m IT-'.T«^^«1f^'<^^^'*^j^V-T'»"?lwllWBgl',l g 1 1 1 /y* tefifl ^ ^>4^i^^iM«" 7^, i^"^ REPORT MADE TO THE CENTRAL AGRICUI.TrjRAL SOCIETY OF THE MEURTHE. Gentlemen : — Two of 3^our new colleagues, Mr. Bentz, Director of the Normal Primary School of the Department of the Meurthe, and Mr. Chretien, Professor of Rural Economy in the same school — both honorary members of the Central Agricultural Society of Nancy — have just published an ele- mentary work on the science that you cultivate. I have been appointed to examine, and report upon this work — a duty that I most cheerfully undertake. I must, however, be first per- mitted to declare, that with me it is a subject of some delicacy, inasmuch as I have myself published two works having the same object in view with that of Messrs. Bentz and Chretien ; it shall not, however, prevent me from stating candidly the impression made upon my mind by their publication. I have read, with attention and continued interest, the "Ele- ments of Agriculture for the Use of Primary Schools." The first observation that struck me was, that they had been faith- ful to their title-page. Thus, we find nothing in their work that is not absolutely elementary, but sufficient, nevertheless^ for the object in view. The teacher may with confidence draw upon its pages for all that seems to be of primary necessity, for himself first, and then for the children or adults confided to his care. Another thing that we remarked on opening the new work of our honorable colleagues, is the insertion at the end of each subdivision of a chapter, of a series of questions, so skilfully put, as to compel the reader or scholar to review, in- voluntarily as it were, the subject upon which his attention has for a moment been directeu. This is a happy idea — an innovation that may bear good fruit ; and we do not hesitate to aver, that the complete absence of replies seems to us the more judicious, as it compels, in the formation of these replies, an exercise of boih the judgment and memory. You will not fail to remark, gentlemen, that there must inevitably result to the pupil, from this method of proceeding, three important ad- vantages — the obligation to read attentively each lesson; the 3 REPORT. compulsory exercise of two intellectual faculties, the develop* me.it of which is in a direct ratio with the use that is made of them; and finally, the habit of rendering to ourself an account of what is read — a species of exercise that leads to thought and meditation. The division adopted by the authors seems to us simple, proper, and logical. In the first part, they commence by giv- ing us all the requisite knowledge of natural history, and then some general ideas on the cultivation of the soil, the physiology and anatomy of plants, and finally on vegetable reproduction. The second part is devoted to the study of the soil in general, and to that of its physical properties. The diflerent operations required to bring the soil into cultivation, manures^ ameliora- tors, and stimulants, are the objects of the third part. Under these different titles are arranged the subdivisions, skilfully treated, and entirely within the comprehension of the young readers, for whom the book is destined. The publication of the second volume depends, the authors tell us, upon the reception that may be given to the first. This reserve, full of modesty and good taste, reveals to the Society not only the value of its new colleagues, but the zeal with which it should encourage and promote their labors. However, gentlemen, this sympathy and encouragement have recently been generously manifested, by the governmental coun- cil of our department, for the elementary work that we have the honor to report upon ; the council having ordered the ex- penses of printing the work to be defrayed out of the fund ap- propriated by government for the encouragement of agriculture. If, on the one hand, this intelligent vote is a just and proper reward for a useful work, it will also enable its publishers to furnish it at a less cost than they otherwise could. Thus, gentlemen, by our co-operation with the general council of the department, we at once render an act of justice to the authors, and make manifest the interest that we feel, not only in the teachers and the scholars of the country, but also in the success of primary and secondary instruction in matters appertaining to agriculture. C. MANDEL, Report adopted, and ordered to be printed. BY THE TRANSLATOR, WITH UNAFFECTED RESPECT, AND A HIGH SENSE OF THE TRUE DIGNITY OF THEIR PROFESSION, TO ITffilS 'IPEiiCISIEM ©IF ir®IDfiriE[ IN THE UNITED STATES: The followers of a pursuit the most responsible and hon- orable, when properly understood ; and yet, in propor- tion to its importance, the least honored aa*» tiie worst paid, of all others. PREFACE. When it is considered that a very large majority of the millions who are constantly in training at our country schools are to be cul. tivators of the soil, and that on their general intelligence, with some knowledge of the principles of their own profession, must in a great measure depend, not only the prosperity of American agriculture, but the permanence of our free institutions; every lover of his coun- try must reflect with regret on the want of more diffusive and per- fect systems of general education, and especially on the absence of a plain, intcUigihle, elemetdnry work on the principles of agricul- ture^ for the use of our common schools. This want, it is now confidently believed, has been supplied by what is here offered, entitled '* Elements of Agriculture for the Use of Common Schools," which has lately appeared in France, under the auspices of the department for public instruction, and been sanctioned, as will be seen, by the strong recommendation of men of the highest distinction and authority for learning and benevolence This little work is purely elementary in its character, and so plainly written, that while thi pr'uciples are brought within the comprehension of children who j(**3'e attained their twelfth year, it can not fail to be entertaining and a axiiiary,if not instructive to their teachers. If in itself it does nut make those who study it accom- plished agriculturists, it will at least pave the way for their becoming such, by explaining the rudiments of those sciences with which Ag- riculture is naturally connected As will be perceived, by I'^ference to the table of contents, the work is divided into three Parts. The first treats of Natural History, explaining, in a clear and simple manner, the difference between OfitJANic and Inorganic Substances, Animal and Vegetable Life, Vegetable Reproduction, &c. The Second Part treats, in like per- spicuous and intelligible style, of Climate, and its effects upon animal and vegetable life. Mineral P^Ianures, more properly called by the French writers ameliorator!^, and Animal and Vege- table Manures, with their management and application, make up the Third Part. P'inaLly, it has been slightly modified, as was needed, to adapt it to the soil and climate of the United States. CONTENTS. PART FIRST. CHArTER I. Lieneral Notions on the Art of Cultivating the Soil, and of the dtj ferent Objects that exist in Nature. Lesson I. — Dinsions in the Ait of Cultivation » page S Lesson II. — The different Objects existing in Nature 11 CHAPTER XL Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology. Lesson IIL— The Organs of Plants 13 Lesson IV.— The Root 14 Lesson V. — The Stem and Leaves — Functions that they fulfil in the Act of Nutrition , 16 Lesson VI. — The Organs of Reproduction 19 Lesyon VII.— Fruit 20 Lesson VIII. — Germination 21 Moral Reflections 34 CHAPTER m. Tlie Reproduction of Vegetables. Lesson IX.— Reproduction by Generation «.. 25 Lesson X.— Reproduction by Propagation — Layering 27 Lesson XI. — Multiplication of Plants by Grafting 28 Lesson XII — Inoculating 29 PART SECOND. CHAPTER L General Consideration of the Soil. Lesson I.— The Causes that Affect the Value of the SoU 3/ Lesson II. — The Mineral Parts of the Soil 3J Lesson IIL— Silex, or Silica 3J 8 CONTENTS. Lesson IV.— Clay page 37 Lesson V. — Carbonate of Lime 39 Lesson VL— Plaster, Marl, Magnesia. Iron 41 Lesson VII.— The Organic Parts of the Soil 43 Lesson VIII. — The Formation of Humus, and its Properties 46 Lesson IX.— The Action of Humus in the Soil 48 CHAPTER n. The Physical Properties of Soil. Lesson X. — Texture and Depth of the Soil 51 Lesson XL— Situation of the Surface 53 Lesson XIL— Subsoil 54 Lesson XIII.— The Eifects of Climate on Vegetation 56 Lesson XIV. — Tlie Effect of Climate upon Cultivation and upon Animal Economy 58 PART THIRD. CHAPTER I. Ameliorators. Lesson I. — General Views of Manures, Ameliorators, and Stimulants.. .. 61 Lesson II. — Liming Lands, or the Use of Lime as an Ameliorator 63 Lesson ILL— Liming Lands (continued) 65 Lesson IV. — Liming Lands (continued) 66 Lesson V. — Marl as an Ameliorator 69 Lesson VI. — Marl as an Ameliorator (continued) 71 Lesson VII. — Clay and Sand as Ameliorators 73 CHAPTER n. Stiviulants. Lesson VIII.- Ashes 76 Lesson IX.— Plaster 78 Lesson X.— Paring and Burning 79 CHAPTER m. Manures. Lesson XL— Formation, Composition, and Action of Manures 81 Lesson XII. — Manures (continued) 82 Lesson XIII. — Litter, and Liquid Manures 84 Lesson XIV. — Management of Manure 85 Lesson XV. — Varieties of Manure 87 Lesson XVI. — Folding Sheep — Animalized Manures 88 Lesson XVII.— Vegetable Manures 90 PART FIRST CHAPTER I. Genei al Notions on the Art of cultivating the Soily ani of the different Objects that exist in Nature. LESSON I. DIVISIONS IN THE ART OF CULTIVATION. 1. The Art of Cultivation. — The object of tins art is to obtain from the earth the greatest possible quantity of products ; and it is usually divided into four parts, namely : 1. Agriculture, or the cultivation of fields. 2. Horticul- ture, or the cultivation of gardens, 3. The cultivation of tlie grasses. 4. Arboriculture, or the cultivation of trees, 2. Agriculture, — The principal aim of agriculture is to produce those plants that are most generally used as food, by man and domestic animals ; such as wheat, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, as also potatoes, beets, turnips, clover, lucerne, etc. Among the products of agriculture are also to be classed what are called the industrial plants, such as flax, hemp, cotton, hops, madder, and others that furnish materials for difierent manufactures, either at home or abroad. Thus we see that agriculture is the chief founda- tion of a nation's power, as it not only furnishes man with food and clothing, but als(? with materials for the mechanic arts, and commerce 10 ELEMENTS OF ACItlCL^xURE. 3. Horticulture has for its object the cultivation of vegetable gardens, and orchards. It flourishes most in the vicinity of cities, as there it not only finds a ready market for its products, but an abundant supply of manures. It is by means of iiorticulture that the greatest quantity possi- ble of products is obtained ; for several crops are usually taken from the same ground, in the same year. 4. Arboriculture treats of the planting, growth, and management of trees. It is a branch of agriculture that will increase in importance with the decrease, now so rapidly going on, in the timber throughout the country. 