SECOXDARV SCHOOLS. Num- ber. Scholars. Teach- ers. Num- ber. 6 ] 7 Scholars. Teach- ers. Num- ber. IT 23 71 Scholars, Teach. ers. Number. Scholars. Teachers. Austria, Hungary, 97 132 229 32 076 26,722 58,798 1,532 1,335 2,867 1,081 57 64 9 73 10,547 4,094 597 315 912 1.51 156 307 43,704 30,873 2,193 1,659 Empire, 1,138 14,641 74,577 3,852 3. SUPERIOR SCHOOLS. In Austria there are 7 universities, viz., 5 with four faculies [theology, law, medicine, philosophj-] each: Vienna, Gratz, Prague, Cracow, and Pesth ; and 2 universities with three faculties [theology, law, philos' ophyj each, viz., Innspruck and Lemberg — with a total of 9,198 students and 650 professors. 4. SPECIAL AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. AUSTRIA. HUNGARY. Number. Teachers. Students. Number. Teachers. Students. Theological Seminaries— Roman Catholic, 43 1 1 4 1 4 14 13 2 3 1 1 4 2 2 1 I 4 3 2 3 8 2 8 8 3 1 19 84 14 5 80 1 212 3 9 18 6 41 26 90 5 10 1 4 30 18 7 18 11 74 98 60 6 112 72 30 74 56 9 22 30 184 70 41 300 8 1,653 23 23 176 60 517 768 580 69 56 45 69 134 151 77 112 78 969 1,672 909 32 619 702 358 891 1,046 731 218 1,480 3,649 711 207 2,209 8 25 1 5 4 5 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 2 4 35 11 127 2 27 14 40 28 2 9 18. 5 7 13 28 19 30 37 ~ 200 720 873 17 " '• Greek Catholic, " " Armenian, 225 " " Greek Oriental, " " Protestant, 211 133 236 212 Agricultural Academies, 150 " Schools, 162 Schools of V ine-culture, 23 Schools of Silkworm culture, 213 Forestry Sciiools, Mining Schools, 63 Nautical Schools 50 Polytechnic Institutes, Polytechnic Institutes with commercial course,.. Ci)mmercial Academies, 270 240 Veterinary Schools, __ Military Academies Special Military Schools, Cadet Schools . 338 School Companies Schools for Soldiers' Children 697 Schools of Gymnastics Academies of the Fine Arts, Drawing Schools, Music Schools Institutes for Deaf and Dumb Institutes for Blind, Teachers' Seminaries 957 Academies of Oriental Languages, La w Schools 1,303 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 35 SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. The system of special technical instruction in Austria includes in its early stages, or at least recognizes, the future occupation of the pupils, in the primary schools of every grade, and in one of the grades of schools usually classed as secondary. INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION IN COMMON SCHOOLS. The first notice of the industrial element in Austrian schools, we find in the normal, or model school of Kindermaini, at Kaplitz in Bohemia. In 1773, he taught and demonstrated to his pupil-teacliers, and the country school-masters, how to occupy a portion of their own time and that of their older pupils, in and out of school hours, in such in-door industries as knitting, sewing, wool carding, and spinning, and out-door work as kitchen gardening, culture of trees, and raising silk- worms. '' The advantages of these occupations are great and impor- tant. They protect against vice and crime, and promote the welfare of human society." Under his lead, in the first year of this century, 2,644 public schools were in operation in Bohemia, 54 of which were burgher-schools, in which the aim was " to give the future citizen an instruction adapted to his special occupation." Instruction in needle-work and like feminine employments, is now usual in the female schools, and the girls* classes in mixed schools, and receives special attention in the industrial schools of the religious cor- porations and ladies' societies. Instruction in the care of mulberry trees, grape vines, bees, and orchards is given in the normal schools, and by their pupils to the older boys in a large number of districts. SUNDAY AND OTHER IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS. In close connection with the common school, and through the same agencies, the "further instruction" of boys after leaving school and en- tering into apprenticeship, is carried on with the assistance and special inspection of Chambers of Commerce, and local associations of trades- men. The instruction is given on Sunday and holidays (except the high feasts), and in the morning and evening of other days. It is not confined to a review of the rudimentary studies, but is extended to higher arithmetical calculations, book-keeping, bank dealings, busi- ness correspondence and forms, natural history, and particularly to drawing. A re-cord of attendance is kept, and delinquent parents and employers are fined, and proprietors of large establishments are subject to arrest and imprisonment for persistent neglect in respect to their apprentices and other juvenile operatives. 35 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA BURGHER SCHOOLS. The burgher school, which belongs to the primary system, origi- nally intended to prepare pupils for the occupation of tradesmen and mechanics by a better general education, has become a subordinate real school, the students generally entering the higher real school after finishing the course. There are thirty hours of instruction per week, embracing re- ligion, composition, German, arithmetic, geography, natural philos- ophy, chemistry, geometry, architecture, geometrical and architect- ural drawing, and a little historical detail. French, Italian, English, music, and gymnastics, are optional. The tuition fees are small, and are remitted if the pupil is poor and has conducted himself well. In 1865, there were 117, of which but seven gave a three years' course, the rest only two years ; instruction being given by the director and catechist of the primary high school, with 3Q5 additional teachers. The instruction in arithmetic, German composition, geography, natural philosophy, chemistry and drawing, is given in the h gher classes in special reference to a commercial and mechanical career. * EEAL SCHOOLS. The object of the real school is to give to its pupils a general edu- cation, the dead languages being excepted, and "to fit them to enter the technical schools, or to pursue industrial careers." They have been gradually developing since 1751, but do not ap- pear as distinct organizations before 1851. In 1863, there were forty of them in the Austrian empire, of which there are sixteen " lower real schools," with a course of only three years, and twenty- four " complete real schools," which carry their students through six years, thus adding three years to the course at the lower real school. There is, in three of the lower schools, an additional class, in which instruction is given in technology, commodities raw and manufactured, commercial transactions, and particularly in drawing. The lower real schools turn out pupils well prepared, theoretically, to become master workmen and overseers ; those called complete, prepare students who finish the course, to enter the technical schools. The course of study varies somewhat in different places. The obligatory studies are, German (or the language of the province), one modern language — French, Italian, or English, geography, his- tory, arithmetic, geometry, physics, chemistry, commercial law, nat- ural history, drawing, modeling (in the highest class), ornamental penmanship, architecture, and mechanics. Latin has been added in some of the lowest classes. The modem languages, singing, gym- SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 07 nasties, and stenography are optional. Of the above studies, element- ary mathematics, machinery, and the modern tongues are taught only in tlie higher classes, in which calligraphy is no longer obligatory. The complete schools have twelve professors, the lower schools seven. Those applying for these positions must pass an examination as to their scientific attainments, and undergo a year's probation in a public real school, before receiving the appointment. At the head of the corps of teachers is a director, who, with the council of teachers, governs the school, subject to the supervision of the general coun- cilor of schools. The fees paid by pupils vary from eight to twenty florins annually, besides a fee of about two florins at admission. All the fees may be remitted to poor pupils conducting themselves well. The yearly expenses of a lower school amount to from 8,000 to 11,000 florins ; of a higher school, to from 15,000 to 20,000. They are either imperial royal, in which case the general government sup- ports them, or communal, supported by the towns. Besides these, two are endowed, and one is private, assimilated. SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. Technical instruction in Austria is of very long standing, and at the beginning of this century three important technical schools were in operation, and others were instituted long before the neigh- boring German States had moved in this direction. In 1717, a professorship for military and civil engineering was established at Prague, which gradually extended itself into a school of engineering, and became in 1806 the first independent polytechnic school in Austria. It has undergone many changes, and in 1865 ^vas organized on the plan of special schools, unitmg on a general prepar- atory course. In 1745, the Empress Maria Theresa organized in Vienna the first university lectures on experimental physics, and in 1757, on mechan- ics, and in 1763, permitted instruction in book-keeping to be given at the Piarist schools, and at the same time established several schools for apprentices. In 1770, a Real and Mercantile Academy was es- tablished in Vienna, which became in 1816 the polytechnic institute. In the year 1763, the first lectures were held on mining nt Schem- nitz, and in 1770, the school in Prague being given up, the Mining Academy was founded there. Its fame was soon so great that Fourcroy, in his brilliant speech made in the French National As- sembly, 1794, as an incentive to the erection of the polytechnic school in Paris, referred to this school as a well known model for imitation. Professors. Students. 54 1963 - 25 617 13 196 - 11 229 14 171 - 24 201 16 154 33 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. In 1811, the Johanneum in Gratz was founded by the Archduke John, as a museum and institution for natural sciences, and was afterwards changed, little by little, into a polytechnic institute. In 1843, the Real and Mercantile School in Lemberg was changed, by the addition of several courses, into a technical institute, and in 1846, a technical school was founded at Cracow, and in 1849, an- other at Briinn. In 1856, the Industrial School at Pesth was removed to Ofen, and received there the organization of a Polytechnic Institute, so that in 1859 there were seven technical institutions of the first class, with 157 professors, and 3,531 students, distributed as follows : Location. Vienna Polytechnic Institute, Prague ' " " - Briinn " " - - Lemberg " " - Cracow " " - - Ofen " «... Gratz " " - - The plan of instruction embraced both technical and commercial studies, except at Prague and Ofefl, where technical instruction only was given. In Vienna there was a preparatory school, and a school of industrial drawing, which accounts for the larger number of pupils ; Cracow has a school of fine arts, and of music, and Ofen a prepara- tory school. In 1850, a reorganization of the technical institutions was proposed, by which they should be raised into institutes of the highest class, with a system of special schools, as had been already instituted at Carlsruhe. After many years of agitation, in which the professors, and large manufacturers, and capitalists, as well as statesmen, took part, a new plan of studies was introduced at Prague in 1864-65 ; at Gratz in 1865-66, and in Vienna in 1866-67. At Vienna and Prague there are four schools : 1. Civil Engineering; 2. Architecture; 3. Ma- chinery; 4. Technical Chemisti-y. At Gratz, agriculture and forest economy, and surveying take the place of architecture. At Gratz and Vienna there are two general classes, which precede the special courses. At Briinn by decree of 1866, two regular courses for construction of machinery and technical chemistry, and three special courses, one for commerce, and one for master mechanics and builders, and a third for miners, have been established. Besides the Technical schools, there has grown up in Austria spe- cial schools of Agriculture, Commerce, Navigation, &c., of which a rapid survey will now be given, drawn from original documents, and the reports of the French and English commissioners. Sl'KCTAL- INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 3^ II. TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS AND CLASSES. We will now give from official documents, or from the Reports of the English and French Commissions, drawn np from the same or similar documents, with the advantjio-c of recent jiorsonal visits to the institutions described, a brief notice of a few specimens of each grade of scientific and technical instruction. APPRENTICE AND WORKMEN'S SCHOOLS. The schools, which are known in Prussia and great part of Germany by the ..anicof Improvement Schools (Forthildungschden) are in Austria called Trade Schools (Gcwei'beschulen), or industrial schools. The confusion which these dif- ferent significations of names may cause, ceases when we examine the object, the conditions, and the nature of the instruction given in these establishments. Their creation in Austria, and in Vienna especially, dates only from the year 1857, when the Industrial Society was formed, with the approbation of the Gov- ernment and the assistance of the municipality. The members of this Society imposed on themselves, in principle, the obliga- tion of sending their apprentices, during the last year at least of their time, to follow the classes, which, under the title of Gewerhesohulen, should be opened in the Real or practical schools of the State or those of the town, and also to pay a subscription in pro})ortion to the importance of their establishments, even when they had no apprentices. This voluntary contribution is fixed at four kreutzers per florin (or one-fifteenth) of the taxes paid. On the other hand, it was decided that^ the apprentices should attend these classes during their last year, or in de- fault should not be regarded as having finished their apprenticeship. The teaching in each of these schools is under the supervision of the director, and is given by the professors of the practical school to which it is attached. The latter receive an addition to their salary in proportion to the number of hours' lessons ; if one of the professors be unable to undertake this additional work, the director appoints another person in his stead. In 1861, owing to the efforts made by the Chambers of Commerce and the manufacturers, there already existed in the suburbs of Vienna five of these schools annexed to the practical schools of Gumpendorf, Wieden, Landstrasse, Jiigerzeile, and Schottenfeld, as well a sa school of yvQ&\mg (Weberschule) at Gum- pendorf, and a practical school of building. They have the use of the premises, collections, and teaching appliances of the practical schools without any expense ; but the models of a mor« technical kind required are purchased with their own funds. 1. TRADE SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES IN VIENNA. There are six trade or industrial schools in Vienna attached to the Eeal Gymnasium or Practical Schools, having a general resemblance, but with special instruction adapted to the vocation of the pupils who are apprentices and journey- men from the vicinity of the school. The instruction is divided into an elementary section having two classes, and several sections relating to different industrial specialties. In the elementary section theoretical instruction is given and the pupils are practised in the art of drawing, with especial adaptation to the future career of each. In the special sections, the knowledge acquired is apphed to the branches of industry chosen 40 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. by the pupil. The organization of the specialties must be adapted, in every dis- trict, to the requirements of the local industries. The specialties of the Gum- pendorf school are therefore principally those necessary for weavers, workers in silk, ribbons, trimmings, dyeing, &c. The school of Wieden has specialties con- nected with machinery, and such trades as brass-turners, joiners, bookbinders, workers in copper and bronze, founders, &c. In the Jsegerzeile school the courses bear chiefly on the building trades. The number of hours is nine and. a half during the week, partly after half-past six in the evening, and partly on Sundays in the forenoon. No class must ex- ceed 50 pupils ; if there are more, it must be divided into two. In the first class of the elementary section the time allotted to the different lessons is as follows : Religion, 30 minutes ; German language, 2 hours ; arithmetic, 2 hours ; calli- graphy, 1 hour; drawing, 4 hours; total, 9^ hours per week. The following is the allotment of time in the second class of the elementary section : Religion, half hour ; German, exercises in style and commercial corres- pondence, 1 hour ; arithmetic and mensuration, 1 hour ; elements of physics, 2 hours ; geography, 1 hour ; drawing, geometrical and free-hand, projections, drawing of figures and ornament, and modeling, 4 hours ; total, 9| hours per week. By this arrangement a single pupil attends, including the three kinds of draw- ing, 17| hours instruction per week at most. In the special sections the lessons are thus distributed : Industrial drawing, 4 hours ; architectural drawing, estimates, 4 hours ; drawing of machines, me- chanics, study of machines, 4 hours ; modeling, and drawing from the round, 4 hours ; general chemistry, 1 hour ; study of raw materials, 1 hour ; commercial book-keeping, &c., 1 hour; applied mechanics, 1 hour; applied chemistry, 1 hour; total, 21 hours per week. In the two elementary sections, the instruction is compulsory for all the courses. In the special sections, on the contrary, the choice of courses is left to the pupils. The school year commences on the 1st of October and ends on the 31st of July. At the end of the year, the pupils receive certificates giving an account of their behavior, application, and progress in the different branches. The most pro- ficient pupils receive as prizes silver or bronze medals, or honorable mentions. The director of the practical school, to which the school for apprentices is annexed, is the principal manager. He, however, shares this authority with a delegate of the Industrial Society. They both endeavor to introduce into the teaching all the improvements required by the necessities of the local industries as indicated by the presidents of the industrial associations which patronize the schools. The instruction, as already stated, is given* by the professors of the corresponding courses of the practical school (Realsckule,) provided that the pro- fessors have sufficient time at their disposal and are satisfied with the payment offered. When any professor declines to undertake a course in the apprentice school, the director has to look for a teacher elsewhere. For the technical in- struction, the director may, with the authorization of the municipal authority, admit as pi-ofessors either manufacturers or foremen, who, in everA-^thing con- nected with the teaching, will be under his orders. For the purchase of apparatus and all things necessary for consumption and use, there is a yearly budget placed at the disposal of the director in concert with the professor of the specialty con- cerned. - The general management of the trade schools of Vienna is entrusted to a council composed of the presidents and vice-presidents of the chambers of com- SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 41 moroe and manufactures, of the representatives of the province and city of Vienna, of the president of the committee of each school, and, lastly, of members of the cliambers of commerce elected for the purpose. This council meets on certain days in general assembly, to ascertain, in the presence of the directors, the state of the schools and to deliberate on the means of extending their usefulness. Every member of the Industrial Society for promoting the establishment of schools, whether he have apprentices or not, is hound to pay a contribution cal- culated on such a basis that the total, with the addition of sundry subventions, will cover the v/hole probable expenses of the school during the current year. By so doing, he has the right to send his apprentices (if they have received the proper elementary instruction) to the school, without any further payment, ex- cept for writing and drawing materials. Apprentices, after becoming journey- men, cannot continue to attend the school without the payment of regular fees. 2. manufacturers' and tradesmen's school of PRAGUE. In 1847, the Society for the Encouragement of Industry in Bohemia founded a Sunday and evening school for drawing and modeling in plaster for appren- tices in Prague, which, in 1860, was extended in its range and thoroughness of instruction to the working classes generally. The plan was drawn up by an eminent engineer, who had studied the organization of industrial education in France and other countries, and adopted by the Diet of Bohemia and the council of the town. T3ie town provided a building for the establishment, as well as the furniture, and a yearly grant of 1,500 florins, the D^et voted 2,000 florins, and the Indus- trial Society engaged to give another 2,000 florins. The school, therefore, has a fixed income o£ 5,500 florins. The immediate superintendence of the school is entrusted to a ccruncil of three members elected by the Diet, three members of the municipal council, and three members of the Industrial Society. The school was opened in 1863. .The pupils are taught through the medium of both the German and the Bohemian languages, which, in some cases, renders two professors necessary for the subjects. The 16 professors are nearly all attached to the professorial staff's of the two higher practical schools of the town, in the different class-rooms of which the lessons are given. The plan of studies for the year 1867-68 is as follows : ' From 8 to 9 a.m., - Technology. From 8 to 10 p.m., - Practical weaving. f Exercises in linear drawing. T?,,^^" 1 n *« 1 o o ™ j Exercises in free-hand drawng. xirom 10 to 12 a.m., - •< i-v • /? i • ^ ' j Drawmg of machines. [ Free-hand drawing of ornament. f Exercises in linear drawing. From 2 to 4 D m - -I ^^^^^-'-^^^ ^^ free-hand drawing. j Drawings for construction of buildings. [ Free-hand drawing of ornament. One hour, Lectures on machines. Chemistrv. rri 1 __ i Natural history. ^ Two hours, - - ] Algebra and geometry. rp ^ , ^ ,„ ( Drawing for construction of buildings. Two hours, . . I Modeling. 42 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. >-> • One hour, ( Arithmetic. ( Art of construction. 11 ■ Two hours, j Written compositions and style. ( Chemistry. H 1 I Drawing'of machines. Two hours, - .; Modeling. i' Drawing of patterns. ^.v One hour. - Algebra and geometry. 1 =' ( Lectures on machines. = 1 - Two hours, } Art of construction. '^i ( Lessons in ornamentation. ^ Two hours, - - Drawing of patterns. >>cf One hour. ( Physics and mechanics. I Technology. 'T -5 . r Lectures on machines. s? Two hours. } Art of construction. « 1 ' Modeling. '' 1 Greography. s>» One hour. ) Natural history. ^tc 1 ' Lectures on machines. ll - .Arithmetic. Two hours, ) Book-keeping. OQ o Two hours, ( Physics and mechanics. - Modeling. In -winter evening classes are held from half-past six to half-past eight, and in summer from seven to nine o'clock. The lectures and drawing relating to the building arts end at Easter, those for other industries last from the beginning of October to the end of July. Candidates for admission to the preparatory school must be able to read, write, and calculate; and to attend the courses of the special diA-isions they must produce a certificate of capacity from the preparatory school, or fi-om a lower real school. The fee is half a florin a year for each course attended ; it is paid half-yeai'ly, and in advance. The technical and practical teaching is distributed into five principal divisions, according to the branches of industry in which the pupils are engaged. The Jirst is the school for the building trades, for masons, stone-cutters, car- penters, joiners, &c. ; the instruction includes geometry, the elements of algebra, the art of building in general, drawing for building and modeling, notions of physics and mechanics, the effects of heat ; these studies require two winter half- years. The second is the school for the construction of machines ; for smiths, mechanicians, conductors of machines, coppersmiths, modelers, joiners, «S:c. ; they are taught geometry, the rudiments of algebra, the elements of physics and me- chanics, the description and study of machines, and also drawing ; these studies require two years. The third, or chemical school, is for dyers, brewers, tanners, soapboilers, &c. ; the lectiires treat of general chemistry and chemical technology. The foiuih is the school for wea-\dng and spinning ; here the pupils are taught practical weaving, the calculations relative thereto, the preparations of the cards, taking out of patterns, &c. Th.& fifth, or school of industrial art, is intended for manufacturers of porcelain and earthenware, glass blowers, goldsmiths, confec- tioners, &c. ; the instruction consists of drawing and modeling. At the close of the courses there are examinations, after which certificates of capacity are given to the deserving, and the two pupils at the head of each divis- ion receive prizes. The number of workmen who attended the Prague school in 1863-64 was 762. The expense was 5,900 florins, of which 2,380 was for pro- fessors, besides 1,620 for drawing and modchng. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 43 3. mechanics' school at bruewn. In 1851, the Chamber of Industry and Comnxerce in Briinn (a city, in 1860, of 45,000 inhabitants,) stimulated by the government activity in tlie thorough organization of real schools, established a Mechanics' school with two sections, the elementary for apprentices, who arc deficient in even primary education ; and a higher for siich additional studies as geometry, physics, free-hand, and geometri- cal drawing, besides lectures and practice in book-keeping, banking, and com- mercial correspondence. Chemistry is an optional study for ten hours a week. The pupils are divided into three principal classes: (1) for builders, with a special winter course for masons, joiners, and stone-cutters; (2) for mechanics, including a special class in weaving ; (3) for technical applications of chemistry. The instruction is given on Sunday, and the evenings, and in the winter, one hour by daylight, on Thursdays, is secured for drawing. Besides, several special assistants ; and in the weaving class, two foremen from the largest establishment in the city, twenty teachers from the real school, higher technical institute, and gymnasium, are employed. The school is free, and the attendance large. REAL GYMNASIUM OR PRACTICAL SCHOOL, In 1867, there were 87 Keal schools of the lower or three years' course, and 24 of the higher or five years' course. These are all located in the chief towns, but draw their pupils from all parts of the districts where they are placed. HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT PRAGUE. ^ This school, the origin of which the Bohemians trace with justifiable pride throogh the successive transformations, which the progress of industry rendered necessary, to the year 1576, in the reign of Rudolph II., an epoch long anterior to the foundation of most of the schools now existing in Germany, follows the same programme* of studies as the Vienna schools, as will be seen from the fol- lowing table. The pupils, (513 in 1867,) are divided into six classes, requiring six years. The subjects of instruction and number of hours are indicated below. 1st Class. 2d Clats. 3d Class. 4th Class. 5th Class. 6 th Class. Totals. Religious instruction. 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 German language, 4 4 4 3-5 4 4 23-25 Geography and history. 3 3 3 3-5 4 4 18-20 Arithmetic, 4 4 3 - _ _ 11 Natural history, - - - 2 2 _ 2 2 2 10 Useful knowledge, 2 3 - - 5 Bohemian language, - 3 3 3 3 3 3 18 Calligraphy, - - - 2 2 2 2 _ _ 8 Freehand drawing, _ 6 7 6 6 6 31 Chemistry, _ _ 6 2 2 2 12 Construction of buildings, - - _ 2 - _ _ 2 Mathematics, . . _ — _ _ 8 5 2 15 Linear draAving, - _ _ _ _ 4 4 8 Physics, - - - - _ _ _ _ 4 4 8 Description of machines, - _ _ _ _ 2 2 Drawing of machines. _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 Modeling, - - - - _ _ _ _ _ 4 4 Geometry and construction drawing, - - - ^ 10 4 - - - - 14 Italian, . - , ^ ' (2 _ French, - - - \{ :)utofc lass. _ . " <2 _ Stenography, - - S 2 - 44 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. The FrcncH commissioners remark : Of all the practical schools in Grermany that of Prague is certainly the one where linear drawing is best taught, and we are inclined to attribute this fact to the attention given from the very outset to the practice of freeliand drawing, which early habituates the pupil to trace his lines with a light hand. The instruction is given in German and Bohemian, but the professors are free to choose Avhich language they please. There are, in some cases, professors of each lainguage for the same course. The class-rooms, amphitheatres, and labo- ratories are spacious and well arranged. The collections are well stocked with models, and the workshop for modeling will accommodate 25 pupils at once. IMPERIAL HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT VIENNA. The Imperial gymnasium in the Landstrasse is accommodated in a building rented for the purpose, formerly the residence of Prince Lichtenstein. It has numerous collections, especially of mineralogy and natural history. Well ar- ranged laboratories have been fitted up to enable the pupils who are so disposed to make themselves acquainted with the elements of chemical manipulation. There is a workshop for modeling, and the pupils are exercised in that art from a drawing, and conversely in drawing from models. The drawing-class rooms are very spacious and well lighted : the pupils have plenty of room. For draw- ing from the round or from models in relief, even elementary, there are cabinets or cells lined with green cloth, and in which the models are lighted by a single gas burner, so that the shadows may be more distinct. The time devoted, weekly, to lessons and graphic exercises, under the eye of the professors, is distributed as sho^vn in the following table : 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6 th Totals. ' Class. Class. Class. Class. Class. Class. Compulsory. Religion, - - - 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 Arithmetic, 4 4 3 _ _ _ 11 Mathematics, _ _ - 9 5 2 16 GeiTTian, - - - 5 5 4 5 3 4 26 Geography and history, - 3 3 3 4 4 4 21 Natural history, - 2 2 - 2 2 -• 8 Physics, - 2 4 _ _ 4 4 14 Chemistry, _ _ 6 2 2 2 12 Writing or calligraphy, - 2 2 2 2 _ - « Freehand drawing. 10 6 7 4 6 6 39 Descriptive geometry draw- ing, — _ — — 4 _ 4 Linear drawing of buildings, - 4 3 2 - - 9 ]Machine drawing, - — _ - - 4 4 Lectures on machines. _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 Modeling, - - - - 4 4 4 12 The time, per week, allotted to optional studies, is as follows : English language, 5 hours ; Italian language, 3 ; French language, 3 ; stenography, 2 ; singing, 2 ; gymnastics, 2. We see by this table the immense importance attacbed to the teaching of free- hand drawing, almost exclusively executed from models in relief. For the six classes it occupies 39 hours per week, whilst to linear d^a^ving with rule and compass only 16 hours are given. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 45 At the close of every year there is an examination, and marks arc given ; ac- cording to the results the pupils pass to the upper classes. According to the information and notes of each professor the pupils are classed, and any note stating deficiency in a single branch of instruction prevents the pupil from enter- ing the upper class, and, on leaving, deprives him of tlie certificate of satisfaction required for admission to the technical institutes. It is evident, by these rules, that tlie system of outdoor pupils is compatible with strict discipline. When a pupil leaves the sixth class of a higher practical school with a certificate of emin- ence he is admitted de jure into the first class of the Polytechnic Institute, other- wise he must go through a year's preparatory studies. The examinations are very strict. The school fee at Vienna is 18 to 20 florins a year. The pupils who perform chemical manipulations in the laboratory pay an additional en- trance fee of two florins and one florin per month. The reagents arc furnished by the State. CITY HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL IN VIENNA. The Eeal gymnasium, located in the suburb of Wieden, founded by the city and administered by the municipal authorities, is of the same order as the Gov- ernment School. The building is a very handsome one, and is most conven- iently arranged. The class-rooms for drawing and study, and the laboratories, are large and well lighted, and there are very good collections of apparatus and models. Drawing is taught from objects and models in relief. Free-hand draw- ing receives far greater attention than linear drawing ; the former has 38 hours weekly in the diflerent classes, the latter only eight, and yet the results are satis- factory. The subjects of instruction are distributed, per class and hours, as follows : 1st Class. 2d Class. 3d Class. 4th Class. 5th Class. 6 th Class. Total. Religion, - Arithmetic, 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 4 4 4 _ _ _ 12 Mathematics, _ 2 _ 9 5 2 18 German, - 5 5 4 5 3 4 26 Geography and history, - 3 3 3 4 4 4 21 Natural history, - 2 2 - 2 2 2 10 Physics, - 2 3 - _ 4 4 13 Chemistry, _ _ 6 2 2 2 12 Writing and calligraphy, - 2 2 2 2 - - 8 Descriptive geometry. - — — 2 4 - 6 Free-hand drawing. 10 6 6 4 6 6 38 Linear drawing of buildings and machines, - _ 2 2 _ _ 4 8 Lectures on machines, _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 Construction of buildings. - - 2 - - 32 2 Total, - 30 31 31 32 32 We see by this table that the distribution of time and lessons is almost identi- cal with that adopted at the Imperial and Royal School in the Landstrasse. It is the same with regard to the selection of the subjects for drawing, which, after relating to questions of general education, are divided into distinct industrial specialties. 46 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. The object of the technical institutions at Vienna, Prague, and Gratz, is, to give a thorough, scientific, and, so far as can be done, also practical education. Instniction is imparted in separate courses, (Fachschulen,) of which there are four at Vienna and Prague; 1. Construction of roads, canals, bridges, &c. 2. Ar- chitecture. 3. Construction of machinery. 4. Technical chemistry. Other technical studies are not excluded, if they have reference to the above courses. In Gratz, instead of architecture, there is a course of agriculture and forest economy. Likewise a course of surveying and meadow culture. At Gratz and Vienna the accessory studies, which form the general scientific basis of the sepa- rate courses (mathematies, physics, and draAving,) are taught in two general classes, which precede the separate courses of study. The other subjects of in- struction are partly such as must be taught in the separate courses, in corres- pondence with the aim and object of the institution, partly such as offer an oppor- tunity to students for other and deeper studies. The students are classed as ordinary and extraordinary. The ordinary students, for the first year's course at Vienna and Prague, must hold either a certificate from a real school or gymnasium, (besides giving evi- dence of some proficiency in free-hand and geometrical drawing,) or pass an examination on the studies of the same. To become an extraordinary student at any of the three polytechnic schools, the candidate must give proof of possessing sufiicient preliminary knowledge to enable him to attend the lectures with profit. In Vienna and Gratz, the ordinary students must follow strictly the plan of studies laid down for each year ; unless, with the consent of the aiithorities a different plan for themselves has been formed. In Prague, the plan of studies is not obligatory. The free choice of lectures is permitted, with the only condition that satisfactory evidence is given of a sufficient preliminary knowledge. The charge for tuition for ordinary students, in Vienna and Prague, is 50 florins; in Gratz, for ordinary and extraordinary students, 30 florins. Thechai*ge for the extraordinary students, at Vienna, is at the rate of 1 florin 50 kreuzers for each lecture (two drawing hours are counted as one). Extra lectures are to be paid for separately. Students, unable to pay, who show great abilities, may be allowed to study partly or totally free of charge. The internal administration of these institutions is in the hands of a board of professors, at whose head is a rector, (called director at Gratz,) who is chosen annually by the professors. The choice must be confirmed by the government. In Vienna, he can only be chosen again after two years' interval. The rectors at Vienna and Prague have an additional salary of 1,000 florins; the director at Gratz, who is chosen annually from among the professors of some other technical school, has 500 florins. The board of professors is formed by all the ordinary and extraordinary professors and representatives of the tutors (docenten). Each of the separate divisions has a president, who is chosen from among the ordinary professors engaged in each separate course of study, in Vienna for tAvo years, in Gratz and Prague for one year. These presidents superintend the course of studies as Avell as the discipline of the students in each division. Each division has again its own boai-d of professors, which settles the claims of stu- dents to dispense with one or the other course of studies, to decide in doubtful cases as to the admission of students, and their promotion to the next class. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 47 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AT PRAGUE. The Polytechnic Institute is intended to give the pupils who follow its studies a fundamental scientific education adapted to the profession they mean to adopt, and to make them so well acquainted with technical and scientific progress that they may be able without further prepai-ation to enter on the duties of i)ractical life. To attain this end, the instruction is distributed in four special divisions : A. Division, bridges, roads and civil engmQcring (Wassei' unci Strassenbau). B. Division of architecture and civil buildings (Hochhau). C. Division of the construction of machines (Maschinenbaa). D. Division of applied chemistry (Technische Cheinie). The following instmction is common to all the pupils : I. — Mathematics. Three courses of a year each. \st Course. — Algebra, an- alysis, elements of differential calculus, analytical geometry, plane and solid (7 hours). 2d Course. — Higher equations, integral and differential calculus, with applications to geometry (6 hours). 3d Course. — Differential equations, varia- tions, calculations of least squares (5 hours). II. — Descuiptivk Geometry. 1. Orthogonal projections, oblique and polar in general, with a view to technical applications, (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings (10 hours). 2. Sterootomy, application of descriptive geometry to cutring of stones and voussoirs (2 hours) ; execution of models in stone-cutting (4 hours). III. — Land Surveying, l.s^ Course. — Surveying, leveling, theory and de- scription of instruments and apparatus (5 hours) ; topographical drawing from models (6 hours) ; practical surveying and leveling in the field (14 days in the year at least). 2a Course. — Contouring; geodesic leveling (3 hours) ; practice in the field (for 8 days iu the year at least). iv^ — Mechanics and Construction of Machines. 1. Elementary me- chanics, terrestrial statics and dynamics, hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerostatics and aerodynamics (3 hours). 2. Analytical mechanics, in the summer term (5 hours). 3. Mechanics of constructions (3 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours). 4. Study of machines, application of mechanics to the theory and the drawing of machines (no time specified). 5. Construction of machines, knowledge of ma- terials, and instruction in certain kinds of machines (5 hours). 6. Entyclopadia of machines, for pupils not destined for any specialty (5 hours); dra^ving of ma- chines (6 hours). 7. Construction of machines in the workshop (at kast 4 hours). V. — Technological Mechanics."" Working of metals, wood textile sub- stances, spinning, manufacture of Avoolen tissues and of paper (5 hours). VII. — Architecture and Civil Engineering. 1st Course. — Mason's and carpenter's work, constructions in iron, materials of formation and stability of buildings (4 hours) ; designs of construction (no time given). 2. 2d Course. — Technical study of edifices, Y)reparatory works, &c., (5 hours) ; drawing of build- ings (6 hours). 3. 3d Course. — Project of a large building from a given pro- gramme (12 hours). 4. Studiesof style with drawings (courses of 6 hours each); modeling in c1j«5^ (6 hours). VII. — Hydraulic Construction and Koad-making. \st Course. — Foun- dations, embankments, lakes and canals, construction of roads, resistance of bridges and railways (5 hours) ; drawings of constructions (no time given). 2d Cours?. — On bridges and railways (5 hours) ; drawing of ditto (8 hours) ; pro- jects of hvdraulic constructions and roads from a given programme (8 hours). VIII. — General notions on Hydraulic Works and Road-making. For pupils not destined for any specialty of construction (5 hours) ; drawing of" build- ings (6 hours). IX. — Genkral Physics. 1. Statics, dynamics, magnetism, electricity, heat, optics, acoustics (5 hoars). 2. Technical physics : application of physics to tech- nical questions and industry, pyrotechny, telegraphy, galvano-plastics (2 hours). X. — General Chemistry. 1. Raw materials and their uses ; working of metals, alloys; study of salts; organic chemistry (7 hours). 2. Analytical chemistry ; use of the blow-pipe ; qualitative and quantitative analysis, in winter (5 hours) ; practical analyzing in the laboratoiy (two courses of lo hours each). 3. Technological chemistry: \st Course. — Chemical fermentation (in winter); 48 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. agricultural chemistry, bleaching and drying (in summer, 5 hours). 2c? Course. — Manufacture of sugar (in winter, no time specified) ; manufacture of glass, chem- istry of salts (in summer, 5 hours). 4. Chemical encyclopaedia, for pupils not intending to follow any chemical specialty. XI. — Mineralogy. On the technical and industrial applications (in summer). XII. — Geology and Paleontology. Their technical and industrial bear- ings (3 hours). XIII. — Botany. Technical and industrial applications (in summer, 3 hours). XIV. — Zoology. Technical and industrial applications (5 hours). XV. — Free-hand Drawing. According to their special technical studies (4 hours). SPECIAL SCHOOLS, OR DIVISIONS. The course of special instruction occupies five years for the first three divisions of the first category of pupils (bridges and roads, architecture, construction of machines,) and four years for the fourth division (applied chemistry). The subjects of instruction are spread over the successive years as follows : Division A. — Bridges and Roads. First Year. — Mathematics, 1st course (7 hours); descriptive geometry' (5 hours) ; working drawings (10 hours) ; general physics (.5 hours) ; mineralogy (4 hours) ; free-hand drawing (4 hours). In all, 35 hours per week. Second Year. — Mathematics, 2d course ((• hours) ; land surveying, 1st course (5 hours) ; drawing of plans (6 hours) ; elementary mechanics (.5 hours) ; general chemistry (3 hours) ; technical physics (2 hours). In all, 27 hours per week ; and during the summer 14 days practical surveying in the field. Third Year. — Mathematics, 3d course (5 houi's); analytical mechanics, and description of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; architecture (4 hours) ; drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours). In all, 29 hours per week. Besides geological excursions. Fourth Year. — Road-making and hydraulic works, 1st course (5 hours) ; draw- ing for ditto (8 hours) ; architecture, 2d course (5 hours); draAving for ditto (6 hours) ; mechanics of building (3 hours) ; cutting of stones (2 hours) ; prac- tical modeling and stone-cutting (2 hours). In all 30 hours per week. Fifth Year. — Road-making and hydraulic works (2 hours) ; drawings for ditto (8 hours) ; drawing of projects (8 hours) ; technical mechanics (.o hours) ; land surveying, 2d course (3 hours). In all, 25 hours per week, and also at least a week in the year in visiting remarkable engineering works. s Division B. — Architecture and Civil Constructions. First ytar. — Same as Division A. Second year. — Same as Division A, plus 6 hours per week for the study of style, 1st course. ■ Third year. — Same as Division A, plus 2d course of style ( 6 hours). Fourth year. — Same as Division A, plus 3d course of style (6 hours). Fifth year. — Architecture and civil constructions, 3d course, drawing up of projects (12 hours) ; national economy (5 hours in winter, 4 hours in summer) ; account-keeping (3 hours) ; technical mechanics (5 hours) ; study of style, 4th course (6 hours) ; modeling (6 hours). In all, 33 hours per week', besides visits to interesting constructions. Division C. — Construction of Machines. First and second years.— Same as Division A. TA/rc? yea/-.— Mathematics, 3d course, in winter; analytical mechanics, in summer (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; encyclopaedia of construc- tion (5 hours); drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (8 hours). In all, 30 hours per week. Fourth year. — Construction of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of ditto ( 10 hours) ; projects of ditto (5 hours) ; technological mechanics (5 hours) ; technological SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 49 chemistry and metallurgy (2 hours) : national economy, in winter (5 hours) ; aa'ount-keeping', in summer (3 hours) ; practice in -workshop (4 hours at least). In all 3j hours, besides visits to j;reat workshops. Fifth yea/-. — Practice in workshops. Division D. — Technological Chemistry. First year. — Mathematics, 1st course (7 hours) ; general physics (5 hours) ; mineralogy (3 hours' lessons, 1 hour of application) ; zoology in winter, botany, in summer (5 hours). In all 21 hours. Second year — General chemistry (7 hours); technical physics (2 hours); gen- eral mechanics (6 hours); drawing of machines (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours). In all 23 hours, besides geological excursions. Third year. — Analytical chemistry, in winter (5 hours) ; analysis in laboratory (15 hours) ; technical chemistry, in winter (5 hours) ; agricultural chemistry, in summer (5 hours) ; encyclopaedia of construction (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings (6 hours). In all 36 hours per week in winter, 31 in summer. Fourth year. — x\nalysing in laboratory (at least 15 hours) ; sugar-making, iron- works, glass-making, pottery, and chemistry of salts (5 hours) ; national economy and account-keeping (4 hours). In all 29 hours per week. It Avill be seen that in this programme the instruction given to mechanicians is continued without interruption for four years, and that practice in workshops is required only in the fifth year, which appears preferable to the plan adoptad at Dresden, of obliging the pupils to pass a year in the workshop after the first year's studies. The institute has 20 ordinary professors, 11 extraordinary professors of the first class, 20 tutors, and 6 masters. The number of pupils in 1862-63 was as follows : Natives of Prague, 120 ; of Bohemia, 575 ; of Moravia, 14 ; of other parts of the empire, 38 ; total, 747. The age of the pupils ranged from 16 to 25, the great majority (526) being between 19 and 23. The Prague Institute possesses numerous collections well supplied -with the* necessary appliances for teaching. They consist of^ — 1. A library with from 10,000 to 12,000 volumes. 2. Complete sets of models for descriptive geometry, models of surfaces generated by straight lines, &c. 3. Instruments for topogra- phy, surveying, and leveling for the use of the pupils ; topographical models in relief (Bai-din's system). 4. Models of machines in great number and variety; parts of machines ; apparatus to demonstrate the laws of falling bodies ; dyna- mometers ; divers prime movers. 5. Instruments for physical experiments, com- prising most of the new inventions in that department. 6. Technology-v-differ- ent tools ; 'raw products, &c. 7. Architectiu'C — models in plaster; handsome models of suspension and other bridges in wood, iron, &c. ; models of roofs and other carpenter's work. 8. Agriculture — well-executed models of farming ma- chinery and implements. 9. Natural history and mineralogy — collection of min- erals and rocks placed at the disposal of the pupils ; birds, reptiles, &c. The Institute has, for the study of applied chemistry, a complete laboratory, in which 40 pupils can simultaneously perform the principal manipulations. The French commissioner remarks, " Ave found here linear drawing in the great- est perfection. The lines are fine and light ; all the various kinds of working draw- ings are executed there, and the projects of public works, buildings, and machines are carefully got up." 4 50 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AT VIENNA. The Polj'technic Institute in "Vienna, as organized in 1815, was the culmina- tion of efforts begun in 1765 to shape the instruction of the schools to meet the special wants of pupils in their future mechanical or commercial occupations. In 1835-36, we found it the best equipped school of its class (for mechanical and commercial industries) in Europe, and it was thus described by Prof. Bache. The whole institution is intended to fulfill a threefold purpose, as a school for the mechanic arts, manufactures, and commerce, as a conservatory of arts and manufactures, and as an institute for the promotion of national industry. The last named object is effected by public exhibitions, from time to time, of the pro- ducts of manufactures, under the direction of the institute. For the better exe- cution of this object, a spacious building is now erecting on the premises, adapted to the occasional display and permanent deposit of specimens of the mechanic arts. The collections which form the conservators of arts are also used for in- struction in the school, and will be described in connection with it. Tlie whole institution is under the control of a director, who is responsible to the higher authorities of public instruction, and of trade and manufactures. The director is the general superintendent of the business of the institute and of the instruction, but does not teach. He regulates the admission of pupils and the dis- Xiipline. The money concerns are imder the charge of a treasurer, who is re- sponsible to the director. The inferior officers are responsible to the same authority. The discipline of the scholastic department is simple but rigid, no pupil being allowed to remain connected with it whose deportment is not proper. The courses are gratuitous, except a small entrance fee, and this is considered as warranting prompt removal when the pupil does not perform the duties prescribed by the institution. The department of instruction is composed of three schools, a technical, a com- mercial, and a " real school." The last named is a preparatory school for the two others, and may be entered as early as thirteen years of age. Its courses are of religious instruction, of German language, elementary mathematics, geog- raphy, history, natural history, elocution, calligraphy, and drawing, and are obli- gatory upon the pupils. Italian and French may be studied if the pupil desires it. As these courses lead in three years to the other departments of the institu- tion, the candidates for admission are required to possess the elementary attain- ments necessary to their successful prosecution. There are five professors and four teachers connected with this school, which is superintended by the vice-direc- tor of the institute. The instructors rank by regulation with those in the gym- nasia or classical schools of the empire. Tlie course of instruction is not as com- prehensive as that in the Prussian real schools, but is an adequate preparation for the next higher divisions, which supply in part these deficiencies. The technical and comm.ercial schools furnish special instruction according to the intended pursuits of the pupil, though he may, in fact, select the courses which he wishes to attend, not being limited as to the number or character of the branches. Tlie director advises with the pupil, on admission, as to the studies most appropriate to be followed, if his intended calling is fixed, and he is not allowed to join the classes, the courses of which require preparation, without pre- senting a certificate from the school at which he has been instructed, or being examined, to ascertain his proficiency. In regard to other courses, there is no such restriction. The age for admission is sixteen years. The instruction is given in the technical school by eight professors and two assistants ; the professors lecturing, and in some of the coui'ses, interrogating the pupils. Certain lectures are also gone over by the assistants with the classes. The courses which combine practice with teaching will be pointed out in enumer- ating the subjects of study. The division of these subjects, and the time devoted to them during the week, are as follows : I. General Chemistry, applied to the arts, five hours. II. Special Technical Chemistry, ten hours. This cour.se giivrs a particular account of all the processes of the arts of which the principles were developed in the general lectures. POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 5| There is a J-pecial laboratory devoted to the course, where, under the superintendence of the professor or of his assistants, the pupils jro tiiroujrli the processes oij a small scale Those who have a particular object in view, as dyeing, bleacliinjr, printinj: upon stutTs, or the man- ufacture of chemical preparations or melallnrjry, are directed in their investigations espe- cially to the parts of clumislry which they will have to apply. Practice and theory are thus combined. III. Physics, with special reference to its applications, five hours. IV. Ele.mEaMtary Mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and mensura- ti(ni, ten houi-s. This course is intended for those who have not passed through the real 8c!iool. V. Higher Mathematics, five hours. There is a repetition by an assistant, also of five hours VI. Mechanics, including the description and calculation of machines, five hours. This subjrct i.s foiuided upon a course of mach nes, considered as an application of descriptive geometry and drawing, superintended by an assistant. VII P'ractical Geometry, including land and topographical surveying, levelling. iples of the theory of mo- tion, uniform and irregular motion, velocity, combination, and resolution of mo- tion, curvelinear motion, centripetal and cen rifugal force, gravity, and the mo- tion produced by it, projectile motion, oscillatory motion, revolving motion, point of inertia, free axis of rotation, impingement of elastic and of non-elastic bodies, resistance of motion, motion of working power and of vital force. Theory of the balance, absolute and specific weight, influence of -the earth's rotation round its axis on its form, and on the intensity of gravitation in differ- ent geographical latitudes, ebb and flood. Fundamental principles of liquid bodies, form of the free surface and the con- ditioning causes, pressure on the bottom and the side walls of the containing vessel, and the practical applications to be deducted therefrom. Equilibrium in communicating vessels, the most important phenomena of capillary attraction, rising (Aiifireib) equilibrium of floating bodies, determination of density by means of areometer and water poise, velocity of outflow under a constant amount of pressure, re-action of the jet and its applications, the shock of fluids, and the most important applications to water-wheels, turbines, &c. General • properties of elastic fluid bodies, measurement of elasticity, atmos- pheric pressure, and the measurement of this by means of different kinds of barometers, its variableness at different altitudes above the level of the sea. Mariotte's law and its most important applications ; different kinds of air pumps. Determination of the specific weight of atmospheric air, and of the density of gases. Gay-Lussac's law : theory of the balloon, forcing pumps, siphons, &c. Laws of absorption, velocity of out-flow under constant uniform pressure. Principal phenomena of magnetism. Outlines of the magnetism of the earth, magnetic point, magnetic axis, laws of distant effects of magnetism, methods of magnetising, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism. SPJECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 55 PVincipal electrical phenomena, electrostatic induction, laws of distant action, and the production of such action by means of the revolving balance (Drehwage), the electrosco])e, tlie Leyden jar, and rlie condcnsator; elcctrophoricnl action, rapidity of the transmission of the electric condition, principal phenomena of contact electricity, laws of the gradation of tension, theory of the simple and complex voltaic julos, battery, current, physiological, thermal and chemical effects of the current. Principal features of electrolysis, the, strength of the current, and its measui-ement by chemical effects. Effects of the magnetic current, galva- nometers, multiplicators, &c. Electrodynamic and magnetic-electric induction, thermo-electricity, idea of the resistance of conduction, Ohm's law, and its most important applications, bifurcation of the current. The leading points in the applications of the laws of electro-magnetism to telegraphy and electro-magnetic motors. Atmospheric electricity. Leading points in the theory of undulation. Difi^^rent kinds of waves, reflec- tion and interference of waves, particularly of the waves of sound, rapidity of sound, conditions of sound, musical tones and determination of the number of their vibrations, tones of tightly strung cords, of bars, ot sound-boards (sound figures), and of columns of air, reverberation of sound, structure of the organ of hearing. Elements of the science of light. Elements of the theory of shadows, princi- ples of photometry, reflection by plane and curved surfaces ; simple refraction on plane and spherical surfaces (elements of the theory of lenses), distribution of color. Franenhofer's lines, principles of spectrum analysis, achromatic prisms and lenses, chemical effects of light, optical instruments of certain construction (camera-obscura, camera-chiara, telescope, &c. ), the eye and its structure, sub- jective phenomena of color, and diaphragmatic phenomena. Rapidity of the transmission of light, the most important phenomena of interference and refrac- tion, the fundamental phenomena of double refraction, polarisation by refraction and reflection, color of laminae, explanation of these phenomena by the theory of undulations. !E*rincip]es of the theory of heat ; expansion of bodies by heat, the thermome- ter, conduction of heat ; change of the state of cohesion, latent and specific heat, the elements of calometry, generation of steam, laws of the tension of steam, determination of the density of steam, vapor contained in the atmosphere, hy- grometry, the steam-engine. Radiating heat and the means of measuring the intensity of this, laws of radiation. Phenomena of combustion, heat caused by combustion. d. Natural History. Mineralogy. — The candidate should be acquainted with the most important of those properties of minerals by which they are characterized, and in accordance with these to determine and describe the most common minerals, or those which are most important as to their uses. But the knowledge of a definite scientific system of minerals is not required. With respect to the general portions of mineralogy (characterization, termin- ology,) the examination will eitend to : 1. Crystallography, embracing the moi*phological properties of minerals. A knowledge of the- six systems of crystals according to the tises on which they are based, and according to their sample forms, as also of the most common combinations of two or more forms will be required. The knowledge of ciystal- lographic symbols, or of calculating and measuring crystallography, will not be required. 2. Mineral physics embracing the physical properties of minerals : divisibility, hardness, and specific weight ; brightness, transparency, color (idiochromatic and allochromatic) minerals, veins (sfrich) ; diftlrence between minerals with simple and with double refraction, between magnetic and non-magnetic minerals ; fusibility. 3. Mineral chemistry, or chemical properties of minerals; elements, combina- tions, equivalents, chemical constitution ; difference betAveen metallic and non- metallic minerals ; definition of ores, (sulphurous, oxygenated, and saline ores,) of stones, (silicate,) and of salts, (carbonate, sulphate, tS^c.) A knowledge of the chemical reaction of minerals is not required. 56 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. Among the most common, and most important minerals, as to their uses in special mineralogy are counted: 1. From among the group of metallic minerals, a. The metals occurring in a pure form. h. The most important ores, such as iron pyrites, magnetic iron, iron glance, red oxide of iron, brown iron ore, sparry iron ore, manganese, red ore of nickel, shining cobalt ore, copper ore, variegated copper pyrites, copper glance, red cop- per ore, malachite, lapis lazuH, sulphuret of lead, white lead ore, green and brown lead ore, tin-stone, shining silver ore, gray copper, red silver ore, cinnabar, sul- phuret of zinc, lamellar calamine, sulphuret of antimony, arsenical pyrites. 2. From am.ong the group of non-metallic minerals. a. Sulphur and graphite. h. The most important stones : quartz, opal, feldspar, analcime, staurolitc, mica, chlorite, talc, serpentiae, steatite, ho-rnb-lende, augite, granite, vesuvian, cyanite, olivine, tourmaline ; also the most important of the precious stones ; the diamond, corundum, (sapphire and niby,) topaz, spinel, zircon, beryl, (emerald.) c. The most important salts ; calcareous spar, aragonite, gypsum, anhydrite, ponderous spar, celestine, apatite, nitre, fluor spar, rock salt. The candidate must he able to indicate the most important morphological, physical, and chemical properties of all the^e minerals, as also their most impor- tant uses, and the localities in wdiich they are principally found. The knowledge of a systematic nomenclature (as for instance that of Mohs) is not required, nor either the chemical formulas. Botany and Zoology. — In botany and zoology the candidate is expected to he able to give a systematic sketch of each of the kingdoms, and to possess a knowledge of the most important plants and animals which enables him to distinguish and characterize them. By the most important plants and animals are meant such as are especially interesting on account of their frequent presence in our coun- tiy, of their application in arts and industry, of their usefulness, or their inju- riousness, of the conspicuous place which they occupy in the household of na- ture, or of their peculiar ge/)graphicnl distribution. Plants and animals of this kind will be laid before the candidate for him to classify and characterize. As more important subjects of examination may be mentioned : a. In Botany : principal organs of the phanerogamous plants; foiTns of the roots, the pedicels, and the leaves; blossoms; various parts of the fiow^er; outer circle of petals, anther, stamen, pistil, and seed bud; survey of the different kinds of fruits ; properties of the seed. Characteristics of the cryptogamous plants in general. Linne's system. Classification of plants according to the natural system. Characteristics of the various classes of non-floAvering plants, and the different orders of vasculiferous cryptogamia, {Gefafscrytogamen.) Characteristics, affinities, geographical distribution, and use of the toost im- portant families of seed-bearing- plants. b. In Zoology: the principal functions of animal life, motion, sensation, nutri- tion, and propagation; indication of the most important organs conv ected there- Avith ; the local position of the latter in the animal body, and their nature in general must be demonstrated on one of the higher (vertebrate) animals; influ- ence of climate on animal life ; division of the animal kingdom into classes, (vcrtcbrata, mollusca, &c.,) indicating the distinctive characteristic of each; di- vision of mammalia, birds, reptiles, and insects into orders. Distinctive charac- teristics of the various families of carnivora, of pachyderma, and of ruminata. e. Geometrical and Free-hand Drawing. Orthogonal projection ; representation of straight lines and planes ; graphic solution of problems relative to their mutual relations ; representations of bodies bounded by planes; intersections of their surfaces; representation of conic, cylindrical, and rotative surfaces ; their intersection with straight Tines and planes, and their mutual intersections, as also their points of contact Avith planes ; application of this to the determination of shadows. , Elements of the method of perspective projection. Free-hand drawing, to draw a head or an entire figure in correct outline from a model, and to draw an ornament with shading. POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 67 I. TECHNICAL SECTION. The course of instruction consists of a preparatory division comprisinf^ two years, and four special divisions, viz : 1. Bridges and roads. 2. Architecture. 3. Construction of machines. 4. Chemistry. The teaching commences on the 1st of October and ends on the 31st of July. It is divided into courses of a year, and courses of half a year. The subjects taught are • A Mathematics, descriptive geometry, practical geometry, higher land sur- veying, spherical astronomy, technical mechanics, analytical mechanics, general physics, teclniical physics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology, paleontology, and botany. B. Study of machines, general elements of maHiinery, construction of ma- chines, mechanics relating to construction, general elements of the construction of buildings, architecture and the art of building ; bridges and roads," railways, description of soils ; technical chemistry, knowledge of merchandise, agricultural and forest economy. C. General history, history of Austria, histoiy of the building art, history of the inductive sciences; German literature; esthetics, political economy, sta- tistics ; mercantile law, law of exchange, maritime law ; Austrian organization and administration ; book-keeping. D. Technical and free-hand drawing ; decoration, aijd drawing of ornaments ; landscape drawing ; modeling. E. French, Italian, and English languages; stenography. These subjects are distributed between the preparatory and special divisions, and nearly the same number of hours is allotted to each, as in the Prague Insti- tute just described. The lessons in botany, zoology, gco'ogy, mechanical and chemical technology, construction of machines, art of building, and in the agri- cultural sciences, are followed by excursions and visits to establishments. The practical course of geometry is also terminated by important field operations. The folloAviug are studies, with the hours per week allotted to each : Preparatory Division. WINTER. SUMMER. SUBJECTS. Lessons of 1| hours each. Hours devoted to dra^ying. Lessons Hours of 1 }; hours devoted to each. ( drawing. FIRST YEAR. Mathematics, (1st course,) - - - Descriptive geometry, ... Inorganic chemistry, - - - - Mineralogy, Geology, Technical and free-hand drawing, - 5 3 2 3 8 , 6 5 3 2 3 8 8 Total, - 13 14 13 14 SECOND YEAR. Mathematics, (2d course,) - General physics, - - . . Technical mechanics, - - - Practical geometry, - - - - Technical and free-hand drawing, 3 2 3 3 6 8 3 3 3 3 _ 6 10 Total, 11 14 12 16 58 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA I. — Division of Bridges and Roads. WINTER. SUMMER. SUBJECTS. Lessons Hours Lessons Hours of li hours devoted to of li hours devoted to each. drawing. each. drawing. FIRST YEAR. Stereotomy and perspective. *" 3 6 Surveying, 3 ~ 2 — Analytical mechanics, ... 3 _ _ Elements of machinerv, - . - 3 6 3 6 Construction, (1st course, ) - 4 8 4 8 Total, 13 14 12 20 SECOND TEAR. Technical phvsics, - . - - 2 _ 2 .. Applied mechanics, - - - - 3 - - - Mechanism, 2 - 2 — Land surveying, - - - - _ 1 4 Bridges and roads, .... 3 — 3 Projects and construction. 15 15 Total, 10 15 8 19 THIRD TEAR. History of constructive art. 3 _ _ _. Organization of construction, - 1 _ _ _ Construction of bridges. 2 _ 2 _ Construction of railways, 2 _ 2 — Projects, - 15 20 Total, - - - - - 8 15 4 20 II. — Division of Architects and Buildings. FIRST YEAR. Stereotomv and perspective, - - 3 6 Elements of machinerv, - 3 6 3 ■ 6 Constructive mechanism, - - - 2 _ 2 _ History of constructive art, 3 _ _ _; Architecture, (1st course,) - 4 8 4 , 8 Total, - - - . - 12 14 12 20 SECOND TEAR. Technical phvsics, .... 2 _ _ _ Applied mechanics, - - . - 3 _ 3 - Elements of construction, ... _ _ 3 6 Architecture, (2d course,) •5 _ 5 _ Architectural drawing and projects, - - 14 - 14 Total, 10 14 11 20 THIRD TEAR. Organization of construction, 1 - - - Architecture, (3d course,) 3 _ 3 - Projects, - 15 - 15 Total, 4 15 3 15 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. III. — Division of Mechanicians. 59 WINTER. SUMiMER. SUBJECTS. Lessens Hours Lessons | Hours of 11 hours devoted to of labours devoted to each. drawing. each. drawing. FIRST YEAR, Tecliiiical physics, ... - 2 - 2 - Elements of construction, 3 6 3 6 Analvticjil mechanics, - - . 3 -r - _ Machinery, - - 4 - Macliinc construction, . . . 3 - 3 ' - Manufacture of machines. - 10 - 10 Total, 11 16 12 16 SECOND TEAR. Constructive mechanism, - ^ 2 _ _ _ Applied mechanics, - - . - 3 - 3 - Apparatus for warming and lighting, 1 - - - Metallurgy, 2 - - - Machine construction, ... 3 - 3 - Projects and manufacture, - - - - 15 - 15 Total, 11 15 6 15 IV. — Division of Applied Chanistry. FIRST TEAR. General physics, - - - - - 2 - 3 - Applied mechanics, - - - 3 - 3 - Botany, - - 3 — Zoology, 3 - - - Organic chemistry, . - - - 2 - 2 - Analytical chemistry, - . - 1 - - - Manipulation in the lahoratory, - - 10 - 10 Total, 11 10 11 10 SECOND TEAR. Technical physics, . . - - 2 - 2 - Elements of construction, 3 - - Technoloay of mechanics, - 3 - 3 - Acquaintance with raw materials, - — - 2 - Metallurgy and salt works, - 2 _ 1 — Materials for heating and lighting, - 1 _ _ - Manufacture of salts, glass, &c.,- - - 3 - Manipulation in the laboratory, - 10 - 10 Total, 11 10 11 10 THIRD TEAR. Elements of machinery, - - - 3 - 3 - Printins:, dyeing, bleaching, &c., 5 - - - Permented liquors, manufacture of sugar, soap, stearine, &c., - - - — - 5 - Manipulation in the laboratory. - 15 - 15 Total, 8 15 8 15 60 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. II. Commercial Section. — The course of instruction comprises the follow- ing subjects: 1 . Commercial science, giving a complete exhibit of commercial economy, of arts and manufactures, commercial atiairs in relation to the statistics of the population and the commercial history of the world : 5 hours per week. 2. Commercial law, legislation with regard to commerce, maritime law, &c. : 3 hours per week. 3. Commercial composition, ordinary commercial style and correspondence :' 5 hours. 4. Commercial calculations, with special reference to the principal practical applications of political arithmetic : 5 hours. 5. Book-keeping — book-keeping as a special science, and as apphed to com- merce and industry : 4 hours. 6. Knowledge of goods ; the qualities and properties of different products, materials, and manufactures: 3 hours. 7. Commercial geography : 3 hours. 8. Statistics, from an industrial and commercial point of view: 4 hours. 9. History of the Austrian constitutional law : 2 hours. 10. History of the Austrian administrative law: 2 hours. III. Extra Courses. — Connected with the Polytechnic Institute, special courses are given in: 1. Mechanical constructions, comprising the application of mechanics to arch- itecture and the art of constructions : 3 hours. 2. National political economy, with special regard to arts and manufactures: 2 hours. 3. History of Austrian commercial law: 1 hour. 4. Spheric astronomy: 3 hours. 5. Science of the guarantee of capital and interest. This comprises an ex- hibit of the development of this science, its usefulness and its importance, and an exhibit of its theoretical basis. 6. Instruction in first surgical aid to be rendered in cases of accidents result- ing from certain industries : 2 hours. 7. Calligraphy: 2 hours. 8. Stenography (Gabelsberger's system) : 3 hours. 9. German literature ; Commentaries on the life and poetry of Goethe : 2 hours. "10. Organic chemistry ; Alcohols. 11. General and microscopic vegetable anatomy, (during the winter half-year.) 12. Vegetable physiology in its relation to agriculture, (during the summer half-year.) IV. School of Languages. — Instruction is given in the following lan- guages: Turkish, 5 hours ; Persian, 5 hours ; Arabic, 6 hours ; Itahan Ifinguage and literature, 6 hours; English language and literature, 3 hours; French lan- guage and literature, 5 hours. V. School op Industrial Drawing. — 1. Elementary drawing, comprising : (a.) Drawing from nature: figures, plants, ornaments, &c. ; (6.) Descriptive geometry; (c.) drawing of projections and perspective. 2. Technical drawing, comprising all the varieties of drawing applied to the designing and construction of models intended for spinning, printing tapestry, &c. 3. Drawing applied to the arts of construction and metallurgy. 4. Popular course of machine-drawing, with explanations of the construction and the working of machines. The drawing-classes are open every day from 8 to 12, and on Sundays from 9 to 12. ' The whole Institute numbers: 19 pubhc and ordinary professors ; 1 public extraordinary professor ; 1 assistant professor ; 7 tutors ; 6 private professprs ; 2 extra tutors ; 18 assistants ; 3 librarians ; 2 superintendents of the techno- logical museum ; 2 superintendents at the astronomical observatory. The technological museum comprises more than 200,000 specimens of models, machines, &c., admirably arranged. 'EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. gj^ GENERAL ORGANIZATION OP THE EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. (Extracts from Prof. Koristka's account of Fliyhcr Polytechnic Instruction in Get' many, France and Switzerland).* The Polytechnic schools are the creation of our own (Jay. Not one of them is a hundred years old, for the oldest, that in Paris, was founded in 1794. Then followed the school of Prague, 1806, (begun, it is tine, as a special school, in 1765); Vienna, 1815; Berlin, 1821; Carlsruhe, 1825; the Paris central school, {ecole centrale,) 1829 ; Munich, 1827 ; Nuremburg, 1829 ; Augsburg, 1833 ; Stutt- gart, 1829, then Planover, 1831; in Belgium, Liege, and Ghent, 1835, and at length, within the last twenty years, the new polytechnic institutes in Austria, and also certain beginnings in England. At the same time, Ave must mention that only a few of these schools in Germany received in the begiiming the name or had the full character of polytechnic schools. They were founded under the name of Industrial Schools, extended their scope gradually, and at length received the new designation as well as their present internal organization. The first schools of this kind, both in Austria and in Gex-many, comprised all technical subjects which the scholai'S were obliged to learn in turn. In the be- ginning, while industry was little developed and technical knowledge little cared for, these institutions answered fully to the demand, and the schools of Vienna and of Prague Avere, at that time, considered model institutions. But through the rapid advances of art and industry in our day, these schools did not need so long a time, as did those of former times, to divide themselves into groups. In the course of twenty to thirty years followed the division of labor, and with this came the problem : how to extend the single schools so that those who desired it could carry on exhaustive studies on particular subjects, and on the other hand, to provide for a general course, taking up all branches as formerly. It was found impossible to unite these two aims. Necessarily, then, those schools, which wished to supply the new demands of technical knowledge and industry, were gradually obliged to alter their organi- zation ; to fulfil especially the chief requirements of the same ; to introduce more exhaustive courses, so that, far instance, a course which originally consisted of instruction in mechanics was divided into two parts, theoretical and practical mechanics, afterAvards into three parts, when the construction of machines Avas added to the two former studies, and later yet special instruction Avas given in the making of steam-engines and locomotives. It Avas the same Avith the art of building, and with technical chemistry. Almost all the schools in Germany, Belgium, and France, yielded sooner or later to this practical necessity, and so arose the organization of the so-called Fac/i-schools, i. e., schools in Avhich particular branches of biTsiness are taught. In Austria, however, and in some parts of Bavaria, the old order of things re- mained, for Avhich they offered as excuse the actual state of industry and the little need of a present division of labor ; but they Avere at length obliged to yield. True, Hanover did not accept the organization of schools for particular indus- tries (Fachsc/nden), but it has been found, on comparing the plans of their schools with those of Carlsruhe or Zurich that they differ only in name. Still, there was wanting in Hanover the plan of supervision adopted in the special schools, and * Der noehere polytechnische Untenicht in Deutschland , in der Schweiz, in Frankreich, BeU gien und England. Carl Koristka, Prof, am polytechnischen Landesinstitut zu Prague, &c. 62 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. with this the conferences of the teachers seemingly so necessary tq their pros- perity ; but this also was not long wanting. Finally, we might add that ac- cording to the plan of education in Paris, there was no real division for special studies there also, but all that has been said of Hanover applies to Paris as well, and besides, there the lectures of the professors form but a part of the instruction. Instruction by recitation forms a feature ^f even more importance, and the pupils were certainly divided according to their intended pursuits. As for the number of the divisions, we find in all the schools at least four : chemi- cal, mechanical, architectural (the latter divided into two parts, that of building with especial attention to architectural ornament), and that of highways, rail- ways, bridges, &c., styled in France and Belgium des ponts et chaiissees These four groups form the principal divisions in most polytechnic schools ; only a short time ago, Berlin transferred the building department from the in- dustrial school to the academy designed for this special ' study, but in Dresden both branches of building are united. In Belgium the schools at Liege and at Ghent are connected with each other. The division of technical studies into these three or four distinct parts is so decidedly demanded by the nature and practice of technical science, that it is unnecessary to defend or support it here. Another question is, whether the whole field is occupied by these four groups, or if others are not necessary. It cannot be denied that there is a great number of branches, which it would have been better to confide to special schools : as for instance, mining, foundries, agriculture, forest culture, ship-building, &c., not to speak of military fortifications, There is no doubt that one might give special instruction in these in the polytechnic schools just as well as in mechanics, chem- istry, &c., provided thorough instruction in these branches is desired. Mean- while, at the same time with the polytechnic schools, even earlier there arose, at Freiburg, Schemnitz, Mariabrunn, Tharand, Altenburg, Hohenheim, &c., special schools where practical as well as theoretical instruction was imparted with great success. This further division has resulted only in profit to the polytechnic schools, their organization becoming more simplified, and united action being much facilitated. Some of them possess one or more of these special schools besides the before- mentioned, as, for instance, Zurich has a forest-school, Carlsruhe a forest, mer- cantile, and post school, Berlin a ship-building department, Liege a mining school, &c. No one will deny that almost all branches of science are in some way, more or less, connected, and that it is, without doubt, very necessary and desirable that the intelligent workman (techniker) should know something out of his own nar- row field. This argument was for a long time the chief weapon of the defenders of the old state of things in Austria ; according to their notions, the artist should have made himself thoroughly familiar with a course of general study. But cer- tain as it is, that a mechanic should possess sufficient knowledge of building as to be able to judge a plan accurately, so sure is it, that at present one no longer ex- pects from a machinist that he should be able to plan and superintend the build- ing of a railway, nor from an architect a chemical analysis ; and the change, moreover, is regretted by no one. In order to meet the real necessities of the case, lectures on the most practical and important parts of other branches of science should be judiciously given. In almost all the polytechnic schools, we find one or more general classes, in EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCUOULb. Qg which those things are taught which form the common basis of all technical knowledge, or which give the pupils superior culture, Carlsruho has three, [Stutt- gart two, Dresden one, Berlin, Liege, and Ghent, one or two such general classes! ; in Paris the whole polytechnic school, consisting of two classes, is noth- ing more than a general preparation for tlic special departments. Even in Zu- rich, where there was formerly great opposition to this plan, a preparatory class has lately been formed, although these classes are very much opposed, there are certainly branches on which all technical science, in every department, is based, such for instance as higher mathematics, physics, with the geometry involved in it, which might be taught with advantage in one or two general mathematical classes, which all pupils, without exception, would pass through. We cannot demand of these preparatory schools that they give their pupils the pure disci- pline of science, so far as is necessary in the polytechnic schools, but on the other hand, since these subjects, which really demand a riper judgment for their com- prehension, are to be taught in the polytechnic school, this leaves time to the pupils during the one or two years they pass in the preparatory school, to choose their occupation or profession. Let us sum up in a few words the present organization of the polytechnic schools : First, one grand division consisting of one or two classes, and open to all scholars in common ; then four branches for the four technical divisions, for building, architecture, mechanics, and chemistry, to which special courses may be added with advantage. PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION. A preparation for entering the Polytechnic Schools, in both Germany and Switzerland, can be sought in private or even self-instruction, since examinations are always held on entering the schools, and it is not necessary that the candid- ate should have been through any particular school. Meanwhile, it is plain that this method is very uncertain and expensive, and therefore, in all countries, where polytechnic institutions have been established, preparatory schools have also been established wherever they did not before exist. These latter schools have, however, not the aim alone of preparing for the poly- technic school, but instruction for the middle classes of the industrial popidation is joined with it, is indeed for the most part, the real aim, preparation for the polytechnic school being only a mino" end. Many polytechnic schools of Han- over and Dresden give this preparatory instruction themselves, either in a pre- paratory course or in their lowest classes. The different names of these preparatory schools are : Trade (gewerbe) schools, (schools for artizans), real schools (schools where modern languages and the sciences are taught), real gymnasiums (corresponding to the American Pligh School), industrial schools, &c. These must be carefully distinguished from the secondary and other improvement schools mainly for mechanics, which admit only artizans and work-people as scholars, and give instruction mostly during the even- ing and on Sundays. As chief representatives of this class of schools, we would mention the " Canton schools for artisans" (Kanton-Industrieschulen), "the dis- trict school for artisans" (Kreisgeiverbeschulen), and the projected school of lan- guage and science (ReaJgymnasien) in Bavaria,'and the " provincial schools " for artisans (Provinzia/gewerbeschiilen) of Prussia. The chief branches of study everywhere are the elementary mathematics and drawing, further thorough instruction in the mother-tongue, physics, and foreign 04 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNTC SCHOOLS. modern languages. In mathematics the course goes at least as far as the use of logarithms, equations of the second degree, plane trigonometry, and in the Swiss schools still further. We cannot of course dwell longer on these schools here, our only object being to see the requirements for entering the polytechnic schools. The schools for artisans, of Switzerland, form generally a second division of the canton-schools, whose first division is the gymnasium. The case is the same with the industries-school at Zurich. It forms, together with the gymnasium there, the admirably organized canton-school, which is directly connected with the common-school ( Volkschide). The industrial-school has the work of prepar- ing the pupil directly for practical life or for admission to higher technical schools. It is divided into an upper and lower school, each of which has three sub-divis- ions. The hours of instruction, per week, are specified. In the lower industrial school are taught: religion 6 hours, German language 12, geography 5, history 8, natural history 4, natural philosophy 4, practical arithmetic (including de- cimals and proportions) 9, mathematics, including fundamental rules and equa- tions of the 1st and 2d degree, 4, geometry (planimetry and measurement of bodies) 6, geometrical figures 6, French language 16, English language (not ob- ligatory) 8, (free-hand drawing) designing 8, calligraphy 4, singing 3, gymnastics 6, use of weapons. In th<5 upper school all these branches (gymnastics and use of weapons ex- cepted) are not obligatory. Pupils can enter any one of the three principal departments, that of mechanics, of chemistry, or of commerce, into w'hich the instruction is divided. The rector is, however, required to see that in the choice of branches by the scholar, he does not take special studies alone and entirely neglect the general branches. Every scholar must be occupied at least thirty hours a week. In the upper school are taught : religion, only in the first year, 2 hours, theoretical mathematics, continued fractions, logarithms, progressions, algebraic analysis, higher equations, plane and spherical trigonometry in full, analytical geometry 20 hours a week in all three year courses, geometry by figures 6, technical design 18, practical geometry, with simple field-measurements and designs, 7, theoretical mechanics, and mechanical technology, 6, chemistry and chemical technology with practice in the laboratory 10, lectures 8, exercises, botany and zoology, 3, mineralogy 2, knowledge useful to merchants, i» seven courses, 26, French 11, English 12, Italian 10, German 7, history 12, geography 5, free-hand drawing 10, calligraphy 2, singing, gymnastics, and the use of arms. The canton-school at Zurich is admirably arranged. The total numher of scholars at the industrial school, in 1861, w^as 370.' As soon as tliere are over forty scholars in a class a division is made. The Provincial schools for artisans (Kreisgewerbesclmleti) and the gymnasium for language and science (ReaJgymnasien) of Bavaria, which we wish to bring up as a second example of the preparatory instruction, have the same double aim as the first mentioned example. According to the present organization these schools have a three years' course divided for industrial occupations and commerce. The follqAving branches are taught : higher arithmetic 5 hours, ele- mentary mathematics, including logarithms and plane trigonometry, 1 2, natural history and encyclopaedia of science 10, physics 3, practical chemistry 5, religion 6, German 10, geography 6, sketching, projecting, and designing, 24, calligraphy 2, modeling in clay 8, those who are to be merchants take, instead of the draw- ing and modeling, French and English, 10, mercantile, arithmetic, and counting- EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. g5 room knowledge, 15. An important reform is projected (carried out in 1864) for those autl all technical schools in Bavaria, so that the school of science is alone to fit this class of pupils, while the real gymnasiums are to take a middle place between these and the polytechnic schools. This is to have a four years' course, and to teach the following branches : mathematics, arithmetical equations, the study of functions, plane and spherical trigonometry, 25 hours, natural history 5, physics and chemistry 10, geometry by figures 6, designing 24, religion 8, German 9, Latin 10, French 16, English 4, geography and history 7. In several of the greater States of middle Germany already such real gymnasi- ums exist, and it is not to be denied that there are many good reasons for organi- zation. They give, in truth, a second drill, and are often used as a preparation for the polytechnic schools. The provincial schools for artisans throughout Prussia have a similar organization, and such ought really to be organized in every capital city. Each of these schools have only two classes and a one year's course. These are especially designed for boys of 14 at least, that they may there obtain that instruction necessary to them in their business, or prepare them to be received into the Trade Institute at Berlin. The following are the branches taught with the number of hours devoted to them : elementary mathematics, including logarithms, equations of the second degree and progressions, plane ti-igonometry and conic sections, elements of de- scriptive geometry, 21 hours, physics and chemistry, with experiments, 12, me- chanics and instruction on machines 3, instruction in building 3, mineralogy 2, designing and modeling 14, sketching 18. The lower class is chiefly for theo- retical instruction and drawing, the upper for the practice of what has already beenf learned. Besides these there are, in Germany, a great number of similar schools under the name of real schools, as at Darmstadt, &c., or higher district schools, people's schools, as at Hanover, which undertake, also, the courses of a gymnasium, and usually accomplish the whole in from six to seven years. MECHANICS — INSTRUCTION ON MACHINE BUILDING AND MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY. . LECTURES. DRAWING. Teachers. Terms. Hours. Terms. Hours. Zurich, 10 38 4 48 4 Carlsruhe, 6 24 2 20 4 Stuttgart, Dresden, - - - 5 10 24 35 3 2 24 36 4 3 Berlin, 11 26 9 28 5 Hanover, - 6 31 2 16 4 Paris, (Central School) Liege, (School of Arts) - Prague, (old plan) " (new plan) 7 5 2 8 14 18 15 33 3 3 4 32 10 32 6 3 2 4 In no field of technical science has such great progress been made in the last thirty years as in that of mechanics. In no branch of study, therefore, is the difference between our Austrian and foreign institutions of learning so great as in this, and that also as much in the manner of teaching as in the arrangement of the subjects taught and the helps used. 5 66 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. While with US, iu Prague and in Vienna, last year [1862] the whole subject, excepting mechanical technology, was taught by a single teacher in a single course of a year with from five to ten weekly hours of instruction, the same sub- ject has been divided in Germany into three individual branches with at least one teacher for each branch. Theoretical and analytical mechanics, and machine construction, are the chief branches taught at every good polytechnic school, and the last mentioned is even dfvided into two or more branches besides the necessary instruction in drawing and construction. We need only to glance at the figures of the foregoing table in order to see how far behind the others we are. Certainly, it heightens the merits of the Austrian teachers of mechanics, who thus, in the short time granted them by the school-programme of instruction, must go over the whole extended subject with its branches, and every unprejudiced person will acknowledge that they have accomplished much under the unfavorable circumstances. As for the division of the subject, this is described in the account of the schools at Carlsruhe, Zurich, Dresden and Berlin. We will only add a few remarks ; and first, the school at Zurich differs from most others, in the opinion that differ- ent courses of lectures shall be given on the theory of machines (maschinm-khre) and on their construction (maschinen-bau) but that these lectures shall be given by separate professors, while other schools, particularly Carlsruhe, consider this impossible, or, at least injudicious. It is certainly true that the theory of machines differs from machine-building, and that, since Rcdtcnbacher, Weissbach, and especially Reuleaux, have brought the latter to an independent art, a union of these two subjects under one teacher can scarcely exist v/ithout more or less neglecting one or the other. On the other hand, we must also acknowledge that, since both subjects complete each other, the lectures must be so arranged that this difiiculty can only be overcome by the most friendly understanding between the two professors, as happily is the case in Zurich at the present time. In France, it is only lately that the new opinions have been adopted. By the old plan mechanics v/ere taught in two branches : theoretical and practical, the latter being divided into several courses, as hydraulic machines, steam-machines, &c. With their excellent mathematical apparatus, the French technical teachers explained with ease the general principles involved in every machine, regarding each as an independent example, but their defect lay in paying little regard to empiricism, while the English fell into just the opposite mistake, and devoted themselves exclusively to proportions and to innumerable exjjerimeitts and proofs. A second remark has reference to machine shops as to whose introduction into the Austrian schools there is such difference of opinion ; the call from business men (industriellen) being so loud for such workshops, that to appease them the scholars should become finished mechanics before coming to them. It would be well to take counsel from the experience of the schools mentioned in the first part of this report. The institute at Berlin has the greatest and old- est arrangement of this kind. The work-shop costs over 9,000 thalers yearly, but the interest shown by the scholars is very little, and all competent judges at Berlin desire it to be discontinued or greatly limited. Then come Augsburg and Nuremburg, where the work-shops are on a more modest scale, but where, 'on account of the severe discipline and the small number of scholars (not over twenty), the results have been most favorable. Then we must mention Liege, EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. QfJ where the work-shops nre leased to a macliinist, and where, also, a very practical arrangement is made with regard to ngrieulturc. In our oj)inion, although the number of scholars is even smaller, the results arc even more favorable. In all other schools the machine-shops, whenever there are any, are considered as side- affairs, as in Carlsruhe and Zurich. In Hanover, Dresden, and the central school of Paris there are no such work-shops for scholars. Dresden gives the most instruction in this respect. True, there were no machine-shops arranged for the school, but the government had made a contract with one quite celebrated, by which the scholars were permitted to work there a certain number of hours, weekly, during the whole course, and to receive instruction there. In the year 1829, these hours comprised 48 per cent, of the whole time of instruction, but it diminished yearly, the lectures and exercises in designing being increased at its expense, so that, in 1835, it was only 35, in the year 1838 only 26, in 1849 only 14 per cent., and in 1852 was wholly discontinued. All these results speak in no way favorably for the work-shops. It is also in the nature of the case that their establishment can never have the exj^iected re- sults in most polytechnic schools; for, in the first place the costs of such a work- shop, and its yearly support, is very considerable. Secondly, only a few scholars can be taught, for it is impossible to instruct 60 to 80 scholars, which is the number at Vienna and Prague, without enormous outlay. Thirdly, the matter must be regarded in an economical point of view, as it is plain that in a private machine-shop much more economy of time and work can be practiced than at such a public school Finally, the milder discipline of a polytechnic school is a hindrance to success, since the pupils are under no more strict regulations in their practical work than in their theoretical studies, and yet, as every one knows, the severest discipline, the most exact observance of the hours of labor, is neces- sary in a machine-shop (fahrik) if anything- is to be accomplished, and order to be sustained. The opinion of those who think that young men are only spoiled in the shops is therefore not wholly without reason. But should a school which has large means and few scholars wish to establish such work-shops, we would recommend the method of Liege, or that of Augsburg and Nuremburg. But what shall we do then ? How shall young mechanics fit themselves, prac- tically, for their work ? We reply, that a part, and that a very important one of the practical education, consists in a systematic study of machine-building, as that, at present, is taught in the better polytechnic schools, the great industry in the construction and de- signing of machines in th£i school itself But we can never demand from a school that it should instruct the pupil in all the practical points relating to machine construction as thoroughly as the work-shop can do with regard to the single machine, to whose construction it has been dedicated for years. If, how- ever, we demand this kind of practice, it can be obtained only b}' the pupil's taking practical lessons in a machine-shop either before his entrance into the school or after he graduates. The easiest method, and the one we would recom- mend, is the one in present use in Dresden and proposed at Stuttgart, namely, that the scholar enter upon this practical part after the first year passed at the school, for reasons previously given. In Austria little attention has as yet been given to this branch, and provision for the scholars in home institutions, since many of these are in the hands of foreigners, is extremely difficiilt. To help the scholars in this respect, the school-committee should make a contract with the best manufactories (Fabriken) to receive yearly, for a specified sum, a certain 68 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. number of young mechanics as apprentices. The scholars should pay this sum to the school and the school to the factory. Those of the best scholars who have no means should receive assistance, the school paying for them out of its own funds. We are convinced that the best factories would consider this an honor, and that this branch of manufactures in Austria would thus be so raised, that in twenty years all such aid would be imnecessary. This plan h*as been tried in Hanover, and in a very short time obtained the best results. Naturally, we hold the establishment of a small work-shop, with an experienced superintendent at its head, as very desirable for every polytechnic school. The chief aim of such work-shops should be to keep in repair the models it already possesses, to invent new according to the directions of the teachers, and to reserve a few places for such scholars for whom it had previously been impossible to visit a machine-shop in order to instruct such in the more common practical parts of working in metals, and to prepare them to attend a larger work-shop. A small number of places would answer for a large number of scholars by letting them take turns, and great care is to be taken that this instruction be kept in the background, and at the same time that it do not degenerate into a mere pastime. BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE. LECTURES. DESIGN. SCHOOLS. Teachers. hJ\JM.±.\J\JAUi^» Terms. Hours. Terms. Hours. Zurich, - - - - 5 14 9 40 4 Carlsruhe, - - - 10 2.5 8 41 4 Stuttgart, - - - - 7 21 8 40 4 Munich, (Engineers' School,) 6 8 3 30 3 Dresden, - - . - 3 6 3 18 2 Hanover, - - - - 6 21 8 52 3 Paris, (Central School,) 1 2 1 1 Ghent, (Civil Engineering,) 3 6 2 ■ . , 2 Prague, (old plan,) 1 5 1 5 1 " (new plan,) 7 20 8 43 3 From this table we see that the greatest number of courses and lectures on this subject are given in the school at Carlsruhe. As for the lessons of design, we must remark that here in mechanics, as well as in the making of bridges and roads, the number of hours given in the plan is only the minimum. In reality, the industrious student must, in order to satisfy his teacher, devote much more time to construction and designing. The chief difference betAveen the Austrian and other schools is, that in ours the constructive part (chiefly at least) is taught, while the architectural part is left in the hands of the art academies, (not to be confused, however, with special schools, like that of the Berlin Building Acad- emy,) Avhile in all the foreign schools, with exception of the Parisian, several terms are devoted to this ; sometimes, also several teachers demanded. And, in- deed, one cannot understand why it should not be possible to give a thorough education to architects of the highest grade at our polytechnic schools. The building of houses is indeed a branch in itself, and the desire to separate the practical from the esthetical part of planning a building, and to establish diiFer- ,ent schools for each, seems to us unnecessary, and moreover, directly opposed to a harmonious union of both aims. Besides this, the pupils after leaving the school will be much governed in their future course by inclination. If one, however. EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 69- grants to the polytechnic school the right of educating professional architects, one should not take from it the right to form the taste of the pupils, and their appreciation of the beautiful, at least as much as is now done in the Austrian schools, for under present arrangements, the pupil would find it much more use- ful to travel for one year, than to spend three there. For this reason, we find lectures on building materials and building, as well as those upon style, history of architecture, &c., given in great numbers at for- eign schools, as is also intended by the new plan at Prague. In the best schools, the demands upon the scholar in the highest course (last term) are very great. We have had opportunity to see in Carlsruhc and Zurich great and detailed designs, made by scholars, of which many skilled architects need not have been ashamed. There is difference of opinion, as to Avhether at Carls- ruhe and Zurich there should be one general course of study for all the scholars, or whether one should adapt the studies to each individual scholar, as at other schools. Those persons who superintend special schools are really the only ones who should decide here. In all schools, for the purpose of illustrating the courses, models in wood, clay, and plaster of Pai-is, are furnished. We do not" contradict ourselves in the opinion given in the previous article, by recommending the establishing of such workshops as these everywhere. Their cost is not great, the interest of the pupils is kept awake, and leads soon to the wished-for result ; a thing not always to be affirmed of the machine shops. The reparation of wood models, the modeling of ornaments in clay, stone, and the forming of objects from drawings, are excejlent exercises for the pupil. That here too, a previous practical experience is very useful, and in many schools is understood to precede these, we do not need to state. Excursions to interesting buildings in process of construction, accompanied by the professor, are at all times to be recommended. CONSTRUCTION OP EOADS AND BRIDGES. LECTURES. DESIGNS. SCHOOLS. Teachers. Terms. Hours. Terms. Hours. Zurich, . . - - 2 12 2 12 2 Carlsruhe, . - - 4 20 4 20 2 Stuttgart, - - - - 2 14 2 14 1 Munich, - - - - 2 12 2 12 2 Dresden, - - - - 1 12 1 12 1 Hanover, - - 2 16 2 16 2 Paris, (Roads and Bridges,) 6 12 3 6 Ghent, ( Civil Engineering, ) 3 9 3 2 Prague, (old plan,) 1 5 1 5 1 " (new plan,) 3 12 4 27 2 This subject is, without question, best provided for, as the table shows, in the school des ponts et chaussees in Paris, which school is entirely devoted to this branch. We should also remark that one or two courses and one teacher might in this table be added to the German schools. We have already mentioned them in the article on building. They comprise instruction on building materials, and carpentry and masonry, but belong equally to the construction of streets and bridges. That which has been said in the previous article about workshops for 10 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. modeling in wood, clay, and plaster of Paris, applies perfectly to this subject. It is acknoAvledged in all schools that pupils in this branch need the most thorough and exhaustive mathematical instruction, as well as that instruction on machines, at least belongs to the preparatory course. On the other hand they are, in gen- eral, excused from the greater part of the architectural branches. We have already given the programme of instruction in Carlsruhe and at Paris. It only remains for us to express the wish that the professors of the technical schools should join with those of the building and railway department, in order that the students in this branch may have the opportunity of prolonged practice, for the simple visiting of a building in process of construction Avith the professors, as is the custom in many schools, cannot suffice. CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. SCHOOLS. Zurich, - - , Carlsruhe, - - - Stuttgart, Dresden, ... Berlin, - . - Hanover, - . . Paris, (Central School,) Liege, (School of Arts,) Prague, (old plan,) - " (new plan,) Terms. Hours. 22 U 19 10 20 13 13 20 iq 22 Teachers. The practical exercises of the scholars in the chemical laboratory are not given here, since in most schools no regular time, but often a whole day, on which the lectures are suspended, is devoted to them. There is only a very small difference in this respect between foreign schools and ours. Everywhere there is the same division into general, analytical, and special chemistry, Avhich latter division has, in general, four or five subdivisions. It is to be wished, first, that the laboratories were at least twice as large, in order to satisfy present needs, and to accommo- date all capable scholars with practical work ; in the second place, that the labo- ratories Avere better endoAved and arranged, since they are very poorly furnished, that of Vienna excepted ; and. thirdly, that there might be more teachers, in order, to take up the subjects more in detail. The school course of Zurich, Carls- ruhe, and the Central School at Paris, show the division of instruction, and at the last school the comprehensiA^e analytical method of treating the most impor- tant inorganic and organic compounds is especially interesting. The schools of Zurich and Carlsruhe have perhaps the best laboratories ; those of Stuttgart, Berlin, HanoA^er, and Dresden are good. BOARD OF TEACHERS AND DIRECTION OF POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. We have already remarked that the proper organization of a technical institu- tion is veiy essential to its success. Even more important is the method of teach- ing, for it is possible that a school under the old system of things might accom- plish much, if possessing some superior professors ; but it is completely impossi- ble that a school sbould ansAver the Avants of the age, if it possesses inferior teachers, even though it have the best possible organization. It is thus a natural question, in Avhat way and by what means a school is to obtain a superior class of instractors 1 Before ansAvering that question, we must EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 72 mention another important point connected with this. In most schools the chief professors form a corps of instructors, the faculty, which has certain rights, and upon which falls directly the discipline and direction of the school, Berlin being the only exccj)tjpn. The present arrangement at the Austrian Universi- ties, which is projected in Prague, is convenient, namely, that the assistant teachers, tutors, resident graduates, &c., vote certain ones among their num- ber into the faculty. The system of tutors is indeed as yet allowed only in the polytechnic school at Zurich, but we cannot see why this plan should not work as well elsewhere. In the Austrian schools there is more liberality. At the head of the faculty, and hence of the school, in all schools is a director (president). He is either chosen yearly and approved by government, or is ap- pointed directly by government, as at Dresden, Berlin, Hanover, and of course at Paris also. Tbis circumstance, the yearly choice of a director or his appoint- ment by government, is of great importance for the progress of each school, for it is sure that in the first case this, as well as the direct guidance of the school, is in the hands of the faculty, while in the second case, Avhatever rights may be granted the faculty, they arc really vested in the hands of the director. It is rather a delicate point for us to endeavor to express the different views held in Germany on this subject, since, however much Ave may guard against it, we may be accused of seeking our own interests. Notwithstanding, we hold it for our duty, here where a principle is in question, and where we are not sure that any one director will agree with us, to pronounce our opinion, that under the present cir- cumstances in the higher technical institutions, we Avould much prefer the periodi- cal choice of a director (we state no term of service), and that by choice of the faculty. The most weighty arguments against the choice are the greater author- ity of a constant director, his influence upon the instruction that it may be well- ordered, the more severe discipline Avhich he could enforce, the avoiding of quar- rels and jealousies among the professors, as is the case at a yearly choice. These advantages have not always been obtained, for the authority of the (public school) teachers from among whom the director should be chosen, rests only upon their ability and success. Careless teachers would certainly be corrected sooner by the gener.al disapproval of the faculty, than by the director alone, for in quiet times good discipline depends upon the individual teachers, and in disturbed years severe discipline can be carried out least of all by a director who does not always possess the confidence and support of the faculty. Certainly any of us, who has lived the last twenty years, can cite examples of this. Finally, there are parties in every corporation, to avoid which, one must have no faculty at all. On the other hand, a yearly choice has the advantage, that only a very worthy member of the faculty will be chosen. This director, clothed with the whole moral power of his brother professors, the man in whom they place full con- fidence, has thus great influence on the students. The faculty will choose only such a man as will work energetically to further the interests of the school, and who will not pursue his own department of science to its injury. In places where the director is chosen yearly, the practical instruction must naturally be separated from the scientific,, and be entrusted to a teacher or other officer. In the universities this method has so far succeeded admirably. But certainly the worst method is that adopted in some of our neighbor States, where the direction of technical institutions has been put in the hands, not of former teachers, but of officers of the ministerial department, and no influence at all, in the direction of the school, granted to the faculty. 72 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. If we come now to the rights of the faculty, the one above-named is certainly the most important, namoJy, the choice of a director, since the whole tone of the institution, and its attitude towards the world, depends directly upon this, and in this Avay is directly countenanced by the faculty. The other most important rights ai*e those of discipline, which all faculties possess, that of making sugges- tions as to endowments and stipends, as well as suggesting reforms of individual branches of instruction, which right appertains to most faculties in GeiTnany, but those of France do not possess it. Finally, the right of making suggestions when a vacancy in the faculty is to be filled. This is a privilege which only the Austrian schools enjoy, but one to be wished most heartily to others. The ob- jection has been raised that in such case, out of desire to aid friends, quite other than pure scientific merit may procure the appointment, and this objection is not wholly ■without grounds. It would, however, never be dangerous, since the fac- ulty has only the right of proposing tAvo or three candidates, not of appointing them, this right remaining in the hands of the supreme authority under which the school stands. "We could, however, wish that the faculty might possess more rights than are commonly possessed by it ; and thus w^e come again to the ques- tion with which we started in this article, namely, how a technical institution may secure for itself and maintain a thorough system of instruction 1 In the German schools it is not a matter of so great importance that the fac- ility has no influence over the filling of vacancies' in the school, since it has al- ways been a point of honor in the middle and smaller States to obtain the great- est possible reputation for their own university and polytechnic school. We have seen how even ministers of state have not scorned to make a journey and to negotiate personally with the persons devoted to this or that science. In Austria this is quite different, for by the system of salaries, a kind of regular advancement takes place when vacancies occur, so that worthy scientific men have no hope of rising through their talents. In Prague the salaries have been very considerably reduced since 1806. In many institutions of Austria they are less than are given to an overseer in a factory. How can we demand men to give a young man the education of an engineer, or of a superintendent of a fac- tory, for the purpose of teaching, when he can at once get three times as large a salary in the workshop as in the school. Notwithstanding we hear complaints that so few talented men engaged in industrial pursuits, and devote themselves to technical instruction, while the very best teachers in the technical schools in Ger- many, as Karmaroch in Hanover, Redtenbacher (now dead) m Carisruhe, Schnei- der in Dresden, &c., are Austrians who have deserted their own country because it offers them no situation befitting their talents. Wherever the school is divided according to the different branches, as at Zurich, Carisruhe, and Stuttgart, frequent meetings are evervwhere held by their pro- fessors, who watch over the progress of instruction at the special schools ; and choose from their own number a president of these meetings. In the French schools, as well as at Zurich, Berlin, and Hanover, a special committee is appointed to watch over the progress of the school. This com- mittee consists of a director and two or three professors, besides several distin- guished scientific and business men, and the higher ministerial authority. These are appointed by government, which then makes directly on it all calls for ad- vancement in instruction, and for filling vacant professorships. It is evident that this superintendence of government must be granted in concuiTence with the professors and the director. EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 73 CONDITIOX OF THE SCHOLARS AT POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. The division of the pupils, the method of admission, fees of tuition, discipline and examinations are to be considered under this head. In almost all the schools of Germany and Switzerland there are two classes of scholars: One of them, which is the principal one everywhere, has the name scholar or student, (in Austria, audience) ; the second ciitegory has in Zurich and Hanover, the name " hearers ; " in Carlsruhe and Dresden, " transient aud- itors" (hospcs) ; in Stuttgart, and also in Austria, "special hearers or scholars." The first class bind themselves to go through the whole course, prove their preparation on entering, and conform to the customary reviews, examinations, and written work. The latter class are not bound to any of these things. They are men in an independent position, or with regular employments, hearing only certain lectures without being obliged to pass an examination on them. In the French schools, in that of bridges and highways, as well as in the mining school, there are also two divisions, the eleves ingenieures and the eleves eoctet-nes, but the only difference here is that the first are graduates of the polytechnic school, who have to submit to no entrance examination, and who will be received into the service of the state, while the second class have none of these privileges, and must go through the whole course. In the Central School at Paris, and at the Belgian schools, there is only one class of pupils. At all the polytechnic schools it is required that the pupils shall be of a certain age on entering ; at Zurich and Berlin, 17 years old ; at Stuttgart, Dresden, and Haijover, 16 ; the Paris schools alone demand no particular age. Further, an examination is required in all schools on entering ; but in Berlin and Dresden the certificate of a gymnasium or of an industrial school is accepted. At all these examinations, mathematics and designing are the principal requirements, but some knowledge of physics, natural history, and style, is required. These examinations are most severe in France, where a list of questions is made out for every subject, and an examining committee are appointed who are exceed- ingly conscientious in their duties. In the German schools these examinations, from the desire to fill up the schools, are unfortunately not as severe as they should be for the good of the schools. The introduction of such examinations would be of great advantage to the schools of Vienna and. Prague, since this would bring all the scholars, so differently prepared at different schools, up to one level, leave the poorer scholars to the industrial schools, and picking out only the best, would at once reduce the number, and bring together a more intel- ligent and energetic class of students. The tuition varies exceedingly at the different polytechnic schools. The smallest tuition fee is that paid at Stuttgart, 15 florins; next year this is to be doubled. Then follows Zurich, 50 francs ; this also is to be doubled ; then Han- over, from 24 to 36 thalers ; Berlin and Dresden, 40 thalers ; in Dresden, for natives only, foreigners pay 60 ; and finally, Carlsruhe, 66 florins. The most expensive school is the ecole centrale of Paris, where the annual tuition is 800 francs. In all these schools, practice in the chemical laboratories is extra ; in Zurich, it is 40 francs ; in Carlsruhe, 44 florins ; in Berlin, 50 thalers. In almost all schools, industrious and poor scholars are released from these expenses, but this for only a fcAv at a time ; for instance, in Hanover, generally only 4 or 5 per cent. ; in Zurich, 6 ; in Carlsruhe, 10 ; in Dresden, at the most, 20 per cent. We are pleased with the two conditions, high tuition fees and few exceptions to 74 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. their payment. In the higher institutions of learning, the tuition should not be merely nominal, even though the State itself be bound to render assistance to the institution. Rather help the poor student with stipends sufficient to obtain him his daily bread, and to permit him to devote himself exclusively to his studies. This is the method at the industrial institute at Berlin, and at both the polytechnic and the central school of Paris. The tuition fees in all the pol;f- technic schools come into the school fund, with the one exception of Zurich, where two- thirds of it is divided among the professors. In order to give a fair judgment upon the discipline of all the schools, it would be necessary to make quite a stay at each, since the practice is generally milder than the rule would indicate. The French schools are certainly the most severe, confinement {career) being among their punishments. For the rest, in some German schools, as at Dresden and Carlsruhe, conduct while out of the school is watched, and irregularities censured, but in most schools, conduct during session hours alone is regarded, and whatever misdeeds occur out of these hours are left to the police. In Stuttgart the pupils of the mathematical department are sub- ject to severer discipline than those of the special departments. On the other hand, in Berlin, where a few years ago such extremely severe discipline was practiced, they are fallen now into the opposite extreme. In our opinion, severe discipline is of little avail. This is proved in the Parisian schools. If the students are intelligent and ambitious, the discipline will be good without rules. Whenever admission examinations are demanded, a sure means of discipline is secured. A second means seems to lie in the hands of the individual teachers, who by frequent association with the students, Avill inspire them with zeal, and awaken intellectual activity within them. Should there, notAnthstanding, be some unruly spirits, a fifteen years' experience has proved to us that in most cases, a careful examination by the faculty will accom- plish much more than severe military rules. The greatest difference between the Austrian schools and those of other coun- tries we find to consist in the way in which the progress and industry of the scholars are judged. In the French and Belgian schools, even when the student does not board in the school, he is required to pass his time there fi-om eight in the morning to six in the evening, one hour only being taken out for dinner. The lectures themselves occupy little time ; during the greater part- of it, the scholar must occupy himself with his studies in the school-room, where he is un- der the constant surveillance of the repeators (repetiteurs) . In Germany this surveillance is not so severe ; home study is more recommended to the scholar. In other schools more time is given to repetitions and to written work than in Austria, for these alone determine the ability and knowledge of the student, and that much more surely than the final examinations in the letter country, to wliich all students, who desire a certificate at the end of the year, have to subject themselves. That these final examinations are in reality no sure proof of the industry and ability of the student, all Austrian technical teachers are agreed, but also they agree as fully that in those of our technical institutions, which like Vienna and Prague, are so overfilled, so long as this lasts, without at least the doubling of the number of teachers, the abolition of the final examinations and the introduction of the other method is a pure impossibility. In Germany, the ratio of teachers to scholars is 1 : 8 to 1 : 1 8 ; in Prague and Vienna, 1 : 25 and I : 30, and in some years even greater. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 75 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS. There are three kinds of institutions designed to give special instruction in ao-riculture and kindred industries, viz : 1. Scliools of Agriculture, which are of three grades; 2. Schools of Forestry, which are likewise classiiic^d into supe- rior, middle, and lower oradcs ; 3. Veterinary Schools, of which there arc 6 -with 21 professors, and 391 pupils. I. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. The Special Schools of Agriculture, of which there are seventeen, may be classed as follows : 1. The superior agricultural schools of Austria are among the oldest and best in Europe, that at Krumman in Bohemia, having been founded in 1799, and that at Graetz, Trieste, Lomberg, and Trutsch, in 1809. The school at Graetz has nine professors, a model farm, a botanical garden, rich collections in natural history, and an establishment for silk worms. The superior school at Krumman in Bohemia, founded by Prince Schwart- zenberg in 1799, is located on an immense domain, and is conducted with every appliance of botanical gardens, model farms, stock, illustrative collcc^ons of imple- ments and machines, laboratories, herbarium, and numerous and able professors. The superior school or academy at Altenburg in Hungary, provides for the com- plete study of agricultural science. It has nine professors and 147 pupils. The school fee is 63 florins ; the total yearly cost 19,400 florins. It is a government establishment, possessing collections of all kinds, a chemical laboratory, a tech- nological gallery, a library, and a botanical garden. It gives instruction in ar- boriculture and in rural and forest management. The exhibition of samples of the grain cultivated, and models of the implements used on the model farm, of the insects and animals w^hich injure the plants, the herbals and soils, the copy- books, and drawings by the students, exhibited at Paris Exhibition of 1867, re- ceived the special notice and award of the jury. 2. Middle agricultural schools have been founded at Grossau, in Lower Aus- tria ; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia ; at Kreutz, in Ci'ontia, and at Dublany, in Gallicia. The studies occupy two years. There ai'e 27 professors, and 164 outdoor pupils. The school fee is from 30 to 52 florins. The yearly expendi- ture amounts to 9,200 florins. They are maintained by local resources and agri- cultural societies. 3. There are seven lower agricultural schools : at Grossau, in Lower Austria ; at Liebejei-Rabin ; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia ; at Gratz, in Styria ; at Kreutz, in Gallicia ; at Ezernichow% in Gallicia ; and at Laybach, in Carinthia. These schools have 23 professors and 230 pupils. The school fee varies from 30 to 40 florins, partly met by the work of the pupils. 4. Besides the above, there are several schools devoted to special departments of rural economy, such as raising of bees, &c., as well as chairs of agriculture in 13 higher literary institutions. II. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. The Schools of Forestry, (9, with 36 professors,) are classified as follows : 1. Superior forest academies are established at Mariabrunn in Lower Austria, and at Schemnitz in Hungary. The studies extend OA'er from two to three years. The qualification for admission is a certificate of studies from a gymna- 76 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. sium or a superior practical school These establishments have a museum, col- lections, a botanical garden, and a laboratory. They have 14 professors and 160 pupils in the two together. The school fee is 10 florins. There are some gratu- itous pupils. Both schools are maintained by the government. 2. The middle forest schools are situated at Wiessewasser, in Bohemia ; at Aussen, in Moravia ; at Kreutz, in Croatia. The studies occupy from two to three years. The primary school preparation only is required. These schools have 12 professors and 100 pujiils. The gratuitous admission is compensated by the work of the pupils. 3. At Pibram, in Bohemia ; at Windschacht, in Hungary ; and at Nagnay, in Transylvania, there are lower Forest Schools. The courses extend over two or three years. The preparation required is the primary school and the habit of working. There are eight professors and eighty-seven pupils, all gratuitous* These establishments are maintained by the State. IMPERIAL FOREST ACADEMY AT MARIABRUNN. The Imperial Forest Academy at Mariabrunn passed through various phases before it was reorganized in 1866. Formerly the Minister of Finance had the general supeiwitendence, but at present it is assigned to the Minister of Com- merce and Political Economy. Its aim is to impart a thorough theoretical and practical instruction in forest economy, for which purpose the large imperial forests in the neighborhood are placed at its disposal. The course is of three years duration, and consists partly of class lectures, and partly of scientific ex- cursions and studies in the surrounding forests. The students are either regular, who go through the complete course, or extra- ordinary, who take only a partial course. Students are admitted on presentation of a testimonial certificate of satisfactory scholarship in a real school or gymna- sium ; if from the latter, they must give additional evidence of proficiency in geometrical drawing. Since "maturity examinations " have not been generally' introduced in the real schools, those students who cannot present a testimonial, have to undergo an examination extending over all those subjects which are re- quired for admission at the polytechnic institute in Vienna. As a general rule all candidates must give proof that for one year they have been engaged in prac- tical forest economy. To be admitted as an extraordinary student, the candidate must have completed the 18th year of his age, and be sufficiently versed in the preliminary studies. Formerly students were obliged to live in the academy buildings, which condi- tion has been lately abolished. Ordinary students, who have gone through the complete course of instruction, may be admitted to a rigorous examination, (for a diploma,) the conditions of which are prescribed by an imperial resolution of January 16th, 1850. This examination is held by a special examination com- mittee, and consists of two divisions : Fii'st, mathematics, geodesy, forest sur- veying, mechanics, construction of machinery, architecture, chemistry, forest botany, geology, climatology, forest entomology. Second, forest economy in all its various branches. This examination is both written and oral. The director of the academy is chosen by the ministry, who at the same time has the functions of a professor, and is assisted by four professors and three assistants. The salary of the director is 3,000 florins ; that of the professors, 1,500 ; 2,000 after ten years' service, and 2,500 after twenty years. The assistants' salaiy is 500 florins. The director, professors, and assistants live rent free in the academy buildings. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 77 ACADEMIES AND CLASSES FOR COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION. "We find in Austria the earliest efforts to adapt scliools and instruction to the needs of a commercial career. Tha plan drawn up by Wolf of Baden, and ap- proved by the Empress Maria Theresa, (who had authorized instruction in book- keeping in the Piarist schools in 1763,) for a Commercial Academy in Vienna in 1770, was intended "to offer to young men who intend to devote themselves to commercial pursuits, a fundamental knowledge of all that distinguishes a skil- ful commercial man from a shop-keeper." The number of pupils was limited to sixty, and the course embraced, besides other studies, the German, French, and Italian languages, general and commercial geography, commercial and maritime law, book-keeping, and drawing. In 1799, the plan of this academy was re- modeled, and again in 1808, making the studies more scientific, as well as more practical. On the model of this school, institutions were founded at Brunn in 1811, at Brody in 1815, and at Lemberg in 1817, and a commercial class, in the same year, was added to the navigation school at Trieste. In all the modifi.- cations of the real schools, the commercial classes have been provided for. ACADEMY OF COM3IERCE AT VIENNA. 1. In 1857, the Academy of Commerce at Vienna was founded for young men intending to follow commercial pursuits. A capital of 400,000 florins was sub- scribed, and suitable premises built for the purpose. The school is provided with technological collections, a museum of natural productions, and complete chemical laboratories. A committee composed of nine members presides over the general management. The instruction is given in two divisions, one of them preparatory, requiring two years' study, the other technical, occupying tbe same length of time. The number of hours per week devoted to the different branches of instruction is shown in the following table : PREPARATORY DIVISION. TECHNICAL DIVISION. SUBJECTS TAUGHT. No. of hours. H SUBJECTS TAUGHT. No. of hours. 1st year. 2d year. 1st year. 2d year. 1 Religion, - German, - Arithmetic, Geography, - History, - Natural history. Calligraphy, Book-keeping, Piiysics, - 2 4 5 4 3 4 2 2 3 4 3 3 2 4 2 2 4 9 7 6 6 6 2 2 Commercial calculations. Book-keeping, - - - Commercial correspondence. Political economy, - Commercial law and exchanges, Geography, commercial and statistical, ... Commercial history, - Chemistry, - - - - Physics, - - - - Study of merchandise and tech- nology, - - - - Austrian commerce and manu- factures, - . - Model counting-house, - 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 4 8 6 2 3 6 4 5 5 2 7 8 Totals, - 24 25 — Totals, - - - - 24 24 - Besides this compulsory curriculum there are French, English, and Italian classes, one or other of which every pupil must attend, or tv^^o, or all, if he pleases. There are excellent laboratories for those pupils who wish to learn how to analyze different kinds of merchandise. This study is altogether op- 78 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. tional. In winter, qualitative analysis is taught, and quantitative in summer. The school fee is 157 tlorins, 50 kr. a year for all the courses. Into the first class of the academy are admitted : those youths who have satis- factorily finished a higher real school, or higher gymnasium, or the preparatory class of some commercial academy ; furthermore, those who in a rigorous exam- ination for admission give satisfactory evidence of possessing the degx-ee of gen- eral knowledge acquired usually in the preparatory course of the academy. As a general rule, only such are admitted to this examination as have entered their 16th year. For entering the second class of the academy, it is necessary either to have gone through the first class, or pass a rigorous examination. To tiie first year of the preparatory course are admitted : youths who have absolved a three years' class, lower real school or lower g\Tiinasium ; those who (wherever they may have received their previous instruction) by a rigorous ex- amination show the degree of knowledge usually acquired at the schools. To the second year of the preparatory course, those are admitted who have either gone thi'Ougl.^;he first class of the same course, or (wherever they may- have been educated) show that degree of knowledge which is necessary for un- derstanding the subjects taught in the second class. Only such are admitted to an examination for this class as have entered the 15th year of their age. Every scholar is obliged to attend all the recitations marked obligatory in the plan of study. Extraordinary students are only admitted in the higher classes. At the close of the courses there are examinations for those who please to pre- sent themselves, and certificates of capacity are given to all who pass satisfacto- rily. Among the optional branches of instruction are stenography, to which some importance is attached, and drawing, which is cultivated both artistically and for its commercial uses. Besides the regular classes during the day, there are evening classes for per- sons already engaged in business. These are held from 7 to 9 o'clock from Oc- tober till Easter, and are attended by about 250 persons who pay four florins for each course, with the exception of the living languages, which are only two florins, and stenography, fixed at one florin. The subjects taught in these classes are commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, commercial correspondence, tho rules of commerce, and exchange, &c., the living languages, and stenography. The majority of the persons attending the evening classes present themselves for examination to obtain certificates. ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AT PRAGUE. 2. The Academy of Commerce at Prague was founded in 1826. It has a three years' course, in addition to a certificate of studies completed in the trade school, or the real gymnasium. The French language is obligatory ; English and Italian are optional studies. There were in 1867, 204 pupils. ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AT PESTH. 3. The Academy of Commerce at Pcsth was founded in 1859, by the Chamber of Commerce, and in 1867 had 136 pupils, distributed through a three years' course, which was founded on the basis of the studies of the real school com- pleted. It employs 29 professors, a portion of whom are attached to other insti- tutions of the city, giving special instruction in this academy. The commercial academies at Graetz and at Reichenberg (Bohemia) has a gimilar organization. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 79 ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS AND INSTRUCTION IN DRAA^NO AND MUSIC. The following are tlie schools of art, as applied to painting, sculpture, engrav- ing, and music, in Austria : ACADEMIES AND SCHOOLS OF ART. 1. The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts in Vienna was founded hy Joseph I, in 1704, and completed by Charles V, in 1726. It is a State institution, as a gallery, a body of artists, and a school of instruction in art having 1 1 professors and an average of over 200 pupils. It has a valuable collection of pictui'cs, several of them by the first artists, such as Claude, Murillo, and Titian. 2. At Gratz, there is an Academy of Painting, maintained by the province, with 30 to 50 pupils. " 3. At Prague, the Academy of Arts is maintained by the " Patriotic Society of the Friends of Art," with Rn average of 61 pupils. 4. The School of Fine Arts at Cracow is maintained in connection with the Technical Institute, Avith 5 professors and 24 joupils. 5 Drawing is taught as a regular and indispensable branch in all technical schools, and in fifty-two art schools so designated. INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 1. The Conservatory of Music at Vienna originated Avith an association, but receiA'cs an annual subsidy from the government. It has a six years' course ; fees, 4 to 6 floi'ins per month. It has a director, 20 professors^ and an average of OA'er 200 pupils of both sexes. 2. The Conservatory of Music at Prague is supported by the " Society for the Improvement of Music," Avith aid from the government. It has three depart- ments : one for instrumental music, Avith a six years' course ; one for singing, W'ith a tAvo years' course ; and one for the opera, with a tAvo or three years' course. The teaching is gratuitous for natiA^es. There is a. director, a sub- director, and 19 professors. 3. The fifty-two art schools mentioned above, are also schools of music. They are partly organized by associations, partly by professors, and number in all, 231 professors, and 3,973 pupils of both sexes. SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE EDUCATION. There are several institutions of special and professional instruction for Avomen, of which we giA'e a brief notice. 1. There exists in Vienna an Institute, Avhere the daughters of ofHcers with limited means and large families are educated so as to be able to take situations as governesses in Avealthy families. The pupils are 78 in number, and the expSnse of the establishment is defrayed by the government and private benefactions. Girls are admitted from six to eight years of age, and remain till they are 20. The pupils are distributed into four classes, and each class has two divisions. The directress of the establishment has imder her orders four sub-directresses, a mistress for needlework, and a mistress to teach housekeeping. 2. There are 8 schools for mid wives :. at Linz, Klagenfurt, Laybach, Trieste, Allc-Laste near Trent, Zara, Venice, Czernovicz. Instruction of the same kind is also given to Avomen at the faculties of medicine and surgical establishments , go SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. A large number of apprentice-mid wives receive considerable pecuniary assistance during their studies from the provinces and townships. Candidates must be at least 24 years of age, and less than 50, must be able to read and write, be of good reputation, and of healthy constitution. The course of instruction occupies, according to circumstances, four, five, or six months. It is both theoretical and practical, and is given by a professor of obstetrics, aided by a midwife and a nurse. In most of the schools there are two promotions yearly. On leaving, the pupils have to undergo a severe examination, for which those who have the means pay a fee of 30 florins. There are ten professors engaged in these schools, with a like number of mid- wives and nurses. The professor's salary is from 420 to 630 florins. More than 1,200 midwives are instructed every year in these establishments. The expen- diture amounts to 9,815 florins. INSTRUCTION IN MINES AND METALLURGY. Austria was one of the earliest to establish courses of instruction in the sciences connected with the profitable exploration of mines, and the smelting of ores. The Academy at Schemnitz was founded in 1763, lectures having been given at even an earlier period to a class of men charged with the superinten- dence of the salt-works, mines, collieries, and furnaces belonging to the crown. MINING ACADEMIES. Mining academies exist at Schemnitz, in Hungary ; at Leoben, in Styria ; and at Pibram, in Croatia. The courses last from two to four years. The qualification for admission is a certificate from a gymnasium ©r a higher practical school. There are 23 pro- fessors and 255 pupils. The school fee is 10 florins, and many pupils are ad- mitted without payment. The total expense is 14,700 florins. These establish- ments are supported by the State. In addition to these special schools of mining, the sciences which belong to the subject are thoroughly taught at the Polytechnic School, and iDustrated in the collections of the Geological Institute, at Vienna. MIKING ACADEMY AT SCHEMNITZ. The Mining Academy at Schemnitz was founded during the reign of Maria Theresa, to aid in tKe developing the mines adjacent to that town, and distrib- uted through the surrounding district, and in training engineers and overseers of the imperial mines in other parts of the empire. The institution is well endowed, and well equipped with a laboratory, and all the facilities of assaying and smelting. The course extends through three years. First year. — Geometry, algebra, tngonometry, and conic sections, physics, me- chanics, crystallography, and drawing. Second year. — Chemistry, mineralogy, metallurgy, and geology. Third year. — Surveying, machinery, art of mining, with practical exercises, dressing of ores, smelting, construction of machines and buildings, mining accounts, &c. A fourth year is given to additional practical SPECIAL IXSTRIICTIOj!^ LX DUCHY OF BADEI(. INTRODUCTION. The Grand Duchy of Baden had, in 1861, on a territory of 5,904 square miles, 1,369,291 inhabitants, of whom 896,683 were Catholics, 24,099 Jews, and the rest Protestants. About two-thirds of the population are engaged in agriculture, and the industrial acdvity of the other third is turned to ribbons and cot- ton fabrics, clocks and fabrics of straw, toys and trinkets. There are over 300 lar^je manufacturinoj establishments. The income for 1862 was 17,140,192 florins, (about $7,000,000,) and the state budget for public instruction, in 1863, contains the following items: Florins Popular schools, ------ 86,084 Normal schools, .... - 30,086 ^ Special aid to teachers in primary schools, - - 56,000 Higher burgher schools, . . . _ 31,000 Secondary schools, . . - - - 68,838 Teaching of gymnastics, - - - - 8,250 Universities, - - - - - - 178,087 Technical or professional schools, - . - 18,025 Cabinets of physics, collections of natural history, &c., at Carlsruhe, ------ 3,279 Aid to savants, artists, museums, &c., - . - 5,677 Total, -----. 485,326 The supervision of public instruction, and of all institutions of education aided out of the budget, belongs to the Ministry of the Interior, who acts through a Council of Education, which is com- posed of a member for each of the four circles, or districts, into which the kingdom is divided, and a representative of each of the highest authorities in the evangelical, Catholic, and Jewish church organizations. The system of public schools* embraces: I. Primary Schools, — which, in Baden, are denominational in their local management, but which must be attended by all children over six and under fourteen years, unless excused. There were in 1866, 2,157 primary schools, of which 1,389 were Catholic, 740 Protestant, and 28 Jewish, with an aggregate attendance of 200,000 *See Report on National Education in Europe, Part I, Germany. 6 82 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. pupils. Eveiy parish must provide in winter, in the primary f chool- house, for a class of girls in sewmg, knitting, and other horae-Avork, for one hour after the boys are dismissed. An evening class is main- tained twice a week, for young persons (whose attendance is optional,) who have left school, for further instruction in penman-hip, letter writing, and the elements of natural history, and the industries of the locality ."* II. Secondary Schools, — including 28 burgher scliools, (superior ]6rimary schools.) with 2,154 pupils; 5 high schools for girls, with 280 pupils ; 3 pedagogiums, with 382 pupils in a course of 6 years ; 8 lyceums, wdih 2,108 pupils in a course of 9 years ; and 5 gymna- siums, with 652 pupils in a course of 8 years. III. Superior Schools, or Universities, viz : One at iHeidelberg, founded in 1386, with a faculty of theology, philosophy and philology, medicine, and law, and an aggregate of 752 students ; 1 at Freiburg, founded in 1454, with a faculty of Catholic theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and an aggregate of 356 students; 1 Cathohc archi- episcopal seminary, with 35 students. IV. Special and Professional Schools, viz : 3 primary normal schools, with 170 pupils ; 3 superior normal schools, (connected with the pedagogiums,) with 50 pupils ; 2 agricultural schools, with 80 pupils ; 1 veterinary school, with 10 pupils ; 2 military schools, (one a review school for staff officers,) with 60 pupils ; 1 normal school for gymnastics, with 35 pupils ; 1 school of the fine arts, with 35 pupils ; 41 schoo'S of arts and trades, with 4,803 pupils ; 1 poly- technic school, with six sections, (1 for mechanics, 1 for engineers, 1 for builders, 1 for foresters, 1 for chemists, 1 for constructors of machines, 1 for post office and other public service,) and 589 pupils ; 1 watchmaking school, with 80 pupils ; 3 straw-plaiting schoolf=, with 120 pupils; 1 workmen's society industrial scliool, with 80 pupils ; 1 institution for deaf mutes, with 30 pupils ; 1 institution for the blind, with 25 pupils. V. Associations for the Adrancemeni of Literature, Science, and the Arts. — Under this head there are: 1 museum of natural history; 1 gallery of paintings and statuary ; 5 public libraries, with an aggre- gate of 200,000 volumes, &c., &c. * By the law of 1864, the primary schools are divided into elementary and superior ; the ele- mentary are confined to the rural districts which can maintain only one teacher, and the mini- mum instriaction fixed by law , the superior primary schools are taught by two or more teachers, each of whom must give thirty-two lessons a week. When a school exceeds sixty pupils, there must be three classes. The schools are to become less denominational, and each commune can elect its own committee, one of whom must be the teacher, and in the /arger communes, a physician, as well as the pastor. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 83 SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION. Out of the many excellent institutions for special instruction in the Grand Duchy of Baden, "vve select for particular descnption, two which have attained great reputation.* ' POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT CARLSRUHE. The PoLYTECHXic School of the Grand Duchy of Baden is located at Carlsnihe, the capital of the duchy, a city of 25,000 inhabitants in 1860. The germ existed in a school of engineering founded in 1814, which was expanded into a h\rge scientific school in 1825, by Prof. "Winter, under tlic encouragement and aid of tlie Grand Duke Louis, receiving a building, and a forest school in 1832, and a chemical, a machine construction, and a commercial department in 1836, and then attained, by steady growth, the proportions of the most complete polytechnic school in Germany. Without large or diversified industries in the city of its location, and with several competing institutions of the same charac- ter in close proximity, (Stuttgart, Darmstadt, and lately Zurich,) the number of scholars has steadily increased, and its range of instruction has kept pace with the demands of the age, because its managers have been successful in ob- taining and retaining an able corps of professors, and have provided them with suitable class-rooms, lecture-halls, laboratories, workshops, and aH the material aids of technical instruction. ORGANIZATION. This establishment is a kind of technical university, which, in addition to scientific studies of a high order, comprises in its organization several special divisions. The first of these is devoted not merely to mathematical science, as its name would seem to indicate, but also to the general scientific knowledge necessary for the other technical divisions, and which the pupils may acquire by following the particular courses relating to those sciences. This institution was the first of its class to introduce the system of independent schools, or divisions in the several great departments of industry, foimded on a commoa scientific basis. The technical divisions, or schools. are: Engineers, - requiring 2 or 2^ years. Architects. liSX " " 2" " 4 " Foresters, - ' t€ 2 Chemists, . it 2 Constructors of machines, - . " 2 Commerce, _ te 1 Posts, - (( 1 " The only qualification for admission is that the candioate shall possess the requisite instruction to enable him to folloAV one of the divisions. There is no absolutely compulsory series of study; the examinations alone impose on the pupils the necessity of acquiring the necessary instruction, and thus indicate to them the courses which are indispensable. ♦Compiled from Programmes of Institutions, Report of French Commission, and Report of Hamburgh. Committee, and memoranda of a visit. - , g4 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Mathematical Division. The studies of this division extend over two years. For admission to the first year's course the candidate must be above 17 years of age, and must prove that he is sufficiently acquainted with elementary mathematics, and can treat of a given subject in the German language. A candidate may enter the second year's course at once on showing that he knows the subjects taught in the first year, and that he is 18 years of age. The following is the progranmie of studies: Hours. First Year: ■ Differential and integral calculus, - - - - 5 Plane and spherical trigonometry, - - - - 2 Analytical geometry of two dimensions, - - - 2 Descriptive geometry, - • - . _ g Elements of mechanics, - - - - - 5 Experimental physics, - - - - - 4 (And one hour of repetition.) German language, - - - - - - 2 Erench language, - - - - - - 3 Eree-hand drawing, - - - - - - 2 Modeling, - - - - - - - 4 Second Year: Differential and integral calculus, - - - - 4 Analytical geometry of three dimensions, - - - 2 Analytical mechanics, - - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, - . ... 4 Technical drawing, (summer,) - - . . - 4 Practical geometry, - - - - - - 4 Higher physics, (winter,) - - - - - 3 Physical experiments, (summer,) - - - -6 General chemistry, (course of the chemical division,) - - 4 Mineralogy and geology, - - - - -3 to 4 German literature, - - - - - - 2 Erench language, - - - - - - 3 English language, - - - - . . - 3 Eree-hand drawing, - - - - - - 4 Modeling, - - -'- - - -4 Division of Engineers. This division prepares for all the branches of the profession, military engineer- ing excepted. To be admitted, the candidate must possess the knowledge acquired in a' gym- nasium or lyceum as far as the second class, and that of the two years' mathe- matics of the preceding school In the absence of certificates, the candidate must pass an examination. The studies occupy two years, according to the following programme : Hours. First Year: Calculation of variations, (winter,) - - - - 2 Surveying, -•- - - - - - 2 Method of least squares, - - - - - 1 Applied mechanics, - - - - - - 3 Technological chemistry, - - - - - 3 Eoads, hydraulic constructions, (with three afternoons of ex- periments,) - - - - - - -5 Construction of machines, - - - - - 12 Grerman literature, - - - • - - 1 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 85 Hours. Ancient and mediaeval literature, - - • - 5 Practical construction in wood and stone, - - 4 to 6 Free-hand and landscape drawing, - - - - 4 English language, - - - - • - 3 Second Year: Bridges and roads, ------ 6 Construction of railways, - - - - - 2 Exercises in practical building every afternoon in winter, and both morning and afternoon in summer, - - - Construction of machines, ----- 6 Questions in mathematical physics, (summer,) - - 2 Popular law, .._... 2 German literature, - - - - - - 5 Ancient and mediaeval history, - ... 5 Free-hand and landscape drawing, - - - - 4 Third Year ; " This course, which is one of six months only, is intended for engineers who intend to practice' in the Grand Duchy. They have to familiarize themselves with the regulations and usages as to contracts for public works, as well as to price currents (two hours per week.) Hours. Drawing up of projects, specifications, estimates, - - 8 Higher architecture, ------ 3 The pupils are taken out for excursions to building yards and works in course of execution ; in this case the lessons are interrupted. Division of Builders. This division is subdivided into two parts ; the lower section is intended to train builders, (werJcmeister,) capable of projecting and executing all ordinary buildings for dwellings and manufacturing purposes. The higher division is meant to train architects in the higher sense of the Avord, and those who pass through it are expected to improve themselves subsequently by traveling to study the more remarkable creations of their art. This division requires four years' study ; the qualifications for admission are tlie same as for the engineering division, except that only the first year's course of the mathematical division is necessaiy. First Yea 1st division,) . - - Mineralogy and geology. Building materials, Descriptive geometry, - Statics of buildings, Architectural drawing from copies, Drawing of plans, - - - Landscapes, . - _ Drawing of ornaments, Modeling in plaster, Building arches in the yard. Modeling in wood, Ancient and mediaeval history, German literature. Hours in Hours in ^\ inter. Summer. emica course. 4 4 - 3 to 4 3 to 4 2 2 . 4 4 2 2 . 4 6 4 6 . 4 4 4 6 . 4 — _ 4 _ 4 4 . 5 5 . 1 1 Hours in Hours in Winter. Summer. 8 6 5 5 4 4 2 2 5, 6 6 4 6 - — _ 4 4 4 SQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Second Year. Knowledge of machines, - - - Bridges and roads, - - - Technical architecture, - - . - Elementary studies of projects. Architectural drawing from models and copies, projects, - ■ - - . - Projects of dwelling houses. Landscape drawing, - - - Drawing ornaments from copies, - Modeling in plaster, . - - Building arches in the yard, Modeling in wood, - . - Ancient and medieval history, - . - - _ Literature, -----_ „ Third Year : Technical course of architecture, 2d part, - 3 3 Higher art of building, - - - 3 3 History of ancient architecture, - - - 2 ' 2 Plans of dwelling houses, - . - 6 9 Graphic studies on the more remarkable orders and edifices, - .... 2 3 Aerial perspective, - . - - - 2 3 Drawing ornaments from models and nature, 3 3 Drawing of figures, .... 4 4 Free-hand draAving, - - - - 4 4 Modeling from models, - - - - 5 4 Ancient and mediaeval history, - - - - German literature, .----- - Fourth Year: Popular law, - - - - - Higher art of building, - - . - History of medi£eval and modern architecture. Projects of great public buildings, Study of the architecture of the middle ages, and copying of the principal monuments, - Perspective views in Avater colors, - . - Drawing of ornaments, . - . - Pigure drawing from plaster models and nature, Pree-hand drawing, . . . - Modeling from nature or fancy. Ancient and mediaeval history, - - - - - German literature, --.-_. - The mornings left free are devoted to graphic studies, and, at the end of the school year, there is a competition for the fourth class. A gold medal is given for the best project. In these programmes for the architectural division, it is worthy of remark that there is no mention of mathematical instruction with regard to the stability of buildings, the strength of materials, «S:e. Such being the case, it is not easy to see the utility of the high mathematics and mechanical analysis required for ad- mission into this division, the first two years of which are intended to form builders and overseers of works. It would, perhaps, be better to require less of the higher mathematics and more of the applications of the principles of science to the art of building. The practice of exercising the pupils of this divi'sion in the actual construction of various arches appears to be excellent. But as this 2 2 3 3 2 2 6 9 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 4 5 4r SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 87 can only be done with bricks, it should not set aside that of makinf^ vaults and other constructions in plaster on a reduced scale, which oblige the pupils to trace all the panels and completely realize the different parts. After the first two years' studies, the pupils who have no higher ambition than to l)ccomc builders or overseers of works have acquired sufficient theoreti- cal and practical instruction. Division of Foresters. The instmction of this division consists of: 1. A preparatory course; 2. Two years' studies. To enter the preparatory course, the qualification required j is proficiency in the subjects taught in a lyceum as far as the second class, or > else in all the classes of a gymnasium. The following is the programme : Hours. Preparatory Course: Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - 3 Plane and solid geometry, ----- 3 Experimental physics, - - - - - - 4 General and special botany, - - - - 4 Zoology, - - - - - - - 3 Botanical excursions and observations once a week in summer. History of German literature, - - - - - 2 Popular law, - - - - - - 2 Rudiments of forest science, - - - - - 2 Practical instruction in forest questions and in the accounts of forest administration, - - - - - - First Year: General arithmetic and algebra, - - - - 2 Plane polygonometry, spherical trigonometry, - - - 2 Mathematical forest exercises, - - - - 4 General chemistry, - - ' - - - - 4 Mineralogy, (winter,) - - - - - 3 Geology, (summer,) - - - - - - 4 Practical mineralogy, - . _ . _ 2 General botany, anatomy, chemistry, physiology, geography, (winter,) -..----4 Climate, meteorology, knowledge of soils, - - - 3 Natural history of timber trees, - - . - 2 Forest management, (winter,) - - - - - 3 Forest dues, ------- 2 Practical geometry, - - - - - - 4 Excursions and explanations in the forest, - • - - Botanical excursions, - ----.-. Second Year: Solution of problems, - - . - . 2 Agricultural chemistry, - - - - - 2 Administrative science, political and financial economy, - 2 Roads and hydraulic constructions, (elements,) - - 2 Guarding and protecting of forests, - - - 2 State of foi-cst science, - - - - - - 2 Working and valuations after rational methods, - - 4 Valuation of the soil and produce of the forest as the basis of their real worth, ------ 2 Notions on the chase, - - - - - - 2 Forest administration, ----- 2 Forest police, - - - - - - - 3 Forest laws and those of the chase, - - - - 2 Excursions and journeys Avith applications. 88 SPECIAIj INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Division of Chemists. This division is especially devoted to young men who purpose following careers in which a knowledge of chemistry, physics, and natural history may be useful, whether they intend to devote themselves to chemistry or to engage in mining or metallurgical works. Admission is free to all who possess the instruction necessary for following the courses, and are full 1 7 years of age. The subjects taught are summarily stated in the following programme : General chemistry, 1st course, inorganic part, (winter term,) - Organic chemistry, (summer term,) ... General chemistry, 2d course, history and philosophy of chem- istry . (one year,) - - - Repetition of chemistry, (winter,) - - . . Conference on chemical analysis, (summer,) Art of assaying metals, . . . . _ Manipulations in the laboratory, - - . _ Qualitative and quantitative analysis, - - - - Agricultural chemistry, (winter,) - - Chemical technology, organic and inorganic, various manu- factures, (one year,) Metallurgy, (one year,) ------ Experimental physics, Repetitions of physics, ------ Higher physics, ------ Botany and geology, ------ Mineralogy, (winter,) - - - - . Physical geography, (summer,) . - - - Knowledge of useful minerals, (winter,) - - - Practical mineralogy, excursions, &c., (summer,) Crystallography, (winter,) - - . - - Hours. 4 4 1 2 This very extensive curriculum constitutes a series of courses which may be followed, not only by the pupils more Especially destined for the chemical arts, but also for those of the other divisions. To take part in the chemical manipu- lations, the pupils pay 44 florins a year, and are supplied with all the needful re-agents. Division of Constructors of Machines. The qualification for admission is the instruction acquired by a pupil during the first year of the mathematical division. The whole course takes two years. The number of hours per week devoted to each subject is indicated in the follow- ing programme : First Year: On machines, - - - - Construction of machines, - Arrangements of machines. Experimental physics, Applied mechanics, - Practical geometry, - - - Mechanical technology, - Chemical technology. Metallurgy, ... - - Knowledge of useful minerals. Roads and hydraulic constructions. Free-hand di'awing, - - - • Ancient and medieval history, - Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m. German and French literature, - Hours. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 89 Second Yem- : ^ On nuii'hines, ... Coustruetioa of machines, Putting- up machines, Mechanical technology, - Select questions of mathematical physics, Higher physics-, - - - - General chemistry, - - - Itl. repetitions, (winter,) - Road and Ixydraulic constructions, Kiiihvays, (summer,) - - - Chemical technology, Metallurgy, . . - - Ancient and mediaeval history, German literature, - . - Free-hand drawing - - - English language, ... Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m.. Houra. 6 4 6 2 2 6 4 2 6 2 Commercial Division. The qualification for admission to this acquired in an upper middle class school. the following programme : On commerce, - - - Book-keeping, Commercial correspondence, Commercial arithmetic, Knowledge of merchandise, Commercial geography, Commercial liistory, ( German, Languages. } French, - ( English, Calligraphy, Drawing, - . - division is the instruction that can be The instruction is given according to Hours. - - - - 5 Post Office Division. The qualification for admission is the degree of instruction acquired on leaving the upper class of a gymnasium or the higher division of the fifth in a lyceum. Two years are required to complete the courses which are arranged as follows : First Year: Arithmetic, - - - - - Mechanics, - - - - - Experimental physics, - - - - French language, . - - - German language, , - - - Calligraphy, - - - - - Second Year: Political arithmetic, - - - - Geography, ----- General notions of political economy, (summer,) Popular law,- .... Commercial law, .... Application of mechanics to conveyance, - _ Hours. 3 3 4 4 2 2 Prof. Assist. 4 2 6 2 4 1 3 — 3 _ 3 _ 2 -■ Masters. - - 9 . 1 . - 1 - 3 90 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Hours. Ancient and mediaeval history, - - . - - - 5 German literature, - - - - - . 2 French language, - - - - . - 3 French littraiure, . - - - . - 2 English language, - . - - - - - 3 Calligraphy, -------2 Management. The committee of management consists of a director, two councillors, the librarian, the secretarj^, and an accountant. The staff of teachers, professors, assistant professors, .and masters is arranged as follows : Mathematics, - - - - Natural sciences, - - - Architecture and building. Bridges and roads, - - - - KnoAvledge of machines. Forest sciences, . . _ _ Commerce, - - - General courses, (languages and literature,) Sculp tui-e, . - - - - Calligrajihy, - - - - - "Workshops, - The professors are appointed and paid by the government. The director is elected for one year, by the heads of the several divisions. The students are classified as regular or irregular. The latter are persons of ripe age, and generally graduates of other technical schools, and attend only special courses of lectures, by permission. The regular students must be mem- bers of some particular division, and pay an admission fee of S3. 00, and an annual tuition of 66 Rhenish florins. The tuition covers more than half the expendi- tures of the institution. The rest is paid by the government. The discipline of the institution is strict, and the head of each department is charged with the supervision of his pupils. The number of pupils, regular and irregular, in 1861, was 826, and the age ranges from 18 to 22 years. Buildings and Material Equipments. The building, laboratories, and collections for illustrating the studies of the several divisions, are among the best in Europe. The main building is 406 feet (Bavarian) long, and 42 feet deep, with wings 100 feet long, by 40, in the rear. The laboratory of the chemical department is in a separate stmcture, (220 feet long, by 50 deep,) and will accommodate 100 students at their manipulations, with separate rooms for distillation, and other processes. There is a separate building, of the same size, for the lectures, models and designs for machines, in which the collections are very large and complete. The workshops, three in number, are not large, and the only one appropriated to students is not largely resorted to. The cost of the buildings was about $250,000. The collections and instruments, for illustration in each division, are large and admirably selected, or constructed on the premises for use. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 9X TRADE SCHOOLS. The object of the trade schools [gewerbe schiden,) of Baden, as expressed in the words of the hiw, is " to afford to young persons .who propose to follow a trade, or mechanic art, which requires no liigh grade of technical or scientific training, and who have already acquired a practical knowledge of its rudiments, such Jcnowledgc and skill as will make them capable of an intelligent pursuit of it." The scliools are open to apprentices, or those about to become apprentices, above the age of fourteen ; to journeymen, of good character, possessing suffi- cient preparatoxy knowledge, and to any one who may Avish to attend any single course. Attendance upon them Avas, until recently, obligatory upon all apprentices, but the regulation was found to bring in pupils who felt no interest in the studies, and did not profit by the instruction, but disturbed those who were studious. There were 4,920 pupils in all the schools, (forty-one in 1868,) of w^hich about 600 Avere journeymen, and 800 pupils not yet connected Avith any trade. The number of professors Avas, in 1862, thirty -four, Avith thirty-six assistants, and the total of their salaries Avas 30,533 florins of the Rhine. The expenses are defrayed in part by the state, in part by the parishes, and a small tuition fee is charged, Avhich may be remitted, in case of inability to pay. The school is held, during the Avinter, from seven to ten in the morning; during the summer, from six to nine, and on the afternoon of Sundays. The Avhole course lasts three years, and is preceded by a preparatory course. Pupils are not obliged to pursue those studies Avhich haA-e no reference to their future occupation. The best of these schools, although not the one numbering the most pupils, is that at Baden-Baden. Its curriculum, which Ave take as an example, is as folloAVS : TKADE SCHOOL AT BADEN. Commercial course, 1st class, (1 hour per week,) keeping accounts, drawing up bills, letters of credit, bills of exchange, notes, receipts, &c. ; 2d class, (I hour,) certificates, forms conferring poAvers of attorney {fonnules de pleins pouvoirs,) ad- A-ertisements, letters of credit, &e. ; 3d class, (1 hour,) bills of exchange, princi- pal documents made valid by the mere signature of the individual putting them forth, { principaux actes sous seing price,) petitions to the government, commercial letters, &c. Course of arithmetic, 1st class, (2 hours,) simple fractions and decimals, com- parison of the Aveights and measures used in France and Baden, proportions, rule of three; 2d class, (1 hour,) rcAicAv of AA'liat Avas taught the first class, rules of interest, alligation, partnership, extraction of square root; 3d class, (1 hour,) equations of the first degree and several unknoAvn quantities, continuation of the rules of partnership and of interest, extraction of cube root. Course of geometry, 1st class, (1 hour,) triangles, squares, and polygonal figures ; 2d class, (1 hour,) mensuration of surfaces; 3d class, (1 hour,) mensuration of the volume and Aveight of regular bodies. Course of industrial economy, 2d class, (1 hour,) connections between workman and employer; 3d class, (I hour,) connections between employer, master Avork- man, and workman. Course of hook-heepirig, 3d class, (1 hour,) drawing up of inA^entories, transac- tion of fictitious business. Course of natural history and mechanics, 2d class, (1 hour,) considerations upon the general qualities of bodies, centres of graA'ity, stability, parallelogram of forces; 3d class, (1 hour,) hydraulic press, pumps of various kinds, heat, and magnetism. Course of geometrical drawing, includes a course of free-hand draAving and modeling. 92 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Course of free-hand drawing, 1st class, (1 hour,) regular plane figures ; 2(1 class, (1 hour,) regular solids; 3d class, (3 hours,) machines, plans, subjects, &c. Course of modeling, the 3 classes, (4 hours,) turning, metal and wood work. To the practical course are assigned five workshops, in which the pupils work from half past seven to nine. ' The number of pupils in this school is 200. The other leading trade schools are at Constance, 233 pupils ; Freiburg, 361 ; Carlsruhe, 304 ; Pforzheim, 483 ; Heidelberg, 424 ; and Mannheim, 282. SCHOOL FOR WATCH AND CLOCKMAKING AT FURTWANGEK. Since the sixteenth century the manufacture of clocks has been one of the staple trades of this part of Germany; and in 18^7 it is estimated that there were more than 4,000 persons employed in watchmaking. In the year 1849 a special school for this branch of industry was established, and the place selected for its seat was Furtwangen, in the canton of Freiburg, the old centre of the clock manufacture in the Black Forest. This school now comprises : 1. A general trade school ( Gewerheschule) teach- ing more especially everything connected with clockmaking. 2. A purely prac- tical school, with workshops for improving Avorkmen in the diiferent branches of the art, and provided with everything required for promoting the progress of horological manufactures in Baden generally. Industrial School. — The instruction given here consists of three courses, each occupying a year. The classes are always held in the morning, beginning at six o'clock in winter, and at five in summer, and vary from seven hours to fifteen and a half hours per week for each class of pupils. Moreover, seeing the gen- eral importance of free-hand drawing, three hours are devoted to it every Sunday for apprentices and workmen. The clockmaking school even supplies pupils of insufficient means with all the necessary material. For children of either sex, between the ages of eight and fourteen, there are three courses of drawing. Instruction in modeling is given to joiners, sculptors, and painters, if they desire it. Besides, pupils are also taught moulding, the art of casting, of taking impressions on various materials, gilding on wood and stone, burnishing, varnishing, polishing, copper plate printing, &c. In 1861 this school had 49 pupils and seven free auditors. There are : 1 . A principal professor of special drawing, of mechanics, of the knowledge of machines, of applied physics and chemistry. 2. A professor of free-hand drawing, of oniaments, modeling, and decoration. 3. An assistant master for German, arithmetic, geometry, geometrical constructions, and com- mercial accounts. The instruction is thus distributed among the three classes : Hours. First Class: Arithmetic and plane geometry, - - - - 3 German language, - - - - - - 2 Geometrical constructions ; drawing applied to clockmaking, 2 to 3 Free-hand drawing, - - - - - -lto3 Second Class: Arithmetic and geometry, surfaces, volumes, curves, &c., - 2 to 3 German, contracts, commercial correspondence, - - 2 Book-keeping, ------ 1 Applied mechanics and physics, power and work, centre of gravity, the pendulum, simple machines, lever, wedge, screw, pulley, -•- - -.- - '.^ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 93 Hours. Motions of clockwork, generalities on the measure of time, constituent parts, and their relations, - - - 1 Drawing geometrical constructions, penetrations, curves for the teeth of wheels, tools, - - - - 2 to 3^ Free-hand drawing with the pencil, shading, - - 1 to 3 Third Class: Arithmetic and mechanics, problems in clockwork, transfor- mation of movements, - - - - -lto2 Motions of clockwork, calculation of wheels, the different kinds of clocks, the best escapements, tools, and machines, - 2 Applied physics, especially with relation to clockwork, - l|- Special di-awing for clockwork, - - - - - 4 Free-hand drawing, shading, - - - . i^ Workshops for Improvement. — There are at present three of these v/orkshops, two for watches and one for clocks. The first watch workshop admits young men who intend to follow the trade, and gives them all the means of becoming expert workmen. The second shop is a continuation of the first, that is to say, as soon as a young man has acquired in the first sufficient skill to take part in the manufacture of watches, he is at liberty either to enter any private manufactory or to pass into the second shop, where he continues to work under the direction of the professor, at the same time receiving wages. Skilful watchmakers are also received in this second shop to work by the piece. Both these shops are under the same roof as the school. The workshop for clocks is, on the contrary, owing to want of room, in the resi- dence of the professor, and as he keeps a workshop of his own for clocks, the organization is analogous to the one we have described for watches. Every pupil has a place to himself like a workman ; the tools are exactly the same as in a complete watch and clock manufactory, organized according to the best and most recent processes, and on the system of division of labor. The workshops are never closed for want of work; but there are holidays at Easter, at the end of the school year, and in Carnival time, just the same as in the other manufactories of the Black Forest. The working hours are, in accord- ance with the general usages of the trade, from 7 to 11 .30 a. m., and from 1 to 7 p. m., that is 10^ hours' work per day, — 63 hours per week. Of those who attend the trade school, those in the first class have seven hours' instruction, and 58 of practice in the workshops, in all 65 hours in winter; those of the second class, 12 hours and 54 hours, or 66 hours in all ; those of the third class, 7 hours and 58 hours, or 65 hours. In summer the theoretical courses begin at an earlier hour, which prolongs to 66 or 68 hours the time employed per week. In the workshop for clocks the hours of work, according to the custom preva- lent in the Black Forest, are 13 per day. In the second shop those who work by the piece can leave off at dusk. There is no time fixed for pupils to remain in either workshop ; their stay de- pends on the aptitude, application, and progress of each individual. In general the apprenticeship does not exceed three years. In the contract signed on enter- ing, the pupil engages to pay a certain sum in case he leaves the school by his own desire, or if, on withdrawing from the watch workshop, he leaves the Black Forest. In all other cases the instruction is gratuitous. Each of the two workshops has a bench for 10 pupils, the number of practical pupils, therefore, can not exceed 20. 94 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. Workshops foi- Watches. — The principle of division of labor is adopted in these shops, so that, as soon as a pupil possesses a general knowledge of the trade, he is advised to select the particular speciality for which he has most aptitude, or which best meets the actual wants of the establishment. The instruction therefore consists : 1. Of a general part common to all the pupils. 2. Of a part special to each pupil, and which will render him perfectly competent to undertake one or more of the branches forming the complete manu- facture. 3. Of a part intended to form workmen thoroughly versed in both the practice and the theory of the art. The first, or general part, forms the basis of all the subsequent instruction, and is, therefore, of the utmost importance. While the pupils are going through it the professor has ample opportunities of appreciating their capabilities and of deciding what special branch will best suit them. In this part of the course the pupil has to acquire, — dexterity in filing, turn- ing, drilling, polishing, &c. ; a knowledge of the treatment of materials, harden- ing and annealing of steel, hammer-hardening of brass, &c. ; the power of mak- ing small tools, such as punches, drills, counter-sinks, rimers, screw-taps, &c. ; tlic iise of the simple machine tools ; a facility of producing pieces in the rough, a knowledge of the constituent parts of a watch, the practice of drawing watches, and all their parts. The details of the practical teaching are so numerous that it is impossible to give them here. Strict attention is paid to the perfection of the work, and to the exact proportions of size. The parts most minutely examined for the mak- ing of the pieces in the rough are the lever, escapements, the balances, the cut- ting and setting of the jewels the position of the wheels, &c. The instruction of the complete watchmaker embraces a knowledge of. all parts of the divided labor ; it must also familiarize the pupil wdth the geometrical proportions of the parts of a watch, enable him to judge of its movement, to undertake improve- ments, and even to devise new^ systems. This instruction is given by a professor and his assistant, both practical watch- makers. In the year 1860 there were 13 pupils, four of whom had completed the course at its close. In 1860-61 there were only 11 pupils, as none are admitted but those who display more than the average talent. Workshops for Clocks. — The object of these is to improve this branch of manu- factures in the Black Forest. Owing to the peculiar organization of the clock manufacture, it is very difficult to establish the principle of division of labor in this branch ; the instruction given, therefore, is such as to enable every pupil to take any work that he can obtain in establishments already existing, or to set up a workshop of his own. It is indispensable that, while more especially culti- vating the branch for which he feels most inclined, he must none the less learn to make complete movements, and to prepare the different pieces in the rough, othenvise he could not be of much use in the present manufactories of the Black Forest. It is nevertheless necessary for him to know the system of the division of labor, and the use of the more expensive and more perfect machines, so as to be able to take advantage of them whenever an opportunity occurs. The instruction is divided into: 1. The general elementary teaching com- mon to all the pupils ; 2. The general improvement of the pupil in all the branches, but with a more particular study of that for which the pupil is best fitted. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 95 The pupil has to acquire : Dexterity in filing, drillinc:, turninj? ; the knowl- edge of materials, and manner of treating them ; the making of the dificrent tools; instruction in the use of the various machines required in the manufacture of clocks ; the knowledge of the constituent parts of a clock, their purpose, and execution. The concluding instruction consists in teaching how to make the cases, harrels, and wheels; the moving powers; the conditions indispensal)le for good working of the wheels ; the making of ordinary movements ; striking and repeating clocks ; finishing with pieces in the rough. As there are always in the workshops pupils of various degrees of proficiency, this last course can not he divided into sections. The instruction is given hy a professor. The Furtwangcn school has in all six professors, one of whom is director ; there arc also two workmen and one man servant. During the last ycai' there were 80 pupils : In the industrial school of the first year, - - - 29 " " second year, - -. 