LIBRAR Y OF CON GRESS, Chap. pS' C j4 Shelf X>10l PRESENTED BY UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, X NEW HOMES. r LIPPINCOTT'S GENERAL GUIDE FOR SETTLERS IN THE UNITED STATES. WITH AUTHENTIC DESCRIPTIONS, FROM OFFICIAL SOURCES, OF THE CLIMATE, SOIL, PRODUCTS, COST OF LANDS, WAGES OF LABOUR, COST OF LIVING, AND PRICES OF FARM ANIMALS AND PRODUCTS, IN THE WESTERN AND SOUTH WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES, AND IN VIRGINIA, AND OF THE BEST ROUTES TO AND THE COST OF REACHING THE DISTRICTS DESCRIBED. SECOND EDITION, / PHILADELPHIA : ■J. B, LIPPINCOTT AND CO., 715, Market Street. 18' V ?r- . 1 °\ 2 II 2 8 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by J. B. LiPPiNCOTT and Co., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. PREFACE, |N the preparation of this volume the compiler has sought to give within reasonable limits all the information necessary to enable those in search of new homes in the fertile regions of Western America, to satisfy themselves as to the real advantages or disadvantages of such States and Territories as are herein described. It is deemed proper to add that the volume is compiled solely in the interests of intending settlers and purchasers, and not in those of any Railway or Land Company seeking to sell lands. For much of the valuable information in relation to stock- raising and wool-growing, and the formation of farms, (which is more recent than that contained in any other volume), the compiler is indebted to E. A. Curley, Esq., of London, an eminent writer who has recently visited the West in the interests of intending settlers from his own country. TABLE OF CONTENTS. >ENERAL remarks on railway and public lands, p. 1. Kansas. — Area and population, 3 ; topography, 3 ; climate, 4 ; products, 5 ; stock-raising, 6 ; sheep-raising, 6 ; cotton, 6 ; prices of land, 8 ; prices of farm stock, 9 ; wages of la- bour, 9 ; formation and management of a farm, 9. Nebraska. — Area and population, 12; topography, 12; climate, 13; agri- culture and stock raising, 14 ; sheep-raising, 14 ; formation of a new home in (interesting details), 15-19; cattle-raising, 19-23; crops, 23; fruits, 24; prices of lands, 24; prices of farm-stock, 25; wages of labour, 25. California. — Area and population, 26; topography, 26; agriculture, 26; climate, 29 ; products, 30 ; sheep-raising, 31 ; dairy business, 32 ; wine- growing, 33 ; fruit, 33 ; mines, 35 ; prices of land, 35 ; cost of living, 37 ; price of farm-stock, 38 ; wages of labour, 38. Nevada. — Area and population, 39 ; topography, 39 ; agriculture, 39 ; stock- raising and grazing, 40 ; dairies, 41 ; precious metals, 41 ; climate, 42 ; prices of lands, 43; prices of farm-stock, 43; wages of labour, 43. Minnesota. — Area and population, 44 ; topography, 44 ; climate, 45; agricul- ture, 46 ; sheep-growing, 47 ; prices of lands, 48 ; cost of opening a farm, 49 ; prices of farm stock, 49 ; wages of labour, 49. Oregon. — Area, and population, 50 ; topography, 50 ; agriculture, 50 ; stock- raising, 50 ; climate, 52 ; grazing, 52 ; crop-raising, 54 ; fruit-growing, 54 ; sheep, 54 ; wheat, 54 ; prices of land, 55 ; prices of farm-stock, 55 ; wages of labour, 55. Iowa. — Area and population, 56 ; topography, 56 ; agriculture, 57 ; climate, health, 57 ; prices of land, 58 ; price of farm-stock, 58 ; wages of labour, 58. Virginia.— Area and population, 59; climate, 59; crops, 60; grazing, 61; fruits, 61 ; tobacco, 62; prices of farms, 62; prices of lands, 63; wages of labour, 64. Wyoming. — Area and population, 65 ; topography, 65 ; climate, 65 ; products, 66; stock-raising (interesting details), 67-77; prices of lands, 77 ; wages of labour, 78. Colorado. — Area and population, 79 ; topography, 79-80 ; soil and products, 80 ; grazing, 81 ; the parks, 82 ; gold and silver mines, 83 ; prices of lands, 84 ; prices of farm-stock, 84 ; wages of labour, 84. Dakota. — Area and population, 85 ; topography, 85 ; soil, 85 ; crops, 85 ; climate, 86 ; stock-raising, 86 ; prices of lands, 87 ; prices of farm- stock, 87 ; wages of labour, 87. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Utah. — Area and population, 88; topography, 88; agriculture and horti- culture, 89 ; sheep raising, 90 ; mining interests, 91 ; Mormonism, 92 ; prices of lands, 92 ; prices of farm-stock, 92 ; wages of labour, 92. Montana. — Area and population, 93 ; topography, 93 ; climate, 94 ; grazing, 95 ; products, 95 ; precious metals, 95 ; prices of lands, 95 ; prices of farm-stock, 96 ; wages of labour, 96. Idaho. — Area and population, 97 ; topography, 97 ; agriculture, 98 ; grazing, 98 ; climate, 98 ; mining, 99 ; prices of land, 99 ; prices of farm-stock, 99 ; wages of labour, 99. Washington. — Area and population, 100 ; topography, 100 ; climate, 101-103 ; products, 101 ; oysters, 102 ; prices of land, 104 ; prices of products, 104 ; prices of farm-stock, 105 ; wages of labour, 105. New Mexico. — Area and population, 106 ; topography, 106 ; climate, 104 ; grazing, 107 ; products, 108 ; precious metals, 109 ; grapes, 109 ; prices of lands, 109; wages of labour, 109. Texas. — Area and population, 110 ; topography, 110 ; health and climate, 111 ; products, 111 ; cattle raising, 112 ; prices of land, 112 ; wages of labour, 113 ; cost of living, 113. Wisconsin. — Area and population, 114; topography, 114; products, 115; climate, 115 ; agriculture and grazing, 117 ; prices of lands, 117 ; prices of farm-stock, 118; wages of labour, 118. Michigan. — Area and population, 119 ; topography, 119; climate, 119; pro- ducts, 119 ; prices of" lands, 121 ; wages of labour, 121 ; price of farm- stock, 121. Missouri. — Area and population, 122 ; topography, 122 ; climate, 123 ; soil, 123 ; agriculture, 123 ; horticulture, 124 ; grape culture, 124 ; stock-rais- ing, 124 ; minerals, 124 ; granite, 125. Arkansas. — Area and population, 127; topography, 127; climate, 128 ; agri- culture, 129 ; fruits, 130 ; stock-raising, 130 ; game, 130 ; timber, 130. Arizona. — Area, 131 ; surface, 132; agriculture, 132; climate, 132; minerals, 133 ; wages of labour, 135. Public Lands of the United States. Means of acquiring title, &c. 1. Government of the United States 2. Political divisions 3. Climate, soil and productions 4. Public land system 5. Mineral lands 6. Means of access . 7. Naturalization 8. United States Land Offices . 9. Population of each of the States and Territories in 1870 Preparations for removal to a new country Colonies Wages of mechanical labour . Wages of farm labour .... Cost of living „.„... 136 138 139 142 145 145 146 148 150 152 153 154 155 156 NEW HOMES. _S& X, HE great bulk of public ^ and railway lands to be -j^^ ^(Lj- procured at low prices ^^'- * ^ ' are west of Iowa, and are chiefly in the States of Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Nevada, California and Oregon, and in the territories of Wyoming, Colo- rado, Dakota, Utah, Montana, Idaho and Washington. Small par- cels only are now to be had in Wisconsin, Iowa, or Illinois. Lands may be procured in those States, but they must be purchased chiefly from speculators who demand much more for them than the price de- manded for good government lands only a little farther on. To persons coming from the British Islands or from the older States of the Union to purchase homes, no States present greater attractions than Kansas, Ne- braska and California, and none of the Territories offer greater attractions than Colorado, Wyoming and Utah. The rigours of the climate of Min- nesota will always deter settlers coming from countries enjoying a mild climate, but Scandinavians find there congenial and profitable homes. It is not to be understood that we desire to recommend intending settlers to seek their homes only in the new States where lands belonging to the public domain are to be had at a merely nominal price. There are many intending settlers who will pre- fer to pay an increased price for lands in the older States, and some of these lands are offered at temptingly low prices. English settlers in great numbers have sought of late years the worn-out tobacco and other lands of Virginia, thousands of acres of which are always in the market and to be purchased at prices but little above those demanded for railway lands in the far western States and Territories. In presenting to intending settlers, whether coming from England and other foreign countries, or from the 2 older States of the United States, such information as will aid them in the selection of a home, we shall confine ourselves, in the present edition of our work, to the more eligible States and Territories in the west, and to Virginia, which will for a time attract settlers from our own and other countries. We propose to state, always from official and reliable sources, all the facts deemed necessary in relation to the physical characteristics of the states and territories treated of, the climate, soil, products, prices of land, prices of horses, cattle and sheep, wages of labour, cost of living, and such other facts as intending settlers ne- cessarily desire to know. We append, as a necessary part of our informa- tion, the manner and cost of reaching the places described. In preparing the following pages, the author has made free use of the many admirable reports issued for years past by the "Commissioner of the General Land Office" and the " Commissioner of Agriculture." Many interesting details in relation to soil, climate, products, prices, &c, are from the reports of the surveyors employed in the States and Territories described, whose means of informa- tion are necessarily good. The au- thor acknowledges his obligations to numerous correspondents in the various localities described, who have furnished recent and valuable informa- tion. fcj* The information given in the articles on Kansas, Nebraska, Wyo- ming and elsewhere in this volume in relation to the purchase and FORMATION of FARMS ; CATTLE and sheep raising, &c, are compiled from the most recent and reliable sources, and will be found most in- teresting: and valuable. KANSAS. Area, 50,187,520 acres. Population in 1870, 364,383. Fare from New York to Topeka, Kansas, 1st class, $41-25; 2nd class (emigrant), $24 "40 — each adnlt emigrant is allowed 100 lbs. of luggage free; excess, $5 - 85 per 100 lbs. HE GENERAL SURFACE of Kansas is a gently undu- lating prairie. Laving no marked features like those of other prairie States, except, per- haps, a more rolling surface. The division of land is of two classes. First, the timber and rich alluvial bottom lands, bordering rivers and creeks, the estimated area of which is 10,000,000 acres, being fully five times the amount of all improved lands in the state at the present time. To the second belongs the upland or rolling prairie, the soil of which averages from 2 to 3 ft. in depth, with a subsoil of fertilizing qualities which will, by careful cultivation, prove inexhaustible. This class of land is considered preferable for the raising of grains and fruits, while the bottom land is selected for corn, hemp, vegetables, and grasses. But such is the uniform character of the general surface of Kansas, that nearly every quarter section within its limits is capable of cultivation. Timber is confined mainly to the borders of rivers and creeks, and is not superabundant; yet its scarcity is compensated for in a great measure by the very general distribution of rock throughout the State, which is easy of access, and furnishes the best of building and fencing material. Streams. — No mountain ranges, swamps, sloughs, or lakes exist in the State, except in some instances where rivers have changed their beds, leaving small lakes. Water-courses are well distributed over the State. Their usual course is south of east. Among the most important streams may be mentioned the Arkansas and Neosho on the south, the Kansas River and its tributaries in the northern part, and the Missouri River forming the eastern boundary. Water-powers are not abundant, but several are being improved on the Neosho and other smaller streams. Such streams as rise in the moun- tains west have quicksand bottoms ; but local streams, that rise within the boundaries of the State, have clear water and gravel beds, but are not enduring as the mountain streams. Unfailing springs of pure, cold water, are found in nearly every locality, and good wells of water can be ob- tained by digging to the depth of from 20 to 40 feet. KANSAS. Climate. — The climate of Kansas is one of the most desirable in the United States, — it is better than that, even of the same latitude, east of the Mississippi. The winters are short, dry, and pleasant, with but little rain or snow. The grass is green in the forests and on the prairies until midwinter. And very often herds of horses, mules, and cattle roam at large during the entire winter, without any additional feed or care. During the summer there is always ft cool, refreshing breeze, which makes even the hottest days and nights pleasant. The climate of late years has undergone remarkable changes ; every year the rain increases, the aggregate fall from the 1st of January to the 1st of September, 1873, being 6 inches more than that for thirty-four years past. These changes are owing to the culture of the soil and planting of forest trees and orchards. For this reason, also, the forests of the State are increasing, resulting in greater productiveness of the soil, and more equal distribution of mois- ture. Six years ago all the land west of the 21° of longitude was re- garded as subject to drought, aiid unfit for cultivation. Settlers were then unable to cultivate enough for home consumption ; now, the same country produces 40 to 50 bushels of grain per acre. This is a part of the once so-called " Great American Desert," which is being settled by an industrious population, who, by planting shrubbery, hedges, forest trees and orchards, are making it one of the most productive regions of the great west. Kansas is pre-eminently agricultu- ral, and in this respect ranks high. In its agricultural character it may be divided into two portions, each having its own peculiar advantages, that in the east being specially adapted to farming, the other to grazing pur- poses. In Eastern Kansas we note the rank vegetation pertaining to rich alluvial districts ; the bottom lands are covered with heavy growth of forest trees, comprising the elm, black walnut, hackberry, ash and cottonwood ; the uplands supporting rich prairie grasses and a variety of plants, exhibiting a strange mingling of north-western and some southern farms, corresponding to the mild climate which character- ises this section. Proceeding westward a gradually increasing atmospheric aridity is evi- denced by a corresponding disappear- ance of forest growth, which is con- fined to the moist margins of streams or water-courses dry during the sum- mer season, and is represented only by the cottonwood, box, elder, and willow. On the uplands of the west, buffalo grass and gama take the place of the rank prairie sod, and are character- ized by a short curly growth, with KANSAS. dense fibrous roots, oft?n growing in clumps and penetrating deeply into the dry, though nutritit us, soil. In the extreme west we find de- pressed basins and valleys exhibiting a white saline efflorescence, due to the intense evaporation which in the dry season concentrates the saline in- gredients derived from the marled soil of the uplands on the saturated bot- toms overflowed in the season of rains. In this portion of the State we there- fore meet with a class of saline plants, many of them identical with such as are found along the sea-shore or in connection with salt marshes. Here, too, the uplands acquire more dis- tinctly an arid feature, to which, how- ever, the term of desert cannot be properly applied, as, although in a great measure unfit for ordinary agri- culture, they still support a close growth of peculiar grasses, which in the rainy season of summer assume a dull verdure, and in the succeeding dry season become converted into a nutritious hay. The eastern portion of the State is better adapted to agricultural pur- poses, the western to grazing. There are no mountain chains within the State, but its surface is diversified by a succession of gently undulating hills, stretching off into ridges and intervening valleys. In the agricultural division of Kan- sas the land is well suited to each of the principal crops, needing but en- t erprise and the application of the art and science of farming to obtain boun- tiful harvests. The average yield of staple crops exceeds nearly every other State, as is shown by the following statistics : Average yield of wheat per acre is 19 bushels ; spring rye, 26, and win- ter rye 13 bushels ; barley, 31 bushels ; oats, 42 bushels ; corn, 48 bushels ; buckwheat, 19 bushels ; Irish pota- toes, 149 bushels ; sweet potatoes, 110 bushels ; hay, nearly 2 tons per acre. Much attention has also been paid to the cultivation of fruit in the set- tled portions of the State, and it has now become a very important branch of industry, the climate and soil being well adapted to this purpose. The total value of the orchard products amounts to $160,000, and that of gar- den products to $144,000, while the estimated value of all farm produc- tion, including additions to stock, is $24,000,000. Two millions of acres are now under improvement, the products of which may be given as follows : — 312,000 in corn; 117,700 in wheat; 3,200 in rye ; 91,400 in oats ; 2,600 in barley ; 1,400 in buckwheat ; 537 in peas and beans ; 19,600 in potatoes ; 221,000 in hay ; and 30 in tobacco. From these acres were produced as follows : —15,000,000 bushels corn; 2,100,000 bushels wheat ; 64,200 bushels rye ; 3,840,000 bushels oats ; 84,000 bush- els barley ; 26,400 bushels buck- wheat; 16,100 bushels peas and KANSAS. beans ; 2,158,000 bushels potatoes ; 441,000 tons hay, and 30,000 pounds of tobacco. Next to Texas this State is at pre- sent the leading one west of the Mis- souri for stock-raising. As indicative of the interest taken in this business, the statistics of the State show the following amount of livestock : — 1 20,000 horses, 12,400 mules and asses, 123,500 mile h cows, 22,000 working oxen, 235,400 beeves, 120,500 sheep, and 196,100 swine, having a total valuation of $22,945,000. No State of the Union has a climate and soil better adapted to sheep hus- bandry than Kansas, and already, as above shown, the subject has re- ceived marked attention. The entire western part of the State is well adapt- ed to this branch of business, and no doubt this portion of country will be rapidly settled by persons devoting themselves to the breeding of sheep and other stock. The production of wool for the last year was 344,000 pounds, much of which was shipped to eastern markets. Cotton also has been grown in the southern part of the State, but to a very limited extent. The experiment, however, has shown the adaptability of that part of Kansas to this plant, and the large profits that may be re- alized by those fully acquainted with the business. The amount raised during the last year was 7,725 pounds. Flax and hemp also are congenial to the soil and climate of Eastern Kansas, but ittle attention has yet been given to their culture. Kansas contains none of the pre- cious metals for which the political divisions of the Pacific slope are so famous, yet the State is not without minerals requisite to the immediate wants and comfort of the people. Coal for fuel has been discovered in two parts of the State : first at Leaven- worth, on the Missouri River, near the northern line ; and second, in the south-eastern part of the State, in Linn, Bourbon and Cherokee coun- ties. At a depth of 700 ft. the Leaven- worth Coal Company reached a vein of bituminous coal of superior quality, 30 in. thick. This vein, it is now discovered, belongs to the middle coal measures, and is found to overlay the thickest coal beds. In the coal fields of the counties above mentioned, the miners are at work, and quantities of excellent bitu- minous coal are being taken out. Salt in abundance is found, there being large fields in the valleys of the Republican, Solomon, and Saline Rivers, in the northern part of the State and about midway east and west ; while on the southern boundary, in the reserve of the Osage Indians, exists a salt field 30 miles wide by 60 miles long, probably the largest in the world. Gypsum, alum, iron, ore and petroleum are also found. The State has also become noted for its building materials. These are comprised under the names of " Lea- KANSAS. venworth marble," "Junction City marble," and " Permian limestone," the last being the most valuable, and of different shades of colour, so that many varied tastes may be suited in the selection for residences. There is also found a dark ferruginous sand- stone, which, when well dressed, would equal the brown stone so ex- tensively used in the mansions of New York. The abundance of cheap fuel, indi- cated by the extent of the coal fields and the numerous water-courses ot Kansas, affords superior facilities for manufacturing. The northern portion of the State is watered by Big and Little Blue Rivers, the Grasshopper, Republican and Solomon Fork, all feeding the Kansas River ; while in the south there exist the Osage, Neosho, Spring River, Fall River, the Verdigris, Cana, Cottonwood, and Whitewater, affording excellent water-power, which has been par- tially improved. Almost every branch of industry is represented in the State, and facto- ries, producing spokes and hubs, household furniture, waggons, agri- cultural implements, matches and soap, as also grist-mills, saw-mills, machine shops and iron foundries, are springing up in different parts of the State. The Great Western Manufacturing Company at Leavenworth is largely engaged in the production of ma- chinery and manufacture of stoves, being the most extensive establish- ment west of St. Louis. One hun- dred steam engines, the production of this company, are now in use in the west. The production of stoves this year will aggregate 10,000. Their ordinary business consumes from fif- teen to eighteen tons of iron daily, while they give employment to 150 persons, transacting a business equi- valent to $375,000 per annum. The development of the coal mines, and consequent cheapening of fuel, will greatly advance the manufacturing interests of the State, and the adapt- ability of soil and climate to the pro- duction of the raw material wdl insure to Kansas greatly extended manufac- turing business. The Cattle Trade is of great im- portance. Large herds are brought from Texas to points on the line of the Kansas Pacific Railway. The prices paid for these cattle in Texas in 1872 were $11 each for beef cattle, and $6 for milch cows. (Further details in relation to the cattle trade, sheep raisiiig, &c, will be found in the chapters on Nebraska and Wyo- ming, in this volume.) Kansas is destined to become one of the greatest stock-growing States in the West. Her rich soil, broad prairies covered with fine heavy grass, which during the fall months is cured by the sun into hay, the abundant supply of pure water, the easy and cheap facilities for pro- curing hay and other forage, the dry, 8 KANSAS. mild, short winter seasons ; and the gentle refreshing showers of summer, are only a few of the advantages afforded those engaged in this enter- prise. The plague and other contagious diseases are never known in Kansas, except when brought with herds from abroad. Wool-growing is rapidly becoming one of the most extensive and pro- fitable branches of industry. During the present year large herds of sheep have been driven to the State from Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, while arrangements have been made for bringing many more during the ensuing year. The facili- ties for raising cattle are equally great, and the business almost as profitable as that of growing wool. The fine herds of cattle and horses owned by the Indians in Southern Kansas and the Indian Territory, feeding on the prairie during the en- tire winter, prove conclusively that Kansas, as a stock-raising State, is unsurpassed. In the central and western portions of the State millions of buffalo, deer and antelope roam upon the prairies ; supported during the winter by a fine grass cured into hay. Where these wild animals subsist, there can be no difficulty in raising domestic stock, since fifty sheep, or five English cattle can be supported on what would be necessary for the sustenance of one buffalo. The State also abounds in a great variety of other wild game, such as bears, wolves, wild-cats, racoons, rabbits, otter, minks, beaver, mu;k- rats, prairie chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons, quails, &c. The following are the prices of im- proved lands in several of the coun ;ies of Kansas : — Lyon : a few miles from town, good improved farms may be ob- tained at from $10 to $15 per acre. Douglas : $8 to $50, according to the improvements, &c. Riley : aver- age, $20 ; common frame buildings. Leavenworth : from $30 to $100 ; three-fourths fenced ; small frame buildings ; 10 miles from county town, from $40 to $50. Atchison : about $10 ; one-third under cultiva- tion. Bourbon, Crawford, Cherokee, Neosho, and Labette: $10 to $20; from one-third to one-half fenced ; buildings generally poor. Olathe and Johnson : $20 to $30 ; log or frame buildings ; fences of rail, board, stone, or hedge. Franklin, Ander- son, Coffey, Allen and Woodson: about $20 ; one-half under cultiva- tion ; wooden buildings. Unimproved, or wild lands in the various counties may be had as fol- lows : — Lyon : $3.50 to $10 per acre ; all prairie. Douglas : $5 to $20 for prairie land, $10 to $40 for timber land. Riley : $2 to $7 ; none fenced. Leavenworth : $6 to $30 for prairie land ; bottom timber land, $15 to KANSAS. $50. Atchison : $4 to $8 for prairie. Bourbon, Crawford, Cherokee, Neo- sho, and Labette : $5 to $7, prairie. Olathe and Johnson : about $10 ; generally prairie. Franklin, Ander- son, Coffey, Allen and Woodson : from $2 to $10. In other counties and along the railways, Government and railway lands may be had at prices ranging from 11.25 per acre to $8. Referring to the lands of the Kansas Pacific Railway Company, a Kansas writer says : — " Nearly all the lands in proximity to the track have been taken up and settled as far west as Ellsworth, 223 miles from the State line of Kansas and Missouri ; and land in Dickinson and Saline counties, which was put in the market a little over two years ago at $3 per acre, is now selling at from $8 to $10. Such has been the enormous rise in values on this road, and such it has every prospect of continuing to be. Early last spring the Company had appraised and put into the market Russell county (con- sidered one of the most fertile in the Company's possessions), at from $2 to $4 per acre, viz. : High rolling prairie, good for grazing, $2 to $2.50 ; gently rolling prairie, with fine soil and water, $3 ; river bottom land, with rich soil and a fair supply of timber, $3.50 to $4 per acre. At that time there was not a settler in the county. There are now four colonies settled there, besides nume- rous individual farmers, stock-breeders and dairy farmers ; and three towns have been started, Fossil Creek, Bunker Hill and Wilson, just outside the east line of Russell county." The prices of farm stock in Kansas average as follows: Working oxen, per pair, $118 ; working horses, each, $165 ; working mules, each, $140 ; milch cows, each, $48 ; sheep, each, $2.45 ; hogs, per pound, 8 cents. Wages of labour : Carpenters and masons, $3 to $5 per day ; day la- bourers, $1.50 to $2 per day ; farm hands, $18 to $30 per month, and always in demand. For further par- ticulars as to wages of labour and cost of living, see Tables at the end of the volume. The following valuable advice in relation to the formation and MANAGEMENT OF A FARM ill Kansas, is from an interesting letter written by E. A. Curley, Esq., to the London "Field," in March, 1874. Its facts apply equally well to any of the other prairie States and Territories. " The settler with very limited means on a wooded farm, from which the marketable timber, if any, has been culled without clearing any con- siderable portion of the land so as to render it fit for cultivation, will have almost insurmountable obstacles to contend with for several years, unless he can find in his neighbourhood work at set wages, or discover some substantial means of livehood over and above the crops that he may be 10 KANSAS. able to raise. On the prairies there is nothing of this extreme difficulty of bringing the land under subjection to the plough ; but the settler must ordinarily have sufficient means to keep him one year, and also to buy a team, plough, waggon and a few implements. The first year he will probably plant rod corn, but it is only in a few favoured localities that he can depend upon a good crop of anything till the second year, if he follows the ordinary mode of cul- tivation. I have already suggested that the breaking or sod -cutting plough should be combined with or followed by another that would turn three or four inches of soil on top of the mass of thickly matted roots of prairie grass. This would almost in- sure a fair crop of maize, wheat, or other grain the first year, and also an abundance of vegetables for family use. While he could only plough half as many acres in one year by this means, the settler would save a year of time on that which he did plough in due season ; and in the first two years he would get very nearly, if not quite, the same acreage under cultivation. But a combined imple- ment of this description, though turning a narrow furrow, would re- quire a heavy team, — that the poor settler could only manage by sharing with one of his neighbours. His best plan would therefore generally be to plough around his whole farm, which would be 1\ miles for 80 acres, or two miles for 160 ; or to plough a land the longest way of his farm of 80 acres, making bouts of a mile each, alternately with the sod-cutting and the following plough. This would very materially lessen the ex- pense of outfit ; but, as it would in- volve hitching and unhitching the team rather frequently, there will be some inconvenience attending it. An excess of sand in the soil will be much better for the poor man than an excess of clay, for the sandy soil is of course much more easily brought into condition. I have met with several instances of double ploughing (it cannot properly be called subsoil- ing), and they were uniformly suc- cessful. But if the settler of small means could buy, on the same terms of credit that he would get from a railway company, his farm with from one-eighth to one-fourth part broken up, it would be far more advantage- ous to him than any other arrange- ment, even though he should have to pay a good percentage of profit for the improvement. Twenty acres of "breaking" would cost $50 to $60; add 25 per cent, to the latter price, and it makes an addition of $75 to the cost of the farm, while it would enable the settler to put into the ground in a thorough and proper manner 20 acres of crops the first year, without any extra appliances for the purpose. If the land were bought on ten yearly payments — a common plan — the first year's cost to KANSAS. 11 him of this immense advantage would be about 32s. The owner of the land would be as safe as at present ; be- cause, while occupying the farm, the intending buyer must necessarily im- prove it, and the property would be rapidly rising in value. On upland, a windmill pump, erected at the point common to four farms, would be a most desirable improvement ; and in some cases it would be well to cut a square mile into eight triangular farms of 80 acres each, and to erect a windmill at the centre of the section that should supply house and stock water to all the farms. Other im- provements common to a number of farms might also be sometimes intro- duced to advantage, and the owner of a large tract could erect comfort- able cottages on a portion of the estate with a profit to himself and great advantage to the settlers. It would be unwise to go ahead very rapidly and extensively with such improvements at first ; but, as fast as purchasers were found for the im- proved farmsteads, other portions of the estate might be likewise mode- rately improved. I commend this idea to any one who would like to emigrate to the West, and who has more money than he will need for his own farming operations." 12 NEBRASKA. Area, 78,084,480 acres. Population in 1870, 122,994. Fare from New York to Omaha, Ne- braska, 1st class, $39-50 ; 2nd class (emi- grant), $23-50; luggage, over 100 lbs., $5-95 per 100 lbs. ; HIS State, although in its infancy as a member of the Union, has high anticipa- tions of rapid growth and prosperity, the soil being prolific in the production of articles most requi- site for the food of man. The total area of the State is 75,905 square miles, extending west from the Missouri River to the 25th and 27th meridian of longitude west from Washington, and south from the 43rd to the 40th degree of latitude. This region of country, once referred to as a part of the " Great American Desert," is almost entirely prairie, with an undulating surface. Science suggests that the country was for- merly a great inland sea. Near the base of the Rocky Mountains is found a sandy belt of irregular contour, partially defining the outline of the former water surface. In the western part of the State are sand hills, or dunes, which have been raised by the prevailing winds piling up the dry and loose materials of which they are shaped into their present picturesque forms. These hills have their elon- gated slopes to the winds, the oppo- site sides being quite steep, present- ing the appearance of high billows, all apparently drifting in the same direction. The Missouri, which forms the eastern limit of the State, flows through a vast bottom bounded by high bluffs of trap clay ; the channel of the river inclining to the western shore, leaves the great bulk of the bottoms on the eastern or Iowa side. The river itself is a series of sand bars, and although navigable for thousands of miles, yet the constantly changing channel creates necessity for skilful pilots. The best portion of the State is the valley of the Platte, which extends from 100 to 200 miles on each side of that broad and swift but shallow river. Passing eastward, the first stream paying tribute to this beautiful valley is the Wood River, flowing in from the north, opposite Grand Island. The next is the Loup Fork, with its many branches, extending far into the western part of Nebraska, and which empties its waters at Columbus. Lastly, the Elkhorn, rising in the northern part of the State, commingles with the Platte at least 250 miles south-east of its source, and within 25 miles of the point where the Platte itself, after coursing its way from the mountains of Colorado — the "back- NEBRASKA. 13 bone " of the continent — is absorbed by the Missouri. In the south are the Great and Little Nemaha, the Big and Little Blue, and the Republican, with their many tributaries; all these streams are deep and narrow when compared to the Platte. The country is marked by three classes : bottom land, table, and inarable. The first are those lying along the streams, having a width of from 1 to 12 miles, with occasional heavy growth of timber, sometimes extending over the bluffs to the table lands. Wood in Nebraska is not abundant, consisting of few varieties ; the cotton- wood is the most considerable. Oak, elm, hickory and hackberry — the last a hard wood but little known in this part of the continent — are also found. The soil of the arable portion of the State is a rich loam with an impreg- nation of lime, this soil varying from 2 to 10 ft. in depth, the deepest being of course on the bottom lands, which receive the debris from the bluffs. This loam is free from gravel, easily ploughed, very pliable, resisting un- usual wet or drought, and peculiarly adapted to the growth of corn and wheat. The garden vegetables are in abundance, attaining an unusual size. Wild plums, grapes, cherries, and hops grow in profusion ; and in the south-eastern part of the State apples, peaches and pears are suc- cessfully cultivated. Nebraska is destined to be an agri- cultural and grazing State, millions of acres being available for such pur- suits, and millions more for grazing cattle. Herds are driven from Kan- sas to fatten on the nutritious grasses. Minerals have not yet been found to any extent. Coal has been discovered in some parts of the State, several companies being engaged in mining, but it has not yielded sufficient quan- tities for the demands of the popula- tion. The deficiency, however, is supplied by the Pacific railroad from the mines of Wyoming. Building limestone has been dis- covered, and is in daily use for the erection of new buildings, several varieties existing of a whitish, bluish, and sometimes of a cream colour ; also a dark yellowish gray sandstone, and a dark red freestone. The lime- stones are soft when quarried, and easily dressed, but harden on expo- sure to the atmosphere, being evi- dently a continuation of the magne- sian limestone, or permian rock, so abundant in Kansas. Clay, for the manufacture of brick, is easily ob- tained, and this branch of business is being successfully followed. The climate of the State is dry and exhilarating. The spring and fall are the rainy seasons, affording suf- ficient moisture for the growths of the soil, but in the summer and winter the weather is dry. The heat of the summer, however, is tempered by the prairie winds, and the nights are quite cool. The fall months of 14 NEBRASKA. the year are extremely pleasant, and cold weather seldom commences be- fore the latter part of December. Beyond the twenty-second degree of longitude the lands are not avail- able for agricultural purposes, ex- cept in the bottoms. East of this line not less than 25,000,000 acres are available for stock, gram, or general crops, 13,700,000 being first class, 3,000,000 of the second class, and 8,300,000 third class lands. The first embraces the bottoms and the equally productive prairies ; the se- cond comprise prairies, which, al- though quite productive, are broken by water-worn drains, while the third class land is subject to drought and is of a sandy character. Nebraska has extensive saline de- posits in the south-east, at the head of Salt Creek, within a radius of 10 miles of Lincoln, the capital of the State.- The springs are twelve in number. The main basin embraces 300 acres. The salt is made entirely from surface-water containing 16§ per cent. It is estimated that 1,000 barrels of salt per day can be made by solar evaporation, at a cost of 25 cents per barrel. It is the purest in the world, being 98 T | per cent, salt, an advantage over the celebrated Turk's Island salt of 7 T $ per cent. The grazing region of the State comprises 23,000,000 acres,12,500,000 of which are well watered. Stock-raising. — For stock-raising the resources are ample. The vacant lands of the State and of the railroads give the herdsmen a wide range. A herd law, which renders fences unne- cessary, and acts as a protection to the grain-grower, is an actual benefit to the stock-raiser. Much attention has been devoted to this department of agriculture. This was the natural home of wild horses and cattle ; and the Indian ponies, in proportion to their bulk, are as hardy a race of animals as can be found anywhere. The grasses are nutritious and abun- dant, and whether cured or green, cattle feed with avidity and fatten upon them without grain of any kind. Many fine horses and mules, and the best breeds of horned cattle, swine and sheep are raised ; the high ground and climate being particularly favour- able to the latter. Hogs thrive well, and with corn at 35 to 50 cents per bushel, pigs a few months old at $4 to $5 per head, and fattened hogs at 10 cents per pound, live weight, no market is needed for corn, as feeding it to hogs would prove a very lucra- tive business. Sheep-raising and wool-growing are becoming more profitable as the country improves. 500 dollars' worth of sheep are ex- empted from taxation. Blue grass and clover do well. All the shelter required for stock are the straw stacks, which accumulate from the annual threshing of the wheat crops. A frame of poles is set up and the straw thrown over it, leaving NEBRASKA. 15 one side open, and under this the cattle stand and feed in perfect se- curity from the severest storms and in the most inclement seasons. Wool-g rowing will, of course,become a constantly increasing and all-import- ant branch of industry. The yield dur- ing the last year, in ten counties, was 169,129 pounds, valued at $46,910. Of this amount 100,000 pounds, valued at $30,000, was clipped in Otoe County. The principal breed of sheep is the merino, and the price of the wool per pound is 30 cents. But little has been done in the culture of flax and other fibrous productions, though where these plants have been experimented with the efforts have been attended with success. The following interesting details in relation to the purchase and forma- tion of a new home in Nebraska are by E. A. Curley, Esq., and appeared in the London " Field," in March, 1874. " There are many English people in Nebraska. I drove out as usual in the neighbourhood of Crete to prose- cute my inquiries and to see the country, and among others I visited Mr. Elvin Hatcliffe, late an agricul- tural labourer, and for nineteen years employed as such by Mr. Wm. Rich- ardson, of Ashby Puerorum, near Horncastle. He came here in June, 1871, with a wife and seven children, of whom two were boys, twelve or thirteen and nineteen respectively. He had about £10 when he came. Although he availed himself of the privileges of the emigrant home, his money necessarily went very rapidly. His wife helped to eke out their re- sources by taking in washing. Hat- cliffe soon obtained work on the rail- road near Lincoln at $1§ per day (about 6s.), and afterwards at Crete for $1£. He had constant work through the winter. His eldest son also found employment, and was able ,to do a man's work. Hatcliffe at- tracted the notice of Col. Devance, superintendent of the railway, who then employed him to conduct a farm, giving him $46 per month, a house to live in, and some privileges, such as milk, potatoes, and fuel, and he has held this situation ever since. When I saw him he was ploughing for wheat a field of 160 acres, which had been broken from the raw prairie the previous season, at an expense of $2% per acre. This, with 160 acres more yet unbroken, was purchased on ten years' time from the "B. and M."by Mr. Hatcliffe, at $14 per acre, all su- perior land and well situated. So far the accounts figure up as follows : — First payment on 320 acres of land at $14 per acre (in- terest only) at 6 per cent, in advance $268.80 Breaking 160 acres at $2.50 400.00 1 mare, 1 cow and a calf, 4 pigs, about 175.00 Household furniture, &c, about ...*... 100.00 Total . . . $943.80 16 NEBRASKA. or about £175. Of this the eldest son (most unfortunately drowned last summer) paid for the mare and half of the advance on the land. With health and fair average crops, Mr. H. will be able to support his family, to pay for his land within the stipulated time, to hedge and otherwise pro- perly improve it, and to accumulate and provide suitable accommodation for horses and cattle in due proportion to his acreage. He is therefore on the road to a competence, and he may fairly expect to attain it within a rea- sonable time. But his is by no means an average case ; and I could not ad- vise any man with a family to leave steady employment at reasonable English wages, and to come here without money or friends or guaran- teed employment. If employment be first obtained there is likely to be no difficulty, but otherwise without money in hand there is danger of great privation, or of being compelled to subsist for a considerable time on the public or private charity of strangers. A very large proportion of the people of all new States like Nebraska are new beginners with very limited means, and the demand for labourers at daily, weekly, or monthly wages is limited by the state of the finances. " These circumstances, however, make the new State so much the bet- ter for the man who comes with ade- quate capital. Not one farmer in thirty, probably not one in sixty, has sufficient capital in the first five years of his residence in Nebraska to buy horses, cattle, and implements in due proportion to the size of his farm. He imperfectly cultivates a portion of it, and the remainder continues to be covered with the wild grasses which necessarily waste away unconsumed. Yet such men succeed in due time ; they succeed, although the want of adequate capital makes a far larger percentage of difference than it does in England. Whether an English farmer sells his wheat in autumn, or holds it till spring, the difference in price will be but a moderate per- centage ; but in a new country, its price in the spring is often likely to be 30, 40, or 50 per cent, more than in the autumn. A Mr. Jones, a wealthy English farmer, is settled near Crete, and he is in the habit of loaning his spare cash to such of his neighbours as can give good interest and ample security. The fortunate possessor of a farm without cost, a homestead, called upon him recently for money with which to build a granary. The price of wheat was 70 cents per bushel, and he hoped, by holding it till spring, to get a dollar, or 43 per cent, more ; but he could not hold it without a granary, and to get one he must sell his wheat and render the granary unnecessary for that season. Had Mr. Jones been able to accommodate him, even at 25 per cent, interest, there was a fair pro- bability that the difference in the NEBRASKA. 