Class iL^*Ai Book *W_A-4- GopyiightN" . COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. j^'4%^ Tke Farmers Friend THE MOST COMPLETE AND PR.ACTICAL BOOK EVER PLACED INTO THE HANDS OF THE FARMER J^Ki ^: yj jiU' PUBLISHED BY 1. C. WELTY. M. D., A. B., Ph. B. NEVADA, IOWA. ^ V) AV»< LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two Copies Received i»PR 29 1907 .rr-Coostrifht Entry CUSS /\ xxc, n6.' I L B ^tf- COPY B. Copyright applied for. Geo. A. Miller Printing Company Des Moines, Iowa Table of Contents, A. B. C. of Corn Culture by Prof. Holden Of Iowa Agriculture College — Illus, A Few of the Leading Varieties of Corn 114 Agreement for Cultivating Land on Shares 56 All about Right of Way 67 A Lawful Fence 76 Apoplexy 245 Arbitration Best for Farmers 65 Asthma . 261 Balky Horses • •• •. 1'^'* Black Leg , . , 203 Bleeding — How to Stop 165 Blind Staggers 246 Blind Staggers 251 Board and Plank Measure i>28 Bookkeeping Department Cattle, Sheep or other live Stock 337-342 Individual Acct. with 343-348 Cash Paid Out 349-353 Acct. with Hired Help 354-368 Bots, The Correct Treatment 159 Bowels 173 Breeders Tables — How to Use 275-312 Calves— Feeding Calves 210 Calves, Care of Same 222 Canada Thistle 140 Catarrh 253 Catarrh — Sniffle Disease in Pigs 239 Cattle, Highest Price Paid 219 Certificate of Acknowledgment 45 Chattel Mortgage 5^ Chicken Cholera 259 Chicken Mite 229 Clover as a Fertilizer 149 Cold : 172 Colic 176 Colts — Breaking 179 Contracts. Laws governing Same 58 Contract, Drunkenness 59 Contract for the sale of Horses, Cattle or other Personal. Property 61 Contract for Laying tile or Building Fence 82 Corn Lecture by Prof. Ten Eyck of Agricultural Col. of Kas. . . . 120 Colic. — How to Cure Colic 160 Corns in Horses — How to Cure , 165 Corn Stock Disease 208 Cough 23& Cure for Worms in Hogs. . . .' 243 Colic 2L3 Curb 162 Curb 16S Deeds. How to write a Deed 415 Diarrhoea 240 Diphtheria 237 Diarrhoea 252 Diseases of Cattle 201 Diseases of Throat and Lungs 235 Drainage Laws 83 Domestic Animals 150 Do not Import Seed Corn 103 Dysentery 253 Education of the farm Boy and Girl 3 9 Entry Notice 68 Estrays 73 Exemptions 81 Executors and Administrators 8 2 Exemption Laws 86 Ex Farmers 149 Epizootic 175 Epidemic Ophthalmia 206 Egg Food Powder 263 Eggs — How to Preserve 267 Form of Chattel Mortgage 5 3 Form of Lease 5 4 Form of Mechanics Lien 6 2 Findings of various Courts in the United States in Important. . 67 Freezing of Corn 117 Feeding Value of Potatoes ,..145 Founder 159 Fistula 162 Fence Laws 70 Foot and Mouth Disease 205 Gapes 260 Grain Table — How to Use 331-335 Good Roads, without Cost to the Farmer 10 Germinating Test 96 Glanders 163 Gubs in the Skin 202 General Diseases 249 Grub in the Head 249 How to Measure Corn in Crib 320 How to Measure Hay in Mow or Stack o21 How to Find the Contents of a Wagon Box 32 3 How to Find the Number of Shingles Required for a Roof 327 How to write a Contract 59 How to secure a Mechanics Lien 63 How to settle Difficulties by Arbitration 6o Homesteads 7 7 Homesteads under United States Land Laws 7 8 How to find the Carrying Capacity of Tile S5 How to Breed and Care for Horses 153 Hide Bound 162 Hints about the Horse 181 How to Breed and Care for Cattle 184 Hog Cholera cannot be cured 228 How to Destroy Mites 265 Interest Table — How to Use 313-317 Itch — Mange 165 Inflammation of the Lungs 238 Intestinal Worms 242 Laws and Legal Forms 41 Law Governing Deeds 42 Leases 5 4 Lease for Renting a House 55 Lease for Cash Rent 55 Law Governing the Sale and transfer of Property 82 Lock Jaw 161 Lampas 170 Lice — Sure Cure 173 Lazy Horses 173 Luck 223 Land Contract 60 Manual Training 27 Mortgages and Leases 4 ij Mouth. Sore mouth 163 Mites — How to Destroy 164 Milk Fever 215 Milch Cows 219 Miscellaneous Diseases of Hogs 227 Mode of Administering Medicine to Sheep 254 Monthly Wage Table 332 Nasal Gleet or Discharge from the Eye 166 Notaries Public 51 Ointment for Horses 164 Ophthalmia 254 Poultry Houses — How Ventilated 272 Poem — Two Pictures tf Preface 3 Petition for Laying out Road 6 6 Property that cannot be taken for Debts 86 Poisoning Gophers 143 Potato Scab 146 Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter 99 Poor Stand of Corn 106 Putrid Erysipelas 228 Putrid Sore Throat 232 Piles in Pigs 243 Quinsy 235 Roup 2 60 Ringbone 169 Russian Thistle 136 Reclaiming Estrays 74 School Consolidation . . '. 21 Security for Rent 56 Seed Corn 92 Seed Improvement 92 Sulphur for Insects 268 Sheep Ticks 255 Scrofulous Diseases 249 Sheep Department 249 Sore Face and Lips 254 Swollen Legs 163 Spavin 166 Self-Sucking Cow 202 Scours in Calves 209 Smut and Corn Stalks 215 Scrub Stock 216 Teeth 171 Ty::hoid Enteritis 234 Tes.ing each Ear of Corn 108 Terms and Facts of Criminal Law 71 Time debts are Outlawed 87 Tresspassing Animals 69 Test Cases 69 The Farmers' Friend 5 Trusts 318 Varieties of Poultry 256 Variety Test of Corn 107 Weekly Way Table 334 Why I Left the Farm 7 Warranty Deed 4 3 Why Oats run Out 135 Wind Galls .161 Worms — Kidney Worms 242 Weeds and Sheep 255 PREFACE. THE author does not flatter himself to have done the impossible but he does believe that this book will be of incalcuable benefit to every farmer who desires to get the greatest re- turns for time and capital expended. While success in farming as in every other pursuit depends largely upon the individual yet the author be- lieves that a careful reading and an occasional referring to this book which contains many of the most convenient tables now placed before the public cannot help but be a lasting benefit. It has been the intention to make this a farmer's handbook, one that he may rely upon, one that he may refer to at all times and at all seasons of the year for guidance. Without loading it with technicalities it has been the endeavor to embody in its teaching the latest discoveries in the science of agriculture. It is universally admitted that agriculture is the basis of all wealth, prosperity and luxury. The farmer is the most important member of human society and will in no distant future be considered the leader and promoter of those things which go to make this the most progressive, patriotic and enlightened country in the world. The author of this book was for several years general agent for a little book entitled "Business Guide" of which he through his agents sold over one hundred thousand copies. It was then that he learned of the demand for some practical common sense book on the subject of agri- culture, stock raising, business forms and laws which would be of assistance to the farmer. After years of careful study, investigation and dili- gent research, it is beyond a question of doubt that we have now prepared a book which for the farmers' use has not as yet been excelled. The author has constantly held in mind those who are now actively engaged in agricultural pursuits. In other words, it has been the intention to make it a convenient and useful handbook on things agricultural and pertain- ing to the interest of the agriculturist. While we know perfectly well that on any of the topics we have presented, a great deal more might be said than the compass of this work permits, yet should this volume prove a benefit to the progressive farmers, the labor spent in its preparation will not have been in vain The Farmers^ Friend* (By I. C. Welty, M. Di., A. B., Ph. B.) THE FARMERS' FRIEND is one of the most complete and practical books ever placed into the hands of the farmer. Following are a few of the leading subjects from which the agriculturist may obtain information that should be known by every farmer : 1. How to obtain good roads without cost to the farmer, the county or the state. 