5. The cultivation of the grasses, for pasturage and hay, is of such well-known importance, that it will be sepa- rately treated in this work. This work is specially devoted to agriculture and rural economy. 6. A knowledge of the principles that it may be neces- sary to follow in cultivation, is called the theory ; the ap- plication of these principles to cultivation, is called prac- tice ; and he who applies them, is called an agriculturist or farmer. 7. In the theory and practice together, consists the art of cultivation'. To be a good farmer, it is not only neces- sary to possess a knowledge of the theory, but also to know how to put it in practice. QUESTK. NS. 1. In what does the art of cultivation cov,"6ist? 2. IIow is it divided ? 3. What is the principal object of agriculture ? 4. What is theory ? 5. What is practice ? 6. What is a farmer ? 7. Does it require a knowledge of the practice and theory both, to make a good farmer ? ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 11 LESSON II. THE DIFFERENT OBJECTS EXISTING IN NATURE. 8. The art of agriculture requires some knowledge of die different objects that exist upon the surface, and in the interior of the earth. It presupposes, consequently, some Acquaintance with natural history, and principally with botany, a science that treats of plants and their properties. 9. All bodies that exist upon the surface, or in the inte- rior of the earth, are divided into three classes, called the kingdoms of nature, namely: 1. The animal kingdom, which includes man and all animals. 2. The vegetable kingdom, in which are included all vegetables, from the largest tree to the smallest plant. 3. The mineral king- dom, to which belong all rocks, stones, earths, and metals. 10. Among the beings that exist, some are endowed with life, such as men, animals, vegetables, or plants ; the others are inanimate, or without life, as minerals, rocks, earths, etc. The first are called organic bodies ; the second, inorganic bodies. 11. The organs are those parts of a body created for the maintenance of life. 12. It is easy to establish the distinction that exists be- tween the beings of the three kingdoms. Those that be- long to the animal kingdom grow, live, feel, and are gifted with the faculty of moving themselves, or locomotion. Those of the vegetable kingdom grow, and live ; a proof of this last property is the faculty that they possess of nourishing and reproducing themselves. Those of the mineral kingdom grow only, and this growth takes place in a manner contrary to that of organized bodies. These last increase always from the interior to the exterior, whereas minerals increase by the addition to their surface 0^ ^vnall particles that adhere to them. lU ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 13. The life of animals and vegetables exhibits a differ- ence worthy of remark ; it is that vegetables seem to be endowed with the reproductive power in all their parts. Thus, when the limb of a tree is cut off and planted in the earth, it may produce another tree. This is not the case with animals. 14. Minerals, and other brute bodies, united in large masses in the bosom of the earth, form rocks that are in a continual state of decomposition. The particles derived from this decomposition constitute, by their mixture with organic remains, the different species of soil that are culti- vated. In other words, soils are composed of a mixture nf organic a?id inorganic remains, QUESTIONS. 1. The art of agriculture presiipposes a knowledge of what T 2. What is botany ? 3. Into how many kingdoms is nature divided ? 4. Wliat are organic and inorganic bodies ? 5. What are organs ? 6. How do we distinguish between the beings of the three kingdom! I 7. How do inorganic bodies increase ? 8. What remark can be made upon animal and vegetable llfet ELEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE. 13 CHAPTER II. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, LESSON III. THE ORGANS OF PLANTS. 15. To enable the farmer to obtain the greatest possible rield from his land, it is necessary that he should know b or cut- ting of a tree produces another tree. 55. In the reproduction by p^eneration, we must above all thini^s be careful in the st'lection and jireservalion of the seed. That they may ujiite all the qualities re(|uisite to reproduction, it is indispensably nec<^s.sary that they should be thorouu^hly ripe, and well i)reserved. We should above all thin^ii-s prevent their ffettinir heated, in which case they would either not sprout at all, or i)roduce l)ut fbages, etc. QUESTIONS. 1. In how many ways are plants reproduced J 2. What is reproduction by generation ? 3. What is reproduction by propagation ? 4. What should be particularly attended to in repreductl v V |f<>u4v^$ton1 5. What are the requisites of good seed ? 6. How can seeds be tested t 7. What are the results obtained from old aad new t. What 18 « nureery, or plant-be A T ELEMENTS CF AGRICULTURE. 27 LESSON X. REPRODUCTION BY PROPAGATION — LAYERING 58. There are four principal modes of reproduction I < propagation, namely: 1. Layering. 2. By cuttings. 3. By grafting. 4. By inoculation. 59. Layering consists in bending down the branches, Jimbs, or suckers, without separating them from the parent plant, and covering them with soil ; their extreme ends only being left out. Thus buried, they will generally soon strike root ; some particular trees, however, with ex- treme difficulty. Such must be tongued — an operation which consists in cutting the layer half off, and splitting it up an inch or more ; the cleft to be kept open by a small wedge, and buried beneath the surface. This operation should be performed in spring ; and the plant, when well rooted, may be separated in the autumn or spring following. 60. By cuttings. There are many plants that may be raised from cuttings. For trees, cuttings should generally be from eight inches to a foot in length, cut oif at the bot- tom, close below an eye, and planted in a humid soil, two thirds of their length beneath the surface, and the ground trodden hard. With some particular kinds, however, it is necessary to square the bottom of the cutting, and press it hard down on the bottom of a pot. Other kinds must be planted in pare sand, and protected from the sun till rooted. They require artificial heat in the soil, and a con- fined atmosphere, which moderates their transpiration. QUESTIONS. 1. How many modes are there of reproduction by propagation? 2. What are layers 1 3. When a layer takes with difficulty, what is done T 4. When should layers be made, and when cut off? 5. How should cvittings be prepared and planted 1 6. What is the treatment of those cuttings that do not take readily T 28 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. LESSON XI. MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS BY GR^ASFTING. 61. Grafting consists in placing a branch or twig of one vegetable upon anotlier, in a way to cause the I ranch or twig to produce a new plant, with more va uable products. 62. The plant grafted upon is called the stock; the plant grafted, the scion. Grafting is particularly useful to perpetuate certain vegetables, that are by nature endowed with peculiar properties, that would be lost were the plant continued by means of the seed. 63. Professor Thouin has described forty modes of graft- ing: we will describe here three — cleft-grafting, graft- ing bij approach, and root-grafting. 64. Cleft-Grafting. — This mode of grafting is usually practised on stocks of from one to two inches in diameter. It is thus performed : The head of the stock is carefully sawed or cut off, at a part free from knots, and the top pared smooth. With a thin knife, split down the stock through the centre, to the depth of about two inches ; in- sert a wedge to keep it open for the reception of the scion. The scion is to be prepared in the form of a wedge, Avith an eye, if possible, in the upper part of the portion thus formed. Perfect success is the more certain when this is the case. The scion is now carefully inserted, so that the inner bark of the scion and the inner bark of the stock may both exactly meet. In large stocks, sometimes four scions are inserted. The whole is now to be carefully covered with the grafting clay, except two or three eyes of each scion. 65. Grafting by Approach. — This is often resorted to with plants that succeed with difficulty by other modes. The limb or limbs of each plant, which are to be thus ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 29 united, must be prepared with a long, sloping cut, of seve- ral inches, nearly to the centre ; and the part of each plan thus prepared are to be brought together and firmly se- cured by a bandage, so that the bark shall exactly meet on at least one side ; they are then covered, at the junction, with clay or composition. When a complete union has takei. place, the trees are separated with a knife, by cut- ting off the scion below the junction, and cutting off the stock above. 66. Root-Grafting. — This operation is often performed on grape-vines, just below the surface of the earth, by the usual mode of cleft-grafting. It is also performed on por- tions or pieces of root, where suitable stocks are scarce. QUESTIONS. 1. What is meant by gi-afting ? 2. How is the plant grafted upon called ? 3. What is the scion ? 4. Why is grafting particularly useful ? 5. How many modes of grafting are there * 6. Describe cleft-grafting. 7. How is grafting by approach performed ? 8. Describe root-gi'afting. LESSON XII. INOCULATING. 67. Inoculating is the operation of transferring any desirable variety of tree upon the stock of an inferior va- riety. The operation is principally practised on small trees, and only during the time when the sap flows freely, and chiefly during the months of August and Geptember. 68. Select for the buds the ripest yomig twigs of the year, and cut oflT the leaves, leaving the footstalk entire. Hav ng selecttd a smooth place in the stock, make a per so I. LEMENTS OF AG?lICULTURE. pendicular slit dowaward, quite through the bark, an incn or a little more in length. Make a cross cut at the top o this slit, quite through to the wood, a little slar.dng down- ward. Next raise the bark on each side of the slit, from top to bottom, taking care not to injure the sap-wood. Proceed then quickly to take off a bud. This is done by- entering the knife about half an inch below the bud, quite through the bark, and separating the bark from the wood, to the same distance above the eye ; always leaving a very thin slip of Vv^ood, about one third the length of the bud. This thin slip of wood occupies the middle section of its length. The bud is to be immediately inserted in the stock to the bottom of the slit, and between the bark and the wood ; the top of the bud being squared even with the cross cut, every part, except the eye, is firmly bound, and covered with baize matting. 