17 price of the one crop would have paid the debt, while the granary would have remained for use for many years. But the homestead can rarely give adequate security for substantial as- sistance, and the consequence is that, having an inadequate capital to begin with, a man must labour under very serious disadvantages for the five years necessary to perfect his title and render him a person of some little substance. He will then, when no longer in such absolute need of it, be able to obtain a reasonable amount of credit." " Taking a period of five years, an average yield of wheat is 17.70 per acre ; maize, 32.54 ; rye, 20.66 ; oats, 35.65 ; barley, 26.75 ; buckwheat, 26.33; potatoes, 79.80 bushels per acre. Table vegetables all grow freely, and the castor bean succeeds well. In three years young peach trees come into bearing, and apple trees in four or five. At the exhibi- tion of 1871 of the National Fruit Growers' Association, the premium was awarded to the State of Nebraska, of which this is one of the best parts. The grape is successful under proper conditions. The Missouri bluffs are similar in character to the Loess of the Rhine banks, and throughout the broken prairie the culture of the grape may be profitably undertaken. Small fruits grow luxuriously, and the wild strawberry and the raspberry of the timber skirtings are of excellent fla- vour. Tobacco is grown to a small extent in the bottoms ; the plant thrives, and the leaf comes to maturity. Flax has been grown for seed, but both flax and hemp might be culti- vated for manufacturing purposes." Cattle raising has succeeded wher- ever tried. The native grasses, which are the pasture of the buffalo and an- telope, are luxuriant. The blue-joint, which grows on the highlands, attains the height of six feet ; and a grass, locally called " tuley," which grows in the bottoms of the Missouri and the Platte, is quite as heavy ; while both are excellent for pasture and hay. There are also many other grasses, and there is pasture upon the prairie three-fourths of the year ; for, from the dryness of the autumn and early winter, even after the frosts of the autumn have browned the grasses they stdl make good cattle food. Hay is usually cured in a single day. Winters, as a rule, are not long, open weather continuing to the end of No- vember, and spring fairly setting in by the beginning of March. Cattle can therefore be kept in the open air most of the year, and during ordinary years within a few weeks of the whole year round ; but for these few weeks shelter is needed, and, with proper shelter, the worst winters are not at all to be dreaded by the breeder. Thus far the stock-owner's worst enemy has been the carelessness in- duced by the general moderation of the winters ; for he is too apt to de- c 18 NEBRASKA. pend upon this, and, when a severe winter occurs, to be without adequate shelter for his stock, consequently suffering loss. This is a species of folly which experience will rapidly correct. A good profit is made by purchasing Texan cattle and grazing them on the prairie for a season be- fore shipping eastward. When cattle- breeding becomes a regular operation of the farmer, he will get a still better profit by crossing the Texan with the Durham. The broken and rolling prairie, intersected by ravines, is very suitable for horse-breeding ; indeed, portions of Nebraska are still the na- tive habitat of wild horses, the catch- ing of which affords some very rare sport. The broken land, not being so well adapted for the plough, is the cheapest, though, as it is the most suitable for stock farms, there is a doubt whether it is not the most valuable of all. If water is not always found in the ravines, it is easy to make permanent stock ponds in them, and they will generally afford shelter from winds blowing in any direction. Nevertheless, it would be well to plant screens of willow or some other timber in suitable places on most stock farms. Oats and maize being easily raised, and abundance of hay obtained for the trouble of cut- ting, there need be no difficulty in re- gard to food. Sheep on these prairie lands will make large returns in wool as well as meat ; they require nothing more than the most ordinary shep- herding and good winter shelter, but these they must have. The dry open winters conduce to their health, and they undoubtedly make more wool than in warmer countries. Hogs are the poor man's stock ; they thrive well, and from their rapid increase they afford him the best market for his maize. Crops are of rapid growth and rapid ripening ; spring wheat is generally sown in the latter part of February, and maize planted in April — though the latter has been put in the ground at the end of June, and still turned out an excellent crop. Winter wheat is sown by the middle of September. The entire fall of snow does not exceed ten inches for the winter ; the heavy drifts, which are sometimes experienced in places fa- vourable for them, are accumulated by the winds from wide expanses of ground. The Burlington and Mis- souri River Railway Company have planted the north side of 27 miles of cuts with seven rows of trees. It is believed that these will be most ef- fectual snow fences, that they will afford a useful example to other land- owners, and that ultimately they will well repay the expense by the timber obtained from them. The local mar- ket for wool and beef is at the far- mer's door, for wholesale merchants of Chicago and St. Louis collect pro- duce by travelling agents. Market towns spring into being as fast as the country becomes sufficiently set- tled to support them ; produce is NEBRASKA. 19 therefore readily marketed, and the wants of the farm and household sup- plied. But, as the industry of the country developes, the farmers and stockmen will probably deal more and more with the distant markets. The way to Chicago and eastern ports is opened by the Burlington and Mis- souri River Railroad, and westward by this road and the Union Pacific. The Atchison and Nebraska Railroad strikes north of north-westward from the Missouri at Atchison, Kansas; and the St. Joseph and Denver more westwardly from St. Joseph's, Mis- souri. Nebraska is already beginning to find a profitable market westward, in the mining regions of the mountain ranges which form the backbone of the continent." Cattle Raising. The following in relation to Cattle Raising on the prairies is from the same intelligent source. "Mr. T. Lonergan, of Ogalalla, who has driven cattle from Texas, and is practically acquainted with the subject, has furnished me with the details from which I take the follow- ing figures : — Estimate for a herd of 5,000 Texan cattle to be brought there early in April, 1874, and driven to the Platte Valley— 1000 head of beeves (bullocks four - year - olds and up- 1000 head of three-year-old bullocks at $8 50c. . . . 8,500 1000 head of two-year-old bullocks at $6 ... . 6,000 1000 head of yearlings at $3 25c 3,250 1000 cows at $7 50c. . . . 7,500 Expenses : twenty-five horses bought in Texas and re- turned for herding at $40 each 1,000 First cost of 100 horses bought in Texas and afterwards resold 4,000 Wages of two foremen at |150 per month each for four months 1,200 Wages of twenty-six drovers with food at 8170 each . 4,420 Eight months' herding on the range with the extra expenses of branding, &c, at the rate of $1 per head per year 3,334 Fifty bulls, fan to very fine grades, costing an average of $50 each 2,500 Interest at 10 per cent, for one year on $53,704 . . 5,371 wards), at $12 each. $12,000 $59,075 Returns of 100 horses sold at $30 each, a loss of 25 per cent 3,000 Amount of investment at end of one year 56,075 Herding six months to Octo- ber 1st 2,500 20 NEBRASKA. Interest, half-year, at 10 per cent 2,803 61,378 Oct., 1875 : Net returns for sale of 2,000 beeves at an average of $20 each . . 40,000 Net capital account $21,378 Stock inventory in Oct. 1875, after sales are completed : 1000 old cows, 500 ditto, three- year-old past, 200 ditto two-year-olds, total 1,700 ; 500 three-year-old bul- locks, 500 ditto two-year-olds, 1,350 calves, 50 bulls, 300 two-year-old heifers — ■ total cattle, 4,400 head. Horses, saddles, waggons, &c, enough for use. Oct. 1875. Capital account brought down .... $21,378 ,, 1876. Expenses, one year 5,000 ,, „ One year's inter- est at 10 per cent. . . . 2,838 $29,206 ac- ,, ,, Sales count, 500 bul- locks, four- year - olds, at $25 . . $12,500 ■>•) T> If " 200 old cows at 50c. . . . 4,500 17,000 Balance on capital ac- count, Oct. 1876 . . . $12,206 Inventory, Oct., 1876 : 1,500 old cows, 300 ditto three- year-olds, 500 three-year-old bul- locks, 75 bulls, 1,350 yearlings, 1,500 calves — total, 5,225 head. Expenses to Oct. 1877 . . $5,000 Interest at 10 per cent. . . 1,721 $18,927 Sales: 500 beeves at $25 . . . $12,500 100 cows at $22 50c. . 2,250 $14,750 Balance on capital account, Oct. 1877 ....... $4,177 Inventory, Oct. 1877 : 1,800 old cows, valued at $15 $27,000 Graded stock : 400 two-year-olds, valued at $12 50c $5,000 275 two-year-old heifers . 3,300 675 two-year-old bullocks 8,300 75 bulls, at $50 . . . 3,750 1,500 yearlings, at $800 . 12,000 1,850 calves 9,000 $68,350 Deduct outstanding capital account 4,177 Balance to profit exclusive of 10 per cent, interest . ,173 Thus according to this estimate one invests (if we reckon $5 to the £l) about £12,000, and in the course of three and a half years withdraws all NEBRASKA. 21 but about £800, receiving in the meantime 10 per cent, interest, and at the end of the time finding 1 his stock, exclusive of horses, waggons, saddles, fixtures, &c, worth £13,670. The cost of ranches has not been specially allowed for in this estimate, but the allowance for herding, &c, may be made to cover it. I should prefer, however, to allow £500 to pay for implements and for materials for the ranches, in the building of which I would follow the usual course of employing the spare time of the herds- men. I am not sufficiently well in- formed concerning the prices at which cattle can be bought in Texas to give a dogmatic opinion thereon ; but the selling prices that Mr. L has given are decidedly below the average of the last few years. I should allow more in the beginning for bulls, for this, if managed with judgment, is the most profitable part of the outlay. Most of the stock in the final inventory are of a grade very much superior to the Texans, and the prices are not unreasonable. Mr. L says that the selling prices put down are sufficiently low to provide for all losses and contingencies, pro- viding always that the business is faithfully managed by competent per- sons. Making every allowance for enthusiasm, the figures are perfectly astounding tdl we come to investigate thoroughly the very exceptional cir- cumstances from which we obtain them. The cattle are produced where there are neither land, fences, nor food to be paid for, and they are sold in competition with other cattle, which are profitably raised where land and fences are very important considera- tions, and winter food the most im- portant of all. There are compara- tively few men of means whose engagements will permit them to enter into the business of cattle rais- ing on a scale sufficiently large to obtain the greatest advantage there- from, and who by inclination, experi- ence, and practical judgment, are thoroughly fitted for the pursuit. To cover the great plains of the far West with lowing herds will therefore be a work of time ; the demand for beef is both enormous and continually increasing, consequently, very high profits will continue for many years to come. But, though profits will continue very high for a long time, they cannot be expected to remain at the present figures. There are now very many locations so favourable that the herds thereon will require but very little watching ; these will be fully occupied in the course of a few years, and then the newer comers, having neither mountains nor rivers to keep their cattle within bounds, will be obliged to herd them with more and more care and greater ex- pense, till at last it will be found cheaper to fence off the several ranges than to employ a sufficient number of herdsmen." 22 NEBRASKA. " Mr. R. C. Keith, of North Platte, informed me that he commenced stock- raising, in the autumn of 1867, with 5 American cows ; next autumn put in about 200 American cows. In 1869, bought 1,000 head Texas cows, 2 years old to 6 ; had American bulls only, all very fair ones. In 1870, a partner joined him, and they put in 1,000 more Texas cattle ; in Decem- ber, 1872, they bought 720 head of Texas steers, cows, two-year-olds, and yearlings, an average lot; also another lot of 250 ; in 1873, bought 30 Americans and 200 Texans ; has now about 200 bulls ; in 1870, bought a Canadian thoroughbred shorthorn. The total cost from 1867 to 1873, inclu- sive, was under $50,000, besides ex- pense of ranches, herding, &c. — ranches have cost, interest and all, less than $1,000. Had old railway ties for the hauling, and old telegraph poles very cheap, otherwise they would have cost over $2,000. With 200 head employed no extra labour. Had several employes about him, and got a little extra labour out of them in attending to the herd. When he obtained the first 1,000 Texas cows had one extra man, and another with the second 1,000. Employed the second man because one would not stay at the ranch alone. The men cost $30 to $50 per month, besides board. He could not give off-hand any very close figures for this ex- pense, as his partner kept the books. He has sold on their feet about 1,000 head, which brought him net about . $33,000 He has butchered 1,000 head, mostly cows, which stood him in net over .... 30,000 Total $63,000 Deduct cost of cattle, ranches, &c 51,000 A balance of $12,000 is left for interest and general ex- penses. This is scarcely sufficient for these purposes, but it leaves nearly the whole of the present stock as pro- fit on the undertaking. He estimates his present stock — 1,400 improved calves, at $12 $16,800 1,200 yearlings, at 18 21,600 800 two-year-olds, at 25 20,000 300 three-year-olds, at 30 9,000 200 bulls, at 50 10,000 1,300 cows, at 25 32,500 Present value of stock $109,900 " Mr. Keith now employs only one herdsman exclusively for his cattle. I met this man in the ' caboose ' next day, and, so far as the circumstances were familiar to him, he corroborated substantially Mr. Keith's statement. He estimated the present value of the herd at $18 the head all round, which would make $93,600. Making every allowance, it is very evident that Messrs. Keith and Barton's cattle business has been enormously profit- NEBRASKA. 23 able. Circumstances were, however, extremely favourable to them, and a man starting in the business now can- not expect that with the same care and attention he will be equally suc- cessful. " Messrs. Keith andBarton's experi- ence with sheep has been exceptional. They first obtained 200 in 1870, at $1^ each, of which they butchered 50, realizing in the local market, of which they then had a practical mo- nopoly, within a few dollars of the cost of the whole flock. In 1871, they bought 1,300 at $1.25, of which they sold 500 at $3.50, or a total of $1,650, the whole flock having cost $1,625. This gave a profit of $25 and 800 sheep into the bargain. They have but- chered and sold to the value of about $700, and wool has brought them about $1,500. They have'now about 1,000 sheep. The destruction of a ranch cost them 300 to 400 ; the scab was in the flock, and did not receive sufficient attention in time ; lambs came in mid-winter and perished. But for these circumstances, the flock should have now numbered about 2,000. As it is, they stand at a very handsome profit ; but had the sheep cost them a really substantial amount, they would undoubtedly have been out of pocket through the investment. They purchased four thoroughbred Leicester rams in 1872 at $50 each, and a few fine merinos. They should try the Cotswold, spend some money, give thorough attention to their flock, and improve it as rapidly as pos- sible." The following facts are compiled from a Report of the Department of Agriculture : — Crops. — Wheat, corn, oats and po- tatoes are the principal crops grown in Nebraska, though various others are successfully cultivated to a more limited extent. Our Hall county re- porter writes that wheat, oats, barley, corn, potatoes and peas, are produced in that county, with an average yield as follows : wheat 25 bushels to the acre, worth $2 per bushel ; oats, 50 bushels, at 80 cents ; barley, 40 bushels, at $1.25; corn, 40 bushels, at $1 ; potatoes, 100 bushels, at $2 ; peas, 30 bushels, at $3 per bushel. As an extraordinary crop, he names 45 bushels of wheat, 70 bushels of oats, 45 bushels of barley, 80 bushels of corn, and 250 bushels of potatoes. In Pawnee, Richardson, Otoe, and several other counties, Indian corn is made a specialty ; in the first- named, yielding 50 bushels to the acre ; and in Richardson, from 50 to 75 bushels, never failing, and largely fed to hogs. Wheat is the chief crop to Dakota and Dixon, in the latter, yielding about 25 bushels per acre, worth $2 per bushel ; profit, 100 per cent. In Dodge County, last season, the crops averaged as follows : corn, 35 bushels, worth 90 cents ; oats, 50 to 60 bushels, 55 cents ; wheat, 18 bushels, $1.25 to $1.40. In Jefferson, they raise as 24 NEBRASKA. high as 35 bushels of wheat to the acre ; corn, from 25 to 60 — the former worth $1.25, the latter 60 cents per bushel. Our Cass County reporter writes : — Corn, wheat and oats, are the staple crops of this county. A man and team, with the improved farm machinery, can easily cultivate 70 acres of corn, wheat and oats, and do it well, with the addition of a little help in harvest time. Sorghum has been successfully grown in some sec- tions. Winter wheat is sown in September, and the spring seeding is done from the middle of March to the middle of April; the harvest commences the early part of July and continues up to the 1st of August. Fruits. — Of the capacity of this State for fruit cultivation there is no longer any question. Apples, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, quinces, and profuse varieties of the small fruits, attest the adapta- bility of both soil and climate to the production of the choicest fruits. At the last State agricultural fair, the display of all kinds of Nebraska fruit received admiration for quantities and sizes as well as healthy condition. Fruit trees mature earlier than in New England. Of the price of lands, the same Report says : — Our returns from Nebraska are chiefly from counties bordering upon or adjacent to the Missouri River, or upon the Kansas border, with a few of the interior counties ; and basing an esti- mate upon the figures from these locali- ties, the settled portions of the State show an increase in the value of farm lands of from 150 to 175 per cent, since 1860. Dodge County reports an advance of 400 per cent. ; Burt and Gage, 200 per cent. ; Dixon, Da- kota, Otoe, 100 per cent. ; Cass, Richardson, Pawnee, 50 per cent. ; Merrick, 33 per cent. In a number of counties the settlements have b,een made since 1860, when the farms were bought at $1.25 per acre, or entered under the homestead law. Such is the case with Jefferson, where there are now farms held as high as $15 per acre. In Hall County, in the interior, farms of 160 acres which could have been purchased in 1860 for from $300 to $400, now command from $1,500 to $4,000 according to improvements and distance from rail- road stations. The value of wild or unimproved lands ranges from the Government minimum price of $1.25 up to $10 per acre. In Dixon, choice locations on prairie, $3 per acre, very fertile, well watered, capabilities good ; Da- kota, $3 to $7 per acre ; Burt, $5 to $6 per acre, excellent farming land ; Dodge, $4 per acre ; Cass, S3 to $10 per acre, for lands lying 5 to 15 miles from the Missouri River, gently rolling, well watered, and unsurpassed in fertility ; but little Government land in the County ; Otoe, $5 per- NEBRASKA. 25 acre, on the average, mostly prairie, except along- the streams, gently un- dulating, with no abrupt bluffs or hills, except when it takes its first rise from the Missouri River, and with this exception is all capable of cultivation ; Richardson, $4 per acre, deep, rich, sandy loam ; Pawnee, $2 to $10 per acre soil black muck or loam, with clay subsoil, very rich, producing wheat, corn and oats ; Gage, $2 per acre, chiefly prairie, timber lands generally being taken up by settlers ; Jones, $2 to $5, mostly prairie, good timber as high as $5 per acre ; Merrick, $3 per acre, level pran-ie, quality good, will produce all kinds of grain and roots ; Buffalo, $1.50 per acre ; Hall, $2.50 per acre, nearly all level prairie, rather sandy, but rich, and produces well all the crops suited to the latitude. There are nnllions of acres of the best prairie lands in the State to be purchased at Government prices, or subject to entry under the " Homestead Law." The prices of farm stock average throughout Nebraska, as follows : Working oxen, per pah-, $120 ; working horses, each, $140 ; working mules, each, $145 ; milch cows, each, $42 ; sheep, each, $2 75c. ; hogs, each $17. Wages of Labour. — Mechanics, $3 to $4 per day ; farm hands, $1 to $1 50c. per day (see also Tables at the end of the volume). 26 CALIFORNIA. 1848, Area, 120,947,840 acres. Population in 1870, 560,285. Fare from New York to San Francisco by railway, 1st class, $139'50; 2nd class (emigrant), $60. Fare by steamer, 1st class, $110 ; 2nd class (emigrant), $50. HIS State having been in- troduced to the world through the discovery of its precious metals in it is only recently that the value and importance of her vast and varied agricultural and other indus- trial resources, aside from minerals, have been properly understood and appreciated. The geographical posi- tion of California, with reference to commerce, is unrivalled; the State possessing a genial climate of un- paralleled salubrity, with a soil of unexampled fertility, diversified with beautiful plains, enchanting valleys, undulating hills and rugged moun- tains, is only rivalled in extent of territory by Texas. California is a long parallelogram, extending from latitude 32° 45' to 42 3 , is 700 miles in length, with an average breadth of 200 miles, and contains 188,981 square miles or 120,947,840 acres, of which 32,338,378 acres have been surveyed. Excluding the area granted by the General Government for different purposes, also the surface covered by Spanish and Mexican titles, and the quantity embraced in sales and loca- tions, there yet remain 100,070,177.16 acres of public land within the limits of the State liable to disposal. Of the total surface of California it is estimated 90,000,000 acres are sus- ceptible of diversified agriculture, or of otherwise being made productive. Agriculture in California con- stitutes one of the chief elements of wealth and prosperity ; and when her unoccupied millions of acres shall be reduced to cultivation, and improved methods of culture shall be introduced, this State must become one of the richest agricultural districts on the globe. It is estimated that the coast district contains 30,000 square miles of moun- tains and 20,000 of valleys, and the interior district 80,000 square miles of valleys and plains, and 50,000 of mountains. Of the total area of the State about 2,300,000 acres are under cultivation. The largest grain-producing valleys are situated in the interior district, or in that portion of the State lying between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains. Those are the San Joa- quin, Tulare, Sacramento, Scott and Shasta Valleys. The first two extend CALIFORNIA. 27 from Stockton to Tejon Pass, 300 miles, and have an average width of 50 miles, embracing an area of 9,600,000 acres, a larger surface than the States of New Jersey, Connecti- cut, Delaware, and Rhode Island combined. It is estimated that these valleys contain 6,000,000 acres of tillable lands, which estimate does not include land in the hundreds of little valleys in the mountains and foot hills, well adapted to fruit cul- ture, particularly the grape in most of its varieties. The lines of the public surveys have been extended over a large portion of this region. It is only since a recent period that these lands have been much sought after by settlers ; during the last two years more have been taken up for settlement and cultivation than all the preceding years. The lands border- ing on the Stanislaus, Tuolumne, Merced, Fresno and Chinchilla Rivers are exceedingly fertile; the soil being an alluvial sandy loam en- riched for ages by the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter and mineral washings from the mountains and foot-hills, is well adapted to the production of the cereals in their greatest perfection. The same is true of the section bordering on King's River and Tulare Lake. Hundreds of thousands of acres, suitable for grazing and stock-raising, are found on the mountains and hdlsides. This portion of the State has been a favour- ite locality for the Spanish and Ame- rican stock-raisers, the climate being more genial for raising immense herds of stock than in the northern portion. The old Spanish breeds of cattle and horses which roamed in these valleys have been replaced by the introduc- tion of superior American breeds — by pure-blooded horses, Devon and Durham cattle, Spanish and French merino sheep, Berkshire, Suffolk and Essex hogs. As an instance of the rapid develop- ment of the resources of these valleys, and then* capacity for producing grain, it may be stated, that a section of country lying between the Stanislaus and Tuolumne Rivers, containing an area of 230,000 acres, all in one wheat- field, produced during the last year 3,456,000 bushels. Many other loca- lities in this section are shown to be equally productive. In the Sierra Nevada Mountain regions flanking these valleys, dense forests of pine for lumber and valuable woods for mechanical purposes cover thousands of acres ; where are also found inexhaustible quarries of mar- ble, quartz, lime, slate, and freestone. This chain of mountains, wearing a sombre blue, overlooking these splen- did valleys, is one of the most roman- tic features of the State. The Sacramento Valley, lying in a northerly direction from Sacramento, is another of the great valleys of the Golden State. It is 300 miles in length, with an average of 40 miles in width, and abundantly capable of 28 CALIFORNIA. sustaining a population of 1,000,000, being- greater in extent than many of the principalities of Germany. In the southern part of this section the land is mostly occupied, and under a high state of cultivation. In the northern part immense tracts, suit- able for diversified agriculture, still remain open to settlement. About 1,000,000 acres along the bank of the Sacramento River and its tributaries are tule or swamp lands, and might be made highly productive by the construction of levees and canals to keep the river within its banks, or to relieve it of surplus water when ne- cessary. Large tracts in the foot-hills of the Coast and Sierras have recently been surveyed. The Scott and Shasta Valleys, in the northern portion of the State, are each about 30 miles long and 4 wide ; they have an elevation of from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. above the sea. Wheat, oats, apples, and potatoes do well in this section, but maize and melons require a warmer climate. The largest tract of level land in the plateau of the Sierra Nevada is the valley of the Suisun River and Honey Lake ; these valleys are at a high elevation, and contain numerous tracts of tillable soil. All along the north-western slope of the Sierra Ne- vada there are many tracts of good land, heavily timbered, and suffi- ciently level for cultivation. Sierra Valley in this section is 45 miles long by 6 wide, and is drained by a tribu- tary of the Feather River. The soil is usually of red clay or brick loam. The principal valleys in the coast district are the Russian River, Peta- luma, Sonoma, Napa, Suisun, Vaca, Diablo, Amador, Santa Clara, Pajaro and Santa Inez ; Russian River Val- ley produces more maize than all the rest of the State ; grapes succeed well. Petaluma Valley is the chief dairy district of California. Sonoma Valley has a soil of red, gravelly clay near the mountains, and a warm sandy loam near the streams. This is the chief grape district in the northern half of the State. Napa Valley, in proportion to its size, has a larger surface under cultivation than any other portion of California. It is a delightful valley, and has many at- tractive landscapes. Suisun and Vaca Valleys are both under a high state of cultivation. The soil is well adapted to the culture of the cereals, as well as garden and orchard pro- ductions. The soil along the eastern side of the Bay of San Francisco and in Santa Clara Valley is the richest in the State, and is termed the garden spot of California. Fruits and vege- tables attain an enormous size, and are very abundant. Pajaro Valley is unsurpassed in the production of wheat and potatoes. A considerable portion of the level lands in Los Angeles, San Bernar- dino, and San Diego counties in Southern California is sandy, but by CALIFORNIA. 29 no means dry. If properly irrigated, they could be made to produce boun- teous crops of small grains. The most extensive vineyards in the State are planted in the bottom lands of the Los Angeles, San Gabriel and Santa Anna Rivers, where the soil is almost pure sand, and yet vineyards, which have been in bearing for more than twenty years, and have never been fertilized, are now as productive as ever. The soil in some of the valleys in the lower counties between the Coast Range and the ocean is of almost in- exhaustible fertility ; it will produce year after year without any fertilizing, when properly cultivated. Oranges, pomegranates, dates, limes, castor beans, English walnuts, bananas, sweet potatoes and lemons, all flou- rish, and are produced in great abund- ance in this latitude. The heliotrope, century-plant, oleander and roses of numerous varieties, are in bloom dur- ing the winter months in the open air. Sweet potatoes weighing 17 pounds, and beets weighing 90 pounds, are not uncommon. The climate is such that crops grow the year round. Day after day the sun shines in a cloudless sky for 200 days in the year. The nights are always cool, tempered by the ocean breeze. Barns are not used by the California farmers for storing crops. The grain, after cutting and thrashing, is left lying in sacks upon the field until it is sold. In August and September the square piles of white sacks of grain in the stubble fields are a common and prominent feature of the California landscape in the agricultural dis- tricts. The aggregate amount of grain pro- duced in California for the year 1870 was— wheat, 20,000, 000 bushels ; bar- ley, 8,000,000 ; oats, 1,200,000 ; and maize, 1,000,000. Of this aggre- gate it is estimated that 4,000,000 of centals of wheat will be in market for export, or from 200,000 to 250,000 tons. The climate and soil of California are admirably adapted to the culture of the mulberry tree and the rearing of silk- worms ; all varieties flourish luxuriantly without the means of arti- ficial heat. It is believed this State will surpass all European countries in the production of cocoons, both in quantity and quality. The product for this year is estimated at 25,000,000. That superior silk fabrics can be manu- factured from the native cocoon has been fully proved by the production of a beautiful silk flag of immense size presented to Congress by one of the most prominent silk culturists of the State. The sdk-worm is very deli- cate, and it is subject, in Europe, to many diseases, most of them trace- able to climatic influence, from which this State is exempt. Climate is a mat- ter of vast importance to the breeder of the silk -worm, and nowhere is it more favourable than in California. The worms are remarkably healthy 30 CALIFORNIA. and prolific, the cocoons large, the fibre strong and fine, the mulberry luxuriant in growth, and hardy. During the last ten years the area of land in the State devoted to vini- culture has been rapidly augmented, and the manufacture of wine already forms one of the most important branches of industry. In Sonoma Valley the number of vines is esti- mated at 500,000, and in Los Angeles County 3,250,000. In Anaheim Val- ley, in the lower country, a large breadth of vineyards has been planted by a German colony. There are also extensive and flourishing vineyards in Napa Valley and San Jose, and it is believed that the aggregate of vine- yards among the isolated hill-slopes of the mining counties is nearly equal to that of the large vineyard districts. The greatest success has been attained in the production of port, white wines, and the sparkling wines of the cham- pagne class. The superiority of the climate in the mining foot-hills for the development of the saccharine element of the grapes, the volcanic soil, and the opportunity afforded for thorough drainage, and the facilities for irriga- tion, will eventuallymake viniculture in the mining counties one of the leading industries. Their climate is especially adapted to the production of the sherry and Madeira class of wines. The dis- tillation of brandy is carried on quite extensively. The production of all varieties of wines for 1870 aggregated 2,587,764 gallons, and that of brandy, 257,333 gallons. It is believed by persons competent to determine that the western slope of the Sierras, in this State, is well adapt- ed to the successful culture of the tea plant. The hop crop is larger and more regular in California than in any other country. The summer rains, which wash the lupuline or bitter dust from the blossoms in Europe, are unknown in this State, as are also the mildew and hop insect, which are destructive only in moist climates. The average yield is three quarters of a ton per acre, from vines in full bearing ; and in England and New York about half as much. Not only is the yield in this State larger, but the quality is better, for as there are no showers during summer, there is nothing to carry away any of the strength. Several lots of California hops have been sent to Europe, as it is stated they possess desirable qualities lack- ing in those of European growth. There are essentially two climates in California, the interior climate and the coast climate. The latter derives its low temperature in summer, and evenness of temperature throughout the year, from the ocean, the water of which, along the coast, stands at from 52° to 45° all the year round. The mean temperature of summer in San Francisco differs but little from that of winter. From May until November the sky is cloudless, the sun comfort- ably warm, and the breezes gentle. Fogs are frequent along the coast during a few hours of the day in sum- CALIFORNIA. 31 mer, rendering- the atmosphere some- what humid. The climate of the in- terior differs from that of the coast in having no fogs, the winter 4° colder, and the summer from 16° to 20° wanner. The climate of Sacramento corresponds with that of Naples throughout the year. Nature gives the agriculturist in this State great advantage over foreign competitors. A shelter is seldom needed for the harvest ; the expense of large barns and storehouses, and the carrying to and fro of the crop, is saved. The farmer need be in no hurry in harvesting or shipping grain, for showers are almost unknown, and the grain, owing to the climate, is dry and glutinous, keeping sweet a long time, and making the best flour in the world. Chinese help costs no more than white labour in the Eastern States, and there is a third more time for field labour than in the east. Fifty or sixty bushels of wheat to the acre are obtained, and during the second year forty bushels of "volunteer crop" grow from the waste of the previous season, the only expense being the harvesting. The average yield of the State is about twenty-four bushels to the acre, while that of the Eastern States is but fifteen. Owing to the want of interior railroads the farmers of many localities find some difficulty in shipping the products of their la- bour. This, however, will soon be remedied ; and rich valleys, which now send nothing to market, will pour in their millions of bushels. Oats, which were at first but little cultivated, are now growing steadily into favour, the average yield to the acre being thirty bushels. Wild oats are found in every section of the State, and during the summer drought the grain, held firmly in the capsules, furnishes an abundant and nutritious pasture. Barley, which takes the place of the Indian corn of the Eastern States in the feeding of live stock, is a certain crop, and, like wheat, is much grown from volunteer crops. From recent trials it is found that malt liquors, equal to the best made in England, can be manufactured in San Francisco, and owing to the coolness of the climate the process may be car- ried on throughout the year. Tobacco has been raised to a con- siderable extent and of excellent quality, especially on the uplands. No country excels California in its advantages for sheep-raising. The mountain pastures afford abundant food throughout the year. No shelter is needed during the winter. In this climate sheep multiply with great ra- pidity, and the fleeces are equal to those of any locality. The diseases incident to crowded pastures are un- known here, and the cost of keeping is so small as to render wool-growing one of the most profitable occupations. One shepherd can take charg-e of 2,100 sheep, and the common wages are $35 per month, with board, which costs $10 per month, making $340 per year. About 3,000 acres of land are required for pasturage, and the 32 CALIF ORIS! I A. interest on the cost is $300, making a total of $840, or 25 cents per head for the ordinary annual expenses. It is necessary to incur other expenses at lambing and shearing times, and these cannot be calculated so precisely, but they do not exceed 10 cents per sheep, so that the expense per head is 35 cents or less. The yield of wool aver- ages 6\ lbs. per year, and the prices, if the quality is good, are from 18 to 25 cents. A gentleman of much ex- perience in the sheep business sold 3,000 ewes for $4 each, or $12,000, and after the sale calculated the profit that the purchaser would make in two years, thus : First year's wool .... $7,200 Second year's wool of 3,000 lambs 3,500 Second year's wool of 3,000 ewes 7,200 Market value of 1,500 we- thers -. 4,500 Market value of 3,000 old ewes 12,000 Market value of 1 ,500 young ewes 4,500 Total .... $38,900 Deduct expenses of 3,000 sheep at 35 cents for first year $1,050 6,000 sheep for se- cond year . . . 2,100 Cost of 3,000 ewes . 12,000 15,150 Net profit . . ?3,750 That may seem very extravagant, but there are men in the State who have been making money at that ratio in sheep for a long period, with the exception of the seasons of drought. One sheep-owner began the business in debt, in 1853, now he owns 40,000 head of sheep, and 70,000 or 80,000 acres of land — all made with sheep. The yearling wethers usually weigh 50 lbs. ; the two-year olds from 60 to 65 ; the three-year olds from 65 to 80 ; and the four -year olds from 75 to 100. The expenses of shearing are 7 cents per head. A cross of the Spanish- Vermont merino with the French me- rino is preferred by the wool growers generally. The best Spanish -Ver- mont bucks can be obtained for $200 or $350 each, and the ewes could probably be got for $300. There is one herd of Southdowns in Los An- geles County, but they yield less wool, and it commands a smaller price than the merino. There are several herds of Cotswolds in the State, and they are growing in favour. The dairy business is very profitable, when well managed, in California ; but the number of those who manage it well is small. Good butter varies in price from 25 cents to $1 per lb., the average being over 50 cents, and cheese of fine quality 20 cents. With such prices good dairymen can make fortunes in a few years. The main difficulty has been the lack of succu- lent food in the summer, fall, and early winter ; but the cultivation of CALIFORNIA. root crops for the cows lias been com- menced, and it will steadily increase. The general estimate is that a cow should produce a pound of butter per day for two-thirds of the year ; and one man (for there are no dairymaids in the country) takes charge of twenty cows. The rancho of theShafter Bro- thers, in Marin County, 75,000 acres, is occupied entirely for dairy purposes, and is probably the largest dairy es- tate in the world. The methods of making butter and cheese are the same here as elsewhere. California has great advantages for wine growing. The average crop is 8,000 lbs: to the acre, while in France it is 3,000, and in Ohio 5,000. This difference is an item of vast im- portance. The yield is much more regular in this State than in France or the Mississippi Valley, where frosts in the spring, hail in the sum- mer, and rain in the fall, often de- stroy the crop. In some parts of Germany the win- ters are so cold that the vines must be cut off near the ground every fall and covered with manure — an expensive labour. The land suitable for vineyards in Europe costs several hundred dollars per acre, and in California it can be bad for comparatively nothing. The average crop of grapes on vines more than seven years old, is about 8,000 lbs. per acre, and about 13 lbs. of grapes go to a gallon of wine, making 600 gallons per acre. The lowest price of wine when six months old, well made, is 25 cents per gallon, leaving §150 per acre gross, and at least $50 net. But the average prices are for Los Angeles, 30 cents. Anaheim, 35 cents ; Sacramento, 40 cents ; White Sonoma, 40 cent* ; Red Sonoma, 45 cents ; White So- noma, of 1867, 50 cents; Red Sonoma, of 1867, 55 cents. All those are wines made of Mis- sion grapes, and are the cheapest varieties. Sonoma Zinfindel, sold, of 1868, for 75 cents; mixed foreign, of 1868, 60 to 75 cents; Zinfindel, of 1866, 90 cents; Zinfindel, of 1867, 85 cents ; Alexandrian Muscat, of 1869, SI ; and of 1867, $1.25 ; Ries- sling, of 1868, 80 cents ; and Fron- tignan Muscat, of 1868, $1. The best wines cannot be got at retail for less than $3 per gallon. It is the unanimous opinion of French and German wine growers, that California will in time make as good wine as any part of Europe. It produces excellent wines, similar to Port, Burgundy, Claret, Hock and Champagne, and as wine-makers learn more of then.' business, the quality of then production is steadily improving. The apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry, all thrive and bear abun- dantly in California. The apples are larger than in the Atlantic States, but those grown near the sea do not keep so well and are not so juicy. The varieties eaten in the winter in New 34 CALIFORNIA. York will not keep later than fall here. Those grown in the Sierra N evada, where the winters are cold, will keep as well in New England. The pears are much better than those of the Atlantic States. There are no worms in fruits. The curculio is unknown. Cherry trees pay well, some having yielded $1,000 net per acre, in the spring of 1869. The olive will be profitable in Cali- fornia. The climate is very favour- able to the tree, and the diseases which have injured European olive orchards have never appeared here. The tree is hardy and the crop sure ; at least there has never been a failure in the State. The trees are planted 25 or 30 ft. apart, fifty or sixty in an acre, and they yield, in full bearing, from 30 to 60 gallons of oil per tree — worth in the orchard 50 cents per gallon ; so that an acre of fifty trees, producing 30 gallons each, would pay $375. The orange tree lives in the open air in all the low interior valleys south of Lat. 39", but it is exposed to occasional injury by frost, and is not a profitable orchard tree north of Santa Barbara. Healthy trees in full bearing produce a thousand oranges or more in a season, and the value in the market is from $2 to $5 per hun- dred. The Los Angeles crop usually ripens from December to May, at a time when there are very few oranges from the Hawaiian or Society Islands in the market. As fifty trees stand on an acre, a fine income may be derived from a small orchard. The orange tree is not very easy to raise. Many die in transplanting, and in the nursery they are frequently ruined by the gophers, which are very fond of the roots. In the orchard, as well as in the nursery, they are exposed to the attacks of a bug, the orange aphis, which injures the trees so that they are ban-en, and some die. No method of killing the aphis has been discovered, but after a time the bug disappears without any known cause. The tree does not come into bearing until it is ten years old, and it will not thrive in the soil of Los Angeles without irrigation. There are 11,000 orange trees in orchard in the State, and 300,000 in nursery, with a pro- bability that many of the nursery plants will be set out in orchard within a year or two. Most of the large orchards are at Los Angeles. The lemon tree is very similar in character to the orange. There are 6,000 lemon trees in the State, in- eluding 1,800 in Los Angeles County, and 400 in Santa Barbara. The lime is also cultivated at Los Angeles, where 400 trees are in bearing. The Jig tree thrives and bears abun- dantly in all the valleys near the level of the sea not visited by the ocean fogs. The mountains of the State are richly stocked with a great variety of minerals, though only gold, silver? CALIFORNIA. 