2. The advantages and disadvantages of school consolidation. 3. Laws and legal forms which every farmer should know. 4. Selecting and preparing seed corn by professors Holden of the State Agricultural College of Iowa, and TenByck, of the State Agricul- tural College of Kansas, and valuable notes and suggestions from nearly all the specialists in the west central states on the proper methods of raising corn. 5. How to breed and care for horses. Also treats of the diseases of horses and. remedies. 6. How to breed and care for cattle. Diseases of cattle and remedies. 7 How to breed and care for hogs. Diseases and remedies, etc. 8. How to care for sheep. Diseases, remedies, etc. 9. Poultry Department. 10. The Breeder's Table. Every stock owner should have one of these tables. By the single mark of the pencil you may keep an exact record of the expected time and age of the young stock. 11. Ready reckoner, interest tables, grain tables, short methods of measuring hay in the stack, corn in the crib, oats in the bin, shingles on the roof, lathes for a room, carpet for a floor, etc., etc. 12. Monopolies and' trusts and their rapid growth. Orders promptly filled in all parts of the United States by Business Publishing Co., Nevada, Iowa. "Agriculture, the most useful, the most healthful and the noblest em- ployment of man." — Washington. "The farmers are the founders of civilization and prosperity." ) — Webster. "Agriculture is the basis and strength of all national prosperity." — Napoleon. "The greatest nations of Europe strain every effort to make science the handmaid of WAR. Let it be the glory of the great American peo- ple to make sience the handmaid of AG-RICULTURE."— Hon. Jeeey Rusk, Ex-Secretary of Agriculture. TWO PICTURES. An old farm-house with pastures wide. Sweet with flowers on every side; A restless lad who looks from out The porch, with woodbine twined about. Wishes a thought from in his heart; 0, if I only could depart From this dull place the world to see, Ah me! how happy I would be! Amid the city's ceaseless din, A man who around the world has been. Who, 'mid the tumult and the throng. Is thinking, wishing all day long; O, could I only tread once more The field-path to the farmhouse door. The old green meadows could I see. Ah me! how happy would I be! Wky I Left tke Farm. THE old way of farming was a great mistake. Everything was done in the wrong way and at the wrong time. Many guesses were made more or less at variance with facts and theory. It was all work and waste, weariness and want. They used to fence a quarter section of land with a boy and mongrel dog. The farmer hauled his coal from the coal bank some- times a distance of forty or fifty miles and hauled his grain a like distance. We had poor houses, the rain held the roofs in perfect contempt and the snow drifted joyfully on the floors and beds. Early to rise and late with their chores was the motto that haunted every farm boy's peaceful slumber. They had no barns, the horses and cattle were kept in rail or pole sheds covered and surrounded with straw. Long before spring the sides would be eaten away. When stock is exposed to the storms of winter, it takes all the hay and corn it is possible to raise to prevent actual starvation. When spring came, and often before spring, the supply of coal was exhausted. Women were supposed to know the art of making fires without fuel. The wood pile consisted as a general thing of one log upon which an axe or two had been worn out in vain. Everything about the farm was disagreeable. The wagons stood in the sun and rain and the plows rusted in the fields. There was no leisure, no feeling that the work was done. It was all labor and weariness and vexation. The crops were destroyed by wandering herds or they were put too late or caught by the frost, or devoured by the grass-hoppers, or washed away by floods or rotted FARMERS' FRIEND in the stacks or molded in the crib or dug up by the gophers. These were not all the pests that preyed ^pon the un- sophisticated farmer. While the farmer was pursuing agriculture he was pursued by the lightning rod agent, the patent churn agent, the fence agent, the cheap jewelry agent, and last but not least the Bohemian oat agent ; and some farmers would like to have the poor book agent associated with this list. While in spite of all these accidents that lie in wait between the plow and reaper, they did succeed in raising a good crop and a high price was offered, then the roads would be impassible. Nearly every farmer's boy declared he would avoid farming as he would the leprosy and took an oath that he would never cultivate the soil. But time has brought its revenge. The farmer has seen the bank president abscond and the insurance company a wrecked and ruined fraud. The railroad president a bankrupt and the road in the hands of a receiver. Towns and cities have suffered, stocks and bonds have shrunk from par to worthless paper, princes have become paupers and bankers, merchants and millionaires have passed into oblivion of bankruptcy. The western farmer has the best soil, the greatest re- turns for the least labor, more leisure, more time for en- joyment than any other farmer in the world. He has the long winters in which to become acquainted with his family and with his neighbors. Books are cheap and every farmer has ample time to become well informed along the line of his vocation. There is no reason why farmers should not be the kindest and most cultivated of men. There is nothing in plowing the fields to make men cross, cruel and crabbed. We have no hesitation in saying that nine-tenths of the worry, misfortunes and losses on a farm come from neglect. Occasionally things will a:o wrong, even when every care and precaution is taken. We unhesitatingly affirm that in nine cases out of ten the farmer brings his own good or bad luck. The idea must be done awav with that there is some- FARMERS FRIEND thing degrading intellectually in cultivating the soil. Nothing can be nobler than to be useful. Idleness should not be respectable. No man should be satisfied with a salary. We are lack- ing in true courage when for fear of the future we hire at a salary that justifies our employer in taking all the risk. We should buy a home and then have the will power and determination to pay for it. Few men have been patriotic enough to shoulder a musket in defense of a boarding house I had a thousand times rather have a farm and be inde- pendent, than