11 " " third vear, - - - 9 T 1 11 (for Avatches, In the workshops | ^^^ ^^^^^^^ Fifty-four hoys, from 8 to 14 years of age, and 18 girls, from 8 to 13, have attended the school for free-hand drawing. The yearly sum allowed for the school by the government is at present 10,0(X) florins. PLAITING SCHOOLS. Another of the staple industries of the Black Forest is straw-plaiting, and this also has been encouraged by the opening of schools. In 1851 a school for girls was established at Furtwangen under an able mistress, and in this school skilful workers were trained who have since themselves become mistresses. Numerous other schools for straw-plaiting have been opened in the Black Forest. SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. There is a school of agriculture at Hochburg, with 21 pupils ; of arboriculture at Carlsruhe, for only eight or ten weeks, with 10 pupils ; of horticulture at Carisruhe, with 13 pupils ; of grazing and meadow culture at Carlsruhc, with 16 pupils. The agricultural school at Hochburg was founded in 1848, on the national domain. Its course of instruction is ample, with 12 lessons a week in wintorj and 17 in summer, and extends throiigh three years. The practical instruction in the first year is devoted to ordinary farm labor ; in the second, to the care of animals generally; and the third year in particular to horses. Instruction is gratuitous. Each pupil receives a gratuity of $16, and regular wages for his work, amounting the first year to $28 ; the second, to $37 ; and the third, to $46. The cost of boird is alx)ut $70 dollars a year. The knovrlcdge of agriculture is also propagated in the primary schools, the masters of Avhich are bound to give lectures on the subject beyond the limits of elementary teaching, properly so called, especially to the improvement and even- ing classes. The central commission of agriculture sends competent persons to see that this instruction is properly given, and awards prizes to the masters who perform this part of their duty with distinguished ability. For the diffusion of knowledge concerning agriculture there is, under the direction of the central commission of the Grand Duchy, an agricultural society 96 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. -Nvliich extends its action over the whole country. At the end of 1862 this society- numbered 11,934 members, and it publishes a weekly journal of agriculture which has a circulation of 9,000 copies. MILITARY SCHOOLS. In 1820, the Grand Duke Louis founded the School of Cadets for the educa- tion of young officers; but its existing organization dates only from 1851. Youths are admitted to this school from 15 to 18 years of age, after being recog- nized as fit for the military service, and having proved that they possess the requisite instruction, which comprises all that is taught in the gymnasia of the Grand Duchy as far as the fourth class inclusively. Tlie studies last three years, and embrace : Tlieoretical Course. — German and French mathematics, the military code, tac- tics, the military art, fortification, history, geography, land-surveying. Practical Courses. — Infantry and artillery exercises, manoeuvres, and the use of arms, fortification, surveying, and reconnoitering. Gi/mnastics. — Fencing and sword exercise; gymnastics, riding, swimming. The number of cadets, in 1867, was 60. There is likewise at Carlsruhe an improving school for superior officers. SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS. At Carlsruhe there is a central school of gymnastics partly supported by the government, the object of which is to train all those who intend to teach this branch of education. Those candidates who are already employed in teaching gymnastics in various degrees complete their training in this establishment ; such persons as are employed in assisting the actual professors of gymnastics are also admitted. In case of need, assistance is granted to these candidates. This institution is also in connection -with the establishments of public instruc- tion at Carlsruhe, and especially with the lyceum. The pupils of the last-named schools receive their gymnastic lessons there, and a part at least of the pupils of other public schools may also be admitted. The experience of Baden in reference to Trade schools is, that the attendance of pupils should not be obligatory, and that every pupil should be required to pay a small fee. If the instruction is good and cheap, those likely to be improved will attend, and if only a moderate tuition is required and paid in advance, they will attend more promptly, regularly, and diligently. SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. INTRODUCTION. The Kingdom of Bavaria, on an area o. 29,617 English square miles in 1864, had 4,807,440 inhabitants, of whom 679 out of every 1000 were engaged in agriculture, and 227 in mechanical arts and commerce, and the balance in other occupations. The total annual expenditure of the government of Bavaria, in 1864, amounted to 46,720,597 florins, of which 902,507 florins were expended for general instruction and 138,578 for technical, making a total of 1,041,085 by the two departments for educational pur- poses. This amount was independent of all local expenditure, which raised the sum to about 4,000,000 florins. The institutions of public instruction are administered by two ofiBces ; those of general education by the Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and those of a special character by the Minister of Commerce and Public Works. 1. Primary or Common Schools, ( Volksschule.n.) — Of these there were in 1863, 7,113 schools with 8,937 teachers and 946,275 pupils. Besides the primary-schools there are 1,550 Sunday and holiday- schools, {^Sonn-und I^eiertagsschulen,) open one or two hours on cer- tain evenings and on Sundays, completing and extending the course pursued in the primary-schools, with 129,128 pupils. So general is the attendance on elementary-schools, public and private, that all but eight per cent, of the recruits who joined the army in 1864 read and wrote well. Besides the regular primary schools, there are 91 infant schools, with 6,796 pupils, and 143 private schools, with 6,853 pupils, most of whom are in elementary studies. Taking the whole of the kingdoyi, there is one primary-school for every 530 inhab- itants. 2. Secondary Schools. — 95 Latin schools or preparatory gymna- siums, with 8,205 pupils; 28 classical gymnasiums, with 3,800 pupils ; 6 real or scientific gymnasiums, with 1,200 pupils; 30 pub- lic high-schools for girls, with 1,200, and 143 boarding-schools for girls, with 6,853 pupils. 98 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 3. Superior Schools. — 10 lyceums, with university studies, at- tended by 700 scholars, (mostly Catholic, preparing for the priest- hood;) 3 universities, (Munich, Wiirzburg, Erlangen,) each with four faculties, and a total of 2,959 students in 1867; 1 academy of science, with cabinet of natural history, royal library of 800,000 volumes, chemical laboratory, (under Baron de Liebig,) which are made subservient to the university at Munich. The conservatorium of scientific collections, and laboratories embraces 12 sections, and has an income of 48,000 florins from the government. 4. Special and Professional Schools. — Bavaria is well supplied with institutions adapted to special occupations and classes, viz. : 10 Normal schools for primary school teachers, with 18 teachers and 518 pupils. 3 Seminary courses for secondary school teachers, (one in each university, with 96 seminarists. 4 Superior agricultural schools, with 29 agricultural sections in the trade schools; with an aggregate of 2,114 pupils. 1 School of forestry, with 40 pupils. 1 School of horticulture, with 30 pupils. 1 School of veterinary surgery, with 18 teachers and 140 pupils. 2 Commercial schools, with 18 commercial divisions in the trade schools, and an aggregate of 2,000 pupils. 29 Trade schools, with an agricultural, commercial, and mechanical section. 3 Polytechnic schools — now existing as 1 Central Polytechnic at Munich, 1 School of Arts at Nuremberg, and the School of Machinery at Augsburg. 1 Academy of painting and sculpture, with 1 director, 13 professors, and 231 pupils. 1 School of architecture, with 9 teachers, and 143 pupils. 261 Schools of drawing, of which 121 are independent, and 140 are united with other institutions — with 9,973 pupils. 1 Conservatorium of music, with 1 director, 14 teachers, and 94pup0s. 10 Schools of music. * • 1 Central and 9 provincial institutions for the deaf and dumb, with a total of 23 teachers and 256 pupils. 1 Institution for the blind, with 3 teachers, 13 assistants, and 16 pupils. 1 Institution for idiotic children, with 3 teachers and 23 pupils. 3 Schools of midwifery, with 14 teachers and 132 students. 35 Orphan institutes, with 1,400 children; and 75 rescue homes for neglected and vicious children, witli 2,250 inmates. Besides the royal library of 800,000 volumes, the University of Munich has a library of 150,000 ; that of Wurzburg, 100,000 volumes; of Erlangen, 140,000 volumes ; and 24 public libraries, with ap aggregate of 2,000,000 volumes. The logical arrangements of the schools of science and literature in the system of Public and Special Instruction in Bavaria impressed the French Commissioners so favorably, that they have represented them in the accompanying diagram. H > &< o OQ J 8 1 ' 1 ^•1^ g §I.'S ^§s o "^ i w ; p SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. JQI SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. Bavaria was one of the first states in Germany to found a school of art, in its highest sense, and one of the earUest to apply instruc- tion in science to the development of mechanical industry, and to bring its young artisans and workmen of every kind into systematic courses of technical instruction.* The Academy of Art in Nuremberg was founded by Sandrart in 1662, and after being long conducted by him, gained new distinction under Preissler, and no school of art out of Munich has done so much in our day to develop taste and skill in artisans and artists as the Royal School of Art, and several private schools of drawing now in successful operation in that quaint old town. The first Technical School, so called, in Germany, was opened in Nuremberg in 1823, under the lead of Scharrer, afterwards mayor of the city, who gave the impulse, by providing instruction one hour on Sunday, and two evenings in the week, in drawing (free- hand and architectural) and mathematics. He was assisted by Hei- deloff, architect, and Hermann, afterwards professor in the Poly- technic and counselor of state. The school was adopted by the municipal authorities, and as the instruction was of the best kind, it was completely successful, and by the expansion of its studies and length of term, grew into a Trade School, under the law of 1834, till 1836, when it had V teachers, with 490 pupils (one-fourth of them journeymen) in 11 divisions, receiving instruction in mathe- matics, drawing, modeling, molding and casting metals, wood-carv- ing, &c. The pupils of this school, (called, in 1836, Mechanic . School,) created a new trade for this district of Bavaria ; and the example of special schools on Sunday, evenings, and holidays, was followed by other cities, until in several of them the mechanic schools grew into polytechnic schools — Munich in 1827, Nuremberg in 1829, and Augsburg in 1833, none of which, however, attained to the highest scientific development — the pupils not being required to go through a thorough course of theoretical study, as in some other institutions of this class. In all, the plan of instruction was pretty much the same, but gradually Munich turned its force towards construction and engineering; Augsburg and Nuremberg to mechanical handicrafts. In 1862 the school at Munich was di- vided into two parts, the polytechnic proper, and the school for con- struction and engineering. ♦For the details of this system, see National Education, Part I, Gkruam States, Bavaria. 102 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. In 1864 the whole system of real-schools, trade-schools, and poly- technic schools, which had grown up since 1808, was reorganized. After the law of 1808, real-schools and real-institutes were set up in the large centres of population parallel with the progyranasiums and gymnasiums. The real-schools added to the elementary course the study of French, drawing, the elements of natural history, and algebra. The real-institute added to the real-school course, which usually terminated at the fourteenth year, the natural sciences, more of mathematics, history, general philosophical studies, as well as the literature of modern languages. This course, if carried out, occu- pied four years, and was intended to prepare for higher academical studies and for special careers, such as financiers, merchants, &c. The system did not work well, and was modified in 1816 — the real- institutes being discontinued, and the real-schools converted into higher burgher- schools — which were only the higher classes of an elementary school. The deficiency of State realistic seminaries was partially supplied by the municipal authorities, associations and in- individuals, in artisan schools, further-improvement or Sunday- schools, mechanic schools, and polytechnic institutes, in which the arts of design and drawing received particular attention. To give this new instruction, which the necessities of society had created, thorough organization and symmetry, the government, in 1829 and in 1833, decreed the estabhshment of technical schools in all the large cities of the kingdom. The law of 1833 discontinued the higher burgher-schools and laid down the outlme of a course of in- struction for the technical schools, which was perfected by the law of 1836. The object of the technical schools, in the language of the law, is " to carry the sciences into industry, and to put indus- trial pursuits themselves upon a footing corresponding to the prog- ress of technical art and the competition of foreign industry." With this aim the technical schools had their central point in the exact sciences, and were preparatory for, 1, the artist's vocation proper; 2, the technical branches of the public service, especially architec- ture, mining, salt works, and forests ; 3, for technical departments of civil life ; 4, for strictly civic vocations, particularly for carrying on improvements in manufacturing, agricultural, and mechanical industries. In the development of this system there sprung up, and existed in 1863, the following institutions: 1. Schools of arts and trades, or technical gymnasiums, with an agricultural, commercial, and mechanic arts division. Of these there were twenty-nine, in as many centres of population and in- SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 103 dustry. They received pupils at twelve years of age, and dismissed them at the end of three years. With several were connected pre- paratory schools, and with all, a Sunday and holiday or feast-day school for apprentices and journeymen. 2. Polytechnic schools or technical lyceums. Of these there were three, located at Munich, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. They received their pupils at the completion of their fifteenth year, and with a preparation equal to the attainments of the graduates of the tech- nical gymnasium. 3. Special courses, or schools for the completion of technical in- struction: (1,) engineering in the polytechnic school at Munich; (2,) mining, foundries, and salt works in the department of public economy in the University of Munich ; (3,) higher forestry service in the Royal Forestry School at Aschaffenburg, and one year in the University ; (4,) higher agricultural training, in the Central School of Agriculture at Weihenstephan, near Freising ; (5,) for the fine arts, including architecture and ornamentation of an artistic character, the Royal Academy of Arts in Munich, and (6,) for higher chemical analysis, the laboratories of the Academy of Science, the Conserva- tQi-ium, and the University. This system, although it developed a prodigious amount of scien- tific and artistic talent, and in several directions, of improved indus- trial fabrics, did not satisfy all the wants of different classes and different industries. In consequence of " urgent pressure from the Department of Commerce and Public Instruction," the king promul- gated in 1864 a new law respecting technical institutions, according to which they are now classified and administered. EXISTING ORGANIZATION OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. . The system of technical instruction, as organized under the law of 1864, and in force after 1868, when the classes under the former system will have completed their curriculum, and the new classes will be in full operation, consists of — I. The trade-school, [gewerbschulen — twenty-nine in all, located in the principal centres of population and industries,) designed to impart a fitting general education, and the theoretical knowledge preparatory to different occupations, and the professions in which science forms the basis of the highest success. The instruction be- gins where the common school leaves off, and while it is passably complete in itself, it is the systematic preparation for a more ex- tended course in commercial and agricultural studies which can be 104 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. organized in the institution with the sanction of the highest author- ities, or pursued in the special institutions of a higher grade. Eight of these institutions, one in the chief town of each of the eight districts or circles into which the kingdom for administrative purposes is divided, are designated in the law as district or higher trade-schools. II. The real-gymnasium — this class of schools, of which there are six, one in the chief town of each of the six provinces, is of a higher grade than the trade-school, and includes, in a four years' course, the study of Latin and one or more modern foreign languages. It presupposes the attainments of the primary -school and of the first year of the classical gymnasium, with which its first year is par- allel. The final examination and certificate entitles to admission into the polytechnic school at Munich, and into the university, for participation in such studies as do not fall within the special limits of the three faculties of theology, jurisprudence, and medicine, and if found qualified after special examination, into the higher special schools of forestry, agriculture, veterinary science, or separate branches of the public service. III. The polytechnic school at Munich, in which the different professional studies of engineering, architecture, technical chem- istry, trade and commerce, are treated independently of each other, in courses of two years each, on the basis of a common scientific instruction in mathematics and the natural sciences, and the art of drawing, pursued to the extent deemed necessary for each profes- sional course. The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg, and the Royal School of Art at Nuremberg, both of which were polytechnic schools up to 1865, are not yet permanently organized as part of the system. Their present course of instruction exceeds the course of the district trade-schools, and falls short of the Central Poly- technic School. With each of these institutions or their teachers are associated, more or less directly, supplementary schools and classes, designed to impart instruction in subjects of immediate utility to apprentices and workmen in various crafts and occupations ; and above them all in the lectures, collections, libraries and laboratories of the uni- versities, and in the higher special schools of agriculture, forestry, and art, the student can carry his artistic, artisan, or purely scien- tific studies to the highest point. ' We append the substance of the regulations recently issued for the government of these schools : SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jQg TRADES SCHOOLS. The trades schools of Bavaria were originally known by the name of agricul- tural and industrial schools, but received their present name in the decree of 1864. They are generally government institutions, but the municipalities or as- sociations contribute more or less to the support of some of them, the teachers being appointed by the power that supports them, although all the appoint- ments must be confirmed by government. The qualifications for admission are that the candidate shall be between the ages of twelve and fourteen ; shall be able to read, write and compose without gross blunders in spelling or language ; shall be master of the first lour rules of arithmetic, and possess a proper knowledge of religion. The plan of studies occupies three years, and is as follows : Hours per week. Course I. Course II. Course IIL Eeligion, 2 2 2 German, 5 4 3 Geography, 2 2 2 History, 2 2 2 Arithmetic, 5 Algebra, 2 4 Natural History, 4 4 Physics, 4 Drawing, 8 8 4 Modeling and embossing, 2 6 French, .2 2 2 Plane geometry, ; 4 Descriptive " : 2 Solid geometry and plane trigonometry, . . 2 Chemistry, .'. . . 4 Popular mechanics, 4 Making thirty hours a week for each class. In some places part of the scholars pursue a commercial or agricultural course of study, varying in some particulars from the above. Those in the commercial section omit drawing and embossing, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and me- chanics, devoting three hours more a week to French during the whole course, and studying calligraphy, arithmetic, the science, geograpliy and history of commerce, and in the last class, English. Those in the agricultural section omit natural history, physics, algebra, de- scriptive geometry and plane geometry, mechanics, and French, and have only two hours a week in drawing. They add to the course the study of hus- bandry and rural economy, with practical labor on the farm, nine hours in the first class, six in the second and third. Sunday, Holiday, and Evening Trades Schools. Connected with the district trade-schools there is a higher class of supple- mentary schools whose object is to impart a free education to those apprentices or workmen whose education has been neglected, and to offer the means of far- ther advance to those who have finished the course of the trade schools, in the buildings of which they are generally held, although in some cases they form separate institutions. The only requirement for admission is having attended the primary-schools during the six years required by law. The instructors are generally the teachers of the trade-schools, but practical workmen are engaged to teach particular handicrafts. The schools are held on Sundays, holidays, and two evenings in the week. The course is divided into two sections, the ele- 106 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. mentary, which is a continuation of the course pursued at the primary-schools, and the special section, dealing with matters of trade and commerce, and with practical trades or handicrafts. In the elementary section are taught religion, German, arithmetic, and draw- ing. Under German are included composition, commercial style, &c. In the special section are taught drawing, embossing, modeling, arithmetic in its applications to trade and commerce, geometry, natural history, the history of staples, me! cantile book-keeping, and practical exercises in different trades and handicrafts. There are fourteen of these institutions, attended by 560 scholars. They are supported by the communes or from other local sources. THE REAL-GYMNASIUMS. The real-gymnasiums of Bavaria, sometimes called technical gymnasiums, have for their aim to give "the requisite preparation for entering upon the study of a profession which demands an intimate acquaintance with the exact sci- ences." They are at once literary and scientific. There are six of these schools. They are all government institutions, and the teachers, who must have been graduates of a Latin-school, a polytechnic school, and have spent at least one vear at a university in their special study, are considered government employes. Pupils are admitted between the ages of thirteen and sixteen, after having completed the course at a Latin-school, or passing an examination upon the studies there pursued. Hospitants are received only exceptionally. The aca- demical year begins October 1st and ends August 15th, with a fortnight's holi- day at Easter. The courses are all obligatory and as follows : Course I. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra, 4 ; Plane geometry, 3 German, 4; Latin, 4; French, 4; Geography, 3; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 hours, Course II. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra, 3 ; Plane geometry, 2 Natural history, (zoology and botany,) 4; German, 3; Latin, 4; French, 4 Geography, 2 ; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 hours. Course III. — Rehgion, 2 hours per week ; ■ Solid geometry, 2 ; Algebra and trigonometry, 4 ; Physics, 5 ; Descriptive geometry, 2 ; German, 2 ; Latin, 3 ; French, 3; Histor}^, 2; Drawing and embossing, 6. — Total, 31 hours. Course IV. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Elements of higher analysis, 2 ; Analytical geometry, 2 ; Descriptive geometry, 3 ; Mineralogy and chemistry, 5 ; Latin, 3 ; French, 2 ; English, 4 ; History, 2 ; Drawing and modeling, 6. — Total, 31 hours. Annual written and oral examinations take place, and the pupil who fails two years in succession in one of the lower classes is excluded from the school. At the close of the course a pupil may demand to be specially examined for an absolutorium, which is in writing, and extends over three days, as follows: First day. — 1. A religious theme to be completed in one hour; 2. A histor- ical essay in German on some given subject, three hours ; 3. A problem in descriptive geometry, two hours ; 4. Two themes, one in zoology, one in bot- any, one hour. Second day. — 1. Solution of two problems in the lower and one in the higher analysis, two hours ; 2. Solution of two problems, one in elementary and one in analytical geometry, two hours; 3. Two themes in physics, one hour; 4. A French composition, two hours. Third day. — 1. Solution of two problems in trigonometry, two hours; 2. Two themes in chemistry, one to have reference to mineralogy, one hour; 3. A Latin CQmposition, two hours; 4. An English composition, two hours. Every scholar pays 20 florins annually; hospitants only half this sum if they attend but one course. The whole may be remitted to poor and capable students. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. iQtj THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. In the organic system of the technical institutions, the polj^technic school stands in immediate connection with the real gymnasium, and forms the apex of the system of technical instruction. In place of three, the lav/ designs to place at least one school on the basis of a broad and thorough scientific preparation, and then to provide for at least four leading interests by a complete course in each. It is divided into — A. A general class, and B. Special classes for individual branches of technical business. The general class or division comprises a course of two years, and its object is to impart instruction in the mathenaatical and natural sciences, and the art of drawing to the extent required to make them a general foundation for the commencement of separate branches of technical studies, and at the same time to constitute a course of general scientific culture. The special' classes are to impart knowledge of and skill in the particular sciences required in individual branches of technical business, and these studies, in organic connection with the studies of the general class, are to complete the technical professional education. The polytechnic school comprises four special classes or divisions : — A. For architecture, the course extending over two years. "^ B. For mechanical engineering, the course extending over two years. C. For technical chemistry, the course extending over two years. D. For trade and commerce, the course extending over one year. The principal object of the potytechnic school is' to treat the different profes- sional studies independently of each other. The preliminary studies lead up to these, and must therefore precede these in the degree prescribed and deemed necessary. In order that the regular gradations which are considered absolutely necessary may be observed, the students must strictly follow the course of instruction laid down. A. — GENERAL DIVISION. COURSE I. Lessons. Hours in the Week. Semester I. 11. Analytical geometry , 3 3 Differential and integral calculus 4 4 Analytical mechanics 5 5 Mathematical physics 6 Applied physics with practical exercises 6 Elements of architectural construction 6 6 Elements of machine construction 6 6 Free drawing 6 6 Elementary mechanics 5 5 Zoology 5 Botany 5 Political ecomony 4 French language 3 3 Italian language 3 3 History of German literature 2 2 108 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. COURSE n> Lessons. Hours in the "Week. Semester I. II. Applied mechanics 5 5 Application of descriptive geometry to perspective, shading and stone-cutting 3 3 General chemistry 4 Special chemistry 4 Oryctognosy .■ . 4 Geology 4 Architectural designing (construction and architectural forms) '..... 6 6 Machine designing (elements of construction) 6 6 General knowledge of machinery 6 6 Constitutional and administrative law 4 French language 3 3 English language 3 3 Italian language 3 3 B.— SPECIAL DIVISIONS. I. Arc HITK CTTTRAL CLASS. On entering this class the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is taught in the two courses of the general division. Analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, analytical and applied mechanics, maihematical and applied physics, general and special chemistry, applied descriptive geometry, oryctognosy, geology, architectural and mechani- cal designing, drawing, (the latter studied during two hours a week,) and political economy. COT7HSE I. a. For architects and huilding engineers in common. Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester I. . IT. General civil engineering * 2 2 Knowledge of building materials, and of . sanitary matters connected with building 4 Estimates of cost, and conditions of contract. 4 Plan drawing {Situations zeichnen) 4 4 ' (&.) Separate instruction for architects. Architectural styles and history of architecture 4 4 Plans of elevation (Rochbanten) 14 14 Figure and landscape drawing 4 4 Separate instruction for building engineers. Bridge building 4 4 Plans of bridges 8 8 Geodesy and hygrometry 6 6 The construction of machinery 4 4 COURSE II. (a.) For architects and building engineers in common. Plans of architectural buildings 6 6 Plans of engineering works of construction 6 6 Stone cutting and modeling 4 Constitutional and administrative law 4 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. -^qq (b.) Separate instrttction for architects. History of architecture 2 2 Elements of the science of road building, bridge building, and the construction of water works 2 2 Measurement. 4 Plans of architectural buildings 12 8 Separate instruction for engineers. Science of road making and of constructing water works. 6 6 Historj'- of engineering 2 2 Plans of engineering works 8 8 II. Mechanical Enoineerino. On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the general division: Differential and integral calculus, analytical geometry, the apphcation of descriptive geometry, mathematical and applied physics, designing (architectu- ral and mechanical,) general knowledge of machinery, analytical and applied mechanics, general and special chemistry, geology. COURSE II. Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. 11. Theory of machinery (Maschinenlehre) 4 4 Construction of machinery 4 * 4 Exercises in designing 8 8 Railway, canal, &c., engineering 3 Leveling and measurements 4 Manufacturing engineering (Fahrikbau) 3 Metallurgy 5 Technology (of manufactures, building trades, and implement making) Excursions: practical work in the mechanical work- shops . . .' III. Technical Chemistry. On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the general division : Zoology, botany, oryctognosy, geology, mathematical and applied physics, general and special chemistry, architectural drawing. COITRSE I. Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester L IL Elementary mechanics 5 5 Technical ph3^sics (pyrotechnics) 4 Technical chemistry 5 5 Elements of mechanical designing 6 6 Knowledge of building materials 4 Political economy 4 Work in the laboratory 110 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. COrRSE II. Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II. General theory of machinery 6 6 General civil engineering 2 2 Metallurgy, including smelting and casting 5 Physical chemistry 5 Technology 5 5 Work in ihe laboratory IV, Trade and Commerce SOLE COURSE. Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II, Theory of coraraerce, including the sciences of the counting-house ,.,,...,,,, 6 6 Commercial geography and commercial statistics 2 2 History of commerce 2 Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange 3 Political arithmetic 3 Commercial arithmetic 3 Knowledge of goods 3 3 Mechanics i as applied to the means of transport) 2 Political economy 4 Constitutional and administrative law 4 French language 3 3 English 3 3 Italian. 3 3 Mercantile correspondence in French and English 3 Previous to the commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the establishment must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various divisions, the programme of studies, and this must then be published. The institution is managed by a board of directors. Admission to the special divisions or schools is based on a thorough mastery of the two preparatory courses, and to their equivalent in mental discipline and knowledge obtained in a real gymnasium. On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitants, must pay an admission fee of five florins. The school honorarium is twenty florins per semester. Hospitants pay four or six florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly. For participation in the work of the laboratory'-, pupils pay fifteen florins, and hospitants twenty fiorins. Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees. An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the subject of examination being fixed by the professors in council. Such are the principal provisions of the new regulations for the government of the Central Polytechnic School at Munich, Up to the reorganization of technical instruction in 1864, the three schools at Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg, had the same general characteristics. Under the present plan, much higher scientific culture will be attainable at Munich, while a very thorough special course in construction and manufactures will be given, the first at Augsburg, and the last at Nuremberg. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. ^11 SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. Out of the many excellent institutions and classes for teelinical training in the arts of construction, ornamentation, and industrial production generally, of which we have received recent programmes or find described in the Reports of the French and English Commissions, we will present specimens of each grade. SUNDAY IMPROVEMENT-SCHOOLS. The Sunday-school in Germany is not, in its aim and instruction, identical with the institution known by that name in England and the Uuited States, the great leading object and characteristic of the latter being almost ignored in the former — we mean religious instruction. The name is sometimes applied to schools taught in the evening of other days, or in the morning for one or two hours before nine o'clock, in harvest time and on church holidays, although generally these last are called by the name of the day on which they are held. All of these schools, however called, are in the first place review or repetition schools, for those who have left at the age of twelve or fourteen the in- struction given in the regular primary-school, or they continue elementary instruction in the direction of the special occupation in wliich the pupils are already engaged, or for which they are destined. In the latter condition, they are frequently known as trade improvement-schools, commercial improvement- schools, or agricultural improvement-schools. In this view of their aim and iðods, they constitute a highly valuable part at once of the system of pop- ular and of technical instruction. Infrequent and sliort as the sessions are, they fix a large amount of valuable knowledge in the memorj' by timely repetition, and add to the stock just tliat kind of knowledge which in his daily avocations the pupil feels to be necessary and useful, and which thus passes as it were into the substance of the mind — his daily thinking and practice. Such educators as Niemeyer, with a full knowledge of the operation of these schools, expresses himself very favorable to this class of schools. "It would be a great gain in every place, large or small, city or village, if young persons, servants, appren- tices, clerks, could have, every week, even one or two hours of regular instruc- tion and mental exercise, under the care of a well-qualified teacher." Although the practice has been opposed, on account of its violating the usual observance of Sunday, and its interfering with the engagements of teachers as organists, and adding to their already heavily-taxed services, as well as on account of the very restricted range of instruction — the system continues; and Far tJier Ln- provement Schools, under some name, and on several hours of the week, con- stitute an important part of the elementary and technical education of the working classes of Germany. Sunday-schools have existed in 'Wurtemberg since 1695, (for children not yet confirmed, and to prepare them for confirmation,) in Baden since 1154, in Prus- sia since 1763, and in Bavaria since 1803. They are estabhshed by law in Austria, Bavaria, Coburg-Gotha, Nassau, and other States, while in Saxony and Hesse their institution depends on the action of the separate communities. When they exist bylaw, the same studies are pursued as in the regular common or primarj'-school, and always attended by those whose opportunities of school- attendance on week-day schools have been abridged. There is, however, in 112 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. these States frequently a class of pupils who have completed the regular course at fourteen years of age, and devoted two years more to additional instruction. With these pupils, and in schools in large commercial, mechanical, and other centres, the instruction is generally technical, and is given by experts, and is, not unfrequeutly, of the highest value. SUNDAY-SCHOOL AT NUREMBERG. The technical school founded in 1823, when on Sunday mornings the architect Heideloflf gave instruction in free-hand and architectural drawing ; Hermann, professor in the gymnasium, taught mathematics ; and Keippler, the mechan- ician, taught machine-drawing — has continued to the present time, with a con- stantly-widening range of studies in additional classes, which were provided for in two evenings of each week. The average attendance from 1837 to 1853 was 700 ; in 1854 it was 1,200, and in 1856, it amounted to 1,600. The establishment combines the teaching of drawing, modeling, sculpture, and engraving, with elementary instruction in geometry, arithmetic, physics, and chemistry. The first and most important part of the curriculum is con- nected with the arts of design. The first and second courses, graduated ac- cording to the ciapabilities of the pupils, are devoted to free-hand drawing, ornaments, architectural drawing, with or without shading, figure-drawing, geometrical drawing, and tinting in Indian ink. The third course has four divisions, according to the special destination of the pupils : the first division comprises every thing connected with buQdings, from tlie first details of masons' and carpenters' work to the types and styles of architecture; the second is devoted to jomers' work ; the third to turners in wood or metal ; the fourth to divers trades. The second part of the curriculum teaches modeling in wax, clay, or plaster, engraving, and sculpture. The third is devoted to arithmetic and geometry applied to mensuration of superficies, solids, and to plotting. The fourth im- parts the rudiments of physics and mechanics, so far as applicable to local industries. The fifth and last treats of industrial chemistry. These courses were attended, in 1864, by 228 pupUs for drawing, and 1,354 hearers for the other courses. SUNDAY AND HOLIDAY SCHOOLS IN MUNICH. As a specimen of the city Sunday and holiday schools, we give an account of the large central institutions of this class in Munich, from the annual report of the committee for 1866-67 : Every ordinary parish-school has attached to it a holiday school, which is, therefore, called a parish holiday school, and which consists of three classes designated by the numbers I, II, and III. There is. in addition to this, a central holiday educational institution, which embraces the whole city, and which has also three subdivisions, viz : (a.) The Central Holiday School, an elementary school with three morning and three afternoon classes, designated by the numbers lY, V, YI. This central holiday school is not. however, supplementary to, or a continua- tion of the parish holiday schools in so far that scholars must necessarily pass into it from these latter. It obtains its scholars from among such as have (1) passed through course lY, (2) who having performed their duty in the week- day schools, have left these with certificate No. 1, and (3) who leaving a higher educational institution, after the probationary months, have returned to the SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 1J3 Tvorkshop. Such pupils must not be admitted into the parish holiday schools, but must be sent to the central holiday school. (6.) The Journeymen's School. — This embraces four classes, and imparts, dur- ing one hour of the morning, elementary instruction to journeymen, who are eitlier still within the age fixed for attendance at school, or who, feeling the deficiencies of the school instruction they have previously received, voluntarily enter their names in this institution. This being once done, they are, like the othL'r scholars, bound to attend during the whole year. (c.) The Holiday S-hool for Handicrafts, in which instruction is given in — 1. Geometry and arithmetic; 2. Physics; 3. Technical chemistry; 4. Descriptive geometrj^, theorj^ of machinery, and mechanical designing ; 5. Practical me- chanics; 6. Free-hand, geometrical, and architectural drawing. The last branch of instruction is divided into five regularly-organized classes, four of which have of late years had to be subdivided into eight parallel classes, on account of the great number of students attending them. The uniformity of the instruction given, and its regularly progressive char- acter is insured by the supervision of a technical director, under whom rank also the holiday drawing-schools in the suburbs of Au, Haidhausen, and Giesing, which form branches of the central drawing-school. This central school is so regulated as to be in strict harmony with the system of drawing-instruction introduced into all the week-day schools. Sole Course. Hours in the week. Semester I. II. Theory of commerce, including the sciences of the counting-house, . . 6 6 Commercial geography and commercial statistics, 2 2 History of commerce, 2 Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange, Political arithmetic, 3 Commercial arithmetic, 3 'Knowledge of goods, 3 3 Mechanics, (as applied to the means of transport,) 2 Political economy, 4 Constitutional and administrative law, 4 French language, 3 3 English, 3 3 Italian, 3 3 Mercantile correspondence in French and English, 3 Previous to the commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the es- tablishment must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various divis- ions, the programme of studies, and this must then be published. It must be observed that in the instruction given in this institution each handicraft is taken into due account, so that each pupil may obtain the knowl- edge specially required for his trade. With the holiday school for handicrafts is connected a lithographic establish- ment, which supplies the drawing-schools with systematically-arranged models, and thus maintains the regularly progressive character of these. The schools enumerated under a, i, and c, constitute together one great whole, under the superintendence of a special inspector. The guidance of it is, however, beset by great difficulties, and demands an amount of tact and en- ergy which will be easily appreciated by those who know, by actual intercourse with them, the character of our apprentice boys. It is, therefore, the more to be admired that among so large a number of scholars brought into such close contact with each other, so few aberrations should hnve taken place. The female holiday schools are, like the male schools, divided into: — a. A central holiday school ; and b. Parish holiday schools. The first mentioned consists of three classes, which, to distinguish them from the lower holiday schools, are designated by the numbers IV, Y, and VI. No. IV is, on account of the great number of scholars, subdivided into three classes, viz., A, B, and C ; and instruction is given both in the morning and in the afternoon, in order to render it more easy for the girls to attend. 8 114 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. "With this school is connected a so-called preliminary division, in which girls who have been unfavorabl)-- situated with regard to the attainment of education are enabled to obtain proper instruction. This division has been incorporated with the central holiday school, because, as in its object and its methods of teaching it holds an exceptional position, it would otherwise be q\iite isolated ; and because, were the pupils who frequent it to be distributed among the parish schools, they would fail to obtain the special attention which their case requires. In connection with this school there is also a class for instruction in partial work, which is open to girls who have already gone to service, as well as to others. The elementary instruction, which increases in 0ach class, and which in classes V and VI extends to practical life, was, during the last year, attended by 504 girls, and the working class by 125 girls. In all its features, both as regards the teachers and the greater number of the scholars, in their efforts to impart and to attain culture and dignity, this school offers a most attractive picture of what hoUday schools may be. Holiday Schools for Girls. h. The parish holiday schools for girls, of which there were, during the year, 11, with 27 classes, also effect much that is good and useful, yet it can not be denied that their effectiveness might be far greater. The chief obstacle to their activity is not only the lukewarmness of the scholars themselves, but more es- pecially the contempt in which the schools are held by many parents and employers. Prizes, mostly consisting of money, are annually distributed in all these schools, and the names of the scholars who have distinguished themselves by steady industry are published in the yearly reports. During the school-year 1866-67, the number of pupils attending these various schools and classes has been as follows: — The Sunday and Holiday School for Handicrafts: — Religious classes, 208; arithmetic and geometry, 65; physics, 64; technical chemistry, 99; descriptive geometry, 62; theory of machinery, 79; designing, 63 ; practical mechanics, 50; embossing, 77; chasing, 22 ; arch- itectural drawing, 88 ; linear, 299 ; more advanced ornamental drawing, 367 ; free-hand drawing and elements of ornamentation, 296. T/ie Journeyman's School, 167. The Central Holiday School for Boys, 341. The Parish Holiday Schools for Boys, 1,467. The Central Holiday School for Girls, 644. The Parish Holiday Schools for Girls, 1,303. DISTRICT TRADE- SCHOOL AT NUREMBERG. The district trade-school at Nuremberg will serve as an example of the high- est grade of these schools: 1. The district trade-school; 2. The Sunday-school for artisans; 3. The elementary drawing-school. 1. The district trade-school affords instruction to persons who require for the intelhgent pursuit of their several callings a knowledge of mathematics, of natural philosophy, and facility in drawing and modehng, or to such as wish to devote themselves to the technical service of the State. It also serves as preparatory to the Polytechnic School. The instruction embraces in a course of three j^ears: — Religion, German and French languages, history, geograpliy. elementary mathematics, phj^sics, thoretical and practical chemistry, mechanics, technology, geometry, plane and solid, trigonometry, natural history, free-hand and linear drawing, modeling in clay and wax. After the first year, pupils who take a commercial career devote more time to the French and English languages, arithmetical calculations, and geography in reference to the natural resources and industries of nations, and to commer- cial forms. Those whose destination is agriculture, pursue chemistry in refer- ence to soils, and the implements and processes of husbandly. The first instruction in drawing is according to "Wolff's principles of rational instruction in drawing, the more advanced from large drawings and solid SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. X16 objects. In all the classes there are from seven to eight hours for drawing Vfcekly. 2. The Sunday-school for artisans gives instruction to apprentices and journeymen in drawing, modeling, engraving, arithmetic, geometry, physics, anil chemistry. The instruction in drawing, in throe courses, begins with free- hand drawing according to Welti's system; then follows the drawing of orna- ments, vases, &c., in outline, witli reference to the trade of the pupil, geometric drawing, drawing from bas-reliefs; finally, in the last course, special drawing. This is divided into four sections: — a. For builders; b. For joiners; c. For turners ; d. For workers at various trades. 3. The ebvii/iiary draw in-j -school is for those boys who are still attending the popular school, and who wish later to engage in a trade, after which they entei into the trade-school. In two courses drawing and modeling alone are taught. AH these schools in Nuremberg have a large number of pupils. In 1867 the first had 212, the second 1,876, and the last 228 pupils. The school-fees in the trade-school and the elementary school amount, at the most, to two florins an- nually ; on the other hand, there is for apprentices and journeymen under eighteen years of age, a strict compulsory school attendance. The annual income of the above schools from the town and the State amounts, exclusive of premises rent free, to 16,000 florins, to which add the amount of school-fees received, 1,800 florins, and we get the total cost at 17,800 florins. The establishments in Nuremberg possess a library, out of which works of gen- eral utility and belles-lettres are lent to diligent pupils. It thus gives an oppor- tunity of rewarding good behavior, and is also calculated to impart much in- formation which the school does not teach. A bad choice of books is also in this way prevented. HIGHER TRADE-SCHOOL AT PASSAU. The trade-school at Passau is organized with two divisions ; with 57 pupils in 1867 in the commercial and 44 in the industrial or mechanical division — both under a rector, assisted by 14 teachers. The special subjects included in the commercial division, besides the French and English languages, are thus drawn out in the programme : Course II. — Commercial Arithmetic. — Calculation of profits by multiplication and division. Compound rule of three. Simple and complex partnership ac- counts. Compound calculations and calculation of per centage. Calculation of interest, and discount. Lessons in the knowledge of coins, measures, and weights. Bankers' accounts. Direct and indirect reduction of bills of exchange. Bills of lading and invoices. Mercantile Science. — The most essential parts of the theory of banking, with explanation of the most common terms used in banking. Making out of various forms of bills of exchange. Invoices and calculations. Simple book-keeping. Elaboration of a course of business, making the necessary entries connected with it in the proper books, and then making up the latter. Composition of the most important letters for simple book-keeping. Opening and closing of accounts current according to various rates of interest. Course III. — Mercantile Science. — Arbitration. Banking commissions. Pub- lic .stocks. Customs and trade regulations. Commercial associations and mer- cantile systems. Book-keeping by double-entry ; composition of most import- ant letters for this. Commercial Geography and Commercial Hisiory. — The various States of Eu- rope, with reference to their commercial productions, the principal seats of their commerce and industry, their lines of traffic, their customs, laws, &c. Tite Nature of Colonies. — Synoptic history of commerce during the middle ages, more particularly of German commerce. Influence of geographical dis- coveries, and especially of the discovery of America, and of the ocean road to India, on the intercourse of nations. Commercial history of the European mar- itime powers in modern times. 116 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. The higher improvement-school at Paasau, opened in 1866, provides for in- struction on Sunday mornings and week-day evenings, and has been well at- tended, mostly by adult apprentices and assistants; several master-workmen also have attended. It h.is a rector and four teachers (masters,) and the branches taught are book-keeping, commercial science, geometry, natural phi- losophy, chemistry, technology, and drawing. Its pupils number one or two hundred. Weaving-school. — Connected with the higher trade-school at Passau is a weaving-school, teaching the whole art, including the history and preparation of the materials, hemp and flax. This is also a week-day and Sunday-school. There are thirty-three pupils. Regular conferences of weavers are held in connection with these schools. WEAVING-SCHOOL AT MUNDEBERG. The weaving-school at Miindeberg is intended to impart thorough theoretical and practical instruction in weaving in all its branches, and to give instruction not only to pupils, but to give whatever information may be demanded by any body already in the business. It is open to young men from fourteen to twenty- two years of age, from the whole province of Yoigtland, preference being given to natives of Miindeberg. It is a boarding-school, and is provided with two salaried masters and one pupil-teacher. The course embraces two years, during both of which are taught German, arithmetic, geography, drawing, and rehgion. During the first, pupils are taught the sim.pler processes connected with weaving, and the weaving of plain fabrics ; during the second, theoretical and practical instruction is given in the more advanced processes. Certain manufacturers in the neighborhood furnish the raw materials and buy the woven fabrics at the usual rates. There are six- teen pupils. Bavarians pay 150 florins, natives of other countries 200 florins annually for board, lodging, and instruction, in addition to which the school re- ceives their earnings. Connected with the school is a gratuitous Sunday-school, open from 1 to 3 P. M., of two classes, the first of which is open to all persons engaged in in- dustry without exception, teaching German, compositions being written- on sub- jects relating to trade, arithmetic, linear and free-hand drawing. The second class imparts theoretical and practical instruction in their trade to weavers alone. WOOD-CARVING SCHOOL AT BERCHTESGADEN. At Berchtesgaden, in the Salzburg district, a technical-school has been insti- tuted by the government, in aid of an industry which has long been carried on in that mountainous region, namely, the handicraft of carving ornamented arti- cles in wood and bone. The course embraces instruction in drawing, modeling, and carving, free of charge to all persons domiciled in the district, and to strangers who pay a small tuition. The school is well supplied with patterns and models, and there is a reposi- tory in which the work of the pupils is sold for their benefit. The school-hours are from T to 11 A. M., and from 12 to 4 P. M. The pupils are arranged in two classes, and can remain four years. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 117 ROYAL SCHOOL OP MACHINERY AT AUGSBURG. The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg was formerly a Polytechnic school, but under the law of 1864 it lias a special organization. The conditions for admission are a thorough knowledge ot algebra, inclusive of logarithms and geometry, and a certain amount of practice in linear drawing. Pupils must be over fifteen. Hospitants must give proof of possessing the preliminary knowl- edge requisite to thoroughly understand tke subject taught. The curriculum consists of two courses : — First course : Mathematics, four hours weekly; designing, eight hours weekly in winter and ten in summer. Second course : Elementary mechanics, differential and integral calculus, physics, mechanical engineering and designing. There are for botli courses two hours of daily practice in the workshops, except on Saturdays. There are twenty-five pupils, paj'^ing each twenty florins annual school-fee. Prof. Koristka, in his account of the Polytechnic Schools of Bavaria, takes the following notice of the workshops at Augsburg : Although in general the establishment of machine-shops at the Polytechnic schools has been given up for want of success, as at Dresden, Berlin, Carlsruhe, Zurich, &c., we must confess that these workshops have had marked success at Nuremberg and Augsburg. The instructive and beautifully-made models of Augsburg are to be found in almost every collection of models in Germany, and the Principal of the Augsburg workshop (Prof. Walter) has for years de- voted all his energies to this branch of instruction. To give a little idea of the way in which this instruction is given, we add the plan, condensed as far as possible, as it was explained to us by Prof Walter. During the first year, two hours daily are spent in the workshops ; daring the second year, one hour daily ; in the third year three, and that from 4 to 7, after the theoretical instruction. The most of the scholars have never had any practical experience. The scholar is placed at a screw, a coarse file and a piece of (smith's) iron are given him. He is to practice himself in filing first planes at right angles and then parallel to one another. Than he is made to do the same with a finer file. Nothing can ba done superticially, and no pupil is allowed to go on until he has been thoroughl}'- saccassful. Then the scholar is practiced in boring, in cutting of screws, and in making faucets. Then comes the turning of round surfaces and of screws, the smoothing off, &c., and this is all done with simple pieces of iron, out of which different articles, such as paper-weights, &c., are made. The next tasks given are the completion of correct rulers, simple steel angles, turn- ers' compasses, and so on, until the pupil is able to make a pair of brass com- passes, with steel points soldered in. If the pupil can do all this correctly, he is capable of taking a simple model of some motion and working on without assistance. He generally reaches this point during tlie third course. This instruction is not obligatory, but if a scholar has once undertaken it, he is held strictly to all its duties. Scholars are paid for the models they complete. When they have finished the course they are generally far enough advanced to be aljle to support themselves by work in any factory. The workshops at Augsburg have twenty-one screws, with a perfect assortment of tools belonging to each, five (foot) turning-lathes, and a great lathe more than twenty feet long. Be- sides this, there are joiners' benches, two planing machines, a large and two small wheel-cutting engines, a boring machine, a smithy, &c. Many of these things are made here, so that it is impossible to give the cost of the whole machine-shop. The following prices may give a faint idea of the expense : a screw, with its appurtenances, $52, a turning-lathe and its belongings, $179, a planing-bench, with its tools, $50, The common tools used would amount to about $1,960. The tools for the blacksmith's shop cost $240. According to this we should estimate the furnishing of similar workshops at about $4,000 or $5,000. Beside the scholars, day-laborers also work in these shops, and are regularly paid. In 1860 the expenses for labor, reparations, material, salary of the overseer, &c., amounted to $959, the receipts to $976.80. 118 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS AT MUNICH. The plan on which the Polytechnic School at Munich is now organized, and the distribution of subjects in the general division of mathematics and natural sciences, and the four special divisions or schools of architecture, mechanical engineering, technical chemistry, and of trade and commerce, lias been so fully set forth in the general exposition of the system of technical instruction as established by the law of 1864, that^ny further description here is unnecessary except to give a few particulars from the last prospectus. The conditions of admission are, the necessary preliminary knowledge, and good moral conduct. The pupils of the general division are bound to take part in the lessons on at least five subjects in each semester. The pupils in the special divisions are bound to take part in all the studies mentioned in the programme of the division. Admission into the Polytechnic School is only granted to those who can pro- duce a certificate of having passed the absolutorium of a technical gymnasium, or who will submit to examination in all the subjects of study pursued in those institutions. Admission to pupils or hospitants, who wish to attend only some particular lessons, is, however, granted on less difficult conditions. On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitante must pay an admission fee of 5 florins. The school honorarium is 20 florins per semester. Hospitants pay 4 or 6 florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly. For participation in the work of the laboratory, pupils pay 15 florins, and hospitants 20 florins. Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees. An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the sub- ject of examination being fixed by tlie professors in council. The premises heretofore occupied are spacious, and the equipment every way suitable; the lecture and class-rooms are large and well lighted, and the labora- tories for the chemical students afford eveiy convenience for manipulations. The rooms for drawing are well provided with models, and the collections of all kinds for iUustrations in architecture, mechanics, and engineering, are large, and of the most recent construction. To these facilities for instruction within its own premises, this great technical school can hold out to the student the splendid galleries of art. the vast collec- tions in natural history, the well-equipped and officered laboratories of the-Con- servatorium, and the great industrial establishments generally of Munich, which are now commanding a patronage fairly won by the scientific and artistic train- ing which the foremen and workmen generally have received. The General Conservatory of Scientific Collections at Munich embraces twelve distinct collections, viz. : the cabinet of coins ; the antiquarium ; the observa- tory and meteorological institutes ; the chemical laboratory ; the mineralogical, geological, zoological, and paleontological collections ; a botanical garden, and an anatomical institution. The Conservatorium has an income of 50,000 florins. The Academy of Sciences, originally founded by the Elector Maximilian III, but reorganized by King Louis and placed in immediate connection with the University; the Royal Library, with over 800.000 volumes, and the University Library of 160,000 volumes; the School of Mines, the Cameralistic studies, or science of flnance and public economy ; the general artistic and scientific pur- suits of Munich — make it desirable as a place of higher scientific study. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jjp ACADEMY AND SCHOOLS OF THE FINE ARTS. "Within a very recent period, Bavaria has become one of the great art centres of Europe, and its capital, wliich has increased in popuUition from 20,000 in 1805 to 155,000 in 1868, not only possesses in its galleries and collections valu- able remains of ancient art, and the modern productions of other countries, but is rich in specimens of architecture, painting, statuary, castings, and frescoes, executed by her own artists trained in her own schools and ateliers. The late King Louis expended on buildings and works of art in Bavaria over $80,000,- 000. This expenditure was not confined to the fine arts, in the construction, orna- ment, and equipment of public buildings, and galleries for the possession and enjoyment of the few, but was intended and felt in its beneficence throughout , all the mechanical industries, and by every class of the kingdom. ROYAL ACADEMY OF THE FINE ARTS.* For the youth who has determined to embrace the career of an artist, the Royal Academy of the Fine Arts offers the requisite means of completing his education. This institution has its origin in the drawing-school founded by the Elector Maximilian III, in 1770, and reestablished by King Maximilian the First, in 1808; but its present flourishing condition is the work of King Louis, who gave it a new constitution in 1846. It is at once a society of artists and a school of art. The instruction given in the academy is both practical and theoretical. The former embraces historical painting, sculpture, architecture, and copper-engra- ving ; the latter, the history of art, anatomy, perspective, descriptive geometry, and shading. The common basis of artistical studies is considered to be draw- ing after the antique ; but especial attention is also directed to the drawing, modeling, and painting after nature. The instruction in historical painting is given in four separate schools, each under the direction of a distinct professor. There are also separate schools of sculpture, architecture, and engraving. Lec- tures are delivered regularly on the history of art, ancient and Christian, as well as on anatomy, and on the other branches of theoretical knowledge. The admission to the academy is free both to natives and foreigners, provided they are qualified by the possession of adequate elementary knowledge and facility in the higher branches of drawing, with a proper scholastic ediication, and a good moral character. The pupils destined for architecture must, if na- tives, have passed through the polytechnic school ; and if foreigners, produce certificates of their mathematical attainments. The candidates execute an ex- perimental performance, upon the result of which their admission depends; and they must, further, remain a half-year on probation before they are definitively enrolled as pupils. The maximum period of study in the academy is six years, but pupils may leave it earlier if qualified. Diligent and talented pupils, who are natives of Bavaria, and poor, may obtain small stipends, besides being fur- nished gratuitously with models for the cartoons, pictures or statues which they may execute within the academy. A general exhibition of modern works of art takes place about every three years, under the direction of the academy. * Abridged from Report of J. Ward, Secretary of the English Legation at Munich. 126 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. The academy has also the execution or direction of all public works within the sphere of painting or sculpture. It forms a kind of council to the Eang in all matters of art. The staff of the academy consists of a director, (for many years the celebrated Kaulbach,) five professors respectively of painting, sculpture, architecture, en- graving, tlie history of art, and the technics of painting, with teachers of anat- omy and of perspective, descriptive geometry, and shading, and a corrector of the pupils' performances, a teaching force of fourteen persons. It has a secre- tary, an inspector, and proper attendants. The usual number of pupils is 230, among whom are several foreigners. The annual expenses of the academy itself amount, in the whole, to 22,816 • florins, or £2,281 sterling — a very moderate sum, considering the efficiency of the institution and the merits of the professors. The budget of the academy, however, in the government estimates, comprises the annual charge of the public galleries, &c., and stands thus for 1864: — 1. The Academy of the Fine Arts, 22,816 florins; 2. Galleries of Art, the property of the State, (viz., the Glyptothek, Pinacothek, New Pinacothek, &c.,) 20,501 ; 3. Working artists, 1,800; 4. Allowances and pensions to artists, 6,721; 5. Cashier's department, 500 ; 6. General Reserve Fund, 357. Total, 52,745 florins, equivalent to about $21,000. There are other institutions in Munich which the inhabitants themselves have formed for the furtherance of the same objects, such as the Art Union, the Trades' Union, and the like. The Society for the Improvement of Manufactures has, in particular, had a very useful tendency, by the constant communications which it keeps up between the class of artists and that of mechanics. It was founded in 1850, and the chairman is the eminent architect De Yoit. The so- ciety gives to its members drawings and models for all articles to be worked or manufactured in the department of industry, arranges occasional exhibitions, and publishes a journal. Whilst the artist furnishes the drawings or designs, the artisan is often able to give useful suggestions with respect to the materials best suited for the work ; and so both the one and the other is mutually im- proved. The progress which has been made in casting, and other branches of metallic work — of which the late Paris Industrial Exhibition has furnished evidence — is considered as in some measure attributable to this society, which aims at raising the character of manufacturers, by brtngmg them more closely into contact with the fine arts. The number of artists constantly residing in Munich is very large, and is- stated to be about eight hundred. They are chiefly Germans, but artists from foreign countries are also continually visiting the Bavarian capital. The daily 'association of these persons with each other can not fail to be attended with beneficial results. Not only is the principle of emulation called into action, but ideas are exchanged in a social hitercourse which often lead to the realization of important works. Munich offers, in this respect, on a small scale, the same advantages that Rome does on a larger. Nor are the artists by any means con- fined to their own set. They mix pretty freely with other classes of society — with learned men, tradesmen, mechanics, and artisans ; and hence their ten- dency has become more scientific than formerly ; they have become more dis- posed to avail themselves of practical science in the execution of artistic works. Tliis improvement is partly attributable to the influence of the polytechnic school SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 121 As a school of pure art, there is no pliace out of Italy which holda out so many attractions to the student. He finds in the Glyptothek, the Pinacothek, and the other Royal collections, the best opportunities of copying from the antique, and of forming his knowledge of the painting and sculpture of more modern times. He sees around him magnificent public buildings, and churches whose architecture is only surpassed by the beauty of their internal decorations. ROYAL SCHOOL OF ARTS APPLIED TO TRADES, AT NUREMBERG. The Ro3'al School of Arts applied to Trades {Kunstgewerlschule) at Nuremberg aims not only to promote art, but to improve the artistic character of industrial products. It receive pupils above sixteen. The curriculum is as follows : Division ij (12 hours a week to each study.) — 1. Drawing from ornamental models; 2. Practice in architectural drawing, with theoretical lectures; 3. Drawing from antique models; 4. Modeling and drawing ornaments and figures. Division II. — 1. Painting, drawing, and modehng from Hfe, for artists ; 2. Plastic studies for artists ; 3. Exercises in composing and executing subjects in figures and of an ornamental character ; 4. Embossing and sculpture; 5. Wood- carving, exercises in carving ornaments and figures, and execution of objects of industrial art ; 6. Brass-founding — exercises in forming, founding, and en- graving. Supplemental classes, (2 hours weekly to each branch.) — 1. Perspective and shadows; 2. Anatomy. The practical branches, such as architecture, sculpture, and ornamentation, are'^made the chief subjects of instruction, and are taught with special reference to the present requirements of industry. The general opinion of the persons who have made a study of questions con- nected with teaching, not only in Bavaria, but also in other parts of Germany, is that the Nuremberg school has contributed more than any other to the prog- ress of the national industry. This progress is especially manifest in the very decided improvement in the manufacture of children's toys, which are one of the staple productions of the country. For some years past, the improvement in the forms of the articles, whether molded in clay or sculptured in wood, with which the Nuremberg manufacturers supply the shops of Paris, has shown us that great progress must have been made in the teaching of drawing, and ample confirmation of this opinion may be obtained on visiting the higher drawing-school of this town. The Parisian manufacturers, though superior in other matters dependent on the arts of design, are, with regard to children's toys, very inferior to the Nuremberg artisans. SPECIAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL DRAWING AT NUREMBERG. In this town, so noted for its various manufactures, there are several draw- ing-schools of different degrees, according to the trade the pupils intend to follow. The first and most important is the higher school of industrial drawing conducted by M. Kroling. It is justly regarded in Germany as the one which has rendered most services to industry. In order that the pupils may, in a few years, acquire some real skill, none are admitted but those who have already attained considerable proficiency. The principle adopted by the professor of this school is that, in order to form good industrial draughtsmen, the pupils must pass through all the degrees of artistic drawing, so that they may be able, 122 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION In BAVARIA. in the very varied and different combinations required by manufacturersj to blend judiciously and harmoniously all the various kinds, without there being any necessity, as often happens, for having recourse to one artist for the archi- tectural part, to another for the figures, and to a third for the ornaments, &c. As for the method of teaching, it is exclusively based on drawing from models in reliefj graduated according to the proficiency of the learners, and ad- vancing from the simplest models to the finest left by ancient art, and then to nature. The talented director expresses his antipathy to copying from litho- graphs, which he regards as calligraphy, not drawing. In accordance with these principles, he has formed for his pupils very fine and very complete col- lections of models. The teaching is distributed in three divisions : — 1, drawing of ornament; 2, drawing from the antique; 3, drawing from nature. After attaining proficiency in drawing, the pupils pass on to modeling and sculpture in wood and stone ; then, as soon as they have attained a certain degree of skill, they have to compose designs, and to model and carve them. As a preparation for the higher drawing-school, there is an elementary school with courses occupying two years. The first, of eight hours' lessons per week, is entirely devoted to free-hand drawing, beginning with exercises on straight lines and curves, on plane surfaces, on symmetrical and regular bodies, and on simple and complex ornaments, finishing with compositions. The second course, of six hours per week, is devoted to drawing ornaments, to drawing from the round, from the antique, and also to drawing furniture. INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. The instructions drawn up in the Department of Commerce and Public Works,' for the government of the newlj^-organized technical schools, mark out a detailed course for drawing founded on the long experience of the famous schools of Nuremberg and Munich. PROGRAMME FOR DRAWING IN TRADE-SCHOOLS. Course I. — First half-year. — Exercise of eye and hand in drawing lines and geometrical figures ; delineation of objects of suitable size, and with plane sur- faces; explanations of the nature of vision, and with this the first elements of perspective; linear drawing without instruments should be combined with free drawing, [Freihandzeichnung.) Second half-year — Continuation of the free drawing ; delineation of simple ornaments from cartoons, or from plaster models, in slight relief or perforated ; linear drawing, with the aid of compasses and mathematical instruments; draw- ing, division and measurement of straight lines, right angles, and figures ; con* struction of scales, measurement, &c. Course II. — Free drawing of more elaborate ornaments from plastic models; the proportions of the human head and its various parts, from simple outlines; exercises in the construction of regular curved lines, architectural members, projection of simple surfaces, and of regular equilateral figures; embossing from simple plastic models in diflferent sizes. Course III. — Continuation of exercises in free drawing from the round; de- lineation of animals and plants, in as far as these may be applicable to orna- mentation, with slight indication of shades, so as to make the form distinct ; explanation of style ; delineation of tlie human body, and its proportions, in outline; linear drawing; continuation of exercises in designing simple ma- chines and models; the five orders of architecture ; industrial tools; profiles, &c., as fin- as possible in natural size, from models; sketching from nature; ex- ercises in drawing with Indian ink ; sliglit coloring of profiles, &c. ; embossing from drawings of simple classical artistic forms. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 123 Modifications for (he Agricultural Division. Course I. — First half-year. — [Substantially the same as in the trade course,] Stcoiid half-year. — Linear drawing, with help of compasses and nuiLlicmatical instruments; drawing, dividing, and measuring straight lines, plane angles and figures, and construction of scales of measurement; exercises in drawing plans and elevations of simple geometrical bodies, in various positions, and in the rules of the theory of proportions. Course II. — Plxercises in drawing plans and elevations of separate architec- tural parts, more especially of the stationary arrangements of farm-buildings, from models, and also from nature ; delineation of simple agricultural imple- ments ; first rules of plan-drawing. Course III. — Exercises in drawing entire buildings from models on a differ- ent scale of measurement; delineation of ground-plans, elevations, and sec- tions; delineation of more complete agricultural tools and machines without models. PROGRAMME FOR REAL-GYMNASIUMS. Course I. — Free drawing ; exercises in drawing straight lines and geomet- rical figures formed by them ; delineation of bodies with plane surfaces, with explanations of the nature of vision, and of the most simple phenomena of per- spective, illustrated by single objects, or groups of objects, of suitable size; exercises in drawing curved lines and simple ornaments formed of these; out- line delineation of symmetrical ornaments and vessels from cartoons and plaster casts in slight relief, of simple antique artistic forms. i)ouRSE II. — Free drawing ; division and proportion of the separate parts of the human frame drawn from cartoons ; foreshortening of the several parts in different positions, then of the whole body, using the geometrical lay figure as a model ; more elaborate ornaments in outline from embossed and plane-models ; ex&rcises in the use of rules, compasses, and other instruments, by delineation and division of plane figures; explanation of the planes of projection; exer- cises in the delineation of simple bodies by means of their projections, with use of the prismatic compass when copying from cartoons ; measurement and pro- jection of solid models in different positions, and according to different scales of reduction. Course III. — Simple exercises in shading, at first from models of plane orna- ments, afterwards from ornaments in rehef ; drawing of heads, hands, and feet indifferent positions, from slightly-executed models; ornaments belonging to various periods of art, as much as possible in connection with architectural fea- tures; measurement of complex solid models with plane surfaces, and projec- tion of the same according to the rules of descriptive geometry, and to a given scale of reduction, and in a prescribed position ; modeling of ornaments in re- lief, first from solid models, and then from plane patterns, and on a different scale. Course IY. — Delineation of animal and vegetable forms, if possible, from models in relief, and with strict attention to foreshortening and bends; elucida- tion of styles and exercises therein ; delineation of figures from simple plane models; ornaments in combination with human and animal forms, from the plane and from the round; projection of solids with curved surfaces and their intersections (Durchdringungen ;) delineation of the different orders of columns from cartoons ; exercises in linear perspective and shading. DRAWING IN THE COMMON ' AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Drawing is made obligatory in all the higher classes of the popular or com- mon school, but it is more systematically attended to in the. Further Improve- ment School, and in the special drawing-schools, of which there are now 261, in which are employed 270 well- trained teachers, with an aggregate attendance of over 7,000 pupils. Of these institutions, 219 are public, and 121 inde- pendent; 140 united with other institutions. There is in Munich a special drawing-school for women. 124 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. PUBLIC PROVISION FOR INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. Great attention is paid to musical culture, not only in the capital, and chief cities, but throughout the kingdom. It is made obligatory in all common schools, and ability and success in its instruction is secured by ample provision in the training of teachers, and in a rigorous examination on this point of all candidates. Mr. Juhus Eichberg, director of musical instruction in the Girls' High and Normal School in Boston, in a recent (1868) communication addressed to Dr. Upham, Chairman of the Committee on Music in the Boston Public Schools, respecting the manner and extent of popular musical instruction in certain European cities, remarks: "In no part of Germany does music receive more attention than in Bavaria and in Bavarian schools." MUSICAL STUDIES FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS. By royal decree, dated September 29, 1866, concerning the education of school teachers, their musical studies, which are continued through the three years of the seminary course, are fixed as follows : 1. Primaj-y School Teachers. First Course. — (A) Singing. — General rules for the cultivation of the voice, breathing, position of mouth and body. Practice of major and minor scales, general musical theory, practice of intervals and singing of short songs within the diatonic scale. (B) Piano. — Knowledge of the key-board, notes and measures, five notes finger exercises, easy major and minor scales. Books to be used: — Piano Method, by Wohlfahrt, Part I; finger exercises by A. Schmidt; one hundred exercises by Czerny, and Enkhausen's first Beginning. (C) Violin Playing. — Position of the body. Practice of scales and intervals. Book used: — Hohmann's Yiolin School, Part I. Second Course. — (A) Singing. — Practice of more diflScult intervals. Use of accidents. Singing of two-part songs, for soprano and alto. Attention to be given to correct breathing. (B) Piano. — More difficult scales in two octaves, continuation of Czerny's one hundred exercises and Wohlfahrt's Piano method. Senates by Mozart and Haydn. (C) Violin. — All the scales in Hohmann II. (D) Harmony. — Intervals. Theory of consonances and dissonances. Major and minor triads and connection of the same. Playing the perfect cadences by heart, in every way. Third Course.— (A) Singing. — The preceding exercises have enabled the pupils (unless hindered by mutation of voice) to assist in the church choirs. For Catholic institutions the practice of easy Latin or German masses is re- quired ; for Protestant institutions the practice of easy motets by Rink or Dro- bisch, as also the chorals of moderate difficulty from the Bavarian Church Melody Book, by Zahn. (B) Piano. — Practice of Bertini op. 29, running passages by Czerny, sonatas by Haydn, Clementi, and Mozart. Four-hand exercises by Bertini. (C) Organ. — Explanation of the pedals and the various stops. Practice of simple cadences. Book used : — Rink's first three months on the organ. (D) Violin. — Progressive practice of exercises and duets. Hohmann's Book III. Practice of violin — parts from works by Michael Haydn, Mozart, and others. (E) Harmony. — Inversion of triads and their connection with triads. Chords of Seventh. Book used, Forster's Examples I. The conducting of church music being among the duties of school teachers, pupils of the preparing school should now get acquainted with the use and nature of the several stringed and SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 125 wind instruments, as afterwards, when in the seminary, but little time can be given for this purpose. Nevertheless, the study of these instruments is not obligatory on the pupils. 2. Plan of lessons for the Preparing School. Courses I AND II. — Religious instruction, 3 hours per week; German lan- guage, 6 ; arithmetic. 4 ; geography, 2 ; history, 2 ; natural history, 2 ; callig- raphy, 2 ; drawing, 2 ; music, 6. Total, 29 hours. Religious instruction, the study of the German language, of arithmetic, and of music, arc considered the principal branches, insufficient progress in either of which entails with it the repetition of the course. But if insufficiency in music is owing to lack of talent and not of industry, no repetition of the course is necessary. 3. Seminaries for Teachers. Course I. — (A) Singing, (a) Catholic Seminaries. — Theory of choral singing. Practice of psalm melodies, antiphonies, and other Church songs. Practice of one-part chorals, with the organ accompaniment played by the student. (b) Proteatant Seminaries. — Learning by heart of chorals, from the Bavarian Choral Book for the Protestant Church. Zahn's harmonization of chorals, for male voices ; also, the four-part songs, by J. Rietz. (B) Piano. — School of velocity, by Czerny. Organ lessons to be prepared on the piano. (C) Organ. — Review of the lessons from the preparing school. Use of ped- als. Preludes, by Rink and others. Protestants to practice the whole of the Bavarian Melody-Book, as also preludes by Herzog and Ett. (D) Violin. — Hohmann, Book IV. Review of previous studies. Practice in orchestra-playing. (E) Harmony. — Theory of connected chords of the seventh and their inver- sions. Prolongations, their inversions. Organ-point. Playing of figured basses. Forster's Examples B, IJ and III. Course II. — (A) Singing. — Protestant Seminaries. — Church Songs of the 16th _ and 17tli centuries, by Zahn. Yolks-Klaenge, for male voices, by Erk. Sacred ' choruses, for male voices, by W. Greef. (B) Piano. — To be considered as a preparatory study for the organ. The more advanced students to practice sonatas, by Beethoven, and Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum. (C) Organ. — Protestant Seminaries. — J. S. Bach's chorals, for four mixed parts, as preparation for the more difficult preludes. Study of the longer pre- ludes and chorals, by Herzog and Ett. Extemporaneous preludes. System of ancient tonalities. (D) Violin. — Hohmann, Part Y. By dihgent practice the student ought to acquire the capability of playing the first violin part of orchestral works, by Haydn and Mozart, correctly. (E) Harmony. — Theory of modulations, demonstrated by the student, both in writing and at the piano. Four-part harmonization of chorals, or other given subjects. The study of the other instruments, without being obhgatory, is ad- visable. The most advanced students are to practice orchestra-playing once a week. The practice of so-called brass music is forbidden. Religious instruction, German language, arithmetic, mathematics, theory of teaching and music, are to be considered the principal branches ; the other branches secondary. The following is the division of hours in the Royal Bavarian Seminaries for Teachers, both courses being equal : — Religious instruction. 3 hours per week ; German language, 4 ; arithmetic and mathematics, 3 ; geograpliy, 1 ; history, 2 ; natural history, 2 ; science of teaching, 5 ; natural philosophy, 2 ; drawing, 2 ; music, 6. Total, 30 hours per week. The following is a schedule, to be filled up at the annual examinations : Jifatiiral Disposition. Moral Conduct. Industry. Progress. I. Very great. Very prniseworthy. Very great. Very great. 11. Grent. Praiseworthy. Great Great. III. Sufficient. Satisfactory. Satisfactory. Satisfactory. IV. Little. Not free from blame. Unsatisfactory. Unsatisfactory. 126 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. According to section 75, students applying for situations as school teachers, must have received at least No. Ill, for their musical qualifications. PUBLIC MUSIC SCHOOL IN WURZBUEG. In all the Bavarian cities where school seminaries are established, there exist, as branch establishments, public music-schools, where the seminarists receive their musical instruction. These music-schools are, like the seminaries, under the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction in Munich, and an annual sum is provided by the budget for their maintenance. The Eoyal Music School inT\"urzburg is the oldest of these institutions, having been, founded on the 18th of April, 1804, since which date it has given a sound musical instruction to countless school-teachers, and in consequence has vastly advanced the cause of music in Bavaria. Although designed at first as a branch to the Wiirzburg Seminary, it has long since outgrown these limits, and has become one of the most prominent of German musical high-schools, from which numbers of emi- nent men have graduated in succession. The founder and first Du'ector was the celebrated Dr. Joseph Frohlich, professor of aesthetics at the "Wiirzburg University, one of the profoundest musical theorists of the century. After his death, in 1862, he was succeeded by the present Director, Mr. T. G. Bratsch, to whose kindness I owe a host of interesting facts concerning the good work that is being done in the Bavarian schools. In these schools singing is not merely tolerated, but forms a principal part in the common-school education. Pupils are not permitted to show a listless, in- different manner at their music lessons, but are made to understand that this branch of education is considered by the school authorities as equally important with the ' three R's,' as we call them. Select voices from the public schools are occasionally allowed to join the seminarists in the performance of some im- portant musical work, such as cantatas and oratorios ; and I have before me the programmes of Pierson's oratorio, 'Jerusalem,' and Spohr's oratorio, ' Our Saviour's Last Moments,' performed solely by the seminarists and select pupils of the public schools, including solo parts, choruses, and the full orchestra. I was present, by invitation, at the musical exammation of aspirants to the seminary, and when it is taken into consideration that it comprised singing, organ-playing, vioHn, and piano, some shortcomings in any of these branches will not be wondered at. The choral and orchestral forces of the music-schools (composed, as above stated, of seminarists and pupils of the public schools,) meet, assisted by the music-teachers, twice a week for the practice of oratorios and symphonies. The public are admitted to these exercises without charge or any formality whatsoever. The exercises are conducted alternately by the most advanced students, under the supervision of Mr. Bratsch. No musical text-books are in use in Bavarian schools, but the teacher uses the blackboard for the theoretical instruction, and for choral practice in addition to the publications ■ of L. Erk and Greef, selections from cantatas, motets or masses within their reach. CONSERVATORY OP MUSIC. ' The Royal Conservatorium of Music at Munich has a director and 14 teach- ers, with an average of over 100 pupils, and receives aid from the government to the amount of 8,000 florins. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 127 INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. The establishments for instruction in agriculture consisted till 1864 of three central schools of agriculture, forestry, and veterinary science, and an agricultu- ral course or special divisions in the trade schools. Of thes.' last there were thirty in 1864. Since then several of them have been discontinued, and the whole system has been reorganized as follows : CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL OR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE. The Agricultural Institute was established in 1835, in the ro^-^al domain of Weihensteplian, in the old town of Feising, twenty miles north of Munich. The grounds include nine hundred and thirty-eight acres of arable and pasture land, as well as of forest, with an immense building, standing on a gentle elevation which overlooks a wide extent of beautiful country. The building forms a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court, and providing for the laboratory, colleciions and cabinets of various kinds, halls of study, dormitories, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, and other structures. The live stock comprises all kinds of domestic animals, and there are also: — Experimental fields for various cultures. A brewery and distillery. A nursery. A hop ground. A cheese dairy. Technological collections. A chemical laboratory. A collection of various seeds. A collection of the pro- ductions of the Bavarian soil. A cabinet of instruments for experimental physics. A collection of agricultural implements and models. A library. A plantation of mulberry trees for the study of silkworms. An anatomical col- lection for veterinary studies. The neighboring forests ofter opportunities for the study of resinous trees. The instruction is distributed as follows : — First Tear. Wiyiter Term. — Agricultural implements. Experimental chemistry. Arithmetic. Elements of construction. Drawing of plans and farm implements. Physiology of plants, agronomy, agriculture. Forest science. Anatomy, physiology, and dietetics of domestic animals. Summer Tirm. — Practical farming. P^xperiinental chemistry. Construction. Drawing of plans, surveying. Breeding of cattle, races, diseases. Physiology of plants Agronomy. Agriculture. Forest management. Second Year. Winter Term. — Organization of rural economy and manage- ment. Agricultural chemistry. Roads. Drawing of plans and form imple- menta Breeding of cattle. Veterinary police, warranty of cattle sold. Ph3'-sical geography. Meteorology. Climatology. Summer Term. — Valuation of farm property, and book-keeping. Agricul- tural chemistry. Farm buildings, meadows, and draining. Agricultural technology. Breeding and rearing of cattle. Veterinary police, warranty of cattle sold. Physical geography. Meteorology. Climatology. The studies last two years, and the instruction is given by nine professors and two assistant professors. The youths who attend this school are divided into two classes, ordinary pupils and free auditors. There are about twenty of the former and forty of the latter. To be admitted, the candidate must have attained sixteen years of age, have followed the studies of an agricultural school {Landwirthschaft Sclmle) or of a trade school; he must also know enough Latin to understand the value of the terms borrowed from that language, and be able to undergo an examination on the subjects taught in those schools. 128 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. Owing to local circumstances the pupils are, contrary to the general usage in Germany, received as boarders ; Bavarian subjects for one hundred and twenty- five florins per half year, and foreigners for one hundred and fifty florins. This charge includes teaching, board, and lodging; books and school neces- saries tlie pupils find themselves. They also have to pay two florins per half year for the reading room. The free pupils pay thirty-five florins per half year for each course they follow, and may obtain a certificate relative thereto. The courses begin on the 1st of October and end on the last day of August, with a fortnight's vacation at Easter. At the 'end of the year, examinations are held, and the deserving pupils receive certificates of aptitude. Mr. C. L. Flint, secretary of the Massachusetts board of agriculture, in a report of his visits to several agricultural institutions abroad m 1863, thus speaks of AVeihenstephan : I arrived there from Ratisbon on a bright summer morning, introduced myself to the first man I met, told him my object, and learned at what hours the various lectures took place, attended two or three of them and became acquainted with the professors, visited and examined the collections, the stables, the brewery, the farm and experimental field, the sheep, &c. The estate lying in connection with tliis institute comprises, I believe, about six hundred and fifty acres, of which there are usually about eighty in wheat, over forty in rape and root crops, about thirty-five in oats, twelve to fifteen in potatoes, fifteen to twenty in rye, eighteen to twenty in barley, eight to ten in beans, five in hopvS, about one hundred and thirty in fodder crops, such as lucerne, clover, vetches, &c., while about one hundred and fifl;y are in mowing fields and so on. The land is of excellent quality. The stock consists of twelve horses, twenty-two pairs of oxen, fifty-nine milch cows, seven young cattle, thirty swine, and five hundred and seventy sheep. The cows are mostly of the AUgauer and Miirzthaler breeds, w^hich are considered best for milk after the Dutch. The cross with the Allgauer and Swiss, they say, makes fine working oxen. The buildings form a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court, around which are arranged the various departments, as the chemical laboratory, the rooms for study, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, the dairy and stables, the granary, the brewery, the plough manufactory, &c. There are also various other establishments, a distillery, a flour mill, &c. The number of students is about seventy. The course of instruction does not materially differ from that at Hohenheim. During the summer term, for instance, there were lectures by the Director, on soils, their origin, the different kinds of soil, weathering, irrigation, drainage, division and natural classification ; the comparative value of soils for the production of plants; circumstances which modify this value; the soil differs according to the coarseness of its particles and its tenacity ; sand, loam, clay, marl and humus; subdivisions of soils; taxation of mowing lands, pastures, gardens, vineyards, swale lands, fisheries, &c.; double-entry book- keeping as a check upon farming operations. Dr. Riederer lectured upon the following topics : 1. Introduction to agricultural practice, idea and object in general and the systems of Thaer, Thiinen and Liebig. 2. The positive and negative means of a good farm management, as the judicious division of land, proper number of laborers, education of the farmer, necessary capital, &c. 3. Advantages and disadvantages of large and small estates. Influence of a judicious regulation of the corn trade, at home and abroad, on the profits of farming. &c. 4. The most important directions in regard to keeping animals and the proper estimation of their products. Text-books are used in connection with the lectures. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 129' Professor Knobloch lectured three hours a week upon — 1. Aurricultural Chemistry. — Chemistry of fermentation, decomposition, formation of humus. The chemical contents of manure, excrements of birds, sohd and liquid excrements of man and animals, strawy materials, disinfection. Tiie chemical principles of the preparation of composts. Bone manuring, phosphorites, and koprolites, gypsum, wood and peat ashes. Manuring with oil-cakes, ammonia, and nitric acid salts. Fish guano. The formation of soil through the culture of agricultural phmts. The chemical principles of fallowing and rotation. Drainage. Chemical analysis of soils and kinds of manure, the ashes of plants, of spring and running water, and of different agricultural products. On Liebig ; chemistry in its application to agriculture and physi- ology, &c. In connection with these lectures, the chemical laboratory was open daily during the term, and the students worked industriously in it, in making analyses of soils, manures and aslies, milk, potatoes, feeding materials and cereals, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid determinations, &c. 2. Agricultural Teclmologj'-. — Four hours weekly. Fermentative processes of the beer brewery, the brandy distillery and vinegar manufactory in its whole range. Making of butter and cheese, making of starch, and the application of the latter to the production of sago. Lime and brick burning. Turf cutting. Technological Practice^ four half-days a week in the winter term, and one. half-day in the summer term. Manufacture of Bavarian normal and strong beer, potato, grain and maize brandy, vinegar, starch, &c. Demonstrations in the brand}'- distillery, the cheese dairy, the brickyard, at the limekiln, and on the turf or peat meadows. Investigation of various raw materials and fabrics. Agricultural technological mechanics. Excursions to farming estates in the neigliborhood. Professor May gave lectures in the winter term, five hours weekly, upon — 1. The anatomy of the horse, the sheep and the swine, with demonstrations by skeletons and preparations. 2. Piiysiology of domestic animals, in connection with the feeding proper for them. 3. The races of the larger farm animals. Study of the different races, breeds and families of improved domestic animals, their form, characteristics and useful qualities. 4. General principles of the production of animals. Methods and principles of breeding. Green, dry, root, bulb and corn fodder. Wastes of the farm. Loss and injury from particular feeding materials. Comparative composition of different materials, and their nutritive value. Preservation, economy and production of fodder. Summer Term, four hours a week — 1. Swine-breeding. Choice of animals. Pregnancy and care of the litter. Parturition. Treatment of the dam and pigs. Close confinement. Keeping at pasture. Fattening. 2. Horse-breeding. Study of the subject from an agricultural and a national economical point of view. Choice of draught horses. Pairing. Treatment of the mare in foal. Handling of colts during the first, second, third and fourth years. Checks in the development. 3. Knowledge of wool. Its normal and abnormal conditions. 4. Importance of a knowledge of veterinary science in the treatment of domestic animals. Secontd Course. Winter Term, four hours a loeek. — 1. On wool (continu- ation.) Wool staple. The wool fleece. Evenness of wool. Cloth and comb- wools. Working of wool. 2. Sheep-breeding. Choice of animals. Numbering and classification of slieep. Treatment of ewes in lamb. Time of lambing. Management of the young. Pasturing sheep. Washing and shearing. Sorting of wool. Treat- ment and sale of wool. Fattening. Valuation of the fodder used in sheep husbandry. 3. Cattle-breeding. Choice and selections of animals for breeding. Devia- tions from the normal presentation. Suckling and artificial raising of calves, General management in all cases. y 130 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 4. External diseases of the larger useful farm animals. 5. Shoeing. Treatment of the ordinary brealvs and diseases of the hoof. Summer Term., five hours a week. — 1. Cattle-breeding (continued.) Stall and pasture treatment. Use of cattle — milk, fattening and draught. Valuation of fodder to be used. 2. Knowledge of the exterior of the horse. 3. Knowledge of the exterior of cattle. 4. Internal diseases of domestic animals. Contagious diseases and their origin. Practical exercises of judging correctly of animals, on the part of the students, also of wool ; the true modes of breeding and the diseases of stock are constantly enforced. Prof. Lidl lectures in the winter term, on — 1. Cursory view of the geognostical relations of Bavaria. 2. Agronomy. Mold and subsoil, humus, sand, clay, lime, gravel and alluvial soils.. Local aspects and their influence on vegetation. 3. Agriculture. Cultivation — working of the soil by cultivation, by different implements. Improvement of soils. 4. Anatomy and physiology of plants. Cells and vessels of plants. Dif- ference in them. Contents of cells. Plant-cells in their various relations. Intercellular tissue. Nourishment of plants. Motion of the sap. Production by seeds and spores. Diseases of vegetation. 5. Morphology. Root, stem and leaf organs, flowers, fruits and seeds. Summer Ter7n. — 1. Special plant culture — grain fodder and root-plants. 2. Economical botany. The most important weeds and poisonous plants. Second Course. Winter Term. — 1. Eruit culture. 2. Cultivation of special plants, root, commercial and coloring plants. Summer Term.. — 1. Culture of special plants, grains, pulse and oil fruits. Fodder plants and tubers. 2. "VViiie growing. 3. Continuation of lectures on botany. Two botanical excursions are made each week in connection with this course. Prof. Dohlemann lectures in the winter term, on — . 1. Applied mathematics. Recapitulation of the most necessary principles of algebra, geometry and stereometry; calculation, division and alteration of surfaces; calculation of the cubic contents of different bodies. 2. General architecture. Earth and foundation work. Construction of ore pits. Restoration . of hewn stone and brick wall work. Stone -binding for pillars. Gliimney flues, &c. 3. Practice in drawing. Drawing of situations. Copying and .sketching of simple agricultural buildings and parts of buildings. Drawing of agricultu- ral implements and machines. Summer Term.. — 4. Continuation of general architecture. Construction of different kinds of vaults; ornamental works; carpenter's work; joiner's and locksmith's work. 5. Surveying, with exercises in the field. Explanation of the most useful instruments for length and angle measuring. Solution of difi'erent problems of practical geometry, on the field and in practice. Second Course. Winter Term. — Agricultural architecture. Laying out and construction of houses and stables. Buildings for the preservation of agricultural crops,- &c. 2. Meadow management, with practical exercises. Theory and use of different leveling instruments. Water measuring. Improvements of fields in general. Drainage. Irrigation. Practice in leveling and water measuring. Professor Meister lectured in the winter terra, three hours a week, on Physical geography, the atmosphere and climatology. The barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, and psych rometer. Effect of clearing oft' of forests. Relations of temperature to the atmosphere and the earth, and the consequent SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 131 distribution of plants. Peculiarities of land and sea climate, and their causes. Winds. Warmth and moisture. Amount of rain, dew, number of rainy days, storms, fall of hail, and their distribution over tlie year, and the consequent physical characteristics of the soil. Explanation of the century calendar, and of the so-called rules for determining the weather. Temperature of the soil. Observations at different depths. Barometrical and thermometrical measure- ment of heights. Construction of sun-dials. Judge Schleisinger lectures in the second course twice a week, in both terms, on the general German agricultural law in regard to the more important private rights and later laws in regard to cultivation. This course was comprehensive, embracing the general principles of rights, persons and things, and the laws affecting property, real and personal. The royal master of forests, Bierdimpfel, lectured in the winter term on the introduction to the management of forests, the structure of woods, plants, and their relation to the air, climate and soil, and on the definition of the technical forest expressions. Summer Term. — On forest cultivation, protection of forests. These courses wer^ illustrated by excursions into the neighboring forests. In addition to the short and frequent botanical and other excursions in the neighborhood, long excursions are made, from time to time, to various parts of the kingdom, the students being accompanied on them by one or more profes- sors. Special subjects are assigned to some one or more of the class on which to write out a detailed report. As an example, the last great excursion which took place previous to my visit was made to Northern Bavaria^ to Niirnberg, and"%o round to Augsburg, to visit the wool market in that city. In the former city, there was at that time a great meeting of Bavarian farmers, for the dis- cussion of agricultural topics; an agricultural convention, in other words. That was taken into the trip. That part of the kingdom, as well as Franconia, through which the direction lay, is largely devoted to the culture of hop?. Now two of the students were appointed to write out an account of the journey in general ; three to write on the culture of the hop ; two on fruit culture, as seen in the excursion; another on irrigation; another on garlic- land ; another on the art of manuring ; four others on cattle ; two others on the visit to Lichtenhof Agricultural School; another on bees; two others on the wool market, &c. A full report of the excursion, mostly written by the students themselves, is printed in connection with the annual report of the school. The nurseries on the farm are extensive and the sales from them profitable ; but probably the brewery is the most profitable branch of the establishment. Here are used more than ten thousand bushels of malt a year. In the year ending with July 1st, 1863, it used 3,668 Bavarian schefifel, or about 11,000 bushels. In the same year over a thousand bushels of potatoes were used in the distillery. There were sold from the nursery, 8,520 trees. Just before I was there a terribly destructive hailstorm had occurred, and I never saw such magnificent fields of wheat and other grain so completely riddled and ruined. It was painful to look upon. It had given promise of an extraordinary yield up to the time of the hail, but it was very nearly a dead loss when I saw it. A committee of appraisers from the insurance company for crops was on to estimate the damages. The wide-spread system of insurance, of which the institute had fortunately availed itself, saved it from very great loss, which otherwise would have fallen very heavily upon it. 132 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. I should add that much instruction is given in the field and the nurseries, in the barn and other parts of the establishment, by practical demonstrations. There is a reading-room, a library, and extensive collections and other appliances. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT LICHTENHOP. At Lichtenhof, in the neighborhood of Nuremberg, there is a school of agriculture, established by Dr. Weidenkeller, in 1832, as a trade-school with two sections, the other section being devoted to the mechanical arts, with a preparatory course common to both. The school of agriculture comprises : — 1. A preparatory school. 2. A school of husbandry. 3. A school of agricultural science. 1. The preparatory school is intended to receive lads whose education hag been neglected, and in it they are taught the following subjects: — Religion, two hours per week; principles of theoretical agriculture, two; practical agriculture, four ; arithmetic, four ; reading, one ; calhgraphy, four ; German lan- guage, 'four ; geography, two ; natural history, two ; drawing, eight. Total, 33. 2. The school of husbandry is intended to educate farmers, -bailiffs, and managers. The instruction occupies a year, and embraces the following subjects: — Religion, two hours per week; German language, four; chemistry, two; arithmetic, four; geography, two; drawing; three; calligraphy, four; theoretical agriculture, six; practical agriculture, four. Total, 31 hours. 3. The school of agricultural science is intended to render young men capable: — 1, of managing and cultivating farms of moderate size; 2, of being admitted into a central school of agriculture, or into the Munich Veterinary School. The instruction occupies three years, and there were in 1862-63, thirty-nine pupils of the first, eighteen of the second, and fifteen of the third year; in all seventy-two pupils. These numbers show that less than one-half of the pupils go through the whole course of studies. The school of husbandry had only two pupils, the preparatory school eight, which makes a total of eighty-two pupils, for whom there are tliirteen professors and three masters. The programme of the school of agricultural science is as follows: — SUBJECTS TAUGHT. Religion, Theory of agriculture, ... ^ Practical agriculture,. . Zoology, General and special botany, Pure mineralogy, Applied mineralogy, Physics, Chemistry, Arithmetic, Geometry, German language, Geography, Free hand and linear drawing, Calligraphy, ,, Anatomy and treatment of domestic animals. Hours per week. 1st year. 3d year. 2d year. 2 2 . 2 5 7 4 * 12 to 30 2 2 12 to 20 12 to 30 1 4 3 2 4 • 4 2 3 4 4 6 4 4 3 4 4 — 2 Mr. 0. L. Flint thus speaks of his visit to this school: — This institute is about a mile from Niirnberg towards the south. It was. founded in 1832, by Dr. "Weidenkeller. The farm, originally composed of sand and gravel, almost barren, was gradually changed into a good soil, now apparently fertile and productive, by the students. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 133 The stately buildings of the institute stand at the right of the entrance, and on the left the botanic garden. The buildings are in a modern style, contrast- ing strangely with the antique structures in the neighborhood. The dwelling of the inspector is within the college inclosure, as also that of Mrs. Weidenkel- ler, and just beyond, the dormitories for eighty students, the lecture-rooms, the laboratory, a spacious eating-saloon, which serves also as a work-room, a library and wash-room. The botanical garden contains all, or nearly all, the agricultural plants, arranged in the Linntean order, besides many of the more common forest trees. The garden of the institute for the growth of vegetables and fruits also joins the botanical gard n. Among the fruit trees stands the monument to Dr. Weidenkeller, the founder. A httle way beyond lies the experimental field. The improved grounds near by contain a good nurserj'- of trees. In a little grove on a knoll, a monument is erected to his majesty, King Max. A broad space is devoted to prnamental plants and farm crops. The experimental held is about two acres in extent. There is also a hop-garden on a piece of reclaimed swamp. This piece was improved by the pupils without much cost. Near the main building stands a second, which contains the collections. Tliey consist of skeletons and anatomical preparations, a crocodile, birds, domestic game and some malformations, several models of systems of irrigation, collections of insects, minerals, &c. The stocks of bees were presented by Dzierzon, and are therefore of special interest. The mode of operation is easily seen from the arrangement of the hives. The farm buildings consist of cow and horse stalls, shed and coach-house. There were about thirty cows, consisting of Allgiiuers and Simraenthalers, a iew Ansbachers and Ellingers. The roof of the cow-house is built of wood, the sides of stone. The instruction at this institute is not strictly agricultural. Much of it, in fact, has no more bearing on agricultural than on any other calling. Religion, the German language, geography, arithmetic, zoology and drawing are prescribed studies in the first year. Agriculture and practical agricultural exercises come in for a share of attention, but they don't seem to be especially prominent in the programme. The second year is a continuation of the first, with a little botany, geometry, mineralogy and history added, while in the third year, agricultural chemistry, farm accounts, rural architecture, machinery, the anatomy and physiology of animals, veterinary medicine, drawing, riding, fencing, and other practical exercises, come in and add variety. This institute ranks as intermediate in the list of Bavarian agricultural schools. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT SCHLEISSHEIM. The school of practical farming at Schleissheim was founded in 1822 as an institute for theoretical as well as practical agriculture, after the model of Hohenheim, but the plan was more fully carried out at Weihenstephan, and this institution has been carried on apparently to illustrate the pursuit of agriculture under difficulties. Mr. Flint thus describes his visit in 1863 : — The estate consists of about six thousand five hundred acres, and like many Other establishments of the kind, it possesses a fine old royal residence or chateau tlie whole lying in an immense, but not very fertile valley. I have seen it intimated that the lands were so decidedly inferior and unproductive that the intention of the government in giving it over to the school to be managed by scientific men was to put the value of scientific principles in agri- culture to the severest possible test. I believe, if such was the case, that there has been little reason to exult in the triumphs gained over such powerful natural obstacles as a poor soil and an ungenial climate, aq^ I think it may be taken to be as great a mistake to select land for a model farm, or an agricultu- ral college farm, that is much below the average of natural fertility, aa it 134 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. would be to select one very much above it. In the first case even scientific management can hardly be charged with the responsibility of a failure to produce high crops, and in the latter, it would not get the credit of whatever it did produce. Neither would be a fair test of the skill and science applied to it. The character of the soil led to the early adoption of a twenty years rotation, in which wheat came in but once, oats five times, rye and barley one year each, grass occupying six years, and one year being given over to an idle fiUlow. The buildings are old and immense in extent, arraiiged in the form of paral- lelograms, with broad open courts or yards between. The whole has an air of majestic desolation. I do not think palaces especiallj- well adapted for the purposes of agricultural schools. The endless stables were partially occupied by horses belonging to the Bavarian cavalry. The course of instruction is more practical than theoretical, that is, of the time devoted to study and training, two-thirds is given to practical work and one-tliird to theoretical. The theoretical instruction, which comes mostly in winter and on rainy days in summer, when it becomes impracticable to work out doors, embraces — 1. Rehgion. A brief survey of the history of religion and biblical history. 2. Elementary studies, arithmetic, orthography. In arithmetic, the funda- mental rules and fractions, exercises in reducing common currencies, weights and measures, and measurements of sj)ace. It is especially mathematics applied to agriculture. As large a proportion as possible is mental. About an hour a week is devoted to orthography, to teach correct writing and language, and to develop facilitj' in writing. It includes examples of receipts, bills, notices, &c. 3. Agriculture. On climate, atmosphere, knowledge and estimation of kinds of soil and their cultivation or working. On maclnnes and implements, their manufacture and repair, the parts of which they are composed and their use, the handling and management of sowing, threshing and cutting machines, to guard against accidents. On the formation of manure heaps and the manufacture of manure, the application of different sorts of manure. On the knowledge of seeds, and the different methods of sowing and planting. The treatment of plants during the period of growth. The reduction of different feeding substances to the hay value. Estimation of the necei^sary requirements of manure. On the various methods of harvesting, threshing, preservation and drying. On the valuation of fruits. On the arrangement and keeping of simple farm registers. Plan and model drawing from measurement. Technical Employments. — On milk and the products of milk. On the erection and management of brandy distilleries, and the suitable materials to use. Culture of Mowing Lands. — Preliminary instruction. 1. Leveling by the application of the level and other instrument.'^. 2. Measuring of level surfaces, lines, angles, and figures ; triangles, quadrangles, right angles, the circle, prac- tical exercises in these operations. 3. Laying out trenches and dams for water or irrigated meadows, calculation of bodies of water, and the require- ments of water for irrigated meadows. 4. Tools for field culture The practical management of meadows. Study of meadow or field plants. Requirements of seed and time of sowing. Seed raising. Manuring mowings with barn and compost manures, with hquid and artificial manures ; the hay harvast and its yield. Preparation of brown hay ; care and improvement of meadows other than irrigation. Drainage. — When and how to be applied. The work preparatory to draining. C.A.TTLE Breeding. — Application of anatomy to horse, cattle, sheep, and swine breeding. The various breeds and their characteristics. Explanation of particular methods of improving the breeds of cattle, through the introduction of foreign males, and through in and in breeding, &c. 1. Explanation of characteristics according to the kind of use required, feeding for beef, milk and draught. 2. Choice of animals for breeding, according to age, use, special points. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. I35 ■3, Treatment of the breeding animal, feeding and care. 4. Parturition. Treatment immediately after. 5. Maiwgenient of the calf Methods of raising. Quantity and quality of milk for its nourishment. 6. Feeding, management and care of the young animal up to the period of Use. 7. The same of the full-grown animal. Quantity and quality of food for milking, fattening, and working animals. Housing of sheep, product of wool, and the cleansing of it. 8. Adaptation to work. 9. Purcliase and sale of animals, especially the horse. The students are instructed in veterinary manipulations, which as far as pos- sible are applied to practice. Bleeding at several points in different animals. Treatment of wounds, &c. Shoeing of horses and oxen. The proper management of forests in all its branches, also forms a part of the instruction, as well as that of fruit trees. Excursions are also made to neighboring estates for the purposes of observa- tion, the results of which are written out by the pupils. Money is sometimes appropriated by the government to defray the expenses of long excursions. Experiments are conducted in the making of implements, the application of manures, and the cultivation of plants. There is a collection of models, a herbarium, a library, and tools and work- shops for repairing the smaller agricultural implements, and the preparation of models. The students are held to a pretty strict line of conduct; neatness, order and industry are inculcated and required. An examination takes place at the close of the course, and prizes are awarded according to merit. The number of cows kept is ninety; the number of yokes of oxen, thirty- six. They make cheese and butter. The age of the students varies from sixteen to twenty. The tuition, board, &c., amounts to about eighty florins, or about thirty-three dollars. Each student costs the government about one hundred and twenty-five florins, but the balance is made up from the public treasury. The young men are certainly not liable to acquire luxurious habits here. I visited them, by invitation of Professor Anselm, teacher of agriculture, while they were at supper, and had various opportunities for conversation with several of them. Their fare appeared to be what, in our reformatory and correctional institutions, would be called " very hard," and yet they seemed to be quite contented and happy. I should think the institution well calculated to send out a hardy, frugal, intelligent, industrious class of young men, who might testify with regard to their training as Socrates did with regard to Xantippe, " being firmly convinced that in case I should be able to endure her, I should be able to endure all others." There is nothing imposing in the buildings or their arrangement. They are substantial!}^ built of stone, in low, long ranges surrounding a large yard or open space. There is a blacksmith's and a wheelwright's shop in a part of the range, and many agricultural implements are turned out here by the slow processes of hand labor, some of them excellent, but all rather more remark- able for strength than elegance. INSTRUCTION IN FORESTRY AND HORTICULTURE. 1. In addition to the instruction given in the agricultural section of the real gymnasium and the trade schools, there are arranged courses of lectures in the university at Munich, and another special course of two years in the royal forestry school at Aschaffenberg. 2. The lectures on botany and vegetable physiology in the university, the practical work of the botanical garden, and the plantations of the pubhc parks and grounds, afford rare opportunity for horticultural study as well as land- scape gardening. 136 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR WOMEN. Besides the numerous schools of the usual grades for girls and young ladies in Munich, there are several institutions of a pecuhar character to prepare them for profitable occupations. Under the lead of several noble women, among whom are Mrs. Maria Von Weber, Eugenia Dollman, daughter of the celebrated architect Klentze, Mrs. Maria Volk, daughter of Kolbach, Caroline Hay, and others, an Art School for Young Women has been instituted— one of the first of its kind in Germany. Beginning in a smaU hired apartment, they bought models, procured the services of an experienced teacher of drawing — a pupil of Leutze before he came to this country, and opened the school ; and before the close of the first year numbered twenty-four eager pupils. The second year opened with a class in painting, under the instruction of an eminent artist — and during the following winter, lectures were delivered to the school on Es- thetics and the History of Art, by a Professor of the Royal Academy of Arts — the object of the school being to train its pupils to become themselves teachers of drawing and painting, and designers of patterns for various textile fabrics, household furniture and ornamentation. There is also another institution for training girls between the ages of thir- teen and sixteen for commercial business. It has been supported for several years at the expense of Mr. Adolph Remenschmied, a philanthropic merchant of Munich. The branches taught are such as are usually required in Schools of Commerce for Young Men, and are designed to fit young women to judge of the quality of goods, efiect sales, keep accounts for others, and for independent business for themselves, if they should have the talent and opportunity. Graduates of this school are already in responsible situations as book-keepers and managers of business for themselves and others. The success of the school has led to the establishment of similar institutions in other commercial cities of Germany. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOiN IN DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. INTRODUCTION. The Durhy of Brunswick, on an area of 1,526 square miles, com- prised in two portions widely separated, had in 1861, 282,400 inhab- itants. The governmental supervision of public schools belongs to a divis- ion in the department of the Interior, in which the consistory of the Lutheran church is largely represented. The system* and statistics of public schools and education in 1867, were as follows: 1. Elementary Schools : 579 parish schools in rural districts, with 406 teachers and 33,700 pupils ; 41 village and city public schools, with 255 teachers and 12,000 pupils. 2. S*econdary Schools : 5 Classical Gymnasium, (including 1 real school and 1 progymnasium,) with 67 teachers, 871 pupils, besides 2i latin classes in other schools. 3. Superior School: Collegium Carolinum, with a classical, tech- nical, and commercial department, with 25 professors and 180 pupils, including the technical division, which has an independent course. 4. Special and Professional Schools : The technical department of the Collegium Carolinum with eight special schools ; 1 carpenters school ; 1 agricultural school ; 3 secondary and every-trade schools ; 1 theological seminary ; 2 normal schools for common school teachers ; 5 young ladies' seminaries ; 1 institute for deaf mutes ; 1 scliool for the blind ; 5 orphan asylums ; 2 rescue and reform schools ; 5 infant gardens and schools ; 3 parish schools for Catholic children ; 1 Jewish institution with an endowment of $100,000. TECHNICAL COLLEGE AT BRUNSWICK.! The Collegium Carolinum, in the city of Brunswick, prepares young men by a scientific and technical education, for the special careers of — mechanicians, civil engineers, architects, metallurgists for mining and salt works, manufacturing or dispensing chemists, forest engineers, agriculturists, officers for raUway-s and roads, and surveyors. *For an account of the system of Public Instruction in Duchy of Brunswick, see Special Re- port on National Education, Part I, German States. tThe details of the Technical College are taken from the report of the French Commission, and the Programmes of the Iiutitutiou. 138 SPECIAriNSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. From the comprehensive curriculum, each pupil chooses the sub- jects required for his future destination. But when the pupil has entered his name for a particular line of studies, and he wishes to obtain irom the College a certificate of proficiency, he is obliged to follow all the courses taught in that technical branch. Besides these special studies there are college courses of litera- ture, living languages, history, general ^ and political geogra] hy, sta- tistics, political economy, which the pupils are encouraged to follow as useful adjuncts to the scientific teaching. The duration of the complete studies of the nine technical divis- ions is fixed as follows : 1. Construction of machines, - - - - 3 years. 2. Civil engineering, construction and architecture, - - 4 " 3. Metal works and salt mines, - - - - 3 " 4. Manufacturing chemistry, - - - - - 3 " 5. Dispensing- chemistry, - - - - - 1 " 6. Forest economy, - - - - - -2" 7. Agricultural economy, - - - • - 2 " 8. Service of railways and posts, - - - - 1 " 9. Government survey, - - - - - 2 " The teaching elementary mathematics, experimental physics, gen- eral chemistry, the rudiments of the natural sciences and of free- hand drawing, is common to all the divisions. Proof of sufficient preparatory instruction is required for admission to each division. At the end of every year's studies, the Director and professors decide as to the passing of the pupils to the upper class of their division. Those whose proficiency is doubtful have to undergo, on their return after the vacation, a special examination, after which the decision is given. A pupil who has followed the complete courses of his division receives on leaving a certificate of proficiency. Besides the pupils regularly matriculated for the technical divisions, free students are admitted to certain courses, as well as to the lessons in drawing, painting, and sculpture ; young men are at all times admitted to the class-rooms and studies. Numerous and well arranged collections and a good library are placed at the disposal of the professors and the use of pupils. The following tables show the number of hours alloted weekly to each branch of instruction for the special divisions for a half-year. The pupils who do not follow the plan of studies indicated for any special branch, do not receive the certificate relating thereto. . First Technical Division. — Mechanicians, Constructors, S^c, In order to shorten the length of the studies, the pupils begin to SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 139 attend the special courses before their instruction in the higher mathematics is completely terminated. The courses of coiisti-uction of machines are to follow simultaneously and in connexion with those of mechanics, the study of machines, or projects, and exercises of construction. Hours per week First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - 5 Gconietry and tri<^ononictry, - - - - - - 5 Knowledge of instruments, ---.-. 2 Experimental pliysies, - - - -- - -5 Inorganic chemistry, -------5 Free-liand drawing, - - - - - -- — 2d Term. * Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 Equations, - - - - - - - - 2 Analytical geometry, - - - - - - .5 Practical geometry*, - - - - ... . 5 Experimental chemistry, second course, - . • - - 5 Drawing of plans*, --._.___. Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - — Second Year. — 3d Term. Differential calculus, 1 st course, - - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 1st course, - ... - 4 Mineralogy, -----..-5 Technical chemistry, 1st course, - .... 5 Drawing of machines, - - - - -,_ - — 4th Term. Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - - - - 4 Geology, - -' - - . - - - .5 Mechanics, 1st course, --.-._ 4 Elements of building construction, - - - - - 4 Drawing of machines, - - . . . . — Second Technical Division. — Construction of Buildings, The divisions for the construction of buildings, for civil eno-ineer- ing, and for architecture have nearly all the preparatory studies in common ; they have also several points in common with the special studies. So, when the pupils have decided for one or other of the eight subdivisions, it is only in the exercises of drawing, projects and the applications relating thereto, that their teaching differs from that of the other two subdivisions. Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - - 5 Geometry and trigonometry, - - - - - - 5 Knowledge of instruments, - - - - - - 2 *These courses are not compulsory ; but the pupils are earnestly recommended to follow punctually the courses comprised ia their studies, and not to neglect those which tend to the general culture of the mind. 140 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. Hours per -weak. Experimental physics, 1st course, ----- 5 Inorganic chemistry, - - - » - - -5 Free-haud dj-awing, ...... — 2d Term. Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - . - 5 Theory of equations, ----.--2 Analytical geometry, - - - - - - -5 Practical geometry, - - - - - - - 5 Experimental physics, - - -- - - -5 Drawing of plans, - - -- - - - — Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - — Second Year. — 3d Term. Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 1st course, - - - * - 4 Land surveying*, - - - - - - -2 Technical chemistry, - - - - -- - 5 Mineralogy, - - - -•-_ . .5 History of architecture, 1st course, - - - _ . 2 Drawing of ornaments, - - - - - - - — 4th Term. Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - ... 4 Higher land surveying*, - - - - - - - 3 Geology, - - - - - -'- - 5 Mechanics, 1st course, - - - - - .-4 Elements of building construction, 1st course, - - * - 1 Drawing of ornaments, - - - - - -- — Architectural drawing, - - - - - - — Third Year. — 5th Term. Differential calculus, 3d course, - - - - - - 2 Descriptive geometry, 3d course, - - - - - 4 Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - - - 2 Mechanics, 2d course, - - - - - - 5 Elements of building construction, 2d course, - - - -.4 Architectural drawing and construction, - - - - — 6th Term. Technical physics, 2d course, - - - - - - 2 Mathematical physics, 2d course, . - * - - 2 Mechanics, 3d course, - -..--.4 Elements of building construction, 3d course, > - . 4 History of architecture, 2d course, - - - - - 4 Building materials, - - - - - - -2 Architectual drawing and construction, - - - - - — Founh Year.— 7th Term. Analytical mechanics, -- - - - - -4 Mechanics of building, - * - _ - - 2 Roads and railways, - - - - - - -4 Building of Bridges, - -- - - - - 4« Civil law, ---------3 Drawing of buildings, ••••--- — Architectural projects, .• • • -.- - - — Landscape drawing, ••••--- — SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 141 Hours per week. 8th Term. Hydraulic constructions, -----.. 4 Study otinachiucs, - - - - - . .4 Law relating to the erection of buildings, - - - - - 2 Drawing- of constructions, ------ — Arcriitectiiral projects, - - - - - - - — Landscape drawing, -----.. — Third Technical Division — Salt Mines and MetaUur^cal Works, These two subdivisions require the same preparatory studies. For the salt-mines a sound knowledge of geology and fossils is re- quired, and for metallurgical works great proficiency in chemistry and mineralogy. Hours per week First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 Geometry and ti-igonometry, ------ 5 Knowledge of instruments*, -' - - - - -2 Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - . 5 Inorganic chemistry, --- .. . -5 Free-hand drawing, ------- — 2d Term. Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 Theory and equations, ------- 2 Analytical geometry, - - - -- _ -5 Practical geometry*, -------5 Experimental physics, 2d course, ^ - - - - - 5 Drawing of plans*, ------- Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - . Second Year. — 3d Term. Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 1st course, ----- 4 Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - - .2 Chemical physics, -------2 Mineralogy, ------.-5 Drawing of machines, -----_ Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - . 4th Term. Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - . - - 5 Descriptive geometri', 2d course, - - - - . 4 Technical physics, 2d course, - - - - - - 2 Geology, 5 Mechanics, 1st course, - - - - - - -4 Elements of construction, ------» 4 Drawing of machines and constructions ; manipulations, - - Third Year. — 5th Term. Mechanics, 2d course, - - - - - - -5 Mineralogical exercises, .-.-.. 2 Elements of construction, 2d course, - - - - - 4 Projects of metallurgical works, ----- — Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - - - - — 6th Term. Mechanics, 3d course, - - - - - -4 or 5 Metallurgy, - • - - - ; , 2 or 3 142 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. Geological exercises, - Elements of construction, 3d course, Projects of metallurgical works, Manipulations in the laboratory, Hours per week. 2 - 4 Fourth Technical Division. — Technical Chemistry. Besides a profound acquaintance with chemistry, the pupils of this division must know something about the construction of machines and buildings. An acquaintance with descriptive geometry is consequent- ly necessary for them. lu the third year they are almost exclusively occupied with manip« ulatious in the laboratorj^ Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - Geometry and trigonometry, - • - - Experimental physics, 1st course, - - Inorganic chemistry, ----- Free-hand di'awing, - - 2d Term. — Stereometry and trigonometry ; physics, - - - - . « 5 Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - • - 5 Organic chemistry, - - - -- - -5 Botany, - - - - - - - -5 Free-hand drawing, - - Second Year. — 3d Term. Dccriptive geometry, 1st course, - - - . - -4 Chemical phyS'ics, - - - - - - - 2 Technical chemistry, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - -2 Mineralogy, ..... Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations, 4th Term. Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - - - - 4 Technical chemistry, 2d course, - - - - - 5 Technical physics, "2d course, - - • - - -3 Geology, - - ... . . . . 5 Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations. Third Year. — .5th Term. Elements of machinery, -----.-4 Statistics, .... .... 3 Projects of manufactories and working in the laboratory, 6th Term. Political economy, ' - Projects of manufactories atid working in the laboratory, - - — Fifth Technical Division. — Pharmaceutical Chemists. The pharmaceutical studies must have been preceded by a practical apprenticeship. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 1 43 Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, -- - - - - -5 Geometry and trigonometry, - - - - - - 5 Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - - 5 Inorganic chemistry, - - - - - - - 5' iVlanipnlation in the laboratory, - - - - - - — 2d Term. Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - - - 5 (_)rganic chemistry, .----.-5 Boiuny, ......... f) Pharmacy, .-.--.--5 Chemical jurisprudence, - - - - - - 2 Manipulation in the laboratory, .... - — Second Year. — 3d Term. Mineralogy, - - - - -- - -5 Zoology, ..--.-.-5 Pharmacognosy, - ------.4 Chemical physics, ....... 2 Manipulation in the laboratory, - - - - - - — Sixth Technical Division. — Forest Economy. The plan of studies here sepaiates the special from the prepara- tory studies. The pupils in the forest service of the country are advised to follow the first year of this division immediately on leav- ing the primary or other elementary schools, and then to have a year's practical apprenticeship in the forests, before they come to fol- low the special course of the second year. Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. • Arithmetic and algebra, - - -- - - -5 Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - - .5 Inorganic chemistry, -------5 Zoology, - -- - - - - - -5 Mineralogy, -.-.-..-5 2d Term. Stereometiy and spherical trigonometry, - - - -5 Practical geometry, ...-..^5 Experimental physics, 2d course, - • - - - - 5 Organic chemistry, ------.5 Botany, - - - ... - - -5 Geology, - - -'- - - - - 5 Second Year, — 3d Term. . Mathematical exercises, -- - - - - 2 to 4 Climatology and knowledge of soils, ----- 2 Physiology of forest plants, - - - - - - 4 Forest botany and culture of forests, . - - - 6 Valuations of forests, --.....3 Forest history and statistics, --.--- 2 Civil Law, - - -- - - • - -3 4th Term. Mathematical exercises, - - - - - - 2 to 4 Organization of labor, .-..,, 4 144 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. Protection of forests. — Forest insects, Forest economy and police, Utilization of forests, Elements of the chase, Forest laws, . . - Hours per week - 4 4 - 3 2 - 2 Seventh Technical Division. — Rural Economy. The pupils are advised to separate their studies in the same man- ner as in the preceding division. First Year — IsT Term. Aritliraetic and algebra, - - - - (Geometry and trigonometry, - - - Experimental physics, 1st course, Inorganic chemistry, - - - - . Zoology, - - - - - - Mineralogy, - - - 2d Term. Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - Practical geometry, . - - . Experimental physics, 2d course. Organic chemistry, - - - - Botany, ------ Geology, Drawing of plans, . - » - Second Year. — 3d Term. Agricultural economy, . - - - Anatomy of domestic animals, K earing of cattle, - - - • Rearing of horses, - - - - Technical chemistry, - - - - General knowledge of machines*, Agricultural book-keeping, . - - 4th Term. Theory of agriculture proper, Culture of plants, - - - - Diseases of domestic animals, - - - Elements of sxirgery and medicine. Valuation of farm property, . _ - Elements of agricultural building construction, Manipulations in the laboratory. Third Year. — 5th Term. Differential calculus, 3d course. Descriptive geometry, 3d course. Technical physics*, . - - - Mechanics, 2d course, . - - Construction of machines, 1st course. Elements of building construction, 2d course, Construction of machines (exercises,) 6th Term. Technical physics, 2d course. Mathematical physics, - Mechanics, 3d course. Hours per week. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 145 Hours per week. Construction of machines, 2(1 course, . - - . 2 Study ofniju-hincs, 2d course , - - - - - - 4 Klcmcnts of Ijuildinj^ construction, 3d course, - - - 4 Construction of machines (exercises,) - - - - - — Fourth Year. — 7th Term. Analytical mechanics*, - -.- - - - -4 Mechanics of building, . - . - - _ 2 Construction of machines, 3d course, - - - - - 2 Study of nuichines, - - - - - - - 4 Civil engineering;*, - - - - - - -4 Construction of machines (exercises), . . . - — Eighth Technical Division. — Railways and Roads. The knowledge necessary for admission into this division are ele- mentary mathematics, geography, statistics, the history of modern languages and literature. Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 Experimental physics, - - - - -- -5 Geography and statistics, - . - - - - - 6 French language, --------6 EngUsh language, - - -- - - - 6 2d Term. Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 Political economy, -------3 History, ....-_. .5 German literature, -------3 French language and literature, - - ' - - - - 3 English language and literature, ----- g Second Year — 3d Term. Mathematical exercises*, -- - - - - 2 to 4 Technical physics, .--.-..2 History, ---.----- 2 Gernian literature, ------- 2 French language and literature, - - - - - - 2 English language and literature, - ... - 2 Civil law, ---------2 Ninth Technical Division. — Officers of the Government Survey. The young men who intend to enter this service must follow a course of two years composed nearly as follows : Hours per week. First Year. — 1st Term. Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 Mathematical exercises, - - - - - - 4 to 6 Knowledge of instruments, - - - - . - 2 Experimental physics, -- . , . . -5 2d Term. Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - • .5 Theory of equations, - - - - - . • 2 10 146 SPEJIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. , Hours per week. Analytical i^eometry, -.>--.. 5 Practical jreometry, -----..5 Mathematical exercises, - - - - - --4 Experimental phrsic, .-..-. 5 Drawing of plans, . •- . . - . _ — Second Year. — 3d Teem. Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 Descriptive geometry, 1st course, ----- 4 Spherical astronomy, - - - - - - - 3 Mathematical exercises, - - - -■- -2 to 4 Technical physics, --------2 Drawing of plans, ------- — 4th Term. Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - - 5 Dcscri])tive geometry, -------4 Higher land surveying, - - -- - - -3 Geology, ------__5 Management. — The direction is entrusted to a committee of three members, the oldest of whom is chairman. This committee is under the immediate control of the Minister of State. The college or council of professors is consulted with regard to the general interest, or for any change of the existing arrangements. It comprises all the principal professors, and is convoked by the chairman, or at the instance of one of the members of the managing committee. The conference of the professors is composed of all the professors and tutors. It is convoked to discuss the business of the school. School Fees. — The young men matriculated as regular pupils pay 18 thalers for the half-yearly term, and if they take part in the man- ipulations an additional sum of 6 thalers. They also give the labor- atory attendant 20 gros. The young men who do not matriculate for the six months' term pay three thalers for a course of three hours a week, six thalers for one of five hours; the maximum paid is 18 thalers, whatever num- ber of courses may be fol'owed. For the laboratory, these pupils pay 10 thalers, and to the a'tendant 20 gros. For daily pai-ticipation in the lessons in arts, from eight in the morning till two in the afternoon, the fee is three thalers per quarter, and half that sum for three days a week. The matriculation fee is two thalers, with 20 gros. to the apparitor and 10 gros. for the admission card. Discipline.- -Through all the pupils live outside the college, disci- pline is maintained in-doo's and in the classes by the professors, each for his own course, and by tb.e managing committee for general order and conduct out of college - The Polytechnic Institution of Brunswick has no less than twenty- five professors for the different branches of instruciion there given. SPECIAL INSTUUCTIOX IN BUUNSWlCK. 147 In the small town of Holzmiiiden, there is an establishment for special insii uction, which, by a remarkable exception to the general rule in Germany, receives boarders. It is devoted to the class of artisans designated in France under the general term of the build- ing trade; masons, stone-cutters, carpenters, joiners, smiths, slaters, glaziers, painters, cabinet makers, &c. The instruction is chiefly given during the winter half year, when work is generally suspended ; but it is continued during the fine season also for those pupils who are disposed to attend. To be ad- mitted, a young man must have already entered one of the trades connected with building, and must supply the necessary information as to his age, his parents, his residence, the master for whom he has worked, and as to his moral character ; he must also submit to a medical examination with regard to his health. During their stay at the school, the pupils wear a uniform, which facilitates discipline. On entering ihey must bring linen, a few other articles, and a case of mathematical instruments. The establishment supplies during the usual term of residence, which is twenty weeks for the winter half-year : Lodging and board for the sum of - - - 27 thalers. Teaching, firing, lighting, necessaries for writing and drawing, the uniform, medical attendance and wash- ing, for ------- 45 thalerS. Total ------ 72 thalers. Thus, during this period of one hundred and forty days, a young man can be boarded, lodged, taught, and supplied with every neces- sary for less than two francs per day. The pupils are divided according to their proficiency, into three classes. In the two lower classes, the pupils are improved in ordin- ary and commercial arithmetic, writing, and composition. At the same time in all the classes they are taught free hand drawing details of construction, of ornament, of line drawings relative to their difFe: ent trades, the objects and models being chosen according lo the capaci- ties of the pupils. The discipline is nearly the same as in a college. They rise at six in the morning, wash themselves and perform other necessary duties till half-past eight, and the studies continue till half-past nine in the evening, except the intervals for meals and recreation. They go to 146 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. bed at ten. The school can accommodate five hundred and fifty pupils. At the close of each complete period of instruction, the pupils who are found deserving, and have attended long enough, receive a cer- tificate stating their degree of proficiency in the studies bearing on their profession. The pupils who have not completed their studies receive a certificate of their conduct and application during the time passed at the school. This certificate must be countersigned by their parents or masters when they return for the next half year. The general curriculum of the school comprises calligraphy, orthog- raphy, composition, ordinary and commercial arithmetic, the elements of algebra, book-keeping, elementary geometry, descriptive geometry, projections, stereometry, elementary and technical physics, the details of the construction of machines and buildings ; joining of stone, wood, and iron ; technical chemistry, the knowledge of building materials, drawing* up of estimates, laws affecting buildings, free-hand drawing, architectural drawing, studies of forms and orders, drawing of ma- chines, drawing up of projects, modeling. The pupils are expected during the summer half-year, to visit works in course of execution, and write reports of their excursions. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN THE FREE CITIES OF GERMANY. I. HAMBURG. The small republic of Hamburg had, in 1869, a population of 315,000, of which there are in the city and its suburbs 225,000, and in the outlying districts, 90,000. Besides being a great commercial emporium, and the centre of a very extensive business in marine insurance, it has important branches of home industry ; shipbuilding on a large scale, with sail-cloth, ropes, sugar refining, distilling and dyeing, manufacture of cigars, &c. The total expenditure for educational purposes amounted, in 1869, to about 800,000 thalers, of which 109,302 were borne by the State, to which last item is to be added 12,640 thalers for special schools, and about 5,500 for the city library, botanic garden, and similar establishments. The educational institutions of Hamburg number 437, with 2,521 instructors and 39,098 pupils, and are, in the official report, divided into the following classes : (1.) Public Schools. City and Parish schools 64, with 183 teach- ers and 8,135 pupils. Schools for the poor {Armen Oschulen) 20, with 142 teachers, and 5,079 pupils. Foundation schools {Stiftungs- schulen) 21, with 131 teachers and 2,376 pupils. Church Schools (Kirchenschulen) 27, with 130 teachers and 4,235 pupils. (2.) Private Schools. Elementary schools 49, with 127 teachers and 1,922 pupils. Middle schools 108, with 562 teachers and 8,212 pupils. Higher schools 89, with 1,046 teachers and 7,686 pupils. There are, besides, 29 Kindergarten, of which 7 are in connection with other schools, with 68 teachers and 973 children attending. Also 30 private courses, with 132 instructors and 480 pupils. Elementary Schools. — Nearly all the schools included in the above official statement as Public Schools, may be classed as elementary. Secondary Schools. — The gymnasium has eight classes, with 11 professors, and 7 assistants. The Model School has a Real depart- ment, and Female High School. Superior Education. — The Gymnasial Academy, founded in 1 632, is a connecting link between the classical schools and the University. (149) 250 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. There are four professors ; one of classical philology, who is also city- librarian ; one of chemistry, one of biblical philology and philosophy, and one of natural history, who is also director of the botanic gar- den. There is also a teacher of mathematics. Professional and Special Schools. There are four special schools for teachers, — one for gymnasiums and real schools, two for elementary schools, one for males and one for females, and one for the Kindergar- ten ; — one evening trade school for males with 29 teachers and 809 pupils; one trade school for females with 77 pupils ; one trade school in the suburb St. Paul with 4 teachers and 36 pupils ; a winter day school for the building trades, with 106 pupils; the evening school of the educational union, with about 200 pupils ; one polytechnic preparatory school with 16 teachers and 3d pupils; a navigation school with 3 teachers and 85 pupils ; a private seamen's school with 6 teachers and 43 pupils. PUBLIC TRADE SCHOOL AXD SCHOOL FOR THE BUILDING TRADES. The public trade, and the building school ( Gewerhe Schule, und Sclmlefi'ir Bau- handioerker,) at Hamburg, have for their object to give to all men engaged in any -trade, but especially apprentices and workmen connected with the building trades, such instruction as shall be of use to them in their occupations. They are held in the same rooms and under the same director. The hours of instruction in the trade school are two to sixteen weekly, in the evening, and the branches are German with business writings in German, book- keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, free hand dra-\ving, and drawing with the compass, drawings as applied to the trades of building, ship-building, metal working, and those trades in which some knowledge of art is required, modeling and elementary instruction in drawing for boys. The hours for instruction in the building trade schools are fifty-four, weekly, during the winter, and three winters are required to finish the course. .The num- ber of pupils in the trade school is (1868) 809, in the building school 1.06. The number of scholars (186y) is, in the trade school about 500 in winter, and 600 in summer; in the architectural school, held only in the winter, 106. ' The director is paid about 1,500 thalers per annum; the teachers (28 in all) thirty thalers per week during the course. Tuition in trade school, 2 to 4 thalers the course ; in the building schools, 30 thalers the half year. We add a brief notice of the common method of teaching drawing : Free drawing without instnmients begins -with drawing from wooden models, according to Heimerdinger's method, in which simple objects, such as tools used by joiners, engineers, &c., are included; attention being paid to the vocation of the pupil in the choice of the models. Ornamental drawing from plaster casts, in outline, and in respect to. shading, then follows Those pupils who devote them- selves to building or ornamental trades, study the figure from casts and anatomy. The metal workers draw freely, without instruments, portions of machinery, &c. The mode of execution (which is with lead pencil, pen, brush, and nibber,) is always the most suitable to the branch of technical art to which the pupil intends to devote himself. In close connection with this style of drawing, arc the exei*- cises in ornamental design. Plants, flowers, and leaves are drawn from life, and SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG 151 these drawings arc used in designing. By these exercises the pupils hecome very soon iudOjjcudent of all help. Geometrical drawings are executed from large copies. The teachers explain the perfect principles of construction, and pay special attention to exactness in execution. When the pupil has jic(iuired conti- dence in the use of his instruments, and has mastered the es.sential principles, the measuring and drawing of some simple and more complicated bodies follows. This chi?s is attcndi.^d by metal-workers, joiners, builders, and carpenters, car- riage-l)uilders, ship-builders, &c. The instruction is imparted by measuring and drawing real objects, such as parts of machinery, tools, furniture, doors, windows, carriages, &c., according to fixed rules and specified plans. Instruction in free-hand drawing can only be of use to the pupils when they use real objects, and not drawings. By the method pursued here, the hand needs no particular preparation, because the nearest model offers an example by which the hand and eye are both alike exercised. No particular introduction to the rules of perspective is needed, the scholar learns to see correctly, and his attention is directed to the principles of perspective by the teacher. From the specimens of free-hand drawing which were exhibited at Paris this year, it would ap])car that no method can compare with that here referred to, for producing a satisfactory result in a short time. The results of several other industrial schools are in this respect far behind those of the Hamburg school. DraAving from specimens should be entirely avoided in industrial schools, in free- hand as well as in geometrical aiid technical drawing. In the instruction of teachers, this method has be.ou followed for a number of years in Mr. Jessen's Polytechnic Institute, and also for the last two years in the Hamburg Trade School, with most satisfjictory results. The pupils of both show great applica- tion and zeal, and make good progress. There are no workshops connected with the trade school. PLAN OF A TRADE SCHOOL. -In 1862-63, the Hamburg Patriotic Society, established for the promotion of art and industry, appointed a committee to visit dif- ferent countries in which attention had been paid to institutions of science and art, especially in reference to the advancement of national industries, and report a plan for the re-organization of exist- ing institutions of this kind in Hamburg, or the establishment of new. The committee, after visiting the polytechnic and trade schools of Bremen, Frankfort, Brunswick, Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, Munich, and other cities, as the result of their inquiries, recommended the following Plan for a Trade School for Hamhirg. The aim of the Trade School shall be to give those employed in trades an opportunity of acquiring such knowledge and attainments as they stand in need of for an intelligent prosecution of their callings. In order to carry out this object in a comprehensive manner, a complete trade school should be divided into three quite different departments : 1. A Sunday and evening school for such pupils as can take advantage of the instruction during the few hours of the week which they have at liberty from their other school time or from being otherwise engaged. 2. A wintei- school of architecture for those engaged in the building trades, and Avho will be able to give their time exclusively during the winter months to the attainment of theoretical knowledge and skill. 3. A chill trade school for young pei'sons Avho have already left the primary school, and are in a position to be able to devote the whole of their time for a year to their industrial education before they are appenticed to a trade. Although the education of artisans is the end which these departments have in view, and this can be attained, for the most part, by the same subjects of study, yet there must be a difference between them according to the requirements of the Duyils attending the different establishments ; and especially as to the time to 152 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. he given to separate subjects, as well as regards the subjects taught, as also as regards the extent to which they are taught. Whilst in all three departments the instruction will be, as far as possible, the same, especial regard will be paid, in all the subjects taught, to the profession which the pupils may have already embraced, or for which they may be destined. I. SUNDAY AND EVENING SCHOOL. The subjects taught comprise : 1. Commercial composition and book-keeping, (orthography, the formation of words and sentences, the composition of letters, invoices, agreements, &c.) 2. Mathematics, a. Arithmetic and algebra, (fractions, algebraic notation, equations, 1st and 2d degree.) h. Geometry, (plane and solid geometry.) 3. Physics, (elements of physics in general, the science of heat, elements of acoustics, optics, electricity, and magnetism. 4. Mechanics, (elementary mechanics, gravity, motion, friction, pressure of water, water power, pressure of air, steam engines.) 5. Chemistry, (elements of inorganic chemistry, special important branches of organic chemistry.) 6. Technology and knowledge of implements. 7. Political economy. 8. Free-hand drawing, (from simple objects, from ornamental objects, figures, parts of machinery, &c.) 9. Geometric drawing, (drawing by compass,) and geometric figures, (geomet- rical constructions, measuring and drawing by rule, perspective.) 10. Special drawing with practice in design and construction, (in 5 classes, for building, for manufactures, for workers in metal, for workers in wood, for ship-building.) 11. Modeling in clay, wood, and wax. The course of study is for three years, and the regular entrance of the pupils takes place at Easter. Young persons are received as pupils who have completed their fourteenth year and possess a competent knowledge of the usual branches of school education. To each pupil is prescribed by the superior which classes he is to attend ; of course, as far as possible, in this matter the wishes of the pupil or of his relations are taken into consideration. The school is intended for 600 pupils, and the committee think they may with certainty reckon upon this number, Avhen it is considered that towns such as Nu- remberg and Chemnitz have trade schools which are attended by 1,800 pupils. The average number for each class is to be reckoned at 35 pupils. The school is under the superintendence of a director, subordinate to him are masters for the various subjects. The number of lessons weekly, amounts, for each pupil, to from 6 to 8. Weekly Plan of the Lessons. LESSONS. COCRSE OF THE YEAK. I. II. III. 1. Commercial knowledge, &c., - 2. Mathematics, 3. Physics, 4. Mechanics, - - - - 5. Chemistry, . - - - 6. Technology, 7. Political economy, - . - 8. Free-hand drawing, 9. Geometric drawing, &c., - 10. Special drawing, - - - 11. Modeling, - - - - Classes. Hours. 4 of 2 4 of 2 4 of 4 2 of 4 Classes. Hours. 4 of 2 2 of 2 2 'of 4 4 of 4 Classes. Hours. 1* * of' ' 1 Voir" 2 2 of 2 1 of 2 1 of 1 'e' of' 4 2 of 4 40 hours. 36 hours. 48 hours. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 153 Thus, altogetlier 124 hours of study weekly. - To the S inula V and evening seliool there is also a preparatory class annexed, for those who are* not yet sufficiently acquainted with the ordinary branches of school knowledge. This preparatory class comprises the loUowing subjects : 1. German language. 2. Arithmetic. 3. Geometry. 4. Free-hand drawing. And the arrangement of the classes is as follows : 1 . German languiige, - - - 2 classes of 2 hours. 2. Arithmetic, - - - - 2 " 2 " 3. Geometry, - - - . 2 " 2 " 4. Free-hand drawing, - . - 2 " 2 " Total, - - - - 16 hours weekly. The yearly expenditure for the Sunday and evening school, and for the pre- paratory class, is estimated altogether at 25,000 marks current, according to the following table : Mks. ct. For the director, including a salary for 10 hours lessons a week, - 4,000 Salary for 130 hours lessons a week at 100 mks. ct. each per year, 13,000 Rent of premises, ------- 5,000 School apparatus, ------- 500 Servants, -------- 200 Warming, lighting, and cleansing, ----- 2,000 Total, 25,000 To meet this we may reckon upon a yearly income of 18,000 marks current, viz : 600 pupils, at 30 marks school fees per year, so that a yearly grant is requi- site of 7,000 marks current. II. WINTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. The subjects taught are : 1 . Commercial composition and hook-keeping. 2. Mathematics. a. Arithmetic and algebra. h. Geometry. 3. Physics. 4. Mechanics. 5. Free-hand drawing. 6. Geometric drawing. 7. Applied geometry. 8. Architectural drawing, and plans of buildings. 9. The art of building, the knowledge of construction, and estimating the cost of buildings. 10. Constructive modeling. The course of study is for three years, and the instruction is given during the five winter months, (November to March ) in 48 weekly lessons; besides these, written exercises are prepared under the superintendence of a teacher in 12 weekly lessons. Such persons are accepted as pupils as are engaged in construction, and who are acquainted with the ordinary school knowledge; those who are deficient in the latter are referred to the Sunday and evening school. The school is intended for 100 pupils; it is placed under the superintendence of the director of the trade school. There are masters who teach under and in addition to him. 154 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. Plan of the Lessons. LESSONS COURSE OP THE TRAR. I. II. III. 1. Commercial knowledge, &c., - 2. Mathematics : Arithmetic and algebra, - Geometry, - - - - 3. Physics, - - - - 4. Mechanics, - - . - 5. Free-hand drawing, 6. Geometric drawing, 7. Applied geometry, 8. Drawing of buildings, - 9. Art of building, &c., - 10. Constructive modeling, - Hours. 2 6 6 2 8 8 16 Hours. 2 3 3 1 8 8 16 7 Hours. 2 \ ; 4 6 20 7 8 48 48 48 Besides this, 13 hours are set apart weekly for the preparation of written exer- cises, under the superintendence of a teacher for all the classes in common, at the same time, participation in this instruction is not obligatory for those who undertake this work at home. The yearly expenditure is estimated at 8,300 marks current, viz : Mks. ct. For superintendence, including salary for 6 lessons per week, - 1 ,000 Salary for 150 lessons per week, for 5 months, at 40 marks per lesson, 6,000 School apparatus, - - - - - - - 300 Servants, - - - - - - - - 150 Premises, (those of the Sunday and evening schools,) - - .... Warming, lighting, and cleansing, - - - - 850 Total, 8,300 Against this we may reckon upon a yearly receipt of 5,000 marks current, viz: 100 pupils at 50 marks, so that an annual addition of 3,300 marks cur- rent will be necessary. III. THE DAY TRADE SCHOOL. The subjects taught comprise : - 1 . German and composition. 2. Mathematics. a. Arithmetic and algebra. (Fractions, algebraic notation, equations of the first and second degree, powers and roots, logarithms.) b. Geometry. (Plane and solid geometry.) c. Trigonometry. (Plane trigonometry.) 3. Physics. (Physics in general, science of heat, principles of the remaining branches.) 4. Chemistry. (Inorganic, and some sections of organic chemistry.) 5. Free-hand drawing. 6. Geometric drawing. The course of lessons is for one year, and the regular entrance of pupils takes place at Easter. Such young persons are accepted as pupils as have completed their fourteenth year, and who show proof of the requisite capacity to comprehend the above- named subjects. The school is primarily intended for a class of 35 pupils ; it is placed under the director of the trade scliool. A master insti-ucts in the head branches, SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 155 assisted by teachers. The annual expenditure is estimated at 5,200 marks cur- rent, viz : Salary of the head-master, who gives '24 lessons per week, 3,000 marks ; sahiry for 18 lessons per week, 1,800 ; premises (those of the Sunday seliool and even- ing school) ; school apparatus, 200; servant, 50; Marming-, 150; total, 5,200. Against this we may reckon upoa an annual income oi' 3,500 nuirks, viz : 35 pupils at 100 marks, which will require an annual addition of 1,700 marks current. A trade educational establishment, (comprising : a. A Sunday and evening Bchool ; b. A winter school of construction ; c. A day trade school ;) would, there- fore, re(piire an annual expenditure of 38,500 marks current ; deducting from this the estimated annual receipt of 26,500, there will remain to be asked an annual grant of 12,000 marks cun-ent from the municipality. IV. INDUSTRIAL MUSEUM. As a second means towards the su])port and promotion of the industry of the city, the committee recommend the establishment of an industrial musnun icith erhihitims of products, after the model of those in other states, especially in Wur- temburg, England, and France. Although for years past the importance of education througli the eyes has been recognized as essential for the completion of instruction pro]jtr in industry, still a long time elapsed before the example of France, who in 1783, founded the Con- servatoire des Arts et Metiers, has been followed in other countries. It Avas only in 1850 that an exhibition was opened at Stuttgart, under the 'direction of the Royal Academy, for industry and commerce, and it was first the great universal exhibition in London, in the year 1851, which induced the Eng- lish to found their richly endowed Kensington Museum. Since that time, iu many places, efforts have been made to supply this deficiency, and at this time \v^ hear of even small towns which are occupied in the establishment of indus- trial museums. The special experience of Wurtemburg is most favorable as to the utility of such an establishment. In addition, the foundation in Hamburg of an industrial museum is to l>e recommended on commercial considerations. Hamburg despatches daily to the interior, raw materials ; travelers from Hamburg range through the interior iu order to find out objects of export. Might not in many cases the manufacture of these materials be carried on here ? In the second place, might not many Hamburg manufiictures, which have already obtained a good reputation abroad, attain still greater success if the manufacturers, profiting by the beautiful forms brought under their eyes in a museum, Avere to employ these in their fabrics. The aim of such an institution as the committee proposes, is to promote exist- ing trades, to call forth new ones, and to increase the sale of manufactured goods. This aim is to be reached by the exhibition of raw materials, of the process of manufacture of improved implements, and of superior products of industry with special regard to the formation of taste. The arrangement of an industrial museum will be as follows : 1. A Technical Section. — This contains raw materials, manufactures in process, implements, models, &c. TJie collection of raw materials, and of manufactures in the different stages of their ])reparation should have in view an exact knowledge of their origin and price as well as of their uses, and at the same time should point out new uses. The collection of implements, utensils, and machinery should indicate means to the artisan of working better and at less cost. 2. A Section for Art Mannfartures. — This comprises casts, engravings, draw- mgs, ])hotographs, &c., which ought to serve especially in the formation and im- provement of taste in industrial drawing and design. 3 The Exhibition of Products. — This section contains especially good or useful new products of industry. The artisan should here be made acquainted, from seeing the fabric itself, with new combinations, beautiful forms, and new employ- ment of materials, &c., in order that he may perceive clearly the ])ossil)i]ity of a juofitable new or improved manufacture. The commercial interest will also find here new fabrics, and be made acquainted with their origin. Every object should have attached to it the price, and the name and residence of the m.inu- factuier. J56 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG, The whole establishment is under the superintendence of a director, who should pay close attention to home and foreign industry, in order to develop the former from the experience of the latter. To this end he must place himself in corres- jiondeuce with foreign exhibitions and industrial societies, &c., as also with the consuls for Hamburg, and with the home manufacturers. Entrance to the museum should, as far as possible, be facilitated, and there- fore the committee think it desirable on four days in the w^eek to give admittance to all gratis, and on the other days to charge a moderate price of admission, in order in this way to gain a contribution towards the yearly cost. The use of the museum must always under regulations be open to the trades schools, as they have a free claim to the use of the drawings and models therein contained, as means of instruction. The committee think it necessary to give a right to the manufacturers of the city, not only to study the fabrics in the different sections in the locality of the exhibition, but if they desire it, to take these home with them for closer study. NAVIGATION SCHOOLS. 1. The Navigation School, opened m 1826, by the Chamber of Commerce, con- tains two classes : one for lads who are pursuing the usual primary studies; and the other for seamen, who are qualifying themselves by a study of arithmetic, trigonometry, surveying, navigation, nautical astronomy, drawing, with special reference to charts ; code of signals, theory of winds, tides, and currents, mer- cantile laws and usages, practical use of instruments used at sea, book-keeping, and correspondence. Steam and mechanics have been recently added. . No one can be employed as a master or under officer in a steam or sailing veS' sel belonging to Hamburg, without a certificate of proficiency in the studies of this school, which is managed by a committee of the Chamber of Commerce. 2. The Seamen's School, a private enterprise, receives as boarders 43 lads, under 15 years of age, for a two years' course in naWgation. It employs three teachers, and charges 210 thalers a year for board and instruction. MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Music is a regular subject of instruction in the public schools of Hamburg, but the method is left with each school and teacher. Mr. Eichberg, in his com- munication to the Boston School Committee on musical iustraction in the prin- cipal cities of Germany, says : Music is not taught uniformly in the Hamburg public schools, but the several teachers instruct independently of system. Two music lessons of one hour each are given to the pupils, either by their regular, or, in the higher schools, by an appointed special teacher. In the Latin school, four part songs, motets and chorals, are sung, the lower classes singing soprano and alto, while the higher classes take the tenor and basso parts. Pupils are not allowed to sing during the mutation of the voice, but have to be present at the music lessons. Great care is taken to avoid choruses requiring great extent of vocal compass. I found here Mr. Benedict Widmann's different publications well spoken of. They are named " Little Singing School, for the Three Divisions of Boys' and Girls' Schools," and "Prefatory Instruction in Singing." These two little works, (sixty-four and eighty-two pages respectively, in 12mo,) contain many novel ideas on class teaching. . The author strongly advocates musical instruction in the primary schools, and maintains that the imitative faculties of the child render the teaching of singing far easier at an early age than it would be when the vocal organs iiave passed the period of their elastic softness. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. 157 11. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. INTRODUCTION. The Free City of Frankfort, (now a portion of the new province of Nassau, in the kingdom of Prussia,) to which our school statistics refer, on a territory of 43 square miles, had in 1861 a poj)ulation of 87,518, of which 70,000 belonged to the city proper. Besides its vast banking interests, there are large mechanical industries, in which beauty of form and nicety of execution are required, and which have been secured by the appropriate training of artists and artisans. The public educational establishments are adminislered by five co- ordinate authorities, in which the city and the four religious denom- inations are represented, each by one commissioner. The expendi- tures for" teachers (salaries and pensions), buildings, apparatus, and equipment generally by the city, are very liberal, but would be more eifective by a simpler administration. The schools, except the gym- nasium and the special schools, are mainly denominational in their management, and may be classified as follows : I. Elementary Schools. — Eight country schools of a higher char- acter, with 2.820 pupils ; 4 Protestant burgher schools, with 2,230 pupils ; 4 Catholic schools, with 950 pupils ; 2 Jewish burgher schools, with 940 pupils. Total elementary pupils, 6,940. II. Secondary and Sri'perior Schools. — One gymnasium, with 20 teachers, a ten years' course, and an average of 160 pupils; 4 real- schools, with a Latin class in each, and about 900 pupils in all ; 3 higher burgher schools, (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish,) with a total of 1,350 pupils, male and female; and 3 female high schools, with 840 pupils, besides a large number (forty-four in 1863,) of pri- vate institutions with elementary and secondary classes. III. Special Schools and Institutions. — One normal school, with 30 pupils ; 1 gallery of architecture, painting, and sculpture, with a school of fine arts ; 1 high school of arts and trades, with a prepara- tory school, and a total of 260 pupils ; 1 school of commerce, with a preparatory school, and public lectures; 1 institute for deaf mutes, with 20 pupils ; 1 orphan home, with 46 inmates ; 2 infant asylums, with 60 inmates ; 1 school of gymnastics ; 1 house of refuge, with 24 inmates ; the Senkenberg museum of natural history ; public library of 70,000 volumes, &c. In addition, we may mention the Sunday, and evening industrial school of the Society of Public Wel- fare, which receives subventions from the government ; a private acad- emy of commerce ; a permanent museum for the exhibition of ma- chinery ; a school for medical gymnastics. 159 SPECLiL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, AND ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. The Schsol of Commerce at Frankfort includes : (1.) An improvement school for clerks ; (2.) A regular commercial school; (3.) An academy of commerce and industry. The school, like that at Leipsic, belongs to the chamber of com- merce, and its direction is confided to a committee chosen by it, which com- mittee renders a monthly report. (1.) The Improvement School is open to pupils after they leave the primary schools. They m.ust undergo an examination before being admitted. If they fail in this, they enter into a supplementary school annexed to the establishment, where they remain until they receive the necessary preparation, or fail in a second examination, in which last case they are advised not to pursue their studies. The course lasts two years. The term begins after Easter and continues until Michaelmas ; there are two lessons daily, one in the morning, and one in the afternoon, the hours varying according to the season and the press of business, being fixed by the chamber of commerce. The studies pursued are German, French, English, commercial correspondence, the arithmetic, geography, and history of commerce, book-keeping, and callig- raphy. The school is well attended, and the teaching is successful. (2.) The Commercial Division is open to all who have finished the burgher school, or all but one of the classes of a gymnasium, or can pass an examination show- ing an equivalent grade of cultivation. By these means, pupils with a fair de- gree of secondary, general, and classical instruction are secured. The course includes two classes of one semester each, and the branches taught are as follows, the hours being three hours in the morning and three in the after- noon : German, French, English, the arithmetic, correspondence, geography, and history of commerce, book-keeping, physics, chemistry, articles of commerce, calligraphy, and political economy applied to German commerce. The following branches are optional, given at extra hours, and for a var}'ing fee, according to special agreement : Italian, Spanish, and stenography. (3. ) The Academy for Commerce, open to all who desire to attend, on payment of a fee, is a course of lectures or conferences, which may be considered an additional semester to the last. The plan was boiTowed from Faraday's lectures in the Royal Institution in London. Its aim is to give a high commercial education to the burgher class. It is administered by a committee of eight, chosen by ballot. The course commences after Easter ; the lectures occupy two or three hours in the morning and two or three in the afternoon. There are coTirses upon the languages, ethics, commerce, and science. The course upon the languages ex- plains the principles of comparative grammar, illustrating with English, French, and German. It also includes remarks upon the literary styles of these tongues, and extracts from the best authors are repeated. That upon ethics embraces re- marks upon the principal systems of philosophy, ancient and modem, the pro- gress of material and moral civilization, and the influence of literature, and the growth of the arts upon social manners throughout the world. The course upon commerce embraces commercial law and convention, political economy, particu- larly in regard to the comriierce of Gennany, commercial geography and histor}--, and the universal history of the industrial arts. That on science treats of t!ie present condition of science, of the most recent discoveries in physics, and of chemistry applied to the knowledge of merchandise. There is also an afternoon course of Italian and Spanish, the fee, which varies according to the number of courses, being from ten to thirty francs the semester. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. log TRADES' SCHOOLS. The Frankfort Trades' Schools were founded by a society, formed in 1816, and'called the " Society for the Promotion of useful Arts and Allied Sciences." They include: (1.) A Sunday school for artisans; (2.) An evening school; (3.) A higher trades' school. The first aims at the completion of elementary education for such young persons as have already left the popular school. The second offers exclusive instruction in industrial technical drawing. The Hi(jher Trades' School imparts general and special instruction to those about to enter a trade, and prepares those about to devote themselves to some branch of technical industry for the special classes of higher institutions and the polytechnic school. Each class is complete in itself, every pupil leaving Aviien fitted for his futui-e business. For instance, those intended for the building trade leave after the second class ; those who wish to devote thems-clves to architecture or engineering go on through the first. The branches taught are mathematics, (including algebra, geometry, trigo- nometry, analytical and practical geometry, analysis,) natural philosophy, pbysics, chemistry, mechanics and machinery, descriptive geometiy, architectural and machine drawing, topographical and free-hand drawing, German, French, history, literature, geography, and calligraphy. Free-hand drawing is begun from copies, and goes on, as soon as possible, to drawing from casts. Particular attention is paid to ornamental drawing. Only the best pupils are allowed to undertake shading, and then only with the stump. Linear drawing begins Avith the construction of geometrical figures by which the pupil is practiced in the use of the rule, the compass, and the drawing pen, after which comes drawing from simple implements, then from wooden models, and finally the pupil is exei'cised in construction. The fees for the evening school are six florins annually. There are none for the Sunday school, but a moderate entrance money is charged. In the higher trades' schools the fees vary from 30 to 50 florins, according to the class, of which there are four. These fees, together with the contributions of the society, pay the expenses of the trades' schools. The cost of the Sunday and the evening schools is de- frayed by the monthly fees, by contributions from the treasury of the society, and by the interest from a special school fund which is in the trusteeship qf the society, and is increased by donations, by entrance fees to the Sunday school, and the interest of that portion of the fund which is less than 1 ,000 florins complete. The administration of these schools is in the hands of a board of directors, consisting of nine members chosen by the society, of which three go out annually. They choose among themselves a director Avho presides, a vice-director, a secre- tary, a treasurer, a manager, and an assistant librarian. The immediate direc- tion of the school, the maintenance of the fixed plan of studies, the care for the health and conduct of the pupils, and the conduct of the masters, and the execu- tion of the orders of the board, is in the hands of the head-master, who has a seat in the board. The director conducts all business matters, and represents the school at the meetings of the society. The board has for its duties, to arrange the plan of studies, and to name the books, to provide apparatus, to appoint and dismiss teachers, to an*ange prize competitions and holidays, and to manage the funds. They must consult the teachers in forming the plan of studies, and m.ust attend the recitations from time to time. 160 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN LCBECK. IV. LUBECK. The free city and State of Lubeck, the nominal capital of the Hanse towns, on several isolated ponions of territory, had a total population of 44,357, of which 31,898 were in the city and immediate suburbs. It has considerable commercial activity, but no special school calculated to prepare young men for it. The public schools, although numerous enough for the poor, are inef- ciently organized, and administered by conflicting authorities, civil, ec- clesiastical, and corporate; the statistics may be classified as follows : I. Elementary School. — 1 city school for 700 poor children ; 15 schools of educational societies with an aggregate of 4,800 pupils. There are numerous private schools, both elementary and secondary, which absorb the interest of the educated and wealthy families. II. Secondary and Superior Schools. — 1 gymnasium, founded in 1163, and known as Catharineum, \\\\h. 128 classical scholars, 111 real scholars, and a preparatory section with 82 scholars, — a total of 321 scholars, and 19 teachers; 3 endowed schools, with Latin classes, and 450 pupils. The public library has upward of 50,000 volumes. III. Special Schools. — There are several institutions for orphan and neglected children ; and for special classes, but of these we ha\ e no information except the TRADE SCHOOL AT LUBECK. The trade school, at Lubeck, dates from 1841, and owes its origin and support to the Lubeck Society for the "Promotion of objects of Public Utility." Its plan is to give such theoretical instruction to apprentices as may be usefiil to them in their several trades, but it is open to all lads above the age of twelve Avho intend to enter upon some mechanical occupation, or wish to fit themselves for the agri- cultural and polytechnic schools, &c. They must be acquainted with the first four rules of arithmetic and write readily from dictation. Most are, in reality, farther advaifced than this. The present head teacher was educated at the Hanover Polytechnic, the others in teachers' seminaries, after having attended the trade school. Their ability to teach is ascertained by examinations and testimonials. They are engaged per- manently, but may be dismissed at six months' notice. No special mode of instruction is prescribed, it being thought that diflFerent matters require different methods, and that the individual action of the teachers, in this regard, ought not to be interfered with. The endeavor is to stimulate con- tinually the minds of the pupils, and cultivate independence of thought. All subjects, however, are illustrated by experiments, for which purpose there is a large and increasing stock of apparatus, models, plans, and chemical prepara- tions. The total number of pupils, in 1867, was 200. The expenses of the school are discharged by the tuition fees, at the rate of about $5.00 per head, the annual cost of the whole, not including the rent, being $1,250. Orphans are received free of charge, and the fees for apprentices are sometimes discharged by the mas- ters. The institution has proved itself to be useful, and is well patronized. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BREMEN. 161 IV. BREMEN. The free city of Bremen had in 1864 a population of 98,575, on a territory of 106 square miles. Of the entire population, 31,358 live without the city. The city has extensive commercial interests. The superior administration of the schools is in the hands of the Scholarchat, of four members of the senate, each school having a municipal commission or a school delegation. I. Public Primary Schools, a. Nine parish schools, v^ith 2,939 pupils, in four classes, both sexes being mingled in the three lower. Each is governed by the Bauherren or representatives of the com- m'uie, presided over by the pastor. h, Nine free schools, with 2,062 pupils, all state institutions, school materials being supplied gra- tuitouslvs c. Twenty-four private schools, Avith 2,118 pupils, opened after special permission, and directed by females, who receive half their rent from the state if their annual pay is under 1 2 thalers. d. Two schools of the women's societies, or industrial schools, with 78 pupils, e. Asylums for children. The masters of the parish schools receive from 175 to 500 thalers, with lodging; of the free schools, 180 to 485 thalers. The first masters receive 20 thalers additional every five years, until the whole salary reaches 550. The masters of the free schools are pensioned by the state ; of the parish schools, from a special fund. There is also a fund formed by contributions of four thalers from each teacher, which is for the widows and orphans. /. Twenty-four rural schools, mostly over crowded, with an insuffi- cient number of teachers. They receive an annual subvention of 8,740 thalers II. Higher and Private Schools, a. Gymnasium, 11 teachers, 117 scholars, b. Preparatory school, 12 teachers, 278 scholars. c. Six private schools, preparatory to gymnasium and burgher schools, 366 scholars. cL Four private burgher and real schools, 555 scholars, e. Nine higher female schools, private institutions, 648 scholars, f. Fifteen elementary schools for children of the wealthier classes, 627 pupils. III. Special and Professional Schools, a. Commercial school 15 teachers, 227 scholars, h. Teachers' seminary, 30 pupils. 11 162 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. SCHOOLS FOR THE MIHTAKY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE. 1. Military Marine. There are in Austria several kinds of naval schools, as follows : One each for sailor lx)ys, for marines, for quartermasters, for naval pupils of the first class, for naval pupils of the second class, a theoretical school for naval cadets, and a superior establishment for naval officers. 1. The school for sailor boys is intended to train, as petty officers for the navy, young men from the Slave and German provinces, admitted between 12 and 14 years of age into the naval service. The instruction lasts until the pupil has attained the age for the conscription ; he is then entered as a sailor and becomes a petty officer as soon as he gets sufficiently used to the sea. The highest post he can attain is that of upper boatswain {Hochbootsmann.) 2. The schools for marines [Zeugscorps) receive men drawn from different corps of the army. They are trained as petty officers, and a part receive the uniform. Those who are fit to become officers receive their promotion when they leave their corps to enter the school, 3- The school for naval cadets of the first class is kept on board a war vessel selected for the purpose. The object is to prepare for the naval sei-vice youths of 16 or 18 years of age, who, on entering the school have already received a complete civil technical education. The teaching here consists, therefore, chiefly of pi'actical seamanship, and also of the application of previously acquired scien- tific knowledge to navigation and nautical astronomy. The course occupies a year ; on leaving, the pupil is received as a naval cadet. After passing two or three years at sea these cadets enter the theoretical school for naval cadets. 4. The school for naval cadets of the second class is intended solely to prepare them to become officers. In this school, beside the pupils placed there at the cost of the State, there are others maintained by cndoAvmcnts, and also others who pay for their instruction. The sons of officers and State functionaries are entitled to enter this school at the public expense, and any Austrian subject who has the necessary qualifications is admitted on payment. Foreigners are also admissible as paying pupils, provided they can obtain authorization from their own government to enter the Austrian service. To be- admitted, candidates must be between 12 and 14 years of age, of sound health without bodily defect, and able to pass a previous examination. The instruction is given in accordance with a determined plan, on board a vessel prepared expressly to receive thepupils. After three years' instruction the pupils leave the school as naval cadets and are sent to sea. At the end of two or three years' active service the cadets are ad- mitted to the theoretical school. This school receives from 40 to 50 pupils. The chaplain on board is charged with the religious instruction ; the other teaching is given by professors from the hj'drographic schools. The naval officers of the school-ship give the instruction in practical seamanship. 5. The theoretical school for .naval cadets is on shore, and its course occupies a year, after which the pupil undergoes the examination prescribed for his com- mission as an officer. On leaving this theoretical school the pupils are still naval cadets, but become officers when appointed to a ship. 6. The superior school for naval officers is intended for the further improve- ment in mathematical and hydrogi-aphic studies, of such young men as have shown decided talent and taste for those sciences. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. INTKODUCTION. . The kingdom of Hanover, before its absorption into Prussia, on an area of 14,846 English square miles, in 1864 had 1,888,070 iirhab- itants. In the Hartz mountahis extensive mining operations are carried on, and the total annual produce is valued at 5,523,b85 thalers. Agriculture and the raising of cattle, form, however, the most important sources of income. On the coast, in the rivers, and in 2,0 00 fish-ponds, a large amount of fish is caught every year. The number of manufactories, mostly linen, was in 1861, 7,141, employ- ing 41,855 people. The trade is largely absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen. The total annual expenditure in 1864, amounted to 20,066,011 thalers, of which sum 184,000 thalers were expended on public in- struction — 116,000 thalers on primary, and 68,000 thalers on second- ary schools. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, and embrace : 1, Primary Instruction. There are 3,584 primary schools, with 281,348 schol- ars, and 3,812 teachers. •2. Secondary Instniction. There are 8 real schools, with 965 scholars, and 39 teachers; 11 higher burgher schools, with 2,181 scholars, and 112 teachers; 17 gymnasia, with 5,192 scholars, and 205 teachers ; 3 progymnasia, with 272 scholars, and 23 teachers; 11 higher girls' schools, with 1,862 scholars, and 107 teachers ; making a total of 44 secondary schools, with 10,472 scholars, and 486 teachers. 3. Superior Tnfitruction. The University at Gottingen, with 4 faculties, had in 1868, 809 students, and 119 professors. 4. Special and Professional Instruction. Eleven teachers' seminaries, with 254 pupils, viz: 1 (preparatory institute) at Hanover, Avith 32 pupils; 1 (head semi- nary) at Hanover, with 24 pupils ; 1 (after-training) at Hanover, with 1.2 pupils; 1 (city and county teachers) at Alfeld, with 50 pupils ; 1 (boarding seminary) at Liineburg, with 32 pupils; 1 at Aurich, with 26 pupils; 1 at Stade, A\dth 20 pupils; 1 at Neuenhaus, with 10 pupils; 1 (catholic) at Osnabriick, with 12 pupils; 1 (protestant) at Osnabriick, with 24 pupils; 1 (catholic) at llildcsheim, with 12 pupils. 3 navigation schools; 3 commercial academies; 1 agricultural school ; 1 polytechnic school, at Hanover ; I mining school ; 1 school of forestry ; 1 military academy; 3 theological seminaries ; 1 asylum for the blind, at Hano- ver, with 75 pupils; 1 institution for the deaf mutes, at Ilildosheini, with 120 pupils; 1 do. at Emden, with 25 pupils; 2 with normal schools, at Stade and Osnabriick, with 48 pupils ; 1 for imbeciles ; 3 rescue houses ; 1 Pestalozzi home and refuge ; 5 orphan houses ; 20 infant schools and gardens. Since 1866 Hanover forms part of the kingdom of Pnissia, constituting the province of Hanover. (163) 164 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. Of the educational institutions of Hanover designed or used to prepare young persons for their special career, and to meet the demands of the public service or of particular industries or special classes, we select a few for brief notice. IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES. An apprentice can not become a member of his trade without the approba- tion of a committee of the guild, over which presides a member of the municipal council. One of the conditions imposed by the^committee is evidence of regu- lar attendance on the evening and the Sunday classes estabhshed at the expense of the town, and under the supervision of a government board. These im- provement classes include drawing and geometry, besides a review of the pri- mary studies. Of these schools there were 37 in 1863, with ItO teachers, 4,077 apprentices, and 3,763 journeymen. artisans' school at HANOVER. Besides the apprentice improvement schools, there exists in the capital a trade or artisan school, with a preparatory class. In the latter, tliere is an average attendance of 234 pupils, and in the school proper over 600 workmen GVQ^y year. Drawing constitutes the principal subject of instruction, and in 1864, out of 344 attending to it, 102 were classed as free-hand; 149 special, 67 geometrical and architectural ; and 26 from the cast. woEKiyrEx's societies' classes. Connected with societies of workmen, which exist in the chief towns, there are classes (taught by paid professors) which in Hanover were attended in 1864 by 814 members, of whom more than one-half were taught in different classes of drawing, modeling, and wood-carving. REAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HANOVER. The real-school was originally established in 1835 for young men whose parents intended them to follow a trade, but it was deemed best to exclude all matters special and technical, and the municipality instituted an independent course of commercial instruction, book-keeping, and kindred subjects, distrib- uted through two years, of four terms of six months each, held four evenings in the week. The merchants' guild selects the pupils who apply, and their mas- ters are bound to give them the necessary time, and to enforce their regular attendance. BUILDING TRADE SCHOOL AT NIENBERG. In Nienberg there . is a special school for workmen in the building trades — open in the winter from October 21 to the end of March, and divided into three classes, in which sixty hours a week are devoted by practical masons, joiners, and those pursuing other trades, mainly to technical studies. - Lowest Class. — Compositions in the German language, 8 hours per week ; Arithmetic and algebra, 9 ; Plane geometry, calculation of areas, 7 ; Linear drawing and descriptive geometry. — jointing roofe, framing, &c., 15 ; Element^ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. Ig5 of physics, 4; Architectural drawing, 5; Free-hand drawing, and ornament, 12 — ^.i totiil of 60 hours for live raoiiUis. Stcond Class. — Syntax, punctuation, business letters in German, 4 hours ; Al- gebra, 6 ; Plane and solid geometry. — Bimiliiude, polygons, the circle, planes, cubature, 4 hours per week ; Descriptive geometry. — framing of roofs, vaults, staircases, compound apparatus, parts ol machines, shadows, perspective,. 8 ; Technical physics. — Ibrces, eflects, centre of j^raviiy, simple machines, 4; Les- sons on buildings for stone-cutters, masons, carpenters, slaters, with drawing of plans, sections, elevations, orders, enUiblatures, details, 21; Lessons on building materials, 3 ; Drawing of ornaments, from models, 6 ; Modeling in clay or plaster, wood or stone, 4. Total, 60 hours per week. Fi7-d doss. — German language. — Written and oral compositions, 2 hours ; Manufacturers' book-keeping, 2 ; Algebra, geometv}', plane and solid, (repeti- tions and exercises.) 4; Practical geometry. — Surveying of land, roads, parts of towns, leveling, plotting, 4; Technical physics. — Machines employed in build- ing, resistance of materials, pressure of water, hoisting machines — Mechanics connected with building, 6; Course on building. — Erection of houses. &c. — Study of ground — Foundations — Establishment of comi)]ete projects with esti- mates — Design of building — Laws affecting buildings. 80 ; Drawing of orna- ment, 6 : Modeling in plaster and clay, stone and wood, 6 to 12. Total, 60 to 66 lessons per week. This school, in 1863-64, had 14 professors and 195 pupils, of whom there were 89 masons, 87 joiners, 2 tilers, 9 millwrights and fitters, 7 cabinet-makers, 1 locksmith. The majority of the pupils were from 17 to 25 years of age ; the youngest was 15, and the eldest 37. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT HANOTER. The first impulse towards the erecting of this institution was given by the old Industrial Club in Hanover, which urged upon the ministers of state (in 1830) the necessity of a technical school. The. ministry entered into the idea, caused means to be furnished, and appointed the distinguished Karmarsch, still at its head, to take immediate charge of the school, under the Eoyal Commis- sioners of Technical Schools. The first terra of the higher industrial school, which name it took, commenced October 3d. 1S31. In 1834 the hired buildings proved insufficient, and a new building was begun for its accommodation and completed in 1837, at an expense of $80,000. A careful choice of teachers, watchful superintendence of the instruction, and a marked progress in the ex- tension of the latter, made this school soon famous, and won confidence, espe- cially in foreign lands. Ifext to Carlsruhe it has the greatest number of foreigners. In 1847 it received the name of Polytechnic school, which it had really been for a long time. The aim of the school is in general the same as that of other institutions of the kind, viz , a preparation for technical State service in architecture, railway building, and the making of machinery, as well as to give a scientific education and special studies to those who wish to fit themselves for carrying out scien- tific and industrial undertakings. The instruction is divided into a preparatory course, and the school proper, which includes the higher special studies. A comparison can not be instituted between this preparatory course and the general mathematical classes of other schools, since differential and integral calculus is not taught here. In hke manner, the school proper is not, as else- where, divided into special departments, but tlie whole course is given in single subjects, more or less of which, according to circumstances, form the scientific education of the pupils for any particular department. To prevent pupils from 166 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. taking an unsuitable course of study, certain acquirements are necessary for entering each class, whereby, in an indirect way, a definite course is secured. To meet the increasing demands for special instruction, additional studies have from time to time been added to the printed announcements, and in these, certain fixed courses are recommended to students for special technical depart- ments. The chief subdivisions of the teaching are regulated with a view to giving tlie instruction necessary: 1. For manufacturing chemists; 2. For agricul- turists; 3. For surveyors; 4. For mechanicians and constructors of machines; 5. For architects ; 6. For hydraulic, railway, and road engineers. To be admitted as a pupil in the preparatory school, candidates must be six- teen years of age, and seventeen for the upper school or for special divisions. The instruction required for the preparatory school comprises the German lan- guage and the habit of composition therein, the use of decimal fractions, the rules of three and of proportions, the elements of algebra, plane geometry, and general notions of geography and history. As for the special courses of the superior school, candidates must be masters of the matters taught in the pre- paratory school, of which we give the details below. However, the pupils who intend to follow only the courses of natural history, are not obliged to undergo an examination in mathematics. No examination is imposed on those who mean to attend only the lessons on drawing and modehng. Programme of the Preparatory School. — Elementary mathematics: algebra as far as equations of the third and fourth degrees ; elements of geology and botany; elements of mineralogy ; free-hand drawing ; linear drawing; elements of descriptive geometry. Programme of the Polytechnic School. — Pure mathematics, in two courses, as far as the calculus of variations ; descriptive geometry ; practical geometry ; me- chanics ; higher mechanics, theoretical and applied; construction of machines; study of machines ; study of prime movers and other machines ; building con- struction, in three courses; roads and railways; bridges and hydraulic con- structions ; geology, mineralogy, and physical geography ; pure physics ; applied physics ; chemistry, theoretical and applied with manipulation ; manual labor, including instruction in working in metals and in wood, spinning and weaving, modeling, and the construction of small models. To enable the pupils to select the courses which they may attend, and to pre- clude numerous inquiries, the general regulations state that the preparatory school comprises, in the course of a year, the following subjects: zoology, bot- any, mineralogy, elementary mathematics, free-hand and hnear drawing. The order of the studies, after leaving the preparatory school and for special branches, is shown by the following programme : For Chemists. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second Ytar. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, theoretical and apphed physics and meclianics. Third Year. — Geology and physical geography, or instead, general knowledge of machines and applied chemistry. Fourth Year. — Chemical manipulation. For Agriculturists. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second Year. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, physics, mechanics. Tiiird Year. — General knowledge of machines, first course of building con- struction, practical geometry and drawing of plans, or else chemical manipula- tion, practical chemistry. For Surveyors. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second. Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; theoretical and applied physics; descriptive geometry. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 167 Taird Year. — Practical geometry with drawing of plans. Geology and phy- sical geography. Foii Mechanicians and Machine-makers. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second Year. — First course of higlier mathematics; mechanics, technology, descriptiv.e geometry, theoretical physics. Till id ^''mr.— Knowledge of machines, construction of machines, first course of construction, higlier meclianics. Fourth Year. — Knowledge of special machines ; second course of higher mathematics, pure chemistry, applied physics. For Architects. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; technology, descriptive geometry, mechanics, tlieoretical physica Third Year. — First course of construction and ornamentation, practical geom- etry and drawing of plans, general knowledge of machines, modelmg, drawing from the cast. Fourth Year. — Second course of construction and ornamentation, physical geography, construction of roads and railways, modehug and drawing from the cast. Fifth Year. — Third course of construction and ornamentation, bridges and hydraulic constructions, theoretical chemistry. For Civil Engineers. — First Year. — Preparatory school. Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics; technology, descriptive geometr}^ theoretical physics, and mechanics. TJiird Year. — Second course of higher mathematics; first course of building construction; practical geometry and drawing of plans, construction of ma- chines. Fourth Year. — Road and railways ; second course of building construction ; higlier mechanics, pliysical geography, and applied physics. Fifth Year. — Hydraulics and construction of bridges, third course of building construction ; special machines, and theoretical chemistry. The French Commission submit the following observations on the above courses : The details which have been given show that the order of the teaching is so regulated that, for certain important divisions, such as those of mechanicians and architects, pupils may receive a very serviceable amount of technical in- struction, with the aid of elementary mathematics, and enter upon the practice of their professions without going through the whole course of studies. Such an arrangement is very suitable for many young men, and in no way injurious to the soundness of their education. Thiis, to enable them to attend the first course of mechanics, the course of construction of machines, those of hydraulics, prime movers, and of the prin- cipal machine-tools, and for the drawing up of projects relative to these ma- chines, the meclianical engineers do not require more than the elementary and fundamental principles of geometry, algebra, trigonometry, and descriptive geometry. Tliere is no necessity for them to study the higher pure mathe- matics, which, notwithstanding their utility, present considerable diflBculties to certain minds, and require no little time and effort. The same may be said of the instruction given to architects ; for, after attending the first two courses of construction, the pupils may have acquired the knowledge necessary for ordi- nary buildings. This gradation of instruction greatly diminishes the inconvenience, above mentioned, of the high reading in the second course of pure mathematics. Moreover, the table showing the distribution of the students among the different branches of learning, which we are about to give, justifies our observations ; for it will thereby he seen that whilst 89 pupils are inscribed for elementary mathematics, and 83 for the first course of higher mathematics, there are only 1-4 for the second course of the same studies. It is therefore more than prob- able that a small proportion of the 83 pupils of the first course really profit by those lessons. 168 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. The pupils were distributed among the diflFerent branches as follows: Elementary mathematics, 89 Mineralogy, 57 Pure mathematics, P^* course, 83 Geolojry. , 40 ' p^d course 14 Hieoretical physics, ,24 Mechanics 93 Technicul physics, 10 Higher mechanics, 60 Theoretical chemistry 50 Practical geometry .'i? Technical chemistry, 27 Descriptive geometry 73 Practical chemistry, 29 Study of machines, H^y^omse, 86 Technology,. 82 ■' ^ 'J(l course, .ii Lmenr drawing, /9 Construction of machines, 65 Free-hand drawing 96, 1st course,. 79 Drawing from the round and reliefs, .'. . 10 Construction of buildings, >^ 2d course, . 45 Modeling 5 I 1st s, ^ 2d ( (Mi course,. 27 French langunge, 11 History of the (irt of building, ( „q English language, 21 Construction of roads and bridges, ji * " ' H istory 16 Hydrnulic constructions, 30 Law and police of buildings, 20 Zobiogy and botany, 52 This table clearly shows what courses best suit the requirements of the class of persons who attend institutions of this kind. They are in the order of the preceding tab!e : — Elementary mathematics ; first course of pure mathematics (which might be simplified;) elementary me- chanics (which might be extended;) practical geometry; descriptive geometry; the study of machines, first course (which might be made more elementary;) tlie construction of machines; building construction; zoology and botany; theoretical chemistry ; technology ; linear drawing ; free-hand drawing. It would seem therefore that attention ought to be directed principally to these ditlerent branches of learning, and every effort made to facilitate their study by the adoption of the simplest methods. It seems clear that the teach- ing of the sciences of a high order has a repellant effect on the pupils. That physics should be among the number of the studies least followed is remarkable and much to be regretted.' There are, perhaps, particular causes for this, but, in anj^ case, that science ought to hold a higher rank in the programme and to have greater facihties for experimenting. The number of pupils for the last three years has averaged about 440, of whom 380 were regular — the age ranges from eleven to twenty, a majority being under sixteen years. There are 21 regular professors, 3 tutors, and several special teachers. The State pays all expenses over the receipts from tuition, (w'hich amount to about $6,500 a year,) and supplies the building and equipment. Prof Koristka, in his account of the Higher Polytechnic Institutions' of Ger- many, speaks of this school: The school at Hanover rightly enjoys great reputation in foreign lands.. It stands firm by its first organization, which followed closely that of Austria. It is not divided into separate schools, but its whole course is given in single sub- jects, which are, however, combined in such a waj'- as to give most of the advantages of special schools. Its experience is proof that success depends as mucli on the excellence and cooperation of the teachers as on organization and courses of study. All the teachers (twenty-four, of whom six have the title of professors and three of assistant-professors) constitute a board, which meets once a month in council and decides on all general rules as to studies and discipline. All submit to tlie "directory," which is lodged in two persons appointed by the government — one, the principal, is responsible for the finances and the collections, and the other, for the discipline. The general supervision belongs to a royal commission, consisting of the two directors, and four other members. This commission appoints the professors and must visit the class and lecture-rooms, and report annually. Terms in the preparatory school, $24; and in the Polytechnic there is a fee for each coursC; which varies according to the length from $3 to $16. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HESSE-CASSEL. INTRODUCTION. The Electorate of Hesse- Cassel, on an area of 4,430 English square miles, in 1804 had 74o,0G3 inhabitants. . It is chiefly an agri- cultural and cattle-producing country ; factories are only to be found in the larger towns, and these chiefly devoted to linen, and of late years also to cotton fabrics. There are also some paper, glass, iron, and other workshops, and 338 distilleries. The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse-Cassel in 1865, amounted to 4,897,680 thalers, of which 90,330 thalers were expended for general instruction. The amount of school-fees is estimated at 60,000 thalers annually. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the minister of the interior, and under him by the provincial and district autjiorities, and include : 1. Primary or Common Schools ( Volksschulen). Of these there were in 1865, about 1,300, of which 117 are burgher and city schools, with about 126,000 scholars, and 1,163 teachers. 2. Secondary Schools. 2 Latin schools, with 89 scholars, and 5 teachers ; 2 progymnasia, with 128 scholars, and 13 teachers ; 6 gym- nasia, with 1,333 scholars, and 92 teachers ; 10 real schools and higher burgher schools, with 2,254 scholars, and 110 teachers; making a total of 20 secondary schools, with 3,804 scholars, and 220 teachers. 3. Superior Schools. The University at Marburg, with four facul- ties (theology, law, medicine, philosophy), had 50 professors, and 310 students. 4. Special and Professional Schools, 3 Teachers' seminaries. 1 Higher industrial school. 1 School of forestry. 1 School of agriculture. A catholic seminary at Fulda. A cadet school at Cassel. An academy of arts at Cassel. After the war of 1866, the Elector was deposed, and the whole country annexed to Prussia, of which kingdom it now forms, together with Nassau and Frankfort, the province of Hesse and Franken. (169) SPECIAL mSTRUCTIOJf U HESSE-DARMSTADT. INTRODUCTION. The Grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on an area of 3,240 Eng- lish square miles, in 1864 had 816,902 inhabitants. Hesse-Darm- stadt is chiefly an agricultural country ; on the Rhine the vine is extensively cultivated, and the region of the Odenwald and the Wet- terau are famous for excellent fruit. The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse- Darm- stadt in 1866, amounted to 9,372,962 florins, of which 44,463 florins were extended for primary instruction, and 28,040 florins for second- ary instruction. The institutions of public instruction, administered by the minis- ter of the interior, embrace : 1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 1,756, with 150,568 scholars, and 1,382 teachers. 2. Secondary Schools. 6 gymnasia, with 1,171 scholars, and 81 teachers; 10 real schools, with 1,818 scholars, and 110 teachers; 3 higher burgher schools, with 646 scholars, and 29 teachers; making a total of 19 secondary schools, with 3,635 scholars, and 220 teachers. 3. Superior Schools. The University at Giessen, with four facul- ties (theology, law, medicine, ,and philosophy), had in 186§-9, 45 professors, and 326 students^. 4. Special and Professional Schools, 2 Teachers' seminaries. 1 School of forestry. 1 Commercial academy. 1 Military academy. 2 Schools of agriculture. 1 School of veterinary surgery. 2 Polytechnic schools. 2 Deaf and dumb asylums. 1 Institution for the blind. (170) SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MECKLENBURG. I. MECKLENBURG-SCIIWERIN. The Grand Ducliy of Meckleriburg-Scluverin, on an area of 4,834 English square miles, in 1864, had 552,612 inliabitants, entirely agricultural, the rural population being little removed from the condition of serfs. The trade in corn, cattle, butter, &c., is chiefly carried on by the two ports of Wismar and Rostock. The total annual expenditure in 1865 was 3,430,028 thalers, of which sum about 30,000 was expended for public instruction. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister of Education, who at the same time is Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 1. Primary Schools. — There are 1,334 elementary schools and 45 burgher- schools. The exact number of scholars and teachers is not given officially, but by estimation there were in 1864 about 69,000 pupils, under 1,517 teachers. 2. Secondary Schools. — There are 5 gymnasia, with 2,083 scholars and 91 teachers; and 8 real-schools and higher burgher-schools, with 1,429 scholars and 62 teachers; making a total of 13 secondary schools, with 3,512 scholars and 153 teachers. % S'rperior Schools. — There is 1 university at Eostock, with 4 faculties (the- ology, law, medicine, and pliilosophy,) with 38 professors and 171 students. 4. Special and Professional Schools : 2 Teachers' seminaries, one at Neukloster with 64 pupils, and a second at Dobberau with 10 pupils. 1 Deaf and dumb institution at Ludwigslust, with 58 pupils. 1 Couimercial academy. 1 Military adademy. 1 School of agriculture. 3 Nautical schools (Wustrow, Eostock, and Wismar.) with an aggregate of 200 pupils. That at Wustrow has a three years' course, and a preparatory class. 1 School of veterinary surgery. 1 Polytechnic school. 40 Evening trade-schools, for apprentices and journeymen. II. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on an area of 997 English square miles, in 1861, had 99,060 inhabitants, who are mainly engaged in agriculture as tenants. There is only one "Minister of State," who manages all the affairs of the Grand Duchy, including the public schools, viz. : 1. Primary Schools. — There are 231 primary schools. The number of schol- ars and teachers can not be ascertained from official documents, but it is esti- mated that there were in 1864 about 13,000 pupils, under 250 teachers. 2. Secondary Schooh. — There are 3 gymnasia, with 814 scholars and 33 teachers; and 4 real and higher burgher-schools, with 1,162 scholars and 33 teachers, making a total of 7 secondary schools, with 1,976 scholars and 66 teachers. 3. Special and Professional Schools. — 1 Teachers' seminary at Mirow, with 16 pupils : 3 institutions for neglected children, with 65 pupils ; 5 industrial schools for girls (teach sewing, &c.,) with 95 pupils. SPECIAL I^^STRUCTIOX IN MSSAU. INTRODUCTION. The Duchy of Nassau, on an area of 1,802 English square miles, in 1865 had 465,636 inhabitants. There are considerable iron, lead, and copper, as also a few silver mines, employing about 10,000 men ; but more than mining, agriculture employs a large proportion of the population. The vine is cultivated on the banks of the Rhine, and the wines raised in Nassau, (Riidesheimer, johannisberger, Hock- heimer, &c.,) are considered the best in Germany. The total annual expenditure of the government of Nassau in 1862, amounted to 5,117,831 florins. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- ister of state, and embrace : 1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 716, with 1,059 teach- ers, and 72,296 scholars. 2. Secondary Schools. There are 3 gymnasia, with 50 teachers, and 711 scholars; 4 progymnasia, with 26 teachers, and 274 schol- ars ; 13 real schools, with 109 teachers, and 1,345 scholars ; making a total of 20 secondary schools, with 2,330 scholars, and 185 teachers. 3. Special and Professional Schools. Of these there are the following: 2 Teachers' seminaries, 1 for catholic teachers (62), at Monta- baur, and another at Usinglen, for protestant teachers (7^9). 2 Theological seminaries. 1 Military school. 1 Commercial academy. 1 Agricultural school, at Geisberg, with 35 pupils. 27 Mechanical, or trade schools. 1 Institute for the deaf and dumb. Since 1866, Nassau has formed part of the kingdom of Prussia, to- gether with Hesse Cassel and Frankfort, constituting the province of Hesse and Franken, (172) SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NASSAU. IY3 SCHOOLS AND LABORS OF THE GEWERBE-VEREIN. One of the most important steps of this Society, has been the establishing in various parts of the Duchy, of what are called Gewerbe-schulen, or industrial schools, consisting of — Firstii/, Evening classes, (Apend-schulen^) held in winter time for the purpose of giving young Artizans and others an useful complement to their elementary education, in such branches as commercial reckoning and correspondence, and practical geometry. Secondly^ Sunday Classes, (Suntag-schulen,) intended for departments of study y.h\(ih are not so well taught in the evening as by daylight, and held 011 Sundays for the benefit of young men, chiefly apprentices, whose occupations would not allow them to attend conveniently during the week. They comprise the various branches of drawing required for the industrial trades, and geometry applied to the arts of design. According to the annual Report, read at the General Meeting of the Gewerbe- Verein, on the 11th of May, 1853, by the able Secretary, Dr. Casselmann, the number of Industrial Schools in activity in various parts of the Duchy, is at pres- ent twenty -five, with an aggregate number of about two thousand students. A MoJeling School has also been established at Weisbaden, and is attended at present by between thirty-five and forty students. The Report gives 7419 florins, or about 6l8i. sterling, as the amount expen- ded in the last financial year, for founding and maintaining the above schools, whereof about two thousand florins were furnished by the Society, and ^our thousand florins were covered by a government grant 5 the remainder was sup- plied by the localities. To secure a proper degree of intelligence and practical skill in all who parsue any trade, there is a legalized system of apprenticeship, which Mr. Twining thus describes. The would-be Artizan must be able to exhibit proof of having concluded his attendance at school, (which as I have mentioned elsewhere, is obligatory from the sixth to the fourteenth year,) by satisfactorily passing his final examination; he must also have passed his confirmation, which takes place about the same time ; it is pi*eceded for a considerable period, by strict religious instruction, and is solemnized by both Protestants and Catholics in a veiy impressive manner. If a lad is quite a dunce, and especially if he can not satisfactorily get through his Catechism, he may be retained under tuition another year ; or if his vicious propensities are found incorrigible by ordinary means, he may be sent off* to a dis- ciplinarian school, called Rettungs-haus. One of these establishments was founded in 1851, near the little town of Nassau, by the Countess von Gieeh, and now contains about ten boys; another has just been erected near Weisbaden by a pious Evangelical Society. If all is tolerably right, the lad receives in due form his educational certificate, and he and his friends set about looking out for the right sort of shop, and a comfortable master ; but before a definite agreement is come to, German prudence steps in very appropriately, and prescribes two weeks' preliminary trial. If this turns out to mutual satisfaction, a contract is drawn up, of which the legalization is obtained with very little expense, or none at all, if the parties are poor. For ordinary trades, such as those of the shoemaker, tailor, joiner, baker, cturer, one miner, thirteen agriculturalists, eight apothecaries, two gardeners, one painter, one mason, one carpenter, one tanner, one miller, one baker, one potter, one saddler, one soap-boiler, one cabinet-maker, two soldiers, one musician, five to *The present director of fV'''- school, Mr. Kloden, was formf^j-ly director of the higher burgher school ai Potsaam, and is one of the most distinguished teachers iu his line in Persia. 13 194 CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. public offices, one to the trade institution, six to gymnasium. From tlie second class, forty-one merchants, one teacher, one chemist, one machinest, one ship-car- penter, nine agricuhurist, one sugar-refiner, three dyers, one tanner, one brewer, two distillers, one miner, two lithographers, one dye-sinker, three apothecaries, one dentist, two painters, two gardeners, three masons, five carpenters, one miller, four bakers, one butcher, one to the trade institution, three to public offices, two to a gymnasium, one musician, one veterinary surgeon, one soldier, being ninety from the first class, and ninety-seven from the second, in the period of four years. In the course of instruction, the sciences and kindred branches are made the basis, and the modern languages are employed as auxiliaries, the ancient languages being entirely omitted. The subjects embraced in it are — religious instruction, German, French, English, geography, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, technology, natural history, writing, drawing, and vocal music. The courses are fully laid down in the following list, beginning with the studies of the lowest or fourth class. FOURTH CLASS. Religious Inst iiicti on* The srospel according to St. Luke, and the Acts of the Apostles explained, with a catechetical development of the truths of reUgion and ethical applications. Two hours per week. German. Gi-ammatical exercises in writing. Recital of poetical pieces. Frejich. Grammatical exercises. Regular and irregular verbs. Reading from Lauren's Reader. One hour of conversation. Four hours. Arithmetic. Mental and written, including proportions and fractions, with the theory of the operations. Four hours. Geometry. Introductory course of forms. Two hours. Geography. Elementary, mathematical, and physical geography. Two hours. Natural History. In the summer term, elements of botany, with excursions. In the win' ter. the external characters of animals. Two hours. Physics. Introductory instruction. Genei-al properties of bodies. Forms of crystals, specific gravity. &c. Two hours. Writing. Two hours. Drawing. Outline drawingand shadows, from models and copy-boards. Two hours. Vocal Music. Two hours. LOWER THIRD CLASS. Religious Instruction. The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles read and explained. Two hours. German. Grammar with special reference to orthography and etymology. Written exer« cises upon narrations made by the teacher. Delivery of poetical pieces. Four hours. French. Translation from French into German from Gredicke's Chrestomathy. Grammar ; irregular verbs. Extemporalia, and translations from German into French. Four hours. Arithmetic Partly abstract, partly practical, from Diesterweg's Instructor. Four hours. Geometry. Determination of angles in triangles and polygons. Equality of triangles. Depeiidance of angles and sides of triangles. Constructions. Three hours. Geigrnphy. Physical description of the parts of the earth, except Europe. Two hours. Natural History. Mineralogy. In summer, botany, the class making excursions for prac- tical exercise. Man. Three hours. Physics. General properties of bodies and solids in particular. Doctrines of heat and their "application to natural phenomena and the arts. Two hours. Chemistry. Introduction. Atmospheric air. Experimental illustrations of chemistry, applied to the arts. Two hours. Writing. Two hours. Architectural and topographical drawing. Two hours. Drawing by hand (or those who do not take part in the other. Two hours. Vocal Music. Two hours. UPPER THIRD CLASS. Religious Instruction. Christian morals, from Luther's Catechism. Two hours. German. Simple and complex sentences. Compositions on special subjects. Poems ex- plained and committed. Four hours. French. Translation from Gredicke's Chrestomathy, oral and in writing. Written trans- lations from Beauvais' Introduction, from German into French. Gi'ammar, examples treated extempore. Four hours Arithmetic. Properties of numbers. Powers. Roots. Decimal fractions Practical Arithmetic from Diesterweg. Four hours. Geometry. Similar figures. Geometrical proportion. Exercises. Mensuration of rectili- near figu res. Three hours. . Geography. Physical geography of Europe, and in particular of Germany and Prussia. Two hours. Natural History. Continuation of the mineralogy of the lower third class. Review in outline of zoology and the natural history of man in particular. Botany, with excursions in summer. Three hours. ♦Roman Catholic pupils are not required to take part in this instruction, which is comma' nicated by a Protestant clergyman. CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. 195 Physics. Electricity and maffnetism, witn experiments. Two hours. Chemitfry. Water and non-metallic bodies, with experiments. Two hours. Writing Two iiours. ArchitcctuTcU and topographical drawing. Two hours. Some of the pupils dnrinjf this time are engaged in ornamental drawing. Vocal Music. Two hours. SECOND CI..A8S. Rrligious Instiiiction. Explanation of the first three gospels. History of the Christian religion and church to the reformation. Two hours. German. Correction of exercises written at home, upon subjects assigned by the teacher. Oral anil written exercise^;. Introduction to the history of German poetry Three hours. French. Grammar; extemporalia for the application of the rules. Written and oral translations froni German into French, from Beauvais' Manual, and vice versa, from Ideler and Nolte's Manual. Four hours. English Exercises in reading and speaking. Translation into German, from Burkhardt. Dictation. Verbs. Two hours. Arithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to include simple and quadratic equa- tions. Logarithms Three hours. Geometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonometry. Three hours. Geography. The states of Eurojje, with special reference to their population, manufac- tures and commerce. Two hours. History. Principal events of the history of the middle ages and of later times, as an intro duction to recent liistory. One hour. Natural History. Mineralogy. Physiology of plants. Three hours. Chemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, v^'ith experiments. Three hours. Architectural, topographical., and plain drawing. Drawing with instruments. Introduc- tion to India ink drawing. Beginning of the science of constructions. Two hours. Druicing From copies, and from plaster and other models. Two hours. This kind of drawing may be learned instead of the above. Vocal Music. Two hours. FIRST CLASS. Religious Instruction. History of the Christian religion and church continued. Refer- ences to the bble. One nour. German. History of German literature to recent times. Essays. Exercises of delivery. Three hours. French. Reading from the manual of Buchner and Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic authors read. Review of Grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free delivery. "Correction of exercises. Four hours. English. Syntax, with written and extempore exercises from Burkhardt. Reading of classic authors. Writing of letters. Exercises in speaking. Arithmetic Algebra. Simple and quadratic equations. Binomial and polynomial theo- rems. Higher equations. Commercial arthmetic continued. Three hours. Geometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications. Conic sections. Descriptive Geome- try. Three hours. History. History of the middle ages. Modern history, with special reference to the prog- ress of civilization, of inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry. Three hours. Natural History. In summer, botany, the principal families, according to" the natural sys- tem. In wi iter, zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of examining specimens to the Royal Museum. Physics. In summer, optics with experiments. In winter the system of the world. Three hours. Technology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades, described and illustrated by mo- dels. Excursions to visit the principal workshops. Four hours. Architectural and machine drawing. Two hours. Those pupils who do not take part in this, receive lessons in ornamental drawing from plaster models. Vocal Music. Two hours. The pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in manipulating in the laboratory of the insti- tion several hours each week. The courses require a good collection of apparatus and specimens to carry them out, and this school is, in fact, better furnished than any other of its grade which I savp in Prussia, besides which, its collections are on the increase. The facilities for the courses are furnished by a collection of mathematical and physical apparatus, a labratory, with a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and series of tests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures (or technological col- lection,) a collection of dried plants, and of engravings for the botanical course, and a sinall garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collection of insects, a collection in comparative anatomy, a series of engravings for the drawing course, and of plaster models, a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some as- tronomical instruments, and a library. The pupils are taken from time to time, to the admirable museum attached to the university of Berlin, for the examination of zoological specimens especially. That this school is as a preparation for the higher occupations, and for profee- eions not ranking among the learned, the equivalent of the gymnasium is clearly shown by the sulijects and scope of its courses, and by the age of its pupils. 196 CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN Some of these occupations require no higher inslruction, others that the pupils shall pass to the special schools introductory to them. So also, many of the pupils of the gymnasia pass at once into active life, others enter the university. The class of schools to which the two last described belong, are most important in their influence. In many countries, an elementary education is the limit beyond which those intending to enter the lower grades of the occupations enumerated in connection w-ith the City Ti'ade School of Berlin, do not pass -, and if they are in- clined to have a better education, or if intending to embrace a higher occupation, they desire to be better instructed, they must seek instruction in the classical schools. The training of these schools is, however, essentially different from that required by the tradesman and mechanic, the verbal character of the instruction is not calculated to produce the habits of mind in which he should be brought up, and the knowledge which is made the basis of mental training is not that which he has chiefly occasion to use. Besides, were the course ever so well adapted to his object, the time at which he must leave school only permits him to follow a part of it, and he is exposed to the serious evils which must flow from being, as it were, but half taught. In fact, however, he requires a very different school, one in which the subjects of instruction are adapted to his destination, while they give him an adequate m- tellectual culture 5 where the character of the instruction will train him to the habits which must, in a very considerable degree, determine his future usefulness ; and where the course which he pursues will be thorough, as far as it goes, and will have reached before he leaves the school the standard at which it aims. Such establishments are furnished by the real schools of Germany, and as the wants v.hich gave rise to them there, are strongly felt every where, this class of institu- tions must s})read extensively. In Germany they are, as has been seen, no new experiment, but have stood the test of experience, and with various modifications to adapt them to differences of circumstances or of views in education, they are spreading in that country. As they become more diffused, and have employed a greater number of minds in their organization, their plans will no doubt be more fully developed. It is certainly highly creditable to Germany that its " gymnasia." on the one hand, and its " real schools'' on the other, offer such excellent models of secondary instruction in its two departments. The toleration which allows these dissimilar establishments to grow up side by side, admitting that each, though good for its object, is not a substitute for the other, belongs to an enlightened state of senti- ment in regard to education, and is worthy of the highest commendation DISTRIBUTION OF STUDIES IN THE CITY TRADE SCHOOL OF BERLIN. !fO. OF HOURS PER WEEK. SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION'. Religion, German, French, English, Arithmetic, Geometry, . , Geogi-aphy, History, Natural History, Physics, Chemistry, Technology, Writing, Drawing, Vocal Music, Total First Class. Second Class. Upper Lower Third Third 34 32 32 32 28 Fourth Class. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 197 THE ROYAL TRADE ACADEMY IN BERLIN. The Royal Trade Academy {Konigliche Geiverbe Acadamie), formerly the Royal Trade Insititute {Institut), at Berlin, was founded in 1821, and underwent a re- organization in 1849. Its object, according to the terms of a circular of 1860, is " to give the student an opportunity to qualify himself for the position of a superintendent or owner of a technological establishment." It stands at the summit of technical instruc- tion. It may be considered, together with the building and mining academies, of which a description is given elsewhere, as a polytechnic school. The institution is in the department of the Minister of Commerce, Industry and Public Works. It is governed by a Council of Studies, composed of a high official of the Bureau of Commerce, Industry and Public Works, of the director of the academy as his substitute, of two professors of the school, and of two other gentlemen "as independent representatives of science and industry." All the interests of the institution, and all changes in its organization, are deliberated upon by this Council, and the results of its deliberations laid before the ?»[inistry. The immediate management is in the hands of the director already mentioned. He is not a teacher. There ai-e ten titular professors, and twelve other teachers. Most of the former fill professorships in other establishments, as in the Univer- sity. The teaching corps forms a board, called together at the close of tlie term to a school conference on the order of classes. There is also in this institution a class of instructors called Privatdocenten, receiving fees from their private pupils, but no salary from the government. They must have completed the three years' course, and have been in practice as competent engineers. The conditions of admission are as follows : 1. The candidate must be be- tween 17 and 27 years of age, and must bring a certificate of birth to prove this. 2. He must present a certificate of maturity from a provincial trade school, from a first class real school, or from a gymnasium. 3. Students in the shipbuilding division must prove that they have been engaged, for at least one year, in prac- tical work in the shipyard of a seaport, before they can go on in the special studies of their profession. The requirement of one year's practical work was originally made from all candidates, but it was repealed, because a great part of what had been acquired at the gymnasium was often forgotten during the inter- val. In the case of shipbuilders, however, the year's experience is absolutely necessary. The period of instruction is three years, with six half-yearly terms. Of these, the first three, Section A, are occupied with general and purely theoretical tech- nical studies, for all the students in common. During the last three, Section B, special courses are pursued, and practical exercises are added. The special de- partments are : I. Special technology, as mechanics. n. Chemistry and metallurgy. III. Ship-building. The studies of Section A are obligatory on all, but those students of chemistry who aim only at being assistants in factories. It is thought that " those having this modest object in view, can do very well without the mathematics of the third term, and will employ their time more usefully in the laboratory. The director may, therefore, allow that class of chemists to experiment in the laboratory after having attended the lectures in the fii-st theoretical section for one year." Those 198 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. intending to establish or superintend chemical factories, must go through the whole course. The period of study can be prolonged by students of mechanics, who are allowed to spend an additional year in the workshops connected with the institution. The academical year begins October 1st, and closes August 15th, with a vaca- tion of ten days at Christmas, and one of the same length at Easter. In regard to the studies pursued, we extract from the circular of August 23, 1860, already cited, the following paragraph, which shows the admirable spirit in which they are planned : The characteristic peculiarity of the course of instruction is this, that the students do not obtain the knowledge necessary to their future career by a series of lectures, independent of one another, as at the University, but that the lec- tures form a complete and well organized course, intimately connected Avith each other, and so arranged that the student passes through all the theoretical and practical branches of science and art, step by step from the moment he becomes a member of the second section to the time when he leaves the Institute. This is the reason Avhy teachers and students are not permitted to select the objects of teaching and study, that the students are obliged to pass through the general theoretical section, and that the professors must arrange their lectures in har- mony with the general plan of the Institute. Free choice is, however, allowed within certain specified limits. The curriculum, which has undergone many changes, is as follows : A. IN THE GENERAL, TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. a. Complement to general knowledge of figures ; higher equations. 6. Spherical trigonometiy. c. Differential and integral calculations. d. Analytical statics and mechanics. e. Theory of mechanical effects of heat. /. Descriptive geometry, and application of it to perspective construction of shadows and lithotomy. g. Special inorganic chemistry. A. Physics. i. General experimental chemistry. h. General knowledge of constructive building. /. Knowledge of simple machines. m. Dra^wang. n. Modeling. B. IN THE SPECIAL TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. I. — For mechanicians : . ■ a. Theory of solidity of buildings, and of parts of machinery ; calculations with regard to buildings put together; theory of Arone's counterpoise; and {Futter mauern) building of sluices. h. Motion of water and air in natural and artificial ducts ; practical hydrau- lics ; theory of heating apparatuses ; fireplaces. c. General theory of machines ; their resistance and regulation, particularly the theory of hydraulic motors and steam engines. d. Calculations with regard to simple parts of machinery; general princi- ples of their construction. e. Details of machines ; power machines. f. Mechanical technology. g. Chemical technology. h. Practice in plans of parts of machines, and whole machines. i. Practice in plans of power machinery. k. Practice in plans of machines and factory grounds. l. Plans and drawings of such artistic forms as can be executed in cast iron. m. Mathematical foundation of the most important physical laws. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSU. J 99 n. — For chemists and smelters : a. Spociiil inorganic chemistry. b. Special organic chemistry. c. Mineralogy. d. Geognosy. e. Metuliurgic chemistry. /: Chemical technology. o. Special knowledge of machines and machine power. A. Practice in planning chemical works. i. Practical studies in the laboratory. III. — For ship-builders : a. (up to i) as in II. 1. k. I) rawing of vessels and parts of vessels. /. Art of ship-building, general displacement and stability, first part ; hy- drostatic calculations. m. Art of ship-building, knowledge of stability, second part; theory of sail- ing and steam vessels, general principles with regard to form of vessels ; knowledge of construction of wooden and iron vessels. n. Practice. o. Planning and calculating cost and capacity of vessels. At the close of every term a review of the studies pursued during the term is held. This review, which is a kind of examination, and is called "repetition," is obligatory only upon the stipendiaries, and that class of students who avail themselves of the free places in the school. On leaving the Acadeiiy, the student receives a certificate, signed by the council of teachers ; it enumerates all the lectures and practical exercises he has attended ; reports his standing in the repetitions and adds a critique on the skill and judgment displayed by him in the practical department. There is a fine collection of models, which has recently been re-arranged and newly classified. They are in bronze, and plaster of Paris, and consist of models of ornaments and of the plastercasts for the drawing class, models for wood and cotton manufactures, and some illustrating descriptive geometry. Most of them were made at the school. There is a rich collection for machinery and mechan- ical technology. The library is open to the public at stated hours. The pupils can use the collections under certain restrictions. There is a laboratory for organic chemistry, with room for 50 pupils, and one for inorganic chemistry with room for 20. The reagents are arranged on tables, each large enough for six pupils, and provided with cupboards and shelves. Evaporating processes are carried on in glazed and closed stoves, with gas burners, and hot sand baths, the whole well closed and ventilated. The workshops connected witi^the academy are more extensive than at any other technical establishment, and not only give practical instruction in mechan- ics and ship-building, but encourage the construction of new machines, and man- ufacture models for the drawing-school, and for general industrial uses. There are consequently always a certain number of regular workmen employed in them. The pupil begins with the making of a screw, and proceeds in regular order to the most difficult mechanical operations, for which the large machines and mon- uments made here afford a good opportunity. The number of pupils- in the Academy was 440 in 1867. In 1861-62 there were 374 pupils, of whom 67 were mechanics, 20 chemists, and 3 ship-builders. The fees are twenty thalers per half year ; forty-five thalers for those who work 200 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. practically in the chemical laboratory, and the student must pay for all breakages, &c., caused by his negligence. For practical work in the workshops, the fee is one thaler per half year ; for work in the photographic atelier once a week, two thalers per half year. Masters of establishments, working-men's unions, ing and completing the theories of Liebig, and in proving the quality of the artificial manures of commerce. Finally, there are 519 voluntary agricultural association.s, which by confer- ences, exhibitions and prizes, assist in spreading information. Apart from the academies and institutes of chemistry, the State does little. There is a central commission, presided over by a Minister of Agriculture, but its expenses in 1862 were only 177^. Three large stud farms, maintained at a cost of 20,000Z. a year, continually improve the breeds of horses for war as well as peace. Eleven hundred stallions, distributed from tliese forms through the provinces, get annually 35,000 foals^a number sufficient to modify the breeds throughout the country in any desired direction in a very few years. M. de Laveleye assigns much importance "to the simple and economic habits of the German farmer, and to the fact that Prussia is fortunate in having no Algiers, no large fleet, and especially no Paris to oppress agriculture by the draio of both money and men ; but the great secret of the success of Prussian agriculture is diffused education and technical instruction." SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 219 COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS. In Prussia, the Real school, and even the Higher Burgher school, has heen regarded as sufficient to give all the appropriate and special instruction required for a mercantile career, the practical part of v/hich could, it was thought, be better acquired by a few years service in a subordinate position in the counting-room than in any school. COMMERCIAL SCHOOL AT BERLIK. The Cominercial School at Berlin, founded in 1848, by Dr. Schweitzer, and now under the direction of Dr. Frantz, has for its object the special preparation of pupils for. commercial pursuits. There are but few schools of this special character in Prussia, as it is generally maintained that the gymnasiums and real schools afford the best general culture necessary to the merchant of good social standing, while the counting-room is the best practical school. However, the government has sanctioned this establishment. The course of instruction covers two years, and there are four divisions : class III, class II B, II A, and class I. The branches taught are arithmetic, geom- etry, physics, history, geography, drawing, calligraphy ; the history, geography, statistics, and science of commerce ; history of mercantile staples, technical chem- istry, laws of exchange, coinage, &c. ; book-keeping, French, English, and Ger- man languages, and correspondence. There is a Government Board of Inspection of the final examination. Suc- pessful candidates are excused from two of their three years' military service. From 1856 to 1862, 122 pupils passed, of whom 21 were characterized as "ex- cellent," 64 " good," and 37 " passable." The number of pupils was in 1862, 100 in the first year, and 140 in the second ; in 1863, 173 and 176 ; and in 1864, 204 and 213 ; these statistics showing an in- crease of public confidence in the institution. C03IMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR YOUNG WOMEN, AT BERLIN. The commercial institution for young women, at Berlin, was opened in 1866. Its purpose is to impart to young women already possessing considerable education, such theoretical and practical knowledge as will enable them to fill responsible commercial and industrial positions, especially those of book-keepers, accountants, and correspondents. It has seven professors. The course is divided into two divisions ; the first (A) extends over two years, giving general preparatory culture, with a view to future employment in com- merce or industry ; the second (B) of one year, suited to those who wish to obtain, as soon as possible, the knowledge necessary for entering at once into some prac- tical employment. Ladies over 15 are admitted to Division A; over 16, to Division B. The subjects and Itpurs, per week, are specified below. General knowledge of commerce and industry; definition of commerce; differ- ent kinds of trade ; auxiliary means of trade ; coinage ; weights and measures ; money ; banking and exchange business. The most important laws relative to commerce and industry, 1 hour during the first year ; 2 during the second ; 2 in Division B. Commercial and industrial book-keeping (by single and double entry,) 1 hour first year; 2 the second; 2 in Division B. Commercial hand- writing and practice therein by writing themes on commercial business, 3 hours first year; 3 in Division B. Ar thmetic general and applied to commerce and industry, 4 hours first year, 2 the second ; 4 in Division B. German language and composition, 2 hours first year ; 1 the second ; 3 in Division B. German 220 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. commercial correspondence, 1 hour the second year ; English language and cor- respondence, 3 hours both years ; 2 hours in Division B. French language and correspondence, 3 hours in both years, and Division B. Drawing, especially free-hand and pattern drawing, 3 hours both years and in Division B. Stenog- raphy, according to choice. Elements of natural history, 2 hours in both years, and Division B, and the elements of physics and chemistry, 2 hours both years, and in Division B, to prepare for the study of commercial geography and history, 2 hours in the second year, and 1 in Division B,and the knowledge of goods and technology, 2 hours in the second year, and in Division B. Knowledge of mat- ters connected with the vocation of women, more especially domestic economy, 1 hour in the second year. The last branch applies science to domestic life, and treats the Object as fol- lows : Knowledge of susteniation — alimentary substances, varieties, source, value for nourishment, adulterations, and tests. Animal and vegetable food in all its varie- ties. Cheapest and best diets. Cooking ; materials for fire, utensils, modes of cook- ing. Preservation of food. Fermentations ; putrefaction, and modes of prevent- ing it. Various modes of preserving food ; the ice-house ; storing food. Dairy products. Alimentary stuffs, and household goods, and materials. Care of house linen, nursing, sanitary laws, management of servants, accounts, and various other household functions. The above plan of studies is only temporarily established, and is subject to change. Visits are made to workshops, goods depots, &c. At the close of the course, after an examination, a diploma may be conferred. The school fees are a matriculation fee of three thalers ; an annual fee of 50 thalers ; in Division B there are 10, additional for English, French, and draw- ing. Pupils are not received for less time than a year, but may attend single courses for 1|^ to 2 thalers the course per semester. There are 49 pupils. Connected with the institution is a collection of books, specimens of goods, physical, chemical, and technological apparatus. SCHOOL OF NAVIGATION, AT STETTIN. This school is intended to train mariners and masters of merchant vessels. It is under the superintendence of a director, residing at Dantzig, who has the same control over the other navigation schools in Prussia, and is provided with two professors and an assistant, who teaches drawing. To be admitted to the lowest class, the candidate must be able to read and write, be acquainted with elementary mathematics, and must be able to make a fair composition in German. The lessons are given during 32 hours a week, and during three years, the first year being a course for pilots, while, during the last two is taught the art of navigating the high seas. The course in pilotage comprises the following branches ; arithmetic, plane geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, terrestrial and astronomical observations, drawing of sea-charts and astronomical maps, and English. That of the highei* division comprises the preceding studies carried farther, rigging, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the commercial rules rela- tive to ships' papers, and to the course of exchange at the principal commercial ports, &c. On leaving the school an examination is held, and a certificate of proficiency awarded to those undergoing it in a satisfactory manner. This certificate is the basis of all promotion to any and the different stations of command of a mer- cantile vessel. The fees, paid quarterly, are six thalers for the pilot's course, and ten for the highercourse in navigation. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 221 MINING ACADEMY AT BERLIN. The Mining Academy (Berg Akademie) at Berlin, gives a superior finishing education to persons connected with mines or the working of metals. It is gov- erned by a director, and has a corps of nine professors, three attached to the school, and six connected with the University, who attend to give their practical courses. The pupils must inscribe their names for the courses they intend to fol- low, and persons not belonging to the school may hear single courses after the same formality. The school fees are calculated at the rate of 1^ thalers the term for each hour's lesson attended per week ; thus a course with six lessons in the week costs 9^ thalers per half year. Laboratory manipulations cost 20 thalers additional, and assaying 10. The course of instruction includes : 1. Mathematics; 2. Greometry; 3. Me- chanics, elementary, higher, and applied ; 4. Physics; 5. Construction of mining machinery; 6. Chemistry, theoretical, technological, and analytical ; 7. Mineral- ogy, crystalography ; 8. Geology, paleontology; 9. Surveying, general and practical; 10. Architecture, and construction in reference to mining; 11. Met- allurgy, assaying by the dry and the wet method, and the blow pipe; 12. Min- ing law and business system, including book-keeping; 13. Drawing, through the whole course, with reference to construction, platting of grounds, sections, &c. At the end of the course there is an examination, giving the pupil who passes it the title of el eve des mines (pupil of mines). If he is to enter the State service, he must pass two more, the first, for the title of auditor of mines (referendairedes n}in€s), after two years' practical mining ; and the second, for that of assessor of mines, after two years' of administrative labor under a chief engineer. The three professors attached to the academy and the director receive each 1,000 thalers a year. The total expense of the establishment is 12,000 thalers, and the part not covered by the receipts is borne by the State, which has also provided the building, the cabinets, and the apparatus. There are xery complete geological and mineralogical collections, and very commodious and well-organized laboratories. Of the latter there are two, one for the dry and one for the humid method of assaying. Reagents are placed freely at the disposal of the students; only the more costly ones being given out under supervision. SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL MINING AT BOCflUM. The Mining School at Bochura was founded in 1863, out of the surplus funds gf a miners' association. The management is in the hands of the Director of the Mining Bureau, and of the trustees of the old miners' fund. It is designed for superintendents of mines, and master workmen. The pupils must have worked three years in a mine before entering the school. They must enter early enough to finish the course before heing called out to military duty, or else have finished their period of service. The course occupies two years ; the first year is preparatory and optional ; the studies of the second occupy 30 hours weekly, and include mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, physics, mechanics, and the elements of building construction, the law, administration and accounts of mining, and draw- ing. It is held only in winter, the summer being spent in work in the mines. Instruction is gratuitous to indigent pupils only, who, if they give promise of excellence, find no difficulty in getting pecuniary assistance. There is, connected with the school, an excellent library of works relating to mining matters and to the studies pursued, and a collection of geological and paleontological specimens. 222 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. THE STEEL WORKS OP KRUPP. In connection with this brief description of the School for Practical Miners at Bochum, which we compile from the letter of Mr. Samuelson, on " Technical Education in various countries abroad" we introduce a few extracts from the same letter, to show the commercial importance of the region of countr}-^, in which this and other schools intended to give a high scientific training to the engineers and foremen of the great industrial establishments, which the wise policy of Prussia now fosters and protects, are located : The coal basin of Westphalia will be the foundation of an industrial develop- ment for the continent of Europe, second only to that of Great Britain, Its area is not yet fully ascertained, but the yield will last for centuries, even at a higher rate of production required to supply the steel and ironworks now in full activity, and the numerous factories which are springing up through all this region. At Essen, in the heart of the great coal basin and rich mineral district of West- phalia, are the celebrated steel works of Krupp. They consume 800 to 1 ,000 tons of coal per day raised from pits within the walls of the works or immediately adjoining, the cost at the works being less than 5s. per ton, probably the lowest cost of fuel in any metallurgical works on the continent. The machinery is as perfect as the magnificent products of the work would lead one to expect. The range of crucible furnaces is a sight of its kind unparalleled in the w^orld, except perhaps at the neighboring works of Bochum. A steel 1,000-pounder breech- loading gun was nearly completed for Russia, and several 200-pounders and 300- pounder steel guns, hooped and rifled, also breech-loaders for the German Navy. Hundreds, I think I may say thousands, of steel guns, of every size, from those I have named down to 4-pounders, and for evei-y nation under the sun, all rifle breech-loaders, but of endless patterns, were in every stage of progress, from the solid ingot, passing under the ponderous steam-hammer to the bored and turned gun, fitted with its breech-piece, and sighted. Besides the gims, numberless rail- way wheels and tyres were in progress. I may notice a number of forged cast- steel cranked axles, one of enormous size, for a transatlantic steamer, building at Greenock, by the Messrs. Caird, and several steel hoops for the Elswick gun factory. Nearly 8,000 men are employed at these works, producing 60,000 tons of steel annually, or more than tAvice the entire export of steel from the United Kingdom ; and the human tide, as it pours from the numerous gates at the din- ner hour, is not the least suggestive of the sights of Essen. At the outbreak of last year's war, (1866,) a thousand men were called under arms, but 250 of them were quickly sent back, lest the manufacture of cannon should suffer interruption. The administration is like that of a small State. All the heads of the technical departments are pupils of the various Polytechnic schools of Gennany. The Commercial staff" includes a jurist, by whom all contracts are settled, and legal questions determined. The foremen have all risen from the ranks. In the very centre of the works stands the modest dwelling-house, and the very workshop in which Mr. Krupp succeeded to his father's trade at the age of 15, forty years ago, emplopng at that time a single journeyman at the forge, and himself traveling on horseback to sell his steel wares throughout the country. The wages of the puddlers here are about 4s. per day, but it is probably above the average of the district. Rollers earn 4s., mechanics up to 5s. ; the hammermen, at the enormous steam hammers, 5s. to 6s. ; their assistants, 3s. to 4s. 6rf. Here again, there is no sub-contracting — the share of every man, in the tonnage rate, is fixed by the managers and paid to him at the pay-table. The facility and certainty with which solid ingots of steel, weighing from 4o to 50 tons, are turned out of the works, are not more astonishing than the pro- duction of the largest as well as the most delicate moulded castings in steel at Bochum. The steel disc-wheels of Bochum, cast in a single piece, are now to be found on nearly every German railway, and while the price scarce exceeds that of iron wheels, their durability is incomparably greater ; about 20,000 of them are already nmning. Bochum, like Essen, is in the Westphalian coal-basin. Scarcely inferior in interest are the great iron and steel works of Hoerde, cm- ploying 4,500 work people. The heads of the technical departments licre, as elsewhere, are pupils of the higher schools ; the foremen are superior workmen. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 223 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Drawing, since the establishment of the Academy of the Fine Arts in Berlin in 1690, and of the Real School by Hccker in 1747, has formed an important branch of instruction, not only in professional and technical schools, but in insti- tutions of general culture, of the highest and lowest grade. In the classical and scientific schools, in the trade schools and further improvement schools, in the primary and secondary schools, we are sure to find its place in the programme of studies. In 1831, it was made a matter of special regulation by the Minister of Public Instruction, which was revised by the same authority in 18G3, with sug- gestions as to the aims and methods of this branch of instruction. The following Regulations for instruction in Drawing in the Gymnasiums and Trade Schools of Prussia, was issued by the Minister of Public Instruction (Von Muehler), October 2, 1863 : Instruction in drawing is an important element in the education of youth, and forms an essential part of the programme of superior schools. Experience has demonstrated that the actual state and results of instruction in this brancl>, as well as the development of scientific teaching, and the condition of art and industry, require a revision of the regulations of March 14, 1831. With the advice of the royal academies of fine arts of Berlin, Dusseldorf, and Kceni^sberg, and of the provincial academic councils, and of several teachers of tried experience, the following regulations have been prescribed : I. PROGRAMME FOR GYMNASIUMS. 1. Instruction in drawing in gymnasiums is given in four classes or consecu- tive coixrses, the trade school constituting the fifth class. Independent of this division of courses, pupils, as far as local convenience permits, shall be classed in special divisions, according to their capacities and progress. Lower Class: 2. Elements of the theory of drawing ; lines of different directions, and dimen- sions in various combinations. Drawing of straight and curved lines without model. In the first course, that steadiness of hand is not to be expected, which is necessary for drawing lines and circles with the perfection attained with the use of instruments. Second Class: 3. First elements of perspective, with the occasional use of the ruler and com- pass if necessaiy. The pupils may draw after models of wood ; the apparent changes of aspect to which bodies are subject must be explained ; also the elfcct of light on the surface of bodies, and the shading of solids, beginning with those with plane surfaces. The models are to be turned successively to the right or left and placed at various distances from the pupil. Moreover, in this class free-hand drawing after engravings is entered upon, ad- vancing to parts of the face and to entire heads, giving at first only contours and slight indications of shade. Third Class : 4. Advanced exercises in free-hand drawing after models and plaster cgsts, or- naments, leaves, parts of the human body ; copying engravings is to be continued, and landscape drawing to be begun. Progressive development of perspective ; drawing from models in various posi- tions and at various distances. Theory of the vanishing-point. Introduction to the use of the ruler and compass in the principles of architec- tural design. Fourth Class: 5. Free-hand drawing after engravings, arabesques, animals, heads, and com- plete figures ; more difficult landscapes. Drawing from busts, full heads, use of stump and drawing with two crayons. Perspective continued to drawing apartments and groups of difficult objects not presenting too great diflficulties. 224 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. II. PROGRAMME FOR TRADE SCHOOLS. 6. The four preceding classes, comprising the course of a gymnasium, are also the first four classes in the trade schools, with the difference, however, that in the latter, fi-ee-hand drawing is taught to pupils of the superior classes, together with linear drawing (ruler and compass), beginning in the third class. Ihe method of projections, on a plane or in elevation, is theor^icallv and practically exposed, and extended much farther than at the gymnasiums, while a greater number of hours also are devoted to instruction in drawing in the superior classes. Beyond this, the trade schools add a special fifth class to the course pursued at the gym- nasium. Special or Fifth Class : 7. Continuation of free-hand exercises ; problems from perspective and the theory of shadows, with scientific explanations ; exercises in linear drawing ac- cording to the special profession of each pupil ; elements of topography. 8. As a close to the instruction in drawing, polytechnic schools can impose proofs of capacity upon pupils leaving the institute : 1 . Linear Drawing. — A geometrical or prospective projection, including con- struction of shadows, simple objects in architecture, mechanics, or other branches. This proof implies the supposition that pupils of the superior course of a poly- technic school are able to trace back any graphic representation to its elementary geometrical construction ; that they are familiar with descriptive geojnetry, with the theory of shadows and of perspective, and that they are sufficiently practiced in designing architecture and machines, without having completely exhausted the theoretical part of the branches. 2. Free-hand Drawing. — In this branch the individual disposition of each pupil should be considered ; their inequality in this respect does not admit of a formal programme as definite as that for linear drawing. The more advanced pupils should be able to draw with the free-hand, arabesques, landscapes, animals, heads and entire from engravings, and various objects, including shaded heads from models in plaster, and prove their comprehension of the principles involved. 3. Drawing of plans and topographical drawing must also, to a moderate de- gree, become familiar to the pupils To this programme are appended the following su^estions : 1. Instruction in drawing should proceed gradually from the most easy to the most difficult studies, avoiding that pedantic monotony which weakens the atten- tion of pupils, and passing lightly over isolated details, accustoming the student at an early period to consider the whole. There is no want of excellent models for the first courses in instruction ; but it is recommended that the teacher should sometimes make his own models that the pupils may see tne method of construct- ing them. In the beginning the entire class should be engaged in the same problems in order to better sustain their attention and to elevate and stimulate their zeal. 2. The programme of instruction in drawing in the superior schools, particu- larly in gymnasiums, embraces also, besides the training of the eye and the hand, the development of the feeling for the beautiful. Pupils will learn by progressive exercises, to take in at a glance the characteristic forms of objects, and to properly appreciate the beauties of natural scenery and the mastear-pieces of plastic art. 3. Free-hand drawing is the most important exercise at the gymnasium, and the course should correspond with the indications of the programme, without be- coming purely mechanical ; but should, on the contrary, be pursued with the object of elevating the student to spontaneous and intelligent reflection. Noth- ing should be done by the beginner without previous theoretical and practical ex- planations. The education of the mind must accompany that of the hand ; the latter can produce only what the eye sees, and the eye sees incorrectly without the aid' of the understanding. The copying hand is not only an instrument in the service of the eye, but the auxiliary of a reasoning mind. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 225 To attain this object, it is particularly important that the instructions should not be limited, as is often done, to the mere copying of engravings, a system from which science and method are almost always excluded. Drawing from engrav- ings alone is injurious to the eye, because the object to be reproduced is always too near ; and it will happen that pupils, after following a course in drawing through several years, will not be able to draw correctly even a chair or any other simple body. 4. Experience shows that most pupils leave the gymnasium to choose a pro- fession after the third or fourth class, for which reason the coinplete drawing course for a gymnasium has been so organized that the pupil can acquire, before he leaves, besides some skill in free-hand and linear drawing, the theory of making plans and elevations as well as the elements of perspective ; in short, they are suffi- ciently familiarized with the principles of design to pursue the course by them- selves, if their vocation requires. In gymnasiums the use of the ruler and compass in architectural design is re- served for the higher classes. The education of the aesthetic sense, aimed at in all the other literary studies of the gymnasium, is also assisted by the study of models from the antique, and pupils in the higher classes should be made familiar not only with the classic antiquities, but also with some of the master-works in sculpture and architecture. 5 The polytechnic schools, by the terms of their organic regulations and to respond to their object, should initiate their pupils into a thorough knowledge of nature, science and art, by giving due importance to the instruction in drawing. By it, pupils should become accustomed to observation, in order that, by pene- trating mathematical forms, they may be able to find and recognize them in all the natural combinations into which they enter, and to determine their peculiar and external characteristics. The better they understand the laws of nature, the more the sense of the beautiful will develop itself within them. 6. If, for the object of polytechnic schools, linear design occupies an important f lace in the programme, it is not with the desire that free-hand drawing be neg lected ; on the contrary, it should be cultivated in an earnest and methodical manner, always connected with instruction in perspective. It is recommended to add it to the plan of the fifth class, and if thought proper, to the preceding courses, in connection with lessons in natural science, and to introduce as a model the skeleton of the human body. Before commencing linear drawing, properly so termed, the pupil should have acquired skill in free-hand drawing. This branch may begin in the third class, with the theory of projections, since perspective has been a subject in preceding classes, and may be continued with the theory of shadows. 7. Instruction in drawing should not generally pass the. limits assigned in the programme of the school ; its object is not to form artists, but to exercise pupils in the elementary principles of art, in the understanding of form, in surcness of eye, in the habit of estimating proportions, and in steadiness and skill of hand. Copying landscape studies is often dispensed with in higher classes, as the time and labor spent are out of proportion to the usefulness of the practice, and be- cause both teacher and pupil are easily deceived by productions of this sort. 8. In the selection of studies, regard should be had to the needs of instruction, rather than to method and aesthetics. 9. Besides a collection of studies and models, it is indispensable that superior schools should be provided with a well-lighted hall specially adapted to this in- 15 226 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. struction, where suitable objects for observation, the copies of characteristic and celebrated works of art, busts, ornaments, fragments of ai'chitecture, etc., will be the best decorations. The daily contemplation of these models will contribute essentially to the development of the faculties concerned in drawing. Schmidt's method, In 1836, Mr. Peter Schmidt received a pension from the government In acknowledgement of the services rendered the schools and the country by a new method of drawing introduced by him into the Royal Keal School, and taught by him to the teachers of the trade school and of the city normal school. In this method, pupils begin by drawing from geometrical forms, made in wood or plaster, of a square pillar (seven and a half inches high and one inch and a half in its square section), a niche, and a low cylinder. The square pillar sei> arates in joints, affording a cube and parallelopipeds of different heights. The hemisphere, which caps the niche, may be removed, leaving the concave surface of its cylindrical part. Each of these models afford a graduated series of lessons on the drawing of solids, and of curved lines, and the drawing of lines of different degrees of strength, and of shadows. This is accompanied with some of the more simple rules of shadow and shade. More difficult exercises follow from natural objects, and from works of art, or mechanism, according to the attain- ment of the pupil and the direction of his taste. An account of this method will be found in Prof. Bache's description of the Royal Real School of Berlin. DIJBris' METHOD. The method proposed by M. Alexander Dubuis, of giving the human head, or bust, which presents only very general masses, or features ; after this, another bust, with some additional indications of the head ; then a third, in which the details are more numerous and more decided ; and lastly, a fourth, in which the details are according to nature. These four busts, each placed in different positions, presenting four successive stages of the same figure, is in use in some public, as well as private drawing schools. DRAWING IN COMMON SCHOOLS. Although drawing receives some attention in the common schools, and the teachers are systematically trained for this purpose, its scope in Prussia is far more restricted than in schools of the same class in Bavaria and Wurtemberg. By the " Regulativ " of 1854, drawing in the Teachers' Seminary "must not go beyond introductory lessons in the linear representation of simple objects," and in the ordinary one class elementary school, it must not be taught beyond the simplest free-hand drawing from fiat examples. Practically, it is not carried, as in the best Bavarian schools, into elaborate penmanship, tasteful as well as accu- rate map-drawing, ornamental designing, and the culture of the sense of the beautiful generally. Nor is it applied in the common schools, as in Wurtem- berg, to the industrial details of the future occupations of the pupils. Instruc- tion of this kind is reserved for the adult, or supplementary schools, and to the trade and art schools. In the absence of any official directions as to the system of teaching drawing In in this class of schools, we introduce a very valuable paper on the subject, prepared by Dr. Hcntschel for Diesterweg's " Wegweiser," a manual which has special ref- erence to the organization, instruction, and discipline of common schools : ' DRAWING* BY DR. ERNST HBNTSOHBI.. I. DEFINITIONS, " The cultivation of the faculties of representation and form, gives us a feeling for beauty, grace, form, and symmetry." — Hamisch. Drawing is a mode of representing solid forms by lines upon surfaces. A drawing, as a result of artistic labor, has either a purpose out- side of the art — such are mechanical drawings, plans, anatomical drawings, &c. — or it is executed for its owm sake ; as are landscapes, fruit pieces, &c. In the former case, their purpose is principally one of material usefulness ; in the second, they are executed with an en- deavor after a beautiful external form ; and are thus a representation of the ideal. But those of the fijst sort do not exclude the beautiful, for every object, without any exception, can be beautifully represented. Material forms are either natural or artificial; and either geomet- rical, or irregular. Various species of drawing are practiced ; as, 1. Linear drawing, which gives only an outline of the object ;f and shaded drawing, in which surfaces are shaded. 2. Geometrical and perspective drawing. The first represents objects in their correct relative proportions as to magnitude; the sec- ond, as they appear to the eye. The geojuetrical delineation of one side of a body is called an elevation ; that of its plan, a ground-plan. 3. Free drawing and sketching ; either with or without the use of rule, compasses, e who doubt whether such figures can be called beautiful at all, seem to doubt also whether the habit is to be approved which has prevailed for so many centuries, of using such forms on walls, doors, windows, fireplaces, hangings, cupboards, tables, furniture, carpets, table-cloths, book covers, embroidery patterns, and in a hundred other such ways. But the fact that these objects do certainly exist, and that other similar ones continue to be designed and used, so that the figures in que.stion do in fact have a relation to real objects, is a sufl5c ient reason for not omitting them from instruction in drawing. Otto states the necessity of the three principal departments of drawing, viz., copying, dra-w ing from' nature, and inventive drawing, as follows: " Drawing from visible bodies traim especially the eye ; drawing forms kept before the mind by the imagination and produced by it, and still more the work of imagining them, trains the imagination; and the copying t>| pictures already executed, the sense of beauty." DRAWING. 235 2. For such drawing as is required in practical life it has some- times no value, and at other times a very subordinate one. 3. If not very well prepared for and very well managed, it fre- quently produces a bad effect, and thus obstructs the cultivation of the taste instead of promoting it ; and even renders the minds of immature scholars obscure and stupefied. 4. It wastes time needed for other most indispensable exercises.* These reasons on both sides indicate that this department should be studied, but that its practice should be confined within somewhat close limits. Only remarkably talented and industrious pupils should be permitted to pursue it, and then not unless they have prepared the way by a thorough practice of outline drawing. Those collec- tions of copies for drawing are quite unpedagogical, in which every thing is shaded, even from the very beginning. Unfortunately there are so many such, that more proper points are too often entirely omitted. Having thus discussed the necessity of studying in the common schools the various departments of elementary and applied drawing, free oflf-hand drawing, outline sketching, copying, drawing from na- ture and inventive drawing, the next inqury is, B. The relations of these different departments of practice to each other. 1. Elementary drawing is the basis for all the others, and is there- fore the first step. 2. Perspective drawing from nature is the most diflBcult, and there- fore should constitute the last or fourth stage. Want of elementary practice has an astonishing power of interfer- ing with the results in perspective drawing. This latter, moreover, requires a certain maturity of the whole man ; and it is also less im- portant for ordinary use than the other kinds. And in the small extent to which it can be learned at the common schools, it can have but a small influence, relatively, in developing the sense of beauty. All these considerations indicate that perspective should be the last department taught. 3. Outline drawing is not to be taken up with the elementary * The shading is certainly a main reason why, in so large a share of the common schools, notwithstanding all the time spent in drawing lessons, the people do not learn to draw. A3 soon as Johnny has practiced lines and outlines for a few months, he is given a large fruit- piece, a group of animals, a landscape, or a head, to shade. The outline is very quickly exe- cuted, for the circle is used ; and " the circle is on purpose for drawing outlines ;" and on he goes, with his shading. For twenty or forty lessons, he sits scratching vacantly, humming and thoughtless, until the wonderful work is completed. Then it is glazed and framed, is handed all round at tlie examination, stared at and bepraised by people who do not under- stand it, and our young hero, who can not draw a right angle, nor sketch a window, and who has no idea of beauty of form, receives a prize. At home, they hang up the picture with great ceremony, " ia everlasting remembrance," in the best parlor.. Poor Johnny ! 236 DRAWING. course, but should come later, immediately before drawing in per- spective from nature, except so far as it belongs to geometry, and is employed in the construction of purely geometrical figures. It thus should constitute the third step, or last but one. On the subject of practicing outline drawing in the elementary course, opinions differ. Ramsauer says that it would be an unjusti- fiable waste of time to work with ruler and circle before the eye and hand gain firmness. Hippius directs a whole series of elementary exercises with the ruler, before beginning free off-hand drawing. Most teachers of drawing are of the opposite opinion to this. We incline toward the side which experience seems to have indicated, namely, that of the majority. 4. Between elementary drawing and outline sketching is the place for free off-hand drawing, applied to actual objects ; which thus occu- pies the second place. 5. Having thus determined upon four principal departments, the question will come up. Where does copying come in ; and elevations; and inventive drawing ? We answer : a. Inventive drawing has already been practiced in the elementary stage. But the pupil must always be made master of the materials with which he works ; he must have seen specimens of inventions of the sort which he is expected to make. The child can not develop the idea of the beautiful from himself. Some of the Pestalozzians have erred to an unspeakable extent on this point. Never was a more unpedagogical problem proposed than that of J. Schmid, for beginners — " Make a beautiful combination of isolated points!" But where the imagination has been set in action by examining models, the pupils may be permitted to make some experiments in invention, for which reason we have admitted it as above. For it is certainly according to nature, to begin to develop the different phases of the artistic faculty in children, from even the very point where they begin to spring out. We must, it is true, have regard to the old motto, ^^ Non multa sed multum ;''"' in order that we may not, in avoiding one-sidedness, fall into the opposite error of studying too many things at once. h. Drawing from nature, so far as it consists in making simple elevations, may be practiced during the second stage. For those just beginning it is too difficult, principally on account of the usually nec- essary reduction to a diminished scale. c. Cop3Mng may be commenced in a very easy way, as soon as a good beginning is laid in elementary drawing. DRAWING. 237, All the preceding details may be grouped as follows, in a General Scheme for Instruction in Drawing. First Grade, or Elementary Drawing ; and in connection with it, Inventive Drawing and Copying. Second Grade, Application of free off-hand drawing; including Copying, Geometrical Drawing from nature, and Inventive Drawing. Third Grade, or Outline Sketching ; with a continuation of Copy- ing and Inventive Drawing. Fourth Grade, Perspective Drawing, exclusively. This plan is in accordance with nature, as relates both to the pupil and to the subject. C. Directions for further practice in the different departments. GENERALLY. The same principles which have been laid down relative to the succession and connection of the various departments of practice, are applicable also to the choice and selection of the materials for each separate one. It is therefore necessary, First, To draw various forms. For if the instruction given is to communicate any formal culture, the child must, as has been said, comprehend its entire scope. It is an error to choose artificial forms only, or natural forms only. The teacher utterly misapprehends the character of the eoininon school, who causes architecture, or tools, or flowers, or landscapes, either of them exclusively, to be drawn. The pupil does not see either of them exclusively ; nor is it the business of the common school to educate especially for any one occupation such as that of the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, N_ r^FF -^-r I From the North fierce winds are blowing, And the sun-shine's seen no more. First the words should be repeated to the class, and said over by them. Any mispronunciations should be corrected ; and the words "o'er," "north," "fierce," &c., briefly explaine<3. The teacher then announces that he will play the melody. All are attentive. He plays the first half of it, once, twice, thrice, four times ; the children beating time, which they can easily do. Some of them will at once begin to hum over the air, but should be stopped. The fifth time, they may all sing it, softly. Then the teacher sings it alone, then plays it alone; and then the children sing it by themselves, the teacher marking time for them. Perhaps they will sing the second or thii-d G too low, or fall behind the time, or take breath after " cold," or make the first note of the third full measure too short,«&c. ; all of which errors should be corrected on the spot. For a change, some- times part of the class may sing, and sometimes all ; and perhaps some one of them may be found bold enough and able enough to sing in solo. The teacher should always accompany, to prevent falling from the pit-icipliiie) vorsckriftenfUr I and II, 18G7. 294 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. in 1864. The course embraces two years, with 18-24 lessons a week, given from nine to twelve and three to six daily, and comprises all the branches taught in a commercial school, (German, French, Eng- lish, commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, correspondence, commercial science, political economy, commerce, history and geography, orna- mental drawing, etc.) Besides, there is a course in stenography, and a French club from 6 to 8 on two evenings for practice in French con- versation. It is not obligatory to join these two courses, and an extra charge is made. The French conversation in the club is conducted by a lady. Of the 242 ladies who passed through the course in the school during the first four years, 47 were 20-33 years old ; the rest, 14-19. Many of them found employment when leaving the school. Since the establishment of that school two more have sprung up, in Dresden, formed by a teacher of the Commercial School, and in Chem- nitz founded by the Trades' Union; but they rank more with the evening schools, (for continuing education,) to be mentioned hereafter. The school in Dresden has 10-12 pupils, who have to pay 24 thalers a year, and are instructed seven hours a week: in arithmetic, two; Ger- man, two; calligraphy, one; book-keeping, two; and commercial sci- ence^ one. III.-THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT DRESDEN. 1 . — Origin-^ Receipts — Stipends . The Royal Polytechnic School was established in 1828*, called then the Technical Institution, with 11 teachers, all of whom were also em- ployed in other institutions of Dresden. But its growth was so rapid, especially after its present building had been erected (see annual .report of 1864-65) in 1846— for which the legislature had granted 70 000 tha- lers — that, in 1851, under the present excellent principal, Professor Hiilsse, it received its present name, and in 1853 had twenty-one teach- ers, most of whom belonged exclusively to the school. Now it has 28 teachers, 17 of them bearing the title professor, (Schu- bert, Geinity, Schneider, etc.,) beside nine subalterns, with 376 stu- dents. The Polytechnic School is under the immediate control of the Home Documents. 1. Prospectus of the Commercial School for young ladies in Leipsic; 2. Report of the school; Easter, 1807; pp. 14-23. * There existed before that time in Saxony the Academy of Arts since 1764, (its " Indus- trial S.chool" was separated in 1828, and established as the Technical School ;) the Mining Academy, in Freiberg, since 1766, and the Forest Academy in TharamJ, 1816. Betojc that time Polytechnic Schools existed in Germany : in Prague, 1806; in Vienna, 1815; in Berlin, 1825 ; in Carlsruhe, (Baden.) 1825 ; iu Nuremberg and Munich, 1825. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 295 Department, and has a yearly income of 30,200 thalers, of which 23,000 are received from the State, and the rest paid by the students in tuition fees. The latter sum would amount to 2,068 thalers more, if it waa not released to the poorer students. The expenses for teachers amount to 20,054 thalers; for the library, etc., 5,952 thalers, and other ex- penses, 4,552 thalers. The value of the library, of more than 10,000 volumes, and of the fifteen collections, is estimated at 65,000 thalers, and these are contin- ually growing, since the state pays annually for the library 1,350 tha- lers, and for the increase of the collections 3,000 thalers and more. For obtaining a correct estimate of the library, there is made, at the end of each year, a deduction of 5 per cent. The students have to pay 40 thalers a year, or 20 for each course of six months. Those who wish to attend the lessons only in one or sev- eral branches of instruction may be admitted and pay accordingly, viz : 2 thalers annually for any one lesson a week; 10 thalers for construct- ing machines; 20 thalers for the practical exercises in surveying; 8 thalers for one, 32 thalers for four or more, in exercises in the labora- tory. All that are not Saxons have to pay one-half more, i. e. , 60 tha- lers annually for the full course. This pay was released in the last year to 73 students, amounting to 2,068 thalers. Nine students received out of state funds 842 thalers. From the various funds established in recent times by benefactors, 36 students received together 1,610 thalers in the last year. Besides, one student, who had completed his studies, received 200 thalers for further improvement, either by travelling or studying in any university. The same person may have this grant for several years of not less than 100 nor more than 300 thalers. This fund for " travel stipends " was founded 1853 by the professors of the school, and is growing fast by public lectures given by them for this purpose, and by private gifts. 2. — Organization of Studies. The Polytechnic School is divided into two departments, the lower of which, called the general course, prepares for the professional depart- ments, and extends over three terms, each of six months. To enter the lowest class the aspirant must be at least sixteen years old, and must have either completed the full course in a real school or gymnasium, or of the third class in the Industrial School in Chemnitz, or show in an examination the same acquirements. This examination embraces, in mathematics, planimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, and equations of the third degree ; experimental philosophy; geometrical drawing, and 296 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. ^ the elements of projection. The candidate may enter a higher class if showing the needed attainments. This general course has two classes, the lower of one " semester," the upper of two, five or one year, in all eighteen months. The plan of studies here will be easily understood from the studies in the following classes, and from the required attainments on admission. The professional course is divided into four sections: A. The Mechanic-Technical School, for constructing machines, etc. B. The Engineer School, for surveying, and for building railroads, bridges, etc. C. The Chemical School. D. The school for training teachers of mathematics, natural philoso- phy and technical branches. According to the plan of organization, the course of studies, and the hours for work to each study in each class, are as follows : Section A. — Mechanical Engineering. III. IL I. First Year. Second Year, Third Year. Higher mathematics 4-2 " mechanics - 4 - Doctrine of " solidity " (/e5%A;ez^) - 4 wi. - Doctrine of machines 6 4 2 Drawing and designing of machines 6-8 16 20 Mechanical technology 4 3-4 3-4 Hydraulics - 4 su. - Exercises in sketching 2-4 - . - Higher physics - - 2 Mineralogy and petrography 4 - - Architecture (B) 2 - - Architectural drawing (B) 4 - - Political economy - - 4 Elements of philosophy, short history of ph., logic, aesthetics, psychology - - 2 History of literature 2 2- Section B. — Civil Engineering. Besides higher mathematics, higher mechanics, doctrine of ''solidity," hy- draulics, mechanical technology, mineralogy and petrography, political econ- omy, mental philosophy, history of literature, in which the classes of the re- spective years' course are combined with A, the following subjects are taught particularly in this section ; III. 11. I. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Geodesy 5 wi. 4 wi. — Geodesy and astronomy — — 2 wi. Exercises in surveying ,... 1 day. The whole September. Drawing of plans 2-4 wi. 4 — Architecture, {A with B) .' 2-4 1-2 — Architectural drawing, CA with B). 4-8 — — Construction of roads, hydraulic architecture.... .... — 4 — Construction of bridges — — 4 Designing platis — 12 16 Geognosy — 3 — Geognostical excursions — 1 aftern'n su. — Measuring exercises, (in the room) — — 4 Higiier physics — — 2 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 297 Section C. — Chemistry, Mineralojry, general doctrine of raachiues, mechanical technology, political economy, history of literature — A. Geognosy, with excursions; architecture, with drawing — B. III. ir. I. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Theoretical chomistry 2 2 2 , Chemical tecliiiolofry 2 2 2 Chemical exercises 3 20 20 Section D. — For Training Teachers. Higher mathematics and mechanics, hydraulics, doctrine of machines, mechan- ical technology, mineralogy, political economy, mental philosophy — A, Surveying, 5 hours ; geognosy, with excursions ; higher physics — A and B. Chemistry, 2 hours, less exercises, with C. iir. n. I. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Higher physics.... - 2 2 besides 4 with A & B. Physical exercises - 4 4 Besides, there are lessons for all, who choose, in stenography, 3 hours in winter ; French, 2-3 hours in several classes ; English, 2-3 hours in do. ; gymnastics, 2-3 hours in do. For the students of the upper classes : Stone-cutting, 2 hours, (for B ;) book- keeping. 2 hours in winter; banking, (bills of exchange, ) 1 hour in winter; the- ory of fire-esiablishments, 3-4, (for A,) {feuerungs-anlagen ;) Saxon law, 2 hours for 1 in all sections; excursions to important manufactories in the neighborhood. The students are required in the last year to make the sketch of a factory establishment ; they are, therefore, for the vacations, recom- mended to a manufactory, in order to study it and prepare for their task. At the end of the last course, all sections pass a " closing examina- tion," as it is called, to which all who apply for it, and want a testimo- nial as graduates of the Polytechnic School, are admitted. The stu- dents have to solve the problems given in their respective branches,* from 4 to 6 hours being given to each composition. Besides, they have to show their practical skill, by laying before the examining committee designs and sketches, a chemical analysis, and a physical investigation. Of 246 applicants from 1852 to 1867, 234 received the desired testimo- nial. After .this examination, if passed, the graduate has to work practically with an engineer^ &c., and then, with satisfactory testimonials, both of the Polytechnic School and its master, with whom he must have worked at least three years, be it continually or by intervals, he is ad- mitted to the state examination for engineers. Until 1867, 141 per- * A. — Doctrine of mechanics, mechanical technology, liiglier mailiematics and mechanics, higher physics. B. — Civil engineering, (roads, hydraulics, bridirps, architecture in general, measuring and astronomy, higher matlicmatics and m''chanics. higiier physics, mineralocy and geognosy.) ('. — Theoretical chemistry, chemical teclmology, mineralogy and geognosy. D.— Higher matiiematics and mechanics, higher physics, me'asuringand astronomy, theoreti cal chemistry, mineralogy and geognosy. «i98 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. sons applied for examination, and 38 were not admitted or did not suc- ceed. Of the 93 who succeeded, 56 became civil engineers, 6 me- chanical engineers, 12 architects, (haumeister,) and 19 inspectors of the fire insurance, as yet chiefly a matter of government in Saxony, and so far obligatory on all proprietors in the kingdom, besides the many pri- vate fire-insurance companies here. The committee of the state examination consists partly of professors of the Polytechnic School, to whom is added the professor of architec- ture from the Academy of Arts, partly of practical engineers and architects in the highest positions in their respective professions. The higher architectural school (bauschule) is not joined here, as else- where, to the Polytechnic Institution, but to the Academy of Fine Arts, which is described hereafter. But the students of architecture in the academy have to attend the mathematical lessons in the Poly- technic School, if they wish to pass the said state examination for en- gineers and architects. Hence the professor of architecture in the academy is a member of the examining committee. Joined to the Polytechnic School is a — 3. — Modelling and Ornamental Drawing School. It is intended to train (a) good modellers for the industrial branches, viz, for decorative forming in wood and stone ; for iron foundries, &c.; (5,) ornamental drawers for weaving and printing, and to give opportunity to get a general instruction in decorative, porcelain and plate painting, lithography, engraving, &c. The time of the whole course is generally five years, but may be shorter, if the pupil enters well prepared. For admission the pupil must be at least fifteen years old ; nothing but a good elementary education is required, though the knowledge of the respective trade is desired. Generally they are admitted by way of trial in the first course of six months. The pay is six thalers annually for a Saxon, and nine thalers for a foreigner. The pupils may attend the lessons of the Polytechnic School, and if satisfactorily prepared, have to attend the teachers on anatomy in the Academy of Arts, and in the Veterinary school. Of the above-mentioned 376 students, there were in the professional schools 134; in A, 43 ; B, 69 ; C, 18; D, 4 ; in the general course, 141 ; for single brainches, 85, and 16 in the Ornamental Drawing School. Documents. l.'Pian of organization of tlie Polytecbnifi School, 1865, p. 67; 2. Prospect of 1867; 3. Die Pohjtechnische Srhule wdhrevd der erstcn 25 Jahre, von Prof, Hubse, 1853, p. 54; 4. Pro- piamrnes and Reports until 1867, [thirteen ;] 5. Die Baugcwerkenschule in Dresden, 1837 to, 1862. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 299 On the Baugewerhenschule, i, c, school for masons and carpenters, being no proper part of the Polytechnic School, nor in the same build- ing now, though under the same principal, (Professor Hiilsse,) see below. From 1852 to 1866 the closing examination in the Polytechnic School was attended by 246, 12 of whom received no testimonial. Of the 234, there belonged 70 to the Mechanical School, (A;) 117 to the Engineering School, (B ;) 18 to the Chemical School, (C ;) 29 to the section for teachers, (D.) Though the three academies in Dresden, Freiling, and Tharand come next in rank, the IV.-HIGHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT CHEMNITZ deserves a place here as being nearest related to the Polytechnic Schocd, though not having so high an aim. Founded in 1836, and having four courses, (classes,) of one year each, its object is to prepare for a technical or agricultural career, and may be compared to the general course of the Polytechnic School ; but it has two classes below the required attainments of the lowest class there, and wants the two highest classes of its professional- department. Hence the pupils are admitted when 14 years old, instead of 16, and the graduates of the Real Schools enter at once the second class, omitting the two lowest ones. To show the importance of this school even to the lower classes, we mention that of 18 boys who left the third class, i. e., the second from below, five de- voted themselves to agriculture, two to dyeing, one, respectively, became appreieur, cotton-spinner, constructor of machines, miller, brewer, merchant, and apothecary ; one went to a Polytechnic School, and of two the profession chosen was not known. The pupils are either full scholars or pursue only single branches of instruction. Full scholars have to pay 24 thalers annually ; partial scholars pay 2 thalers for any one-hour lesson a year ; if they attend three or more different lessons also, 24 thalers in all. The expenses for books amount to 12-15 thalers a year. There were in the last year 225 pupils, and, besides the principal. Prof. Bottcher, 18 teachers, 5 of them with the title of professor. It is a Royal School, and received, in 1862, 10,000 thalers from the state, (Home Department.) 2. — Organization of Studies. The school is divided into several sections, according to the profession chosen by the pupils. Section A. — a. For Mechanical Engineering. 300 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY Section A. — b. For Chemical Engineering ; i. e., for sugar refining, calico print- • ing, &c. — 4 years. Section B. for any Chemical business without the application of machines, as Boap-boiling, dyeing, coloring, &c— 3 years. The highest class corresponding to II of A. Section C, for Farming — likewise 3 years; all combined in general branches. There is added a course of Manufactural Drawing, [fahrikzeichnen,) in two classes, with 25 pupils. The studies in A and B being, on the whole line, the corresponding (see above) classes in the Polytechnic School, (the present principal of the latter was formerly principal in Chemnitz,) I shall point out here the studies of Section C, the Agricultural Section, having added that all who have passed through the course of the 3d class may^ without examination, enter the lowest class of the Polytechnic School ; from the 2d class they may enter the last term of the general course ; from the 1st class they may enter the lowest class of the professional course, or if practical skill is proved, the second year's course of the same, but at its beginning. Section C. — Agricultural School. Fourth Class or First Year : {a.) Common to all sections of that class. 1. Arithmetic, 6 hours. — With Hofmann'' s Aufgahm, 1 and 2 parts; the four rules; interest; chain rule; involution* extracting square and cube roots ; alge- 'braic fractions; equations with one unknown quantity. 2. Geometry, A, \xo\xx^. — Lines; angles; area of regular polygons and of circles ; equality and proportion of surfaces ; contents of figures. 3. Natural Philosophy, 6 hours in summer, 4 in winter. — With Fnsmann's Fie- ments of Physics. General introduction — climatology, doctrine of heat, magnet- ism, and electricity. 4. Drawing, (free-hand exercises,) 6 hours. — From geometrical bodies, plaster models, (method of Bupuis,) with pencil or chalk, chiefly in outlines. 5. Geometrical Drawing, 4 hours — Plain drawing, as preparing for projecting and mechanical drawing ; exercises in painting, with India ink. 6. German language. 4 hours. -^ With Gotzinger's Grammar. (5.) Agricultural Scjaool T. Natural History, 4 hours in summer. — Botany, with particular regard to' such plants as are important to common use ; outlines of the physiology of plants. In winter, zoology, with outlines of anatomy and animal physiology, {mammalia.) Third Class or Second Year : [a.) With all sections. 1. General Chemistry, 8 hours. — Inorganic chemistry ; organic chemistry ; ele- mentary analysis of organic bodies ; the more important vegetable and animal matter, as fibre, starch, sugar, organic acids and bases, oils, colors, bones, flesh, sugar, urine, etc. and their products of decomposition, (fermentation, distillation, etc.;) their quality and use ; their relation to living vegetable and animal bodies. 2. German, 4 hours. — Two of these are grammar, and two oral and written ex- ercises, alternating with reading of dramatic pieces. (6.) Agricultural section. 3; Arithmetic, 2 hours. — Equations, with several unknown quantities ; equations of the second degree; logarithms; arithmetical and geometrical progressions; interest on interest, etc. 4. Geometry, 2 hours. — Plain trigonometry ; stereometry. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 301 5. Natural Philosophij, 2 hours. — Solid, liquid, and aerial bodies; acoustics; optics. 6. Botany, 4 hours in summer. — With particular regard to such wild-growing plants as are important for agriculture, with excursions. 7. Zoology^ 2 hours in winter. — With particular regard to useful and injurious animals. 8. Mineralogy, 4 hours in winter. — Crystallography ; physical and chemical qualities of minerals in general ; physiography of minerals, with particular regard to such as are the component parts of the mould, (soil.) 9. Knowledge of machines and technology^ 4 hours in winter. — Description of the chief motors and parts of mnchines, and of the manufacturing in wood and iron. 10. Mechanical drawing, 4 hours in summer; in winter, 2 hours. — Brief de- scription of parallel projection ; drawing of agricultural utensils and machinery. 11. Practical (jeon\,etry, (surveying.) — In summer, one afternoon, in several divisions, each consisting of 5-6 pupils. 12. Mercantile Arithmetic, 2 hours in summer. — Explanation of the Leipsic Ex- change List (courszetiel ;) calculations of interest, of stocks and shares, invoice, &c. 13. Book-keeping and Correspondence, 2 hours in summer, 4 hours in winter. — Theoretical and practical with regard to business concerns occurring on a farm of middle size, and to brewery, distillery, &c., besides topographical drawing, belonging to 10, combined with the II class of section A. Second Class or Third Year, and last in this section : (a.) W^ith all sections. 1. German Language and Literature, 4 hours. — Two of them in history of litera- ture ; one in oral and written exercises, with records ; one in popular logic and rhetoric. (%.) Agricultural section. 2. Physiology of Plants, 4 lessons in summer. — Anatomy of cultivated plants explained by microscopic illustrations ; general ph. of cultivated plants ; influence of soil and climate, etc.; doctrines of soil and manure; watering and draining; raising and propagating of plants; crossing; varieties, etc., with practical exer- cises. In winter — special physiology of plants; systematic description of the cultivated plants and of the best methods of cultivating them. 3. Physiology of Animals, 2 lessons in summer. — Anatomy of doraestis animals. In winter 4 hours — general physiology of domestic animals ; cattle breeding ; the plastic process ; excretion of milk ; the functions of nerves and muscles ; special physiology of domestic animals; the specific qualities; the production of flesh, milk, fat, wool ; muscular power with regard to feeding ; the hoof of the horse j diseases of animals ; practical exercises. 4. Farming, 4 hours. — Principles of rural economy ; capital and labor, etc.; requisites of farming ; organization and management of a farm ; buildings, uten- sils, manure; cattle breeding; agricultural book-keeping ; agricultural valuation. 5. Agricultural Architecture, 2 hours. — Making of bricks, pipes, air and water cement, burning of lime, etc.; best construction of buildings, barns, stables, etc. 6. Practical Geometry, 1 afternoon in summer — surveying of larger grounds. In winter — theory of field surveying. V. Geognosy : 2 hours in summer, with excursions. 8. Agricultural Chemistry, 4 lessons in summer, 2 lessons in winter. — Inorganic and organic chemistry reviewed and completed, with particular regard to agricul- ture. Besides, there are — Chemical Exercises with other sections, 4 in summer and 4-8 hours in winter. Technical Chemistry, with section B, in 2 hours ; especially on manufacturing of starch, sugar, vinegar, or brewing, distilling, etc. All pupils of the Industrial School nave opportunity to learn French, in 5 classes, 3 lessons a week ; English, in 4 classes, 3 lessons a week ; history and geography. 14 hours for the 4th class, which all pupils must attend who enter not sufficiently prepared in these subjects. 302 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. Joined wiih this school, and therefore to be mentioned here, is the so-called — 3. ROYAL tVORKMASTERS' SCHOOL. [Formerly in Freiberg ; for the last 15 years in Chemnitz.) It has in view to train millwrights, makers and inspectors of wells and water-works, as well as fo^-emen in engine factories and spinning- mills. The journeyman-pupil, on admission, must be at least 16 years old, and have worked two years with a master, and produce a testimonial from him. The course, consisting of three half-year classes, commences on the first of October and ends at Easter of the second year — -18 months. The pupil has to pay six thalers for six months; and poor and worthy pupils of the school may, as in other schools, pay nothing at all. Books and stationery cost about ten thalers per annum. The number of schol- ars amounts to 82, with 10 teachers, one of whom, with the title of pro- fessor, particularly belongs to this school. It received, in 1862, an annual supply from the state of 1,450 thalers. The plan of lessons is : in. IT. I. Ut H. r. 2d H. r. 3d H. T. Arithmetic *i - - Mathematics and mechanics, (logarithms, plane trigonometry, statics) - 8 - Mechanics _ _ 4 Geometry, (stereometry) 5 - - Surveying-, (measuring of field and water) - 4 - Geometrical drawing and projection 8 - - .Natural philosophy and chemistry 4 2 - Ornamental drawing 4 - .4 Architectural drawing - 4 - Mechanical drawing - 8 8 Construction ; - 2 6 Mechanical technology - 4 - Construction of mills, (for millers) - 2 2 Spinning and weaving, (for the respective jour- neyman-pupils) - — ■ 4 Construction of pipes and wells, (for conduit- masters) — - -4 German 4 4 _ Book-keeping - _ 2 The Royal Workmasters' School in Chemnitz has had from 1855 to to 1866, in all, 326 pupils, of whom there were 206 from Saxony, (25 Chemnitz;') 55 from Thuringia, 59 from Prussia. 8 from Scbleswig- Holstein, 8 from Austria, 5 from Russia, 4 from Anhalt, 5 from Wur- tenjiberg, 3 from Lubeck, 2 from Fmnce^ 1 from Bavr»ria, 1 from Bre- men, 1 from America. Of thnse 326, there were 239 constructors of machinery, and iron workmen in iri'Mcral ; 5f2 constructors of mills, mill- SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 303 Wrights and millers; 17 spinners, weavers, and appreteurs ; 18 of va- rious trades, as watchmakers, cabinet-makers^ founders, tinkers, gird- lers, copper-smiths, masons, stocking-manufacturers, gardeners, &c. The full course has been passed by 157 pupils. There is joined one more school to the Royal Industrial School at Chemnitz, a so-called 4.— ^BACGEWERKENSCHULE. {Architectural School for Masons and Carpenters .) There are five such schools in Saxony, one of them mentioned as being under the same management as the Polytechnic School at Dres- den, another joined to the Academy of Arts in Leipsic, and two inde- pendent ones in Plauen and Zittau. This seems to be the proper place to speak of this class of schools. These schools are intended to train good carpenters and mason mas- ters, and require for admission the beginning of apprenticeships at least for six months. The course embraces the time of three winters, (in Leipsic of two,) so4hat in summer the pupils work with their master ; only in Leipsic and Zittau there is a summer course established for more advanced stu- dents. The number of pupils in all five schools was, 1865-1866, 548; (in Chemnitz, 109; in Zittau, 1.49, &c.) In Leipsic the average number in winter is 88 ; in summer, 25-30. The expenditure for these schools by the Home Department is, ai>- Bually, 7,550 thalers ; (for Leipsic, 1,850 thalers.) On the average, the winter-course term of a pupil costs 21 thalers, of which 171^^0 ^^^ paid by the state, and 3fo by the pupil. The proper pay of the pupil is 5 thalers for the term of six months. Of the 736 pupils who attended the school in Dresden in the first 25 years, (1837-'62,) there attended 191 during one winter term, 200 during two winter terms, 250 during three, 90 during four, and 5 during five. Most of the students repeated the third course, and some, by compul- sion, the first or second course. Of the 117 pupils last winter in Dresden, there were 87 masons, 28 carpenters, and 2 stone-cutters ; of whom 51 were journeymen, and G6 apprentices. Of the ten teachers in Chemnitz, (seven in Leipsic and Dresden,) one professor is exclusively employed in this school ; another professor, common to this and the Workmasters' School, and the rest employed in the Home Industrial School. 304 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. The. plan of studies in Chemnitz is as follows : III. II. I. First W. T. Second TV. T. Third W. T. Arithmetic, (quadratic equations) T - - Geometry, (stereometry) 5 - National phiilosophy ... 4 - - Mechanics - 4 2 German lanp:uage 4.2 2 General architecture 4 2 - Architectural drawing 6 4 4 Ornamental drawing ^ 4 4 Projection 4 2 - Embossing in clay — - 3 Modelling : - - 3 Perspective - 2 2 ca%°e"J;,,}-p-«-i^ { : t : Construction^ (continuing the course on ma- sonry.) — - 4 Designing of architectural plans... — 6 8 Estimating of the costs - — 2 There is an examination at the close of each winter term, when the pupil may get a testimonial from the school of his attainments, in order to be admitted to the examinations for masters of architecture. The plan of studies in the summer term at Leipsic is : 1. Architectural drawing, 12 lessons a week. 2. Drawing, (free-hand practice,) 4 hours. 3. Linear perspective, including construction of shades, &c., 4 hours. 4. Architectural style of middle ages, 4 hours. 5. History of architecture, with regard to masons and carpenters, 4 hours. 6. Reviewing exercises in construction, 4 hours. 7. Trigonometry and higher equations, with application to architecture, 4 hours. 8. Guidance to solving problems of arithmetic and construing geometry, 4 hours. 9. Doctrine of trade, including laws of exchange, -2 hours. 10. German orthography and compositions, exercises in field-surveying: 4 hours. According to the prospectus of the school in Leipsic, an appropriate preparation is obtained in this school for such as wish to continue their scientific-technical or artistic-architectural, either in the Polytechnic School or in the Academy of Arts at Dresden. The Royal Committee of Examination for such architects as are' trained in the Workmasters' School, i. e., for master masons and master carpenters, (bauhand werker ,) Qonsists in Dresden of eight members, one of whom is a member of the municipality, (who presides;) one the chief professor of the Workmasters' School; one a master mason; one a master carpenter, with as many substitutes. Second Winter Term : 1. The simple principles of mechanics, with the application of the same to architectural subjects, with exercises, 6 hours. 2. Doctrine of construction of buildings in their stone, wood, and iron parts, 6 hours. SPECIAL SCnOOLS IN SAXONY. 305 3. Agricxdtitral architecture, 4 hours. 4. Architectural drawing^ with exercises in projectino^ ground-plans, 2 hours. 5. Doctrine of making estimates of costs, with an instruction in architectural law, 4 hours. 6. Gervian, embracing correspondence with private persons and magistrates ; compositions and free discussion, 4 hours. 7. Book-keeping and laws of exchange, 2 hours. 8. Modelling and embossing in clay, 4 hours. Practical instruction in the Baugewerkcn does not come within the purpose of the institution, yet, as far as is possible in the limited time, there are modelling exercises for masons, carpenters, and stone-cutters in the workshop of the Institution during the free time and on Sundays. The proper course of two winter terms in Leipsic is as follows, (lessons, 8-12 and 2-6 :) First Winter Term : 1. Arithmetic, including the elements of algebra, 6 hours a week. 2. Descriptive Geometry, Stfreomeiry. and Rectangular Trigonometry, 4 hours. 3. General Architecture, as introductor}- to the subject of building materials and implements, as well as the purposes, parts, arrangements, requisites, and deficien- cies of buildings, 6 hours. 4. Drawing, both froe-hand and geomrtrical drawing, projections, with the principles of the construction of shadf, from models and papers, 8 hours. 5. Architectural Drawing, for learning the needed manual skill in drawing the different parts of a building and constructions from papers, and after a given scale, 12 hours. 6. Archifcc'iiral doctrine of forms, or drawing of the most important arch forms, (styles,) with illustrations on the black-board, 4 hours. 7. GeriJian language. 4: hours. 8. Modelling and einbossing in clay, 4 hours. v.— THE HIGHER WEAVING SCHOOL AT CHEMISITZ. 1. — History and Object. The Higher Weaving School at Chemnitz was founded in 1857, and was so prosperous that the town of Chemnitz, assisted by the state, erected, in 1865, a large and convenient building for the same, at a cost of 26,037 thalers, the interest of which at the rate of 6 per cent., (1,562 thalers,) to be paid by the school to the town, (for which the latter is bound to keep it in order,) has been guaranteed, and thus far paid by the ^linister of the Interior. Before that time the state had given an annual grant of 500 thalers, of which 260 thalers were ex- pended for the hired rooms, so that 240 thalers remained for the ex- penditure of the school, which now must be brought up by the income from tuition fees. Documents relating to this Scliool. 1. The Higher Industrial School at Chemnitz, proaramnie of 1867, containinn a report on the Workmaptcr t^chool and on the Architectural Scliool; 2. Prospectus of tiie same, iu German, 1867; 3. Prospeetusofthe Workmastt-rs' School, 1867 ; 4. Mitlheil-ungenHberdieBausewerken- schule von 1837, 6/s 1862, pp. 14; 5. Annual reports on the same in the Prorrrammfs of the Polytechnic School, [twelve ;] 6. Plan of lessons in the Bau^ewerkcnschule at Leipsic [wiitun in German,! 1857 1868; 7. Prospectus of the same, [do.,] 1867-1868; 8. School laws in the same, [do.,] 1867-1868. 306 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. The annual expenditure amounts to 3,000 thalers. The pupil has to pay for the full year's course 90 thalers ; for six months, 60 thalers. For patterns and the necessary weaving material he has to pay, for six months, 10 thalers in advance; if more be needed in that time, he has to supply the remainder. But the woven clothes the student receives as his property at the end of the course. The Directory consists of a member of the municipality, (at present the president, Adv. Schmidt,) of a professor of the Royal Workmas- ters' School, and two proprietors of weaving factories. The institution is intended to train, by scientific instruction and prac- tical exercises, workmasters and manufacturers for all kinds of weaving, as well as to impart to young men who will devote themselves to the manufacturing trade, either as buyers or sellers, an accurate knowledge of manufacturing, and thus the ability of estimating the merchandise. For this purpose the school has — a. One shaft-room, with 22 hand-looms, and all auxiliary machines for spooling, shearing, &c. h. One Jacquard-room, with 16 Jacquard machine-looms, and 2 ma- chines for stiffening by gumming, (hartenschlag ,') spooling-wheels, chenille machines, &c. c. One machine-room, with a steam-engine and boiler ; seven looms {Jcraft) of English and German construction — some with Jacquard ma- chines ; one hand-weaving l»om ; one spooling machine^ and one beam- loom (haum) — all this worth about 4,000 thalers. There were in the last summer term thirty-three pupils (seventeen foreigners) and four teachers, with one master-weaver assisting in the practical exercises. 2.— Course of Instruction. The course of instruction one year, in two terms and classes. , In- struction is given from 8 to 12 A. M., and 2 to 4 P. M. daily, four times a week. Each lesson is at least of two hours ; in the morning, generally of four continuous hours First term, (of six months :) 1. Lectures on weaving material, two hours 2. Lectures on construction and .systems of the various hand-weaving looms, and of the auxiliary implements, two hours. 3. Free-hand drawing, (outlines, designing of patterns,) and chromatics, (doctrine of colors,) four hours. 4. Analysis {decomposition) of pattern, making of cartoons, and calculation of the respective stuff for hand and Jacquard weaving, with the appropriate in- struction in ^'appretur'' (finishing) and its machines, eighteen hours. 5. Exercises m shaft weaving, six hours. Second term, (class :) 1. Composition of patterns for hand and Jacquard weaving, four hours. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 307 2. Lectures on mechanic looms, and on the auxiliary machines for mechanic weaving, fonr hours. 3. Continuation of analysis {decomposiiio7i) of Jacquard stuffs, velvets, gauzes and ribbons, eight hours. 4. Drawing, four hours. 5. Exercises in weaving on looms of various construction, twelve hours. The parents of the pupils receive quarterly censuren, on application, of the attainments and moral conduct of their sons. O'a leaving school, after having finished the course, the student re- ceives a testimonial. The best are honored with prizes or commenda- tory testimonials. AGRI(;ULTURE IN SAXONY. The state grants for agriculture in general 20,000 thalers yearly, not including the academies in Tharand and Leipsic, which re- ceived each 16,000 thalers. Half of that sum is given to the five dis- trict associations, (Jcreisvereine,') which they have to account for in a regularly drawn up register of annual expenditure; the other 10,000 serve to pay the expenses of the experimental stations, ( Versuchs-sfa- tlonen,) of the general secretary for the agricultural associations (Dr. Reuniug, privy counsellor of the government) and their office, of the lec- tures in the associations, &c. Of the experimental stations, which were first founded in Saxony, some are kept and supported by government, as the one in Chemnitz, joined to the Industrial (Agricultural) School there, with 1,200 thalers; another (physiological) joined to the Veterinary School in Dresden with 900 thalers ; others are aided directly and indi- rectly by government, as Poramritz, with 600 thalers; Mockern, near Leipsic, with 500 thalers. Fanning schools, such as are in Wurtem- berg and Prussia, do not exist in Saxony. Having a merely practical aim, to be attained by working and school instruction, the former is not considered necessary here, and the latter impracticable; likewise the supplementary schools for farming, (fortbild/nigs schulen,') which have sprung up here in the last twenty-five years, and have been partially aided by government, were, with the exception of two, given up, and left to their own resources. Besides the Agricultural Academies,* much reliance for promoting *In the se-'sion of tho Diet in 1867 it wns proposfd by the deputies, and as good as agre' d to by goveriinjent, that the agricultural section in Thaia'id should be sej^arated Ircm the acad- emy, and probalily tran- leVrpfl to Piagwitz, near l.eip-ic, in orJer to b'- conneeieil with the universiiy. Besides, I am lerainded here or" t le agricultural section in the Industrial Si-hool at (hcrrnilz, of the Veterinarv School, and mi'nt*oii ihe inst tution I'nr horse breedi grthe stallion being sent thencf at proper times througliout the couutrj'; in Moritzburg, near^^Dres- den, with a slate grant of 30,000 th *ers. Documents. 1. Prosperity of the H'sher Weaving .-School at Chemnitz ; 2. Plan of Lessons; 3. Letter from the President of the Directory, Adv. Schmidt. 308 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. the interests of agriculture is laid by the Saxon government on associa- tions. To work through them efficiently, first, a monthly official mag' azine for these associations is issued, and edited by the general secre- tary, which has been very successful. Also, scientific lectures are held, chiefly by chemists, at the experimental stations, without having special travelling teachers employed for this purpose, as is the case in other countries. Finally, there are Agricultural Commissaries for benefiting farms, who are instructed not only to hold lectures in the associations, but also to assist the farmers with their advice. This is done by adjusting farms, by projections of draining, construction of meadows, &c. Pro- prietors of small farms receive this advice gratis. This institution has been of great importance, for, by it, model farms in the hands of pri- vate parties have been formed in great number, whereas the model farms founded by the government in Saxony generally did not realize the hopes. The associations are quite independent. There are at present three hundred. These unite to form district associations, the committees of which are composed of the presidents of the former. Deputies of the district associations form the Council of Agriculture, which is a con- sulting board for government. Deputies of this council have to look after the interests of the schools, of forestry, natural sciences, horse- breeding, and horticulture.* It is not necessary to add that there are frequent agricultural exhibitions in the districts and in the country. Besides the direct and indirect aid to the agricultural interests of the kingdom, the government renders still more important help by provid- ing schools where scientific agriculturists can be trained. VI.— THE ACADEMY OF FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE. 1. — Establishment^ Organization and Admission. This academy was founded in 1811 by H. Cotta, and established as a state institution in 1815. The original building belonged to Cotta, and was bought for 7,000 thalers in 1845 ; but the present house was constructed in 1847 at an expense of 45,133 thalers. The agricultural section was added in 1830, with 4 students, (in 1816, 62 students of forestry;) in 1837 there were 24 students of for- estry and 26 of agriculture. From America there were, from 1852 to * The botanical garden in Dresden has about twenty-five thousand cultivated plants, and sends awav, on an avoragi^, three thousand packages of seed annually, receiving nearly the same amoui.t. It serves as a scientific and cducationnl institution, and is open all d;iy to any visitor. Nearly the same may be said about the botanical garden in the university at Leipsic, Document. Letter from the General Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Reuning. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 309 1865, 24 students — 14 of forestry and 10 of agriculture ; from England, none of forestr}-, 14 of agriculture. On the average, there have been admitted in the summer 28 students, (15 Saxons,) and in the winter, 15, (3 Saxons.) H. Cotta died in 1844. The present principal is J. Fr. Judeich, to whom we are indebted for a presentation copy of the Tharander Jahr- huch of 1866. The principal of the agricultural department is Dr. Schober ; the administration of general affairs, however, is always entrusted to the principal of the forest department. Schober, since 1852, in Tharaud, has written the history of the academy to be found in the above-mentioned book, which was published at the semi-centennial anniversary. The grounds belonging to the academy (forest of Tharand, a botanical garden, and the farm) cover an area of 10,928 Saxon acres. The library consists of 670 books on forestry, 70 on huntsmanship, 719 on agriculture, 31 on horticulture, 85 on veterinary science; the rest on other sciences, with 65 periodical publications on forestry, 91 on agri- culture, &c. ^The collection for foresters contains 132 different instruments and a technological collection of 390 pieces ; for huntsmanship, 63 plaster- tables, with game tracks, and a well-arranged shooting stand. The agricultural collection has 90 utensils and machines, 98 models, 18 sorts of apparatus, not to mention the botanical, zoological and min- eralogical collections of all kinds. The physical cabinet contains an apparatus of 112 ph. machines. In the budget of 1864-1866, the annual expenses were estimated at 14,850 tbalers, to which the state (the two academies in Tharand and Freiberg belong to the financial department) granted 13,650 thalers per annum, expecting an income from the students of 1,200 thalers. The expenses were, ia thalers, (three English shillings:) 10. 150 for salaries, 950 for the library, 250 for the gardens, 900 for the chemical laboratory, 350 thalers to poor students, 600 for ihe building?, 200 for the furnimre, 110 for printing, &c,, 370 for excursions, 50 for expeiiraents in the woods, 320 for fuel, light, &c., lOO for aiding scientific travels, 500 for agricul- tural experiments. With the two principals, who are the first professors in their respective departments, there are thirteen teachers, seven of whom bear the title of professor, and six other inferior officers, with ninety-one students in 1866. Every student in either department has to pay, if a Saxon, 50 thalers yearly ; if not, 75 for the whole instruction, besides an entrance fee of 10 thalers, (Saxons, 6| thalers,) and 3-15 thalers for the use of the 310 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. laboratory during a ^'semester^^ or six-months' term. There are six free scholars, six half-free, with stipends, though not as large as in Leipsic, but sufficient for the limited i;umber of students, who also, gen- erally speaking, are less dependent. These stipendiaries receive from 20 to 50 thalers per annum. Some riflemen of the royal army, ii they be practically prepared at least for one year in the service of a forester, may be admitted as free scholars and receive some aid for board and fuel. As in all schools which are supported by the state, the tui- tion fee may be remitted to any poor student. On admission, each student must be at least seventeen years old, and so far prepared as to be benefited by the lectures. It is desired that the aspirants should work one year before entering on a farm or with a forester. Saxons, who wish to be royal officers of the forest, have to produce a testimonial of maturity from a gymnasium, or from the In- dustrial School at Chemnitz, or from a real school ; in the last case with a good mark in mathematics. They must also have worked one year with a forester. 2. — Course of Studies. Instruction in either section is divided into two annual courses, which must have been completed by such as want to be officers of the forests. The professors " keep themselves in perpetual intercourse with the stu- dents, and superintend their study hours and general conduct." After each semester, summer or winter term, the students receive censuren. The Saxons are required to pass an examination at the same time. The plan of studies for both sections during the two courses has been, since 1857, as follows, (Schober, 1866, p. 98 :) First Year. Second Year. Mathematics for foresters 6 h. ins. — Mathematics for agriculturists , 2 ia s. — Measuring for foresters 2 in w. 1 aft'nins. Measuring for agriculturists 1 in w. 1 aft'n in s. ' Special mathematics for foresters 2 in w. — Mechanics for both sections., — 2 h. in w. Architecture, specially for agriculturists — 2 in w. Architectural drawing 3-4, s. & w. 3-4, s. & w. Natural philosophy 3 in w. — Meteorology — 2 in w. Chemistrj^, general, with technology 4 in s. — Agricultural chemistry (doctrine of soil) 4 in w. — Chemical exercises — 2 aft'ns in s. & w. natural history : Mineralogy '. 5 h. in s. 2 aft'ns in s. & w. Min. excursions 2 in s. — Geognosy — 3 h, in s. Botany, general 3 in s. — Physiology of plants — Sins. Botany for foresters — 2 in s. Review of natural history *. ; — 1 in w. Excursions 1 afternoon in s. — SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 311 First Year. Second Year. Zoolog}' 3 h. iu W. — Entomology, (general doctrine of insects) 1 in s. — Entomology for foresters .. — 3 in w. Entomology for agriculturists — 2 in w. Science of J or t sir y : Outlines 3 in s. — Protection of forests {forstschutz) 2 in w. — Administration of hunting grounds {jagdver- wallung) 1 in w. — Cultivation of woods — Sins. Improvement of forests, with technology — 3 in s. Management of forests — 2 in w. History of forestry and huntsraanship, with literaturCv — 2 in w. State forest economy, with the principles of political economy — 2 in w. Exercises in valuation — 4 in s. „ . , . f 1 day in s. — Practical exercises | 4_g ^ .^^ ^ _ Science of agriculture : Encyclopaedia 1 in w. — Agricultural physiology of plants 4 in s. — Cattle breeding 3 in w. — Political economy — 4 in s. Management of farms — 3 in w. i • 1^ 1 • f 1 day in s, — Agricultural excursion \4-6h. inw. — ^ Veterinary science : Exterior or good points of domestic animals 2 h. in s. — Anatomy of domestic animals 2 in w. — Physiology " " — 1 h. in w. Diseases '' " — 2 in s. Regimen (care of health) of domestic animals. — 2 in s. Shoeing of horses — 1 in w. Horticulture : Cultivation of fruits and vines — 2 h. in s. Cultivation of vegetables — 2 in w. Science of the law for both sections — 3 in w. 3. — Examination. At Easter there is an examination for such as wish to leave the acad- emy as graduates, with a testimonial. All who wish to be royal officers have to pass the full examination, which embraces two compositions written in the last winter term on a subject chosen by the student and on another given by the principal. Then they have to show their skill in drawing by producing topographical and other forest plans, or an architectural or mechanical drawing and the design of a plan ; then on each branch to answer dictated questions, written within a certain time in presence of two professors ; and if their writings have been approved, to pass an oral examination in mathematics, botany, physiology of plants, zoology and entomology, mineralogy and geog- nosy, physics and meteorology, chemistry and doctrine of soil, science of forestry or agriculture. Three censuren are given, besides those for application and moral conduct, in sciences — "excellent," "good," 312 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. "sufficient." The third or last censur, however, is not sufficient for being admitted to the state examination_, but they are allowed for that purpose to pass again the above-mentioned examination after a third year's course in the academy. " Volunteers," as foreigners or Saxons who want no employment, may pass the fall examination, or, if they choose, be examined in single branches, in which they desire to have a testimonial of the academy, according to the Regulative for the said examination published in 1853. VII.-THE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY IN PLAGWITZ, NEAR LEIPSIC. 1. — Statistics. The Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz was founded in 1851, in Lutzschena, 10 English miles from Leipsic, but, in 1861, was transferred to Plagwitz, in the vicinity of Leipsic, and constituted there as a part of the university. Most teachers are professors in the university, and the students have to attend in both lecture-rooms at Plagwitz and Leipsic, distant 25 minutes. The present principal is Professor Birn- baum. The farm consists of 483 Saxon acres=l,086 Prussian acres, and is the property of Dr. Heine_, a rich gentleman, who, by cultivating the grounds and covering them with buildings, has nearly joined Plagwitz to Leipsic. The liberal offer of that f^irm for the purposes of an agri- cultural academy was accepted in 1861 by the government. There are on the farm a tile kiln, a steam brewery, and near it a manufactory of agricultural machines and utensils. The annual expenditure is 5,980 thalers, to which the state grants as yet but 1,000 thalers. The number of students since 1851 has been on the average 46 per annum ; in all, 79 from Saxony, 105 from Prussia, 43 from Bohemia, 48 from Bussia, (36 of whom are from the German Baltic provinces,) &c. At present there are 38 students. The whole course embraces three semi-annual terms ; but for those who are insufficiently prepared a preparatory half-year's course in Plag- witz is added. A certain age is not required, but it is desired that the student be at least 18 years old, and should have spent at least six months on a well-managed farm. The pay for the preparatory course in Plagwitz is 60 thalers for the following courses : 15 thalers for the semester, besides the different DocuMient?. 1. Tharander Jahrbuch, (festschrift.) lS66,Tpp. 478, containing a history of the academy hy Dr. Scho!)er; 2. General Plan of the Royf.1 Academy in 'J'harant, 1863; '.i. Laws of Discipline; 4. Plan of Studies, 1867-1868; 5. Regulative for the last examination, 1853. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 313 fees to be paid to the professors of the university; from 2-5 thalers for a branch of instruction, and 10 thalers for the chemical exercises. 2. — Course of Studies. The preparatory course in Plagwitz is as follows : General agriculture, 4 hours, by the principal. History and literature of agriculture, 2 hours, by the principal. Inorgauic chemistry, 4 hours, by Dr. Heppe. Exercises in the laboratory, 8 hours, by Ur. Heppe. Mineralogy and geognosy, 2 hours, by Dr. Heppe. Anatomy and morphology of plants, 2 hours, by Dr. Frank. Anatomy of domestic animals, with good points of horses, and shoeing, 4 hours. Book-keeping, 2 hours. Surveying, on Saturday a. m. Practical agricultural exercises, Saturday, p. m., by the principal. Besides, a conversatorium, i. e. a conversational drill, on Thursday evening, with all the students and with friends of agriculture, on agri- cultural questions, exercises, and excursions, when the principal is assisted by several teachers. The regular course at Plagwitz and Leipsic is : First term, (of six months :) A. Cultivation of plants, (soil, manure, meadows, &c.,) 4 hours. 2. Doctrine of soil, with valuation, 2 hours. Second term : 1. Cjtttle breeding, with knowledge of wool, &c., 4 hours. 2. Feeding cattle, (expenditure.) Third term : 1. Doctrine of managing farms, (balance between exhaustion and compensa- tion of fields, meadows, &c..) 2 hours. 2. Valuation of crops, (for buying farms or having them to rent, or, in case of employment, for making estimates in due form,) 4 hours. This last and most important division combines a review of all the subjects before treated. All these lectures on agriculture are given by the principal. The auxiliary sciences may be studied in lectures at the university, Political economy, 4 lectures weekly, by Prof. Roscher. Agricultural chemistry, 2 lectures, by Prof. Knop. Exercises in the Agricultural Laboratory in Leipsic, conducted by the same professor and two assistants, (hours adlibitum.) ExT^erimental philosophy, 3 lectures, in winter, by Prof Zollner. Meteorology, 2 lectures, in summer, by Prof. Zollner. Physiology of feeding, 4 lectures, by Dr. Huppert. Botany, with excursions, 3 lectures, by Dr. Frank. Physiology of plants and use of the microscope, 4 lectures, by Dr. Frank. Technology, 4 lectures, in winter, by Dr. Heppe. Regimen of domestic animals, 4 lectures, in summer, privatim, and on other gen- eral branches, such as mechanics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology, &c., by other professors. ■ 3. — Examination. There is at the end of each term an examination^ (according to the 314 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. statutes sanctioned by government,) to which all are admitted who ap- ply for it after having studied in the academy at least two terms — one year. Before the examina,tion the candidate has to solve accurately a problem in writing a-t home, but must solemnly declare that it has been done without the help of others. Then he has to answer, in the pres- ence of professors, also in writing, two questions of less compass than the one above mentioned. The oral examination embraces also agricul- tural science and the auxiliary sciences, of which, however, the student may choose two himself. It lasts two hours and a half. The pay for the examination is 10 thalers, to be half remitted in case the candidate does not succeed. MINING AND MINER'S SCHOOLS. VIII.-THE MINING ACADEMY IN FREIBEBQ. I. — History and General Observations. The Mining Academy at Freiberg was established in 1766. Its founders and benefactors were Von Heynitz, afterwards Prussian Min- ister, and Von Oppel, President of the Mining Department. Of the seven presidents who succeeded Mr. Oppel, the three last may be men- tioned above all: Herder, 1819-1838; Freiesleben, 1842; and Von Beust, brother of the well-known Austrian Minister, who now leaves his place to accept a similar position in Austria. The chief office for all miners (the Oherbergamt) in Freiberg, under the control of the Secretary of the Treasury, consists of a board of directors of the mines in Saxony, (Oherherg rathe,) and has, besides the superin- tendence of all mining affairs in Saxony, the direction of this academy, so that the president of that ho&rd (Oberherghauptmann') is at the same time the chief director of the academy. To the names of the presidents to whom the academy is much in- debted for its prosperity there may be added from the great number of professors the name of one, the centennial anniversary of whose f)irth- day was celebrated by the academy in 1850, viz, A. G. Werner, profes- sor, 1775 ; died, 1817. Other celebrated names, together with the titles of what they have published, may be found pp. 1-43 of the "His- tory of the Academy." The grant for the first establishment amounted to no more than 1,400 thalers, 1,000 of which were expended for Oppel's library and collec- tions. The expenditure of the year 1766 amounted to 1,535 thalers; 470 for instruction ; 623 for library, collections, inspection ; 400 for Documents. 1. The Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz. Leipsic, by Prof. Birnbaum, pp. 72; 2. Written communications on tlie expenditure. Statutes. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 315 stipends, (free scholarships;) 40 for prizes; but in 18G7 the expendi- ture amounted to 16,567 thalers, (10,278 for instruction and inspec- tion ; 3,187 for the library, &c.,) 4,507 being the income of the acac^ emy, so that the state had to add r2,000 thalers. In 1765 the academy was lodged in Oppel's house, consisting of three hired rooms on the ground floor, viz, one lecture room, a cabinet of ores, and a room for books and models. In 1792 the house was bought for 4,000 thalers. This same house is to this day the academy build- ing, but renewed and enlarged by adding the neighboring houses: 3,526 thalers for a laboratory in 1797 ; 6,000 fur a house and its ad- justing in 1818 ; 1,950 for a house in 1835; 27,280 thalers for de- molishing the last mentioned house and a part of the old one, and for building on their place a new one; 18,516 for enlarging the building in 1857; 8,120 for the metallurgical laboratory in 1862; 9,234 for a chemical room in the same year. It is, however, agreed that a new building on an open place would have better served the purpose than the present arrangement, especially since the light has been obstructed by a large house raised on the opposite side in spite of all offers made to the owner of the grounds by the state. The library and the fifteen collections are valued at 125,000 thalers; the library at 30,000; the classified collection of minerals, one of the five, 35,000 ; Werner's Mineral Museum, 18,000 ; for geognosy, 6,000 ; fossils, 4,500 ; for geography, 5,000, &c. It may be worth mentioning that the academy has also a sale collection of saleable minerals as old as the academy itself, not originally intended as a source of income, but valued as a means of intercourse and commerce with other countries, and for showing the students the best way of making collections. The name of the present administrator of the sale-room is II B. Wappler. There were, in 1866, 13 professors with 51 students. Since its estab- lishment in 1766, 1,225 students from Saxony; 782 students from Germany, without Saxony ; 326 students from Europe, without Ger- many ; 132 students from America, &c.; total, 2,465 students. The students are in part supported by the state, who must be Saxons, and are expected to accept no employment in any other country, or if thc}^ do, to return the pecuniary aid they may have received. They have to pay, besides, a matriculation fee of 3 thalers, 6 thalers for the practi- cal course, and for academical instruction 50 thalers annually, of which any poor student may get, except in the first year, an abatement or the allowance to pay it later, besides receiving money from the stipend funds ; or such as study at their own expense have to pay 6 thalers when matriculated, and about 47 thalers annually to the academy, and 316 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. the different fees paid to the professors for the lectures and exercises, viz, mathematics, 20 thalers ; geometry, 20 ; assaying, 30 ; mineralogy, 25 ; theoretical chemistry, 25; practical chemistry, 30, &c., annually. For admission, the aspirant must be at least 16 years old, and bring good testimonials of conduct. The former class of students (Saxons) must have a testimonial of graduation from a gymnasium, or the general course of the Polytechnic School, or the Industrial School in Chemnitz, or a Real School; in the last case, as in Tharand, the student must have a good grade in mathematics ; if not, he has to undergo the examination for. admission. Those who study at their own expense must produce, as the general expression is, proofs of satisfactory prep- aration for academical studies. The Saxon students are required to wear the prescribed mining dross. 2. — Plan of Studies. The course begins on the first Tuesday in October, and ends with the last week of July. The full course is not limited, but usually embraces from three to four years. The different branches taught by lectures and exercises are — 1. Mathematics, (cubic equations, trigonometry, analytical geometr}-, ) 4 lectures a week. h. Elements of diflferential and integral calculus, and the principal part ot higher mechanics, 4 lectures. 2. Descriptive geometry, 4 lectures. 3. Elementary mechanics, in 2 courses : a, general, 4 lectures ; 5, mining me- chanics, 3 lectures. 4. Theory of mining machines : Construction, a, general, 2 lectures ; J, spe- cial, 4 lectures. 5. Surveying of mines, {markscheidekunst:) a, general, 2 lectures ; b, practical, 5 lectures. 6. Chemistry: a, theoretical, 4 lectures ; 5, practical, 4 lectures ; 3, an-alytical, 4 lectures. . 1. Metallurgy : general, 4 lectures. 8. Science of foundries, {eisenhutten,) 2 lectures. 9. Assaying, {probirkunst :) a, dry, 6 lectures; b, practical, 15 hours ; c, liquid, 2 lectures. 10. Use of the blow-pipe, 2 lectures ; exercises, 4 hours. 11. Mineralogy, 5 lectures; exercises, 2 hours. 12. Crystallography, 1 lecture. 13. Physics, 4 lectures. 14. Geology, 5 lectures. 15. Science of fossils, 2 lectures. 16. Science of the layers (or beds) and veins of ore, ierzlagerstdtten,) 2 lec- tures. 17. Science of mining': a, 5 lectures; b, 5 lectures. 18. Architecture, civil, 3 lectures. 19. Rights and laws of mining, 1 4 lectures 20. Commercial style for miners, J 21. Book-keeping, 2 lectures. 22'. Drawing, 14 hours. 23. French, 4 lectures. 24. Chemical technology, 1, (privatcur.) 25. History of architecture, 2, (private.) SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 317 The Monday of each week is chiefly devoted to descending into th^ mines, visiting the smelting houses, to geological excursions, &c. 3 . — Examination . The theoretical instruction is, as in the university, given by lectures, and the student has the choice. The Saxon students have to pass an examination at the close of each year, and to present their journals or day-books, in which they are required to register, during the whole study-time, their observations on theoretical and practical subjects. The students who wish to get a public employment in Saxony must pass a state examination, in which no more than three students at once are examined before a board of examiners, consisting of the president of mining affairs, of one counsellor of the Oherhergamt, one of the Oberhuttenamt, chief officer of the foundries, one of the Bergamt, (all three chosen by the Secretary of the Treasury,) and one of the examin- ing professors. Such students as wish, after their examination, to study law in Leipsic, are, if not graduates of a gymnasium, examined in the gymnasium of Freiberg before they are allowed to do so. The state examination at the end of the course embraces — 1 . — For Miners. Mineralogy ; geognosy, with the science of the beds or strata of ores ; science of mining ; elementary mechanics; mathematics; book-keeping; mining law; general art of surveying mines, (subterraneous geometry;) natural philosophy ; drawing. Besides, the students have to testifv to their diligent attendance of practical surveying of mines, general chemistry, metallurgy, {huttenkunde,) and civil architecture, and may apply to be examined also in these four branches. 2. — For Surveyors of 3Iines, [markscheider .) General and special surveying of mines ; mineralogy, limited to the principal knowledge of characteristics ; geognosy and science of the beds or layers of ore, {crzlagerstdtten ,-) mining law; drawing; natural philosophy ; science of mining and mathematics. 3. — For Machinists. Science of mining; natural philosophy; civil architecture; book-keeping; general surveying of mines ; drawing; higlier mathematics ; elementary mechan- ics ; construction of machinery. Besides, they have to testify to their attendance on the lectures on general chemistry, metallurgy, mineralogy and geognosy. 4. — For Metallurgists, {huttenlente.) Theoretical and analytical chemistry ; dry and wet liquid assaying; use of the blow-pipe; metallurgy; natural philosophy; mineralogy; elementary mechan- ics; Rvt of clesLtiing ores, {aufbereitung;) book-keeping; drawing; mathematics. Besides, they have to testify to their attendance of the lectures on geognosy, civil architecture, mining law, and science of mining. At the examination they have to lay before the commission drawings of a larger size. Documents. 1. Festschrift der Berg-Academie in Freiberg, IS66. pp. 366, price lli thaler; 2. Regulative Freibere, 1860; 3. Vbersichl der Vorlcsumrcn. lbG7-68. 318 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. The oral examination lasts one day. On the second day they are examined («) in drawing, especially in sketching from models, &c.; (6,) in making short compositions on given themes, to be done rapidly without any help, and may be connected with the drawing exercises, by which compositions the student has to show that he is able to explain himself appropriately and fully on a given subject without help and promptly. The censuren in the testimonial have three degrees — ' ' excel- lent,"" good," "satisfactory" — for all branches, out of which, with particular regard to the respective chief discipline, the principal censur is made up, if the student succeeded. IX.-SCHOOLS FOE PRACTICAL MINERS. {In Freiberg.) There are two such schools in Saxony, in Freiberg and in Zwickau, the latter for coal-miners, both controlled by the hergamt in Freiberg, (with the higher boards, the Oherhergamt in Freiberg and the Ministry of Finances.) The former receives from the state about 800 thalers a year; the latter was founded and is supported by the proprietors of coal mines at Zwickau. These mining schools (hergschulen) of a lower rank have in view to train inferior of&cers, as workmasteVs, surveyors, and sub-inspectors of the (royal) mines. The number of pupils in Freiberg varies according to the wants of the government, but cannot exceed 60. On admission, the pupils must be 17-22 years old, and have had the education of an elementary school in plain handwriting, the elements of arithmetic, including fractions, correct writing after a dictation, and some skill in drawing, and must have worked in a mine at le.ast one year, and continue to work during their studies. Not to interrupt their work nor to lessen their wagos, the lesson hours are all in the afternoon or evening, and arrangements are made with their masters that they may, on school-days, ascend, and cease working somewhat earlier, if far off from school ; and may, on permission from the principal, without loss stay away a whole day in order to descend a shaft somewhere else. The course of instruction comprises four years, in as many classes, six to seven hours a week. 4:th Class — first year : 1. German, 2 hours a week. 2. Arithmetic, (algebra, equations with two unknown quantities,) 2 hours a week. 3. Drawing, 2 hours a week. ■3d Class — second year : 1. Mineralogy, with an abridgment of geognosy, 3 hours a week. 2. Geometry and trigonometry, 2 hours a week. , 3. Drawing, 2 hours a weelv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 319 2d Class — third year : 1. Natural i)hilosophy, elements of, applied ; mathematics, and popular doc- trine of machines, 2 hours a week. 2. Science of mining, 2 hours a week. 3. Drawinjr, 2 hours a week. * \st Class — fourth year: 1. Surveying of mines, 1st part. 2 hours a week. 2. " " 2d part, 2 hours a week. 3. Mineralog-ical exercises, 1 hour a week. 4. Book-keeping, I hour a week. 5. Drawing, 1 hour a week. The school in Zwickau for coal miners is organized after the pattern in Freiberg, with four years' courses, but with one school day in the week. For continuing elementary education the attendance at Sunday schools (evening schools) is required. For their moral conduct, application, and attainments, the pupils re- ceive, at the end of the fourth year, a testimonial, which will be of influence on their being employed as inferior officers of the mines. Also some smelters, but not more than three, may be allowed to attend the mining school without being obliged to take the full course of.rfour years or to attend all lessons. They must be recommended by the Oberhilttenamt , i. e. chief board, to superintend the furnaces, and pass the examination of admission, as required of the mining scholars. The mining school had, in the last year, in the four classes, 60 pupils. The school receives from the state an annual grant of 902 thalers, besides 40 thalers from the district funds. There is also a mining school at Altenberg, which, in 1866, had 4 pupils, who were instructed in six lessons a week. X.-STENOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION AT DRESDEN. It was first established in 1834, when the stenographer, Wigard, (disciple of Gabelsberger, in Munich,) was appointed by government as stenographer for the sessions of the legislature, and obliged, at the same time, to instruct gratuitously a limited number of pupils in semi-annual courses, one hour and a half daily. In the first course, and until 1839, the number of pupils was limited to fourteen. In 1839 the Royal Stenographic lustitution received its present organization, not much altered by the regulative of 1850. In 1840 the number of pupils in- creased to 35, in parallel classes of no more than 18 pupils ; in 1842 to 57, &c. Ins'ruotion is given by different members of the institution in each course, by one chosen always by the government, (Home De- Document. Bestimmungen (statute?) der F'-ciberscr Bergschule, (drawn np in 1S68.) 320 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. partment,) who generally receives for it a fee of 70 thalers, in addition to his salary, as member of the Stenographic Institution, of 500 to 800 thalers. Instruction is given one hour daily for 8-10 months of the year. It embraces the science and rules of the stenographic system, and practi- cal exercises in writing from dictation. In each course there are two examinations, at the end of the theoretical and of the practical instruc- tion. The end of the course is reached when the majority of pupils are (1) perfectly familiar with the system (of Gabelsberger) and the steno- graphic orthography ; (2,) able to read fluently their own writings ; and, (3,) have acquired some skill in stenographic writing of discourses. The beginning of a course must be duly advertised in public papers by the principal. The names of those who have applied, with the ap- proval of the president, are to be submitted for decision to the ministry. Such as have taken the full course of a gymnasium (college) and of the university are preferred. The two examinations are held at the time appointed by the ministry, in the presence of the principal and of two other stenographers ; and in case the president has been himself the teacher, of some other officer in his stead. The number of pupils instructed last year in four courses by four teachers was 114. Besides, there are Forthildungscurse, i. e., courses for continuing the study of stenography, consisting of a series of practical exercises during the six months Last year instruction was given in four divisions to 130 pupils by the principal, Professor Heyde, who, more- over, had to instruct officially seventeen gendarmes. ; In these courses four writing-matches take place, the first of which lasts fifteen, the second twenty, the third twenty-five, and the last thirty minutes. Practical stenographers are excluded. In the first match forty words are to be written in a minute, and in the last match, seventy to eighty words. Every one has to read instantly his writing, to which, as well as to the observation of the rules of the system, especially of orthography, and to the hand- writing, particular regard is paid in the distribution of prizes. The three prizes consist of books, worth five thalers, two thalers, and less ; but diplomas are added, and the names published in the Dresden Journal. Only such competitors have to ex- pect a prize who have partaken in the last and two previous matches, and have, also, regularly attended the other exercises. Moreover, in- struction was given in the Polytechnic School to eight pupils ; in the Vitzihum Gymnasium, to 14; in the Commercial School, to 18; and to several private classes. The rooms were in the State House SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 321 Those who wish to know more about this very liberally endowed in- stitution, with its president, Hiisse, Royal Counsellor, the principal, Heyde — in all eight stenographers of the first class, of whom several bear the title of professor, and three assistants — and about its organ- ization, (a,) for the legislative, (of course omitted in this account;) (6,) for instruction for the same purpose ; (c,) for the dissemination of Ga- belsberger's system, in opposition to the system of Stolze, adopted in Prussia and in Dresden, maintained by a small association founded in 1852, are referred to the documents given in note. XI.-THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TRAINING TEACHERS OF GYMNASTICS. 1. — History and General Observations. This institution was founded by the government (Ministry of Public Education) in 1819, at Dresden, and is supported by the same, for the purpose of obtaining a sufficient number of able teachers of gymnastics in the public schools. The first impulse toward introducing gymnastics into the public schools had been given by Prof. Werner, who established a gymnastic institution in 1830 at Dresden. This private school was closed with the departure of Werner to Dresden in 1839, but it had been so far successful for Saxony that after 1837 the government and legislature granted a certain sum for the instruction of gymnastics in several chief schools of the kingdom. Thus it was that this Normal School for obtaining teachers was established 17 years ago. The new building, considered as a pattern establishment, was erected, 1863, at the expense of 45,415 thalers, viz : for gymnastic hall, 12,000 ; fitting of the hall and of the grounds, with implements, 1,519, 882 thalers, &c. Its ground-plan may be seen in the document mentioned below, with a description of the premises and of the technical arrange- ments, pp. 21-28. The course of instruction, in which teachers of all kinds of schools may gratuitously partake, begins in October, and embraces one year. The pupils are as yet chiefly young teachers in the primary schools at Dresden, who, after finishing their course, are employed as teachers of gymnastics (in most cases not exclusively) at Dresden or other towns of Saxony. Occasionally, teachers in other parts of Saxony come to Dresden for the purpose of joining this institution. Documents. 1. Correspondenzblatt des Kgl. Stenographischen Institufs,lSQ4:, pp. 33, in4to, ('''ontainin? the hii^tory of the Institute, and the Reinilativps ; 2. C.italogne of the Library, (with l,10f^ sten- ographic wo, ks, (not volumes,) and 40i> more ;) 3- Taschenbuck fUr Gabelsberger Stenographeny 1868, pp. 74, (with an account of all G&belsberger's associations in the world.) 322 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. -Practical Theoretical Exercises. Not to disturb too much the teachers in their school-work, they have their gymnastic lessons on the afternoons of Wednesday and Saturday, when the public schools are closed ; in winter in the gymnasium hall, ia summer on the gymnasium grounds. The practical exercises are fol- lowed by theoretical lectures on the history, systems, and methods of gymnastics. Besides, on two evenings of the week, certain hours are given to further exercises in gymnastics. In summer, the master of a swimming establishment is employed to teach 30 teachers, pupils of this Normal School. The said gymnastic lessons and exercises, with the principal, Dr. Kloss, are accompanied by lectures and exercises in anthropology by Prof. Giinther in winter ; on two evenings, anatomy and physiology ; in summer, dietetics. After the anatomical course, application is made by exercising the pupils in bathing-trowsers. Moreover, the teacher- pupils may, at other times, attend the exercises of the school-classes, (see below,) when they also find opportunity to assist. At the end of the course there is an examination, in which all who think themselves sufficiently prepared, even if they have not been pu- pils of the Normal School, may partake. It consists of a trial lesson, of an oral examination on theory of gymnastics and on anthropology, and of a practical examination — all this in the presence of a counsellor of the Ministry of Public Education, lasting 2-3 hours. A composi- tion on a theme given by the lioyal Commissary is to be delivered two weeks before the public examination. There was another course es- tablished in 1860 of four to five weeks, generally in September and October, to benefit teachers not residing in Dresden, who either in- struct already or are preparing to instruct in gymnastics. They receive leave of absence, and often are assisted by the government in bearing the expenses of travel and board. These pupil-teachers have from 4 to 5 lessons daily, and also pass an easy examination as teachers of gymnastics in elementary schools. From 1850 till 1864 the full year's course was taken by 168 pupils ; the examination was passed by 12 more=r=180. From 1860 to 1864 the short course of 4 to 5 weeks was taken by 35 pupils, and 6 more were examined as teachers of gymnastics in ele- mentary schools=41 persons. In the same building, and under the same direction, instruction in gymnastics is given to four classes of the Teachers' Seminary, 67 pu- pils ; to seven classes of the Gymnasium, 294 ; to the first boys' school, SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 323 in four classes, 188; and likewise to four classes of the first girls' school, 1G7. Other schools have their exercises on other premises. The principal is assisted by 10 teachers, several of whom are teachers in the respective schools. XII.