35 mercury and copper have as yet been successfully worked. Previous to 1848 gold had been found in small quantities by Mexicans near the Colo- rado River, but it was not until that year that it became known that in the sands of every stream shining par- ticles of the precious metal were to be found, and that the mountains were threaded by rich veins of gold- bearing quartz. The production of the mines in 1848 was $10,000,000, and the greatest yield was in 1853, when the amount was $65,000,000. The total product of gold in the State since the dis- covery in 1848 is estimated at more than $950,000,000. The gold belt lies along the entire western slope of the Sierras, the central counties being the richest portion. Although it is more than twenty years since the discovery was made, the main por- tion of the product of the State is still obtained from sand and gravel washings, rather than from quartz mining. The gold in the California quartz is remarkably free from sul- phurets or pyrites ; it is nearly uni- form in value, and so simple is the process of extraction, that ore yield- ing but $8 or $10 to the ton can be profitably worked. Ore producing more than $50 per ton is found only in limited quantities. There are more than 400 quartz-mills in the State, using in the aggregate 5,000 stamps. The total production of quartz mining is about $8,000,000 a year, and is steadily increasing in amount and certainty. The most profitable quartz mines are found in Amador and Ne- vada Counties, the Grass Valley dis- trict in the latter being particularly prosperous. Although the annual production of gold mining in the State is not now as great as in former years, the de- crease is confined chiefly to the placer yields. In quartz mining more work is being done and in a more skilful manner, and there are more mines in successful operation. The business is flourishing and improving, with a good prospect of continuous increase. Many of the old mining enterprises have failed, owing to want of expe- rience and skill, but of the enter- prises entered into during the past five years in quartz mining, the suc- cessful proportion is much larger than ever before. The mining industry of the State having ceased to be a matter of gene- ral excitement, as in former years, has settled into a regular occupation, like that of agriculture, lumbering and manufactures. As to the prices of land in California we extract the following from a Re- port of the Surveyor General: — " The emigrant (of limited means) will find, on his arrival here, that the price of land around the Bay of San Francisco is high, entirely out of his reach, but the lands in the valleys not bordering the bay are not un- reasonably high. In San Joaquin 36 CALIFORNIA. County, good agricultural lands can be bought for from $7 to $30 per acre ; in Stanislaus County at from $5 to $25 per acre ; in Merced, at from $5 to $20 per acre ; in Fresno, from $2J to $10 per acre; jin Tulare and Kern, about the same as in Fresno. These counties are all in the San Joaquin Valley, and for pro- ductions they have no superior any- where. In Los Angeles and San Diego, lands may be had at prices from $25 to $100 per acre. In Men- docino, Humboldt, Del Norte and Trinity Counties the improved lands are high, but there are thousands of acres of unoccupied land that the settler can get for $1| per acre, with fine timber, water and grass. "In addition to the lands offered by the General Government, a Report of the Surveyor-General shows that there are in this State in the neigh- bourhood 1,000,000 acres of school lands granted by Congress to the State yet undisposed of. These comprise the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections in each township, and such other lands as may be selected in lieu of those sections where they are covered by Spanish grants, &c. They are mostly located in the mining and timbered regions of the State, and have not been sold because the Gene- ral Government has not yet extended its surveys over them, and population is sparse or wanting altogether in their vicinity. The surveys are, how- ever, being gradually extended over these districts. These school lands are sold by the State at the price of $1 25 cents per acre, of which 20 per cent, only need be paid down, while the balance remains on credit, with interest at 10 per cent, per annum, until full payment is made, when the patents are issued. The swamp and overflowed lands along the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin Rivers, and their tributaries in the valleys, are sold at $1 per acre, of which 20 per cent, only is payable within 50 days of the approval of the survey — the balance remaining at legal interest — the whole of the proceeds being ap- plicable to their reclamation for the benefit of the purchaser. When re- claimed they become among the most valuable farm lands in the State, the soil being a rich alluvium, and the moisture preventing any failure of the crops. "The prices of lands increase the moment they are occupied. Even without occupation what was Govern- ment land yesterday, procurable at $1 25 cents per acre, is worth double that price or more the moment it passes into private hands. That is to say, this increase in value is insisted upon by the owners without much regard to difference in quality between what is taken and what is left. Settlement actually increases the value of land in any vicinity, because men usually prefer to have neighbours for them- selves and families. Yet other lands a little farther off from the nearest CALIFORNIA. 37 town may be fully equal in quality, and settlement will enhance their market and quotable value in the same manner, and the development of the country subsequently by the con- struction of railroads, &c, may make the more distant lands the most valu- able. The successful introduction of some new culture, such as the grape, the mulberry, or the commencement of a manufacture for which facilities exist, will have the same effect. " For the information and guidance of those who wish to know what it will cost to establish themselves in California, we append the market prices to the following articles : — A single-room house can be built at a cost of A two-room house with kitchen attached at a cost of Barn and corral at cost of Mexican unbroken horses will cost each Good American horses will cost each . . $50 Good milch cows will cost each .... 30 Single ploughs ... 20 Gang ploughs, four ploughs in each gang 60 Harness per set . . . Waggons 90 Hogs 8 Sheep 2-50 $100-00 200-00 100-00 25-00 to 100-00 to 50-00 to 30-00 to 65-00 20-00 to 250-00 to 12-00 to 3-50 Osage orange hedge plants per 1,000 . . Grape cuttings per 1,000 Blue gum trees per 100 Mulberry trees for silk per 100. . . . Apple trees per 100 Pear trees per 100 . Peach trees per 100 Plum trees per 100 Cherry trees per 100 Nectarine trees per 100 Persimmon trees per 100 Pomegranate trees per 100 Orange trees per 100 Lemon trees per 100 Lime trees per 100 . Fig trees per 100 . Olive trees per 100 Almond trees per 100 English walnut trees per 100. . . . Strawberry plants per 100 5-00 10-00 5-00 6-00 12-00 25-00 12-50 25-00 25-00 25-00 35-00 35-00 60-00 60-00 60-00 35-00 30-00 20-00 15-00 1-50 " The above prices are for trees 2 to 5 feet high, and one to three years old. If grown from the seed, instead of buying from the nurseryman and paying him an immense profit, they could be produced at a fraction of the above prices. " It will be seen from the above list that a person desiring to secure a farm of 160 acres, and commence on an economical basis, would require o8 CALIFORNIA. for 160 acres of land at $10 per acre $1,600. One-third payable down . $533*33 House .... 100-00 Barn and corral . ■ . 100-00 50-00 One set harness . 20-00 One waggon . . 125-00 One plough . 25-00 Household utensils, seed, groceries and cash on 246-67 Total ..... .$1,200-00 ' i By working during harvest time for his neighbours, he can obtain money enough to greatly assist him in the purchase of grape cuttings and trees for his vineyard and orchard. These figures are intended to show how comfortably a man with the above amount of money can make a com- mencement in establishing a home for himself and family. The purchase money for the land being payable in ' greenbacks,' there would be no dis- count on that, but, to the balance of the amount would have to be added the difference between the value of gold and ' greenbacks.' That, how- ever, would not be found a hardship, as the price of everything he purchased would be brought down to a gold valuation, and everything he pro- duced and sold from his farm would be paid for in gold. Those buying a small tract of land and desiring to lease adjoining land for cultivation, can do so on favourable terms." — All About California. The average prices of farm stock in California are as follows: — Working oxen, per pair, $150 ; working horses, each, $100 ; working mules, each, $150 , milch cows, each, $50 ; sheep, each, $2-90 ; hogs, per lb., 7 cents. Wages of labour: — Farm hands, $25 to $30 per month, with board ; miners, $3 to $4 per day, without board. (See Tables at end of volume.) 39 NEVADA. Area, 29,319,6S0 acres. Population in 1870, 42,491. Fare by railway from New York to Reno, Nevada, 1st class, §124; 2nd class (emi- grant), $70. GRICULTURAL lands, 17,608,960 acres, embracing meadow lands bordering upon rivers, lakes and mountain streams, also the richest portion of the sage-brush land con- tiguous to rivers. Mineral lands, 5,699,840 acres ; this estimate being the minimum, based only upon such districts as were known to contain reliable mines ; yet there is scarcely a mountain range within the State in which the precious metals cannot be found. Grazing land, 23,998,720 acres, embracing lands which might serve the purposes of agriculture with the aid of irrigation, the soil being very fertile, readily producing heavy crops of bunch grass of excellent quality. Reclaimable swamp lands, 74,880 acres, comprising the entire swamp lands of the State. Mountain range lands, not covered by timber and generally unavailable, except for stock ranges, 21,521,280 acres. Tim- ber lands, 400,000 acres, embracing the lofty pine of the Sierras, con- tained within a narrow strip adjoining the Califoz'iua boundary, as well as the smaller growth of the interior. The number of acres of sandy region now unproductive, supposed irre- claimable, is 2,151,680. The interest manifested in agricul ture, horticulture and stock-raising throughout Nevada has materially in- creased during the past year, serving, in a great measure, to release the State from its former dependence upon California and Oregon, as well as adjacent Territories, for the vege- table produce, live stock and dairy productions necessary for consumption as food by the mining population. The ascertained capacity of so large a portion of the lands for the production of fine crops of cereals, vegetables and fruits is astonishing, in view of the late general impression that these lands were totally incapable of produ- cing any vegetation of a higher grade than tule, buffalo grass and wild sage. The soil in the vicinity of most of the streams is found to be a rich al- luvion of great depth, formed of dis- integrated rock, clay washings and vegetable debris from the forest- covered mountains, and, on account of its light, friable condition, it is readily permeated by moisture from the intersecting water-courses, thus obviating the necessity of artificial 40 NEVADA. irrigation. The tule and other swamps are found to be easily reclaimable by draining, and employing the surplus water in irrigation of higher adjacent lands ; the rich black mould, formed of the decayed vegetable growth of centuries, united with washings of limestone, granite and clay from the mountains, being relieved of super- fluous water and allowed contact with the air, soon becoming sufficiently azotized to produce the heaviest crops of field or garden produce. The arid plains, upon which the only indig- enous vegetation is bunch grass, sand grass and wild sage, are found upon actual experiment to contain elements of great fertility, requiring nothing but irrigation to become first-class agricultural land. Among the most successful crops of the State are winter wheat and barley, which ripen suffi- ciently early to escape the drought of the summer months ; oats, corn, po- tatoes and garden fruits and vege- tables. Thrifty orchards are now growing in several counties, promis- ing for the immediate future abun- dant crops of apples, pears, peaches and plums, and the grape-vine is said to thrive luxuriantly on the rich warm loam. The capacity of Nevada for grazing is attracting attention in all sections of the State, this branch of industry being there destined to be of great value. The foot-hills and mountain slopes are clothed with nutritious growth of bunch or buffalo grass, while white sage abounds in the valley. Sand-grass is found to cover large areas of the arid plains. Exten- sive herds of horses, cattle and sheep are fed by these native pastures on the mountain slopes and in the valleys all the year without artificial shelter. A drought has prevailed in some parts of an adjoining State during the present season, in consequence of which 100,000 head of sheep, 50,000 cattle, besides large droves of horses, have been driven into Nevada for pasture. The general surface of the State reaches an altitude of 4,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and al- though the climate is varied, the mountain air is pure and somewhat rarified, but fresh and invigorating, the whole region being generally healthy. Febrile and epidemic diseases are scarcely known in the State. Owing to the altitude and geographical position of the State, it has insufficient rain-fall during the season of growth for the highest de- velopment of vegetation, without the aid of irrigation, except in some small area advantageously located with re- ference to lakes or large bodies of water. In the early settlement of the State mining was almost the sole pur- suit of the population, who were at- tracted there by the rich deposits of the precious metals. In the progress of events the lands contiguous to some of the mountain canons, and on the lowest flats upon some of the largest streams, were found suitable NEVADA. 41 for the culture of crops of grain and vegetables. But even these tracts, often of small area, were regarded as valuable only when situated in close proximity to some prosperous mining camp. Within the few years past great changes have been wrought in the agricultural prospects of Nevada. The peculiarities of the soil and climate are becoming better under- stood, and lands heretofore consi- dered barren and irreclaimable are now in many instances rendered highly productive by means of irrigation. The sage-brush land is easily cleared. Those tracts covered by the heaviest growth of it have been found, with the aid of irrigation, to produce the best crop of cereals. The pastures of Nevada are found to present very superior advantages for stock-raising and dairy -farming, the indigenous grasses being unexcelled in nutritive qualities, whether green with the moisture of spring and early summer, or dry upon the stalk, as in autumn and winter. One variety, known as sand-grass, bears large quantities of little black seeds, which are oleaginous and very nutritious, rendering this species especially in- viting to the herds during the winter season, and remarkable for its fatten- ing qualities. A variety of the sage brush called the white sage becomes very sweet and palatable to live stock after it is touched with autumnal frosts, although previously bitter and repulsive. It will readily support animal life during the winter. It is found that in most of the valleys of the State neither shelter nor food, other than that to be found in the pastures, is necessary for the winter- ing and maintenance in good condi- tion of either cattle, sheep, or swine. Not only the precious metals, but also minerals possessing value from then- use in the mechanic arts and in domestic economy, are found in Nevada, many of the latter existing in such abundance as cannot fail to render them of great value when better facilities for transportation to the localities of manufactures shall have been introduced. Among these may be mentioned vast beds of salt, ores of iron and copper, rich in these metals ; beds of sulphur from which this substance can often be obtained quite pure, although it is sometimes combined with calcareous deposits ; seams of lignite and possibly true coal — yet, so far as explored, Nevada is not a strongly marked carboniferous region ; cinnabar, gypsum, manga- nese, plumbago, kaoline and other clays, useful in the manufacture of pottery and fire-brick ; mineral pig- ments of many kinds ; soda, nitre, alum, magnesia, platinum, zinc, tin, galena, antimony, nickel, cobalt and arsenic, besides various rocks useful for building purposes, as limestone, sandstone, granite, marble and slate. The salt beds constitute not only an important feature in the chorography of the State, but also a considerable 42 NEVADA. item in the economical resources, furnishing a great requisite for the reduction of most of the gold and silver ores. They sometimes extend over hundreds of acres with strata each about a foot in thickness, sepa- rated by thin layers of clay, the beds being encompassed by belts of alkali lands. The importance of these salt beds can be appreciated from the fact that the companies owning and work- ing them can furnish the article clean, dry and white, being in fact almost pure chloride of sodium, for $40 per ton delivered at the mills, when for- merly an inferior article brought from California would cost from $120 to $180 per ton at the mills. The de- posits of salt in the State, however, are not confined to beds or plains, as they sometimes occur in elevated positions, the strata being many feet thick, imbedded in hills and mounds of such extent as almost to attain to the dignity of being called mountains of salt ; one of these, situated in the south-eastern portion of the State, is composed of cubical blocks of nearly pure chloride of sodium as transparent as window glass and often a foot square. The silver mines of Nevada, thus far in the history of the settlement of the State, have been the great source of its wealth and the prime inducement for its settlement. At the time of the first discovery of these mines in 1859, eleven years after its acquisition by the United States under the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, and ten years after its first settlement by the whites, it contained less than 1,000 inhabitants, these being principally Mormon farmers and herdsmen loca- ted on the fertile lands of Carson and Washoe Valleys. Two years later, or in 1861, the population had in- creased to 17,000. The first discovery of the extraordinary wealth of this section of our country in deposits of silver ore occurred on the Comstock lode, from which vein bullion has since been extracted amounting to more than $100,000,000 ; the greatest yield per annum has been $16,000,000, and the smallest yield since the mines have been fairly developed has been $8,000,000. Last year about $10,000,000 of bullion were realized from the Comstock lode, and the rate of production has been steadily in- creasing during the present year, while expenses have been diminished by increased facilities for transporta- tion. The deepest point at present attained by any of the 40 mines now in operation upon this vein is 1,410 feet below the outcroppings ; but several of the mines have reached such depth that the cost of hoisting the ore as well as of pumping the water from the mines has been mate- rially increased, and the profits of the enterprise greatly reduced. The climate of Nevada is not un- pleasant, and is exceedingly health- ful. This region, like California, has its wet and dry seasons. The native NEVADA. 43 plants and flowers are few ; and except in insects, the State is ban-en of animal life beyond example. With the ex- ception of the pine-nut — the staple diet of the Indians — a few wild cur- rants and gooseberries, there is little in the vegetable world that civilized man considers eatable. There are no wild plums, blackberries, strawber- ries or grapes. There are no beasts of prey, save a few wolves and cay- otes, and game is exceedingly scarce. The prices of lands in the principal counties may be set down as follows : — Improved lands in Lyon and Churchill Counties, all mineral lands — -White Pine : very little improved. Government or State lands : scarcely any under cultivation. Lander : about $5 per acre ; about one-tenth under cultivation and fenced ; build- ings usually adobe, and not very good. Esmeralda: very little land fenced in this county; from $4 to $10 per acre ; wooden buildings. Storey : principally mining land. Ornisby, Humboldt and Nye : the same. Unimproved lands as follows : — Lyon and Churchill : very small pro- portion tillable. White Pine : $1.25 per acre, generally prairie. Lander, Esmeralda, Humboldt and Nye : Government price ; all cleared by nature ; none fenced. The prices of farm stock average as follows : — Working oxen, per pair, $150 ; working horses, each, $112 ; working mules, each, $158 ; milch cows, each, $62 ; sheep each, $4.50 ; hogs each, $14. Wages of labour — Miners and ordi- nary mill hands receive from $3.50 to $4 per day, without board, in coin. Blacksmiths, carpenters, engineers, &c, from $5 upwards. Board aver- ages from $8 to $10 per week. Many Chinamen are employed as labourers upon the railroad, servants, cooks, &c, who receive from $30 to $40 per month. 44 MINNESOTA. Area, 53,459,840 acres. Population in 1870, 436,057. Fare from New York to St. Paul, 1st class, $37'25; emigrant, $24; luggage over 100 lbs. $5-40 per 100 lbs. ;INNESOTA is justly con- sidered one of the most favoured regions on the continent as a home for agricultural and manufacturing popu- lation, possessing a climate of unri- valled salubrity, abounding in exten- sive tracts of rich arable lands, abun- dantly timbered, watered by innu- merable lakes and streams, well sup- plied with arteries for communication by rivers in all directions, and subject to none of the drawbacks arising from excessive moisture or aridity which prevail in other quarters of our coun- try. With reference to the physical sys- tem of the continent, this State occu- pies the exact centre, being situated equi-distant from the Arctic and Tropic circles, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Hudson Bay and Gulf of Mexico. It contains within its limits 83,531 square miles, or 53,459,840 acres, and has a greater absolute extent of surface available for agricultural purposes, in propor- tion to its whole area, than any State of the Union, about four-fifths of the domain being susceptible of profitable husbandry. The prevailing soil is a dark, calcareous, sandy loam, con- taining a various intermixture of clay, abounding in mineral salts and in organic ingredients derived from the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter for long ages of growth and decay. The sand, of which silica is the base, forms a large proportion of this, as of all good soils. It acts an important part in the economy and growth of the cereals. Three-fourths of the State is fine, rolling prairie, interspersed with fre- quent groves, oak openings and belts of hard -wood timber, watered by nu- merous beautiful lakes and streams, and possessing warm, dark soil of great fertility, producing all the crops of the temperate zone. The residue, embracing the elevated district immediately west of Lake Su- perior, consists for the most part of the rich mineral ranges on its shores, and of the forests which clothe the headwaters of the Mississippi, afford- ing almost inexhaustible supplies of lumber. Of the total area of the State, 53,459,840 acres, 17,819,947 acres, or one-thh'd, is estimated to be timbered land of more or less dense growth, and the remainder principally prairie. Of the whole surface, 26,019,739 MINNESOTA. 45 acres have been surveyed, 19,516,340 acres have been disposed of, and 33,943,500.55 acres remain open sub- ject to occupancy. Among the natural features of Min- nesota are the number, beauty and picturesqueness of its lakes, which have been estimated, both large and small, as high as 10,000. They are found dotting its surface in nearly every section of the State, sparkling in the open prairies, hidden in the depths of the forests, and glistening like gems among the rugged hills of the north-eastern section. These lakes not only give variety and beauty to the landscape, but supply the at- mosphere during the summer months with moisture ; and in many cases, by natural navigable streams succes- sively passing from one to another, they constitute arteries for travel and transportation over a large portion of the country. The most delicious fish, such as bass, pike, pickerel and sun- fish, abound in all these lakes. The navigable rivers of this State are the Mississippi, Minnesota, St. Croix, St. Louis, Root, and the Red River of the North. The Mississippi courses about 800 miles through Minnesota, of which 540 miles are navigable within the State. The Minnesota River, rising near Lac Traverse, flows south-easterly a distance of 450 miles, and empties into the Mississippi at Fort Snelling, 5 miles above St. Paul. This is one of the finest streams in the valley of the Mississippi, and the country through which it passes cannot be excelled for salubrity of climate and productiveness of soil. In a good stage of water, steamers can ascend almost to its source. The other rivers are navigable from 50 to 100 miles, penetrating into the interior to the pineries, and giving easy water com- munication into the country in all directions, as well as affording excel- lent water-power for lumbering, mill- ing and for manufacturing purposes. Among other rivers not navigable are the Rum, Crow, Elk, Sauk, Crow- Wing and Vermilion. There is no elevation in Minnesota that approaches the dignity of a moun- tain, the nearest approach being the bluffs along the shores of the Missis- sippi ; and from Dubuque to St. Paul, viewed from a distance, these ranges of bluffs have the irregular outline of mountains seen in other portions of the Union. The State enjoys an enviable repu- tation for its healthy and invigorating climate. The atmosphere in sum- mer is very clear, cool and pleasant, with westerly, south-westerly and southerly breezes. The nights are always cool and bracing. Large quan- tities of rain fall and heavy thunder- storms are frequent. The most re- markable characteristic of the winter is its extreme dryness, there being an almost total absence of rain or mois- ture. The mercury in winter, though 46 MINNESOTA. almost always below freezing point, is seldom below zero. The summer mean temperature is 70. 6°, which corresponds with that of Central Wisconsin and Southern Pennsylvania. The winter mean temperature is 16.1°, which coincides with Northern Wisconsin and Cen- tral Vermont. Mean annual tem- perature, 44.6°. With an average temperature of 16°, the dry atmo- sphere of winter in Minnesota is said to be less cold to the sense than the warmer, yet humid, climates several degrees further south. No State in the Union exhibits more rapid progress in agricultural pursuits than Minnesota. In 1859 there were but 345,000 acres under cultivation, while in 1869 there were 1,690,000, showing an increase for the decade of 1,345,000 acres, or 390 per cent., an unprecedented develop- ment. The number of improved farms in 1864 was 23,787, and in 1869, a period of five years, there was 45,740, being an increase of 92 per cent. In 1870 there were 2,322,102 acres of improved farms. In agricultural pursuits, wheat, the great staple, may be considered a spe- cialty, surpassing all others in pro- minence. History abundantly af- firms the fact that in the dominat- ing nations of the world, from that nation of antiquity which prospered coeval with Egyptian wheat-fields to the present time, wheat has been the prime food ; and no nation has long lagged in the race of civilization which assigned to this cereal a con- spicuous place. The achievements of Minnesota in the growth of this staple assume a proud pre-eminence. In the average per acre, and in the magnitude of operations, she has no rival. From 1859, in which year there were but 124,969 acres appropriated to the culture of wheat, yielding 2,374,415 bushels, occupying only 34' per cent, of her whole cultivated sur- face, there has been a constant ab- sorption of area by this grain, so that its occupancy in 1868 was nearly 62 per cent. In that year there were 858,316 acres devoted to wheat, pro- ducing 15,381,022 bushels. In 1870 the product was 18,950,000 bushels. The average yield during the past eleven years has been 17 bushels per acre. There appears to be an invaluable property in the soil and climate of the State which enables this grain to measurably resist the extremes of heat, cold, or moisture ; and for the industrious and intelligent immigrant, no other occupation presents so prac- ticable a field as wheat-growing, and no more inviting region can be found for his operations than in the rich, gently swelling and tractable prai- ries of Minnesota. While wheat is shown to be a spe- cialty of the State, overshadowing all other crops in importance, it must not be inferred that the soil is not MINNESOTA. 47 adapted to the production of the other leading cereals of the northern lati- tudes. Oats, corn, and barle}^ thrive admirably, and the cultivation of these crops during- the past year has bpen eminently successful. The oat crop of 1869 excelled any previous year both in quantity and quality. The yield is estimated at 12,310,298 bushels, averaging, for the whole State, 43 bushels to the acre, and there are well authenticated instances of averages reaching 60 to 75 bushels. Although corn holds a subordinate place in agriculture in Minnesota, experience has shown that the capa- city of the soil for the culture of this grain is equal to that of States situated in more southern latitudes. The crop of 1868 showed a total of 4,849,936 bushels, and an average of 57 bushels to the acre. There has been but a comparatively small space assigned to the growth of barley. The total product of 1869 was 813,120 bushels, the average being 37 bushels to the acre. Potatoes are unsurpassed in quality, and their yield is most prolific, aver- aging 120 bushels to the acre. Beans, beets, peas, and all kinds of garden vegetables are grown in great abun- dance. Nearly all varieties of small fruits, native and cultivated, thrive well. The peculiarities of soil, climate and natural food are admirably adapt- ed for the prosecution of wool-grow- ing, which is destined to form an im- portant interest of the State. For raising cattle and horses, Minnesota is fully equal to Illinois ; and for sheep-growing it is far superior. Ac- cording to established laws of nature, cold climates require a larger quantity and finer quality of wool or fur than warm ones ; hence the fur and wool- bearing animals are found in perfec- tion only in northern regions. The thick coat of the sheep especially identifies it with a cold country j the excessive heat to which their wool subjects them in a warm climate gene- rates disease. The fleece of Minne- sota sheep is remarkably fine and heavy, and they are not subject to the rot and other diseases so disas- trous to sheep in warm and moist lo- calities. It is asserted by stock- growers, that sheep brought here while suffering with the rot speedily become healthy. The cattle are remark- ably healthy, the unanimous testi- mony of butchers being that they sel- dom meet with a diseased liver. Hogs also do extremely well ; and the abundance and certainty of the grain crop enables farmers to raise them as cheaply as elsewhere. All stock requires shelter during the winter, but the necessity is no greater than in Indiana, Ohio and Illinois. The washing, chilling and debilitating winter rains of those States are far more injurious to out stock than our severest cold. All the shelter which stock requires here is that readily furnished by the immense 48 MINNESOTA. straw piles which accumulate from the thrashing- of the annual grain crop. Improved lands are quoted at the fol- lowing prices : — Washington county : $10 to $35 per acre. Wabashaw: from $10 to $40 ; as a general rule, about one-half the land is plowed and fenced, each farm having a small log or frame dwelling and straw-covered stable. Hennepin : 40 to 50 per cent, under cultivation, all fenced, good substantial buildings. Goodhue : $15 to $50 per acre, according to amount of improvements. Ramsey : the price depends very materially upon the dis- tance from town; within 2 miles of the city it is held at fancy prices ; 5 or 6 miles out good land can be had at from $7 to $15 per acre ; im- proved lands, same distance out, $15 to $30, one-quarter of it under culti- vation and fenced. Stearns : average $20 per acre. Anokee : good farming- lands can be had at from $4 to $6 per acre. Dakota, $20 to $30 per acre is the average. Nicollet : $8 to $15 per acre, one-quarter in cultivation, and fenced. Olmsted: $15 to $35. Steele: $5 to $10 per acre. Mower : $20 per acre. Scott : $5 to $12 per acre, prin- cipally log buildings. Le Sueur : $5 to $40, one-quarter under cultivation and fenced. Blue Earth : the price depends upon location ; near the county town, $50 per acre ; further away, as low as $10, buildings ordi- nary. Rice : $15 to $25, prairie land. Winona : $10 to $30 per acre, log or small frame buildings. Unimproved lands as follows : — Washington County, $2.50 to $20; the lower price is for timber lands in the northern portion of the county, the higher is for prairie land in the southern part. Wabashaw, from $2.50 to $15. Hennepin: $25 to $75. Goodhue : $5 to $15 per acre, according to quality and distance from points for shipping produce ; the proportion of prairie to woodland is large enough for farming purposes, and needs no clearing. Ramsey : unimproved land, with no clearing or fencing, six miles out, can be had for $7 per acre. Stearns : $10 to $30. Anokee: $2.50 to $6, part prairie and part timber land, not much of it fenced. Dakota : $2, mostly prairie. Nicollet: $3 to $8, all prairie. Olmsted : $8 to $15, principally prairie. Steele : $3 to $5, prairie, none fenced. Mower : $5 to $10, prairie, none fenced. Scott : $5 to $10, with from 3 to 12 acres cleared. Le Sueur : $4 to $20, none cleared, none fenced. Blue Earth : $10 per acre, prairie land is from $8 to $25, without fencing. Rice : $5 to $10, prairie land, from $5 to $20 for timber land. Winona : from $5 to $15, no choice lands vacant. Vast quantities of Government lands are yet unsold, and may be purchased at the minimum price of $1.25 per acre, or entered as home- steads under acts of Congress making- provision therefor. The following: remarks on the cost MINNESOTA. 49 of opening a farm will apply equally well to any of the Western States and territories : — Cost of Opening a Farm. — "To break prairie land costs from $2.50 to $4 per acre ; timber land, of course, much higher. Lumber costs from $14 to $17 per 1,000 ft. for fencing, according to the distance from the mills. Posts are made of cedar, tamarack, oak, pine and locust. Ma- chinery does a large part of the farm work. We have gang-plows, seed- sowers, cultivators, reapers and har- vesters, mowers, thrashers by horse- power and steam. Men engage ex- clusively in these branches — have their own machinery, and go from farm to farm, gathering a man's crop and putting it in market in a few days. Hired men are procured with but little trouble for farm work, and at prices ranging from $16 to $30 per month ; hired girls at from $7 to $10. The expense of building houses must be gathered by the reader from the price of lumber and mechanics' wages. Lumber for dwellings costs from $15 to $22 per thousand, and carpenters get from $2 to $3.50 per day ; brick and stone masons, from $2 to $4 per day. Large barns are not required — or, at least, are seldom found. When the thrashing is done in the fall, the straw is thrown upon the timbers constructed with ' crotch and rider,' which affords a warm and secure shelter for stock in all weather. Farm horses here are worth from $80 to $180; cows from $30 to $45. Abundance of good hay grows wild on our marshes and meadows, is con- sidered equal to the Kentucky blue- grass, and by many superior to clover and timothy. The expense of living here can be estimated by the prices charged for board at hotels and pri- vate boarding-houses. The prices range from $1 to $3 per day at hotels, and from $1 to $2 at private boarding- houses. These are the prices in the larger cities of the State, but good ac- commodations are procured in thrifty towns and on the shores of attractive lakes, at more moderate prices." Prices of farm stock, average — Working oxen, pair, $126 ; working horses, each, $160 ; working mules, each, $170 ; milch cows, each, $40 ; sheep, each, $2.25; hogs, 7 cents per pound. Wages of labour. — Farm hands, $18 to $20 per month, with board, during the harvest $3 per day ; mechanics, $2.50 to $4 per day, without board. Farm hands always in demand. 50 OEEGON. Area, 60,975,360 acres. Population in 1870, 90,933. ;REGON contains all the elements essential to con- stitute greatness, although yet but partially developed. With an area of 60,975,360 acres pre- eminently productive and susceptible of diversified agriculture, a genial and healthful climate, scenery of great variety and beauty, it possesses ex- traordinary inducements for the set- tler, and must attract a large emigra- tion of those who seek comfortable homes. Oregon may properly he divided into two distinct parts so far as relates to climate and agricultural capacities, viz. : the eastern and western, lying respectively on the east and west sides of the Cascade Mountains, which extend from the southern to the northern boundary, the Columbia River running nearly parallel with the coast at a distance therefrom of ahout 110 miles. The Coast Range of mountains, commencing at the Bay of San Francisco, extends northward through the States of California and Oregon. In this State they consist of a series of highlands running at right angles with the coast, with valleys and rivers hetween, the nu- merous spurs having the same general direction as the highlands. Western Oregon, the portion of the State first settled, embraces about 31,000 square miles, or 20,000,000 of acres, being nearly one-third of the area of the whole State, and contains the great preponderance of popula- tion and wealth. Nearly the whole of this large extent of country is valuahle for agriculture and grazing ; all of the productions common to tem- perate regions may be cultivated here with success. When the land is pro- perly cultivated the farmer rarely fails to meet with an adequate reward for his labours. The fruits produced here, such as apples, pears, plums, quinces and grapes, are of superior quality and flavour. Large quantities of apples are annually shipped to the San Francisco market, where they usually command a higher price than those of California, owing to their finer flavour. The valleys of the Willamette, Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, are em- braced within this portion of the State, and there is no region of country on the continent presenting a finer field for agriculture and stock- raising, because of the mildness of the climate and depth and richness of OREGON. 51 the soil. Farmers make no provision for housing then cattle during winter, and none is required; although in about the same latitude as Maine on the Atlantic, the winter temperature corresponds with that of Savannah, Georgia. From November to May the rainy season prevails ; frequent showers occur until February, when a clear season often continues several weeks, followed again by frequent rains until about the 1st of May ; between May and November rain falls sufficient to prevent drought, thick mists occasionally occurring during this period. The summer may be considered dry, yet seldom to the destruction of crops. The Oregon farmer west of the Cascades rarely realizes the necessity of irrigation. These valleys presented to the early immigrant an unbroken forest of magnificent evergreens, and to those who had not beheld the mammoth trees of California these must have appeared of giant growth ; among them the fir tree shoots up to the height of 250 ft., but often attaining 300 ft., with trunks from 4 to 15 ft. in diameter. The value of these trees has been recognized by the estab- lishment of numerous saw-mills at various points on the coast and on the Willamette River, for preparing lumber for market, and already seve- ral lines of sading vessels of large tonnage are engaged in the lumber trade between Port Orford, Coos Bay and other ports in Oregon and San Francisco. The timber, on account of its immense size and superior quality, is particularly valuable for ship-building. Among other promi- nent forest trees found in this locality are the Oregon cedar, sugar pine, western yellow pine and fragrant white cedar. Throughout these extensive moun- tain forests there are numerous tracts lying sufficiently level for cultivation ; but lands producing timber of such valuable qualities, and in such extra- ordinary quantities, should be pre- served as timber lands, to supply the demand of the first settlers upon the extensive plains west of the Missis- sippi River, where there is a scarcity of timber. From reliable information received touching the character of these forests, there is reason for stating that they are capable of pro- ducing 1,000,000 ft. of lumber to the acre. Upon the Coos and Coquille Rivers, in the Coast Range, the land has been cleared and its fertility found extraordinary, producing all kinds of grain and vegetables in abundance. The soil and climate in the Rogue River Valley, in the south- western portion of Oregon, are ad- mirably adapted to the culture of the grape, which culture is rapidly in- creasing, and the product of the vine- yard wdl soon become, as in Califor- nia, an important article of export. Heretofore Oregon has suffered from the limited communication with 52 OREGON. desirable markets for grain and pro- duce, thus retarding her growth and wealth; but by the liberal and in- telligent management of steam navi- gation companies and the late com- pletion of railroads around the upper and lower Cascades in the Columbia River, the State is being rapidly developed, and was never so prosper- ous as at the present time, commerce rapidly increasing, and grain being shipped to Liverpool. Regular lines of transportation are established to New York and other Atlantic cities, and others are proposed to Australia, China and Japan. The projected railroad, passing north through the State of California, from its intersection with the Central Pacific, and thence continuing north across the entire breadth of Oregon to the Columbia, through that fertile portion of the State west of the Cas- cades, will, when completed, add largely to her wealth and commerce. The important towns in the State west of the Cascades are Portland, the chief commercial city, with a population of about 9,000, situated on the west bank of the Willamette River, 12 miles from its mouth and 100 miles from the ocean by the course of the Columbia ; next in im- portance is Salem, the capital of the State, delightfully located on the east bank of the Willamette, about 40 miles south of Portland by the mean- dering of the river, containing a population of 4,500. The other prin- cipal towns are Oswego, Oregon City, Corvallis, Albany, Eugene City, Roseburg and Jacksonville. At Os- wego is located the first iron furnace on the Pacific coast. Eugene City is at the head of navigation on the Willamette, and has a population of 2,000. Oregon City, situated at the falls of the Willamette, has a woollen and paper factory ? and will be a manufacturing town of importance. Albany is a prosperous town, and known as the granary of Oregon, with a population of 2,500. That portion of the State extending from the Cascades to Snake River, termed Eastern Oregon, has a much drier climate than that west of the Cascades, and is more subject to ex- tremes of heat and cold ; the greater portion of the soil is not so available for tillage, yet furnishes an extensive scope for grazing. Along the Colum- bia River, in the valleys of Umatilla and Walla- Walla Rivers, the soil is highly fertile, and the agricultural capacity excellent. Many thriving settlements, with extensive improve- ments in manufactures and agricul- ture, exist in this portion of the State. In the great valley of the John Day River, also bordering on the Columbia, are some of the oldest settlements in the State, extending a distance of nearly 100 miles in length along the prairie bottoms of the river. The larger portion of this valley, as well as the Des Chutes and the country bordering on the declivities OREGON. 53 of the Blue Mountains, are fit for grazing - only, and for this purpose are excellent. Settlements have extended over most of the country in the valleys of Klamath Lake, Lost River, Goose and Harney Lakes in the south- eastern portion of the State, through which the Oregon Central military road passes. This is one of the finest sections of country in Oregon for agricultural purposes. Numerous tracts of land in the Ocheco Valley, in the central portion of Oregon, through which a military waggon road passes, have recently been set- tled and cultivated. In the valleys of the Grande Ronde, Powder, Burnt, Malheur and Owy- hee Rivers, near the eastern boundary, are situated large tracts of tillable land. The soil is of good quality, and agriculture thrives. Many varie- ties of garden vegetables are said to succeed better in some of these val- leys than in the Willamette, on ac- count of the higher temperature of the summer. Timber is less abundant in Eastern Oregon than west of the Cascades ; on the sides and summits of the Blue Mountains, and on various spurs and ridges which traverse this part of the State, are found the fir, cedar, hemlock, pine and other varie- ties of forest trees. The Columbia, Willamette, Snake River and Clark's Fork are the four principal navigable rivers. All of these rivers have been and are now successfully navigated by steamers. The Columbia, one of the largest and most important rivers on the conti- nent, passes through the wildest and grandest scenery, perhaps, in the world. The fir-covered mountains of the Cascade range on either side, with massive rocks thousands of feet high rising from its surface, with Mount Hood, St. Helen's and Rainier, from 10,000 to 13,000 ft. high, in the distance, piercing the clouds with their snow-capped peaks, form a scene of unsurpassed grandeur. A railroad has been recently con- structed around the Cascades at a point on the river some 60 miles east of the mouth of the Willamette ; the rapids here are similar to those of Niagara below the falls, and obstruct navigation for a distance of 5 miles. Forty-five miles above this point, at the Dalles, the river is again ob- structed by rapids for a distance of 15 miles, around which is railroad com- munication. From the latter point the river is navigable for a distance of 160 miles to White Bluffs, or 300 miles from the ocean. Snake River empties into the Columbia about 12 miles north of old Fort Walla- Walla, and is navigable as high up as Lewis- ton in Idaho, a distance of 160 miles. The Willamette is navigable from its mouth to Eugene City, a distance of 200 miles. The only obstruction to the navigation of this river is a fall of 40 ft. at Oregon City, making a portage of 1 mile necessary. Vast 51 OREGON. quantities of delicious salmon of many varieties abound in the Colum- bia and its tributaries, forming an important article of commerce. On the banks of the Columbia are the towns of Astoria, Rainier, St. Helens, Dalles and Umatilla. Oregon is peculiarly a crop-raising and fruit-growing State, though by no means deficient in valuable mineral resources. Possessing a climate of unsurpassed salubrity, abounding in vast tracts of rich arable lands, heavily timbered throughout its moun- tain ranges, watered by innumerable springs and streams, and subject to none of the drawbacks arising from the chilling winds and seasons of aridity which prevail further south, it is justly considered the most fa- voured region on the Pacific slope as a home for an agricultural and manu- facturing population. A writer calls Oregon, " a mam- moth sheep pasture." From what has been exhibited of its soil, climate and mines, it will be perceived that, with equal propriety and no greater allowance of hyperbole, it might be denominated also a mammoth grain field and vegetable garden, and a mammoth gold placer. In a country eminently fitted by nature for so many branches of business as Oregon, discrimination in favour of any one particularly, will seem unwarranted, not to say unjust. But certainly if Oregon has a specialty, it is her pre- eminence as a wool-growing country. Until very recently, little attention has been paid to the matter of sheep- raising, but it is now becoming one of the staple interests of the State. Sheep thrive better here than in any other State. Disease among them is exceedingly rare. They increase here faster than in the East, and the wool is of excellent quality. Wheat is a sure crop anywhere in Western Oregon. It is free from the ravages of insects, rust, blight, and other deleterious influences common to some sections of the United States. Several varieties of both winter and spring wheat are cultivated, and do well. Winter wheat is put in the ground in October or November, and spring wheat from February to May, according to season, condition of ground, &c. The yield per acre, or- dinarily, ranges from 20 to 40 bushels, many farmers claiming that, with rea- sonably good cultivation, an average of 30 bushels, one year with another, can be depended on. In the history of the white settlement of Western Oregon — a period of about thirty years — there has never been a failure of the wheat crop. In all parts of this State, vast tracts of agricultural, grazing and timber lands, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are open to settlement under the home- stead and pre-emption laws, and in Western Oregon large quantities may be obtained by private entry. Farming and grazing are very pro- fitable in the neighbourhood of min- OREGON. 