to be president of the United States with- out independence ; filled with doubt and trembling, feeling of the popular pulse, resorting to art and artifice, enquir- ing about the wind of opinion, and succeeding at last in losing my self-respect without gaining the respect of others. There is a quiet about the life of a farmer, and the hope of a serene old age that no other business or profession can promise. A professional man is doomed sometimes to feel that his powers are waning. He is doomed to se? younger men pass him in the race of life. He will be. last where once he was the first. Farmers must educate their children to till the soil. The boy must not be taught that tilling the soil is a curse and almost a disgrace. They must not suppose that edu- cation is thrown away upon them unless they become ministers, merchants, doctors or lawyers. It must be un- derstood that education can be used to advantage on a farm. There is no real conflict between latin and labor. Every young man educated in this way is simply ruined. Such an education ought to be called ignorance. It is a thousand times better to have common sense without education than education without the sense. We have the best country in the world and Iowa is tli3 best state in that country. For my part I envy the man who has lived on the same broad acres from his bovhood, who cultivates the fields where in youth he played. I can imagine no sweeter way to end one's life than in 10 FARMERS FRIEND the quiet of the country, out of the mad race for money, l^lace and i^ower, far from the demands of business, out of the dusty highways where fools struggle and strive for the hollow praise of other fools. Surrounded by pleasant fields and those I love, I hope to end my days. Looking from my open window upon rustling fields of corn over which will run the sunshine and the shadow. GOOD ROADS. How TO Obtain Good Roads Without Cost to the Farmer, the County or the State. DRIVING FOR PLEASURE. Soft is the song upon the evening air, And oh! so soft the lovey-dovey pair; And soft the glance from some dark-eyed coquette But roads like this, ah! they are softer yet. NO one disputes the advantages of good roads. There is no one who does not desire good roads. But, like a good many other good things that we desire, we cannot always see our way clear to get them. We are often com- pelled to get along with what is inferior because we have not the means of getting something better. There has been a great deal of talk about road improvement, and the belief seems to exist among certain classes that the farmer does not know enough to know that he needs bet- ter roads, and that hence there must be a campaign of education. The farmer knows quite as well as the bicycle rider or automobilist what he needs, and he knows much better that if the entire expense of making a road that will please the bicycle and auto people is to fall on him the construction is out of the question. It would confis- cate his farm to do it. farmers' friend 11 Suppose we figure the cost of graveling the alternate section lines of a township. This would make forty- eight miles of gravel or macadam road in each township. One mile of well graveled road four feet wide and nine inches deep of good gravel — and we make a marked dis- tinction between half dirt and half sand and good coarse gravel. Four feet is plenty wide as the gravel will in a few weeks spread over plenty of space to accommodate passing teams. Now what will be the cost of this forty-eight miles of most excellent road! This would require about five hun- dred yards of gravel to the mile at the greatest possible expense of five hundred dollars. Do not stop in the midst of this article and say you know of miles of road that would cost more, wait and learn where the gravel or crushed stone is to come from then you will say we have figured the cost entirely too high For a township this would cost twenty-four thousand dollars. Now the question is from what sources are we to obtain this money. For the benefit of those that think we have not put the figures high enough we wish to add that we are of the opinion that at least two-thirds of the public roads could be cut down to forty feet in width instead of si:^t3^-six feet as at present, this would give us about two hundred dollars more to add to the cost of each mile of the road. Again for the benefit of the few "doubting Thomases", we wish to state that fully eighty per cent of the farmers would vote in favor of having their mail every other day if the half of the moi^gy now paid for delivering mail went to pay the interest on the money needed to give us good roads. Please do not understand us to say we are in favor of lowering the mail carriers' salary, such is not the case. We are in favor of lessening the number of carriers and giving them alternate routes instead of the same route each day. Why could not the government appropriate one-half the amount now paid to mail carriers and decrease the number of mail carriers one-half! We desire to gravel 12 farmers' friend forty-eight miles of road in each township — this is the distance approximately covered by two average mail car- riers. Now as we have already said, diminish the number of carriers one-half. Be willing to receive your mail every other day instead of every day as at present. There is no question but that eighty per cent of the farmers would agree to this and if laws are made for the benefit of the majority, answer for me, if you please, why not have a law to this effect? This would be a saving of seven hundred twenty dol- lars to each township per year. Government bonds are now sold at two per cent and a begging demand for them. We have already said the cost of graveling forty-eight miles of road would cost on an average of twenty-four thousand dollars. The seven hundred-twenty dollars we save per year by getting our mail every other day instead of every day pays the annual interest on thirty-six thou- sand dollars or one and one-half times what we claim it will cost. We throw this in also for the benefit of the sceptical for we want to eradicate every shadow of doubt from the farmers' mind. We quite recently read an article in our home paper where it stated that our congressman from the seventh congressional district of Iowa expects to get an appro- priation of five hundred thousand dollars for a public building at Des Moines. Now my dear farmer friend you have read similar articles in your home papers at different times. Did you ever read where there was an appropriation for the farmers' benefit? If Des Moines with a population of seventy-five thousand is entitled to five hundred thousand, tell us why a county of twenty- five thousand is not entitled to one third of five hundred thousand or about one hundred sixty-six thousand dol- lars? This amount according to our calculations would make seven townships of most excellent roads in each county. The farmer is entitled to this money. These millions upon millions now stored up in Washington simply rep- farmers' friend 13 resent the amount of money paid