69. When the season is far advanced, and the sap flows less freely, it is best to take out the whole of the wood, leaving always the root of the bud. The string is usually taken off in about ten days. In the succeeding spring, when the frost is out of the ground, and the buds begin to swell, cut off the stock, about a quarter of an inch above the bud, sloping downward on the opposite side. QUESTIONS. 1. What is inoculation T 2. On what is it usually practised, and when ? 3. How is the operation peiformed ? 4. Wlien is it best to take all the wood from the bud F 5. When is the string to be taken off? $. When and how is the stock to be cut off* ELEMENTS OF AGIUCULTURE, PART SECOND CHAPTER I. LESSON I. GENERAL fcOJrtxDERATIONS OF THE SOIL, AND THE CAUSEt THAT AFFECT ITS VALUE. 1. That portit«i of the earth turned up by the plough, and in which plants are developed, is called the soil. 2. That portion of the earth v/hich is not cultivated, and which lies immediately beneath the soil, is called the sub' soil. In certain cases, it is advantageous to bring a por- tion of the sub-soil to the surface, which is effected by deeper ploughing or digging than usual ; the depth of the soil is increased, and by this means better crops are ob- tained. We will see presently, however, that there are circumstances m which the soil would not be at all bene- fited by this course. 3. The soil is formed of two kinds of principles : some are of vegetable and aniraal origin, the others are of mine- ral origin. These last form the earth properly so called, and constitute the activity of the soil ; the first its richness. 4. That a soil may yield abundant crops, it is necessary that its activity should be in proportion to its richness ; but it is generally the first quality that predominates, in which case the yield is but little. 5. From what precedes, we must see that almost all «oils must diff"er in value ; for it is rare to find two pre- sisely alike as regards composition. In some (and it is 3'2 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. the smallest number), the richness (organic lemains) is in excess, though in very variable proportions. In others there is an excess of mineralogical principles. In either case the cultivator is the loser ; for in the first soils, most crops w'-ould lodge,* and on the second the vegetation would be thin and meager. e. We must not conclude that the nature of the soil and the proportion of its constituent elements alone influence its value. "Without doubt, these causes contribute much ; but there are many other circumstances, such as the expo- sure and depth of the soil, and the nature of the sub-soil, that in a greater or less degree affect the value of land. Thus, a lot in which the soil is not more than four inches deep, is not near so valuable as one in which it is a foot deep, though the soil is precisely alike in each. The value of land may also be affected by the nature of the sub-soil, for if it be impervious to water, the plants may suffer from too much wet ; if too porous, they may suffer in seasons of drought ; and finally the sub-soil may contain mineral principles inimical to vegetation. 7. It results from what we have just said, that the clas- sification of soils can not depend upon the relative propor- tions of the elements of which they are constituted, not- withstanding the contrary opinion, emitted by some emi- nent writers. It is only by the cultivation of a farm, by a close examination of its condition in all seasons, wet and dry, and by the consideration of other circumstances that we shall indicate hereafter, that we can form an estimate approximating its real value. * When the growth of grain is too highly stimulated by manure, or any other agent, the sterna do not acquire sufficient consistence or strength to faaintaia an erect position ; they fall down, and this is jailed lodging. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTtTRE. 33 QUESTIONS. 1. What is the soil ? 2. What is the sul>-soil ? 3. May the depth of the soil be increased ? 4. Intc how many classes do we divide the constituents of the sofl f 5. That a soil may be fertile, what is necessary ? 6. What is the defect in too rich a soil 1 7. How is the vegetation in a poor soil ? 8. What are the qualities to the value of a soil ? 9. Can a soil be classed according to the relative proportion of its constit- ttent parts ? 10 Wliich is the best way to determine the value of a farm ? LESSON II. THE JIINERAL PARTS OF THE SOIL. 8. As we have before said, the soil is composed of some substances of mineral and others of vegetable and animal origin. These last accrue from the organic remains of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and are decomposed upon and under the surface of the earth, or have been thrown upon the fields by the cultivator. That they may produce a proper effect, it is necessary that they should be mixed with mineral substances ; for alone they would be injurious to plants, as they would render vegetation too active. 9. Among the mineral substances that enter into the composition of soils, and those that are the most frequently found, and in the greatest quantity, are, silex, or siliciows sand ; alumine ; and the carbonate of lime.* 10. The other bodies that also enter into the composi- tion of the soil, but less frequently and in less quantity, are, sulphate of lime,t or plaster ; carbonate of magnesia ; * Carbonate of lime is formed by the union of carbonic acid vrith oxyde of calcium, or with lime. All bodies thus formed by the union of an acid ond an oxyde, take, as we have said before, the name of a salt. t A salt formed by the union of sulphurie acid and lime. b4 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. oxyde of iron ; and oxyde of manganese. These last two are the only mineral parts that give color to the soil. 11. If the whole of the soil was formed of one of these elements, it would be completely barren ; it could only be rendered fit for cultivation by mixing with it a sufficient quantity of earth. 12. Soils that contain much silex are called light, or sandy ; those, on the contrary, that contain much clay,* are called strong, stiff, or clayey. 13. A clayey is much more compact and tenacious than a sandy soil. It is almost always very difficult to work ; whereas a light soil is easily worked, at all times. 14. The different soils, then, may be divided into three classes, as regards their tenacity, or the difficulty of work- ing them, and their fitness for one vegetable rather than another: 1. Silicious, or light land. 2. Loamy land, or that which is brought to a medium consistence, either by amendments, by manures, or even by cultivation. 3. Stiff, or clayey lands. There are, however, several other divis- ions admitted, depending upon the nature and quantity of the constituent elements of the soil. Thus those are called calcareous soils, which contain carbonate of lime; peaty soils are those which contain peat ; ferruginous or ocherous soils, those which contain iron or ochre ; and finally those are called alluvions, that are formed by the deposites of streams and rivers, — and these are usually the Dest for cultivation. 15. If it is useful to be thoroughly acquainted with the properties of the constituent elements of a soil, it is less with a view to appreciate the value of the land, than to ascertain what amelioratorsf should be employed in its improvement. * Clay is a combination of alumine and silex. t We designate as ameliorators those substances which, placed in the soil, change ita nature, by rendering it more friable, or more compact Thua, ELEMENTS OF AG RICVLTTJRE. ZA QUESTIONS. I, Whence come the organic siibstances found in tlie soil! S. What mineral elements are foimd in the earth in the greatest quantity ! 3. Which are those more rarely found 1 4. In which case is the soil entirely barren? 5. What is a light soil ? 6. What is a stitf soil ? 7. Which are the most difficult lands to cultivate ! 8. Into how many classes may soils be dividicd 1 9. What is understood by calcareous soils 1 10. What by loamy land ? II. Whicl is the best to cultivate ? 12. Why is it particularly useful to be familiar witli the properties of tha constituents of a soil ] LESSON III. SILEX, OR SILICA, 16. SiLEX, or silicious sand, is composed of two ele- ments — oxygen, and a metai called siiicium. This metal is found in the common flint, in almost a pure state. It is not soluble in "water, and can only be decomposed by fluo- ric, or phosphoric acid. An earth is recognised to be sili- cious when, mixed with water, it will not v/ork into a paste. 17. Silica is very generally diffused throughout the earth, it is met with, in greater or less quantities, in al- most all soils ; and when not in excess, so far from being injurious, it is beneficial to the soil, by rendering it lighter, easier to work, and more favorable to vegetation. 18. But when sand predominates in a soil, it communi- cates defects that diminish its value. Crops upon it are exposed to suffer from drought, because silica does not Hme is an ameliorator, by tlie property which it possesses of rendering stiff lands of easier cultivation, and giving more compactness to lands that ar« too light. 38 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. combine with water ; and the least heat causes it to lost the little moisture that it might possess. 19. Sandy lands do not easily combine with manures, the soluble parts of which are either carried off by rains, or filtrate through the sub-soil. This renders it necessary to put on weak manures, and renew them frequently. 20. Sandy lands, being very friable, do not require much work ; for we would thereby increase a porosity already too great, and render the roots of the plants cultivated in them liable to exposure. To avoid this difficulty, these lands are often left in pasture for several years ; sometimes they are rolled, after being sown, to render them more compact ; or sheep are penned upon them. In the latter case, the soil is improved in two ways ; by the tramping of the sheep, and by their droppings. Sandy lands possess the advantage of clayey lands, in being at all times in a condition to work without injury. 