55 ing settlements, and not only com- petence but wealth is "within the reach of the industrious and enter- prising-, who, selecting a farm and a home in a favourable locality, either in eastern or western Oregon, devote themselves faithfully to improving and developing its resources. . The prices of Lands. — In the western portion of the State, that is, in the Eogue River, Umpqua and Willa- mette Valleys, the best land is occu- pied. Farms can be had, however, in these valleys for from $5 to $10 per acre, according to location. There is ample room, and settlement is in- vited. As good agricultural land as there is in the world can be bought for $8 per acre in any of these districts. The land in eastern Oregon is, for the most part, vacant. Homes may be obtained by simply occupying them under the provisions of the homestead law, or by the provisions of the pre- emption law. These lands are not yet surveyed, but no difficulty need be apprehended on this account. The immigrant has nothing to do but to comply with the conditions under which he takes, and his title will be secure to a home for his family, which, in return for moderate industry, will enable him always to have enough and to spare of the good things ofthisworld. Lane County returns $2 per acre as the average value of unimproved lands in tbat county ; a portion prai- rie, but mostly adjacent to hills or mountains; quality various — some quite good, but the declivities and barren hills detract from the imme- diate value of many tracts. In Col- umbia, $3.50 is the average per acre ; mostly timber and brush land ; such timber as yellow and white fir, hem- lock, spruce, cedar, soft maple, ash and alder. In the eastern part of the county it is black mould underlaid with clay ; advancing west it changes to a light sandy loam ; will produce good grain, grass and vegetables. The average in Multnomah is $1.50 per acre, including Government lands ; chiefly diy, timbered lands of fine quality, cedar, ash, oak, maple and hemlock ; capable of raising all kinds of grain and fruits suited to the lati- tude. Much of the surface of Doug- las county is mountainous, and most of that which will serve for pasture is in private hands; but as there are still Government lands vacant, un- improved lands cannot rate much above the minimum for public lands. Probably two-thirds of the lands of the State are for sale at Government prices, settlements now being princi- pally confined to a strip bordering upon the Pacific, and embracing about one- third of the area of the State. Prices of farm stock average — Work- ing oxen, pair, $107 ; working horses, each, $117 ; working mules, each, $121 ; milch cows, each, $37 ; sheep, each, $2.39 ; hogs 4J cents, per pound. Wages of labour — Ordinary lumber and other hands get $40 per month (gold), with board ; mechanics $4 to $5 per day, without board. 56 IOWA. Area, 35,228,800 acres. Population in 1870, 1,191,721. Fare from New York to Des Moines, 1st class, $34-05; emigrant, $22"15 ; luggage beyond 100 lbs. $4*75 per 100 lbs. ITUATED between Minne- sota on the north and Mis- souri on the south, with the Mississippi River, on the east, dividing it from Illinois and Wisconsin, and the Missouri, on the west, separating it from Nebraska and Dakota, is the State of Iowa, ex- tending from the parallel of 40° 30' north latitude to 43° 30', or about 208 miles, with an extreme length of 300 miles, and embracing an area of 55,045 square miles, or 35,228,800 acres. The geographical position and cha- racter of the surface of this State are most favourable for the development of its many resources. The surface of Iowa is generally a rolling prairie, with occasional high bluffs and precipitous descents near the water-courses, and with wide stretches of bottom lands of the great- est fertility, and sometimes belts of well-grown timber skirting the streams on either side ; while on the highest elevations of the plateaus, between the valleys of the several streams, are frequent expanses of level prairie, with groves of timber and small la- goons, furnishing supplies of wood and water. The soil of the prairies, whether level or rolling, possesses the greatest fertility, and is especially adapted to the culture of cereals and the growth of fruit and forest trees, while the ordinary plants and vegetables of do- mestic culture are produced with the greatest success. The rapid growth of trees in the State is probably attri- butable to the favourableness of the climate and the presence in the soil of immense accumulations of the salts of potassa, caused by the former an- nually recurring prairie fires, usually occasioned by the Indians, for the purpose of depriving the game of their cover in the dense growth of grasses and undergrowth of timber. Since the suppression of these fires, or their restriction to narrow limits, consequent upon the occupation of the soil, the natural growth of tim- ber in the State has more than kept pace with its consumption as fuel and for building purposes, while forest culture has engaged the attention of the farmer with the most gratifying success ; it being estimated that the planting of a portion of a farm with forest, ornamental and fruit trees will IOWA. 57 prove a profitable employment of the land. Considering' the fertility of its soil, the salubrity of its climate, and its favourable geographical position for the ready transportation of its pro- ducts to the best markets, as well as in view of its millions of acres as yet neither under cultivation nor used as pasturage, the magnificent water- power upon its streams, and its vast undeveloped mineral resources, Iowa presents inducements for immigration to the industrious and enterprising scarcely to be excelled. There are yet to be disposed of in this State of the public lands constituting the go- vernment domain 1,192,580.36 acres. Agricultural Products. — Corn, wheat, oats and hay are the great staples of Iowa, being grown to a greater or less extent in every county in the State, with the addition of rye, barley, buckwheat, tobacco, &c. in limited quantities. The corn crop of 1870 reached over 52,000,000 of bush- els, with an acreage of upwards of 1,600,000, the crop being valued at about $23,000,000, or an average of between $14 and $15 per acre gross. The wheat crop of the same year reached nearly 16,000,000 bushels upon something less than 1,000,000 acres, the crop being estimated at about $22,000,000, or an average of about $22 to the acre, gross product. The wheat crop is the principal market product, other crops being largely worked up at home and sent abroad in more condensed form, as beef, pork, wool, &c. Our Cherokee correspondent says : — " Rye is not much raised, but is a profitable crop. Potatoes are also productive and much depended upon, and sugar-cane is cultivated to some extent." Fruit culture is yet in its infancy in Iowa ; and, owing to want of judgment in the selection of varieties of the large fruits and the proper care of the young trees, experiments have not been universally successful, yet results have satisfactorily demon- strated that hardy fruits may be grown successfully and profitably in every section of the state. Climate, Health, &c. — " Our cli- mate is most delightful. Our spring usually commences in March, and by the middle of April the prairies are green. In May all the face of nature is covered with flowers. At all sea- sons of the year a gentle breeze is fan- ning the prairies, and a day is never so sultry but that a cooling breath comes to moderate the temperature. The evening twilights are beautiful, in most seasons of the year continuing nearly two hours after sunset. Ten months in the year our roads are hard, smooth and dry. In autumn the weather is usually pleasant and fine until near December. Winter brings us very little snow, some years not amounting to more than 6 or 8 inches altogether ; the weather through the winter being mostly made up of cool, 58 IOWA. sunshiny days and clear frosty nights. On the streams the ague and fever sometimes intrude, with fevers occa- sionally of other types ; but, as the country becomes settled and culti- vated, these disappear and are un- known." The prices <>f unimproved prairie land range at this time from $5 to $12 per acre, the average selling price being about $6 per acre. The prices are gradually rising. There is not much timber land in the market, but when it can be had, the prices range from $25 to $45 per acre. Heavy cotton- wood on the Missouri is worth from $75 to $100 per acre. This, of course, is the most valuable timber land in the county, and affords immense quantities of lumber. The prices of improved land, of course, depend upon the location, quality, state of improvement, and other circumstances. During the present season, a number of improved farms have sold at from $25 to $30 per acre. There are not many farms in the market. Average price of farm stock — Work- ing oxen, pair, $122 ; working horses, each, $127 ; working mules, each, $146 ; milch cows, each, $40 ; sheep, each, $1.75 ; hogs 7\ cents per pound. Wages of labour. — Farm labourers, $1.50 per day, with board ; mechanics, $2.50 to $5, without board. 59 VIRGINIA. Area, 18,145,911 acres. Population in 1870, 1,667,177. Fare from New York to Richmond, 1st class, $12-80. ^HERE are no Government lands in Virginia subject to settlement under the pre- emption or homestead laws. Earms, however, which were formerly dependent upon slave labour for their cultivation, and whose owners have no longer the means to work them, may be bought in almost every part of the State at very low prices. The people of Virginia urgently desire immigration, and will cordially wel- come among them all worthy settlers. The State is distant from New York only nine to ten hours by rail, and may be visited with little expenditure of time or money. No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface and climate than Virginia — from the mountains of the interior and the hills east and west of them, to the rich alluvions of the rivers, and the sandy flats on the sea-coast. The greatest extent of mountains, and the greatest variety of timbers are found in this State. White Top Mountain, in Grayson County, attains an elevation of 6,000 ft. As resrards the advantages of Vir- ginia, they have been stated impar- tially in an address of the Colony of New Poland to their countrymen in Europe, dated August 25, 1867. In the resolutions adopted by these colonists occurs the following : — "The congeniality of its climate with our constitution ; the ascertained produc- tiveness of its lands, and its adapta- tion to a greater variety of crops than is the land of the North-western States and territories ; the hospitality of its people, and the consideration that its local laws extend the same political rights and equal protection to the native and naturalized citizen, and to all religious creeds, in connec- tion with the man's natural disposi- tion to go there in search of the means of living and competency for his family, where their acquisition is easier and more probable, were our only guides in selecting Virginia as our adopted State. We assert now upon the evidence of our own per- sonal experience, acquired since we settled here, that the denial of the existence of these advantages, and better chances of success in Virginia, which can make an agriculturist in- dependent and contented, must be attributed either to gross ignorance of the letter-writers, or to some ill and malicious design." "That the 60 VIRGINIA. quality of our cleared land is inferior to the newly-cleared land at the North-west is admitted; but its in- feriority is only its exhaustion, caused by bad cultivation ; it can, therefore, be improved at less labour and ex- pense, and in shorter time than the clearing of North-western land re- quires. As to our woodland soil, it is not inferior to the North-western." " Here in Virginia, the winters being shorter and milder, we have in the year four months' longer working season." "And in this State the typhoid and typhus fevers attach to no section, and are almost unknown, whilst in the new North-western set- tlements they destroy prematurely thousands of lives every year." " We desire to inform our countrymen in Europe that in the selection of Vir- ginia for our adopted State, we were influenced only by the foregoing con- siderations of advantages." Crops, &c. — There are few special- ties in Virginia agriculture, except tobacco and wheat, and stock-grow- ing in mountainous regions. The scarcity of money, and despondency, caused either by defeat in the late war, or from losses sustained in it, have operated to depress enterprise. A correspondent expresses the gene- ral feeling thus : — " There is not energy enough among our farmers or labouring classes to make a specialty of anything, except to get bacon and corn-dodgers enough to drive starva- tion from their doors. Stock is about the only resource upon which we de- pend for what little money we re- quire. Farms are large, averaging from 500 to 3,000 acres, and we hold on to them with a death-grip, as if our interest in heaven depended upon our broad acres, and will not culti- vate it ourselves, nor allow others to do so." This is the case, to some extent ; yet the evidence is abundant of a growing disposition to sell, to invite immigration, to welcome busi- ness men and farmers, and even to take hold with energy, and push new enterprises to success. Wheat, dry and heavy, yielding superior flour, may be considered a specialty in the Shenandoah Valley, and in many of the central and eastern counties. Corn, for cattle feeding, has been produced largely on the north branch of the Potomac, in the valley of Vir- ginia, and it has been a prominent crop in Norfolk, Gloucester, York and Lancaster, on tide-water. Our correspondent on York River illus- trates the capabilities of this coast- region as follows : — " One hundred and ten bushels of corn, forty of wheat, and sixty-four of oats, have been made to the acre. The oats were grown and harvested by my- self, on light black land, never ma- nured, and was the second crop of small grain, and the sixth of its cul- tivation. The other two parcels of land, on which the corn and wheat grew, were heavily manured. The profit was large in each case." VIRGINIA. 61 Blue - grass, white clover, crab- grass, and red-top, everywhere abound for the pasturage of cattle. The average length of the season for ex- clusive feeding, is nearly eight months, and in mild seasons, in some localities, cattle obtain a subsistence without feeding throughout the year. Provision should be made, however, as it will be by good farmers, for a partial supply for four months or more. Far less hay or other feeding material is required, during this period, than for the same months in more northern latitudes. The price of pasturage varies greatly, ranging from $3 to $16 for the season, ac- cording to location and other circum- stances. The average is less than a dollar per month. It is high in the neighbourhood of Winchester, where lands are high, and grazing is not the principal business; and low on the mountain slopes of the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies. The winter grazing is often good where the summer grass is not pastured till late in the fall, The following state- ment of the value of Virginia for grazing is entirely reliable : — " The advantages of the valley and moun- tain glades of Virginia for stock- rearing are remarkable. The census proves that many a county, with large herds, has averaged less than a hundred-weight of hay to each head of cattle ! Winter feeding is re- quired but for half the period neces- sary in New England and New York, and less food suffices during that time, by reason of the mildness of the climate. Beef or mutton can be produced at less than half the cost of northern-grown meat, and cheese made at a saving which would more than double northern profits. Already have cheese factories been started with nattering success. In a recent address before the Border Agricul- tural Society of Virginia and North Carolina, F. G. Ruffin says he has made, the present year, 180 per cent, profit on a flock of 200 sheep. For- tunes await enterprises in every branch of stock production." Fruits. — Reports from every county, without exception, are ex- tremely favourable as to capabilities for fruit of nearly all kinds known in the temperate zone. Apples, pears, peaches, plums, apricots, and small fruits of all sorts, grow well in nearly all parts of the State. The only general exception, as to profit- able yield, is the plum, which is de- stroyed by the curculio, as elsewhere. In a few localities in the upper part of "the valley," frost is mentioned as an occasional drawback in peach cultivation. Pears are generally of vigorous growth and productive habit. " But a small part of the Cotton Belt is found in Virginia. A few counties in the south-eastern corner, south of the James River, and along the North Carolina line, embrace all the available cotton lands in the State. 62 VIRGINIA. ... As compared with last year, the breadth seeded is nearly double, but as compared with the year before the war, it is not one-half. The want of means, both for paying hands and supporting the working force of the plantation in food and forage, has been the great drawback. " Tobacco is the great commercial staple of the State. . . . The price of the product makes it profitable to cultivate. ... Its successful culti- vation is practically better understood than in any other State, except per- haps Kentucky, and there the Vir- ginia method is more or less fol- lowed." The following interesting facts are stated in a letter addressed by Mr. Imboden, to F. B. Goddard, Esq. : — " The prices of farms in Virginia range from $5 per acre up to $150. The high priced lands being in the cele- brated Shenandoah Valley. The re- gion of this State best suited to Euro- pean emigrants' wants, is the country lying on the south side of James River, extending from this city to the Atlantic coast, and thence west- ward along the northern boundary of North Carolina to the Tennessee line. There is room in this part of the State for 100,000 immigrant families. The lands are good, water excellent and abundant, timber in great variety and abundance, railroad facilities ample, and the general healthfulness of the country equal to any part "of this continent. The crops are of great variety, including cotton (in some portions), tobacco, wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley, grasses, sweet and Irish potatoes, garden vegetables of all kinds, flax, hemp, beans and peas. The fruits are apples, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, figs, apricots, necta- rines, strawberries, cranberries, cur- rants, gooseberries and grapes of se- veral of the best wine-producing varieties. " The class of immigrants most de- sired are small farmers, who can pur. chase 50 or 100 acres of land and set up for themselves. The demand for mere labourers is not large, for the reason that a few old faithful negroes stick by their former masters, and work for about $12 per month and their food and houses for their families. Our farmers and planters will not turn these faithful people adrift in the world, and as then fortunes suf- fered greatly by the war, they are generally not prepared to employ many hired labourers — a few could get employment, and from $12 to $15 per month wages and their board. " In the mountain counties there are large bodies of land, in some instances over 100,000 acres in a tract owned by individuals, which can be purchased at from $1 to $5 per acre. " The great mineral region of the State is in the mountain districts, and there are magnificent openings there for capitalists who wish to engage in mining, erection of furnaces," &c. VIRGINIA. Price of Unimproved Land. — Such has been the waste of war, that "unimproved" lands have encroached upon cultivated areas until nearly all the State is "wild" land. The tracts in original forest, or thrown out of cultivation and covered with new forest growths, will be included in this branch of the subj ect. In Patrick and other south-western counties the price is quoted at $1 ; in Carroll, 50 cents ; in Nelson, 25 cents ; in" Botetourt, $1 to $3 ; in Tazewell, $2-50 ; in Highland, $2"75 ; in Clarke, $3 to $6 ; in Washington, $2 to $3 ; in Buckingham, $2 to $5; in King George, $4 to $10 ; in Stafford, King William, Norfolk and Craig, $5; in York and Middlesex, $6 ; in Jan- caster, $5 to $25 ; in Smyth, $10 to $25. This shows the range of reports. In the tide-water counties prices range from $5 to $15 for wild lands, except on navigable water, where the value depends on the amount of wood and timber, sometimes reaching $50. Lands at $1 per acre in Patrick, are reported "mountainous, heavily timbered, and highly productive." Coal lands, 4 miles from the rail- road, in Montgomery, can be bought from $3 to $5 per acre, and for $1 to $2, 10 miles from the railroad. Mines of great intrinsic value in several counties in this part of the State, are unworked and unopened for want of capital, enterprise and knowledge of the business of mining. In Wythe, wild lands are "almost valueless ex- cept in the neighbourhood of iron works," one of a class of facts every- where appearing in Virginia, which illustrate the creation of values in all of u group of products by utilizing one of them. In Tazewell are tracts of thousands of acres, some of them at lower prices than Government lands. On these mountain slopes and in valleys the pasturage is un- surpassed in the country, and much of it is excellent land for tobacco, grapes and fruit. In King William, on the Pamunkey and Mattapony, are lands subject to overflow, obtainable at $5 per acre, " consisting of both forests heavily timbered^, and high woody flats, hav- ing the most luxuriant vegetation, and furnishing the finest pasturage for cattle and hogs. As the greater portion of this land is alluvial, rich, loamy soil, its capabilities would be very great if made available by dikes and canals, which would be easily practicable." Advance in price is noticed in many counties. In Middlesex, on the Rap- pahannock, land that could have been purchased two years ago for $10, will now command $30. In Pulaski, in the south-west part of the State, while the decline, as shown by the few sales made, is 60 per cent., holders gene- rally are not disposed to sell at less than former rates. This is the fact to a great extent throughout the State, and it gives a wide range to prices, and makes an estimate of an average a very difficult undertaking. Two-thirds of the counties report a 64 VIRGINIA. decrease in the value of land since 1860, ranging from 10 to 60 per cent., and averaging 35 ; the remainder, with two or three exceptions, make the present price in currency no greater than the valuation in :'.860. An average decrease for the entire State may be placed at 27 per cent. This makes the depreciation, in com- parison with the date of the last cen- sus, about the same percentage as the appreciation which was raported in New York — that is, property worth $100 in 1860, is now valued at $73 in Virginia, and $128 in New York. One error into which many settlers in Virginia have fallen is especially to be avoided, i.e., the purchase of poor land because it is cheap and the purchase of too much land. Wages of labour. — Farm hands (white) $1 to $1-50 per day, with board. Negro labour $8 to $12 per month, with board. 65 WYOMING TERRITORY. Area, 62,645,120 acres. Population in 1870, 9,118. Fare from New York to Cheyenne, 1st class, |70-50; emigrant, $47'10. 'YOMING Territory lies between the 27th and. 34th meridiansoflongitudewest from Washington, and the 41st and 45th degrees of north latitude, with an average length of 355 miles, and width 276 miles. It has Dakota and Nebraska on the east, Colorado and Utah on the south, Montana on the north, and Utah and Idaho on the west, and embraces an area of 97,883 square miles, or 62,645,120 acres — larger than the State of Oregon, and equal to that of Alabama and Missis- sippi, or Georgia and New York„ This newly erected political division, lying along the line of one of the most important of our great national high- ways, is brought into close relations with the adjacent States and Territo- ries, and is destined to exert a most powerful influence in developing the immense resources of the West. Wyoming has an average length from east to west of 355 miles, with a width of 276, embracing an area of 97,833 square miles, equal to that of the States of New York, Pennsylva- nia and Connecticut. This Territory comprises an exten- sive elevated region, traversed, in a general south-easterly and north- westerly course, by the main chain of the Rocky Mountains. The Wind River Range, in the north-western part, is a portion of the Rocky Moun- tain system, and constitutes a part of the grand continental divide. The climate of Wyoming is mild tor the greater part of the year, subject, however, to sudden changes and ex- treme cold in winter, especially above the beds of the valleys. The air is pure, dry and healthy, free from miasmatic exhalations. The Territory abounds in mineral springs, cold and thermal, among which are alkaline, sulphurous, saline and chalybeate. Some of these springs have already reached considerable celebrity. Hot sulphur springs are the most nume- rous along Yellowstone River and around Yellowstone Lake. Wyoming is extremely valuable as a mineral region. The recent geological recon- noissances which have been made demonstrate the fact that in the terti- ary formation extensive beds of coal exist, often in juxtaposition with rich deposits of iron ore. The area of the coal field east of the mountains in Colorado and Wyoming, between Lodge Pole Creek and the Arkansas 66 WYOMING TERRITORY. River, has been estimated at 5,000 square miles. On Cooper's Creek, 15 miles west of Laramie Station, a vein of coal 9 ft. thick has been opened, the coal, though light, being pure and compact. Other veins, some of which are from 10 to 12 ft. in thickness, have been found on Cooper's Creek. Some por- tions of this coal have the appearance of dull bituminous, while others re- semble the anthracite of Pennsyl- vania. It is of the best quality, being close, compact and moderately heavy, but, like most of the tertiary coals, upon being exposed to the action of the atmosphere it crumbles into small pieces. Nearly all the land between Rock Creek and Cooper's Creek has been selected in advance of the public surveys, with a view of securing title whenever surveyed. In the tertiary beds around Elk Mountain several seams of coal occur, one 6 ft. in thick- ness ; the hardened beds above and below the coal being filled with im- perfect impressions of deciduous leaves and plants. One of the most marked developments of the coal beds occurs at Carbon Station, on the Union Pacific Railroad, 80 miles west of Laramie Station. The openings are within 2 miles of the railroad, to which a track has been laid ; the coal is com- pact and pure, and regarded as supe- rior to the bituminous, and although not as hard it is but little inferior to the anthracite. It has been used on the locomotives of the Union Pacific Railroad, as well as for domestic pur- poses, giving entire satisfaction. Iron ore exists in the Black Hill country in large quantities, and is reported in other localities. Magnetic iron ore, of superior quality, and in vast quantities, is found near the source of the Chug Water, and in the bed of that stream, and on the hill sides along the stream. Nodular iron ore occurs in various localities, in juxtaposition with the coal deposits along the railroad line. The deve- lopment of the vast deposits of coal and iron will do much toward the settlement of this region, and add largely to the revenue of the country. The exploration of the country has demonstrated that, with the aid of irrigation, there is a very considerable area which may be made available for the production of cereals and vegetables. The lands in the valleys and along the bases of the mountains in many places are very productive, and by irrigation are susceptible of high cultivation. The region of* the Laramie Plains is high, but mostly well watered, and capable of raising vegetables and small grains in abundance. A large portion of Wyoming produces a luxuriant growth of short nutritious grass, upon which cattle will feed and fatten dur- ing the summer and winter without other provender. These lands, even in their present condition, are supe- rior for grazing. The temperature generally, for the greater portion of the year, is mild, WYOMING TERRITORY. 67 yet subject to extreme cold in mid- winter. Settlements are being rapidly es- tablished in tbe vicinity of the Union Pacific Railroad, and valuable and permanent improvements are being made, while the mines of coal, gold, silver and iron are in process of de- velopment. That portion of Wyoming between Nebraska and the mountains is as well adapted to purposes of agriculture as Colorado. The country slopes north- ward from Cheyenne to the Yellow- stone River, and all the valleys of the numerous streams which enter this region from the mountains are suited to the production of small grains, and highly adapted to the raising of all kinds of vegetables. Cabbages grow to an enormous size without artificial manures. From 200 to 400 bushels per acre of the best quality of potatoes can be raised ; and turnips, parsnips and all other garden vegetables, do equally well. The soil is remarkably adapted to the large yield of wheat, barley and oats, because of its favour- able combination of materials which make up a good argillaceous and cal- careous soil, with the addition of pot- ash and gypsum, which are derived from the decaying saliferous andfeld- spathic rocks of the mountains. The seasons are short, and sowing and planting should be done by the 1st of May, or earlier if possible. Taking the seasons generally, it is necessary to resort to irrigation. This is easily accomplished in the valleys of all the streams by taking the water into sluices and spreading it out wherever necessary, as is so success- fully done by the Mormons in the Salt Lake valleys. The adjoining table lands, though better suited for grazing purposes, will to some extent be irrigated and brought under cultivation in coming years, by means of artesian wells, as now practised quite extensively in many parts of California. Stock-raising. — The Surveyor- General of Wyoming writes : — " This branch of Wyoming indus- try is increasing constantly, and ad- vances at a healthy pace. Publie confidence is now well established in its safety and lucrativeness. " Stock-ranches, with large herds, are now to be found along every stream and valley reaching down from the eastern base of the mountains, from the Colorado line north to the North Platte at Fort Laramie, begin- ning at Lone Tree Creek, south, and including, on the way northward, Crow, Lodge Pole, Bear and Horse Creeks, and the Chugwater and Lara- mie Rivers, and Sybylle Creek. " The herds of Mr. J. W. Iliff, of this city, now number 15,000 head, 3,000 of which are calves. His beef- cattle, to the number of this increase, or even more, will be shipped east- ward for the Chicago market, and for being corn-fed in Illinois and other places this winter. Mr. Iliff's prac- o8 WYOMING TERRITORY. tice has been to keep the number of his herds up to about 12,000 ; and when his fall sales decrease his num- ber much below that figure, he re- plenishes by the purchase of more Texas cattle, which are annually brought here for sale, in large droves. This Texas stock is here crossed with the Durham and Devon bull ; and the calves, when six months old, are not excelled by any similar stock in any of the States for size and fine appear- ance. The owners generally live in the city, while the herders occupy the ranches and watch over the stock. "The native grass along the streams is mown for winter use, though scarcely touched for feed during an open winter like the last. Even in more severe winters it is not fed to the herds, except after a snow-storm of more than usual severity. No sheds or barns are used for cattle. But in severe weather the herds are kept in the most sheltered places along the bluffs and high ridges. " The plains, which skirt the eastern base of the mountains for 100 or more miles in width east and west, afford the most desirable ranges for stock. They are not only 1,200 to 1,500 ft. less in altitude than the Laramie plains, but afford more grass over a given space, and the winter is less severe upon them. " This is a safe and most profitable business, but requires the use of capi- tal in proportion to the extent to which it is carried. " After a herd of from 500 to 1,000 or 2,000 has been obtained and paid for, and the ranch quarters provided, there is very little expense except for a few trusty herdsmen. No large tracts of land to be purchased and fenced ; no large amount of food to be provided for winter, nor extensive barns and sheds ; nor heavy taxes on large amounts of real estate. But for the young man of small means, the dairy ranch, or the raising of sheep, is the most profitable, and affords the speediest return to the owner. A flock of sheep, well selected and cared for, will nearly double yearly by increase of number." In relation to stock-raising we add an interesting extract from a letter by E. A. Curley, Esq., which ap- peared in March, 1874, in the London " .Field." 11 The following are the returns of a combined dairy and stock business in Wyoming in 1873-4 :— April, 1871. Bought 50 dairy cows at $50 . . $2,500 „ Two thoroughbred bulls 500 Expended in permanent improvements . . . 1,500 Capital account . $4,500 Expenses : Labour $1,500. Returns : Butter and milk, about $1,500 ,, 47 calves, valued at . 500 Profit, about 11 per cent. $2,000 WYOMING TERRITORY. 69 1872. Original capital brought down . . . $4,500 „ Bought 30 cows at $50 1,500 „ „ 320 acres land 800 Improvements .... 1,000 $7,800 Expenses : Labour, $1,000. Returns : Butter and milk $2,500 ,, Increased value of 47 yearlings become two- 500 „ 62 calves .... 500 $3,500 Deduct labour .... 1,000 Profit, 33| per cent. " In Oct., 1872, after the addition of 35 brood mares at $45 each, 34 mixed cattle, and furniture and fix- tures, to the total value of $25 "60, the whole was valued at $15,000, for the purposes of a partnership, giving in this manner an additional profit of $4,640 or 58 per cent. Oct. 1872: Dairy ranches above ' $15,000 ,, Bought a herd of mixed cattle at about average prices, com- prising 242 yearlings, 3S6 two-year olds, 294 three -year -olds, 537 beeves, 379 cows, and 16 horses— total . . . $27,381.94 April, 1873 : Bought two ranches ..... 950 ,, Improvements made in the year .... 2,410.31 $45,742.25 Labour and expenses . . $7,200 Less portion of labour ex- pended in permanent improvements . . . 1,900 $5,300 Returns : Beef and beef cattle $10,834.65 „ Butter 2,424.82 „ Milk 217.43 „ Sundries .... 423.39 J,500 Deduct expenses 13,900.29 5,300 $8,600.29 The stock remaining on hand was valued at lowest prices for an es- timate of profits, those that had been wintered in the Territory being put at the prices then paid for fresh Texans. At these rates the stock in hand came to $47,054.86, from which deduct $45,742.25, and $1,312.61 are left to profit account . . . 1,312.61 Total profit, 21 per cent. $9,912.90 " In this case the profit is undoubt- edly put too low; but it is impos- 70 WYOMING TERRITORY. sible to estimate it very exactly, as the herd has not been in hand long enough for that purpose. " I have now devoted to this im- portant subject one letter more than I had originally intended, and I must close it for the present at least, al- though I have omitted the particulars furnished me by the gentleman who has derived the greatest amount of wealth from this business, and by two others, each of whom has had great experience and success. These great successes, however, can scarcely be believed by anyone who has not investigated for himself; and, if be- lieved, there is such a seductive glamour about them as may lead men to engage in the same business with too great precipitation. My conclu- sion is that very few of the persons who have engaged in cattle, sheep or horse breeding on the plains have had any previous practical experience; very few of them manage with that care or discretion which is absolutely necessary to prevent disastrous failure in England, and yet they generally succeed with astonishing rapidity. I am inclined to think that the present enormous average of profits will con- tinue for eight or ten years longer ; for while the conditions of success are likely to become more stringent, and to cause the failure of some of the worst managed undertakings, by far the larger proportion of the stock- men will increase in skill for some years quite as rapidly as the condi- tions of success in stringency. There is room on the plains for the invest- ment, in the course of three or four years at the farthest, of £1,000,000 sterling of English capital, at rates of profit certainly averaging over 20 per cent, on a series of years ; but I would advise such of my readers as are dis- posed to invest either to handle their own money or to use great care in the selection of proper agents ; for where such large profits are to be obtained, both incompetency and rascality are almost certain to abound." The Surveyor-General of Wyoming writes : — " Sheep-raising is a subject of so much importance to the welfare of the people and Territory of Wyo- ming, that I have thought proper to invite attention to the wonderful adaptability of this region to the cheap and successful raising of sheep and wool. I therefore introduce the re- marks of the Hon. J. W. Kingman, United States judge of this Territory, on the subject. His opportunities for observation on these points have been extensive, and, after a residence of two and a half years in this region, he is so well convinced of the success which must follow the business of sheep and wool growing on these elevated plains, that he has now in- troduced a flock of 3,000 sheep upon his ranche near the head of Crow Creek, 15 miles west of this city. The judge has favoured me with the following account of his flock and the manner of treating it : — WYOMING TERRITORY. 71 * Laeamie City, Wyoming Territory, • September 18, 1871. ' Dear Sir, — Your favour of the 15th instant, asking for a statement of the facts in reference to our flock of sheep, is received, and it gives me pleasure to reply. 'The flock consists of 3,000 long- wooled sheep, selected with great care in Iowa last summer. We have avoided all merino blood, because we wish to cross up with the Cotswold as rapidly as possible. ' Our object is to see if this region will not produce a superior quality of combing wool, as well as a superior mutton. We are confident that the character of our climate and grazing is so peculiarly adapted to the nature and habits of sheep, that we can carry the improvement of our flocks, in both these respects, to a degree of perfection never attained before. ' Indeed, the improvement in the health, appearance and condition of the sheep thus far is so marked and uniform that one could hardly believe it to be the same flock that came here a few months ago, and warrants the utmost confidence in a permanent and valuable improvement. 1 Our cool, dry, even temperature ; our hard, gravelly soil; our short, rich grasses ; our clear, pure water ; our aromatic, bitter plants and shrubs, and our frequent alkaline ponds and licks, must all contribute to the ro- bust health of the animal and produce a growth and development of all its functions in their highest perfec- tion. ' It has been said that the long- wooled sheep are not gregarious, and cannot be well herded in large flocks. We have not found this difficulty. To be sure, 3,000 makes a large flock, and they require plenty of room ; but if they are well left alone they do not get in each other's way, and do not care to stray. One man can watch them, and watching seems to be all the help they need. * We build, to be sure, large yards, and long, open sheds, to protect them from the storms, and to keep off the wolves at night; but we shall soon be rid of the wolves altogether, and the bluffs afford sufficient shelter at all seasons of the year. ' There are in this section of the Territory, besides our flock, one be- longing to General King and others, about 1,000 ; Colonel Dana's, of 1,000; Mr. Homer's and others, about 1,000; and several parties are now in the States purchasing flocks to bring here. There are also the large flocks belonging to Messrs. Creighton and Hutton, of 10,000 or 12,000 ; and quite a number of small lots, numbering 200 or 300 each. ' Some of these flocks have been here two or three years, and each year has shown a surprising im- provement. This is particularly so where they have not been too closely herded, but have been permitted to go out and come in pretty much as 72 WYOMING TERRITORY. they pleased. The wool has in- creased in quantity and fineness, and the mutton has improved in flavour and quality. ' There seems to be no doubt that the best quality of mutton can be grown here, pound for pound, as cheap as beef; and if so, then sheep- raising 1 must be profitable if cattle- raising 1 is. ' Very respectfully yours, 'J.W.Kingman.'" Adaptability of the Trans-Missouri Country for Sheep-raising. — All of the trans-Missouri country west of the 98th meridian to the crest of the Snowy Range, has less than six weeks of rainy season, which is in the month of May, after the cold weather. Usually there is no rain-fall after November till May. The snow is dry and round, and does not adhere to the sheep. There is not an acre, of all the billion of acres of country, that does not furnish summer and winter grazing for sheep. There is winter grazing enough in Colorado, Wyoming and Montana to graze all the sheep in the United States, Australia and the Argentine Re- public, the aggregate of whose wool product is 300,000,000 pounds, worth $100,000,000. There is plenty of water for count- less flocks in the net-work of streams that drain our mountain ranges of their snows. There is an entire absence of the marshy lands and wet soils so de- structive to sheep in the form of " foot-ail." The sheep of New Mexico, Colorado and Utah have not, after ten years in the two latter Territories, and forty years' experi- ence in the former, developed any local diseases. The universal testi- mony has been, in all our Territories and States west of the Missouri River, that there have been no diseases among the flocks, and that they have improved in the quality and quantity of the fleeces. " The great fact of winter grazing will enable our flock-masters to make wool-growing exceedingly remunerative. In many instances which have come under my observation here on the plains, flocks have yielded 100 per cent, upon investment in them. " In countries where either the natural resources or protection makes wool -growing profitable, it makes most wonderful advancement. " The wool industry of South America, South Africa and Australia does not date back more than a quar- ter of a century, and now they ex- port 250,000,000 pounds. Iowa, in 1859, had 258,228 sheep ; in 1869 she had 2,332,241. " There are many remarkable in- stances of rapid increase in wool- growing, but there is nothing that shows how rapidly the production can be increased, and how wonder- fully the demand increases, so much as the figures of England's importa- WYOMING TERRITORY. 73 tion thirty years ago. Then, 74,000 bales were imported from Germany ; 10,000 bales from Spain and Portugal ; British Colonies, 8,000 bales ; other places, 5,000; total, 98,000 bales. In 1864 there were imported from Australia, 302,000 bales; Cape of Good Hope, 68,000 bales ; South America, 91,000 bales; and 219,336 bales from other sources ; in all, 688,336 bales. Australia now sup- plies more than three times the whole amount of foreign wool consumed in England thirty years ago, and the production of South America ex- ceeds the whole consumption then." The Future of the Wool Interest of the North-west. — With such a sheep and wool-growing country as we have here, " endless, gateless and bound- less ;" with such a great increasing home and foreign demand ; with such examples of rapid increase in sheep and wool productions, who shall doubt that in twenty years we shall rival Australia and South America in not only the quantity but the quality of their wools, and that the wool -buyers from all the great manufacturing centres of the world will visit our plains in search of the " fibre " susceptible of such wonderful and varied uses, and that with our wool production there will spring up manufactories here and there that shall rival Bradford, Hud- dersfield, Halifax and Leeds, in England, and Rheims, El - Beuf and Roubaix, in France, in the mag- nitude and beauty of their fabrics. Along the whole length of the Union Pacific Railway, along the Central Pacific Radway, in the val- leys of the thousands of streams, bordered with timber for buildings and fences, these untold millions of acres of luxuriant grazing lands, where sheep can be put down from New Mexico, Iowa, Illinois, Mis- souri and other States for $2 per head, shepherds can be hired for $30 to $40 per month, who can readily herd 3,000 head. Thousands of tons of hay can be cut on all the streams. Rates of freight to Eastern Markets. — Wool has been carried by rail from San Francisco to Boston for $1.10 per 100 lbs. Double-decked sheep- cars, carrying 200 sheep, can be had from the base of the mountain to Chicago markets for $150, thereby putting down fat wethers in market for 75 cents per head. Dressed- mutton carcases are delivered from the Rocky Mountains, in New York, for $1.75 per hundred car-load rates. The following interesting article in relation to sheep-raising in Wyo- ming, is by Edwin A. Curley, Esq., and appeared in the London " Field," in March, 1874 :— "On December 15th, 1873, I visited the sheep ranche of Messrs. Clark, Willard, and Co., about 18 miles from Laramie City, and some five or six from the base of the mountains which form the rim of the great basin called Laramie Plain. The pastoral abiding-place of Clark and Co. is a very substantial, com- 74 WYOMING TERRITORY. fortable structure of its class. A log stable at a little distance, 36 ft. by 60 ft., is about as warm as a good brick building, and will afford suffi- cient room for tbe horses when the number of sbeep is doubled. There is shed accommodation for about 4,000 sheep, all thoroughly closed in and cosy. Two outlying huts and about 4 miles of pole fencing, in- closing the hay ground, complete the essentials of the establishment. The wood and timber was brought from the adjacent mountains, where every one cuts at will. " These people started in Novem- ber, 1871, with three men and one team, afterwards four men, cutting timber and poles in the mountains. They expended nearly all of their time till August, 1872, on the im- provements, and in putting up about 150 tons of hay. This haying busi- ness is done by driving over the prairie with a mowing machine, and again with a rake, then hauling the hay together into a huge heap, called by courtesy a hay-stack. A few poles are tied together and thrown over it, and the work is complete. It never rains enough to do any con= siderable damage; and, if not wanted, the hay will keep good in the rick for several years. I chewed the cud of reflection, using for the purpose six varieties of grass which I found standing in the meadows. Five of these I found to be really good nu- tritious hay, and the other, which was very coarse, had about the same virtue that one finds in wheat straw. Evidently these several kinds of dried grasses were retaining in the winter, .notwithstanding their expo- sure to all the elements, very much the same amount of nutriment that they contained when they ceased growing. " Clark and Co's estimate : Improvement, plant, &c, about $4,350 Three hundred tons of hay (quantity cured in two seasons), 1872 and 1873 . 