for manufactured arti- cles used by the farmers upon which there is a protective tariff, to protect whom! Not the farmer that has paid this tariff" but the manufacturer. It is the farmer that has paid this tariff and from this tariff largely that these millions have been accumulated. Now we have some excellent politicians for whom we leave the workshop, farm and factory for the purpose of listening to tariff' and reciprocity arguments. Now my democratic farmer be honest with us, you are not pinched much by our tariff. To be sure if you are an Iowa farmer you would like to see the tariff taken off lumber, so would we and, if it were not for making con- cessions to other states that would be detrimental to Iowa to more than equal the benefit derived from lowering the tariff on lumber, we would be most heartily in favor of lowering the tariff. Please do not charge all this high price on lumber to the tariff as the tariff has re- mained the same while the price of lumber has been steadily advancing. The politician tells us we must have tariff legislation, the millions are accumulating so rapidly at Washington that an addition must be built to the United States treas- ury perhaps at a cost of half a million dollars. Five hundred thousand dollars the amount the con- gressman from the seventh congressional district of Iowa hopes to secure for a public building in Des Moines would give us two counties in this district of as good road as were ever trodden by the feet of man. Roads that with little repairing would be here to improve the temper and sweeten the disposition of our children's children. • We do not want to be misunderstood what the congress- man from the seventh congressional district of Iowa is doing is just what every congressman in the United States is trjdng to do. Get as large an appropriation as possible for the largest town in his district. We have told you how this work could be accomplished without the outlay of a single dollar of the farmer's money or a single minute of his time. To our knowledge for over twenty years, railroad com- 14 farmers' friend panies have been willing and anxious to haul gravel or other material for road improvement for less than half the regular freight rates. Not only are they willing to haul this material but on some roads they will allow the car to stand at some con- venient crossing in the country until the next train comes along and takes the car to the first station. The cost of hauling this material and locating it at convenient places would to be sure diminish the cost of putting the material on the road but this would have to go towards paying for the hauling by the railroad com- pany. There are already many miles of good roads and too, if the reader of this article happens to live in a section of his state where stone or gravel is plentiful, he will say we have figured the cost entirely too high and if he happens to be in a section where there are little of either he will say we have underestimated the cost, to such we wish to say the writer of this article has been in nearly every county in the state of Iowa and in nearly every section of the west central states and he feels reasonably safe in the estimates he has given you. In certain parts of these western states gravel is very scarce but stone plentiful. Within a distance of fifty miles to any part of the west central states and over half of the territory of these states can be found stone enough to macadamize every foot of these roads. Where it was the vote of the people and decision of the Board of Super- visors that a stone crusher could be used to better advan- tage than to imj3ort gravel into the county let them pur- chase a stone crusher. We are in favor of every convict in jail or prison being supplied with the necessary tools for breaking rock to be used on our public roads. Every county pays hundreds of dollars every year for board for criminals and gets nothing in return. Suppose the cost of hauling a car load of rock into a county, even at half rates, equaled the amount received for the rock when crushed which possibly would be the result in some counties while in others it would not equal I;t farmers' friend 15 half what could be gotten for the crushed rock. Never- theless our object is not so much to get the rock crushed as it is to diminish the number of petty criminals. And by reducing the number of petty criminals would in time materially diminish the whole number of criminals. What is the object of sending a man to prison or to jail? One object is to reform him. Another is to make an example by which others may profit. We firmly be- lieve that a man on a rock-pile crushing rock for ten days for the benefit of the county would make a better exam- ple and do more towards lessening petty crimes than thirty days of idleness would with the average criminal. There would be a saving of two-thirds of the board be- sides giving the culprit ten days of honest work. We do not know from experience, but from observation it does not seem to be very humiliating to the average law breaker to stay a short time in jail. If he were put in plain view with a stone hammer in his hand and com- pelled to labor for his daily bread we believe it would do much more towards reforming him. Sentence a man to jail so many days or months and diminish that time for good service or increase it for poor service the same as is now done in our j^risons. Do not understand us to say this law should apply only to jails. One of the questions agitated in many states today is, ^'what to do with the manufactured products of our prisons"? There is a fierce opposition to their em- ployment in any kind of labor that will compete with out- side mechanics. Here is an opportunity to employ them on work that competes with nobody. In the state of Iowa the prisons are located in a section of country where rock is very plentiful. Don't you believe that the rock pile with a few good living examples upon it would do more towards reducing the county board bill and benefit the farmer more than it would to get into a mixup with reciprocity and tariff just at these, the most prosperous times this country has ever experienced? What this country needs is road legislation not tariff legislation. Let us have some road legislation in order 16 farmers' friend that we may be able to get out to hear the tariff reformer when the time comes — and come it must in the no dis- tant future. Until the roads were taken away from local administration in England all of the efforts to improve the roads miscarried and millions of dollars expended on the highways were wasted. So too, it is in this country today, though in Europe advantage has been taken of experience and the roads are largely under the Central Authority. Now we hear some good neighbor say, ''The cost is too great for the Central Government", but that same neigh- bor had nothing to say when he read of congress in a single session making appropriations amounting to over one thousand million dollars. But when one of the best states in the union wants the comparatively insignificant