21. Sandy and gravelly soils differ in value, agreeably to the state of the silica, and the proportion in which it is combined with other elements. When they are composed of coarse sand and pure gravel, they are of little or no value ; for they will yield but poor crops, even with a great outlay in manure. Some writers have advised these lands to be converted into meadow; but this can only be done (if then at a profit) where they can be easily irrigated ; 7or without the necessary moisture, most of the natural meadow-grasses would speedily perish, in seasons of drought. 22. Of the cereals, rye is almost the only grain that suc- ceeds well in sandy lands ; wheat, and even barley, do no< thrive on them. But Indian corn, buckwheat, and root crops, Avith plenty of manure, will do very well. Crops ripen earlier in these soils ; but their early maturitv is sometimes at the expense of their quality. Hoot croD« grown upon them, if not so heavy, are more nutritiow* ELEMENTS OF AtrRICULTURE. 37 than those i^rowa upon stiifT lands, because they are less watery. 23. Silica is found in the ashes of almost all vegetables, but principally in those of the cereals. This is why it has been supposed that it concurs in the nutrition of plants, although from its nature it does not seem fit for this func- li. n. In all cases, its principal function is to act mechan- ii'.Aly upon the soil. QUESTIONS. 1. Of what is silica composed? 2. How is a silicious soil recognised ? 3. Is it widely dift'used throughout the earth t 4. Is it always injurious to land ? 5. To what are crops growing in sandy laud exposed? 6. How does it combine with manures ? 7. Does sandy land require much work ? 8. What is done to prevent the roots from being exposed? 9. Under what circumstances ought sandy lands to be converted into meadows ] 10. What cereals can be cultivated on them T 11. What crops thrive best on them 7 12. In what bodies is silica found 1 LESbON IV. CLAY. 24. Clay is composed of silica and another body called alumine, or aluinina. This last, when obtained in a pure state, is a powder of a whitish color ; it is distinguished by the facility with which it absorbs water. 25. Land in which clay predominates is not everywhere of the same color. It is often of a reddish hue ; this is owing to the oxyde of iron it contains. If it contains a large proportion of humus, it becomes black, and loses its color by calcination. 26. Clayey soils have, as their distinguishing character, 4 58 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTUKE. the adhesiveness of tlieir parts (due to the plastic property of the alumine they contain) ; and this property alone will enable even the inexpciionced to discriminate them. A stiff clay when dried, by either natural or artificial heat, oecomes so hard as to resist a considerable mechanical pressure. This property makes it valuable fur the manu- fecture of bricks, tiles, pottery, etc. 27. On account of the tenacity of such soils, they are tilled with more difficulty than the freer soils. They re- quire to fertilize them a larger proportion of manures ; but they retain the effects of these manures a longer time. They are better suited to the cultivation of plants with fibrous than with fleshy roots, or tubers. 28. Soils of this class, as of every other, possess many degrees of natural fertility. Tne poor clays form, for the most part, an unprofitable soil ; because, while their powers of production are inconsiderable, the expenses of tilling them are large. The clay soils of this character are gene- rally of little depth, and rest upon a retentive subsoil. The natural herbage they produce is coarse, and not very nutritious ; and they are not well suited to the cultivated grasses, and other herbage plants. They are little fitted for the growth of turnips, or other plants with fleshy roots or tubers. Such soils have everywhere local names, which sufficiently denote their qualities ; and they are termed, by not an improper figure, cold soils. 29. Very different in their value and nature are the richer clays. These bear weighty crops of ail the culti- vated kinds of small grain ; they do not excel the better soils of other classes so greatly in the production of corn and still less in that of barley, in which the lighter loams may surpass them. But they are unequalled in the pro- duction of wheat, and in many places derive their de- scriptive appellation from that circumstance, being termed wheat soils. They will yield large returns of the culti- ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 39 rated grasses and leguminous herbage plants, though they are not so quickly covered with the natural herbage plants of the soil, when laid down to perennial pasturage, as the lighter soils. 30. Clays, like other soils, approach to their most per- fect condition as they advance to that state which has been termed loam. The effect of judicious tillage, and of the application of manures, is to improve the texture of such soils, as well as to enrich them. Thus, clays in the neigh- borhood of cities become dark in their color, and less cohe- sive in their texture, from the mixture of animal and vege- table matter ; and thence acquire the properties of the most valued soils of their <"lass. QUESTIONS. 1. What is the composition of clay ' 2. What is ahimine 1 3. Why are clay soils sometimes red ? 4. What is their distinguishing character ? 5. What manufacture is clay valuable for, and why T 6. Are they as easily worked as other soils 1 7. What is said about the application of manures to clays? 8. What class of plants succeed best in them ? 9. Why are they unprofitable to cultivate ? v 10. They are unfitted for the growth of what plants ? 11. Clay soils are unequalled, when of fine quality, for the production of what! 12. They yield large returns of what ? 13. What is the efl'ect of manures and judicious tillage upon their texture 1 14. What is the etfect of animal and vegetable manures upon their color} LESSON V. CARBONATE OF LIME. 31. As we have indicated (No. 9), carbonate of lime is formed by carbonic acid and lime. Carbonic acid is a gas heavier than air ; large quantities of it are thrown off by burning charcoal. 40 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 32. All earths that contain carbonate of lime are calcai reous, and an excess is injurious, as the plants would fire. On the contrary, if the carbonate of lime is in suitable pro- portion, it is advantageous to the soil, and renders it better for cultivation. 33. Chalk, marble, limestone, shells, are calcareous. "When exposed to the action of heat, the carbonic acid es- capes, and they are converted into lime. Some of these substances, that become friable from the effects of frost, may improve the soil by increasing its depth. 34. Carbonate of lime is found almost pure in marble, but in other bodies it is often united with foreign sub- stances. It can only be efiective in the soil when reduced and pulverized by the action of heat. If it remained in its primitive state of stone, it would be more injurious than beneficial — imj)eding the plough, breaking imple- ments, occasioning loss of time, and extensive repairs. This applies, however, to large stones only; for if they are very small they improve clay lands, by rendering them less tenacious. 35. We know that lands containing clay in large quan- tities, are very compact, and difTicult to cultivate. Car- bonate of lime, reduced to an earthy texture, serves to loosen and render them more permeable to air, and to give them, consequently, properties favorable to vegetation. 30. There are also soils containing organic remains, that decompose with great difficulty, and from which, consequently, cultivated vegetables can derive but little benefit. Thus, with soils that have been a long time in fallow, and are clothed with fern, sedge, rushes, etc., if we content ourselves with merely turning them under, without the application of such substances as lime to favor their decomposition, a long time may elapse before the vegeta- tion, so turned under, will produce the desired effect. 37. Sometimes even the substances contained in a soil ELEMENTS OF AGllICULTURE. 41 *re totally inert and would so remain for centuries, with- out encouraging vogctatiun. Carbonate of lime possesses the property of decomposing a I these remains, and of ren- dering them fit to serve the nutrition of plants. It also destroys the acidity of certain soils. We shall, however, 4,iave occasion to recur to the effect of mineral manures. 38. Certain plants seem to prefer calcareous to all othe. Boils, as sainfoin and lucerne, both forage plants. The fa- mous vineyards of Champagne are on a soil eminently cal- careous. 39. Potatoes, turnips, beets, cabbages, Jerusalem arti- chokes, grow finely in calcareous soils ; as do peas, corn, barley, tobacco, etc. QUESTIONS. 1. Whnt ia the composition of cnrbonate of lime T 2. Whut is understood by calcareous earth ? 3. Wiuit is the etiect of too much carbonate of limo ? 4. What the oHect when it exists in the right proportion? 5. What are the calcareous sulistances most commonly met with T 6. What occurs when (rarbonate of lime is exposed to the action of he ehase a farm ? 3. Why should we seek to know the texture and depth of a soil ? 4. What is meant by the consistence of a soil ? 5. What are the defects of too much closeness 1 P. What is the best consistence ? 7. Will humus bring it about 1 8. What are the inconveniences of sandy soils ? 9. Are all soOs of the same depth ? 10. WTiat advantages do deep soils possess over others ? 11. Which are the plants that thrive best in a deep soil ? * Tap-roots are those that descend perpendicularly, to a certain depth, in t&eeoiL ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 53 LESSON XL SITUATION OF THE SURFACE. 76. Whether the surface of a farm lies well or lot, de- >ends upon the nature of the soil. Thus, sandy lani rarely iuffers from being level, as it seldom retains too much moisture. Clayey lands, on the other hand, being natur- ally disposed to moisture, would evidently suffer from con- tinued rains, if so situated. The water not being able to penetrate through the earth, would remain upon the sur- face, and injure and sometimes kill the plants. 77. Arable lands lie best when just sufficiently rolling to carry off the surplus water, with the assistance of the water-furrows that should always be made immediately after seeding. Water-furrows are of great importance, and farmers are frequently great losers by neglecting to make them ; for wheat covered by water, in freezing weather, often suffers, and is frequently killed. 78. In some cases, water-furrows do not remedy the evil of too much moisture. Recourse is then had to ditch- ing, or what is better, under-draining, which is done by digging narrow ditches, filling them half full with broken stone or brush, and then throwing the earth back into them. The water, when the operation is properly per- formed, will flow freely among the stones or brush, at the bottom of the ditch. 