650 May, 1872, bought 140 me- rino sheep, of which eighteen were full-grown rams and three were ram lambs ; average net cost $15 each ; for the lot . . 2,100 August, 1872, bought 2,000 native ewes at $3 . . . 6,000 $13,100 Returns'— Shearing of 1873, 9,200 lbs. wool net ; 29c. per lb $2,668 , , Value of 25 pure blood merino ram lambs at $25 each ....... 1,125 „ 1,515 lambs at an average of $3 each . . . 4,545 ,338 " The winter of 1872 was mild, and no hay was used, nor has any been WYOMING TERRITORY. used as yet for this winter. But in case of a winter like that of 1871-2 it would he almost invaluable. An ex- traordinary storm came in April, when both sheep and stock were least able to endure it. The snow was too deep or too sleety for them to find their food beneath it, and large numbers of sheep and cattle perished of starvation. Still, no one puts up hay for cattle ; but it is uni- versally admitted to be necessary to have it ready for sheep. The data before me are imperfect, and it is impossible to fix accurately the yearly percentage of profit therefrom; but it is evidently very large, and both capital and labour accounts next year will be less in proportion, while the quality and clip of the wool will both be undoubtedly better, and the quality of the sheep materially improved. Messrs. Clark and Co. say that if they were to commence again with their present experience, they would start in the spring, and would reduce the cost of permanent improvements one-half by planning the sheds and buildings differently, and omitting nearly all of the fencing. ' " Mr. H. B. Rumsey's sheep ac- count : Aug., 1872. Bought 650 ewes at $3 . $1,950 „ 1 ranch with sheds 1,200 „ 40 tons of hay at $6 •. . . . 240 „ Team, waggon, &c. . . . . 200 Bought 2 horses for herding . . . 100 Expenses : Labour for one year $600 Board foreman one $3,690 year .... 100 Horses' feed . . 100 Shearing sheep . 50 Sundries. ... 100 $950 Returns : Sold, 3,600 lbs. wool at 29 cents $1,044 On hand 420 lambs, for which had an offer of $4.50 each, but say $3 1,260 Deduct expenses 2,304 950 Net profit . . $1,354 or a little more than 35 per cent. " The expenses charged in this case are extremely high. No sheep were lost. Estimate for 1873-4: 1,500 sheep, extra sheds, horses, waggons, fencing, hay cut, improvements, labour on ranches, &c. ; total about $8,000 Returns : Wool from 1,500 sheep, 5 lbs. to the fleece (f lb. less than last year), 7,500 lbs. wool at 25 76 WYOMING TERRITORY. cents (it brought 29 last year) ...... 1,875 Increase, 70 per cent., 1,050 lambs at $3 . . 3,150 Merino bucks, $50 per 100 ewes, say 2,000 ewes . . 1,000 Expenses. Labour for one year about . . Contingent ex- penses . . . 500 Net profit $5,025 1,300 $3,725 " Estimated profit, exclusive of improved value of sheep, 46^ per cent. " Mr. M. E. Post, of Cheyenne, has gone into Mexican sheep. Their mutton is said to be excellent, but their wool is very inferior. They are very superior breeders, excellent mothers, and go in very large herds. Mr. Post is crossing them with meri- noes. He says a herd of 3,200 Mexi- cans can be handled together by one man, excepting lambing and shearing time. In lambing time four men are necessary for an average of about three weeks, and in shearing time eight men for about two weeks. His present herd sheared about 3 lbs. wool each, net value 25c. per lb. The lambs merino cross will shear first year 31bs. each, and of better quality, and second year 41bs. to 51bs. 3,200 Mexican sheep at $2 . $6,400 Corrals and hay first year . 1,500 $8,900 Expenses, labour and inci- dentals $1,000 Loss, 2 per cent 128 $1,128 Returns : 9,6001bs. wool at 25c. $2,400 Increase from 2,000 ewes,l,800 lambs at $2.25c 4,050 Deduct expenses Net profits . . Or 60 per cent. $6,450 1,128 $5,322 " Herding is the chief expense in the sheep business. The herdsmen get $30, $40, or even $50 a month, with food and lodging, and they must have ponies found them. The probability is that these wages will soon decrease to something like the average in the Western States, which is from 20 to 30 per cent. less. There is scarcely any female labour intro- duced in the territory, and the men at a ranche take turns at the cooking and other household duties. The actual necessary cost of living in the territory is moderate, and a man with a family and a small capital — say £500 or upwards — would soon be- come wealthy by raising sheep, if his WYOMING TERRITORY. 77 ■wife or one of his children were able to ride on horseback and to take charge of the flock occasionally while he went to the town for supplies, or to the mountains for wood and tim- ber. Of course he would be away from all school facilities for his chil- dren. £500 in hand when he arrives in the Territory would, if judiciously handled, enable him to start with 500 native ewes, perhaps more, with ponies, a waggon, a mowing-machine and rake, and a few household necessaries. He would build the ranch house,- corral and stables himself without any considerable money outlay. He would have to hire help in shearing time, paying 8 cents (4d.) a fleece, unless he were himself an expert with the shears. He would have to retain in hand some £50 for contingent expenses. His wool, sold probably eight to ten months after he buys the sheep, would bring him from £80 to £90, enough to provide contingent expenses for the next year — and the increase, about 350 lambs, worth £200, would be his clear profit. The next year the wool would probably bring him from £60 to £75 over and above his expenses. The increase, about 425 lambs, would be worth £225, making his profit £300. This year he could sell 175 wethers, and add at least 200 native ewes, with a few thoroughbreds and a proper proportion of bucks, to his flock. He would then have about 875 ewes, 225 ewe lambs, and 225 lamb wethers ; or, including the bucks, upwards of 1,350 sheep. The wool would bring him from £150 to £200 over his expenses, and the in- crease, 600 to 650 lambs, would be worth about £375, making his profit £525 to £575 for the year. His establishment would now be worth at least £1,300; and, if his sheep were superior in quality, and his im- provements the result of much well- directed labour, they might very pro- bably bring £2,000. From this time he would have to hire assistance, un- less his boys were old enough to herd ; but his gains would be ex- ceedingly rapid, and he might rea- sonably expect to retire with a very large fortune before the business be- came overcrowded and unprofitable. " One might commence with 400 ewes ; but, as the expenses would be al- most exactly the same, the start would be much slower. £1,000 would of course start one in much better shape with 1,000 ewes, than £500 with 500 ewes. If hay and proper shelter are provided, the risks of the business are very limited indeed. In fact, these dry elevated regions are the natural habitat of the sheep, and then* normal condition here is one of vigorous health." Prices of lands. — Vast tracts of public lands are subject to entry in Wyoming. Vast quantities along the Union Pacific Railway are offered for sale by that Company. Excellent lands may be had at prices varying 78 WYOMING TERRITORY. from the Government minimum of $1*25 per acre to $8 for choice rail- way lands. Wages of labour. — Farm hands and herders, $20 to $50 per month and board. Mechanics $3 to $4 per day, without board. 79 COLORADO. Area, 67,723,520 acres. Population in 1870, 39,864. Fare from New York to Denver, 1st class, $79*90; emigrant, $47 '10; lnggage beyond 100 lbs. $11-40. iOLORADO.— Lying south of Wyoming is the Terri- tory of Colorado, which has heen called the Swit- zerland of America ; it being an ele- vated and mountainous country, with valleys 5,000 and 6,000 ft. above the sea level, surrounded by mountains rising 6,000 and 8,000 feet higher. It is a country rich in gold, silver, copper, iron and coal, besides pos- sessing broad belts of prairie well adapted for grazing and agriculture, and parks of magnificent timber grow- ing upon the richest soil. Colorado extends 260 miles north and south, and 375 miles east and west over the grand region of country called, from its central position and superior elevation, "the backbone of the continent." It is bounded on the north by Nebraska and Wyoming, on the west by Utah, on the south by New Mexico and Indian Territory, and on the east by Kansas and Ne- braska. The first important settlements within the boundaries of this Terri- tory were made in 1859, following the discovery of gold on Cherry Creek at the point where Denver City now stands. Its area is more than 104,500 square miles, or nearly thir- teen times that of Massachusetts, covering three natural subdivisions of the face of the country, severally called the plains,*the parks and the mountains. The plains compose the section of the Territory extending from the eastern boundary westward to the foot-hills of the Sierra Madre, being a high rolling plateau from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. above sea level, gradually rising towards the moun- tains and richly watered by their streams ; the strips along the rivers are capable of producing the finest harvests of grain, fruit and vege- tables ; the whole already constitutes one of the most luxuriant pastures of the continent, and is susceptible of the most successful cultivation with the aid of irrigation, for which its many streams afford excellent facili- ties. The section of the plains lying near the South Platte, in the north-eastern part of the Territory, is an iron region abounding in red hematite ore. Mag- netic and hematite ores are also found in sections of the mountain country, as in the vicinity of the Golden Gate in Jefferson County. 80 COLORADO. Approaching the eastern foot-hills of the Sierra Madre are extensive out- croppings of coal, the beds varying in thickness from 30 to 50 ft. ; this de- posit being stated by geologists to underlie a large portion of the plains, sometimes extending to the eastern boundary of the Territory, forming, with the coal beds of Wyoming, a vast coal field of 5,000 square miles. The variety of the coal is that known as lignite, being well adapted to the pur- poses of household economy, as well as for manufactures and railroads. The mines are already extensively worked in Boulder, Jefferson, Arapa- hoe and Douglas Counties, and better facilities for local transportation are alone required to render this one of the leading industries of Colorado, supplying a want now greatly felt in other sections of this and the adjoin- ing Territories, as well as the western parts of Kansas and Nebraska, where timber is scarce, and coal either not existing or of inferior quality. The plains of Colorado embrace three-sevenths of the Territory, or about 30,000,000 acres, of which at least one-sixth can be readily culti- vated, while the residue is adapted to grazing. The climate resembles that of the Eastern States on the same parallels of latitude, except that the air is much drier and more rarefied and the atmospheric changes are more moderate and gradual. The average yearly precipitation of water is found to be 30 in., but it falls principally in the rainy season of May, June and July, and in the snows of winter, rendering irrigation generally neces- sary during the latter part of the summer in order to secure the best crops, especially in sections of the plains removed from the mountains and forests; approaching these the fall of rain is greater and more equally distributed throughout the year. The facilities for irrigating these lands are excellent, acequias being in most instances readily constructed with the plough and scraper, and with incon- siderable expense. Acequias 30 miles long, with a fall of 4 ft. per mile, watering 20,000 acres, have been constructed ; each adjoining pro- prietor contributing toward their con- struction and repair, the expense to each being a mere trifle compared with the benefits derived. Many of these acequias are the property of single individuals or companies, who rent water privileges to neighbouring settlers, reaping therefrom handsome profits above the expense of construc- tion and repair. The soil of the plains rests upon calcareous rock and is principally of alluvial formation, having been washed from the vast granite moun- tains rising above their western limits, and contains elements of great fertility. Near the streams a large proportion of decomposed vegetable matter enters into its composition, united with ashes and sand ; on the plateaus there is less vegetable de- COLORADO. 81 posit, the soil being principally com- posed of sandy loam and friable clay. This section of country is exceed- ingly well adapted to agriculture ; cereals, vegetables and fruits being cultivated with a success that is as- tonishing in view of the altitude of the surface of the earth and the scarcity of rain at certain seasons of the year. The average yield of wheat per acre for last season was estimated at 30 bushels, but as many as 80 bushels per acre were taken from fields in favoured locations. The quality of the wheat grown in Colorado is excellent, and more like that of the Pacific than the Atlantic slope. The average yield of oats was 50 bushels, and of barley 40 bushels, to the acre ; the yield of each of these cereals being sometimes as high as 100 bushels to the acre. The yield of wheat in Colorado exceeds 1,000,000 bushels, and that of oats and barley is stated to be more than half a million bushels each. The vegetables of Colorado are superior; and, under the influence of careful irrigation, attain a size and possess a delicacy peculiarly their own. In the agricultural fairs of last season cabbages were exhibited weighing 60 lbs. each, and so large that the head, denuded of extraneous leaves, could not be placed in a flour barrel ; potatoes weighing from 5 to 6 lbs. each, and a bushel of them containing but 50 potatoes ; beets 2 ft. long, weighing 15 lbs. each ; water- melons weighing nearly 50 lbs. each ; parsnips weighing 31 lbs. ; sweet potatoes weighing 14 lbs. ; squashes with a circumference of 66 in., 28 in. in length ; and turnips 32 in. in cir- cumference, 10 in. long, six of them making a bushel, the average weight of each being over 9 lbs. The average yield of potatoes and vegetables is 100 bushels per acre. The present most important resource of the plains of Coloi-ado is stock- raising ,* and, indeed, so successful is this industry that the conclusion has been reached that, notwithstanding the wealth in mines and the rich returns of agriculture, the pastures of the Territory possess the greater source of wealth ; this conviction being founded upon actual results already obtained, springing from the health - fulness of the climate, the dryness and purity of the atmosphere, and the rich nutritious grasses upon which the cattle will subsist in excellent condition during the entire year, as the grass, when ripe, dries upon the stalk, forming hay superior to that prepared by the most careful curing in the Eastern States. It is said that there is no weather of sufficient severity to render shelter necessary for the protection of cattle on the Colorado Plains. These pastures are now estimated to support 1,000,000 head of cattle and 2,000,000 sheep. In the southern part of the territory, * For articles on stock and sheep raising (equally applicable to Colorado)see chapters on Nebraska and Wyoming in this volume. G 82 COLORADO. along the valleys of the Rio Grande and Arkansas, both agriculture and herding have been carried on with success by settlers of Mexican descent for a great number of years, although far removed from facilities for trans- portation, possessing the rudest im- plements and no knowledge of the improvements instituted by the hand of science. The agriculture and stock-raising of the northern portion of the plains, extending from Denver to the Wyoming boundary, has grown to be more than half that of the entire territory, although having received its inception but six years since ; the proximity of the Pacific railroad affords ready transportation to excel- lent markets for the products of this region. The parks of Colorado are a distinc- tive and remarkable feature of the mountain country, being apparently the basins of former lakes upheaved and deprived of then* waters by vol- canic agency, with then- original shape and situation at the foot of high mountains undisturbed ; while their lowest depths are from 6,000 to 9,000 ft. above the level of the sea. Many of these parks are small in size, being little valleys at the sources of single streams, or the beds of small lakes into which several streams from the surrounding mountains are emptied ; yet there are four of these elevated valleys, the smallest of which extends 20 by 50 miles, and the largest, 100 by 200 miles, equal to the size of some of the most important of the New England States. These are called the North Park, Middle Park, South Park, and San Luis Park. The North Park reaches to the northern boundary of the territory, and within 40 miles of the Pacific Railroad, it being the basin in which converge the small streams forming the head-waters of the North Platte River. Its surface is alternately meadow and forest, supporting an abundance of game, such as deer, antelopes and bears ; its streams are well supplied with dainty fish ; but, on account of its great elevation, added to its northern latitude, it has not the same advantages for agricul- ture possessed by the other large parks, which have less altitude besides a more southerly location. Middle Park lies next below North Park, being separated therefrom by a range of mountains extending from south-east to north-west, which con- stitutes a section of the dividing ridge of the continent separating the rivers of the Atlantic from those of the Pacific slope. The waters of this park flow into the Colorado of the West, emptying into the Gulf of California. Middle Park is 50 miles wide by 70 long, and embraces within its basin several ranges of hills, be- sides two or three distinct and ex- tensive valleys ; it is surrounded by the great mountain peaks of the territory, including Pike's Peak, Gray's Peak, Long's Peak and Mount COLORADO. 83 Lincoln, vising to an elevation of from 13,000 to 14,500 ft., snow-capped mountains ending its "whole area. It is milder in climate and possesses a vegetation superior to that of the North Park, but inferior to that of the South Park. South Park is 30 miles wide and 60 long, lying on the eastern side of the divide, and furnishing the head- waters of the Arkansas and South Platte Rivers. This is the most beautiful and the best known of all the parks, discoveries of rich mines having opened roads and scattered settlements throughout its limits. The soil is fertile and the scenery magnificent, offering, aside from the rich deposits of precious ores, induce- ments to settlers unsurpassed upon the continent. Water and forests are both plentiful, and the climate is delightful. The San Luis Park is in the south- ern portion of the territory, between the Rio Grande del Norte and the head-waters of the Arkansas River, surrounding a beautiful lake of the same name, which is 60 miles in length, receiving the waters of nine- teen streams, with no apparent outlet. This is the largest of the parks, having an area of 18,000 square miles, and containing, besides those streams emptying into the San Luis Lake, sis- teen others which empty into the Rio Grande del Norte. This park is re- markable for its natural scenery, the grandeur of its forests, the fertility of the soil, the purity of its waters, and the vast deposits of peat in the vicinity of San Luis Lake. It con- tains a population of 25,000, princi- pally of Mexican descent, who are chiefly occupied in herding and agri- culture. Cattle subsist the year round upon the indigenous grasses of these elevated pastures, without other food, and with no shelter except that afforded by the forests and undergrowth. The grass, whether green or cured into hay upon the stalk by the dry winds of the later summer months, appears to possess qualities similar to that of the plains, although growing at a much greater altitude. In fact, it is surprising how little the vegetation seems to be affected in this region by elevation above the sea level, the luxuriant pastures and majestic forests of South and Middle Parks being from 7,000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea. Cereals and tender vegetables thrive abundantly at 7,000 ft., while potatoes, cabbages and turnips, are cultivated at an elevation of 8,000. Flowers and nutritious grasses grow at 11,000 ft., and evergreen trees attain considerable size at 11,500 ft. above sea level. The gold and silver mines of Colo- rado, so far as developments have reached, are located principally in the park and mountain country, com- mencing in Summit and Boulder Counties, between the one hundred and fifth and one hundred and sixth meridians, near the fortieth parallel, 84 COLORADO. extending- thence in a south-westerly- direction through the territory. The region embracing the mines pos- sesses a width of from 30 to 60 miles. These mines are of gold, silver and copper, the gold ore rarely being without an intermixture of more or less silver, or the silver ore without tracings of gold, and frequently all three metals are combined in the same ore, this being the case in several of the most profitable mines in the Territory. The mining interests, having be- come settled upon a permanent and substantial basis, are constantly ad- vancing in importance and extent ; the annual product of gold and silver being now nearly equal to that pro- duced in the midst of the wildest ex- citement concerning the gold region of Pike's Peak, when the Territory was literally overrun with eager seekers after immediate wealth. The price of improved lands in Colorado is put down in the official reports as follows : Fremont county, $10 ; one-half improved and fenced ; log buildings. Gilpin : improved farms, fenced, and having good log or frame buildings, with about one- fourth under cultivation, are worth from $5 to $10. Jefferson : $5 to $25 ; price generally depends upon facilities for irrigation ; usually several farms are fenced together; there are few division fences ; houses generally small. El Paso : improved lands are worth from $4 to $6 ; only a small portion fenced ; building's tolerably good. Las Animas and Huerfano : about $5 ; a small portion under cultivation ; buildings of adobe and logs. Weld : $20 to $25 ; amount under cultivation, from one-third to two-thirds ; same proportion fenced ; buildings generally of logs. Arapa- hoe : from $5 to $50 ; a small pro- portion under cultivation ; buildings generally frame. Unimproved lands. — Fremont : $1 25c. to $5 ; all cleared, but not fenced. Gilpin : land can be obtained to a limited extent at Government price ($1 25c. per acre), most of the land being rocky and mountainous, and the tillable portion confined to the valleys. Jefferson : $4 to $15 ; all prairie land, without timber or fences. El Paso : unimproved lands are worth from $1 25c to $2 50c. ; all prairie ; none fenced. Las Animas and Huerfano: from$l 25c. to $10. Weld : from $2 50c. to $10 ; prairie land, all cleared ; none fenced. Ara- pahoe : plenty of Government land for sale at $1 25c. and $2 50c. ; also about 2,000,000 acres of railroad land at from $1 to $10, on easy terms as to time ; very little under fence. Average prices of farm stock. — Work- ing oxen, pair, $117 ; working horses, each, $156 ; working mules, each, $175 : milch cows, each, $50; sheep, $3 25c. Wages of labour. — Mechanics, $4 to $6 per day. Farm hands, $35 to per month, with board. 85 DAKOTA. Area, 223,601,920 acres. Population in 1870, 14,181. Fare from New York to Yankton, 1st class, $45*35 ; emigrant, $27'65 ; luggage over 100 lbs., §6-60 per 100 lbs. AKOTA Territory occupies the most elevated section of country between the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico ; forming, to a great extent, the water-shed of the two great basins of North America — the Mis- souri and Mississippi Rivers, and the tributaries of Hudson Bay. Thus within the limits of Dakota are found the sources of rivers running dia- metrically opposite ; those flowing northward reach a region of eternal ice, while those flowing southward pass from the haunts of the grizzly bear and the region of wild rice through the cotton-fields and the sugar plantations of the Southerner, until their waters are mingled with the blue waves of the Gulf. The general surface of the country east and north of the Missouri is a beautiful, rich, undulating prairie, free from marshy swamp, or slough ; traversed by many streams and dotted over with innumerable lakes of various sizes, whose wooded margins and rocky shores and gravelly bot- toms afford the settler the purest of water, and give to the scenery of the Territory much of its interest and fascination. West of the Missouri the country is more rolling, and gradually becomes broken, hilly and finally mountainous, as the western limits are reached and terminated by the Rocky Mountains. Soil. — The prevailing soil of Dakota is a dark, calcareous, sandy loam, containing a various intermix - ture of clay, abounding in mineral salts, and an organic ingredient de- rived from the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter, for long ages of growth and decay. The earthy materials are minutely pulverized, and the soil is everywhere light, mellow and spongy ; while its sandy predominance makes the soil very early. The upland soil of East Dakota cannot be surpassed for fertility and the variety and luxuri- ance of its vegetation. Crops. — No State or Territory surpasses Dakota in the yield of their crops per acre, and the inhabitants are of the opinion the average yield of wheat per acre is 25 bushels ; oats, 45; corn, between 50 and 60; potatoes, 225. All vines and garden vegeta- bles yield bountifully. For raising wheat, Dakota is not equalled by any State or Territory in the Union. The dry, pure atmos- 86 DAKOTA, phere is what is required for the per- fection of this grain ; the best wheat grown in the world is the wheat grown On the Red River, within the limits of Dakota. The inhabitants claim 60 bushels as an average yield per acre, and the wheat weighs from 65 to 70 pounds per bushel. Climate. — The great dread of deep snow and cold winters in so high a northern latitude is altogether imagi- nary. The average depth of snow for the last ten years has not exceeded 16 inches, which usually remains upon the ground from about the 15th of November to the 1st of March, and while the mercury may fall to even 35 degrees elow zero, owing to the absence of high winds the wea- ther does not seem rigorous, nor does it seem as cold as it does in Michig-an or Ohio when the mercury is at, or even from five to ten degrees above, zero. The snow does not drift as in open prairie countries ; and as good sleigh- ing can be relied upon, no trouble is experienced in winter travelling. Cattle and horses run at large in the timber, gather their own living, and but little if any hay is given them during the winter months. Dakota is one of the finest fields in the world for stock-growing. It stands prominent for the production of grass. " The grasses," says Far- rey, "are proverbially in perfection only in northern and cold regions. It is in the north alone that we raise animals from meadows, and are en- abled to keep them fat and in good condition without grain." In none of the prairie districts of North Ame- rica are the native grasses so abun- dant and nutritious as on the plains and in the valleys of Dakota. This is sufficiently proved by the count- less herds of buffalo that pasture throug-hout the year upon its plains, even north of the 49th parallel of lati- tude ; a fact which suggests an equi- valent capacity for the herding of domestic cattle. Horses and cattle roam during summer and winter over the prairies and through the woods., and keep fat without housing or hay. The wild grasses of Dakota are of many varieties. The blue-joint of the valleys makes the best of hay, and generally yields about three tons per acre. The gramma or buffalo grass of the upland prairies is so nutritious that horses will work all the time that they are fed on it, without any grain, and keep fat. All of the wild grasses of Dakota are more nutritious than any of the tame grasses ; cattle become fatter by pasturing on it. When cut it shrinks much less in curing for hay. It seldom heats. There is no dust in the hay. On the whole, it is superior either for pasturage or hay for horses, cattle, or sheep. Owing to the healthiness and the dryness of the climate, sheep must do extremely well in Dakota. We have no cold sleet storms here, that are so fatal to sheep in many conn- DAKOTA. 87 tries. The Indians have always kept thousands of horses in this country, but never feed them on hay in the winter. Dakota possesses within itself all the elements which are necessary to constitute a great, prosperous and powerful State. Its rich alluvial lands will produce the corn, and the broad prairies the nutritious grasses, which are ample to feed and support cattle to supply every market in the Union. The Salt Lakes in the northern part of the Territory can furnish inex- haustible supplies of the best of salt. The high rolling prairies south and west of the Missouri seem especially intended for the herdsmen of sheep and the growth of wool. Prices of lands. — Vast tracts of lands are open for settlement under the pre-emption and homestead laws. Improved farms near Yankton, the capital, sell for $5 to $7 per acre. Unimproved land within 10 miles of the town $1.25 per acre. Prices of farm stock. — Working oxen, per pah, $150; working horses, each, $125; working mules, each, $150; milch cows, each, $30 to $60; sheep, each, $5 ; hogs per pound, 18 cents. Wages. — Farm labourers, $1 to $2 per day, without board. Mechanics, $3 to $5 per day, without board. UTAH. Area, 54,065,075. Population in 1870, 110,000. Fare from New York to Salt Lake City, 1st class, $119-50; emigrant, $63'45. ! TAH. — East of Nevada is the Territory of Utah, bounded on the north by- Idaho and Wyoming, on the east by Colorado, and on the south by Arizona ; embracing an area of 84,476 square miles, or 54,065,075 acres ; equal in extent to the whole of N ew England. It was organized under Act of Congress ap- proved September 9, 1850, being part of the territory acquired from Mexico under the treaty of Guadalupe Hi- dalgo. Utah is divided by the Wahsatch Range of mountains, extending across its limits from north-east to south- west, into two unequal parts, belong- ing to different watersheds or sys- tems. The smaller section, lying west of the mountains, constitutes part of the great elevated inland basin in which Nevada lies ; the portion east of the mountains being drained by the Colorado of the West, The altitude of its surface is similar on both sides of the dividing range, the valleys and lakes lying from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. above the sea level, and the mountains rising to an eleva- tion of from 6,000 to 13,000 ft., the tops of the highest peaks being above the line of perpetual snow. In com- mon with the water system of Ne- vada, the section west of the Wah- satch Mountains contains no outlet to the ocean for its numerous streams, or its lakes of salt and fresh water, many of the latter being of great size; the largest, Great Salt Lake, situated in the north-western part of the Territory, extending 100 miles from north-west to south-east, with a width of 50 miles, its waters con- stituting the strongest natural solu- tion of mineral substances in the world, containing 25 per cent, of common salt, which forms so dense a brine that no fish can exist therein, while living bodies float upon its surface like corks. Several rivers, rising principally in the Wahsatch Mountains, empty into this lake, among which are the Jordan, the Bear and Weber Rivers. The two principal divisions of the surface of the Territory, lying re- spectively on the eastern and western slopes of the Wahsatch Mountains, are severally intersected by the Uin- tah Mountains of the eastern section, and the Thomas, Guyot and Iron Ranges of the western part, besides UTAH. 89 numerous minor ranges and spurs of great height, giving continual di- versity to the scenery, and consti- tuting the sources of streams of ex- cellent water, from which the inter- vening valleys derive their remark- able beauty and fertility. The eastern slope is more mountainous than the portion lying within the great basin, and contains more numerous streams ; but the high canons intersecting the mountain ridges as channels for the water-courses prevent the availability of the water for irrigation, although not interfering with the business of stock-raising on the surrounding hills and elevated plains, as the herds of cattle and sheep find no difficulty in descending rocky defiles leading to the streams at short intervals through- out the extent of most of the canons. The delicious grasses with which these hills and plains are covered render this region admirably adapted to grazing, and particularly to sheep- culture ; the latter industry being pursued in this section to an extent hardly credible in view of the low estimate generally placed upon these dry elevated lands as to then- ability to support animal life ; the increase is rapid, the mutton unexcelled in delicacy and fatness, and the fleece of superior weight and texture. In the basin of Green River is a region of country nearly as large as the State of Massachusetts, which has been pronounced to be extremely well adapted to wool culture, and it now supports numerous large flocks of sheep of the best breeds in the coun- try. As this section becomes more thickly settled it is presumed that means will be devised whereby the water now running in the depths of precipitous canons may be brought to the surface of the high fertile plains for the purposes of irrigation and domestic economy with but slight expense; the hydraulic power of the streams themselves, or the force of prevailing aerial currents, being pro- bably sufficient for this purpose. The indigenous grasses of Utah are alike on both sides of the divide, the prevailing species being the buf- falo grass, upon which the herds sub- sist in the valleys during the entire winter without other food ; and the sand-grass, bearing a rich oleaginous seed possessing nutritive and fattening qualities equal to either oats or corn. The pastures of the highlands and mountains are preferred by both sheep and cattle in the summer season. The most important industries Oa Utah are agriculture and horticulture, accompanied with irrigation, the faci- lities for which have been carried for- ward to a condition of great perfection under the pursuance of a policy of strenuous and systematic energy and perseverance inaugurated by the ear- liest settlers at Salt Lake City in 1847, with no relaxation, as wealth and plenty have followed their labours, the result exceeding the anticipations of the most sanguine in the certainty 90 UTAH. and abundance of the crops. The building of reservoirs and canals has been prosecuted until a perfect net- work of earthworks required in the irrigating process extends over the settled portions of the beautiful val- leys, supplying the only requisite naturally wanting for exceeding fer- tility ; the soil being principally formed of disintegrated feldspar rock mixed with detritus of the limestone enter- ing so largely into the composition of the surrounding mountains, decom- posed vegetable matter, and friable clay. The crop of cereals produced in this manner is considerably over 1,000,000 bushels per annum, sup- plying the requirements of the local population as well as that of adjacent mining regions, 50 and 60 bushels of wheat to the acre being a frequent crop, and 93^ bushels having been gathered from an acre in the vicinity of Salt Lake City. Barley, oats, rye, buckwheat, flax and hemp succeed equally as well as wheat, and are ex- tensively grown ; but the nights are generally too cold for large crops of corn, except in the south-western part, near Rio Virgen, where corn and sorghum thrive; and cotton is found to produce such excellent crops as to induce considerable immigration to that section specially to engage in its culture. Potatoes, hops, garden vegetables, melons of all kinds, straw- berries, raspberries, currants, goose- berries, apples, pears, plums, cher- ries, peaches, apricots, and all other fruits of the temperate zone, are pro- duced in this Territory in abundance ; large quantities of fruits and berries being dried, canned and preserved for exportation to the mining regions of Idaho, Montana and Nevada. The future prospects of agriculture and horticulture in Utah are excel- lent ; the belt of tillable soil adjoining each water-course being constantly widened by a constant augmentation of the supply of water for the nourish- ment of vegetation. The whole area surveyed in Utah up to the close of the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1870, is equal to3,211,508 acres, including the greater part of the arable lands in the valleys of the streams of the Great Basin ; also, con- siderable areas in the north-eastern and south-western sections, including those localities containing the largest number of settlers and most desirable agricultural tracts. Since the opening of the district land office there have been taken up by actual settlers an aggregate area of 208,072-93 acres, of which 59,670-02 acres were disposed of since the close of the last fiscal year ; and there are 48,749,957-45 acres yet to be dis- posed of, embracing extensive tracts of fine agricultural lands, scattered in almost every section of Utah, with hundreds of thousands of acres of ex- cellent grazing tracts in the valleys and on the mountain slopes on both sides of the Wahsatch Range, where horses, sheep and cattle can be main- UTAH. 91 tained at small cost, and where they will thrive as well as in almost any- other section of the United States. Mining Interests. — The mines of coal, iron and silver, constitute the basis of the wealth of Utah. The great impetus given to all classes of business two years ago was the result of the discovery of vast and extensive deposits of silver-bearing ores ; and no credit is due to the mines of coal and iron for the remarkable advancement Utah has made during that time. These interests must, how- ever, prove of great benefit in the future. The most valuable coal-fields yet discovered are situated in San Pete county. The coal is bituminous, dense and compact, and possesses first-class cokeing qualities. The seam now being worked averages 3 ft. 6 in. in thickness, and is developed by a level 900 ft. long, running parallel with the strike of the vein. More extensive deposits, but said to be of inferior quality, are found in Castle Valley, and on the western slope of the Wahsatch range, in Iron county, where one vein has been opened at intervals a distance of 15 miles southerly from the head of Cedar Creek Canon. It is estimated that there is con- sumed 125 tons of coal and 50 tons of coke per diem, while the demand is steadily on the increase. Bodies of iron ore are found in the vicinity of the iron springs in Iron County. They occur in the form of ledges, standing nearly vertical, vary- ing from 5 to 20 ft. in width ; and, by reason of the more rapid disintegra- tion of the granite walls on either side, stand at some points from 10 to 30 ft. above the formation. These outcrops are from 300 to 1,500 ft. in length, and then* extremes are about 10 miles apart. The mountain slopes are covered for hundreds of feet with fragments of this ore, varying in weight from a few pounds to many tons. The ore is chiefly magnetic, and is said to yield 65 per cent, of metal. All necessary fluxes are near for the proper treat- ment of the ore. As the average annual consumption of iron for railroads alone since 1868 is 5,670 tons, it is fair to presume that the manufacture of iron here will prove in time an immense source of revenue. The mineral belt of silver-bearing ores traverses the Territory in a north- easterly and south-westerly direction, and is probably 50 miles in width by 250 miles in length. It is estimated that the yield of the silver mines last year (1872) was $3,055,440. The Surveyor-General in his Report for 1873 says of the prospects of Utah :— " The growth of the Territory is healthy and vigorous. No particular effort is being made to force it into prominence, yet the mineral wealth is commanding the attention of capital ; 92 UTAH. a healthy and invigorating climate is attracting invalids from abroad, while Europe adds annually from 2,000 to 3,000 farmers and artisans to the population. " The population numbers some 110,000, and although four-fifths of the people are the proselytes of an obnoxious theocratic system, yet they constitute in the main the bone and sinew of the land. i ' But the Mormonism of the present is not the Mormonism of the past, and will not be the Mormonism of the future. The tendency is toward liberalism — a higher regard for the rights of others — a tendency resulting from circumstances over which the people have no control. "The exaction of one-tenth of all the earnings of the members of the Mormon Church for its support is bearing its fruits in the general luke- warmness and frequent apostasy of its members. This tithing is not paid promptly and faithfully as in the past, and to-day the revenue derived from that source is said not to exceed one- half of the revenue of former years. " Other religious denominations have gained a foot-hold here, and are building churches and establishing schools in various localities. " A large percentage of city property and nine-tenths of all valuable mining property are owned by so-called Gen- tiles ; while five of the six railroads were built with their means, and three of those roads are under their absolute control. u It will be seen from all this that agencies are combining which will exert an influence that priestly des- potism cannot withstand." A large proportion of the Territory of Utah is open for settlement under the pre-emption and homestead laws. Lands within 5 miles of Salt Lake City may be had yet at from $3 to $20 per acre. Prices of farm stock. — Working oxen, pair, $150 ; working horses, each $115 ; milch cows, $40 ; sheep, $3-25. Wages of labour. — Miners, $3 to $4, without board ; mechanics, $3 to $5 ; labourers, $35 to $40 per month with board. 