sum of seventeen millions to make her roads the best roads in the civilized world, somebody says it is too much. When this same good farmer read of a canal being put through the Isthmus of Panama at a cost of two hundred millions of dollars, he had not a word to say. Yet when Iowa asks for one twelfth of this amount he thinks it's too much to ask of the Central Government. With six hundred millions of dollars in the United States treasury — a part of it there to remain as long as this government stands — why is Iowa not entitled to seventeen millions of it for improving her public highways? Again we hear some good neighbor say, "We need it there to protect us in time of war". Let me ask 3^ou how much money was in the treasury at the beginning of the civil war"? If this, the greatest war in the history of the world, could be successfully fought with an empty treas- ury why do you want such an enormous amount of money in the treasury! Do you think we are going to have a greater war? Do not think we favor depleting the treas- ury at Washington. We do think they could manage to get along for a few years with a deposit of one hundred millions and let us have our share >ot the five hundred millions. Our politicians tell us the money is accumulating so rapidly it will be but a short time until the treasury will farmers' friend 17 be filled again. We farmers will every one of us make a solemn vow to be good to every foreigner and every neighbor until the strong box at Washington is filled again. Again we hear some good neighbor say, ''It is a bad plan as a general rule, to help those that will not help themselves ' '. Then if that be true let the farmer agree to do so much of the work. Let us take it on the Carnegie library plan. In case a township does a certain amount of the work, then a certain amount of funds will be furnished to finish the work. This would be a most excellent plan as each town- ship could be required to do the same amount of work regardless of the amount remaining to be done. Then one township could not complain that they were com- pelled to do more than their neighbors. Again we hear some good village merchant say, "What are they going to do for us". The good roads are a still greater benefit to the merchant. We have never heard this disputed and we are not going to take time or space to answer it, but if any merchant thinks this, just men- tion it to some good farmer and he will with either brain or muscle have you acknowledge you were mistaken in- side 'of three minutes. Where is the farmer benefited? It is a saying as old as the Government itself that the hauling and the mar- keting of the produce and the hauling home of the fuel, lumber, tile and other numberless things for the farm are harder upon the horses than the actual farm work. As it is today the farmer is unable to haul his product to market during bad weather and that is the very per- iod when he has the most leisure time to do such work. After a heavy rain is a very poor time for a farmer to try to accomplish much on the farm but with good roads it would be a most excellent time to attend to business. The expense of keepiner extra horses, the time needlessly spent on the roads, the time spent unemployed on account of the bad condition of the roads, the breakage of bug- gies, wagons and harnesses. These would more than pay the interest on every dollar expended on the roads. 18 farmers' friend There is no gamble, no guess, no risk in this kind of de- velopment. We need road legislation. Following is an article taken from our home paper : FIFTY MILLION FOR RIVERS. Waterways Convention Asks fob Permanent Appropriation. Washington, Dec. 8, 1906. — ^President Roosevelt told the delegates to thie national rivers and harbors convention who called on him at the white house that he would consult with the leaders in congress, and expressed the hope that something definite and effective could be done in the way of increased appropriations for the improvement of the nation's waterways. Albert Bettinger of Cincinnati, the spokesman for the convention, tiold the president that the convention suggested regular annual appropriations of not less than $50,000,000 to replace the "hitherto desultory and inadeuate appropriations" for the im- provement of the waterways and to place their prosecution on a busi- ness basis, insuring their completion within a reasonable length of time. Fifty millions of dollars asked for the purpose of im- proving the nation's waterways. Not a single appro- priation but an annual appropriation. Did you ever read of where a delegation of farmers called upon the President and asking him to recommend an appropriation of any kind for the benefit of the wes- tern farmer? Our President says he is in faver of a "square deal". If such is true — and we believe it is — why would it not be a good plan to send a good farmers' delegation down to Washington; have them inform the President that we farmers have been reading for these many years of the fifty, hundred and two hundred million dollar appropriations, and thought we would be patient, our time would surely come. But patience has ceased to be a virtue when we read that an addition had to be builded at a probable cost of five hundred thousand dol- lars to store the nation's surplus wealth. When the del- egates to the national rivers and harbors convention called upon the President he said he would lay the mat- ter before congress. We farmers have no need of bur- dening the President. We can lay this matter before farmers' friend ■ 19 our own congressmen and in such a way that they would never return home until they had made us a fair, just and reasonable appropriation for the constructing of permanent highways. Legislators move as they are moved by the powers behind the throne. It is a perplex- ing wonder that a million farmers can stand by so meekly while a ring of speculators dole out to them half or quarter pay of the earnings of their own labor. The far- mer is well aware of the fact that he pays more for the same machinery manufactured here in the United States than does the Mexican, Canadian, or any of the coun- tries of South America or of any other foreign countries. Yet he murmurs not, for the politician tells him it is to protect home interests and true it is we must protect our laboring classes. The farmer is willing to protect them but if after the treasury is full then he begins to think he ought to have a little of that accumulated wealth sent back. It is his money, he is entitled to the benefit of it. That building an addition to the treasury is the straw that is breaking the camel's back. There is surely a crying need that the brawny sons of toil here in the United States get into a brown study and do some solid thinking. If the farmer does not soon de- mand his rights some future poet will be singing of our farmers as Goldsmith did of the Deserted Village. "Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay. Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, A breath can make them as a breath has made But a bold peasantry, a country's pride, When onoe destroyed can never be supplied." Following is an article clipped from a recent magazine : WHAT WE OWE TO AGRICULTURE. "In this country the agricultural interests, including the number of people engaged' and the amount of capital invested in them, are equal to all others combined; and this being true, they are certainly entitled to the good will and God-speed, and to all the assistance and comfort that every man in the state and nation can give them. We will always, 20 farmers' friend so far as I can see, be an agricultural nation; and if this is so, how can we better serve every man, woman and child than by fostering as far as possible the one interest that is equal to all other interests com- bined. The first step is to educate practically the farmer to follow his business in a ibusiness-like way that will bring him a reasonable, and profitable return." — J. J. Hill, President Great Northern Railway. If President Hill who draws a salary of fifty thousand dollars a year would have added that we must also teach him the needs of his state and how those needs may be supplied and the needs of his county and of his township and how these needs may be supplied, we think it would have been a valuable adjunct to the valuable article he wrote to tickle the farmer's ear. The farmer is not grumbling about the tariff. We have heard more grumbling about the poor roads in a single day than we have during our whole life time about tariff and reciprocity with the possible exceptions of when some office seeker comes along looking for public office. We are not finding fault with the farmer because he condemns the poor roads. Many a farmer has lost his most valuable horse simply because he was obliged to abuse the poor brute to get it to pull an unreasonable amount in order that he might get home with the neces- sary supplies for his family. Let the farmers demand an annual appropriation and demand it in no uncertain way and we will soon have roads that will put the builders of the roads of old Eng- land to shame. The true way for the farmers to meas- ure men is not by their political views or their official position, but by their work. The work is a thing that can be seen and measured, the motive cannot. If any man holds an official office and champions the agricul- turist's interests, he is the man for the farmer to sup- port. School Consolidation* Comparison made between the cost of the present sub- district plan and the consolidated school as given on the preceding page. The writer wishes to state that these figures and esti- mates are made after careful investigation of the costs of consolidated schools in Iowa and adjoining states. The chief and possibly the only just objection to the consol- idated schools as we now have them is, "too far to haul the children". This objection is made where the whole township has been consolidated. If you will make an examination of the diagram given on this page you aRANT TOW NSM 1 P 1. 1 Nca U N T OW NSH IP < "^ / \ Ul z (5 \ f 1 / n \ f f 1 ^ \ — fc i \ s l> ' "o \ / \ / o 1- o" 5 \ '^ ) ■ e The Cross indicates location of sub-districts The Square indicates location of consolidated school. The Large Square indicates children living within 2 nniles of consoli- dated school. will see that no pupil can live a greater distance than five miles from the central school building. By this plan we consolidate six of the nine schools ; the three on the north consolidate with the three on the south of the ad- joining township. There are in the state of Iowa 3661 schools that have an average of from one to ten pupils or the average of the entire number of schools is five and one-half. We also have 4410 schools with an average of from eleven to twenty. But the average for the entire number is four- 22 farmers' friend teen and one-fourth. It would be entirely unfair to sup- pose ithat you would find many townships that have the maximum average. Let us suppose that three of the schools we wish to unite have an average of five and one- half, the other three an average of fourteen and one- fourth. This would make an average of fifty-nine pupils in the six consolidated schools. Let us suppose this only represents two-thirds of the pupils in the district that would attend school in the fall The number below in each County shows the number of tcacheri in each county who have attended only district school or schools below the accredited high school. The number above shows the number holding third grade certificates in each county in Iowa. z;(2 teachers in Iowa that have bad no exper- ience or special training. and spring and only half that would attend during the winter. It is unreasonable to suppose that these children could be so situated in two-thirds of a township that four haulers each starting with his first pupil the farthest from the central school could drive on an average farther than seven miles, gathering up his fourteen pupils. It is understood that no driver is supposed to go out of his way to get a pupil after getting within two miles of the central school. There are more families in the state of Iowa sending two or more children than there are sending one and as many sending none as there are sending children. The SUB-DISTRICT SCHOOL. SUE-DISTRICT SCHOOL. farmers' friend 23 driver will then make an average of ten stops from five of which he will get five pupils and from the other five he will get ten pupils. We consider it just and fair to assume these ten stops will be made during a drive of seven miles. You must bear in mind at the present time neighbors living just across the road from each other send their children to different schools. This would not be the case with the consolidated school. No two drivers would be supposed to travel the same road. This gives each driver seven miles of road, farms on either side, to make up his. fourteen pupils to say nothing of the children that would be within the two miles, living on other roads than the one traveled by the driver. "We are aware of the fact that there are several schools in each county that have closed for want of pupils. We plso know of several townships in the state of Iowa where \..ie competent teacher could teach the entire number of pupils that attend during the fall and spring terms. The only safe and fair way is to figure on the average town- ships. We will sometimes find two or three adjoining districts having an average of twenty or more pupils. Another objection raised is, "It is too expensive." Let us figure the cost of running the central school for eight months. We expect to have four haulers and two teachers during the spring and fall and three teachers during the winter. Two teachers at $40.00 each per month is $640.00; One teacher four months at $50.00 is $200.00; Four haulers at $30.00 per month is $960.00; Total $1800.00. For the same time let us hire six teach- ers at forty dollars per month; this would amount to $1920.00. One hundred twenty dollars more than it takes to run the consolidated school every year. There is not a farmer that reads this article