79. Some farmers have even changed the nature of the subsoil, by replacing it with stone and gravel ; but this process is enormously expensive, and only applicable on a very small scale. 80. Hilly lands possess some advantages over those that are level ; among others, the better exposition of the plants to i^ght and air. 81. But these advantages are overbalanced by serious 5* 54 ELEMENTS OF AGKICULTJKE. drawbacks ; heavy rains carry off the soil and manures ; the ploughing is more difficult, and the hauling heavier. QUESTIONS 1. What indicates tlie best situation that a soil ehould be in t 2. May sandy lands be level ? 3. Is it as well that clay lands should be leve\ 1 4. How do clay lands lie best ? 5. What precautions should the farmer take to preserve his lands Iroxa too much moisture ? \ 6. When should we under-drain ? 7. What other means can be employed to carry off the water I 8. What advantages do hilly lands possess 1 9. What are the objections to these lands 1 LESSON XII. SUB-SOIL. 82. The elements of the sub-soil are sometimes of me same nature as those that compose the surface ; but they have not the same properties, for they are deprived of con- tact with the air, and are rarely found mixed with mould. In other cases, the mineralogical elements of the sub-soil are of a nature entirely different from those on the surface. 83. We may in general distinguish three species of sub- soil ; the clayey, the sandy or gravelly, and the calcareous. Depending upon the nature of the soil, each of these sub- soils, as we shall see, endows it with properties more or less favorable. 84. A clayey sub-soil, beneath a clay soil, is injurious, as it retains too much moisture in wet weather, and be- comes too hard in seasons of drought. This evil is some- what corrected by deep ploughing, which loosens the soil, rendering it more permeable, and capable of retaining a greater quantity of water, without being injurious to vege- tation. ELEMENTS OF AGHICULTURE. Oc 85. If a sandy soil covers a clay sub-soil, it is much less exposed to the evil effects of drought, on account of the moisture retained beneath it ; and by deep ploughing the clay may be mixed with and thus improve it. 86. These mixtures of the sub-soil and soil are not the only means that the farmer possesses of preserving in the land the moisture necessary to the vegetation of plants. Frequent working gives also to land the property of retain- ing moisture, and this is the case as well with a stiff as with a sandy soil. The cause of this has not yet been well ex- plained, but it is so; and it is in contradiction to an opinion entertained by many, that frequent working in limes of drought is injurious to the crop. 87. As a clay sub-soil is suitable to sandy land, just so is a sandy sub-soil favorable to a surface containing much clay. It permits the infiltration of the superabundant moisture, and may ameliorate the soil if mixed with it. 88. But a sandy soil, based upon a sub-soil of the same nature, being entirely too permeable to moisture, must suffer much from drought, and yield but indifferent crops. There is too greal waste of manures, as their liquid parts sink too deep. 89. When the soil is devoid of carbonate of lime, and the subsoil is calcareous, a mixture of the two by deep ploughing is evidently beneficial. Stiff soils particularly will profit by this mixture ; for at the same time they will lose a portion of their tenacity, become more favorable to vegetation, and rendered easier to work. But the carbon- ate of lime in the sub-soil must be in an earthy state, and not in the form of stones, a few only of which, the schis- tous, can, as we have seen, become friable on the surface. 90. From what pi-ecedes, we perceive that there are many cases irj which deep ploughing can i;nprove the soil, and increase its products. It is true that, in certain cases, these workings appear in the first years to injwe rather 56 ELKIMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. than benefit the soil. This is the case when the <;ub-soii contains princijilcs,such as the oxyde of iron, that may be fatal to vcgelation. But generally in a few years these injurious properties disappear, after the elements brought to the surface have been acted upon by atmospheric in- fluences, and mixed with humus. 91. The farmer sometimes contents himself (and per- haps it is the best plan) with merely stirring the sub-soil, without bringing it to the surface. It is then acted upon by the atmosphere, and gradually mixed with fertilizing influences. This operation is performed by a plough made for the purpose, called a sub-soil plough, which follows in the furrow immediately behind the ordinary plough. QUESTIONS. 1 Are the mineralogical elements of the soil and eub-soil of the same nature T 2. How ninny kinds of sub-soil are there ? 3. Is a clay sub-soil favorable to a clay soil ? 4. ^Vhat is the remedy for too much moisture in a clay soil ? 5. Is a sandy soil favored by a clay sub-soil? 6 Do frequent workings preserve moisture in the soil ? 7. Is a sandy sub-soil favorable to a clay soil ? 8. When the soil and sub-soil are both sandy, is it favorable? 9. Can a calcareous sab-soil improve the surface ? 10. Wliich soils are most benefited by mixture with carbonate of lime ? 11. In what state should the carbonate of lime be to produce an effect upon the soil ? 12. In what circumstances would deep ploughing be disadvantageous? 13. How is the soil deepened without bringing the sub-soil to the surface ? LESSON XIII. THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON VEGETATION. 92. The temperature requires great attention on the part of the cultivator ; for it is well known what influence it exercises on vegetation, and that it varies according to ELE-^IENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 5"; localities. In the northern states the cold is generally intense, and lasts a long time ; whereas in the southern heat predominates. There are also countries that, by their position, are much damper than others, or which are more exposed to storms, hail, etc. It is to the aggregate of all these atmospheric circumstances, that we give the name of climate. 93. We may adopt three climates ; the northern, the southern, and the mean, or intermediate. But these three climates may be subdivided to infinity ; and it may almost be said, that each state, county, town, and village, pos- sesses a particular climate of its own ; for it is not a rare circumstance to see two neighboring places differ greatly in this respect. 94. The position of a district or place influences its cli- mate greatly. There are places that enjoy a low (cold) temperature though beneath the equator. This comes from their position, which is much more elevated than the level of the ocean. This is partly the reason why the cold is always greater on the summit of high mountains than at their base ; and it is also one of the reasons why very high mountains, though in southern countries, are always cov- ered with ice and snow. 95. Each plant has not only a soil, the properties of which suit it better than those of any other, but it has also a climate appropriated to its nature. Moreover, the species of cultivated plants are in many cases as different as the temperature of the place in which they are found is more or less elevated (warm). Thus it is that in the south the cotton-plant, the sugar-cane, and the fig, flourish ; whereas, if these vegetables were transplanted to the north, they would perish from cold. 96. Crops ripen much more rapidly upon a warm than upon a cold soil ; so in southern climates vegetation is much more rapid than at the north. 58 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTUEE. 97. Vegetation in general suffers from intense cold, but more particularly that of certain plants. But what does the most injury, in these cases, are the sudden changes in temperature ; and the damage is greater to plants growing upon light soils. Whenever the temperature falls gradu- ally, vegetation suffers but little. It is for this reason that a frozen plant should never be put in a warm place. To restore its vigor, we should give it a temperature that will cause it to thaw insensibly. 98. It is particularly after great moisture that plants suffer when overtaken by frost ; for in this case the stem is more tender and watery. The water and sap, that are increased in volume by congelation, then burst the tissues of the plant, and destroy the vital principle of certain in- dispensable organs. QUESTIONS. 1. ^Vhat is the climate of a country ? 2. Wliat are the principal climates ? 3. Are there others? 4. Does the position of a place influence its climate ? 5. Can the same plants be cultivated in places of different temperature 1 6. In which climate is vegetation most rapid ? 7. Is vegetation injured by cold ? 8. When is a change of temperature most hurtful ? 9. How must we proceed to thaw a plant 1 10. In what circumstances do plants sxiffier most from cold T LESSON XI>'. T" ^ EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON CULTIVATION AND UPON ANIMAL ECONOMY. 99. Tn the preceding lesson, we indicated the causes upon which the state of a climate depends, and its general effects upon vegetation. We have yet to consider it undei ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 59 another aspect ; its influence on the cultivable properties of the soil, and the rearing of domestic animals. 100. A vegetable transplanted from one soil to another, does not at first grow with its original vigor. So is it in this case with men and animals. A sudden change of diet deranges lor some time the animal organization ; and a transition even somewhat protracted is always necessary. Plants require to be gradually accustomed to the new cir- cumstances in which they are to grow ; and often, when removed to a new climate, their conformation is changed, and their products, in both nature and quantity. 101. The study of climate is above all necessary when the object is to change, in any locality, the system of ag- riculture that has been for a long time prevailing there. In this case some trials should be made to ascertain whether the plant desired to be introduced into the rota- tion will succeed. The same precautions should be taken with the animals to be employed in agricultural labor. 102. In a damp climate, the defects of the lighter soils are less to be feared, as they are then less exposed to drought. The dampness of climate, however, does not depend so much upon the quantity of water that falls as upon the heat, more or less great, that causes it to evap- orate. But it is well known that one country may possess a dryer climate than another, though more rain may fall in the first than in the second. 