93 MONTANA. Area, 92,016,640 acres. Population in 1870, 20,594. f HIS Territory has a surface of 92,016,640 acres, of which area one-half may be considered agricultural and grazing' lands and the residue timber, mineral, mountain ranges and lands which may be reclaimed by irrigation. There have been surveyed up to June 30, 1870, 1,585,545 acres. Montana extends from the forty- fifth to the forty-ninth parallel of lat- itude — the northern international boundary — and from the twenty- seventh to the thirty -ninth meridian of longitude, constituting a larger extent of territorial area than that of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio combined. In the production of gold this Territory is second only to Cali- fornia, and embraces within its limits the range of the Rocky Mountains and the sources of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers — two of the largest on the continent — that empty into the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The Rocky Mountain Ranges, traversing the Territory from its southern to its northern boundary, with a width of over 200 nriles, con- stitute the most striking geographical feature of Montana. The Territory is divided by these ranges into two principal basins, and the spurs subdivide the basins into numerous valleys, which have an elevation of from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. above the level of the sea. The basins are formed by the Bitter Root, which is the highest and most west- erly, and the Rocky, Wind River, Big Horn and Bell Ranges, all of which have a trend north-west and south-east, and contain mines of gold and silver. The Missouri River, on the eastern slope, is navigable to Fort Benton, 300 miles. This is the principal dep6t of supplies for the whole Terri- tory. The Yellowstone River is navigable, but has not been suffici- ently explored to determine its capa- bilities for commerce. The Crow and Sioux Indians have extensive reser- vations in the valley of the Yellow- stone, and the country is wild and for the most part unexplored ; and being set apart for the hunting- grounds of those nations the white settler is excluded. The portion of Montana on the western slope forms a basin 250 miles long and 75 wide, drained by the rivers forming Clark's Fork. A large extent of this western slope is one of 94 MONTANA. the most admirable stock countries on the continent. The valleys and foot- hills furnish a large surface of natural meadows, whose products of different varieties of grasses are equal in quan- tity and quality to those of the culti- vated meadows of the Middle States. The results already obtained from herding* and the cultivation of the soil in these valleys give abundant assurance of the success of this branch of industry in the Territory. Timber of large growth is abundant on the western mountain slopes and in some of the valleys. Five species of pine, two of fir, one of spruce, and two of cedar are found on the mountains ; and in the valleys and canons, balsam, poplars, alders and willows. None of the hard-woods, such as oak, hickory, beech and maple, have been discovered in the Territory. On the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains is another basin, 150 miles long and 100 wide, watered by the Wisdom, Beaver Head, Stinking Water, Jefferson, Madison, the two Gallatins and the Prickly Pear Rivers. In this basin and the corres- ponding one on the western side of the rocky range is contained nearly all the present population and agri- cultural and mineral wealth of the Territory. In the eastern basin lie the valleys of the Three Forks and Gallatin. They are about 40 miles long, with a width of 12 miles, and may be considered the garden of Montana. The climate is much milder than the latitude and elevation would seem to indicate, and the soil is un- surpassed for productiveness. A large extent of country in this region is under cultivation. Wheat is re- ported to yield 50 bushels to the acre ; oats, 75 to 100 ; and potatoes, from 300 to 400 bushels to the acre, while garden vegetables have a mammoth growth. The soil is a dark, vegetable mould of great richness and fertility, very tractable, and experience has demonstrated its wonderful product- iveness. Nature has provided for the irrigation of districts where re- quired in the conformation of the country. The plateaus are nearly level, and the mountain streams, which are frequent and never failing, are readily turned from their courses and made to wind along the base of the hills upon the outer limits of the table-lands, and thence distributed over nearly all the arable surface re- quiring irrigation. There are immense tracts of this description which may be made available whenever the increase of population may require their cultiva- tion. Professor Swallow says of Mon- tana : — "I have spent the last four months in as complete and careful an examination of the minins: and asrri- cultural capacities of the Territory as the time would permit. The results already obtained in cultivating the soils of our valleys are such that there can be no reasonable doubt of the MONTANA. 95 entire success of agricultural pursuits in the Territory. It certainly is one of the finest stock countries on the con- tinent. All the more important do- mestic animals and fowls do remark- ably well ; horses, mules and neat cattle are more hardy, and keep in better condition on the native grasses than they do in the States on hay and grain. As a general rule, they winter well on the grass of the valleys and foot-hills without hay or grain. The valleys furnish a large area of natural meadows, whose products are equal to those of the cultivated meadows of the Middle States. Beef fattened on the native pastures is equal to the best produced in the country. " The small grains, wheat, rye, barley and oats, produce as large an average yield as in the most favoured grain-producing States ; 50 and 60 bushels to the acre are not uncommon yields for Montana. Of the native fruits we have strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, service-berries, choke- cherries, haws, currants and goose- berries ; and there is every reason to believe that apples, pears, cherries, plums, quinces, blackberries, rasp- berries, strawberries, currants and gooseberries can be cultivated in our broad valleys as successfully as in any of the mother States. " All the more important root crops, such as potatoes, rutabagas, beets, carrots, turnips, radishes and onions, and all the more important garden vegetables are cultivated with great success. " Timber is abundant on the moun- tain slopes and in some of the valleys. Five varieties of pine, two of fir, one of spruce, two of cedar, grow on the mountains and in the mountain val- leys and canons ; balsam, poplars, aspens, alders and willows on the streams. The pines, firs, spruce, and cedars furnish an abundance of good timber for building, mining and farming purposes. " The purest waters abound every- where, in cool springs, mountain streams, meadow brooks and clear, rapid rivers. Hot and mineral springs also occur. Beautiful lakes and mag- nificent waterfalls and cascades are numerous in the mountains. " Veins of gold, silver, copper, lead and iron are found in great numbers in nearly all the mountainous por- tions of the Territory. So far as dis- covered, they usually come to the surface on the foot-hills and sides of the valleys and canons. " Her mines are more numerous and more diffused than any other equal area on the globe, and they will prove as rich and yield as large profits as the most productive in this or any other country." Small improved farms are valued ac- cording to the improvements upon them ; well improved, they are valued at from $3 to $5 per acre ; generally log buildings. Deer Lodge : from $10 to $30. Gallatin : $1 to $10 per acre. Unimproved farms in Lewis and Clarke County, $1.25 per acre ; all 96 MONTANA. bottom land is free from timber ; the hills are covered with pine, spruce and fir ; the borders of the streams produce cottonwood and aspen. Deer Lodge : unimproved land has no value, the entire valleys being one great pasture and requiring no fences. Gallatin: $1.60 per acre, Govern- ment price ; none fenced. Prices of farm stock. — Working oxen, pair $141 ; working horses, each, $160 ; working mules, each, $190 ; milch cows, $60 ; sheep, $9 ; hogs, per pound, 10 cents. Wages. — Labour ranges from $2 to $5 per day in gold. Good farm hands can be had at $60 per month and board. Miners get from $50 to $175 per month, and board. There is more labour needed for the mines than for any other purpose. 97 IDAHO. Area, 210,160,000 acres. Population in 1870, 14,998. DAHO.— East of Oregon and Washington Territory is the Territory of Idaho, extending from the inter- national boundary between the United States and British America south- ward through 7° of latitude, or 410 miles, to Nevada and Utah, with a width of 1° of longitude or 40 miles, on its northern boundary, gradually expanding in the southern extension of the Territory to 7°, or 257 miles ; its eastern boundary being the diago- nal range of the Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains, extending from north-east to south-west, separating it from Montana and Wyoming. The surface of this Territory con- tains an area of 86,294 square miles, or 55,228,160 acres, and was origi- nally included in the Territory of Oregon as organized by act of August 14, 1848. It is estimated that the Territory contains 16,925,000 acres suitable, in their natural state, for agriculture, and that the grazing surface is equal to 5,000,000 acres. The timber re- gion embraces 7,500,000 acres ; the mineral tracts 8,000,000 acres, and nearly 14,500,000 acres of other lands may be reclaimed by irrigation and made available for agriculture and grazing purposes. The portions of the Territory avail- able for different industries, it is be- lieved, when fully developed, will be found equal in productive capacity to either Michigan, Iowa or Illinois. The lakes of Idaho cover over half a million acres, while the heavily tim- bered mountain region includes nearly a third of the surface of the Territory. The mineral deposits are found in the mountain regions, with the ex- ception of some placer deposits, and are distributed in different parts of the Territory. Idaho extends through 7° of latitude, or 410 miles. During the winter thousands of cattle subsist on the vegetation with- out artificial shelter. In the south- western part of Idaho a small area falls within the region drained by Green and Bear Rivers. Some of the finest agricultural land in the Terri- tory exists in the Green and Bear River Valleys, in the region of Fort Hall, on Snake River, and upon the upper tributaries of the latter stream in the south-eastern part of Idaho. Nearly the whole area of the Terri- tory is copiously watered. The highest spurs of the Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains on the eastern border, to- gether with numerous peaks in the h 98 IDAHO. interior, are covered with snow during most of the year, which, melting and descending to the valleys below, sup- plies the streams and maintains nearly the same volume in all the rivers throughout the year. The water of these streams is clear, cold and pure, abounding in choicest varieties of fish, and affords abundant motive power for propelling machinery for the most extensive manufacturing establishments, and at the same time contain an ample supply of water for the purposes of irrigation, generally requisite throughout the Territory. The extreme northern expansion of Idaho embraces Kootenah County, copiously watered and well timbered, having a large area of fertile land. The climate of this high northern latitude is not so favourable for agri- culture. The region on the south, between the Kootenah and Cceur d'Alene Ranges, is well watered and timbered, possessing fine soil, well adapted for the growth of cereals. Shoshone County joins Kootenah County on the north, extending south to the Clearwater, is well watered and heavily timbered and adapted to the purposes of agriculture, with an extensive area of prairies, important as a, grazing region. The most valu- able timber in this section is the cedar, found on the mountain slopes. Idaho presents great inequality of surface, between mountain and val- ley. It is, however, represented as mild for the altitude and latitude, as compared with regions of the same latitude east of the Rocky Mountains. In many of the valleys no artificial shelter is required during the winter, the pasture of the valleys being generally uncovered by snow. The valleys which can be irri- gated will be used for agriculture, while all others and the table lands, which for the most part abound in excellent nutritious grasses, will be appropriated for grazing purposes. Sheep and cattle require little other sustenance throughout the year than the grasses and herbage which in autumn dries upon the stalk into excellent hay. Stock-raising is a growing interest, and will be one of the most important branches of in- dustry ; sheep and wool -growing justly attracting considerable at- tention, many portions of uplands, mountain slopes and valleys being equal to the finest sheep-walks. The climate is salubrious; the air pure, fresh and invigorating. The surface of Idaho attains an altitude of from 2,000 to 5,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and owing to the limited rain-fall, irrigation is rendered necessary for the highest development of vegetation. In some places good crops may be produced during certain seasons without the aid of irrigation. The aridity of Idaho is considerably less than that of Utah and Nevada, while in the northern portion of the Territory the IDAHO. 99 necessity of irrigation is still less than in the southern portion. Mining is here yet in its infancy ; the most serious obstacle being the want of capital. The placer deposits in some localities have been ex- hausted, yet this class of mines in several localities continues to yield satisfactorily, veins of silver; and other ores are here known to exist, some of which have been worked, yet only to a limited extent, during the past year. Prices of improved lands. — Nez Perces County : $10 per acre, per quarter section ; 40 or 50 acres under cultivation; buildings of logs. Ada: $8 ; from one-third to one-half under cultivation and fenced; buildings principally of logs. Unimproved lands. — Nez Perces : plenty of Government land, prairie (good), $1.25 per acre. Ada: $3; nearly all cleared, none fenced. Average price of farm stock. — Working oxen, pan-, $150 ; working horses, each, $150; working mules, each, $150 ; milch cows, $57 ; sheep, $4.50. Labour. — Miners $3 to $4 per day, without board ; labourers, herdsmen, &c, $1 to $1.50, with board. 100 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Area, 112,730,240 acres. Population in 1870, 23,955. 'ASHINGTON Territory, the most distant north- western section of the Union before the acquisi- tion of Alaska, has the British pos- sessions on the north, the Columbia River and Oregon on the south, the Territory of Idaho on the east, with the Pacific Ocean on the west, embrac- ing a total area of 69,994 square miles, or 44,796,160 acres, which may be classified with approximate correct- ness as follows, viz. : — Timbered lands . . 20,000,000 acres. Prairie lands . . . 20,000,000 „ Covered by the waters of Puget's Sound, lakes and bays 1,500,000 acres. Mountains (barren) 3,296,160 „ The surveys during the past fiscal year amounted to 600,879 acres, to which add the number of acres pre- viously surveyed, 4,462,896, and we have for the total amount of sur- veyed lands in the Territory 5,063,775 acres. The continuous chain of mountains known as the Sierra Nevada in Cali- fornia takes the name of Cascade Range through Oregon, Washington Territory and British Columbia. They traverse this Territory, varying but little from a north and south course, at an average distance from the coast of 100 miles, deriving their name from the innumerable beautiful cascades which pour from their cre- vices at various heights. The range, as in Oregon, separates the Territory into two unequal divisions, the eastern and western, differing from each other in climate, soil, geological character and natural productions. The loftiest peaks in this range are Rainier, St. Helens, Baker and Adams, each from 9,000 to 13,000 ft. in height. The region of country lying be- tween the Coast and the Cascade Mountains, which are at a distance from the ocean of two degrees of longitude, is usually termed Western Washington, or Puget Sound country. It embraces about one-third of the Territory, or 23,000 square miles, in- cluding the waters of Puget Sound. It comprises the country drained by the Lower Columbia, the basin of Shoal Water Bay, the valley of the Chehalis, and the Puget Sound Basin. The public surveys have been extended over a large portion of this western section, and the lands are being rapidly taken up by settlers. The greater portion of this region is unsurpassed for fertility of soil and WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 101 manufacturing resources. The crops of wheat, barley and oats succeed admirably, as also do the orchard and garden products, except Indian corn, peaches and grapes, which, owing to the coolness of the nights, sometimes fail to mature. The climate in Western Washing- ton is fine, except that, like a large portion of the north-western Pacific coast, there is too much rain in win- ter to be agreeable. The summers are very pleasant ; the nights being cool and refreshing. Although in a high degree of latitude, there is but little cold weather in winter. Snow or ice is very rarely seen except on the summits of the highest moun- tains, where it has perpetual ex- istence. The absence of severe cold is the result of the tropical currents, prevailing on the shores of Alaska, which sweep the coast from Behring Sea to the Gulf of California. Grasses of the most nutritious qualities are found in all the valleys of this region sufficient to sustain immense numbers of sheep and cattle through the winter season. It is seldom necessary to protect stock by housing and feeding them. Superior building and ship timber, principally fir and cedar, is found in the Puget Sound Basin, which grows thickly on the foot-hills and sides of the mountains from 1 to 15 ft. in diameter, and from 200 to 300 ft. in height, remarkably straight and beautiful. On the Yakama River and its tri- butaries, which water a large portion of the central section of the Territory situated between the Cascade Moun- tains and the Columbia Paver, are large tracts of surveyed rolling prairie and table-lands suitable for diversified agriculture, and where many exten- sive settlements now exist. There are still, however, in this locality many tracts of unoccupied land, un- surpassed for fertility, to which the Government invites settlers desiring to develope the resources of this new country, capable of furnishing thou- sands of families with the blessings of independent and happy homes. Some of the valleys, among which are the Methow, O'Kinapum and Ne-hoi-at-pu-gun, are exceedingly beautiful, with their smooth, grassy surface surrounded by hills and watered by streams, fringed on either side by small trees. The forests embrace the red and yellow pine, often attaining a height of 300 ft. and from 9 ft. to 12 ft. in diameter. This is now the great timber market of the Pacific coast, and the maritime nations of the world will doubtless, at no distant day, procure their masts and spars from this region. Vast quantities of lumber, besides wheat and fish, are annually exported to Australia, China, Japan, the islands of the Pacific, and ports on the western coast of South America. The valleys of the Puyallup and 102 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Stuck rivers, emptying into Puget Sound, afford a large quantity of good agricultural land. The soil in the river bottoms is thinly timbered with maple, ash, balm and willow. These lands yield heavy crops of wheat, barley and oats, while vege- tables attain enormous size. The highlands are generally rolling, and well adapted to cultivation. In the valleys of the Skayit River, rising in the Cascade Range, the Stil- a-squa-mish, Snohomish and Snoqual- mie, also emptying into Puget Sound, are found large tracts of cleared lands possessing soil highly fertile. Through the valleys of Yakama and Nachess a military road passes from Fort Walla- Walla, across the Cascade to Steilacoom. An extensive and rich agricultural region is found in all of these valleys, and is rapidly filling up with enterprising settlers. In the valley of the Skokomish River, which takes its rise in the Coast Range and empties into Hood's Canal some 30 miles north-east of Olympia, the soil is equal to the best bottom land in the Western States. The average yield of potatoes to the acre is 600 bushels, wheat 40, peas 60, timothy hay 5 tons, and of oats 70 bushels. Into Hood's Canal, at different points from 5 to 30 miles below the mouth of the Skokomish, several streams empty, the valleys of which are marked by the same general features as that of Shokomish. The Chehalis River rises in the Cascade Mountains not far north of the Columbia, and is navigable for light draught steamers at a dis- tance of 60 miles from Gray's Harbour, into which it empties. The valley bordering this river is the richest and most extensive body of agricultural land in the western section, and well deserves the term given it, the garden spot of Wash- ington Territory. The valley varies in breadth from 15 to 50 miles. Shoal Water Bay, the most excellent harbour between San Francisco and the Strait of Fuca, is situated in the south-western portion of the Territory, separated from the Columbia River by a narrow strip of land. The annual shipment of oysters taken from this bay amounts to 40,000 baskets. Cod- fish, halibut and sturgeon are also abundant. Cowlitz Valley, bordering on the Columbia, has fine agricultural land, both prairie and bottom. In the central portion of the Territory, situated between the Cascade Mountains and the Colum- bia river, with the exception of the valleys of the Yakama, Methow, Okinapum and Ne-hoi-at-pu-gun, the soil is usually thin, sterile, stony and dry. On the tributaries of the Yakama, particularly toward its upper waters, the land is highly fertile and well adapted to most crops. The same is true of Yakama Valley itself. Surveys have recently been extended over a large portion of this region, and extensive settle- WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 103 ments exist. The Ne-hoi-at-pu-gun has numerous beautiful prairies in its valley ; and the hills surrounding it, partially wooded, are to a great ex- tent arable. Timber of large growth is scarce in this section of the Terri- tory, with the exception of the country along the northern tributaries of the Yakama, where good building pine is abundant. Where proper attention is exercised by the farmer in regard to seed-time in Central Washington, no danger need be apprehended from droughts. The Columbia River, traversing the whole breadth of the Territory from north to south, and then forming a large part of its southern boundary, constitutes a main artery for travel and transportation of grain and pro- duce from the great interior to the ocean, and in the present incomplete condition of roads via the Cascade Range, affords the channel of com- munication between the inhabitants separated by that mountain chain. The great importance of this river must be acknowledged when the statement is made that a land portage of only 450 miles is required to connect the navigable waters of the Missouri and Columbia. East of the Columbia River the greater portion of the country is uncultivated. The Colville Valley, in the north-eastern portion of the Terri- tory, has large quantities of land surveyed, and numerous thriving settlements exist. The Walla-Walla Valley, the south-eastern portion of this region, between the Columbia River and Blue Mountains, contains over 1,000,000 acres of arable land, and has a population of several thousand inhabitants. Large quan- tities of grain and produce, the result of their labours, are shipped down the Columbia River to a ready market. In the Columbia and Palouse Valleys are immense tracts of land suitable for agricultural purposes. Sheep-raising succeeds admirably in this locality. The climate of Eastern Washington in winter corresponds with that of Pennsylvania. The summers are usually dry and hot. The annual fall of rain is only about one fourth as much as in the vicinity of Puget Sound. Coal of excellent quality is found in abundance near Bellingham Bay, Shoakmin River, and streams leading into Lake Whatcomb, west of the Cascade Mountains. Large quan- tities are annually shipped to San Francisco market, where it is princi- pally consumed by ocean steamers. Washington Territory contains innumerable tracts of valuable but uncultivated land, unopened mines, undeveloped fisheries, and possesses almost every possible source of wealth and employment for human industry, to which the Government invites settlers by the liberal offer of homesteads, presenting reasonable assurance of abounding wealth in 104 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. the future. The projected railroads through the interior, and the private enterprise of her inhabitants, wan-ant the belief that the development of the wondrous resources of this remote political division will be most rapid. There are 41,377,123.96 acres of public land undisposed of in the Territory. The average value of wild or un- improved lands in Clallam County is Si "25 per acre, covered with a dense growth of heavy timber. When cleared, the high land is capable of producing good crops of wheat, oats, barley, &c, and the low lands will yield, in addition to the cereals, abundant crops of hardy vegetables. The same average price rules in Pacific ; land said to be of little value except for timber. Clarke County averages $1*25 per acre and Walla Walla $2, the former mostly uneven and heavily timbered with fir ; soil about second quality ; no vacant prairie land. In the latter county the land is prairie, good for wheat and splendid for grazing. There is a vast quantity of Government land remain- ing for sale or subject to entry under the homestead laws or soldiers' war- rants in this Territory. In the counties named no mineral resources of consequence, except coal, have been developed as yet. Coal is said to exist in large quantities in some localities. Timber is abundant. In speaking of resources of the soil, our Wahkiacum reporter says: — " The valley land is almost inex- haustible. I have examined it down 10 ft. and found it about as rich as it is at the surface. In the valley the principal timber is soft maple, alder, with scattering spruce, very thick underbrush. It costs from $25 to $50 per acre to clear it." Beef and wheat are the staple pro- ductions of Walla Walla County, its extended prairies furnishing a rich grazing region. Our Clarke reporter writes as follows : — " Wheat, hay and apples are our chief crops. Wheat is cultivated by nearly all the farmers ; average yield about 25 bushels per acre. Average price $1 in coin; cost 80 cents per bushel. Hay, mostly herds-grass, averages 2 tons to the acre ; about 3,500 acres cultivated ; 7,000 tons of hay, worth $8 per ton. In clover, 300 acres, two crops a year ; 2 tons per acre, worth $12 per ton. Apples by far the most profitable ; winter varieties worth 60 to 70 cents per bushel." Potatoes are the staple crop in Wahkiacum, the yield being about 300 bushels, of 60 lbs., to the acre under the best cultivation. There is an abundance of game, partridges, grouse and pheasants, deer, bears and panthers. Good improved lands near the towns will command $10 to $15 per acre, but millions of acres of good lands are open to settlement everywhere. Little except bottom land is cultivated, as the uplands are WASHINGTON TERRITORY. J 05 so heavily timbered that it is expen- sive to clear them. Lumbering is a leading interest in the Territory, and very profitable with capital. This is a most inviting county for Eastern lumbermen. Com- mon hands get $40 per month, with board ; head sawyers, $100, and always wanted. Board averages about $5, coin, per week. Prices of farm stock average — Working oxen, per pair, $120 ; work- ing horses, each, $106 ; working mules, each, $131 ; milch cows, $48 ; sheep, $3 ; hogs, 4 to 6 cents per pound. Wages. — A farming hand, by the year, will receive from $20 to $40 per month, and board ; while a la- bourer, through harvest, will get $2 and $3 per day. Mill operatives and loggers, from $40 to $60 per month, and board ; carpenters and mechanics, from $3 to $5 per day ; domestic help, $20 to $35 per month. The best flour sells at $7, coin, per ban-el (200 lbs.). Raising hogs and sheep pays well ; but the best busi- ness on the coast, better than any gold mine, is, or would be, the curing of salmon for the New York market. The quantity that may be had is illimitable ; the Indians will catch all that can be used ; they can be packed for $4 per barrel (say salmon $2, salt $1, barrel $1), freighted to New York City at $8 per ban-el, and sold for $35 to $40. 106 NEW MEXICO. Area, 77,568,640 acres. Population in 1870, 92,604. iEW Mexico.— This Terri- tory, formerly constituting a portion of the Republic of Mexico, and ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, lies immediately south of Colorado, and is bounded on the east by the State of Texas, on the south by Texas and Mexico, and on the west by the Territory of Arizona. Within these limits is embraced an area of 121,201 square miles, or 77,568,640 acres. A large portion of this tract of country consists of high table-lands traversed by ranges of mountains. The general direction of the mountain ranges is north and south. Between these ranges are many broad and fertile valleys ; the principal one, the valley of the Rio Grande, extends from the northern to the southern limits of the Territory. The Sierra Madre Mountains form the western limit of this valley, and the Jumanes, Del Cabello, with other ranges of the Rocky Mountains, bound it on the east. Considerably more than half of the territory lies east of the Sierra Madre. In the eastern half, and diverging from the main chain of the Rocky Mountains, are the Guadalupe, Sacramento and Organ Mountains, and the Sierras Blanca, Hueca and other divisions, forming the western boundary of the Pecos Valley. North-west from Santa Fe, in the Sierra Madre range, is Mount Taylor, rising to a height of 10,000 ft. above the valley of the Rio Grande, the latter being between 5,000 and 6,000 feet above the level of the sea in the northern part, 4,800 at Albu- querque, in latitude 35°, and 3,000 ft. at El Paso, Chihuahua, near the southern boundary of the Territory. The mountain chains bordering the valleys of the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers, south of the latitude of Santa Fe, have a general altitude of 6,000 or 8,000 ft., while near the northern limits of the Territory they attain a height of 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above the level of the sea, then summits being covered with perpetual snows, and presenting to the tourist and the artist scenes of indescribable beauty and grandeur. The country west of the Rio Grande consists principally of lofty table-lands or mesas, inter- spersed with peaks of volcanic origin, and separated from each other by broad valleys, through many of which wind streams of considerable magni- tude, their margins fringed with cottonwood and other timber, afford- NEW MEXICO. 107 ing excellent opportunities for the culture of the soil and raising live stock. The Rio Grande del Norte, the largest river of the Territory, takes its rise in the mountains of Colorado, and after crossing the Territory in a longitu- dinal direction, forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico, and flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The Rio Pecos drains the south-eastern part of New Mexico, and the Canadian, a branch of the Arkansas, the north- eastern part. West of the Sierra Madre the country is drained by the Gila, Rio Puerco and the San Juan, affluents of the Colorado of the West. None of these rivers are important for navigation, being seldom deep enough for any craft but canoes and flat boats. There exists great variation in the climate of New Mexico ; in the northern part, among the mountains, the win- ters are long and severe, but not so subject to sudden changes of tem- perature as in more humid climates. The general range of the thermometer throughout the year is from 10° to 75° above zero, Fahrenheit. In the south- ern part of the Territory, near El Paso, the temperature is mild, rarely falling below the freezing point. The low latitude of the Territory is ba- lanced by its great elevation above the sea. The sky is usually clear and the atmosphere remarkably dry, the whole Territory being considered one of the healthiest localities in the Union. The salubrity of the climate is one of the most interesting features in the character of New Mexico. Maladies so common in the valley of the Mis- sissippi are almost unknown here, and persons are seldom afflicted with pul- monary difficulties. From Santa Fe north a sultry day is of rare occur- rence, and the nights are uniformly cool. In the southern part of the Territory the rainy season is in July and August. The table lands, hill- sides and valleys are abundantly supplied with a variety of nutritive grasses, which, being cured by the operation of the climate, afford ex- cellent pasturage throughout the year. The most valuable and widely distri- buted of these is the gama grass, or " mezquite ; " its peculiar value con- sisting in its adaptation to all the requirements of an arid climate. It grows during the rainy season and ripens a large quantity of seed as the dry season approaches ; while the leaf and stem retain most of then* nutri- tive qualities in drying, forming su- perior feed for grazing animals during the entire season. The herdsmen and shepherds of New Mexico being thus furnished with natural pasturage through the winter months, have a great advantage over the farmer and stock-raiser of the northern and eastern States, who are obliged to expend a great portion of their time and labour in the preparation of food to sustain their animals during the winter months. The wide range afforded by the extensive pastures of New 108 NEW MEXICO. Mexico seems to have a very bene- ficial effect on the health of sheep and cattle, as the diseases common to many localities are here almost un- known. The horses are remarkable for their powers of endurance, and the beef and mutton are celebrated for their excellence. Beef, mutton and venison are cured without the use of salt, the meat being simply hung up in the open air, where it is soon per- fectly dried, and no other preparation is necessary. Although a portion of the Terri- tory is unsuited for cultivation, the valleys of the rivers, and even the table lands, where irrigation is prac- ticable, are exceedingly productive. In the valleys Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats yield abundant crops, while apples, peaches, melons, apri- cots and grapes are grown in great perfection. The grape is especially productive, and the quality of the wine produced is excellent. In the southern portion of the Territory many of the semi-tropical fruits can be raised without difficulty. Owing to the necessity of irrigation, agricul- ture is principally confined to the valleys of the constantly flowing water-courses. In some localities the crops are occasionally cut short by the failure of the streams in a long- continued drought. Where water is abundant the crops are sure and re- munerative ; and the husbandman, regulating the supply of moisture himself, need never have his crops destroyed by freshets, and much less permit them to suffer from drought. The usual method of irrigation is to construct a main ditch — acequia madre — of sufficient . capacity for an entire town or settlement, which is made and kept in repair by the public for the common benefit. This ditch is conveyed over the most ele- vated part of the valley, which is usually next to the hills. From this each farmer runs a ditch in a similar manner over the highest part of his field. Where there is a superabun- dance, the farmer can water his crops at pleasure ; but when the supply is limited each farmer has his day, or portion of a day, allotted to him for irrigation, and at no other time can he avail himself of the main ditch. After the water is let into the minor ditch it is dammed first at one point and then at another, thus overflowing one section at a time, and by reducing eminences and filling depressions is made to flow evenly over the surface. By this operation an irrigator will water about 5 acres per day on per- fectly level ground, though not more than half as much can be accom- plished on an uneven surface. Forests of pine, cedar, spruce and other kindred trees cover the moun- tain ranges. On the foot-hills are found extensive tracts of piiion and cedar, while a variety of deciduous trees fringe the margins of the streams, cottonwood and sycamore being the most abundant, and in southern New NEW MEXICO. 109 Mexico groves of oaks and walnut are met with. Veins of the precious metals and rich deposits of copper, iron and coal are found in many parts of the Territory, and new discoveries are constantly being made. The mining interests of the country are being rapidly de- veloped, and the yield of gold and silver during the past year presents a very favourable contrast with former years. The large advance in the price obtained for this year's (1873) crop of wool is likely to stimulate this leading branch of agricultural wealth in New Mexico. The grape crop of the Rio Grande Valley is this year unusually abun- dant. Yearly new vineyards are coming into bearing, counting their vines by the thousands, while the production of wine is annually be- coming more and more an article of commerce and profit. Between Bernalillo, on the north, and El Paso, on the south, the tra- veller may find — and that often in great perfection — both the light white and red wines of the Rhine and Bor- deaux, and, as he goes south, the heavier Burgundy, port, sherry, and, with age, even a good Madeira. With a grape acclimated by two hundred years of cultivation, unexcelled for richness and lusciousness of flavour, always free from blight and disease of every kind, so destructive to Euro- pean vineyards, so fatal to wine- growing on the Atlantic slope, and often so damaging even to California, with a soil as rich as that of the Nile, with abundance of water for irriga- tion, with sunny days and dewless nights, increasing in strength as the summer heats increase, the wines of the Rio Grande promise to become as varied and as excellent as those of France and Spain. The Commissioner of Agriculture says : — " Our returns from the Territory of New Mexico embrace the Counties of Mora and Valencia. Mora County reports 25 per cent, advance in the price of farm land since 1860. In Valencia there appears to be no settled price. If a person wants to purchase, he is asked an exorbitant price, and whoever wants to sell must sell for almost nothing. " The wild lands in Mora are of no value except where timber is plenty ; they are chiefly mountain and prairie, good for hay and pasture only. " In Valencia, lands held by pri- vate parties fluctuate in accordance with the necessities of the holder or the wants of the purchaser. There are large tracts of land, however, subject to entry under the homestead laws, or purchase at Government prices." In the vicinity of Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, land is very good, and can be had at low prices. The climate is healthful, and the sea- sons mild and delightful. Labour commands from $1 to $5 per day, according to skill. iio TEXAS. Area, 175,000,000 acres. Population in 1870, 1,055,165. Fare from New York to Houston, 1st class, $68-25 ; emigrant, $36 ; luggage over 100 lbs. $9 per 100 lbs. EXAS is bounded on the north by New Mexico and the Indian Territory, east by Arkansas and Louisiana, south by the Gulf of Mexico, and west by Mexico and New Mexico. It is the largest State in the Union, having a territory nearly six times as great as Pennsylvania. The general aspect of the country is that of a vast inclined plain gradually sloping from the mountains on the west, eastward to the sea, and intersected by numer- ous rivers, all having a south-easterly direction. The State may be divided into three separate regions differing in many respects from each other. The first, or level region, extends along the coast with a breadth inland varying from 70 to 100 miles. The soil of this region is chiefly a rich pasture land. The second division, the largest of the three, is the undulat- ing or rolling prairie region, which ex- tends 150 to 200 miles inland, in wide grassy tracts, alternating with others that are thickly timbered. Limestone and sandstone form the common sub- strata of this region ; the upper soil consists of a rich friable loam, mixed with sand, but seldom to such an ex- tent as to prevent the cultivation of the most exhausting products. The third, or mountainous region, is situ- ated chiefly in the south-west. The surface of Texas is covered in most parts with luxuriant native grass, comprising, with the common prairie grass, the gama, musquite, wild clover, and wild rye, affording excel- lent pasturage. The REARING OF LIVE-STOCK* has been long the principal and favourite occupation of the Texan settlers ; and many of the prairies are covered with a valuable breed of cattle, which scarcely require, and certainly do not receive, much more care and attention than the prairie deer. It is usually estimated that 100 cows and calves, purchased for $1,000, will in ten years have increased thirty-six fold, thus numbering 3,600, worth $36,000. In the north the soil is especially adapted to the growth of wheat, the average yield of which is 21 bushels per acre. The wheat region embraces thirty counties, of which Dallas is the centre. Corn, oats, rye, barley, buck- wheat, sorghum, potatoes, and many other crops are grown in profusion. * See also articles on stock and sheep raising, in chapters on Nebraska and Wyo- ming in this volume. TEXAS. Ill Apples of good quality are abundant, as are peaches and the smaller fruits. Tobacco and rice are destined to be- come profitable crops. " In point of climate," says Olm- sted, " Texas claims to be called the Italy of America. The general aver- age of temperature corresponds, and the skies are equally clear and glow- ing. The peculiarities over other climates of the same latitude are found in its unwavering summer sea-breeze and its winter northers. The first is a delightful alleviation of its summer heats, flowing in each day from the Gulf, as the sun's rays become op- pressive, and extending inland to the farthest settlements, with the same steadiness. It continues through the evening, and is described as having so great effect that, however oppres- sive the day may have been, the nights are always cool enough to de- mand a blanket and yield invigorat- ing rest." The severe northers occur from De- cember to April, and usually occupy not much over forty days. The rapid reduction of the temperature from 70° or 75° to 30° or 40°, and the driving wind, are keenly felt. When most cold and violent, and accompanied with rain and sleet, they sometimes cause considerable destruction among domestic animals exposed to their fury. These instances, however, are rare, and the shelter of a grove or hill, or even a good farm wall, is suf- ficient to prevent such consequences. They are regarded as healthful and invigorating ; and, notwithstanding the sudden change of temperature accompanying them, it is claimed that consumption does not originate in the region where they prevail. Health. — As in all new, warm, and highly fertile countries, the low, rich river bottoms — especially those of southern Texas, which are covered with a boundless profusion of semi- tropical vegetation — are not healthy to unacclimated persons. The higher lands between those rivers are usually considered healthy, where judicious dispositions are made by the emi- grant ; but the northern emigrant runs some risk of undergoing a " sea- soning " course of chills and fever. The hilly regions of the west are as free from malaria as any other new countries we ever heard of — far more so, we judge, than were large por- tions of Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan when first settled. Products. — Besides wheat and other grains above referred to, and the enormous cattle-raising industry of the State, sheep can be grown pro- fitably on the moderately elevated, dry lands of all parts of the State. But the sheep region proper — that where the pasturage is best adapted to them, both in summer and winter, where they can in respect to health be most safely herded in great flocks, and where, accordingly, the land be- ing equally cheap, wool can be most cheaply grown for exportation — lies 112 TEXAS in western Texas. It is bounded on the east and west by the Guadalupe and the Nueces, and, so far as now known, on the north by the Colorado, say from Bastrop upward. South of San Antonio this region is generally level, descending with a moderate slope to the coast. It con- tains some excellent sheep pasturages as low down as the second tier of counties from the Gulf. But the hilly country, commencing 5 or 6 miles north of San Antonio, is re- garded, par excellence, as the sheep region. The following are the average prices of products : — Wheat, $1 ; corn, 75 cents ; oats, 66 cents ; barley, 50 cents ; rye, 50 cents ; sweet potatoes, $1 ; pork, 6 cents per lb. ; butter, from 5 to 12J cents, per lb. ; beef, 2| and 3 cents per lb. ; bacon, 12^ cents per pound ; good average horses, $100 ; oxen, per yoke, $40 ; cows and calves, $12-50. Price of Wild Lands. — Wild or unimproved lands range in price from 12^ cents to $10 per acre, and embrace a very large proportion of the total area of the State. These lands, when owned by the State, may be had for the price of the certificate issued from the land-office at Austin. Where lands are held by individuals under Spanish or Mexican grants, they may be bought in large tracts as low as 12^ cents per acre, while small tracts held under patents from the State are held at from 50 cents to $1 per acre. As a matter of course, much of this class of lands is equal to any under cultivation, and capable of producing as good crops as can be raised in the State. Being- found in almost if not all the counties in proportions greater than the im- proved lands, these tracts possess the peculiarities of soil and resources common to their respective locations. In Hopkins County, in the northern part of the State, the average price is about $3 per acre, the southern and eastern portion being timbered, the northern and western prairie. Ellis, Navarro, and Dallas : $1 to $5 ; soil black, waxy, capable of producing large crops of corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, cotton, tobacco, &c. Ander- son : value nominal, not exceeding 50 cents per acre, and capable of pro- ducing 1,000 lbs. cotton to the acre, 40 bushels corn, 20 bushels wheat, 30 bushels oats. Hardin and Chero- kee : $1 to $2 ; either timber or prai- rie, much of it very fertile. Houston : $1 ; will produce 25 bushels corn or 900 pounds seed-cotton to the acre. Trinity : generally held at $2 to $4, some large tracts to be had at 50 cents ; lands good for cotton, corn, potatoes, tobacco, sugar, rice, &c. Falls: $3 per acre, suited to corn and cotton. McLennan : in tracts of 160 acres, $2 ; and $1*50 for larger tracts, one-third timber, two-thirds prairie, rich in quality. Bell County : $3 ; rich bot- toms with or without timber, black loam with or without sand. William- son County : $1 to $5 per acre, claimed TEXAS. US to be equal to the best in Illinois, the soil on the prairies ranging from 3 to 15 ft. in depth, underlaid with a spe- cies of potter's clay, 90 per cent, good tillable land. Washington : $5 for light sandy soil, fitted for fruit cul- ture, and $10 for good black land suitable for cotton. De Witt and Goliad : 50 cents to $5, embracing all varieties, from timber bottom and rich valley prairie to light sandy post-oak and sandy upland prairie. Cameron has much back land that may be pur- chased at 12J cents per acre, but ge- nerally in large tracts, 5 leagues (4,428 acres), or else in undivided rights in tracts of that size or larger ; and even though the right be not over an acre, the owner has the run of the whole tract, in some instances over 100 leagues. Wages. — Mechanics, $3 to $4 per day ; farm labourers, herdsmen, &c, $20 to $30 per month, with board. Prices of Provisions. — The following prices in various counties of Texas, from the " Texas Almanac," will interest our readers. Brazoria County : The usual price of corn is 50 cents to $1 per bushel ; potatoes, 25 to 50 cents. A good beef, weighing 500 or 600 lbs., is worth about $10 ; pork is worth 3 to 4 cents per lb. ; butter, 15 to 25 cents ; bacon, 15 to 20 cents ; these articles are sold by but few. Red River County : The customary price of corn is 50 cents to $1 ; wheat, the same ; potatoes, $1 ; pork, 5 cents per lb. ; butter, 10 cents per lb. ; bacon, 12^ cents per lb. ; oxen, $40 to $50 per yoke ; milch cows, $10 per head, with calf; sheep, from $1 to $2 per head. 114 WISCONSIN. Area, 34,511,360 acres. Population in 1870, 1,055,165. Fare from New York to Mihvaukie, 1st class, $25. >HIS State, between latitudes 42° 31' and 47° north, and longitude 87° 20' and 92° 30' west of Greenwich, contains 53,924 square miles, or 34,511,360 acres. It was originally embraced in the territory ceded to the United States by Virginia, and has successively formed parts of the Territories of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan be- fore those commonwealths were ad- mitted as States. It became a member of the Union on the 3rd of March, 1847, being the thirtieth of our political divisions. Its northern boundary is formed by northern Michigan and the waters of Lake Superior ; its eastern by Lake Michigan, separating it from the Michigan southern peninsula; its southern by Illinois and its western by Iowa and Minnesota, from which it is divided by the Mississippi River. The greatest length of the State is 302 miles ; breadth, 258 miles, though on its southern boundary it measures only 146 miles. The surface is uniformly elevated, the land mostly level and of undulat- ing characteristics, the whole expanse of country, with few exceptions, being a vast plain, varied occasionally by low ranges of bluffs, ridges, and cliffs, bordering the rivers and lakes. The State, however, has a southern inclination, the waters finding their way to the Mississippi River. Yet, in the north-western part, in an ex- tent of country 50 by 80 miles, the land inclines to Lake Superior, and the rivers of that region flow north, giving their waters to that lake. The only elevations in the State assuming the proportions of mountains are in this region, and obtain a height of from 1,800 to 2,000 ft. of which the most important is the Iron Range, in Ashland County. On the peninsula jutting out be- tween Green Bay and Lake Michigan is a range of calcareous cliffs, forming, in many places, bold escarpments, some of the higher points of the range being 1,400 ft. above the sea. South of the forty-fifth degree of north latitude the lands are well adapted to a great variety of crops, notwithstanding occasional back ward- ness of the spring, as vegetation ge- nerally comes forward on the ap- WISCONSIN. 