but that will agree with us when we say that the expense of keep- ing up, equipping, and heating this central building will be one-third less than is required to do the same in six sub-districts. Another objection raised is, "Too much time required on the road." After a thorough investigation we find the average rate of miles for haulers to travel per hour 24 farmers' friend in Iowa, and also in other states is six miles. There are times when they drive seven and again there are times when they cannot drive more than five. In order to suit the pessimist we must state that there are times when you could not go at all. We also stated that the average attendance was not more than two-thirds of the pupils in attendance. It would not be unfair to suppose that part of this was due to bad roads. If you will read what those say that have had experience, they will tell you the average attendance is much better in the consolidated school than it was in the sub-district. The average time for a driver to make his drive is seventy minutes. The average time for a boy or girl of six years of age to walk one mile is thirty-five minutes. A farmer living two miles from the school as is often the case would find that it takes seventy minutes for his child to walk home. The time to get to the consolidated school is exactly the same or seventy minutes, but, while it is necessary for the driver to go to the home after the pupil, it is not necessary to haul them nearer than the cross-road in returning them. This would only make a five mile drive in the evening and get the children, that have the greatest distance to come, home before they could walk home if the distance were two miles. While we are giv- ing an average of seven miles drive each for four drivers we realize there are nearly four thousand schools in Iowa that only have an average of five and one-half pupils. These possibly all coming from two or three families and possibly within three miles of the school. We also realize that possibly in a district of twenty- five pupils there could be two-thirds of them farther than two miles. This district, if one hauler was obliged to haul all of them, might necessitate a drive of ten miles to the school and would require at least two hours, as a team would travel much slower the second hour than the first. This is the exception and would seldom happen and if the routes were properly arranged we doubt if it would occur at all. Even in this case there would be no need of any of the children being on the road more than one hour going home. FAEMERS' FRIEND 25 We have now given you our best judgment of the cost of running a central school ; one that we know would be better for you and better for your children. We have given you the average and we have given you the ex- tremes. We can see no hardship in either case. The question is now asked, "How about the farmer now living close to a sub-district school!" To this ques- tion we wish to reply that our laws are or should be made and schools located where the greatest good may be done for the greatest number. If many years ago it were thought that it was most convenient to locate the schools every two miles, and now know that is not the best plan, it is the duty of the public to see that the schools are located where the great- est good may be done the greatest number. There is not on an average of one district school in ten in the state of Iowa where the school during the severe winter weather is called at nine o'clock. We have plenty of evidence, as every farmer that reads this article well knows, that more children arrive at the schoolhouse after nine o'clock than there are that get to the school by nine. Again we wish to make the assertion that fully eighty per cent of the district schools of Iowa are not com- fortable for children before ten o'clock and some of them are not comfortable during the entire day. Few farmers go to the schoolhouse to investigate the conditions of these schools. Small children sitting next to the stove with a temperature above one hundred degrees and the large boys and girls in the remote parts of the room, with the temperature a little above the freezing point, is not the best of conditions for the tax payers to expect to get value received for wages paid teachers. There are so many advantages in the consolidated school over the old sub-district plan that we do not expect to comment on each. Think of the children that go to school with wet feet and wet clothing and are obliged to sit in the school room possibly a half day in that con- dition. If for no other reason than from a standpoint of health the consolidated school far surpasses the old sub-district. Now some one informs us, ''You cannot hire haulers 26 farmers' friend for thirty dollars per month as mail carriers get sixty. ' ' Twenty-five miles per day is the average route for the mail carrier, twenty-six days for a month. Twelve miles per day is the average drive for the driver of a wagon for the consolidated school. Twenty days constitute the school month. The mail carrier is busy early in the morning sorting his mail, likewise in the evening. The mail driver must stop at almost every house on the twenty-five mile drive. During the four winter months there would be no difficulty in getting plenty of haulers and in summer as a rule you could get men that were too old or unable to work on the farm. We must accept the evidence we have and that gives us an average of thirty dollars per month. True, in some districts of only three or four children, arrange- ments can often be made where the children are conveyed for from three to five dollars per month. Sometimes during the winter one of the largest boys takes a team and hauls those on his road gratis. It is the custom to have barns at all consolidated schools for the convenience of all those that desire to do this. Then there are districts that it would cost forty dol- lars per month. Again we wish to state the only fair way to estimate these things is to find the average and this we have tried to do in every case. Many a farmer believing that the district school did not furnish sufficient training for his boy or girl, has sent then to town with the hope of advancing their chil- dren's interest, but to their surprise when too late they learn that this boy would have been a better man and his girl a better woman if he had only have kept them home a few years longer, A boy or girl coming from the country into the town just at the most active time of his life and at an age when he needs the most careful guidance and assistance of the most anxious and painstaking of parents is a very seri- ous proposition. The writer has as a teacher time and again talked to boys and girls from the country who were placed under his instruction, warning them about being in too great a hurry to become acquainted with the young folks of the town who made it a business to ''run the Ii Tg «Jf| ■ •iPfi^""'!- -e^^.^^. - ^■-^^.