103. The Creator, who placed and arranged everything here in such admirable order, adapted also to man's wants all the plants that grow in the climate that he inhabits. In England, for instance, the climate, though damp in consequence of its vicinity to the ocean, is more regular than with us. Under such a climate succulent food is very necessary ; accordingly nature favors, to a remarkable degree, the development of such plants as are necessary to the maintenance of numerous herds. 80 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, 104. In the south, where the heat is greater, nature produces fruits, and other refreshing aliments, so necessary to man in warm climates. Animals too can be maintained differently from those in the north ; for there the temperature permits them to pass the whole year in the open air. In the United States, between Maine and Florida, we have almost every variety of climate ; consequently, in the way of agricultural products, the nation is singularly rich. QUESTIONS. 1. Does a vegetable transplanted from one climate to a lother grow off at once ? 2 In what instance is the study of climate particularly necessary ? 3. Do the lighter soils suffer much in damp climates ? 4. Are the productions of the different climates adapted to the peculi&f wants of the inhabitants of those climates ? 5. What is the condition of the United States in regan h) clim«te t 6 WhaS is their condition in regard to productioiu T ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 61 PART THIRD. CHAPTER I. Ameliorators. LESSON I. 6SNERAL VIEWS OF MANURES, AMELIORATORS, AND STIM- ULANTS. 1. Most of the products of the earth serve as food for men and animals. Among the latter, some furnish us with the necessary power to work the earth ; others give us milk, cheese, wool, meat, etc. But that animals may continue to furnish us with these, the necessaries of life, they should be well cared for, and supplied with an abun- dance of healthy and nourishing food. 2. So is it with the earth. She never refuses us her gifts if sh€ is well cared for, and her strength renewed, after furnishing food to exhausting crops. 3. All cultivated vegetables do not exhaust the soil to the same degree. The farmer should study carefully the properties of plants in this respect ; for it is the only way to establish a judicious and profitable system of rotation. Thus, after a crop of clover, the land requires no manure ; for it receives from this crop more than it gives ; and it may grow another crop more or less exliausting, depend- ing upon its previous condition. 6 62 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE 4. That a soil should be productive, it must contain ne mineralogical elements in suitable proportions. Each cne of the simple bodies (silica, clay, lime, etc.) that we have described, is sterile in itself; it is only by their mixture that they can give the soil the qualities suited to vegeta- tion. 5. If Nature has not always effected these mixtures in just proportions (and this is one reason of the difference ui the value of land), she furnishes us, in return, the means of amelioration, that enable the farmer to supply this de- fect. It is precisely because the use of fertilizing means is neglected, that we see everywhere so much waste land. 6. The soil requires two species of elements that it is important not to compound. Some accrue from organic bodies, and are called manures ; their principal object is to serve as food for plants. The others are the produce, for the most part, of the mineral kingdom, and talte the li^TCiQ of ameliorators ; they give the earth advantageous properties relative to cultivation, by improving its texturt when either too stiff or too loose. 7. There are also other substances, such as plaster, which in most cases, without modifying the composition of the soil, give activity to the vegetation of plants, by forcing them to absorb more nourishment from the soil and atmosphere. These bodies are called stimulants. 8. The same substance may perform more than one function ; it may serve at the same time as a manure and as an ameliorator. Dung, for instance, as we shall see hereafter, applied to certain soils, may at the same time furnish food to plants and force into action certain inert principles contained in the soiL 9. It is of the utmost importance to the success of the farmer, that he should give his attention to soils that are deficient in their composition ; but above all things he ehuld be acqvninted with the mode of action, and the ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 63 matri..t>/ of employing substances that are so necessary to the amelioration of his land. This knowledge must guide him both in his choice of ameliorations and in the manner of their execution. It is for this reason that, after the study of soils, we introduce that of ameliorators, the em- ployment; of which, in many cases, is indispensable. QUESTIONS. 1. Do animal3 furnish products useful to man ? 2. What must be done to enable them to continue the supply? 3. What must be done for the earth to enable it to continue ita supplies t 4. Are all plants equally exhausting 1 5. What must the farmer do in this respect 1 6. What is necessary that a soil should be productive ? 7. Are simple bodies always mixed in suitable proportions ? 8. Why are there so many waste lands ? 9. Which are the two species of elements required by the soil ? 10. What are stimulants? 11. Can the same substances act in more ways than one on the soil? 12. To proceed properly in the amelioration of soils, what knowledge should the fanner possess ? LESSON II. LIMING LANDS, OR THE USE OF LIME AS AN AMELIORATOR. 10. Lime, as we have seen, is a compound of oxygen and a simple body called calcium. To obtain it, carbon- ate of lime must be submitted to the action of heat until calcined. The water of crystallization escapes in the form of vapor, and the result is quick or caustic lime. 11. Besides the use that is made of lime in building, it IS also employed as an ameliorator in those localities in which agriculture is in a state of improvement ; and if farmers have not often recourse to this means of increas- ing the value of their lands, it is because they are gener- ally ignorant of the good effects it produces, or because 64 ELEBIENTS OF AGF.ICULTURE. they do not know in what circumstances liming can be advantageously effected. 12. To use lime as an ameliorating substance, it is necessary that the farmer should know how to distinguish the soils that would be improved by the application of cal- careous ameliorators. In effect, it is useless to add humus to land containing already enough ; just so is it useless to add lime to land that has enough. It would be a useless waste of labor, and might produce injurious consequences. 13. The carbonate of lime, then, as an ameliorator, is only suited to such lands as do not contain calcareous prin- ciples. It is easy to recognise them : whenever an earth, brought in contact with an acid, produces an effervescence, we may be certain that it contains a sufficiency of lime to produce the desired effect upon such organic parts of diffi- cult decomposition as may be contained in the soil. 14. The spontaneous vegetation, also, frequently indi- cates the lands upon which lime may be used to advantage. Thus, those lands upon which broom, red sheep-sorrel, heath, the chestnut, and resinous trees, grow spontaneously, are generally disposed to increase in value by the applica- tion of lime. QUESTIONS. 1. What is the composition uf lime? 2. How is it obtained ? 3. What use is it put to ? 4. Why is not its use more ^neral in agi-iculture ? 5. What ought the cultivator to know to make use of lime ? 6. Are calcareous soils improved by liming ? 7. How are calcareous soils recognised ? 8. By what sign do we recognise the utility of liming a soil t ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 6fl LESSON III. LIMING LANDS (CONTINUED). 15. We have seen that, as an ameliorator, ^ime is not suitable to calcareous soils ; but we are not thereby to un- derstand that it is to be employed with advantage on every other kind of soil. It has been remarked, on the contrary, that on certain soils, lime has produced no effect whatever, without its being possible to discover in their composition any explanation of the fact. 16. We may then conclude that soils, independent of their composition, are more or less disposed to improve- ment by calcareous ameliorators. Trials should be made in this respect ; and this means of amelioration, where it can be employed, should never be neglected. 17. Lime has frequently been employed with disadvan- tage, because it was looked upon as a manure. If organic remains are found in the soil, in tolerable quantities, we may certainly obtain by means of lime alone tolerably fair crops, for two or three years in succession ; but after this time we will have an exhausted soil, that will return with great difficulty to a productive state. By liming without manuring, we would give the soil a factitious activity, that would be followed by sterility. 18. We ought then to consider the liming of land as a means of preparing the food of plants, and of putting in action inert principles that otherwise would have remained dormant and unproductive ; but we must not think that lime itself is a principle of nourishment. Perhaps, as is supposed by a distinguished German author,* liming may also supply the roots with a quantity of carbonic acid, m addition to that furnished them by the humus. * See Von Thaer, in the " Farmers' Library and Monthly Joiimal of Agri culture." 6* 56 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 19. It is wrong to pretend, as some do, that the tffect of lime is different as it happens to be in the state of car- bonate or that of quick-lime. Facts prove the contrary, and theory agrees with them. In effect, lime, when it comes from the kiln where it is quick, is deprived of its carbonic acid ; but it recovers it very soon when placed in the soil, by taking possession of that which it finds there, or by drawing it from the atmosphere. Thus, whether we place the caustic lime or the carbonate of lime in the earth, it must in the end be carbonate of lime that pro- duces the effect. Only lime deprived of its carbonic acid, may be employed in rather smaller quantity. 20. We repeat, to fix the attention upon the utility of lime, that the farmer ought by all means to make a trial of it on a small scale, upon the different species of soil that he cultivates. He may be guided by the result of these experiments. Without this precaution, he would run the risk of losses, often heavy. QUESTIONS. 1. Does lime produce an effect on ail soils that are not calcareous ! 2. What ought to be done to ascertain if a soil should be limed ? 