115 proach of summer with great rapidity, causing- the crops to ripen in due sea- son. The soil is very fertile, gradu- ally changing, however, from the ve- getable mould of the prairie in the southern and south-eastern portions to a sandy loam north of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers and Green Bay, where the timber begins to increase. In the settled portions of the State agriculture is the chief source of wealth, and must continue to be the principal object of industry with the people, wbo, being in part, immi- grants from foreign countries, espe- cially from the great Germanic con- federation and the Scandinavian Pen- insula, have been educated in the tillage of the soil. The extent of this industry is shown by the fact that five millions of acres of land are now under cultivation, this vast area having been thus redeemed, in comparatively a brief period, from its wild condition. The principal crops are wheat, oats, Indian corn, potatoes, rye, barley, buckwheat, tobacco, hay, and hops. The fruits are raised in as great variety as in the East, while its reputation as a great grain-growing State is well established. The total value of all the crops for the past year amounted to $73,200,000, while the number of live stock is computed at 2,550,000 representing an aggre- gate value of $31,092,000. Personal property is valued at $83,000,000, and the real estate at $254,870,000, mak- ing a grand total of $442,172,000. Wisconsin has a very genial climate, and though its summers are of short duration, the dryness of the atmo- sphere during winter renders it one of the most healthy portions of the United States. The winter tempe- rature is 20°, spring and autumn, 47°, summer, 72° ; the mean annual tem- perature of the southern part being 46°. The isothermal line of 50° runs near the southern extreme of Lake Michigan, while that of 40° is near the north shore of Lake Superior, thus bringing the whole State within the intermediate ten degrees. The waters of Lake Michigan moderate the excessive heat and cold of the eastern shore of Wisconsin by absorb- ing the heat of summer and exhaling the same during winter. In consequence of the snow always falling in the northern part of the State before the ground is frozen, roots and plants are comparatively sheltered from the severe frosts of winter and their growth hastened in the spring. In the southern part some winters pass almost entirely without snow, though generally it lies on the ground to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches during the greater portion of winter. The country is plentifully supplied with rain, the average fall being 30 in., though northward, on the shore of Lake Michigan and on the banks of the Mississippi, the quantity of rain is much less than in the central portion. 116 WISCONSIN. A great source of wealth for the future of Wisconsin is its timber, for while the southern part of the State is an extensive prairie, without native tree or shrub, except on the banks of the streams, yet in the northern and western the forests are of immense dimensions. Over sixty kinds of native trees have been found, the more common of which are the bass- wood, maple, wild cherry, elm, ash, hickory, black walnut, butternut, oak, birch,poplar,hemlock,cedar, and pine. The most extensive and valuable of this timber is the pine, which has be- come an immense source of wealth, and must continue so to be for a cen- tury to come. The multitude of streams draining these extensive forests affords excel- lent facilities for ready flow of rafts on the opening of spring navigation, and carry the timber, at little cost of transportation, to the many hundred mills scattered along their banks. Thousands of men and teams are already employed in the lumber busi- ness, and hundreds of millions of feet of timber are annually carried to a market ; yet so rapidly is this in- dustry increasing that the demand for labour is far in excess of the supply. The principal outlets from these extensive pineries are the Chippewa, Wisconsin, and St. Croix Rivers, and their tributaries, to the south, and the Bois, Brulle, Bad, and Montreal Rivers to the north. The former carry their freight to the Mississippi, while the latter open the way to Lake Superior. The water privileges are extensive ; almost the whole surface is traversed by numerous rivers and streams. The principal rivers have a drainage sur- face of 51,815 square miles, permeat- ing the most fertile portions of the State, affording extensive facilities for navigation and manufacturing pur- poses, the rapids with which many of the streams abound giving ample opportunity for water-power. The Fox River, in its descent from Lake Winnebago to Green Bay, a distance of 38 miles, has a fall of 170 feet, forming one of the most valuable water-powers in the west, which is already greatly improved at Menasha, Appleton, and De Pere. This river, 225 miles in length, navigable almost to its source, has been improved by the construction of locks and dams between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay, and is likewise connected by a canal and lock with the Wisconsin at Portage City, thus effecting an unin- terrupted water communication from Lake Michigan and Green Bay through to the Mississippi, and from thence to the Atlantic. The largest river is the Wisconsin, which, taking its waters from Vieux Desert Lake on the northern boundary, traverses the State in a southern direction, dividing it into two parts, mingling its waters with the Missis- sippi at Prairie Du Chien, after a course of 370 miles, with a descent of WIS CONS IX. 117 two-thirds of a foot per mile. Eleven thousand square miles of country are drained by this river, it passing through some of the richest pine lands of the State. Next in importance to the Fox and Wisconsin are the St. Croix and Chippewa, the former taking its source within 25 miles of Lake Superior, forming a part of the western boundary of the State, and also furnishing an outlet to the Mis- sissippi for the lumber of the region in which it heads. The Chippewa, with its six branches all heading in the midst of timber, drains the country midway between the Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, giving its waters to the Mississippi. The most important mineral pro- duct is lead, which occurs in the south-western part of the State as a carbonate, and as a galena or sul- phuret, the latter largely predominat- ing. Iron ores occur in large quan- tities. Copper is found associated with zinc. Plumbago and gypsum exist in considerable quantities, and agates and carnelians have been found on the lake-shores, and in the trap rocks. Large deposits of peat and shell marl occur in the marshes and former beds of lakes, also clay suit- able for brick and the coarser wares. Limestone occurs in great abundance, and is susceptible of high and beau- tiful polish. Handsome varieties of marble exist in the north-eastern part of the State. The region situated between the prairie on the south and the forests on the north is covered with oak openings, being trees scattered here and there over a lawn-like surface, forming a most pleasing feature in the landscape of that region. The northern part of the State forms a portion of the great lumber region, that trade having assumed immense proportions. Wisconsin is pre-eminently an agricultural and grazing region. The agricultural statistics of the State evince the great fertility of the soil, and the adaptation of soil and climate to the production of great quantities and large yields of wheat, rye, oats, corn, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, hay, flax, clover, and grasses, which constitute the principal field crops, while the products of the orchard and garden are equally satisfactory. There remain undisposed of 8,392,631 acres of public land, which have been surveyed by the govern- ment and put in market, and are now open to disposal for actual settlement or for capital investment, except a few townships still held as Indian reservations, and a few of the even- numbered sections of public lands along the line of the land-grant rail- roads, which are at present oifered only to actual settlement, and at the double minimum price. The price of improved land varies from $25 to $100 per acre. Unim- proved lands vary in price from $1*25 to $5 per acre. 118 WISCONSIN. Average price of farm stock : Work- ing oxen, $120 per pair; horses, $128 each; cows, $45 each; sheep, $1-75. Wages of labour : Farm labourers, $1*25 per day, with board; me- chanics, $2*50 to $5, without board. 119 MICHIGAN. Area, 36,128,640 acres. Population in 1370, 1,187,135. Fare from New York to Detroit, 1st class, $16 '25. S^Jfg ICHIGAN originally form- C &w£ i? ed part of the region ceded % lacIL | to tne United States by the State of Virginia, described as the territory north-west of Ohio. The cession embraced the country now within the limits of Ohio, In- diana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern part of Minnesota, having an aggregate area of 213,000 square miles. Michigan was first erected into a territory by the Act of January 11, 1805, and admitted as a State January 26, 1837. It is sepa- rated on the north and east from the dominion of Canada by Lake Supe- rior, River Ste. Marie, Lake Huron, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and Detroit River, having Ohio and In- diana on the south, and Lake Michi- gan and the State of Wisconsin on the west, embracing an area of 56,511 square miles, or 36,128,640 acres. The State is divided into two penin- sulas, northern and southern, sepa- rated by the Straits of Mackinaw, uniting Lakes Huron and Michigan. The northern peninsula in its greatest length is 316 miles, and from 30 to 1 20 wide, embracing two-fifths of the whole area of the State, or 22,580 square miles. This peninsula pre- sents a striking contrast in soil and surface to the southern, the latter being generally level or undulating, and very fertile, the former rugged, and in certain portions even moun- tainous, the streams abounding in rapids and waterfalls, rendering the scenery very picturesque and beauti- ful. The climate of the northern peninsula is rigorous, and the soil sterile, fully compensated, however, by the extensive deposits of copper and iron. The eastern portion is less rugged than the western, where moun- tains attain an altitude of nearly 2,000 feet. The central portion of this penin- sula is rolling table land, for the most part well timbered with white pine, spruce, hemlock, birch, oak, aspen, maple, ash, and elm, abounding in rich deposits of copper, extending from Lake Superior at Keweenaw Point to the western borders of Mi- chigan. Minerals also exist on Isle Royale (in the north-western part of Lake Superior, 45 miles north of Keweenaw Point), which embraces an area of 230 square miles. These 120 MICHIGAN. localities, together with Ontonagon and Portage Lake, constitute the principal mining regions in Michigan, shipments of copper alone from Port- age Lake, Keweenaw, and Ontona- gon, from 1845 to 1865 inclusive, amounting to 76,107 tons. In 1865 these mines produced 9,971 tons ; in 1866, ahout 7,500; while the yield of 1867 will probably not exceed 5,060 tons. The diminution in the product is not attributable to any failure of the mines, but to the scar- city and consequent high price of labour, which in one instance led to a suspension of operations. The vast deposits of iron ore in this State are almost exclusively in Marquette County, the Jackson, Cleveland, and Lake Superior mines being the prin- cipal ones. Lake Superior, washing the north- ern shores of this peninsula, and the largest expanse of fresh water on the globe, embraces an area of 23,000 square miles, with a coast-line of 1,500 miles. The southern peninsula includes three-fifths of the entire area of Michigan, being 275 miles from north to south, and 175 on the southern boundary from Lake Erie to Lake Michigan, its greatest width being 200 miles between Lakes Huron and Michigan. This peninsula, so interesting in its agricultural and economical aspects, has the greater portion of the population and im- provements. It is generally level, rising gradually from the lakes on the east and west to a vast undulating plain in the interior, covered for the most part with various kinds of oak, black and white walnut, sugar maple, elm, linden, hickory, ash, bass-wood, locust, dogwood, poplar, beech, aspen, chestnut, cedar, tamarack, and paw- paw, while pine is found in great abundance in nearly all parts of the northern half of the peninsula. A small portion of the area is prairie ; a considerable portion, however, is termed " oak openings," which are beautiful and fertile natural lawns, dotted over with scattering trees, and free from undergrowth. The divide between the waters flowing east and west is 300 feet above the level of the lakes, and 1,000 above the level of the sea. The cli- mate is varied, and less rigorous than in the vicinity of the lakes. The great fertility of the soil is every- where attested by a luxuriant flora, and by crops of cereals, fruits, and vegetables. The wheat yield of Mi- chigan in 1872 was 14,740,639 bushels, being an average of 13'8 bushels per acre, valued at $37,588,630. The culture of Indian corn in the southern part of the State is entirely successful. The crop for 1872 was an average yield of 32 bushels to an acre, and valued at $13,217,318. The hay crop was valued at $15,000,000. Rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, and tobacco are also cultivated extensively. Southern Michigan promises to be- come one of the greatest apple-grow- MICHIGAN. 121 ing regions of the Union. Peaches are raised in great quantities, and of superior quality, on the shores of Lake Michigan, while pears, plums, cherries, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, and quinces are grown throughout the State. Along the shore of Lake Michigan, in the val- leys of the St. Joseph, Grand, Kala- mazoo, and Detroit Rivers, including the islands, as well as on the shore of Lake Erie, vine culture has given proof that these localities are well adapted to the grape, and past results from this branch of industry give pro- mise of great increase. The saline regions of Michigan are principally in Saginaw, Bay, and Kent Counties, East Saginaw being the most important. The lumber trade is a most impor- tant interest. In 1873, the timber sawn was equal to 1,400,000,000 feet. The principal markets for lum- ber on the Lake Michigan shore are Chicago and Milwaukee, while from the Saginaw valley extensive ship- ments are made to Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo. The coal region of Michigan is near the centre of the southern peninsula, covering an area of 12,000 square miles. The coal is bituminous, and of good quality; mainly used for manufacturing pur- poses. Gypsum also exists in great abundance, principally near Grand Rapids and Tawas Bay. Wool-growing is a leading agricul- tural interest, the crop in 1873 being estimated at 10,500,000 pounds, while the aggregate value of live stock was $56,077,373. Public lands still undisposed of, 3,000,000 acres. Price of improved lands, $25 to $100 per acre. There is very little unimproved agricultural land subject to entry in the southern peninsula. Wages of labour : Agricultural labourers, $20 to $30 per month; mechanics, $2 to $4 per day. Average price of farm stock: Oxen, $125 per pair; horses, $120 each; milch cows, $40 each ; sheep, $2; hogs, 7 cents per pound. in MISSOURI. Population, 1,719,978. HIS State, situated nearly in the geographical centre of the Union, was first settled by the French at St. Genevieve, on the Mississippi, in the year 1763. Forming a part of the French province of Louisiana, it was acquired by purchase from France in 1803, was organized into a Territory in 1804, and admitted into the Union March 2, 1821. The State has an area of 65,350 square miles, or 41,824,000 acres. Occupying a central position in the Mississippi valley, bounded along its entire eastern frontier by the Mis- sissippi, and traversed from west to east by the Missouri River, which forms also a part of the western boundary of the State, the situation of Missouri is admirable for control- ling the vast commerce of the great interior basin of the continent. That part of the State south of the Mis- souri, comprising three-fifths of its entire area, is an undulating country rising gradually toward the south- west and culminating in the Ozark Mountains. At Cape Girardeau, on the Mississippi, commence the high- lands, which extend northward to the mouth of the Missouri, rising between St. Genevieve and the Maramec River, in solid masses of limestone, more than 350 ft. above the surface of the river. From the Mississippi, these islands extend westwardly across the State, losing their rugged character as they approach the Osage River. This elevated region embraces one-half of that part of the State south of the Missouri, and is in some localities extremely hilly and broken, the hills often rising from 500 to 1,000 ft. above the surrounding country. These hills do not form continuous ranges, but rise in knobs and peaks, and are usually clothed to their summits with a growth of pine and cedar. This region is drained by numerous rivers, along which are found bottom lands of great fertility. West of this hilly region, the country, especially in the valley of the Osage River, is prin- cipally rolling prairies, interspersed with tracts of timber, while to the north, along the Missouri, there is found an extensive alluvial bottom, possessing rich and productive soil, and which is more densely populated than any other portion of the State, except in the vicinity of the conflu- ence of the Mississippi and Missouri. MISSOURI. 123 A large portion of this region is, however, still in its natural state, and covered with a dense growth of the finest timber. It possesses, in addi- tion to its fertile soil and abundant forests, a mild, dry, and genial climate, and with the constantly in- creasing facilities for transportation afforded by the rapid extension of the railway system of the State, a tide of immigration is fast filling up the country, which bids fair soon to become one of the most populous and flourishing localities within our broad domain. The climate is subject to extreme and frequent changes of temperature, but is nevertheless healthy, the atmo- sphere being dry and pure, and is peculiarly favourable to persons afflicted with diseases of the respira- tory organs, as may be seen by com- paring the ratio of deaths from those diseases in Missouri with those of other localities ; the percentage of the entire mortality in Missouri being, according to the United States census, but 10*93, while in the New England States it is above 25, in Michigan 2-1, and in New York, 23-42 per cent. The soil is remarkable for its variety and fertility. In the hilly country, embracing a large portion of the State south of the Missouri, the soil is composed principally of disinte- grated sandstone, syenite and mag- nesian limestone. The soils formed of the last two materials are usually very fertile, although in the mineral region their productiveness is occasionally im- paired by the presence of iron oxides. In the neighbourhood of the head- waters of the Big Black, Current, and White Rivers, the surface is quite rugged, the soil, consisting mainly of semi-vitreous sandstone, is less fertile, although it supports a heavy growth of the finest yellow pine. North of the river the soils are calcareous and arenaceous, the former, which predominates, being exceedingly productive, especially near the margins of the rivers. The rich and extensive bottom lands of many of the rivers, formed of allu- vion, produce abundant crops of all the grains and fruits of the temperate zone. The agricultural capacities of the State, enhanced by the genial cli- mate, the fertile character of the soil, and the facilities for transportation, are attracting increased attention. The great staple is Indian corn, the rich prairies and warm summers being particularly adapted to its growth. The production of hemp in Missouri is exceeded only by that of Kentucky, the alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi, the Missouri, and some of their tributaries, being most favourable for its cultivation. Con- siderable quantities of cotton are raised in the southern part of the State. The fruits of the orchard and vineyard are noted for their size and 124 MISSOURI. delicacy of flavour. In this climate fruit trees bear early, produce abun- dantly, and ripen their fruit in the greatest perfection. In horticulture the vine will doubt- less take the lead, as both scientific examination and experience prove that it can be cultivated with entire success in favourable localities in all parts of the State. Missouri pos- sesses many species of native grapes, and the growth of the vines is so luxuriant that they form a conspicu- ous part of almost every copse and thicket. It has been estimated that the vineyards yield an average of 250 gallons per acre, which, at $1*60 per gallon, would give an annual income of $400, and as the average cost of cultivation is not more than $100, there is left a net profit of $300 per acre. Millions of acres of land in Mis- souri, so situated that they have been considered almost worthless, are, in fact, the most valuable lands in the State for grape culture. A variety of both white and red wines, of most excellent quality, is now made, which meets with great favour among the people, and will doubtless sup- plant, in a great measure, the use of distilled liquor as a beverage, thus promoting the cause of temperance ; it being a well-known fact that in countries where good wines are abundant, and so cheap as to be within the reach of all classes, in- temperance is uncommon. To the stock-raiser Missouri pre- sents the greatest inducements. Owing to the cheapness of lands, their great fertility, the small amount of labour necessary to produce an equal amount of winter feed, the mildness of the climate rendering less winter feed necessary, and the great "range" available in the State, horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and hogs can be raised with much greater profit than in the Northern and Eastern States. The mineral wealth of Missouri is incalculable. There is probably no equal area in the world which sur- passes this State in the variety and richness of its mineral deposits. Coal, iron, lead, copper, zinc, cobalt, nickel, plumbago, emery, kaolin, fire-rock, fire-clays, granite, marble, limestone, mill and grind stones, lithographic stones, vitreous sand, metallic paints, jasper, agate, and chalcedony are among the minerals which abound in various parts of Missouri — most of them in quantities that are literally inexhaustible, and in many of them the mines and quar- ries could supply the markets of the world. The presence of some of these minerals has been determined by an incomplete geological survey or the rude efforts of the unscientific miner, but when a more perfect sur- vey shall have been made, and sys- tematic mining been extensively prosecuted, far richer developments may justly be expected. Copper has been found in more MISSOURI. 125 than twenty counties, the deposits being often very extensive, and the ores sometimes yielding as high as 48 per cent, of pure copper. Lead exists in more than 500 localities, its veins running through thirty-one counties, the richness of the mines being unsurpassed. Coal underlies a large portion of the State, having already been dis- covered in thirty-six of the central and "western counties, embracing an area of nearly 27,000 square miles. In St. Louis County there are 160 square miles of coal lands. The de- posits in the vicinity of Boonville cover an area of 2,000 square miles, with an average thickness of 3 ft., and are believed to contain 60,000,003 tons of coal. It has been estimated that the entire deposits of the State are equal to 130,000,000,000 tons, or, in other words, sufficient to afford a supply of 10,000,000 of tons per annum for a period of 13,000 years. The mines of Missouri pre- sent a favourable contrast to the col- lieries of Europe. The former are shallow, cool, and healthful. The seams are generally of sufficient thickness to permit the miner to work in an erect position, and the galleries are free from poisonous gases. Iron abounds in various portions of Missouri, but in St. Francois, Iron, and Reynolds counties there are mountains of almost solid iron rising hundreds of feet above the surrounding countrv, and contain- ing a supply comparatively inex- haustible. Iron Mountain is 228 feet in height, and the area of its base is 500 acres. It is estimated to contain 230,000,000 tons of ore above the surface and 3,000,000 tons for each foot beneath the surface. At a depth of 180 feet an Artesian auger still penetrates solid ore. Shepherd Mountain is 660 feet high ; the ore is magnetic and specu- lar, containing a large percentage of iron. Pilot Knob is 581 feet in height, its base covering 360 acres, the iron being known to extend 440 feet below the surface. In many localities minerals underlie the richest land, so that the owner may at once possess a fertile farm with a valuable mine, and whether agri- culture or mining be his pursuit, a rich reward awaits his industry. Excellent granites and many varie- ties of compact, fine-grained, durable marble, exist in great abundance. A fine quality of lithographic stone is found in Macon County. Paints of all colours can be made from the minerals with which the State abounds, the supply of ochres, bary- tes, uranium, manganese, cobalt, red chalk, China clay, and terra-sienna exceeding any probable demand for their manufacture. Fire-rock, so necessary for lining the smelting furnaces, is found in the immediate vicinity of the mines, and of a much more durable quality than that for- 126 MISSOURI. merly imported. The best plastic clay, kaolin, and sand suitable for the manufacture of glass exist in enormous quantities. Thus we see that Missouri embraces within her borders all the natural elements of prosperity, her magnifi- cent forests, fertile prairies, navigable rivers, unfailing water-power, and vast mineral wealth needing but the hands of industry and art to enable her to achieve a success beyond all precedent. The railroad system of Missouri is already well advanced, and a great enlargement is contemplated. The Hannibal and St. Joseph, the North Missouri, Missouri Pacific, Atlantic and Pacific, and St. Louis and Iron Mountain Railroads, are the most important lines now in operation. Ample provision has been made by the State for the promotion of educa- tion ; a gift of section No. 16 in every township having been made by the General Government for the benefit of schools in such townships, besides valuable lands granted in support of a university. The public-school law of Missouri is liberal and equitable, and immigrants will find in the State not only rare opportunities for material success, but excellent facilities for the education of their children. The public lands undisposed of in Missouri amount to 734:,632 acres. 127 AKKANSAS. Population, 483,157. 'HIS State, comprising a portion of the country ac- J quired by purchase from France in 1803, was erected into a separate territory March 2, 1819, and was admitted into the U nion June 15, 1836. It lies between the parallels of 33° and 36° 30' north latitude, extends through 5° of longitude, and is bounded on the north by the State of Missouri, on the east by the St. Francis and Mississip- pi Rivers, on the south by Louisiana and Texas, and on the west by the Indian Territory and Texas. The State embraces an area of 52,198 square miles, or 33,406,720 acres, of which there remained undisposed of on the 30th of June, 1870, 10,942,848 acres. In physical configuration the sur- face of the State presents great varia- tions. The country for 30 to 100 miles west from the Mississippi is generally low, containing numerous lakes and swamps, and is, except in some more elevated portions, subject to inundation by the annual overflow of the Mississippi, Arkansas, and St. Francis Rivers. Beyond this level country the surface is moderately hilly, rising gradually towards the west. The western and north-western sections consist of extensive prairies, interspersed with ranges of moun- tains. The Ozark Mountains, com- mencing near Little Rock, extend in a north-westerly direction beyond the limits of the State. They have an elevation of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet. The mountains south of the Arkan- sas River, called the Masserne Range, stretching in a north-east and south- westerly direction, are masses of barren gray sandstone. Arkansas, though an interior State, is abundantly supplied with navi- gable rivers, so distributed as to give free access by steamers to nearly every portion of the Commonwealth. Al- most the entire eastern portion of the State is bounded by the Mississippi, the length of the shore-line on this river being about 400 miles. The Arkansas, one of the largest tribu- taries of the Mississippi, rises in the mountains of Central Colorado, and flowing eastwardly through that terri- tory, Kansas, and the Indian Terri- tory, it crosses the State of Arkansas in a south-easterly direction. The entire length of the river is 2,000 miles ; it is navigable entirely across the State, and in high water far up into the Indian Territory. The St. 128 ARKANSAS. Francis River rises in South-eastern Missouri, and flows through a low country, subject to annual inundation, and interspersed with lakes and cypress swamps, the latter sometimes covered with such a dense growth of vegetation as to he almost impene- trable. This river is navigable to the Missouri line, a distance of 150 miles. White River rises in southern Mis- souri, and, flowing in a general southerly direction, joins the Arkan- sas near its mouth ; it is navigable at all times for a distance of 350 miles, and at high water 100 miles further. Black River, an affluent of White River, rising in south-eastern Mis- souri, is navigable for small boats to the Missouri line. The Washita drains almost the whole of that part of the State lying between the Arkan- sas and Red Rivers, and is navigable for 250 miles. Saline River, a branch of the Washita, is navigable for 100 miles. The Red River, which flows through south-western Arkansas, is navigable throughout its course in the State. The State contains sixty-one coun- ties, and of these forty-three are watered by navigable streams, which, with their branches, make a navi- gable highway within the State of over 3,000 miles, available throughout the year, as in this latitude navigation is never obstructed by ice. Among the most remarkable of the natural wonders of Arkansas are the Hot Springs. These springs, fifty- four in number, are justly celebrated for their curative properties, and are much resorted to by invalids from all parts of the country, who rarely fail to derive great benefit from the use of the waters. The springs vary in tem- perature from 93° to 150° F., and all contain carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline earth agents, which are known to therapeutists to produce valuable alterative effects in chronic diseases. The country in the vicinity of the springs is mountainous and picturesque, the water is pure, the air elastic and invigorating, affording a delightful retreat for both invalids and pleasure-seekers. In Montgomery County, 20 miles from Hot Springs, are the famous Crystal Mountains. Dr. Owen, in his " Geological Recon- naissance of Arkansas," when speak- ing of these mountains, says that there is at present no region known on this continent which presents such exten- sive mines of rock crystal as the gorges and mountainous ridges of this county, almost every fissure in this vast sandstone formation being studded with these brilliants, of all sizes, from the fraction of an inch to 5 and 6 inches in length. The climate of Arkansas is mild and salubrious. Sudden changes of temperature are less frequent than in the eastern States in the same lati- tude, and the fierce " northers," which, further west, sweep down to the Gulf, are unknown in this State. The thermometer does not show as ARKANSAS. 129 high a temperature as in the more northern States, and in the short winter rarely falls as low as zero. Within the limits of this State are found almost every variety of soil and scenery, from the extensive level bottom lands along the Mississippi to the beautifully undulating wood- lands and prairies of the central and western portions of the State, and the rugged mountains of the north-west. The bottom lands are not excelled in fertility by any in the world ; the soil is remarkably deep and rich, and will yield on new land from 80 to 100 bushels of Indian corn to the acre. The soil of valleys between the hills, though not as rich as the bottom lands, produces all kinds of crops. The hills and slopes are well adapted to the growth of fruit, and for grazing purposes cannot be surpassed. The situation of Arkansas is pecu- liarly favourable for the pursuit of agriculture. Exempt alike from the scorching heats of the extreme south, and the bitter cold of the north, her genial climate and fertile soil produce in abundance the grains and fruits of both regions. Cotton has always been the great staple of the State, as well as the most profitable of the pro- ducts of the soil. With the exception of a narrow strip upon the coast of Georgia, there is probably no country in the world that can produce, upon a given area, a greater quantity of the finer qualities of cotton than the bottom lands of this State. Four hundred and fifty pounds per acre is considered a fair crop, which at pre- sent prices is nearly double the value of the wheat or corn crop of the more northern States. The rich, warm soil of the bottomland is also particularly adapted to the growth of Indian com, crops of 80 bushels per acre being not unusual, and with an improved system of culture, this quantity could doubtless be greatly increased. Wheat in favourable seasons produces im- mense crops in the bottoms, though it is not considered as sure a crop as in the hilly portions of the State, where the average yield is about 22 bushels to the acre. Winter wheat is usually grown, and the grain is of superior quality. Oats, rye, barley, peas, and beans produce abundantly in every section of the State. The delicious lima or butter-bean may be grown with as little care as the com- mon white bean, and yields enor- mously. Irish potatoes produce abundantly, and keep well. Sweet potatoes, of the finest quality, are grown in almost every portion of the State, and crops of 400 to 500 bushels to the acre are not uncommon. All varieties of garden vegetables are raised in the greatest perfection, and, owing to the early springs and late autumns, the markets are well sup- plied from April till Christmas. A superior quality of tobacco has long been grown here, and hops and hemp produce bountiful crops. The corn crop of Arkansas for 1868 was over 130 ARKANSAS. .'32,000,000 bushels, wheat 1,000,000 bushels, and tobacco 2,500,000 lbs. Orchard fruits, such as apples, peaches, pears, plums, and apricots, are abundant. The peaches are par- ticularly large and well flavoured. There is no locality in the Union better adapted to the culture of the vine than this State. The Catawba, Diana, White Hamburg, and Dela- ware have been cultivated for years, and have never failed or been troubled with mildew. South of Fort Smith, a large white grape, of delicious flavour, grows wild, and wild grapes of different varieties are found in all parts of the State. For stock-raising Arkansas possesses eminent advantages. Cattle, horses, and mules keep in good condition the year round in the central and southern portions of the State, without any care whatever on the part of their owners. A variety of nutritious grasses, and the small cane, which in many localities is green throughout the year, furnish most excellent pas- turage. Owing to the abundance of mast in the woods during the fall, hogs are raised without cost. Wild game, consisting of bears, deer, turkeys, ducks, prairie chickens, and quail, is abundant, and the rivers, lakes, and bayous are well stocked with fish, among which are pickerel, black bass, buffalo, and catfish, the latter sometimes weighing 150 pounds. Arkansas is extensively supplied with timber of many varieties. Pine of the finest quality is found in the hill country, and occasionally in the bottoms. Dense forests of cypress grow on the bottom lands, and along the lakes and bayous, and single trees are often met with that will yield 6,000 feet of lumber. Many varieties of oak flourish here, the most important of which are the white oak, and a species called "overcup," resembling the white oak, often found 5 ft. in diameter. The "overcup," on account of its great size, is particularly adapted to the manufacture of pipe-staves, which, in the New Orleans market, are worth $150 per thousand, and as large quan- tities of the timber can be obtained convenient to navigable streams, the manufacture is sure to prove highly remunerative to any one engaging in the enterprise. In some localities there is a heavy growth of black wal- nut, which must eventually prove of great commercial value. Extensive tracts of red cedar occur in the northern and western parts of the State. There are numerous other kinds of timber found in the State, each of which will find its legitimate use as the demand arises for particu- lar qualities. Owing to the fact that agriculture has afforded employment for all the capital and labour of the State, and has proved so highly remunerative, the development of the mineral re- sources of Arkansas has hitherto re- ceived but little attention. Over 11,000,000 acres of public land are still subject to entry. 131 AEIZONA. .— - ji^HIS Territory was organ- ized under the provisions of the act of Congress, February 24, 186 >, having been included within the limit of New Mexico prior to the passing of that act. Its boundaries are Nevada and Utah on the north, New Mexico on the east, California and Nevada on the west, and the republic of Mexico on the south ; its territory extending from 109° to 114° 45' west longitude from Greenwich, and from 31° 37' to 37° north latitude, embracing an area of 113,916 square miles, or 72,906,240 acres, being nearly three times as large as the State of New York, and larger than the united areas of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Maryland. The general surface of Arizona possesses considerable elevation above sea level, consisting of wide plateaus, occasionally crossed by ranges of high mountains, and diver- sified by towering isolated peaks, reaching an altitude of thousands of feet above the plains, while both plateaus and mountain ranges are in- tersected with numerous streams of considerable size, sometimes running in deep canons, and at other sections of their course debouching into broad and fertile valleys, where they are generally skirted by a luxuriant growth of oak, fir, ash, and cotton- wood timber, or bordered by magni- ficent meadows stretching back on each side to the foothills of neigh- bouring mountains or the rise of the plateau. Extensive tracts of land, particu- larly adapted to agriculture, with ready means for irrigating the grow- ing crops in the dry months of early summer, are found in all of the val- leys of the rivei's of Arizona, the great demand for products of the soil in this section, in view of the exten- sive mining interests, creating local markets, in which such prices can be readily obtained for grains, fruits, and vegetables as will amply repay the additional expense of irrigation ; while, by the aid of this stimulus to the deep and fertile soil, the vegeta- tion is astonishingly rapid in its growth and the crops almost cer- tainly sure and abundant. Several sections of the valley of the Colorado are especially favourable for the cul- ture of the ordinary cereals and vege- tables, as well as the finer fruits of the temperate, semi-tropic, or tropic zones, as different latitudes are reached, the soil possessing elements 132 ARIZONA. of the greatest fertility, resulting from a favourable combination of organic and inorganic principles, deposited in a great measure by the waters of the river in periods of overflow, such overflow occurring annually to a greater or less depth and extent, as in the case of the Egyptian Nile, fre- quently rising as high as from 20 to 50 feet above the ordinary level of the river, enriching the soil and affording facilities for irrigation, by the aid of reservoirs and canals, unsur- passed in any section of the continent. Wheat and other cereals, all the ordi- nary vegetables of the field and gar- den, rice, sugar, and cotton are some of the products of this valley. Large tracts of land on both sides of the Colorado, now considered entirely in- arable, are susceptible of reclama- tion and transformation into the most productive farms by the construction of the requisite reservoirs and irri- gating canals, it being estimated that at least six millions of acres, pos- sessing the greatest fertility, might in this manner be added to the pro- ductive area of the national domain. The valley of the San Pedro River, in the south-eastern portion of the Territory, embraces some of the best agricultural land south of the Gila, extending in length more than 100 miles, and having great fertility of soil, especially in the sections near the point of junction of the San Pe- dro with the Gila and at the mouth of the Arivypa, while an abundant supply of ash, oak, pine, and cotton- wood timber is found in this valley and on the adjoining mountains, and the finest grazing lands extend over the neighbouring plateaus. The val- ley of the Lonoita, which river empties into the Santa Cruz near Calabazas, is a delightful region, about fifty miles in length and a mile in width, with lofty hills towering above it on either side, the soil being very fertile and particularly adapted to the culture of cereals and vegetables ; the Ame- rican farmers occupying this valley frequently producing two crops of these products in one year from the same land. The valley of the Rio Verde possesses much rich agricul- tural land as well as a luxuriant growth of oak and fir timber. The extensive Aztec ruins abounding in this section show it to have been formerly occupied by a large popula- tion, possessing industrious habits and an advanced civilization. The climate of Arizona is eminently salubrious and delightful throughout the year, excepting, perhaps, in the vicinities of the Lower Colorado and the Gila, in the neighbourhood of its junction with the Colorado, the heat sometimes being excessive in mid- summer in these localities. In the northern and eastern sections of the Territory, however, extreme degrees of heat in the daytime are very rare, while the nights are invariably cool and refreshing, yet frosts are rare, and falls of snow are of infrequent oc- ARIZONA. 