-IIOYAL MILITARY SCHOOL. 1. — Organization and Admission. The Royal Military School at Dresden was reorganized in 1867, after the war, and organized like the schools of the same rank in Prussia. Formerly it consisted of two separate schools, the artillery school and the Cadettencorps, both completing the education of their pupils; but now a higher academy in Prussia must be attended for finishing the professional education, either in Berlin, Erfurt, &c. By the new "regulative," the Cadettencorps in Saxony consists of six classes, and has (1,) 20 free scholars; (2,) 84 half-free scholars; (3,) 20 not free scholars — in all, 124. Besides these, " volunteers" maybe admitted ; but, if foreigners, without any claim to being admitted after- wards to the royal army. For admission to any of the 124 places^ the sons of officers of the army, killed or invalid, or of such subalterns as have served 25 years, and of civil officers of high merits, are preferred to others. The aspirant must have completed his 11th year of age, and not be over 18 years of age. In general the boys must have, if 11 years old, the requisite know- ledge of Quinta; if 12, of Quarta; if 13, of Quarta; if 14, of Tertia; if 15-17, of Secunda, of a gymnasium, (college.) On admission, every pupil has to pay 100 thalers for a full equip- ment, for books, &c.; and to bring with him 12 shirts, 18 pairs of stockings, 18 handkerchiefs, 6 drawers, 1 pair of house shoes, 2 white cotton night-jackets. During his stay every pupil has to pay, (besides 25 thalers for books when transferred to III,) annually, (a,) 50 thalers, if a free scholar ; (6,) 110 if half free; (c,) 210 if not free; {d,) 260 if a Saxon '^ volun- teer;" and, (e,) 300 if a foreign "volunteer." 2 . — Course of Instruction . The course of instruction in the Military School embraces six years, with six classes, of which, as was said before, VI, (the last,) V, IV, and 111 correspond to V, IV, and III in a gymnasium, II and I to lower Document. Bericht Hber (report on) die Kgl. Turnlehrer Bildangsanstalt, von Dr. Kloss, 1854, pp. 34, (witli a representation of the grounds and buildings.) 324 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. and upper Secunda, with the only difference, that instead of Greek, in- struction is given in English and in the elements of a military education. It will be, therefore, sufficient to mention the course of instruction in the highest class as given in the new regulation. 1. Religion. (The number of lesson hours is not stated.) 2. Latin: Written exercises ; Livy, Ovid, Virgil. 3. German: History of literature ; explanation of dramatic pieces ; free dis- courses, with a verbal resume, and debates. 4. French : Translations ; extemporalia ; compositions ; exercises in speaking. 5. Mathematics: Progressions; logarithms, and their application ; applying of algebra to geometry ; trigonometry; elements of stereometry. 6. English : Oral and wrirten exercises ; free discourses on historical and geo- graphical subjects ; review of the same in English ; reading of poetr3^ 7. History: Modern history ; review ofuniversal history ; history of Northern Germany. 8. Geography : Mathematical and physical geography ; review of political ge- ography, with particular regard to Northern Germany. 9 Natural philosophy: Electricity, mngnetism, sound and light. 10. Drawing of plans; finishing the designs of the survey. 11. Surveying : Topographical surveying on a large scale ; drawing of grounds ; eroquiren. 12. Free-hand drawing. (Not obligatory.) Those cadets to whom, in consequence of the examination at the end of the course, the testimonial of maturity for ensigncy can be given, are presented to his Majesty as "characterized" ensigns, wTiilst all others who do not answer the demands have to perform, in some other way, their legal service in the army. XIIL-THE ROYAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 1 . — Organization. The Royal Veterinary School was founded as a private school, 1774, apd in 1780 raised to a public institution, at first only to train squadron farriers for the Saxon army ;. now, it has in view the education of vete- rinary surgeons in scientific and practical knowledge, as well as instruct- ing smiths in the shoeing of horses. For these purposes it has, in three buildings, a hoi^pifal for all kinds of domestic animals ; a workshop for shoeing ; a zootomical establishment for dissecting animals ; an apothe- cary's shop for learning pharmacy ; collections of veterinary utensils and model shoes; a zootomical cabinet, with more than 3,000 preparations; a library of about 3,200 volumes, and a chemical laboratory for experi- mental exercises. The course o\ instruction embraces three years, in three classes. The pupils of the higher classes receive, as far as possible, lodgings free in the institution. There are nine teachers: one professor of the practical Document. Auszn^ aus dem (ahridc^inent) Regulatia von Jahre, 1836, fUr das Kgh S&chsische Cadetten- corps. Dresden, 1867. Pp. 18. SPECFAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 325 veterinary science, and chief of all veterinary surgeons in Saxony; one prot\ ssor of zootomy and zoophysiology ; one apothecary and professor of physics and chemistry; one prosector; one assistant in the hospital; two in the experimental laboratory ; one teacher of shoeing, and one for preparatory lessons. The expenditure amounts to 11,310 thalers, of which the state pays 8,780 thalers. The pupils pay 20 thalers annually. They must, for admission, be at least 18 years old, and healthy, and either have a testimonial of ma- turity from a real school, or have been at least six months in the se- cunda of a gymnasium, or pass an examination. Hospitants, or such as wish to attend the lectures without being admitted to the practical exercises or to the closing examination, are admitted on application without the aforesaid requirements. There were in all 39 pupils last year, (16 in the highest class;) now^ 34 pupils and 10 hospitants ; moreover, 17 civil and 10 military pupils in shoeing of horses. The course, beginning on the 1st of October, embraces three years — for such as have studied in another veterinary school, one year — before being ad- mitted to the examination. 2. — Examination. This examination comprises — 1 . The shoeing of horses. 2. Analomv : Enterology, demonstration of single parts of the body, and mak- ing of an anatomical preparation. 3. Surgery: Performing (by lot) of two operations. 4. Clinics : Examining and attending one exterior and one interior disease, and making a composition thereupon or a report of dissection. 5. A composition on a given theme, taken from veterinary science, and written in the presence of a professor. 6. An oral examination, embracing all theoretical sciences taught in the school. The objects of instruction are divided into three classes, viz : A . Preparatory sciences : 1. General hodegetics. (How to study.) 2. Composition and elocution. 3. Mathematics : a, algebra ; 6, lower geometry B. Natural sciences : 1. Botany. 2. Zoology. 3. (jeology and mineralogy. 4. Niitural philosophy. 5. Chemistry, inorganic and organic. C. Special chief sciences : 1. tlistory of veterinary science. 2. Encyclopaedia and methodology. 3. Anatoiiiy : o, general, as brief introduction to physiology ; 6, special ; c, pa- thological, with re^iard chiefly to police and judicial veterinary science. 4 Physiology, taught in its whole extent, but always as a foundation to die- tetics and pathology. 326 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXON VT. 6. Pharmacology: a, drugs; 6, effects of medicaments ; c, preparing of medi- caments. The apothecary shop visited. 6. Dietetics and cattle breeding, with exterieur. 1. Shoeing of horses. 8. Pathology and therapeutics. 9. Surgery. 10. Science of operations. 11. Obstetrics. 12. Veterinary science for police and judicial affairs ; exercises in writing com- positions. The examination mentioned above, which gives the right to practise, was passed by nine students, and two more who had not succeeded in a former examination and repeated the same. Two higher examinations, in order to be a veterinary surgeon of a lower or higher district, were passed successfully by four surgeons. Two persons were examined as military farriers. In shoeing, the examination before the royal com- mittees in Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau, and Lusatia, was passed by 195 persons, of whom 59 smith-journeymen were rejected. The direction of the school, the examination of the students, and the inspection over all veterinary surgeons in Saxony^ as well as the pass- ing of judgments, if needed, on all veterinary affairs, are entrusted to a Royal Commission for Veterinary Affairs, consisting of a commissary of the Ministry of the Interior, (Home Department,) and of two professors of the school, (Haubner and Leisering.) In veterinary affairs extraor- dinary members may be added to the commission, according to the character of the question, as the general secretary of the Agricultural Associations, (the Privy Counsellor, Dr. Reuning,) the Chief Equerry of the state, an officer of the cavalry, and the chief farrier of the army. As Saxony is divided into many districts, with a physician in each, who is appointed by government, (generally with a small salary,) and has to serve in all cases belonging to judicial or administrative cogni- zance, &c., so there are several veterinary districts of a larger compass. 3. — Statistics. The annual report of the commission of 1866-67 shows that in that year 540 horses, 6 ruminant animals, 13 pigs, 308 dogs, 7 cats, and 9 fowls — in all 883 animals — have been treated in the clinics of the school, 442 of which were dismissed cured and 162 in a better state. In the itinerant clinics, 1,408 animals were attended. The external clinics comprised 234 animals.. One hundred and seventy-five animals were dissected. Documents. 1. Bestimmungen den besuch der Thierarzneischul'c betreffend; 2. Tint err ichfsplan, ("Plan of Studii-s,; ()[). 12, with s()m« notes l»y Prof. Leisering; 3. Laws ("or the Pupils of tlie Viterinary School, pp. 24 ; 4. Annual Report oti Vett;riiiary Affairs in Saxony for the year 1863, Cllth year,; by the Royal Conunissiou, by Charles IJaubaer, pp. 78. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 327 XIV.-SUPPLEMBNTARY SCHOOLS. Evening and supplementary schools, for by this name we may call all those schools winch are intended for practical workmen, apprentices and journeymen, who may, without being interrupted in their daily work, supply any deficiencies in their general education, and acquire some knowledge and skill appropriate to their respective trades. SUNDAY SCHOOLS. In this class must first be mentioned the great mass of Sunday schools, as they are called here, because instruction is generally given on Sun- day afternoon by one or more teachers of the public schools. Those which aim at continuing general education are under the care of the Ministry of Public Education, (A ;) whilst those of a more industrial character are supported so far as it may be necessary and superintended by the Ministry of the Interior, (B.) 1. The Sunday schools (A) founded and supported by associations or municipalities received, in 1865, a State grant amounting to 3,035 tha- lers=ll,381 francs. There were 93 such schools, attended in the said ygar by 7,021 pupils, with 299 teachers. By the latest account, in the annual report of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the district of Dresden for 1867,* the Sunday schools in the seventeen towns of the district (Dresden, Freiberg, Meissen, &c.) had 1,415 pupils, (733 ap- prentices,) with 56 teachers, in 46 classes, and 115 weekly lessons. In these seventeen towns instruction was given in — Lessons. Towns. Drawing 40 All. Modeling 2 1 Aritlimetic , 28 All. Gtometry 6 6 Natural science 6 6 Natural bistory 1 I Book-keeping 1 1 History and geography 6 6 German composition 15 12 Calligraphy 16 14 They received from the State 525 thalers, (in 12 towns;) from the municipalities, 307, (in 11 towns;) from the guilds, 102, (7 towns;) from the industrial associations, 69, (7 towns;) from a school association in Dresden, 147; in Freiberg, 98 thalers; voluntary grants, 76, (in 3 towns;) in all, 1,723 thalers, and expended 1,244 thalers. The pupil, in nearly all the towns, pays a trifling entrance fee. To be more • Tliere are four such Chambers, in Dresden, Leipsic, Cliemnitz, Plauen, besides Lnsatia, and as many annual reports. The report of Drfsdeii, mt'niioiied above, contains, on -O'J pp., 1, Opinions"; 2, Statemenis of facts concerning all kinds ot commerce and manufactures, men- tioning.' most accurately the amount of tiie difterent raw productions and maiinfactureil goods in tiie district, as well as tlie railroad and postal commerce, lac; Schools, p. 188 — 195. 328 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. particular, the Sunday school in Dresden, founded 181.6 by a Free Masons' lodge, is supported by an association consisting of 168 members, including 14 guilds and 2 Masonic lodges. It had last year an income of 729 and an expenditure of 404 thalers, 377 of which were paid to teachers. The school was attended during the year by 256 pupils. The entrance fee amounts to one thaler, (in one town J thaler, in one town J, in some J thaler, in others no pay at all.) 2. The Sunday schools (B) of a more special character are established in the manufacturing towns or villages. There were, some years ago, 20 such schools, with 6,326 pupils and 140 teachers. The annual expenditure was then 8,554 thalers, to which the state (Ministry of the Interior) granted 3,295. Of these schools, the most important is the Sunday school in Chemnitz, founded in 1830, and kept by the Trades' Union^ with 1,376 pupils in 1868, who were instructed by 40 teachers, in 48 classes, at an expense of 2,200 thalers, to which the state grants 1,000 thalers and the town of Chemnitz 200 thalers. Lessons are given on Sunday A. M., 10 to 12, (20 classes,) and P. M., 1 to 3, (24 classes. Four classes (book-keeping, history and geography, and French) are held in the evenings of week-days from 7 to 9 o'clock. The different objects are — 1. Drawing, in 21 classes, viz : a. Meciiiinical, in 7 classes. b. Free-hand, in 7 classes. c. From plaster models, 1 class. d. From nature, 1 class. t. Architectural, 3 classes. /. Ornamental, 2 classes. 2. Arithmetic, in *7 classes. 3. Geometry, in 1 class. 4. Chemistry and natural philosophy, in 1 class. 5. Stenography, in 1 class. 6. Book-keeping, in 1 class. 7. History and geography, in 1 class. 8. German language and calligraphy, in 10 classes. 9. German composition, in 3 classes. 10. French, in 2 classes. There was added to it in 1865 a supplementary school for young ladies, as has been already mentioned. They are instructed in German correspondence, (2 lessons,) commercial arithmetic, (2,) and in book- keeping, (2,) on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 4 to 6. The course embraces one year, and is attended on the average by 30 female pupils. Documents. 1. 'Annual report of the Chamber of Commerce in the district of Drejideii, 1S67, pp. 209 ; 2. Report oil ihe Sunday school in Dresden, on its half-centennial anniversary, pp. 16 ; 3. Letter of the principal of tlie Sunday scliool in Chemnitz ; 4. Expps6 on public education in Saxony, pp. 11. SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 329 EVENING SCHOOLS To this class of schools belong — 3, The Commercial Schools for apprentices, spoken of above. 4. The Ornamental Drawing School, which is joined to the Home Industrial School in Chemnitz, and has been spoken of in connection with the same. The Drawing Schools in Seiffen, &c. 6. The Industrial School in Dresden. This school was founded in 1861 by the Trades Union, and embraces four sections, viz : Two for apprentices and journeymen, (111 pupils:) one for established trades- men, (18 ;) one for female pupils, (12.) The charge for the full course is 12 thalers a year; for single branches, 4-8 thalers; balance is remit- ted to poor pupils. The school received 200 thalers from the state, 200 from the town, and 215 from the Trades Union. The pupils are instructed by seven teachers in seven classes, 7J-9J in the evening and on Sundays. Instruction is given in drawing, four lessons; arithme- tic, four lessons ; modelings four lessons; German, four lessons; calli- graphy, one lesson; book-keeping, two lessons; geometry, two lessons; natural philosophy and chemistry, two lessons. There are more such schools in Saxony. 6. The Workingmen's Association for Education in Dresden has 350 pupil-members, one-third of whom are less than 18 years old. In- struction is given by six teachers: in arithmetic, two lessons; drawing, three lessons; German, one lesson; French, two lessons; English, twc lessons; singing, two lessons ; and gymnastics, four lessons. The as sociation receives from the town 100 thalers, and has'to raise annually GOO thalers. 7. The Mining Schools in Freiberg and Zwickau also belong to this class of schools. They are spoken of after the Academy for jNliners in Freiberg. Another mining school exists in Altenberg, with 4 pupils, who are instructed in six lessons a week. 8. Four Nautical Schools have been established to give ihe necessary instruction for the pilot's examination. The schools are kept in the winter, when shipping on the Elbe is interrupted. They have 40-70 pupils, who pay one thaler for each course, and thus receive an annual state grant of 350 thalers. 9. Two Music Schools are established and supported by govern- ment in two small towns where the chief trade is the manufacturing of musical instruments, and carried on on a large scale, even with America. They have about 80 pupils. 10. Seven Weaving Schools give nearly the same instruction as the 330 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. two higher weaviog schools in Chemnitz (spoken of above) and Glauchau, but on a reduced scale. They have about 550 pupils, and receive from the state 290 thalers a year. 11. Two Fringe-making Schools, in Annaberg and a neighboring town, have each 150 pupils, and receive a state grant of 350 thalers. 12. The Tailors' Academy, in Dresden, founded by an association of tailors from all parts of Germany, was inaugurated last year in a mag- nificent building, and commenced its courses the 2d of January, 1868. Besides the scientific course of one year, with 5-7 lessons daily and 3-5 hours exercises, for which the pupil pays 100 thalers, (boarding 180- 240 thalers,) the prospectus mentions five practical lessons from six weeks to six months. In 1866 the school had five teachers and 38 pu- pils. The institution, with which the school is and has been connected, bears, since 1862, the name of "^ European Academy of Modes." The magazine is edited by the academy in German, French, and English, with ten different titles : Australian Observer, Season of Fashion for Gentlemen^ Telegraph, (for the United States and Canada,) r Observa- teur, &c. The association consists at present of 14 directors, residing in Berlin, London, New York, Paris, Petersburg, Vienna, and 408 members. The chief directory consists of three members, chosen for life, (Miiller, in Dresden, the head and soul of all,) and has its perma- nent seat in Dresden. The library contains 900 volumes for this special branch, and the collections contain all sorts of models, gearing-ma- chines, measuring apparatus, and other inventions. Industrial schools for children who attend the elementary schools. Spinning schools in some parts of Lusatia, three of which receive an annual state grant of 150 thalers. Straw -working schools, three of which receive a grant of 100 thalers. Lace-making and embroidering schools have been likewise established for children who attend this elementary school, chiefly in the poorest parts of the Ore Mountains. There are about 30 such schools, with 1,600 to 1,900 children, with an annual state grant of 4,000 thalers. For all of them an inspector is appointed, who has also the care of training the needed (female) teachers. SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES AND THE BLIND IN DRESDEN AND LEIPSIC, The school in Leipsic was established by Heinicke in 1778, who transferred it there from Eppendorf, near Hamburg ; it was one of the first, if not the first in Germany. There are 50 boys and 50 girls, instructed by 12 male and 2 female teachers. The expenditure is 13,000 thalers. The school in Dresden has 63 boys and 45 girls, with SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 331 12 male and 2 female teachers, and now all deaf and dumb persons in Saxony enjoy the advantages of education. Besides, there is in Dresden an asylum for deaf and dumb girls, supported by an association, where a limited number of girls find a refuge for life. THE SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND IN DRESDEN. This school was founded in 1809, and has about 111 pupils. The expenditure is about 15,448, with an income of 16,042 thalers. The funds of the school amount to 42,615 thalers; those for the blind who have left the school, to 43,000 thalers, and other funds to 46,800 thalers. Families have to pay 64 thalers a year ; communities, 32 thalers for each pupil. The preparatory school in Hubertsburg was opened in 1862. It has 17 children until their 11th year of age, (the pay is 64 thalers,) besides 3 ordinary male teachers and 3 female teachers. There are in Dresden 2 teachers of music and singing, 1 of basket makiug, 1 of rope making, and 1 of shoemaking ; in Hubertsburg, besides the principal, 1 of bonnet making and 1 of knitting. ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS. I. — THE ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN DRESDEN. 1. — General Observations. The Academy of Fine Arts, (^Academie der hildenden Kiinste,') es- tablished in 1705 as an academy of painting, was, in 1764, changed to the Academy of Arts, and received in 1836 its present organization. Its admiaittration is entrusted to an academical^council, the honorary president of which is H. R. H. Prince George. The council consists of a lloyal Commissary, at present the Secretary of the Treasury, a coun- sellor of the government as secretary, and nine professors. The same council is the directory of the Academy of Arts in Leipsic. There being no special principal of the academy in Dresden, the superintendence of studies and discipline is entrusted temporarily to one of the professors, who is at present, 1868, Gustavus Heine, pro- fessor of architecture. The academy consists of two sections, viz, the Academy of Arts, {Jcuiutalcademie ,) and the Architectural School, (hauschule.) There are in all twenty-one professors, two of whom are employed mostly in the Polytechnic and in the Veterinary School. The number of students in 1866 was, in the first section, 95, with 41 not Saxons; in the Architectural Academy, 41, with 10 foreigners; 332 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. in all, 136 students, with 51 foreigners. The academy is situated on the BriiJilsche Terrasse, and at the same place, during three summer months, holds its well-known annual exhibition. The income from the exhibition is half applied to purchasing good paintings, exhibited by Saxon artists, to be placed in the picture gallery ; half of it to the fund for supporting orphans and widows of artists. This fund was founded without any particular capital in 183G, and has increased to the present araouHt of 25,900 thalers, and in the last few years has expended for relief annually 800 thalers ; besides, it is worth mentioning, that, for promoting art in Saxony, the state granted, in 1858, 5,000, afterwards 10,000 thalers annually for constructing excellent monumental works, which grant will probably be continued henceforth by the government and legislature. The budget of the home department shows an annual expenditure for the academy of 18,030 thalers. The students pay an entrance fee of 5 thalers, and annually 6 thalers in the lowest class ; 10 thalers in all other classes. Students who have exhibited artistical or architectural works, or models of some merit, are rewarded at the end of the exhibition by medals or diplomas. One of them receives a {reisestipendiiim) stipend for travelling (to Florence and Rome, and on application to the council, to other cities) of 1,200 thalers ; 600 for each of the two years for which it is granted. The great gold medal is considered of equal worth as the stipend. The summer term in the proper Academy of Arts begins April 15 ; the winter term, November 1 ; in the Architectural Academy, October 1, and in some cases a student may be admitted here on the first of March. II. — THE ACADEMY OF ARTS— Kunstacudemie. — section I. The full course of the academy has three annual courses, (classes,) called. III, the Drawing Hall, (zeichnensaal ;) II, the Plaster Hall, (gypssaal;) and, I, (the highest class,) the Painting Hall, (malersaal.) Besides those classes, there exist for the higher training of the advanced students seven "ateliers;" two for historical painting, I, (Profs. Hubner and Schnorr ;) one for landscape painting, (Ludwig Richter ;) one for stat- uary, (Hahnet;) one for engraving, (Gruner;) one for wood cutting, (Buikner ;) and one for architecture, (Nicolai. ) The collections of art in Dresden, of so great importance to the future artists, are too well known to be pointed out here. The plan of studies is as follows ; Lower Class — Drawing Hall — under the Direction of Three Professors. Drawing of single parts of the human body and of whole figures from copies; SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 333 first instruction in drawing from plaster models; 9-12 and 2-4 daily, except Saturday afternoon. Middle Class — Plaster Hall — under the Direction of Three Professors. Dra\vin thalers were expended for primary instruction, and 8,000 for secondary instruction. The annual expense for the. salaries of common school teachers in 1866, was 72,000 thalers. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- ister of state, and embrace : 1. Primary Schools, Of these there were in 1864, 223 schools, with 355 teachers, and 22,609 scholars. 2. Secondary Schools, There are 2 gymnasia, with 35 teachers, and 606 scholars ; 2 real schools, with 23 teachers, and 449 scholars ; 3 higher burgher schools, with 27 teachers, and 1,254 scholars; 2 higher girls' schools, with 23 teachers, and 256 scholars. 3. Superior Schools. University students resort to Jena* 4. Special and Professional Schools, 3 Teachers' seminaries, with about 90 students, and about 25 teachers. 1 School for architects and carpenters ; 1 supplementary school for mechanics ; 1 school for machine-building, — with about 150 scholars, and upwards of 20 teachers. Be- sides this great institute, there are several schools for mechanics receiving aid from the state. 1 Deaf mute institute, with 1 4 inmates. 1 Commercial school, with 5 teachers, and 110 pupils. 1 Agricultural school. 1 Music schooL 1 Orphan asylum, at Friedrichroda, founded in 1712. 3 Kindergarten, with 150 children. 1 Rescue institution. Salzman's Institute at Schnepfenthal, Dietendorfer Institute, Ma- ria Institute at Gotha, have a high reputation. (334) SPECIAL mSTRUCTIOIf IN SAXE-MEINIXGEMILDBURGHAUSEN. INTRODUCTION. The duchy of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghansen, on an area of 033 English square miles, in 1864 had a population of 178,005, of whom the majority are engaged in agriculture, 549 in mining, 1,472 in por<5elain manufactories, and about 8,000 in the manufacture of wooden toys. The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Meinin- gen in the financial period 1862-65, amounted to 1,845,042 florins, of which 16,000 florins were expended for primary schools, besides the income (14,000 florins) from the crown lands. The main ex- pense falls on the local districts. ^ The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- ister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, (who at the same time is minister of justice, who is assisted in the inspection of schools by a council consisting of two clergymen, and one layman, who must have been a teacher), and include : 1. Primary Schools. Of these there were in 1864, 285, with 29,250 scholars, and 406 teachers: — that is, about 1 school to every 620 inhabitants ; 102 scholars to every school, and 2 teachers to every school. 2. Secondary Schools. 2 gymnasia, with 310 scholars, and 22 teachers; 2 real schools, with 290 scholars, and 19 teachers; 1 higher girls' school, with 50 scholars, and 7 teachers. 3. Superior Schools^ University pupils resort to Jena. 4. Special and Professional Schools. 1 Agricultural school, and 4 model farms. 1 Teachers' seminary, with 9 teachers, and 52 students. 1 Industrial school, with about 20 pupils. 1 Deaf mute institute, with from 15 to 20 inmates. 1 Reform school, with about 24 pupils. 3 Public asylums for orphans. 1 Asylum for the orphans of teachers. 1 Home for neglected children. 10 Kindergarten, after Froebel's method. (a35) SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IN SAXE-WEIMAR. INTRODUCTION. The Grand-duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, on an area of 1,421 English square miles, in 18G4 had a population of 280,201, of which number 92,702 were engaged in agriculture, 137,603 in industrial pursuits, and 9,855 were engaged in commerce. The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Weimar in 1864-65, amounted to 1,658,668 thalers, of which 40,000 thalers were expended for primary schools, 25,835 for secondary schools, and 5,090 for special schools. The institutions of public instruction are administered hj the min- ister of the interior, who at the same time is minister of the grand- ducal house, and minister of foreign affairs. 1. Primary Schools. Of these there were 678, with about 50,000 scholars, and about 700 teachers ; besides 77 repetition schools. 2. Secondary Schools. There are 2 gymnasia, with 572 scholars, and 39 teachers; 2 real schools, with 337 scholars, and 18 teachers; 4 higher burgher schools, with 1,517 scholars, and 35 teachers; 1 higher girls' school, with 135 scholars, and 25 teachers. Besides these, there are 2 private boys' schools, with about 200 scholars, and 38 teachers, as also 2 private girls' schools. 3. Superior Schools. The University at Jena, common for all the Thuringen States, with four faculties (theology, law, medicine, phi- losophy), had 440 students, and 67 professors. 4. Special and Professional Schools. 2 Teachers' seminaries, with 302 students. 2 Schools of architecture and carpentry. 1 School of forestry, and 1 School of agriculture. 1 Commercial academy. 1 School of pharmacy. 1 Institute (Falk's) for neglected children. 10 Kindergarten. 1 Institute for deaf mutes ; 1 Institute for the blind, at Weimar. 77 Forlibldang, or supplementary schools. Orphans, 1,200, are placed in families, and attend the public schools with other children. (336) SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. INTRODUCTION. The kingdom of Wurtemberg, on an area of 7,840 English square miles, in 1867, had 1,778,478 inhabitants, of which number 276,000 were employed in agriculture, 225,000 in mechanical pursuits, and 48,000 as day-laborers, &c. The total annual expenditure of the government of Wurtemberg during the financial period 1864-65 was 17,064,236 florins, of which 226,270 fl. were expended for elementary public instruction. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister of Education and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. 1. Primary Schools.— 0^ these there were, in 1865, 2,168, with 2,T21 teach- ers "and 230,712 pupils. Besides these there were 691 evening-schools, intended for further instruction in those branches of study which find a special apphca- tion in practical life; and 142 infant schools, with 8,953 children. 2. Secondary Schools. — There were, in 1868, 4 gymnasiums, with 635 schol- ars and 76 teachers; 3 gymnasia with real-school classes, with 1,438 scholars and 92 teachers; 5 lyceuras, with 574 scholars and 38 teachers; 9 real-schools, with 2,006 scholars and 100 teachers — making a total of 21 secondary schools, with 4,653 scholars and 306 teachers. 3. Superior Schools. — The university at Tubingen, in four faculties, [theology, law, medicine, philosophy,] had 78 professors and 785 students. Besides the theological faculty of Tubingen, numbering 331 students, there are 4 Protestant theological seminaries, with upwards of 100 students and 26 teachers. 4. Special and Professional Schools. — 3 Teachers' seminaries, with 230 stu- dents and 23 teachers; 1 technical university, with 49 teachers and 468 stu- dents; 1 college for the building trades, with 26 teachers and 578 students; 108 higher trade-schools, with 425 teachers and 8,264 pupils; 1 academy of agriculture and forestry, with 123 students and 21 teachers; 3 farm-schools, with 12 pupils; 523 finishing farming schools, classes, &c., attended by 12,040 persons; 1 veterinary college, with 6 professors and 57 pupils; 1 school of art, with 8 teachers and 55 pupils; 1,450 industrial schools, with 52,157 pupils. 5. Supplementarij Schools and Agencies. — Wurtemberg has a large number of Sunday-schools, infant-schools, orphan asylums, rescue institutions, working- men's unions for debates, lectures, reading rooms, evening schools, recreations, savings bank, life and accident insurance, &c. of its members and their appren- tices, and other appliances for reaching the juvenile population, so that it is the boast of her educators that this government has more nearly solved the problem of universal education thMi any State of Europe. 22 338 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. Wiirteraberg, without possessing a system of technical instruction under a special ministry, has most of the agencies and institutions which are considered desirable or necessary for this purpose in the present industrial condition of the population. I. There is a system of public schools, so distributed and admin- istered as not only to solve more nearly the problem* of universal education than that of any otber State, but to make special tech- nical instruction practicable and economical. The laws forbid the employment of very young persons in factory or other labor, unless they have been at school, or can obtain fur- ther instruction while so employed ; and for this purpose, in every manufacturing or mechanical population, there is a special school for this class of children. II. As an indispensable instrument in technical instruction, pro- vision is made for all persons over twelve years of age to acquire skill in drawing, by imparting to all teachers the ability to give in- struction in this branch, and introduce it into every school of gen- eral and special education. III. Trade-schools to the number of 108 (varying in their studies according to the demand) are so distributed through all the centers of population as to meet practically the wants of every trade. IV. A College for building trades, with 26 teachers. y. A Technical University at Stuttgard, with 49 teacbers, giving instruction, (1) in architecture ; (2) engineering ; (3) machinery ; (4) chemistry in its applications to manufactures, mines, metallurgy, and pharmacy. yi. Colleges and Courses for Agriculture, Forestry, and Rural Economy generally, including the great institution at Hohenh6im, three schools of practical farming, a school for gardening, a chair in the university, and 360 evening schools, besides practical lectures and conferences, scattered through the country. yil. A yeterinary College at Stuttgard. yill. A School of Art, embracing every facility of drawing, mod- eling, landscape, water and oil painting, and statuary. IX. Special Instruction in Commerce in the Real Schools. X. Central Museum of Industrial Art. In connection with the Industrial Museum there is a collection of models in aid of instruction in drawing, design, and modeling, and a workshop for reproducing them in plaster, from which any article on the catalogue can be ordered at the cost price to the molder. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 339 AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. There are in Wurtemberg the Ibllowing dittereut sources of agricultural instruction : — 1. The roj'^al agricultural and forestry institute at Hohenheim. 2. Three scliool farms at Ellwangen, Ochsenhausen, Kirchberg. 3. An agricultural chair at Tubingen. 4. A veterinary school at Stuttgard. 5. Apprenticeships on the large private farms. 6. Agricultural improvement schools, which vary in their aims and methods in different localities, viz. : in the winter of 1866-67, one hundred and seventy voluntary schools, with three thousand two hundred and sixty-six pupils; three hundred and sixty obligatory evening schools in which agricultural instruc- tion was given, with seven thousand nine hundred and thirteen pupils, the so- called agricultural evening meetings in sixty communities, with fourteen hundred and sixty-one visitors, and seventy-eight reading circles, with two thousand and thirty-four members. 7. Lectures by practical farmers and agriculturists, employed by the depart- ment to visit difterent sections, discuss special subjects, and cooperate with the local agricultural association in special improvement. 8. Free distribution of agricultural reports and philosophical experiments among agricultural schools, associations, clubs, reading-rooms and libraries. ^9. Special instruction to home pupils in the institute. The institute at Hohenheim is by far the most important of these, and was the starting point of public interference in this branch of instruction. The person to whom it, and therefore the cause of agricultural education not only in Wurtemberg but in the world, owes its origin, was Schwerz, who was born at Coblentz, June 11, 1759. He founded the institute in 1818, and died Sept. 3,; 1828. He brought with him to the school, a system of agriculture based on the practice of the Flemish cultivators, a system which has since been gradually superseded by one involving larger and more scientific operations. The school farms of Ellwangen and Ochsenhausen date as recently as 1842, the funds having been subscribed for the purpose of erecting a monument to the king, and being at his request applied to this purpose. The apprentices on the large private farms are, in general, preparing them- selves to enter the Hohenheim school. The instruction given at the Tubingen university is not only highly scientific but very practical in its character, but for a class of students, however, with whom agriculture is to be rather a taste than a serious employment. INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.* Hohenheim is seven miles from Stuttgard, the capital of the kingdom of "Wurtemberg, the road lying through vineyards and orchards and royal forests. Long before my arrival at head-quarters, it was easy to see that I was riding through tlie fields of the institute. The fruit trees were' labeled and numbered, •Abridged from Report of Secretary C. L. Flint to the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, on the Agricultural Schools of Europe, 1863. 840 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WIJRTEMBERG. the fields and the rotation upon them were indicated by stakes and cards, and every thing gave evidence of thrift and skill and scientific management. What capital roads ! Nothing but a royal decree could have lined them every where with cherry and apple and pear-trees, stretching away as far as the eye could reach. No fences mar the open landscape, either along the highway or on the division lines. There is a little footpath that leads through the woods, a beautiful, shaded walk to Kleinhohenheim. Conducted on the same estate, and under the same general direction, the Royal Institute at Hohenheim consists of: 1. The institute or school of agriculture, for young gentlemen. 2. The school of forestry. 3. The school of practical farming, for the sons of peasants. . The lands, plantations, gardens and nurseries connected with the old chateati (eight hundred and twenty-five acres,) are wholly devoted to the purposes of the three establishments, and serve professors as well as pupils for illustration and experiment ; while the extensive royal forests (over five thousand acres,) in the neighborhood and lengthy excursions made every year, give a wide range of observation, especially for students in the management of forests. HISTORICAL DEYELOPMENT. The Agricultural Institute, at Hohenheim originated, in a measure, from the establishment of the agricultural society of Wurtemberg, in 1817, when the necessity of a model farm and an institute of instruction and experiment became strikingly apparent, as a means of the development and the elevation of agriculture in the estimation of the people. The success and popularity of the school founded in 1806 by the illustrious Thaer, at Moglin, in Prussia, had no doubt contributed largely to this feeling among the agriculturists of "Wurtemberg. Thaer's enterprise was undertaken at first on his own private account, and so continued till the year 1819, thirteen years after its commencement. It so happened that the introduction and spread of fiue-wooled or Merino sheep into Northern Europe, and especially upon the farm at Moglin, near Berlin, concurred to attract to this private effort a large share of public attention, while the reputation of Thaer rapidly grew at home and abroad, not only as a consequence of the success of his school, but likewise from his valuable publications. His school was therefore taken under the patronage of the government, as a royal academy, but the management of the estate still remained at the risk and expense of the owners, the instruction only being paid by the government. This led to a mixed arrangement, the evils of which very soon began to develop themselves, and in time to be avoided at Holienheim, where the whole establishment was taken under the control of the government, and located upon a royal domain. A part of this domain happening, at that time, to be under lease, it was necessary to begin the instruction, on the small adjoining estate of Carlshof, consisting of only two hundred and fifty-five acres. A small beginning was therefore a matter of necessity, and this was to continue till the year 1822, when the broad estates of Hohenheim would be at the service of the institute, at the head of which stood Schwerz, who was placed by the confidence of the king in full control of the property, with only the assistance of a farm inspector and two of his pupils. He assumed direction in 1818, with eight pupils, SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 341 personally arranged every thing, and even managed tlie finances of the school, which, for the first two years, remained on this simple foundation, as a purely agricultural institute. In the year 1820, the school for the management of forests, which had previously existed at Stuttgard, was removed to Carlshof and placed under the direction of Schwertz, though still independent for all the purposes of instruc- tion. The greater number of students were then, as they are at present, students of agriculture, — one hundred and twenty-four agricultural students and but thirty-seven foresters. The limited number of foresters may be owing in part to the rigorous con- ditions of admission to the forest school, the applicants for whicli must have practiced in the management of woods for at least two years under a head steward of forests. It was thought that a general connection of instruction in forestry with that in agriculture, would have some important advantages, as, for instance,. for the pupils of the agricultural institute, who are either owners, or to become in future, stewards of large estates, in which the management of forests would often be of great importance, while the contact of a class of students who have to submit to a rigid examination on which their future success will largely depend, would be very useful, as an example of good conduct and studious habits, to students in the agricultural institute who are not obliged to work. It would be a desirable stunulant to exertion. Then the union would enable the two to give a wider range to the instruction in both, the students of each having an opportunity to avaU. themselves of lectures, which they could not otherwise have, so that the foresters, for instance, could get a general knowledge of agriculture, which they would not gam in a special school. Experience has accordmgly justified this change, and the arrangement still exists. The School of Practical Farming, AcJcerhauschule, was begun at the close of 1818, with ten stout boys of fourteen years of age, from the orphans in Stutt- gard and other cities. These boys had but one instructor, who had to keep them at work and train them to the greatest possible activity, order, and good conduct. They received to some extent the theoretical instruction of the students in the higher institute, but in 1824 they began to have more or less theoretical instruction adapted to the capacity of each, and to their future designs. This practical school was modified in 1829, when the number was extended to twenty-five, and instead of taking orphans as heretofore, the sons of peasants especially were to be admitted, between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, who, as they were already famUiar with the ordinary routine of farm work, could be immediately useful on the farm, and taught the improved processes of agriculture in a shorter time. They are required to spend three years at Hohenheim, and must be natives of Wurtemberg. Thek instruction in the theory of agriculture is limited to two hours a day. SPECIAL COUESES. Besides the regular instruction in agriculture and forestry, there are several special courses. 1. A school of gardening was established in 1 844 at the same place, but still 342 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. independent of the others. Six pupils only were admitted into this, and each must have attained the age of seventeen years. Each applicant must have spent three years as gardener or vintager, or attended the course at a farm school, and the garden school aimed in one course to perfect what had previously been begun in the art of gardening and fruit culture. Then, in addition, there were established at the same place, special courses for orchardiste, meadow husbandry, shepherds, and school teachers. 2. The course for orchardists, which has been continued since 1850, wa3 designed for young men of eighteen years and upward, who wished to prepare themselves for managers of the fruit trees belonging to the communes or parishes, of which there are immense numbers every where around the villages and highways of the kingdom. This course lasts from four to five weeks in the spring of each year, and a few days later in summer for practice in grafting. On account of the crowd of applicants to this course, in the last few years, from all parts of the kingdom, it became necessary to extend it to three courses a year, with from fifteen to twenty pupils in each, so that now this theoretic and practical instruction in fruit culture continues from the middle of March to the end of May, and a continuation of the course occurs also in August. 3. The five weeks' course upon the technical management of meadows, has been continued regularly in the spring since 1855, whenever there has been a sufficient number of applicants. It includes the art of treating meadows, field drainage, the establishment of boundaries or practice in applied geometry, for those who wish to perfect themselves in farm engineering. The number of attendants on this course has averaged eight. 4. The course of instruction for shepherds was opened for the first time in 1855, and has continued uninterruptedly since, with an average of ten to twelve attendants. Applicants are required to be over twenty years old, and to have been in practice with shepherds four years. The course takes place in February and last four weeks. 5. To these courses was added another in 1860, for school teachers, which is limited to three weeks in the autumn vacations of the public schools. The principal object is to provide the means of a continuation of their agricultural education, which was found to be needed in many parts of the country. Such teachers only are invited to attend this course as have busied themselves on their own or on the school grounds, with agricultural labors, in the formation of means for improvement in agricultural education. The instruction embraces the whole of agricultural labor, with special researches into' the imperfections and failings which appear in different parts of the country. The number who may attend each course is fixed at twenty-five. Instruction in the several courses is given partly by the regular corps of professors of the institute, and partly by persons from abroad who make a speciality of certain pursuits, who go to Hohenheim for the pui-pose, and the arrangement is such that the pupils' during their stay in Hohenheim are occu- pied the whole of each day, partly in hearing lectures, and partly in demonstra- tions in the field, in the stalls, in the collections, or in excursions, and partly in the solution of prescribed tasks. OCCASIONAL COURSES. In addition to the regular established course, occasional courses are given, as SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 343 for instance, in 1853, a course upon silk culture, another on bee culture and on the nursery business. They took place in the afternoon of each Wednesday, from four to six, and were attended by twenty young men, mostly sub-teachers or assistants in the schools. In 1855, another course was given upon silk culture, designed for the pupils of the normal schools, of whom one hundred and thirty-four attended. A similar course of agricultural instruction was given in 1861 for the school teachers in the jurisdiction of Stuttgard, in which fifty-two teachers of the public schools engaged. The lectures were accom- panied by demonstrations in the field, and in the collections, an afternoon of each week, and the design was to prepare the teachers for holding evening agricultural schools in winter. And so in 1852-3, on the occasion of consider- able changes in the laws regardmg distilled liquors, two courses of instruction were given to the revenue officers upon the processes of distilling. One lasted ten da^'s and the other twelve, and was attended by over sixty officers of the revenue who desired the information. And so, also, a vast amount of labor is done, and information imparted in answer to letters and through numerous publications by the professors, all of which widen the circle of influence of the institution. MEANS OF INSTRUCTION. The means of instruction in the institute proper were limited, as already stated, at the foundation, to a physical and mathematical apparatus, an outfit foj the chemical laboratory, and a little natural history collection, for which the queen had contributed a thousand florins, and this was confined strictly to agri- culture. Still with the small number of pupils it was made the means of important instruction in special branches. As for the farm, a greatly improved arrangement of lands was adopted over that common in the neighborhood, either then or at present, Schwertz, who was born at Coblentz in 1759, and who was familiar with the agriculture of Belgium, where it was carried on in the highest perfection then known, not only got many improved implements from that quarter, but also a skillful foreman who was acquainted with their use, and could teach it to others. An implement manufactory formed a part of the design, one that should not only supply the wants of the farm with the best tools, but be the means of introducing the most improved implements into the country, and the institute was extremely fortunate in getting the right man for the place, one who had been with Fellenberg at Hofwyl, as an implement-maker, and who not only answered expectations, but soon won a high reputation for the implement branch of the estabhshment by the strength and goodness of the work. In 1852, and each year since, arrangements were made for the purpose of securing a more rapid and general spread of improved agricultural implements throughout the country, whereby master wheelwrights and smiths were pro- vided with an opportunity, by a stay of some six or ten days in the implement manufactory at Hohenheim, of becoming familiar by observation, handling, drawings, models, &c., with the course of business and the manner of manufac- ture there, and the master mechanic took it upon himself to give the requisite explanations. Up to this time no less than 77 master smiths, and 58 master wheelwrights have availed themselves of this opportunity to perfect themselves in their business. 344 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. But as imperfect and defective as were the arrangements at the outset, at •Hohenheim, there was one thing that neither the director nor the pupils were in want of, and that was an earnest love for their work, and an enthusiasm for the high reputation of the new institute. It was not the least of the merits of Schwertz that he knew how to infuse such an enthusiasm into all his pupils. Where such a spirit reigns great things are easily developed from small. Forty- five years have now passed away, and from the weak seed then planted a strong fruit-bearing tree has developed its wide-extended branches. From eight pupils in 1818, the number has increased to one hundred and fifty in 1863; and from one great professor the number has grown to twelve. Among the means of instruction presented at the institute may be mentioned, what has already been alluded to, the whole management of the farm, with its experimental fields, the implement manufactory, the workshops, the forests and hunting-parks, the nurseries, both native and exotic trees, the botanic garden, the library, and the different collections and apparatus designed especially for the purposes of instruction. The botanic garden was started in 1829, with an area of about ten acres. It was intended to serve the double purpose of instruction and ornament to the surroundings of the chateau. I spent a good deal of time in the various parts of this garden. It is laid out on a generous scale, with an agreeable, park-like aspect ; groups of trees, ornamental and useful shrubs, parterres of flowers and lawns well kept. A part of it is devoted to annuals, where an immense nupiber of varieties of wheat and other grains are cultivated ; each plot being labeled, so that the visitor may know, without a guide, what each contains. In another part are the perennials, especially those of economical value. A grass garden forms a part by itself, where the different species of grass are cultivated in little clumps, each labeled with its scientific and common name ; while an arboretum of considerable extent is, at all times, accessible for students and others. The library contains four thousand volumes on agriculture and forestry and their auxihary sciences, and is open twice a week. The collections are very extensive and valuable, more so than at any other institute of the kind that I visited. They consist of large collections of soils, manures, models of implements, and implements in full size ; admirable collec- tions of wools, kept in glass cases, among which are complete historical collections from the sheep kept on the farm for many years back, especially of the most celebrated bucks and ewes; collections of woods, minerals, petri- factions, &c. ; collections of seeds of fruits, herbariums, pathological and zoologi- cal collections, apparatus used in the lectures on physics, the chemical labora- tory, &c. The following is an outline of the course of instruction: — 1. G-eneral field and plant culture. This includes a general introduction, the objects of cultivation and the connection of cattle breeding with farm opera- tions; also instructions upon chmates, soils, manures, implements, working the soil, multiplieation of plants, care of seeds, crops, preservation of farm products, accompanied by demonstrations in the field, the collections of models and machine shops. 2. Special plant culture. 3. Meadow cultivation. , 4. Wine, hop and tobacco culture. • •. 5. Fruit culture. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 345 6. Vegetable cultivation. 7. Breeding of general farm stock — embracing domestic cattle and their necessity fur man, science of feeding and nourishment, care, uses, multiplica- tion, choice, &,c. 8. Ho.se breeding, including the structure and anatomy of tlie horse ; with the assistance of a large collection of fine illustrations of the different breeds, and excursions made to the various royal studs in tlie kingdom. 9. Ctittle breeding — \\uth demonstrations in the stalls, collections of models and cheese dairy. 10. Sheep breeding, including instruction in regard to wools, demonstrations in tlie sheep stalls, in the wool and model collections, and in the wool market at Kirchheimer. 11. Swine and poultry breeding, accompanied also by practical demonstra- tions in the pig-sties and collections. 12. Silk culiure — including the care and cultivation of mulberries, the proper buildings, the treatment of silk-worms, &c. 13. Bee culture. 14. Practical agricultural instruction — embracing, in general, the duties of steward, landed property in its political and legal relations, pos;tiuii, climate, soil, farm buildings, &c.; capital, labor, and particularly the organization and direction of a farm ; choice of objects, estimation of requirements of manure, statistics, nourishment of plants, choice of stock, rotation, farm system, division of fields, transition from one course of cropping to another, &c. 15. Taxation of farm property, 16. Farm book-keeping. 17. Agricultural technology — this course embraces, a year's instruction upon the manufacture of beet sugar, beer brewing, and the distillery of brandy in the winter term, and the manufacture of vinegar, starch, the grinding of meal tfle and brick-making, and wine and cider-making in the summer term, wit . the innumerable details connected with each. The auxiliary branches include : — 1. Arithmetic and algebra. 2. Theoretical geometry. 3. Trigonometry. 4. Practical geometry, which includes surveying, land measuring and level- ing. 5. Estimation of the value of forest lands, beginning with the cubic contents of timber, tlie growth of single trees, whole forests, &c. 6. Mechanics and physics. 7. Chemistry in the winter term, general in the summer, agricultural chemistry, with practice and experiments in the laboratory. The lectures on agricultural chemistry treat, among other things, upon the composition of feed- ing substances, the theory of feeding. &c. 8. Introduction to geology, the object being to give the student a full knowledge of all those minerals alluded to in the lectures on special geognosy, and which are of more or less importance as elements in the soil, and in organic bodies. 9. Geognosy, science of minerals, composition, adhesion, hardness of rocks, their contents of water, air, warmth, &c. Structure of masses of rocks, groups, systems. &c. 10. Introduction to botany and special economic botany, in connection with which weekly excursions are made during the summer, in the neighborhood of Hohenlieim, in addition to which are demonstrations in the botanic garden and the collections. 11. Physiology, anatomy and pathology of plants — their anatomical composi- tion; elementary organs — the different forms of cells : the compound organs, the structure of the root, the stem, the leaves ; microscopic demonstrations — life of plants in general, assimilation, secretion; chemical composition of plants — the elements, organic and inorganic; the external conditions of plant life — influence of heat, light, and electricity on plants &c.; internal conditions of life. A pathological collection and a good microscope are constantly used in the demonstrations. 346 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 12. General zoology, with explanations by skeletons. 13. Special zoology, with constant use of the zoological collections, in classes, famOies, breeds, &c. 14. Veteriuary science, including the structure of domestic animals, with practical demonstrations. 15. National economy. 16. Laws relating to forests. 17. Agricultural mechanics — building materials, foundations, structures, &c. 18. Drawing of plants. These courses are so arranged that the pupil can go over their whole range in two terms, or one year, if he lias had suflBcient preparation at the outset; but generally it requires the regular course of two years of the institute. The course of instruction begins on the first of October, and the first, or winter term, continues till the tenth of March, when there are three weeks' vaca- tion, after which follows the summer term till the first of September. An examination takes place at the end of each year before the royal commis- sion, when prizes are distributed to such as have distinguished themselves by industry, good conduct and acquirements. The corps of instruction was constituted as follows in 1864: Dr. Riecke, professor of mathematics and physics. Karl Siemens, professor of agricultural technology and head-director of the implement manufactory. Dr. Fleischer, professor of geognosy and botany, and director of the botanic garden. Dr. JSTordlinger, principal teacher of forestry, and steward of the hunting grounds at Hohenheim. Dr. Emil Wolff, professor of chemistry, and director of the agricultural chemical laboratory. Dr. Rau, professor of agriculture, who lectures upon agriculture in general, plant culture, meadow management, vine, hop and tobacco culture, breeding of cattle, sheep, and smaller animals. Dr. Rueff, professor of veterinary science, who lectures upon zoology, horse- breeding, and silk culture. Professor Fischbach, second teacher of forestry and steward of the forests at Denkendorf Besides these, there is a teacher of book-keeping, another of national econ- omy and the laws of forests, a director of the garden school, who teaches fruit and root-culture, and a head-teacher, Mr. Kik, manager of the farm-school, who gives instruction in bee-culture. The farm inspector also conducts some agri- cultural exercises on the experimental field. These professors are appointed by the king, upon presentation to the Minister of the Interior, made by the general council of agricultxire. The salar}^ of the professors, like the pay of scientific and literary men gen- erally in Germany, is very small, scarcely adequate to their support, even on a very economical establishment. Tliis accounts for their prolific pens. They are compelled in very many, no doubt in the vast majority of cases, to write books, prepare articles for the scientific journals, and otherwise to eke out the means of a respectable support. The salary of the director amoimts to 2,500 florins, $1,025; that of three professors, each 1,500 florins, $615 ; one professor has but $533; three others have $492 each; another, $348; two assistant teachers, each $102. The students of the higher institute are admitted, after the age of eighteen, without examination, on certificate of willingness on the part of parents, and of industry and good conduct at the schools hitherto attended, and at any time during the year, and are held to no very rigid discipline, being required to attend three of the regular courses every week, which they may select. The lectures begin at six o'clock in the morning in summer and at seven' o'clock in the winter, and end at seven o'clock in the evening throughout the year. They continue with only two hours' intermission for dinner at noon. Two lectures, for different sections, are often going on at the same time. ■ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. Q^tj INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN WURTEMBERG* In response to numerous inquiries from foreign governments, in regard to the system of public instruction in drawing in the popular schools, real-schools, and trade improvement schools of Wurtemberg, an investigation was ordered by the Ministry of the Church and of Education. The results of this investigation in regard to the teaching of this branch, so important to the industrial develop- ment of the country, we now proceed to lay before our readers. COMMON OR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, (VolJcSSChulen.) Drawing forms no part of the plan of instruction prescribed by the govern- ment (Sept. 29, 1836) for these institutions, but is ever}'^ where an optional branch, and its introduction into the school depends upon the action of the local authorities. The sole exception to this, is the case of seventeen of the so-called "middle schools," of the Protestant denomination, where it is obligatory. These are Volhsschultn with a somewhat enlarged curriculum. Apart from these, drawing lessons are given out of the regular school hours, on the half-holidays, "Wednesday and Saturday, and in some places, on Sunday, two hours in the week being assigned to them. In the country, these lessons are given during the winter only ; in cities in the summer also. No pupil is admitted to them before his eleventh year. In 1866, instruction in drawing was given in connection with 184 popular schools of the Protestant faith, and to 5,167 pupils, for the most part boys. Of those belonging to the Catholics, the number had risen to 134 at the beginning of the year 1868, (Jan. 1,) 25 of which were in the larger cities, (Oleramtsiddte,) 18 in smaller cities, and 91 in the villages. In some of the smaller parishes of the cities, {Sfadfgemeinde,) the pupils of the Latin and popular schools unite to form a class in drawing, these being tlie only cases in which diflerent institu- tions unite for this purpose. There is at present (1868.) no prescribed graded and methodical system of teaching this branch, the thoroughness of the instruction being secured, how- ever, by regular inspection and certain extraordinary drawing courses for the teachers, to be described farther on. Linear and free-hand drawing is taught, and in some boys' schools of an advanced character, geometrical drawing also. The teachers employed are the drawing-masters of the trade improvement- schools in those cities where such a special class of instructors is employed; where this is not the case, and in the country, that regular or irregular teacher in the primary schools who is best qualified for this purpose. In regard to the salary, extra pay for this service is generally given by the commune, for which purpose it receives a certain annual subvention from the Government, only, however, in years when the exhibit at the treasury is favor- able. In the villages this extra pay amounts to about twenty florins (Rhenish,) but is proportionably greater in the cities, where however the duties of teaching drawing and the additional pay are very often connected with the trade im- provement schools. In some parishes, there is no extra pay, and the hours of drawing lessons are included in the thirty hours per week required of the teacher. * From the Supplement to the Wurtemberg Staatsanieiger, May 22, 1868. 348 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. The preparatory instruction for the teachers of the popular schools is gener- ally imparted during the regular course at the normal schools. Since 1860 this course has been extended by the addition of a three to six months' drawing- course to the regular period of study, to be free of expense to the twelve most gifted members of the class. The continual improvement of the teachers is secured by the following arrangement. Every year there is held, in different cities, terms of four to six weeks under the charge of the best drawing-masters, to which those teachers in the popular schools are summoned who either have already given drawing lessons or are about to begin them. The instructions of those to whom these classes are confided are that they are not only to recall what has already been learned by their pupils, but to assiduously endeavor to improve their method of drawing. They receive suitable pay from the govern- ment, and the teachers summoned to attend are allowed 1 florin and 20 or 30 kreutzers daily for their traveling expenses, from the same source. The system has worked admirably, particularly within the experience of the Catholic school authorities ( Ohei'schulbehorde.) The cause of drawing-instrnction in the popular schools has been very essen- tially furthered by the biennial visits of inspection to which they, as well r.s the real and trade improvement schools, have been subjected. This inspection is conducted in the following manner. On the day when the visits of inspection of a real or trade improvement school are made, all those teachers of the pop- ular schools in the surrounding district where drawing is taught, resort thither, in order to lay the work done by their pupils before the Commissioner, who examines them and points out their defects, giving such advice, correction and instruction as may seem to him demanded in the several cases. The Commissioner reports to the upper school authorities, especially in regard to those teachers who, in his opinion, should be summoned to the above-men- tioned courses. Another incidental benefit of the labors of this Commissioner is that the school authorities have prevailed upon those communes not pro- vided with the proper helps (books, &c.) to instruction, to procure them. The great drawing-book of Professor Hqrdtle, with explanatory text, has been intro- duced into all the Catholic and most of the Protestant schools, this being partly due to the Central Board of Trade and Commerce, by whom the publication of the work was undertaken, and by whom it was distributed to the poorer par- ishes, half or all of the price being deducted. The studies of Deschner in Heil- bronn are also used, having been commended for some of the schools by the inspectors, and the old, imperfect studies are every where laid aside. The further experience of the inspectors will soon be sufficient to justify the fiilfillment of the plan, now being perfected, of publishing an elementary and properly-progressive work, containing such studies, both for free-hand and linear drawing, as shall answer the wants of the popular schools. EEAL-SCHOOLS. As in other branches of the real-school course, there is for the drawing classes a different organization in the different orders of institutions, namely the lower, with one, two or three classes, which include pupils as far as the four- teenth year, and those with seven or eight, with pupils between eight and six- teen years of age, giving special preparation for the Polytechnic. In the latter, • the higher real-schools, each of the first six classes covers a year ; the seventh SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMDERQ. 349 and eiglith, each tlie same, two years, namely from the fourteenth to tlie six- teenth. The real-schools with three classes begin with the eighth year, and give two years to each class successively ; those with two, at the tenth year, and give two years to each class, while those with one class extend from the eleventh to the fourteenth. In all these schools, instruction is given in both geometrical and free-hand drawing. It is in every case considered an essential part of the course, and those communities among whom any branch of industry has been developed to a certain degree, regard it as particularly important, and foster it with jealous care. The regular age at which the lessons are begun is eleven, as it is considered that the defective development of the physical and mental organization would render an earlier introduction to the study fruitless, which, indeed, experiment has shown to be the case. The pupil is first initiated into free-hand drawing. The courses are continued until the pupil leaves the school, making the num- ber of , years five in the higher institutions, and three in the lower. In the former, four hours in the week are given to the subject; in the latter, three, although in particular communities, one hour more or less is the rule, according to local circumstances. Geometrical drawing is commonly entered upon « year later, and is pursued during two hours a week, except at the very first, when another hour is appro- priated in order to secure the laying of a good foundation. This branch is, ho^yever, not pursued in the one-class schools, which are generally located in the poorer parishes, and in which one teacher has the simultaneous charge of several divisions. The aim is very diverse in the different institutions, since there is no one of the branches of study in which the difierent capabilities of pupils are so evi- dent as in this. Instruction addressed to all of them at once is possible only at the very beginning. For with every step in advance, the special talent of each becomes moi'e prominent, and the task of the teacher then is to pay that attention needed in each individual case, without neglecting those explanations which ought to be addressed to the whole class in a body. But the difference in the character of the assistance in different cases, is less objectionable than in other departments of instruction. In regard to progreasion in the lessons, and the end to which it is sought to conduct the pupils, the following may be considered as a fair average example of the method adopted in difierent schools : A. Free-hand Drawing. (a.) From studies. — 1. Elementary free-hand drawing. Simple, plane, recti- linear figures ; simple, elegant outlines of leaves, vessels, and other objects, for the most part from drawings made on the blackboard. 2. More difficult out- lines from studies ; parts of the body, heads, &c. The object aimed at in working from studies is a correct outline. (?;.) From casts. — 3. Outlines from reliefs. 4. Shaded drawings from reliefs; for practice in shading, studies are used. 5. Outlines and shaded drawings from casts. The aim is, in this part of the course, the correct drawing of a cast in point of hght and shade. The higher real-school can conduct pupils through the whole of this course, 360 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. but in the lower class of institutions studies' only are used, and with these the instruction is often carried no farther than the first part, the copying from draw- ings on the board. The copies most used are those in Professor Herdtle's work, as edited by the Royal Trade School Commission. B. Geometrical Drawing. For details upon progression and the aim given to the courses, the reader may consult the "Programme of Instruction in linear drawing in the classical and real-schools of Wurtemberg," by the Upper Councilor of Studies, Fischer. The aim of this course is to give the pupil certain information, skill and habits, and to cultivate his taste. He is therefore (1) to learn geometrical terms, that he may understand a drawn and explained geometrical figure; (2) to cultivate order, neatness, exact and neat execution ; (3) to acquire sureness £tnd rapidity in the use of instruments, and in the application of practical points intended to facilitate certain processes (praktische Handgriffe und Vortheile;) (4) to become acquainted with the rectilinear and curved geometrical figures, the knowledge of which is particularly important to an artistic, scientific, tech- nical or aesthetic cultivation, in regard to their elements and the modes of drawing them. The subjects of instruction include, therefore, on the one hand the elementary exercises, as drawing a sti-aight line through two points, con- tinuing and equally dividing straight lines, drawing parallel lines, describing circles and arcs, bisecting arcs and angles, drawing perpendiculars to other lines, using the protractor and reduced scale, drawing tangents, constructing equilateral triangles and regular polygons, &c. ; on the other hand, the complex figures which are formed by combining the lines, angles, &c., studied in the ele- mentary exercises, and arranged as follows: (a.) Figures may be executed with the ruler or compass in such a manner as to necessitate the use of the free hand to complete them, the direction of the lines being indicated by points or tangents. (6.) All problems should also be exhibited in a completed condition, to afford the means of comparing the pupil's work. (c.) Tliey ought to clear up difficult points in scientific geometry, or present forms important in industry, or ornaments drawn from classic, Gothic or Arabic work. The teacher, by properly placing and explaining the studies, by watch- ing the pupil during his work, by criticising each completed piece, and by careful direction of individuals in regard to the minutiae of their tasks, must conduct and give animation to the work as a whole or in parts. The stages of the course are — 1. In the first, easy figures, with application of the first elementary exercises, are drawn in pencil, and shaded with India ink. (Three months, but longer if the study of geometrical forms is entered upon.) 2. In the second, larger sheets of paper are provided, and the drawings are completely shaded with India ink, care being taken to distinguish the difterent lines. (One year.) 3. The figures drawn in the third stage call for the use of all the various ele- mentary operations ; they are always connected with higher geometry ; the pupil is allowed to make^ use of a text, or, where necessary, of a sketch. (Nine months.) 4. In the fourth stage, the pupil is required to construct certain figures, of which he has the measurements only, or perhaps some few explanations from SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 35^ the teacher. These are geometrical studies particularly useful in drawinp:, tlie reduction of figures to another scale, the measurement of angles by employing continued fractions, regular quadrilaterals, the higher theory of circles, deter- mining the centre of gravity, ornaments, Gothic carving and inlaying, rosettes, &c. He. is to draw these by methods based on his own scientific knowledge, or from empirical means invented by himself. 5. The fifth grade embraces (a) higher curves, to be constructed, produced, provided with tangents, &c., by tbe pupil himself; (b) drawing of plans; (c) ground and outline drawing, with a constant view to parallel perspective. The fourth and fifth grades are reserved for the upper real-school. The text-book used in these exercises is the collection of studies for geomet- rical drawing by the Superior Councilor of Studies, Fischer, There has appeared (1867) a third edition of this work, although it is not yet completed beyond the third grade of the course ; it was drawn up on commission from the Department of Classical and Real Schools of the Ministry of Religion and Education. Of course other means to illustrate the course and assist the teacher are not ex- cluded. Both the collection of studies for free-hand drawing published by Professor Herdtle, on commission from the Royal Commission for the Trade Improvement Schools, and the last named collection of studies, have been pubUshed and their method particularly recommended. Since, however, general instructions are much less valuable than proper personal suggestions in which the merits of the mpthod of the teacher addressed are recognized, and his errors pointed out, regular visits of inspection have been ofiered. The arrangement of the rooms where drawing is studied varies much, accord- ing to the pecuniary circumstances of the communes, since on them falls the greater part of the expenses of the real-schools. Sometimes the ordinary school-room is used without particular preparation of the desks, or with certain provisions, frames to hold the copies or models being placed upon the lower tier of seats or in some cases let down from the ceiling. In all the higher real-schools and many of the more important of the lower class, special rooms are provided for the class, with a northern light, many and high windows, so arranged that a regulated light shall fall from the left without interruption upon the work of each pupil. The plan of the room is such that the teacher can get at any one without disturbing the others. The drawing is done at small tables, or, in case models are used, broad tables, with curtains provided to make a suitable background. Three-legged stools are used for chairs, and simple supports are provided upon which the paper can be laid. The communes receive assistance from the State, which gladly contributes a larger or smaller sum, according to the needs of the case, towards fitting up these apartments. The instruction is generally intrusted to the principal teachers, {Hauptlehrer^) each professor teaching his own pupils, or the most capable in the whole corps instructing several or all of the classes, exchanging with the others some of the other branches previously taught by him. In all of the higher real-schools, however, and in some of the lower, espe- cially in cities where the need for instruction in this branch is felt by those not members of these institutions, and evening and Sunday improvement-schools 352 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. are founded, specially educated drawing-masters are engaged, who either devote their whole time to the school, or, and this is often the case when they teach only one branch of the art, fill some other profession at the same time, as tliat of architect or artist. The training of the teachers is most commonly obtained at the Polytechnic, sometimes also at the university. It is part of the examination of the candidate for a teachership in schools where realistic branches are taught, he being re- quired to show — 1. In geometrical drawing — skill in the use of instruments and in the execu- tion of geometrical drawings. He is besides required to execute a drawing, solving some problem in descriptive geometry, with the addition of a designa- tion of the process of solution. 2. In ftee-hand drawing, he must be able to execute correct and elegant out- lines from models, and must understand the treatment of shading. He must at the same time exhibit a portfolio of drawings from his own hand, and give oral explanations in regard to them. Improvement courses are instituted for those teachers who need them, held during the holidays or during furloughs granted for this purpose, extending from six weeks to several months. They must devote all this time to study at the Polytechnic, the winter building school, or in the so-called open drawing- rooms, which are fitted up in several cities to meet the needs that may arise in the local industries, and are under the supervision of the professors or superin- tendents there stationed. For this purpose they receive a varying subvention from the Government. They are directed not only to cultivate their own skill in drawing, but to acquire the art of conducting a course in a properly pro- gressive manner, and to do this they must visit the drawing- schools held by the best teachers and the different classes for pupils of different ages. The correct and advantageous method secured by these means is carefully regulated and supported by regular biennial, or, where necessary, annual visits of inspection ordered by the Department of Classical and Real Schools, in con- junction with the Trade Improvement Schools Commission. Every teacher sends, in response to a certain special scheme of interrogations, an annual report, containing a full catalogue of his pupils, a report of their general prog- ress and what they have accomplished, of the obtaining of new apparatus for which there is special provision in the budget of the commune, details in regard to his own studies, changes in the school-rooms, and all similar matters. This report is placed in the hands of the inspector before his visit, in order that he may use it as a basis for determining the condition of the school and the results arrived at; he then adds what he himself has observed and the changes which to him seem necessary, addressing his remarks to the upper school authorities, who then take the proper steps. The inspectors are taken from the most ex- cellent drawing-masters in various institutions, but the inspector of the scientific studies in single schools may always, if he chooses, examine the condition of instruction. The visits are - always previously appointed, the place and day being indicated in a scheme published at the beginning of every year. To insure conformity in the inspection system, conventions of the inspectors are held at intervals of several years, to discuss their experiences, and to decide upon the principles which are to guide them in giving corrections and advice to the teachers upon their method, the selection and purchase of apparatus, SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 353 their improvement, and similar matters. At this conference are present also members of the upper board. To them is due the impulse whence originated the publication of the studies of Herdtle and Fischer, As an additional means of elevating and invigorating instruction in drawing, must be mentioned the exhibitions of the works of pupils, held for the most part at the close of the tour of inspection or of the school-year, and by limited districts or occasionally by the whole country. They serve the purpose of awaking the interest of the public, especially that part of it engaged in indus- trial occupations, to bring what has been accomplished by single teachers before the eyes of their colleagues, to arouse a healthful emulation among them, and by the more or less numerously attended conventions of teachers held in con- nection with them, to afford the most rapid means of rendering universal all improvements in the system of instruction. TRADE IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS. Instruction in drawing is given in all of the trade improvement schools, of which there are at present (1868) 122. The number of hours per week given to this branch differs at various places from one and a-half to forty-four, the last being the case at the evening improvement school at Stuttgart, and the minute division of the courses aflbrds to the single pupil the most unbounded opportunities for taking part. In many of the smaller country schools, drawing is taught only on Sundays, before and after church service ; in other schools, partly on Sundays, partly on week-days, partly on both, always in the evening, and in some institutions it is prolonged throughout the whole year, although scientific instruction is, in these establishments, given during the winter months alone. In fifteen of the most prominent improvement schools, which have their own drawing-masters, there are so-called "open drawing-rooms," (o^eTie Zeichensdle,) where the teacher remains during the greater part of the day in order to oversee those pupils who wish to spend the whole day in drawing or modeling, and to give advice to proprietors of industrial establishments in mat- ters connected with art-work. The course varies, in different localities, according to local circumstances, especially in view of peculiar industrial needs. General remarks must be lim- ited to the following: Free-Jiand drawing. — In this department the pupil begins with thorough in- struction in drawing outlines from Professor E. Herdtle's book of elementary free-hand studies. "When the beginner has had sufiieient practice in this, he goes on with shaded ornament drawing after Weitbrecht, or after French studies, and when he has had a little practice in shading, passes to plaster mod- els taken from the elementary series of the illustrated catalogue of the Royal Commission. The mode of further progress depends upon the particular char- acter of the pupil and the ability of the teacher to conduct him farther. In many cases the attempt to conduct him as far as inventing art designs for man- ufacturers has proved successful, which is the ultimate point to which free-hand drawing is carried in the trade improvement schools. Linear drawing. — Instruction in hnear drawing is parallel to that in free-hand drawing, and must be preceded by the study of geometrical forms unless the pupil is already acquainted with them. He is not to pass into the study of design as connected with particular employments, until he has become ac- quainted with geometrical drawing. 23 354 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. Technical design {Fachzeichnen.) — The study of design as applied to particular industries is, in the larger schools, preceded by a course of perspective. It is exceedingly varied, since every pupil seeks that which he will need in his own future employment, and in the larger schools, such as those in Stuttgard, the course is divided into many specialities, particular courses being given for builders, mechanicians, saddlers, locksmiths, &c., by persons coimected with those branches of trade, and with great success. In order to satisfy the great demand for proper studies for these various departments, the Eoyal Trade School Commission has ordered such to be prepared for builders and furniture-makers, arid for locksmiths and mechanicians. These can be obtained at W. Nitzschke's, in Stuttgard. Additional studies for special trades appear from time to time. Yqyj useful are the studies for mechanics, by Rossler and Fink, published at Darmstadt ; also the Gewerhehalle of Baumer and Schnorr, published by Engel- horn at Stuttgard, sometimes contains very useful studies, so that this journal is taken at all the more important drawing-schools in the country. Instruction in modeling in clay, wax, plaster or wood is, in most of the trade improvement schools where there are capable teachers, given together with the drawing lessons. In this branch many of the schools which are connected with industrial establishments, and where sufficient time is allowed, have accom- plished much. In order to provide more apparatus for the drawing and modeling schools than can be obtained in the regular market, the Central Board of Trade and Commerce has added a special workshop for models to the collections at the Royal Industrial Museum; here are prepared the models figured in the above- mentioned illustrated catalogue. There is also, besides the library connected with the Museum, a circulating library, {die sogenannte WanderhiUiothek,) con- sisting of technical and art works of all classes, which are sent free to teachers at their request, and allowed to be used by them for a considerable period of time. The instruction is imparted in most cases, especially in the smaller improve- ment schools, by the teachers of the elementary and the real-schools, who receive special pay for this extra service. In larger schools, the architects of the cities undertake to give instruction in technical design. In about twenty cities, regular drawing-masters are provided for the improvement schools, to whose superintendence the above-mentioned open drawing-rooms are intrusted. The pay varies much, according to the circumstances of the locality and of the individual; however, the just principle every where prevails that the pay for instruction given in the day-time shall not be so high as for evenmg lessons, since these are far more fatiguing. Teachers who give drawing lessons in addi- tion to their other occupations, receive from 40 kreutzers to 1 florin 20 kreut- zers the hour, while the salary of the regular drawing-masters, who must be in the school-room the greater part of the day, reach from 600 up to 1,200 florins. According to article 3 of the law of February 18th, 1868, concerning the lega- conditions of those connected with the service of the Department of Cliurch and School, it is possible that pensions will be allowed to instructors of the last class. The improvement of the teachers is, in the case of those from the elementary and real-schools who give instruction in the improvement schools, secured by the plan already detailed. In many cases a particular method has for several SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WBUTEMBERG. 366 years been adopted with great success, to obtain drawing-masters with special preparation for teacliing technical drawing. This is, that young people of talent are enabled, by proper assistance from tlie St^te treasury, to study at the Poly- technic or at art-scheols, generally for a term of years, during which period they spend a certain time, about the half of every day, in a workshop devoted to some artistic branch of industry. Experience has shown that this combina- tion of aesthetic cultivation and practical art employment is very successful, since these teachers, who during the period of their artistic cultivation stand iu close contact with practical industrial life, are particularly well adapted to exert upon their special trade an elevating influence. The rooms for instruction in drawing are generally the usual school-room, frames to hold the studies being placed on the lower tier of benches. In the larger improvement schools, however, rooms are specially devoted to the pur- pose, being provided with drawing-tables, seats for modeling, and arrangements for drawing from the cast. Those institutions not possessing such rooms make every endeaver to obtain them, since methodical and successful instruction can be given only when the rooms are properly arranged. For evening instruction the apartments are lighted with gas or petroleum, experience having shown that there is no difiBculty in drawing from casts in this light. For those communes who are to fit up new localities, a model plan has been drawn up and distrib- uted by the Royal Commission of Improvement Schools. The inspection of the drawing courses in the improvement schools is regu- lated in connection v/ith that of the real and elementary schools. The inspectors for all three classes of schools are the same, and the mode of proceeding is es- sentially the same as already detailed in the preceduag cases. Triennial Exhibition of Results. The triennial exhibitions at Stuttgard of the works of the pupils have been found very useful in elevating the character of the instruction in drawing and modeling. The different inltitutions of the country are represented in this exhibition. Not only does the Board of Inspection gain a vivid idea of the character of the instruction imparted in individual schools, but the teachers, who are all summoned to be present, have the opportunity of comparing the efficiency of their teaching. A convention is held at this time in which the exhibition is discussed, expe- riences and criticisms interchanged, and improvements suggested. The com- munes also, who send many of their representatives to the exhibition, become more zealous as they see how much other communes have accomplished, learn to appreciate the value of a knowledge of drawing, and especially become con- vinced how much can be done in the evening courses, and are ready to make sacrifices for the improvement of their schools to which they would otherwise not easily have been induced. 556 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERO. MUSEUM OF INDUSTRIAL ART. In connection with the Eoyal Institution for Trade and Commerce at Stutt- gard, there has been established a Mv^eum of Industry, witli tlie general aim of improving the industrial condition of the country by exhibitions of machinery, the rougii material and modifications made by manufacture, and at the same time afford facilities for study accessible to workmen and the public generally. It embraces : 1. A Museum proper, which is rich in specimens of German and foreign man- ufactures, and with specimens and models of useful machines and implements, designs for ornamentation of all kinds, arranged in a systematic manner accord- ing to the various trades — for mechanicians, builders, joiners, coach-makers, workers in ivory, bronze, all kinds of metals and earthen-ware, needle-workers, weavers, book-printing, photographers, etc. etc. 2. A Trades' Drawing Scliooi, which artisans can attend, using the coUections for their own special calling, and also to enable teachers to perfect themselves in the various styles of drawing, especially the industrial. Instruction is given without cost to those who wish to use the acquisition in their own professions. 3. A Chemical Laboratory, which is annexed to the exhibition for the pur- pose of making experiments in analysis of ores, or in testing colors or any new discovery, or in any application of chemical agents or processes to the arts. 4. A Library and Reading-room ; the first embracing the most expensive and most recent publications connected with art, commerce, and manufactures ; and the last supplied with the leading periodicals in different languages relating to industrial and economical subjects. 5. A "Weaving School, in which there are almost every variety of loom, the uses of which are explained, and facility in their management acquired. 6. A System of Loans, by which any movable specimen, model or design can be sent to any part of the kingdom to be studied or copied. The institution, in all its departments, is accessible to artisans without cost, and to any visitors by paying a trifling fee. It is much resorted to by work- men, and its various models, and patterns of printing, embroidery, and weaving, and illustrated books, are loaned to manufacturers in different parts of the king- dom, several copies of such as are new or in demand being secured, that their immediate use in the institution may not be abridged. The institution has an annual grant of 90,000 florins from the government, to be expended m new acquisitions. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEKQ.' 357 SYSTEMATIC TECHNICAL EDUCATION". Illustrated by the Example of Wurtemherg With the above title * J. Scott Ru3sell, Esq., a member of all the prominent societies of Science and Art in England, and who has had large opportunities of forming a sound judgment on the subject on which he writes, has addressed a volume to the Queen, and through her to the People of England, on the necessity of a systematic technical education to continue the country of his birth, his residence, and his labor — the country of his pride and his hopes — in the way of a permanent progressive development in material, moral and intellectual well-being. The author fortifies his arguments and draws illustrations mainly from the experience of Wurtemberg and Switzerland, and introduces his condensed and tabu- lated statement of the technical institutions of the former kingdom by the following remarks : INTRODUCTION. I WILL now proceed to develop in their practical details the organiza- tion of the great institutions with which foreign nations have been provided by then* Governments for the technical training of their youth. It will be highly instructive to notice how these great educational colleges extend over all the divisions of society, high and low, embrace every kind of occu- pation, and aid every branch of industry. As the example of an educated nation, I might have taken the symmetrical and perfectly organized insti- tutions of Prussia, or those of a country boasting a personal freedom equal to, or greater than our own, like Switzerland. But I think it may be more useful to us to see how much more is done than in our country by some of the smaller unpretending States ; by some one of those little kingdoms of which we English know little, care less, and rather despise. I might take Nassau for example, or Baden, or Hanover, and show how these countries have been covered by a network of institutions for the intellectual nutri- ment and moral training of their subjects, and how I have found in them all a degree of intelligence, culture and moral well-being, which have seemed to me admirable and enviable. But the nation which I select for the purpose of this Chapter shall be Wurtemberg ; I select it as a model nation on a small scale, and therefore more easily studied and more readily comprehended ; and as it contains only a population of 1,700,000, or one-twelfth of England, or one-twentieth part of the United Kingdom, we can readily see what would be the pro- portion of similar institutions in England or Great Britain which should enable us to say, by a simple act of multiplication by twelve or by twenty, what would be the number of technical universit'es, trade colleges, and craft schools, which would provide as weU for the people of Great Britain as the little kingdom of Wurtemberg has already been long provided for. These model institutions of the kingdom of Wurtemberg have the * Systematic Technical Education for the English People. By J. Scott Russell, Esq. , ^M. A. , "Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinbur>rh; Member of the Society of Arts, the Institutions of Civil Engineers, Naval Architects, &c., &c., «fcc. London: Bmdbury, Evans & Co., 1869. 358 -SPECIAL mSTEUCTION IN" 'WTJBTEMBEEa. advantage of great symmetry and continuity. There is at the summit for' professional men: — 1. The Polytechnic University of Stuttgardt, which is meant to educate the highest classes of professional men. Among these are the modem professions of civil engineers, mechanical engineers, and architects. There is a course for the mercantile and commercial classes. There is a course of chemistry, vnith its applications of the chemical arts and manufactures, and there is a course of general superior scientific and literary education for professors, lectiu-ers, and men of leisure. The building appropriated to this purpose forms one of the piles of finest modern architecture in Stuttgardt. There are no less than fifty-one professors and teachers, and besides the usual lecture-rooms and studies,' there are a chemical laboratory, a physical laboratory, mineralogical museums, laboratories for constructive experiments, • plaster-modelling rooms, mechanical work-shops, wood-modelling rooms, rooms for drawing, a botanical garden, and an astronomical observatory. To appreciate the value of such an institution, and its fitness for giving in detail all the pre- liminary knowledge which a professional man ought to have before he becomes the pupil of the master who will introduce and train him to prac- tical work, the reader must consult the detailed plan of it given at the end of this Chapter. 2. A second, and even more remarkable educational institution, is the school for the building trades, also in Stuttgardt. It is a complaint con- tinually made, and with justice, against these technical colleges, that the scale of education is too large, and its quality too ambitious, to form any but the highest class of members of any technical profession or trade ; that the more ordinary and numerous members of these trades and professions, who equally require a thorough practical training, find themselves insuffici- ently educated even to enter the technical university, and without leisure to devote to it the long and continuous time necessary for its courses. A narrower course is wanting for foremen and clerks of works, and even for directors and managers of small sections of trades, and it is desirable that the humblest craftsman should be able to get such education as, with intelligence, diligence, and jjrobity, should enable him to rise to distinction and skill in some one thing. For these great and wise purposes some of the most distinguished directors of the technical university, after many years' experience of the value of such education to skilled craftsmen, and the incompatibility of giving the highest and broadest education, equally with the narrowest and humblest, in the same institution, represented to the Government the ex- pediency of forming a new school, intended for building crafts and trades- men of the rank immediately under the professional men and skilled masters of the technical university. That was accordingly established, and succeeded so quickly and so completely, that it became necessary to erect quite as large and as handsome a building, and to devote quite as large a stafi" to that purpose as to the original polytechnic university ; it is now one of the most remarkable and meritorious schools on the Continent. The men whom it was especially designed to help in their trades were stonemasons, bricklayers, and carpenters, to be trained for SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBEKG. 359 future master-builders, lower class builders to be trained for master- builders, constructors of public works, subterranean works, and con- structors of reservoirs ; constructors of water- works, river- works and mill works, and land surveyors of the first and second class. The generar workmen whose education it undertakes are plasterers, tilers, roofers, joiners and carpenters, glaziers, turners, decorators, ornament- sculptors, modellers, engravers, smiths, gold and silver workers, gardeners, and husbandmen. Its great merit is its perfect adaptation to the wants of each separate class of persons. For young men who are much employed in winter, and less in summer, it provides summer courses of study, and gives them vacation in winter, and vice versd. It has classes in the early morning, the same at midday, and the same over again in the evening; and the hours of the diflFerent classes are so timed, that the pupil may attend many or few hours of the day, and still obtain the studies he requires. This school is presided over by the most distinguished architect of Wurtemberg, with no fewer than twenty-eight professors and masters under him. Systematic courses are provided for those who can go through the edacation required to obtain certificates of competence ; and their estimation of its value is proved'by the fact that the school is crowded by exactly that class of men whom it was intended to benefit. 3. The next class of institutions are wisely situated not in the me- tfopolis, but in the country, and they are distributed throughout the districts. They are schools for country occupations and trades, and are called " agriculture and forestry establishments." There is first a great institution at Hohenheim, with twenty-one masters. It is divided into the farming school and the gardening school, and special agricultural courses. It has under it three practical farming schools in three different districts, and each school has under its care 400 square miles of territory, A large brewery is attached to one of these establishments, and there are subordinate schools distributed throughout the country. There are also winter evening schools in the villages, and the practical result is, that last year, in 533 places, 12,040 persons enjoyed the privilege of agricultural instruction. Supplementary to the agricultural education of the farmers is an in- stitution for the study of the anatomy, physiology, training, and diseases of animals ; it is the veterinary college of Stuttgardt. Attached to it are an hospital, in which last year 775 horses were treated ; a cattle hospital, in which 836 animals were treated ; a dog hospital, in which 213 animals were treated ; a smithy, in which 4000 animals were shod. With such upper schools for the technical training of the people, it will be readily imagined that there must be a complete organization of upper and lower schools leading up to them, otherwise these higher schools could not be filled with fit pupils ; and as they all require prelimi- nary qualification, tested by an entrance examination, the preparatory schools are indispensable. There are accordingly eighty-eight colleges or public schools, separated into the two divisions of classical and of science schools. In the classical schools there were last year 4565 pupils, and in the science schools 4734 pupils ; showing how evenly the two classes of schools 360 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. proyide for the two classes of pupils. These are also divided into two sub- divisions, upper and lower, called gymnasiums and lyceums ; and in the science schools, a school and a college, or real school and science college. Immediately below these, are the public elementary schools, and establishments for private instruction ; and, auxiliary to these, technical schools of the humblest kind, in which girls are taught their business as houseljeepers, and boys are traiaed to the simplest duties of life. When it is considered that these establishments are for the education of only 1,700,000 people, less than an eleventh part of the p p ilation of England alone, without Ireland or Scotland, it leads to the startling con- clusion that England, to supply her people with a technical education as good as that of the little kingdom of Wurtemberg, should have 11 en- dowed technical universities, each with 49 masters and accommodation for 468 pupils, or that in all there should be in the technical universities of England more than 5148 technical students. That we should have 11 building-trade schools or colleges with 26 masters in ,each, and in each 587 pupils, or on the whole more than 6457 students. Of higher trade schools there are in Wurtemberg 108 in 89 towns and 19 villages, so that to equal that, in England there should be higher trade schools established in 979 towns and 201 villages, making in all 1180 schools. In these schools are 6453 pupils under 17 years old, and 1811 over 17 years old, making a total cf 8364 pupils. These are taught by 425 masters. To do as much in Eng- land, we should have 4675 masters, teaching 90,904 children. To know what the enormous sacrifice is which a nation must make to accomplish this moral and intellectual revolution, be it known that the expenditure of the State amounts to 25. Id. per inhabitant! Probably nothing will convince the English people better of the value of such education than to inspect for themselves the nature of that educa- tion, the numbers and classes of people who avail themselves of it, and somewhat in detail what it all costs. The following statement has been compiled from the accounts of the Minister of Education of Wurtemberg, and will, I trust, enable the Eng- lishman to put a money as well as a social value upon the systematic education which I desire to see given to Englishmen of every profession, trade, and craft : — Table of the System of TTniversities, Colleges, and Schools for Technical Ediu cation in the Kingdom of Wurtemberg. TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS. 1. TECHNICAL UNIVEESITT IN STUTTGARDT. This consisted, in the year 1865-66, of a Mathematical division, with two classes and one merchants' class, and a Technical division with two trade schools. I. Teachers: 20 head-masters, 13 trade and assistant-teachers, 4 xinder-masters. 6 ushers, 6 private teachers— together, 49. 11. Scholars and Students: A.— In the Winter term 1865-66, 468, of whom 163 were in the Mathematical and 305 in the Technical division. In detail there were — lu the CI. CI. Arch. Engin. Machinery Chem. '^rade classes. I. II. Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. Total. Natives . 16 65 49 76 66 34 52 348 Strangers .16 5 12 21 20 13 33 120^ 32 70 61 97 76 , 47 85* 468 * Ee mark.— Of the 85 students of the Chemical school, 31 were employed in the laboratory SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 361 Of the 120 strangers there were from— Switzerland, 20 ; Austria, 19; Bavaria, 15; Russia, 12 ; Baden, 11; Prussia and 'Grand Duchy of Ilcsse, 6; Entxland, 5 ; France and Saxc-Moiningen, S each ; Hamburg, Holland, aud Italy, the United States of America, and Java, 2 each ; Belgium, Cuba, the Electorate of Hei»sen, Hesse llomburg, Oldenburg, Palestria, Schleswig Holstein, Sweden, Turkey, Duchy of Waldeck, each 1. According to the vocation of the fathers there were sons of— Serviints of the State ...... Other public servants .... Followers of trade, and merchants Followers of agricalture .... Followers of other professions (artists, doctors, &c.) 54 201 17 97 46rf The average age of scholars and students was, on the Ist of October, 1865, in — The Merchants' Class. CI. I. .CI. II. Technical Division. It) yrs. (3 m. 17 yrs. 2 m. 18 yrs. 2 m. 20 yrs. 2 m. With regard to preparatory education— Of the 13 scholars of the Mathematical division, including the merchants' class, there were educated — At the Wiirtemberg real and upper schools . . . 114 At humane institutions (seminaries, gymnasiums, lyceums, &c.) . 18 At other schools or private institutions . . . .31 163 Of the 305 students of the Technical division there entered — From the Mathematical division ..... 112 From the lower Technical institutions (out of which 40 were out of the Mining schools) . . . . . .53 From the other Technical schools ..... 27 From other institutions (i-eal schools, gymnasiums, universities) . 77 From practical professions (architects, mechanics, apothecaries, lithographers, shopkeepers, officers) . . . .36 305. B. — In the Summer term of 1866 t'le whole number of students and scholars was B93. of whom 149 were in the Mathematical and 244 in the Technical division. In detail there are- Archit. Engin. Machinery Chem. m„x„, Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. -^^'^^^• 60 49 28 39 299 16 16 13 23 94 19 73 57 76 65 41 62* ~393 Of these 94 strangers there were from — Austria, 17; Bavaria, 13; Switzerland, 9; Prussia, 8 ; Grand Duchy of Hessen, . Russia, each 7 ; Baden, 6 ; England, 5 ; Saxe-Meiniugen. Waldeck. North America, France, Java, each 2 ; Frankfort, Oldenburg, Saxe Weimar, Saxe Coburg, Hamburg, Schleswig Holstein, Belgium, Italy, Sweden, Turkey, Palestme, Brazil, each 1. III. Examinations.— (Technical maturity examinations): Announced, 53 ; admitted, 52 ; ap- j 42 from the Mathematical and 9 from the peared, 51 ( Technical division. ■Do 0=^,1 OA i 29 from the Mathematical and 1 from the i:'assed,dO -j Technical division. IV. Prizes: A. — In the Mathematical divisions for peculiarly satisfactory performances in the technical maturity examinations, 1 prize. B.— In the Technical division. Arch. Sch. Engin. Sch. Mach. Sch. Chem. Sch. Total. Prize works come in . . 4 2 1 1 8 Prizes awarded .... 2 1 ... 1 4 V. — Collections., Apparatus., and Institutions of the Establishment, 24. VI. — Economy / the. Establishment: In the year 1865-66 the income was— A — The proper sources of income of the Inetiution for fees, laboratory, and substitute fees 18,500 fl. =-- £1,541 13 4 B.— Addition irom the State 57,500 fl. =■ 4,791 13 4 In the 01. CI. Merchants' CI. I. II. Inhabitants . . 9 64 50 Strangers . . 10 9 7 Total . . . 76,000 h. = £6 333 C 8 *Reraark.— Of the 62 students in the Chemical school, 35 were occupied in the chemical laboratory. 362 SPECIAL INSTETJCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 2. COLLEGE FOR THE BUILDrNQ TRADES m STUTTGARDT. This school numbered in 1865-66, with five classes in eleven divisions,— I. Teachers: IS head-masters, 6 assistant-masters, and 2 ushers,— together 26. n.— Pupils. ■ A.— lu the Winter term 1865-66, 687. Among these were — 1. According to position ; 578 ordinary, and 9 extraordinary. 2. According to home : 540 inhabitants, and 47 strangers. Of the 540 inhabitants, there were 76 from Stuttgardt, 172 from the Department of the Neckar, 87 from the District of the Black Forest, 110 from the Danube district, 95 from the Taxt district. Of the 47 strangers, 18 were from Switzerland; Baden, 15 ; Prussia. 4; Austria, 3 ; Bavaria, 3 ; Nassau, Thuringia, Hamburg, Lichtenstein, each 1. 3. According to their calling : 475 actual builders (among whom 333 masons and Btone masons, and 142 carpenters), 61 geometrical, and 51 of other trades (plas- terers and stucco- workers, decorators, millers, farmers, beer brewers, &c.) 4 According to the proficiency in trade 63 overseers, drawers, polishers ; 315 assistants, and 209 apprentices. B. According to their preparatory education: From national schools. 267 ; middle schools, 18; real schools and school secretaries, 222; upper real schools, 42: Latin schools and gymnasiums, 26 ; technical schools and other higher institu- tions, 12. 6. According to age : Between 14 and 17 years, 215 :; between 17 and 25 years, 350 ; between 25 and 30, 14 ; over 30, 8. Lowest age for admission, 14^ years ; highest, 373^ years : — Average, 18>^ years. Of the 587 scholars, the school has been visited by— For the 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th lOth time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. Bnilders . . 168 107 102 74 20 3 ... 1 Geometricians 31 20 6 2 2 1 ... ... Other trades . -33 6 9 ... 3 232 133 116 76 25 4 ... 1 Attendance at the Individual Classes. I. Glass with 5i divisions 76 pupils IL " 3 " 220 '• HI. " 3 " 137 " IV. " .2 " 112 " V. " 1 " 42 " 5 classes with 11 divisions. Total 587 " B. — Summer course, 1866, 115 pupils, among whom there were — 67 ordinary, and 48 jxtraordinary pupils. 109 inhabitants among whom were 27 from Stuttgardt), and 6 strangers (Baden, 4 ; Prussia, 1 ; Hungary, 1.) 87 juiiders 56 masons and stonemasons, and 31 carpenters), 6 geometricians, and 22 other trades (mechanics, locksmiths, millers, lithographers, modellers, &c.) 5 overseers, drawers and polishers, 61 assistants, and 49 apprentices. 54 from national schools, 45 from real schools, 5 from upper real schools, 10 from Latin schools and gymnasiums, 1 from the Polytechnical school. 57 of irom 14 to 17 years, 54 from 18 to 25year3, 3 from 26 to 30 years, 1 over 30 years. Lowest age, 14 years ; highest, 37 ; — Average, 18^ years. Of the 115 pupils, the school has been visited by— For the 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 11th time. time. time. time. time. time Builders .... 11 39 27 7 2 1 Geometricians . . 4 2 Other workmen . . 17 3 ... 2 32 44 27 9 2 "i SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEO. 363 Attendance at the Individual Classes. I. Class .... 13 pupils. II. " III. " 3 classes with C— Both courses together, 701 pupils. 114 3. HIGHER TRADE SCHOOLS, In the 3'^earlS65-66 there were in Wurtemberg such schools in lOS places (89 towns and 19 villages), with a total population of 444,566 souls. The 108 schools are divided, according to their interior arrangements, into the fol- lowing groups : 1. Finishing schools, with public rooms for drawing, in which thore are Sunday and evening classesfor tradesiEsslingen. Ludwig.-^burg, Gmni.d, Hall, Ravensburg, Cain, Biberach, Roitenburg, Ellwangeu, Ehingeu, Geisjliugeu) ......... 2. Finishing schools, with public rooms for drawing, in Avhich there are ) Sunday and evening clashes lor trades and merchants (Stuttgardt, Ulm, V Heilbronn, and Neutliugeu) ......) 3. Finishing trade schools, with Sunday and evening classes, without | drawing rooms (67 towns and 14 villages) . . . . ) 4. Finishing trade schools with evening classes, but no Sunday classes (3 ) towns and 1 village) ........) 5. Trade schools Avith Sunday teaching, but no week-day classes (2 towns,) 6. Pure drawing schools with no further instruction (2 towns and 4 villages) 11 81 108 ''The attendance of pupils, which in 15*64-65, in 101 finishing schools, was 8100, rose in 1365 ()6, with the same number of schools, to 8264, among whom 6453 were under, and 1811 over seventeen years old. The number of teachers was 4^5 (against 401 before 1864-65), so that on an average there is one master to every 19--40 pupils. The entire sum paid by the State amounts to 21,243 fl. 21 kr. (=£1770 58. Id.), or 2 fl. 34 kr. (2s. 7d.) per head. The subjects which most pupils attended were— Arithmetic with 4520 pu oils. Free hand drawing 4209 ^' Mother tongue 4L.68 " Trade drawing 2419 " General drawing " 1892 " Book-keeping 1202 " Plane geometry " 1105 " The schools most visited were — Teachers. Pupils. Teachers. Pupils Stuttgardt . . with 61 12S5 Kirchheim . . with 3 193 Ulm . " 21 657 Geisslingen . " 6 145 Ludvvigsburg . " 9 216 Ravensburg 7 142 Heilbronn . " 11 210 Gmund " 6 130 Neufilngen . . " 17 209 Rottenburg . 5 124 Biberach 8 201 Cain . " 6 116 Freudenstadt . " 6 201 Goppingen . " 6 112 Esslingen . . " 12 190 Metzingen . " 3 105 The trade schools in Stuttgardt had— One evening finishing school, with 19 masters and 375 scholars. One Sunday trade school On'i! merchants' finishin:,' school One females' finishing school 6T3 149 b8 1285 364 SPECIAL mSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. ORGANIZATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. Having now considered the, general nature, number, attendance, and cost of a national system of schools in an educated country, we should very inadequately appreciate the value of such a system, unless we take the trouble of examining the nature of each of these classes of institu- tions, and the extent and character of the teaching organization which is provided. The first remarkable circumstance is the number and high qualifica- tion of the teachers. The second is, the thoroughness and extent of the courses of edu- cation. The third is, the extent of the material organization for teaching, the largeness and beauty of the buildings, the nature of the museums and libraries which are attached to them, and the provisions for practical instruction in the nature of workshops, farms, hospitals, and museums. Finally, the nature, character, business, and number of the students who attend these institutions, and their regularity and proficiency, may be to some extent gathered from the following Tables : — TABLES OP ORGANIZATION. 1. Technical University; 2. College for the Building Trades ; 3. Colleges of Agriculture and Forestry; 4, Veterinary Col- lege ; 5. School of Art Workmen ; 6. High Schools, or Academies AND Science Schools; 7. Elementary Government Schools; 8. In- dustrial Schools. Organization of tJie National System of Technical Education. 1. TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY The object of this school is to educate future technics. The instruction giveu is five course:* of one year each. It is divided into two branches— the Mathematical and the Technical. The formel consists of two, and the latter of three classes. The Technical section is subdivided into four schools :— 1. For architecture. 2. For engineering. 3. For machinery. 4. For technical chemistry, with the subdiyisionB — (a) Chemical manufactures (b) Mines. (c) Pharmacy. (There is also a parallel class devoted to preparing pupils for being merchants.) Conditions of entrance : — 1. A certain age. For the mathematical division, the pupil must have attained his 16th year. For the merchants'' class, the pupil must have attained his IGth year. For the technical division, the pupil must have finished his ISth year. 2. In addition, they must have certificates of position, conduct, &c. 3. The necessary preparatory kno^vledge. 4. And, where under age, the written permission of parents and guardians to enter the school. , They must pass an examination in which, for the mathematical division, the following knowledge is required — (a) Al":ebra np to equations of the 2d degree, inclusive. Exercises in the use of logarithms. (b) Geometry and stereometry. (c) Principal heads of plane trigonometry. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG . 365 (d) Correspondence in the French langnaere, with a proper translation of a not difflcnlt theme from German into French. (e) Practice in German style— an exercise of a theme on a given subject. (/) Knowlod^'e of the i)rincipal periods and events in history. (g) Knowledge of tiie elements of mathematical, physical, and political geography. {h) Tractice in geometrical and free-hand drawing. For entrance into the mercantile divibion. the examination will include the following subjects : — (a) Practice in reckoning figures, inclusive of decimal fractions, with regard to mer- cantile requirements. (6) Familiarity with the French language, translation of a not difficult theme from German into French. (c) Good German style— a theme on a given subject. (d) Knowledge of the principal periods and events in history. (e) Knowledge of mathematical, physical, and political geography. In the technical division the pupils produce a certificate of competency from the schools or masters they have visited. ' Thf, fees are— ♦ A.— In the Mathematical division — For ordinary pupils . 50 fl. . (^il.Zs.id.) a year. For extraordinary pupils 1 fl. 30 kr. (2s. 8d.) the half-year, for each lesson a week. B.— In the Technical division — For ordinary pupils . 60 fl. . (5Z.) a year. For extraordinary pupils 1 fl. 45 kr. (2s. lid.) the half-year, for each lesson a week. Besides this, the pupils pay 42 kr. (1«. 2d.) per half year for servants; and if they attend the chemical experiments, 5 fl. (Ss. 4d.) for materials. In addition to this, the entrance fee is 5 fl. (Ss. 4d.) There are the following means attached to the division of practical instruction :— The chemical laboratory. The physical laboratory. The arrangements for mineral ogical studies. The arrangements for constructive ex- •perimehts. Staff. — Heads and Professors. Director of the entire Instilntwn.—Trof. Dr. Zech. Head of ike Mathematical division. — Rector Dr. v. Gugler. Heads of the Trade Schools— A. 1. Architectural school. I 3. Of the machinery school 2. Of the engineers' school. | 4. Of the chemical school. There are 24 head masters, including those named above : 9 under masters, 11 assist- ants. 7 private tutors. Older persons not wishing to attend regularly as students, are admitted as " listeners." They pay 8 fl. the half-year, for one lesson a week ; for two lessons a week, 6 fl. (10s,); for each further lesson, 2 fl. more per half-year. CLASSES.— A.— MATHEMATICAL DIVISION. First Class. The arrangements for modelling in plaster. The mechanical workshops. The wood pattern making. The botanical garden. Plane and spherical trigonometry. In winter, 5 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. Lower analysis. 4 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. Analytical plane geometry. In summer, 6 hrs. ; repetition, 3 hrs. ' Recapitulation of plane trigonometry, general explanation of functions of the foundation of the right-angle co-ordinate system, poly- gonometry, spherical trigonometry. Algebra, logarithms, geometrical progression, permxitation, combination, interpolation, &c. Co-ordinate system, transformation of co-ordi- nates, lines of the 1st and 2d order, exercises. Descriptive geometry, I. j Exercises on lines and planes, polygons, broken In summer, 6 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. ( lines, planes and broken -surfaces. Plan and terrain drawing. J Copying plans in original and reduced size, 2 hours. ■ 1 elevation, maps, with horizontals, &c. *''"ln I' dlSsTeach 4 hou™. ] ^'S-- '"- -»'' - «"'"-■ German language. j Grammar, style, poetry, explanation of indi- In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. \ vidual poems and classical works. French language. In 2 divisions ; each 4 hours. English language. In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. . Geography. ( Mathematics and physical geography, the prin- In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. | cipal countries, with regard to their history. ^^^ In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. { General history, ancient history. ^"^on.|g-|?i!'^al,| 1 hour. me SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBERQ. Higher analysis, I. 4 hours ; repetition, 2 hours. Analytical geometry of space. In winter, 4 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. Descriptive geometry. 4 hours. Practical geometry. In winter, 4 hours. General mechanics. R hours. General physics. In winter, 4 hours. Drawing of buildings. In winter, 4 hrs. ; in summer, 8 hrs. Free-hand drawing. In w inter, 4 hrs. ; in summer, 2 hrs. Review of German literature. 1 hour. French lanj^uage. In 2 divisimis ; each 2 hours. English lantiruage. In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. History. 2 hours. Second Class. J Differential calculus, fundamental functions. I maxima and minima. &c , &c. j Plane and right lines, surfaces of the second I order, turning and right planes. J Sections of curved surfaces, «fcc., application j of shadows and perspective. ( Encyclopaedical review of plane geognosy, -< right-angle co-ordinates, and geometrical I levelling. Elements of mechanics, solid & floating bodies. J Geometrical representations of architectural ( objects, lectures on shadow drawing. Universal history, -middle ages and modern. Counting house. 6 hours. Mercantile arithmetic. 4 hours. Mercantile geography. 3 hours. MereantiU Class. 'Introduction to commerce, various kinds oi trades, various manners ofbookkeeping,con- duct of an imaginary business, various kinds of '' conto" currencies. Calculation of values ; interest, compound and simple; exchange, &c., &c. Dependence of productiveness on longitude and latitude, on elevation over the sea, on mountains and directions of rivers. Europe and the Colonies. Lands, with regard to merchandite and conunerce. Ger nan language, 2 hours. 1 lench language, 4 hours. Englis^h language, 4 hours. Italian language, 5 hours. French correspondence, 2 hours. English and Italian correspondence, 3 hours. Introduction to the laws of exchange, 1 hour. Free-hand drawing, 2 hours. Religion, Ihour. Gymnastics for the whole mathematical division, 2 hours a week. In common -with the mathematical clasa B. — TECEQirrcAii Drvisio>^. 1. Matliematics and Mechanics, Tri gonometry and lower analysis, 4 hours. Higher analysis, I. In winter, 4 hours. Higher analysis, II., 2 hours Analytical geometry. In winter. 4 hours. NcAver geometry. In summer. Descriptive geometry, 4 hours Practical geometry. Method of least squares. In winter, 3 hours. Analytical mechanics, 4 hours. Engineers' mechanics Zoology. In winter, 4 hours. Anthropology. In winter, 2 hours. Botany. - In summer, 4 hours. Medicinal pharmaceutical botany. In summer, 3 hours. Knowledge of plants. In winter, 4 hours Differential comparisons, decided integrals,&c. Applied to shadow-drawing and perspective. 2. Natural History. Universal systematic zoology, with regard to comparative anatomy, pharmacy, and agri- culture. Knowledge of the construction of the human body. Universal and special botany. Natural families of plants. With regard to their medicinal qnalitie8.> ' SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKG. 3G7 Anatomy and physioiO£jy of plants. In winter, 3 hours. Use of plants. In fc.iiiunu;r, one afternoon. (Jpo of tho microscope, one afternoon. Bliucralogy. Ic winter, 4 hours ; repetition, 2hrs. Cryptaiioiriapliy. J In wuucr, 'i hours lecture. i Geoirnopy. In summer. 4 hours, with exercises. Petroloj^y. 4 hours. Physical practice, two afternoons. General and technical chemistry, 6 hrs. Chemical practice, 9 to 12. ■ Chemistrv for builders. ^ In winter 4 hrs.; in summer, 2 hrs. Analytical chemistry. In winter. 2 hrs.; in summer, 3 hrs. The modern meones of chemistry. In winter, 2 hours. The chemical and physical properties of crystals. The laboratory is open from I» in the morning till 5 in the afternoon. The lecture is for those who are not goin^ into chemistry a^ a profession, but (mly in so far as it cuuceins their individual pro- fessions. i Qualitative and quantitative analysis. 3. Technology. Chemical technology. In winter. 3 hrs.; in summer, 4 hrs. Chemical technology in practice, 9 hrs-, piiv;ite. Mechanical technology, 4 hours. Heating. In summer, 4 hours. Burning materials, lighting and lire, starch and sugar, vinegar, &c. The metals most necessary to technics, their working ; wood ; visits to working estab- lishments. Preparation, burning materials, transmission of heat, hearths, chimneys, ventilation. Preparatory course, 3 hours. 4. Machinery. [For those who have worked in the ?hops, but do not possess the nece^sary knowledge to attend the other classes. Repetition of lower mathematics, elements of analytical geometry,differential and integral calculus, mechanics. Construction of machinery, I. (a) Lecture, 5 hours. (b) Exercises in construction, 6 hrs. Consrruciiou of machinery, II. (a; Lecture, combined with prac- tice, 7 hours. (6) Construction, fi hours. Construction of machinery. III. Lecture, 4 hours. Construction, ti hours. Machinery for engineers : lecture, 2 hrs. Popular machinery 4 hours. Statistics of iron roof and bridge con- struction, 1 hour, private. Adhesiveness of materials, elements of ma- chinery, water-wheels. Stationary steam engines and steam kettles, locomotives and marine engines. (Designs for entire works (workshops), purnpS and all the apparatus for works with steam and water power.with healing and lighting, disp. of machines. Application of steam and water power. Machinery lor raising heavy bodies, machines for working by water and air, locomotives and railways. r Calculations of cost. 5. Engineering. Practical geometry. In winter, 2 hours lecture. Practical geometry. In summer one afternoon for each division. Engineers' mechanics, 5 hours lecture ; 4- b hours practice. Winter course. Summer course. Instru. for measuring angles, plane triangulat- ing,trigonometric and barometric levelling. Practice, at measuring and distance tables, and the theodolite, trigonometric elevations. Excursions of fourteen days. J Elasticity and strength of building materials, I beams, ceilings, buttresses. i Statics and dynamics of liquid and gaseous bodies, with regard to the practical work of an engineer. 368 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBERG. Bridge building, T. In summer, 4 hours lecture ; 4 hours practice. Bridge building, IT. a hours? lecTure ; 6 hours practice. Bridge building. III. In \\ inter. H hours practice. Fonts ct chaiisseef, and railway con- struction. In winter, 8 hours lecture ; 4— 6hours practice. In summer, 4 hours lecture ; 12 hours practice Tracing and ( ' earth calculation "?) In summer, 2 hours. Stone constructions, especially stone bridges. \ Wooden and iron bridges, foundations, mode 1 of building. Iron bridges. Mi\l3, fountains, &c., railway?, ptations, bridges, carriages, barriers, signals, tele- graph stations, and telegraphs. Building materials. In summer. 4 hours. Construction of buildings, I. 4 hours lecture ; t> hours practice. Construction of buildings, II. 2 hours lecture ; 4 hours practice. Higher architecture, 2 hours lecture ; hours practice. Calculation of building costs. In summer, 2 hours. History of architecture (I. and 11.), hours each. 6. Architecture, I Physical properties of mineral and regetabl* ) building materials, &c., &c. > Stone and wood buildings. y Iron construction, and put-together buildings. 4 (Public and private buildings,, designs and ) plans, &c. Ancient, middle age, and renaissance. Practice to the above a. and H.), 2 hrs. \ Graphic drawings and details of each period, ^' I with regard also to materials. Comparative building forms. I a » o ^^^^<.r.^ti^^ +-. /i^=;,^; In su mmer, 2 hours. ) ^^ * preparation to designing. Design-* (I. and II.) Two successive courses, one with 4 hrs., the higher with 8 hrs. Arti'^tic n-r=(D-ctive a and IT ^ f A subject is given to the student to finish in ^'' T wo^;'c?esS ^oarses"eich with 2 \ «- ^^y- -^^^^^^ ^^ J ^^ged by all the architec- hoars. I tural teachers, pupils. and discussed with the Drawing and ModtUing. Free-hand drawing. In winter, 8 hrs.; in summer, 6 hrs. with excursion. Ornamental drawing and modelling. In three divisions, each with 6—8 hrs. I Figure drawing, landscape drawing, in outline Special drawing classes for engineers, J mechanics and architects. General Subjects. History of the 18th and 19th centuries, . History of the last twelve years . . . . History of art m the middle ages . In winter Durer and Holbein . . . .In summer Raphael and Michael Angelo . .In winter Explanation of the works of art in the State col- lection up to Mythology of the Greeks, Romans, and Ger- mans . In winter History of modem German poetry . In winter Principles of esthetics (or knowledge of the beautiful) In winter Agriculture and husbandry Trades:— . . Borrowing money lor founding a factory — by advances, shares, companies, &c. In- terest on capital, premiums, dividends. Profit and loss, &c., &c. Laws of property Grammar of the middle ages Modem German grammar Poetry French language and literature .... English language and literature .... Shakespeare's dramas Italian— with the mercantile class .... Gymnastics . ....... Fencing . , ....... aud shadows Drawing of ornaments from clay and plaster, designs for ornaments, casts done by the students in clay or plaster from their own or others' designs. 2 hours. 1 hour. 4 hours. 3 hours. 2 hours. 6 hours. 2 hours, private. 2 — 3 hours. 3 hours. 3 hours. 3 hours. 3 hours. 3 hours, private. 3 hours, •' 2 hours, " 4 hours. 3 hours. 1 hour, private. 5 hours. 2 hours. private. SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBERQ. 369 Workshops. Modelling of machinery and engineering objects. Both workshops are open all day. PLAN OF STLT)Y. The plan of ptndy for the mathematical division is given above. In the technical divi.-'ion the choice of lectures is left free to the students. A plan of i=tndy is here L'i\en as a sort of OTide to the subjects which are most necessary for each Erofession, the time which the student has to devote to it, and the proficiency or position e desires to obtain in it. A. — Architectural School. First yeor.— Chemistry for technic builders ; mineralogy and geognosy ; practical geometry, with practice; en2:ineeringm(chanics, with practice ; building construc- tion, I., with practice ; history of art ; free-hand and ornamental drawing. Second year. — Building construction, II., with practice ; building construction, I., with practice ; de-igns, I. ; perspective, I. ; free-haud and ornamental drawing. Third year — High architecture, with practice; histoiy of building, II., with practice; comparative building forms ; designs, II. ; perspective, II. ; free-hand and ornamental drawing. Pupils who wish to go further, and become higher architect?, decorators, &c., have a special fourth jjear's course laid out lor tliem by their master, which will be regulated according to their special talents, the advance they have made, &c. B. — Engineers'' School. First year.— Chemistry for technic builders ; mineralogy and geognosy ; practical geome- try; ensrineeringmechanics; constructionof bridge;?, with practice; build- ing construction, I., with practice. Second year.— Bridges. II., with ]>ractice ; building construction, II., -svith practice ; con- struction of machinery for engineers ; practice in the construction of machinery ; building history, I. ; free-hand drawing. Third j/ear.— Bridge building. III., ponts et chaussees, railways, with practice; surveying and calculations of earth works ; history of building, II., with practice. C. — Machinery School. First yea?'.— Chemistry foT technical builders ; engineering mechanics ; construction of machinery, with practice ; free hand drawing ; mechanical Avorkshops. Second year. — Construction of machinery, II., with practice; mechanical and chemical technology; bridgebuifding.il.; heat. TAfrdyear.- Constructionof machinnry. III., with practice ; ponts et chaussees ; building, n. ; agriculture (political economy). D. — Chemical School. 1. For technical chemists and teachers of chemistry: — First year.— Physics for chemists ; general and technical chemistry ; analytical chemistry ; mineralogy ; construction of buildings. Second year.— Analytical chemistry; chemical practice; chemical technology; practical physics; practical mineralogy ; popular mechanics. Third year- — Chemical practice ; chemical technology ; laws of property. 2. For miners:— First year, — Physics for chemists ; universal and technical chemistry ; mineralogy ; machinery, I., with practice ; construction of buildings, I., with practice. &co?id year.— Analytical chemistry; chemical, physical, and mineralogical practice; machinery. II., with practice ; heat. TJiird year.— Chemical practice; chemical technology; machinery. Til., with practice; farming and husbandry (political economy); laws of right and possession. 3. For apothecaries. (It is a two years' course, but if the pupil has made sufficient progress, he can pass in one or one and a half years) :— First year. — Physics for chemist^ ; universal and technical chemistry; knowledge of medicine ; zoology ; general botany ; medicinal properties of plants ; mineralogy; chemical and microscopic practice. Seamdyear. — Analytical chemistry; chemical and mineralogical practice ; pharmaceutical botany; the anatomy and physiology of plants; microscopic pbarma- ceutical practice. n.— COLLEGE FOR THE BUILDING TRADES. L The object of this school is to educate technically for the following trades : — 1. Future ma.ster builders (masons, stonemasons and carpenters). 8. Lower technical buildtrs (upper building masters, public building and foundation builders, and constructors of reservoirs). 24 3T0 SPECIAL mSTRUCTION I^T WUHTEMBEEG, 3. LowPT water-worJcs and mill bvilders. 4. Geortflers of the first and second class. Besides these, individual classes can be attended by — Plasterers, tilers, roofers, Lower mechanics, glaziers, turners, Decorators, ornamental sculptors, modellers, Engravers, pold and silver workers, Gardeners and husbandmen. &c. The classes go on the whole year round, and the course consists of five half-years, and these can be taken either all in winter, all in summer half-years, or partly in winter and partly in summer. The pupils are of two kinds— ordmarj/ and extraordinary. The first are such as devote their whole time to the school; and the second such as attend other schools, studios, &c., in addition. n. Oonditions of Admission: — In order to be admitted into school the pupils must— r (a) For the 1st class at least 14 years. 1 Havp attained a certain J ^^^ For the 2d, 3d, 4th and 5th classes respectively, flS ^"^"^^^ ^^^^^"^ 1 15, 16, 17 and 18 years, to which exceptions are = • t sometimes made. 2. A certificate of good conduct. 3. The certificate of the necessary preparatory knowledge (for which they must pass an enrranco examination). 4. In cases of minority a certificate of the permission of parents or guardians to enter the institution. m. Divisions: — The school is subdivided into three departments — 1. A building school. 2. A geamotry school. 8. A school for drainage and waterworks. IV. Staff.— Head : Oberbaumeister v. Egle ; Assistant Head : Professor Haberle. Professors and head masters : For the building trades , . . 8 professorB. '• practical geometry and pure mathematics . . . . 2 . " " mathematics and natural history . . i . . 4 " " free-hand and ornamental drawing ..... 2 " " general education •. . . 2 *' Other teachers:— For religion, for ponts et chaussees, for lan- guages, for caligraphy, &c., «&c., &c. .. . . . .6 masters. • Assistant teachers . . 3 " PLAN OF INSTRUCTION. First Class — With two parallel divisions. Destined for such pupils as have only attended the national schools, or who, having been at a higher school, were yet not found competent to enter the second class. German language . . 8 hours a week. French . . . . 4 • " ^ History and geography .4 " ' Calisrranhy . . . 6 " Arithmetic . . .6 " (Vulgar and decimal fractions, coml)ound and simple interest, &c.) Elementary geometry . 6 " (Plane geometry ) Free-hand drawing .6 " (Plain lines, simple leaf and contour lines.) Geometrical drawing . 6 " (Geometrical construction and decoration.) Second Class.— Three parallel divisions. German language . . 6 hours a week. (Continuation of the former class.) French ... 2 *' Caligraphy ... 3 " (Plan drawing.) Geometry and stereo- ) 8 '* (Continuation and completion of plane metry . . j geometry, geometry of space and cubic contents.) Algebra . . ,8 " (Powers, roots, logarithms, comparisons of 1st and 2d grade.) Plan drawing . . 8 " Ornamental drawing 6 " (Simple drawing in color and from plaster.) Third Class. — Three parallel divisions. Natural history . 6 hours a week (Weight and motion of water and bodied heat, &c.) Representative geometry 8 " SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKa. 371 Trigonometry Practical geometry Plan drawiiig . Ornamental drawing Building . Construction . 2 hours a week. Mechanics Applied representative | - geometry . f" Plan drawing . 6 Ornamental drawing 4 Knowledge of building j 2 materials . f Building Construction of build- ings Builders Heating apparatus " (Complicated architectural details— win- dows, portals, &c.) " (Chalk and pencil drawings in outline and shaded from platjter models.) 6 " (Form and decorative stone work, cornices, windows, entrances. &c.) 6 " (Building in stone, walls in brick and stone, brick and tile building.) Fourth Class.— Two parallel divisions. 3 hours a week (Continuous lespons on stability applicable to beams and rafters, stability and ma- chinery with regard to the requirements of technical builders.) '* (Applied to stone carving, shadows, &c.) " (Drawing in outline of whole facades, and designs in renaissance style.) *• (Continuation of drawings in the third class.) '* (Properties of various building materials, and their adaptation for different pur- poses.) " (Decoration of buildings and dwelling houses, size and disposition of space, &c., &c.) '• (Wooden posts, scaffoldings, beams, joints, and sut-pensions, locks and roofs, &c.) " (Instructiouh for master builders, tools and instruments, general rules, &c.) *• (Chemical constitution and heating power of burning materials, temperature of burning, length of chimneys, drawing power, calculation of sizes and construc- tion, roasting and fire-room grates, &c., baking arrangements.) *' (Sketch of architectural history,— Greek and Roman styles, sketches.) Fifth C7ass.— Division A. hours a week (Modelling in plaster and clay, generally after drawings made by the pupils ; casting.) " (More complex roofs, suspended, &c., with iron applications ; carpentry and glazing.) " (Designs for simple country and town houses, parsonages, &c. «&c.,in sections, ground plans and eleyations.) " (Old Saxon style, Roman and Gothic renais- - sance. sketches and designs in each style.) " (Roads, wooden and iron bridges.) •' (Estimates for materials and workmen, cal- culation for contracts.) " (Arrangement of space, organization of store- rooms, barns, out-houses, stables, &c.) " (Repetition of elementary mathematics, with exercises.) Division B. Designs for buildings, 10 hours a week (Designs for large schoolhonses, business and dwelling houses on a limited space, hos- pitals, &c.) Designs for parts of ) 6 " (Roofs, staircases, beams, and ceilings, to be buildings . . ) drawn in large and minute detail.) Repeiiticm of mathe- matics, physics, and mechanics . 6 *' Exercises on build- ing materials . 2 " Book-keeping . 1 " Geometrical School (for Advanced Pupils). Geometric'l construe- 1 2 hours weekly (Solution of problems by construction.) Algebraap"pliedtoge-)6 " (Solution of geometrical aud stereometrical ometry and stere- >• problems by calculation.) ometry . . ) German exercises . 2 ** Building style . 4 Ornamental modelling, 4 Building construction, 4 Designs of buildings . 9 Building styles . 4 Ponts et chaussees . 4 Calculations of build- ) 4 ing costs . f Agricultural buildings, 3 Mathematical practice, 4 372 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBEEG. Special Classes for Geometers. "^^^mlfry***^^! ^^^'\^ ^^^^'^ weekly (As in the third class of the building school.) ^^^sicsf '^^^''^ ^^^^' [ ^ " ^^^ ^°- ^^^ ^^''''^ ^^""^^ ""^ ^^^ building school.) Trigonometry . . 6 " (Common trigonometry, polygonometry, transformation of rectangular co-ordi' nates.) Plan drawing . . 4 " Popular building and ) 8 " (Building, measuring, &c.) plan drawing . j Practical geometry — From the 6th Nov. to 15th March, 6 hours weekly ; from the 16th March to 1st May, 28 hours weekly ; Mathematical practice, 14 hours weekly. Other Instruction. Machine drawing . 8 hours weekly (Curves and angular constructions, drawings of parts of machines.) Entrance Fees. For participation in one class during the whole course : — (a) In the building school . 12 florins = 11. ■ (b) In the building school (on account of greater length of course), 16 florins = IZ (is. Frf. In cases where a pupil is declared by the community to be utterly without means, and can show a certificate of industry and good behavior, he is admitted without pay- ment, or on part payment only of the fees. in.— COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. I. The Institution in Hohenheim. A. — Agriculture and Forestry Academy. This numbered in the year 1865-66 : — L Teacliers' places ;— 10 regular professors (including the Director) ; 6 under-masters ; 2 ushers ; aiia 3 assistants = 21. n. — students: — A.— In the Winter term 1865-66, 123 ; of whom 61 were of the country, and 62 strangers. These studied: Agriculture. Inhabitants . . 24 Strangers . . 60 Forestry. 37 2 Total. 61 62 84 39 123 Of the 62 strangers, 41 were from other German places ; namely, Austria, 15 : Prus- sia, 9; Bavaria, 5; Holstein, 4; Baden and Ilambfirg, each 3; Iie!?sen Homburg. and Lubec, each 1. 21 came from other countries; as, Russia, 11 ; Switzerland, 3 ; England and Norway, each 2 ; Portugal and Brazil, each 1. B.— In the Summer term 1S66, 108: of whom 56 were inhabitants, and 52 strangers. These studied : Agriculture. Forestry. Total. Inhabitants . - 18 38 56 Strangers . . 50 2 52 68 40 108 Of the 52 strangers, 33 were Germans ; namely, Austria sent 10; Prussia, Bavaria, and Baden, each 4; Holstein, 3; Hamburg, 2; Frankfort, Lubec. Hanover, Saxony, Mecklenburg, and Knrhessen, each 1. And from other countries came 19 ; Russia sent 11 ; Switzerland, 4; England, Belgium, Portugal, and Brazil, each 1. III.— Students' Excursions were made (besides smaller ones) during the Summer term of 1866, to : One Agricultural, to the Rechbergan seats, the Alb, and several estates in Upper Swabia. One Forestry, in the hunting district Dankoltsweiler, the Forest of Ellwan- gen. rV. — Distinction of Students : — Husbandmen, Foresters. Total. ' By prizes .... 1 (stranger) 3 (inhab ) 4 .By public commendation . 1 (stranger) 1 (inhab.) 2 2 (strangers) 4 (inhab.) 6 V. — Collections, Ajaparatus, and Institutions of the Academy—together 18. SPECLVL INSTIiUCTION IN WUUTEMBERG. 373 B. — The Farming School. On the Ist of October, the number of pcholarH was 25. At the cloee of the school year, left the establishment, of whom 4 went to assist their father in his fai-ms, 3 became stewards in the country, and 2 stewards of projects abroad. The head-master tau2;ht field-measurinc and botanizinjj on Sundays and liolidays, not countino: 4t)4 hours, of which 118 were devoted to agricullnie ; farniin 14 girls, and 644 boys = 18,lbS pupils. Total, 1450, with 52,157 pupils, of whom 50,536 were girls, 1621 boys. 2. Hours of study .-—Number of hours taught in all the schools, 266,691. 3. Teachers: — (a) In the Evangelical schools, number of female teachers, 1210. Their salaries together amount to 2> .V);311. (172GZ )— so that each mistrcsn has on an average I'lll. 17 kr. (U. as. Od.) (6) In the Catholic schools, the number of teachers is 58S. Their salaries amount 10,043 fl. 31 kr. (b3ti. lis. bd.) averaging 17 fl. 40 kr. each, (li, 9s. \Qd.) Total number of teachers, 1778. 4. Scliool cosis— books, heating, and working materials :— (a) On the Evangelical side, 32.93Jfl, 15 kr. {-iliTd.), according to which, each school averages 34 fl, 51 kr. (vJ. 18s. ^d.) (b) On the Catholic side, 15,495 fl. 6 kr., according to which, each school averages 30fl. 45 kr. (2Z. lis. Sd. ). Total, 48,4 .8 fl. 21 kr. (4,03yi. l(is. 8d.) 5. Grant from the State for this purpose: — To the 560 Evangelical communities . . . 7,184 fl. = 59'-"7. 13s. 4d. To the Catholic side * 3,936 fl. «= 328i. (»s. Off. 11,120 fl. = 9261. Ids. 4r the gravest thought — treating, in fact, the whole question of the social condition, moral and religious education of the workman, and of the duties which various Governments have either neglected or performed, in" giving or withholding from the youth of a nation that intelligence, skill, and taste which they unanimously declare education can promote and develop, if it cannot create. It is the quiet, reasonable, practical, and moderate tone in w^hich all this has been investigated and set down, which renders this volume the notable contribution to social science in 18G7. Of all these four separate sources of knowledge, I should wish to convey to my readers the aim, the substance, and the conclusions. I fear I shall not be able in one chapter to overtake all of them, for the field is both wide and prolific, covering nearly all the branches of human industry. I. Taking up first the " Report relative to Technical Education by the Schools Enquiry Commission of 2d July, 18G7," I find the Commis- sioners issuing a request for information to some eminent jurors and others as to the truth of certain " evidence considered to be afforded by the Inter- national Exhibition at Paris of the inferior rate of progress in manuHictur- ing and mechanical industry in England, compared with that made in 390 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. Other European countries ; " and they add, " it has been stated to us that this alleged inferiority is due in a great measure to the want of technical education, and we have therefore thought it desirable to ascertain from many eminent English jurors in this department whether they agree with this opinion, and we think it expedient at once to report to your Majesty the answers which we have received to our inquiry on this point." The gentlemen whom they consulted, and whose answers they have printed, were: Dr. Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., Professor Tyndall, F.RS., Dr. David Price, J. E. McConnell, C.E., James Young, chemical manufacturer, J. Scott Russell, F.R.S., CJaptain Beaumont, R E., Robert Mallet, C.E., Rev. Cannon Norris, M.A., Professor Frankland, F.R.S., John Fowler, C.E., Warrington W. Smythe, F.R.S., E. Huth, Peter Graham, A. J. Mundclla, W. Spotten, thus representing many of the most important departments of our educated professions, our applied sciences, engineering, education, and manufactures. I shall content myself with giving the essence of these opinions Dr. Lyon Playfair gives, as the result of his own inquiry as a juror, and of those of other j urors : "A singular accordance of opinion prevailed that our country had shown little inventiveness, and made but little progress in the peaceful arts of industry since 1862. . . Out of ninety classes there are scarcely a dozen in which pre-eminence is unhesitatingly awarded to us. . . The one cause upon which there was most unanimity of conviction is that France, Prussia, Austria, Belgium, and Switzerland, possess good systems of industrial education for the masters and managers of manufactories and workshops, and England possesses none." Professor Tyndall says: "I have long entertained the opinion, that in virtue of the better education provided by continental nations, England must one day, and that no distant one, find herself outstripped by those nations, both in the arts of peace and war " Mr. Huth writes : " I am sorry to say, that although we may still be ^unsurpassed in many of our productions, we no longer hold that pre- eminence which was accorded to us in 1851. . . The enormous strides that have of late been made by our continental rivals in France, Belgium, Prussia, and Austria, will make it daily more ditficult for our woolen manufac- turers to hold not only theh former prominent position, but even to' main- lain their present one. . . I found that it is the want of industrial educa- tion in this country, which prevents our manufacturers from making that progress which other nations are making. . . I found both masters and foremen of other countries much more scientifically educated than our own. . . The workmen of other countries have a far superior education to ours, many of whom have none whatever. . . Their productions show clearly that there is not a machine working a machine, but that brains sit at the loom and intelligence stands at the spinning-wheel." Mr. McCoNNELL says: " In the class for which I was juror for Eng- land, I made a very careful examination and comparison of our locomotive engines, carriages, railway machinery, apparatus, and materiel with those exhibited by France, Germany, and Belgium. I am firmly convinced that our former superiority, either in material or workmanship, no longer exists. . , Unless we adopt a system oftechnical education for our work- SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 391 men in this country, we shall soon not even hold our own in cheapness. . . It appears to me, Government should take the matter in hand. . . There should be mining schools in South Wales, Staffordshire and Dur- ham ; and machinery and engine schools in Manchester, Glasgow, &c." Professor Frankland says : "AsajurorinClass44, of the Paris Exhibi- tion, I was not only forcibly struck by the want of evidence of progress in the different branches of chemical manuflictures carried on in Great Britain, but still more so by the great advances made by other nations, especially German}^ France, and Switzerland, in respect of such manufac- tures, since 18G2, when, as a juror in the corresponding Class, I had also an opportunity of comparing the chemical manuftictures of different nations. . . In the Polytechnic schools of Germany and Switzerland, the future manufacturer or manager is made familiar with those laws and applications of the great natural forces which must always form the basis of every intelligent and progressive industry; it seems that at length this superiority in previous training, is more than counterbalancing the undoubted advantages which this country possesses in raw material." Mr. Mallet says: "I fully agree that a better system of technical education for all classes connected with industrial pursuits has become a pressing necessity in Great Britain, and that immediate steps ought to be taken for organizing and procuring, legislatively, such a system ;" he has been long convinced that " unless checked by a vast improvement in our owir educational system, general and technical, the pre-eminence of England must decline with a rapidly accelerating pace." Mr. David Price says : " What is really wanted for this country, and is of vital consequence to our future prosperity, is a higher scientific culture of those who are likely, in the natm-al course of events, to be master manufacturers ; so that \vhen discoveries are made they may fructify, and not stagnate or decay, as has too often been the case, for want of intelli- gence on the part of those who command capital and works, to see their merits." The evidence given by other jurors is not less strong, but I can only spare room for one more quotation, that of Mr. Muis^della : — " The branch of industry with which I have been connected for thirty 3'ears, is the manu-, facturing of hosiery. I am the managing partner, employing 5000 work- people ; with establishments in Nottingham, Derby, and Loughborough, employing 4000, and with branches at Chemnitz and Pausa, in Saxony, employing about 700 persons. I have, for four or five years past, been increasingly alarmed for our industrial supremacy, and my experience of the Paris Exhibition has only confirmed and strengthened my fears I am of opinion that Englishmen possess more energy, enterprise, and inventiveness than any other European nation. The best machines in my trade now at work in France and Germany, are the inventions of English- men, but are there constructed and improved by men who have had the advantage of a superior industrial education. At the largest establishment in Paris, these machines are constructed and improved on thorough scien- tific principles, under the superintendence of a j^oung man, who, I was informed, took high honors at the school of the Government in Paris. . . . Precisely the same thing is taking place in Saxony ; but the Saxons are, in 392 SPECIAL INSTEUCTIOX IX WUETEMBERG. respect of education, both primary and industrial, much in advance of the French, and in my branch, they are our most formidable rivals. . . . The contrast betvrixt the woikpeople of Saxony and England, engaged in the same trade, is most humiliating. I have had statistics taken of various workshops and rooms in factories in this district, and the frightful igno- rance they reveal is disheartening and appalling. ... In Saxony our manager, an Englishman of superior intelligence, and greatly interested in education, during a residence of seven years, has never met wi h a work- man who cannot read or write — not in the limited and imperfect manner in which the majority of English artisans are said to read and write, but with a freedom and familiarity that enables them to enjoy re.iding, and to conduct their correspondence in a creditable and often superior style. Some of the sons of our poorest workmen in Saxony, are receiving a tech- nical education at the Polytechnic schools, such as the sons of our manu- facturers cannot hope to obtain. ... I am of opinion that the English workman is gradually losing the race, through the superior intelligence which foreign governments are carefully devel )ping in their artisans. . . The education of Germany is the result of a national organization, which compels every peasant to send his children to school, and aftei*wards affords the opportunity of acquiring such technical knowledge as may be useful in the department of industr}^ to which the}'- are destined." His con- cluding sentence ought to carry great weight — " If we are to maintain our position in industrial competition, we must oppose to this national organi- .zation one equally effective and complete; if we continue the fight with our present voluntary system, we shall be defeated, generations hence we shall be struggling with ignorance, squalor, pauperism, and crime ; but with a system of national education made compulsory, and supplemented with art and industrial education, I believe, within twenty years, England would possess the most intelligent and inventive artisans in the world." II. It is no wonder that, with such a report, made to her Majesty, from such a Commission as that of which Lord Taimton is chairman, the Com- mittee of Council on Education should have thought it necessary. to obtain some little information as to what other countries were doing for the tech- nical education of their people. They solicited, through om- representa- tives abroad, such printed papers as the various governments could give them, regarding the organization of technical schools, and we learn that they are translating some of these for public use. They also requested 3Ir. Samuelson to visit, or accepted his offer to examine (for it is not quite clear which), manufacturing industry abroad, in its relation to technical schools ; and the result is a letter addressed by him to the Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education, moved for by the House of Commons, and printed in November last. iMr. Samuelson, j^I.P., traveled in France, Belgium, and Germany, examining, as he went, the most famous manufacturiug establishments on the Continent, which stand in direct rivalry to ottr own. He found every- where in these establishments men of all ranks better educated than our own; working men less illiterate— foremen and managers well educated, and masters accomplished, well-informed, technical men. He traced out the pupils of technical schools to their practical and successful results, as SPECIAL INSTEUCTION IN WUKTEMGERO. 393 the superintendents of large works, and he sums up the results of his examination, in a paragraph which appears to confirm all the reports made to that Commission, which was the origin of the inquiry. — " I have attempted to show, by examples, what is the condition of some of the leading industries in these countries, (France, Switzerland, and Germany). I do not think it possible to estimate precisely what has been the influence of continental education on continental manufactures. . . . That the rapid progress of many trades abroad, has been greaily facilitated by the superior technical knowledge of the directors of works everyAvhere, and by the comparatively advanced elementary instruction of the workers in some departmentsofindustr}', can admit of but little doubt. , . . Meanwhile, wc know that our manul\\cturing artisans are imperfectly taught, our agri- cultural laborers illiterate ; neither one nor the other can put forth, with effect, the splendid qualities with which Providence has endowed our people. Our foremen, chosen from the lower industrial ranks, have no suffi- cient opportunities of correcting the deficiencies of their early education ; our managers are too apt, in every case of novelty, to proceed by ti ial and error, without scientific principles to guide them ; and the sons of our great manufacturers too often, either despise the pursuits of their fathers, as mere handicrafts, unworthy of men of wealth and education, or else, overlook- ing the beautiful examples which they afford of the application of natural laws to the wants of men, follow them solely as a means of heaping up more wealth, or, at the best, for want of other occupation : to the evils of such a condition, not only our statesmen, but also our people, are rapidly . awakening, and the disease being once acknowledged, I believe the remedy will soon be applied." III. In the two preceding sections, we have been occupied with what we may call the upper side of the question, that is to say, we have seen it from the master's point of view, and we have also seen how it is regarded by men of science, of education, and of distinguished technical skill. Let us DOW see how the questions of technical education and manufacturing supremacy are regarded from the workman's point of view, and so try to understand the under side of the question. What do our technical workers think of their own skill, intelligence, taste, judgment, knowledge, culture, refinement? What do they think of their edjcation, of their school training and apprenticeship? What do they think of the opportunities provided for the matured woikman, who wishes to study, to copy, to increase his stores of science, and rise to higher grades of skill ? What do they think are the duties of Government to him and his fellows? Do they think foreign governments wiser in their care for their working people than om*s ? Do they think the systematic educa- tion of their people to be waste of pains or wise foresight ? In short, do they find in the institutions of any other country, any social amelioration which they would wish to introduce into their own ? On all these points, and a great many more, we have the evidence of fifty-five witnesses, all workmen, most of them evidently superior work- men, and who are entitled by their acquirements to be termed at least, self-educated men. Among so many witnesses, we cannot call up all; but as we have enjoyed the pleasure of reading the whole book, we wiU 394 SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKG only call sucli witnesses as appear to have made a special study of each point. 1. On Early Technical Training. — Mr. Lucraft, the chairmaker, says; " Seeing some lads at work with the men in the carver's shop, I went to the bench of one about fourteen — he was carving a chair-back, of a medi- aeval form, from a wc»rking drawing. I expressed my surprise that one so young was found capable of carving so well, and was informed that boys at school are specially prepared for the trade they fanc}", so that a boy about to be apprenticed to learn carving, is instructed in ornamental draw- ing, modelliug, and designing." . . . Further, " I am bound to repeat that in the race we are nowhere. . . . Without the least doubt or hesi- tation, yet, with the most profound regret, I say that our defeat is as igno- minious, and I fear as disastrous, as it is possible to conceive. We have not only made no progress since 1862, but it seems to me we have retro- graded." He adds that the mere mechanical workman stands not the slightest chance with the workman of a cultivated taste. . . . " The art-workmen of France have a great advantage over us in England; in Paris they are surrounded by works of taste which none but the most obtuse can long remain uninfluenced by ; their museums are central and numerous ; they are surrounded by works they venerate and love, and their very nature gets impregnated with them. ... Something must be done, or the working classes will be grievously wronged, and the whole nation suffer." The lacemakers of Kottingham say — " We are unanimous in opinion, that French laces display a decided superiority in design and quality of material over the English goods." They express the hope " that the time is not far distant when some national system of compulsory education will be brought into existence to lessen the ignorance amongst us, and place our country on an equality of intelligence with other nations " Messrs. Kendal and Caunt, hosiers, say — " We observed, as a rule, that the French people did everything with the greatest ease and tact, and without much labor, and alw^js made a good finish of what they took in hand, so that nothing could, be much improved after they had done with it. . . . On the whole, we are of opinion that the French have made great progress of late years, and that they are continuing to progress ; and there can be no doubt that the superior education that is given to the work- ing classes on the Continent, gives them an advantage, in some respects, over Englishmen ; but there are no workmen so quick and so inventive as our own, as far as we are able to judge." Mr. Connelly, stonemason, says — " The Frenchman's familiarity with art, and his early training in its principles, enables him to outstrip us ; and as every building in Paris is more or less decorated with carving, you are at a loss to know how they get all their art-workmen ; but the difficulty would not appear so much, if you could read the large placards, in French, which are posted up at the ends of the bridges, and other public places, informing workmen where they can be taught drawing and modelling every evening, free of expense. That he outstrips the Englishman, in this respect, does not, I feel certain, arise from the possession of an especial art genius, but because whatever of it is in him, is fully developed, and encour- SPECIAL INSTBUCTION IN WUETEMBERG. 395 agement is given to its practice ; and if English workmen are beliiucl in this respect, it is not because art genius is deficient in our nature, but because it is not developed and encouraged sufficiently. . . . It is impos- sible to estimate the loss which is entailed upon England througli the neg- lect of art culture in ever}^ department of our industry ; through it we are reduced to mere ' hewers of wood and drawers of water' for other nations. The bulk of our manufacturing population is engaged in manufacturing goods to be sold cheap, or in producing raw materials for other people to work. . . . On a ton of iron, for the labor of w^hich we get less than 1^., they are sure to put 1001. of labor be'bre it leaves their hands." 3. Artisans' Opinion on the Besponsibilitij of a S'.ate for the Technical Education of its People. — Mr. Rais'dall, china painter, says — " When we come to high-class ornamentations in iron, earthenware, china, or glass, the superiorit}' of French art is obvious. As long as we confine ourselves to geometrical forms in hammering, pressing, turning on the lathe, or printing on the surface, w^e have no difficulty in holding our own ; but where an intellectuali?m is concerned, or a free educated hand is required in decora- tion, our deficiencies become apparent. The fault is less our own than our rulers', who have denied us education, or who have at least, given us nothing to fit us for om' destination in life, but have left us groining in the dark, for ever feebly attempting to overtake lost opportunities. . . . As we heard an English workman, in another branch of trade, observe in Paris — therff is much more credit to an English workman if he is clever, for a Frenchman has so many advantages, that if he only has moderate talents, he can scarcely help but be a good workman. He has excellent schools to give him a primary education, and, go where he will, there is something to educate his cyo, and elevate his taste. We have been groping our way in ignorant and bigoted security, and quarreling in which way education should be given, or denying it altogether, while other nations have been getting before us ; and if this Exhibition have no other effect in England than to convince us of our deficiencies, it will have had its mission — so far as we are concerned. The present prosperity of this country is so unmis- takeably interwoven with its manufactures, and the pre-eminence of these depends so much upon new adaptations, discoveries, and improvements, as to demand for the workers in iron, china, and other departments, the readiest and best educational training and enlightenment this nation can give them. It is not only idle, but suicidal, to d' eam of remaining where we are. "We must strike out in new paths. We must advance with the w^orld, or lose caste and trade together. How many men know anything at all of the materials with which they work ? Yet such knowledge would sweeten daily toil, would open the treasure-house of thought, enable a man to con- vert to new uses, elements of force by which he is surrounded, and enrich the nation by adaptations and modes of economizing means now in use. Every man ought to have the means within his reach to enable him to become master of his art. With how many would a knowledge of geology, chemistrj^, geometry, drawing, and mechanics, smooth the path of daily toil, and render labor pleasant ! Why should not the miner find compen- sating pleasure for the darkness and drudgery of the mine, in a knowledge of the gases by which he is surrounded, and of the minerals he is exti'acting 396 SPECIAL INSTEUCTIOi^ IN WUETEMBEEG. from their long resting-place in their subterranean storehouse ? Let him know something of their history, of the changes and natural processes to which they were subject to bring them to their present state. How cheaply purchased is the pleasure of astonishment with which he might go on reading the hieroglyphics and paintings of Nature in the mine, inter- preting at each stage, the emblems of earlier states and existences. Such an education would tell in many ways. All that we ask for is, that the State should fulfill efficiently unquestionable and admitted duties, rather than disputed ones. We have no wish for interference in a way that may weaken, in the least, a proper sense of individual responsibility, that may lessen the slightest individual energy, or offend the sensibilities of the strictest advocates for economy in the resources of the nation. Government for the future will — if there is any meaning or force in the late political changes — be more than ever the delegated power of the people to execute its will in legislating upon the admitted ' Benthamite ' principle of the greatest happiness to the greatest number; and whilst doing so, it will undoubtedly seek to carry out the injunctions of the wise in all ages, from Solomon downwards, and supply education to those who are supposed to be deficient of the will, or the means of obtaining it. What we complain of, and what the country raising the taxes to support the present system complains of most, is that, being in the hands of the clergy, and under inspeciion by men drafted from them, it is used as a proselyting scheme, rather than an engine for fitting children for their daties in life. They are crammed with catechisms, Jewish pedigrees, with things pertaining to the past, which have no relation whatever to their future modes and pursuits of life, without being taught at all, the means by which their own wonder- ful and diversified faculties might be made to bloom in profitable fruition, so that both the individual, and the State itself, should be compensated — each having its positive welfare secured thereby.' Mr. WiNSTANLET says : " I should like to see a number of institutions — they might be called colleges, or any other name. I would have them fitted up with a number of workshops for different trades, and one large room to be used as a lecture room, and for periodical exhildtions. I would have lectures delivered twice a week, by the best professors, upon difierent branches of art manufacture. There should be a well-stocked librarj-' and reading room, all on art manufacture. There should be schools attached, for drawing and modelling. Why I propose workshops is, because work- ing men, in large towns, have a great difficulty in finding convenience to do anything for themselves, by way of improvement ... I would also have a committee, or council, established by Government, or the Society of Arts, that should receive working men presenting certificates for examination in their different branches, and grant them certificates according to their merits." Mr. Mackie, wood-carver, reports : " I visited the Ecole Imperiale Speciale pour 1' Application des Beaux Arts a I'lndustrie. On that occasion there was an exhibition of the works of the students, and the number and variety were considerable and interesting. Conspicuous among the exhibits were some large models in clay. The Minister of Instruction had dictated the subject, and the following were the particulars given. A somewhat SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 397 large t3'mpanum of a pediment, to have the head of a bull for a center, resting upon a shield, with accessories of boys and festoons of fruits and flowers. Tlie best was a ver}'' successful interpretalion of the order given. These studies were little more than good sketches in clay, but it was evi- dent that the students were learning a most useful lesson, that would stand them in good service when they went forth into the world, ... It seemed abundantly clear that the system pursued was simple and rapid, and that the teaching and practice produced valuable results. It seems to have great vitality, never being without deep and varied interest to the student, features that should distinguish every school, and without which they will assuredly fiiil in accomplishing the objects sought to be obtained. A visit to the exhibition of the works of the students of the Ecole Imperi- ale Speciale de Dessin pour les Jeunes Personnes, showed that the young ladies practised the same system with very profitable results. I am informed that the fees are little more than nominal, the main expense of the schools being borne by Government." Mr. WniTEiKG, in his special report, says on the subject: " The notion of the functions of Government entertained in this country would not be tolerated for a moment across the Channel, and it may be doubted W' hether our dislike to w^hat is called special legislation — to legislation, that is to say, which proposes as a direct aim the improvement of the social condi- tion of our people, has not its weak as well as its strong side. The con- stant^ difficulties experienced by individuals struggling alone to effect social reforms, often never aided by Government till the necessity of all aid has passed away, would seem to indicate that it has. From the view of the obligations of Government taken by the French people, it necessarily arises that instruction, both superior and elementary, has long held that recognized position under the protection of the State, which it is only just beginning to have here. A due provision for art education, for instance, is no favor on the part of the administration, but one of the conditions of its existence. In every town of any importance, in a manufacturing point of view, in every district of all the principal cities, there is to be f(5und the art school, just as there is to be found the church or the baker's shop. . . It is not denied that similar institutions are to be found in our own country, but among us there is a very perceptible want of Govern- ment responsibility for the welfare of the schools, and they are not placed mider the direct patronage of the officials of the district, who, in France, commonly attend to give a solemn character to the distribution of the awards. ... In France, the Minister of Instruction has con- fided to him, as it were, a nation in a certain state of knowledge, and he is expected when he resigns the seals of office, to show that under his care that nation has steadily progressed; he may demand certain aid from the Government ; his claims have a recognized place in the budget, and he is entitled to speak by the admitted importance of the interests over which he presides. It would be well if with us some*such system could be devised, in place of that which gives us an irregular and spasmodic sup- port to art, on the part of our public representatives, and which too often leaves its fate in the hands of only one or two well-meaning members of parliament. . . . What is above all wanted, is Government countenance 398 SPECIifL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEiMBEEG. as well as GoYernment aid. In France, as we have seen, tlie distribution of prizes, the opening of schools, is always made more or less a ceremony ; the whole population of the district in which the school is situate, cannot fail to hear of what is going on. Publicity and eclat are given to all the pro- ceedings, and the school immediately reaps the benefit. Of course, it is not to be inferred that the Government of France does everything for art education, and private individuals nothing. There is a considerable amount of private patronage, though to nothing like the same extent as among us ; but it is always desirable to substitute for the irregular action of individuals, however well disposed, the order, economy, and persistent effort of an efiicient body. . . . Let us now consider what the State does- for education in France, both for primary instruction and for the special training acquired later, when an art or trade has been chosen. The system of primary instruction so very much resembles our own, both in the nature of the instruction given, and in the mode in which support is obtained, that no detailed account of it will be necessary. . . . But it is in the facilities for the higher education which ought to follow this primary teaching, where the inclination exists, that the great divergence between the English and the French begins. The ease with which a poor boy may obtain an entry to one of the imperial lyceums, or large public schools which prepare for the universities, and thence go up to the universities, which very properly are in the capital itself, and are all free, is something marvellous, and is only equalled by the excellent facilities of a like kind which exist in Germany. . . . The technical education of French workmen is of tAvo kinds, elementary and advanced. In the first, the child having been early destined to a particular trade, is placed in an institution, where he serves a kind of preliminary apprenticeship to that trade, and where primary instruction goes hand in hand with the special' training requisite to give him a more enlarged knowledge of his business. These technical schools for children are, however, only just beginning to be estab- lished, but the results in the last of which accounts were published, were in the highest degree satisfactory. The children are occupied, in all, about nine hours of the day. ... In the morning they receive instruction of the ordinary kind, which is also given for an hour in the evening, and dur- ing the day they work, in every respect, as if they were apprenticed to private individuals, only that a certain portion of the time is devoted to teaching them the rationale of their art. ... It has been stated that at present these institutions are very few in number, as hitherto they have only been regarded in the light of an experiment, so that only a very limited number of trades can be taught in them, but there is little doubt that as an experiment they have been successful, and that when their suc- cess shall have obtained general recognition, the Government will take measures for establishing, them in all the principal towns. An equally impo]:tant tentative eflfort in the way of technical educa- tion has recently been made in the establishment, under government pat- ronage, of an institution for the higher technical training of youths — that is to say, for the union of the highest theoretical with the best practical teach- ing in the manufacturing arts. This institution is somewhat in the nature of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers, only it is not so exclusively theoretical at SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUIiTEAffiERG. 309 that, but aims at supplying a want long felt in France, namely, that of ekillcd foremen competent to superintend, or at least fully understand all the operations of a large manufactory. Mr. AiTKEN, of Birmingham, in his introductory report, which heads the reports of the Birmingham artisans, says: "Industry, formerly un- affected by foreign rivalry, contended only with small producers of its own nation, and then the competition was small. But free trade has thrown down the barriers, and the world is now one mighty, universal market. To be successful in this competition, our nation (England) must, therefore, put forward all its energies to educate in technical, and other schools, tlie present and coming generations ; this was anticipated and clearly seen. Humboldt, many j^ears ago, foresaw and predicted ' that the time was not far distant when science and manipulative skill must be wedded together; that national wealth and the increasing prosperity of nations must be based on an enlightened employment of natural products and forces.' Justus Liebig said : * The nation most quickly promoting the intellectual develop- ment of its industrial population must advance, as surely as the country neglecting it must inevitably retrograde.' Peel saw this when he uttered the memorable words, ' If we are inferior in skill, knowledge, and intelli- gence to the manufacturers of other countries, the increased facilities of intercourse will result in transferring the demand from us to others ;' and England's noblest Prince foresaw in International Exhibitions (which he was the first to inaugurate) the coming activity in things industrial ; and in order to provide for the coming competition, he inaugurated, ere his lamented death, a system of industrial education." . . . In France, Prussia, Saxony, and the small State of Wurtemberg, &c., trade schools, in addition to others of a higher class, are in existence, and furnish the connecting link between the man of science who discovers, and the superintendent who is the medium, and who, educated in these schools, aids by his instruction and advice, the workman in bringing into visible shape the discovery of the man of science, rendering practically useful that which existed as an idea only. If, then, industrial and techuical training has benefited other countries and states, in their industrial progress (which no doubt it has), it becomes the duty of every Englishman to see to this- important point. It is impossible to go through the evidence of the eighty-six repre^ sentatives of the skilled workmen of England, without sharing their pro- found conviction : — 1st. Of the pressing peril of the nation in regard to manufacturing pre-eminence. 