3. What is the error that has often caused liming to be abandoned » 4. What is the effect of lime without manure? 5. How ought we to consider the liming of land ? 6. Is there a difference in the effect of carbonated and caustic lime? 7 What should the farmer do to decide about liming ? LESSON IV. LIMING LANDS (CONTINUED). 21. We have seen that lime gives activity to vegetation, by the property which it possesses r ^decomposing humus, and rendering it sooner fit to se^ is food to plants. I( ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 67 also destroys the acid principles in the land ; but th's must not be in a low, wet state, or it must first be drained. 22. Moreover, lime, when it acts, according to the opmion of some writers, gives additional strength to the straw of the different cereals, and thereby prevents them from falling or lodging. It corrects the defects of soils that are too cold and wet, and increases the porosity of those that are too stiff. It consequently influences, in a sensible degree, the yield of crops. 23. We have seen (No. 19) that the effect of carbonate of lime does not differ from that produced by quick-lime ; this last, however, should be preferred, and for this reason: Calcareous substances, to produce all the effects to be ex- pected from them, should be in an earthy state. It is then necessary that the carbonate, before being employed, should be pulverized, or reduced to powder ; this is easily done by calcination. To pulverize it in any other way would be tedious and expensive. 24. When we are assured that a soil contains no calca- reous substances, the next thing to be ascertained is the quantity of lime to be employed, and the time and manner of applying it. Here are some rules to be followed in this respect. 25. The quantity of lime to be used depends, m general — 1. On the durability desired to be given to the ameliora- tion. 2. The nature of the soil to be limed. 3. The na- ture of the lime that is used. It is by the examination ot these three causes that we can ascertain the quantity of lime necessary to be applied. It is, however, understood that clay soils, particularly those that are cold turf-lands, and the soils in which organic remains do not readily decompose, require heavier liming than light and sandy soils. On the last, not more than half as much is used as in the first. 26. Lime may be applied to the land in different ways, and at different periods. 1. It may be laid on the surface 68 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. of mowing or pasture land, and remain there until it la ploughed up for tillage, even though this should be several years aftervirard. The lime in this case quickly sinks into the soil, and, acting upon it, prepares it for crops when it is again tilled. 2. It may be spread upon the ground, and covered by the plough, just after a crop of any kind has been gathered. In this case, it prepares the soil for the succeeding crops. 3. It may be spread upon the surface even when plants are grov/ing. This practice, however, though sometimes convenient, is rarely to be imitated. 4. It may be and is most frequently applied during the season when the land is in fallow, or in preparation for what are termed fallow crops. 27. That lime may produce an immediate effect, it must be thoroughly mixed with the soil ; and this is why it is generally put upon a fallow, a year or more before it is broken up. There is a very simple machine now in use, called a lime-spreader, that is attached to the tail of an ordinary cart, which spreads the lime very evenly. 28. The effect of lime is sometimes not perceptible until the second or third year ; this is when the mixture with the soil has not been properly effected. It is very important that land should be well drained before being limed, because lime improves only such as are moist by nature, and not by position. QUESTIONS. 1. What is the action of lime upon land ? 2. What are the other eflFects ? 3. Why prefer quick-lime to carbonate of lime ? 4. Before liming, what is it necessary to know ? 5. On what generally depends the quantity of lime to be employed 1 6. Which soils require the most lime ? 7. In what quantities is it applied ? 8. How is the spreading best eflected ? 9. What should be done to enable lime to produce an immediate eflTectl 10. Is a soil in a wet situation improved by liming ! ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 68 LESSON V. JIARL AS AN AMELIORATOR. 29. We have seen (No. 42, second part), that marl is a compound of carbonate of lime mixed with clay, silica, shells, and other inorganic substances, in various propor- tions. The quantity of calcareous principles that a marl contains has a direct influence upon its use as an amelio- rator, and for this reason it has been thought useful to dis- tinguish several kinds of marl, that each suit soils of a different nature. 30. The pruicipal kinds of marl are : 1 . The calcareous ; those containing the most carbonate of lime, and which are consequently the richest. 2. Marl properly so called, that does not contain more than half its weight in calca- reous substances. 3. Clayey marl, that contains three or four times as much clay as marl. 4. Marly clay, that contains the feeblest portion of calcareous carbonate.* 31. Marl can not always be recognised simply by the eye ; to distinguish it, it is necessary to have recourse to the means indicated in treating of the mmeral parts of the soil. 32. The same error that prevents the use of lime also prevents that of marl, in many instances, when it should be used. It has been often used as a manure, when it should merely be considered an ameliorator. Whenever lime or marl is used upon a soil deficient in the proper quantity of organic remains, so far from producing any effect upon the physical properties of the soil, it will be apt to injure by giving it too much activity. 33. Marl, by its beneficent properties, should play an important part in the agriculture of many districts in the * There are many other varieties not necessary to describe. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. (Jnited States, particularly along the seaboard, and in the southwestern states, where it abounds in vast beds of the finest quality. In New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, exhausted and wornout lands have been brought to the highest state of productiveness ly abundant marling. Its great abundance and richness, in the now wornout landg along the tidewater of the old southern states, will yet make them rival the virgin fertility of the western states, and perhaps give the tide of emigration a new di- rection. Like lime, it improves alike the texture of sandy and stiif lands, and it has the advantage of lime in being generally cheaper. 34. Before using marl as an ameliorator, we should know how to discover whether a soil contains carbonate of lime ; and we should be able also to determine the quantity of this substance. To make this experiment (and there is no sort of difficulty about it), a portion of the soil to be tried is taken at a certain depth, and not on the im- mediate surface ; for this last might, independent of its primitive composition, contain calcareous substances, placed there at some period more or less remote. 35. The following is the very simple process by which the proportion of calcareous matter contained in marl is determined. Take a set of delicate scales, and after dry- ing, without hardening, one hundred grains of the earth to be tried, they are put in a vessel, and a sufficiency of water to crumble it to an earthy consistence is added. LFpon this a few drops of nitric acid are thrown, and the mixture is worked up with a wooden spatula ; efferves- cence immediately takes place ; and the carbonic acid es- capes. This last is replaced by the nitric acid, which then forms a nitrate of lime. As this body has the property of remaining suspended in water, it is expelled by several successive washings ; taking always great care that the other earthy particles are precipitated to the bottom of the ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 71 vessel. After this, the residuum is nothing more than clay and silica, the weight of which is easily ascertained by the scales. If we then compare it with the original quantity operated on (that is, the hundred grains), the difference will be the exact quantity of carbonate of lime contained in the marl ; for the diminution is occasioned by the escape of the carbonic acid gas, besides the lime that was expelled with the nitric acid. QUESTIONS. 1. Why do we distinguish several kinds of marl ? 2. Which are the principal kinds of marl ? 3. Can we distinguish marl simply by the eye ? 4. Why has so littie marl been employed ? 5. What is the effect of marl applied to lands that do not contain a sufQ. ciency of organic remains ? 6. What is the effect of marl on the fertility of lands ? 7. Where does it most abound in the United States? 8. What is it well to know before using marl? 9. How do we ascertain the quantity of carbonate of lime contained in a BOil? 10. What advantage doea marl generally possess over lime ? LESSON VI. MARL AS AN AMELIORATOR (CONTINUED;. 36. In the preceding lesson, we have made known the different species of marl, and also the means of distinguish- ing them. The question now to be examined is, to which species of earth is each kind particularly suited? 37. In general, as marl is only employed on account of the carbonate of lime it contains, it is without effect upon calcareous soils, unless the object is aa amelioration by clay. The action of the farmer, as regards the ameliora- tion of calcareous as well as other soils, depends upon the object that he wishes to attain. 72 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 38 Calcareous marl is that Avhich agrees best with clay soils. Clayey marl and marly clay are best suited to gravelly and sandy lands ; but the great quantity that it is often necossary to employ in this case leads to such expense as not always to permit the farmer to make such ameliora- tions. 39. In case that it is desired to employ calcareous sub- stances on light lands, they should generally be used in small quantities ; for these soils are naturally disposed to dryness, and to decompose manures ; whereas, as we have seen, the reverse is the case with stiff lands. 40. Marl properly so called suits, as it were, every kind of soil, giving porosity to the clayey and compactness to the silicious. 