133 currence, the snow never remaining on the ground more than a few days. The rain-fall principally occurs in the rainy season of June, July, August, and September, the requisite supplies of water during the rest of the year being mainly drawn from the many streams fed by never-failing springs and the melting of snow and ice in the mountains ; the excellent water system constituted by these streams presenting ready means of irrigating all the lower lands and rendering •them abundantly productive, as well as of obtaining excellent water in sufficient quantities for all require- ments of domestic economy and of the flocks and herds. Many deserted haciendas and piles of magnificent ruins ai m e found in various sections of Arizona, showing this political division to have been the scene of busy civilized life, the home of the prosperous agriculturist and herdsman, of the proprietor of exten- sive vineyards and wine manufac- tories, as well as of the successful miner, before the peaceful Aztec race yielded possession of the soil to the warlike Apache, the principal of these ruins being what are known as the Casa Blanca and Casa Grande, in the vicinity of the Gila and Santa Cruz Rivers. Since the American occupa- tion, however, there has been a large immigration of peaceful and indus- trious Mexican herdsmen and agri- culturists, while the considerable in- flux of hardy American pioneers, miners, farmers, fruit-growers, and herdsmen, as well as the protection afforded by United States troops, has served to repress the savage con- querors of the country and do much toward its recovery to its former pros- perity, the sections most extensively populated hy Americans, as well as Mexicans, heing the central portion, the valleys of the Santa Cruz and its tributaries, the Lower Gila, and the vicinities of the several gold mines. Of the several Indian tribes of this Territory, the Apaches are hostile to the whites, and the Maricopas, Papa- gos, Yumas, and Pimas are friendly, the latter tribe heing a brave and hos- pitable race, living in villages and producing large crops of wheat, corn, pumpkins, melons, and beans, with the aid of irrigation ; large quantities of the produce of their farms and gardens being annually disposed of to the white settlers and the United States commissaries. The mineral wealth of Arizona is undoubtedly as great as that of any political division of our country in proportion to its size, embracing de- posits of gold, silver, platinum, cop- per, lead, iron, tin, nickel, cinnabar, coal, and iron, some of the mines of the more precious metals evidently having been worked with success for hundreds of years with but very in- ferior means for their development, while the richest accumulations of the ore in the older mines are appa- rently yet to be uncovered, and the 134 ARIZONA. probability exists that lodes more profitable than any yet hit upon by Americans or Mexicans are to be found in the regions remaining un- developed, and almost unexplored, on account of the hostility of the Apaches. The most important mine as yet de- veloped in the Territory is the Heint- zelman, or Cerro Colorado, situated 24 miles west of Tubec ; a selected quality of ore from this mine having yielded $1,000 of silver per ton, 60 tons of inferior ore producing $24,000 in silver. The Mo wry mine, formerly called the Patagonia, in the vicinity of the beautiful Lanoita Valley and the Rio de la Santa Cruz, within ten miles of the southern boundary of the Territory, is situated at an elevation of more than 6,000 feet above the sea- level, containing argentiferous galena impregnated with arsenic, easily re- duced by smelting, producing an average of $60 per ton, and some- times as high as $350 to the ton of selected ore. Other productive mines are the Santa Rita, Salero, Cahuabi, San Pedro, and numerous others, some of recent discovery and some well known, but for many years aban- doned, on account of Indian diffi- culties. The present determined policy of the general and local go- vernments toward depredatory In- dians, however, has recently done much to assist the mining interests and aid the re-occupation of long- deserted mines ; so that the prospects of the Territory in this connection are brighter now than ever before since it became a part of our domain, and so soon as the completion of either or all of the projected inter- oceanic lines of railway across its limits shall furnish the requisite transportation for its full develop- ment, its Indian question will pro- bably be no longer troublesome, and this young and remote political divi- sion rapidly advance to the important position in the Union warranted by its many sources of immense wealth. The capital of Arizona is Tucson, situated in the valley of Santa Cruz River, on the road from Fort Yuma to the Rio Grande, in the heart of an excellent agricultural country and with rich mines in the immediate vicinity. Other important towns are Prescott, situated 140 miles east of the Colorado, in the midst of a rich and extensive mining region ; La Paz, a mining town on the Colorado, 150 miles above the Gila, having consi- derable trade, the river being navi- gable both above and below this point by light-draught steamers; Arizona City, Wickenburg, Phoenix, Florence, and Tubec. There has now been surveyed in Arizona an aggregate of 1,761,783 acres, the area remaining unsurveyed being computed at 71,144,521 acres, and the area of public lands still to be disposed of by the Government at 68,855,890 acres. All applications to enter the public lands within this Territory, under the laws of Con- ARIZONA. 13/> gress providing for the disposal of the same, should he addressed to the United States land office at Prescott. Pre-emptions to a large extent are being made by emigrants from all points — principally Germans. The lands are rich beyond precedent, and easily tilled. Larger portions of the tillable lands in different localities, especially near the rivers Colorado, Gila, and Salinas, yield two crops a year. Labour. — Farm hands, $50 to $To per month, and board. Germans the best workers, and always in demand. THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. MEANS OF ACQUIRING TITLE TO THEM. NATURALIZATION OP FOREIGNERS. The following interesting article was prepared for the use of' intending settlers by the Commissioner of the General Land Office at Washington. •ITH a view to answering frequent inquiries re- specting the quality and extent of the unoccupied lands belonging to the United States of America, and the manner of acquiring title thereto, this chapter has been prepared. It is proposed to give brief state- ments — 1st. Of the Form of Government. 2nd. Of the political divisions. 3rd. Of the peculiarities of the soil and climate. 4th. Of the land system and manner of acquiring titles. 5th. Of the 7iaturalization laws or manner of acquiring citizenship. Government. The States composing the American Union are so associated together as to constitute a Federal Republic. Each State is in part independent, having exclusive control of all con- cerns merely local, while the adminis- tration of national affairs, such as the defence of the country, the regulation of commerce, &c, i§ intrusted to a general government, which, in such matters, exercises supreme authority over all the States. The General Government is composed of three co- ordinate branches, the executive, le- gislative, and judicial departments. The President is the chief executive, and the officers immediately subordi- THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 157 nate to him are the Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of War, of the Navy, of the Interior ; the Attorney- General, and the Postmaster-General. These officials constitute the Presi- dent's Cabinet, or, as it would be termed in Europe, the ministry, and hold their position by virtue of an ap- pointment from the President, ratified by a vote of the Senate. They pre- side over then respective Depart- ments, and are required, at regular intervals, to render account of then- transactions. The legislative power is vested in Congress and divided between two houses : the upper, called the Senate, composed of two members from each State, chosen by the legislatures thereof, for a period of six years ; and the lower, called the House of Repre- sentatives, the members of which are elected every two years by the people, each State being entitled to a number proportionate to its population. The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, composed of one chief and eight associate judges ; a Court of Claims; district courts of one judge each ; and circuit courts composed of the j udge of the district, and one of the judges of the Supreme Court, the judges in each instance being ap- pointed by the President, and con- firmed by the Senate, to hold office during good behaviour. The State governments are, in their composition, very similar to the General Government, being divided into three branches, executive, legis- lative, and judicial. The first is in the hands of a governor, lieutenant- governor, and other officers ; the se- cond in a legislature of two houses elected by the people ; the third in a judiciary, most of whom are elected by the people ; but in some States the judges of the higher courts are ap- pointed by the governor or the legisla- ture, and hold office either for a stated term, or during good behaviour. There is nothing in Europe to which our State governments can be com- pared with any degree of exactness, unless it be the cantons of Switzer- land. Each State is a republic and complete in organization, but not in sovereignty. Its authority is limited by that of the General Government. They, however, frame and execute laws, judge in civil and criminal cases, establish corporations, levy taxes, and control the militia, unless when called into service by the General Government. They have no national functions, and are, by the Constitu- tion of the United States, expressly forbidden to enter into treaties, coin moneys, keep troops or ships of war, make a declaration of war, or deprive then own citizens or those of other States of then political rights. In the Territories temporary go- vernments are established, the Presi- dent appointing the governor, secre- tary, and judges, while the legisla- ture are chosen by the people residing in the Territory. The acts of all ter- 138 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. ritorial legislatures are subject to re- vision by Congress. Eacli Territory is represented by a delegate to- the National House of Representatives, who has the right of speech, but can- not vote. When a Territory has a sufficient number of inhabitants to entitle it to become a State, an enabling act is usually passed by Congress, au- thorizing the formation of a State constitution ; and when this require- ment is complied with, and the same approved by Congress, another act is passed admitting the new State into the Union. The Constitution of the United States is a written instrument. It was adopted in 1789, and from time to time has been amended as the re- quirements of our political system de- manded. It secures to the people the grand principles of freedom, liberty ! of conscience and of the press, trial by jury, the right of choosing officers and of being chosen to office ; all of which are based upon the self-evident truths which inspired the statesmen of that age, such as — " That all men are created equal ; that they are en- dowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The Republic of the United States of America is bounded on the north by the British A merican possessions, east by New Brunswick and the At- lantic Ocean, south by the Republic and Gulf of Mexico, and west by the Pacific Ocean. « Two ranges of mountains, the Al- leghanies in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west, extending in nearly parallel lines from north to south, divide the country into three great regions : 1st. The Atlantic slope, between the Alleghanies and the Atlantic Ocean. 2nd. The Mississippi Basin, be- tween the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains; and, 3rd. Pacific slope, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. These three divisions embrace an area of 3,034,459 square miles, and, in addition, there is the Territory of Alaska, recently acquired from Rus- sia, embracing an area of 577,390 square miles, on the western coast of the North Pacific Ocean. No government in the world, ex- cepting that of Russia, exercises ju- risdiction over so large an extent of connected country. Political Divisions. The Republic is at present divided into thirty-seven States and twelve Territories, viz. Area in Popu- States. sqyare lation miles. in 1870. Maine . . 35,000 626,915 New Hampshire . . 9,280 318,300 -Varment . 10,212 330,551 Massachusetts . 7,800 1,457,351 Rhode Island . 1,30(5 217,353 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 139 Area in Popu- States. square lation miles. in 1870. Connecticut .. . . .4,740 . . SSFJS 1 New York . 47,000 4,382,759 New Jersey . 8,320 906,096 Pennsylvania t . . 46,000 3,521,791 Delaware . 2,120 125,015 Maryland . 11,124 780,894 Virginia, Eas ,t and West 61,3-52 1,667,177 North Caroli na . . 50,704 1,071,361 South Caroli na . . 34,000 705,606 Georgia . 58,000 1,184,109 Kentucky . 37,680 1,321,011 Tennessee . 45,600 1,258,520 Texas . . 274,356 812,996 Ohio . . 39,964 2,665,151 Michigan . 56,451 1,184,059 Indiana . 33,809 1,680,637 Illinois . . 55,410 2,539,891 Wisconsin . 53,924 1,054,670 Minnesota . 83,531 439,703 Iowa . 55,045 1,191,792 Missouri . 65,350 1,721,295 Kansas . . 81,318 364,399 Nebraska . 75,995 122,993 Arkansas . 52,198 484,167 Louisiana . 47,346 726,915 Mississippi . 47,156 827,922 Alabama . 50,722 996,992 Florida . . 59,268 187,748 Nevada . . 112,090 42,494 California . 188,981 560,247 Oregon . . 95,274 Territories. 90,923 District of C( )lumbia . 69 131,700 Washington . 69,994 23,955 New Mexico . 121,201 91,874 Utah . . 84,476 86,786 Dakota . . 150,932 14,181 Colorado . 104,500 39,864 Montana . 143,776 20,595 Arizona . 113,916 9,658 Idaho . . 86,294 14,999 Wyoming . 97,883 9,118 Indian . . 68,991 Alaska . . 577,390 ... In the eighteen States first named, and in the district of Columbia, the Government has no proprietary in- terest in the lands. In the remain- ing States and Territories the Go- vernment lands originally embraced 1,834,998,400 acres, or 2,867,185 square miles. The magnitude of this immense domain can be better understood when it is stated that it embraces a tract of country equal in its area to the whole of Europe exclusive of Russia. Climate, Sotl, and Productions. The territory of the United States is of such wide extent that it em- braces almost every variety of climate known to the habitable globe ; and its surface is so diversified by mountain ranges and wide alluvial valleys, that all the agricultural products used by civilized man may be secured in the greatest abundance, and each of the varied pursuits of husbandry followed in some part of this vast domain. The most northern limit of the landed possessions of the United States is washed by the Polar Sea, while its southern border lies almost within the tropics. It extends from east to west across the entire breadth of the continent of North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. As hereinbefore stated, the country is separated into three great natural divisions by two principal mountain ranges, the Alleghanies in the east, and the Rocky Mountains in the west. These ranges lie in each case in a position nearly parallel with the coast line, at a comparatively short distance from it..^and give rise to many noble rivers, which, bearing with them the detritus of the hills, flow 140 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. for hundreds of miles through the country, fertilizing the valleys and affording unbounded facilities for transportation from the interior to the sea-board. These mountain ranges also serve an important end in modi- fying the climate of the more southern and heated countries, and afford un- limited pasturage to the flocks of the sheep farmer. In considering the climate, soil, and productions of the Republic, we will speak first of those States and Territories lying east of the Rocky Mountains and north of latitude 38°, as being similar in these respects. The States comprised in this division are Maine, New Hampshu-e, Ver- mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne- sota, Iowa, Nebraska, and the north- ern portions of Missouri and Kansas . The Territories are Dakota, Mon- tana, and Wyoming. The general character of the climate which pre- vails over this wide extent of country is much the same in every part of it, although modified, to some extent, in those regions bordering upon the sea- shore and the great lakes which se- parate the Republic from the British possessions on the north ; the coun- tries so situated having a moister climate and harsher winters than those more centrally located. The winter usually lasts from three to four months, and sometimes, for short periods, the cold is severe. Snow frequently falls to a great depth in the lake regions and Atlantic States. Mild weather often prevails for two or three weeks in the month of Janu- ary, and farming operations are com- menced in March, but in some lo- calities not before April. The warm season lasts from the first of June until the middle of September, and the latter part of July is usually the hottest period of the season. Rains are of frequent occurrence during the spring and summer, but destructive floods and tornadoes are rare. The autumn is considered the most enjoy- able season ; the days are bright and warm, storms seldom occur, and the forests are brilliant with the many- coloured leaves. The weather during the months of October and November is usually exceedingly pleasant, and is known as the Indian summer. At such times the atmosphere is per- vaded by a brilliant haze that lends an indescribable charm to the land- scape. The soil of the north-eastern States is generally shallow, not much land that can be called good being found outside of the river-bottoms. In that part of the region under consideration which lies in the Mississippi basin, the soil is for the most part good, yielding large crops of wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, &c. Most Euro- pean fruits succeed well in these States. In some parts of this terri- THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 141 tory, and especially along the River Ohio, grapes are extensively culti- vated, and a fine quality of wine manufactured. We next consider the helt of States lying between 34° and 38° of north latitude, whose products are so varied that while corn, wheat, potatoes, &c, are grown in abundance and are the staples, cotton and other semi-tro- pical plants are also produced in certain localities. The States referred to are Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Southern Missouri and Southern Kansas, Tennessee and Arkansas. In these States the sum- mer is longer and warmer than in those farther north, and in some of them the hardier fruits and grains do not thrive so well. Removed alike from the extreme cold of the north, and the burning heat of the tropics, this region possesses an equable and delightful climate. The short winter is usually wet, though not unhealthy. The cotton States — so called after their great staple — lie farther to the south, and border upon the Gulf of Mexico and the Southern Atlantic. Although occupying a low latitude, the climate is not extremely warm, excepting in the low lands along the sea-board ; and even in the summer time the nights are made cool by a breeze from the sea. The winter here is very mild, and agricultural operations are scarcely interrupted. The soil in the valleys is usually deep and rich ; and the uplands in many localities are sandy and poor, but are covered with pine forests. The pro- ducts, though often semi-tropical, are yet more generally those of the tem- perate zone. Cotton, sugar, and rice are the great staples, the inhabitants having heretofore depended largely upon the States of the north-west for their supply of breadstuff's. They are now, however, planting corn, potatoes, &c, on a more extensive scale, and receive rich returns for their labour. The climate is favour- able to the production of a great variety of delicious semi - tropical fruits, while oranges, bananas, le- mons, figs, and other tropical fruits are grown in Florida and the adja- cent coasts. The Territories lying east of the Rocky Mountains are yet but sparsely settled, but with every succeed- ing year civilization is making deeper inroads yito these wilds; and, at- tracted by their abounding mineral wealth and prospective agricultural value, thousands of emigrants are pressing in and laying the founda- tion of communities which, in a few years, will be erected into States of the Union. The climate in this region is similar to that of the States border- ing it on the east. The rainfall is not so great, and irrigation is neces- sary to success in agricultural pur- suits. In the valleys of the great rivers that have their origin in the Rocky Mountains and flow to the south and south-east, there is much 142 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. fertile land, and the mountain spurs and river banks are timbered. On tlie Pacific slope the tempera- ture is higher than in the same de- grees of latitude on the Atlantic, resembling- in this respect the western coast of Europe, where the tempera- ture is higher than in the correspond- ing latitude on the eastern coast of North America. The climate of this region is mild and equable. A great deal of rain falls in the winter, especially in the neighbourhood of the coast, while the spring and fall are pleasant and the summer not too warm. Thunder- storms are of rare occurrence. The soil in the valleys between the Coast Range of mountains and the ocean is of almost inexhaustible fertility, and will produce crops year after year without the use of fertilizers. The native growth of forest trees ■ is remarkable for its vigour and for the size attained by some varieties. In certain portions of California are groves in which many individual trees have reached a diameter of 20 to 34 ft., and a height of 275 to 325 ft. The astonishing yield of the pre- cious metals in California, Nevada, and Utah, has hitherto so occupied public attention that the great agri- cultural capabilities of the Pacific States were for a time overlooked. But more recently attention has been given to the development of the agricultural resources of this region, which will before long constitute one of its principal sources of revenue. Wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, and all the great staples are produced in large quantities, and the garden vege- tables in many localities grow to a mammoth size. The fruits common to northern countries grow luxuri- antly in the upland regions, while in the lower countries, figs, oranges, pomegranates, dates, limes, castor beans, bananas, and lemons are pro- duced in great abundance. Grape culture and the manufacture of wine is carried on extensively in California, and the wines and bran- dies produced already enjoy a high reputation. Public Land System. The public lands of the United States are ordinarily surveyed into rectangular tracts, bounded by lines conforming to the cardinal points. They are then divided into townships of 6 miles square, containing as near as may be 23,040 acres each. These townships are then subdivided into thirty-six tracts called sections, of a square mile each, containing as near as may be 640 acres. Then, again, these sections are subdivided into smaller tracts of 160, 80, and 40 acres, plats of which are deposited in the several district land-oifices, located in a central part of the land districts embracing the particular region of country. Any number or series of townships THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 143 situate in a north and south line con- stitute a range. Standard parallels are lines established at stated inter- vals, to provide for or counteract an error that otherwise would result from the convergency of meridians ; north of the principal base line, standards are run at a distance of every four townships, or 24 miles, and south of the base line at intervals of every five townships, or 30 miles. The public domain is divided into local land districts as rapidly as the Government is prepared to extend the public surveys over the same. At the present time these districts number eighty-two. In each district there is a land-office under the superintendence of two of- ficers, one designated as the Registrar of the Land-Office, and the other as the Receiver of Public Moneys, through whom all business relating to the disposal of the lands within the district is transacted, and who are subordinate to the Commissioner of the General Land-Office, at the city of Washington. A list of these land- offices will be found at page 284. The lands of the United States can be secured : — 1st. By purchase at public sale, where competition is allowed, and the land sold to the highest bidder. 2nd. By private purchase, in the ab- sence of competition, when the rated price of the land only is charged. 3rd. By purchase under the pre- emption law. 4th. By occupancy under the home- stead law. There are, of course, many ways under special laws by which the Go- vernment is divested of its title, but the above are the methods usually re- sorted to by immigrants in securing homes. Where lands are sold at public ven- due the price is, of course, governed by the competition. When, in the absence of competition, they are sold at private sale, the price is fixed at Si '25 per acre, except when by spe- cial legislation they are rated at double that sum, or S2'50 per acre. This in- crease in the price is made only in the case of alternate tracts, technically called sections, where the remaining 1 sections have been granted by the Government in aid of railroads or similar internal improvements. Under the pre-emption laws, a party entitled so to do can select a tract not exceeding 160 acres of land, or one quarter section. By filing a statement in the district office to the effect that he has settled upon the land, and intends to claim the same under the pre-emption law, he ac- quires a preference right of purchase, and is allowed, according to the status of the tract, from one year to two years and nine months after settle- ment in which to pay for the land. The person claiming the benefit of the pre-emption law must be the head of a famdy, or a single man over twenty-one years of age, or a widow, 144 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. and must be a citizen of the United States, or have filed a declaration of intention to become such. No person who has removed from his own land in the same State or Territory to reside on the public lands, or who is the owner of more than 320 acres within the United States, or who has already enjoyed the benefits of the law, can claim as a pre-emptor. To men of limited means, the most attractive feature of the land system of the United States is that known as the Homestead Law. This, as the name indicates, is a law by which every citizen of the United States, or those who have taken the initiatory steps to become citizens, can secure a homestead upon the mere payment of office fees, amounting (according to the extent of the tract taken and the rated price of the land) to from $7 to The party applying under the homestead law is entitled to 160 acres of land rated at SI '25, or 80 acres of land valued at $2' 50. The law requires the following condi- tions : — The applicant must be a citi- zen, or have declared his intention to become such. He must be twenty- one years of age, or the head of a family. Affidavit must be made that the homestead is taken for the sole use of the applicant, and for actual settlement and cultivation. To ob- tain a full and complete title from the Government, the party selecting the homestead must occupy and cultivate it for five consecutive years, and at no time abandon it for a period of six months. Only one homestead privi- lege is allowed to the same person. Unmarried persons of either sex, of the age of twenty-one years, are al- lowed the benefits of this law. In case of the death of the party making the homestead, before the expiration of the five years above referred to, provision is made by law, by which the claim can be perfected by the legal heirs. No sale of the home- stead, prior to the issuing of the title papers by the Government, is consi- dered valid. At the expiration of five years, or within two years after that time, the applicant must file proof in the proper district land-office of a compliance with the requirements of the law, whereupon a patent will be made by the Government, transfer- ring the title to the party making the homestead. If the homestead settler does not desire to remain on the land the full term of five years, the law permits him to pay for it at the rated price, upon making proof of settlement and cultivation. All lands obtained un- der the homestead laws are exempt from liability for debts contracted prior to the issuing of patent therefor. The object of the Government in this beneficent act is to place within the reach of every industrious man an opportunity to secure for himself a comfortable home, considering it- self amply recompensed by the pro- THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 145 ductive area which will thus be added to the country, and by the general prosperity which its citizens will enjoy. The restrictions thrown around the Homestead Act are no more rigorous than will serve to secure these ob- jects, and prevent monopolists from acquiring an undue proportion of the rich lands of the nation. The homestead law was enacted in 1862, since which time thousands of persons, native and foreign born, have availed themselves of the bene- fits of the act, and are now enjoying the reward of their industry in the happy possession of farms under high cultivation, to which they hold com- plete and indisputable titles. Nor has the experiment been unprofitable to the nation. It has been the means of the rapid settlement of the newer States and Territories, and has largely added to the productive wealth of the Republic. It has prevented large capitalists from absorbing great tracts of the public domain, to be left un- cultivated, and has served to develop the resources of the land by giving it in smaller subdivisions to individuals of the poorer classes. In the Southern States of the Union, title to Government lands can only be acquired through this law ; and the sentiment is fast growing, that will perhaps ultimately restrict all disposition of the public domain to the same condition. Mineral Lands. The mineral lands of the United States — or those bearing the precious metals — lie chiefly in the ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and on the coast of the Pacific. Without going into detail, we simply state that even under the imperfect methods by which the mines have been developed, those regions, in the yield of gold, silver, and other precious metals, are unsur- passed by any in the world. These mines are open to explorations and occupancy by any citizen, and statu- tory provision is made for investing the owner with title from the Govern- ment. Means of Access. As to the means of access to the public lands, it is proper to state that they are to be reached, from the eastern States by steam- vessels navi- gating the great lakes and rivers, and by railways and waggon-roads. The great railway systems now constructed, and in process of con- struction, are such that almost all points are at this time, or soon will be, accessible. Even now, the most remote points on the Pacific coast may be reached by railroads. What was regarded a few years ago as a long, fatiguing journey from New York to San Francisco, California, a journey of some forty days overland, or twenty to twenty-four days by sea, is now accomplished by the Union and Cen- tral Pacific Railroad and its connec- 146 THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. tions in six days ; so that .an immi- grant arriving in any of the cities of the Atlantic sea-board has but to choose the spot upon our public lands where he wishes to locate, and by consulting the map he will find that he is enabled to reach many of the most distant points in our western territory, by means of railroads, in a very brief space of time. Naturalization. The policy of admitting foreigners to the rights and privileges of citizen- ship is no longer problematical. It has been tested by an experience of over three-quarters of a century. The rapid extension of our western settle- ments is largely due to the influx of foreign immigration. The United States is the favourite land of the emigrant. Other countries present equal attractions, in the natural ad- vantages of soil, climate, and posi- tion, but have never yet attracted im- migration to such an extent as this — in a great measure owing to the facilities for obtaining fertile lands in this country at cheap prices. As aliens cannot avail themselves of the advantages and privileges de- rived from the homestead and pre- emption laws to acquire title to the public lands, privileges restricted to citizens or those who have declared their intention of becoming such, it is important that foreigners seeking identification with the American com- munity should be advised of the legal steps necessary to acquire citizenship. Any free alien over the age of twenty-one years may, at any time after his arrival, declare before any court of record having common-law jurisdiction (with a clerk, and pro- thonotary, and seal) his intention to become a citizen, and to renounce for ever all foreign allegiance. The declaration must be made at least two years before application for citizen- ship. At the expiration of two years after such declaration, and at any time after five years' residence, the party desiring naturalization, if then not a citizen, denizen, or subject of any country at war with the United States, must appear in a court of re- cord, and there be sworn to support the Constitution of the United States, and renounce all foreign allegiance. If he possessed any title or order of nobility, it must also be renounced, and satisfactory proof produced to the court by the testimony of witnesses, citizens of the United States, of the five years' residence in this country, one year of which must be within the State or Territory where the court is held, and that during the period of five years the applicant was a person of good moral character, and attached to the principles of the Constitution ; whereupon he will be admitted to citizenship, and thereby his chil- dren under twenty-one years of age, if dwelling within the United States, will also be regarded as citizens. When an alien has made his decla- ration and dies before being actually naturalized, the widow and children THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. 147 become citizens of the United States, and are entitled to all rights and pri- vileges as such, upon taking the pre- scribed oaths. Any alien, being a minor, and un- der the age of twenty-one years at time of arrival, who has resided in the country three years next preceding his majority, may, after reaching such period, and a five years' resi- dence (including the three years of his minority) be admitted to citizen- ship without a previous declaration of intention, provided he then files such declaration, averring also, on oath, and proving to the court, that for the past three years it has been his intention to become a citizen, and also showing the fact of his residence and good character. Children of citizens of the United States born out of the country, are deemed citizens ; the right, however, not descending to persons whose fathers never resided in the country ; and any woman, who might legally be naturalized, married to a citizen of the United States, is held to pos- sess citizenship. An alien, twenty -one years and over, who enlists in the regular or volunteer armies of the United States, and is honourably discharged there- from, may be admitted to citizenship upon his simple petition and satisfac- tory proof of one year's residence prior to his application, accompany- ing the same with proof of good moral character and honourable dis- charge. Recent conventions with several European powers have established that a naturalized citizen of the United States is free from all allegi- ance to his former government. 148 UNITED STATES LAND OFFICES. Ohio. Chillicothe. Indiana. Indianapolis. Illinois. Springfield. Missouri. Boonville. Ironton. Springfield. Alabama. Huntsville. Montgomery. Mobile. .Mississippi. Jackson. Louisiana. New Orleans. Natchitoches. Michigan. Detroit. East Saginaw. Ionia. Marquette. Traverse City. Arkansas. Little Rock. Camden. Harrison. Dardanelle. Florida. Tallahassee. Iowa. Fort Des Moines. Council Bluffs. Fort Dodge. Sioux City. Montana Territory. Helena. Arizona Territory. Prescott. Utah Territory. Salt Lake City. Wisconsin. Menasha. Falls of Saint Croix. Stevens Point. La Crosse. Bayfield. Eau Claire. California. San Francisco. Sacramento. Marysville. Humboldt. Susanville. Stockton. Los Angeles. Visalia. Shasta. Nevada. Carson City. Austin. Belmont. Aurora. Minnesota. Taylor's Falls. St. Cloud. UNITED STATES LAND-OFFICES. 149 Alexandria. Jackson. New Ulm. Lichfield. Du Luth. Oregon. Oregon City. Roseburgh. Le Grand. Kansas. Topeka. Salina. Independence. Concordia. Augusta. Washington Territory. Olympia. Vancouver. Walla-Walla. Nebraska. West Point. Beatrice. Lincoln. Dakota City. Grand Island. New Mexico Territory. Santa Fe. Dakota Territory. Springfield. Vermillion. Pembina. Colorado Territory. Pueblo. Central City. Denver City. Fair Play. Idaho Territory. Boise City. Lewiston. Wyoming Territory. Cheyenne. 150 Table showing the Foreign-born and the Native Population of the several States and Territories on the 1st day of June, 1870. [Corrected from Census Returns receiA r ed up to May 25, 1871.] States and Territories. Maine Massachusetts . . . . . Vermont ......... New Hampshire Connecticut Rhode Island New York (city of New York, first enumeration) New Jersey Pennsylvania (city of Philadelphia, first enumeration) Delaware ......... Maryland District of Columbia West Virginia ........ Ohio . . . Kentucky . Indiana ......... Illinois Michigan Wisconsin . Minnesota . . . Iowa .......... Missouri ......... Kansas Nebraska . Colorado . . . . . . Dakota Idaho Wyoming ......... Utah Montana ......... Virginia ..... .... North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama JMississippi . ........ Louisiana §Texas 48,881 353,319 47,155 29,611 113,639 55,396 1,130,617 188,943 541,062 9,136 83.412 16,254 17,091 373,250 63,398 141,474 514,958 268,010 364,846 160,697 204,057 222,267 48,389 30,748 6,598 4,815 7,885 3,507 30,702 7,982 13,754 3,029 8,071 11,145 4,967 9,962 11,198 61,827 101,276 Native. 578,034 1,104,032 283,396 288,689 423,815 161,957 3,227,030 717,153 2,964,200 115,879 697,482 115,446 424,923 2,291,752 1,257,613 1,539,163 2,023,442 916,049 690,307 279,009 987,735 1,499,028 315,988 92,245 33,266 9,366 7,114 15,611 56,084 12,613 1,211,409 1,068,375 697,092 1,184,193 182,781 987,030 817,426 665,088 708,942 Total. 626,915 1,457,351 330,551 318,300 537,454 217,353 *4,357,647 906,096 + 3,505,262 125,015 780,894 131,700 442,014 2,665,002 1,321,011 1,680,637 2,538,400 1,184,059 1,055,153 439,706 1,191,792 1,721,295 364,377 122,993 39,864 14,181 14,999 9,118 86,786 20,595 1,225,163 1,071,404 705,163 1,195,338 187,748 996,992 828,624 726,915 810,218 * Population of the State, using the second enumeration of the city of New York, is 4,374,499. The distribution of the excess, as native and foreign, not yet effected. t Population of the State, using the second enumeration of the city of Philadelphia, is 3,519,601. The distribution of the excess as native and foreign, not yet effected. I One county estimated. § In the total population, one county estimated ; the number of native and foreign largely estimated. FOREIGN-BORN AND NATIVE POPULATION. 151 States and Territories. Foreign. Native. Total. Arizona 5,026 5,620 5,809 209,827 11,600 5,024 479,141 1,239,059 86,254 3,849 350,396 79,323 23,690 18,931 484,167 1,258,373 91,874 9,658 560,223 90,923 42,491 23,955 Total in United States 5,594,349 32,931,380 38,525,729 152 PREPARATIONS FOR REMOVAL TO A NEW COUNTRY. ^tfg AMILIES should not re- move to the West destitute of means. Many have done so, and have succeeded, and in a few years have been num- bered among the most " well-to-do " citizens ; but it more frequently leads to disappointment and discontent. A capital of $200 or $300 after the land is secured, with which to com- mence operations, would be of very great advantage. An expenditure of $50 will, in almost any State, com- plete a cabin in which a family can be comfortably sheltered. A neat one- story frame house, with from two to four rooms, can be built at a cost of from $200 to $600. Good stabling for stock can be constructed with but little expense by the use of a few posts and poles covered with straw or hay. Settlers going west, and having a long distance to travel, should dispose of their farming implements and heavy or bulky furniture. Bedsteads, tables, chairs, mattresses, crockery, stoves, &c, &c, stock, teams, waggons, tools of all kinds, and farming implements better adapted to this country than those left behind, can be purchased here at reasonable rates, frequently at less than would be the cost of transportation. Clothing, bedding, table linen, books, pictures, and other small articles may be brought with advantage. It is also well to bring choice stock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultiy, &c. A distinguished journalist, who is regarded as an authority upon sub- jects connected with emigration, says : — " The pioneers who settled in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wiscon- sin, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas, averaged a good deal less than $700 each as their outfit. With $700 a man may take up a quarter-section of homestead land, buy a team and cow, build a cabin and cattle-shelter, get a few implements, break up and sow or plant 20 acres of prairie, and have a crop growing. ... At the end of five years he should, with fair luck, have 40 acres under good cultivation, as many more fenced in for hay and pasture, and a fair stock of young cattle. After that, he may pass an eight-hour law for himself and wife, and live in substantial independence and comfort." COLONIES. 15^ Colonies. Nearly all the States have com- missioners of immigration, through whom purchase of lands may he made and any information obtained. The most successful mode of immigration to our western States from foreign countries, of late years, has been by colonies; and there is no doubt that the advantages of such a system over that of the individual plan are so manifold that it should be adopted wherever practicable. Companies or colonies can be easily formed in any of the countries of western Europe, and if these be prudently and care- fully made up so as to embrace the various trades and callings required in new settlements, and the care of purchasing land, and making arrange- ments for transit from the old country to the new, confided to the care of up- right and discreet men, there can be but little chance of failure, and colonies thus managed will be almost certain of success. Desirable locations are so numerous that if a suitable purchase cannot be made at one point, it certainly can at another; and as each of the States is anxious to secure intelligent and industrious settlers, there is no danger that favourable terms will not be readily obtained. It is not intended, by urging the plan of settlement by colonies, to recommend any of the systems of communism or socialism, as they are sometimes called. Few or none of these have succeeded in this country. When the colony is once located, each member should be independent of all the others, as every well conducted citizen in any settled community is of his neigh- bours. The advantage of the colonial plan consists in its bringing together, as immediate neighbours, those of similar habits and tastes, who can support and encourage each other by mutual counsel and those offices of neighbourly kindness which a new settler in a strange country so fre- quently stands in need of. In a short time new acquaintances are formed, the immigrant grows familiar with the customs of the country and becomes merged in the mass of its citizens. ■3 .1 o i— I £ , - 6^ Ji «3 C£ Sag l ~^ ^ i-i r "» t o *? O | s s to u cu a H H 'pai3oq jnoq^t^ i2 cm us coos yt-MI>U3 1 s> CM ■># as «£> CM eo -^ OS CO •pxBoq qiy^ Co' CM lO CO lO ^ CM 00 CM OS o CM CD ^* as io cm eo CM CO to" O H 'pxeoq }noq}i^ «OHO« ■« to CO CO ■>* g§: #§=cci cm cm cm 1—1 CM eo o as as •pjBoq q^ =0 O H U5 00 ^i-l i-H CM i-H to CO 1— ( CM O eo-* CO US CO to' CU -t-S CO £ ■pxeoq ^noq^T^ ^ ■* ■— 1 US i— 1 ^§=CO CO CO CO CM CO CO cm as 1—1 us CO •pjBOq q^y\ Jo t- t- CM CO ^OOlOOlO ^g=oq cm co cm CM as co CO us us to a> P< cS O 'pjeoq inoq^i^\. cu h S 4> •pxeoq ^noq^i^w. «;'qoiou5h ^ CO t# t-CO #g:CM CM CM CM ■"SI Tjl us ^n t# US as as ■* O iH tO 4> a CO CO Is ■pjisoq ;noq?T^v jo o co eo as ^ kO CO eo o g^CO CO CO CO o CO CO us l-l 1— 1 US CO CO CD US •pjieoq q?TA\. 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Table showing the average retail prices of provisions, groceries, and other leading articles of consumption ; also prices of board and house-rent in the towns of the following sections, and the general average in the United States in the year 1874. ^? 3 a a> i i Articles. s States (in ing Virginii W. Virgini: rn States (i ing Kentuc Tennessee) : States (Ca ia and Oreg ). al average « :ed States ( ive of Terri OS o C3 IddL clud and r este clud and icific forn gold u-~ 55. £ v a u a i— i .— i O u 3 \* Ph $ H Provisions. | cts. $ cts. $ cts. $ cts. % cts. Flour, wheat, superfine barrel 7 19 6 00 5 24 7 36 14 46 „ „ extra family . t% 8 11 6 75 6 31 8 35 15 46 „ rye a 6 75 5 28 11 00 7 56 13 29 Corn meal . 99 4 62 3 79 8 34 5 01 14 28 Beef, fresh, roasting pieces . pound 17 12 12 14 17 ,, ,, soup pieces . *> 11 7 11 9 13 „ „ rump steaks ** 16 13 12 15 18 „ corned . " . »» 14 9 9 10 15 Veal, fore-quarters #j 14 9 11 11 17 „ hind-quarters >> 16 11 13 13 19 „ cutlets .... >> 17 13 15 16 20 Mutton, fore-quarters . i* 12 8 10 10 16 leg . >» 14 11 11 13 19 „ chops 93 15 11 12 14 19 Pork, fresh .... »» 14 13 11 13 22 „ corned or salted . ff> 20 16 13 18 34 „ bacon .... 99 21 19 16 19 32 „ hams, smoked »» 23 21 20 22 38 „ sausages „ 21 17 16 19 38 Lard »> 20 21 17 21 35 Codfish, dry .... 99 11 11 18 13 30 Mackerel, pickled . 99 13 13 19 15 31 Butter 99 40 31 39 38 69 Cheese ► 99 25 23 23 24 42 Potatoes bushel 80 50 68 75 2 39 Rice pound 13 13 13 13 31 Beans ..... quart 11 9 11 1L 19 Milk » 99 9 7 12 9 22 Eggs dozen 28 22 40 29 77 Tea, Oolong or other good black pound 1 30 1 59 1 05 1 40 1 64 Coffee, Rio, green . 99 29 28 24 28 41 „ ,, roasted 9 33 33 36 35 53 Sugar, good brown 9 15 16 14 15 27 „ yellow C. . ^ . 9 16 16 16 16 27 Soap, common 9 10 10 11 11 26 Fuel — coal ton 7 58 7 91 17 80 10 80 7 20 ,, wood, hard t . cord 4 44 4 42 5 31 4 98 6 60 „ „ pine . . • 99 3 95 3 06 4 21 3 98 5 95 Oil, coal . gallon 53 56 94 65 1 98 Domestic Dry Goods, J 24 22 21 22 28 Sheetings, brown, 9x8 „ » , 24 26 30 26 37 ,, bleached, 9x8 „ 99 , 31 31 36 31 41 Tickings, good quality . , 37 39 36 35 49 Prints, Merrimac , 9 15 14 13 15 26 Mousseline de laines 9 24 25 25 26 34 Satinets, medium quality ,, 71 85 87 77 77 Boots, men's heavy pair 5 18 5 04 5 51 5 06 7 27 House-Rent. Four-roomed tenements month 7 04 12 40 11 06 10 31 25 88 Six-roomed „ 99 10 50 17 03 16 66 14 81 37 55 Board. For men .... week 4 46 4 37 6 36 4 80 9 06 For women 19 3 66 3 89 5 80 4 14 8 47 *4&%S<3'5g* 8 ' s^ffucy jO't#njz>uqtrf'9tgjo#nyQ iMr«AS!»n»y fojStrofCvnfnjs in ttfy*irjd/4 ty SAly