2d. Of the culpability of the educated classes and of the executive Government, in having neglected the education of the people. 3d. That it is satisfactorily proved by these reports, that the reluctance of the working classes to receive superior technical education, to bear taxation for that purpose, and to accept the active agency of Govern- ment institutions and official^, (which reluctance has been put forward as an excuse for this neglect), has no existence, in fact, and that it is therefore the negligence, apathy, and reluctance of the governing classes and th^ Government which have hitherto alone prevented the organization of sys- tematic technical education. 4tli. It appears that until the mission to France, of the English artisans in 1867, they, the working men of England, 400 SPECIAI. rN-STEUCTION IN WFRTEMBEEG. were not aware that the Governments of other countries had organized complete education in all trade crafts, from the lowest mechanical lahor to the highest professional slciTl. 5th. Throughout the whole of these reports there runs a feeling of profound admiration for the system of education given in France ; but they were evidently not aware that the educated men and statesmen of France had themselves become conscious that their sys- tem was far below the level of excellence of the educated German nations; that a royal commission, under the presidency of M. Behic, formerly Min- ister of Commerce, had recently been occupied with that subject, and had arrived at the conclusion that the technical education of France, which our artisans admired in Paris, was, as a national system of technical education, extremely defective ; and the investigations of this Commission, prove, that if England is the worst educated of the first-class Powers of Europe, France is the second worst. Cth. There runs parallel with these convictions a con- sciousness that the English workman, is, by nature, the best of workmen, and that with systematic education, their works would excel those of com- peting nations. In conclusion, I have to state my deep conviction that the working men of England expect and demand of their Government the design, organization, and execution of systematic technical education, and there is urgent need for it to bestir itself, for other nations have already iive-and- twenty years'.start of us, and have produced one or two generations of educated workmen. Even if we begin to-morrow the technical education of all the youths of twelve years of age who have received somid elementary education, it will take seven years before these young men can commence the practical business of life, and then they will form but an insignificant minority in an uneducated mass. It will take fifteen years before those children who have not yet begun to receive an elementary education shall have passed from the age of 7 to 21, and represent a completely trained generation; and even then they will find less than half of their comrades educated. In the race of nations, therefore, we shall find it hard to over- take the five-and-twenty years we have lost. To-morrow, then^ let us undertake, with all energy, our neglected task ; the urgency is two-fold, — one half of our youth, let us say, has received elementary, but no technical education : for that half let us at once organize technical schools in every small town, technical colleges in every large town, and a technical univer- sity in the metropolis. The other half of the rising generation has received no education at all, and for them let us at once organize elementary education, even if compulsory. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE, INTRODUCTION. The Empire of France, [exclusive of the colonies,] on an area of 206,676 English square miles in 1866, had a population of 38,067,- 094. In 1856, there were, among a total population of 36,012,669: 19,064,071 employed in agriculture, 10,469,961 in mechanical arts, and 1,632,331 in commercial pursuits. The total expenditure in 1867 amounted to 1,902,111,370 francs, of which sum 28,344,121 francs were expended for public instruc- tion under the following ministries, and with the following statistics: First. — Under the Ministry of I*ublic Instruction: 1. Primary Instruction. 53,957 Public Schools, in 37,548 Communes, with 2,461,492 pupils. 16,714 Private Elementary Schools, with 978,258 pupils. 3,669 Inftxnt Schools, with 432,141 pupils. 32,383 Adult Courses, with 829.555 scholars. Total, 106,723 Schools, with 4,701,446 scholars. 2. Secondary Instruction. 83 Lyceums, with 36,306 students. 253 Communal Colleges, with 32,453 students — making a total of 336 government schools, with 68,759 students, of whom 17,209 follow the Special Secondary Course. 934 Non-governmental Secondary Schools, with 77,906 students. Total, 1,270 Institutions, with 146,664 students. 3. Superior Instruction. 8 Faculties or Schools of Theology, with 46 professors. 11 Faculties of Law, with 100 professors and 4,895 students. 16 Faculties of Science, with 119 professors. 16 Faculties of Literature, Avitli 102 professors. 22 Preparatory Schools of Medicine and Pharmacy, with 190 professors. 3 Higher Schools of Medicine, with 66 professors and 1,780 students. Total, 76 Institutions of the highest instruction, with 603 professors. 4. Special Schools. 1 Normal School for Teachers in Infant Asylums at Paris. 1 Superior Normal School for Professors in Lyceums and the Faculties of Letters and Science at Paris, with 110 pupils and 23 professors. 1 Normal School for Secondary Special Instruction at Cluny. 84 Primary Normal Schools for male teachers, with 449 professors. 12 Primary Normal Schools for female teachers. 1 Primary Normal Course for male teachers, with 12 professors. 49 Primary Normal Courses for female teachers. 3 Schools of Living Oriental Tongues, with 9 professors. 1 Course of Archaeology in connection with Cabinet of Medals. 1 French School of Archaeology and Greek Literature at Athens. 1 Imperial School of Records (ecole des chartes) at Paris, to prepare pu- pils for- librarians and keepers of public archives. 1 Museum of Natural History at Paris, with 16 professors. 1 School of Sacred Music at Paris. 1 Imperial College of France, with 31 professors. 26 402 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 1 Special School of Drawing for Young "Women at Paris. 1 National Conservatory of Music at Paris: 87 professors. 6 Provincial Schools of Music : 6 professors, (at Dijon, Nantes, Metz, Lille, Toulouse, Marseilles.) 1 Institution for the Blind at Paris, besides 6 provincial schools. 2 National Institutions for Deaf-mutes at Paris and Bordeaux, besides 41 private and municipal schools. 1 Central Correctional House of Education at Paris. Second. — Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works: 3 Imperial Schools of Agriculture at Grand-Jouan, Grignon, and La Saulsaie, with 24 professors. 9 Agricultural Courses, with 11 professors. 1 National Agronomic institute at Versailles. 70 School-farms. 1 Practical School of Irrigation and Drainage atLizardeau ; 2 professors. 1 National School of Horse-breeding. 3 Imperial Sheep-folds and Cow-houses (berQeries and vacJieries.) S Schools of Veterinary Surgery at Alfort, Lyons, Toulouse, with 18 professors. 1 Superior School of Commerce at Paris ; 1 School of Chamber of Com- merce at Paris. 1 Imperial School of Bridges and Eoads at Paris ; 22 professors. 3 Imperial Schools of Mines, viz., at Paris, 15 professors ; at St. Etienne, 3 professors : at Alais, 1 professor. 1 Imperial Conservatory of Arts and Industry at Paris; 19 professors. 1 Central School of Arts and Manufjactures at Paris ; 28 professors. 3 Imperial Schools of Arts and Industry, at Aix, Angers, Chalons-sur- Marne ; 32 professors. School of Watchmaking at Cluses (Savoy,) besides several provincial schools. * Third. — Ministry or War : 1 Imperial Polytechnic School at Paris ; 22 professors, 19 assistants, and 350 pupils. 1 Special Military School at St. Cyr ; 33 professors. 1 Staff-school ieeole du corps cf etat-major) at Paris ; 19 professors. 1 School of Artillery and Military Engineering [ecole d' ajoplication de Vartillerie et da genie^ at Metz, with 28 professors. 1 Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur ; 40 professors. 1 Cavalry-musicians' school [ecole de trompettes] at Saumur. 1 Imperial School of Military Medicine and Pharmacy at Paris ; 13 pro- I fessors. 1 Imperial School for the Sanitary Service at Strasburg ; 12 professors. 1 Normal Shooting-school {ecole normale de tir ;) 11 teachers. 1 Normal School of Military Gymnastics at Vincennes ; 3 teachers. 1 Imperial Prytaneum (orphans of officers) at LaFleche ; 25 professors. 11 Kegimental Schools of Artillery. 3 Eegimental Schools of Engineering. 5 Military Gymnasiums. 1 Military Musical Gymnasium at Paris. 1 Bureau of Longitudes ; 6 professors. 1 Imperial Observatory ; 18 professors, assistants and calculators. Eegimental schools for the infantry of the line exist in all the corps. Fourth. — Ministry of Marine and the Colonies : 1 School of Naval Architecture at Paris, with 30 pupils ; 3 professors. 1 Practical School of Maritime Engineering at L' Orient ; 9 professors. 1 Imperial Naval School at Brest ; 11 professors. 42 National Schools of Hydrography ; 42 professors. 3 Imperial Schools of Naval Pharmacy and Medicine at Brest, Eoche- fort, and Toulon ; 15 professors. 6 Nautical School-ships ; 5 Naval Apprentice Schools ; 2 Schools for Naval Engineers and Stokers ; 2 Naval Drawing Schools. Fifth. — Ministry of Finance : 1 Imperial School of Forestry at Nancy; 8 professors. 1 School of the Manufacture of Tobacco at Paris ; 7 professors. Sixth. — Ministry of the Fine Arts and the Imperial Household : 4 Imperial Schools of the Fine Arts ; at Paris, Eome, Lyons, and Dijon. 1 National Special School of Drawing and Mathematics applied to the Industrial Arts, at Paris. THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PAKIS I. FOUNDATION AND HISTORY. The origin of the Ecole Polytechnique dates from a period of disorder and distress in the history of France which> might seem alien to all intellectual pursuits, if we did not remember that the general stimulus of a revolutionary period often acts powerfully upon thought and education. It is, perhaps, even more than the Institute, the chief scientic creation of the first French Revolution. It was during the government of the committee of public safety, when Carnot, as war minister, was gradually driving back the in- vading armies, and reorganizing victory out of defeat and confusion, that the first steps were taken for its establishment. A law, dating the 1st Yentose, year IL, the 12th of March 1794, created a " Com- mission des Travaux Publics," charged with the duty of establish- ing a regular system for carrjdng on public works ; and this com- mission ultimately founded a central school for public works, and drew up a plan for the competitive examination of candidates for admission to the service. It was intended at first to give a com- plete education for some of the public services, but it was soon changed into a preparatory school, to be succeeded by special schools of application. This was the Ecole Polytechnique. The school and its plan were both owing to an immediate and pressing want. It was to be partly military and partly civil. Mili- tary, as well as civil education had been destroyed by the revolu- tionists. The committee of public safety had, indeed, formed a provisional school for engineers at Metz, to "supply the immediate wants of the army on the frontier, and at this school young men were hastily taught the elements of fortification, and were sent di- rect to the troops, to learn as they best could, the practice of their art. " But such a method," says the report accompanying the law which founded the school, " does not form engineers in any true sense of the term, and can only be justified by the emergency of the ♦ Compiled from " Report and Appendix of English Commissioners on Military Educa- tion." 1857. 404 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. time. The young men should be recalled to the new school to complete their studies." Indeed no one knew better than Carnot, to use the language of the report, " that patriotism and courage can not " always supply the want of knowledge ;" and in the criti- cal campaigns of 1793 — 4, he must often have felt the need of the institution which he was then contributing to set on foot. Such was the immediate motive for the creation of this school. At first, it only included the engineers amongst its pupils. But the artil- lery were added within a year. We must not, however, omit to notice its civil character, the combination of which with its military object forms its peculiar fea- ture, and has greatly contributed to its reputation. Amongst its founders were men, who though ardent revolutionists, were thirsting for the restoration of schools and learning, which for a time had been totally extinguished. The chief of these, besides Carnot, were Monge and Fourcroy, Berthollet and Lagrange. Of Carnot and Lagrange, one amongst the first of war ministers, the other one of the greatest of mathematicians, we need not say more. Berth- ollet, a man of science and practical skill, first suggested the school ; Monge, the founder of Descriptive Geometry, a favorite savant of Napoleon though a zealous republican, united to real genius that passion for teaching and for his pupils, which makes the beau ideal of the founder of a school ; and Fourcroy was a man of equal prac- tical tact and science, who at the time had great influence with the convention, and was afterwards intrusted by Napoleon with much of the reorganization of education in France. When the school first started there was scarcely another of any description in the country. For nearly three years the revolution had destroyed every kind of teaching. The attack upon the old schools, in France, as elsewhere, chiefly in the hands of the clergy, had been begun by a famous report of Talleyrand's, presented to the legislative assembly in 1791, which recommended to suppress all the existing academies within Paris and the provinces, and to replace them by an entirely new system of national education through the country. In this plan a considerable number of mili- tary schools were proposed, where boys were to be educated from a very early age. When the violent revolutionists were in power, they adopted the destructive part of Talleyrand's suggestions with- out the other. All schools, from the university downwards, were destroyed ; the large exhibitions or Bourses, numbering nearly 40,000, were confiscated or plundered by individuals, and even the military schools and those for the public works (which were abso- POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 405 lutely necessary for the very roads and the defense of the country) were suppressed or disorganized. The school of engineers at Me- zieres (an excellent one, where Monge had been a professor,) and that of the artillery at La Fere, were both broken up, whilst the murder of Lavoisier, and the well known saying in respect to it, that " the Republic had no need of chemists," gave currency to a belief, which Fourcroy expressed in proposing the Polytechnic, " that the late conspirators had formed a deliberate plan to destroy the arts and sciences, and to establish their tyranny on the ruins of human reason." Thus it was on the ruin of all the old teaching, that the new in- stitution was erected ; a truly revolutionary school, as its founders delighted to call it, using the term as it was then commonly used, as a synonym for all that was excellent. And then for the first time avowing the principle of public competition, its founders, Monge and Fourcroy, began their work with an energy and enthu- siasm which they seem to have left as a traditional inheritance to their school. It is curious to see the difficulties which the bank- ruptcy of the country threw in their way, and the vigor with which, assisted by the summary powers of the republican government, they overcame them. They begged the old Palais Bourbon for their "building ; were supplied with pictures from the Louvi'e ; the fortu- nate capture of an English ship gave them some uncut diamonds for their first experiments; presents of military instruments were sent from the arsenals of Havre; and even the hospitals con- tributed some chemical substances In fine, having set their school in motion, the government and its professors worked at it with such zeal and effect, that within five months after their project was an- nounced, they had held their first entrance examination, open to the competition of all France, and started with three hundred and seventy-nine pupils. The account of one of these first pupils, who is among the most distinguished still surviving ornaments of the Polytechnic, will con- vey a far better idea of the spirit of the young institution than could be given by a more lengthy description. M. Biot described to us vividly the zeal of the earliest teachers, and the thirst for knowledge which, repressed for awhile by the horrors of the period, burst forth with fresh ardor amongst the French youth of the time. Many of them, he said, like himself, had been carried away by the enthusiasm of the revolution, and had entered the army. " My father had sent me," he added, " to a mercantile house, and indeed I never felt any great vocation to be a soldier, but Que voulez vous ? 406 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. les Prussiens etaient en Champagne^ He joined tbe array, served two years under Dumouriez, and returned to Paris in the reign of terror, " to see from Lis lodgings in tlie Rue St.. Honore the very generals who had led us to victory, Custine and Biron, carried by in the carts to the guillotine. " Imagine what it was when we heard that Robespierre was dead, and that we might return safely to study after all this misery, and then to have for our teachers La Place, Lagrange, and Monge. We felt like men brought to life again after suffocation. Lagrange said, modestly, "Let me teach them arithmetic." Monge was more like our father than our teacher ; he would come to us in the evening, and assist us in our work till mid- night, and when he explained a difficulty to one of our chefs de brigade, it ran like an electric spark through the party." The pu- pils were not then, he told us, as they have since been, shut up in barracks, they were left free, but there was no idleness or dissipa- tion amongst them. They were united in zealous work? and in good camaraderie, and any one known as a bad character was avoided. This account may be a little tinged by enthusiastic recollections, but it agreed almost entirely with that of M. de Barante, who bore similar testimony to the early devotion of the pupils, and the unique excellence of the teaching of Monge. We are not, however, writing a history of this school, and must confine ourselves to such points as directly illustrate its system of teaching and its organization. These may be roughly enumerated in the following order : 1. Its early history is completed by the law of its organization, given it by La Place in his short ministry of the interior. This oc- curred in the last month of IVQO, a memorable era in French, his- tory, for it was immediately after the revolution of the 18th of Bru- maire, when Napoleon overthrew the Directory and made himself First Consul. One of his earliest acts was to sign the charter of his great civil and military school. This charter or decree deserves some attention, because it is always referred to as the law of the foundation of the school. It determined the composition of the two councils of instruction and improvement, the bodies to which the direction of the school was to be, and still is, intrusted ; some of its marked peculiarities in the mode and subject of teaching. It is important to notice each of the two points. The direction of the school was at first almost entirely in the hands of its professors, who formed what is still called its Council of Instruction. Each of them presided over the school alternately for one month, a plan copied from the revolutionary government of POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 407 the Convention. In the course of a few years, however, another body was added, which has now the real management of the school. This is called the "Council of Improvement" [Conseil de perfec- tionnemeiit,) and a part of its business is to see that the studies form a good preparation for those of the more special schools (Scales d' application) for the civil and military service. It consists of eminent men belonging to the various public departments sup- plied by the school, and some of the professors. It has had, as far as we could judge, an useful influence ; first^ as a body not liable to be prejudiced in its proposals by the feelings of the school, and yet interested in its welfare and understanding it ; secondly^ as hav- ing shown much skill in the difficult task of making the theoretical teaching of the Polytechnic a good introduction to the practical studies of the public service ; thirdly, as being sufficiently influential, from the character of its members, to shield the school from occa- sional ill-judged inteiference. It should be added that hardly any year has passed without the Council making a full report on the studies of the school, with particular reference to their bearing on the Special Schools of Application. The method of scientific teaching has been peculiar from the be- ginning. It is the most energetic form of what may be called the repetitorial system, a method of teaching almost peculiar to France, and which may be described as a very able combination of profes- sional and tutorial teaching. The object of the repetiteur, or pri- vate tutor, is to second every lecture of the professor, to explain and fix it by ocular demonstration, explanations, or examination. This was a peculiarity in the scheme of Monge and Fourcroy. The latter oaid, in the first programme, " Our pupils must not only learn, they must at once carry out their theory. We must distribute them into small rooms, where they shall practice the plans of descriptive geometry, Avhich the professors have just shown them in their pub- lic lectures. And in the same manner they must go over in prac- tice (repeteront) in separate laboratories the principal operations of chemistry." To carry out this system the twenty best pupils, of whom M. Biot was one, were selected as repetiteurs soon after the school had started. Since then the vacancies have alwa3^s been filled by young but competent men, aspiring themselves to become in turn professors. They form a class of teachers more like the highest style of private tutors in our universities, or what are called m Germany Frivat-docenfen, than any other body — with this differ- ence, that they do not give their own lectures, but breaking up the professor's large class into small classes of five and six pupils, exam- 408 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. ine these in his lecture. The success of this attempt we shall de scribe hereafter. 2. A change may be noticed which was effected very early by the Council of Improvement — the union of pupils for artillery and en- gineers in a single school of application. The first report in De- cember 1800, speaks of the identity in extent and character of the studies required for these two services ; and in conformity with its recommendation, the law of the 3rd of October 1802, (12th Yende- miaire, XL) dissolved the separate artillery school at Chalons, and established the united school for both arms in the form which it still retains at Metz. 3. In 1805 a curious change was made, and one very character- istic of the school. The pupils have always been somewhat turbu- lent, and generally on the side of opposition. In the earliest times they were constantly charged with incivisme, and the aristocracy was said to have " taken refuge within its walls." In fact, one of its earliest and of its few great literary pupils, M. de Barante, con- firmed this statement, adding, as a reason, that the school gave foi a while the only good instruction in France. It was in consequence of some of these changes that the pupils who had hitherto lived in their own private houses or lodgings in Paris, were collected in the school building. This ^^ casernement,''^ said to be immediately owing to a burst of anger of Napoleon, naturally tended to give the school a more military character ; but it was regarded as an unfortu- nate change by its chief scientific friends. " -4A / ma pauvre ecole /" M. Biot told us he had exclaimed, when he saw their knapsacks on their beds. He felt, he said, that the enthusiasm of free study was gone, and that now they v/ould chiefly work by routine and com- pulsion. 4. The year 1 809 may be called the epoch at which the school attained its final character. By this time the functions, both of boards and teachers, were accurately fixed, some alterations in the studies had taken place, and the plan of a final examination had been drawn up, according to which the pupils were to obtain their choice of the branch of the public service they preferred. In fact, the school may be said to have preserved ever since the form it then assumed, under a variety of governments and through various revo- lutions, in most of which, indeed, its pupils have borne some share ; and one of which, the restoration of 1816, was attended wdth its temporary dissolution. Thus, during the first years after its foundation the Polytechnic grew and flourished in the general dearth of public teaching, being POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARI8. 409 indeed not merely the only great school, but, until the Institute was founded, the only scientific body in France. Working on its first idea of high professorial lectures, practically applied and explained by repetiteurs, its success in its own purely scientific line was, and has continued to be, astonishing. Out of its sixteen earliest pro- fessors, ten still retain an European name. Lagrange, Mongc, Four- croy, La Place, Guyton de Morvcau were connected with it. Malus, Hauy, Biot, Poisson, and De Barante, were among its earliest pu- pils. Arago, Cauchy, Cavaignac, Lamoriciere, w^ith many more modern names, came later. All the great engineers and artillery- men of the empire belonged to it, and the long pages in its calen- dar of distinguished men are the measure of its influence on the civil and military services of France. In fact its pupils, at a time of enormous demands, supplied all the scientific offices of the army, and directed all the chief public works, fortresses, arsenals, the im- provement of cities, the great lines of roads, shipbuilding, mining — carried out, in a word, most of the great improvements of Napo- leon. He knew the value of his school, " the hen" as he called it, " that laid him golden eggs" — and perhaps its young pupils were not" improved by the excessive official patronage bestowed by him upon " the envy of Europe," " the first school in the world." It can not, however, be matter of surprise, that its vigor and success should have caused Frenchmen, even those who criticise its influ- ence severely, to regard it with pride as an institution unrivaled for scientific purposes. It is not necessary to give any detailed, account of the later his- tory of the school, but we must remark that disputes have fre- quently arisen with regard to the best mode of harmonizing its teaching with that of the special schools of application to which it conducts. These disputes have been no doubt increased by the union of a ci\^l and military object in the same school. The scien- tific teaching desirable for some of the higher civil professions has appeared of doubtful advantage to those destined for the more prac- tical work of war. There has been always a desire on the one side to qualify pure mathematics by application, a strong feeling on the other that mathematical study sharpens the mind most keenly for some of the practical pursuits of after life. We should add, per- haps, that there has been some protest in France (though little heard among the scientific men who have been the chief directors of the school) against the esprit faux, the exclusive pursuit of math- ematics to the utter neglect of literature, and the indiff'erence to moral and historical studies. Some one or other of these com- 410 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARTS. plaints any one who studies the literature, the pamphlets, and his- tory of the school will find often reproduced in the letters of war ministers, of artillery and engineer ojfficers commanding the school of application at Metz, or of committees from the similar schools for the mines and the roads and bridges. The last of these occa- sions illustrates the present position of the school. On the 5th of June 1850, the legislative assembly appointed a mixed commission of military men and civilians, who were charged to revise all the programs of instruction, and to recommend all needful changes in the studies of the pupils, both those preparatory to entrance* and those actually pursued in the school. The com- mission was composed as follows : — M. Thenard. Member of the Academy of Sciences, and of the Board of Im- provement of the Polytechnic School, President. Le Yerrier, Member of the Academy of Sciences and of the Legislative As- sembly, Reporter. Noizet, General of Brigade of Engineers. Poncelet, General of Brigade of Engineers, Commandant of the Polj'technic School, Member of the Academy of Sciences. Piobert, General of Brigade of Artillery, Member of the Academy of Sciences. Mathieu, Rear Admiral. Duhamel, Member of the Academy of Sciences, Director of Studies at the Polytechnic School. Mary, Divisional Inspector of Roads and Bridges. Morin, Colonel of Artillery, Member of the Academy of Sciences. Regnault, Engineer of Mines, Member of the Academy of Sciences. Olivier, Professor at the Conservatoire des Arts ei Metiers. Debacq, Secretary for Military Schools at the Ministry of War, Secretary. A chronic dispute which has gone on from the very first year of the school's existence, between the exclusive study of abstract mathematics on the one hand, and their early practical application on the other, was brought to a head (though it has scarcely been set at rest) by this commission. All the alterations effected have been in the direction of eliminating a portion of the pure mathe- matics, and of reducing abstract study to the limits within which it was believed to be most directly applicable to practice. The re- sults, however, are still a subject of vehement dispute, in which most of the old scientific pupils of the Polytechnic, and many of what may be styled its most practical members, the oflacers of the artillery and engineers, are ranged on the side of " early and deep scientific study versus early practical applications." It is, indeed, a question which touches the military pupils nearly, since it is in their case particularly that the proposed abstract studies of the Polytech- nic might be thought of the most doubtful advantage. We do not try to solve the problem here, though the facts elsewhere stated will afford some materials for judgment. We incline to the opin- * In an Analysis of the Report of this Commission, see page POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS, 41| ion of those who think that the ancient genius loci, the traditional teaching of the school, will be too strong for legislative interference, and that, in spite of recent enactments, abstract science and analy- sis will reign in the lecture-rooms and halls of study of the Poly- technic, now as in the days of Monge. II. AN OUTLINE OF THE MANAGESIENT AND OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SCHOOL, ETC. The Polytechnic, as we have said, is a preparatory and general scientific school ; its studies are not exclusively adapted for any one of the departments to which at the close of its course the scholars will find themselves assigned ; and on quitting it they have, before entenng on the actual discharge of their duties of whatever kind, to pass through a further term of teaching in some one of the schools of application specially devoted to particular professions. The public services for which it thus gives a general preparation are the following : Military : Under the Minister at War. Artillery (Artillerie de terre.) Engineers {Genie.) The Staff Corps {Corps d'Etai Major.) The Department of Powder and Saltpetre {Poudres et Salpetres.) Under the Minister of Marine. Navy, {Marine.) Marine Artillery {Artillerie de mer.) Naval Architects {Genie maritime.) The Hydrographical Department {Corps des Ingenieurs Hydrographes.) Civil : Under the Minister of Public Works. The Department of Roads and Bridges {Ponis-et-chaussees.) The Department of Mines {Mines.) Under the Minister of the Interior. The Telegraph Department {Lignes Telegraphiques.) Under the minister of Finance. The Tobacco Department {Administration des Tahacs.) To these may be added at any time, by a decree on the part of the government, any other departments, the duties of which appear to require an extensive knowledge of mathematics, physics, or chemistry. Admission to the school is, and has been since it;s first commence- ment in 1*794, obtained by competition in a general examination, held yearly, and open to all. Every French youth, between the age of sixteen and twenty, (or if in the army up to the age of twenty five,) may offer himself as a candidate. 412 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. A board of examiners passes through France once every year, and examines all who present themselves, that have complied with the conditions, which are fully detailed in the decree given in the ap- pendix. It commences at Paris. A list of such of the candidates as are found eligible for admit- tance to the Polytechnic is drawn up from the proceedings of the board, and submitted to the minister at war ; the number of places likely to be vacant has already been determined, and the minister fixes the number of admissions accordingly. The candidates ad- mitted are invariably taken in the order of merit. The annual charge for board and instruction is 40Z. (1,000 fr.,) payable in advance in four installments. In addition there is the cost of outfit, varying from 201. to 241. Exhibitions, however, for the discharge of the whole or of one-half of the expense [bourses and demi-bourses,) are awarded by the state in favor of all the suc- cessful candidates, whose parents can prove themselves to be too poor to maintain their children in the school. Outfits and half outfits (trousseaux) and demi-trousseaux) are also granted in these cases, on the entrance of the student into the school ; and the num- ber of these boursiers and demi-boursiers amounts at the present time to one-third of the whole. The course of study is completed in two years. On its success- ful termination which is preceded by a final examination, the stu- dents are distributed into the difi'erent services, the choice being ofi'ered them in the order of their merit, and laid down in the clas- sified list drawn up after the examination. If it so happen that the number of places or the services which can be oflfered is not suffi- cient for the number of qualified students, those at the bottom of the list are offered service in the infantry or cavalry, and those who do not enter the public service, are supplied with certificates of hav- ing passed successfully through the school. Students who have been admitted into the school from the army, are abliged to re-en- ter the army. All others, as has been said, have the right of choosing, accord- ing to their position on the list, the service which they prefer, so far, that is, as the number of vacancies in that service will allow ; or they may if they please decline to enter the public service at all. Such is a general outline of the plan and object of the school. We may add that, besides its military staff", it employs no less than thirty-nine professors and teachers ; that it has four boards of man- agement, and that ten scientific men unconnected with the school, and amongst the most distinguished in France, conduct its examina- POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 413 tions. The magnitude of this establishment for . teaching may be estimated by the fact, that the number of pupils rarely exceeds three hundred and fifty, and is often much less. A fuller enumeration of these bodies will complete our present sketch. • I. The military establishment consists of: — The Commandant, a General Officer, usually of the Artillery or the Engi- neers, at present a General of Artillery. A Second in Command, a Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel, chosen from former pupils of school ; at present a Colonel of Engineers. Three Captains of Artillery and Three Captains of Engineers, as Inspectors of Studies, chosen also from former pupils of the school. Six Adjutants (adjoints,) non-commissioned officers, usually such as have been recommended for promotion. II. The civil establishment consists of: — 1. A Director of Studies, who has generally been a civilian, but is at present a Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers. 2. Fifteen Professors, viz. : — Two of Mathematical Analysis. Two of Me- chanics and Machinery. One of Descriptive Geometry. Two of Physics. Two of Chemistry. One of Military Art and Fortification. One of Geodesy. One of Architecture. One of French Composition. One of German. One of Drawing. Of these one is an officer of the StaflF, another of the Artillery, and a third of the Navy; two are Engineers in Chief of the Poads and Bridges; nine are civilians, of whom two are Members of the Academy of Sciences. 3. Three Drawing Masters for Landscape and Figure Drawing ; one for Ma- chine Drawing, and one for Topographical Drawing. 4. Nineteen Assistant and Extra Assistant Teachers, {repetiteurs and repeii- teurs adjoints) whose name and functions are both peculiar. 5. Five Examiners for Admission, consisting at present of one Colonel of Artillery, as President, and four civilians. 6. Five Examiners of Students (civilians,) four of them belonging to the Academy of Sciences. 7. There is also a separate Department for the ordinary Management of Ad- ministration of the affiiirs of the school, the charge of the fabric and of the library and museums ; and a Medical Staff. III. The general control or supervision of the school is vested, under the war department, in four great boards of councils, viz. : — 1. A board of administration, composed of the commandant, the second in command, the director of studies, two professors, two captains, and two members of the administrative staff. This board has the superintendence of all the financial business and all the mi- nutiae of the internal administration of the school. 2. A board of discipline, consisting of the second in command, the director, two professors, three captains (of the school,) and two captains of the army, chosen from former pupils. The duty of this board is to decide upon cases of misconduct. 3. A board of instruction, whose members are, the commandant, the second in command, the director, the examiners of students, and the professors ; and whose chief duty is to make recommenda- tions relating to ameliorations in the studies, the programmes of admission and of instruction in the school, to — 414 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 4. A board of improvement, charged with the general control of the studies, and composed of the commandant and second in com- mand, the director of studies, a delegate from each department of the public service for which the school prepares its pupils, three of the examiners of the school, three members of the Academy of Sci- ences, and three professors of the school. • III. THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION. Admission is by open competitive examination, held annually by persons appointed by the Minister of War on the recommendation of the Board of Instruction. Candidates must be (1) French born, or naturalized citizens ; (2) at least sixteen and not over twenty years of age, except in the case of actual service in the army, when the age is extended to twenty-five ; (3) must be bachelors of science or letters, or have completed the equivalent of the lyceuin course. The subjects of this examination are, arithmetic, algebra, geom- etry, trigonometry, mechanics, natural philosophy, elements of chemistry and drawing, aud one of four modern languages : German, English, Italian, Spanish, and Arabic, and a knowledge will count. The examination is partly written and partly oral, and is both pre- liminary and formal. The first is to ascertain the health, vigor, general aptitude, and knowledge of the candidate. In this examin- ation each candidate must hand in certain written sheets containing calculations, sketches, plans and drawings, executed by him at school during the year, certified and dated by the professor under whom he has studied. If these papers are found not to be the work of the pupil, or are not satisfactory, he is excluded at once from the com- petition. The written examination occupies about twenty-four hours, dis- tributed through four separate days, and is conducted in the pres- ence of certain ofiicial authorities, and in the absence of the exam- iners, who mark the papers on a certain scale of merit. Each candidate is examined orally for three-quarters of an hour upon each of two successive days, by each of two examiners separately ;' and the results are then compared with the written examination, and if the examiners differ in their estimate of a candidate's work, he is entitled to a second oral examination. The marks of the examiners are then communicated to the commandant, who makes out a class- ified list, which, with all the papers respecting each candidate, is then submitted to a jury, who, after a scrutiny of all the documents, submit a corrected list to the Minister of War, who can add a cer- tain number for special reasons, and the candidates are then admit- ted to the school in the order of the list. rV. SUBJECTS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. - Although slight changes are made in the order and time assigned to the several subjects, the following account given by Prof. Bache, with the modifications of 1856, is substantially correct for 1869. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. . , _ 415 Analysis. First Year. Differential and integral calculus, lo include the rectification and quadrature of plane curves, and curved surfaceis, and (lie cubalure of solids. Stcond Year. D.tfereutial and iute{?ral calculus continued. Elements of the calculus of variations and of finite ditferences. Formulaj of interpolation, &c. Mechanics. First Year. Statics.— Composition and equilibrium of forces. Theory of parallel forces. Of the center ofjjravity. Attraction of a point by a homogenous sphere. Dynamics— Gen- eral formation of motion. The pendulum. Projectiles. Problems in physical astronomy. Second Year. Statics continued. Forces applied loan invariable syft;Iem. Principle of virtual velocities. Application to simple mechanics. Dynamics. D Alembert's principle. Collision. Moment of inertia, &c. Hydrostatics. Hydrodynamics. Every lecture of analysis or mechanics is preceded orlollowed by interrogations by the pro- fessor. " Problems are given out for solution. The repeaters interrogate the pupils three times per week. After the completion of the course, general interrogations take place, upon the wliole subject, by the professors and repeaters. Descriptive Geoivietry. Problems relating to the right line and plane (twelve problems ) Tangent planes and nor- mals to curved surfaces (four problems.) Intersections of surfaces (seven problems.) Mis- cellaneous problems (seven.) Applicutiuns of Descriptive Geometry. Problems with a single plane of projection, and a Bcale of declivity. Linear perspective ^three problems.) Shadows (three problems.) Stone cutting (seven problems.) Carpentry (lour problems.) India-ink drawing. Elements in four examples. Analytical Geometry. The right line and plane. Curved surfaces. The professor may precede or follow his lecture by interrogations. During the course the class is examined by the repeaters, and at the close of the studies of Analytical Geometry there is a general review. Machines, Astronomy, Geodesy, and Social Arithmetic. Elements of Machines. Machines for transporting burthens and for pressure. For rais- ing liquids. Moved by air, by water, by steam. Useful effect of machines. Astrunomy and Geodesy. Formulae of spherical trigonometry. Measurement of space and time Of the celestial bodies. Of the earth. Elements of physical geography and hydrogra- phy^ Geodesy. Instruments. Figures of the earth. Projection of^ maps and chai'ts. Elements of the calculation of probabilities Tables. Insurances. Life insurance, &c. Interrogations by the professor accompany the lessons. Those by the repeater must be at least as frequent as those by the professor. At the close of the principal courses there is a general I'eview, in the way of interrogation, by the professor and repeater. Physics. First Year. 1. General properties of bodies. Falling bodies. Principle of equilibrium ol fluids. Specific gravities. 2. Heat Radiation, conduction, &c. Vapors. Latent heat. 3. General con.stitution of the atmosphere. Hygrometry. 4. Molecular attraction. Capillary action. 5. Electricity. Laws of attraction, repulsion, distribution, «fec. Atmospheric elec- tricity. Modes of developing electricity. Second Year. 6. Magnetism. Phenomena and laws of magnetism. Instruments. Re- ciprocal action of magnets and electrical currents. Electro-dynamics. Mutual actions of electrical currents. Thermo-electric phenomena. 7. Acoustics. Of the production, propo- gation, velocity, &c., of sound. Acoustic instruments. 8. Optics. Mathematical and physi- cal optic.^. Optical instruments. During the whole course the repeaters interrogate each division twice every week : they go through the study-rooms, and give any explanations which may be required by the pupils Chemistry. First Year. General principles. Division of the course. Examination of the principal simple sub.-tances. Mixtures and binary compounds. Laws of definite proportions, &c. Hydracids. Oxacids and oxides. Bases. Neutral binary compounds. Salts. Principal metals.. Second Year. Reciprocal action of acids and oxides. Action of water upon salts. Laws' of BerthoUet discussed. General properties of the carbonates, and special study of some of the more important. Borates and silicates. Glass and pottery. Nitrates. Gunpowder. Phosphates. uDcil, in virtue of the authority of which he is supposed to act. ^1 418 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. Since the date of Prof. Bache's Report, the administration, the en- trance examination, and course of instruction in the Polytechnic school has undergone some changes, and yet the main purpose, features, and methods of the institution, remain the same, winning from the Commission appointed by the War Department of the British Gov-' ernment in 1856, "to consider the best mode of reorganizing the sys- tem of training officers for the Scientific Corps" of the Army, the following testimony. Regarded simply as a great mathematical and scientific school, its results in producing eminent men of Science have been extraordinary. It has been the great (and a truly great) Mathematical University of France. Regarded again as a preparatory school for the public works, it has given a very high scientific education to civil engineers, whose scientific education in other countries (and amongst ourselves) is believed to be much slighter and more accidental. Regarded as a school for the scientific corps of the Arn)y, its peculiar mode of uniting in one course of competition candidates for civil and military services, has probably raised scientific thought to a higher point in the French than in any other army. Regarded as a system of teaching, the method it pursues in developing the talents of its pupils appears to us the best we have ever studied. It is in its studies and some of its main principles that the example of the poly- technic school may be of most value. In forming or improving any military school, we can not shut our eyes to the successful working at the polytechnic of the principle, which it was the first of all schools to initiate, the making great public prizes the reward and stimulus of the pupil's exertions. We may observe how the state has here encouraged talent by bestowing so largely assistance upon all successful, but poor pupils, during their school career. The commission in the course of their report, mention a few "marked -defects." "Such is the attempt to give exactly the same teaching, lesson by lesson, during a course of two years, to a class of one hundred and sixty pupils, with no reference to their varieties of ability, or power of application. This practice has a tendency either to make many of the pupils superficial, or to exhaust them." "An- other defect is the exclusively mathematical spirit encouraged and its tendency to prevent the education (of officers both civil and military) from being truly liberal." " Nor can we avoid remarking that educa- tion has its moral as well as its merely intellectual side, and we were not merely as much impressed with the moral and manly, as by the intellectual efiects of the Polytechnic teaching." "In spite of these drawbacks, many points in its system of teaching is admirable ; and it does for the Army, and the services of the Public Works of France, what the Universities do chiefly for the Bar and Clerical Profession in England." We append a note by Prof Gillespie. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN PARIS. 4X9 NOTE. We add a very condensed synopsis of the subjects embraced in the ^^ Interior Instruction'''' of the Polytechnic School in 1856. The reasonings which led the Commission to select these special sub- jects, and to pi'oportion them as here shown, may be given hereafter. The numbers in parentheses, which follow the topics, indicate how. many lectures are given to them. Each lecture embraces one and a half hours, of which the first half-hour, at least, is to be given to interrogations. The entire course comprises two years. INTERIOR INSTRUCTION IN THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. I. COURSE OF ANALYSIS. Differential Calculus. General principles, (8.) Analytical applications, (6.) Geometrical applica tions * (12.) Calculus of differences, (2.) Integral calculus. General principles, (6.) Geometrical applications, (5.) Applications to me- chanics, (3.) Certain definite integrals, (2.) Integration of differential equa- tions of the first and second order, (5.) Linear equations, (3.) Integration of equations by series, (1.) Integration of simultaneous differential equations, (2.) Equations of partial differentials, (2.) Geometrical applications, (2.) Mechan- ical and physical applications, (11.) Elements of the Calculus of Probabilities and Social Arithmetic, (3.) [The whole course of analysis (including reviews) comprises sev- enty-eight lectures, of which forty-five are given in the first half of the first year, and thirty-three in the first half of the second year.] 3. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRT. First Part. — Theoretical course. This comprises thirty-four lectures, with constant graphical practice. Second Part. — Applications. Perspective and shadows, (7.) Stone cutting, (15.) Cutting and combining timber, (9.) [This course extends through the first year.] 3. MECHANICS AND MACHINES. Mechanics of geometrical motions ; or Cinematics. Preliminaries, (3.) Geometrical transformations of motion, (8.) Composition of motions, (5.) Of acceleration in geometrical motions, (3.) Of accelj ration in some natural motions, (3.) Mechanics of forces ; or dynamomeirics. Fundamental principles of the mobecular mechanics of sj'stems of material points, (3.) Applications of these principles, (6.) Equilibrium and stability of solid bodies, (9.) Mechanics of the motions impressed by forces; or dynamics of systems. Preliminaries relating to free material points, (3.) General principles relating to systems of material points, (6.) Dynamics of solids or invariable systems, (4.) Applications of the general principles of dynamics, (5.) Theory and calculation of machines, (2.) *Thc method of infinitely small quantities is required to be exclusively employed ia th* applications of the calculus. 420 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN PARIS. Hydraulics, Pneumatics^ and Motors. Hydrostatics, (].) Experimental hydraulics, (4.) Hydraulic machines, (4.) Steam-engines, (3.) [This course comprises seventy-six lectures, including those of review. It extends through two years.] 4. PHYSICS. Preliminaries, (5.) Heat, (18.) Statical Electricity, (3.) Magnetism, (4.) Dynamical Electricity, (10.) Acoustics, (4.) Light, (18.) [This course conaprises sixty-eight lectures, and extend through two years. It is entirely experimental.] 5. CHEMISTRY. Preliminaries, (2.) Metalloids, (19.) Metals, (35.) Powder, lime, glass, and pottery, (6.) Organic chemistry, (5.) Organic chemistry manufactures, (5.) [This course is distributed over two years, with many practical manipulations.] 6. COURSE OF GEODESY. Trigonometry, [reviewed,] (2.) Measure of time, (2.) Measure of angles, (5.) Astronomy, (17.) Geodesy proper, (5.) Geographical maps, (2.) [This course is given in the second half of the second year.] 7. ARCHITECTURE AND PUBLIC WORKS First part : Elements of edifices, (18.) Second part; Composition of edifices, (16.) Third part : Ways of communication. Roads, bridges, canals, improved rivers, railroads, (6.) 8. MILITARY ART AND FORTIFICATIONS. First part : General notions, (7.) Second part : Temporary fortification, (4.) Third part : Permanent fortification, (7.) Fourth part : Attack and defense of places, (2.) . 9. COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY. [Ten lectures, during second year.] 10. COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND FRENCH LFTERATURE. [This course extends through the last year and a half.] 11, THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ' [Sixty lectures, during the two years.] 12. FIGURE AND LANDSCAPE DRAWING. N. B. It should be remembered, to account for the brevity of some important parts of the course, that the Polytechnic School is itself only preparatory to a number of " SpeciaV schools, such as those of Civil Engineering, of Military Engineering, of Mining, (fee. It ought also to be mentioned that many of the modifications here introduced into this course have been warmly opposed and censured by various French mathematicians and practitioners. W. M. G. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 421 SCHOOLS OF APPLICATION FOR rOLYTECHNIC GRADUATES. The Polytechnic School was instituted origiually to supply the corps of engineers, civil and military, from which it developed into a preparatory school for other departments of public service, the special studies of which are continued for from two to four years. The choice of service is determined by the rank which the students attain on the final examination, which is conducted by a special board, no member of which is in any way connected with the school, and all of whom are experts in some of the specialties into which the graduates are to pass. These schools of application are : Military Schools. — (1,) The School for Artillery and Engineers at Metz ; (2,) of Infantry and Cavalry at St. Cyr ; (3,) The Staff School at Paris ; (4,) Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur. Each of these schools comprises a strictly professional course of from two to three years. 2. Schools for the Naval Service. — (1,) The Naval School at Brest ; (2,) The School of Marine Artillery at Paris ; (3,) The School of Naval Architects at Paris ; (4,) The Hydrographic Engineers. ■^ 3. School for Government Civil Engineers, ( Corps des Pouts et Chaussees,) to whom are intrusted the construction and supervision of all public works. The course extends over a period of three years, and is both theoretical and practical. 4. Schools for Mining Engineers and Directors and Inspectors of the Government Mines. — The course lasts three years, and embraces, besides a thorough course of studies, tlie personal inspection of mines and the supervision of actual operations. 5. School for the Manufacture of Gunpowder [Poudres et Sal- petres.) — The main work of this school is to impart to pupils des- tined to this branch of the public service a thorough acquaintance with all the d&tails of manufacture, so as to superintend the gov- ernment works. 6. Schools for the Administration of the Tobacco Service, including a knowledge of chemistry, physics, mechanics, and accounts appli- cable to the same. 7. Schools for the Telegraphic Service, including the construction, repairs, and working of the signals used in the Military or Civil Service. 8. Other public services, as may be designated from time to time, which require thorough preparation in mathematics and natural science. This preparation in the Polytechnic fixes the standard and method for these studies in all the schools of France. 422 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF ROADS AND BRIDGES. CORPS IMPERIAL DES POKTS ET CHAUSSEES. The Corps Imperial des Ponts-et- Chausees, in France, existed as far back as the times of Henry IV, as a body of government engineers under the Chand Voyer of the kingdom, but received its present name and functions from the Regent in 1722. Its present organization is due to the Constituent Assembly in 1791. It belongs to the Ministry of Public Works, to which are intrusted all the vast and varied interests connected with the commerce and industry of the country, to which the government makes appropriations, or over which it exercises control or supervision. THE SCHOOL. An essential part of the organization of the Corps is the Ecole des Ponts-et- Chaussees, through which alone admittance to the Corps can be obtained. It is established in Paris, on the Pue des Saints Peres. It admits internes or eleves ingenieurs. and externes ; the latter may be of French or of foreign birth; the former must be of French birth, between the ages of 18 and 25, of good moral character, and graduates of the Ecole Polytechnique. The externes are required to submit to an exaboination, consisting of several compositions on the branches on which they are expected to be prepared, a drawing illustrating de- scriptive geometry, and an architectural design in colors. If these prove satis- factory, the jury allows them to present themselves for two oral examinations iu arithmetic, algebra, elementary geometry, rectilinear trigonometry, analytical geometry of two and three dimensions, descriptive geometry with applications to the cutting of stone and carpentry, differential and integral calculus, archi- tecture, mechanics, physics, and chemistry. The complete course of the school lasts three years, the term each year ex- tending from November 1 to April 30. From May 1 to October 30 they are assigned to places where engineering and constructions are going on. The branches studied in the school are the construction of roads, bridges, railways, canals, ports, the improvement of rivers, civil architecture, applied mechanics, hydraulics, steam-engines, agricultural hydraulics, applied mineral- ogy and geology, administrative law and political economy. A certain number of persons not regular pupils are allowed to attend the lectures, on exhibiting cards from the director. Instruction is gratuitous. It is from the classes of' eleves ingenieurs, or internes, already mentioned, that the corps of engineers is recruited. After the final examination, at the end of the course, they become ingenieurs de Sine classe, and then rise by seniority through the various degrees of rank. Their social standing is very high, taking rank before colonels at the imperial levees, and between all orders among them is observed that kind of etiquette belonging to military service. On leaving the school, they are at once assigned to service in the first va- cancy that occurs, without regard to any special talent any one may possess. However, those who have distinguished themselves are sent abroad to study the manner of executing work in foreign countries. The whole of France is divided into eighteen districts, each of which is under the inspection of an engineer, entitled inspecteur-general de 2nde classe, those of the first class being honorary members without definite functions. The ser- vice of the departments is divided between the ingeniev/r-en-dief de Ire classe, and de Inde cla^sse, and the ingenieurs ordijiaire d^e Ire, Inde, et de Sme classe, together with a class of men known as conducteurs. IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF ROADS AND BRIDGES. 423 The ingenieur ordinaire has the personal examination of all works propopcd or in progress; the questions of the establishment of unhealthy trades, of build- ing-lines, and the police of the roadways, also fall within his jurisdiction. He inspects, moreover, the work of the various contractors employed by the State, and '' must personally superintend the measurement of the various accounts they certify." The ingenieur of the first class is charged with the preparation of the projects for the improvement of his district, the management of credits and of the mon- etary matters, the execution of the works either by competition or by regie, which means that the State employs the workmen and engages the tradesmen to furnish materials on its own account, the direction of the law proceedings, and the movements of the employes of the office.. The central authorit}' is vested in the general council, composed of all the engineers of ever)- degree present in Paris at the time of its holding, and pre- sided over by the Minister, or, in his absence, by the diredtur-genercd, or an inspector nominated for that purpose by the Minister. This council pronounces upon the projects and plans of works and all questions relating to construction, all questions of accounts and the property of the State in public works, and questions connected with the fulfillment of their duties by engineers. To this council a regular report is made by the engineers in charge of the public works, approved and commented upon by the inspector, who must visit his district for three months every year, to inquire into all matters connected with this depart- ment. All observations on work in progress, and the discharge of duties by local officers, are transmitted to the Minister directly. Connected with the corps is the very useful body of men known as condudeurs, who receive their training in the offices of the engineers, and after an examina- tion in geometry, the theory of numbers, logarithms, plan-drawing, leveling, taking out quantities, measuring work, supeiintendence, and every thing con- cerned in carrying a project into effect, they become condudeurs embrigades de 4:me classe, and rise, by seniority generally, to the first class, but if they possess particular merit, or can command patronage, they may rise more rapidly. By the law of October, 1850, it was ordered that one-sixth of the engineers should be created from the condudeurs. They are engaged upon the field operations and specially-assigned engineering, the superintendence of the workmen, the measurement of completed works, and the preparation of the working plans that are sent out from the engineer's office. The salaries paid the various classes of engineers are as follows : To the gen- eral inspectors of the 1st class, 12,000 francs per annum; of the 2d, 10,000; engineers-in-chief of the 1st class, 5,000 to 6,000; of the 2d, 4,500 ; ordinary engineers of the 1st, 2d, and 3d classes, respectively 3,000, 2,500, 1,800. The pupils of the school receive 1,200 francs per annum, and 1,800 while engaged in practical service. The office expenses of the engineers are paid by the gov- ernment, being fixed by the Minister. An additional source of income is the works which the engineers are sometimes allowed to undertake for the com- munes. The Corps is represented by a scientific journal, the Annales des Ponis-et- Chaussees, published about six times a year, and characterized by its profound theoretical mode of treating all subjects relating to engineering. 424 SPECIAL liNSTRUCTIOiN IN FRANCE. SCHOOLS OF MINES AND MINERS. The earliest school of mines in France was founded by Louis XV, in 1783, in Palis, with a course of study and practice extended over three years. The winters were devoted to lectures, and the summer months to observation of practical operations with the inspectors on their tours to the government works. The selection of mining engineers was by law confined to the pupils of this school. In 1795 the Paris school was changed to a practical school of mining, and its pupils, twenty in number, were chosen from the graduates of the Polytechnic, or Central School of Public Works, who had attained the greatest proficiency in mathematics. In 1802 the establishment was removed to Pesey, in Savoy, where a lead mine was then worked by the State, and a second practical school founded at Greislauterra, in the old department of the Sarre. In consequence of the disrupture of territory by the political events of 1814 and 1815, the sites of those practical schools were lost to Prance, and tiie courses were reestablished in Paris as the School of Mines. In 1816 the Miners' School of St. Etienne was founded in the coal district of the Loire, the seat of the great coal and iron operations of France. In 1845 a school of practical mining was instituted at Alais, in the depart- ment of the Gard, to train intelligent workmen to become foremen and officers of mining establishments. Besides laboratories in connection with these mining schools at Paris, St. Etienne, and Alais, there are government laboratories for analysis and assaying, at Clermont, Grenoble, Marseilles, Vicdessos, and Vesoul — aU modeled on that of Paris. IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF MINES AT PAHIS. The Imperial School of Mines in Paris is located in the Boulevard St. Michel. Its aim is to educate mining engineers for the service of the State. Its pupils come from the Polytechnic School. Day-scholars may also be admitted who are intended for directors of working-mines and metallurgic establishments. The course of studies covers three years; instruction is entirely gratuitous. Candidates for day^scholars must, 1, be born or naturalized Frenchmen, and be at least 17, or at most 23 years old;. 2, prove by a certificate from their home authorities that they have a good moral character; 3, show by a certificate from a physician that they have been vaccinated. The knowledge required for admission comprises infinitesimal analysis, me- chanics, descriptive and applied geometry, physics with special regard to gas and optical instruments, general chemistry, geometrical drawing and shading with Indian ink ; legible handwriting, and correct orthography. Preliminary examinations on the above-mentioned subjects are held in Octo- ber in tlie Departments by mining engineers, specially designated for this pur- pose by the Minister. Scholars of the Polytechnic School, licentiates of science, mathematics, and pupils of the preparatory course who have obtained a cer- tificate of capacity, are exempt from this examination. To be definitely admitted as day-scholars, candidates must undergo a second SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 425 examination during the first half of November in Paris before the council of the school. Pupils who at the linal examination at the end of the three years' course show a sufficient degree of knowledge, receive a diploma of capacity. Aspirants for day-scholars' places can be admitted to the preparalory courses connected with the school itself and lasting one year. Candidates nmnt be native or naturalized Frenchmen, be at least 16 or at most 20 years old, and undergo an examination in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, rectilinear trigouom- ■etry, analytical geometry, physics, and drawing. The course of studies is as follows : — Preparatory course: Infinitesimal analysis and mechanics; descriptive geom- etry (simple and applied;) physics with special regard to gases, steam,' heat, and optical instruments; general chemistry; practical exercises in geometrical drawing and shading in Indian ink. Gentr ill course — First year : Mining, machinery, metallurgy, mineralogy, as- saying, paleontology; English and German. Second year: Second part -of mining and machinery, metallurgy and assaying; geology; English and Ger- man. Third year: Industrial constructions, construction of raiiroads, mining legislation, administrative laws; agriculture, irrigation and drainage ; English and German. The practical course embraces drawing, working in the laboratories, visiting of mines and metallurgic establishments in the neighborhood of Paris- geolog- ical and mineralogical excursions, and the preparation of papers descriptive of such visits and excursions. SCHOOL FOR MINERS AT ST. ETIENNE. The School for Miners at St. Etienne (Loire) is under the Ministry of Agri- Culture, Commerce, and Public Works. Its aim is to educate directors of mines and metallurgic establishments. Candidates for admission must be IG years at least and 25 years at most. They must prove by a certificate from their home authorities that they have a good moral character, and that they have been vaccinated. Naval and military men freed from service are admitted to the age of 28. The knowledge required for admission comprises: French, arithmetic, system of weights and measures, elementary geometry, algebra as far as equations of* the second degree, elements of linear drawing. Candidates must, from the 1st of August till the 1st of September, pass a preliminary examination before mining engineers specially designated by the Minister. These examinations are held in the principal cities of the Departments. Candidates from the Poly- technic School who show sufficient knowledge to pass the second exariiination, are exempt from the first. Candidates who have been declared admissible pass a second examination at St. Etienne before the council of the school. The list made out by the examining jury is presented to the Minister, and he marks those who are to be admitted. The course of studies covers three years; all scholars are day-scholars ; instruction is gratuitous. Certificates of capacity in various degrees are given to worthy scholars, on their leaving the school. The course of studies is as follows : First division: Geology, 20 lessons; metallurgy, 46; mechanics, IT ; me- chanical preparation of minerals and preparation of coal for market, 5 ; theory of resistance of materials, 10 lessons. 426 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. Second division : Mathematics, 22 lessons; physics, 24; descriptive geometry, 20; chemistry, 25; mineralogy, 18; shading and perspective, 8 lessons; stone- cutting and timber-work, 12; accounts, 8; practical worlsing of mines, 26; drawing of plans, 9 lessons. The school is under the direction of the inspector-general, aided by the chief engineer of mines of the department of the Loire, and professors (who are com- missioned mining engineers) of mineralogy and geology; of chemistry and metallurgy; of mechanics, construction, &c. ; of geometry, mapping, and draw- ing ; of accounts and the laws of mines. SCHOOL OF MASTER-MINERS AT ALAIS. The Imperial School of Master- work men in Mines at Alais (Gard,) is under the MinistiV of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. Its aim is to edu- cate master-miners who possess practical knowledge sufScient to superintend and guide the workingmen, and enough theoretical knowledge to understand and execute the orders of the directors of the mines. Candidates for admission must be at least 16 years old, must produce a certificate of good moral char- acter and a cdi'titicate of good health, duly signed by a physician ; they must likewise prove by a certificate from a mining-director that they have labored as common w^orkmen for a whole year in some mine, if they are less than 18 years old; for 18 months if they are from 18 to 20 years old; for two j^ears if older. Candidates must undergo a preliminary examination before an examiner desig- nated by the sub-prefect of the arrondissement in which they reside. This ex- amination is held in August. It consists of reading, spelling from dictation, sim- ple arithmetical exercises, and some elementary questions on weights and meas- ures. Candidates who pass this examination satisfactorily are at once notified at what time they must be in. Alais to undergo the final examination. This examination is also on the above-mentioned subjects and on some practical knowledge. The course covers two years. The term always commences in the first days of November, The school is a boarding-school. The wliole ex- pense of a stay of seven months and a-half is fixed at 360 francs. Whole and partial stipends founded by the State are generally only given to miners or sons of miners. Certificates as "master-miners" are given to worthy scholars'at the end of the two years' course. The course embraces the following subjects : 1. Theoretical course. — 1. Arithmetic: Simple and decimal fractions, sys- tem of weights and measures. 2. Geometry : Measuring of lines, surfaces, and simple solids ; graphic con- struction of geometrical problems, drawing of plans, linear drawing. 3. Physics and chemistry : The general properties of bodies, specific weight, thermometer, barometer, gas, heat, steam, chemical properties of metals. 4. Mineralogy and geology: Rocks and minerals, the geological layers, geo- logical description of France. 5. Mechanics: Simple mechanics, such as the lever, wheel, pully, inclined plane, &c., suction-pumps, detailed description of an exhausting steam-engine. 6. Working of mines : Process of working with the pick-axe and with gun- powder, wood-work and masonry of mines, precaution against gas explosions, inundations, &c. ; first care to be bestowed on men in cases of accident. 7. French language. II. Practical course. — This consists in working in the laboratories and in mines, and in excursions to mines in the neighborhood of Alais. STATE, DEPARTMENTAL, AND COMMUNAL SCHOOLS OP ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. France, although not yet possessing a governmental system ot' industrial schools, was earliest in the field to aid special depart- ments of artistic labor, and to institute museums, collections and special schools to stimulate invention, and prepare her artists and artisans for a higher career than they would have attained in the ordinary course of apprenticeship. The establishment of the School of the Fine Arts in 1648; of the government factories of tapestry (1606,) furniture, and porcelain arid pottery (1590;) of the Schools of Civil Engineering (1722,) Mining (1783,) and Public Works; of the Conservatory of Arts (1785) and the Imperial Schools of Arts and Trades (1802) — conspired to place the con- structions of her engineers, the design and skill of the workshops of France, in advance of those of other countries. Before describ- ing a few of the leading institutions of each class, we will give a survey of Industrial Instruction as it was in 1850, and in 1864, from oflScial documents. Except the great State schools, the institutions herein enumerated have been established mainly by municipal au- thorities and far-seeing manufacturers, stimulated and aided by the central government, to meet local wants. INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION IN 1850.* In the scheme of institutions devoted to technical instruction, the first rank belongs to the Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Paris, begun hj that famous mechanic, Yaucanson, as a collection of machines and mechanical tools, and gradually expanded by the government from 1785 until it has become the great museum and archives of the industrial arts. It embraces in its range of opera- tions: (1) a collection of machines, models and designs, with experts to give ad- vice and instruction to those who ask, and motive power to exhibit and test new inventions; (2) a library of technological publications in different languages, including plans of ornamentation ; (3) annual courses of lectures on the sci- ences applied to the great national industries; (4) a school of design. To these sources of practical knowledge the workmen of Paris resort in large numbers, and with great profit to tliemselves and to the country. The three State Schools of Arts and Trades at Chalons, Angers, and Aix — the first instituted in 1802, the second in 1811, and the third in 1843, sup- ported by the government, are intended to train skillful workmen ; and from them have proceeded a large number of master-finishers, founders, black- smiths, machinists, carpenters and engineers. As to the proportions of theory and practice in the course of instruction, * Abridged from an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes, by A. Amphori. 428 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. the pupils pass seven hours and a half daily in the workshops, and only five hours and a half daily in classes and in the apartments for design. The professors are rigorously obliged, in their lessons, to take the most usual point of view ; that from which the pupil can best see how to use the knowledge he acquires. Since the vote was substituted for ministerial- selection of professors, two years since, the courses of instruction have been so arr-anged as to drop out those theoretical gen- tlemen who ai-e unable to do what they teach. The principal advantage of these schools is not, in our opinion, the direct influ- ence which they exert upon the national industry. Tlie two hundred and fifty pupils or thereabout who leave them every year, are scarcely the thousandth part of the workmen who grow -up in France during the same time ; but the schools show a style of instruction which serves as a model for comparison. The pupils carry into private workshops theoretical knowledge which they could not acquire there, and which is most useful in the explanation of practical labor. Although yet imperfect workmen, they improve more rapidly than the others, and sooner become excellent foremen. Although we know that among some foreign nations, habits supply the place of institutions, among us, these schools will stimulate a little our untoward habits. They have another destination, of higher importance; they may become seminaries of professors for the industrial instruction which the coun- try waits to see organized, and for which we are now endeavoring to prepare a way. Once improved by the practical training of the private workshops and manu- fectories, the best pupils of these schools will become most useful in the dovelop- ment of this special instruction 5 which needs a body of instructors adapted to its peculiar needs. An institution established at Paris, the central school of arts and manufactures, also helps the accomplishment of this same work. The similar nature of its in- structions alone justifies the assistance granted it by government, which confers upon it a sort of public character.* During an existence of twenty years, the cen- tral school has fully justified the expectations of its founders, it is devoted to the education of civil engineers, directors of machine-shops, and chiefs of manufacto- ries. Besides the four principal courses studied, the mechanic arts, the chemical arts, metullurgy and architecture, it instructs its pupils in all the pursuits of indus- trial labor. Since chemistry has left laboratories to enter workshops and to per- fect there the results of manufacturing processes ; since the physical world has been searched for the means of employing heat and steam, which have become such powerful agents of production, industry has ceased to be abandoned to em- piricism. Every manufacture has asked from science methods quicker, surer, and more economical. The central school satisfies this demand. By physical and chemical study, it prepares pupils expressly for the direction of industrial labor, just as the polytechnic school, by the study of mathematical science, becomes a seminary for the department of public works, and for some other special professions. Under these institutions, which have a general character, may be ranked those institutions which we will term local. These may be divided, in respect to their destination, into two great classes ; one, consisting of those whose design is to instruct in the applications of some one science to the industrial arts ; and the other, of those which confine their instruction to the practice of an art or trade ; or to the collaterial knowledge necessary to exercise it. To estimate the actual in- fluence of both, they must be considered in the place where they exist. In the northern section, where manfacturing industrj?^ reigns supreme, we see only the arts of design as applied to arts and trades, gi'aiuitously taught. The schools of design established in most of the important towns, are generally of recent ci'cation. The oldest date from the restoration or from the empire, except .that three or four, have an earlier origin. For instance, the school of Arras, where some instruction is given, which relates partly to industrial occupations, was founded by the states- general of Artois, in 1775 ; that of St. Omer in 1780, and that of Calais in 1787. These institutions are every where much valued among the working classes. Some of them contain classes of as many as a hundred and fifty pupils. Some of them are particularly for children, but most for adults. * The State allows the central school an annual sum of $6,000, which Is distributed to can- didates (for prizes) by a vote. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 429 Architectural desiji;n and practical geometry, as applied to cuttininning; expression of oils; grinding, felting, ceramic works, and pottery. Special Courses/or the Third Year. Steam-engines of ail descriptions ; railways and dif- ferent sy.stems for locomotion; the students visiting the most important works with their professors. The students are examined dai.ly upon the subjects of their lectures, by the pro- fessors and repeaters (Repetiteurs.) The utiUty of this latter class of teachers is well established in France, and they are found in every institution in which lec- turing is practiced to a great extent as a means of instruction ; they prevent the burthen of teaching from falling upon professors, whose duty it is to be engaged in advancing, as well as in propagating science, and who would be prevented from following one or other of these honorable and useful careers, by having the duty of teaching superadded to that of lectiu'ing. So well is the necessity of reheving the professor understood, that in all courses requiring preparation, special persons are appointed, called preparers, who take off this burthen also from the professor. The result is, that many men of high eminence are thus enabled to diffuse their knowledge among students by lecturing, and are willing to do so, though they have other and more profitable employments, to which they would exclusively confine themselves, if this were connected with teaching by interrogation and the task of preparing experimental illustrations. The pupil is thus greatly the gainer, and has at the same time the special examination upon the lecturers which is so necessary to complete the instruction, and to which a repeater is entirely compe- tent. Young men of talent seek the situations of repeaters as the best method of showing their particular qualifications, and the most certain road to a professor- ship. For each recitation the pupil receives a mark, and the roll of the class with these marks being preserved, its indications are combined with the results of the examination, to decide upon the fitness of a pupil when he comes forward for a diploma. The graphic exercises consist in the drawing of ornamental work, in India ink drawing, in drawing with the steel pen and instruments, and in sketching the diagrams of the lectures to a scale. Great importance is attached to this part of the course, and much time spent in it. The rooms for these exercises are con- veniently arranged, and the pupils are superintended during them by a professor or a repeater, and visited occasionally by the director of studies or his deputies. The drawing-tables are so arranged that the pupils stand while at work, which at their age is very desirable. The arrangements for chemical manipulation by the students are very complete ; they have access not only to the laboratories of the two professors, but to others which are devoted to special branches. During the first year every student is employed in laboratory duty once a week, and has also the opportunity of per- forming some of the principal physical experiments. They are superintended, while thus occupied, by repeaters. During the first half year of the second course the students are called, in turn, to general duty in the laboratory ; and during the second half of the same year, and the whole of the third, the two sections who follow the courses of chemistry applied to the arts and metallurgy, are employed in manipulations connected with them. There is an officer for their superintend- ence, called the director (chef) of the chemical exercises, who is subordinate to the professor of chemical analysis. The opportunities thus aflbrded of acquiring a general practice tmder the guidance of the distinguished professors of this school are invaluable, and form one of the most important features of the establislmient. The materials for constructing models of some of the more useful works, and apparatus relating to the arts, are furnished to the pupils, and used imder the di- rection of their instructors. The annual number of students entering varies from 130 to 160. They work eight hours and a half in the college, and four at their residences. Four inspec- tors are constantly occupied in surveying, independently of those superintending the graphic department. CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 4^^ The Central School of Arts aud Manufactures, founded in 1829 by three then youthful votaries of science, (Dumas, Peclet, and Ollivier,) aided by M. Lavallee, who zealously cooperated in the work, plays, without parade, a most important part in the educa- tional system of France. The following notice of its original object and results — of its historical development and present sub- jects and methods of instruction, is taken from a Report of the Commission on Technical Instruction to the French Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, in 1864, aud from the latest programme of the Institution. In 1829, manufactures, thanks to several years of profound peace, were be- ginning to assume great importance in France ; but to struggle against foreign competition, daily becoming more formidable, it was not enough to possess good workmen and intelligent overseers ; skillful engineers were likewise wanted. The mauuflicturers, moreover, felt the necessity of themselves acquiring or of obtaining for their children that theoretical knowledge without which they were unable, not only to direct their establishments themselves, but also to control the managers whom they engaged for the purpose. At that time there was no school where industrial science could be acquired. The Sorbonne, the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, the schools of Chalons and^ Augers, though very useful institutions, answered the purpose but very in- completely. They did not impart that accurate and profound instruction which is necessary for the directors of large manufacturing establishments and indis- pensable for civil engineers. At the Sorbonne aud the Conservatory the teaching is purely oral, and- the fact is indisputable that such lectures are not sufficient for the trainmg of en- gineers. They can only answer that purpose when accompanied by frequent examinations, numerous experiments and manipulations, graphic studies, con- ferences on the subjects treated in the courses, varied projects, solutions of problems performed by the pupil under the professor's eye. These various modes of teaching must be combined to obtain the best possible effect. Cora- pare the Sorbonne with the Polytechnic School ; all the courses of the latter are found in the Faculty of Sciences, and nearly all of them are given by the same professors. Nevertheless the results of the teaching are very different in these two establishments. The Faculty of Sciences lacks those frequent exam- inations, those regular and methodical studies wliich are imposed on all the pupils of the Polytechnic School. Reduced to its lectures only, the Polytechnic School would soon lose its privilege of supplying France with men able to render the most important public services. Between the Conservatoiy of Arts and Trades, which is a real industrial Sorbonne, and the Central School, the same comparison may be established as between the Faculty of Sciences and the Polytechnic School. The Schools of Arts and Trades supply our workshops with young men who promptly become excellent overseers; but the theoretical studies are not suffi- cient to form skillful engineers. Some few remarkable men have indeed pro- ceeded from these schools, but they were of the sort who will learn wherever they may be, and rise to celebrity just as well from the dust and smoke of th© workshop as from the benches of a school-room. 468 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. Tlie Central School, therefore, can not be compared for the services it renders either to the Sorbonne, or to the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, or to the other technical schools. It remains to be seen whether it is not an unnecessary duplicate of its elder sister, the Polytechnic School, and this question we will now examine. The Polytechnic School was founded at a time when political revolutions had thrown scientific studies into the background. Its object was to give those studies new life, to impart a common direction to the labors of scientific men, to concentrate on one point efforts till then unconnected ; in short, to supply our corps of engineers, civil and military, with the well-taught recruits they so much needed. And it has nobly fulfilled its mission. The Schools of Mines, and of Bridges and Roads, completed the work undertaken by the Polytechnic School. But the time required by the Polytechnic School, including the preparatory and complementary studies, is seven years, which is much too long for candi- dates who are anxious to begin practice as soon as possible. The difficulties of the examination for admission also exclude a large proportion of candidates ; the consequence is that the number admitted every year is very limited. It shuts its doors against many hundreds of young men whose minds, though little disposed for mathematical abstractions, are none the less capable of studying the applied sciences. More than half its pupils choose the military service, and of the other half a good part soon abandon the civil services to follow scientific pursuits. The Polytechnic School is therefore far from being able to satisfy the ever-increasing demands of industry. There is good reason to fear that if the pupUs of the Polytechnic School were left free to choose between the posts offered by private industry and those reserved for them by the Government, the • cleverest of them -would give the preference to industry, which assures 'them positions, if not more honorable, at least more liberally remunerated ; hence might result great prejudice to the State. The Government seems to be aware of this, for it has already forbidden its engineers to serve any other com- panies but those for railways. The Central School, therefore, supplies a manifest deficiency in our system of instruction. Its fiinction is to educate our leading manufacturers, and the di- rectors of our great industrial establishments ; while the mission of the Poly- technic School is more especially to supply properly qualified recruits for- the special corps. The success it obtained from the very first, a success every day increasing, sufficiently proves its immense usefulness. Notwithstanding its high charges, and the fact that it does not, like the Poly- technic School, offer its pupils any assured position on the completion of their studies, the Central School has found, in presence of other establishments where instniction is gratuitous, the number of candidates for admission constantly increasing, and to sucli an extent that not more than half of them can be received. The late treaties of commerce have rendered industrial education more necessary than ever. ' "If the Central School did not already exist," says M. Micliel Chevalier, "it would have been indispensable to found one as a necessary complement of those treaties." Moreover, it is a tradition in the school that its foundation was originated with a view to preparing French man- ufacturers, by a sound education, to pass without any violent shock from a system almost prohibitive to one of limited protection. CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 469 In all the branches of industry the pupils of the Central School have taken honorable positions. They stood in the first rank among the creators of rail- ways, and some of them, notwithstanding the formidable competition of the Government engineers, still hold important positions under the great com- panies. At Paris the chief engineers of the rolling stock and locomotive department of four great companies (the Northern, the Orleans, the Eastern, and the Western) belong to the Central School. In the mining and metallur- gical industries, in those of gas, spinning, dyeing, paper-making, plate glass manufacture, in the agricultural arts, and lastly in all the mechanical and chem- ical industries, we find at the head of large establishments old pupils of the Central School, who have nearl}^ all attached their names to important improve- ments in the processes they were charged to conduct. The above statement is fully proved by the following figures: — Of the 2,051 pupils who obtained, on leaving the school, the diploma of engineer or the cer- tificate* of capacity, we have been able to obtain precise information respecting ],394 only. Of this last number we learn that 247 are dead, and that the 1,147 still living are distributed in different careers in the following manner: Railways -.—Directors and chief engineers, salaries from 20.000 to 70,000 fr., ... 28 ^ Principal engineers, salaries from 10,000 to '20,000 t"r., '''^ Uon Ordinary engineers, salaries from 5,000 to ]0,000 fr., 56 p^" Employed in various capacities, 157 j Civil engineers in general practice, 166 Ironmasters, working of mines, quarries, &c., 124 Manufacturers of cloth, cotton, linen, &c., 68 Architects 55 " Mechanical engineers, established, 54 Spinners 43 Professors of applied sciences, 42 Manufacturing chemists, ... 38 Agriculturists, 37 Co'itractors for public works, 35 Managers of gas works, 31 Sugar refiners 28 Public functionaries 26 Manufacturers of glass, porcelain, &c 23 Engineers of bridges and roads in foreign countries, 22 Paper-makers, 17 Surveyors of roads, 17 Total, .,....- 1,156 The number of crosses and medals obtained by ex-pupils of the Central School at the great international exhibitions, is one of those facts which prove their merits better than arguments. In 1851 the Central School was too re- cently founded for many of its pupils to have had time to take their ranks in manufactures. The English Commission having, besides, refused rewards to assistants (coll(iboraieurs.) several of the ex-pupils could not be personally named, though the estabhshments they managed obtained prizes. Never thelesa they received three council medals and 1 7 prize medals. In 1855, at the Paris Universal Exhibition, they obtained 10 nominations in the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor; 10 great medals of honor; 17 medals of honor; 50 first-class medals; 21 second-class medals; and 14 hon- orable mentions. In 1862, the number of French exhibitors at the London Universal Exhibi- tion was comparatively small, but the ex-pupils obtained three nominations in the Legion of Honor, one of them an officer, and 41 medals. *The diploma is granted to those pupils who pass every part of the examination satisfactorily; the certificates to those who answer some of the questions well, but fail in others. ^tjQ CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. In the agricultural shows of 1856 and 1860, ex-pupils of the Central School were honored with two great gold medals; three ordinary gold medals ; two silver medals ; four first prizes ; and six prizes of the second, third, and fourth, class. The total number of ex-pupils who have obtained the decoration of the Le- gion of Honor, either after great exhibitions or on other occasions, is 56, of whom 52 are knights and 4 officers. STUDIES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. In organizing the Central School its founders took for their model the old Polytechnic School, (Central School of Public Works,) with the modifications required by the object they had in view. For instance, they excluded from the curriculum every thing connected with mathematical theories of too high an order, experience having shown that such theories have but few practical appli- cations. At the Central School, as at the Polytechnic, the pupils are obliged, whatever may be the career they have chosen, to attend all the courses and to pass very strict examinations. The young men are thus prepared to follow almost any profession. It is, in fact, by no means unusual to see young engineers, on leav- ing this school, successfully pursue a different career from that originally chosen. At the Polytechnic School this generality of instruction extends to the theoret- ical studies only, since the pupils at the end of the three years' course are sent to one or other of the special schools to complete their education. At the Cen- tral School the instruction is purely theoretical in the first year only ; in the second and third, theory and practice are blended. The founders of the Central School justly remarked in their first prospectus : — "All the courses of the school really form but one and the same: industrial science is one; every manufacturer must know the whole under pain of being inferior to the rival who enters the lists better armed than himself. Arts appa- rently widely differing from each other make use of analogous operations, yet often employ very different methods. The general education of the Central School teaches how to transfer into each process of manufacture the, improved methods used in others. It consequently tends to introduce into industrial es- tablishments, and into the details of the processes or of the mechanisms, a degree of perfection which secures the harmonious working and general success of the whole." This was a noble and prolific thought; it has produced abun- dant fruit. The studies of the Central School and those of the Polytechnic School re- quire very different qualifications. Though some of the pupils of the Central School have shrunk from the difficult tests required by the Polytechnic, we have good reason to believe that among the pupils admitted to the latter there are some who would not have succeeded at the former. The pupils who, after preparing for the Polytechnic School, enter the Central School, usually take the lead of their comrades in the first year, but often fall behind them in the second and third. The consequence is that the establishments which prepare pupils for the scientific and industrial schools have felt the necessity of adopting a special mode of preparation for the Central School.* Again, the council of the * In 18G4, out of nbout 400 candidates who competed for admission to the Central School, only 50 had prepared for the Polytechnic School. CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 4^1 Central School, which at one time used to admit for the second year's studies candidates who were able to pass a satisfactory examination on the subjects taught in the first, now require that every pupil shall go through the complete course in the school. Experiouce has clearly shown that tiie instruction ac- quired elsewhere than at the school can scarcely be a suitable preparation for the courses of tlie higher divisions, which are based on what the pupils have been taught during the first year. The studies of the Central School may be thus briefly recapitulated : — In the first year, pupils follow the course of descriptive geometry with appli- cations ; analysis, comprising the elements of the differential and integral cal- culus ; cinematics, general meclianics, general physics, general chemistry, con- struction of machines, and hygienics. In the second and third year, courses of applied mechanics, construction and putting up of machines, analytical chemistry, industrial and agricultural chem- istry, constructions, (civil buildings, public works, and railways,) applied physics and steam-engines, metallurgy, mineralogy, geology, and working of mines. The course of construction of macliines, which is very complete, as well as that of apphed physics and steam-engines, and the course of applied chemistry, are peculiar to the Central School. The teaching of mechanics is also con- ducted on a new plan, in a spirit essentially practical. The oral instruction of the Central School is judiciously completed by impo- sing on the pupils numerous studies of projects, by manipulations in the labor- a-tory, by visiting workshops, by mineralogical and geological excursions, and especially by frequent compulsory examinations, not only at the end of each year's studies, but also during the courses and at their close. The pupils, in drawing out projects and in chemical manipulations, begin to apply what they learn in each course, and thus prepare for the more serious operations of prac- tice. The numerous examinations, one at least every week, have an excellent effect in keeping the pupils always up to their work. "When a falling off appears in the marks obtained at the examinations, the director recommends the pupil to be more diligent, and, if necessary, summons him before the council of order, composed of the director, the sub-director, the director of studies, and a pro- fessor or a member of a school-council. The pupil is also cited before the council if he commits any breach of discipline, such as being noisj^n the class- rooms or amphitheatres, refusing to obey, &c., or if he be frequently absent without reasonable cause. If a pupil does not heed the friendly advice of the council of order, he is called before the school-council and more or less severely reprimanded. Any pupil found incapable of following the courses witli profit is requested to leave the school, and if he refuses he is struck off the lists, after the minister's approbation has been secured. The pupil who persists in disor- derly behavior is liable to expulsion. For every pupil an accurate account of his examination marks and notes of conduct is kept in a ledger reserved for the purpose, and extracts therefrom are sent to parents when requested. These notes are useful not only as enabling the superiors of the school to form a correct judgment of each pupil's progress and conduct, but they also play a very important part when, on the pupil's leaving the school, after completing his studies, the council of professors has to decide on the terms of the certificate he deserves. 472 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. At first the council of the school, when definitively classing the pupils ac- cording to their merits, took into account only the marks obtained at the final competitive examination at the end of the third year, when each pupil had to present a project on a given subject. But experience soon showed that a pupil who answered correctly the questions put at the examination was not unfre- quently a very indififerent pupil favored by a Ixicky chance. It was therefore decided that the average marks of the third year should be added to those of the competition in appreciating the merits of the candidate. As pupils were often found to be somewhat negligent in the second year, it was subse- quently deemed advisable to carry this principle still farther and take into account the marks of the second year in awarding the diploma or certificate of capacity, and in assigning the pupil his place in the list published in the Moni- teur. With all these precautions, it is scarcely possible that there should be any great mistake in appreciating the merits of the pupils. This fact seems to have been well understood by manufacturers, for most of them require candidates to produce either a diploma or certificate, and as the latter is of less value than the former, we every year see old pupils who have obtained certificates only, present themselves again to compete for the diploma. The number of diplomas and certificates has perceptibly increased during the last few years, although the examinations are more severe than formerly ; this increase is owing to tlie greater strictness of the examinations for admission, which can be successfiilly passed only by pupils who possess considerable talent and have made good use of their previous opportunities. It is easier to get admitted to the Central School than to the Polytechnic, but far more difficult to obtain a diploma there than to leave the Polytechnic with a place under Gov- ernment. At the Polytechnic School 'the number of pupils who fail at the ex- amination on leaving seldom exceeds two or three per cent. Prof P. Jenkin, a fellow of the Eoyal Society, a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and professor of Civil Engineering in University College, and lecturer on the same subject in the University of Edinburgh, before the House of Commons Select Committee on Scientific Instruction in 1868, re- marked in substance : The Ecole Centrale is the great school for mechanical engineers, although other specialities are as well provided for. There is nothing whatever corres- ponding with it in England. Neither King's College nor University College is intended to answer the same purpose, and the teaching is on a much lower level. My own lectures for civil engineers are only preparatory for such a course as tliat of the French school. I heard a lesson in mathematics given in the second year, which required the student to have a very considerable amount of mathematical knowledge before he could at all follow it. In the first year they have the differential and integral calculus. The result of the good prepa- ration, and of the whole course, is to turn out men who have received a very good scientific education, and who are very competent to take places imme- diately, especially as draftsmen. There is a peculiarity in the practical teach- ing, viz., ihe getting up the projets. There are eight every year, and a month is allowed for getting out the drawings, the estimates, and the specifications for each — as for instance one on shafting; one on girders; one on locomotives; one on boilers, &c. This kind and amount of practical work, done under the severe cross-examining and supervision of the professor, as to all the details, is of the highest value. CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 473 PROGRAMME OF CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS— 18G8. The Central School of Arts and Manufoctures, founded in 1829 by private enterprise, but adopted by the State in 1859, continues under the Mhiistry of Ag-ricuhuro, Commerce, and Public Works. Its main object is to educate engi- neers and Ibremen for all branches of industry, and for public works, the direction, of which does not necessarily belong to the Government engineers. Diplomas o'' Engineer of Arts and Trades are delivered annually by the Min- ister to the pupils designated by the school-council as havitig passed through the entire competitive examination in a completely satisfactory manner. Certificates of capacity are granted to fliose who, not having passed through all the subjects of the examination in a perfectly satisfactory manner, have nevertheless given proof of sufficient knowledge in the most important branches. CONDITIONS OP ADMISSION. The school receives day-scholars only. Foreigners can be admitted, and on the same conditions as natives. The duration of the studies is three years. The cost of instruction, comprising the expenses of the various manipula- tions, is 800 francs annually. Independently of these 800 francs, the pupils must deposit in the school treasury, at the commencement of every year, a sura of 35 francs, as a guar- antee for such objects belonging to the school as may be lost or spoilt by their fault. This deposit, which must at each term of payment (there are tln'ee in the year) be maintained at the total of 35 francs, is reimbursed to each pupil at the end of the year, or when he leaves the school. Each pupil must, on entering the school, be provided with the objects and list of^what will be delivered to him, and which a duly authorized purveyor will furnish, on demand, at a price fixed each year by the director. Subsidies may be granted by the State to pupils who are at one and the same time recommended by the high position they take in tlie school, after the various examinations, and by want of means. -These grants are made for one year only, but may be continued, and even augmented, in favor of pupils who render themselves worthy thereof by their conduct and by their progress in knowledge. The State subsidies may be cumulated by allowances granted to the pupils by the departments and the communes. The total of the subsidies are paid into the school treasury. If the total of the grants obtained by a pupil exceeds the cost of instruction, one-twelfth of the surplus is paid to him, every month, for his board. Candidates who desire to obtain a share of the State grants, must make a written declaration to that effect, to be sent in to the prtfectxtre of the depart- ment. This declaration must be accompanied by a petition addressed to the Minister, and supported by a certificate of birth and a certificate of good con- duct from the head of the establishment in which the candidate has completed his last year of studies, or, in default of this, by the mayor of his last place of residence. Admission can only be obtained by means of competitive examination. Tlie examination is pubhc, in so far as it is oral; it takes place in Paris eveiy year, in two distinct sessions, between which the candidate may choose. The tests consist in written compositions, and in oral examinations, bearing upon the following subjects: — 1. French language. 2. Arithmetic. 3. Ele- mentary geometry. 4. Algebia, as far as the general theory of equations, ex- clusively. 5. Rectilinear trigonometry. 6. Analytical geometry. 7. Descrip- tive geometry, as far as left surfaces, exclusively. 8. All those parts of physics which precede the theory of heat in the Ij^cees. 9. In chemistry, the general principles and the metalloids. 10. Natural history. 11. Drawing, free-hand and linear, and washing in. All the matters comprised in the detailed programme are equally obligatory. Candidates whose knowledge of any one of these subjects is considered insuffi- cient, can not be admitted. The written compositions may have reference to all the divisions of the pro- 474 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTDRES. gramme ; correct and methodical writing, as well as a regular and very legible handwriting, are essential conditions. The candidate must, beside, execute, under surveillanre. a diagram, [epure.) in descriptive geometry, and an architect- ural design, including ornamental parts, which the candidate must draw on a reduced scale, after a model drawing. Some part of this drawing should be washed in in pale tints. Tlie oral examinations follow the written compositions. All candidates must prove that they have filled their seventeenth year pre- viousl}'" to the 1st of January of the year in which they present themselves for examination, and must produce certificates of vaccination and of good conduct The expenses connected with the examination are defrayed by the school, and candidates have nothing to pay. After the conclusion of the coacours^ the list of the pupils to be admitted is definitively fixed by the Minister on the proposal of the School Council. COUESE OF STUDIES. First Year. — Analysis and general mechanics, 60 lessons. General physics, 60 lessons. Inorganic and organic chemistry, 60 lessons. Theoretical and ap- plied cinematics, 24 lessons. Construction of machines, 20 lessons. Hygienics and applied natural history, 20 lessons. Mineralogy and geology, 30 lessons. Architecture, 10 lessons. Industrial drawing, 20 lessons. Second Tear. — Applied mechanics, 6U lessons. Strength of materials em- ployed in machines and constructions, 24 lessons. Construction and mounting of machines, 60 lessons. Analytical and industrial chemistry, 40 lessons. Met- allurgy, 20 lessons. Civil constructions. 60 lessons. Industrial plmsics, 45 lessons. Industrial and commercial legislation. Ceramics, 8 lessons. Dyeing, 12 lessons. Glass-making. Mining, 20 lessons. TuirclYear. — Applied mechanics, 6 ) lessons. Construction and erection -of machines, 55 lessons. Analytical chemistry, 20 lessons. Industrial and agri- cultural chemistry. General metallurgy and metallurgy of iron, 60 lessons. Mining. 20 lessons. Public works, 60 lessons. Steam-engines, 35 lessons. Railways, 40 lessons. Naval constructions, 25 lessons. In addition, the following practical exercises and studies are required : — First Year. — Various chemical manipulations. Exercises in general physics, stereotomy, and taking of plans. Architectural and topographical designs, and working drawings. Problems in the infinitesimal calculus, general mechanics, and general physics. In the course of the year the pupils all undergo 27 examinations on the dif- ferent brandies of study, and a general one at the end of the year. During the vacation after the first year's studies, the pupils are expected to make plans of buildings and machines; also to write an essay on the resistance of materials. Second Year. — A practical study of the flow of gases with the aid of an anemometer and a ventilator ; each pupil to draw up a paper on the subject. Construction with bricks, according to given plans, of various chimneys, a baker's oven, a lime-kiln, a hot-air stove, &c. Each pupil to make a survey and draw a plan of a water-course, and to measure the volume of water in a stream; a paper to be sent in upon the details of these operations. Practical exercises in a factory on the construction of machines. Twenty-seven manipulations in analyzing and assaying. Drawings and projects of machines and buildings. Each pupil passes 21 examinations on the different subjects studied, besides the general examinations at the end of tlie year. During the vacation after the second year, the pupils are to visit manufectories, &c., and to hand to the di- rector, on resuming tlieir studies, a diary giving a summary account of the studies made and the factories visited; an album containing notes and sketches made on the spot; fair drawings of the most remarkable objects contained in the album ; and a paper on q\iestions of applied mechanics. Third Year. — Projects, in two series; the first in the more important subjects of all the courses, and comprising four different studies, required from all the pupils of the division. The second belongs exclusivey to specialties and con- sists of four projects on subjects connected with machines, buUdings, metal* lurgy, and chemistry. ESTABLISHMENT OF ST. NICHOLAS, REPORT OF E. DUCPETIAUX. In 1827 Monseigneur de Bervanger, at that time directing a charitable associa- tion of mechanics under the protection of St. Joseph * (the first experiment in those adult classes which have since accomplished so much good,) conceived the idea of opening an asylum for orphan and poor children, for their training to the laborious occupations which must one day support them. He soon collected seven in the gai rets of the Faubourg Saint IMarceau ; such was the modest beginning of an enterprise since so largely developed. By charitable aid it became possible after six mouths to hire a larger tenement ; others were occupied in succession, the rent rising from twelve hundred francs to five thousand. At last, convinced that buildings of its own w^ere necessary to the establishment of the institution upon a substantial footing, Mgr. de Bervanger decided to purchase two roomy houses, one at Paris, 112 Rue de Vaugirard, and the other at Issy, the ancient jchdteau of that name, now 36 Grande Rue, capable together of accommodating about a thousand children, all boarders. The Paris house is the principal one, that at Issy being only a sort of auxiliary where the younger children are kept, in preparation for their removal to Paris. The house in Paris has been portioned out upon a plan which seems to us to contain many defects, especially in regard to classification, and to ease of house- hold services and supervision. The small court which gives entrance from the Rue de Vaugirard is lined on one side with cook-shops and refectories, and on the other by the laundry. In front is the building occupied by the management. Behind this building extends a large area divided into a garden for the use of con- valescents, and a play-ground. A large building surrounds this area, and stretches on one side quite to the Rue de Vaugirard. The work-shops occupy the base- ment and first story of this building. Above are the dormitories. The chapel, infirmary and recitation rooms are in the wing that extends toward the street. The buildings have been erected with an economy which we fear has been secured at the expense of strength. Thus^ although new, they present a general appear- ance of dilapidation, which, together with the lack of neatness, makes a suffi- ciently unfavorable first impression upon the visitor's mind. Children are not received, except at from eight to twelve years of age. Those less than ten are sent by preference to Issy, where they receive special attention. They are required to bring a copy of their record of baptism, and a certificate of vaccination, unless they have had the small pox. Before final admission, they are • This association, commenced in 1822, lasted until July 1830. It was composed of nearly seven thousand mechanics of various kinds, a thousand or twelve hundred heads of com- mercial houses or manufactories al.^o belonging to it under the name of protectors. On Sun- days and feast days the members met for divine service; recitations and games occupied the rest of the day. Mechanics holding a commendatory certificate from their cure, were lodged and boarded gratis until emi)loyment could be found for them, and schools were open ev(Xj day at the hour for quitting work. 476 SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS examined by one of the phj^s'cians of the institution. Orphans are required to present a copy of the record of the death of their parents. The price of board, payable monthly in advance, is four dollars a month for orphans with no parent, and five dollars, for children not orphans. Four dollars are also paid to cover ordinary expenses at the entry of the new pupil. For this moderate sum, the establishment undertakes the general charge of providing for the maintenance, instruction and apprenticeship of the children. The number of pupils had reached eight hundred m 1845, and nine hundred in 1846. It has varied little since the last date. This number consists of very heterogeneous elements, although some of them belong to poor and honest arti- san families ; and though there are even some scions of noble families, ruined by the revolutions, most of them have no family, no known parents, no name, and were running in utter abandonment to certain destruction. Charitable societies or generous patrons have rescued them and entrusted them to the care of Mgr. de Bervanger, who alone in the institution knows the secret of their birth. To pre- serve this secret, each child is designated only by a number by which he is known in the house. The regulations are the same for all. The diet is adapted to the Rge, appear- ance and appetite of the pupils. It is at breakfast, soup and bread ; at dinner, three times a week, soup, bread and meat, with a dish of legumes instead of the meat; on the other four days, at lunch, a piece of bread ; and at supper, bread, legumes, or salad, or fruit. Sundays a little wine is allowed, and at the annual festivals, a dessert also. The food of the officers scarcely differs from that of the pupils except in quantity, and some slight additions of milk, wine, and fish The whole is regulated by a bill of fare according to which, the distribution is made. The establishment furnishes clothes and washing for the children, does their mending, and provides for each a mattress, bolster, two coverlids, two pair of sheets, four pair of stockings, four napkins, two pair of pantaloons for winter and two for summer, a waistcoat, a coat of cloth or knitwork for winter, five blouses, a cap, two pair of shoes, six handkerchiefs, two belts, suspenders, and combs ; all marked with the number of the scholar. It also provides books, paper and pens for the classes. Children are received with whatever they have on, and at leaving, are permitted to wear away their every day suit. Although the system of education in the establishment is a christian one, the director, out of regard for the character and prejudices of the mechanic popu- lation of Paris, has avoided giving it a clerical or monastic character. The teach- ers are laymen, and the name of " brothers." which they use to each other or receive from the pupils, is simply a token and bond of affection. The manage ■ ment of Saint Nicholas is entrusted, amongst the superior, a council of adminis- tration, and certain almoners and intendants. Under their orders the brethren are employed; the principal of them being the sacristan, the casliier, the proc- tor, the prefect of studies, the prefects of health, of music, and of the work- shops. Mgr. de Bervanger has laid down the attributes and duties of all per- sons employed, in a sort of constitution containing excellent precepts, and which might be consulted to great advantage in the organization of similar establish- ments. The household proper, cooking, expenditure, washing and ironing and the in- firmary are in charge of a number of sisters of charity. The number of persons «mployed is seventy grown people, permanently ; twenty-five masters or foremen SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 477 of exterior workshops; and thirty persons, hired by the day. Seven or eight of the children are also employed. This huge force permits the maintenance of an active and continual watch over the chiMrens' department; and any who arc likely to corrupt their companions, are at once sent back to their parents or guardians. The brothers sleep among the children. One is watching in the dormitories, during the whole night, and the rooms are kept constantly lighted for fear of accidents. The children change about their sleeping places from time to time, and great reserve is practiced in regard to this arrangement, that there may be no way for the children to learn any thing evil. The older children get up at half past five in summer and six in winter ; the younger always at a quarter past seven. All go to bed at eight in winter, and nine in summer. The instruction includes reading, writing, arith- roetic, and spelling; the elements of French grammar, geography and history, grammatical and logical analysis, book-keeping, linear drawing, practical geome- try, singing, a thorough knowledge of instrumental music, gynniastics, swimming, the rudiments of physics, chemistry, practical natural history, land-measuring and gardening. The instruction in physics, chemistry, natural history, geometry and instru- mental music, is given only to the children in the first divisions; as also that in book-keeping, linear drawing, and singing. All the pupils are permitted to learn gymnastics and swimming, if their parents or guardians have consented. The instruction in surveying, and in some other of the above studies is given while h<^rticulture is taught, at Issy. The children do not remain, in school more than three hours together, and are kept busy on one subject from half an hour to an hour and a half at the furthest. Those who do not work in the shops spend eight hours daily in studying and le- citing, except the smaller ones, who rise later, and have but six hours and a half. A class consists of from fifty to seventy pupils at most. There is an ex- amination several times a year, and a solemn distribution of prizes at its conclusion. The business of the brothers is to render the studies attractive and varied, and to habituate the children to tell what they have learned or observed. They per- mit them to ask questions, and answer with good humor. Nothing is left to ar- bitrary decision; the smallest details are regulated according to rule; and the children know their rights and the penalties for non-fulfilment of duty. The brothers extend their care not only to the instruction, but also to the general training of the children. They endeavor to imbue them with all such knowledge and habits as may insure their future prosperity by rendering them honest, industi'ious and skillful artizans, by making them enjoy their labor, by de- stroying notions consistent only with a high social position, and by fortifying them against the bad examples which they will probably meet in the world. Musical instruction occupies a large place in the system of education. Music is reckoned not only a means of recreation and enjoyment, but as an art which may become a useful means of subsistence to the young graduates. A number of them have in fact obtained situations of more or less value, in regimental bands. The establishment owns five thousand dollars worth of musical instru- ments, which when not in use are arranged in glazed cases. Besides the military band, the musical director has organized a choir for the chapel. Every Sunday at four o'clock in the afternoon, the children chant a Salve with remarkable skill, upon which occasion part of the chapel is open to strangers. In the principal area of the establishment are erected a gymnastic apparatus. 478 SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. see-saws, and various other machines, for the amusement of the scholars. Swim- ing lessons are given at Issy, where there is a large basin ; the pupils at the Paris house march out there from time to time, with their band at their head, to prac- tice various exercises. Various workshops have been established for pupils who are to serve their ap- prenticeship in the establishment ; including, besides the baliery, the shoemaking shop, the tailor's shop, &c., which are kept up for the use of the institution ; others in various occupations which are partly trades, and partly arts, and are especially followed in Paris. Such are the occupations of chaser in bronze^ watchmaker, lacemaker, designer of patterns for woven fabrics, mathematical in- strument maker, ornamental worker in gold and silver, engraver in jewels and metals, maker of bronze settings, worker in imitation jewelry, embosser, saddler, hardware man, maker of lackered snuff-boxes, worker in steel ornaments, iron- monger, painter on porcelain, worker in ivory, machinist, and cutler. Unfortu- nately, the revolution of February, which threw the industrial interests of Paris into disorder, did not spare the workshops of Saint Nicholas; and many of them are discontinued, or unprosperous. Efforts are however making by the admin- istration to repair these misfortunes and to .maintain regular labor. The pupils do not enter the workshops except upon the express application of their relatives or guardians, and only after their first communion. The manual labor occupies on an average eight and a half hours per day ; and the apprentices attend school two hours daily, unless their parents or guardians prefer to have them spend that time in the workshops, in order to become sooner perfect in their occupation; The apprenticeship occupies from two to four years, accord- ing to the trade. When it is ended, the pupils are allowed, if they choose, to remain in the establishment, and whatever they earn over and above their ex- penses is deposited, if they wish, to their credit in a savings' bank. Parents are permitted to have their children educated for whatever business they choose, having reference to their inclinations, strength, and intelligence. At the time of our visit, the number of apprentices was about a hundred. The workshops are an expense to the establishment ; but as pecuniary gain is no part of the scheme, the same maintenance is given to the children in the shops as to the younger ones, although their support costs more. Those who labor need more food ; and besides, a larger number of overseers is neces- sary, to keep up the prescribed amount of supervision. The profits from work done go to the foremen of the shops, which makes them interested in carrying forward the apprentices, and in conforming to the regulations of the establish- ment. They are likewise obliged to furnish the tools used by the apprentices- The masters are especially holden to conduct themselves toward the children Uke kind fathers ; and not to keep them at work too long in any one part of then* employment, but to instruct them in the whole of it. All this is stipulated in the engagements made between the parents and the masters, and with the approbation of the estabhshment, which, however, does not bind itself to con- tinue to keep any of the parties, either masters or apprentices ; in order that it may always be able to remove from the institution any individuals whose pres- ence is esteemed harmful. In the classes, workshops, &c., the children receive good marks for application and for progress. Thrice a year they receive books, images, &c., in exchange for these marks, at a certain rate. The record of these marks is posted in the par- lor of the house every week ; as are also the marks given for weekly compost- SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 479 tions, and the quarterly record, which last is sent to parents or guardians. Pupils whose names remain upon the good conduct list during the whole quarter, receive a reward at its termination. There is a formal distribution of prizes, annually, just before the short vacation. For the encouragement of the children, the managers arrange for them from time to time special recreations, for which some little expense is incurred. During the summer there are long walks, on which tlie pupils carry their provisions in their knapsacks ; in winter, there are exhibitions in natural pliilos- ophy, ventriloquism, &c. These amusements are much desired by the children, and stimulate them proportionately to good conduct and sustained appHcation. There is a sufficient play -hour between the periods of study and of labor. The hours of rc'creation on Sunday, are from eight to ten, forenoon, an hour at noon, and from two to four, afternoon. On week days, they are an hour each, at half past eight, noon, half past three, and in the summer at eight in the evening. These periods are of half an hour only for those employed in the work- shops. Sunday afternoon at three, the pupils from the workshops perform pieces of military music to an audience of their relatives who have come to visit them. During play hours the pupils may practice gymnastic exercises. Thursday, weather permitting, the brotliers walk out with the children not engaged in the workshops; those bemg taken out on Sundays during tlie summer. Parents and guardians may see their children in private every day, but during pl%y hours only, and when the children have not been shut up for punish- ment. There are three vacations a year ; three days at new year's, three at Easter, and eight Immediately after the annual distribution of prizes. Pupils are not allowed any vacation in September, unless at the request, or with the permission, of the person paying their board. The house is governed in a manner altogether paternal. The masters are aware that harshness brutalizes, destroys every honorable sentiment, and inspires a distaste for study and labor. Even when punishment is necessarj'-, the children are to be convinced if possible tliat severity is resorted to only for their good. Punishments can almost always be commuted for with good marks. Those guilty of grave misdemeanors are shut up during play hours, under charge of a brother ; but these detentions axe not to take place during all hours of recreations, as some fresh air and exercise is necessary for the health of the children. If there is no amendment, they are forbidden to take their usual ' walks. Very seldom, the allowance of food is curtailed. The idea of shame and of penalty is attached to many things quite indifferent in themselves. The general rule is to inchne the children to good conduct by encouragement ; and in punishment, regard is always had to their health. No prison is used, because the regulations permit no child to be alone without supervision, and moreover, because it is undesirable to accustom their minds to that form of punishment. Those whose thoughtlessness is likely to lead the others astray, are kept apart. A jury of the most steady children returns verdicts against violators of the i-ules, or such as have tempted their comrades to any consider- able transgression. In such cases the punishment applied is a humiliation simi- lar to that used in the regimental discipline, unless the parents prefer to withdraw the culprit. The masters are cautious to prevent the abuse of this authority, but the practice has succeeded well, and punishments under it have become rare. To maltreat the children is strictly forbidden, on the prin- 480 SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. ciple that judicious aad moderate means will prevail where an indiscreet severity could only irritate. The regulations and discipline are alike in the two houses at Paris and Issy, except as required by the difference of age in the inmates. The latter also serves as a convalescent hospital for invalids from the former, where they can enjoy country living, and exercise in the open air. A horticultural school is likewise established there with a green house and an orangery. The plans of the superior of Saint Nicholas include the founding of an analo- gous establishment for young girls. This would be close by that at Issy, but entirely separated from it. It would be of great advantage by saving part of the two thousand four hundred "dollars a year now expended for sewing and washing. The kitchen garden ground there, brought entirely under cultivation, would furnish the necessary fruits and legumes for its consumption. This com- bination would be very similar to that adopted at Ruysselede. It is difficult if not impossible for us to state a decision upon the merits of the enterprise of M. de Bervanger. At the time of our visit, the vacations were just ending, and the reassembling of the pupils occasioned, doubtless, more disorder than usual ; various important repairs were in progress ; most of the workshops were either unoccupied or going on only irregularly. Accustomed to the strict propriety of the Belgian establishments, we were probably more displeased than many other visitors would be, at the appearance of certain por- tions of the building, and at the careless manner in which that important matter seemed to be attended to. Nevertheless, the zeal and devotion of the director are certainly worthy of all praise. Confined to his own individual resources, and deprived of all official patronage, his perseverance has overcome impedi- ments which would certainly have stopped any man not inspired by truly char- itable purposes, and by confidence in the excellence of the principle upon which the establishment is founded. By the side of the numerous high schools and boarding schools intended for children of the rich and middling classes, he has undertaken to establish a modest boarding school for poor and morally neglected children. This end has been attained. The work is doubtless susceptible of numerous improvements, but even as it stands, it has solved an important problem, namely, that of reforming and maintaining at the lowest possible price, in the midst of a great city, a numerous class of poor, who, without such assistance, would inevitably have grown up to swell the ranks of the mass of vicious men who always gather in centers of population. The cost of purchasing and furnishing the two houses of Paris and Issy, was nearly $240,000. Of this sum there was unpaid, in 1849, about $125,000. This debt, if funded, would represent a rent of about $6,200; not at all too large for an establishment so useful and important. , In 1844, of an average number of seven hundred and fifty childreu, and a hundred and six persons employed, the total expense was $39,843.52. Deducting receipts for sales from workshops and elsewhere, amounting in aU to $2,156.31, the annual expense remains at $37,647. Each child, therefore, costs $50.25 ; about fourteen cents a day; about one-thu-dof what the pupils at Petit- Bourg cost. Por complete education and maintenance of one thousand pupils — the number which both houses can accommodate — the director estimates that he ought to receive $60,000 a year, of which $24,000 would be for food, gardening, and payment of certaua female assistants, and $12,000 for interest. SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 48] This is sixty dollars a year for each child, which is the fixed rate for tnosc not orphans. The deficit occasioned by the reduced rate of $48.00 at which orphans are received, would be made up by gifts, subscriptions, and returns from sales. The following notice of this institution is given by Rev. George Fox- croft Uaskins, in his Travels in England, France, Italy, &c., 1854. But of all the institutions which I visited in Paris, none interested me so much as that of St. Nicholas. The great aim of the institution is to provide for the wants of these boys, a large poi-tion of whom were orphans ; to inspire them with a love of virtue and of industry ; and to fit ihem, by the practice of their reli- gious duties, to become one day not only good christians, but also skillful work- men. It is an institution of charity, 'because the sum demanded for board and tuition, one dollar a week, is so small as to come within the means of the poorer cli'.sses, and of those benevolent individuals and societies who have at heart the reformation and instruction of the destitute and abandoned. How many of these boys, think you, are sheltered, fed, and instructed in this home for the homeless and deserted? A hundred or two ? More than that. Three hundred, peihaps? More than that. Five hundred ? Yet more. There are at the present time more than twelve hundred boys iu this mammoth refuge ! They are divided into two dep.artments, a senior and a junior, according to age. I visited both depart- ments. All are governed by the same rule, and all are under the fotherly direc- tion of Mgr. Bervanger. The two establishments are about half a mile a; art. This institution is governed and disciplined by a congregation or brotherhood, composed of secular priests and laymen, who devote themselves to this work, with a single eye to the glory of God and the welfare of youth, demanding nothing for their labors but a bare support, looking forward for compensation to the treasury of God. The first and great aim of the directors and teachers is, to infuse into the boya a love of virtue and religion ; the second, to impart elementary and scientific instruction : the third, to accustom them to habits of industry, and teach them a profitable trade. The spiritual direction and religious instruction of the children is confided to the reverend fathers of the order of St. Dominie, who give four pious instructions every week. Catechism is taught every day. The scholars are divided into twenty classes, according to their age and degree of intelligence. They are not allowed to make their first communion till they have attained the age of eleven or twelve years. The singing and music at mass and vespers is performed by the pupils, under the direction of their musical teachers. I think I shall never forget the pleasure and edification with which I assisted at the Divine offices at St. Nicholas, on the Sunday which I passed in the institution. It was in the chapel of the senior department. There were about six hundred and fifty boys present. All behaved with the most perfect decorum. In discipline nothing was wanting. All appeared to unite in the singing, but without a discordant note. Tlie time was so well observed, that every word was articulated and heard as if pronounced by a single voice. In the schools are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, orthography, grammar, geography, history, book-keeping, dravi-ing, geometry, vocal and instrumental music, chemistry, and natural history. Out of the schools are taught surveying, agriculture, horticulture, gymnastics, swimming, and various handicrafts. There are about twenty workshops attached to the institution and within its precincts. Before the children commtmce their apprenticeship, theii- tastes, their preferences, their physical strength, and their intelligence are consulted. I ob- served, in passing through the shops, a large number of boys employed busily in carving, cabinet-making, turning, nmsical instrument making, jewelry, brass fin- ishing, tailoring, shoemaking, rms, in all their proportions, presents at once the greatest variety and the greatest unity ; it is that whose different types are the most strongly marked with a . special character, a distinct individuality that, in fine, which is susceptible of the greatest Beauty. From this it results that errors in the representation of the human figure are more sensible than in that of any other figure, and that he that commits them recognizes them himself more easily. From hence it follows that to teach how in all things to judge of their proportions 33 514 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. accurately, that is to say, as we have said, to Draw, there is nothing better than to propose, as the first object of study and imitation, the human figure. It is a point upon which scarcely any difference of opinion exists. But because the human figure is the most complicated both in its movements and in its forms, it follows also that it is of all figures the most difficult to see well and to represent well. In living nature, where to the variety of forms is added that of colors, and the mobility inseparable from life, the complexity is such that it is manifestly impossible for a beginner not to lose himself in it. Hence the necessity upon which all the world, or all but all, is again unanimous, of a simpli- fication at first, of that which consists in giving as a model not nature itself, but an image of nature, without motion and without color ; that is what is ordinarily called a bosse [a statue, cast, or figure in full relief.] But does not such a figure, if it be an entire figure, offer still a whole composed of too many different elements, whose relations it is impossible for an inexperi- enced eye to seize and reproduce ? Upon this point again, upon the impossi- bility of giving to the beginner an entire figure for model, no difference of opinion. Now, there is one part of the human figure in which more even than in the remainder, the proportions are skillful and delicate, which more than all the rest possesses individuality of character, which, in fine, is susceptible of a beauty more exquisite than all the rest, and which beside forms in itself in some sort a whole, already sufficiently comphcated and difficult to understand. This part is the Head. The least simplification which it would be necessary to make, the least restric tion to the hazardous essays of a blind routine, would be to give at first as models only round casts (bosses,) and among these only those of simple Heads. Must we not go yet farther ? Must we not give beginners for their first models, instead of round casts, prints, drawings, or photographs, where the visible appear- ances are more easily distinguished from the real proportions which they express, where the lights and shades are more simple and more easily understood ; must we not also, instead of entire heads, make them imitate at first only the parts of which the head is composed ? It is this opinion which in all times has obtained greatest credit; it is this which in all times has been generally practiced, as witness the writings of Cennino Cennini,* Leonardo da ViNci,t Benvenuto Cellini,^ Vasari,§ Loncazzo,|| Armenini,^ De Piles,** &;c., as prove the col- lections of the Principles of Drawing which have been published at different epochs. +t In fine, it is this which is practiced still in our own limes in the greater part of the schools, one may even say in almost all. Froin all time then this principle has been generally held as true; that it is only after having learned what is easy and simple that what is difficult and com- plex should be attempted. On this principle the student imitates drawn or engraved figures before those in relief ; the parts of a figure before the entire. Moreover, he applies himself to imitate exactly the form of whatever subject he studies, and consequently to represent with care the lights and shades which render it visible, and which determine the relative inclinations, the melting away or the relief of the surfaces. It is complained that by this method, proceeding step by step from the imitation of the several parts of the head, after prints, too much time is required to come to the imitation of heads and entire figures from the round ; it is also complained that too much time again is spent in making each drawing in the imitation of the lights, of the shadows, of the half-tints ; that amidst the minutiae of this labor a vicious habit is contracted of pre-occupying one's-self to excess with details, — a habit which no longer allows one to cotiiprehend the effect of the whole. It has been said, in short, that the result which we ought to propose to ourselves is that of * Trnl/afo ael/a pittur'a, (Roma, 1821,) 8vo. c. 8. tD!fl!a Piti7ira,p. 57. X Disorso nopra i pricipi e'l modo dHmparare V arte del d' segno (operc, Milano, 1811, Bvo, volumd iii ) § Introduzione alle tre arti di disogno, c. 15. Vita di Micholagnolo Buonarotti, p. 129. 11 Truftiito della Pitfura. . 1 Prccalti della Pitlura. c. 3. " Etemcnsdcpcint urc pratique. V i.e. 1. ft See especially tho?e engraved after the designs of P%ima the younger, of Prosper© Fon- tana, of Annibal Carracci, of Guercino. &c. INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 515 leading the student, in the least possible time, to i-e[)roducc the effect of the whole and the general aspect of things, and that after several years even employed in this patient study, beginning with the elements of the hun)an figure, one can sciircely hope to reach such a result. Hence the different systems in which drawing is commenced by the imitation of heads in full relief. In the boldest of these systems such models are given to the student for imita- tion from the very first, and without assistance. This is what Jacotot, the author of what is called the *' Universal •' system, proposed as an application of his general views toward the simplification of instruction. Experience has proved, iis it was easy to forsee, that a head in full relief, — that of the Apollo Bel- vedere, for example, — proposed as a first model to ail beginners, offers them, by its multiplied proportions, complicated by so many mysterious effeats of perspective, and light and shade, absolutely insurmountable difficulties ; they either lose cour- age entirely, or else passing on to another work, in spite of the gravest errors, which tliey are utterly unable to correct, they take up forever the ruinous habit of doing bad work and remaining content with it. In the system proposed by M. Alexander Dubois, more than twenty years ago, a system which has gained considerable support, and which even now has its partizans, the first model proposed for imitation is still a head in full relief, but it is a head simplified. By this means M. Dubuis has hoped to preserve the advantages which Jacotot promised himself by his plan, and to get rid of its inconveniences. Accordingly, M. Dubois gives beginners for their first model a bust which presents only very general masses or features ; after this bust, another, which offers some additional indications of the head; then a third in which the details are still more numerous and more decided; and lastly, a fourth, which completes the series, and which alone is all but according to nature. These four busts (of which each is, besides, placed in three different positions: the head set straight in the first, raised in the second, .but down in the third,) these four busts thus present four successive states of the same figure, from the roughest sketch up to the com- pletion of it ; they are the degrees by which the author of the system proposes to conduct the student, from the general indication of the whole to complete repre- sentation, comprising all the detail of the parts. So that, says M. Dubuis, while commencing Drawing by the entire Head, by a whole, as in M. Jacotot's method, and in all the methods by which it has been sought to abridge the study of Drawing, we commence, however, by a simple and easy object, and only pass in succession, as in the ordinary method, though fol- lowing indeed an inverse path, from the simple to the complex and from the easy to the d fhcult. Besides, thinks he again, to proceed thus is to proceed in con- formity with the great principle, that general effect should command the details, and that, accordingly, every work of art should commence by the general effect of the whole.* In truth, if the different parts may be called simple in relation to a quality, and it is in this sense that the limbs are simple in relation to the body, we may from another point of view consider as simple, in relation to an object completely deter- mined, a less determined state or condition of that same object, and one which consequently presents less complexity ; and it is in this sense that the rough sketch of a figure, in which as yet the individual features find no p'nee, is more simple than the finished figure. Now this previous and simpler stalj is oi'ten called, elliptieally, the whole ; elliptically, for it is not the whole with all the parts composing it once realized, and which themselves in reality form a whole; it is the whole without its parts, the general effect abstracted from the details, or, if you please, the general effect comprehending the details in a manner purely vir- tual and ideal. But the character of this whole abstracted from its parts is : to be in relation to the real whole of which it is the sketch, still undetermined, indefinite. Hence it follows that, for him who does not know the details which the abstract whole in its general effect comprehends but virtually, this whole has but an undetermined meaning ; and an undetermined meaning is not one at all. To give a beginner * Ds rensirgnement du Dessin sous le point dc vue industriel, par Dupuis (Paris, 836, 8vo,; p, 29. 516 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. Kueh a whole is then to propose to him a mo.iel which for him is meaningless. Such a molel has, consequently, nothing in it proper to teach the imitator of it exactness and precision, and — the hab:{; once engendered at starting of doing nothing save roughly, and then only almost doing- it — when the student gradually arrives at details he will be able but roughly and only almost to comprehend and represent them. DoubtLss whatever one desires to do it is the general effect, it is the whole, the whole without the details of the parts, which must first be established ; for it is this whole, in which the parts will successively take their proper places, which must first be correct, and the happiest details cannot compensate for errors in it ; this is what Leox\ardo da Vinci incessantly advises Artists not to lose sight of. It is, in fine, a truth with which the Greeks particularly showed themselves profoundly penetrated ; for if there is one quality above all by which their works most surpass those of the moderns, it is in the understanding of the general elfect. But it is not less true that this general effect of the whole without parts, by which everything to be done must necessarily be commenced, has no meaning, save by relation to the complete whole, of which it is the preparation and first stage. For the artist who indicates it and who knows what he must add to it, this first general effect [ensemble) has then a definite sense, and from this it follows inevit- ably that the sketches of a master, even the most summary, instead of being eon- fined to a generality systematically shapeless, always here and there let out the determinate, precise, and well defined ideas of which they are the design. But those indications themselves, to an inexperienced eye, are but enigmas. Tlie sket-h, in fact, has a meaning only for its author, and for those whom experience and science have put into a condition to share his thought, and to anticipate with him its i-ealization. For a beginner it has no meaning, or only a vague and con- fused one. To propose it to him for imitation at starting is then, once more, to give him for his first lesson to content himself with an ill-defined meaning : it is to make h m contract the habit of doing so ; it is to deprive him, by such a habit, of the desire, and soon even of the power, to reach as to any object whatever the definite and determined, that is, the reality. From which it is evident, that while in everything it is by a sketch that what is desired to be done must be com- menced, it by no means follows, as M, Dubuis has thought, that the first models should be sketches. Far from this, to habituate one's-self from the start to imi- tate objects systematically undecided and shapeless is to render one's-self inca- pable of ever undeistanding the real forms, and therefore of ever being able to make a simple sketch, such at least as those which come from the hand of a mas- ter, and in which, little as there may be, or be seen in them, at least what ought to be is already distinguishable. However, it must be agreed that the models proposed by M. Dubuis do not pre- sent th it appearance of vagueness, which is in general the character of mere sketches ; this arises from their being fashioned out by p'anes and by angles. The first of these models presents but the great masses thus indicated; the second only differs from the first, and the third from the second, by the planes and angles being more numerous ; and even the last, which approaches nearest to the form# of nature, still retains much of this same character. In this above all, these mod- els d ffer essentially from the works of a master's hand, and they resemble more closely the successive stages by which the workman or stonecutter mechanically nears by little and little the shape of the marble or the model, which the artist has charged him to reproduce. The obj -ct of the constant reflection of the iMasters, the end to which they ever look, being, as we have said, the expression of the charactepor soul of forms, their constant practice has been to indicate it from the very first, even in the lightest and most fugitive sketch, and accordingly, in sketching the figure of a living being, and above all, the human figure, from the very first to make felt the nature of those sinuous curves or serpentines^ (as Leonai'do and Michael Angelo called them,) which are its peculiar characteristics, and which reveal its spirit. This is what we see in the drawings of Titian, and of Correggio, as well as those of Kaffaelle, of Leonardo da Vinci, of Fra Bartolommeo, and of Micheel Angelo, as well as in the sketches in wax, and in clay, and even in marble, which remain to us of this great artist. INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 517 An entirely different manner has begun to reign in certain scliools in the 17th and i8lh eentuiies, aeeoidiiiCT as tlie true sentiment of the spirit of forms became niore Weak ; it is that which consists in replacing curved hnes and surfaces by straight Hnes and planes ; confined at first to the detail of figures, to the smallest parts compi)sitig them, this process has been more and more applied to the larger paifcj, aiid finally, in our own time, among many draughtsmen and painters, it has extended itself to every branch of Drawing. The models proposed by M. Dubuis present a systematic application of this process, one of wh ch beginners who copy from them nmst necessarily contract the habit. Now, in the first place, habituated to see everything under one sole aspect, the eye must by little and little become incapable of understanding the infinite vari- ety which nature offers us ; it must become incapable, above all, of understand- ing, and of representing those subtile and winding forms which are the distin- guishing characteristics of human nature, those forms which INlichail Angelo com- pared to the waving motion of a flame. In the second place, the particular effect of this process which consists in expressing every thing, or almost every thing by planes, is to disguise under the precision of surfaces so regular, the actual indetermiuation of forms, and so to give to the unskillfulness of him who does not know how to distinguish, and to reproduce the true character, a false air of knowledge. Thus the inconveniences of this method are aggravated. If by adopting the habit of copying simple sketches, such as (once more) the sketches of the Masters, we can express nothing but in the rough^ and only half express it even so, if in consequeiice we do not reach the truth at all, we are in th.s properly speaking, engaged in the false, and the very indetermination at which we stop short, might warn us that to reach our end, a part of the road remains to be traversed. But if we adopt in addition, a manner of work which gives to every thing we do a semblance of precision and perfect definiteness, we conceal from ourselves our weakness or our ignorance, and we set a bound to our own progress almost impossible to pass over. M. DubuJe' method was conceived for the purpose of teaching the art of Draw- ing to the working classes ; to those classes who have need of an elementary knowledge of Drawing, in the exercise of a multitude of professions, more or less mechanical, and who can devote but little time to acquire it ; and it seems suffi- ciently appropriate for this purpose. If, in fact, it follows from what we have said, that this method can not lead very far, on t^he other hand, it is undeniable, that in making the student begin by the imitation of simple wholes, it is, perhaps, fitted more rapidly than any other, to put him in a condition to seize the general effects of proportions, and to put the principal masses almost in their proper pla- ces ; and if it is not enough for Art, it is enough for what of knowledge of Draw- ing most trades require. This method, once more, may then ansvrer sufficiently well for the instruction of the artizans for whom it has been designed, but that is no reason why it t-huuld be introduced, as some have desired it should, from these popular schools where it is said to have done good service, into the schools of a superior class, and above all into the Lycees [Colleges, or Collegiate Schools.] However, if it be a method by which we can indeed acquire more rapidly than by another, a certain knowledge of Drawing, however limited, ])erhaps we should be tempted to believe, that it ought to be adopted in preference by all our schools, except those especially destined for the formation of •Vrtists. Every where, some will perhaps say, it is for the greatest number, and especially for them, that we sliould chiefly be concerjaed ; now the greatest number has need of knowledge of Drav,-- iug only of a very elementary kind, so far as it is required, not t\)r the practice of the Alt, but for the different industrial pursuits with which Drawing has some- thing to do. NA'hat is of the greatest importance is this, that those very persons who can devote but few years to general study, and to that of Drawing in par- ticular, should be able in those few years to learn as much of it as is necessary for representing with some accuracy the situations and dimensions of things ; and if it be a method by whose employment such a result can be reached, even if it cannot serve, nay, even if to a certain point it interposes an obstacle to further progress, this imperfect but expeditious method must still be preferred. We cannot share in such a view. 518 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. Even admitting what is far from being incontestable, that for the practice of the different branches of Industry, there is never any need of drawing with the same precision, and the same delicacy, with which artists must know how to work, it is still one of the first interests of industry, and consequently of the great number who are engaged in it, that art should not decline in the hands of those at least who practice Art, It is from Art that all the branches of Industry which have any relations with it, receive their inspirations. It is Art which supplies them with the types which they multiply, in accommodating them to our different wants, or to our different fancies. All are constantly occupied in appropriating to every thing that surrounds us, the forms with which the imagination is capti- vated, and of which that Art which reigns at each epoch is the source ; all profit by the power of seduction which Art exercises, and by the favor which attaches itself to every thing that bears its mark. When a great master appears, and comes to show all things under an aspect till then unknown, for such is the privilege of genius, all that is subject to the power of man, must put on those proportions, those new harmonies which he is come to reveal. Thus to spread and to apply its thought in every form, the ancient arts are transformed and regenerated, and new arts take birth. And to this immense work come together, yet from afar off, to furnish its materials, even the very branches of industry, which seem the most foreign to the Art of Draw- ing. Who can say what even the most mechanical professions owe to the genius of a Raffaelle ; not only the art of Marc Antonio, not alone that of the potters of Faenza, of Gubbio, of Pesoro, and of Urbino, not alone the fabrics of the tapestry works of Flanders, and the enamels of Limoges, which have reproduced his creations under so many forms, but all the industries of his age, and of the ages which followed his ; how many men have lived on the fruits of his thoughts, and "of what riches of every kind it has been the source ? Who can calculate what for three thousand years, one half the universe owes to that Greek Art from which even still, though modified by so many different influences, not only the forms of all our public works, but those even of our vessels and commonest utensils are derived ? And as for the industry of France in particular, if it be by so many titles in the first rank among the industries of Europe, to what is this due, if not to this, that the first rank already for a long time belongs to our painters and our sculp- tors, and that in Art, no more than in Literature, no nation can dispute it with her ? What worse service then would it be possible to render to the greater number in every country, but above all in ours -of France, than to put every where in force methods of instruction calculated to set bounds, even to the measure of me- diocrity, to the development of talent, and by an ignorant zeal for the .crowd, to arrest the flight of those men of rare genius, (genies d^elite) which it ever con- ceals in its bosom, and whom Providence destined to be its benefactors? Will it be said, that rare Genius knows how to burst its way, whatever diffi- culty it encounters, and that it is useless to take special care of it ? Examples abound in history, and in the history of art in particular, of men of genius hapiiily endowed, whose career has been falsified, and destiny destroyed by a bad education. In the second place, and supposing even that one should not occupy one's-self with this small number, with this elite which will practice Art with success, and spread its benefits over the 'crowd, nor even with those already more numerous, to whom it would be useful, in the career which they have to pass through, to possess the knowledge of Drawing to a somewhat higher degree, it is certainly important that among the greatest possible number taste should be healthy and good. And so, if the state of Art, and consequently of all the industries which depend on Art, depends upon the genius and education of artists, it depends also, in very great part, on the judgment of the public, which, by its approbation or disapprobation, may sustain the artists in such and such a course, or turn them from it. Now, as Paul Veronese said, " those alone can form a good judgment upon matters of Art, who have been well instructed in Art." Accordingly, since taste is the just appreciation of the beautiful, since between the beautiful, the tiue, and the good, there is a close connection, and so to speak, an intimate solidarity, what interest is more general, than that to direct instruction ui Drawing, INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 519 in such a manner as to give as much as possible to all those who take part in it, a just and delicate taste, a sure discernment of beauty ? If that is true fur all the schools, for how much stronger a reason is it not true for the schools of sec- ondary education, and where those are educated, who by their lights, as well as by thv; place which they will occupy in our society, are destined to exert the most powerful influence upon the spirit of their time ? For these difterent reasons, we cannot recommend the establishment in our Li/cees of any of those expeditious methods which lead, however ingenious they niay be, but to an inexact and erroneous appreciation of forms, and their charac- ter. The only methud uhieh we can propose for the approbation of the Minister, must be that method which will lead, though at the price of a little more time and trouble, to the end of Instruction in Drawing, such as we have been able to define it, after the great INIasters of Art ; the possession of that good judgment of the eye, by which men appreciate proportions correctly, and understand their spirit and beauty. We have seen that the human head is an object too complex to serve for a first model for the student, that in seeking from the start to imitate its forms, the be- ginner can but contract a habit of error 5 we have seen also, that to propose for a first model, a whole in an abstract form, and without parts, is again to teach, though in another fashion, but error and confusion. Hence, we are of necessity brought back to the method which has almost always prevailed, and which confirms the authority of all the masters of Art, that which only allows the whole to be studied, after a profound study of its parts. " The sight," says Lf.onardo da Vinci, " has an action of the quickest, and embraces in one moment an infinity of forms, nevertheless, it only comprehends one thing at a time. Let us suppose, reader, that you bestow one rapid glance ^on all this written page, you will judge in an instant, that it is full of different ^letters ; but you will not know in so shoi-t a space of time, v^-hat letters they are, nor what they mean ; you will be obliged then to go over them word by word, line by line, in order to comprehend those letters. Or again, if you wish to reach the top of a building, you must mount up step by step ; without which it is impossible for you to reach the top. And so it is, I say to you, that Nature re- gards tliis Art of Drawing. If you wish to Jiave the true knowledge of the forms of things, you will commence by their parts, and you will not pass on to the sec- ond, before you have the first well in your memory and in your practice. And if you do otherwise, you will lose your time, or at least, you will prolong your study. I repeat to you once again, It^irn accuracy before rapidity." But it is said, on the other hand, if we cannot begin with the Whole, why not descend to details still smaller than those by which one generally commences, why not descend to the fingers, to the nails themselves. It is, because, in recommending not to begin with the entire of a visible natural object, nor even by a whole, such as the human head, too complicated still, although this too is but a fragment of a whole, nevertheless for an inexperienced eye, in order to satisfy the two principles equally certain as they are that we cannot commence with a very complicated whole, and that onl)^ a wliole can make itself understood, reason requires that we should commence with parts, which, though parts, yet form whiles in a sense in themselves, and are in eon- sequence intelligible objects. We will stop then, as men have always done, at those fragments which have to a certain extent a special destination, a special character, a distinct individuality, such are the eye, the ear, the mouth, the head, &c. Sufficiently simple not to surpass the comprehension of a beginner, every such part is alrealy a whole in itself, in right of this quality, and like a whole, each such part may be understood by itself alone. As parts of a Whole more com plicated, they cannot, it is true, be understood without that whole. It is then by arriving at that Whole in which they act one with another, and where they har- monize together, that — after having studied each part separately — they can all be understood. After having taken as a base of operations, as we do in every science, that which is less intelligible in itself but more accessible, it is in the last place, accord- ing 10 the order which befits our weakness, and which is recommended by 520 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. wisdom, that we raise ourselves to the culminating point of complete science, which is like an elevated pinacle, whence we can embrace all, and understand all. Lastly, to leave from the very start, only so much obscurity around the mean ing of the several parts of the human figure, as the time is not yet come to clear away, we should not neglect to make beginners see from the first in a general way, the relations they bear to the whole, and the position which belongs to them. It is also thus, that in every science a general and preliminary exposition precedes instruction in detail, and prepares the way for that last and philosophical exposi- tion, in which the details reunited and arranged m the whole, will receive their last and full explanation. Such is then the order which theory prescribes to the practical study of Draw- ing. But the determination of this order, is this the only share which theory should have in instruction ? And accordingly, the order of practical study once determined, is it enough for the learning of the elements of Drawing, that this study should consist in commencing with the imitation of the parts of the head, and finishing with that of the entire figure ? [After having demonstrated, (continues the Editor of the Bulletin,) by the reasoning and by the authority of Leonardo da Vinci, of iMicheel Angelo, of the artists of antiquity, &c., the necessity of the study of the anatomy of the bones and muscles, and that of the proportions, M. F. Ravaisson proceeds as fol- lows : — ] In fine we have seen above that Drawing is properly speaking the representa- tion of the proportions of things as they appear to the eye. We have also seen, that if we can hardly well judge of the reality by the visible appearance, which is for us its sign, we can hardly see the appearance either as it is. Hence, constant difficulties, as well when we invent, to give to the things we imagine the forms they ought to have, as when we imitate, to judge accurately of the appearances of things and to I'eproduce them faithfully. Hence an uncertainty from which we can scarce!)' escape witlicut many eiTors. Now the relation between visible appearances and actual proportions, for any point of viev.' and any distance, is regulated by geometrical laws ; by these laws, which are those of perspective, we can with certainty anticipate experience, and. without error, destroy the appearance of the reality, or the reality of the appear- ance. Who then can doubt that the knowledge of it would be most useful to as- sure the judgment of the eye, and to protect it from error ? And so, at the era, at which the art of Drawing among the moderns has attained the highest point of perfection, we see perspective held in honor. After Bruneileschi, Paolo, Ueello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who were the first to un- derstand well its rules ; after Pietro della Francesca, who was, it is said, the first to give the theory of it, the masters whose works adorn the middle and second half of the 1.5th century, Massaccio, Filippino Lippi, Pisanello, Signorelli, the pi'ecursor of Michssl Angelo, Melazzo de Forli, whose frescoes probably taught Corregio the art of backgrounds, (soito in su) Vincenzo Foppa, the two Bellini, Mantegna, Ghirlandajo, Perugino, showed themselves consummate in the hew science ; Leonardo da Vinci made it the subject of a book, nov/ lost, which be- came the source of the principal works in which it was treated in the 16th cen- tury ; Raffaelle, in fine, to whom Perugino had taught it, knew it so well as to give lessons to the great Florentine painter, 1^'iX Bartolommeo. And we cannot doubt, that the knowledge and habitual practice of perspective, effectually con- tributed to give to the art of Drawing, among the painters of the golden age of Art, much of that exquisite accuracy, and accordingly, that finished elegance, from which men subsequently receded more and more, according as counting more for the concealment of mistakes on the play of light and shade, and the effect of aerial perspective, men trusted more and more to the unassisted judgment of the eye. It is not that when we learn to draw, we must frequently put in practice the rules of perspective, to find the place and dimensions of outlines and shadows. We have already said, that to construct forms by geometrical rule, is no longer to draw, but to trace them, and consequently it can not teach us to draw. But at the same time that it furnishes us with an exact means of geometrical construc- tion and verification, the knowledge of the principles of perspective, united to the babit of applying them, must necessarily, in making us attentive to the perspec- INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 521 tive diminutions of proportlous, and tlio laws which they follow, k;;d us to observe thetn better, to ai)p -ociate the n, and to represent them nioie justly. Now if the knowledge of perspeetive serves to make us judge well of all visi ble forms, of those of the bones and muscles, as well as thot-e of tlie exterior sur- face, does it not follow, that it is with perspective that instruction in Drawing ought to commence ? Piactice should be founded on good theory, of which per- spective is the entrance and the guide. Will it be objected that it prolongs too much the teaching of Drawing, to join with it that of perspective, as well as the structure and proportions of the human figure ? Very far from this, these are ideas which at the same time that they must throw light on practice, and so render its progress more rapid as well as more sure, may be acquired in a time relatively very short. These principles, says Leonaudo da Vinci, who continually recommends to begin with the study of the scientitic principles of Art, these principles are but a little thing near Art itself. To learn in the first place, perspective ; in the second place, the structure of man and his proportions ; in the third place, only to draw the human figure ; first, the several parts, and then the whole ; such then is the order prescribed by Leonardo da Vinci for the study of Drawing, and which has not ceased to be the order most profitable to follow. * This does not, however, prevent the teaching of the scientific principles of Art from being usefully preceded by a certain number of lessons, consecrat'-d to purely practical exercises, exercises which may consist of the imitation of simple figures, such as those of regular solids, of some parts of vegetables, &c. In these first essays, we would accustom ourselves to draw the outlines, to indicate the shadows ; we would accustom ourselves, above all, to observe proportions ind forms, and the very difficulties themselves which we should experience in judging of them accurately, and reproducing them well, would dispose us to recognize the 'necessity, and to comprehend the use of those principles, whose methodical appli- cation will serve in the regular course of instruction, to resolve successively the various problems of Drawing. These different exercises would thus form a sort of preparation for the regular course of studies, which would commence with perspective. In our schools, (lycees) where for every reason the instruction must be but very elementary, the study of perspective will be necessarily confined to general prin- ciples, and to the applications most us-ful for the practice of Drawing. Care should be taken above all to explain how this science, which is at present scarcely applied save to the foreshortening of regular forms, which can be geometrically drawn such as those of a building, may be applied alike to every kind of forms, and particularly to the human figure. The. study of measures (and proportions) should extend only to those which it is most important to know, and which are the most constant ; and the master should apply himself to explain by examples chiefly borrowed from the chefs- d'ceuvre of antique art, how the infinite variety of individual forms reconciles itself with the general rule, which is the law of species. The study of the anatom- ical structure also should be limited to what is most necessary to know, and what may be learned from casts, prints, or photographs, upon the situation and func- tions of the muscles and bones. But, on the other hand, it would not be enough for the scientific principles of Art, that some lessons more or less abstract, should precede the practice. In Art practice is the end, theory is one of the means of reaching it. From the start, theory ought then to be accomodated to practical use, an.ni so as to please the fancy of men. For every branch of this course of study, the models should in general be borrowed from Greek Art, which, in this department as in all the others, knew how to unite witli the most perfect agreement of the forms, with the destination of the objects and their material, the greatest originality of character, the highest style, and the most surpassing beauty. Other models may, however, be addtd, borrowed from Roman and Oriental art, as well as from that of the Middle Ages, and of the Renaissance^ which, though they do not reach the same degree of supreme perfection, have, nevertheless, produced a crowd of masterpieces in this • department. The exercise of reproduction from memory, which would fasten in the imagina- tion the most finished types, should be applied to the drawing of artificial forms and (heir ornaments, as well as to that of the human figure, and will produce the same result. Perhaps to these studies, should be added some practical lessons on the em- ployment of color in ornamentation, lessons which would initiate the student to a certain extent in the knowledge of the relations and harmonies of tones in color. Tc conclude, as in the case of figure drawing, besides the models of artificial forms, which may be made during the progress of the course, other chefs d-csuvre of art, placed in every direction throughout the schools (lycees) under the eyes of youth, would succed in penetrating them with the spirit which produced them, with that universal spirit from which equally proceed that heroic contovrs of the marbles of the Parthenon, and the profile of the least of the earthen vases hidden in the sepulchres of Athens or of Vulci. [The Commisson proceeds to point out the proper distribution of all these studies, among the classes in the lycees^ the schools of general education in Fi'ance, and conclude with recommending that INIasters in Drawing, shall undergo a special examination, and rank hereafter as Professors, and that the proficiency of the pupils shall be tested by frequent inspection confided to men possessed of special knowl- edge on the subject, who shall report periodically to the Minister the results of their observation. Upon this admirable report the Minister of Public Instruction has promulgated a Decree embodying its several suggestions as part of the national system.] SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTIONS IN MUSIC. 