41. Though marl is adapted to the amelioration of cer- tain soils, it does not follow that it is fertile in itself. On the contrary, a soil containing too much of it would pos- sess the defects of lands too highly calcareous, and it could only be rendered productive by unusual quantities of ma- nure. 42. Marly earths favor the vegetation of certain plants that can serve as indicators to the farmer in search of marl. 43. We have just demonstrated that the action of marl depended upon its composition, and that of the soils to which it is applied. As to the quantity that should be employed, it is subordinate to three principal circum- stances, namely: 1. The nature of the soil. 2. The na ture of the marl. 3. The durability desired for the ame- lioration. This durability depends not only on the quan- tity of the marl to be employed, but also upon its richness General^, from twenty to sixty double-horse cart-loads are usea ; but soils on which marl is used only for its clay require a much larger quantity. 44. That marl may be effective, the soil must not be ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 73 wet. Though calcareous substances correct the defects of lands that retain water, it is when these defects pro- ceed from their composition, and not from their situation. 45. It is generally in autumn that marl is hauled upon the land, because then it becomes rapidly friable from the effects of rain and Irost, and can be more easily and evenly spread. QUESTIONS. 1. Does marl agree with calcareous soils ? 2. What species of marl shoiild be employed on calcareous soils ? 3. What gpecies should be used on gravelly and sandy lands T 4. Should marl be used in large quantities on light lands ? 5. To what soil is marl, properly so called, best adapted ? 6. Is a marly soil fertile in itself? 7. Are there certain plants that by their preseoce indicate the existence of marl ? 8. On what does the action of marl depend 1 9. On what does the quantity of marl to be employed depend ? 10. Df T.r.F.,WTS OF AGJlICULTURi:. >.Ai.p; un to this rule, as they thrive much better in pas cUres. 87. When animals are pastured, there is a great loss of manure. Without taking into account the manure lost, the pasture suffers much in wet weather from the poaching of the hoof. It is generally thought that those rpeadows yield most on which the afterswaih (that is, the grass that grows after the crop of hay is made) is never depastured. Those farmers that keep their cattle up (soil them) con- tend that they get four or five times as much manure as they do when the animals are grazed ; but the advantages of soiling often depends upon local circumstances, climate, price of labor, etc. QUESTIONS. 1. What is manure ? 2. What rrmst the farmer do to obtain the necessaiy suppHes of manure ? 3. Can tixed rules be established on this head ? 4. Do excrements contain anj'thing more than the remains of food ? 5. Wiiat causes the difference in value between the manure from fat and ^•lat from lean cattle ? 6. Does the manner of keeping stock affect the quality of manure! 7. What are the usual metiliods of keeping stock 1 8. Which is to be preferred ? n. What are the objections to grazing ? LESSON XIII. LITTER, AND LIQUID BIANURES. 88. Litter is, in many ways, indispensable to the farmer ; it is indispensable to the health and comfort of his stock, by affording them good warm beds in winter, and mainiainiiig them in a proper degree of cleanliness. Again, as regards the formation of manure, it is of the •jtmost importance ; it not only moderates the activity th{».t ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 85 in pure dung is loo great for some soils, but it renders the hauling and spreading of the manure much easier. 89. Those vegetable substances most ge-nerally used as litter are sfaw, leaves, weeds, etc. But straw is usually- preferred, as it is a better absorbent of the liquids, and is more readily decomposed. 00. The value of manure diminishes m proportion to tiije quantity of litter employed after we reach a certain point ; but still it is best to use it with a liberal hand. 91. Urine is the most valuable portion of manure, and should always be saved with the utmost care. It should never be applied in a pure state, as its great activity would be hurtful to vegetation. QUESTIONS. 1. Wliy is litter of importance to the farmer ? 2. What vegetable substances are usually employed as litter ? 3. Why is straw preferred ? 4. Does the quantity of litter add to the value of manure ? 5. Is the urine of value ? 6. Should liquid manures be used in a pure state ? LESSON XIV. MANAGEMENT OF MANURE. 92. The manure should be drawn from under the cattle every day. This certainly should be done with horses ; as to fattening cattle, some feeders pretend that they fatten more kindly when surrounded with a warm atmo- sphere, filled with vapor. A warm atmosphere is no doubt good, but it should be pure. 93. It is not usual to haul manure immediately from the stable to the field; in the meantime, the care that is taken of it, or its management, has great influence on its quan tity and value. 8 86 el/:ments of agriculture. 94. Th»3 manure-heap should be made on a spot conve- nient to the stabJes and cow-sheds; and space should be prepared, in the form of a dish or saucer, of a size propor' tioned to the quantity of stock kept — so situated as to catch the drainage of the stables, and protected as much as possible from the access of rain-water. This basir\ should be made impervious to water, if possible, to pre- vent the loss by infiltration of the liquid manure. In the centre a short pump is often placed, to enable the farrher to get at any time a supply of the liquid, either for moisten- ing the manure-heap when too dry, or for spreading on his crops. 95. The length of time that manure remains in the heap before decomposition takes place, depends upon the spe- cies of animal that produces it. That from hogs enters more slowly into fermentation than that of horned cattle. The manure from horses and sheep decomposes soonest. To avoid loss by evaporation, it is recommended to sprin- kle the heap two or three times a week with such sub- stances as plaster, to fix all the volatile principles. QUESTIONS. 1. When should the manure be thrown out of the stable ? 2. Is it as important to clean out the cow-shed every day as it is tp cleanse the horse-stable 1 3. How is the manure to be managed 1 4. How is the cattle-yard made 1 5. Which of the manures decomposes most rapidly ? 6. Which decomposes most slowly ? 1. Why should plaster be sprinkled on the manure-heap ? ELEMENTS OF ACniCULTURE. 87 LESSON XV. VARIETIES OF MANURE. 96. There is very little distinction made m fanning Detween the different kinds of manure ; the employment of special manures is not as yet practised on a large scale m this country. The value of manures depends upon the quality of the food that the stock consumes, and upon the care that is taken of them. It may be useful, however, to say a few words upon each particular kind. 97. Manures may be divided into five principal classes : that from horses, that from sheep, that from cattle, that from hogs, and that from poultry. 98. Horse-manure is very active and ferments very readily. It is used by gardeners for hot-beds. It acts best upon clay soils ; but its effects are not permanent. 99. Sheep-manure, when kept moist, ferments rapidly, ftnd is of more value than horse-manure. 100. Cattle-manure does not decompose as rapidly as the preceding. It suits light lands better, and though less energetic, is more durable in its effects. 101. Hog-manure is usually very valuable ; but the value is dependent on the quality of their food. 102. The sweepings of poultry-houses make a capital manure ; dried and reduced to powder, they make a good top-dressing to all crops. 103. It is important that manures should undergo a de- gree of fermentation before being hauled out, as the seeds of weeds contained in it are thereby destroyed. As a gen- eral rule, barn-yard manure is given to the hoed crops that precede the small grains ; the quantity depends upon a variety of circumstances — the nature of the soil, the crop to be planted, etc. 104. There are ionv modes of applying manures ; in the 88 ELEMENTS OF AGRICLi.rURE. hill, the drill, ploughing under, and top-dress.ng. This last is the only one that can be applied to meadows. 105. Manure should be spread upon the land as soon as possible after it is drawn out ; when left in piles upon the field, if a rain should come, the strength of the manure is washed out, and the crops would lodge in the spots occu- pied by the heaps of manure, and receive little benefit in other places. 106. Liquid manures are applied by means of a hogs- head on wheels, similar to those used in w-atering the streets of cities ; and are generally used on mowing- grounds. QUESTIONS. 1. Is there any great distinction made in general farming between the diiierent manures 1 2. On what, in general, does the value of manure depend ? 3. How may the ditferent kinds of manure be divided 1 4. What are the peculiarities of horse-manure'? 5. What is peculiar in sheep-manure ? 6. What in that of cattle ? 7. What in that of hogs and poultry? 8. Ought manure to be hauled out fresh, or decomposed 5 9. Ought the manure to lie in heaps for a long time, in the field, before being spread ? 10. How is liquid manure carried out ? 11. On what is it generally used ] LESSON XVL FOLDING SHEEP — ANIMALIZED MANURES. 107. The folding of sheep, though not much pnictrsed with UP, is very general in some countries, and is attended with many advantages. The system is best adapted to lignt, sau '7 lands, and to jr/iaces of difficult access to the manure-carts. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 89 108. The fold is usually made with netting or light scantling, so arranged as to be easily taken apart. The form is square. The sheep are driven in every night, and the fold is removed when the ground occupied by it is sufficiently manured. 109. Among animal manures, we may mention flesh, blood, bones, horn, poudrette, etc., as all being exceed- ingly valuable. 110. When a horse, or a cow, or a sheep, dies upon the farm, it should never be left to taint the air by its decay. It should be covered with mild lime, and then a heap of earth thrown over it, of some eight or ten times its own bulk. This earth becomes saturated with the fertilizing gases, and furnishes a load or two of manure, well worth the trouble of making. 111. Bones have been known and used as a manure for a long time past ; and on the lighter soils, to which they are adapted, they constitute the most valuable auxiliary fertilizing substance that has yet been discovered. The bones are reduced, in a proper machine, to the size of half an inch, and strewed upon the land, at the rate of twenty bushels to the acre. The effect on favorable soils is great and lasting ; and they succeed best on? ised for this ptirpocel ? At what time ehould the plants be turned uu>it"i t "SWi KSlDk Kj^l^ ^A«^^i4l: sKf>rSiKi.,/.*e JmJ} »sm^'' iftW.'r--'"**!,! .t^^^^*B^^\fe^^fc';fe^' ^MMli iism mm • A^^A^i/^i ^m..kiSB i^%>.?^%P^ ^^\^^^Jf^i^^!^ ^S^mmxi --^^V-A^^l M^^ ^>Jh LIBRAKV OF CONGRESS 000577331t,S