529 CONSERVATOIRE IMPERIAL DE MUSIQUE ET DE DECLAMATION. The Imperial Conservatory of MurSic, at Paris, was founded by Louis XVI, in 1'784, and was then called Ecole de chant. It was reorganized in 1795, at which time it received its present appellation. Although originally intended to train actors and singers for the imperial theatres and operas, it has become a good normal school of professors of music and vocal culture generally. Pupils are admitted only after a competitive examination. It is free, and its privileges are enjoyed by about six hundred pupils annually. Connected with it are a library of music and books on the art, and a gallery of musical instru- ments, which are accessible to the public. It is governed by a director, an administrator, and two committees, the com- mittee of musical instruction numbering fifteen, and that of dramatic studies numbering fourteen. Besides these there are attached to the school, a secretary, two librarians, one curator of the museum, an officer at the head of the pensionnat, and two visiting physicians. The corps of instructors consists of sixty-two professors, twelve repetiteurs and ten other instructors, distributed as follows : — 1 Eepetiteur of clavier for men ; 1 Professor adjunct of clavier for women ; 2 Repetiteurs of clavier for women ; 1 Professor titular of harp ; 4 Professors titular of violin ; 2 Professors titular of violoncello; 1 Professor titular of centre basse; 1 Professor titular of fljite ; 1 Professor titular of hautbois ; 1 Professor titular of clarionette ; 1 Pro- fessor titular of bassoon ; 1 Professor titular of horn, first and second ; 1 Pro- fessor titular of trumpet ; 1 Professor titular of trombone. The classes for military music are provided with the following instructors: two of harmony and composition, one of cornet a piston, one of saxophane, one of saxhorn, two of elementary singing. Besides the school at Paris there are five branch establishments, one in each of the following towns: Lille, Toulouse, Marseilles, Metz, and Nantes. Four Professors of composition, contrepoint and fugue, two Professors of Written harmony, three professors of harmony and accompaniment practically united, eight Professors titular of singing, three Professors titular of individual elementary singing {solfege) for men, four Repetiteurs of individual elementary singing {solfege) for men, two Professors of individual elementary singing {solfege) for women, five Repetiteurs of individual elementary singing {solfege) for women, two Professors titular of choral elementary singing {solfege colledif ) one Professor agrege teaching a class of choral music, two Professors titular of lyrical declamation in grand opera, three Professors titular of lyrical declama- tion in opera comique^ three accompagnateurs of lyrical declamation in opera comique, one Professor for studying parts for grand opera and opera comique, one Professor for the class of the p^nsionna.t for studying the parts for grand opera and opera comique, one Professor for teaching adults to sing popular music in the evening classes, four Professors titular of dramatic declamation, one Professor honorary of dramatic declamation, one Professor titular of theatrical management, one Professor titular of fencing for men, one Professor titular of organ and improvisation, one Professor titular of piano for men, one Professor titular of piano for women, one Professor adjunct of piano for women, one Professor titular of instrumental music in bands, one Professor adjunct of clavier for men. "We copy the following notice of the annual examination for 1866 from the Journal of the Society of Arts. The examinations are divided into two aeries, one being held with closed 530 SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTIONS IN MUSIC. doors, and the other being open to such of the public as can obtain tickets of admission, which on some days ars as scarce as tickets for a coronation, in fact, are utterly unattainable by ordinary mortals. The private examinations include sol-fa, written harmony, thorough bass, the adaptation to the piano of a piece from an old opera ; scales, organ, centre basse, centre point, and fugue. This portion of the competition is carried on in the small theatre of the Conservatoire, while the public trials take place in the concert theatre ; the latter include singing, grand opera and comic opera, violin, violoncello, harp, piano, and all the wind instruments played by pupils, whether civil or mihtarj^, for since the suppression of the gymnasium of military music, the Conservatoire has the charge of the education of military musicians. The examination of the pupils in the dramatic classes usually terminates the public examinations. The president of the juries is M. Auber, the director of the Conservatoire. The juries themselves are nine in number; five of these consist of professors of the Conservatoire, while the other four are selected from the artistic celebrities of the capital. The pupils in sol-fa are required to execute at sight, what is called a lesson dcliangements de clefs, and M. Elevart explains this in the fol- lowing terms: — "This name is given to a particular system of notation, which introduces the seven positions of the three keys in an arbitrary manner, so as to test the promptitude of ejQ possessed by the competing pupils." The pupils of the class of harmony have to arrange a selected piece with bass, and the fugue class to compose a fugue on a given subject; for this purpose eighteen hours are allotted, during which time the pupils are shut up in the class-rooms of the Conservatoire; the successful pupils rarely take more than eight or ten hours to complete their tasks. The other pupils, whether vocal or instrumental, have to execute a piece selected by the committee of studies; each kind of instrumentalists executes the same piece, and all, except the voc;ilist, have to execute a manuscript piece at sight. Formerly there were vocal classes in the Conservatoire which competed in public. After having sung a morceau chosen by their professors, the pupils sang a manuscript piece at sight. M. Elevart regrets that this kind of vocal counterpoint has fallen into disuse in the sinking classes, "as the study of vocalization and the obligation of executing at sight in public forced the singers to be musicians, that is to say, readers." Each pupil of the singing classes admitted to the competition sings a piece chosen by the professor. There are certain airs which are repeated ten times during one day's exhibition, such as the air of the Deux families of Theodore Labarre, and that of Norma. The public competitions occupy a whole week. They commence at nine in the morning and terminate ordinarily at four in the afteinoon. The most popular of the musical classes are those of the violin and piano, and serious and comic opera. The scenes of tragedy and comedy performed by the pupils of tlie declamation classes attract a special audience. With the exception of the pit and gallery, which are nominally open to the public, admission can only be obtained by means of tickets signed by the director. These tickets are distributed amongst the Ministry of Eine Arts, the directors of the Impei-ial thcaMes of Paris, and tlie Professors of the Conservatoire. At the public distribution of prizes, each prize pupil receives one or two tickets, according to the degree of the prize which he or she may have obtained. At present the distribution takes place in August, a few days after the closing of the competi- tive examinations, but formerly if took place in November after the reopening of the classes, which are closed from the first of August to the end of Septem- ber. At that time the meeting was a very interesting one ; the time was sufficient to allow of the music to be performed on the occasion, being well studied; the accompaniments were given by a full band, and it was usual for the pupil who had gained the first prize in fugue in the preceding year to write the overture of tlie concert. At present the full band is replaced by a simple piano, and the first prize-man of the fugue class has no longer the opportunity of testing his powers in presence of a select public. The old practice of a symphonj-, composed for all instruments, and executed by the laureats of the year, has also necessarily fallen with the abolition of the orch stra. These melodies used to be written by eminent composers, and the names of Francois Bazin, Jules Cohen, and Coradin Prumier are remembered with pleasure by habitues of the Consei-vatoire meetings. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 631 MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The ability to read and render musical composition was made part of the programme of instruction in the primary normal schools, drawn up by M. Guizot, in 1833. By the decree of 1865, the musical teaching is given during the whole three years, five hours a week being allotted to lessons in music and elementary sing- ing, including practice on the organ and the piano. In the lyceums vocal music was left optional with the director until 1865, when by a decree of January 30 of that year, instruction in vocal music was made obligatory on all the lower classes to the fourth inclusive, and left optional with the pupils of the fourth class and those above. The obligatory instruction includes the elementary principles of music and singing, as well as musical reading and writing, according to the notation at present in use in all civilized nations. The optional instruction may be extended to the elementary principles of harmony. In organizing the studies of the secondary ' special schools, this subject was made obligatory, and the following method indicated in the elaborate circular of the Minister, (M. Duruy,) addressed to the rectors, April 6, 1868. Singing is a powerful means of education. All the special colleges will, therefore, comprise singing classes. Each lesson should commence with sing- ing in unison, in order to steady the voice ; the pupils should be grouped according to the capacity of their voices, and each group should in its turn go through the exercises prepared. The lesson should conclude with the practice of easy and melodious choruses. As for the method to be employed, it must provisionally be the one that the master knows best how to apply. Preparatory year. During this year should be taught a few principles, and many tunes of a simple and agreeable character, set to good words, but very little musical grammar. First year of instruction. Each lesson should open with exercises in solfaing. The master should sing short musical phrases, which the pupils should endeavor to reproduce. Tliese phrases should never go beyond the extent of an octave. Towards the middle of the lesson, the singing should be suspended for some minutes, during which the principles should be explained. The musical tone, scale of tones, degrees, intervals, gamut, octave, means of representing tones by signs, notes, compass, the C clef, intonation, duration, time, simple time, f, ^, ^, breve, seraibreve, minim, equivalent -rests. The les.^on should conclude with a song sung in unison, and two-part choruses. Second year. Continuation of the explanation of the principles ; study of the chromatic scales, modified tones, accidents, second study of the diatonic scale, on the intervals of tones, study of the tetrachords, major and minor keys, typical scale do and la, construction of scales similar to this typical one, on the first sound of the superior tetrachord, or on the fourth tone of the inferior tetrachord, position of the sharps, position of the fiats. Study of the key /a. Binary and ternary groups. With the lessons in theory should always be combined practice ; intonation, dictation, and singing in unison should terminate each lesson. T/iird year. Modulation, what is understood by modulating, origin of the accidentals determined by modulations, passing or durable modulations, how to distinguish between them, importance of this distinction as regards solfaing, of the seven kinds of voices, of the keys assigned to them, of the quality (timhre) of the voice, the enharmonic system, numerous examples borrowed from the great masters' movement, time, analysis of melody, what is meant by a musical phrase, by a period, simple and ornate melody, transposition. Fourth yiar. Continuation of the sol-fa exercises, of musical dictations, singing in unison, and in two, three and four parts. Elementary notions of 532 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. harmony, principal consonant and dissonant accords, their fundamental position, reversal and connection, short-hand annotation of harmonies, numbered bass. Cadences, perfect, imperfect, broln, by his own and his friend's benevolence, and by assistance from government at the rate of 70c., or Id.^ per head a day, with a gift of 35/. on the admission of the child into the colony, and 35/. at the close of two years mere, with an annual subscription of 50,001}/. or (2,000Z. English money,) lately dimin- ished to 25,000/ or 1,OOOZ. The present number of children is 681, and of employes fed at the expense of the institution, 56. The buildings stand in the mriddle of a flat open plain, remote from any town or large village, without wall or enclosure of any sort, for the purposes at least of confinement. The church stc perfecting and study of practical agriculture. By its influence it contributed powerfully to awake in France a taste for agricultural studies and to spread among the landed proprietors the demonstration that there still remained many reforms and improvements to introduce into the cultivation of their property. France, which must be re- proached Avith not having aided liim sufficiently, to-day reaps the fruit of his long sacrifices. The impulse given by ]\I. de Dombasle and the reputation of his school soon awakened imitators and led to the establishment of similar institutions. The first in time as in importance, was the royal agronomic institution at Grignon. It was founded in the year 1827, but in its inception and organization, it was made clctir that the work and the example of M. de Dombasle had borne fruit, and that people began to understand better the interest which agriculture has a right to cljum. Everything that had been wanting Avith M. de Dombasle, soil, capital, patronage, was united in favor of Grignon. In the place of a sterile doniain of 150 hectares (1 hectare = 2.47 acres), in a distant province and leased on oner- ous conditions, a royal glebe of nearly 500 hectares, almost at the gates of Paris, was virtually given away by the monarch at a merely nominal rent, and even that rent itself payable only in improvements, the benefits of which the found- ing society should reap during the forty years of its possession. Instead of the paltry sum of 45,000 francs, collected with a great deal of -trouble, to consti- tute a fund for the carrying on of Roville, the capital of Grignon was b}- an act of the society fixed at 600,000 francs, half of which sum could be realized in two years and one month. After having been in existence ten years, in spite of the organization of a pub- lic school of agriculture, in spite of the establishment of a factory of first-class agricultural implements, in spite of the publication of the " Annales de Roville," a periodical which by its scientific depth and its practical usefulness A'ied with the most celebrated publications of this kind in Germany, the institution at Roville was left to its own resources, and received no subsidies from the State. Grignon, more fortunate, had not yet attained to the second term of its exist- ence, when it was aided by an annual subsidy, which amply provided for all the expenses and wants of its school, and procured for it at the expense of the public treasury, a number of pupils, on Avhich the institution could always count. By the terms of the statutes of the society, the founders of Grignon had proposed to themselves a two-fold aim : 1, the cultivation of the domain according to the most approved methods indicated by the practice of the most advanced cultivators, espe- cially of Germany ; 2, the establishment of tw'O schools, one designed for the teachmg of mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, veterinary surgery, &c., the other intended to educate farmers theoretically and practically. The latter was never organized, and the former was only commenced in the year 1832. 560 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. If Grignon could create and maintain its school, if in consequence it could contribute to the progress and improvement of agriculture by the useful kncwl, edge which its director and some of its professors were spreading by periodical publications, and by the pupils which it educated, it must be remembered that this was due to the help it received from the State; we must also remember, after the example of Roville and other institutions of which we shall speak, that it is impossible to organize a lasting and complete instruction in agriculture without government aid, with only the resources of individual or associated zeal, and without finding a man uniting sufficient capital with the most eminent mental qualifications. On lea\-ing Roville in 1830, M. RiefFel had gone to Bretagne ; the third part of this vast peninsula was then covered by moors {landes) and heath, and was un- cultivated and unproductive. The remaining two-thirds were far from yielding the produce which with a better system of cultivation it was capable, "^'retched cattle, miserable pasture, imperfect agricultural implements, irrigation unknown, the woods perishing, all these combined seemed to solicit improvements and promise a fortune to him who would introduce them. Under these circum- stances, M. Rieffel, the scholar of M. de Dombasle, undertook the work of culti- vating these millions of hectares, and immediately, with the " confidence and courage of youth, went to work on a domain called " les landes de Grandjouan " (Department de Loire-Inferiuere), situated between Rennes and Nantes, and compi'ising 500 hectares, of which four-fifths were fallow ground. As he had no capital to buy and cultivate this land, he in connection with several others, formed a society, which furnished him w^ith funds, and whose duration was fixed at twenty years. Every year the public gained more confidence as the country- passed from a state of sterility to one of productiveness. Already since 1 833 the General Council of his Department lent their aid in order to found on the lands of the farm a primary school of agriculture, destined for poor young peasants. A subsidy of 5,000 francs was at first granted him on the condition that he would take charge of twenty poor scholars between the ages of fifteen and eigh- teen, give them primary instruction and accustom them to agricultural pursuits. The government soon added a still larger donation to that of the departmental authorities. . These subsidies, continued from year to year, furnished M. Rieffel with the means of sustaining and developing his work. He cleared the ground on his entire domain, and following the example of M. de Dombasle, added to the pri- mary school a school of agriculture and a factory for agricultural implements. He published amongst the rest, under the title of Agriculture of the West, one of the most interesting agricultural journals that has ever appeared. And although there were men who contested the usefulness of his work, the General Council of the Department at various times accorded to him the tribitte of their approba- tion and encouragement. In spite of these successes, the school developed but slowly, the number of pupils was limited, the necessary apparatus was wanting, and the insufficient resources did not allow the founder to effect improvements, the necessity of which no one felt more keenly than he himself. At this juncture M. Reiflfel applied to the government to convert his establish- ment into a district or regional institution (institut regional). The minister of agriculture, who fully appreciated the influence which the school at Grandjouan could exercise on a pi-ovince which stood so much in need of it as Bretagne, gave this application a favorable consideration, and by a decree of March 9, 1842, AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 561 the institution was reorganized. In consequence of this measure the number of pupils increased and reached during the following years an average of twenty-six. Since then, the charge was in 1844 raised to 700 francs. In 1846 the salary of the professors was likewise raised, and a selection from the government stables was made for the institution in order to improve the breed of horses. These dispositions Avhich so loudly testified to the generous intentions of the goveni- ment to favor as much as possible agricultural instruction and to give to the institution of Grandjouan the means of developing and making itself useful, did not altogether accomplish the desired effect. In consequence of financial embarrassments which the director met with, and particularly in consequence of the disturbances of 1848, the existence of the institution was seriously menaced. Fortunately the new government, in proposing the law of September, 1848, re- garding the organization of agricultural instruction, saved the fruits of sacrifices previously made by the state. The establishment was changed into a provincial school [ecole regionale), an official position which it holds to this day. The establishments thus far spoken of have for their object secondary agricul- tural instruction, that is to say, instruction which ought to prepare intelligent landed proprietors, farmers, and capable administrators, the chiefs and officers of this great interest. As regards the subordinate officers and soldiers of this toiling and peaceful army, that is to say, the small cultivators and master-farm- hands, they could prepare themselves on the domains attached to these institu- tions, the cultivation of which required a numerous and able corps of workmen. Some of these establishments had even thought of regulating the recruiting of thfs force, and to prepare it beforehand by attaching to their farm a school for the sons of poor peasants, or orphans, who should be trained for agricultural work, and who should propagate the good practices acquired at school, by being placed with the landed proprietors and farmers of the land. This plan was fully realized at Grandjouan, where it continues to exist. Only it was transformed into a farm school {ferme-ecole), since the change of the whole establishment to a provincial school {ecole regionale). All that had hitherto been done was not sufficient. Other attempts, more or less fortunate, to establish farm schools, had been made in various departments outside of the large institutions, under the name of "rural asylums," "agricul- tural colonies," penitentiaries for receiving and educating abandoned children and orphans. Others, tinder the name of " school-farms " or "model-farms,'' " schools of agriculture," received adults with the object of training them for work in the fields and educating them for agricultural workingmen who might be at the disposal of the landed proprietors and farmers. The zeal and devotedness of wealthy private individuals, charitable associa- tions, and agricultural societies, raised in a few years a certain number of these asylums, model-farms, and school-farms. The administration favored this ten- dency by encouragements and subsidies. These first attempts, however, as might have been expected, met with difficulties and hindrances in administration and intelligence, which will be found whenever anything new is started. But the government, which by its subsidies maintained the greater part of these establish- ments, neglected no opportunity to remedy any imperfections or abuses that might creep in. It called to its aid the General Council of Agriculture, and in 1845 charged it with the question of agricultural instruction. A committee was appointed by the council and chose for its president M. Toun-et. This commit- tee received from the minister all the documents which could throw light on the 36 562 AGRICULJTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. , subject, and especially the constitutive acts of all the establishments already existing. The General Council, after a lengthy discussion, adopted the basis on which the administration had commenced to build up agricultural instruction, admitted the school-farms as the first degree of instruction, and the institutes as a sort of secondary school of agriculture. Besides, in order to complete the system, it demanded the creation in fSie environs of Paris of a superior institution destined to favor the tendency of science to occupy itself with agriculture, and which, under the name of " experimental fea-m/' should be especially devoted to scientific experiments. In consequence of this cooperation of the great majority of the agricultural representation, the administration, though somewhat limited in its enterprises by the small funds placed at its disposal, advanced with more firmness on the road which it had once entered, and attempted to constitute the institutes and school- farms on the basis approved of by the general council, and to increase their number. Starting in 1846 it subjected them to certain conditions having for their object to bring these establishments under a regular and uniform organiza- tion. The government took upon itself the expenses of teaching, leaving to the proprietor or farmer the care and responsibility of directing the school. The course of instruction was rigorously limited to the wants of that class of culti- vators which needed the education, and adapted to the special wants of the dif- ferent localities. A small number of old school-farms had been able to maintain themselves. In 1847 there were only nine. In that same year the administration founded ten new ones. In January, 1848, two more were opened. Four more were being organized when the Februaiy revolution broke out. At that time, therefore, there existed in France twenty-five school-farms, and the two institutions at Grignon and Grandjouan. Such was in brief, at the same period, the organization of agricultural instruc- tion in France, and this organization was not the result of a suddenly improvised plan, but the expression of public wishes, the fruit of experience and time, the natural and necessary results of accomplished facts. K we examine this first phase of agricultural instruction in France, we are painfully strack by seeing the majority of these institutions succumb to difficul- ties which assailed them at their very outset. But in this respect it shares the fate of all human institutions, which have to make their debut under novel conditions, and have to pass through the transformation of progress. The pioneers will ex- haust their strength in clearing the way, whilst those who follow find the way open and reap the fruits of the labors of men who worked before them. Very rarely will he Avho thus opens the way arrive at the end ; thus the history of dis- coveries, improvements, and progress, is but too often nothing else but a recital of the tribulations and ruin of men to whom mankind is largely indebted. Tourrct, the old chairman of the agricultural committee, after having been made minister of agriculture and commerce, proposed to the National Assembly in the session of July 17, 1848, a project for organizing agricultural instruction. M. Richard (from Cantal), August 21st, in the name of the committee for agri- culture, presented, an important report on this subject, and after a remarkable and interesting discussion, the decree, only slightly modified, was adopted Octo- ber .3, by 579 votes out of 679 voting members. There were thus still 100 votes against a project of incontestible usefulness. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 5g3 This is not the place to analyze this decree, which regulated agricultural in- struction in France. "We will limit ourselves to calling to mind, that by endeav- oring to impi-ove them it maintained the existence of the school-farms where a practical elementary instruction was given, that it completely reorganized the institutions, which had been converted into provincial schools {ecoles 7'ec/ionales), and that it established over all these institutions a school of a superior kind, called the Agronomic Institute, which was to be the superior normal school of agriculture. This organization completed that which existed in a manner to satisfy the wants of all classes of society ; it offered to all and every one the kind of instruc- tion which suited his individual tastes and wants. . CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN 1869. Model-Farms. In the model-farms the apprentice or scholar is practiced in the use and hand- ling of agricultural implements, to execute with his own arms agricultural oper- ations, to care for and nurse with his own hands the domestic animals. Some short and simple explanations given by the professor or director, teach him why one instrument is preferable to another, why certain operations ought to be made in such and such a manner and in no other, why the care bestowed on the cattle must be of such and such a nature. These explanations always follow the very operation which they are to illustrate. The business of the farm is carried on entirely at the risk of the proprietor or farmer of the domain, who is the director of the establishment. The State de- frays the charge for boarding and lodging the apprentices, an amount which, together with their work, is given to the director to indemnify him for the ex- penses he incurs for them. The expense of instruction is also borne by the State, which consist of the salaries of the director and of such teachers as may be employed. The term of apprenticeship is three years, and on entering and leaving, the pupils are subjected to examinations ; premiums are granted to the ablest and most meritorious. There are altogther 48 of these school-farms, with about 1,300 apprentices distributed among them. The apprentices on leaving the school very soon find profitable situations, which shows that their good re- sults are appreciated by the rural population. Regional Schools. In the practice or apprenticeship of agricultural students, these two kinds of instruction are imited in the provincial schools {ecoles regionales), where the pupils receive theoretical lessons methodically, with explanations and proofs, all the while executing with their hands the various agricultural operations. This is a mixed instruction, where the alliance of theoiy with practice prepares the lower officers of this grand army of tillers of the soil {grande armee des culticateurs). These schools are under the direction of a steward [regisseur), wlio is charged with the cultivation and administration of the domain for the account of the State. At the side of the director, and under his authority, are placed the teach- ers. The pupils, who are all boarded in the institution, are admitted after ii competitive examination. The course extends over three years, and on leaving, the pupil is examined and receives a certificate of proficiency. The State pays for eighteen scholars in each school. 564 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON. The agricultural school at Grignon was founded in 1827 by M. Bella, as the executive officer and director of tlie school, in behalf of a society formed for the. purpose of improving the agriculture in that district of France. The domain consists of about 1,170 acres, and is situated twenty-five miles^we.st of Paris, ten miles from Yersailles and the markets of Passy and St. Germain, and six- teen miles north of Rambouillet and Yideville, the great government sheepfolds of France. It became the property of the crown, and in 1827, Charles X ^ granted it on a lease of forty years to the Agricultural Society of Grignon, on the following conditions: — 1, To apply and perfect an instructive system of agriculture on the domain ; 2. To organize a scientific and practical course of instruction in agriculture ; 3. To make all necessary local and needed repairs on the building ; 4. To make permanent improvements on the estate to the value of 300,000 francs, such as buildings, roads, plantations, etc.; 5. To raaka general Improvements to the lands in addition to the sum named ; 6. To pre- serve and renovate the forests on the place. These improvements, to the annual cost of about $1,500, were to be made in lieu of rent. The management of the domain and of the school was inaugurated with a view of realizing profit on the investment made by the subscribers ; but the result soon showed that the de- partment of instruction was curtailed in its professorships and equipment in order to secure more profitable returns from the farm. It was found necessary for the government in 1848 to take the school under its entire charge, giving it the title of the Imperial School of Agriculture, leaving the management of the estate in the hands of the Society, the director of the wliole being elected by the council of the Society and confirmed by the Minister of Agriculture. The terra of residence at Grignon is fixed at two years ; but tlie pupil remains three months after his studies are completed, in order to digest and draw up the entire management of an estate, and describe its details in every department. The students ai'e divided into classes denominated internals and externals, or resident and non-resident. The former reside entirely in the house, where they are lodged and boarded, and pay about 800 francs, or 32 pounds, or 160 dollars, per year. The externals, or non-residents, provide for themselves, or lodge at the houses of the neighboring farmers, and pay a very small amount for their instruction. This arrangement is particularly designed to benefit poor scholars. Both classes are equally subject to the general discipline and rules of the institu- tion 5 and are alike engaged in the same works and studies. There are lectures every day in the week. At the commencement of each lecture, the professor examines the pupils on the subject of the preceding lec- ture ; and they are required often to take notes, aud present a written report of the lecture. Besides the professors, there are two monitors, who have been educated at the school, who labor with the pupils in the fields. They are ex- pected, and it is their duty, to question the pupils on the subjects which have been treated in the lectures ; to show their application ; to illustrate what may have been obscure; aud, in short, to leave nothing unexplained which is hable to misunderstanding or error. There are two public examinations annually, in which the scholars are subjected to a rigorous questioning in what they have been taught. If, at the end of two years, their conduct has been approved, and their examination is met successfully, they receive a diploma from the institution. They are not only employed in the general work of the farm, but particular portions of land are assigned to individuals, which they manage as they pleasej and cultivate with their own hands ; they pay the rent and expenses of manure and team, and receive the product or its value from the institution. Certain of them are appointed in turn to take care of the different departments of the farm for a length of time — such as the hog establishment, the sheep establisliment, the cattle, the horses, the implements, &c. (fee. They have likewise adopted a practice, which seems much to be commended — that of employing workmen, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 565 shepherds, cow-herds, &c., from foreign countries ; as, for example, from Belgium and Switzerland, that they may in this way become acquainted with the best practices in those countries. The time is thus divided and 'arranged among them : — they rise at four o'clock in summer, and at half-past four in winter. They go immediately into the stables to assist in the feeding, cleaning, and harnessing of the teams, and the general care of the live stock, according to their respective assignments. At half- past five they take a light breakfast ; at six o'clock they go into the halls of study, and here they remain until eleven o'clock ; at half-past six they attend a lecture, or course of instruction, which occupies them until eight o'clock ; at half-past eight they are occupied in reading or in making notes of the lectures which they have heard, and the monitors before spoken of are present to render them any assistance required ; at half-past nine o'clock there is another lecture or course of instruction for both sections, which occupies them until eleven, when they take their second or principal breakfast. From noon until five o'clock, the pupils are occupied in labor or practical operations. The professors, from time to time, take a section, and employ them in land-surveying, in drawing plans, and in levelings ; others are occupied in mineralogical or in botanical excursions, or in inspecting the management of forest lands ; others are occupied by their teacher in the practical management of farming implements, in the management of teams in the field, in sowing, and other general operations of husbandry, in a field devoted to these purposes ; and a section, to the number of twelve, are every day employed in the direct labors of the farm, in ploughing, digging, harrowing, &c. &c. They work in company with the best laborers, that they may observe and learn their modes of executing their work. They are required to be attentive to every operation that is performed ; and to present a full report of each day's work to the director-general. At half-past five in winter, and at six in summer, they take their dinner. At seven o'clock in the evening they go again into the halls of study. From seven to half-past eight o'clock there is another course of instruction, or a repetition of what they have had before. Until nine o'clock they are occupied in their joui'nals, or in making notes of their lectures. At nine o'clock the sleeping rooms are lighted, and they retire for the night. There are several distinct professorships. The Professor of Practical Agricul- ture gives two courses ; the one written, the other oral ; and, like the lecture of a clinical professor at the bed-side, it is given in the fields. This professor un- derstands not only how a thing* should be done, but how to do it ; and he can put his hand to every form of agricultural labor, such as ploughing, harrowing, sowing, managing the teams, feeding the animals, handling every instrument of agriculture, buying, selling, &c. In the words of his commission, his object is at the same time to form the eye and the hand ; to teach his pupil how to learn 5 to command, to direct, and to execute. To this end it was necessary to form a complete agricultural organization for practice, independent of the exercises attached to the departments of the other professors. The farm is composed of Arable land, about 670 acres. Land in wood and plantations . . . 365 " Irrigated meadows 35 " Gardens, including vegetable, botanical, fruit garden, orchards, mulberry planta- tions, osiers, and nurseries ... 28 " Ponds and water-courses . . . 15 " Roads and lands in pasture ... 60 " Occupied by buildings . . , , 6 " The animals on the farm include Animals of draught or labor of different kinds 18 Oxen for fatting . . . . . 20 Cows of different ages and races, and different crosses 100 Sheep, embracing the different kinds . 1100 Swine establishment . . . . 100 566 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE, There are likewise on the establishment workshops or manufactories, if so they may be called, — For the making of agricultural instruments ; A threshing-house and machine for grain 5 A dairy room for the manufacture of different kinds of cheese and of butter j A magnanerie, or establishment for silk-worms ; A stercorary for the manufacture of compost manures. To all these various departments the attention of the students is closely called, and they are required to take some part in the labors connected with them. Besides the farm belonging to the establishment, there is a field of one hundred acres devoted exclusively to the pupils, and principally to the culture of plants not grown on the farm. Here they make experiments in diflferent preparations of the soil, and with different manures. Every week two scholars, one of the second and one of the first year, are appointed to attend particularly to the genei'al condition of the farm. Their business is to examine constantly the whole establishment ; the works that are going on in every department ; to look after the woods and the plantations ; the gardens 5 the horses ; the fatting cattle ; the dairy 5 the sheep-fold •, the swine ; and the hospital ; and to attend to the correspondence, and the visitors. This service lasts a fortnight, and there is a change every week, taking care always that there shall be one scholar of the first, and one of the second year associated. They attend to all the labors on the farm, and to all the communications between the principal director and inspectors, and the laborers. In the veterinary or hospital department of the establishment, they assist the surgeon in all his visits and operations ; take notes of his prescriptions 5 make up and attend to the administration of his medicines ; and observe particularly the sanitary condition of the stables and buildings, where the live stock, sick or well, are kept. On Saturday evening, each scholar, to whom this duty has been assigned, makes to his fellow-pupils a full verbal report of what has been done. This report is transcribed into a journal designed for that purpose ; and thus a continued history of the entire management of the farm is kept up. The whole school is divided into sections or classes of twelve each : six of two and six of one year's standing ; and these sections are constantly under the direction of the Professor of Practical Agriculture. As the establishment at Grignon may be considered a model agricultural establishment, it may be useful to go more into detail in regard to the com'se of instruction pursued here. Once a week there is an exercise, which embraces every thing relating to the management of the teams and the implements. First, for example, in the different modes of executing any work, and using the utensils employed. The harness, the collar, the traces, and how attached, the shaft-horse or the cattle attached to the load, and the adjustment of the load to their bael* ; the yoke, the single yoke, the double yoke ; the pack-saddle 5 the harnessing of a saddle-horse ; the team for ploughing ; the team for harrowing ; the team for drawing loads ; the team for wagons, and for carriages with all their appurtenances ; every one of these matters is to be practically understood, as well as the whole management of the team in action. In ploughing, the turning the furrow, its inclination, its breadth and depths; the laying out of fields ; the management of large and small fields 5 how to make the first furrow, and finish the last furrow ; to lay the land flat, to break it up in clods ; to plough it at a certain angle, to lay the land in curved furrows : these are all considered, and make part of the instruction given. The preparation, equipment, and use of every agricultural implement — such as ploughs, harrows, rollers, scarifiers, cultivators, sowing machines, trenching machines ; the practice of sowing, the different modes of sowing, whether broadcast, by dibble, or in drills ; the application of manure both as to time, mode, quantity, and preparation, and the composting of manures, are matters of inquiry and practice. The cutting of grasses ; the making of hay, and the construction of stacks ; the harvesting of grain, b)' the scythe or by the sickle ; appendages to the scythe, called commonly the cradle ; and the grinding of scythes ; the making of sheaves, and of shocks, or stacks ; and the loading and the stowing away of grain, are matters to be imderstood. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 567 A practical attention is required to every form of service on the farm ; in the cow-house 5 the horse-stables; the fatting-stalls ; the sheep-fold; the styes ; the poulti-y-yard ; the threshing-floor ; the stereorary ; and the store-houses for the produce of the farm of every description. The duties in this case embrace not mereh- the observation of how these things are done, but the actual doing of them until an e.xpertness is acquired. Leaving the practical department we come now to the course of studies to be pursued. For admission into the institution some previous education is demanded, and the candidate is subjected to an examination before the principal and one of the professors. First, he is required to present an essay upon some subject assigned to him, that his knoft'ledge of the French language and grammar may be ascertained. It is necessary, next, that he should be well grounded in the four great rules of arithmetic ; in fractions, vulgar and decimal ; in the extraction of the roots ; in the rules of proportion and progression 5 and in the system of measures adopted in France. In geometry, he must be well acquainted with the general principles of straight hues and circles, and their various combinations ; and with the general measure- ment of plane surfaces. In natural philosophy, he must understand the general properties of bodies ; and be acquainted with the uses of the barometer and thermometer. Candidates for admission must bring with them certificates of good character and manners, and must be at least eighteen yea'rs old. They are rigidly held to an attendance upon all the courses of instruction at the institution ; and have leave of absence only on the application of their parents or guardians. The studies of the first year are begun with a course of mathematics. Geome- try and trigonometry are made a particular, subject of attention ; embracing the study of straight lines, and circular or curved lines on the same plan ; the ad- measurement of surfaces ; the use of the compass ; the recording of measure- ments ; the delineation of measurements ; the surveying of open fields, of woods, of marshes, of ponds or lakes ; comparison of ancient land measures with those iu present use ; the use of the square, the chain, and the compass ; the elevation of plans ; the construction of scales, and the ordinary divisions of landed properties. The study of various plans iu any form ; solid measure : conic sections, their principal properties, and their practical application ; the theory and practice of leveling; the method of projections and their application-, cubic measure of ditFerent solids, of hewu stones, of rough stones ; the measurement of loose or broken stones, of sand, of lands excavated, of ground filled in, of stacks, and of heaps of manure ; the cubic measure of trees standing, and of felled trees, of beams, and every kind of carpenter's work, of firewood, of walls, arches, and ditches or dikes ; the ascertaining of the capacity of carriages, wagons, carts, wheel-barrows, pails, troughs, barrels and casks, basins or ponds, and different vessels in use, and of granaries and barns, and the determination of the weights of bodies. To all this is added a full course of trigonometry. They are accustomed likewise to the familiar use of the scale, of the square, of the compass, and of the compasses for delineation, and are often occupied, in superficial, and in profile drawing. The next course of instruction embraces embankments, the force of earths and liquids, or their pressure, at rest or in motion. The materials employed in masonry : their uses and application in building — embracing stones, bricks, lime, sand, mortars, cements, plaster; and all the vari<>us modes of building. The laying of walls for foundations ; the erection of walls ; the supports requisite ; and the construction of passages, inclosures, and arches ; the different kinds of woods, their absolute and relative strength : their duration, and the modes of preserving them ; every kind of carpenter's work ; the construction of floors, staircases, scaffoldings, and exterior supports ; the constructions of roofs, in timber, with thatch, rushes, shingles, tiles, slates, zinc, or bitumen ; the paving of roads, the formation of barn-floors, with clay or composition of bituminous sub- stances which form a hard and enduring surface, are subjects of inquiry. 568 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. Next comes instruction in the blacksmith's shop, in the use of the forge, and the other implements of the trade ; and in the various applications of iron and steel, of copper, lead, and zinc. They are instructed, likewise, in the manufacture and use of leather and cord- age : and in the various details of painting and glazing. The prices or cost like- wise of all these different processes, are, as tar as practicable, ascertained 5 and the modes of estimating such work are explained. The next course embraces the elements of natm'al philosophy ; and this includes chemistry, geology, and mineralogy. First, the general properties of bodies, their divisibility, elasticity, and porosity or absorbent powers ; and the special influence of this last circumstance upon the character of an arable soil. The fullowing are all subjects of study; bodies in the mass; the weight of bodies ; means of determining the density of bodies and their specific gravity ; the physical properties of the air ; of atmospheric pressure ; and of the construction and use of the barometer. The stud}' of hydrostatics ; the pressure of liquids in their reservoirs, and against dikes and embankments ; hydraulics ; capillary attraction ; the use of siphons and pumps. The study of heat in all its various phenomena. Its effects upon solid and liquid bodies, and the changes which it makes in their condition ; the phenomena of fusion, ebulition, and evaporation ; of vapors ; of the hygrometer or measurer of moisture, and the utility of the instrument.; the conducting powers of bodies ; of metals in particular ; of free or radiating heat ; application of heat to furnaces or kilns ; laws of cold applied to bodies ; power of emitting and of absorbing cold ; measure of heat ; means of determining the mean temperature of any place ; in- fluence of heat and cold upon vegetation ; means of preserving certain vegetables from frost ; construction and use of the thermometer. Meteorology. Explication of the phenomena of dew ; of white frosts ; of clouds; of rain ; of snow ; their various influences upon harvest, and the whole subject of climate. Study of light. Progress of light in space ; laws of its reflection ; laws of its refraction; action of light upon vegetation. The subject of vision. The polariza- tion of light ; the explication of the rainbow, and other phenomena of hght ; the prism. Study of electricity. Conductors of electricity ; distribution of the electric fluid in nature ; power of the electric rods or points ; electricity developed by the con- tact of bodies ; of galvanic piles ; their construction and uses. Atmospheric electricity ; its origin ; the formation of thunder clouds ; action of electricity upon vegetation ; of lightning ; of thunder ; of hail. Chemistry. Simple bodies ; compound bodies ; difference between combination and mixture ; atomical attraction ; cohesion ; affinity ; what is intended by chemical agents. Explanation of the chemical nomenclature, and of chemical terms. The study of simple bodies. Of oxygen ; its properties ; its action upon vegeta- tion, and upon animal life. !N"itrogen, sulphur, chlorine, carbon, hydrogen ; their action upon vegetable and animal substances ; their uses in veterinary medicine, and their influence upon vegetation. The study of compound substances. Chemistry as applied to air and water ; their imjjortance in agriculture ; their influence upon the action and life of plants and animals ; the acids, — the sulphuric, the nitric, the carbonic, the chloric ; the alkalies, — lime, soda, potassium, ammonia ; their application in various forms. The salts in chemistry, and their various applications and uses ; their importance as constituent parts of the soil, or as improvements. The subject of marls and of earths, and of various substances deemed favorable to vegetation. Under the direction of the Professor of Chemistry, the students are taught to make analyses of different soils and marls. To this is added a course of Mineralogy and Geolog}'. This embraces the general properties of minerals ; the physical, chemical, and mechanical character of mineral substances the most common. The study of the distinctive properties and situation of those mineral substances which are most extended over the globe, and which are the most in use ; such, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 5^9 especially, as the carbonate of lime ; comprehending stones for building, for the making of roads and walls, lime-stones, marbles, sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris ; and all the variety of mineral substances ordinarily found, and of use in agriculture or the arts. A course of Geology follows this, embracing all the leading features of the science, with a special reference to all substances or conditions of the soil con- nected with agricultural improvement. In this case, the professor makes frequent excursions with the pupils, that they may become familiarly acquainted with the subjects treated of in the lectures, and see them in their proper localities ; so that the great truths of geological science may be illustrated by direct and personal observation, ^ext follows a course of instruction in horticulture, or gardening. Of the soil ; the surface and the subsoil, and practical considerations relative to their culture and products. Of the climate ; the temperature, the aspect and local condition of the land in reference to the products cultivated ; the amelioration of the soil, and the substances to be used for that object, with the modes of their application. The various horticultural operations, and implements employed ; and manner in which they are to be executed. The employment of water in irrigation ; modes of inclosing by ditches or walls ; walls for the training of trees ; trellises and palings ; and of protections against the wind. The different modes of multiplication ; sowing, engrafting by cuttings and by layers, and practical illustrations of these different processes. The culture of seed- bearing or grain-producing plants ; the choice of them 5 their planting and management ; the harvesting and preservation of the crops. Under this head comes the kitchen-garden, and the choice of the best esculent vegetables for consumption ; the nursery, and the complete management of trees from their first planting 5 the fruit-garden, considered in all its details*, and the flower-garden. The general results of gardening ; the employment of hand, or spade-labor ; the care, preservation, and consumption of the products, and their sale. The gardens at Grignon are upon a scale sufficient to supply all practical demonstra- tions. The next division embraces the botanical garden. Here the whole science of botany is treated in its principles, and their practical application. The study of vegetable organization, with a full account of the prevailing systems and nomen- clature of botany, and the classific^ion of plants. Vegetable physiology, in all its branches, and vegetable anatomy ; comparison of plants in their native and culti- vated states ; influence of cultivation in developing and improving plants ; the propogation of plants in their natural condition, or by artificial means ; the subject of rotation, or change of crops. The practical application of these botanical instructions ; and especially in the examination of plants or vegetables which may be useful in an economical view. The garden of the establishment embraces what is called a school of trees ; a school of plants for economical and commercial purposes ; and a school of plants for common use. These are all carefully classed and distinguished by their proper names. The pupils are accustomed to be led into the gardens by the professor, that his instructions may be fully exemplified and confirmed. The next branch of science taught at the school is veterinary surgery and medicine. This embraces a course of anatomy and animal phisiology. It com- prehends a full description of all the animal organs ; and demonstrations are given from subjects, destroyed or obtained for that purpose. The functions of the different organs ai'c likewise described : the organs of digestion, respiration, cir- culation, and the organs connected with the continuance of the species. Every part of the animal, external and internal, is shown, its name given, its uses explained ; its situation in relation to the other organs ; the good points, the faults or defects in an animal ; the peculiarities of different races of animals, with the modes of discriminating among them. The choice of animals intended for different services, — as in horses for example, whether for the saddle, the race, the chase, the carriage, the road, the wagon, or the plough. Next, the treatment of the diseases of animals ; the medicines in use ; their preparation, and the mode of applying or employing them. 570 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. The next subject of instruction embraces a complete system of keeping farm accounts and journals, with the various books and forms necessary to every department. From this the pupil proceeds to what is called rural legislation, embracing an account of all the laws which affect agricultural property or concerns. The civil rights and duties of a French citizen, and the constitution of France. Property, movable or immovable, or, as denominated with iis, personal and real ; of the divisions of property ; of its use and its obligations. Of commons ; of laws relating to forests ; of the rights of fishing in rivers ; and of hunting. The laws relating to rural police 5 to public health ; to public security 5 to eon- tageous or epidemic diseases. The rights of passage of men or animals over the land of another ; if any, and what. Of crimes. Theft in the fields ; breaking or destruction of the instruments of agriculture ; throwing open inclosures •, destruction or removal of bounds. Lay- ing waste the crops by walking over them ; inundation of fields by the stoppage of streams, or the erection of mills. Injury or breaking of public roads and bridges. Poisoning, killing, or wounding animals. TTie duties of country magistrates ; guards or justices of the peace. Of courts of law. Of contracts, general and specific. Contracts of sale and prohibitory conditions. Of leases of different sorts. Of hiring labor ; of the obligations of masters and servants. Of corporations, and the laws applicable to agricultural associations. Of deeds, mortgages, bills of exchange, commissions, and powers of agency and attorney ; insurance against fire, hail, and other hazards. Of the proof of obliga- tions ; written proof ; oral testimony ; presumptive evidence ; of oaths. Of legal proceedings ; of the seizure of property real or personal, and of bail. The instruction proceeds under various courses, and I have so far given but a limited account of its comprehensiveness, and the variety of subjects which it embraces. The study of the different kinds of soil, and of manures, with all their applica- tions, and the improvements aimed at, take in a wide field. Under the head of soils there are the argillaceous, the calcareous, the siliceous, turf-lands, heath-lands, volcanic soils, the various sub-soils, loam, and humus. Under the head of manures, come the excrements of animals, all foecal matter, poudrette, urine ; the excrements of fowls ; guano ; noir animalisee ; the refuse of sugar refineries ; the relics of animals ; oil-cakes ; the refuse of maltings ; tanners'-bark ; bones, hair, and horn ; aquatic plants ; green-dressings. The application likewise of sand, clay, marl, hme, plaster, wood-ashes, turf- ashes, soot, salt; the waste of various manufactures ; mud and street dirt. The plants cultivated for bread ; wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, millet, rice, and the modes of cultivating them. For forage, — potatoes, beets, turnips, ruta-bagas, carrots, artichokes, parsnips, beans, cabbage. Lucerne, lupins, sainfoin, common clover, trifolium incarnatum, vetches, peas, lentils, and plants for natui-al meadows and for pasturage. To these are added, cobra, rape, poppy, mustard white and black, hemp, flax, cotton, madder, saffron, woad, hops, tobacco, chicory, teazles. The weeds prejudicial to agriculture, and the insects which attack the plant while growing, or in the granary or barn. The production of milk ; and, as already said, the making of butter and cheese. The production of wool ; tests of its fineness ; classing of wools ; shearing of sheep ; weight of the fleece ; washing of wool before or after shearing 5 and every particular in reference to the subject. The fatting of beef, mutton, and pork. Choice of animals for this purpose , nutritive properties of different kinds of food ; in what form to be given ; grains entire or ground ; roots cooked or raw, green or dry ; the value of the pulp of beet-root after the sugar is expressed ; refuse of the starch factories ; of the dis- tillery ; of the brewery ; fatting by pasture or in stalls ; comparison of the live weight with that of the animal when slaughtered. Care and management of the various kinds of domestic poultry. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 57^ Cave and management of bees, with the construction of hives. Care of silk-worms, and their entire management. All these studies are pursued in the first year of the course ; and the time is so arranged as to afford the diligent pupil an opportunity of meeting his duties, though the period is obviously too limited for the course prescribed. The second year enjoins the continuance and enlargement of these important studies ; the higher branches of mathematics and natural philosophy ; an extended knowledge of chemistry ; and a thorough acquaintance with mechanics, when the scholars with their professor visit some of the principal machine-shops and factories in Paris, or its environs, in order to become practically acquainted with them. The students are further instructed in the construction of farm-buildings of every description ; in irrigation, in all its forms ; in the drainage of lands ; in the construction of roads ; in every thing relating to farm implements 5 and in the construction of mills and presses. As I have said, organic chemistry is largely pursued with the various manufac- tures to which it is applicable ; and animal physiology and comparative anatomy are very fully taught. These studies are followed by a course of what is called agricultural technology. This embraces the manufacture, if so it may be called, of lime, of cement, of bricks ; the preparations of plaster ; the making of coal by various processes ; the making of starch ; the making and purification of vegetable oils ; the making of wines, of vinegar, of beer, of alcohol, of sugar from the beet-i'oot, including all the improvements which have been introduced into this branch of manufacture ; and the pupils, under the direction of the professor, are taken to see the various manufactories of these articles, so far as they are accessible in the vicinity. The whole subject of forests, of nurseries, of fruit trees, oi'namental trees, trees for fuel, trees for mechanical purposes, are brought under the student's notice. This is a great subject in France, where wood has an extraordinai'y value ; where immense, extents of ground are devoted solely to the cultivation of trees; and where consequently it is most desirable to understand the proper kinds of wood to be selected for the purpose in view ; the proper mode of forwarding the growth of the trees ; and of removing them without prejudice to their restoration. Under this head comes the culture of Trees for fuel. Trees for timber. Trees for house and ship building. Trees for fruit, including all the varieties adapted to a particular climate. Trees for their oily matter •, such as olives. Trees for their bark ; to be used in tanning, and other purposes. Trees for their resinous ])roperties ; such as pines. Osiers and willows for making baskets. Mulberry-trees for the support of silk- worms, Next to this comes the culture of vines, and the establishment and care of a vineyard — a subject of great importance in France. I have already spoken of the veterinary course of instruction. This embraces the whole subject of the breeding and rearing of animals ; their training, shoeing, and harnessing, and entire management. . Under the head of farm accounts, the establishment itself at Grignon is made an example ; the accounts of which are kept most accurately by some of the students, and open to the inspection of all. A journal of every thing which is done upon the farm is made up every night j and these accounts are fairly transferred into a large-book. To this is added, a particular account of the labors performed, and the occupa- tion of each workman on the farm. Next, a cash-book, embracing payment and sales, which are adjusted every fortnight. Next, an account with the house ; charging every article supplied or con- sumed. Next, a specific account of each principal department of the farm ; such as the dairy, with all its expenses and returns ; the pork-establishment ; the granary, &c. ; which are all balanced every month, so that the exact condition of the de- partment may be known. 672 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. Agricultural School at Grand Jouan. The Agricultural school at Grand Jouan, in Brittany, was established in 1833, by M. Neviere, who had been trained in this department of edu- cation in the Roville Agricultural school. In 1848 it was remodeled by the government and placed under the administration of* the minister of agriculture. Subjects of Study and Lectures. Mathematical Sciences : — Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mechanics, Sur- veying, Leveling, Stereometry, (measuring solid bodies,) Linear Drawing. Physical and Natural Sciences : — Physics, Meteorology, Mineral Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany. Technological Sciences : — Organic Chemistry, or Agricultural Technology, Agriculture, Arboriculture, Sylviculture, Veterinary Art, Agricultural Zoology, Equitation. Noological Sciences : — ^Rural Architecture, Forest Economy, Rural or Farm Accounts, Rural Economy, Rural Law. Abstract of the course of Lectures on General Agriculture. Agricultural Formation, (Terrain,) — 1. Soil: — Constituent Elements, Classi- fication of the Formation : Argillaceous, Siliceous, and peaty soils : Physical pro- perties : Causes which modify these properties : Influence of soil on vegetation. 2. Sub Soil : — Sub soil active: Sub soil inert : Influence of sub soil on the soil and on the life of plants. Agricultural Geography: — Astronomic situation of France: Mountains: Valleys. Plains. Rivers. Agricultural Physics : — Atmospheric Air : Caloric: Light: Darkness. Agricultural Meteorology : — Winds : Fogs : Dew : Rain : White Frost : Frost with Ice : Snow : Hail. Climatology : — Influence of Climate : Climate of France : Regions. Fertilization : — Considerations preliminary : Fecundity and Fertility. 1. Improvement: — Clay: Rocks: Sand: Slates: Lava: Plombage : Irriga- tions : Ditching : Ploughing : Movement of the sub soil : Colmatage. 2. Stimulants : — Stimulants of Mineral Origin : Lime : Marl : Calcareous earth : Broken shells : Sea sand : the Whiting : Shell fish : Plaster: Fire Ashes : Sulphate of Iron : Salts of Potash : of Soda : of Ammonia. Stimulants of Vegetable Origin : — Soot : Ashes : Leached Ashes. 3. Manures : — Animal Manures : Excrements : Urine : Pigeons' Dung : Guano : Excrement of Animals : Muscular Flesh : Blood : Fish : Fat : Oil : Woolen cloth : Horn : Horse hair : Human hair : Feathers. Vegeto- Animal Manures : — Litter : Horse dung : of Sheep : of horned Cattle : of Swine: of Rabbits. Animal Manures Mineralized : — Animal charcoal : Bone. Vegetable Manures : — Green crops ploughed in. Manure and Aquatic plants : Turf: poor Vegetables : Oil Cake : Tan : Mesh : pulpy matters : Leaves : Stubble. Liquid Manures : — Urine of the Domestic Animals : Flemish Manures : Urine Water from Fecularies. Compound Manures: — Manure of Jauffi'et and Lane: Compost: Slime of Ponds : River Mud : Marine Mud. Breaking up the Soil : — L Work Animals : Cattle : Horses : Cows : Mules : Asses : Race : Age : Mode of tackling : Length of working : Treatment : Neces- sary proportion. 2. Instruments : — Plough with or without fore wheels : Harrow : Scarifica- tors : Rollers : Instruments for second dressing : Weeders : Extirpators : Nec- essary proportion. 3. Tillage : — Theory and Practice : Soil : Temperature : Flat Tillage : Flat Tillage in rows : Flat Tillage in ridges : Tillage by digging and by grubbing. AUKICULTURAL SCflOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 5^3 4, Methods of moving the earth: — Harrowing: Rolling: Second Ploughing: Buttages. 5. Clearing Land : — Heaths : Woods : Peaty lands : Clearing by the hand : by the Plough : Hoeing : Destination of the ground. Draining : — Arable Land : Morasses : Ponds : Nature and destination of the soil. Irrigation : — Theory and Practice : by Infiltration : Renewal of the Water : Planches Bombees. Quantity of water by the acre, and according to the nature of the soil. Value of the bottoms irrigated and not irrigated. Mode of working these almost irri- gated. Fertility and value of the products. Fences : — Walls : Ditches : Hedges, living or dead. Sowing : — Theory and practice : Sowing in lines : at random : selection, re- newal, cleansing, and preparation of the seeds : Burying them by the harrow : by the plough. Method of Treatment : — Weeding : Cleaning of thistles : stripping oflf the leaves : {Effuillage .•) Bringing into the light. Harvesting. General Considerations. 1. Harvesting of Fodder : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing: Haymak- ing : Grindstones. 2. Harvesting of Grain : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing : Reaping : Threshing : Llage. 3. Harvesting of Roots : — Pulling up by the hand : by the plough : Uncover- ing : Cleaning. Selection of the methods of preparing the Soils : — According to atmospheric circumstances : Nature of the Soil : its condition : its destination. Distribution of Labor by Rotation : — Nornoal conditions : Exceptional con- ditions. Rural Architecture. Materials: — Siliceous, calcareous and argillaceous rocks: Fat, meagre, and hydraulic Lime: Sands: Mortar: Cements: Puzzolana : Plaster: Wood: Iron: Paving Brick : Roofing Slate : Tiles : Lead : Zinc : Leather : Ropes. Works : — Foundations : Terracing : Properties of Earths. Masonry: — Foundation Walls : High Walls : for support: for inelosure: Plas- tering : Pise. Carpentry : — Assemblages : Combles : Pans de bois : Partitions : Staircases. Joiners'' Work : — Floors : Gates : Windows : Shutters. Iron Work : — Lai'ge Iron : Ironing the Buildings. Roofing : — Tiles : Slate : Thatch : Zinc : Bitumen. Painting and Glazing : — Oil Painting : Distemper Paintings : Badidgeon, (coloring) Window glass. Paving and Bricking. Estimate of the Works : — Masonry : Carpentry. Specification : — Form of the works. Edifices: — Stable: Cow house: Sheep fold t Hogpen: Hen house: Pigeon house : Silk worm nursery. Animal products : — Dairy : Cheese house. Vegetable products : — Barns : Granaries : Wine cellars : Cellars : Corn pits ; Ovens. Agricultural Manufactures : — Feculary : Distillery : Sugar manufactory. Reservoirs : — Watering places : Wash house : W^ells : Cisterns : Ditches for urine : Ponds. Dwelling house : — Form and Proportion. Irrigations : — Dams : Taking out the Water : Sluices : Canals : Weirs : Slopes. Drainage : — Damming up : Trenching : Cespool : Machines for drainage. Routs : — Soil : Slope : Outline : Leveling : Materials : Support : Bridges : Estimate of Excavation and Embankment. Group of Edifices composing a Farming Establishment : — Relation to the fertility of the soil and the culture and extent of the farm. 574 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE/ Imperial Forestry School. The Imperial Forestry School is situated at Nancy, on the Meurthe, and is intended to instruct and train young people destined for the ser^-ice of the forests. It appertains to the Department of the Minister of Finance, who fixes annually the number of students. The school has a director, also consavateiir dcs forets, a subdirector who is also professor, four other professors, and a repetiteur of forest economy. It is a boarding school, and the pupils wear a uniform. In order to be admitted to the school the candidate must be a French citizen, between the ages of 18 and 22, of good constitution, and must possess the diplo- ma of bachelor in sciences, or a certificate of classical studies as far as rhetoric, with a diploma or an official document certifying that his attainments entitle him to a diploma, Khe has the degree of bachelor of letters he will be credited with fifty points in the examination record. He must also bring a bond engag- ing to pay to the school an annual sum of 1,500 francs during the school term, and of resources amounting annually to 600, from the time of his leaving the school until receiving the grade of garde geneial, and a written declaration of the place of examination chosen by the candidate in the arrondisement of examina- tion, and of the place of residence of his family, or of that place where he fin- ishes his studies, provided that he studied fi-om the beginning of the academical year. Upon complying with these requisitions the candidate is authorized by the General Director of Forests to present himself at the competitive examina- tion for admission, which takes place annually in July. This examination in- cludes arithmetic, algebra, geometry and its applications, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, cosmography, mechanics, natural history, French history and geog- raphy, and the German language, after a plan published by the Minister, and covering the course of the lyceums. There are also written exercises on mathematics, surveying, French narration, and German composition; also a sketch in free-hand drawing and in water colors. He must present also specimens of arithmetical calculations, and several of drawing, performed at the school last attended, and if these are not satisfactoiy the candidate is immediately rejected. He is also subjected to a physical examination. The course lasts two years, and includes natural history, forest economy, legis- lation, drawing and construction connected \sith the forest service, and applied mathematics. There is an examination at the close of the year, and after the final examina- tion graduates are sent into the most important forest districts, with salaries of 1,200 francs, to learn under the direction of the forest inspectors, the practical part of the profession, and when capable they receive appointments as gardes generaux, as vacancies occur. There are m the school four bursarships for the children of forest agents. School of Shepherds. In pursuance of the recommendation of a commission on agriculture, a school for the instruction and practical training of shepherds has been established in llie department of the Pas-de-Calais, on the Imperial sheep farm, Hautingay. The farm comprises about 500 acres, and is well stocked with a flock of merinos and half-breeds. We have not seen the regulations or programme of instruction. Farm School for \^ne Culture. Six new Farm Schools were established in 1868, — two of them devoted to the tniltivation of the vine, one for the department of the Gironde, and the other, of the Doubs. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 5*75 Departmental Professorships of Agriculture. In addition to these formal means of agricultural instruction the minister of this department has established professorships in nine departments, the occupants of winch travel about for the purpose of making the farmers acquainted with new methods of culture, and with new discoveries in agricultural science. Agricultural practice in Oiphans' and other beneficent institutions. The gOA'ernment grants certain subsidies to institutions which receive orphans, or children dependent upon their parents, or belonging to the hospitals, or of poor families, as well as several reformatory and rescue institutions, in which the inmates perform simple agricultural work. Normal Schools. Attached to many of the public normal schools are grounds sufficient for or- chard and garden purposes, which are improved by the pupils under the direction of a special teacher of agriculture and rural economy. This department of study is placed by an ordinance of December 22, 1864, under the general inspectors of agriculture, and a systematic course of study and practice, extending over three years, has been made obligatory. Out of 778 of these establishments, 44 are furnished with all the land and requirements necessary for an extended course. Public Primari/ Schools. In advance of positive legislation, teachers had introduced occasional instruc- tion in the principles and details of agricultural operation. In many districts the teachers are furnished with residences having gi-ounds attached, and on these the pupils were allowed and encouraged to apply the instruction of the school- room to practice, until 1865, it was found that in 5,572 schools, valuable agricul- tural teaching was pursued, and in 20,220 schools, teachers and pupils found recreation and profit by attention to garden and fruit culture. By a decree of February 11, 1867, a joint commission was instituted by the minister of public instruction and of agriculture, to investigate and propose the measures necessary to develop agricultural studies in the communal and adult schools of the agricul- tural districts. In 1866, M. Malgras, academical agricultural inspector, issued a circular to school-masters of the Vosges, urging upon those who gave instruction in farming and gardening in the public schools, . to accompany their pupils from time to time to the best kept farms of the district, to make a special study of the stables, fields, cattle-houses, and vineyards, of those who received medals for their good farming or management. They are especially enjoined to make their own gar- dens practical schools of instruction, and to cause their pupils to make a plan of the gardens and the lands placed at their disposal, indicating the boundaries, walks, beds, trees, and other objects. Several of these plans, with the name of the commune, teacher, and pupil, were exhibited at the Industrial Exhibition of 1867, and some of them received prizes for the accuracy with which the drawings were made, and excellence of the designs on which they were plotted. The following plan of an agricultural garden of the master attached to the public school at Bourback-le-Bas, in the Canton of Taun, was noticed with approbation in the Reports of the Delegations Ouvriers: 576 AGHIOULTUHAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. STREAM. Vine Layers. Cuttings. C3 O 1 Horticulture. r THlage. O m 'A O P' Nursery. Kitchen Garden. Ornamental Plants. The Report observe on this plan : We are of opinion that the construction of such a garden in all parishes where agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants, would tend to pro- duce a great reform in cultivation and rural economy. It would be the means of compeiling some of the farmers to throw aside certain old customs of their forefathers, which many are unwilling to abandon. We in no way blame them for respecting old traditions, nevertheless, if it were explained to them that a change for the better were possible, we should be at a loss to comprehend their hesitation to replace an old system by a new one, the result of careful study under thair own eyes and with their assistance. Those who have lived in the country will have noticed that the lanes of the petty farmers are generally the worst cultivated. The cause of this may be at- tributed to ignorance, which we have before condemned, and to the execrable principles of individualism. The idea of asssociation or partnership which is beginning to develope itself among the industi'ial classes as being the only means of saving labor from the oppressive power of capital, does not strike the agri- culturist favorably, and the words association and communism are often con- founded. There is, however, this difference ; whereas citizens, in entering into partnership for the purpose of improving and increasing their productions, are free to live and dispose of their share of the profits as they choose, in commun- ism their powers ai'e restricted, and the principle is an absolute one. This error of the country people is, however, easy to be understood ; darkness still reigns over them ail-powerfully. Government has undertaken the mission of sending men, especially qualified, to iniriate agriculturists in any new methods of ciiltivation, or in any great dis- coveries relating to the theory of agriculture. We Avould wish to see the exten- sion of these missions to all the rural districts, in the form of conferences. This system would be of greater benefit to the farmers. Should not the large rural estates be, as it were, so many model-farms, the management of which would offer to those who possess them Vs many attractive pleasures as the more or less repeated visits to the cafes on the boulevards of the capital, or the nights spent in gambling. SPECIAL SCHOOLS, AND INSTRUCTION FOR THE MERCANTILE AND MILITARY MARINE. INTRODUCTION. The necessities of the maritime service in France, public and pri- vate, military and commercial, have created a system, or at least a series of special schools for children whose parents are occupied on the sea, or youths preparing for the exigencies of naval affairs, several of which we will proceed to describe, with the aid of official documents,* without reference to the chronological order in which they have been instituted. The system includes 1. Nautical School for the Orphans of Sailors. 2. The Inflexible and other School-ships. 3. Naval Apprentice Schools at the government naval stations. 4. School for Boatswains and Shipmasters. 5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers. 6. Naval Drawing School. 7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography. 8. Naval School at Brest. 9. School of Naval ArchHecture at Paris. 10. School of Marine Artillery. 11. School of Hydrography. 12. Naval School of Medicine and Pharmacy. In addition to the schools above enumerated, several of which will be described in detail, the French government has now under consideration the establishment at Paris of a Central School of Commerce and Navigation. The instruction, while it will be spe- cial, will not be technical, and will be designed for young persons who propose to enter either the military or mercantile marine, leav- ing the practical details of the particular branch of the service to be acquired elsewhere. A system ot maritime conscription for recruiting the navy, and stdct regulations requiring special instruction in masters and mates of all mercantile vessels, are in force in France. * Official Report on Paris Industrial Exhibition of ]866, group X. Official programmes of the several schools noticed. nn 578 NAVIGATIO?^ AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. NAUTICAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHANS OF SAILORS. Formerly, when the children of sailors were obliged at the age of seven to leave the asylums [salles d'asile,) which are open to them with such liberality, they had to stay for six years in the pri- mary schools before they were admitted to the " school for young sailors " {ecole des mousses,) where their professional education com- menced. This state of things, entirely satisfactory when the child belongs to a family, is different when it is an orphan. Then there is a void to be filled. An imperial decree, published Nov. 15th, 1862, at the suggestion of the Marquis of Chasseloup Laubat, provides for this want by furnishing at Brest an institution for the orphans of the navy, and placing it under the especial, protection of Her Majesty, the Em- press. Vice-Admiral, Count de Gueydon, gave all his care to the organization of this especial school, which was intended to gather the orphans of seamen, to place them under the protection of the navy, to educate and instruct them that they might follow in the steps of their fathers. They were placed under the supervision of lieutenant Picard of the navy. Their general instruction was confided to the Brothers of the Christian Schools, and the " Daugh- ters of Wisdom " {filles de la sagesse) were intrusted with all the cares which such young children require. We have nothing to say in this place of the excellent primary in- struction given in this school, and will only notice briefly the special or professional instruction, which is imparted in a military style, by divisions, subdivisions, companies, sections, squads commanded by masters, second masters, quarter-masters, and naval instructors. There are three sizes (the low, middle, and high,) each of which is commanded by a pupil. The lessons which they receive consist of instruction in the man- agement of sails, sailor's practice, {ecole de matelotage,) the whistle, fife and drum, rowing, swimming, military practice, gun-practice, bayonet-practice, bats, eillon-diYiW, principles of music, gymnastics, and boxing. There is likewise given to them a physical and mili- tary education, which developes their strength and gives them the ability to study more closely. On the 1st of January, 1867, there were in the school 415 pupils. Most of them are sent to the Seamen's School [ecole des mousses,) when they have attained the thirteenth year of their age ; those who are not considered fit to serve in the navy are struck off the lists and returned to their families. NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 5!79 . Name of School. School of maneu- vering on the naval gymnasium. School of whistling School of rowing. Infantry school. School of the fife and drum. School of gymnas- tics. School of music. Degree. 40 learn to mount to the mast-head and to hold them- selves on the sail- yards. 20 learn to whis- tle. 30 learn to row. 255 are drilled without arms. commence. 50 commence the elementary move- ments. 125 commence. Degree. 185 are just learn- ing to take in the sails and the reefs, and to make knots and splices. 10 give almost all the blasts of the whistle. 90 are just learn- ing to row. 20 are not fit yet to join the battal- ion. 10 do pretty well. 10 do pretty well. 140 do pretty well. 1st Degree. 190 take in the reefs and make knots and splices. 20 give all the blasts of the whis- tle. 90 row. 140 are drilled in the gun-practice, bayonet-practice, and form a battal- ion. 1 do well. 30 do well 150 do well. The following table shows tlie number of pupils that had entered and left the school, up to Dec. 31, 1866 : Number of pupils on the 1st January, Entered during the year, Total, Left C Sent to the school ship, . . during the < Sent back to their tamilies, year. ( Died in the hospital, Present on the 31st of December, 1863. 1864. 1865. — 224 256 247 102 235 247 326 491 15) 6^3 2i 53 ) 15 V70 2) 42) 25 f 71 4) 224 256 420 420 157 577 93 ) 67 \ 162 2) 415 THE INFLEXIBLE AND OTHER SCHOOL-SHIPS, AT BREST. For a long time the children of sailors were placed on board the vessels of the fleet, where they lived in a state of servitude, and frequently arrived at a mature age without being able to read or write, while the gasket of the sailor formed characters which would not yield to any moral suasion. It is only since 1822 that they received, before being placed on board the vessels, an elementary and professional instruction, and since that time the school-ship has 580 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. become the principal seminary for naval officers. The children must be at least twelve years old and their parents pledge themselves not to take them away from the school till they have reached the age of eighteen. The school-ship, first established at Brest in 1823, was transferred to a corvette in 1836, to a frigate in 1851, and finally, in 1861, to the man-of-war, " V In flexible^'' where it numbers at present 900 pupils from the age of 13 to 15. They remain here at least one and not more than two years, and receive a primary and professional in- struction. After leaving the school they are placed on vessels of the fleet, where they continue to be under the special superintend- ence of the naval department. Even here they go through a regu- lar course of instruction, given by one of the officers, and have thus an opportunity to continue the studies commenced on board the school-ship. It would lead us too far here to enumerate in detail all the ex- ercises performed on board the Inflexible. It will suffice to say that besides school instruction, the pupils are progressively accus- tomed to the practice of their profession, and learn everything which a sailor can be taught on board a vessel ; the washing and cleaning of the vessel and of their linen, the rigging of the mast, the ma- neuvering of sail-boats and row-boats, which occupations fill the morning hours. After dinner, which takes place at 11 o'clock, they go on board two brigs, w^here they study and execute alone all that constitutes the practical art of the sailor. It is not to be wondered at that these young sailors onboard the Inflexible get a liking for their occupation. Always in the open air, with good clothes, varied bodily exercises and abundant food, they acquire robust health and a thorough knowledge of their profession. Whilst two companies tack, two others go through military exer- cises with rifles or guns, taking them to pieces, lashing the pieces, and in various ways maneuvering with the mountain howitzer, .bayo- net-fencing, &c. Some go to the sail-maker's room and make ham- mocks. In 1857 there were selected 16 sail-makers and 20 steers- men from those in each company who showed most aptitude and taste for these specialties. This classification of the young sailors according to their professional ability, has produced very excellent results. More recently still (by an imperial edict of Aug. 11, 1868,) a special section of sailor apprentices has been formed on board the '•^Inflexible " for children, who have not the required size and strength, \taille ;) they are received into the school as apprentice sail-makers, NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 581 of carpenters and calkers. Pupils, after having reached the age sixteen, are transferred to the school-ship La Bretagne. The following table will give the statistics of this school to 1866. Left. Date of Admission. If 6 b 11 Flying Top- (gahitrs vo- ^ lants.) a 2 . Is a, tn m ^-s Total. Present April 1, 1861.. 493 Admitted in 1861 275 10 .32 32 12 10 96 " " 1862 712 30 202 66 157 54 509 « " 1863.... 579 30 183 115 205 38 571 " " 1864 580 31 173 152 212 '28 596 " " 1865.... 545 33 191 115 186 64 589 " 1866.... 540 39 190 110 158 72 569 Total .... 3,724 173 971 590 930 266 2,930 The chambers of maritime commerce at Bordeaux, Cette, Mar- seilles, Ajaccio, Havre, &c., have established similar nautical schools and placed them under the supervision of the government. NAVAL APPRENTICE SCHOOLS. There have been since 1824, in every one of the five naval sta- tions of France, elementary schools, intended to give to the appren- tices in the various workshops a degree of elementary knowledge, on the system of monitorial or mutual instruction. After some years of prosperity they were abandoned, in consequence of the great aversion then generally manifested against this method. The only one that remained 'was the school at Rochefort, which was under the superintendence of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. But in 1828 and 1829, under the ministry of Martignac, the Baronet Hyde de Neuville ordered their reestablishment. Every one of these schools organized itself in its own way, and it was only in 1851 that a decree of April 7th prescribes uniform regulations. We have nothing to say here on these apprentice-schools, which are simply primary schools for adults, to which are added special schools for rowing. Their professional instruction is given in the various workshops of the port, to which they have been assigned; the apprentice school has had during the year 1866, 954 pupils. SCHOOLS OF BOATSW^AINS. The navy maintains schools called " ecole de maistrance " {mai- strance corps of under-ofiicers of a ship,) where a certain number 582 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. of workmen from the arsenals, chosen by open competition., re- ceive the special theoretical instruction required for the boatswain and foremen of the various workshops. The origin of these establishments goes back as far as 1819. A circular from the Secretary of the Navy, the Baronet Portal, of Aug. iVth, decreed the establishment, at the ports of Brest, Roche- fort and Toulon, of special schools, in which a certain number of young workmen, destined for the "board of shipmasters" {mai- strance) and chosen from among the most intelligent ones, should go through a theoretical and practical course of ship-building. The same circular contained a provisional regulation, giving the rules to be observed in these schools. The number of pupils in each was limited to 12, of which 8 should be carpenters, 1 pulley- maker, 1 blacksmith, 1 locksmith, 1 cooper, &c. These pupils should be chosen from among the most intelligent and best-behaved apprentices and young workingmen. They must know reading and writing, have served two years in one of the ports, and be at least eighteen and not more than twenty years old. The supervision of these schools was confided to a naval engineer. We have just given an outline of the programme of admission required in 1819, because it is an official indication of the state of primary instruction at this period ; but the same regulation proves that it was too high yet, for the minister allowed, for the first two years, the hmit of age to be extended to 25 years. The course of instruction which was to be given, comprised the first elements of mathematics, elementary geometry, the first ele- ments of rectilinear trigonometry and the first elements of statics, &c. This course of studies was to last two years, and a system of examination and prizes was organized. It was generally supposed that such an organization would obtain great success, and that the advantages which it presented would attract many pupils. But such was not the esse. The working classes at that time were very much neglected, and there were very few who could read or write. Moreover the working men did not receive any pay whilst attending the school, and thirdly, there was no opportunity for these young men to perfect themselves in the practical exercises of their profession during the two years they studied the theory. The necessity of making some modification became clearer every day, and this was done by a royal decree of Feb. 9th, 1833. Instead of choosing the pupils, competition was substituted, and as the primary instruction had advanced, candidates were required NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 683 to be able to read fluently, to write neatly and correctly, and to be acquainted with the rudiments of arithmetic ; they must be work- ingraen of the first or second class, must be 21 years old and have served for three years in some port ; finally, they must furnish a certificate of their professional capacity, given by the foreman of theii" workshop, and countersigned by the director. The course of instruction was to last two years, but the theoreti- cal studies were confined to the first year ; the second year was exclusively devoted to the practical application of the various pro- fessions of the pupils, the number of whom was increased, the recruits coming to a great extent from the naval ports. Brest was to receive 24, Rochefort 14, and Toulon 14 ; 52 in all, instead of 36. In spite of the abolition of the limit of higher age, which gave a larger number of pupils access to the school, the recruiting of pu- pils still presented great diflaculties. These were partly obviated by admitting assistant boatswains, and even boatswains, who were paid by the day. This measure was productive of very happy results ; the number of pupils was soon increased and the studies were per- sued with greater vigor. The republican government, likewise, devoted its attention to these schools. A decree ordering a reorganization, was published April 23, 1856, and is to the present day in force. The conditions of admission were retained and extended to workingmen of the third class; the number of pupils assigned to each' post was some- what changed ; the course of instruction was to last two years ; during the first, the pupils spent the whole morning at the school, and during the second, only three mornings per week. Finally, it was agreed that the pupils were to be paid for the time which they devoted to the school, just as if they had worked in the dockyard. PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION. In order to make the scientific instruction of more practical use, the following programme was fixed for each year. First year. — Arithmetic, logarithms, square cube roots ; 2, geom- etry ; 3, elements of descriptive geometry ; 4, elements of algebra up to equations of the second degree ; 5, linear drawing ; the course of arithmetic and algebra lasted a month and a half, from 10 o'clock till noon, instruction in drawing from 8 till 10. The two last months of the year were employed in reviewing all that had been taught during the year, and in preparing for the examination. Second year. — 1, Common mechanics; 2, workshop accounts; 3, drawing. The course of mechanics and workshop accounts lasts 584 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. two months. The half- day spent at the school is divided into three parts ; the first is occupied in drawing, and lasts two hours ; the second (either mechanics or workshop accounts) also two hours ; the remainder of the time is devoted to optional studies. When the course of mechanics and workshop accounts is finished, the pupils are divided into two sections ; the first comprises the carpen- ters, and workmen of similar rank ; the second the mechanicians and workers in metal. During two months and a half the professor of mathematics teaches the section that works in wood the applica- tion of geometry to the drawing of Avorking plans, explains to them all the details of the drawing of the frame, the stern, the bow and pieces, &c. He teaches them to calculate the deplacements from the centre of the keel, or metre-centre. Finally, the pupils are taken to the molding-loft, in order to trace there a vessel in its true dimensions under the directions of a drawing-master. The metal- workers receive instructions from the professors of mathematics, on the property and application of steam ; the functions of the various parts of a steam-engine ; the applications of descriptive geometry to the drawing of the different parts of the steam-engine, &c. The instruction in drawing receives in these schools all the attention which the development of naval construction demands. During the first year the pupils learn successively shading strokes of diff"erent thickness, simple and dotted ; the construction and use of ladders. After this preparation, which applies to all, they exe- cute professional drawings ; the carpenters, plans of vessels after a copy ; the mechanicians, plans of steam-engines and steam-boilers, &c. The time devoted to drawing during the second year is employed by the carpenters in drawing a fair copy of the complete furnishing material of a vessel, the details of the masting, the cap- stan, the helm, ' ^ „ ■* ' , ^ ■• B |i 11 Nov. 1865 May 18CB i 11 i! Is |i li |i 11 §.- S ' 11 m 11 For 1st Boatswain, 38 .34 35 23 19 13 29 24 26 10 14 13 15 J i: H 8 1(> 2d Boatswain, (theoretical,) . 49 41 44 31 13 22 31 37 31 22 11 22 18 2--. IC 9 7 19 2d Boatswain, (practical.).. .25 29 12 4 3 3 23 15 7 4 3 3 J6 1( 4 3 3 Pupil Mechan- 6 5 23 3 — 1 4 5 J4 2 — ' ' - 2 ~ I Quartermaster. (theoretical,). 129 124 67 36 32 19 115 108 35 34 — 12 99 9' 27 26 11 Quartermaster. (practical,) . . 4 • 2 — —I — — 3 2 — — — ~~ 2 £ — — — — Total 251 225 181 97 67 5H 205 191 113 72 28 51 151 141. 6-1 49 18 44 JsTote. — Since the 1st January, 1865, the number of candidates being too great, the number of pupils has been reduced, but may again be increased, when occasion demands it. NAVAL DRAV7ING SCHOOL. An edict issued by Napoleon I, Sept. 27th, 1810, established at Brest and Toulon, on board the Buqueme and the Tourville, draw- ing-schools for those who wished to enter the naval service, where theoretical and practical instruction was given. At the foundation NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. gQfj of the naval school at Augouleme in 1816, these drawing-schools were transferred to the shore, became less exclusive, and admitted to their gratuitous course all young men from these two great naval stations who wished to adopt the naval profession. They have always been very largely attended. SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION AND HYDROGRAPHY. Long before the navy had acquired any importance, maritime commerce had been immensely developed. The coasting and ocean trade required experienced and well-informed sailors. There were therefore in the principal seaports, gratuitous schools of navi- gation, whose aim was to disseminate theoretical knowledge. These schools were well conducted from the year 1584, when Henry III issued the first ordinance on the subject, by which boatswains and captains of merchant vessels had to undergo an examination of qualifications ; but opportunities of instruction were wanting at that time, and it was reserved for Louis XIII to fill this void. During the memorable siege of La Rochelle, Cardinal Richelieu became convinced that the knowledge of a captain, to whom the State intrusts a merchant-vessel, ought not to be confined to the most simple rules of the art of navigation. He consequently, in January, 1629, published a decree, ordering the establishment of schools of hydrography, open to all who intended to study naviga- tion theoretically. The king himself engaged to maintain, at his own expense, a certain number of such schools, and encourage- ments were held out to all cities which would found such schools. The professors of hydrography were detained to assist at the examinations of captains, boatswains and coxswains. Such was the origin of the first professional instruction in navi- gation. Here, as in all institutions of learning, the instruction of manhood succeeded that of youth. If the orders of Louis XIII were not as generally executed as they deserved, they were instru- mental in producing a certain number of learned hydrographers, some of whom became the authors of the first treatises on naviga- tion ever published in the French language. A decree of Louis XI Y, (August, 1681,) another by Louis XV, (September 14, 1764,) and third by Louis XYI, (January 1, 1786,) show that the ancient monarchy did not lose sight of this branch of instruction. In the last mentioned decree, the Marquis of Castries, Secretary of the Navy, united under one common law all these establishments, whose organization was far from uniform. The professors were in future chosen by competition. Two chairs of 588 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. " liydrographic examiners " were created, charged with the sujier- intendance of the instruction, to assist at the examinations. A decree of the National Assembly, which became a law, August 16th, 1791, decided that gratuitous schools of hydrography should be established at the expense of the State, in thirty-four different places. This decree was supplanted by others published a few years later, further regulating the course of instruction. During the wars of the first Empire, Napoleon I never forgot to extend the benefits of French institutions wherever his armies were victorious. To this circumstance several foreign seaports owe their excellent schools of navigation. The hydrographic instruction was completely reorganized by a royal edict of August 7, 1825, under the ministry of Count de Cbabrol. This is still in force with but few modifications. One professor is charged with giving instruction in each of the 42 schools of the Empire ; two examiners have charge of the general supervision of these schools, and hold the annual examinations. Instruction is gratuitous, and sailors can enter from the age of 13 upwards, but they rarely attend them before they are 22 or 23 years old. The professors, on five days of the week, impart instruc- tion for four hours a day. There are two difiPerent courses ; one superior and the other elementary; the first theoretical and practical, the other essentially practical. Wherever there is an observatory, the pupils are practiced in observations. The programme of the theoretical instruction comprises : for ocean voyages, elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, elements of astronomy, navigation, use of instruments and nautical tables, elementary knowledge of steam-engines, as applied to navi- gation, French composition ; for the coasting-trade, elements of practical arithmetic, geometry, practical navigation, elementary knowledge of steam-engines, nautical calculations. The examina- tions are annual, and no one is admitted to the practical examination, unless he has reached the age of 24, and has served five years on a French vessel. It comprises rigging, management of £ails, a knowledge of coasts, currents, tides, and gunnery. After the prac- tical examination has been successfully passed, the pupil must un- dergo the theoretical one. For the results produced by these establishments, the average attendance of the schools of navigation, and the number of sailors, who have become captains or boatswains, we refer to the following tables. NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 589 Number of sailors who have attended the schools of hydrography from 1849 to 1866 ; of candidates who have obtained the rank of ^^ captain" for sea voyages, or " boatswain " for the coasting trade. NUMBER OF SAILORS. Scholastic Year. Pupils of the Schools. ADMITTED AS ' (of the sea voyage.) (of the coasting- trade.) Total. Captains. Boatswains. 1849-50 1,307 163 331 494 1850-51 1,347 187 369 556 1851-52 1,344 156 325 481 1852-53 1,324 168 317 485 1853-54 1,255 208 292 500 1854-55 999 151 178 329 1855-56 1,116 148 182 330 1856-57 1,804 253 493 746 1857-58 1,907 252 426 678 1858-59 1,568 258 354 612 1859-60 1,525 234 278 512 1860-61 1,424 253 263 516 1861-62 1,422 213 244 457 1862-63 1,424 229 252 481 1863-64 1,571 279 276 555 1864-65 1,410 309 260 569 1865-66 1,205 270 278 548 Total, 23,952 3,731 5,118 8,849 Ann. average, 1,409 219 301 520 Ports where schools of hydrography are established, with the average number of pupils who annually attend every school^ collected from official documents since the year 1849. Dunkerque, Calais, Boulogne, Saint-Yalerie-sur-Somme, Dieppe, Fecamp, Le Havre, Rouen, Honfleur, Caen, Cherbourg, Granville, Saint-Malo, Saint-Brieue, Paimpol, Morlaix, Brest, Douarnenez, L'Orient, Yannes, Le Croisic, Number of pupils. 58 8 7 21 11 24 39 5 11 19 70 37 116 30 28 19 74 9 94 34 27 Saint-Nazaire, Nantes, Les Sables-d'Olonne La Rochelle, Rochefort, Blage, Bordeaux, Bayonne, Saint-Jean-deTLuz, . , Narbonne, Ogde, Cette, Aries, Marti gues, , Marseilles, , La Ciotat, Toulon, Saint-Tropez, Antibes, Nice Number of pupils. 24 77 37 11 86 27 50 17 16 29 42 24 16 13 50 8 72 20 16 9 30 590 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. THE NAVAL SCHOOL AT BREST. Napoleon, in 1810-11, established the first naval school-ships in France, the Tourville being chosen for that purpose at Brest, and the Duguesne at Toulon. These schools were placed under the orders of the maritime prefects of the two ports. In 1816, these two schools were abolished by decree, and a royal marine college was established at Angouleme. Several other changes took place, and in 1830 the college was replaced by a naval school on board the Orion, an old 74 ; this vessel was succeeded by several others,, all of which have received the name of the second school-ship, the Borda, named after Captain Borda, a naval officer of great scientific and practical ability. The present ship is a noble three-decker, pierced for 120 guns, was launched in 1847, and took part in the Crimean war. The Borda is stationed at Brest, and its rigging has been reduced to that of a frigate. The forepart of the. second gun-deck of the vessel still retains something of its old character, and is provided with six guns on each side for practice. The other parts of the vessel have been completely altered ; the decks have been cut away, so as to form two large lecture-rooms and two school-rooms. Not only the pupils but also their, professors and most of the officers are lodged on board the vessel. On deck are specimens of various kinds of guns in use in the French navy, and a gymnasium. The quarter-deck, which is continued to the mainmast, is divided, the forepart being appropriated to the pupils, and the aft to officers. Candidates are admitted to this school after a public examina- tion, which occurs annually. For admission to the examination the applicant must prove his French birth — his being at least fourteen years of age and not over seventeen years, and his having no in- firmity that disables him for marine duty. The requirements for admission are a knowlege of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, applied mathematics, nat- ural philosophy, chemistry, geography, the English language, draw- ing. The candidates must prepare a composition in French, a trans- lation from Latin, an exercise in English, a numeral calculation in trigonometry, a geometrical drawing, and an off-hand sketch of a head. There are two oral examinations on the above studies, the second of which is not attempted if the first, which is elementary, is unsatisfactory. The commander of the Borda is a full captain, and the instruc- tion, which is practical as well as theoretical, is confided to eleven NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 59I professors, of whom five belong to the hydrographic department, eight are full lieutenants, and one a principal engineer. The duties of the five hydrographic professors are thus divided : — Two teach astronomy and navigation, two analytical and mechanical science, and the last natural philosophy and chemistiy. The duties of the other professors are thus arranged : — Two for literature, history and geography ; two for the English language ; and two for drawing. The lieutenants direct four courses of instruction, namely, naval architecture, the theory and practice of managing a ship, gunnery and small arms, with practice, and nautical calculations. The en- gineer professor teaches the theory and management of steam- engines and mechanics. The other officers are a captain of a frig- ate, (second in command,) a chaplain, a financial and an adminis- trative officer, and two medical men. Besides these, there is a captain of gunnery and several under-officers of the marine and artillery. The school sessions commence on the first of October, and on that day promotions of the pupils are made in the various classes. Those who have passed two years of study in the ship are called grand ancients, rank with naval aspirants of the second class, and are eligible to make a voyage of circumnavigation in another vessel * appropriated to that purpose ; pupils who have been one full year in the Borda are called ancients, and the rest new boys, or in French naval language, fistots. The boys have each a number, and in all the ordinary routine of the scbool-ship, this takes the place of a name. The elder pupils are employed as monitors over the younger, and each of the former has one or more allotted to him, not as a fag, but as a scholar, whom it is his duty to teach all he himself knows. It is said that the system succeeds admirably, and that for the first few months the instruction of the new comer is left almost entirely to his ancient ; the new pupil thus escapes without difficulty many errors of discipline into which he would otherwise inevitably fall. .The discipline of the school is severe; the boys rise every naorn- ing, all the year round, at five o'clock, stow away the hammocks in which they sleep, attend prayers, and then commence their morn- ing's work. They are well fed, having coffee or chocolate in the morning, dinner (old style) at 12 o'clock, a lunch of bread (gouter) at 4.30, and supper at 7.45, with bread a discretion, and about four-tenths of a pint of wine at each of the two principal meals. The morning studies are devoted to science ; those of noon to practice with guns, or practical study, marine machinery, or draw- 592 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. ing ; and the evening to literature, the English language, or naval architecture. All the studies are pursued on board, with the excep- tion of natural philosophy and chemistry, the professor of which has at his command in the town the collection of instruments and chemicals, as well as the lecture-room and laboratory of the central pharmaceutical establishment. At times, also, the pupils are taken to visit the vessels in process of construction, and the workshops in the arsenal, and to practice with small arms on shore. There are eight boats attached to the Borda, and the pupils are practiced almost every day, and in all weathers, in rowing and sail- ing, under the eye of an oflBcer, who watches the exercises from on board a small steam-gunboat attached to the school. The ordinary studies of the school end between six and seven in the evening, and the pupils turn in at nine o'clock for their eight hours' rest. Thursday and Sunday, as u'sual in France, are exceptional days, when, after nautical calculations, (which are never omitted,) the elder pupils or ancients practice with small arms on shore, and the juniors are drilled in the use of the sword, musket, and bayonet. After this they have six hours' hard work in maneuvering two small corvettes, provided for the purpose, that belonging to the ancients being a screw-steamer. The boys, as a rule, are at liberty on alternate Sundays, and the most advanced every Sunday afternoon. This is a recent innova- tion ; the pupils used to be free scarcely more than once a month ; but this gave rise to much discontent and some disturbance, and the rule has, therefore, been made less severe. In addition to this lib- erty, however, all the lads are allowed to see their friends for a short period during the exercises on shore on Sunday and Thursday morn- ings, and those who are not free on Sunday are taken on shore for a change in the afternoon. During the summer months the boys bathe in the sea. A peculiar custom exists in the school — the boys are allowed to smoke during the hour of recreation after dinner, and at certain other times ; and for this reason, that as it was found utterly im- possible to stop the practice entirely, it was deemed better to recog- nize it in moderation, and thus stop its secret indulgence and the attendant danger of fire. The punishments inflicted in the school are extra drill and con- finement, either in a small cell or in a dark hole, with a regimen of bread and water ; for very grave offences, boys are dismissed or ex- pelled. On the other hand, the marks for good conduct are nu- merous ; there are several examinations in the various classes during NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 593 the nine months of the school year, and those pupils who gain the greatest number of marks are called eleves d^elite, and wear a gold anchor on their collars, or, in the case of the first twelve, two an- chors ; the pupil who has gained the largest number of marks bears the high but merely nominal rank of first brigadier, and he who enters the school with the greatest success at the examination is called major. A general examination takes place at the end of the year, when the ancients who pass become aspirants in the navy, and the juniors are raised to the upper class in the school; those who fail in the examination are either sent back to their class, or rejected as unfit for the naval career. The first and second prizemen, on quitting the school, receive each a quadrant in the name of the Em- peror, and the third a telescope. * The elder pupils have nearly three months' holiday, but the junior pass a month on board another vessel, the Bougainville, for what is called the summer campaign. This vessel, which was constructed specially for the school, is a screw dispatch-boat with engines of 120 horse power; the summer voyage is settled by the Minister of Marine, and includes a visit and examination of the ports of L'Orient and Cherbourg, touching at some remarkable points of the French coast, sometimes casting anchor off the English coast, and some- times running as far as Ferrol in Galicia. The grand ancients, when their holidays are over, that is to say on the first of October, join the Jean Bart, which makes an annual voyage of several months' duration. This boat was built in 1852 and made its first voyage of this kind in 1864-5. She is an 80-gun ship, of the mixed class, having engines of 450 nominal horse- power. In August of the present year she will have completed her fourth and last voyage of circumnavigation, another vessel, the Donawert, now being prepared to succeed her. The upper gun- deck of the Jean Bart is disarmed, and converted for the use of a part of the officers and the pupils, who number about a hundred, and occupy eight cabins, each with two portholes; here the young men eat, and drink, and sleep, as well as pursue their studies. The officers of the Jean Bart consist of a full captain in com- mand, a second captain, a chaplain, ten lieutenants, one having charge of each pupil's cabin, or poste, as it is called, and two giving instruction in sailing and gunnery ; a surgeon-major, who gives in- structions respecting the means of keeping a crew in health ; two assistant- surgeons, an engineer, a drawing-master, and some others. The Minister, as in the case of the summer cruise of junior pupils, settles the course to be taken by the Jean Bart. Generally 38 594 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. the West India islands are visited in the months of March and April, when the pupils are principally exercised in hydrographical works off St. Pierre and Fort de France ; in gunnery on board, and small-arms on shore ; in the daily management of boats for em- barkation and disembarkation ; and in the management of sails in the intricate channels of the archipelago. They are shown, more- over, how to perform difficult operations, such as the unshipping of the rudder and bringing it on deck for examination, lifting a mast, &c. The pupils are required to keep written records of all such operations, and to illustrate the narrative when necessary with drawings. When they visit foreign yards and arsenals, they are expected to give minute accounts of what they have seen there, and besides a daily journal, to write*critical notices of all the different machines, methods of rigging, and maneuvers, which they have witnessed. The difficult channel of the Isle St. Sebastian, off the coast of Brazil, that of the Bermudas, the river Hudson, and the coast of Newfoundland, are among the places selected to initiate the pupils in the difficulties of navigation. At Annapolis, in the Chesapeake, a visit is paid to the National Naval School of the United States at the season when the general examinations take place in that estab- lishment. The voyage usually terminates with a visit to Cape Breton and some points of Newfoundland ; the fisheries and drying- houses of St. Pierre and Miquelon are generally visited, and the Jean Bart returns to Brest between the 1st and 5th of August, having been absent ten months. A sailing brig named the Ohligado has lately been attached to the Jean Bart as a supplementary vessel. SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AT PARIS. The construction of ships and engines in the French naval service is intrusted to the Corps of Marine Engineering, [Ccrrps du Genie Maritime^ consisting of 121 officers, viz., 1 inspector-general, 10 directors of naval construction, 40 marine engineers, and 70 assist- ant engineers. This corps is recruited from the graduates of the Polytechnic, and having passed satisfactorily the required examination for the public service, are sent to the School of AppUcation of Naval Engi- neering at Paris, and to the dockyards, to learn their special busi- ness. The usual number in attendance is 30, and the annual cost of the school is about 100,000 francs. The course occupies two years and a-half— three winters in Paris NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 595 and two summers in the dockyards. The pupils having a good gen- eral education and a complete special knowledge of mathematics and geometrical drawing, the courses are from the start eminently prac- tical. The instruction in Paris during the first session consists of: 1, a course on construction ; 2, on displacement and stability ; 3, on strength of materials ; 4, English ; 5, free-hand drawing ; 6, plan- drawing of vessels. During the second session it consists of : 1, a practical course on steam-engines ; 2, a theoretical course on steam ; 3, applied mechanics, machines in general ; 4, English; 5, accounts; 6, plan-drawing, ships and engines ; 7, pictorial drawing. During the third session: 1, course on stability, (2d part;) 2, on naval architecture ; 3, naval artillery ; 4, technology of workshops special to the navy ; 5, accounts ; 6, English ; 7, plan-drawing, projects for ships ; 8, free-hand drawing. In the first year ship -building is taken up ; in the second, the steam-engine, and in the third the two are combined and completed. When in the dockyards, the pupils are placed under the order of the engineer in charge of works in execution, who sees that they are attentive to their duty, and have proper instruction. He also ex- amines and certifies the journals which the pupils have to keep. The director of the school gives each pupil detailed instruction to guide him in the choice of the practical work he shall attend to. The first summer is devoted to the construction of ships, the second to that of engines. The pupils select the ports to which they will go, according to their standing in their class. At the end of two years and a half, the pupils are examined by a board, and if found qualified, they are appointed assistant engi- neers of the third class; If they fail to pass, they may be allowed another year — but failing in that, they are definitely rejected. The private pupils, natives or foreigners, who to the number of eight are allowed to attend the course in Paris, may obtain permis- sion to go through the whole practical course in one of the imperial dockyards, but are not subjected to the same discipline as the reg- ular pupils. On leaving, they receive from the director a certificate of the course gone through, their talent and diligence. The school is under the immediate orders of a Director of Naval Construction, who is also one of the professors, and is assisted in the several branches taught by other professors, who are marine engineers, and a special teacher of drawing, and another of the English language. 596 SPECIAL IXSTRTTCTION IN FRAITCE. MARITIME COXSCRIPTION. The French naval service is supplied by a system of conscription analogous to that for the army. All persons, who reside on the coast, whose labor is on the sea, or on navigable rivers reached by the tide, are enrolled on arriving at the age of eighteen, and are liable to be summoned to the naval service until they are fifty, for an aggregate period of seven years. SCHOOLS OF MARINE ARTILLERY. There is at Brest, Toulon, and L'Orient, schools of marine artil- lery, besides floating schools at Brest and Toulon, for practice at firing at a mark at sea. BOARD OF HTDROGRAPHERS. The Board of Hydrographers is located at Paris. Pupils who have completed the polytechnic course enter the corps with the I'ank of eleve hydroyrophe, with the same rank and advantages as naval architects. They are sent to the coast to make surveys, and after two years service in the field, and in oflBce work under special instruc- tion, become assistant hydrogi'aphers without fiirther examination. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 597 NEW LABORATORIES AND FACILITIES OP PRACTICAL SCIENCE. The example of Prussia in enlarging and equipping with every new appli- ance of original investigation, the chemical laboratories at Berlin and Bonn, has already been followed with similar improvements and enlargements in France. The Minister of Publiclnstruction, in his report for 1868, states, "that while the laboratories of instruction in the Museum of Natural history, the Sorbonne, and the School of Medicine, are receiving improvements and enlargements, means have been obtained from the Corps Ltgislmif to establish new labora- tories of research — those arsenals of science, which will assure the perpetuity of scientific progress, around which professors of renown will gather a limited number of pupils, well grounded in theoretical knowledge, and accustomed to the use of instruments and elementary manipulation, who will practice under direction and example, the art of observation and the method of experimen- tation." The essential and novel condition of these laboratories, will be that the professors in charge will have entire liberty to carry on their own labors, as well as the studies of their pupils, without reference to any official programme as they may believe most advantageous to science and the arts. NEW PRACTICAL SCHOOL OF HIGHER STUDIES. The crowning feature of this new movement is the establishment of a new practical school {VEcole pratique des Haides Etudes^) of science. The instruc- tion is not limited to chemistry, as its connection with the new laboratories might imply, while the new and enlarged laboratories are to be open for instruction, manipulation, and practical experiment to pupils of the new school. The school itself is divided into four sections : 1. Mathematics ; 2. Natural Philosophy and History; 3. Natural History and Physiology; 4. Historical study and Philological Science. No condition, with respect to age, grade or nationality is prescribed, but all candidates must go through a probationary stage of three months or more, when they will be classified by the du-ector assisted by a permanent commission. The pupils are not to be gathered into a separate establishment either for residence or instruction, but will be grouped into the special schools, which are to be developed in connection with existing educational establishments. The pupils of the mathematical section will be admitted to courses at the observatory where they will be initiated into tlie theoretical knowledge that astronomical mathematics demand, as well as in the use of all the instruments emploj^ed, thus forming a veritable school of astronomy. The pupils in the section of historical and philological science will not only study the literature and general history of antiquity, the middle ages, and modern times, but their course will embrace archeology, the science of language, paleography, comparative and general grammar, criticism of history, &c. The students of natural history will find in the enlarged and re-equipped laboratories of the Museum of Natural History, every facility of direction, instruction and experimentation for the study of animal and vegetable produc- tion, which the most advanced school of agriculture could give, and which the most curious and zealous agriculturalist could desire. A grand director is to be appointed by the Emperor, on the nomination of the Minister of Public Instruction, and m the same way a special du'ector for each section and for each laboratory. 598 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. The report submitted to the Emperor, July 31, 1868, briefly enumerates the reasons which have led to the establishment of this new practical school of higher studies {icole pratique des liautes etudes,) and enumerates the places where and under whose auspices the instruction is given. The main object has been to unite the pupils of our great schools who pre- pare themselves for the licentiate degree, or who show a decided vocation and special scientific aptitude, in order to give them not only the benefit of the gen- eral teacliing of the faculty they have chosen, but also the special counsels of the best authorized professors of the country and the means of testing the theory by practice at any time or to make personal researches on any scientific ques- tion. Professors of tried knowledge are constantly ready to supplement the regular teacher and to render, to a certain degree, his instruction constant. TI)e superior council held its first session, Nov. 3, 1868, and special com- mittees appointed by the Minister of Pubhc Instruction examined the can- didates. Of these there were 342. The total number of those who registered their names for examination was 422, divided among the following four sec- tions: mathematics, physics and chemistry, natural sciences, history and phi- lology. The examination has reduced the original fist somewhat, but new names are registered every day. For the two sections of chemistry and nat- ural sciences, 27 laboratories have been prepared for instruction and researches, and 265 students work there regularly from day to day. The following is the distribution of work iu the different sections.* I. THE SECTIONS OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY AND OF NATURAL SCIENCES. LABORATORIES FOR INSTRUCTION. Physics. The laboratory instituted in the faculty of sciences, opened Dec. 15 — Prof. Desains. The students are instructed in the handling of physical instruments, and go through a series of classical experiments relating to heat, fight, electric- ity, magnetism, and acoustics. Hours of study : Monday, Wednesday, Thurs- day, and Friday, from 9 to 11. Chemistry. The laboratory of the College de France, opened Dec. 10 — Prof. Balard. The students make general chemical experiments and practice analytical chemistry. Hov.rs of study : Every week-day from 11 to 5, The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened Dec. 1 — Prof. Fremy. General chemical experiments and qualitative and quantitative analy- sis. Hours of study: Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, from 11 to 5. The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened January 11 — Prof. St. Claire Deville. Experiments in organic chemistry applied to physiology; 4= hours each per week. Mineralogy. The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Dec. 12 — Prof. Delafosse. The students practice determining mineral specimens and crystalfine forms by means of the soldering-pipe, recipiangle, and polarization apparatus. Hours of study: from 2.30 to 4.30 (Thursday.) Geology. The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Nov. 30 — Prof. Hebert. The students practice determining specimens of rock and characteristic fossils from the different geological strata. Hours of study : Thursday, from 1.30 to 3.30. Botany. The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened in April — Pro- fessors Brogniart and Decaisne. The studies consist chiefly in dissecting plants, in microscopic observations, and various other processes employed in the study * Expose de la situation de I'Empire, 1869. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 599 of the anatomy and physiology of plants, analysis of original essays, &c. ; in collecting plants, and scientific conferences devoted to the arranging and classi- tyiiig of the plants collected by each student. The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened in March — Pi-of Duchartre. The students practice microscopic exercises and analytical anatomy of plants. The laboratory of the Faculty of Medicine, opened Dec. 14 — Prof Baillon. The pupils practice anatomical manipulations and observations ; during summer, weekly botanical excursions, followed by conferences. Hours of study: Every day, from 12 to 4. Anatomical and Physiological Zoology. The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened Dec. 2 — Prof Milne Edwards. The studies consist in : — 1, Microscopic observations, dissect- ing experiments, &c., arranged in such a manner as to make the students thor- oughly acquainted with a series of animals representing the principal geological types, and the mode of action of their various organs; 2, in exercises relating to the determining of the zoological character and the way of employing the methods of classification ; 3, in graphic exercises, description of anatomical specimens, analysis of original essays, &c. Hours of study : Every day, from 11 to 2, Every Thursday, at 7.30 P. M., scientific conference. Histology. Exercises relating to the employment of the microscope for the study of the internal structure of the constitutive tissue of animals, are held at the labora- tory of Prof Milne Edwards at the museum, under the direction of Prof. Robin, every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at S P. M. Physiologij. The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Dec. 25 — Prof Bert. Rep- etition and classical experiments in physiology. LABORATORIES FOR RESEARCH. Students who are qualifi.ed for scientific investigations are admitted to the following laboratories : The laboratory of physics at the Faculty of Sciences — Prof Jamin. The laboratory of mineralogical chemistry at the College de France — Prof Balard. The laboratory of organic chemistry at the College de France — Prof Ber- thelot. The laboratory of general chemistry at the Museum of Natural History — Prof Fremy. The laboratory of mineralogical chemistry at the Superior Normal School — Prof St. Claire Deville. The chemical laboratory at the Faculty of Medicine — Prof Wurtz. The geological laboratory at the Faculty of Sciences — Prof Hebert. The laboratory of the natural history of inorganic bodies at the College de France — Professors Ehe de Beaumont and St. Clair Deville. The botanical laboratory at the Museum of Natural History — Profs. Brogniart and Decaisne. The laboratory of general physiology at the Museum — Prof Claude Bernard. The zoological laboratory at the Museum of Natural History — Prof Milne Edwards. The laboratory of comparative anatomy at the Museum of Natural History — Prof Gervais. The laboratory of histology at the Faculty of Medicine — Prof Robin. The laboi-atory of experimental medicine at the College de France — Prof Claude Bernard. The special laboratory of experimental physiology of Dr. Marey. A lecture-hall for the use of the students of the physico-chemical section at the Faculty of Sciences, open every day from 10 to 4. 600 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. n. THE SECTION OF MATHEMATICS. Directors. — Messrs. J. Bertrand, Briot, Delaunay, Serret, Puiseux, professors of the Paris Faculty ofSciences. Repeiiteur. — Dr. Didon, The pupils of this section who have been licensed, can be, admitted to the mathematical course of the Superior Normal School. A hall for studies and conferences is reserved for their use at this school, and the scientific hbrary is open for them. m. THE SECTION OP HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY. History. Director of Studies. — Alfred Maury, professor of history and morals at the College de France. Repetitturs. — Monod and Rambeau, of the Normal Superior School. Egyptian Philology and Archceology. Director. — De Rouget, professor at the College de France. Greek Philology, Go~eelc and Q-riental Archaeology. Z^zVecfor.— Waddington, member of the Institute. Repetlteur. — Tournier, who gives a supplementary course of lectures on Greek literature. Roman Antiquities. Director. — Leon Renier, professor at the College de France. Repetiteur. — Dr. MoreL Latin Philology. Director. — Boissier, professor at the College de France and the Superior Nor- mal School. Repetiteur. — Dr. MoreL Comparative Philology. Director. — Breal, professor at the College de France. Repetiteur for Sanscrit. — Hanvette-Besnault ; assistant repetiteur, Berguigne. Repetiteur for the Semitic languages. — Guyard, assistant librarian of the Asiatic Society. Repetiteur for the Romanic langvjiges. — Dr. Gaston Paris. A hall for lectures and conferences is at the disposal of the students, in the library of the Sorbonne. Students of the historical section who have been licensed, can be admitted to the course of history at the Superior Normal School. The establishment of a fifth section (of economical sciences) is contemplated. It is not intended to confine the practical school of higher studies to Paris, but steps have been taken to establish laboratories at an early date in the larger provincial towns. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. gQl INDUSTRIAL ART MUSEUMS. There is in France no specific Museum of Ornamental Manufactures, although one is now projected by the Union Centrale dts Beaux Arts appliques a i' Indus- trie^ but there are a number of collections which are made useful in teaching and studying the various manufactures involving artistic ornamentation, and in increasing a feeling and appreciation of art- workmanship. Of these, we notice briefly the principal ones. 1. Collection, of Marbles and Plasters at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. — This col- lection originated in the purchase by the government, in 1828, of the orna- mental specimens collected in Rome by M. Dufourny, an architect of the latter part of the last century. It now includes many casts of architectural objects, illustrating nearly all the renowned temples of Greece and Rome, arranged in accordance with exact measurements obtained at great expense. Among these may be mentioned large portions of the Parthenon, the Erechtheium, the facade of the Pandrosium complete, the choragic monument of Lysicrates complete, and great capitals and entablatures complete from many of the Roman temples. There is a large portion of the Arch of Titus. The facade of the Chateau de Gaillon has been transported hither from Normandy. Besides, in M. Dufour- ny's collection were many fragments of ancient marbles. The cost was origi- nally about £2,000, but it is now considered worth £20,000. 2. Collection at the Conservatoire des Af-ts et Metiers. — This institution is intended to encourage the growth of the mechanical arts and trades, and lec- tures are given there upon geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, agriculture and political economy, and lessons in mechanical drawing, to a large and grow- ing class. It has a library of 15,000 books on the industrial arts, a vast collec- tion of machinery, and a Salle de PortefeuiUe, with about 12,000 drawings of machinery and 20,000 brevets of inventions, all freely accessible to the public at all times, for the purpose of making drawings or tracing. There are two lecture-rooms, one of which will accommodate 1,200 visitors, the other 250. 3. Collections in the Louvre. — In the Louvre, besides the famous gallery of paintings, too well known to need description, there are distinct museums of marbles, plasters, paintings, drawings, prints, enamels, pottery, glass, bronzes, naval and other curiosities and antiquities. The collection of casts is not large, nor is that of marbles and antiques. There are in this very few specimens of ornamental art. The museum of enamels is a mixed collection of objects of all kinds, deco- rated with painters' and jewelers' work of this sort, with an excellent cata- logue, constituting a valuable history of the whole subject. Among the articles are many illustrating other arts besides that of enameling. The Musee de la Renaissance was begun as early as the beginning of the 1 6th century, and contains, in five apartments, specimens of French sculpture, more particularly of figures and ornaments, plate and jewelry being considered of minor importance. The five apartments are named after five sculptors — Francheville, Anguiers, Jean Goujon, Jean de Douaj*, and Michel Colombo, and contain the works of these and other distinguished Frenchmen.' The Musee de la Marine is a valuable collection of various objects connected with ship-building, navigation, &c., such as models of various vessels and ma- 602 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. chines, relief-plans and drawings of harbors, ports and piers, fire-arms, scientific instruments, sextants, and relics connected with French naval history. One room is filled with curiosities from the East, captured in various expeditions, forming the foundation of an ethnographical museum. We will merely mention the following collections : Antiquities from Assyria, Asia Minor. Egypt, Algeria, and America; engravings; antique terracottas con- taining 12,000 specimens, mostly from Etruscan tombs, many cinerary urns among them ; a very extensive and valuable collection of drawings. • 4. Museum of the Hotel de Clugny. — " This is the nearest collection to a mu- seum of ornamental manufactures in France." It was first formed by M. de Somraerard, and opened to the public in 1843. It is essentially, however, a historical museum, and the arrangement was planned with a view to this. It contains nearly 3,000 objects or groups of objects of sculpture in all materials, painting, glass painting, enamels, pottery, glass, jewelry, clock-work, locks, arms and armor, weapons used in the chase, engraved and chased iron-work, tapestry, embroidery, church ornaments, mosaics, bronze, &c., the greater part belonging to the sixteenth century. In the garden are many fragments of me- diaeval architecture. In the old hall of the Roman baths, in the back court of the building, are the scanty remains of the Roman period found in Paris. 5. The Musee Ceramique is connected with the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, not far from Paris. It contains some thousands of objects illustrating the history and art of ceramic manufacture, the various classes comprehending articles in pottery and porcelain, glass, painted glass and enamel. There is a nearly complete set of plaster casts of the best productions of the manufactory, copies of these casts being for sale. "The arrangement is purely scientific, illustrating the physical development of the art, the nature and order of discov- er}^ of pastes and glazes." The orders and sub-orders are classified geographi- cally and chronologically. The collection was commenced by M. Brogniart in 1800, and is now valued at 500,000 'francs, although having been acquired by exchange it has not cost more than one-tenth of that sum. 6. Musee dArtillerie. — This museum, connected with the Depot Centrale cf Artillerie^ contains about 4,000 objects illustrating the science of artillery, mostly weapons, many of them of historical interest. 7. The Museum of Natural History at the Jardin des Plantes is very valuable and extensive, and needs no special notice in this place. 8. The Gobelins contains, in the exhibition-rooms connected with it, a small number of tapestries of its own manufacture, designed chiefly after celebrated pictures. 9. Collections at Lyons and Eouen. — In the Museum of Antiquities at Lyons are casts, bronzes, and a good collection of ancient glass. At Eouen, in several collections, are casts, architectural models, pictures, and an archseological mu- seum, called the Norman Museum. Since the above sketch of existing Museums of Art was in type, we have received additional information of the progress of the Union Centrale in estab- lishing a Museum on the plan of the South Kensington Museum, Loudon. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE 603 UNION CENTRALE. The Union Cenirale of the Fine Arts applied to Industry, instituted in 1862, is vigorously prosecuting the following objects : 1. The establishment of a per- manent Museum of Industrial Art, with a hall and class-rooms for evening lec- tures and courses for artisans and designers; 2. An annual exhibition of the products of the workshops and art-schools of France, with prizes for artistic excellence in form, color, and adaptation ; 3. A library of publications on art and art manufocture. The annual exhibition in 1866 was attended by 215,000 visitors, and the profits of $20,000 were applied to the museum and library. At the distribution of prizes in 1867, the Minister of Public Instruction presided, and addressed the members and visitors on "the necessity of illuminating and enriching the thoughts and aspirations of the w^orkingman, be he called artist or artizan, as well as training his hand to greater skill." In another address, the same minister (M. Duruy) cites the example of Switzerland in giving a good general education to all classes, and .special scientific training to all workingraen, as worthy of the imitation of France. DfTERXATIONAL CONFEREXCE OX ART EDUCATION. Under the auspices and in the councQ-room of the Union Centrals, a confer ence was held at the close of the annual exhibition of art applied to industries, in 1869, in which eminent professors and artists from Brussels, London, ^Tienna, Stuttgard, Munich, Nuremberg, Berlin, and other cities, participated. The fol- lowing conclusions were reached : First. — Of the character and conditions of modem productions in industrial art, the congress is of opinion : — (1.) That the dominant artistic character of con- temporary production is essentially unsettled, on account of ill-advised over- production. (2.) That the necessity for the production of large quantities of articles, in great variety, and at low prices, from the introduction of machinery and division of labor, is, in general, in contradiction to the true sentiment of art in the objects produced. Also,'l. That an exaggerated value is attributed to organization, to the detriment of individual action. 2. That apparent material perfection, and the admiration for details, are sought for, to the detriment of general harmony. 3. That the discoveries of science are often apphed without sufficient comprehension. Second. — Of public taste and its influence on production, and the means of developing and improving it, the congress considers that public taste is the reflection of the intellectual and moral condition of society, and that the prin- cipal causes of its insufficiency and fickleness are: — 1. The tendency to make the sentiment of art subordinate to the material perfection of w^orkmanship ; and 2. The general tendency towards apparent rather than real quahties. These causes united necessarily exercise a deplorable influence on production, and the congress is of opinion that the only mode of remedying such a state of things is the introduction of a new, general, and complete system of education in mat- ters of art, which shall propagate the soundest notions in all classes of society. T/iird. — Of the actual organization, and of the development to be given to the study of the arts of design; of the direction of such study; of professors, of methods, and of examples or copies ; the congress is of opinion that the actual organization of such instruction is not on a level with the wants of the age, because: — 1. The examples which tradition furnishes are not sufficiently known, and generally badly interpreted — their spirit is misunderstood for want of education. 2. The study of nature is generally insufficient and ill-directed. The congress declares : — 1. That preparatory instruction in drawing should be introduced in primary education. 2. That the development of the sentiment of art should be commenced in early youth, by the beautiful in all its forms being daily presented to the child's eye. 3. That greater and entirely new im- g04 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. portance should be given to museums of instruction in villages as well as in towns. The congress is of opinion that instruction in drawing should form a part of the obligatory programme of primary instruction. It desires to express its profound conviction that in art-education there should be no division ; that the unity of art should be the only law and principle of instruction. Primary Instruction. The congress can not recognize the present principle of primary instruction, which is limited to the servile and textual imitation of copies. It' is of opinion that the pupils in the common schools should, from the very outset, have placed before them those elementarj'- geometric models which constitute the alphabet of form, as well as the simplest common objects, with the indispensable aid of the teachers' oral explanations. Seconaary Instruction. The congress finds the present system of secondary instruction objectionable, on account of the abuse which is made of drawing copies ; and it declares it to be its opinion that intellectual interpretation (the reduction or amplification of the model or copy,) reproduction from memory, and choice of the models of execution, should take the place of literal and servile copying. Professional Instruction. With respect to professional instruction, the congress expresses a desire that in the schools general instruction in art should take the place of anj' industrial iapplication to meet a special demand. It can not but regard all premature workmanship as dangerous to art, and injurious to the pupil's future career. Professors for Normal Schools. The congress recommends the extension of instruction in drawing in the Normal schools for primary teachers, under special professors: and for this pur- pose that a superior normal school for training such professors be established. Methods, Models, and Copies. The congress does not recommend nor prescribe any particular method, ex- cept to guard against and discourage all those in which the employment of mechanical and abbreviated processes dispenses with the direct, personal, and attentive observation of the pupil. The employment of printed copies, which possess the serious fault of substi- tuting the stud}'- of picturesque effect, which is but an accidental character, for that of form, which is a permanent one, is condemned. Fourth. — On a comparative examination of the experiments tried in various countries to further the progress of industrial art, the development of public taste, and the improvement of instruction in the arts of design, the congress recognizes with satisfaction : — 1. That during the last few years there has been an awakening of public opinion which directed civilized nations towards the extension and progress of art industries, the improvement and generalization of instruction in the arts of design, and the development of a taste inseparable from an action favorable to morality. 2. That under the influence of this ex- cellent spirit, efforts have been constantly made by governments, societies, and individuals, which have already given rise to the creation of important institu- tions — schools, societies, museums, &c. The congress is of opinion : — 1. That it is important to give effect to the prop- osition made at the time of the Universal Exhibition of 1867, that each country should cause copies of the artistic objects in its possession, and endeavor, by all possible means, to make them known and used in other countries. 2. That serious endeavors be made to improve the condition of professors devoted to instruction in the arts of design, because upon that condition depends essen- tially the quality of such instruction. A committee of the U7iion is charged with the mission of calling the atten- tion of the proper authorities to the suggestions and recommendations of this conference. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. gQg Mr. E. A. Davidson, in a paper on Industrial and Scientific Education as ex- emplified in the Paria Exposition of 1867, gives the following as the substance of the instruction in drawing in special schools for industrial purposes. First Course. — Practical plane geometry, elementary free-hand drawing, flat tinting with pen and brush, elementary coloring, solid geometry, perspective, model drawing, and projection of rectangular objects to a given scale. Second Course. — Advanced practical geometry — embracing the higher curves and figures used in machinery and architecture — such as the conic sections, the cycloid, the epicycloid, the helix, conchoid, cissoid, spiral, &c., orthographic and geometrical projection, penetrations and sections of solids, development of sur- fiices, and the projection of shadows, advanced perspective, free-hand and model drawing and shading. Third Course. — Machine-drawing — including the construction of the teeth of wheels, screws, &c., from blackboard lessons; rough sketches, and actual meas- urement to scale and given data ; tinting and broad shading. Building con- struction, practical and historic architecture, ornamental and architectural draw- ing. Construction of technical working-drawings to scale, adapted for the various branches of industry. The same paper gives, with marked approbation, the following example of the aids of mechanical drawing at the Institute of the Christian Brothers in Paris. Aids of Scientific Drawing in the Schools of the Christian Brothers. This system, designed by Frere Victoris,. the professor in the Institute des Freres des Ecoles Chretieymes in Paris, received the gold medal of the Exposi- tion of 1867. The whole scheme embraces the following helps : (1) Text-books for the pupil and others for the teacher, adapted to each of the two years over which the course extends. (2) Large diagrams, for schools where the class is so numerous that the mas- ter can not spare time to work out the lesson on the blackboard. (3) Models, which are still further developed by Frere Yictoris, by the addi- tion of a plane at right angles to the other two ; this third plane, on which the side or end elevation is projected, inoves on hinges ; and as the lines are made to work into each other, the paper which covers the planes will, when laid out flat, show how the heights and widths have been obtained from the object. Amongst the models is a niche under a pediment in plaster of Paris, which is cut verti- cally and horizontally so as to show sections of the niche, cornice, and pedestal, and is a good study for artistic as well as for scientific drawing. The other models comprise several arches and staircases, with movable parts, three large planes with objects, such as capitals of orders, cornices, &c., to be used as stud- ies for the projection of shadows ; also numerous roof timbers, not merely as trusses, but as portions of roofs showing the whole assemblage of timbers. These, if reproduced on a larger scale, would be of the greatest use to our sci- ence teachers. The set also comprises columns and entablatures of the orders of architecture made of hard wood ; these divide so as to exhibit the entasis of the columns and numerous sections of capital, cornice and base, all the parts fitting together in the most exquisite manner. There are also wooden cornices made up of various moldings, which, being open at the ends, show how the members are made up. The models above mentioned are but types of the whole system. The Institute above referred to is a Normal School for training teachers, and has connected with it an asylum for the aged and infirm members of the order, who are employed all over France. QQQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. _. TECHNICAL EDUCATION OF GIRLS. In 1854, the Yicomtesse D' Anglais, with a view of assisting young women respectably born and educated, but left destitute and dependent upon their own exertions for a livelihood, founded an institution in Paris entitled Notre Dame des Arts, aided by several sisters of a religious order. The institution proper is a boarding school, and receives the orphans of liter- ary men and artists, who alone compete for the scholarships with which the school is endowed. Other pupils are admitted, however, on payment, on the same footing as the orphans, but can not compete for the scholarships. The endowments for scholarships are fiirnished by grants from the Minister of Public Instruction, the General Council of the Department of the same, and the Mu- nicipal Council of Paris. In addition to the subjects of a general education, particular attention is paid to the teaching of music and the decorative arts. This last includes designing patterns for tapestry, for church ornaments, jew- elry, painting on porcelain or enamel, on glass and church windows, painting in oil and water-colors, crayons, drawing and painting on ivory, lithography, engraving on wood and steel, embroidery in general, making of church vest- ments and artificial flowers. The productions of the scholars are sold for the benefit of the pupils. The number of pupils in 1868 was 140, and the school was managed by eighteen ladies and sisters, whose instructions are gratuitous. At Nantes there is a manufactory of stained glass connected with a congre- gation of Carmelites, which has already attained high reputation, and provided beautiful windows for various churches in Paris and elsewhere. The sisters began by painting banners used in church processions, and there being occasion to put new windows into a building of the Order, they employed their talents and taste in designing and fabricating stained glass, and by continued practice have reached a skill not surpassed in the manufactories of the same kind at Tours and Clermont. Besides the Special School of Drawing for Toung Women in the Rue Dupuy- tren, in which have been trained very successful designers and artists for man- ufactures in ivory, porcelain, and book-work, instruction is now given in draw- ing and modeling in a large number of municipal schools in Paris, open to women as well as men. The experience of the last few years has demonstrated clearly that in the whole field of plastic art, all labor which deals with forms and the represent- ations of forms, from the highest ideal to the most familiar details of ordinary life, can be opened to woman properly trained in the first and successive steps of modeling and drawing. The most delicate touches on porcelain and ivory, the most exquisite copying in form and color of specimens in botany, the whole field of natural history, and the illumination of title pages, have already been executed by her; and it will not be long before the whole field of design for car- pets, shawls, and ribbons, and all textile fabrics, will be occupied by her genius. The pencil and the graver will be as famiUar to her as the needle or the pen. In connection with this subject it may be mentioned that Madame laBaronne Herald de Pages, a lady who has given great attention to agricultural and phi- lanthropic instruction, was commissioned by the Minister to inspect all the girls' schools in France in which the principles and practice of household economy and* gardening were attended to, in addition to the ordinary studies of primary- schools. ■ • SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM, INTRODUCTION. The kingdom of Belgium, on an area of 11,400 English square miles in 1863, had a population of 4,836,566. In 1856, out of a population of 4,529,050, 1,062,115 were engaged in agriculture; 419,037 in mechanical arts, (73,292 in mines and quarries; 56,657 in metals ; 5,514 in glass and earthen ware ; »86,663 in linen and hempen fabrics; 13,883 in woolen fabrics; 12,352 in cotton; 4,016 in silk; 29,851 in leather; 42,130 in alimentation; 68,995 in ap- parel ; 107,332 in building; 15,883 in furniture and decoration, (fee. (fee.,) and 106,162 in commercial pursuits. The total annual expenditure of the government of Belgium in 1864 amounted to 150,943,138 francs, of which sum 4,500,000 francs were expended for public instruction. The institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister of the Interior, and embrace : I. Primary Schools. — Of these^there were in 1864: 3,314 Commuual schools, with 4,549 teachers and 354,168 scholars. 620 Private schools, supported partly by the government, with 1,464 teachers and 75,421 scliolars. 32 Private schools under government inspection, with 79 teachers and 5,116 scholars. 1,427 Independent private schools, with 2,654 teachers and 98,264 scholars. 33 Boarding-schools under government inspection ; 230 independent boarding-schools, together with 887 teachers and 11,892 scholars. 460 Inamt-schools, with 666 teachers and 40,000 scholars. Making a total of 6,116 primary schools, with 10,299 teachers and 584.861 scholars. The total expense for primarv instruction in 1863 amounted to 9,392,259 francs, of which sum 2,002,902 were paid by the State, 1,131,389 fr. by the provinces, and the rest by the communes. II. Secondary Schools. 10 Athenaeums, with 3,177 scholars. 50 Government secondary schools, with 7,576 scholars. 19 Communal and provincial secondary schools subsidized by the gov- ernment, with 2,801 scholars. 1 Exclusively communal school in two divisions at Brussels, with 500 scholars. 15 Ecoks p'itronnes (schools supported in part by an annual grant from the commune.) with 1,676 scholars. Altogether 95 secondary schools, supported either entirely or in part. by 608 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIITM. the State or communes, with 15,730 scholars. Besides these, there are 35 clerical schools, 11 Jesuit schools, and 5 private schools— making a total of 146 secondary schools. The total expense for the secondary schools supported either entirely or in part by public funds, was, in 1864: 2,638.213 francs. Of this sum, 980,431 were paid by the State and province, 1,149,014 by the communes, and 508,768 were raised by school-fees. III. Superior Schook. — There are 4 universities, viz. : 3 Catholic universities, [Ghent, with four faculties, (philosophy, law. natural science, medicine,) and 417 students; Lour.ain, also with four faculties and 744 students ; Z«e(/^, with five faculties, (theology in addition to the above named,) and 417 students,] and 1 free or non-governmental university at Brmsels, with four faculties and 522 • students. In Brussels there is an academy of sciences in three divisions, (sci- ence, literature, and art) ; an observatory ; a museum of natural history, and a museum of antiquities ; the royal library, with more than 200,000 volumes and 20,000 manuscripts, and an annual budget of $12,000. The library at Ghent has 60,000 volumes; the one at Liege 64,000, and the one at Louvain 62,000. There are, besides, 17 city libraries, each with more than 25,000 volumes. There are 13 art-museums. The number of scientific societies in the provinces is very large. IV. Special Schools. 1 Superior normal school ; 5 primary normal schools. 5 Agricultural schools, viz.: 1 State agricultural college at Gembloux; 1 State horticultural institution at Yilvorde; 1 State forestry institution at Bouillon; 1 veterinary institution at Keuringhem, besides a large number of primary schools in which agriculture and horticulture are taught. 3 Schools of commerce, viz. : 1 superior school at Antwerp, besides 1 2 com- mercial schools connected with schools of secondary instruction ; 3 nav- igation schools, at Antwerp, Ostend, and Nieuport, with an aggregate of 150 pupils. 15 Industrial or technological schools, with 2,293 pupils. 68 "Workshops, with schools and courses of instruction for apprentices and workmen, having an aggregate attendance of 1,857 pupils. 1 School of arts, manufactures and mines at Liege. 1 School of engineering, manufactures and horticulture at Ghent. 1 Royal military academy, with 105 pupils; 1 cavalry school; 1 pyrotechnic school; 1 school for soldiers' children; and 10 regimental evening schools. 60 Academies and schools of art, with 236 teachers and 10,607 pupUs. 1 Institution for the deaf and dumb. 1 Institution for the blind. 3 Conservatories of music. 6 Schools for orphans. 3 Schools for juvenile criminals. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 609 8YSTE.M AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. Belgium was one of the earliest States, not only to develop the arts of desif^n and ornamentation, in reference to the wants and higher civilization of its wealth- ier and governing classes, but to extend and encourage in various ways the great interests of agriculture, manufacture, and the mechanic arts, out of which the commerce, wealth, and civilization of nations proceed. It was not, however, till the sharp competitions of international industry, caused by the introduction of labor-saving machinery, as well as higher taste and skill, into the workshops of other nations, threatened her linen weavers and industrial classes generally with utter ruin, that enlightened citizens of different towns united in voluntary associations, and the local and state governments of Belgium combined to estab- lish a thorough system, with numerous and excellent institutions of technical in- struction, varied and adapted to different localities, which have not only arrested the progress of industrial destitution at home, but enabled her manufacturers and artisans to compete again successfully in the markets of the world. These and other special institutions, established at diflferent times, may be classified as follows : I. A National Museum of Industrial Models. Designs, and productions at Brussels, and similar museums in other great centres of mechanical and manufac- turing industry. II. "Workshops for apprentices, in which instruction is given by intelligent foremen and competent professors in all the theoretical and practical details of certain industries, and particularly of weaving. III. Schools of scientific and practical instruction, under the designation of Ecoles Industriellcs, of which there are now fourteen. IV. Technical Institutions of a higher scientific aim, in which may be included the Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp ; the higher School of Mines at Hainault, and scientific departments of arts, manufactures, and mines, in the Universities of Liege and Ghent. V. Schools and government appropriations in behalf of agriculture, gardening and forestry. VI. Schools of Commerce and Navigation. VII. Galleries, Academies, and Schools of the Fine Arts, and Special Instruction in Drawing and Music. VIII. Institutions and As- sociations for the promotion of Science, Literature, and the Arts. Of several of these classes of institutions we will give a brief survey, together with an account in detail of specimens of the most important institutions, drawn mainly from official documents forwarded to this department through the prompt attention of the U. S. Minister Resident. (Mr. H. S. Sanford) at Brussels, and from the reports of the French and English Commissioners on Technical Education. I.-NATIONAL MUSEUM OF INDUSTRY. The Industrial Museum at Brussels, founded in 1826, and reorganized in 1840, embraces in its operations, (1,) a depository of apparatus for investigations in chemistry and physics, as well as models and machines for construction in every department of the arts; (2,) plans of machinery and construction of all kinds ; (3,) a technical library; (4,) a collection of periodicals, projects, and current treatises on the application of science to the industries of nations ; (5,) a chemical laboratory, where the analysis to test new inventions can be made; (6,) a school of construction drawing, where candidates who are found competent in preliminary knowledge, particularly in geometry, are instructed for two years in geometrical drawing, and in designing and copying plans and specifications of 610 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUAi. machines ; (7,) models, drawings and specimens of new furniture and utensils ; and, (8,) of any and every production which can improve the taste and skill ot workmen and the public generally, who are also reached by courses of free public lectures on physics, chemistry, mechanics, political economy, and physiology, in the winter, from 7.30 to 9 P. M. The annual expenses of the Museum of Industry amount to about 24,000 francs, and are borne by the state. Its affairs are managed by a government commission, II.— WORKSHOPS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR APPRENTICES, The workshops for apprentices in Flanders were first established about 1845', their origin being due to the depression existing in the weaving interests of the country, arising from the introduction of superior machinery in other linen-pro- ducing lands. They were intended to teach the use of the new looms to old workmen, and to train new apprentices, and also to encourage the manufacture af other cloths besides linen. There are at present 68 of these ; in 1860 there were 82, They work 1,528 looms, and are attended by 1,857 workmen and apprentices. The government granting subsidies only on the condition that the communes furnish the workshops, the latter have provided them, rented or built for the purpose. They have sent out, since their establishment, 27,373 weavers, perfectly skilled in the best methods of the trade. The period of apprenticeship lasts about a year, and the wages paid vary from 35 centimes a day, (to some of the apprentices, ) to 2 fr. 50 cent, to skilled work- men. Five per cent, is deducted from the wages and spent in providing imple- ments for the workmen, to bo used at home after the termination of the course. The expenses are borne partly by the communes, partly by the state. "Weaving establishments for women were first established at Courtrai, in 1854 : there are now several of these paying daily wages of from 1 fr. 25 c. to 2 fr. 50 c. The result of this system has been satisfactory, both as to the quality of goods produced and as to the morals and intelligence of those employed. The apprentices who frequent these shops, at the same time they learn their craft and receive wages for their work, devote at least two hours a day to primary in- struction. Expenses of WorTcshops for 1861 and 1865. Expenses for 1851. Cont'd by the State. By Provinces. By Com- munes and Bureaux de Bienfais- ance. Total. West Flanders— Ord'y expenses ga^gt «< •' /28, 788.04 13,090.76 538.75 7,220.00 1,863.00 /10,726.01 7,970.62 271.25 /12. 724.61 2,423.60 1,762.00 /■52,239.26 23 484 98 Hainault " 2,572.00 7 220 00 Expenses of inspectors - 1 863 00 Total 51,500.55 18.968.48 16,910.21 87,379.24 1 Expenses for 1865. West Flanders— Ord'y expenses.... East *' " 36,598.07 9i463.50 8,30000 2,465.60 15,718.16 4,809.04 3,900.00 17,435.03 3,517.50 69.751.26 17,490.04 Total 56,827.17 24,127.50 20,952.53 87,241.30 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 611 III.-INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. Thp present system of scientific and industrial instructioa originated in isolated schools established from 1825 to 1852, in the chief centres of industry, by the enterprise and foresight of individual manufacturers, associations of public spir- ited citizens and communal authorities, to meet the wants of different localities, and finally organized, aided and supervised by the State by general legislation in 1861. They grew out of the necessities of disordered domestic industry, which bad been in Belgium confined to the linen trade, and which had been superseded in the markets of the world by the introduction of superior mechanism and more artistic designs in other countries. The general course of instruction common to all the industrial schools comprises mathematics and mechanics, in so far as they bear upon industrial science ; linear aud ornamental drawing, physics, general and practical chemistry, varying in each school according to the industries which it is more especially intended to promote. The other heads of instruction comprise the elements of mineralogy ; technical drawing, with a special view to the manufacture of stuflFs, carpets, &c.; and to the construction of machinery, the elements of metallurgy, and the art of mining ; a theoretical and practical study of the various processes of textile manufactures, and, in some cases, the mechanism and management of steam-engines. The education given at these schools is entirely free of cost to the students, and the course of instruction varies from two to four years, but it usually occupies three ; in nearly all cases it is accompanied by participation in actual processes of manufacture, more especially of textile manufacture. The qualifications required for admission are, that the pupil be above the age of fourteen, (in a few instances of twelve,) and that he possesses that rudimentary knowledge which is to be acquired in the upper classes of the primary schools, or in the preparatory schools or evening classes which are attached for the purpose to many of the Ecoles Industrielles . Every candidate for admission has to undergo a pass examination before a board composed of the director and professors of the school, and those who fail to pass are allowed to frequent the preparatory school or evening classes, until they have acquired the necessary degree of proficiency. The examinations are both written and oral. As a general rule only male students are admitted to the schools, but girls are allowed to attend the drawing classes, and the lessons given in the use'of the sewing-machine and in photography at the school of Ghent. In Brussels there is a professional school expressly for girls, which is subsidized by the State, and there are certain of the Ateliers in Flanders where they receive both primary and technical education. All students admitted to the schools are required to undergo an examination at the end of each scholastic year, to qualify them for entering upon the course of in- struction of the ensuing year. They are also subjected to an examination on leaving the school, in presence of a jury appointed by the managing board, and such as are successful receive a certificate of capacity varying in its terms accord- ing to the degree of proficiency shown by the student. The school buildings are provided and maintained by the communal authorities. The funds required for the annual support of the schools are derived from three sources : the commune or municipality, the province, and the State. The management of each school is vested in the hands of a commission ad- (512 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. mi7nstrative, or board of management, of six or nine members, one-third of whom are appointed bj the communal council, a third by the permanent committee {deputation perma?iente) of the provincial council, and the remainder by the Min- ister of the Interior. In some instances the right of nomination is divided equally between the communal council and the government. The director, pro- fessors or teachers, and overseers of the schools, are usually appointed by the communal council, subject to the approval of the Ministry of the Interior. la some schools the appointments are made directly by the government on the rec- ommendation of the commission administrative. The members of this commis- sion, or a portion of them, vacate their seats every two or three years, but they are re-eligible. Their duties consist in regulating the internal management of the school, sul^ject to the sanction of the communal council ; in fixing the hours of instruction, and exercising, in fine, a general superintendence over the discipline and course of studies, and also in ascertaining from time to time, by personal in- spection, that the regulations are strictly carried out. The director and professors meet in council at the end of each scholastic year, and draw up a report upon the condition of the school, addressed to the com- munal council, and transmitted by the latter to the Minister of the Interior. They have no power to vary in any way the course or hours of instruction pre- scribed by the administrative commission, nor have they any concern whatever with the religion of the pupils r but they can enforce moral discipline and observ- ance of the regulations, when necessary, by the temporary and even permanent exclusion of those who infringe them. Permanent exclusion of a student must be sanctioned, however, by the administrative commission. The professors at the Ecoles Industrielles are in general selected from the Universities, or from the professional divisions of the Athenees, or public schools. They are required to have passed an examination and to have received a diplome scientifique or degree, certifying to their scholastic acquirements; others are chosen from amongst students upon whom diplomas have been conferred at the ecoles speciales attached to the State Universities, or from engineers in actual employment at industrial establishments. The classes at most of the schools are held in the evening, when the workshops are closed, and when all those employed in daily labor have leisure to attend ; in some localities, however, there are day classes, particularly on Sundays. The following table exhibits the location, date of -establishment, extent of courses of instruction, number of pupils and professors in 1866, and the general aim and character of the several institutions designated by law as Industrial Schools. It includes the Superior School of Commerce at Antwerp, and the Su- perior School of Mines at Hainaalt, which belong to the class of higher technical schools. It will be seen from the table that, including the Museum of Industry, the School of Mines and Industry at Hainault, and the Superior Instiiute of Commerce, there are fourteen industrial schools in Belgium. The fourteen industrial schools are distributed among the provinces as follows : two in West Flanders, one in East Flanders, five in Hainault, four in Liege, one in Limburg, and one in Namur. Although originally designed, in most cases, to meet a special exigency in the domestic industry of the country, the scope of all these schools has been gradually enlarged so as to prepare their pupils for a wider field of mechanical activity. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 613 Location^ ^c, of Inrlustrial Schools in Belgium. Location. r Antwerp Bruses Clir.rleroi Courtrai Ghent Hainault Huy Hasselt Seraing Liege Naihur Soignies Tournay Two Houdengs. Verviers a a . 50 — . •. -r 'S.^ .z c H = & ^ K ~ a; c ^ Co - ». r j= _• — 2 « 5 ~ z ^■~ E- 11 lSo2 2 fi.T lt!55 y 253 6 184.1 3 SL'O 6 1866 3 2o0 5 1825 4 900 12 1837 3 67 9 1838 *4 165 9 1864 3 106 1858 *4 144 / 1835 *4 153 10 1861 3 80 8 1859 2 153 7 1837 3 271 4 1864 2 153 7 1837 *3 312 8 Aim or Cliaracter. To train merchants and commercial agents. General mechanical, and industrial. Gi'neral mechanical training, with departmentfor mining. Drawing, architecture, and mechanics. Training for cliemical pursuits, mechanical arts, textile design, industrial design, photography, sewing-machine school for girls. General mechanical, and industrial, with a mining- school. General meclianical. and industrial, with special drawing section. Improvement trade school. General mrchanical, and industrial, and overseers. General mechanical, and industrial. General mechanical, and industrial. For workmen in quarries. General mechanical, and industrial, with workshops. Overseers and skilled workmen in metals and in mines. General mechanical, and industrial, with special depart- ments for weaving and drawing. Including one preparatory year. t Including director and all other teachers. The number of pupils in those schools, whose creation dates earlier than 1863, was, during the last three scholastic years, 2,293, being about 299 to each. The number of those graduating with diplomas during the same period, and in the same schools, was about 103, averaging about three for each school in each year. Subjoined is a table of expenses in francs. Expenses for 1861 and 1S65. Nature of Expenses. , Part of the State. Part of the Provinces. Part of the i'ommnnes. Total. 1861. Museum' of industry — expenses of teachers and material /24,186.66 78,566.67 5,400.00 4^000.00 /24, 186.66 143,580.00 9,400.00 9,500.00 Industrial schools and Commercial Institute— ordinary expenses The same— occasional expenses for material and scientific collections /21,000.00 /44, 013.33 4,000.00 5,500.00 Public courses, free professional schools, &c Total 112,.153.33 21,000.00 53,513.33 186,666.66 1865. Museum of Industry— expenses of teachers and material Industrial schools— ordinary ex- penses 23,727.59 105,531.05 2,700 00 5,250.00 33,600.00 84,632.17 9,300.00 4,800 00 23,727.59 223,764.12 12 000 00 Subsidies for public courses, &c... Subsidies for the improvement of the material of the adopted schools 10 050 00 Total 137,209.54 33,600.00 98,732.17 269,541.71 614 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT GHENT. The Industrial School {Ecole Industrielle) at Ghent was founded in 1825 by the Chamber of Commerce, to provide scientific and practical instruction to foremen of shops and factories, and in 1861 was united with the geometrical drawing and weaving school which had been instituted in 1852. This institution is under the management of a local committee, consisting of nine members, three representing the Chamber of Commerce, three the Communal Council, and three the government. Scientific Instruction. The course prepares the pupils for chemical and mechanical arts, and for mechanical or textile drawing and design, and extends through four years. The first year of instruction includes mathematics, descriptive geometry, linear and ornamental drawing, and book-keeping. The second year : Mathematics, physics, mechanics, drawing of machinery, and ornamental drawing. Third year : Mechanics, chemistry, spinning, weaving, the motive powers of steam, drawing and plans of machinery, ornamental drawing and composition. Fourth year: Chemical technology, dyeing, bleaching, printing, practical weav- ing, the analyzation of samples, ornamental drawing in its application to indus- try, and industrial economy. A class for steam machinery is attached to the schoolj^for the special purpose of practically instructing engineers and engine-drivers in those branches of physical and mechanical science which are necessary for the proper exercise of their calling, A class of photography, founded by the way of trial in 1861, and a drawing class for girls, and lessons on the use of sewing-machines, constitute part of the facilities of instruction. The instruction is given both in the French and Flemish languages, and the average number of students in the year is about 900. Practical Instruction. The practical instruction in the technology and designing of weaving is given in two sections or classes. The first of these classes has for its object the making of designs for carpets, paperhangings, cotton prints, foulards, shawls, laces, embroidery, and all kinds of figured and damasked stuffs. The pupil who completes his studies in it is in a position to occupy himself profitably in all the applications of the art of design to those diflFerent branches of industry. The class of technology and weaving comprises instruction in (1) all prelim- inary operations of weaving, such as winding the bobbins, preparing, mounting and rolling up the warp , (2,) the apparatus employed in these operations, for band-loom as well as for power-loom weaving; (3,) the preparations of the weft, winding on bobbins and on spools, dressing, and the necessary apparatus for this ; (4,) all the parts of the ordinary loom ; (5,) the interlacing of the threads; -j[6,) looms for plain weaving ; (T,) the little Jacquard, called the draw loom ; (8.) the Jacquard apparatus; (9,) raised weaving; (10,) the arrangement of the cards ; (11,) the setting of the patterns, and the apparatus necessary for this oper- ation ; (12,) the weaving of damasks, dimity, figured stufi", chines, velvets, &c.; (13,) the power-loom. Examples are given of calculations for the msnufacture, and the course closes by the statement of some finishing processes. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 615 When the professor thinks the pupils sufficiently advanced in their studies, he gives them specimens of stuffs to be analyzed, in order that they may describe the proper processes. A warping-frarae, a common loom for cloth, a loom for damasks, a loom for piques, a set of patterns and cards, are furnished for the use of the pupils to practise, under the guidance of a foreman and the direction of the professor. In weaving, the pupils perform all the operations, from the design to its execu- tion in the loom. They analyze and reproduce themselves in woven fabrics all kinds of specimens of stuffs, from the most simple to the most complicated. They acquire thus a complete and minute knowledge of everything relating to the pro- duction of textile fabrics ; those made by plain weaving, as well as those made by the Jacquard apparatus. Having completed their studies, the pupils are quite proficient in the dififerent branches of industrial drawing, and are able to execute on commission, and for their own profit, designs for the manufacturers. Teachers .—The teaching body consists of eight professors, including the director, and two assistants. Students by their Trades and Studies. The following is a statement of the number of students who attended the general course, as well as those who attended the special courses, during the year 1866, in- clusive of those who attended them, or part of them, without being actually entered as pupils : General course of instruction — Flemish, 522 ; general course of instruction — French, 235 ; Sunday drawing lessons, deducting those who attended other classes, 93; evening drawing lessons, deducting those who attended other classes, 108; industrial drawing, (daytime,) 8; industrial drawing, (evening,) 21; prepara- tory drawing, 23 ; weaving and spinning, 46 ; stokers' and engineers' course, 30 ; photography, 59; girls' drawing lessons, 14; lessons in the use of the sewing- machine, 118; total, 1,277. The average number of pupils registered is about 900, more than twice as many being in the Flemish as in the French classes. The trades represented in the former were, in 1866, fitters, 68 ; iron turners, 28 ; mechanics, 21 ; blacksmiths and locksmiths, 84 ; working engineers, 8 ; carpenters and cabinet-makers, 66 ; and 241 miscellaneous. In the French, artisans and clerks, 51; draughtsmen and mechanicians, 10; fitters, 2; students, 49; teachers, 5; and 124 miscellaneous. Certificates. — At the close of the course there are examinations held for the purpose of giving certificates of proficiency in various trades, the jury being com- posed of the professors, one or two members of the administrative committee of manufactures, and of officials belonging to the board of bridges and roads, or to the High School. Collections and Library. — The collections are very large, and receive annual additions of new inventions and improvements. The Industrial Museum has a collection of the series of transformations of material employed in industry. The number of models for drawing is very large. There is a museum of designs com- posed by the pupils, and of stuffs executed from these designs. There is an in- creasing library of works upon applied sciences and of periodicals. Connected with it is a reading room, which is much frequented by pupils and artisans. The books in the library are loaned. The annual cost of this school is about 28,000 francs, ($5,600,) two-thirds of 616 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. which are contributed by the government, and the remainder by the town of Ghent. The Minister of the Interior, in his report, points out the beneficial influence which this particular school has exercised upon the town of Ghent, and upon its industry in general, and also to the successful career which it has opened to so many of its pupils, who have become foremen or overseers, managers, and heads of industrial establishments. He attributes the introduction of new local indus- tries to the special education which artisan pupils have obtained at the school. TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT VERVIERS. The professional school at Verviers was created in 1862, by the union of an ordinary industrial school, which had existed since 1837, and a school of weaving and dyeing dating from 1857, both having been originated by the Chamber ot Commerce a] by the state. It possesses a corps of eight instructors and (1866) 312 pupils. The course ol instruction extends over three years, the first year being preparatory, and is so arranged that at the expiration of the three years the pupil may apply himself to mechanical art, woollen manufactures, or industrial, design. The time occupied in instruction is two or three hours in the morning of week days, Saturdays excepted ; and the branches pursued are, in the preparatory year, reading, writing, spelling, elementary arithmetic, weights and measures, linear drawing, the elements of industrial and commercial accounts, and geometrical drawing. The pupils intending to become weavers study, during the second and third years, linear drawing and weaving in all its branches, including the theory, classification, manufacture, composition and analysis of tissues and colors, their theory, contrasts, and combinations. The industrial section, or that of applied sciences, pursues during the same time outline drawing applied to engines and machines; manufactures of wood, metal, and stone; industrial apparatus and fac- tories ; shading and coloring ; arithmetic and elementary geometry, with special view to planning and surveying ; physics, mechanics, and general chemistry with manipulations. There is a distribution of prizes in October, consisting of mathematical instru- ments, books, and, for the three best graduating pupils, (one in each course.) a gold medal ; and, after passing an examination on foreign industry, a certain amount of travelling money is allowed by the Industrial Society to perfect their knowledge in their own department by observation abroad. The school is prosperous, although the pupils are often absent at work. There is the necessary supply of apparatus granted by the government. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT TOCRNAI. The Industrial School at Tournai, organized in 1837 as a school for arts and trades, was reorganized in 1860, and consists of an industrial school proper, in- tended to impart useful information on their trades to tradesmen, and of two workshops, one for weaving, and another for mechanical construction, castings, &c. There is a department for boarders. All these three establishments are independent of each other, but managed by the same committee. To the original establishment, the state, province, and commune contributed in equal proportions 75,000 francs, and several legacies have since been left for its extension. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 617 Industrial School. — The Industrial School has a corps of four teachers, and is attended (1866) by ninety-one pupils. The course extends over three years, and includes the following : First i/mr. — Arithmetic, geometry, linear drawing. Second year. — Elementary mechanics, physics, graphic drawing upon paper. Third year. — Applied mechanics, physics, chemistry, industrial drawing, manage- ment and conducting of steam-engines. The classes are held daily, from six to eight P. M. in winter, and from six to eight A. M. in summer. Pupils not sufficiently prepared have, during the first year, a morning and evening course of preparation. The apparatus for scientific instruction is sufficient. The Workshops. — These are open on all working days from half-past seven till twelve, and from half-past one till five. There were, in 1866, seventy-six pupils in both of them. The workshop for weaving is provided with all the best styles of looms of the English and French market. In this department is a machine showing the im- provements in the construction of stocking looms. This last class is open to arti- sans. A skilled mechanician was brought from Troyes to construct and repair circular looms, and sent to England to study the Paget loom. There are seven- teen pupils in the weaving shop. The workshop for mechanical construction, iron and copper founding and moulding, makes steam-engines of the highest power and most complicated ma- chinery, and machines employed in various agricultural and manufacturing opera- tions. These machines have obtained several honorable notices at various indus- trial exhibitions. There were, in 1866, fifty-three pupils in this workshop. Connected with the boarding school is a garden, where six pupils are trained in its cultivation as practical gardeners. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT SOIGNIES. The Industrial School at Soignies/6, 634 inhabitants) was instituted in 1859, originally to form good workmen in the local industry, which is mainly confined to stone-cutting. The teachers (seven) are connected with the secondary school of the town, where scientific apparatus is at the disposal of this professional school. The course of instruction embraces a review of the studies of the elementary school, the elements of geometry, physics, and mechanics, with their application to building, drawing from the round, designing, and modelling. The school has already provided a better class of intelligent and skilled work- men, who design and execute with taste the most complicated work in stone, which before was cut only by professed artists. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT COURTRAI. The Industrial School at Courtrai (a busy manufacturing town of 22,000 in- habitants, largely engaged in the linen trade) was established in 1866, by the Communal Council, with the assistance of the province and the state. The instruction, which occupies a three-years' course, with a director and five professors, and a superintendent, is given in two sections : a section of mechanical construction, and a section of the fine arts and architecture. The industrial or mechanical section comprises the drawing of arabesques, and of the figure, and the outline of machines ; arithmetic ; geometry in its applica- tion to industry ; the elements of physics, mechanics, and chemistry, and their application to the special manufactures of the town. 618 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. The scctioa of fine arts and architecture comprises the drawing of arabesques, of the figure, and of architecture ; drawing from plaster casts, from the antique, and from life; the outline of plans, and the composition of architecture ; arith- metic ; geometrj, and its application to construction ; the elements of physics and mechanics, and the application of these sciences to the knowledge of materials and of construction in general. The two first years of study, comprising linear drawing, arabesque drawing and figure drawing, arithmetic, and geometry, the elements of physics and of mechanics, are common to the two sections. The third year of study comprises — a. For the industrial section : the drawing of machinery, chemistry, and the application of scientific knowledge to the special manufactures of Courtrai, such as weaving, spinning, bleaching, dressing, dyeing, &c. h. For the section of fine arts and architecture : drawing from plaster casts, from the antique, and from life ; perspective, the drawing of plans, the composi- tion of architecture, modelling, the application of geometry, of physics, and of mechanics to the knowledge of materials and of constrnction in general. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT LIEGE. The Technical School at Liege was founded in 1825 by two societies, to train overseers of the various manufacturing establishments of the town. In 1832 it was recognized by the commercial authorities as a public institution, and in 1861 was incorporated into the state system. The course extends through three years, under a director, a professor of geom- etry and applied mechanics ; another of physics and chemistry ; a third of math- ematics ; two of the French language, of history and geography, and two of drawing, besides two in charge of a preparatory section, and a foreman over the special class of working engineers. The instruction in drawing is given in two classes. In one the pupil is occu- pied with free-hand drawing, to educate the eye, and the hand ; in the other, he practises with the drawing pen, ruler and compass. The apparatus for illustration was greatly augmented in 1864 by a special sub- sidy of 13,000 francs, granted by the town, province, and state. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF HUY. The Industrial School of Huy was established in 1838 by the municipal college for the adult workingmen of the town, and taught by its professors. Satisfied of its utility, the town in 1842, the provincial council in 1845, and the state in 1861, gave it additional aid (3,000 fr. apparatus) and assumed its supervision. The school consists of five sections, with the following studies : Preparatory Section. — The elements of arithmetic, French, the geography of Belgium, and drawing. Pupils are received in this section who have not acquired sufficient instruction at an elementary period. Lower Section. — The repetition of the elements and higher branches of arith- metic, French, the first elements of geometry and drawing. Middle Section. — The first elements of algebra, geometry, the elements of me- chanics, of physics, and chemistry, French, and drawing. Upper Section. — Chemistry, mechanics, physics, French, the history of Belgium, and drawing. The special drawing section, comprises the following subjects : 1. Linear draw- ing, so organized as to comprise the drawing of machines. 2. Principles of practical geometry, and the orders of architecture. 3. Study of ornament, from copies and from relief. 4. Study of the head from drawing. 5. Elementar;^ perspective. 6. Study of the head from the round. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 619 IV.-HIGHER TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. Belgium possesses several technical institutions of a superior grade, two of which are not to be considered as independent schools, since they consist of separate spe- cial schools, and as such form part of the universities at Liege and Ghent. These special schools were founded in 1835, and have been modified at different periods since. Their organization was materially changed in 1856, when they were all included in one common plan, and the instruction in each arranged with reference to a general system. The School of Mining and allied industries at Hainault, and the Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp belong to this class, although the latter is described in detail in another connection. There is now at both universities a two-years' preparatory course for the tech- nical department?, which, at Liege, consists of a special school for mining, a second for manufacturing, and a third for construction of machinery ; and at Ghent, of one for civil engineering, and another for manufacturing. The language used in both is the French. SCHOOL OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND MINING, AT LIEGE. Under this name, {Hcole des Arts et Manufactures et des 3Iines,) the higher tech- nical instruction at the University of Liege forms a special division. This is the more advantageous, from the fact that the lectures of the university professors — for instance, of mathematics, philosophy, mineralogy, geology, &c. — are also attended by pupils of the technical department. All the higher technical instruc- tion given here aims at educating responsible, scientific men for state service and for private industry. It consists of a preparatory department, which, for the candidates for the School for Mining, lasts two years ; for the others only one year, since for the latter the necessary studies of both yearg are combined into a one-year's course. In the department of mining, th^eis a special course of three years' length, and another for manufacturing and the construction of machinery, with a two- years' course. The complete course of study at the school of Liege is, for miners, five ; for manufacturers, four ; for machinists, three years. The following tables will make clear the somewhat complicated courses of study. The figures represent hours per week. A star denotes one term of six months. Preparatory School. First Year's Course. — Higher algebra; spherical trigonometry; analytical ge- ometry, 3; differential and integral calculus, 4; descriptive geometry, 3; element- ary philosophy, 4^; instruction in style and composition, 2*; drawing, 6. Second Tear's Course. — Elementary mechanics, 3*; analytical mechanics, 4^ ; chemistry, 4^; experiments in chemistry, 9; eleraentsof geodesy and astronomy, 4|-. Those who wish to enter the department for manufacturing or machine con- struction take a one-year's course, selected from the above studies, of descriptive geometry, elements of philosophy, mechanics, chemistry and drawing. SCHOOL OF MINING. — {^cole SpeciaU des Mines.) First Year. Sec. Year. Third Year. Industrial physics 4^* - - Application of mechanics 3 _ _ Mineralogy and geology 4* 3* - Chemical analysis 16 - - 620 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. First Year. Sec. Year. Third Year Analytical experiments - 4j - Technical chemistry - ' 4J - Mining _ 3 41 Metallurgy - 4^ 41 Architectural carpentry - ^- 4^ Laws of mining - - 1 National agriculture - - l* Designs of machinery 8 8 10 SCHOOL OP ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. This is the same as that for mining, and has also a three-years' course, with the same studies. SCHOOL OF MECHANICS. First Year. Sec. Year. Application of mechanics 3 3 Construction of machinery , 4j 4^ Chemistry 4| Carpentry - 4^ Plans for machinery 13 13 "Work in the shops 16 16 The manner of giving instruction is the same as in the French. schools. In the morning there are generally two lectures by the chief professors. These lectures are general, and the rest of the morning is devoted to a review in detail, in which the theme of the lecture is dilated upon. The whole afternoon is given to study and experiments. Work in the machine shops is considered of special importance. These technical courses are held in a spacious and pleasant building. For the lectures there are three large halls arranged as amphitheatres; for the designing of machinery and architecture there are two extensive halls. There are several class-rooms, each accommodating from 20 to 30 students, and completely fur- nished with desks, black-boards, &c. The philosophical collection is important, and contains some remnrkable appa- ratus. There are also large collections illustrating the construction of machinery, mining and architecture. The machine shops are very interesting. They are situated in a wing which was added expressly for this department to the university by the city of Liege and the province of Brabant, at a cost of 160,000 francs, ($32,000.) The shops consist of two very large rooms, which are furnished with all necessary machines, tools and apparatus, among which are to be noted a steam-engine, a planing machine, and several screws. These workshops are leased for a term of nine years to a skilful machinist, who has a salary of $800 and the use of the premises and machinery. He is bound. in return, to work constantly on large and varied machinery for the public on bis own account, and at the same time to instruct students of this branch (con- struction of machinery) in every step of all practical mechanical work. He is also obliged to furnish steam to the buildings of the technical course. The whole board of teachers consists of 12, seven of whom are regular professors-. All of these, together with many other teachers, (for recitation and drawing,) belong to the Faculte des Sciences. The professors have salaries varying from $800 to SI, 200, besides the lecture fees from the students. They have also, as members of a " faculty," all the rights and duties of professors at a university; appoint their dean, and take part in election of the rector. But as the subjects upon which SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 621 they give lectures unite to form one technical preparatory school and three special departments, there is for these technical courses a special council. It has nine members, six of whom are permanent, viz : the Royal Inspector General of Mines, the Director General of Public Instruction, the Administrator of the University, and three inspectors chosen from among the professors ; also three members chosen by the King for a term of four years, two of whom are professors and one an engineer of mines. This council superintends the interests of the school and pro- poses all necessary improvements. Only those candidates are accepted who hare passed a satisfactory examination. The examination is one on the French and Latin languages, (or, in their place, Flemish, Dutch, or English,) history and geography, arithmetic, algebra, geome- try, trigonometry, analytical and descriptive geometry, and drawing. The students pay a tuition fee of $40 in the preparatory school and $20 in the special schools. The mode of discipline and the examinations are the same as at the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Mmufacturcs of Paris. Tbe number of scholars at the technical school in Liege was, in 1862, four hundred ; 185 of these were in the preparatory school, 74 in the school for mining, 85 in the school for manufactures, 31 in the machine department, and, finally, transient auditors of various subjects, 25. SCHOOL OF EXGINBERIN&, MANUFACTURES AND ARCHITECTURE AT GHENT. {Les Ecoles annexees a la Faculte des Sciences de Ghent.) This school belongs to the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Ghent, namely, a preparatory school and a special school for civil engineering, which is wanting in Liege ; a school for manufactures, and a school for those who wish to educate themselves for teachers in mathematics or in the natural sciences. It will be sufficient here to give the course of study in the first, which has two objects : first, to educate engineers for the public service ; and, second, to educate archi- tects for private edifices. A star means one term of six months. Preparatory School. First Yearns Course. — Differential and integral calculus, 4j hours per week; higher algebra, 4^* ; analytical geometry, 4j* ; descriptive geometry, 4j ; math- ematical philosophy, 1* ; experimental philosophy, 4^^ ; history and French liiera- ture, 2. Second Year's Course. — Analytical mathematics, 4|- hours per week; stereo t- omy, Ij*; chemistry, 4^; civil constructions, 3*; elements of geodesy and as- tronomy, .^* ; elements of machines, 3* ; calculation of probabilities and politi- ca-1 arithmetic, 2*. SCHOOL FOR ENGINEERS. — {EcoU Specialc du Genie Civil.) Higher Department. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Science of constructions, (street and hydraulic construction) 3 3 3 Architecture, building of houses 3 1^ Hydraulics 1^ - - Machines, science and construction l| 3 Technical chemistry 1 _ _ Industrial philosophy _ 1 _ Mineralogy and geology 11- Business technology.- - — 1^ Technology of construction of machinery.... - - 1^ National agriculture 1 - - Administrative laws - - Ij 622 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. In the lower department, the students of the two-years' course study some of the branches of the preparatory and engiueerinc^ school, especially descriptive geometry, elementary philosophy and mechanics, elements of machines and the science of machinery, science of constructions, architecture and technology, whereby students are enabled to pass the examination for ^' overseer of con- structions." The Ecole des Arts et Manufactures has a three-years' course, iii which some of the studies of the preparatory and engineering school, especially subjects pertaining to theoretical and practical mechanics, are combined into a three years' course. The collections are as good as those of the school at Liege. There are no ma- chine shops, but the government has made an arrangement with a machine man- ufacturer, whereby the latter is paid a sum of $200 per year for instructing a certain number of students in his machine shops. All the other relations, as of scholars and teachors, are like those of the schools at Liege, but the number of pupils in both is small. SCHOOL OP MINES AT HAINAULT. The Special School of Mines at Hainault was founded in 183Y. Its aim is to impart instruction directed to the intelligent exercise of all branches of industry, especially of mining. There are eleven teachers connected with it, and about sixty- seven pupils. The course extends over three years, and occupies two hours in the morning, and two in the afternoon. The method of teaching is that adopted at the universities, the branches taught being political economy, chemistry, physics, geometry and algebra, mechanics, metallurgy, geology, the working of mines, assaying, construction, and industrial design. Conditions of admission are : the candidates must be sixteen, have a knowledge of French, arithmetic — complete, elementary algebra, geometry, and linear draw- ing. At the end of the course, certificates of capacity in special branches are given, after stringent examinations before a jury named by the permanent deputation of the provincial council, and presided over by a member of the college. In 1864, thirteen were graduated ; eight in the section for the working of mines ; four for the mechanical section ; one for the metallurgic. The annual fee for tuition is sixty francs, but it is remitted to indigent pupils. There is a large collection of minerals and a growing one of physics, chemistry, and mechani'^s. These collections are partly contributed by the professors themselves. SCHOOLS OF COMMEKCE AND NAVIGATION IN BELGIUM. SUPERIOR SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AT ANTWERP. The Superior School of Commerce was established at Antwerp, as the princi- pal seaport and commercial metropolis of Belgium, by the city council, with the concurrence of the Minister of the Interior, by a royal decree of October 29, 1852. Its object is to train competent merchants and commercial agents by supplying an acknowledged deficiency in the system of public instruction — commercial studies not being provided for in the higher classes of the primary system, or in the general or special courses of the secondary or superior schools. The course of instruction occupies two years, in addition to certain attain- ments which the candidate must already have made, or must acquire in the pre- paratory school. The branches of the preparatory school comprise the French, German, and Eng- lish languages ; history, geography, book-keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geome- try, physics, and chemistry. Subjects Taught and Staff of Teachers. The subjects taught in the institution are arranged in two divisions, as follows : Theoretical Division. — 1, general history of commerce and industry ; 2, com- mercial and industrial geography ; 3^ political economy and statistics ; 4, an ex- position of the general principles of jurisprudence ; 5, comparison of commercial and maritime law, and the principles of the laws regulating the relations of com- merce ; 6, custom laws of Belgium and other important countries ; 7, the con- struction and the fitting out of ships. Practical Division. — 1, commercial and banking affairs and book-keeping. A commercial office has been established for the fictitious carrying on of these affairs ; 2, the study of natural productions ; fabrics commercially considered ; 3, correspondence in German and English, as well as in Italian and Spanish. The staff of teachers consists of a director, eight professors, three office clerks, and two superintending masters. Course of Study for the First Year. 1. Commercial Office, {lower section.) — The length of the lessons given by the head clerk and two under clerks of the office is four hours daily. The subjects taught are as follows : fictitious negotiations carried on by a commercial house, in all kinds of business, (banking, merchandise, fitting out ships,) on its own ac- count, on commission, for part profits, &c. The application of commercial calcu- lations, and book-keeping, invoices, buying and selling accounts, accounts of expenses, current accounts, accounts for the return of merchandise, &c., opera- tions in exchange, arbitration, public funds, the entering of each transaction in books regularly and practically kept on the principle of double entry, bills of G23 624 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. exchange, contracts of association, bills of invoice, bills of lading, charter par- ties, engrossing letters, contracts of assurance, accounts for recovering assurances and for special damages, the regulations concerning great damages, &c., usages peculiar to Antwerp and to the principal foreign places, comparison of weights, measures, &c. ; correspondence in French, English, and German, on the subject of giving and receiving orders concerning the purchase and sale of merchandise, the consignment of ships and their cargoes ; balance-sheet and settling of accounts at the end of '.he year. * The profes-ors of the English and German languages have also the superin- tendence of the German and English correspondence. 2. Commercial Products. — This course is given on the specimens in the museum annexed to the institution ; three hours a week are devoted to it ; it comprises the examination and study of the produce of the mineral kingdom, of metallic and non-metallic substances, and of those belonging to the vegetable kingdom. There is a laboratory, in which the pupils are initiated into the operations of commercial chemistry. 3. Political Economy and Statistics. — This class has three hours' lessons every week ; every branch connected with the science is taught. 4. Commercial and Industrial Geography . — Three hours' lesson every week. Subjects of study, the topography and statistics of the different countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, Australia and Polynesia. These instructions, drawn from the latest consular reports and the most recent communications, touch on the following points: 1, Topographic situation; soil; mineral, vege- table, and animal kingdoms; 2, social and political State institutions, their influence on the prosperity of the country; state of the public finances, national riches, prosperity, decay, their causes ; 3, principal productions of each country ; the productions which can be procured with profit from them ; tables of their exportations ; 4, principal productions which each country requires to import; those with which Belgium especially furnishes them ; those with which she could furnish them in addition ; tables of their importations; 5, a sketch of the legisla- tive economy and customs' duties of each country ; obstacles and facilities met by commerce in them ; tastes, habits of the population with relation to commerce ; 6, detailed information concerning the principal places of commerce, their impor- tance, their manner of conducting mercantile affairs, &c.; origin and determinate causes of the commercial relations between different countries. 5. Law^ {the general principles.) — This course occupies an hour every week. 6. German. — Two hours' lesson a week. 7. English. — 'Two hours' lesson a week. 8. Spanish. — Two hours' lesson a week. 9. Italian. — Two hours' lesson a week. Course for the Second Tear. I. Commercial Office^ {higher section.) — The lessons last four hours daily. The subjects forming the object of this course are : The completion of the study of the conditions of purchase and sale, and the general usages in commercial places in different parts of the world ; formation of several sections established in different countries, and representing different commercial houses, fitting of ships, commission, assurance, banking, &c. ; importations, exportations and transits; book-keeping ; accounts ; creation, receiving and endorsing bills ; operations of the exchange; giving and receiving instructions ; the practical application of matters learned theoretically in the other classes ; disputed questions ; practical operations applying the knowledge acquired in the first course ; accounts in each section; the commercial, financial, and industrial relations to be observed with each trading country ; correspondence in French, English, German, Spanish, and Italian com- mercial advices. Besides daily information from the Exchange at Antwerp, the commercial office receives advices and journals regularly from London, from Liverpool, from New York, from Havana, from Rio Janeiro, from Valparaiso, from Sydney, from India, from China, from Odessa, from Hamburg, from Amsterdam, from Havre, kc. All this information is communicated to the pupils whom it concerns, in the original language. The professors of foreign languages superintend the letters composed in different languages. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 625 2. History of the Products of Commerce. — This course, comprising three hours' lesson in the week, relates to the following matters : continuation of the examina- tion and study of the produce of the vegetable kingdom, of the animal kingdom, and of manufactured fabrics. 3. General History of Commerce and Industry. — This course, comprising two hours' lesson a week, is divided into four periods, viz : 1, antiquity ; 2, middle ages ; 3, renaissance ; 4, modern times. 4. Commercial and Marine Laws Compared ; Principles of the Laws of Nations. — Three hours a week are devoted to this course ; it comprises a complete study of the commercial code, including the modifications it has received up to the present time, maritime law, and the law of nations in its relation to commerce. 5. Custom Regulations. — Two hours' lesson a week. 6. Ship-huilding and Fitting. — One hour's lesson a week; this class is public and gratuitous. 7. Commercial and Industrial Geography. — Three hours' lesson a week. The same subjects are taught as in the first year's course. 8. Political Economy and Statistics. — Three hours' lesson a week ; same subjects as those comprised in the first year. 9. German, [higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 10. English, {higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 11. Italian, (higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 12. Spanish, [higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. The pupils follow only one of the last two courses, at their choice. Since the commencement of the school year. 1 865-' 66, instead of four hours' lesson a week, the professors of modern languages give six hours. The method of teaching is, for the actual classes, analogous to those of the universities. The professor lays down some axioms, and enlarges on them during his lesson, leaving the pupil to make notes of the lecture. Toward the end of the term, repetitions and catechising are organized, with a view to preparing the pupils for examination. In the language classes the teaching is more personal. This is also the case in the commercial ofiBce, which, properly speaking, is only a simulated counting- house for commercial transactions. The professor of the history of the products of commerce supplements his course by several experimental lectures beyond the hours fixed for the course of studies. Repetitions of commercial arithmefic, given by one of the masters, complete the teaching of the commercial oflBce. All the courses of the institution begin between the 10th and 15th October ; they are given in French. The affairs of the commercial office are carried on in the principal modern languages. Practical lectures on the principal articles of commerce, merchandise, the opera- tion of the Exchange, may be given to the pupils of the second year, either by brokers, merchants, or other practical persons. The pupils visit, in company with the director, the principal commercial and industrial establishments of the city and its environs. The different lectures are given, morning and evening, before and after the office hours of the institution and the private offices of the merchants of Antwerp, in order to make attendance on them easy to every one. The materials for teaching comprise the necessary apparatus for chemical ex- periments, having for their object the testing of the genuineness of goods. A museum of specimens of natural and manufactured products, and a special library, are annexed to the institution. The government furnishes the exotic pro- ductions through the medium of the Belgian consuls ; the indigenous productions are obtained either from the government, or from the manufacturers or merchants of the country^ These collections will ere long become a permanent exhibition of all which is industrially and commercially interesting to the country. Pupils. Each pupil must enter himself annually on the books of the institution ; the entrance fee is 25 francs. This payment is divided among the professors and masters, in proportion to the lessons given. 626 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. The pupil on the list is allowed to be entered for the course ; this entry is general or special. The general entry to all the classes for the first year cannot be obtained by the pupils until they have passed a preparatory examination, qualifying them with the title of scholars of the first year. The fee for this entry is 200 francs. The general entrance to all the classes of the secon-d year cannot be granted to pupils until they have passed an examination on all the subjects connected with the first year's teaching, entitling them to be called pupils of the second year. The fee is 250 francs. Only half this sum is paid for each renewing of the general entrance. Persons who do not desire to pass examinations may attend one or several of the classes on the payment of forty francs ; or in case of the renewal of attendance, twenty francs. The special entrance to the commercial ofiice is 100 francs a year. This entrance is only granted to pupils previously entered with special title to at least three classes of the first or second yeat of study, not comprising the language classes. Special entrance is granted at any period of the year. No reduction of fee is made after the commencement of the courses. No certificate is required for such entrance, except in the commercial office, when the candidate is submitted to an examination before the head clerk, on the elements of book-keeping. French, the rudiments of German and English, and commercial arithmetic. The pupils entered with a special title cannot obtain a diploma on leaving the institution. JExaminations. The examinations are gratuitous. The examination of the pupils of the first year (examinations for admission) takes place once every' year, during the first week in October, before a commission appointed by the Minister of the Interior, and presided over by the director. The subjects for examination are those taught in the professional sections of colleges, and in the preparatory school annexed to the institution ; they are — I.'a composition in French, and a translation from French or Flemish into English or German. 2. General geography. 3. The elements of universal history, (ancient history, history of the middle ages, modern history.) The Minister of the Interior fixes every year, in the month of January, what portion of universal history shall form the subject of ex- amination for the October following. 4. Arithmetic and its application to commerce, the elements of algebra, and geometry. 5. The elements of book-keeping. ■ 6. The rudiments of physics and chemistry. This .programme may be modified for foreigners, especially as regards languages. The pupils who have passed their first examination in some college or academy in the kingdom are exempt from this examination, as are those who hare received the certificate of primus in the German gymnasiums, or who can give proof that they have completed their preparatory studies, always supposing that they pos- sess a tolerable knowledge of French and two other languages. The-examination of .the pupils of the second year takes place before the body of professors, united in a special commission, and presided over by the director, be- tween the 6th and 10th of August annually. The subjects for examination are namedin the programme. After the sceond year, juries, nominated by the Minister of the Interior, award to the pupils having the -requisite knowledge diplomas of proficiency; and the recipient of this diploma, if a diploma of "great distinction," is eligible for the travelling money granted. The government commissioner, in reporting on the operation of this school in .1866, states : The pupils entered, numbered 19 for the school year 1861-2, 60 for that of 1862-3, n for.that of 1863-4, and 70 for that of 1864-5. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 627 During this period of four years, 32 pupils have gone up for their final exami- nation and to obtain diplomas of proficiency, 23 passed with success, 9 were turned back; among the pupils who succeeded 13 have passed satisfactorily, 6 with distinction, 2 with great distinction, and 2 with the highest distinction. The number of pupils entered for the courses of the school year, 1865-6, reached 65, distributed as follows: First Year. — Copamercial office and correspondence, 5*7 pupils ; history and products of commerce, 37 ; political economy, 45 ; commercial geography, 39 ; law, (rudiments,) 35; German, 46; English, 53; Spanish, 36; Italian, IV. Second Year. — Commercial office and correspondence, 5Y pupils ; history of commercial products, 14; history of commerce, l"? ; commercial and maritime law, 14; customs laws, 12; foreign languages, (see 1st year ;) ship-building and fitting, 17. Of the 65 pupils entered, 38 have been entered for the general course, after ex- amination, or after furnishing proofs that they have completed their preparatory studies. The others have followed the special courses as free pupils. The examinations have yielded the following results : out of 14 pupils who en- tered themselves for the examination for promotion, 3 withdrew, and 11 were ad- mitted as pupils for the second year. Twenty-five pupils have presented themselves for admission ; 12 were admitted with certificates, 11 after examination, one was turned back, and one withdrew. In the month of August, 1866, 7 pupils underwent their final examination ; one was turned back, and 6 obtained the diploma of proficiency, viz : one with distinc- tion and honorable mention, and 5 satisfactorily. In 1864, travelling money was granted to three pupils, in order that they might complete their commercial studies in India, Mexico, and in the East, Two others obtained grants to enable them to visit Mexico and North America. In 1865, three old pupils received travelling money and the title of Consul-pupil, to enable them to complete their education abroad. SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION. There are in Belgium two schools of navigation— at Antwerp and at Ostend. Their reorganization dates from the regulation of October lY, 1833, and February 19, 1849, with slight modifications in 1857. Scholars are admitted during the first weeks of October and March every year. Instruction is made free by sti- pends, and is given all the year rouSd for at least six hours every day. The course embraces the following subjects : geometry, stereometry, trigonom- etry, nautical astronomy, navigation, meteorology, commercial sciences applied to navigation, and English. As often as possible during the year practical lessons are given on board a merchant vessel. Annual examinations are held for the scholars of both schools by an examining jury, composed of professors of the two schools, which gives certificates to successful students. These examinations are open to persons who have not attended the school, but have in some other way acquired a knowledge of navigation. The certificates of competence entitle the holder to the privilege of " captain," "lieu- tenant," and "mate," and without which these functions cannot be performed. Each school has eight whole and sixteen half stipends ; the former of 400 francs and the latter of 200 francs. The inspector, who superintends both schools, is appointed by the government ; and each school has a local board of administration. The total sum annually appropriated is 19,000 francs. The navigation school at Antwerp has four professors, and numbers 53 pupils ; that at Ostend has three professors and 68 pupils. There is a professor of navigation at Nieuport who gives instruction to a class of professional seamen, who can present themselves for examination to the jury- named above. AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. In Belgium the great leading industry of agriculture has from an early period received the attention of enterprising and public-spirited citizens, as well as the protecting aid of government. So early as 1645, the husbandry of Flanders was so far advanced that the account of it by Sir Richard Weston, published by Hartlib in London in that year, was thought to have added millions to the productive industry of England, by modifying its system of tillage; and for this timely publi- cation, Hartlib received from Cromwell a yearly pension of £100. The public aid to this great interest is now organized as follows : I. — SUPERIOR COUNCIL OP AGRICULTURE. The Superior Council of Agriculture is composed of two delegates, selected annually by each provincial commission by ballot, and of mem- bers appointed by the king. The number of the latter is not to exceed half the number of delegates from provincial commissions. The offi- cers consist of a president and two vice presidents, nominated by the king for each session, and a secretary, who keeps the records. This council gives advice on subjects submitted by the government, and discusses, from the stand-point of general interest, the wishes expressed by the provincial Commissions of- Agriculture, or proposi- tions relating to agriculture made by members of the council in the name of provincial commissions or in their own name. The subjects submitted to the investigation of the council have been, in advance, brought to the knowledge of the provincial commissions and of the members of the council. The deliberations of the council, and the documents relating thereto, are printed at the expense of the govern- ment. The members serve without pay^ but their mileage and other ex- penses, under the action of the council, are paid from the budget of the Interior Department. II. — ^PROVINCIAL COMMISSIONS OF AGRICULTURE. Each province has a Commission of Agriculture, composed of farm- ers or agriculturists, equal in number to that of agricultural districts 630 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. in the province. A veterinary surgeon of the government is also a member of the commission. No one can be a member of the provincial commission unless he is also a member of a local agricultural committee or society. The members of the provincial commissions of agriculture are ap- pointed by the king from a double list of candidates presented by the agricultural committees or societies, as nominated in a general meet- ing. The veterinary surgeon is appointed from the candidates proposed by the provincial commission. No agricultural committee or society of less than 25 members is entitled to representation in the provincial commission. One-third of the provincial commissions is renewed each year ; the members can be re-elected. The delegate of the province commission must habitually reside in the district he represents. The king appoints the president from the members of the commission ; also the secretary. The latter has no voice in the deliberations. The governor of the province, if he thinks necessary, can preside at the general meetings of the commission. III. — AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES. In every agricultural district, which has not a society of agriculture, an association is to be formed ; if a district has not a sufficient number of communes for this purpose, it must join a neighboring district. The objects of the association are : 1. To promote improvements in agriculture, approved by experience. 2. To give to the administration such information as appears useful and in the interest of agriculture. 3. To co-operate with the provincial commission of agriculture. 4. To superintend the execution of regulations in regard to provincial or national expositions of agricultural products. The association is composed of — a. The members of the commission of agriculture and the veterinary surgeons of the government residing within the territorial limits of the commune . h. An unlimited number of members from the different parts of the agricultural district. Each proprietor or farmer living in the agricultural district is ad- mitted, if he desires, unless incapacitated by civil law. The association establishes a common fund, into which an equal sum is paid by each member, fixed by resolution of a general meeting. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM, 631 This fund, together with the subsidies of the state and the province, is destined to defray — 1. Expenses of administration. 2. Expenses of fairs and expositions. 3. All expenses for the purpose of facilitating agricultural improve ments within the district. Members not paying their contributions within the first quarter of the year are excluded from the association. The association is administered by a president, vice president, secre- tary, treasurer, and a counsellor. All officers are elected by ballot for three years, and are re-eligible, one-third going out each year. In 1864 the different agricultural associations of the state included 14,315 members. Every year a distribution of prizes takes place within the association. The prizes consist of medals with the likeness of the king, numbered, or in implements of use in the district. In the general meeting of the second half of every year, the associa- tion defines the principles of competition for the next exhibition, the mode in which the prizes will be awarded for agricultural and horticul- tural products, for the best cattle, or farming instruments, &c. This programme must be approved and is generally approved by the authori- ties of the association^ that all inhabitants may have an opportunity to concur. The competition is principally for the purpose of encouraging — 1. Persons whose agricultural or horticultural establishments are kept with the greatest care, and managed on the best principles. 2. Those who have introduced essential improvements in one of the branches of agricultural industry. 3. Those who raise the handsomest and best cattle. 4 Those who have manufactured or introduced, or those who use the best instruments for farming or rural economy. 5. The artisans, masters or fellows, who by their profession benefit agricultural industry, whose intelligence, services, and deportment are regularly verified. Special juries, nominated by the officers of the association, pronounce on the merit of the competitors ; these juries must be selected from competent persons outside of the district, and cannot participate in the prizes. IV. — EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. By the organic law of July 18, I860, the state established the fol- lowing institutions for instruction in agriculture and kindred subjects : 632 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 1. An agricultural school. 2. Two practical schools of horticulture. 3. A veterinary school. 4. School of forestry. I.-STATE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT QEMBLOXJX, The agricultural school was founded at the expense of the state in G-embloux. GOURSK OF INSTRUCTION. The course of instruction embraces — 1.- — Theoretical Instruction. a. ^MraZ en^m^erm^r, comprising: elementary algebra, plane geometry, stereom- etry, surveying, levelling, linear design, the elements of mechanics, the construc- tion of farming instruments, agiicultural machines, country roads and buildings, drainage and watering. h. Physical and chemical sciences: natural philosophy, meteorology, inorganic and organic chemistry, as applied to agriculture, chemical analysis, and agricul- tural technology. c. Natural history : mineralogy, geology, botany and zoology, as applied to agriculture. d. Zootechnyy comprising the elements of anatomy and animal physiology, exterior hygiene, production, raising, improvement, and training of domestic animals. e. Cultivation, including general and special agriculture, forest culture, tree and horticulture. /. Rural and forest economy, comprehending the principles of social economy, the system of cultivation, distribution of crops, agricultural stock, theory of vegeta- bles, animals, agricultural arts, woods and forests, as belonging to rural explora- tion, land and forest administration. g. Rural laws : the elementary principles of civil law ; the decrees, regula- tions, and special laws of interest to the proprietor and farmer. h. Agricultural accounts. 2. — Practical Course. The practical course embrace the application of the preceding. a. Rural engineering : exercises in linear de.sign, surveying, mensuration, gauging of waters, plans, devices, and execution of works of drainage and watering, plans and devices of rural construction. h. Physical and chemical sciences: chemical manipulations, examination and analysis of soil, pasture, and the several products of agricultural industry ; visits to brick-works, lime-kilns, factories of drainage-tubs, starch-factories, breweries, distilleries, sugar-factories, &c. c. Natural history : herborization, excursions for geology and mineralogy. d. Zootechny : demonstrations for tlie course in anatomy and physiology ; harnessing, grooming, management of animals for the slaughter-house, of milk- cows, of working oxen, of wool-growing beasts; examination of animals for sale, visiting studs, stables, flocks, market, expositions ; sanitary visits, and attendance at veterinary operations, &c. e. Cultivation : use of implements, instruments, vehicles, machines ; prepara- tory labor of the soil, tilth, harrowing, manuring, seed, and artificial multipli- cation ; weeding, second dressing, hilling, watering, cutting of trees ; hay^ making, harvesting various crops ; mowing, thrashing, &c. : visiting special places of cultivation, gardens, forests, nurseries, and agricultural work. /. Rural economy : organization of agricultural work, and reports on explora- tions under superintendence of the pupils : estimates, plans of farming, visiting of farms, &c. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BtlLGIUM. 633 h. Agricultural accounts : keeping of books in reference to special cultivation ; openiiior, keeping and closing of accounts, balances, inventory, budget, balance- sheet, &c. For practical instruction, they have a farm, cultivated by the state, an agricul- tural and industrial establishment, under direction of the Society of Gembloux, special tracts of land for experimental cultivation, and gardens. The course of instruction embraces four years. A boarding-house is connected with the institution. 3. — Teachers. The personnel of *[.he institute consists of one director and one sub-director j- five professors, among whom one is charged with keeping the accounts of the estab- lishments, three monitors, one steward, one gardener, two overseers, and the persons necessary for the interior service. The director, appointed by the state, receives a salary of 4,000-5 000 francs. The sub-director, appointed by the state, receives a salary of 3,500-4,500 francs. The professors, '^ " " " " 3,000-4,000 " The steward, " *' " " " 2,000-2,500 " The monitors, " " " <' " 1,500-2,000 " 4 . — Supervision . A committee of five members, appointed by the state, is entrusted with the chief supervision of the agricultural institute. This committee is renewed every two years ; but the old members may be reappointed. It is their office to advise on the expenditures and accounts; to control the studies, administration and discipline. They can visit the different classes and localities ; examine the books of the director and the book-keeper ; inspect the material, the collections, and the boarding-house. Each year they report to the Minister of Interior the result of their visitations. At the close of every scholastic year the committee of supervision, the director, and the teachers meet in council, to deliberate on such improvements in the system of instruction, administration, and interior management as the experience of the year may suggest. 5. — Pupils. Pupils cannot be admitted befoi;p they are 16 years of age ; outside pupils at 18 years. They must pass a satisfactory examination, from which are exempt those who have obtained an academical degree. At the end of every year public examinations in theory and practice of agriculture take place ; and certificates are given to the pupils who have finished the three-years' course. The annual contribution for boarding pupils is 700 francs ; for outside pupils, 300 francs, paid quarterly in advance. II.-STATE PRACTICAL HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL AT VILVORDE. A practical school of horticulture has been established at Vilvorde, under the auspices of the state. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. Botanic : Anatomical elements of plants and organs of nutrition. Floriculture : cultivation of herbaceous plants. CultivaHon of kitchen vegetables, pot herbs. Horticulture : Succinct study of the parts which constitute the ligneous organi- zation, and the necessary knowledge of the functions of these parts ; general principles of multiplication of trees and shrubberies ; special cultivation of pear and apple trees. Arithmetic : fractions and problems. French and Flemish languages : Elementary grammar to syntax ; grammatical and logical analysis ; composing notes on practical work. Practical labor : Digging, clipping. 634 AGRICDLTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. III.-STATE VETERINARY SCHOOL AT CUREQHEM. The veterinary school at Cureghem is under one director and eight professors, with four monitors, an accountant, steward, clerk, and two servants. A physician, also, is attached to the school. - CONDITION OP ADMISSION. , Previous to admission, pupils are required to pass an examination in the following matters : * 1 . Frmch language : Exercises on grammar, especially syntax ; grammatical and logical analysis ; composition of a given subject, narrative or letter. 2. Arithmetic: The four rules applied to number; vulgar, decimal, and com- pound fractions ; divisibility of numbers ; periodical decimal fractions ; square and cube root; proportions; rule of three, simple and compound ; rule of interest, discount, and partnership ; alligation and mixture; progressions; metrical system. 3. Algebra : Object — explanation of signs ; reduction of similar terms ; addition and subtraction ; rule or signs of subtraction ; rule of mutiplication ; remarks on these rules ; division of monomials and of polynomials ; solution of equations with one and two quantities ; problems. 4. Geometry. — {a.) Plane: Demonstration of theorems and solution of problems contained in the first three books of Legendre; inscription of regular polygons in a circle : expression of the measure of circumference ; ar«^a of circle. (6.) Geometry of space: Definition of terms; measure of prism; truncated prism ; pyramid ; truncated pyramid ; area of cone, of truncated cone ; solidity of fone and truncated cone; area of cylinder; solidity of cylinder; area of sphere; area of zone; solidity of sphere; solidity of spheric sector; solidity of spheric segment vrith two bases ; solidity of regular polyhedron. 5. Geography : General, of Belgium ; political divisions ; provinces ; arrondisse- ments ; cantons ; communes ; cities ; population ; celebrated men ; special indus- try ; commerce ; fortified places ; sea ports ; physical constitution ; basins ; plains ; plateaux ; course of water ; rivers ; animal , vegetable and mineral products ; special products of each province ; travelling by land and water ; geographical nomenclature ; general knowledge of surrounding states ; Europe ; the parts of the world. 6. History: Detailed history of Belgium; universal history; facts connected with national history ; the period of the Francs ; feudal ; House of Burgundy, of Austria ; Spanish and German branch ; war of Spanish succession ; war of Aus- trian succession ; Marie Theresa ; Brabantine revolution ; French empire ; kingdom of Netherlands ; Belgium independent. These examinations take place once per year, and the programme is published. COURSE OP INSTRUCTION. The course of instruction embraces a term of four years, and is divided in four classes, as follows : A. First year: Natural philosophy ; chemistry; botany; descriptive anatomy of the horse ;. dissections ; principles of horse-shoeing ; herborization. B. Second year : Natural philosophy ; chemistry ; descriptive and comparative anatomy of domestic animals ; general anatomy ; physiology ; dissections ; prin- ciples of horse-shoeing ; chemical manipulations. C. Third year : Materia medica and pharmacyclynamic ; pharmacology ; pathology and general therapeutics ; pathology and special therapeutics ; patho- logical anatomy ; zootechnic farriery applied ; anatomy of regions ; operative surgery ; clinic ; practical exercises in zootechnic ; pharmaceutic manipulations. D. Fourth year: Pathology and special therapeutics; surgical pathology; obstetrics ; farriery applied ; anatomy of regions ; practical operative medicine ; legal medicine ; sanitary police ; practical exercises in zootechnic ; clinic ; phar- maceutical manipulations. Every year, at the end of the course, is held a general examination for the pur- pose of ascertaining what pupils can be admitted to the superior courses. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 635 A boarding-house is connected with the school. The degree of veterinary surgeon is bestowed upon those pupils who have passed one year in the highest class, and who pass a final examination in a satis- factor}- manner, with distinction, with great distinction, or with greatest dis- tinction. IV -FOKESTKY SCHOOL AT BOUILLON. This school was established by royal decree of April 22, 1864, at Bouillon, province of Luxemburg. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. A two-years' course embraces the following instructions : First Year. French Language : Recapitulation of syntax — principles of style, especially epistolary ; Composition : Narratives, descriptions, letters and reports. Mathematics : Review of arithmetic, rule of interest and discount; plane geome- try, measure of surfaces ; elementary algebra ; rectilinear trigonometry, levelling by square and graphometer. Natural History : Botanic — elementary organs, cells, fibres, tubes, contents, de- velopment, grouping ; Compound Organs : Anatomical structure of the stem of the dicotyledons — medul'a, sheath, wood, bark, root, leaf, bud, ramification, flower, cover, stamen, pistil. Reproduction : Fruit, grain, germ. Physiology : Structure of plants; sources of alimentation; organic principles ; inorganic principles. Immediate Principles : Neuters, superoxygens, superhydrogens, azotes. Nutrition of Vegetables : Absorption, elaboration, growing of wood, germina- tion. Nomenclature: Linne's system — natural method. Principal families of trees. Mineralogy : Mineral species ; rocks — exterior, crystallographic, and chemical qualities. Principal minerals — quartz, lime, gypsum, clay, felspar. Forest economy : Definition, subdivision, sylvaculture. Preliminaries— funda- mental principles. Elements— their action on vegetation. Soil — its composition and qualities. Cutting, dressing, measuyng, sale, qualities and defects of wood. Car- bonization, Wood for industrial purposes ; how to estimate its contents and value. Design. Second Year. French Language : Composition, elocution, style, rhetoric, poetry. Mathematics : Geometry and dimensions ; levelling by compass ; topographical levelling; elementary principles of construction of roads. Natural History : Geology — exterior and interior agent. Zoology : anatomy, physiology, classification, mammalia, birds, useful and injurious insects, fresh water fishes. Forestry Economy : Management of forest ; inventory ; special statistics ; sys- tem of exploration. Legislation and Jurisprudence : Elementary principles of political and adminis- trative laws ; forest code ; laws in regard to fishing and hunting ; commentaries ; decisions. Graphic Work: Draft by compass ; longitudinal and sectional profiles of roads, ditches, culverts, vessels, machines, plans, &c. ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS AND SCHOOLS OF DESIGN, (Compiled from Official Documents.; I. — HISTORICAL SUMMARY. To understand thoroughly any institution, it is not sufficient to know its present condition, but inquiries must be made into the causes which gave it birth, the circumstances which aided or obstructed its develop- ment, and the modifications to which it was subjected on account of changes in the customs of the time and in the wants which the institu- tion was intended to supply. In tracing the development of instruction in art in Belgium, we recognize four periods since the first art association or guild was founded at Antwerp, in the 14th century, down to the present time. Period I. — Although public institutions for promoting the science and art of design, as we now find them organized and administered, are of comparatively recent origin, associations or guilds of artists, who opened their schools under the patronage of St. Luke, existed as early as the 14th century at Venice, Florence, and Paris. At first, mem- bership was confined to persons of the same pursuit, and their exclu- sive object was to recruit their own ranks. In the 17th century they began to admit more liberally from other professions, and adopted the denomination of Academy, under which name they were established at Rome, Paris, Antwerp, Nuremberg, Berlin, and Dresden. Between the years 1711 and 1781 the movement to bring instruction in graphic and plastic art within reach of the people had extended to Padua, Bo- logne, Augsburg, Florence, Stuttgart, London, Mantua, Amsterdam, Munich, Cassel, Turin, Weimar, Bordeaux, and Frankfort. The establishment of a school and association at Antwerp was due to the efforts of the eminent painter, David Teniers, the younger, who began to agitate the matter in 1648, shortly after the foundation of that at Paris ; and the letters patent of Philip IV, which gave it the title of Royal Academy, as well as certain privileges, are dated from the month of July, 1663. These privileges consisted in eight franchises, which, carrying with them exemption from taxes, contributions, and other charges, were sold, and became a kind of subsidy from the State. The first attempt in Brussels was made in 1711 by the association of 638 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. artists, but the academy had a sickly existence until 1763, when it was adopted by the municipality. Bruges organized its school in 1720 ; Ghent, in 1750 ; Tournai, in 1757; Courtrai, in 1760; Malines, in 1771; Ath, in 1772; Oudenarde, in 1773; Liege, about 1775, and Ypres, in 1779. Generafly, these institutions were founded not by artists, but by associations of citizens. In Brussels, the corporation of tapestry-workers, painters, and sculptors, judging that a knowledge of art was indispensable to artisans of their respective professions, estab- lished a public school of design, and petitioned the magistrates to al- low them the occupancy of a room in the City Hall. In Bruges, also, a Free Academy of Painting and Architecture was erected at the expense of the corporation of painters; and this institution has pre- served its independent organization to this day. The only aid they asked from the magistrates was a suitable hall. *In Ghent, an artist- painter procured the establishment of a school of design by starting a subscription among the citizens, and soliciting from the public authori- ties the use of a public hall. The academy at Malines was established in the same way, but the academies in Tournai and Liege originated with the authorities ; in the former instance with a view to perfect the manufacture of china. The movement thus widely manifested in these enterprising cities had its inspiration in the universal demand of European society to escape from the yoke of corporations and guilds, which weighed heavily on the most important industries, and by the establishment of schools to train a larger number of real artists. The preamble of the ordinance of Marie Theresa, dated March 20, 1773, which responded to the aspirations of the most enlightened men in the province of Brabant, reads as follows : ' ' We have seen with re- gret that the liberal arts, which give so much honor to the country in which they flourish, have been confounded with the mechanical arts, and that in some cities of this province artists are obliged to become members of guilds composed mainly of workmen and artisans." The decree de- clares that painting, sculpture, engraving, and architecture are not derogatory to nobility, and that every man may freely practise these arts and dispose of their products in the market. This decree was originally applicable only to the Duchy of Brabant, to which belonged Antwerp, as well as Malines and Liraburg; but in 1773 it was extended to all the provinces of the Austrian dominion in the Netherlands. From this date academies and schools of instruction in art were mul- tiplied ; the local authorities interested themselves more and more in them, and the communes in various ways aided them, royalty doing ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM 639 but little beyond a moral patronage and sanction, which, however, was of some advantage. The character of this latter aid is easily under- stood by reading the letters patent relating to the Academy of Ghent of September 14, 177J : ** Her Majesty, desiring to encourage the re-establishment of an Academy of Design, Painting, and Architecture in the City of Ghent, as well as to promote a taste for the fine arts generally, has, with the advice of her Privy Council and the council of his Euighness the Duke Charles Alexander, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, her Lieutenant Governor and Captain General of the Netherlands, declared, and does declare : "1. That she has pleased to take said academy under her royal protection and to give it her good will. "2. That this academy can consequently be styled 'Royal Academy of Design, Painting and Architecture.' " 3. That this academy shall be regulated by the laws and statutes already decreed by the magistracy of Ghent, and that in this respect, as in all others, it remain subject to the superintendence of the said magis- tracy. " 4. That the president and directors of said academy are permitted to have engraved and make use of a special seal, after a design given in their petition, with this inscription : ' Sigillum acad. art., pict., et architect., Gliemt,'' and below, ' Renovato, anno 1770.' " 5. That they may cause to be struck at the mint of her Majesty in the city of Brussels, at the expense of the academy, the medals which this academy may require for the distribution of prizes. " 6. And, finally, her Majesty is pleased to grant to students who dis- tinguished themselves in this academy the same number and kind of prizes she has thought fit to accord to similar academies in the cities of Brussels, Antwerp, and Bruges, namely : for the first prize, a gold medal, with ring; for the second prize, a similar medal, not gold; and for the third prize, a medal not gold, and without ring. A copy of the present to be sent to the magistracy of Ghent for their information and direction." In their origin, it will be seen, the academies were neither communal nor state institutions, and were as independent of both as they could be at that time, receiving from the magistracy or the commune only the use of a hall and small subsidies towards annual expenses. From the time of Marie Theresa, the academies relinquished or were gradually deprived of their exclusive privileges, which they exchanged for certain advantages that the communes secured to them ; but the change was not effected without a struggle and protestations, as in the case of the Academy of Brussels. The pupils, in 1762, applied to the Governor General to obtain redress, as they considered, from the action of the magistracy in infringing the right of free association, to which the school owed its foundation, and which till then had never been 640 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. contested. The petitioners represent that at the request of a number of artists, the magistracy of the city had granted a room in the City Hall for the purpose of establishing an academy, the expenses of which were to be borne by the pupils ; that the latter not being able to con- tribute the whole of the expense, the magistracy, in th« year 1759, made them a grant of ten pistoles per year, continued to this day, leaving the care of all other matters, including the conduct of the pupils, to the directors elected by the members, who always made choice of an eminent artist ; that since the year 1759 the magistracy had attempted to appoint the directors of the academy, without regard to their reputation as painters, sculptors, and architects, and had nomi- nated members of their own body, who know nothing of the art of design, and are not capable of instructing young students. In view of this action of the magistracy, the petitioners unanimously requested to be allowed to retain and continue their ancient director, who was well known as one of the best artists and designers of this city ; but instead of acceding to their request, one of the city treasurers had come to the academy, ^accompanied by a director of their choice, and had ordered the petitioners to acknowledge him as director or to withdraw ; whereupon all, with few exceptions, retired, and since then the academy had been inactive. Deprived of the advantages of this academy under these circumstances, the petitioners beg for the special protection with which your Highness has always honored the arts." The magistracy of Brussels, to whom the petition was referred for their advice, recite the facts, as follows : " By resolution of September 30, 1711, the magistracy granted the request of the painters, sculptors and others, for a room in the City Hall, to be used for instruction in design ; and by another resolution, in 1712, light and fuel were granted. The students contributed towards the expense for models and other necessary things. In 1729, they asked for a grant of 100 florins, which was accorded, and in 1737 they received a present of 50 florins to celebrate their 25th anniversary. In 1737, the academy adopted, by permission, a system of regula- tions, by which the burgomasters and senior treasurer were made honorary patrons, and the appointment of five directors, citizens of Brussels by birth, provided for, one to be elected by the students on successive vacancies, one by the two patrons, and four by a plurality of votes. Five professors were to be elected at first by the seven regents. In the year 1742, the directors demanded an ordinance of discipline for the students. In 1751, the city granted annually a benefice of 100 florins as remuneration for the man serving as model and for other purposes." This statement does not justify the action of the magistracy ; but the ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 641 Privy Council, no doubt, viewing the opposition rather in the light of a students' mutiny than as an invasion of the privileges of the academic society, decided against the petitioners. This and similar transactions show much indecision in the action of the authorities towards institutions of instruction at this period. The same practice did not prevail in all places. The associations which established these schools were almost always obliged to ask for aid and protection from the communal authorities. The assembling of a great number of young men at one place in the city, generally in the evening, called for special police regulations. The permanent intervention of the state dates to the year 1771. Prior to this date, recourse was seldom had to the sovereign power till that of the commune had been tried in vain. In May, 1754, the mem- bers of the Academy of Ghent, established three or four years before, represented to the Governor General that notwithstanding a contribution of ten " escalins" per year imposed on the pupils, they had not been able to meet their expenses ; that they were in debt to the amount of 684 florins, and requested an order on the magistrates to allow them an annual subsidy of twenty pounds. The Privy Council refused the re- quest of the petitioners ; but on the application of the academy at Antwerp, a decree, June 13^ 1764, of the king, was as follows : " The efi&ciency of the Academy of Antwerp must be maintained, and conse- quently the magistracy will continue to pay in the ordinary way the annual benefice of 350 florins, with this condition, that an account be rendered of its expenditure." ' Another reason justified the intervention of the state in the estab- lishment of academies, namely : that they were considered as corpora- tions, and that the privileges of the associations were subject to previous authorizations. For instance, on the 7th of November, 1776, amateur artists were authorized to form an academy of design in the city of Tamise, under the supervision of the police and magistrates. Often the intervention of the government was limited to a simple permission to form an association for purposes of art. It must not be forgotten that liberty of association has but recently sprung up in Belgium. It is interesting to see how individual and associated action dimin- ished gradually and passed to the communal authorities, which assumed superintendence of the academies on the ground of their payment of subsidies or other benefits. At the time the Brabantine revolution broke out, there were twelve academies in Belgium, viz: at Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Tournai, Courtrai, Malines, Ath, Oudenarde, Ypres,, Liege, and Mods. G42 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. Throughout this period the aid of the authorities was very trifling, the communes doing more for the academies than the government. The latter was contented to decree the title of Royal Academy, and the right of stamping medals. The members bore the greater part of the expenses, managing economically, and each giving according to his means ; one his personal attentions, another his instructions, and those who could, money to the common work. In proportion as the government acted, this resource of the association diminished. Period II. — The Brabantine Revolution and French Occupation. — The disturbance accompaying the Brabantine revolution, the invasion of the territory by the French armies, the absorption of the provinces into the republic, the continual wars of the empire, were unfavorable to the development of schools of art. Those which existed before these events were reopened, after a longer or shorter interruption^ as soon as peace was established. Four academies were founded during the re- public: at Diest, in 1796; at Louvain, Turnhout, and Termonde, in 1800. Two owe their foundation to the empire — the Academy of Alost, in 1805, and that of Lierre in 1807. Then the power of the munici- palities was much restrained by an absolute central authority, and nothing was done contrary to the views of the government, represented by the prefect, or without its approval. Six more academies were erected about this time, principally by private donations, but dates and other circum- stances cannot now be ascertained. Period III. — Government of the Netherlands. — The principles of cen- tralization, inaugurated by the French, were maintained by the royal government, which established its authority in 1815. The fundamental. law gave to the king the organization of public instruction, to which the fine arts, as connected with the literary and scientific culture of the country, were assigned. The royal decree of April 13, 1817, declares : *'As far as possible, schools of art shall be established in all the cities of the kingdom, where the population is numerous enough to authorize them. The schools should afford to the young, and to artisans, the benefits of instruction in design. They shall, if possible, be free, the cities to furnish the buildings, and the teachers to be appointed by the magistrates, who shall provide for their supervision and support." The government took charge of the institutions, and divided their ad- ministration between the central and communal authorities, and in this transaction, at least, it did not take the lion's share. The right of ncmination alLwed to the commune was limited by the obligation to select master.- of design f om candidates who possessed certificates of ■ability — a condition exclusively in the interest of the schools. The cer- ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G43 tificates of capacity were issued by a commission of independent and en- lightened men from the fourth class of the Royal Institute and the two Royal Academies of Fine Arts (of Amsterdam and Antwerp) created by the same decree. In the decree of 1817 a classification of the different institutions was first officially announced ; those of an inferior grade were called Schools of Design, while the title of Academy was confined to establishments in larger cities where a higher range of instruction was required and could be maintained. The programme for the '* Academies of Design," besides elementary drawing, included drawing from embossments and living models, architectural drawing, and geometrical and perspective design. Two institutions were called "■ Royal Academies of Fine Arts," one of which was in Amsterdam for the northern provinces, and one at Antwerp for the southern provinces. To these two institutions a course in painting, sculpture, and engraving was assigned. Though the de- cree determines their creation, and regulates to a certain extent their or- ganization, yet it leaves to the local authorities the duties of furnishing most of the means for their support, when a system of state subsidies was at the same time inaugurated. To the '* Schools of Design" the silver medals and official testimonials were furnished ; to those of Brus- sels and Bruges an annual contribution of 2,000 florins was made. The two "Royal Academies of Fine Arts" at Antwerp and Amsterdam were more liberally treated, each receiving an annual donation of 4,000 florins, besides a stipend to support the best graduate of each at Rome. In 1819, (April 23,) M. FalciT, Minister of Public Instruction and In- dustry, issued a circular in reference to application of other institutions for subsidies : " The ficancial situation of the kingdom has not per- mitted his Majesty to grant the subsidies requested, and the minister, on the part of the king, directs the schools and academies who have solicited the aid of the government to apply to the local authorities." This shows thatthe schools in question had not at that time the charac- ter of communal establishments. Some of the academies established in the preceding centuries had preservedtheir independent constitution, and continued to be maintained by voluntary subscriptions and to be gov- erned by their own officers; such are the Academy of Bruges and the Institute of Fine Arts in Malines. The decree of April 13, 1817, assigns also prizes of 1,200 florins for the laureate pupils of the two Royal Academies to go to Italy, and which the successful competitor enjoys during four years. Article 15, of the same decree, establishes prizes for the best works of art in the annual exposition, which shall take place in one of the largest cities of the kingdom. 644 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. Besides the reorganization of existing schools, twelve new academies were erected by the government of the Netherlands : of Tirlemont, 1824; Maestricht, 1824; Menin, 1828; Renaix, 1838, and the schools at Sottegem, 1817; Nivelles, 1818; Saint Nicolas; 1818; Ostend, 1820; Grammont, ie21 ; Wetteren, 1823; Cruyshanten, 1826; Ise- ghem, 1828. The School of Design at Lierre, which existed long be- fore, was reorganized in 1817. Two of these institutes (Cruyshanten and Iseghem) have since suspended ; the Academy of Maestricht is no longer Belgian. It is not of recent date that efforts have been made to give to schools of design a more practical direction, and more in accord with the present wants of industry. This problem, which presented itself anew after the first Universal Exposition at London in 1851, had occu- pied the educators and statesmen of France and Belgium as far back as 1830. The society of which Baron Charles Dupin was president introduced lineal drawing into the Lancastrian schools, and the system of mutual teaching after the methods of Pestalozzi and Francoeur. This movement had not escaped the notice of the government of the Netherlands, and led to modifications in the organization and pro- gramme of 1817 by the royal decree of October 10, 1829 : " On the report of our Minister of the Interior of September 29 last, No. 108, by which we have been informed that the greater number of ' Schools of Design,' mentioned in articles 1 to 4 of our decree of April 13, 1817, have too exclusive a tendency to the fine arts, by which the useful arts are more or less neglected, and these schools have become of little or no benefit to the working classes," etc. The decree goes on to prescribe the study of geometrical linear design, and lays down a programme more soientifio than artistic, inasmuch as it gives great preference to geometrical drafting with instruments. Period IV. — Kingdom of Belgium. — After the revolution of 1830^ the state ^Yas filow to intervene in the management of the academies, lest it should conflict with the constitution, which ordained liberty of instruction and of association. But the subsidies were continued to the Koyal Academies at Antwerp, Brussels, and Bruges. The city of Brussels, in 1835, obtained an annual subsidy of 4,000 frcs. for its new Boyal x\cademy of Design, Sculpture, and Architecture ; Bruges and Liege obtained an annual grant of 5,000 frcs each. The Royal Academy at Antwerp, without ceasing to be a communal institution, had its subsidy increased to 25,000 frcs., and all these institutionj ac- cepted the inspection of state officials and the general programme of instruction. Under the fostering care of the government and the com- ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIU^. 645 munes, the establishments for instruction in design have steadily in- creased and improved, and all are now on a solid basis. One of the most important steps taken by government was the royal decree of No- vember, 1859, by which a Council of Improvement, consisting of twelve members, was constituted, to whom was assigned the supervis- ion and consideration of all matters of instruction in Schools and Acad- emies of Design and the Fine Arts. Of this body, the Minister of the Interior is president, and in his absence the Director- General of Fine Arts, Literature, and Science. Of all meetings, and of all subjects referred to them by the government, and of the condition of the in- struction, a report is made to the Minister annually. II. — PRESENT ORGANIZATION AND CONDITION. 1. Official Classification and Denomination. — Thirty-one schools adopt the title of Academy ; four add the word Royal, namely, those of Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Ypres; while the academies at Brussels and Antwerp are styled '* Royal Academies of Fine Arts." That of Ghent is named " Royal Academy of Design, Sculpture, and Architect- ure of the City of Ghent." Seven institutes — those of Malines, Lou- vain, Bouillon, Alost, Saint Nicolas, Mons, and Liege — are called Academies of Fine Arts. This name is properly applicable only to those of Malines and Louvain, which, besides instruction in plastic art, have a section for music. Of the institutions known as " Schools," (of which there are now twenty-seven,) some style themselves " Schools of Design ;" others, " Schools of Design and Architecture" and " Schools of Design and Modelling," while still others have taken the names of ** Communal Schools of Design," of "Communal Schools of Arts and Mechanics," or of " Fine Arts." There is also the " Institute of Fine Arts" at Malines, and the " Normal School of Arts and Design " at St. Josseten-Noode. Official reports recognize three grades: 1, Schools of Design ; 2, Academies of Design ; and, 3, Royal Acade- mies of Fine Arts. 2. Supervision. — The immediate administration of the academies and schools of design is generally confided to a special committee, which often bears the name of administrative council or commission, and is usually composed of members of the city councils or friends of art selected from the citizens. Sometimes the director or the principal teachers of the school are part of it. Often the mayor of the city is the president; but there is no uniform practice or rule. In some local- ities the commission is appointed by the Arclibishop. Two institutes, the old academy at Bruges and the Institute of Fine Arts of Maliues G46 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUa-i founded 1830, elect their own council. The association^ which main- tains a school, nominates their administrators and director. 3. Directors. — The directors of the different academies are either permanent or are elected for a certain term, or their position is of a mixed "system. The Academy of Brussels elects one director for a three years' term of ofl&ce. In Grhent, the direction is permanent, but distributed among the three principal teachers. There is a director of design, another of sculpture, and a third of architecture. 4. Fees of Admission. — Instruction is generally gratuitous. Out of fifty-nine institutions only nine charge tuition fees. In Herenthals, eight out of fifty pupils paid each six francs per year. At Nivelles, pupils pay one franc per month. At Courtrai, pupils not able to pay are taught gratuitously. In Liege, pupils pay thirty francs per year for the superior course and twenty francs for the others, in proportion to the culture required in the teacher. As the schools are purely local, it rarely happens that, with gratuitous instruction, all pupils which can be accommodated do not come from the commune. Only when there is a vacancy can strangers be admitted. 5. Revenues. — All receipts are derived from (a) the commune ; (6,) the province ; (c,) the state ; (d,') donations, foundations^ legacies ; (e,) voluntary subscriptions ; (/,) contributions of the scholars. During the year 1863 the schools and academies of design of Belgium disposed of the sum of 351,683 francs, derived from the following sources : from the commune, 263,504 francs: the province, 8,500 francs; the state, 71,625 francs; foundations, &c., 247 francs; subscriptions, 4,569 francs; contributions, 3,237 francs. These figures show the change which has taken place in these institutes. While from foundations, subscriptions, and contributions, formerly the most productive sources of income, only the small sum of 8,054 francs are derived, the public funds are now taxed with 343,629 francs. 6. Expenditures. — The expenditures of these institutions vary widely ; the Academy of Brussels costs annually 62,300 francs; that of Ant- werp, 58,500 francs; that of Liege, 43,375 francs; that of Ghent, 28,353 francs ; that of Tournai, 1.2,350 francs ; that of Bruges, 12,200 francs. Seven institutions, those of Malines, Ixelles, Louvain, Alost, Termonde, Mens and Hasselt, cost between 5,000 and 10,000 francs; seven others, at Lierre, Nivelles, Lokeren, Saint Nicolas, Soignies, Dinant and Namur, between 3,000 and 5,000 francs; and nineteen schools expend between 1,000 and 3,000 francs ; six schools between 500 and 1,000 francs, and seven which cost less than 500 francs. 7. Material Equipment. — A building, in order to answer the pur- Anr INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 647 poses of a school of design, should be spacious, well ventilated and lighted, not damp, and easily and uniformly heated. In 1864, thirty- nine buildings were reported as satisfactory in these particulars. The furniture for the various class-rooms consists of seats and tables, a few black-boards for graphic demonstrations, and wardrobes to receive and protect, the models. The system of instruction prevailing from the foundation of academies, and which employs the first years of study to drawing after engravings, has determined the kind of furniture. The three lower classes have desks, at which the pupils work standing. In classes where the drawing is from*objects in relief and from nature, the seats are generally arranged in a semi-circle and like an amphitheatre. The pupils are seated, but have no desks. Each has a map and a board resting on his knees. Often a whole class in linear drawing, when all pupils draw from one model, is disposed similarly. For architectural drawing, large and horizontal tables are deemed absolutely necessary. Models of various kinds and cost are provided, viz : (1,) engravings for instruction in drawing; (2,) models in relief, solids, ornaments, busts, figures, fragments, etc.; (3,) models of architecture. The selection of copies and models is left with each institution, within the range and with the minimum prescribed by the Council of Im- provement for each grade. The models are classified in six divisions, arranged according to the difficulty they present to the pupil. These articles range from the simple mast to the perfect statue ; from the fragment of a column to an exact model of the Parthenon and the horse of Phidias. The cost of the necessary outfit for a school of the inferior or lowest degree is 604 francs; the second class, 2,470 francs; of the first degree, 5,487 francs. These articles are procured by the government at cost. The council, in their annual report for 1864, refer with approbation to the liberality of the English government, through its Department of Art and Science, of furnishing to all schools of art the necessary and desirable models and material aids of instruction at a price below the actual cost, making the outfit of an English school of art cost less by one-half than a Belgian school of the same grade. The English gov- ernment also provides, in the Kensington Museum and Library of Art, a very valuable and almost exhaustive collection of specimens and models in every department of art, in every country, and in different stages of its development.- 8. — Museum of Models. — The example, both of England and Wur- temberg, of aiding schools of design in the acquisition of good models and a central museum, is made the subiect of a special report by the G48 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM, council to the Minister of the Interior, to which department the super- vision of these schools in Belgium belongs. The example of Wurtem- berg is thus referred to : " The collection of models in aid of instruction in design and modelling is very rich, and is, moreover, completed by a library containing the most important and expensive works on decora- tive art published in ' different countries. This museum is not only serviceable to the schools of the capital, but the objects which it contains can be sent by mail, free of charge, to the schools in the provinces. A moulder is also authorized to furnish at moderate price a copy of any article ordered. Professor Herdtle h,as designed and engraved a cata- logue of all the pieces in this museum which can be had for use in schools ; it has the title, 'Models in plaster executed for teaching tlie art of free-hand drawing, and of modelling, after models in the collec- tion of the Royal Central Institute of Industry and Commerce in Stutt- gart, hy order of the Royal Commission on Schools for the perfection of Industry.' This catalogue contains 212 articles, represented on a scale of one-tenth of actual size, with the price affixed. The first 128 articles are exclusively in the department of ornamentation. All our secondary schools of design and modelling should be provided with a similar col- lection, which can be obtained through Mr. Togmarelli, moulder, No. 15 Prince Royal street, Stuttgart. We recommend the purchase of a complete collection of models for ornamental design ; those of antique human figures can be found better in Paris." The desire expressed in this report was realized without expense, the government of Wurtemberg having' presented a copy of each of the 128 pieces of the collection. Upon recommendation of the Council of Im- provement, a copy of all ornamental models included in the list published by the English committee was also procured. Both collections are deposited in the Royal Library until a suitable hall, accessible to the public, shall be provided. The Belgian Council, also, has repeatedly expressed the desire that the government should form a collection of all models, graphic and plastic, which can be used for teaching. In its session of September 25^ 1861, the royal commission advised, "that it would be useful to establish in the Museum of Sculpture a section of middle age and renaissance," in which all original models or copies in plaster of the best statues, bas-reliefs, ornaments, tombs^ etc , of these periods, should be collected. For the schools of design four premiums are established for the best specimen of linear drawing, introductory to architectural, artistic and industrial design. 9. — Subjects and Methods of Instruction. — A uniform programme of ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G40 subjects and methods of instruction in all the schools is not attempted, the government exercising the right of approving the programme of each institution as the condition of its receiving any grant in aid. The following plan of sudies was submitted by the Council of Improvement in 1861^, and is generally followed : First Division. — Linear Drawing. — In localities where no industrial school exists, the course should include machine drawing, practical geometry, orders of architecture, ornaments from flat copies and objects, heads from flat copies. Where no other art school exists, there should be added elementary perspective heads from busts. Second Division. — Academic Drawing — Human figure, from flat copies ; heads and antique fragments from the round ; human figure from nature. Ornamental drawing — Modelling from casts of the an- tique ; modelling from nature. Architectural drawing — First course, mapping and levelling ; second course, copy of plans, elevations, and sections ; third course, design of house, elementary stereotomy, hygiene. Third Division. — Human figure from nature and the antiques. Painting — Studies and composition ; practical exercises and oral direc- tions. Sculpture — Studies and composition ; practical exercises and oral comments. Architecture — Composition ; drafting ; oral directions ; specifications ; stereotomy and legal requisitions as to buildings ; con- struction and technics. Human anatomy. Perspective — History of art and assthetics. The Council desire that the instruction given in the principal acade- mies and schools should satisfy the following demands : (1.) The programme of examination required for admission to the grand prize competition in painting_, sculpture, and engraving — per royal decree of October 10, 1850. (2.) The programme of examination for the grand prize competition in architecture — per royal decree of April 19, 1852. (3.) The programme of examination for admission as laureate to the grand prize competition in architecture. A course of engraving is not given in the plan of studies, it being left as a special and optional study in localities where the public inter- ests and tastes may require it. A class in engraving, in wood, stone, and steel, exists at Antwerp and Liege. No method of instruction is prescribed, each teacher following his own method, having by him facilities for knowing the methods of others, and* profiting by the suggestions of criticism and the results of competitive examinations. 650 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 10. Teachers. — Teachers are elected by the local administration, and the number and the qualifications of each are left to the same board. The Council of Improvement have repeatedly noticed the absence of all knowledge of method in teaching, both in its historical development and its accepted principles ; and complain of the constant reappearance of what is claimed to be improvement in teaching, and which, in real- ity, were plans long since tried and abandoned. The report of 1867 cites from an official circular of the Prussian government, issued in 1863, respecting drawing in the gymnasiums and polytechnic schools, the following passages : "As to methods of instruction, only general directions can be given. The teacher should familiarize himself with the best methods and suggestions ; but as he must finally do the work himself, and must secure the attention and stimulate the faculties of his pupils, he must have the largest liberty of method ; and even an inferior method, applied with fidelity, will yield more satisfactory results than a better method in the hands of one not familiar with its details. Every one advances slowly and insecurely under the constraint of a half-mastered method." But while in Prussia teachers in schools of art are left free as to the choice of methods, the government exacts of all candidates for appointment a stringent examination, which is con- ducted by a commission composed of professors of the Royal Acade- mies of Art at Berlin, Dusseldorf, and Koenigsberg. Among the reg- ulations of these examinations are the following : '* For admission to an examination, the candidate must furnish, (1,) a brief abstract of his previous life; (2,) certificate of his attendance on a gymnasium or polytechnic school of the first grade, to its third class, or have passed the final examination of a normal school; (3,) certifi- cate of moral character; (4,) certificate of attendance as pupil on some academy of fine arts_, or of instruction from an artist of acknowledged excellence. " The examination of the candidate in Prussia embraces the followirig particulars with pen and pencil : (a.) In free-hand drawing — (1,) head from life or cast, in outline and shaded; (2,) finished drawing in crayon of an object of ornamentation ; (3,) a study of trees or landscape. (6.) In geometrical drawing — (1,) the principles of geometrical projec- tions, solids, &c.; (2,) perspective; (3,) descriptive geometry; (4,) technics and construction of machines ; (5,) surveying and laying out. The three last points are reserved for candidates for polytechnic schools. The oral examination includes, (1,) history of art, ancient, medieval and modern; (2,) general anatomy of the human body; (3,) different methods of teaching drawing, particularly those of P. Schmidt and Dupui, and. the material aids of instruction." 11. Pupils. — Pupils are admitted into the academies and schools of design at the age of fifteen. In 31 institutions, a thorough knowledge ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 651 of matliematics and the elements of natural science are required ; in 17, reading, writing and arithmetic ; in 14, only reading and writing. If drawing were obligatory in the public primary schools, the age of ad- mission could be reduced to the age of twelve. The period of attend- ance varies from two to twelve years, with a daily attendance from one to six hours. To complete the programme of the Royal Academy at Antwerp requires 12 years, while that of six others embraces an average of eight years. In the Royal Academies of Brussels, Antwerp and Ghent, students from all parts of the world may be found; as at Antwerp, in 1863, there were 119 Germans, 10 Americans, 35 English, 5 Brazilians, 1 Scotchman, 1 Spaniard, 48 French, 505 Hollanders, 6 Italians, 1 Japanese, 1 Portuguese, 10 Russians, 4 Swedes, &c. 12. Concour ; or, Competitive Trials for Prizes. — There are three kinds of public competitions for prizes open to students in art institu- tions, viz: (1.) Local — confined to each institution; (2,) General — open to all institutions; (3,) Superior — limited to the best pupils of the highest institutions. * (1.) A local competition for prizes takes place in all the public schools of art, except six of recent origin ; in thirty-five every year, and in nineteen every two years. They begin at diflerent periods of the year and extend for varying periods, several for six weeks; in others for thirty sessions, and in none for less than twelve sessions. The judges are composed of the teachers of the institution, with artists and ama- teurs. In the larger schools, professors of the academies are called in. The prizes are medals, books on art, models, and mathematical instru- ments. The medals bear thp portrait cf the sovereign, and are of three .kinds: (1,) of silver gilt; (2,) of silver, small; (3,) of silver, large. These medals are awarded in reference to the subjects studied, to the efforts made, and to the merits of each candidate. (2.) The general competition was instituted to test the relative value of the difi"erent systems of instruction in the several academies and schools. (3.) The superior competition was inaugurated by the government of the Netherlands in 1817. Prior to that year, young artists of great promise had been aided by the sovereign, or by municipal authorities, to go to Rome to continue their studies. The artists of Liege had a special foundation for this purpose. But the royal decree of xlpril 17, 1817, provides: "Beside the medals and subsidies already granted, the state gives to each of the Academies of Fine Arts at Amsterdam and Antwerp two pensions of 1,200 florins each, for Dupils who have 652 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. attended the superior course for one year at least, and have obtained the first prize, in order to enable them to continue and complete their studies in Italy. The competition shall be opened every two years, and the successful artists shall enjoy the pension during four years ; the last semi-annual amount to be paid on his return to the kingdom." The restriction as to the place of studies has been removed, and the number of competitors has been reduced to six. The successful candi- date must give evidence of his possessing the general scientific educa- tion to enable him to profit by a residence in Italy, and he is allowed one year to enable him to acquire such knowledge. > In the space of 14 years, the successful candidate represented painting 5 times, sculpture 3 times, architecture 3 times, and engraving 3 times. 13. Statistical Summary. — The following Table exhibits the present condition of this important department of education in Belgium in 1867 : Annual Expenses. CONTHIBOTED BY — NO. OF- Provinces. 6 a S B o O i a '> p (5 Frcs. 1.300 3.200 02 t 2 1 Antwerp Francs. 74,873 00 94,575 00 30.211 .35 57.958 63 29.509 84 45.675 00 6.450 00 1^500 00 9,680 00 Francs. 43.5 00 69.855 00 22,100 00 52 ; 343 88 Francs. 29.700 00 21 .'400 Oj 5.000 CO 4^250 00 2-774 92 5,000 00 2,400 00 100 00 1,000 00 Francs. 575 00 2,"866'6o 300 00 834 92 Francs. 48 00 120 00 245 00 823 75 ].'6o6"6o '400 00 2.648 2.090 J.G64 2,539 811 514 114 91 136 34 Brabant West Flanders East Flanders 48 45 61 Hainaut. ... 24.900 00 1,000 37.575 00 J, 500 3.650 OO; 1,000 00 i 400 8,580 00 1.1 on 9? Liipsje 15 6 2 Namur 3 8,500| Total 350,432 82 263,503 88, 71,624 92 4,569 92 3,236 75 10,607 236 From this Table it appears that in the nine provinces thisre were in operation sixty institutions, located in as many diff"erent towns, for imparting instruction in the principles and practice of drawing, and its associated studies, in reference to its a3sthetic as well as its immedi- ately useful results. In these 60 academies and schools of art 236 teachers were employed in instructing 10,607 pupils in the principles of art as applied to drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, with their several applications to the principal industries of the nation. Out of 13,176 pupils registered as pupils in the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp from 1854 to 1863 the following professions were chosen: artist painters, 1,172; artisan or decorative painters, 1,470; sculptors, 1,070; architects and designers, 415; carpenters and join- ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 653 ers, 3,1" 7 ; stone and m.arble cutters, 664; painters of carriages, &c., 300; goldsmiths and carvers, 233; engravers 143; tapestry designers, 218; ship-builders and sail-makers, 247; cabinet-makers, 116; masons, 321 ; smith and mechanicians, 247 ; diverse occupations, 247 ; not known, 2,767. These special institutions were maintained in 1864 at an expense of 350,432 francs, towards which the communes (cities and villages in which located) contributed 263,603 francs; the nine provinces, 8,500 francs; the state government, 71,625 francs; permanent endowments or funds, 247 francs; citizens by voluntary subscriptions, 4,570 francs; and the pupils, in tuition fees, 3,237 francs. 14. Government Aid to Art and Science. — In addition to the pecu- niary aid and administration extended to the art institutions already described, established for the purpose of instructing young men in the principles and practice of art, the government of Belgium makes liberal appropriations, having the same objects in view, to public museums, galleries, and annual exhibitions of works of art, and to a comprehen- sive and liberal system of public instruction in science as applied to the great industries of the nation. The following items of appropriations in the budget of 1867, with a few explanatory remarks, will show the encouragement given to the fine arts by the Belgian government, amounting in that year to the Bum of §200,000:* Subsidies to young artists to assist -them in iheir studies. 14,000/. Under this head are included the yearly j)ensions granted — 1st. To the pupils of the Academy of Antwerp. 2d. To the students in architecture attached to the Royal Commission of Monuments. 3d. To the pupils of the Royal Musical Schools {Conservatoires) of Brussels and Liege. Encouragements to young artists "who have already given proofs of merit : Journeys in the country and abroad, to assist them in developing their talent; missions in the interest of the arts ; assistance to needy artists, or to the families of deceased artists, 15,000/. Encouragements to copper-plate and medal engraving : To publications rela- tive to the fine arts, subsidies, subscriptions and purchase of works of historical or archaeological interest, &c., 3o,000/. Subsidies to Musical Societies, Music Schools : To towns for the institution of grand festivals of classical music ; to societies for the encouragement of the Fine Arts, to local exhibiiions, &c., 16,000/. There are a great number of municipal or private music schools or musical societies in Belgium. The government grants them subsidies varying according * We are indebted to our Minister Re-ident at Brussels, Hon. Henky S. Sanford, for this and other official documents relative to the system of public instruction in Belfiium. 654 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. to the importance of the institution. The sum devoted to this purpose may be fixed at about 15,000/. Everj' year exhibitions of works of art are opened in the principal towns in the country. The government assists the societies which organize them by granting them subsidies to assist them in covering the expenses of these exhibitions and in purchasing works of art exhibited. Orders and purchases of works of living artists, or deceased within ten years ; subsidies to public establishments, to assist them in ordering and purchasing works of art, 100,000/. Encouragement to mural painting, with the co-operation of the towns and establishments interested, 100,000/. Subsidies to churches, for articles of religious furniture, 10,000/. Academies and schools of fine arts besides the Academy of Antwerp; council of improvement of the teaching of the arts of design, 100,000/. There are academies of fine arts and schools of design in the principal towns and localities of the kingdom. These institutions, which are placed under the patronage of the towns and subsidized by them, are each regulated by special rules. Some of the most important receive annual subsidies from the government. For instance, the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of Brussels receives annually a sub- sidy of 20,000/., 12,000/. of which are specially reserved to the school of engraving. The academies of fine arts of Ghent, Bruges, and Liege receive each a yearly grant of 5.000 francs. Moreover, the government grants them a collective subsidy, varying according to the importance of the establishment, to be distributed by the managing board between the most deserving and most needy pupils. The other academies and schools of design receive annually from the government subsidies to assist them in improving their teaching and purchasing models. Moreover, medals are distributed annually to the victorious competitors of the local contests, {coneours.) The council of improvement of the teaching of the arts of design is called upon to deliberate on the ameliorations to be introduced in said teaching. It meets in an ordinary or extraordinary session, if requisite. After each session it addresses a detailed report of its proceedings to the Minister of the Interior. Grand competitions (coneours) in musical composition, painting, sculpture, architecture, copper-plate engraving, pensions to the victors, 21,000/. Expenses connected with these grand competitions, sundries, 6,000/. A competition in musical composition takes place every two years at Brussels ; i it is open to any Belgian artist less than thirty years of age; the laureate (victor) receives, during four years, a pension of 3,500 francs to go and improve himself in his art in Germany, France, and Italy. Besides the grand prize, a second prize and an honorable mention may be granted. The second prize consists in a gold medal worth 300 francs ; this prize, as well as the honorable mention, may be divided. A competition takes place every year successively in painting, sculpture, en- graving, and architecture. It is open to any Belgian artist less than thirtj- yean^ of age. The laureate receives, during four years, a pension of 3,500 francs to travel abroad. The rules and conditions of these competitions are developed in decrees which have introduced from time to time new principles or essential modifications. ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G55 Royal Academy of Antwerp, 63,850/. The Royal Academy of Antwerp is chiefly intended to teach painting, sculp- ture, architecture, engraving, carried to the highest degree of art, as well as the sciences most necessary for the cultivation of each of these branches. It strives, moreover, to propagate the taste for the fine arts, to encourage and protect those who cultivate them, by all the means that its organization affords. Lastly, in its teaching of drawing applied to industrial arts, it endeavors to form, for certain industries, chiefs and workmen provided with acquirements ne- cessary for excelling in their professions. Considered as an administrative institution, the Academy of Antwerp has in its operations three distinct departments : The Academy, or teaching of the Fine Arts. The iMuseum of Ancient Paintings. The Academical Body and Museum of Academicians. Royal Musical Conservatoire of Brussels : Subsidy from the state, intended, with those from the province of Brabant and the city of Brussels, to cover the expenses both for salaries and material, 40,240/. This Conservatoire is instituted to give gratuitously to young persons of both sexes instruction in all the branches of the musical art. A royal decree of March 19, 1848, instituted, instead of the subsidies which were granted to the pupils of this establishment, and which had reached a figure out of proportion to the resources at the disposal of the administration of the fine arts, six entire yearly pensions [bourses] of 250 francs, and ten half pensions of 125/. each. Royal Conservatoire of Music, of Liege : Subsidy from the state, intended, with those from the province and city of Liege, to cover the expenses both for salaries and material, 40,240/. The object of this institution is th^same as that of the Conservatoire of Brussels. A royal decree of January 17, 186Y, has instituted, instead of the subsidies annually granted to the pupils, four yearly pensions of 250 francs and eight half pensions of 125 francs. Royal Museum of Painting and Sculpture, salaries, 12,425/. Material and purchases, costs of printing and sale of catalogue, 23,400/ This museum is the property of the state. The administration of this establish- ment is entrusted to a commission, charged to watch over the preservation and proper placing of the works of art forming the collection of the museum. This commission takes for that purpose all the measures it may judge necessary in the interest of the preservation of these collections. It is, moreover, charged to com- plete as much as possible the collections of ancient and modern masters. It addresses to that effect to the Minister of the Interior the propositions it may think proper. The collections of this museum are divided into two quite distinct sections, one devoted to the arts of painting and drawing, and the other to statuary. Besides the sum allotted in the budget for purchases for the benefit of the col- lections of this museum, the legislature grants extra credits, when necessary, to purchase the most remarkable works of our great masters. The sums applied to this purpose have risen as high as 100,000 and 250,000 francs. 656 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. The Wiertz Museum: Salaries of superintendent and porter; material, and cost of keeping in order, 3,500/. This museum is the property of the State. Royal Museum of Armor and Antiquities : Salaries, 8,V00y. Do. material and purchases ; cost of printing and sale of catalogue ; cost of publication of an edition illustrated with plates and vignettes of the collec- tions in the museum; creation of a sigallographical section, 19,000/. This establishment is the property of the State. The collections in this museum are divided into two sections ; the first comprises objects of every description relating to archaeology, particularly national archae- ology and ethnology ; the second section comprises fire-arms, modern oflFensivt and defensive weapons. Cost of surveillance of the Modern Museum established in the Rue Ducale, 3,600/. Cost of preservation, keeping, firing, furniture, and sundry unforseen ex- penses of said museum, 5,000/. This establishment is the property of the State. The collections of this museum are divided into two sections, viz : one reserved to painting, the other to sculpture. Monuments to the great men of Belgium : Subsidies to the towns and provinces ; medals to be consecrated to memorable events, 90,000/ In this round sum of 90,000/., 10,000/. constitute an ordinary and permanent charge, and 80,000/. an extraordinary and temporary charge, and therefore essentially varying from year to year. Subsidies to the provinces, towns, and communes, Ihe resources of which are insufficient for the restoration of public buildings, 44,000/. Subsidies for the restoration and preservation of objects of art and archasology belonging to public bodies, churches, &c.; works for keeping in repair such propertv of the State as may present an exclusively historical interest, 12,000/. Royal Commission of Monuments: Salaries, 11,200/; indemnity for mem- bers of the commission, 3.600/; travelling expenses of members of the commission, of secretary and two draftsmen, 6.000/; library, furniture, firing, printing and office expenses, purchase of instruments, 2,000/; ac- count of general sittings, indemnity to reporters and publishing expenses, 700/. This commission, created by a royal decree of June 1, 1835, is charged to give its advice to the Minister of the Interior on the subject of the restoration and preservation of civil public buildings incumbent on the Home Department, This advice is given, 1st, on the repairs required by the buildings in the king- dom remarkable for their antiquity, the remembrances they recall, or their im- portance in an artistic point of view ; 2d, on the plans relative to constructing and repairing churches and edifices destined for worship, and all other public buildings in general. This commission depends on the Home Department only for as much as concerns public monuments and buildings distinct from those of a religious character. Three architectural students are attached to the commission, each receiving a yearly pension of COO francs during four years. Preparing and publishing the bulletin of the Commissions of Art and Archae- ology, 6,000/. AET INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 657 Travelling expenses of the three commissioners of the Royal Academy of Belgium attached to the Royal Commission of Arts and Monuments, and of the corresponding members of that commission, 6,000/. National Exhibition of Fine Arts, 1866, ad memorandum. General exhibitions of fine arts are opened every three years for the productions of living Belgian and foreign artists. The direction of the exhibition is entrusted to a committee of arrangements. Two juries are appointed, the duty of the first being to decide on the admission and placing of the works of art, and that of the second to propose medals, pur- chases, and pecuniary rewards. The Jury of Rewards points out to the government, if it think proper, works of remarkable merit, which it considers worthy of being purchased by the State. A gold medal is bestowed on such artist as has given proof of eminent talent, who has not already attained this distinction at a previous exhibition. The cost of the medal may not exceed 1,000/., nor be below $200. The excess of expenses of the exhibition, including the purchase of works exhib- ited, engraving, &c., of diplomas, &c., over subscription, is met by the govern- ment. Summary. In 1867 Belgium possessed 60 academies and schools of art, in which 1,067 pupils were instructed by 236 teachers, at an expense of 350,432 francs, toward which the communes and provincial authorities contributed the sum of 272,000 francs, from a conviction of the resultant benefits to the industries of the people. Toward this sum the state appropriated 71,625 francs for the encouragement of art, as ap- plied to drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving. In addition to this sum of 350,432 francs, the large sum of 87,241 francs was contributed by the state, communes, and provinces toward the special»instruction of 1,857 young and adult workmen assembled in 68 workshops provided for this purpose, in the principles and practices of their several occupations, in all of which drawing formed an important element. To these sums must be added the further expenditure of 279,541 francs on 16 special industrial schools located in all the great centres of mechanical, mining, and commercial industry, taught by 111 professors to over 3,000 pupils. This sum does not include the cost of the higher scientific instruction in the Universities of Liege and Ghent, or of the four schools of agriculture or the three schools of navigation. In all these schools drawing receives a large share of attention. Not satisfied with this provision in special schools, friends of art, with special reference to the advancement of industry, now ask that this study be made obligatory in public schools of every grade — the elementary as well as the superior. INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. Proceedings of a Congress held at Brussels, September 21 — 23, 1868, io examine into the best methods of generalizing artistic instruction. Belgium, so early aud so faithfully and for many centuries the home and fruitful nurse of the arts, the country of Van Eyck and Rubens, has, especially since the year 1830, added many bright stars to the brilliant galaxy of artists of olden times. And as in manufactures and industry, so likewise in arts and sciences, the people, as well as the government, have nobly emulated the efforts made by other and larger countries; yea, in many respects, outstripped them, A recent proof of this zeal is furnished by the Congress of Artists and Schoolmen, held at Brussels in the month of September, 1868, which is all the more important, as the discussions of this assembly throw much light on a subject of vast and general interest, namely, the popularization and improvement of artistic instruction. By a royal resolution of March 11, 1868, it was announced that during the course of the year an exhibition would be held at Brussels of the drawings by the pupils of the academies and schools of design j- likewise of the methods, models, and instruments used in the graphic and plastic arts ; and. finally, that at the same time the directors, professors, and teachers of all these institutions, would meet, and consider the best means of furthering artistic instruction. The assembly accordingly met for the first time in the morning of Tuesday, September 21, in the large hall of the academy. Besides a great number of inspectors and teachers from Belgian academies, and of painters and sculptors, there were present delegates from various foreign countries — France, Germany, Holland, and Den- mark. The session was opened by M. Visschers, member of the Board of Mines, and president of the committee of organization, the prominent members of which were, M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry ; M. Canneel, Director of the Royal Academy of Design, Sculpture and Architecture at Ghent ; M. de Taeye. Director of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Louvain ; E. Fetis, Professor of ^Esthetics at the Academy at Brussels, Assistant Librarian at the Royal Library, and member of the '• Class of Letters;" Moreau, Professor of Perspective and Geometry at the Academy of Fine Arts at Brussels. M. Visschers, in his opening speech, clearly defined the aim of the assembly and the questions to be discussed. After briefly adverting to the general ad- vancement of industry, arts, and sciences in Belgium since 1830, he adds : " Gentlemen, you have all seen the remarkable exposition of "drawings by the pupils of our academies and our free schools. A jury composed of competent men has been commissioned to judge of these productions, and to propose to the government the distribution of suitable rewards to be given to the authors of the best works. Our duty, on the other hand, will be to examine the questions con- tained in our prograname, which may be expressed in a fe'w words : Extension of the instruction in the principles of drawing to all the primary schools ; and reorgan-'^ ization of the artistic instruction imparted in the secondary and higher schools." The subject before us to-day is inseparably interwoven with the true interests of the mass of the people, the advancement of industry, the useful and the fine arts. 658 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 659 The question is, by what means we can place in the hands of all men, particularly the workingman and mechanic, a new instrument to increase their personal capital — the power of usefulness and enjoyment." The programme was divided into two sections : the first devoted to '' elementary instruction in drawing and its application to manufactures ;^ ' the second, to " higher instruction in the arts of design, and to the general means of encouraging it." SECTION I. — ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. The first day was devoted mainly to the subject of the first section. The assembly naturally could not pass such resolutions as would be binding, but could merely discuss the subject thoroughly, and by approving some new method or system, recommend its general introduction, and clear the ground for future action. The first two questions of the 1st section were the following : 1. Since instruction in the principles of drawing in all the primary schools is considered eminently useful and desirable, what ought to be the character and conditions of this instruction? and, 2. What steps ought the government to take to accelerate and permanently improve the teaching of drawing in the primary schools ? The conclusions arrived at with regard to these two questions, after an ani- mated discussion, were the following : 1. Instruction in drawing ought certainly to be introduced into all the primary schools, and should chiefly consist in linear drawing ; and, 2. Government should take steps at once to supply, as soon as possible, the great want of drawing-masters, and assure itself of their competency by organ- izing a good system of inspection, by giving diplomas, &c. After having given the result of the debate on the first two questions of section 1, it will be interesting to notice briefly some of the suggestions of the most com- petent speakers on these important questions. One of the first speakers in this fitst section was M. Braun, Professor at the Normal School of Nivelles. He hailed that day with joy, as he now saw some prospect that his long-felt wishes would be fulfilled. With regard to the main question, he remarked : " The children that frequent our schools should learn drawing just as well as they learn writing ; they will thus acquire that ability of measuring with the eye, that precision of the hand, that clear conception and accurate execution, which, when gained at an early age, are never forgotten. By copying, imitating, and reproducing a given model, they wiFl finally create something new in their turn. The school will thus prepare them for the workshop, where, knowing the theoretical rules of drawing and their practical application, they will apply them to their special branch of industry. The chief gain lies in the increased faculty of observation indispensable to a designer, whether he draws the plan of a house, surveys some tract of land, or reproduces the human figure, or inanimate nature in a landscape. Memory herself lends powerful aid to the rational teaching of drawing, placing before our eyes, faces and views, the recollection of which has long since departed." M. Dardenne, Professor at the Middle School at Andennes, spoke next, and in a long speech developed his views of the matter, which may be briefly summed up in the following ; He recommended the establishment of special conferences of all teachers of drawing in the country for the purpose of interchanging their ideas ; the organization of expositions at certain stated times, in every town and every province ; that the school and the teacher have part of the rewards in order 6G0 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. to awaken some competition— these rewards to be more or less works of art ; to furnish the best teachers of drawing with the necessary funds for enabling them to gather new information and more expanded views bj travel ; to lay greater weight on drawing at the half-yearly examinations of the normal schools ; to establish collections of drawings and models in connection with all the cantonal libraries; finally, to admit no one to the office of drawing-master who has not, in a rigorous examination, given sufficient proof of his capability. The useful- ness of all these measures was fully recognized by the assembly, although all ac- knowledged that it would require time as well as strenuous efforts to carry some of them out. M. Desceepper, from the Academy of Lokeren, pronounced in favor of having the instruction in drawing made obligatory in the primary schools by the legis- lature, and, because as a general rule the time now spent at school was by far too short, to extend that time to the fourteenth year. The THIRD QUESTION of the 1st section comprised the following : a. AVhat are the best methods for teaching the principles of drawing? b. In how far should the use of the printed copy be extended or limited, before allowing the pupil to draw from models? c. Is it not essential to accustom the pupil from the very beginning to draw from sight, i. e., excluding ruler and compasses? d. Should not the teacher, whilst the pupil is practising the theory of light and shade, perspective, &c., give short explanations? e. What works or treatises could serve as guides in imparting the first instruc- tion in drawing? The consideration of this question, (especially a, which implies the others,) naturally the chief question of the 1st section, gave rise to long and animated dis- cussions, leading to no positive resolutions, but bringing to light the various methods followed by the different teachers, giving an opportunity to compare them and select the best. We shall give a short abstract of the most important speeches, indicating the various methods pursued. M. Paul Geliberi , painter from France, made some remarks concerning a new mode of teaching drawing, invented by himself. In order to gain time in in- struction, he has invented an instrument, which he calls the per spectomctre. This instrument is a small ruler, by means of which the pupil finds without hesitation the scientific proofs applied to the art of drawing. Based on a law of nature, the development of the visual organ, it does not allow the pupil merely to copy what he sees. Varied in its length according to the varied length of arms, it gives precise results, and can be under the imnaediate control of the master. Placed at an angle of 17 degrees it gives faultless perspective points. The ^^ perspectometre^' is not merely mechanical ; its application follows the development of the reason- ing powers ; it goes step by step from the known to the unknown, leaving the artistic development of the pupil to his own discernment, forming his judgment of proportions and distances, and giving a certain ease to his hand. M. DE Taeyb, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Louvain, gave his reasons for having the drawing after an engraved copy completely abolished : " One copies designs after different principles. I know only one, viz : linear drawing based on elementary geometry . It has been proved by all men who have observed infants, that in the beginning they do not see, but that they must be taught to see. The child's eyes must be opened, and he must be taught to dis- cover the things which surround him, and this is effected by no other means than elementary geometry. One places before the child some object and impresses its form on his mind, not by means of his seeing it, but through his reasoning powers. ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 661 If we, for instance, take a cube. Reason says to the child, 'this cube has difiFerent faces,' and makes him understand tbese faces according to their plan and elevation. This result is obtained by means of very simple instruments made of wire, and one can thus, as I can testify from my own experience, be understood by a child of five or six years of age. After a child has gained this experience, the teacher will succeed in making him comprehend the difference between the form which he has conceived in his mind and the form as it appeared to his eye. There are consequently two ways of seeing, viz : by the reasoning powers and by the eyes. The child should draw from models by means of cross-lines, and should soon get an idea of elementary perspective. In basing the system of instruction on the above-mentioned fundamental principles, the teacher will not be obliged to speak to every pupil sepacately, which in a large class will always be injurious, as those with whom the teacher is not engaged at the time find too much opportunity for being idle. It is far otherwise when the teacher can devote himself to all his pupils; at the same time the brain is exercised as well as the hands, and through a constantly intelligible mode of teaching the mostbrilliant results are obtained. " M. VON Marke thought that the reason for the little advance that was made in drawing was to be found in the circumstance that many teachers did not keep within the limits of elementary drawing, but only tried to make a fine show at the yearly expositions. They consequently let their pupils draw great heads and ornaments, the greater part of which had been touched up by themselves. As re- gards the method to be employed, he thought that there was something good in every method, but that it was entirely wrong to expect a method alone to form good draughtsmen ; if the teacher had experience and the necessary talents he could produce good results, no matter what method he employed. One ought, therefore,^ not to follow any method in a servile manner, but there ought to be in every school a series of graduated models, which the teacher could place before the pupil and give his explanations, even if he could not draw much himself. As regards the materials to be employed, he thinks they ought only to be paper and pencil, and not black-board and chalk ; there should not be any use made of rulers and compasses. The course of instruction should be arranged in the following manner : At least the first four lessons should be employed in making vertical and horizontal parallel lines: after this the pupils ought to commence drawing the ele- ments of geometry, learning at the same time the name of each figure. During the first year each pupil should, twice a month, be called up to the black-board and draw some figure which the master might ask for. He (the pupil) should at the same time give explanations of the figure, thus showing whether he has com- prehended and retained the lessons given ; after these geometrical figures, the pupil ought to commence to draw rectilinear designs ; then those composed of curved lines, thus advancing gradually to the designing of ornaments. Arrived at this degree of instruction, the pupil will be able to take up drawing after nature with advantage. He will commence by copying solids, and the professor should give the necessary explanations, viz: the elements of perspective, and the principles of light and shade. Next should follow models of very simple ornaments, gradually advancing to the more elaborate. M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry^ thought that black-board and chalk were, after all, preferable in the beginning, because in this manner of drawing the pupil had greater freedom. The point in question was to give the working- man the means of expressing his thoughts by a sketch, and to perfect the teaching of drawing in the primary schools where 99 per cent, of thepupi".>, devoted them- selves to agriculture or industrial pursuits. M. Hendricks, for many years Professor of Drawing and the Arts of Design, 66'^ ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. after being urged by many members of the assembly, consented to give an exposi- tion of his method, as follows: " I hold the opinion that in order to judge a method, one ought, above every- thing, to examine the conditions under which it has been studied, and the object which its author has in view. The system which, in the year 1861, I submitted for examination to the legislature, was intended to remedy, as far as could be done, the deplorable state of inslruction in drawing in its application to our in- dustry and the different trades which constitute the national labor, by intro- ducing into our primary and middle-class schools a system capable of accommo- dating itself to the various necessities of the different trades. I must state here that 1 have investigated everything carefully before I became aware of the evil, and found that it consisted alone in confused ideas on the part of the teachers. In my opinion this evil is not the consequence of want of talent in. those who teach ; on the contrary, many of our teachers are very competent, and by far the greater number possess undoubted talent. No ; ,the fault lies in another direction : in that too frequent and widespread mistake, that the study of the human figure . suffices, and ought to precede everything else, how inferior soever the trade may be to which the pupil intends to devote himself. There lies the mistake, and the generally acknowledged decline of our artistic teaching in its application to the various branches of our national labor, I will prove this by mentioning a few simple statistics. Upward of ten thousand pupils attend annually our various academies and schools of design, and the majority of them have practised nothing but copying the human figure from engravings or plaster casts. Now, if this ex- clusive study was sufficient, ought not our manufactures, as a general rule, to show the highest artistic taste? We all know that this is far from being the case. Nobody will deny that the study of the human figure is the basis of all purely artistic teaching ; but it may likewise be very justly remarked that several branches of art, such as the painting of landscapes, flowers, views of cities, naval scenes and many other subjects, have been cultivated to their highest degree of perfection, without their authors being able to show a profound knowledge of the study of the human figure. A great number of other less important branches of art may likewise thrive without having this study for its basis, and to the dec- orator or ornamental sculptor, the three natural kingdoms furnish a large number of other elera-ents which are just as indispensable for him. The foundation of his whole art lies more than anywhere else in the study of the various phenomena presented by the vegetable kingdom, from whose inexhaustible sources he from time immemorial has drawn the ideas for his most beautiful creations, and his happiest applications to useful objects, as well as for the architectural designs which antiquity has bequeathed to us. "I now conclude, from what I have said before, that if a limited study of the human figure has been sufficient for the manifestation of the various branches of art which I have just enumerated, other still less important studies may even be dispensed with altogether, especially by pupils intending to enter trade,, which only borrows from art the application of the elements which geometry furnishes, or those which are found in the most beautiful architectural combinations ; and I conclude from this^ that if we wish to give back their old renown to all the branches of our national labor, the only way to do it is to apply to them a system of teaching corresponding to their wants, and to divide the instruction in accordance wiih the way in which the branches of public instruction are sub- divided. This I have tried to do for several years by applying experimentally a method deduced from the preceding considerations. I do not pretend to say that this method is perfect; on the contrary, I have, in every new edition, added some new improvements gained by experience. I do not claim, either, that my method is the only one to be recommended for' introduction into our schools. I am too much in favor of true progress to make such a demand ; but what I demand as the sole reward for my efforts and personal sacrifices is this : that a free trial of my method be made without being trammelled by government interference, and that the same privilege be given to the author of every method. According to my idea, all constitutive teaching of drawing ought to be elementary ; should take as its foundation geometry, and make the elements of this science subservient to the analysis of artistic forms in such a manner that they are not only an inani- mate instrument, but, on the contrary, a means by which the pupil can himself ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 660 control and appreciate his work. Every method, then, must be rational, positive, and nbt leave room for doubt in the pupil's mind. This is the idea which has served me as a starting point in making out the method which I am about to lay before you. I have arranged it in such a manner that the pupil is at once enabled to appreciate the peculiarities of the most complicated forms, using simpler forms with which he already has been made familiar." The division of studies is briefly given as follows : ** First Degree of Teaching. — These studies' consist in the free-hand drawing of forms and figures in general, geometrically represented. Before letting the pupil re- produce a copy of the smallest object, we exercise his eyes and his hands in using elementary figures, which allow him to understand gradually their relative pro- portions; their characteristic combination, {ensemble;) their particular form; and, finally, all their details. On the thorough pratice of these preliminary ex- ercises depend the immediate and complete results in the reproduction of forms and figures. " The pupil, knowing how to construct (by free-band drawing) a perfect square, and rectangular figures of all dimensions, will gradually apply the generic_ geomet- rical figures which he has been taught ; this knowledge practically acquired will enable him to understand immediately the characteristic combination of the object presented to him, to analyze all its outlines, and reproduce them in all their rela- tive dimensions. Twent}^ lessons have been sufficient for adults to reproduce successively, and in a very complete manner, the most complicated figures, not excepting even the human figure. The pupil .making these studies on a large scale, on a picture placed vertically, acquires a firmness of the hand and a correct- ness of the eyesight which have astonished many an artist, and is consequently prepared to enter upon the practical part of the special branch to which he devotes himself. " Second Degree of Teaching. — Solids ; their construction and their study. — As in the first degree of teaching, we also here, before letting the pupil copy from some figure, give him the means of understanding the form and the way in which it is composed. We commence by making him understand the construction of elementary fioures. He learns first of all the construction of the cube and its difierent rectangular divisions, and, next, to place it in all the positions possible. If he has once acquired this foundation, he successively refers to it all the generic forms, the combinations of which he makes in the various positions which the professor prescribes ; he proves by this that he can see in the space, and that he possesses a correct knowledge of tb^ principal parts of which any figure is com- posed. Arrived at this point of his studies, he undertakes the construction of more developed figures at the same time studying the various elements of orna- mentsln their second degree. He represents, on an even surface, what a moulder represents by his mould. He sees solid forms, and he will soon be able to express his thoughts in drawing, building, &c., forms which constitute the object of his special study. 'Third Degree of Teaching. — Drawing after objects or figures placed at some rfzsto^c^.— It is indispensable here, that at the very outset the pupil should become thoroughly familiar with the rules of perspective; but simple and easy as they are in their application to the whole figure, just as difficult and tedious do they become in their regular application to the construction of every single ^ar^ of an object. In recommending the study of the rules of this science, we do not mean the rigorous application of these rules to the elevations on the profiles of the thousand different points of a capital (of a pillar) or other architectural ornaments ; we will leave this to those men who study science for its own sake ; what we want is this, that the pupil learn to know the construction of the objects which he has to represent, that then he may learn to give to all the details of this object their proper perspective position. The same would also apply to the study of light and shade. " Any pupil who is in earnest, and has thus been prepared by the elementary and analytical study of the three degrees of our method, will be able in less than a year to copy any object placed before him, and do it successfully. Thus does the^rs^ degree comprise the study of forms, geometrically represented, and the means of reproducing them in all their just proportions, whilst the second and third degrees have for their aim the initiation of the pupil in the construction and reproduction 664 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. of forms and figures such as they present themselves in space. In order to sum up briefly what I have said, I would offer the following resolutions for the con- sideration of the government and all persons interested in the cause of artistic instruction : "The teaching of drawing should be divided into three degrees, corresponding to the three degrees of public instruction. " The first degree, limited to geometrical drawing, should embrace all the pro- fessional or artistic applications which are connected with this part of drawing. The elementary study of this first part of instruction in drawing should be made obligatory in all the primary schools, and frequent inspections by artists should be held. " The second degree should comprise the study of drawing from figures in th( space and its manifold applications to art and industry. The academies of th( second and third order, transformed into special schools for art applied to in- dustry, would devote themselves chiefly to this part of instruction in drawing. Every school should have the free choice of the method of teaching, and the studies which would have a bearing on the manufactures carried on in the vicinity. From time to time provincial and general expositions should be held by these schools, and equitable rewards given to the best. " The third degree, the realm of pure art, which requires as much of innate genius as of science, should be confined to two or three academies of the fine arts, placed in the most populous cities These academies only should give ' artistic ' instruction, properly so called." M. Hendricks closed by inviting the members of the assembly to accompany him some day to the Exposition, where he would show them the practical working of his system; which invitation was accepted. M. PiRON, Director of the Norm^d School at Carlshourg, further developed the system of M. Hendricks, which he has introduced into his school, and adds that he would like to see instruction in drawing introduced in the normal schools like- wise, and to make a difference, in the method and extent, between town and country schools. M. DE Taeye followed in a speech more or less opposing the system of M. Hen- dricks. He says : "The chief point is, to establish positive principles, on which to build up all instruction in drawing; whatever maybe the method, there is only one art of drawing. Experience teaches us, that, as a general rule, young people commence the study of drawing at a time when they are still far from a choice of employ- ment for life. Two intellectual currents ought therefore, I think, to be brought to bear on every given number of pupils : one for those with whom imagination pre- dominates ; the other, for those positive minds which are more inclined towards mathematical exactitude. In order to show the necessity of this division of studies, let us examine what is understood by drawing, and let us analyze its elements. '• Drawing is a language like writing. Reading, i. e., seeing written signs, creates ideas and sentiments. The same result should be produced by drawing, which originally formed part of writing, and is inseparably connected with it in the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Writing finds its expression in certain conventional figures ; drawing, by imitating natural forms ; drawing is therefore the represen- tation of the real or apparent forms of things, by means of lines traced on an even surface. " He who knows how to draw possesses likewise in a particular degree the faculty to express every conception of the mind, and thus to make his thoughts, his sentiments, intelligible to all. From this we conclude that all instruction in drawing ought to have for its aim the imitation of the real or apparent forms of objects. What, then, is required to reach this end? Above everything, an exact ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 665 knowledge, a clear geometrical conception of the form which one wishes to rep- resent; for what is firmly and thoroughly conceived by the mind is easily exe- cuted by the hand. The true form of every object keeps within the limits of geometry ; in fact, when we analyze the various objects which nature presents, we discover that all their forms belong to geometry. Geometry, therefore, is the fundamental principle of drawing — the touchstone of every good method ; and where this fundamental element is wanting, the teaching will be vacillating and based entirely on imagination. We may here, for safety, establish this principle: the elementary study of every kind of drawing must necessarily be based on geometrical forms, only we shall see that in putting it into practice it is indispen- sable to pursue two different ways. By geometrical drawing, one arrives at an exact, precise and mathematical representation of the object, taking note of its length, breadth, etc. Thus the mind gets a complete knowledge of its real form, and is ena- bled to make the most detailed analysis ; whi 1st by drawing from sight one only takes note of the apparent form of the object, according to the point of view from which one considers it, without being able to arrive at an analysis of its real form. The first way of drawing obtains its results by means of instruments, such as ruler and compasses, whilst the second relies substantially on the exercise of the eye and the practice of the hand. I believe, therefore, that a combination of these two methods is an absolute necessity in order to constitute a complete and ra- tional system of teaching which satisfies the demands of imagination and of reason." In confirmation of these ideas, the speaker quoted several authors and artists' words. He then continued: ''It is therefore clear that geometrical drawing should form the beginning with every pupil, without distinction, and only after having fully mastered this branch of study should he be allowed to proceed to the study of drawing from plaster casts or nature. The advantage of following this system is incontestable ; it leads the pupil gradually by oral and graphic demonstrations from simple to composite forms, developing simultaneously his intelligence and the practice of his hand. The result of this rational mode of teaching is, that the pupil quickly acquires that accuracy of the eyesight and that faculty of judging of proportions which alone make a correct draughtsman. Another great advantage is this : that later, when the pupil is to study the scien- tific demonstration of descriptive geometry, he will find this very easy, for he knows already the name, the form, and definitions of figures, and more than that, he knows how to draw them ; even the solids, that part of geometry frequently found 60 difficult, do not puzzle him, for he has already drawn them from nature. Another advantage is this : that the pupil is freed from drawing after an engraved copy, which now-a-days very generally has been acknowledged is one of the greatest obstacles in the way of learning to draw, for not only does he not learn to ' see' things as they are, but the poor copies which one generally finds in our Bchools only tend to depress the taste of our pupils, who thus lose their precious time in imitating these copies with their cross-lines of shade or their dotted lines; I may well say that the great majority of pupils, after having lost five or six years in drawing noses, mouths, and at last heads, finally give up the study of drawing from mere disgust." The speaker believed that it would be utterly im- possible, as M. Hendricks asserted, to teach drawing of ornaments and the human figure in 20 lessons. M. LouvRiBR DB Lajolais thought that as art was " one," so the teaching of art ought likewise only to be " one;'' that the teaching should rest on these funda- 666 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. mental points : the choice of a method appropriate to the age of the pupils; the time they can devote to this study, and the degree of education which onght to be required from the teachers. The method should consist, naturally, in the study of the practical means of producing on an even surface the image of a solid ; suf- ficient time should be devoted to the study of drawing ; and the teachers ought to be thoroughly versed in the principles of free-hand drawing and mathematics, and should also have gone through a course of simple aesthetics. Several others spoke very much to the same purpose, and the discussion on this point was closed. The FOURTH QUESTION of the 1st section comprised the following : a. In order to favor the study of drawing, and to answer the wants of modern industry, industrial schools and academies of design have been established. What, therefore; is, from the industrial stand-point, the species of drawing that should be taught there? h.- Should there not be, on a smaller or larger scale, according to circum- stances, museums of works of art to serve as models near all such schools? c. What European institutions set, in this respect, the best example? From the somewhat rambling debates on this question, leading to no positive results, we select some of the most important suggestions. M. PiRON, Director of the Normal School at Carlshourg, drew attention to the great difference existing between the schools in cities and in the country. He Baid : '' The cities have all the resources, while the country has none ; and if our programme speaks of the introduction of teaching of drawing in the primary schools, this means the country as well as the city. What now are the elements in the country to assist the teacher in imparting his instruction in drawing ? There are none. One would seek in vain in all our country schools for a single model. Everything is wanting there. If, therefore, museums are to be founded in our cities, they are an absolute necessity in the country ; of course not on that large scale, but even the smallest school in the country should be provided with a collection of drawing copies, and, perhaps, a few models." M. Piron strongly recommended annual or semi-annual expositions of the drawings produced in all the schools to give a new impetus to the cause, and produce a spirit of emulation among the tearhers. M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry^ made a speech, in which, after having dwelt on the general importance of industrial schools, he remarked; "The kind of drawing-instruction imparted in the industrial schools can very well exist by the si^e of the academies. A professor may be able to teach drawing, but he cannot give to his pupils artistic taste. One must have seen a great many objects of art to acquire a correct artistic taste; taste is the recollection of the beautiful. Do not believe that the professors in our smaller towns are able to teach their pupils in such a manner as to acquire taste. One way of greatly aiding the pro- fessors in imparting instruction would be to give to objects which are continually before the eyes of all, such as a pump, lamp-post, balcony, etc., an artistic form, and thus to cultivate the artistic taste of the working classes. Brussels, and some of our larger cities, have a great many such public objects of art ; but more might be done in this direction in many of our smaller towns, thus aiding the professors of drawing in imparting instruction." M. C. BuLS, Secretary of the \st Section^ spoke against the opinion expressed by some of the former speakers, especially M. Louvrier de Lajolais' assertion, that art was "one." He says : " No ; art is not ' one; ' but every nation has its owa ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 667 Idea of the beautiful, which idea finds its expression in the diflFerent arts — different because thej are based not only on diflFerent, but thoroughly antagonistic princi- ples ; as, for instance, Greek and Gothic art. I understand why one of the pre- ceding speakers maintains that there is no other way to real art than through the study of Greek and Roman art. It is because he belongs to a nation which hag much aflEinity with the civilization of Greece and Rome. But we, who belong to the Germanic race, ought certainly not to be obliged to pass through the '■furculce. caudince ' of Greek and Roman art. Our ancestors, who have raised the glorious cathedrals and other public buildings, of which we are justly proud, were they inspired by the Greeks and Romans ? No. Maintaining the unity of art kills all national art. Art is the most elevated expression of a nation's life, and the arta of the different nations differ as much as their customs, religion and civilization. The nation, then, gives its character to art. Academies will never create any great artistic development. This is only produced when all the conditions required for producing it centre in one period. It is not correct to say that art alone has an influence on industry, for industry, in its turn, exercises a very marked influ- ence on art. The architect cannot merely trust himself to the aspirations of hia imagination, but must have regard to the requirements of construction. The architecture of the eighteenth century, with its broken pediments, its curved architraves," its twisted columns, mistaking the essential conditions of all rational construction, has shown what art comes to when it leaves its rational basis. It is not true to say that great art is sufificient to give to an architect the knowledge which we wish to give to the pupils of the industrial schools. If such were the case, we would not see sculptors obliged having recourse to the aid of an orna- ment-maker when they wish to crown one of their statues with flowers. I maintain, in fact, that the majority of painters are not able to design the frames of their paintings. I have seen with my own eyes in the workshop of an ornament-maker the formless sketches which architects, and architects of renown, have furnished for consoles, mouldings, ornaments of edifices, for which they had drawn the plans, which have thrown much light on their talent for drawing. " It would not be difiicult to quote the names of a considerable number of work- ingmen, who, coming from the workshops of jewellers, blacksmiths, and potters, have risen to the rank of sculptors and painters, such as Palissy, Quentin Matsys, Ghirlandajo Francia, &c. In every age there is a ruling tendency in art, and the painters, the sculptors, the musicians, poets, &c., express in their works the ideal at which the period aims. But below these, I might say along-side of them, there is a host of satellites, who, revolving in the same orbit, form small groups, with an independent life of their own. They are as much active centres of in- vention, and it is not in accordance with truth to say that they shine merely with a borrowed light. Any one who is acquainted with workshops knows that there is no lack of workingmen endowed with a certain artistic education; men who every day invent new combinations, reflecting the general character of art. In short, I claim the introduction into the academies of design of a course of applied archeology and aesthetics. If any one should doubt the possibility of ren- dering these sciences popular, we can produce conclusive evidence of this having been done in a satisfactory manner. Such a course would also give to the people some general notions of history, initiate them into the character of the great civilizations which have preceded ours, and cultivate their minds in many ways. How often has the varied culture of the artists of the renaissance been spoken of 668 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. with admiration ! men who were at one and the same time painters, sculptors, architects, jewellers, engmeers, musicians, and poets. Has the elegance of their works ever been equalled ? Such a course of instruction as I mentioned above would add considerable interest to the technical instruction by teaching the pupil the reason, origin, the signification, and the character of the forms which he em- ploys ; under his very eyes they would become animated ; for the professor who is to give this instruction should abandon the dry descriptive and analytical method of archeology and French aesthetics, and boldly cast himself into the broad domain of German aesthetics, which has been rendered so fertile by the ad- mirable works of Visschers, Boticher, Schonaase, Lubke, Semper, Springer, and Lotze. '' There the artist does not place himself before a work of art merely to analyze all its details, but he sees in it a living organism, all the parts of which are de- veloped as beautifully and regularly as the leaves and flowers of a plant ; it is no longer a production produced by accident or the individual fancy, but the natural unfolding of plastic forms, the types of which take root in the very depth of our social being. Such a method gives to the teaching of archeology and aesthetics a life, an interest, which make it so attractive that I do not think 1 am exaggerat- ing when I say that it will awake among the pupils a true enthusiasm for art. I even go further, and I say that such a course of instruction is imperatively de- manded by the cosmopolitan character of our time, our frequent journeys, the interest which the recent archeological researches awaken, by enabling us to com- prehend the most different styles of beauty. All this exposes us to the danger of mixing our styles, and of offending good taste by the alliance of forms which are entirely opposed to each other, or by employing them in a manner different from that for which they were originally intended. It is therefore necessary that the pupil thoroughly masters the essential character of each style, in order that he may always employ the right elements in the right place. This course should be limited to history of art among the European nations, and should consequently comprise the history of the Greek, Roman, Romanic, Gothic, and renaissance styles ; also the history of the styles of the 17th, I8th, and even the 19th centu- ries, in so far as their characteristics can be determined. It would be well to add the Moorish (moresque) style, which would furnish numerous illustrations for the theory of colors, the laws of which have been so accurately laid down by Mr. Brucke in his lessons at the Imperial Museum for Art and Industry at Vienna. It is easy to shorten or to extend this course in proportion to the pupil's degree of intelligence and culture. According to his advancement, he might learn from six to twelve lessons in one hour. After the general course has teen gone through, one could, in some lessons, give the history of some special industrial art, such as sculpture, the locksmith's trade, book-binding, the goldsmith's trade, &c., for such pupils as have already chosen a trade. It will scarcely be necessar}- to say that the professor ought continually to place before the eyes of the pupil the ob- jects, or at least good copies of the objects, of which he speaks. These objects he should find in the museums, which ought to be attached to every school of design, and the necessity of having such a museum is so self-evident that it does not need any argument. The institution at South Kensington has shown the way, which every school of this kind should follow, sooner or later. The pro- fessor would do well to make excursions with his pupils to monuments and col- lections of art in the neighborhood ; to draw his illustrations, if possible, from ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G69 the history of the national art, and endeavor to inspire his pupils to connect their own work with the traditions of their own country's art. What we finally de- mand, is this : *' 1. Every school of design should hare a course of history of ornaments as a supplement to the technical teaching of the arts of drawing. " 2. The professor should, in such a course, endeavor to connect the productions of art with the different manifestations of the nation's life which has produced them, so as to give the pupil some general idea on the history of civilization, and this by taking account of the German aesthetics. "3. Every school of design should have a museum comprising a methodical exposition of specimens of the various styles of ornamentics. "Besides the influence which such an instruction could not fail to exercise on the production of the pupils, it would also, in my opinion, have the advantage of increasing in the schools of design a tendency, which they follow wherever indus- trial art is foremost in the minds of people, namely, the tendency to change gradu- ally to industrial schools, to school-workshops ; here lies the road to a radical reform of primary instruction, which has already been followed by some, and with a happy result, for we see in it the means of attaining a more general diffu- sion of instruction by the universal attendance at the school during all the time required for the acquisition of a good and solid education." M. Braun, after some discussion on the question how far museums or collec- tions were practicable in all the schools, made the following practical propositions, which were received with applause : 1. For the primary and normal schools, a well-defined, well-limited, well- co-ordinated method of drawing is required, in accordance with the nature and the aim of the establishment, and with all the time which can be devoted to the Study of this branch. 2. In order to obtain the best results in the normal schools, a larger number of drawing lesions is required, and moje attention bestowed on it at the half-yearly and final examinations. M. Canneel mentioned the example which England has set with regard to museums. Duplicates of all the objects have been procured for the central museum at London, and thus a small museum has been formed which answered all reason- able demands. During the last nine years this museum has made forty journeys ; 75,0t)0 persons have seen it, and 35,000 catalogues have been sold ; and this cata- logue gives excellent instruction on all the various objects contained in the museum — is in fact a brief course of archeology. This museum is placed in two railroad cars constructed expressly for its use, and only one man accompanies it. M. DE Taeye could not refrain from making some remarks with regard to an idea mentioned by M. Buls in his speech, viz, '• that it was not necessary to extend the study of archeology into antiquity." Although M. Bcls denied having said this, M. DE Taeye said : "I ask, how can it be possible to understand the middle ages, if one does not know the landmarks which have preceded it? I maintain that it is not possible to understand the middle ages if one does not know the Greek and Roman art. To give one example : there is between the sculptures, the figures of Rheims and the Greek art, such an intimate, astonishing connection, that you could not appreciate the beauties of the sculpture of the middle ages in France but by placing before them the most beautiful productions of Greek art. Phidias alone is worthy to be placed by the side of the beauties of the cathedral 670 4RT INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. at Rheims, The traditions of Greek art had been preserved during the downfall of Greece. Through the crusades they have been carried all over Europe, and are reflected in the beautiful sculptures of the middle ages. Every artist who has attentively studied the works of these two periods will be convinced of the truth of what I have said." These remarks of M. de Taeye were received with applause, and the president announced the discussion on the fourth question as closed. SECTION II. — HIGHER INSTRUCTION IN THE ARTS OF DESIGN. 1st Question. — Up to the "time of the foundation of academies, the graphic and plastic arts were only taught in the workshops of artists. Public schools have to-day replaced the ancient mode of teaching. The question is to examine the merits and demerits of the two modes of instruction. Passing by the discussions on various less important questions, we proceed at once to give the chief speech on this subject, made by M. de Taeye. He said : " A speaker who preceded me (M. Clu^^senaar) has asserted that the academies are badly organized, and that everything which is there should be entirely re-made. Gentlemen, these accusations go much further. I even go so far as to say that it is quite in accordance with the character of our times to consider the word 'academical' as synonymous with medioc - and bad. I will now endeavor to show that this way of reasoning is entirely, radically false. It is said that acad- emies were first founded in those times when art declined, and that, therefore, their organization must be bad. I maintain, gentlemen, that the academy was not created at the time of the decadence of art; on the contrary, it is as old as the revival of modern art. The whole period of this revival, (renaissance.) from its commencement in Italy, in the 15th century, till the time of its greatest splen- dor, under Raphael and Michael Angelo, was pervaded by academical elements and animated by a purely academical spirit. The manner in which Squarcione, the founder of the school of Padua, exercised his wide-spread and beneficial influ- ence, is entirely academical. From a union of the works of art of antiquity, and their methodical study, he formed the basis of his teaching ; and the 'same prin- ciple, even at this present day, forms the fundamental element of all actual teaching. "The school which Leonardo da Yinci opened in Florence was intended to be an academy, and had in reality the greatest similarity to our modern idea of such institutions, because the isolated teaching of the old artists' workshops in .the middle ages was supplemented and completed by general studies on antiquities, science, and aesthetics. In order to attain to this, Leonardo felt the necessity ot writing his immortal treatise on painting. "The idea of academies belongs essentially to the spirit of the 'Renaissance' period. The return to the study of antiquity had produced a genuine enthusiasm for the institutions of Greece, and Plato's academy at Athens formed the ideal oi' artists. " All the academies which made their appearance under the reign of the Medici, during the 15th and 16th centuries, and produced a lively intercourse and inter- change of ideas between all men of science and artists, were but the realization o' this ideal. This union between science and art produced new researches in the fields of philosophy, nature, aesthetics, and art ; and in this grand tournament for the laurel wreath of science and art we see all the distinguished men of the ' Renaissance ' and of art enter the lists. "Who dares to apply to such a movement the word 'decline! ' Who would ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G71 not rather recognize in this close alliance of spontaneous creation and the researches of free thought one of the most beautiful characteristics of this brilliant revival of arts (renaissance) in the 16th century! As long -as art was maintained at its height by the power of some few men of genius, its twofold aim could be attained by isolated masters. At a time when knowledge and inspiration seemed to give to all persons and to all artistic creations one common thought, in order to realize this object, no pedagogical teaching was required ; life itself was the school. "The strength of the traditions of the middle ages was broken, but the ideas of classical antiquity had taken their place, and influenced life, customs, science, and religious belief. It is only natural that they also influenced art. As in this union [ensemble) the aim was fixed, there only remained for individuals to search the expression of their feelings in order to arrive at the expression of the general feeling. Thus we see, during this whole period, certain grand artistic creations becoming the models, the examples for all. What had been produced by the common feeling ('sentiment') of a whole period naturally was admired by all. "Thus we see a school of artists form itself round the works of Leonardo da Vinci, the same as round the paintings of Masaccio in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine. Michael Angelo studied there, and after him Raphael did not dis- dain to borrow from them the types for his own works. The works produced by the competition between Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo for the palace Vecchio, at Florence, became a school for a whole generation of artists. Raphael, leaving for the fir^t time the circle of his school, drew new strength from these studies ; one of the grandest compositions of his later days still shows most un- mistakably the influence of Leonardo da Vinci, and a century later our great countryman, Peter Paul Rubens, copied the remains of this work that had been saved. '' Let us now examine whether the method of teaching employed in these great epochs did not shorten the time of stud^ by rendering them at the same time more intense. Every workshop, as we have seen, formed, so to speak, a school, where the studies carried on were brought to their most complete development, regarded from a scientific and practical point of view. On entering, the scholar made an engagement of several years with his master, and was received as a simple ap- prentice, and was at first employed to prepare the palette and the paints ; he thus became acquainted with the material procedure, whilst the master and his more advanced scholars initiated him into the practice of drawing, geometry, and per- spective. As soon as he was familiar with the labors of the workshop, the master tried to advance his pupil. Then his artistic education really commenced. At first he traced on paste-board the designs of his master, in order to transfer them again to canvas or to the wall ; when the master drew from models, the pupil sat by his side and also made a sketch, thus learning to draw from nature, and keep account of the part which must be left to servile imitation in order to arrive at the truth, and of the part which must be left to the imagination, in order to get at the true expression and the style. Another important point was the following : he did not only learn drawing, painting, geometry, and perspective, which made him capable of comprehending architecture, but he was likewise taught model- ling. " How far from this wise practice are we to-day ! It is a principle of education, as it has been organized at a later time, that one person learns painting, another architecture, a third sculpture, without any one of them troubling himself in t>/~: ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. the least with the other branches of art. I go still further, and maintain that in this country of ours some have even studied sculpture vi^ithout having learned drawing. These subdivisions of study are completely unknown in the grand schools of the past. How many great artists have come from the common trades and work- shops ? It is only since the end of the llih century that painters ceased to model and sculptors to draw, and since the end of the 1 8th century they completely ig- nore everything pertaining to architecture. All the great masters of the ^renais- sance ' period were at the same time architects, painters, and sculptors, and one feels considerably embarrassed if he wants to class them under one of these heads ; whilst later, during the period of decline, when a painter would have architectu- ral design in his painting, he was obliged to ask the assistance of some architect, and in our days there are those who ignore the study of perspective, and have re- course to a perspectivist for the draught of the work. Where will this system of subdivision stop? " In former times the pupil had only one desire, viz, to acquire this universality of knowledge which he found in his master, and which was imparted to him all the more voluntarily, because the master could make ase of it for his own works. As soon as the pupil had mastered a certain science, the master let him make a rough sketch of his own drawings, arrange some drapery, execute parts of some importance ; and as he had an interest in its being well done, he was not sparing in giving advice. Such advice was given at any moment, for the pupil lived the same life as his master, had a place at his table, slept under his roof, and, through a daily increasing intimacy, became completely initiated. The artist was for him not the kind of demi-god, who, according to popular belief, had only to touch his brow in order to make, in a moment of inspiration, masterpieces spring forth from it. No ; he was a man eager for universal knowledge ; a prey to all human weaknesses, but knowing how to overcome discouragement, rather commencing the same work a hundred times than leaving it imperfect ; combining, making trials, undoing and remaking, before giving shape and form to a thought ; proud one day and furious or despairing the next ; always battling with difficulties. By constant contact with him, the pupil rapidly instructed himself, endeavoring to follow him and to equal him ; thus he learned the practice at the same time with the theory, and when he had finished his apprenticeship, then not only his artistic education was complete, but he had likewise drank deep from the fountain of science, and been thoroughly imbued with those moral sentiments which are essential to every man, and, above all, to the artist; and the master was likewise rewarded by the respect and the consideration of his pupils, who kept alive in him that sacred 6re, that love of the beautiful, which had been the constant thought of his whole life. " This golden age of artistic instruction lasted as long as the rising of the great schools lasted ; but as the development and the decline of art does not depend alone on the methods of teaching, but also on the social medium {milieu) in which the artists live, nothing could prevent art, like all other expressions of thought, from yielding to the enervating influence which prev£|iled at the close of the 17th and in the 18 th centuries. Diderot writes : ' The degradation of taste, of color- ing, of composition, of the character of drawing, has followed step by step the depravation of manners.' And truly the history of art, during that period, cor- roborates his words, and proves their entire truth. Was it not when Italy dis- ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 673 carded all moral sentiment that she lost that royalty in art of -which she was so proud? Thus Spain, surrounded by the treasures of America, descended to the very lowest step on the ladder ; thus France, when she brought down her painters to the level of her courtesans, made them, during the reign of Louis XV, professors of libertinism. In the same way our own schools disappeared when their powerful painting, ceasing to be the exponent of ideas, was nothing but a bloated and conventional expression, occupying itself only with ordering and arranging. Thus it was that this vast world of artistic individualities became a multitude of insignificant particularities ; arbitrariness, flightiness, exaggeration, took the place of that classical dignity based on the consciousness of knowledge; avidity to seize the success of the moment replaced that calm love of the beautiful which formerly reigned at the time of conception of works of art — a sentiment which formed the fundamental character of that flourishing period. " At that time there awoke in the mind of a serious and well-informed artist a keen feeling of this decline of the arts and the wish to fight against it. That was the time of the foundation of academies in our modern sense of the word. The foundation of the academy at Bologna by Ludovico Carracci was a necessity produced by the conscioasness of this decline ; it saved art, for on one side the hollow idealism of the mannerists threatened all truthfulness, whilst on the other side a brutal materialism menaced all loftiness, beauty and dignity. Ludovico was joined in realizing this work of reform by his two young nephews, Agostino and Annibale ; and animated by a lofty and dignified sentiment, he boldly waged war against his powerful rivals. They ccmmenced their work under sarcasm and contempt, and by an iron energy brought it to the desired end. The school, the teaching of which the three associates had divided amongst themselves, each one taking the part for which he was particularly qualified, finished by attracting all the talent of the other studios, {ateliers ;) and as they sought to set up again as the only true standard of art truthfulness to nature and life, as well as grandeur and loftiness, they were justly considered the new founders of Italian art. Thus their teaching was free from all forced pedantry, from all systematic rules, preserving at the same time the traditions of style, disposition and ensemble, without which no teaching is possible ; they could preserve for each individuality his character and his liberty, and it is their greatest glory to have raised up so many artists of original talents, such as Albani, Quercino, Dominico, Lanfranchi, Guido Reni, &c. Thus must be conceived the origin of the academy of Bologna, in which we recognize the first example of those academies which the artistic education of our times requires. Far from having accelerated the decline of art, it has, on the contrary, always fought against, this movement, and thus saved art for a new future. The instruction given in these academies had a great advantage over the instruction given by one man in his studio. Art^ such as it is to-day, has assumed a general character ; it touches everything, and has in the higher spheres of its instruction almost assumed a character of a university education. It is impossible that one man, however great his genius and talents may be, could meet all these varied demands. Can one professor in his workshop (atelier) teach philosophy of art, aesthetics, history, literature, technics, perspective— in short, all the various branches which constitute art? This is utterly impossible. The academies here felt this, and have established a system of instruction no longer by one man only, but by a number of men with special talents. This is progress. This organization shows a great development ; but at the end of a 674 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. certain time, the influence of abuses makes itself felt in the schools, the traditions grow contemptible and art sombre. In the academies you see from time to time a man who resists these invasions, and I find an admirable though little known example of this in our own country. At the Academy of Antwerp, founded by David Teniers, an old professor, endowed with an admirable simplicity and d^Toted- ness, Herrens, preserves intact, though all the decline of the .18th century, the technical tradition of Jordaens and Rubens. Herrens traverses this whole unaus- picious period without in any way yielding to its influence. He is calm and immovable in his work, without allowing himself to be influenced by the evil passions which are at work around about him ; and when David, as an exile, fled to this country and made the acquaintance of old Herrens, he said to him : * If I were young still, I would come to your school and recommence my studies.' This is historical, for I know it from a scholar of Herrens himself. In France, David raised art from the depths into which it had sunk. Only, as at his time the study of the antique was not as much developed as to-day, as the works of Phidias were not known, he could only draw his inspiration from the works of the declining period. Ingres, likewise, drew his inspiration from the antique, but he studied the works of the classical period of Greece ; hence the difference between his teaching and that of David. David has nevertheless rendered art immense services. All our most eminent artists have come from his school in passing through that of Van Bree and Navez. I hope that this short historical review has dispelled many erroneous ideas on the nature of academies. ^' What other criticisms are made on the academies? Sometimes it is their jBethod of teaching ; sometimes the selection of studies ; but, as a general rnle, all these critics are governed by one thought — that everything one learns besides •the onere technicalities is useless for the artist ; yea, may even become dangerous for him. Is not this extremely foolish ? For an artist, whatever gifts nature may have bestowed on him, must, in order to put them to good use, join the development of his intellectual qualities to that of his technical ones. The progress of his art in that respect ought to be as important as in his natural gifts themselves. History is rich in illustrations of this truth. Look at the art of Greece, the period which preceded the renaissance itself, and modern art ! Fig- ure to yourself the great artists of these different periods, those who symbolized the-glory of their countries. They were, with few exceptions, remarkable men ; men not only skilled in their art, but distinguished by their mental culture, and by the varied character of their knowledge. The more a country rises in the fine arts, the more is felt the necessity of uniting with the technicalities the highest attainments of human science. Knowledge, far from enslaving and fettering tal- ent, only gives to the artist the consciousness of his liberty. We see in the grand classical periods, politicians, philosophers, painters, sculptors, musicians, poets, living in a fruitful familiarity, in a constant interchange of ideas. And what else is the aim of academies if it is not to realize for the artists of our days this ideal? Let us clearly establish the position which art occupies in the field of mental activity of the human race, and the mission of the academies will become self-evident. All mental activity may be divided into three great divisions : " First, philosophy, the foundation of all knowledge, which has a character of universality, and governs every science. It is the heart and centre of it ; it is the principle of thought and of reason ; the inexhaustible source of universal truths, .whose eternal _principle is God. Its aim is the search after truth. ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 675 '* The second division is art. Its aim is the free reproduction of the beautiful ; not only physical beauty or the beauty of nature, which, alone, would make art merely a servile imitation, but the ideal beauty, such as the human imagination conceives it, by the aid of those gifts which nature furnishes. *' The third division is 5ci>nce. Its aim is the search for physical utility. It modifies nature for the benefit of our race by the rational application of its dis- coveries. It invests man with a true royalty over matter. "The state ought to offer to all its children the means of acquiring these dif- ferent expressions of culture, which form its greatness, its development, aud its wealth. Therefore we have universities, schools of the fine arts, schools of mining, schools cf civil engineering, schools of arts and manufactures. Thus the academies have not been established to form as many artists as possible ; they are not destined to guide the taste ; but we have academies in order to offer to every individual, who feels within his heart a spark of that sacred fire, the means of arriving at its free and complete development. This possibility, however, can, in our times, no longer be realized by a single master or a single studio. The greatest artist can no longer do justice to this variety of knowledge. For this reason a union of forces has become necessary, just as at the schools and univer- sities. Only in this manner can the multiplicity of wants be satisfied ; a way be opened to develop the various talents, and the studies of the workshop {atdier) be completed, in order to find the true relation between master and pupil, which is necessary for the proper development of art. The academy gives the instruction ; the master seeks out for himself a pupil after his own heart, and the two, by their united efforts, raise an artist. This is, in my opinion, the posi- tion which an academy ought to occupy, and which gives the basis for the extent and character of the studies. What can be learned ought to be taught; technics in all its branches, from the fundamental elements to the highest scientific know- ledge. In order to attain to this, we must acknowledge that the higher studies in the academies are insufficient; that they ought to be supplanted by studies in {Esthetics, history of art, and literature. I said, a while ago, that everything comes to us from the school of David ; criticism, however, ought to go side by Bide with eulogy. I said that everything good with us comes from the school of David ; but this teaching is not complete. I would like to add to it two very important elements. I would like to add to the academical and university teach- ing the teaching in the workshops, [ateliers studios.) Some people will say that this wish is chimerical ; how can academical traditions and free teaching be united ? Nevertheless, this plan is perfectly feasible. It has been carried out at Munich and Dusseldorf, and, by the efforts of M. Violet-Leduc, this system has beeen or- ganized in the most complete manner in the Institute of France. I will give a striking illustration : In Germany, sesthetical courses are found everywhere ; not only at the universities, but also in the schools, and in the most elementary es- tablishments, and a book has just been published entitled 'Aesthetische Briefe fur junge Maedchen,^ (Letters on ^Esthetics for Young Girls.) In our own country, on the contrary, instruction in aesthetics is almost entirely want- ing, and many artists do not even know the meaning of the word. In my opinion, this is not all. I say, first, that the elementary teaching at the academies is insuflScient; but the superior instruction likewise is in- complete, not in its course of studies, for that is good, but in its intellectual development, through the great voids which exist. Important higher courses are 676 ART INSTIIUCTION IN BELGIUM. entirely wanting in the academies. At none of our universities is there a course of aesthetics. At the university of Louvain a course of Christian archeology has been established, which is only a portion of aesthetics. A course of instruction in the philosophy of the beautiful ought to be established everywhere. At present we see the strange fact that distinguished men, men whom their talents have helped to obtain the first positions in the state, encourage the fine arts and artistic instruction, but, as regards art, are themselves real barbarians. How is the the higher instruction organized at Munich ; at Dusseldorf; at Paris? An intel- ligent and learned director superintends the teaching. At Munich, Kaulbach; at Dresden, Schnorr von Caralsfeld. They have a studio, which bears their name. At Munich, there is the studio of Schwind, of Piloty, &c. The pupil chooses the artist whose teaching he prefers ; the colorists choose a colorist ; the draughtsman, an artist who makes forms a specialty; an artist who possesses fire; a master whose temperament is analogous to his own. The master has a right to accept or refuse a pupil. He can say to the pupil, ' Your studies have been incomplete ; go and perfect yourself in the classes.' There is a constant rivalry between the pupils, and also between the professors. Every professor naturally desires to have the most beautiful studio and produce the best results. The pupils are ani- mated by an excellent spirit. They wish to be the strongest at the annual exhi- bition. All are filled with an emulation worthy of the golden age of art. I will give you an example how the directors understood this sentiment. There was wanting at the Academy of Munich the proper appreciation of color, [sentiment de la couleur.) A man who had received instruction in our school of 1830 came to Munich, and there created quite a revolution in art. That man was Piloty. The director having seen this revolution, immediately demanded the establishment of a new studio, and asked Piloty to direct it. Here was a man who understood his mission. The war between the old and the new school broke out, and this war produced, as its result, progress. If one wishes to be sincere, one frankly points out the sore point. In our country there are chiefly two obstacles which prevent the artistic instruction reaching a complete development, viz ; the elementary instruction is bad, and the higher instruction is incomplete. The question, there- fore, is to produce an organization which is free from these faults. One word more. The government, in endeavoring to develop the higher studies, should also insist on having the artistic instruction at the academies more developed. If we thoroughly examine our present system, we find that there are scarcely two schools where instruction is given in the studios besides the regular instruction in the classes. Such is the case at Antwerp, and to some degree at Louvain. Is it not deplorable that some of the largest cities in the country have no higher artistic instruction ? It seems to me, therefore, that certain criticisms made on the academies are greatly exaggerated, but that nevertheless there is every reason for us to put our hand to the work and arrive at a complete organization." This speech of M. de Taeye was received with loud and prolonged applause; and though several members of the Congress expressed different opinions on some minor points, the great majority thoroughly agreed with him on the urgently needed reorganization of the academies in accordance with the general ideas pro- pounded by M. de Taeye. 2d Question. — In the organization of academies of fine arts, that is to say, of gpecial schools for a complete instruction in the arts of design, oueht there to be introduced, iqi view of the demands of industry, a course of artistic instruction, different in some parts from that which art, properly so called, demands? What ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 677 ought to be the programme of such instruction ? If some parts of this double teaching are in common, where does the separation begin ? After considerable discussion on these questions, the great majority of the assembly agreed as to the urgent necessity of establishing throughout the country, not merely academies and studios-, but some rather more democratic institutions for the artistic instruction of workingmen. The aim, as was said, was not to produce thousands of painters and sculptors, but thousands of intelligent work- ingmen, with some taste for the beautiful m art and nature, and the ability of applying it to their work. Many very able speeches were made, amongst the rest by M. Klein, Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Copenhagen. He spoke about the different kind of instruction to be given to artists and. artisans, both as to matter and method, and finally gave some exam- ples of a school for artisans recently established* at Copenhagen. We give some extracts from the last speech on this question, made by M. Janssens Smits, member of the administrative council of the Academy of St. Nicholas. He said : ' ' There is not, and there cannot be a difference of opinion as to the end aimed at ; everybody is convinced that the talent, devotedness, and the important pecuniary resources which the teaching of the fine arts annually absorbs in Belgium, ought not solelj^ to contribute towards the glory of the country, but also bring new life to all the branches of its activity. One says : Our academies ought not merely to give instruction in the 'fine' arts, {ks arts d^ agrement,) as they are commonly called ; they ought likewise to popularize the knowledge of the useful arts ; the beautiful and the useful ought to be united indissolubly. The grand, the high art does not suffice ; we also want the common art. Separated from the useful, the culture of the beautiful does no longer justify the offerings which it claims. These are the arguments of a great number of persons. It will doubtless not be difficult for them to justify the sympathy which they have for arts and industry united, for the good reason that en the most important points they will not be contradicted by any sensible person. Our academies ought, for every pupil who is educated for an artistic career, to form a hundred other pupils for the manual professions. Living in the midst of an essentially industrial population, I would be very guarded in questioning the high and even glorious mission of the arts, and the powerful influence which artistic instruction ought, consequently, to ex- ercise on all industrial productions. But I ask whether the question of industrial art does not partly derive its success and popularity from the novelty of its name. The question in itself is old as art, old as work. It is pretension and injustice to believe that this question is so novel. 1 do not deny that certain improvements might be made in the instruction given in our academies ; that certain more direct applications of art to industry might not be attempted ; but there are de- fenders of the new systems, who, it seems to me, are not grateful enough for the immense results obtained by our academies up to this present day ; results from which our industrial progress has had its full share. The reformers, with the most excellent intentions and arguments, to contradict which is often very difficult, have, I believe, a tendency to specialize. Can the too divisionary application of art, its application merely to certain local wants — can this be taught without injuring the unity of art; and if this unity were wanting, would it not injure its solidity {solidi(e)l Ought not the principal and most practical aim of this Congress to be to lead to this unity of views, of aspira- 678 iRT INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. • tions, and perhaps, to a certain point, of methods ? One of the speakers who preceded me has eloquently and justly remarked ; ' Wherever there is mat- ter, there is form; wherever there is form, there is art.' Well, precisely because there are as many expressions of art as there are different forms, and as many kind of forms as there are matters to work upon, I ask whether it is possible to teach professionally all the trades with a view to a special application of art. We cannot follow these infinite classifications in giving instruction. We cannot even theoretically admit thousands of distinct arts ; art cannot be broken up into dif- ferent parts without losing a part of itself. No ; there are not thousands of arts; there are not even two different arts ; and we go too far, if we speak of an indus- trial art which ought to differ from another art, doubtless a speculative, abstract and metaphysical one. I only know one art — that is, the idea of the beautiful reproduced in matter ; every man who possesses the artistic sense will let its influence be felt in every one of his works ; every work which bears this impress of the beautiful is artistic. The classical teaching of our academies has, since their foundation, powerfully contributed to develop this simultaneous culture of the mind and the heart, which constitutes taste; this feeling of distinction ; this comprehension of the beautiful. And this taste, this feeling, this comprehen- Bion, which might be inculcated into all the classes of the population, if they wished it, have had a decided influence on the general development of our indus- try. One often speaks of art for all ; but does not this specializing imply an abandoning of 'art for all?' It becomes then 'art for some few,' for some one class of workingmen. The true 'art for all' are the unvarying principles, the general no- tions, which, for ages, have been taught in all our great academies. With the principles once given, pure tastes once inculcated, it remains for the workshop, the factory, the studio, {atelier^ ) to do the rest. I do not hesitate to say that by the experience and education of the industrial workshop, more than by the teach- ing of some special useful art, Paris has monopolized the trade of the world in almost all articles whose value lies in their artistic taste. The select pupils whom you would educate in your special schools would have to go and complete now their artistic instruction in those Parisian workshops ; they would have to form themselves under working artists, not one of whom, perhaps, has ever enjoyed a professional artistic instruction in schools. What is true of the Paris articles is equally true of the flourishing French silk industry, the manufacture of porcelain and crystals. This is true everywhere ; and we could find some striking examples in certain Belgian industries. It is by working that one becomes a workingman; it is by making oneself an artisan that one becomes an artist in his profession, if the head has taste and the hand skill. Having to answer those who find fault with the academieal teaching, because it is not specialized with a view to local industry, and who seem to forget the immense and beneficial influ- ence which it exercises on the whole working population, we have already eome months ago answered them thus : One loses sight of the fact that instruc- tion in the fine arts, independent of its practical and professional applications, possesses a general usefulness for everything and for all. It is a powerful means of popular education; it exercises on the workingmen an eminently civilizing in- fluence ; it polishes his manners and gives him calm and serious tastes ; it throws into the young mind a germ of arUstic sentiment, which, although it is often denied, is in reality more developed among our working population than among men whose knowledge and taste are lauded everywhere. Let us only for a mo- ment think of the artist painters and sculptors, to whom the lessons received a* ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. C79 our academies open a brilliant career. Let us speak of a more general interest ! No ; there is not one profession or trade where it is not beneficial to have a tinge of aesthetics^ to have trained the eye to the gracefulness and correctness of the outlines ; to have inculcated in one's mind a knowledge of perspective, for in- stance, a science which gives a good deal to think about, and which forcibly leads to it. All these results have in a great measure been attained by our academies ; the aptitude of a large number of our workingmen, whose relative inferiority I deny, bears testimony to this fact. In order to convince us of inconsistency, we are accused of too strong a predilection for the special industry of building ; our academies are said to be industrial building schools, {ecoles industridles de bdiisse.) We are truly astonished to hear it maintained that the study of linear, decorative, anatomical, stereotomic, and architectural drawing, which forms the basis of our popular artistic teaching, will not be of any use to those who will have to handle the compasses, the trowel, and the plane. The value of this appreciation is al- most equal to the value of the opinion of those who despise humanitarian studies ; who imagine that the study of the higher mathematics is not generally useful ; that geometry, e. g., is only good for training land-surveyors. "Let us not specialize beyond measure ! Let us not break the synthetic organi- zation of the study of the beautiful ! We admit, e. g., that the application of linear drawing to the drawing of machinery can in many localities be of incon- testable usefulness. It ought, therefore, to be an advantage to the workingman to have drawn the mechanisms [Us mecaniques) with which, in some way, he has to identify himself. The study of models might become to him of great practical usefulness in comprehending and managing his machine or his tool. There will doubtless be other^iiseful applications of drawing and painting without entering on those subdivisions, which are a terror to us ; but there are persons who want to specialize, and convert the academies into industrial schools. It would be chi- merical to establish, under the cover of fine arts, an academy for armorers at Liege, an academy for lace-makers at Maljnes, an academy for weavers at Ghent, an academy for cutlers at Namur and Lierre ; for manufacturers of delph-ware, at Tournai ; for corsetmakers, at Lokeren, and academical courses {sections academ- iques) for locksmiths, upholsterers, tailors, seamstresses, and shoemakers every- where. We can show the greatest care for the success of industry, and favor the introduction of improvements in the teaching of the fine arts, yet at the same time see that it is not practicable to teach as many species {categories) of the beautiful as there are innumerable ways of applying it to the manual professions. By demanding too much, we are misled. The teaching of the ten or twelve great academies of the country has no such urgent need of rejuvenating itself as some seem desirous to prove, and up to the present moment we have not learned that the new methods of our days, which have been praised so much, have discovered a single new line, or that in the combination of lines they have furnished types of a novel and modern beauty which will make us forget the study of the human form and masterpieces of antiquity, from which our old classical teaching obsti- nately draws its inspirations. Some advocate, in connection with schools of design, special courses of chemistry and physics, in view of the wants of industry. Well, the teaching of chemistry and physics, a knowledge of which, however elementary, aids so powerfully in developing the intellect, and which are of con- stant practical use to the workingman — the teaching of these sciences, without which all the industrial proceedings can only go on by laborious groping on the GSO ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. beaten tracks of routine, these purely scientific studies have nothing in common with the development of taste and sesthetical sentiment, to propagate which is the mission of the schools of the fine arts. Far from condemning .the study of chemistry and physics, I consider it on the contrary of the highest usefulness, and I believe it to be indispensable to all true progress in industry. I fully appre- ciate the enlightened solicitude of all those v^ho see in the diffusion of these sciences a means of improving the condition of our workingmen. If we only wish to give to the pupils elementary notions of science in the academies, we supplant the primary schools, for this branch of instruction would naturally find its proper place in the highest class of primary schools. If we wish to give a profound, truly professional knowledge of these sciences, this requires arduous and complete study, which in my opinion is only possible in the great industrial centres, such as Ghent, Liege, Mons, Verviers, which alone can provide the necessary laboratories and collections, a competent factory, a supply of pupils, and, above everything, the funds which such institutions would require. In some special cases, where a school of design has a surplus of room and funds, I would advise the introduction of these elementary courses. As a general rule, however, I would not advocate it. It is a completely distinct instruction, which, outside of important centres of industrial activity, would most assuredly result in absorbing the few. hours of leisure which are left to our workingmen, and in taking away the room, which nowhere is too ample, from the teaching of the fine arts. ''As regards the second part of the question, viz, if some parts of this double teaching are in common, where does the separation begin? I have to say this separation ought necessarily to commence where the artistic side {cote) ceases ; if not, old academies ought to drop the name, academies of t^ie fine arts ; they will remain useful under another and new name; but our mission in being called together here is to purify the taste, to infuse love for the beautiful. Art in it- self will exercise an immense influence on the aptitude and the success of the workingman. It is not possible that a good pupil of a good school of fine arts should ever, in whatever branch of industry, become an incapable or awkward workingman. Where his taste and his aesthetic tact have been, formed by the classic teaching of art, he will, when at his work, always know how to avoid what is not harmonious, incorrect, or ungraceful. But we will accord more than this to the professional education of the workingman ; we desire that there be placed at the service of industry an artistic teaching specialized in a just meas- ure, having in view as much as possible the general wants of industry, and pre- serving as much as possible the precious unity of teaching. Drawing of ma- chinery, decorative drawing and painting, which, in many cases, can be applica- ble to manufactures — all this may be excellent; but one should remain within the boundaries of art, in order that the artistic teaching may not degenerate to a cold and inanimate utilitarianism. Let us be prudent in making such experi- ments, which might suddenly overthrow what we have slowly and laboriously built up. Let us not forget that this would mean a weakening of art, a reducing of its noble mission to what I will call the 'bare facts,' the 'mere mechanical procedure,' {du /aire, du procede.) Above everything, do not let us make of our academies and of their professors, teaching so well and so devotedly, the scape- goats of the weaknesses and the incapacity of certain manufacturers, [produc- teurs.'") * As a longer time than had been originally intended had been taken up by the ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 681 discussion on the second question of the second section, the third question could only be briefly mentioned, which could be done all the more easily as, in its import, it veiry nearly coincided with the first question. 3d Question. — Should there be introduced in the academies of the fine arts a course of aesthetics and literature? Only a few minutes were devoted to this question. We only quote some re- marks of U. Slingeneyer : " There are always certain intervals during the hours of study ; thus, a pupil, whilst he studies painting, does not get very tired, and the professor could easily engage him to devote himself during those intervals to certain useful studies; thus, e.g., Homer, Virgil, Shakspeare, Cervantes, would form excellent subjects for reading. In Homer, the artist would find simplicity ; in Virgil, rhythm; in Shakspeare, passion. There is no doubt that a judicious selection from the works of these poets would exercise a very happy influence on his artistic education." 4th Question. — Would it be useful to found in Belgium, besides the academies of the fine arts, one or more special schools of architecture, where all the studies required for a thorough theoretical and practical knowledge of this art are united, and what subjects should be taught in such a school ? From want of time this question was also treated but briefly. It was very generally conceded that the instruction in architecture, as given at present, was not as full as might be desired ; but it was doubted whether the foundation of a central academy of architecture at Brussels, which was all that could be aimed at for the present, could supply this want. M. db Taeye cited the example of Ber- lin, where, as he said, the pupils, on entering upon their studies at the academy, were not asked, will you be sculptors, or painters, or architects ; but where they were told : '' Learn the language of art, which is drawing ; and when you have finished your studies, and know the language well, choose your career — be sculp- . tors, painters, or architects." * bth Question. — Among the general means of encouraging the study of the arts of design, should the establishment of competitive (general and local) courses be recommended, how should such competitive courses be organized? All were agreed as to the usefulness of such competitive courses, and the only question to be settled was, how they should be organized. No speeches of special interest were mado, and we only quote some remarks of M. Braun. He said : " The method is only an instrument ; it is therefore not the method which makes the master, but the master who makes the method. Impose a method upon a master, and you will only retard the progress of his pupils. The professors of the academies themselves should therefore organize these competitive courses, after having deliberated on the subject, as they think best, and the government should certainly do all in its power to encourage these courses." M. Canneel recommended that all the academies should be notified that they were invited to take part in such a competitive course ; that at such and such a time each pupil would be called upon to draw such and such a figure, in such and such dimensions, and under such and such conditions. It should be superin- tended by a person who has no interest in it, that no fraud takes place. Thus, Ghent might be appointed to watch Brussels ; Brussels, Antwerp, &c. After the discussion on this question had been closed, the president read the following proposition, made by 20 members of the Congress, which was received with great applause, and was signed by all ; and which, by unanimous consent, 682 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. was to be handed to the Minister of the Interior : '• The undersigned, members of the Congress for examining into the best methods of generalizing artistic instruc- tion, are of opinion that the progress made by neighboring nations in the realm of fine arts, and in that of the application of art to industry, do not allow Belgium to remain stationary, and therefore hereby express their ardent desire to see es- tablished at Brussels, as soon as possible, a palace of the fine arts.'- The session of the Congress was closed by a short speech from M. Visschers, the president, in which he said : " I believe I express the wish of the whole assembly that this Congress on instruction in the fine arts may renew itself. We have entered on the realm of the practical, but we are yet far from having exhausted it. I will not predict the future, and cannot say what questions we shall have to discuss at some future meeting; but if we have restricted ourselves to technical questions, [evfermes dans la domaine techraque,") if we have not touched the highest questions of art, we shall have been amply indemnified for this by the results obtained by the benefits due to our labors, and we shall grow stronger from these results. If England has shown us what road to travel to reach the highest glory, Belgium will imitate her, and her future glory will outshine her past." These remarks were received with prolonged applause of approbation. After a unanimous vote of thanks had been passed to the president and the members of the committee of organization, the assembly adjourned sine die. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. I.-ROYAL CONSERVATOIRE AT BRUSSELS.* The Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels was established by royal decree in 1822, as a school for imparting gratuitous instruction in the whole range of instrumental and vocal music to young Belgians of either sex, and received its present designation by royal decree in 1832. The branches taught are: 1. Solfeggio and reading music; 2. Singing — soloand concerted ; 3. The organ ; 4. Stringed and wind instruments and the pianoforte; 5. Thorough bass and accompaniment; 6. Composition; T. The Italian language and Latin pronunciation ; 8. French declamation. There may be, in addition, a class for the plain chant, for acoustics, and for musical aesthetics. A director, professors, supplementary professors, and repetiteurs, hare charge of the instruc- tion. The administration of the institution is under the charge of a commission of seven members, including the president, all of whom are named by the king. It chooses a vice-president and treasurer from among its own body. The burgo- master of Brussels is honorary president. The director and secretary, who is also librarian, are not members. The commission proposes to the Minister, jointly with the director, all the officers. It regulates all the expenses, the discipline, and interior economy, and, in consultation, the director fixes the number of repe- titeurs and pupils in each class. The commission meets once a month, and annu- ally settles the budget of expenses, with the director, and presents a report. Once every three months, at least, the members must make an inspection of the classes. Every member who has been absent from the meetings of the commission for six months ceases to belong to it. The director is appointed by the king, and can be removed by a ministerial decree. He has the general direction of the studies, methods of study, and the discipline of the classes, as regards both professors and pupils. He may attend the deliberations of the commission, but has no voice in it. He examines and admits or receives pupils, reporting the same to the commission. He has charge of the furniture, instruments, and of the property of the establishment generally. With him, assisted by the professors of singing and instrumental music, rests the admission or the rejection of the candidates. Candidates for admission as pupils must be able to read and write, and must bring certificates of birth. They must be above seven years old. After twelve they cannot be admitted to the solfeggio classes, unless they can read music. After fifteen they are not admitted to an instrument class unless they show a cer- * Drawn up from Report of M. Ducpetiaux, and a Special Report of T. Le Neve Foster. 6S4 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. lain aptitude, and can read music. Thej can enter the singing classes up to the age of twenty-five, provided they can read music. Those admitted commence their studies the first Monday in October annually. The pupils cannot be absent without leave from the professor, or more than one day in the month without leave from the director, and only for serious reasons. After prolonged absence they' are re-examined before re-admission. The professors and sub-professors are responsible for the conduct of their classes, under the supervision of the director. Leave of absence may be given them for a fortnight by the director ; for a month by the commission ; for beyond that period by the Minister, under the advice of the director and the commission, but not more than once in the year without the special authority of the Minister. Absent professors are replaced by sub-professors or repetiteurs. The former re- ceive the salary of the professors during their absences. If the absence is un- avoidable for important reasons, the professor loses only half his salary for the time. If absent for a fortnight or for a month with a medical certificate he loses nothing ; beyond that time a quarter of his salary is taken for the benefit of his substitute. Any professor absent without leave or illness is fined two days' salary. Prolonged absence is reported to the Minister, and visited with dismissal or sus- pension. Professors named by the director take part in the practices and public and private performances. The director chooses the repetiteurs from the most dis- tinguished pupils. They have an annual salary, and after two years of approved conduct may succeed to a vacancy as sub-professor. There is an officer termed su- perintendent of studies, who is responsible for the order of the studies, and for the maintenance of discipline in the classes. He registers and makes a daily report of the presence or absence of the teachers and pupils, and must be present a quarter of an hour before and during the time of study. He has under him servants who attend to the classes, fill the ofl&ces of messengers, porters, and orchestra men. He has also the care of the instruments. The library contains — 1. Works on the theory and practice of music for the use of the classes ; 2. Scores and separate parts for the concerts ; 3. Books and music for the instruction of the pupils and for reference. The advanced pupils may borrow library books with the permission of the director, the same being re- gistered, and for not more than a month. In the month of May the director commences his examination of all the students in the Conservatoire in the presence of the professors in charge of each class. He ascertains the progress made in the year, and how far each pupil has advanced in- his education. These examinations, which take place daily, last about six weeks. On the results of these examinations the director determines the dismis- sal of those pupils who have done nothing during the year. This, however, is rare, for there is a great amount of emulation in the school among the students. The director also determines from among the students those who shall be ad- mitted to the competitions. The director examines all the pupils twice a year, and makes a report to the commission. Each professor and teacher makes a re- port of the pupils in his class. The competitive examinations for prizes take place annually in the last week in July, and in the first week in August. After receiving the reports from the pro- fessors, the director admits the pupils for competition, and those who are to ac- company the solos and conduct the classes. The competitions in harmony and solfeggio are conducted with closed doors. Those for instruments and singing PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 685 in public. A jury of five or seven members is appointed by the commission to award \he prizes, of which the director is president. The prizes are given by a majority of votes. In case of an equal number of votes, the director has a second vcrte. The names of the successful candidates are published in the newspapers Each candidate plays or sings one piece at sight, and one which has been previously studied. The prizes, of which the value is annually fixed by the commission, consist of scores and work^ on the theory and history of music, collections of music for pianoforte, voice and solfeggio ; and to the instrumental pupils bow and wind instruments. The prize-holders receive with the prizes a laurel crown and a cer- tificate. The accessits receive a palm. The distribution of prizes takes place if possible in the month after the beginning of the academical year. It is followed by a concert, in which the pupils who have obtained the first prizes are permitted to perform solos. The pupils who obtain the first prizes for their instrumental performances, their singing, their performance on the organ, or for composition, are artists whose education is considered complete, and their studies finished. The term usually required to turn out an artist of talent, complete, comprising a knowledge of composition, is about eight years. Each pupil gets about six hours of teaching in a week. Concerts are given by the professors and pupils of the Co7iservatoire. The commission fix the number with the director, who ar- ranges the days and the programme, and at the beginning of each academical year be publishes in the school a Vst of the professors and pupils who are to take part in the orchestra and chorus at concerts. Tickets for the concerts are sold, and the proceeds distributed among the most distinguished scholars. The town coun- cils of the provincial towns are in the habit of paying the expenses of promising pupils, i. s., of those who obtain the first prizes at the Academies des Beaux Arts in these towns, in order to enable them to follow the classes at Brussels or Liege. There are annually two vacations, from Palm Sunday to the first Sunday after Easter, and from the 15th of August'to the 1st of October. The number of professors required in 1865 for 629 different pupils was as fol- lows : Professors. Pupils. Readingmusic 5 85 So'f^^S- { IZtu} 1»* Bassoon 1 6 Flute 1 5 Cornet 1 10 Trombone 1 t Fre'nch born 1 6 Trumpet 1 4 Hautboy I 9 Clarinet 2 6 Violin , 5 69 Violoncello. 2 25 Double bass 1 4 P'^"°f-'^ ' { iTemlle} "* Singing 2 34 Italian language 1 14 Organ 1 16 Declamation 1 20 Counterpoint 1 19 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. Professors. Pupils. Harmony* 1 42 Practical harmony* ,. 1 19 Accompaniment* 1 11 Total ...44 629 The Conservatoire is supported as follows : Fran.:s. Subsidy from the state 15.540 " " town of Brussels 20.000 '^ '' province i 4,500 Fees from foreign students 2,500 Total 42,540 The expenditure is as follows : General Expenses. Francs. Rent 6,200 Music, &c., and books 3,100 Pianofortes, furniture, and general maintenance of the establishment *7,120 Total >.16,420 Expenses of Tuition, Francs. Director 8.000 Secretary 1,100 Superintendent of studies..... 1,380 Two inspectors of do. 2 440 Accompanyist of studies 740 Tuner '. 200 Porter 180 Organ-blower 150 Twenty -eight professors, from 3,000/. to 1,1'70/ 53.190 Six sub-professors, from 950/. to 600/ 4,500 Eight repetiteurs. at 3*70/ ( Two " 300/ \ 3,020 Two " 400/ I Total 76,100 The director has a private residence in the building of the Conservatoire. The rooms for conducting the teaching of the Conservatoire consist of ten class-rooms, and a large room in which the organ is placed. In it also the smaller concerts are given, the larger concerts and the competitive examinations taking place in the Palais Ducal. The building appropriated to the Conservatoire forms a quadrangle, with a gar- den in the centre. It was formerly the residence of a nobleman, and has been purchased by the government for the use of the Conservatoire. II.-THE CONSERVATOIRE OF MUSIC AT LIEGE. Tlte Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Liege was established as a school of in- struction in instrumental and vocal music in 1827, and received its present desig- nation in 1831. It is supported mainly by an annual grant of $6,000 from the government, and a subsidy from the province and the town of Liege. The ad- * Two courses. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 687 ministration is committed to a commission, composed of the burgomaster of Liege and eight members appointed by the king. Tlie direction of the studies i-, confided to a director, whose appointment, as well as that of the professors and substitutes, (27 in all,) belongs to the Minister of the Interior. There is a secre- tary, a treasurer, and a librarian, (the latter registers the attendance at the classes, ) appointed by the commission. ^The instruction consists of— 1. Musical reading and solfeggio; 2. Singing, individual and collective ; 3. Instruments, bow, wind, and keyed ; 4. Harmony,, and accompaniment from a figured bass ; 5. Counterpoint, fugue, and composi- tion. There is also a course of Italian and Latin pronunciation and of French declamation. All persons intended for the profession have a right to the benefits of the Con- servatoire gratis, but amateurs must pay 80/. per annum. There are scholarships for those who have a decided talent for music, and who can prove that they have not the means of continuing their musical studies without assistance. The inhabi- tants of the town have no advantage over strangers. The Conservatoire is sup- ported by government, but the town gives a subsidy. The pupils have two lessons a week. Each professor has to attend twice a week for three hours at a time, and this has to be divided equally between all the mem- bers in his class, but the number may not exceed twelve. The report from M. Soubre, the director, states that the number of pupils on his accession to office in 1861 was 258, and in the year 1862-3 reached 498. He considers great benefit to have been derived from the establishment of extra classes for concerted music, one for the organ, and one for declamation. Four concerts were given, in which there were about 220 executants, including H instrument- alists. In 1863 the ordinary receipts were : Francs. Subsidy from the state 30,440 " " province 4,000 " " town ^ 13,000 Produce of the fees 2,000 49,440 Extra receipts 2,652 The expenses were : Francs. Director 6,000 Twenly-six professors and several agreges^ (1,200/.) 36,000 Employes, prizes, librarj^, warming, lighting, &c 7,440 46,440 Extra for instruments, furniture, &c 2,652 Programme of Studies. 1. Class for composition : Study of double counterpoint and fugue; composi- tion for symphony, dramatic, religious, and so-called chamber music ; analysis of best works of each class. Books : Courses of counterpoint and fugue, by Che- rubini and Fetis. Number of pupils, 9. 2. Class for hnrmony, (male:) Study of harmony, theory, and practice ; exer- cises written for four voices, four instruments, and pianoforte. Books : Treatise on Harmony, by Catel ; On the Theory of Harmony, by Fetis. Number of pu- pils, 22. 3. Course of practical harmony, (female :) Studies on the pianoforte, from the "Partimenli" of Fenaroli ; Practical Harmony, by Samuel. The pupils are prac- tised in playing on the pianoforte at sight by score. Number of pupils, 12. 688 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 4. Class for bow instruments and piano: Study of duets, trios, quartets, and quintets, by Haydn. Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann. Number of pupils, 17. 5. Class for bow instruments : Study of trios, quartets, quintets, &c., by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Reicha. Number of pupils, 11. 6. Class for wind instruments : Study of trios, quartets, quintets, &c., by Mo- zart, Beethoven, and Reicha. Number of pupils, 12. 7. Class for concerted singing, (female:) Study of oratorios, dramatic pieces, and religious music, by Handel, Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Weber, Cheru- bini, Schumann, &c. Number of pupils, 55. 8. Clnss for concerted singing, (boys and men:) The same works as Class 7. Number of pupils, 83. 9. Orchestral practice: Symphonies and overtures of Haydn, Mozart, Beetho- ven, Mendelssohn, Weber, and Cherubini. Number of pupils. 28. 10 to 14. Classes for solfeggio, (in nine sections :) Elementary study of the in- tervals ; reading and dictation from the methods of the Conservatoire of Paris, the solfeggio of Italy, and the elementary solfeggio by M. Soubre. The upper depart- ment practises change of clefs, and further study of the theory of music. Num- ber of pupils, 176. 15 and 16. Singing classes for men: Study of vocalization, dramatic and re- ligious pieces ; methods of the Conservatoire of Paris and Manuel Garcia ; vocal studies by Crescentini, Bordogni, and Masset. Number of pupils, 23. 17 and 18. Singing classes, (female:) Same studies. Number of pupils, 23. 19 to 22. Classes for pianoforte for young pupils : Gradual studies, up to the execution of the works of FJummel, Weber, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Listz, &c.; methods of Adam, Kalkbrenner, and Fetis ; Encyclopaedia of the Pianoforte, by Zimmerman. Number of pupils, 41. 23 to 29. Classes for pianoforte, (male:) Same studies. Number of pupils, 70. 30 to 34. Classes for violin : Prom the beginning, to the execution of concertos by Viotti, Rode, Kreutzer, De Beriot, Vieuxtemps, Ferdinand, and David; meth- ods of Baillot and De Beriot. Number of pupils, 41. 35. Class for violoncello : From the beginning, to the practice of the works of Romberg, Molique, Servais, titution in an- other country, whicli had to be titted into the existing institutions of an entirely local character, but to supply, in a symmetrical and complete manner, every existing deficiency in the whole national sj'stem of higher education. The founders of the Swiss Polytechnicum did not therefore ask themselves the ques- tion : What is the smallest and least costly scale on whicli we can begin to make good a few technical deficiencies ? — but they asked themselves this other question : What is there in the science, the philosophy, the learning, tlie art, and the pr.ictical skill of modern times, which can be learned and taught, or which has been taught or learned in an}' other scliool of knowledge, but for which there is no adequate provision already made for teaching to our own students in the universities of the land? — and those things we will see to having thoroughly taught. They soon found that the German universities had long been in the habit of teaching far deeper science, f\ir larger philosophy, and far profo under art, than the Swiss in the isolation of their mountains had ever dreampt of They found in the manufactories of Prussia, Belgium, France, and England, structures, macliinery, and manufacturing processes utterly unknown to the skilled men of Switzerland. What the Swiss did not alread}^ know, it was quite plain they would be unable to teach to the young generation ; and so the Zurich Polytechnicum had to become, and is a cosmopolitan establishment. The founders and governors of that institution discarded at once the vulgar and pestilent notion of patronage. Tliere were no places in that university to be given away. What they did, on the contrary, was to search the annals of pure philosophy and applied sci- ence, for the names of those men who were best known for science, skill, and love of teaching; and these men from every country they selected, and in- treated to come and teach their children, considering only how they could best make it agreeable and convenient to them to become the teachers and patterns of Swiss youth. When I say that the Swiss Avere profuse of their wealth for the foundation of this cosmopolitan university, I say a great deal more than these words will seem to imply, when they are read in England. We are a wealthy, profuse, and even, as some think, a wasteful people. The Swiss, on the contrary, lead a hard-working but sparing life — frugal even to the extreme — we might call them niggardly or penurious ; but though their personal wants are so easily satisfied, such is their patriotism, and such their love for the Avell-being of the community in which they live, that to a stranger's eye they might seem ex- travagant or wasteful. Their common schools are mansions; their academies have tiie air of town-halls. The Polytechnicum at Zurich is larger than Buck- ingham Palace; the apartments of students and professors, the lecture-halls and museums, are large, lofty, well aired, well lighted. The building itself is the chef-d-oe-ivre of a German architect : and certainly, if we judge it by its fit- ness for its purpose, rather than by profuse decoration or lavish embellishment, it is an admirable structure. Even physically, therefore, or materially, it is a model institution, while morally it teaches us this lesson: that there is one na- tion in the world sufficiently disinterested and patriotic to save money by extreme self-denial, in order to lavish it with profusion upon the intellectual training of the rising generation for the practical duties of citizenship. This 744 "^H^ SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. self-denial, generosity, and large wisdom, have been fully rewarded by the issue.* The youth of the country have flocked with avidity to Zurich, and the young- men thus trained are, with equal avidity, taken out into the public works and manufacturing institutions of Switzerland ; and whether it arise from this cause or some other, it is an astonishing fact that the Swiss, remote from the sea, that highway of merchandise; remote from coal and iron, those staples of our man- ufacturing industry; the Swiss in their far vallies are rapidly growing a dex- terous and successful manufacturing people. From us they have taken away our Coventry ribbon manufacture ; from Lyons they have appropriated a large portion of their famous silk weaving ; in watches and clocks they have long kept the rest of the world going; and tlieir intelligent, educated, skilled men are prized all over Europe. Two hundred and fiftj' Swiss avail themselves of the advantages of their technical imiversity. But it will be thought a far higher proof of the value of such an institution when I add, that it has attracted students from nearly every civilized country in Europe; and that, of the 589 students who frequent its halls, 250 are Swiss, and the other 339, English, Americans, French, Germans. Poles, Hungarians, Russians, Italians, Dutch, and Belgians. This technical university is governed by a permanent council, consisting of a president, vice-president, three councilors, three substitutes, and a secretary; and they have immediately under them an executive chosen from among the professors. The president, Kappeler, is the real governor of the institution. He represents also the central government of Switzerland, by whom he is named ; and it is on his tirmness as a ruler, on his wisdom in the selection of professors and teachers, and on his tact in the management of professors and students, that much of the success of this institution has depended. He hap- pens, fortunately, to have a rare instinct for the discovery of ability in men, especially in young men ; and he is continually making search in foreign uni- versities for the rising professor who has not yet obtained adequate distinction at home. He has accordingly surrounded himself with teachers who unite the enthusiasm of youth in teaching, to full knowledge fresh from the fountain of learning. It is one of the evils, however, of this system, that the school be- comes a sort of nursery for professors, and that other technical universities are much given to filching away from this, its 3'oung and rising men. The system, however, on the whole, works admirably, for there is by this means a continual infusion of young blood to maintain the circulation of fresh thought, and the attractions of the university itself are strong enough to retain in the list of pro- fessors men whom the well informed among ourselves will at once recognize as the most distinguished men of their profession. The vice-president of this institution is Dr. Alfred Escher, a statesman of large views and unquestioned patriotism, who may be regarded as, more than any other individual, the founder of this national institution; while the others are men who have attained the highest distinction in the Canton they represent, some of them well known in England. * Another competent English observer, Prof. Arnold, in the chapter on the schools of Switzer- land, in his Report on Schools and Universities on the Continent, speaks as follows of the liber- ality of another town in this Canton : The town of VVinterthur has established higher schools for boys and girls, which, though not cantontil but municipal, emulate the h'glier schools of Zurich in their organiziition, and far excel them in tlieir school buildings. It is the most remarkable place for its school establishments in Europe. It is the second town fnr imp(;rtance in the Canton Zurich, and thrives by its manufac- tures of muslins, but it has not more than 8,000 inhabitants. The schools of tliis small place recall the municipal palaces of Flanders and Italy. Tiiey are objects of the first importance, and would be admirable any where. Besides the e'ementnry schools there is a JilitttLchalc, un In- duftrie-sc/ivle, and a gymnasium, all built within the hist twenty-five years, and which have cn.st the t.iwn not less than JeiOO.OOO, (.$.500,000.) I fi)und eighty scholars in the gymnasium. I lieard a class in Livy — the performance was as good as that which I remember in the fifth form of Win- chester or Ri'.gby. The grant from the Canton to the schools of Winterthur is £80 (S400,) and the town spends $10,000 a year. The balance of the annual expense is raised by school-fees, which are fixed by law at from 3 francs to 5 francs a year in the primary -schools, and in the higher 24 francs, which constitutes an inducement to punctual attendance. One-half of the avails of the tuition-fees is paid to the teacher, which operates to quicken his zeal to secure the attendance of pupils. FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. ^45 LAW CONCERNING A FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, 1851. The Federal Assembly of the Swiss Confederation in confunnity with Article 29 of the Federal Constitution, and after having examined the proposition of the Federal Council decrees : L GENERAL REGULATIONS. § 1 . A Federal Polytechnic School is erected. § 2. The object of the Federal Polytechnic School is to prepare young men theoretically, and as far as possible also practically wnth a constant view to the special industries, and the public service of Switzerland, viz : 1. Construction of roads, railroads, canals, and bridges. 2. Industrial mechanics. 3. Industrial chemistry. The Polytechnic School may also be used for the partial education of teachers for technical institutions. § 3. Instruction at the Polytechnic School commences with that grade which pupils of the Cantonal and City industrial schools reach. § 4. The Polyreclmic School is to have three divisions, viz: 1. Civil engineer- ing. 2. Industrial mechanics. 3. Industrial chemistry. Instruction in two or all three divisions may he given in common, in so far as the special ol)ject of each division is not thereby injured. § 5. In the_;z/-.3-^ division of the Polytechnic School, instruction is imparted in the following branches: 1. Topography and geodesy, with practical exercises and topographical drawing. 2. Building of roads, railroads, bridges and canals, likewise with the necessary practicid and graphic exercises. 3. Theory of machines, (" maschin- enlehre.") 4. Analytical mechanics. 5. Architecture, principally of construc- tion, ("constructionslehre.") 6. Mechanical technology. 7. Technical physics. 8. Higher matliematical analysis. 9. Spheric trigonometry and analytical geometry. 10. Descriptive geometry. 11. Elements of astronomy. 12. Geognosy. 13. Free hand drawing. § 6. In the szcond division of the Federal Polytechnic School, instruction is imparted in the following branches: 1. Theory of machines. 2. Construction of machines, exercises in making projects and drawing of machinery. 3. Elements of topography with practical and drawing exercises, and elements of geodesy. 4. Elements of road, rail- road, bridge, and canal building. 5.-14. The same subjects as those enumera- ted under No. 4.-13 of the first division. § 7. In the third division of the Polytechnic School, instruction is imparted in the following branches : 1. Analytical chemistry, with practical exercises in the laboratory. 2. Tech- nical chemistry, with practical exercises in the laboratory. 3. Technical pliysics. 4. Elementary theory of machines. 5. Mechanical technology. 6. G-eognosy. 7. Phyisology of plants. 8. Free hand drawing. § 8. In the order of the various subjects enumerated in the preceding para- graphs, change may be made if occasion should demand it. § 9. Instruction in all divisions of the Polytechnic School is subdivided into courses. The first and second divisions have each three, and the third two courses. Each course lasts one year. They commence in spring. § 10. All the courses of all the divisions are held every year. § 11. The distribution of the different subjects of the various divisions in the annual courses, will be settled in a way previously regulated. . § 12. All subjects of instruction at the Polytechnic School are taught only in one lany:uage. either French or German, according to the choice of the teacher appointed for each subject. § 13. A fund is created for the Federal Polytechnic School, y § 14. The sum of four thou.^and francs is annually paid into this fund. Besides this there is annually paid into this fund, a sum corresponding to the estimate of income and expenditure made at the beginning of the year, from '^46 FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. the Federal Treasury. Donations and legacies made to the Polytechnic School are always. added to this fund. Donations and legacies made for special purposes, and not for the Polytechnic School in general, are managed separate from tlie Federal Polytechnic School fund. §15. The interest of the Polytechnic School fund is to be added to the capital, until the latter has reached the sum of two hundred thousand francs. As soon as this is the case, the interest is used to meet the current expenses of the Polytechnic School. ^ § 16. When the Polytechnic School fund has reached the sura of two million francs, no more shall be paid into it Irom the Federal Treasury. II. THE STUDENTS. § 17. Students to the Polytechnic School are always admitted in spring, at the commencement of the annual course. Only in exceptional cases can students be admitted in the middle of the course. § 18. Students can be admitted to the lower as well as to the higher annual courses of the different divisions. §19. Candidates for admission to the Polytechnic School must be able to produce: — 1. A certificate of good moral conduct. 2. To show a sufficient knowledge of the French and German languages, to be able to attend lectures in both these languages. 3. To show a sufficient knowledge of the subjects which is presupposed in candidates for the various divisions. 4. To certify that they have entered the eighteenth year of their age. § 20. Every student has to belong to one of the three divisions of the school. § 21. As a general rule only those are permitted to attend the lectures who in prujjria fo)-7ria have been admitted as students. § 22. All subjects of instruction are obUgatory. § 23. Students wlio desire to attend lectures not belonging to their division, .must have a special permit. § 24. The teachers must, by frequent catechising, satisfy themselves that the students thoroughly understood all that has been taught. § 25. The more advanced students shall have an opportunity of visiting important machine-shops and industrial establishments. § 26. For the furtherance of scientific zeal, prizes will be given for the best solution of certain set problems. § 27. Oppoftuuity shall be given to pass in each of the three divisions, theoretical and practical examinations. § 28. Students must pay an annual lecture-fee not to exceed seven francs, for the weekly hour of the annual course. § 29. The admi.ssion and examination fees will be settled by a future regula- tion. § 30. Young Swiss, who from their own cantons, receive stipends for their education as civil engineers, industrial mechanics or industrial chemists, must be obliged, by their cantonal government, to attend the Federal Polytechnic School. § 31. Talented young Swiss citizens, who wish to follow the courses at thet Federal Polytechnic School, but who neither have the means themselves nor can obtain them from their own cantons, shall as far as possible, be aided by stipends from the Federal government. § 32. Poor but talented students of the Federal Polytechnic School may, whether .they draw stipends or not, be freed from paying the lecture-fees. HI. THE TEACHERS. § 33. All teachers at the Federal Polytechnic School must be formally in- stalled and draw a regular salary. § 34. They are either professors or assistants. § 35. Professors have an independent sphere of activity, assistants only a subordinate one. § 36. The professors are either ordinary or extraordinary. § 31. Ordinary professors have a larger salary, and perform more duties. § 38. Professors are appointed for life. FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. '^4'/ § 39. The total annual expenses for salaries are not to exceed the sura of forty.-six thousand francs. § 40. The scliool-fees are divided among the professors, according to the number of lectures held by each. §41. A fund is instituted, from which pensions are paid to superannuated professors, to professors" widows and orphans. Pensions or indemnihcations to professors who have been removed, are paid from the Federal treasury. § 42. The pension fund is maintained by a certain per centage of the school- fees, and if necessary, by a per centage on the professors salaries, the latter not to exceed one per cent. IV. THE teachers' CONFERENCE. § 43. All the professors of the Federal Polytechnic School form the teachers' conference. § 44. The Rector of the Polytechnic School is president of the conference. ^ 45 . The Rector is chosen from among the professors for the period of one year. §46. The teachers' conference must superintend the scientific life of the institution in general and in particulars, and watch the moral character and diligence of the pupils. § 47. As regards the subjects mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the teachei's' conference must make an annual report to the Federal Government. Besides this the teachers' conference is intrusted with the immediate mainten- ance of discipline among the students. § 48. The teachers' conference must decide in cases of pupils wishing to attend lectures not strictly belonging to their division, § 49. Tlie teachers' conference must criticise the prize essays, &c. § 50. The teachers' conference decides at the end of the annual course, which pupils ought to advance to higher courses. § 51. The teachers' conference arranges and superintends the various exami- nations. § 52. The essential duty of the Rector is to direct and superintend the busi- ness of the teachers' meeting. V. THE FEDERAL COUlSrCIL, AND SCHOOL COUNCIL. § 53. The Swiss Federal Oouncil is the supreme authority of the Federal Polytechnic School. ' § 54. Its resolutions regarding the Federal Polytechnic School are taken on motion of the Dep-irtment of the Interior. § 55. Immediately after the Federal Council in the superintendence of the school comes the School Council. § 56. The School Council consists of a president and two members. They are chosen by the Federal Council from among all Swiss citizens who are voters. In this Council there are never to be two or more citizens of one and the same canton at the same time. The president is not allowed to have Siiiy other oflBce, nor to have any business carried on on his account. § 57. The official term of the School Council is three years. Immediately after every new election for the Federal Council, the School Council is also elected anew. § 58. The School Council holds its sessions in the city, where the Polytechnic School is located. § 59. Its meetings are called by the President as often as there is any bU':iuess on liand. The President must call a meeting of the School Council whenever the Federal Council, or two other members demand it. § 60. The President must live in the city where the Federal Polytechnic School is located. §61. The President has a salary of five thousand francs: the members of the School Council receive a remuneration for each day they are in session, and mileage. § 62. The secretariate of the School Council will be arranged by the Federal Council. § 63. The Federal Council has likewise to regulate the management of the school treasury, the pension fund, &c. 748 FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. § 64. In important cases the Federal Council will decide after consulting the School Council, and if desirable, the teachers' conferences. ^ 65. Important regulations are promulgated by the Federal Council, those less important by the School Council. § 66. The professors and assistants are appointed by the School Council, and their salaries fixed by the same body, with the approval of the Federal Council. § 67. The Federal Council alone accepts the resignation of professors and assistants. § 68. The Federal Council may retire a professor or assistant on account of age or sickness, with at least half of his former salary as pension. § 69. If a professor or assistant has been guilty of such dereliction of duty as makes his removal from office desirable, he is to be removed on motion of the School Council by the Federal Council without a pension. He may, however, sue for an indemnification in the Federal courts of justice. § 70. Further regulations will be made defining the powers of the Federal Council and the School Council, as to the school funds. g 71. The Federal Council subrriits to the Federal Assembly, on motion of the School Council, the annual estimates for the Federal Polytechnic School, as part of the budget for the whole republic. § 72. The Federal Council decides, on motion of the School Council, on all the annual bills of the Federal Polytechnic School. § 73. The Federal Council, on motion of the School Council, decides on the acceptance of donations or legacies made to the Polytechnic School for special purposes. § 74. The School Council decides on the distribution of the Federal stipends, the exemption from school and other fees. § 75. Tiie School Council remits to the Federal Council an annual report on the condition of the Federal Polytechnic School and for this purpose receives the necessary information from the teachers' conference. §76. The President of the School Council has to present a motion for dispatching the business placed before the Council. § 77. In the absence of both members, the President carries on all current business. THE LOCATION OF THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. § 78. The canton and city where the Federal Polytechnic School is located, must, — 1. Place all scientific collections at the free disposal of the Federal Polytechnic School. 2. See that such collections as may be the property of corporations are fully made available to the Federal Pol^'technic School. 3. Provide the buildings required for the School Council, the teachers' conference, school festivals, lectures, laboratories, workshops, library, museum, servants of the school, and for gymnastic exercises 4. Pay an annual sum of sixteen thousand francs towards the 'expenses of the Federal Polytechnic School, in quarterl}^ installments. This annual contribution diminishes from the time when the interest of the Polytechnic School fund can be used for the benefit of the school, by one-fifth of the amount of interest of that fund. § 79. the officers, teachers and servants of the Federal Polytechnic School, in their relation to the laws and authorities of the canton in which the school is located, are to be treated exactly as all other Federal officers and officials. § 80. The students of the Federal Polytechnic School are subject to the general penal police and civil laws of the canton, in which the school is located. For transgression of all special regulations made by the authorities of the school, the students are punished by such authorities exclusively. TEMPORARY REGULATIONS. § 81. In designating the canton and city within which the Federal Polytech- nic School is to be located, the same course is to be followed as in the location of the Federal capital. § 82. Two months from the date when the offer is made, the authorities of the respective canton or city shall return their answer to the Federal Council. § 83. This law goes into operation from the date of its passage. The Federal Council is to take the necessary measures for carrying it into effect. THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. 749 (JOVERNMENT OF THE TECHNICAL UNIYERSITY. A. SWISS SCHOOL-COUNCIL. President, Mons, C. Kappeler. Vice-President, Dr. A. Escher. Professor Dr. Bern. Studer. Members, \ Couucilor Aug. Keller. Professor Pictet de la Rive. Director Aime Humbert. Deputies, \ Councilor A. Y. Planta. Choirmaster Jos. Ghiringlielli. Secretary,. Mons. J. G-. Baumann. B. COMMITTEE. Director, Mons. E. Landolt. Deputy, Dr. Gustavus Zenner. Secretary of Committee, Mons. J. Rudolf. The teaching of the Polytechnic School is the work of 51 teachers, of whom 31 are regular professors, 10 assistant-professors, and 16 private teachers and lecturers. Each of these gives several courses of lectures or of private instruc- tion, and the whole number of subjects taught or courses of lectures this year (1868) is 145, exclusive of a large number. of additional or extra subjects, which do not form essential parts of the regular curriculum of instruction. These 145 subjects of instruction are comprehended in the following list: PROFESSORSHIPS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. Prof. Arduini. 1. Storia comparatia della lingua e dei dialetti Italiani, 2. Scrittori d'arte e artisti, il Cellini et il Vasarl 3. II Machiavelli. 4. Esercizi varg. di lingua. Prof. Dr. Behn-Eschenburg. 5. The English historians. 6. Shakspeare'a " King Lear," translated and explained. 7. English exercises and grammar. Prof. Dr. Bohmert. 8. General economy. 9. Finance. 10. Lectures and discussions on political economy. Prof. Dr. Bolley. 11. Technical ebemical practice. 12. Bleaching, printing, and dyeing. 13. Manufacture of chemical products. 14. Glass and potter}'-. Prof. Dr. Cherbuliez. 15. Political economy. 16. International law. 17. Free trade, exchange, and protective duties. Prof. Dr. Christoffel. 18. Differential and integral calculus. 18 a. Exam- inations. 19. Theory of equations. 19 a. Examinations. Prof. Dr. Cramer. 20. Elements of botany. 21. Universal botany, 22. Microscopic observations. Prof. Culmann. 23. Earth- works, stone bridges, and tunnels. 23 a. Repe- tition. 24. Practical construction. 25. Roads and canals. !Prof. Dupratsse. 26. Droit civil. 27. Droit administratif. 28. Droit for- estier. 29. Droit commercial. Dr. Egli (private tutor.) 30. Physical geography, (inorganic.) 31. Examin- ations. 32. Drawing for historical, geographical, and economic studies. 33. History of geology. 34. Geographical phenomena ; Abyssinia, Gulf- stream, Nile, Canal of Suez, &c. 35. Palestine — geographically and archse- ologically. Prof. Escher v. d. Linth. 36. General geology. 37. Technical geology. Dr. Fehr (private tutor.) 38. Exposition of sculpture in the archjeological museum. Prof. Dr. Fiedler. 39. Representative geometry, with examinations. 39 a. Exercises in two groups, each one hour. 40. Plane geometry. 41. Ele- ments of the theory of determinate and rectangular coordinates. 42. Geometry of curves of the third order. ^ Prof. Dr. Frey. 43. Zoology. 43 a. Examination. ^50 THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICDM. Mr. Fritz (private tutor.) 44 Technical drawing (preparatory course.) 45. Teclmical drawing (first and second course of the chemical technical di- vision.) 46. Elements of machinery. 47. Machine-drawing. 48. Lec- tures on machine-construction. Dr. Geiser (private tutor.) 49. Introduction to synthetic geometry. 50. Selections from the higher parts of geometry. Prop. Gladbach. 51. Construction of buildings. 52. Plan-drawing. 53. Engineering plan-drawing. Mr. Harlaciier (private tutor.) 54. Theory and construction of girders. 55. Manufacture of wrought-iron and cast-iron girders. Prof. Dr. Heer, 66. Pharmaceutical botany. 57. The plants of geology. 58. On fossil insects. Mr. Hug (private tutor.) 59. Differential and integral calculus. Prof. Keiser. 60. Practice in modeling ornaments, and in stone-carving. Prof. Keller. 61. German language. Prof. Dr. Kenngott. 62. Mineralogy. 62 a. Examination. 63. Characters of minerals. 64. Museum of mineralogy. Dr. Kinkel. 65. History of ancient art, from Egypt to Pompeii. 66. History of renaissance art (architecture and sculpture.) Prof. Kopp. 67. Encyclopedia of forestry. 68. Theory of climates. 68 a. Examination. 69. Excursions and practical experiments. Prof. Kronauer. 70. Mechanical technology (spinning, wreaving, paper- making, &c.) Prof. Dr. KuNDT. 71. Technical physics. 71a. Examination. 72. Theory of light. 73. Experimental physics. Mr. Kunzler (private tutor.) 74. Mechanics. 75. Differential calculus. 76. Technical mechanics. Prof. Landolt. 77. Theory of forestry. 78. Foresters' duties. 79. For- estry (trade.) 79 a. Examinations. 80. Excursions and practical appli- cations. Prof. Lasius. 81. Construction of buildings (second course.) 82. Construc- tion of buildings (third course.) 83. Plan-drawing and perspective (second course.) Prof. Ludewig. 84. Construction of machinery. 84 a. Examination. 85. Chapters from the history of mechanical construction, with practical ex- amples, &c. Dr. Mayer (private tutor.) 86. Paleontology. Prof. Mequet. 87. Differential and integral calculus (pupils of the first year.) 87 a. Examination. 88. Differential and integral calculus (pupils of the second year.) Dr. Merz (private tutor.) 89. Pharmaceutical chemistry. 90. Examination in inorganic chemistry. 91. On scents and perfumes. 92. On alcohols. M. MoscH (private tutor.) 93. Geology of Switzerland, with regard to its influence on trade, &c. (gratis.) Prop. Dr. Modsson. 94. Experimental physics ; first half. 94 a. Examina- tion in French. 94 &. Examination in German. 95. Chemical physics. 95 a. Examination, Prof. Orelli. 96. Differential and integral calculus (school of architecture, first course.) 97. Mathematics (preliminary course,) algebra, geometry, &c. 97 a. Exercises. 97 h. Examination. Prof. Pestalozzi. 98. Construction of streets and canals. 99. Practical geometry (in German and French.) Dr. Piccard (private tutor.) 100. Inorganic and experimental chemistry. 100 a. Examination in groups. 101. Toxicology. 102. Pharmaceutical chemistry. Prof. Dr. Frym. 103. Analytical geometry of the plane, with exercises. 104. Introduction to the theory of functions. Prof. Rambert. 105. Histoire litteraire, Corneille et Racine. 106. Exercises superieurs, pour les eleves fran^ais. 107. Exercises superieurs, pour les eleves allemands. 108. Exercises elementaires. 109. Langue fran9ais€ (preliminary course.) Prof. Dr. Reye. 110. Introduction to the theorj'^ of numbers. 111. Analyt- cal mechanics. THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. 751 Prof. Dr. Rutttmann, 112. Swiss federal constitution and rights. Prof. Dr. Sciierr. 113. Twelve literary world-known cliaracters — Homer, ..^sclijius, &c. &c. 114. Lessing, GiJethe, Schiller, their lives, 'Works, and companions. 115. History of the nineteenth century. Prof. Dr. Semper. 116. Comparison of styles. 117. Designing. Dr. v. Seckexdorfe (private tutor.) 118, Taxes and revenues of woods and forests. Mr. Stabler (teacher.) 119. Ornamental drawing, decoration, color, &c. 120. Decoration of private and public buildings. Prof. Dr. Stabler. 121. Experimental chemistry. 121 a. Examination. 122. Selections from chapters on chemistry. 123. Practical chemical experimonts. Prof. Stocker. 124. Geometry of space, algebra, trigonometry. 124 a. Ex- ercises. 125. Mathematics of forestry. Mr. Stutz (private tutor ) 126. History of the creation, with regard to the Bible. Prof. Ulrich. 127. Landscape-drawing, in pencil, sepia, and water-colors. Prof. Veith. 128. Pumps, turbines, and water-wheels. 129. Construction of macliinery. Prof. Vogeli. 130. History of Switzerland, 1474-1515. Dr. "Weith (private tutor.) 131. History of chemistry, a.32. Review of inor- ganic chemistry according to modern principles. 133. Groups of Cynans. 134. Chemistry of animal bases and acids. Mr. Werdmuller. 135. Figure-drawing. Prof. Wild. 136. Topographj^ 137. Geodesy. 138. Plan-drawing. 139. Map-drawing. Prof. Dr. Wolf. 140. Astronomy. 140 a. Examination (for the engineering division.) 140 6. Examination (for pupils of the sixth division.) 141. Elements of astronomy. Mr. Wolfexsperger (musical director.) 142. Harmony. Prof. Dr. Zeuner. 143. Technical mechanics. 143 a. Examination in groups. 144. Theoretical mechanics (heat and steam — steam-engines.) 145. The- ory of insurance (calculations of probability and mathematical statistics.) In addition to these, there are assistants. In running one's eye over this large list of teachers and subjects to be taught, the e^'-e of the English parent or guardian would find itself hopelessly over- whelmed with emharras de richesses^ But such a contingency has been foreseen, and admirably provided for, even without encroaching on that perfect liberty of the individual of which we English think and talk so much. The student of the Polytechnicum is at perfect liberty to attend what courses he pleases, and to neglect all he does not like. He may go to the Polytechnicum either for business or pleasure; either to qualify himself for some special duty in life, or to study things in general, and thus far our notions of liberty are here realized. But in this free manner of study comparatively few students enter themselves. Out of the whole number of 762, only 173 are free students — the remaining 589 prefer to study, according to rule and method, for some specitic aim in life. There is an organized curriculum, prepared by the governors and tiie pro- fessors, wliich affords the parent or the pupil all the best advice of matured wisdom as to tlie course of study which the student should pursue during the three years of his university career. These studies are parceled out over a period of three years, and each year is divided into two courses — the summer and winter lialf-year. The student is further assisted by being told what are the subjects with which he should be acquainted before entering the university, so as best to avail himself of its advantages ; and there is this further kindly provision made for him, that if he is unfortunate enough to have been badly prepared in any of the essential points of preliminary study, a special series of preparatory studies are provided as an aid to make good his defects and bring him up to the level of better-prepared pupils. In addition to its vast living organization of professors, masters and tutors, the Zuricli Polytechnicum is rich in the apparatus of instruction, viz., in a large astronomical observatory, a chemical and meclianical laborator}'- for practical work, a chemical laboratory of professional teaching, a collection of models, 752 THE SWISS FEDERAL TOLYTECHNICUM. drawings, &c., for architectural and mechanical illustrations, a botanical garden, cabinet of geology, zoology, &c. &c. EXPENSE OF TECHXICAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. In conclusion we have only to say what this vast engine ibr the improve- ment of the Swiss people costs the Confederation. The Englishman who studies these figures should remember that it is the provision made for a population of only 2.500,000 ; for the most part only agricultural peasants, inhabiting a moun- tainous and comparatively sterile country. In measuring the expense we should also bear in mind that francs go as far in Zurich as crowns in London. To the foundation of the Polytechnical University the Federal Government contributed 20.000/., and the Canton of Zurich 136,000Z. The annual expenses and contributions of the students are : Income. 1. Loan from the State treasury, £10,000 2. Loan from the Canton of Zurich, 640 3. Pupils' fees, 2,653 4. Loan from the Canton and State of Zurich for collec- tions and museums, , 166 Total income, £13,459 Expenses. 1. Government of the University, £1,680 2. Salaries of professors and teachers, 9,500 3. Collections and museums, 2,146 4. Prizes,. ... 40 5. Furniture, &c., 93 Total expenses, £13,459 Such is our model university ; and I ought not to leave it without testifying to its perfect success. My first acquaintance with this university arose out of the incident of a young relation of my own happening to desire to obtain an education in a branch of civil engineering, and finding it impossible to obtain that education in England. Fortunately for him, an Englishman of science, well acquainted with foreign education, recommended to him the technical uni- versity of Zurich. He went there; he passed through its courses; returned to England ; e^itered himself in the usual manner as a learner in the works of an eminent engineer. Here the advantages of Zurich soon showed themselves unmistakeably ; his superiority was so evident that he soon rose over the heads of much older men, and long before his, apprenticeship expired, he had already been intrusted with heavy responsibilities and important duties, which could not be intrusted to men much older and more experienced, but less skillfully trained, and less highly educated. This youth was a standing example of the practical excellence of Zurich. This was the incident which afterwards in- duced me to study carefully the organization of that institution, with the deter- mination to do my best towards obtaining for young Englishmen equal privi- leges in their own country; and I may say that the result of a practical- acquaintance with that institution, and of personal intimac}' with many of those who have been its pupils, is to satisfy me that this Swiss university is a noble proof of the wisdom of her patriots and statesmen — of the enlightened gener- osity of the countrymen and citizens of Zurich ; and that the institution they have founded is, in its aim, its organization, and its practical effect, well worthy of the study and the rivalry of any statesmen and any citizens who do not be- lieve their countrymen unworthy of high intellectual cultivation, and sound technical training for life. We append the latest Programme of Subjects of Instruction, arranged in eight schools or divisions, together with a brief description of the building erected by the Canton of Zurich for the accommodation of the Polytechnicum. SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, ZURICH. PROGRAMME FOR 1856-7, ESPECIALLY THE FIRST HALF-YEAR. SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION, CLASSED BY DIVISIONS. FIRST DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. First Tear. — 1. a. Art of building, 3 hours ; Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. 6. Architectural design and exercises on building, 3 afternoons, (6 hours per week in winter, 9 in summer ;) Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 2. Mechanics, 6 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 3. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 6. Exercises on differential and integral calculus, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 4. a. Stone-cutting: and as introductory, theory of contacts and intersections of curved surfaces, 3 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6; Saturday 6 to "7. h. Drilling and exercises on stone-cutting, 1 hour ; not yet determined. 5. Designing the figure, (5 hours in winter, 9 summer ;) Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 2 to 4, or 5, 6. Modehng in earth or plaster, 3 hours; Monday, 1 to 4. In all, 16 hours of lessons; 16 to 22 hours of exercises. Second Tear.— I. Art of building civil e'difices (continuation of course of con- struction,) 3 hours; Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 11 to 12, 2. Art of building in middle ages and in the Renaissance. (During the second half-year, modern art of building,) 4 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 7. 3. Architectural design, sketches a«d detailed drawings of plans of buildmgs, (6 to 9 hours;) Tuesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 4. a. Perspective and theory of shadows, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 6 to 7. h. Exercises on the same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 5. Construction of roads and bridges, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 9, and another hour not determined, 6. Theory of machines, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 10. 7. Designing the figure, 2 or 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 8. Modeling in earth or plaster, 2 to 3 hours ; Saturday, 2 to 4 or 6„ In all, 15 hours of lessons; and 11 to 16 of exercises. Third Tear. — 1. Art of building in the middle ages and during the Renais- sance. (In the second half-year, modern art of building,) 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 3 to 7. 2. Drafting and detail drawings of architectural plans, 4 afternoons; Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 3. History of the Renaissance, 4 hours ; Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Satuday, 5 to 6. 4. Designing the figure, 1 afternoon, 2 or 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 5. a. Geology, 4 hours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. b. Drilling on geology, 1 hour; not yet fixed. In all, 12 hours of lessons, and at least 3 afternoons of exercies. SECOND DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENeiNEERING. First Tear. — 1. Topography, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 10 toll. 43 Y54 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 2. Designing plans, 2 or 3 hours; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 3. Elements of astronomy (for the first half-year,) 3 hours; Wednesday Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6 ; (Obligatory only upon pupils devoting them- selves to the study of geodesy.) 4. a. Art of building, 3 hours ; Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. h. Designs for building, 2 afternoons, Tuesday and Thursday, 2 to 4 ; (4 hours in summer, 6 in winter.) (These two items are obligatory only upon pupils devoting themselves to civil engineering proper, as roads, railroads, &c.) 5. Mechanics, 6 hours; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 8 to 10. 6. Designing machines, 1 afternoon ; Friday, 2 to 4 ; (2 hours in winter 3 in summer.) 7. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours; Tuesday and Monday, 8 to 10, b. Exercises on the same, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 8. a. Stone-cutting, and as introductory, theory of contact and intersection of curved surfaces, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 to 7. 6. Drilling and exercises in the art of stone-cutting, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 9. Land-measuring, (in summer,) one day. 19 hours of lessons; 7 to 13 hours of exercises; and in summer, one day of Land-measuring. Secondy Year. — 1. a. Construction of roads, railroads and hydraulic buildings, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 6. Drilling in the same, 1 hour; Wednesday, 9 to 10. 2. Exercises in construction of roads and hydraulic works, 3 afternoons, (6 hours in winter, and 9 in summer ;) Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, 2 to 4 or 5. (Obligatory only on pupils devoting themselves to civil engineering.) 3. G-eodesy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 9. (Obligatory only («• pupils devoting themselves to geodesy.) 4. Drawing maps. 3 hours ; Thursday, 2 to 4 or 5. 5. Theory of machines, 4 hours; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 10. 6. Setting up of machines, 1 afternoon, (2 hours in winter, 3 in summer;) Friday, 2 to 4. 7. a. Integral calculus, 2 hours; Monday and Friday, 10 to 11. &. Analytical geometry, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. €. Exercises in integral calculus and analytical geometrj^, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. d. Integral calculus (a second course,) 3 hours; Monday and Friday, 10 to 11 ; and one hour not yet fixed. (&. and c, above, obhgatory upon all pupils, and either a or d, at their option.) 8. a. Perspective, and theory of shadows, 2 hours; Monday and Friday, 6 to 7. b. Exercises on the same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 9. Industrial physics, Industrial natural philosophy, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. ' 10. Modeling in earth and in plaster, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Saturday, 1 to 5. 11. Technology of building materials, 1 hour; Monday, 4 to 5 (In winter,) 13 to 21 hours of lessons; 12 to 19 hours of exercises. Third Tear.—l. a. Construction of roads; hydraulic building, 3 hours; Mon- day, Tuesday and Friday, 10 to 11. b. Drilling on the same, 1 hour; Thursday, 10 to 11. 2. Exercises on the same, 3 afternoons; Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, 2 to 4 or 5. 3. Geodesy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 9. 4. Drawing maps, 3 hours; Thursday, 2 to 4 or 5. 5. a. Geology, 4 hours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. b. Drilling on same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. Lessons, 9 hours ; exercises, all remaining hours. SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^55 THIRD DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS. First Year. — 1. Mechanics, 6 hours; Monday, Tuesday, "Wednesday, 8 to 10. 2. Designing machines, 2 afternoons; (4 hours in winter, 6 in summer;) Wednesday and Saturday, 2 to 4 or 5. 3. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 6. Exercises on same, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 4. a. Stone-cutting; and as introductory, theory of contact and intersection of curved surfaces, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 tc 7. 6. Drill and exercises on same, 1 hour: not yet fixed. 5. Construction of models in metal, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Friday, 1 to 4. 6. Construction of models in wood, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Tuesday,.! to 4. Lessons, 13 hours; exercises, 13 to 15 hours. Second Year. — 1. Theory of machines, 2 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 10. 2. a. Construction of machines, 4 hours; Wednesday and Saturday, 8 tu 10. 6. Setting up of machines, 4 afternoons, (8 hours in winter, 12 in summer;) Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday, 2 to 4 or 5. 3. a. Integral calculus, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 10 to 11. &. Analytic geometry, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. c. Exercises on both the above, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. d. Integral calculus (a second course,) 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday 10 to 11; 1 hour not yet fixed. (6 and c, above, obligatory on all pupils ; and either a or d, at their option.) 4. Construction of models in metal, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Monday, 1 to 4. 5. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 6. Mechanical technology, (in winter,) 4 hours ; Monday and Friday, 11 to 12 ; Saturday, 11 to 12 and 4 to 5, FOURTH DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. First Year. — 1. Inorganic chemistry, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 10 to 11, 2. Exercises on classical analysis in the laboratory, 2 afternoons, 6 hours ; Monday and Tuesday, 1 to 4. » 3. a. Zoology, first part. 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 5 to 6. 6. Drill on same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 4. General botany, 3 hours; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5. 6. Mineralogy, 2 to 3 hours ; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. 6. Technical designing, 4 hours; Monday, 8 to 10; Saturday, 10 to 12. Lessons, 13 hours; exercises, at least 11 hours. * Second Year. — a. Division of Industrial Chemistry. — 1. Industrial chemistry, 4 hours; Monday to Thursday, 10 to 11. 2. Manipulations in the laboratory of industrial and pharmaceutical chemistry, 4 afternoons, 12 hours; Monday to Thursday, 1 to 4. 3. Industrial physics. 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 4. Technical designing, 4 hours; Tuesday and Saturday, 10 to 12. 5. Chemical technology of building materials, 1 hour; Monday, 4 to 5. 6. a. Geology, 4 liours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. b. Drill on same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. Lessons 13' hours ;_ exercises 17 hours. h. Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry. — 1. Industrial chemistry, 4 hours; Monday to Thursday, 10 to 11. 2. Manipulations in laboratory of industrial and pharmaceutical chemistry, 4 afternoons, 12 hours; Monday to Thursday, 1 to 4, 3. Technical portion of pharmacy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Thursday, 4 to 5. 4. Raw materials, pharmaceutically considered, 3 hours. 6. Pharmaceutical botany, 3 hours ; Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 3 to 4. 6. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. Lessons, 16 hours; exercises, 12 hours. 756 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. FIFTH DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF FOBE8TBY. First Year. — 1. Encyclopedia of forestry, 3 lioursj Monday, Wednesday and Thursday, 8 to 9. 2. Valuation and estimates of roads, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 9 to 10. 3. Excursions, exercises on taxation, drill and conversation, 1 day ; Saturday. 4. a. Zoology, first part, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 5 to 6. &. Drill and questions on above, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 5. General botany, 3 hours ; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5. 6. Mineralogy, 2 hou;s; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. •7. Topography, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. 8. Design of plans, 2 to 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 9. Geology, with drill on same, 5 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday ; and 1 hour not yet fixed. Lessons, 24 hours ; exercises, 4 to 5 hours, and 1 day. Second Year. — 1. Forest administration and pohce, 3 hours; Monday, Wed- Desday, Friday, 11 to 12. 2. Preservation of forests, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 3. Statistics and hterature of forestry, 1 hour; Friday, 10 to 11. 4. Management of forests, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 10. 5. Introduction to mangement of forestry business, 1 hour; Monday, 6 to 7. 6. Excursions, drill, and conversation, 1 day ; Saturday. 7. Construction of bridges and roads, 2 hours ; Wednesday, 8 to 9 ; and 1 hour not yet fixed. 8. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. Lessons, 11 hours; exercises, 1 day and 1 hour. SIXTH division; of philosophical and political science. a. Natural Sciences. — 1. Inorganic chemistrv, 3 hours; Monday to Friday, 10 to 11. 2. Exercises on chemical analysis in laboratory, 3 hours ; Tuesday, 1 to 4. 3. Exercises,' for the most advanced students, every day except Saturday. 4. Chemical technology of building materials, 1 hour ; Monday, 4 to 5. 5. Experimental physics, 6 hours; every day, 11 to 12. 6. Drill on the preceding, 2 hours ; not yet fixed. 7. Mathematical physics; introduction, and theory of elasticity, 4 hours; Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 8 to 9. 8. Zoology, first part, 3 hours ; Monday.to Friday, 5 to 6. 9 Drill and questions on same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 10. General botany, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5, 11. Use of microscope, daily; forenoon. 12. Antediluvian plants, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Friday, 2 to 3. 13. Fossil insects, 2 hours; Tuesday and Wednesday 5 to 6. 14. Natural history of mushrooms, with special reference to maladies of plants and animals, 2 hours. 15. Drill on general botany, with microscopic demonstration, 2 hours. 16. Drill on general botany, with herbal, 1 hour. 17. Geology, 4 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. 18. Drill on same ; 1 hour, not yet fixed. 19. Swiss materials for building, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 4 to 5. 20. History, construction and coloring of geological ch^-rts and sections. 21. Mineralogy, 2 to 3 hours; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. (Other lessons on mineralogy will be hereafter announced.) h. Mathematical Sciences. — 22. Integral calculus, continued from last term, for second year of second and third divisions, 2 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 10 to 11. 23. Analytical geometry, continued from last term, for second year of second and third divisions, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. 24. Exercises for all the students of first and second year of second and third divisions, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, 7^7 25. Algebraic analysis, 2 hours; Monday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 26 P]leiuents of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 27. Exercises on differential and integral calculus, 2 hours; Friday, 8 to 10. 28. Intersection and contact of curved surfaces, and stone-cutting, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 to 7 ; and 1 hour not yet fixed. 29. Perspective and theory of shadows, 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 6 to 7 ; and I hour not yet fixed. 30. Elements of astronomy, as introduction to geodesy, 3 hours ; Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6. 31. Mathematics, pure and applied, after a manual to appear soon, 4 hours; and a drill of 1 hour. 3 J. Practical course of diflferential and integral calculus, 3 hours. 33. Descriptive geometry, first part, 2 to 3 hours. 34. Method of teaching mathematics for candidates for employment as teach- ers, 2 hours. 35. G-eometrical analysis of surfaces of the second degree, 2 hours. 36. Synthetic geometry, after Steiner, 2 hours. 37. Theoretical astronomy, 2 hours. 38. Integral calculus, 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 10 to 11; and 1 hour not yet fixed. 39. Elementary mathematics, including the branches detailed in the pro- gramme for 1856-7, (in French,) 6 hours. 40. Political arithmetic, (interest, rent, savings' banks, banks,) &c., 2 hours; (in German or French.) 41. Mechanics, 6 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 8 to 10. c. Literary, Moral and Political Science. — i2. "Faust" of Goethe, 2 hours; Wednesday and Friday, 4 to 5, 43. " Parcival '' of Wolfram von Escheuback and " Tristan " of Gottfried von Strassburg, 2 to 3 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, 4 to 5. (The same instructor, (Prof Vischer,) will give a course of instruction at the university, in aesthetics, part first, 4 to 5 hours.) 44. French literature, 3 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, 4 to 5, 45. Italian literature, 3 hours; Tuesday^ Thursday, FriSay, 6 to 7. 46. Italian composition, 1 hour; Thursday, 5 to 6. 47. History of English literature f];om end of last century to present time, 2 hours; Tuesday and. Thursday, 6 to 7. 48. Shakspeare's "Timon of Athens," and "Love's Labors Lost," translated and explained, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 6 to 7. 49. Exercises in speaking and writing English, 2 hours ; Monday, 5 to 6 ; and Friday, 6 to 7. 50. General modem history, with special reference to intellectual develop- ments, 3 hours ; Monday to Friday. 51. Sources of Roman History, 2 hours; Saturday, 9 to 11. 52. Art of building in the middle ages and the Renaissance; and as intro- ductory, a general view of the art of building among the ancients, 4 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 7, 53. General views of the history of the Renaissance^ 4 hours; Monday, Wed- nesday, Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6. 54. History of painting and sculpture since the fifteenth century, 4 hours ; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12 ; Saturday, 6 to 7. 55. Archaeology of Christian Art, 2 hours. 56. Classic and German mythology, 2 hours. 57. Greek anthology, 2 hours. 58. Political economy, 3 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 6 to *l. 59. International law, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 6 to 7. 60. Commercial law, 3 hours; Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 4 to 5. " 61. Forestry laws, 1 hour; Tuesday, 3 to 4. d. Fine Arts. — 62. Landscape drawing, 4 hours; Thursday and Friday, 2 to 4. 63. Drawing the figure, after copies and models ; Monday, Tuesday and Thurs- day, 2 to 4. '768 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 64. Modeling in earth and plaster, for students in architecture and engineer- ing, 2 afternoons ; Monday and Saturday, 1 to 4. 65. Designing ornaments for buildings, furniture, and other productions of arts and trades, 4 hours; Monday and Tuesday, 10 to 12. Instruction in German will be given, if thought necessary. APPARATUS, ETC., FOR INSTRUCTION. a. Collections. — During the year 1855-6 collections have been commenced, and carried to a point nearly as follows : — For drawing the figure. — Parts of the body, and entire figures. Simple out- lines, and shaded designs after the different methods of Juhen and Yolpats. Models by Albin and Mart. Fischer, for instruction in plastic anatomy. A pre- pared human skeleton. Eusts and detached portions of the body in plaster, mostly after the antique. For landscape drawing, — Lithographs of Calame ; studies by the professor. For archiieciural drawing. — Including constructions in wood and stone and architectural decoration, by different masters. (See below, under Library.) Models of constricction. — Collection of pieces of wood ; models of roofs, mostly after Moller ; various arches for doorways ; all from the estabhshment of Schroe- der at Darmstadt. This collection will be completed as soon as possible, from the rooms for working in wood and for making models. Plaster models of archiiectural ornaments. — Capitals and bases of antique columns, and other portions of monuments of antiquity, mostly from the archae- ological collections of Paris. Mfisiruments for land surveying. — Large instruments for measuring angles ; in- cluding, a repeating theodolite and another smaller theodolite, by Brunner of Paris; five leveling instruments, from Ertel of Munich, Starke of Vienna, Kinzelbach of Stuttgart, and Goldschmidt of Ziirich; four surveyors tables; and other instruments, by Goldschmidt of Ziirich and other Swiss makers. For dravjing plans. — Designs, partly by Prof. Bardin, of the Polytechnic School at Paris, but principally by Prof Wild. Astronomy — Various small instruments which have been used during the summer for the practical exercises carried on in the small observatory at Ziirich, which has been temporarily put in order for the purpose. Machines. — Models for the transformation of motion, from Prof Walter of Augsburg. (Engrenages,) by Schroeder of Darmstadt. Models of turbine wheels on a large scale, and section models of steam-enguies, are being con- structed in the work-rooms of the school. There is a Weissbach's hydrauhc apparatus, with its accessories, for instruc- tion in mechanics. Library. — During the year which is all that has elapsed since the foundation of the library, there have been collected about 2,000 volumes, most of them upon the various mathematical and applied sciences taught in the school, and of which a small number appertain specially to the sixth division. One set of works with copperplates, on the art of building, is of great value. In the reading-room are to be found thirty journals, mostly technical and mathematical, but some upon other sciences. The library was opened January 27, 1856, since which time have been given 610 discharges of receipts for books taken home. Besides most of the profes- sers, 62 pupils of the polytechnic school have made use of the library. There are at Zurich collections in natural history, an archaeological collection, a library for natural history, and another for the sciences; to all of which pupils can have access. h. Scientific and Technical Departments. — Chemicallaboratory for analysis. — This is arranged for practical men, and well provided with all the necessary ap- paratus. Two afternoons are employed in the obligatory practice of the regular pupils, to whom the laboratory is always open at other tinaes. During the first term, 11 regular scholars and 14 attendants on lectures made use of it, and dur- ing the last term, 11 of the former and 10 of the latter. SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^59 ■ Laboratory of chemistry for technical and pharmaceutical operations. — ^Thia, after some small changes shortly to be made, is calculated for sixteen practicing scholars. Some large apparatuses necessary in a technical laboratory have not yet been erected, on account of want of room ; but there is a sufficient supply of other apparatus. The collection of articles for use in chemical instruction is already begun. This laboratory has been attended during the tirst term by two regular pupils and three attendants on lectures, and during the second, by two of the former and five of the latter. The operations pertbrmed by the regular pupils are adapted to their future employment. Cabinet of natural philosophy. — The collection of instruments of natural phi- losophy has been hitherto provided with instruments chiefly coming from the manutacturers of Paris and Berhn. The Kegnault's steam apparatus is by Gralaz, the thermometrical apparatus, by Fostee, the optical apparatus by Duboscq, of Paris, and all the electrical apparatus from Berlm. Various instru- ments have been procured, also, from other German or Parisian manufacturers. During the lessons, use has also been made of tlie apparatus belonging to the canton of Zurich, which are deposited in the same place. Convenient accommodations are yet wanting for exact physical experiments and large operations. Workshop for making models in metals. — During the first term, fifteen regular pupils and 1 attendant on lectures have been employed here, and the same num- ber during the second. It contains ten vices, with the instruments belonging to them ; but those which are least used are fewest in number. One vice, with a more complete set of tools, is appropriated to the adjoint professor in charge, and each of the others is used during one term by a set of pupils who use it alternately. Each vice, and the tools belonging to it, are designated by a cer- tain number. The most important large- instruments in this workshop are, a lathe for turning metals, arranged also for cutting screws ; a hand machine for planing metals; a boring machine, shears, &c.; a forge with a small ventilating blast on the American plan, to work by hand, with anvils, tongs, and the whole apparatus of a complete small forge. Workshop fm' models in wood. — This was used during the first term by seven regular pupils and three attendants of lectures, and during the second by five of the former and two of the latter. It contains five carpenter's benches with their fittings, one of which is set apart for the adjunct professor, and the others are used by the pupils. There is also»a turning-lathe for wood with the tools. The vices and benches are numbered, and the tools belonging to each has the same. As almost all the pupUs who have been at work here during the current year has had no previous practice, the first months were occupied in teaching them how to handle the tools. In the workshop for metals they filed cubes, and in that for wood, learned to use the principal tools. Afterwards they were set to construct models of machinery ; and m the former of the shops the pupils have been made to do as much as was possible, the instructor only puttmg on the finishing touch. The models completed are as follows: — 1. Section model of locomotive cut-off, with Stephenson's (coulisse.) 2. Section model of locomotive cut-oflf, on Gooch's plan. 3. Diagram showing the excellences of the different locomotive cut-offs. There is, not yet completed, a locomotive cut-ofl" on the plan of Heusinger of Waldegg. In the workroom for wood, except a model of a roof by a pupil who had practiced before, no large model has been made ; the pupils have been altogether employed in making presses for their tools. Both pupils and teacher have had to employ much time in finishing off their workroom, and preparing it for use, and to construct (especially the teacher) a large supply of simple tools: and the same is the case in the workroom for metals. During the coming year, in which the number of pupils will constantly in- crease, the directors will endeavor to have constructed various small machines for the collections, and especially models which may be used in the course of in- struction ; and will endeavor to make all the scholars assist in this design, each according to his capacity. 760 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. The instructors in charge of the work will use all their time, outside of the hours of instruction, in the workshop and in finishing difficult models. Workshop for modeling in earth and plaster. — There have been prepared plas- ter models of stonework, to a given scale, according to the theoretical course in stone-cutting, and also architectural ornaments and parts of the body modeled in earth and afterwards molded in plaster. The workshop,, besides the pupils regularly employed in it, has been used during the first term by nine others, and during the second by three. Most of these others were obHged during the lat- ter term to return to their own practical vocations. The professor (the sculptor, M. Reiser,) does all his own work, whether in earth, plaster or marble, in the shop before the pupils, so that they are enabled to learn the technical execution of such work, and at the same time form their taste. All these workshops have been open to the pupils during the whole day, ex- cepting hours of instruction, and the masters have been constantly present. METHOD PURSUED IN INSTRUCTION. The instruction in the studies obligatory upon each division has consisted partly of drills (repetitions,) exercises and practical demonstrations in the course of technical and scientific excursions. Regular drilling exercises have been arranged, especially in the departments relative to mathematical and natural science. During most of these, as those in pure mathematics, descriptive geometry, mechanics, &c., numerous problems have been proposed in the course of the year, whose solution has in part been required of the pupils within a given time, in part left to their option, or ex- amined by the professor and discussed with the pupils. Among practical exercises, intended almost exclusively to stimulate the in- dividual faculties of the pupils, are ; those in design and construction, of the pupils of the schools of architecture, civil engineering and industrial mechanism ; those in land-measuring, of the first year of the school of engineers, in which a whole day per week is employed ; the manipulations in the analytical and tech- nical laboratories ; and the work in the shops. Pains have been taken to induce the pupils to spend most of their time not occupied in lessons, in the drawing- rooms, laboratories and workshops, and to consider them their own habitual places of labor. ^ But great hindrances to this plan have arisen from the great distance apart of the various departments of the school, which causes the loss of much time in the fi'equent comings and goings of the pupils, and from the fact that the time- table for study has not been arranged in a manner entirely satisfactory. Excursions have from the first been regularly made with the pupils in the school of forestry, in the forests near Zurich. Prof. Marchand also took his pupils to the meeting of the Society of Swiss Foresters, which was held this year at St. G-all, that they might hear the discussions. Prof. Heer, has also regularly made short excursions, besides one long one, for the sake of instruc- tion in botany. The pupils of the second year in the school of engineering have visited, under the direction of Prof. CaLmann, besides the bridges near Ziirich, the iron bridge over the Sitter near St. Gall, of which last they took drawings and measures in sufficient detail to enable them to execute, in the drawing-rooms, complete designs of that interesting work. The thanks of the institution are here offered to the engineers employed there, for their kind attentions to the professor and to his pupils. A long excursion with a view to chemical and mechanical studies was under- taken by Profs. BoUey and Reuleaux, with the pupils of their, divisions. They visited various places near the Rhine and above Basle, and returned by way of Basle and Aaran. In the course of this trip the pupils were enabled to examine a furnace and set of trip-hammers, a tin-work, a rolling-mill, a salt-work, a wood-gas work, which was especially interesting to the pupils, as one had also been recently constructed at Zurich, They also examined a cement-kiln, a manufactory of chemicals, one of printed goods, silk spinneries, &c. The pro- prietors of these establishments, with a politeness which deserves our acknowl^ edgements, allowed us to take many drawings in them. A measure similar to that adopted by several other industrial institutions, is the establishment of monthly competitions at prescribed tasks. The regulations for these are contained in the annual programme. SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^61 PROaRAMME FOR 1867-68— SIXTY-TWO PROFESSORS. SUBJECTS OP INSTRUCTION, CLASSED BY DIVISIONS. FIRST DIVISION", OR SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. {Couvse three years.) First Year, — Differential and integral calculus ; Descriptive geometry ; Con- struction of buildings, (2 courses;) Architectural design; detailed drawings of plans of buildings ; Designing the figure ; Ornamental drawing ; Landscape drawing ; Theory of contacts and intersections of curved surfaces, stone cut- ting ; History of ancient art ; Modeling in clay and plaster ; Experimental chemistry. Second Tear. — Art of building (2 courses,) embracing art of building civil edi- fices in middle ages and in modern times; Practical exercises in building ; Theory of shadows and perspective ; Mechanics, theory of machines; Construction of bridges and roads; Drawing of figures ; Construction of arches and vaults. Third Year. — Practical exercises in building ; Ornamental drawing ; Tech- nical geology; Law concerning buildings; Chemical technology; Lithology, with practical exercises. SECOND DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING. First Year. — Differential and integral calculus (2 courses;) Descriptive geom- etry; Art of building and drawing ; Drawing of plans ; Experimental physics; Experimental chemistry. Second Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Differential and integral cal- culus; Industrial mechanics; Geometry, of position; Theory of shadows and perspective ; Technical geology ; Topography, drawing of charts ; Description of machines and drawing of plans. Third Year. — Theory of machines ; Astronomy ; Geodesy ; Construction of bridges and rail-roads, with designs; Administrative law; Drawing of maps; Construction of iron frame-works ; Technology of building material ; Astron- omy, with exercises in the observatory ; Practical and theoretical surveying ; Lithology. ' THIRD DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS. Mrst Year. — Differential and integral calculus (2 courses ;) Descriptive geom- etry, with exercises ; Analytical geometry of surfaces, with exercises ; Drawing and designing of machines ; Experimental physics applied to mechanics ; Ex- perimental chemistry. Second Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Differential and integral cal- culus ; Industrial mechanics ; Art of constructing machines (2 courses ;) Selected portions of the same art ; Technology of mechanics ; Science of motion. Third Year. — Theory of machines ; Construction of models in wood ; Con- struction of models in metal ; Regulators ; Metallurgy ; Technology of building material. FOURTH DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. First Year. — Inorganic chemistry ; Organic chemistry ; Selected portions of organic chemistry ; Experimental physics ; Manufacture of chemicals ; Glass and pottery; Description of machines ; Mineralogy; Elements of general bot- any; Geology; Industrial drawing; Chemical analysis in the laboratory; Zoology ; Chemical experimentation applied to industrial arts. Second Year. — Bleaching, dyeing and printing of tissues ; Practical manipu- lations in the laboratory ; Technology of machines ; Crystallography applied ; Practical geology ; Industrial chemistry ; Industrial drawing ; Analysis in the laboratory. 762 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. Third Yea/r. — Organic experimental chemistry ; Analytical chemistry ; Metal- lurgy ; Cliemical technology of building material ; Special botany ; Classification of minerals, with. exercises; Heating and lighting of buildings; Food and nu- trition; 1 Pharmaceutical chemistry for druggists and apothecaries; Pharmaceu- tical botany ; Pharmaceutical chemistry ; Technical portion of pharmacy ; Raw materials pbarmaceutically considered; Manipulation in the laboratory of phar- maceutical chemistry ; Toxicology. FIFTH DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. (2 years' course.) First Year. — Mathematics in reference to practical uses in forest culture; Botany ; Topography ; Drawing of plans ; Science of managing forests ; Excur- sions and exercises in valuation; Experimental chemistry; Law concerning forests; Mineralogy; Geology; Zoology. Second Year. — Exploration of forests; Preservation and utilization of forests; Management of forests by the state ; Statistics and literature of forestry ; Cli- mates and soils applied to forestry; Technical geology; Construction of bridges and roads; Administrative law and police; Botany and entomology applied to forestry; Agricultural chemistry; Lithology; Practical surveymg; Industrial physics. SIXTH DIVISION, OR NORMAL SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE. Section a. Mathematics. First Year. — Differential and integral calculus ; Analytical and plain geom- etry, with practical exercises ; Introduction to analytical geometry ; Analytical geometry, with practical exercises; Experimental physics applied to arts. Second and Third Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Theory of func- tions ; Geometry of position, with practical exercises ; Astronomy ; Selected portions of higher astronomy, with exercises ; Technical mechanics ; Theory of life insurances; Analytical mechanics; Mathematical theory of gravitation, of electricity and magnetism ; Physical geography ; Mensuration of bodies. Section b, Natural Sciences. First Year. — Practical and analytical chemistry ; Selected portions of inor- ganic experimental chemistry ; Mineralogy; General botany ; Zoology. Second Year. — Praxis in industrial chemistry ; - Crystallography applied ; Mi- croscopical exercises ; Mensuration of bodies ; General geology ; Antediluvian plants and fossil insects. SEVENTH DIVISION, OS SCHOOL OF LITERAftTRE, MORAL SCIENCES AND POLITICAL ECONOMY tt. Natural Sciences, -^'^xpetimental physics ; Microscopical exercises ; Gen- eral botany ; Physical geography ; Geology ; Zoology ; Pharmaceutical botany ; f^dssil plants; Fossil insects; Mineralogy; Compounds of cyanogen ; Poly- atomic alcohols; Essential oils and aromatic compounds in general ; Paleon- tology; Geology of sedimentary formations ; Pharmaceutical chemistry; Toxi- cology; Selected portions of experimental chemistry; Fossils characteristic of the geological formations of Switzerland; Physical chemistry ; Stoecheometry; Analytical chemistry, qualitative and quantitative ; History of chemistry ; Rep- etitions of organic chemistry. b. Mathematical Sciences. — Elementary avStronomy; Theory of life-insur- ances ; Theory of surfaces of the second degree ; Elements of differential and integral calculus; Exercises in differential calculus; Exercises in industrial mechanics; Analytical mechanics; Mathematical theory of gravitation ; Light, electricity and galvanism; Determinants; Higher mechanics; Political arith- metic, (interest, rent, savings banks.) c. Languages and Literature. — History of ancient German literature to the end of the 17 th century; Exercises in oratory; History of literature ; Moliere and his time; Lecture on and explanation of the Cid of Corneille; Lecture on and explanation of chosen pieces from the Lettres Fersanes de Montesquieu; SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 763 Exercises in the French language; History of English literature; English novels; Shakspeare's Julius Caesar; Exercises in the English language; La commedia dell' arte in Itala e fuori d' Italia ; La poesia ispiratrice di Rafifaelo e del Correggio ; Exercises in the Italian language. d. History, Moral Sciences and Political Economy. — History of the time of Frederick the Great and the French revolution ; Sixteen characters of universal history — Pericles, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Cato junior, Tiberius, Attila, Mahommed, Charlemagne, Gregory the Seventh, Johanna of Arc, Richelieu, Cromwell, Peter the Great, Washington, Cavour; General theory of political economy; Commerce of the world from the foundation of the United States of America up to the present time ; Exposition and dis- cussions on questions of political economy; History of ancient art; History of modern painting since the introduction of oil-colors ; Commercial law ; Pohtical economy ; Critical studies of the doctrines of socialists and of reformists ; Ele- mentary course of international law ; Laws of the Swiss confederation ; History of Switzerland under the Helvetic republic; The British empire in the five divisions of the globe ; History of geography (2 courses ;) Introduction to geog- raphy, industry and commerce ; Explanation of the sculptures in the museum of archasology. e. Fine Arts. — Drawing of ornaments and decorations in the interior of build- ings ; Landscape drawing ; Drawing of heads and figures from models ; Modeling ; Theory of harmony. EIGHTH DIVISION — PBEPABATOBY COUESE OF MATHEMATICS TAUGHT BOTH IN FKENCH AND GEBMAN ; MODEBN LANGUAGES. Algebra ; Geometry of space and plane trigonometry ; Elements of descrip- tive geometry; Practical geometry; Experimental physics; Experimental chemistry ; Instruction in German ; Instruction m French. BUILDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNICUM AT ZURICH. At the founding of the school, the canton and the city of Zurich pledged themselves to erect a suitable building, and this subject was, in 1855, taken into consideration by the school committee, the authorities of the cantons and the council of the Swiss confederacy, but nothing resulted fi'om it until 1858, when the grand council of Zurich appropriated 1,700,000 francs ($340,000) for the erection of a building planned Ijy Prof Semper and Superintendent Wolf. In this building there was to be all necessary room for the Polytechnic School and also for the University of Zurich. The locality chosen is a little distance from the centre of the city, but has the advantage of an open prospect, perfectly quiet surroundings, and excellent light on all sides. It is a natural terrace of the woody mountain of Zurich, and is 160 feet above the lake; the imposing front of the building is turned toward the city, and is an attractive feature in its surroundings. The school accommodation consists of the main structure and the chemical department. The main structure forms a rectangle whose longest side is 426 Swiss feet and the shortest side 256 in extent. A pavilion separates the inte- rior quadrangle into two courts, furnished with fountains. The front is renais- sance, and the pavilion is adorned with Corinthian columns. The whole is con- structed of light green sandstone. There are four entrances, the main entr£fnce being in the pavilion, consisting of a vestibule with adjoining staircase, ornamented with Tuscan pillars ; contig- uous to this is the noble hall for antiques, 72 feet long and 56 wide, which con- tains the beautiful plaster molds of the archaeological museum. The halls for lectures and for design are all light and spacious, room being left for new col- lections. The whole building is excellently arranged ; it is heated by steam- pipes. Behind the main building is the well-arranged chemical school, and a little farther towards the mountain side is the new observatory, built after Prof Semper's plan. The cost of the main building, together with the chemical department, amounted to two miUion francs, ($400,000;) that of the observatory, 130,000 francs, ($26,000,) without estimating the outlay for the interior. PESTALOZZI. DE PELLENBERG AND WEHRLI, AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. BY WILLIAM DE FELLENBERO. Early in the year 1798, Switzerland, whilst at peace with the French republic, was invaded by a numerous French army on the most frivolous pretexts. Amongst the Swiss Cantons which offered the most energetic resistance to the encroachments of the French Directory, Unterwalden stood in the first rank. Fearful was the vengeance of the enraged French soldiery, who devastated that unhappy country with fire and sword. The inhabitants who did not fall in battle (women as well as men having shared in the fight) fled, some into the mountains, some into the churches ; but the churches did not protect them fi-om the flames or bayonets, to which all the native sufferers became a prey ; the children w^ere however spared ; and crowds of these homeless orphans were to be seen, after the departure of the French, wandering about amidst the ruins of the villages. A wail resounded through Switzerland when this was known. The first philanthropist who devoted himself to the succor of these helpless objects, was Henry Pestaloz^, then Theological candidate. He had just before broken down utterly in preaching his probationary ser- mon — ra circumstance which was a bar to his prospects in the church, especially at such a seat of learning as Zurich. He did not know where to direct his steps ; the career of professional theology was closed to him, but not that of Christianity. He converted his little property into money, tied up his bundle, and set off to the Canton of Unterwalden, there to become the guardian of the poor deserted children. The season was inclement, but he succeeded, with the help of some kind-hearted friends, in forming a shelter for his new family, amongst the ruins of the little village of Hanz. Here Pestalozzi fed, clothed, and housed the gath- ering flock, increasing in numbers till he was obliged to consider how he could bring them under some kind of discipline ; but for this purpose he had no help except from the children themselves. He therefore chose from amongst them the most intelligent, taking care to select those who had most influence with their companions. These he appointed his assist- ants ("lieutenants") in the lessons, as well as in the necessaiy household work, such as keeping the place in order, mending clothes, collecting w^ood, &c. He soon added to these occupations the cultivation of a small • Communicaled to the " National Association for the Promotion of Social Science," bj Lady Noel Byron, and published in the " Transactions " for 1858. 7c 6 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. piece of land ; and the little colony assumed the aspect of an orderly community. In the meantime patriots from various parts of Switzerland had arrived in Hanz, bringing provisions and stores of all kinds. The fugitive in- habitants gradually returned from the mountains, and all fell into theii former way of life. Pestalozzi's school was welcome to all as long as the children were fed and provided for in it ; but his funds being exhausted, and the aid of the benevolent being required for the returning fugitives on their own account, there were no means of maintaining the establish- ment. Thus, to the great sorrow of every one, Pestalozzi felt the neces- sity of separating from his beloved children. Still the recollection of his Unterwalden family, and of the kind of training which he had been driven to employ from the failure of other resources, remained a living picture in his mind. It gave a distinct and tangible aim to his deep in- ward longing to serve his fellow creatures ; it became the vision of his dreams, the object of all his plans ; and he caught at whatever promised to bring him nearer to the desired end. In consequence, all his inter- course with friends — for he found many after the events of Unterwal- den — was directed to the same end. To most of them, however, he spoke in riddles, since they could not have understood him unless they had like him learned, by experience, how powerful an instrument for training the young is to be found in labor for bread, when under skillful management. By all true philanthropists, indeed, the full value of Pes- talozzi's work in Unterwalden was recognized ; and in its merits his un- successful sermon was forgotten. Great hopes were formed of the results of such rare self-devotion, and many anticipated that a new light on edu- cation would be kindled by it When he made knowm his project of an educational institute, the government of the canton of Berne offered him the use of the Chateau of Burgdorf for that purpose. He accepted the offer, and opened a school in that place. Pestalozzi's reputation, founded upon some striking works for the people, '-'■Leonard and Gertrude,^'' with others, brought him immediately a great number of pupils ; some of them out of the most influential families, with whom he had an opportunity of putting in practice one part of his educational sj'-stem, called by himself the " Anschauungs Lehre,'* teaching by sight and other senses. But his industrial training could not be carried into effect, because his pupils were chiefly of aristocratic fam- ilies, and not obliged to support themselves by manual labor. He con- soled himself, however, with the hope of saving enough out of the income derived from the school payments of the rich, to establish a small agri- cultural school for the poor, on his own plan, in connection with the institute. His new system already began to excite public attention. Young men of the teachers' class thronged around him, and endeavored, with more or less success, to acquire his method, hoping thereby to make their for- tunes in the novelty -loving world ; but amongst all those who were thus brought into contact with him, there was not one who could comprehend PESTALOZZl, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. >jqIj his great idea, that of making Labor, more especially Agricultural La- hor^ a principal means of training the young ; indeed, had he found such a one it could not have helped him ; for in his fortress there «ras not a foot of ground in which any thing could be planted. An opportunity was soon afforded of carrying out the aim of his heart by these circumstances. Amongst the acquaintances Pestalozzi had made in earlier times, during a journey before he went to Unterwalden, was the family of Tcharner, of Wilden Stein. Tcharner, who was the Bernese Landvogt, appeared to Pestalozzi to realize his idea of what a governor ought to be, such as he had drawn in his most celebrated work, '* Leonard and Gertrude^'' in the character of Arner. Through this fam- ily he became acquainted with that of De Fellenberg, who succeeded Tcharner in the government of Wilden Stein ; and a young De Fellen- berg became one of Pestalozzi's most attentive listeners. This young man accompanied him on several journeys, and was one of the few who afterwards entered into, and adopted, his idea of industrial education. But it was a circuitous route by which De Fellenberg came to the reso- lution of acting out Pestalozzi's idea. He was educated for a political career, but his mother's character had implanted in him the germ which enabled him to receive and comprehend the ideas of Pestalozzi. His mother used to say to him: " The Rich have always helpers enough^ help thou the PoorP It was during the early days of the French Revolution that he studied law at the University of Tubingen, in Germany. Returning just as the difficulties of Switzerland with the French were beginning, he then heard of Pestalozzi's school in Unterwalden, and was vividly reminded of his former acquaintance with bim. Other circumstances also con- curred to give the bent to his mind, which changed his path in life from that of a politician to that of a philanthropist. The tremendous war taxes which the French Directory exacted from the Swiss, and the pressure of the military occupation on the country, brought Switzerland to the brink of despair, and it was resolved to send an embassy consisting of the leading men to Paris, in order to entreat the directory to lighten these burthens. De Fellenberg accompanied one of these ambassadors as secretary ; and what he then saw of French freedom, and the political tendencies of that time, convinced him that he must seek another path. He returned to Switzerland, more than ever determined to serve his country in the spirit which had been awakened in his early youth by that saying of his mother. He soon afterwards married the grand-daughter of Tcharner, the before-mentioned friend of Pestalozzi, and was henceforward brought more into contact with him. About this time De Fellenberg's father, who was professor of law in Bern, purchased the estate of Hofwyl, near to that city, in order to givo his son a field of action. Hofwyl is only nine English miles distant from Burgdorf. Thus De Fellenberg and Pestalozzi became neighbors, and this led to frequent interchange of thought between them, in which Pes- talozzi endeavored to induce De Fellenberg to employ his estate in real- 768 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. izing his favorite idea of industrial education. Pestalozzi had at that time competent teachers for the promulgation of his method of teaching. Each of these teachers imagined himself at least a 3''ounger Pestalozzi, who owed the father Pestalozzi just as much subordination as seemed good to themselves, and no more. Thus, in a few years after its founda- tion, the institute presented a picture of anarchy ; and Pestalozzi felt himself incapable, through diminished practical powers, of reorganizing it as was required, and placing it on a firm basis, which he thought De Fellenberg could best accomplish. The Bernese government possessed a building, once a convent, near Hofwyl, called Miinchen Buchsee, and Pestalozzi proposed to the author- ities to give it him instead of^Burgdorf He offered the entire manage- ment of his institute to De Fellenberg, and the government consented. De Fellenberg made a stipulation that he should have the power of dis- missing any of the teachers who should not conform to his regulations. Pestalozzi agreed to this, and transplanted his establishment to Miinchen Buchsee, which is only ten minutes' walk from Hofwyl. Here De Fel- lenberg had an opportunity of judging of Pestalozzi's method, and of seeing both its strong and weak points. He was also able to enter into Pestalozzi's farther schemes. It is scarcely to be doubted that the dom- inant idea of Pestalozzi would have been then carried out at Hofwyl un- der his own eyes, if the characters of the two men had been such that they could labor together in the same work with success. But in their daily intercourse it soon appeared, that Pestalozzi's excessive kindness of heart led him to regard as tyranny a consistent prosecution of that plan ; while De Fellenberg, from his characteristic energy, bore Pestalozzi's want of decision impatiently, and treated it as loss of time. It was, therefore, not difficult for Pestalozzi's assistants to persuade him that he had fallen into the hands of a t3^rant, from who he should release himself at any cost. He therefore accepted at once the offer from the govern- ment of the Canton Waadt (Pays de Vaud) to give up to him the Schloss Yverdun, on the lake of Neuchatel, for the reception of his institute ; and thus ended the connection between Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, without, however, any personal disagreement. Pestalozzi rejoiced ex- tremely when, in 1806, De Fellenberg sent one of his sons to him to be educated, accompanied by a young man, as tutor, who should acquire a knowledge of Pestalozzi's system. De Fellenberg meanwhile, at Hofwyl, had come to the determination to begin the work of industrial education, and the only question with him now was, to find an able assistant who could fill the position of ^'Father'''' to his pupils, and as such embody his idea. After having sought among a considerable number of young men of the educating class in Switzerland, he found the right one in the following manner. Pestalozzi's method of teaching had excited great attention among all engaged in education throughout Switzerland. It seemed so simple to lead the pupil by enlisting his own will, and rousing his own reason to assist in his own instruction, that every reflecting teacher could only PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI, fjQg wonder why the idea had not occurred to him long before, as the num- ber of children in a school rendered some such method almost necessary. Many, therefore, endeavored to apply what they had heard of his sys- tem, apparently so simple, to the subjects then taught in their schools, reading, writing, the catechism, &c. ; but they soon found the task to be much more difficult than they had imagined. Manj^, therefore, were anxious to study the Pestalozzian method from Pestalozzi himself; but this was too expensive for most of them. The pecuniary affairs of the institute were so involved from mismanagement, that Pestalozzi could not admit any such supernumeraries except for a considerable sum. This led De Fellenberg to think of opening a course of instruction in the Pes- talozzian method ; on the one hand, to offer to earnest teachers this oppor- tunity of improvement ; on the other, with the hope, among the numbers who might assemble at Hofwyl, to find an assistant for his own particular object. He communicated his scheme to Pestalozzi, who was delighted with it, and sent him a young man from Prussia named Zeller, no less thor- oughly imbued with his method than enthusiastic in promoting it. De Fellenberg was thus able to open his course of instruction, 1st May, 1806. For this purpose he had a cottage built in a little wood, beneath great linden trees, on twelve posts, and with a single roof. The upper part served as a sleeping-room, the ground-floor as a school-room. In the morning, the hours from five to seven, and from eight till twelve, were devoted to lessons. In the afternoon the teachers worked in the fields and in the garden of Hofwyl. In the evening they prepared the vegetables for the next day's meals. During the harvest they assisted in the fields during the whole day. De Fellenberg, in this way, showed them how an industrial school ought to be organized. He gave them also every morning, a lesson in agricultuj-e, in which he explained the various field operations and their connection. He conversed with them on the subject of making agricultural labor a valuable aid in education, and a subject of instruction for boys. Each evening he talked over with them the labors of the following day. Thus he led the teachers to do their M'ork with intelligence ; to take pleasure in it, and to see how advanta- geous would be to themselves the knowledge thus obtained of agricul- ture, as the means of making the soil more productive during the rest of their life ; for most teachers in Switzerland depend for the principal part of their subsistence on a few acres of public ground. All this instruction was in accordance with Pestalozzi's ideas — De Fel- lenberg even carried them further than their originator — for Pestalozzi based his system on the perception of the senses (Anschauung,) making this the ground work of memory. Former systems had only concealed themselves with the memory, and with matters which could be made ob- jects of perception ; De Fellenberg then went beyond Pestalozzi, inas- much as he added the action to the perception; "for," said he, "what has been done, and done with thought, will be retained more firmly by the memory, and will bring a surer experience than that which has been only seen or heard." Earlier schools made the ear and words the subject- 770 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. matter of memory — Pestalozzi, the eye and picture — De Fellenberg, the action. Zeller, though versed in Pestalozzi's method, followed De Fel- lenberg's step in advance of it, with the readiness of one desirous of im- provement; and brought his objective teaching, as far as possible, into relation with the daily lessons of the teachers — the effect of which was to render them more interesting and animated. The teachers who took part in these courses of instruction have been heard, even years after, to describe the scene so vividly that it seemed as if they had just come from it ; and it has been often proved that whilst other teachers, from want of knowledge of farming, have been ruined in times of distress, such as 1816, 1817, the Hofwyllers, as they were called, struggled out of their diflBculties by their own exertions. About thirty joined in the first season's lessons. These, on their re- turn home, mentioned them to their acquaintances. The follovring spring, no less than eighty teachers made their appearance at Hofwyl. This influx created difficulties for De Fellenberg, as an individual, and caused him some pecuniary embarrassment. In order to carry out his plans he was obliged to find difl^ereiit kinds of labor, which he would not, perhaps, otherwise have thought of. Among these was drainage, then effected only by means of stones, or with wooden pipes ; and as the Hofwyl land was extremely stony, this answered two purposes at once. The drainage water also was turned to account, in watering the low-lying meadows. All these occupations again gave Zeller the opportunity of extending his object-lessons. In- struction in drawing was joined with them ; this art being regarded by De Fellenberg and Zeller as a connecting link between perception and action. The second course was attended by a little schoolmaster, named Wehrli, from the canton of Thurgovie. Although an elderly man, he had set off, on hearing of the new method of teaching, and traveled on foot about one hundred and fifty miles, in order to improve himself in his profession. He was one of the most zealous and attentive students, and endeavored to inform himself as thoroughly as possibly on all points that were new to him. When De Fellenberg, at times, explained to the teachers how agricultural labor might be made a means of education, de- claring his own wish to establish an example of such industrial training, if he could only find a capable assistant, it was always old Wehrli who, after the lesson, had most questions to ask ; and at the end of the course he said that he had a son whom he could recommend to carry the plan into effect. Induced by his description of his son, De Fellenberg invited him to Hofwyl : and shortly afterwards there appeared before him a youth of eighteen, with a pleasing expression of countenance, modest bearing, but fearless glance, commissioned by his father to enter the ser- vice cf De Fellenberg. Young Jacob Wehrli was not long in compre- hending what De Fellenberg required of him. He only wished, as soon as possible, to be put in command of boys with whom he could set to work. De Fellenberg was so convinced of the certainty of success in PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. fjfjl his undertaking, that he did not hesitate to give the first beggar-boy whom he found, as a pupil to young Wchrli. Wehrli was no less confi- dent in its being an easy task to change the most unmanageable of vag- abonds into an industrious member of society ; and, in fact, the first few weeks of kind treatment, not omitting better food, seemed to make the desired impression which De Fellenberg and Wehrli ascribed to their system. This result was, however, not a little attributable to Wehrli's having shared all the occupations of his pupil, so that when the boy felt weary or idle, he was ashamed to let his master, as he called Wehrli, work alone. When, however, after a few weeks, the better food and kindly treatment were no longer new, the beggar-boy began to long after his former "free life," and tried, instead of working, to go after birds' nests, the eggs of which had formed the luxuries of his former diet ; or else he sought out a snug corner to sleep in. When Wehrli said to him, "Those who will not work shall not eat," he took up his tools again, it is true, but as his thoughts were not in his work, his labor was worth nothing, and Wehrli saw that he should not attain his purpose in that way. So it was necessary that the boy should experience the conse- quence of his idleness, and go to bed one evening without his food. "What," thought he, "I am deprived of my liberty, and must hunger into the bargain?" and the next morning, very early, he took his depart- ure. Thus Wehrli had now no pupil. De Fellenberg himself was as- tonished that the beggar-boy had not known better how to appreciate his kindness, and he then made a fresh experiment with the son of an in- dustrious laborer, who, burthened Avith a large family, was glad of the oppoj'tunity of providing for one of his children. He was a weakly boy, but willing and anxious to learn, and gave Wehrli more satisfaction. It was not so wonderful that a child "out of a laborer's family, should be trained to industry. Still it was attended with much trouble to accus- tom the boy, somewhat enfeebled by his mother's care, to field-labor. De Fellenberg had said that they would not take a second boy till the first was in good order, that the example of the one might influence the other. The prospect of such a result with this weakly boy was unfavor- able, and Wehrli found that he should have to go through the whole winter with but one pupil. At the beginning of the cold days, however, our young friend, the beggar-boy, made his appearance, and promised, if he were received back, to work hard for his bread. It really seemed as if the young vagabond had instituted some comparisons between his "fi'ee life" and Hofwyl training, to the advantage of the latter. The two new comrades soon strove which should do his work best — a contest in which the beggar-boy soon gained the upper hand, and took the posi- tion of teacher, as he displayed much more skill and aptitude than the other. This satisfied his ambition, and Wehrli took care not to weaken this first germ of civilization in him, but rather endeavored to convince De Fellenberg that they might now receive, a third boy; as he had a strong and intelligent assistant in the beggar-boy, and could, at least, de- pend on the good will of the other lad. Soon there followed a third and 772 PESTALozzr, de fellenberg and wehrli. a fourth ; but care was taken not to increase the vagrant element, till the inner strength of the httle family might make it safe to do so. This was the commencement of the agricultural school for the poor at Hofwj^l, in which the Objective Teaching of Pestalozzi was brought into action in concurrence with labor. When the pupils reached ten in num- ber Wehrli was able to promote some of them to be his assistants ; not so much in school-teaching, as in the direction of work, arranging that each older pupil should take charge of a younger one, as an apprentice. Such was the type of the ultimate development of the school ; just as in a well-ordered family the elder children lead on the younger ones by their example. Agricultural labors offer a richer field for this purpose than any other employment. Every sort of capacity is brought into action. Each member of the family performs his part of the common labor, and en- joys the elevating consciousness of being useful to the community. In striving to fill his position well, he learns to act from a sense of duty, and strengthens this virtue by practice. De Fellenberg's pupils, however, were not confined to agricultural labor ; the requirements of his farm, and afterwards of his educational establishment for the upper classes, gave employment to various artizans, as cart makers, carpenters, joiners, black- smiths, locksmiths, workers in wood, iron, leather, mechanics, shoe- makers, tailors. Therefore, the pupils of the lower school, if they wished to learn a handicraft, had a wide choice open to them, without being obliged, during their apprenticeship, to neglect the instruction from books in which they had become interested. Wehrli's school, gradually increasing from a small family circle to a youthful community, reached the number of 150 pupils, without dimin- ishing in moral strength or intellectual energy. Amongst these a con- siderable number were trained to become teachers in national schools, and superintendents of similar establishments ; such as are now to be found in most of the cantons of Switzerland, in many German states, in France, in the Netherlands, in Italy, and elsewhere. The greatest ser- vice rendered by the system of industrial training, in schools modeled after Wehrli's, has been in those devoted to rescuing juvenile offenders from the path of ruin, and restoring them to society. Up to the prtsent time, the Rettungs Haus, at Bachtele, near Berne, in Switzerland is one of the best institutions of this nature, and Dr. Wichern, the founder of the Rauhen Haus, near Hamburg, and De Metz, founder of the Colo- nic Penitentiare, at Mettrai, in France, have employed this system, as the only effectual mode of reclaiming the most abandoned juvenile delinquents. We must not omit to mention here an observation, confirmed by facts, that wherever such schools have been established with success, they have always, as in the case of Wehrli's, at Hofwyl, arisen out of the small family principle gradually extended. There have not been wanting at- tempts to organize such schools on a gigantic scale, but few of these have proved themselves strong enough to live. It has always been- de- PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 'j'jg monstrated that it is not the system that can give life, but the spirit ; the strength, love, and faith of the founder; and all these will naturally in- crease from the smallest germ, and become strong by exercise. This was proved, too, in Hofwyl itself, for when after forty years' exertions, Wehrli was recalled to his native canton of Thurgovie, to conduct there an in- stitution for the education of teachers, after the model of Hofwyl, De Fellenberg sought his successor from amongst the numerous teachers of the lower school; but not one of the chosen "step-fathers" could take Wehrli's place. The school lost with him its peculiar vitality, and it would have been better to have begun it afresh. De Fellenberg had felt from the first the true position of the wealthy in relation to the poorer classes, and that it would be only half doing his work in the world, if he merely showed w^hat treasures existed in the working classes to be drawn forth. The rich must be taught, at the same time, by what means they could succeed in extracting those treasures. Witnesses were wanted out of the upper classes to the educational elevation of the labor- ing classes — witnesses who might afterwards carry forward his work. About the time at which he made his first experiment in industrial train- ing, he began an agricultural course, for landow^ners. The success of his plan of deep-soil ploughing, draining, and irrigation, upon the for- merly somewhat neglected ground of his estate, w^as much approved, and brought him a large number of pupils, many of whom also took an inter- est in his education of the poor. But these young men remained so short a time under his direction, that he could not anticipate the exten- sion of his views in a wider circle through them. He therefore opened, in 1809, his educational institute for the upper classes, of the same kind as that which Pestalozzi conducted at Iverdun — afterwards extensively known — and he here made use o£ the experience which Pestalozzi had gained during manj'' years with his objective lessons. In working out his method, Pestalozzi had arrived at a somewhat one- sided system of instruction, founding all on his pupil's own perceptions. He excluded traditions far too much, so that it was said of him that the whole past of human cultivation w'as lost to his pupils — as, for instance, history, De Fellenberg endeavored to avoid this one-sidedness in his school, by giving the study of history its place, adapting it with care to the young. On the other hand, he strove by every means to afford to the pupils of his higher school a field for the development of their pow- ers of action. He introduced extensive gymnastics, including military exercises, swimming, riding, pedestrian exercises, turning, and similar mechanical occupations, gardening, and skating. At the same time, under the guidance of a special master, the boys formed a kind of inde- pendent community amongst themselves, for the management of their own affairs out of school-hours ; arranging their various occupations, as well as games of all kinds, their walking tours, gardening, &c. They chose their own officers, punished casual offenders, and thus practiced obedience to self-imposed law. In this manner De Fellenberg strove, with these pupils also, to promote action and the discipline of life, as the VY4 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. actual means of education ; and to lay the foundation of self-reliance in the man by the cultivation of self-government, and various capabilities in the boy and youth, so that in the upper school also, the prominent feature was education hy action^ which coincided with the industrial training of the lower or poor school. The two institutions were brought into contact in many ways. Pupils of the upper school who required physical strengthening, or muscular exhaustion, so to speak, as was the case with many, were sent for a time to field-labor in the lower school. In both cases, labor acted as a whole- some medicine, whilst the boys themselves regarded getting up at three in the morning to earn a breakfast with a thrashing flail as one of their greatest pleasures. Many amusements were shared by both schools — ^for instance, skating and sledging in winter, and gymnastic games in sum- mer. The sons of the wealthy learnt from pupils of the lower school to respect labor, whilst the poor viewed their richer companions not as ene- mies but as sympathizing friends. The pupils of the upper school kept a poor-box, into which were paid all the small fines, and the voluntary contributions of the boys also, on Sundays, after the religious services. These funds afforded them the means of helping the sick and infirm peo- ple whom they met with in their visits to the poor families round Hofwyl. Such visits were usually made on Sunday afternoons. Thus also was Sunday sanctified, not by words only, but by deeds. In order to awaken yet more sympathy in the sons of the rich for the education of the poor, a little colony from the lower school was at one time established in a wood, about six miles from Hofwyl, on an inclosure of about twelve acres. The walls of the dwellings were of clay, and were the work of the pupils of the upper school. The doors, windows, floor, ceilings, partitions, beds, tables, chairs, and cupboards, w'ere made by the young carpenters of both schools ; and it was a common festival for all when the first four pupils, with their teacher, were established in the new colony, on which occasion the chief enjoyment consisted in this, that both schools joined in digging and in preparing for planting the piece of ground destined for a garden. For several years, one of the most favor- ite Sunday walks was to visit the new colony and observe its progress. Thus it was that the practical working, as well as the theory, of agri- cultural poor schools was carried by Hofwyl pupils into distant countries ; and thus, too, the boys of the upper school took away with them more correct notions of active beneficence, as well as of the duties which prop- erty imposes upon its possessor. This education earned much approbation from the public, and the number of pupils increased in a short time. Their payments enabled Be Fellenberg to extend the Poor School, which we before mentioned. It also made it possible for him to give several "courses" for the benefit of earnest teachers ; and amongst them he discovered young men who attached themselves, willingly and efficiently, to his work of training the poor, assisting him to spread it abroad. Among the many strangers who visited Hofwyl, some, who were not PESTALOZZl, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. ^75 satisfied with seeing what was done there, inquired into the possibility of founding similar institutions in their own homes. Then it always ap* peered necessary, as a first condition, to have a AVehrli ; and De Fellen- berg perceived that, if all these good intentions should be carried into efiect, he must consider how he could procure more than Wehrli. He was now able to make use of those young men whom he had found quahfied, in the course of his classes, for teachers, and without whom it would have been impossible for him to extend his system thus widely in so short a time. For however simple at first sight the idea might appear, that the same means which renders the individual capable of self-support — namely, his development as a worker, should be made the chief agent in his education — nevertheless, such simple ideas are only suggested by that common sense which Diogenes sought with a lantern in broad daylight. To carry them out into practice requires a self-denial and devotion, which is the fruit of a long exercise of Christian virtues. Pestalozzi's original ideal was thus realized in Hofvvjd. He had practiced his method of instruction at Iverdun, at first with great suc- cess ; but here, again, his want of capacity for management stood in his way. We are far, however, from wishing to depreciate, in the smallest de- gree, the great service which he rendered in the furtherance of true popular education. If his objective system did not^entirely develop in- dustrial training, it may at least be considered as having given the first impulse in that direction. What must above all be regarded in all he did is his inexhaustible love for the young, to express which, he could scarcely find words. It inspired every one with whom he came in con- tact, and became the distinguishing characteristic of his true disciples. If his S3^stem embraced but few subjects of teaching, its deficiencies were compensated for by the intensity with which it acted upon such as could be brought within its sphere. Pestalozzi's simple motto was, "Nothing can be learned except through comparison of the unknown with the known;" and, again, "Every thing is contained in the child; the teacher must know how to draw it out by love and patience : love can always find means." To teachers he often said, " Go, and learn of the mother." The young, according to his view, could only know by the physical perception which requires repeated exercise to advance to mental percep- tion. What the eye sees must be thoroughl)'^ comprehended by means of feeling, hearing, smelling, tasting, in order that the verbal description of the object and its properties may be perfectly understood. Then the teacher proceeded to numbers and measures, and lastly drawing came in to complete the external image. From this short sketch of the course pursued by Pestalozzi's method of objective teaching, it will be seen that it was especially calculated to qualify and prepare its scholars for the study of natural science ; and it is evident that in agriculture lay the richest mine for the practice of objective teaching. As a farther development of his system, Pestalozzi Y76 PESTALOZZr, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLL could not fail to look with satisfaction on De Fellenberg's agricultural school at Hofwyl. If we cast a glance at the studies of the naturalist — as widely comprehensive as they are deep and searching — and upon their manifold uses in common life, we can scarcely fail to acknowledge, with gratitude, in Pestalozzi's system one of the influences which have helped to promote and facilitate scientific pursuits. De Fellenberg pursued his work at Hofwyl, in the manner before described, till the year 1844. We have mentioned how offshoots of his work for educating the poor were formed with success in most of the cantons of Switzerland, and the adjoining countries ; and he could look upon his life with the consciousness of having begun a work that would advance and develop itself through the inherent truth of the principle which it represented. It is very significant of the effect produced by the efforts of Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, that when, in 1844, the erection of a national monu- ment to Pestalozzi was talked of, and men of all ranks met to consider the subject, it was agreed, without opposition from any quarter, to abandon the idea of a stone or bronze statue, and raise instead of it, a living memorial to the father of Swiss education, consisting of an insti- tution for the training of poor children of both sexes, in accordance with his ideas, and after the model of Wehrli's school at Hofwyl. This monument is still flourishing, and will be a blessing to coming generations. De Fellenberg's institutions at Hofwyl did not escape the fate of all human affairs. He died in 1844. The political events of 1845—48 caused a dissolution of his schools at the moment; but his system was .too firmly established in Sw/tzerland, by means of numerous training and other schools, to be effected by the continuance or discontinuance of Hof- wyl. That which he sought to accomplish by means of his schools was achieved : — 1. Switzerland had obtained a system of popular education, having its foundation in the wants of the nation, and which it could henceforth develop independently, as there was scarcely a place of any importance in the country where there was not a pupil, either of Pesta- lozzi or De Fellenberg, to take an active interest in the schools. 2. The idea of training by action, by productive and civilizing labor, had ad- vanced from theory into practice. The same means which are pointed out to man for his material support were now brought to serve as an effective instrument in his education ; and, as the great mass of man- kind are destined to maintain themselves by labor, the most effective means of civilizing and educating this large majority was thus discov- ered in labor. The chief point which remained to be considered was, how the leading classes of society, the employers, could be trained to recognize their duty, to educate and elevate morally the working classes, with the same interest with which they make use of hired labor to in- crease their own property. De Fellenberg indicated the way to this end also, and made the first step by the establishment of his educational institution, described above, for the higher classes. SPECIAL mSTRUCTION m THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. Square Miles. Inhabitants. 28,229 5,090,245 17,511 5,007,427 2,073 480,458 2,706 507,881 8,586 1,778,021 17,210 3,006,771 43,127 8,704,472 26 7,000 43 6,800 119,581 24,695,720 INTRODUCTION. Italy, in the year 1848, comprised an area of 119,581 square miles, with a population of 24,695,720, distributed and organized as follows : States. 1. Kingdom of Sardinia, 2. Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom, 3. Duchy of Modena, 4. Duchy of Parma, 5. Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 6. Papal States, 7. Kingdom of Naples, - 8. Republic of San Marino, - 9. Principality of Monaco, Total, - After the war of 1859, in which the Austrians were defeated, Lombardy, having on 8,313 square miles, 3,104,838 inhabitants, was ceded to Sardinia, wliilst the latter power (Sardinia) ceded Nice, having 1,633 square miles, and 543,535 inhabitants to France. In the years 1860 and 18G1, the kingdom of Italy was established, and Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Naples, and the greater part of the Papal States, with an aggregate of 12, #08 square miles, and 2,446,683 inhab- itants, as also the republic of San INIarino, which, however, retained its peculiar constitution, were united with it. In the year 1866, Venice, with 9,198 square miles, and 2,485,816 inhab- itants, became part of the kingdom of Italy. Tlie principality of Monaco was incorporated in the French empire in the year 1864. Italy, in 1869, was composed of the following states : States. Square Miles. Inhabitants. 1. The Kingdom of Italy, - - 107,776 24,437,295 2. The Papal Dominion," - - 4,502 692,106 Total, ... - 112,278 25,066,401 More than one-third of the entire population (8,292,248) are engaged in agricultural pursuits; 3,923,631 in manufactures and commerce; 58,551 in mining; 542,293 in professions; 174,008 in the services of the Church; 147,448 in government and public employment; 242,386 in the army and navy. Tlie population is disti'ibuted through 8,856 communes, of which 2,663 have less than 1,000, and 9 more than 100,000 inhabitants. The general system is administered by a special Ministry of Public Instruction, and the technical institutions by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. The latest statistics are as follows : Y^8 STATISTICS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN KINGDOM OF ITALY. 1. Pi'imari/ Tnstrnction. In 1806 there were 24,682 public primary schools, viz: 14,240 for boys, and 9,737 for girls; whilst the number of jirivate primary schools was 5,435, viz: 2,726 for boys, and 2,341 for girls; making a total of 31,117 primary schools, viz: 16,966 for boys, and 12,078 for girls. Besides these, there were (in 1863) 2,803 evening and Sunday schools. The total number of scholars in the public schools was 1,102^721, viz : 630,230 boys, and .472,491 girls ; and in the private schools, 115,149, viz: 56,068 bovs, and 59,OSl girls. Total, 1,217,870 scholars : 686,348 boys, and .5.51,522 girls.' The number of teachers in the public schools Avas 26,019, viz : 15,478 male teachers, and 10,541 female teachers; whilst in the private schools there were 6,371 teachers, viz: 3,047 male teachers, and 3,324 female teachers ; making a total of 32,391 teachers, viz : 18,526 male teachers, and 13,865 female teachers. Thus the total numbers are as follows (of all the primary schools with the exception of evening and Sunday schools) : 31,117 schools, 32,391 teachers, and 1,21 7,870 pupils. For the education of primary teachers there are 91 seminaries and model schoo's, and 44 conferences or institutes. 2. Secondary Instruction. There exist the following kinds : lyceums {lycei), and gymnasia (fjimnasi), for the ditfero:nt grades of classical instruction ; and the technical schools, technical institutes, and superior technical institutes, for scien- tific and practical instruction. In 1868-1869 there Avere 78 royal lyceums, with 3,172 scholars; 14 assimi- lated lyceums, with 326 scholars; and 54 private lyceums, with 1,380 scholars; making a total of 146 lyceums, with 4,878 scholars. In the same year there Avere 103 royal gymnasia, Avith 8,223 scholars ; 40 assimilated gymnasia, Avith 2,524 scholars ; and 323 free gymnasia, Avith 9,783 scholars ; making a total of 466 gymnasia, with 20,550 scholars. Total, 612 secondary classical schools, with 25,408 pupils. There Averc 55 ro3'^al technical schools, with 5,868 scholars ; 72 assimilated technical schools, Avith 4,594 scholars ; and 138 free technical schools, Avith 6,495 scholars; making a total of 265 technical schools, with 16,955 scholars. There are 84 technical institutes, with 880 pupils ; and 3 superior special institutes (at Milan, Turin, Naples), Avith 555 pupils. Total, 352 institutions, Avith 17,392 pupils. Total number of secondary technical schools Avas, in 1868, 964, with 42,800 scholars. 3. Superior Instruction: — 20 universities, with 2,096 students of laAV, 1,320 of medicine, 937 of science, 71 of philosophy and literature, 9 of theology. With most of these uniA^ersities there are special courses, some Avith one, others with two, three, or more, in all 47 courses, Avith 82 students in the notary course, 530 in the pharmaceutical, 16 in the surgical, 19 in the course of midAvifery, 84 in the vet- erinary course. The total number of students in 1867-68 Avas 5,124 approrati, and 1,308 licentiates (only in the courses). 4. Special and Professional Schools. Of these there are : Royal Institute of superior practical studies, at Floi-ence, 138 students. Academy of science and literature, at Milan, 27 students. Royal superior technical institute, at Milan, 254 students. School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Milan, 58 students. School of applied engineering, at Turin, 190 students. School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Turin, 98 students. Royal superior normal school, at Pisa, 28 students. Royal school of applied engineering, at Naples, 111 students. Royal college of medicine and surgery, at Naples, 75 students. School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Naples, 71 students. 20 Nautical schools. 2 Mining schools, at Aosta and Agerdo, each with cour.se of three years. 1 School of artillery and military engineering, at Genoa. 1 Military academy, at Turin. 1 School of infantry, at Parma. 1 School of cavalry, at Modena. 2 Marine academies, at Genoa and Naples. 6 Academies of music of the highest grade. * 29 Schools of art. TBCHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY, 779. SUPERIOR TECHNICAL INSTITUTE AT MILAN.* The fame aod excellent arrangements of the Technical Institute are in a great measure due to Professor Brioschi, the director, a celebrated mathematician. It is divided into three schools, one for civil engineers, one for mechanical engineers, and one for architects, being authorized to confer certificates to those qualified for these careers and to teach in establishments of inferior degree. It is governed by a directive council consisting of the president of the Institute, the president of the Academy of Fine Arts, the presi- dent of the Technical Institute at Milan, of a delegate from the provincial board, one from the town corporation, and one from the Society for the encouragement of Arts £«id Trades (Societd d'encoraggiamento d'Arti e Mestieri). Applicants for admission must have finished the first two years of the faculty of mathematical sciences in one of the universities of the kingdom, and pass a successful examination in the two years' studies. Those wish- ing to enter at the seeand year must pass an examination according to the annual programme published by the directive council of the institute. Ex- aminations also take place at the end of each year, and the pupils must pass these satisfactorily in order to be advanced. The examinations are both written and oral, and consist in the execution of some practical work, or in drawing of plans, as the subjects of the examination require. Certi- ficates are granted after the examination at the close of the last year. The annual matriculation fee is 100 liras, 40 liras additional being paid by students of chemistry engaged in practical exercises. Extraordinary expenses for geodetical investigations, or for visiting great manufacturing establishments, buildings, etc., are defrayed by the pupils. Auditors wish- ing certificates at the end of the year, pay 20 liras for each course to which they are matriculated. By virtue of arrangements witli the municipal corporation and the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts and Trades, the Superior Technical Institute at Milan is entitled to the use of: a. The collections of natural history in the city museum. h. The collection illustrating chemistry and industrial mechanics of the society above mentioned. c. The chemical laboratory of the society. It also possesses : a. The collection of machines and apparatus formerly constituting the technological cabinet of the Lombard Institute of Sciences, Belles-lettres and Arts, and a number of machines formerly belonging to the cabinets of the University of Pavia. b. A botanical garden in the Brera palace. c. A technical Ubrary. ^Fronx Account of Technical Schools in Italy, formshed by Prof. Bon^. 780 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. d. A collection or cabinet of technological physics. e. A collection of geodetical instruments. f. A collection of drawings and models for constructions. g. A collection of ornamental and architectural drawings and models. h. A laboratory of industrial chemistry. We subjoin the programmes for the special schools, the figures denoting the number of hours per week. Special School for Civil Engineers, Year I. Theoretical mechanics, 4 ; geodesy, 2 ; topography, 2 during the first half-year ; geognosy and applied mineralogy, 3 ; graphic statics, 3 ; chemical manipulations. 10 the first half-year; drawing, with application of descriptive geometry, 10 the first half-year, 20 the second ; exercises in mineralogy, 1 ; exercises in statical drawing, representation of objects in rest, 3. Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; construction : — civil constructions, 3 ; agronomy, 3 ; graphic statics appUed to the science of construc- tions, 4 ; theorems of machinery, 2 the first half-year, 1 the second ; theoretical and practical exercises in mathematics, 2 the first half-year ; drawing for building, 20 the first half-year, 1 2 the second ; topography and topographical drawing, 10 the second half-year. Year III. Science of constructions: civil constructions, 2 the first half-year ; earth constructions and roads, 3 the first half-year, 2 the sec- ond ; fluvial and agricultural hydraulics, with hydraulic constructions, 3 ; agronomy and rural economy, 3; the elements of administrative law and agricultural jurisprudence, 3 the first half-year, 2 the second ; railroads, 2 ; drawing for civil constructions, 8 ; drawing for road building, 4 ; practical architecture, 1 2 the first half-year, 9 the second ; topography and geodesy, 10 the second half-year. In order to pass fi-om each class to the next higher, the student must pass an examination, and applicants for the diploma of civil engineer must, besides the examination on the subjects taught the third year, pass two general examinations, one consisting of some field operation; the other of a written solution of some practical question. Special School for Mechanical Engineers. Year I. Theoretical mechanics, 4 ; geognosy and appHed mineralogy, 3 ; statical drawing, 3 ; topography, 2 the first half-year ; chemical manipula- tions, 10 the first half-year, 9 the second; drawing and descriptive geom- etry, 1 the first half-year, 8 the second ; exercises in mineralogy, 1 ; exercises in statical drawing, 3. Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; science of constructions, 3 ; indus- trial mechanics and the conduction of waters, 4 the first half-year, 3 the second ; theorems of machinery and machine building, 2 ; theoretical and practical exercises in mathematics, 2 the first half-year, 1 the second ; technological chemistry, 9 ; drawing for constructions, 6 ; machine draw- TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 73]^ ing, 12; practical exercises in topography and topographical drawing, -10 the second half-year. Year III. Fluvial hydraulics, 3 ; industrial mechanics and machine building, 4; railroads, 2 ; metallurgy, 2; machine drawing, 24. At the end of each year is an examination on the subjects of the year, with the exception of the mathematics and theorems of machinery in the second year. Candidates for the diploma of mechanical engineer must draw a j)lan on some subject connected with industrial mechanics. Special School for Civil Architects. Year I. Rational mechanics, 4 the first half-year ; topography, 2 the first half year ; geognosy and applied mineralogy, 3 ; graphic statics, 3 ; mineralogical exercises, 1 ; exercises in statical drawing, 3 ; drawing with applications of descriptive geometry, 5 ; classical styles, distribution of edifices, reliefs, 10; elements of figure drawing, 6; copying of ornaments and water coloring, 8 the first half-year, 9 the second. Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; science of constructions, civil con- structions, 3 ; drawing for construction, 4 ; application of statical drawing to the science of construction, 4 ; styles of the middle ages, composition of plans, reliefs, 10; ornament copying and composition, 8; practical and topographical drawing, landscape drawing and water coloring, 6. Year III. Elements of administrative law, and the jurisprudence of land, 3 the first half-year, 2 the second ; drawing constructions, 5 ; draw- ing up plans, estimating, description of works, contracts, etc., 12 ; orna- ment copying and composition, interior ornament, furniture and utensils, 10 the first half-year, 8 the second ; modeling architectural ornaments in clay, 6 the second half-year ; landscape drawing and water coloring, 8 the first half-year, 6 the second. Applicants for the diploma of civil architect must, besides passing the special annual examination of the third year, present a composition in architecture. Normal Course, designed for Professors of Natural History. Year I. Zoology ; geology ; mineralogy ; chemical manipulations ; ex- ercises in mineralogy ; scientific excursions. Year II. Comparative zoology and anatomy ; geology and paleontol- ogy ; botany ; exercises and scientific excursions. Year III. Botany ; geology and paleontology ; agronomy ; exercises in comparative zoology and anatomy, and scientific excursions. Besides the above obligatory studies, supplementary instruction in math- ematics is given at the institute, and in the current year 1869-70, the director of the astronomical observatory lectures on the " Theory of the errors of observation, with practical applications of the theory to scien- tific researches ;" the professor of technological chemistry gives a course on " Chemistry as applied to agriculture ;" the professor of industrial mineralogy, on " Chemical technology as applied to the art of building ;'» the director of the museum, a course on the <' Zoology of the inferior ani- mals, with the principal applications." 782 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY, NORMAL TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. There is no special normal technical school, and no special title confer- ring the right to teach or to enter those competitive examinations by which professors in technical schools are chosen. The Superior" Technical Insti- tute at Milan can grant diplomas testifying that the holder is qualified to teach in any of its three special schools, which is also the case with those v/lio hold diplomas of a university faculty of mathematics and the two schools of application at Turin and Naples. As regards the other branches taught at the technical institutes, candidates become qualified at two other institutions dependent upon the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, viz : the Industrial Museum at Turin, and the Superior School of Com- merce at Venice. The former combines a permanent industrial exhibition v/ith a school for the application of sciences to the industries, more espe- cially to chemical industry, and professors of physics, chemistry, and tech- nology, must obtain their diplomas there. The latter, which is maintained at the expense of the province with a State subsidy, is the institution at vv^hich aspirants to professorships of political economy, accounts and commercial law, and geography, must obtain diplomas. In regard to professors in Naval Institutes, there is a project under con- sideration to raise the normal instruction intended for them into a school of shipbuilding, to be located at Genoa. A remodeling of the Agricultural Institute at Milan is also debated, so as to include in it a normal institute for professors of agronomy. Profes- sors of literature are sought among the graduates of the university facul- ties of belles-lettres and the normal schools, whence also are sought teach- ers for technical institutes. It will appear from this detail, that normal technical instruction in Italy has not yet received an efficient organization and a thorough scientific and practical course of study. The great number of institutions tends to hinder progress in this particular. Their development has been so raiiid, and the demand for professors consequently so great, that the nominations have been made without due care, which is one of the reasons why tech- nical instruction, especially as regards literary and general culture, is in a very unsatisfactory condition, and the country does not realize the ad- vantages which the large disbursements, and the general favor with which these schools have been regarded, would lead us to .anticipate. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. . 733 SCHOOL OF NAUTICAL INSTRTCTION AT GENOA. The course of instruction in tlie Nautical Institute at Genoa embraces : — 1. Nau- tical Astronomy and Navigation ; II. Mechanics and Steam Engine ; III. Mar- itime and Commercial Law ; IV. Geography and Meteorology. /. Nautical Astronomy and Navigation. Introduction : 1 . Nautical art in general ; different sciences attached ; need of varied knowledge for captains ; special applications of mathematics to naviga- tion. 2. Method to be pursued in carrying on nautical studies. Plane Navigation: 3. Figure and dimensions of the earth; equations in equal sphsrcs of a circle traced on the same. 4. Methods for determining the course o ■ the ship; the compass. 5. Demonstrations of the principles on which the so- lution of problems of navigation rest, reduction tables. 6. Given two of the four quantities, how to find'the other two in determining the position of a ship. 7. Reduction of a straight course; degree of confidence to be placed in results. 8. Maritime charts ; how constructed ; resolution of problems. Nautical Astronomg. 9. Elementary notions of astronomy; special objects in teaching this science to seamen. 10. Astronomical tables in use among diffei'ent nations^ and how to use them. 11. Instruments for reflexion, and principles of construction ; verification, rectification, and use of the sextant, octant, and arti- ficial horizon; corrections to be made on the heights and angular distances ob- served; depression; refi'action; parallax, semi-diameter. 12. Examination of the principal problems relative to the measure and transformation of time. 13. The chronometer ; absolute state of the chronometer; diurnal variations; com- parison ; use of chronometers. 14. Compass; its construction and verification ; determination of the declivity ; tables of deviation ; correction bars. 15. Differ- ent methods for determining the latitude and longitiide at sea. 16. The tides, their fundamental theory; calculations regarding'tliem. 17. Hydrographic charts ; topographical instruments, and different projections. II. Mechanics and Steam Engiiie. Introduction : 1 . Necessity for the use of mechanics and phj^sics for the ship- master, naval constructor and machinist. 2. Method of giving such instruction to seamen. Mechanics: — Motion considered geometrically; composition; decomposition. 3. Transformation of motion. 4. Force; composition and decomposition of force; equilibrium. .5. Center of gravity, and. how to find it; application of the sa;ne, on the theory of the ship. 6. Theory of simple machines; principal ma- chines. 7. Principle of force. 8. Blows. 9. Resistance of materials; experi- mental elements of resistance, and elasticity of the principal substances in use in naval construction. 10. Mechanic of fluids ; demonstrations of its principal theorems ; application of the same to the stability of the ship. Steam Engines: — 11. General notions on steam; mechanical element of heat; thermometers; tension; expansion; condensation of steam. 12. Steam engines generally ; examination and description of its organs, and its different forms and applications. 13. Marine steam engines, and different systems'on Avhich they are constructed. 14. The boilers and their different types. 15. Combustibles and their different kinds. 16. Different systems of propulsion. 17. Mixed Nav- igation. 18. Historical summary of the origin and progress of machine and steam power. ///. Maritime and Commercial Laio. Introduction: 1. Necessity of general ctiltnre to shipmasters; study of the native tongue ; foreign languages ; history ; methods of gaining such instruction. 2. Necessity of the study of pubhc maritime and special lavv^, and commercial law ; method of giving such instruction. International Public Maritime Laio: 3. The sea, and the lav.^s by which it is governed ; freedom of the sea ; restrictions to this principle. 4. International maritime jurisdiction ; treaties; reciprocity; consular -agents. 5. War, embar- goes and reprisals; letters of marque ; capture; neutrality; blockade; contra- band of war. 6. The latest modifications. 784 . SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN ITALY. Internal Public Maritime Laiv : Territorial sea ; harbors and shores ; adminis- trative division of the boundaries of states, and docks. 9. Laws applicable to wooden and iron ships, sailing and steamships. 10. Nationality of the ship. 11. Law applicable to iho, personel of seamen. 12. Customs, laws, sanitary and police, as regards navigation. 13. Wrecks and recovery. 14. Maritime crimes and penal mercantile jurisdiction. Private Commercial Maritime Law: 1.5. Ownership of ships; privileges of ships. 16. Con tract of freight ; insurance and bottomry bonds; averages ; jet- tison and abandonment. 17. Duties and responsibilities of the master toward the freighterer, the shipper, the crew, and the passengers. 18. Legal relations arising from commercial operations ; bills of exchange ; partnership and agency. IV. Geography and Meteorology. Introduction: 1. Necessity of this knowledge to seamen. 2. Eelations be- tween geography and meteorology. 3. Historical development. 4. FiuidanKn- tal principles of geography, astronomy, and mathematics, and methods of instruc- tion. Physical Geography and Meteorology : 5. Fundamental principles of geology ; physical configuration of the earth ; forces which determine the formation of continents and islands ; extension of lines, &c. 6. Description of different parts of the globe, 7. Physical geography of the sea ; its extensions, divisions, depths, soundings, temperature, phosphorescence, colors, tides, currents, storms. 8. De- scriptive hydrography — oceans, their divisions and dependencies ; the rivers and lakes in different parts of the globe. 9. The atmosphere — its extension, temper- ature, and the thermometer ; different thermometric scales; atmospheric density and pressure ; the barometer — different barometric scales ; the winds — general, periodical, variable ; hurricanes ; stoi-ms ; law of storms ; watery luminaries and electric meteors ; signs and forecasts of the weather. 10 Magnetism — magnetic action ; declension of the magnetic needle ; the compass. 1 1 . Geographical dis- tribution of minerals, plants, and animals, utilized by man. 12. Man as a geo- graphical modifying agent. Political Description: Statistical and commercial geography. 13. Divisions, population, wealth, finances, commerce, and other statistical data of differeit states, in different divisions of the globe. ^ I I ^^ ..^^ -^^v >'/> •p^ ^K^%- "^'V 'b , > : %^- %^^ xV . V^o ^>- o> -'t %%^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 030 008 111 3 ■;':■''!'; ' ■ • . . i . ' t, 4 ,f' ■ . . ' .i ■ • i'(-^r .'■■ '• . \