■:^ ^£ 1 BTATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE BUILDINGS, LEXINGTOxN, KENTUCKY FAEMEES' FRIEND 27 streets nights". Has in one or two instances advised the parents to take the child home as the evil he was learning from the associates he had out of school were doing him more injury than we could do him good. We have consulted with other town and city superintendents and find our experience was not at variance with theirs. The consolidation of the district schools in our opinion would solve the country school problem. It would give the country schools all the advantages now enjoyed by the town schools and none of their disadvantages. There is a strong and growing sentiment favorable to consolidation and transportation in the west central states. As we have already given many advantages and benefits of consolidated schools, following this article will be the opinion and experience of some of the leading educators of the United States. Also the facts as viewed by parents and teachers where consolidation of schools has been in operation for many years. We now wish to express our views on a new phase of the subject, MANUAL TRAINING. The interest in manual training in public schools is growing. The one chief thing that prevents the rapid introduction of the subject into the schools of our cities is the lack of suitable rooms. This would not be the difficulty in the consolidated school as the basement would make a most excellent place for their work. No doubt many at first thought, will object to manual training in our country schools, but upon reflection will re-consider and agree with us when we say this is the first of all places that it should be taught. Very few of our city neighbors make much use of the valuble instruction they get along this line. In fact, trouble is about the only thing that a large per cent of our city boys know how to make. Freely would we like to exchange our last year's in- formation on the subject of Latin for what we could be taught in a manual training school in one week. How to drive a nail, saw a board and hang a door. Manual training is mental training through the hand and eye. So far as knowledge goes there is not an educator, a sue- 28 farmers' friend cessful professional or business man that does not most heartily approve of manual training in our public schools. Manual training is sanctioned by farmers everywhere, the only question they ask is, is it possible to be accom- plished! The mechanical drawing can be taught by the teacher of the consolidated school just as it is taught by our city school teachers. Mechanical drawing well taught is no doubt half the battle. Why would not the eye be as well trained and the judgment as well developed in this work as in the drawing that is done in the average high school with but those motives in view? If two days out of every week, for three months were devoted to practical work in carpentry, harness making and working in iron, admitting all living in the consoli- dated district to attend between the age of fifteen and twenty-one ; let these three months be between December and March, the instruction should consist of such mechan- ical work as is usually necessary to all classes of people. No attempt should be made to teach any particular trade. Manual training will do as much to broaden the intelli- gence and form habits of attention, perseverance and patience as will the quite common Latin lesson that has been copied from an older pupil's note book or taken from a "key". Did you ever know of a boy that did not like to work with tools? What a boy likes to do that he will do well. The school must become more socialized in its organiza- tion, methods and course of study. The most important activities of the life into which the child must go should be transferred to the life of the school. Manual training sets free those natural and valuable impulses which in- duce the child to try his strength and skill in a large num- ber of various activities. At the same time it turns those activities and tendencies, which may, if left unused, lead the boy to destruction and crime, into useful channels. It is well known by every parent and every experienced school teacher that the most critical time in a young boy's life is from the age of fifteen to twenty-one. It is a very common saying, "if you can tide him over a few years more he will be all right", or, "if you can hold him farmers' friend 29 down", or words to that effect, "you will have no diffi- culty after that ' '. Some people even go so far as to say, ^'a boy must sow his wild oats". It is simply surplus energy without any proper and beneficial channel in which it may be disposed, and we firmly believe if you had some interesting, pleasan.t and useful occupation for our boys during the wintry months the crimes of our country would be materially lessened. It is during the time of idleness and congregation of boys that the habits of the worst are learned, the thoughts of the vilest put into execution. If only viewed from a financial standpoint, there is not a question of doubt but that a manual training school would yield far greater returns than the money expended in equipping and maintaining them. With a small shop upon the farm, nine-tenths of the money now paid for wood, iron, and harness repairs could be done at home, done during a time when the young man for lack of some- thing interesting to do would be off to the neighboring village It is a fact sanctioned by many parents that boys take particular pride in working at this kind of work. We can scarcely estimate the time and expense this would save the farmer during the busy season. Farmers all know much time and expense would be saved if things in need of repair were looked after at the proper time. Manual training is now carried on in many of the East- ern and Southern states. Nothing but the most satis- factory reports come from those that visit them. Nearly all our leading colleges and normal schools have, during the last few years, added a manual training department to their schools. Not only will the teachers be able to give instruction in the subjects usually taught but also in manual train- ing. There will, no doubt, as is now the case in many of our cities, be from thirty to fifty minutes each day de- voted to some kind of manual training; taught through all the grades. Such as the making of simple and use- ful articles; becoming acquainted with the handling of tools, etc. In the lower grades, paper folding and cut- 30 FAEMERS' FRIEND ting, weaving and sewing, raffia braiding and weaving into baskets and mats. As they pass on through the grades the work will be- come a little more difficult; such as articles made from thin wood, by use of rule, pencil, compass, knife and fret saw; sewing, etc. The boys' and girls' work are practi- cally the same in the lower grades. We also have con- nected with nearly all of our leading colleges a domestic science course where lessons in cookery, and household economy are taught. Some may think this is going to take too much time from the other and less important studies in the higher grades. It is a fact that the change of work will rest the pupil and when he goes back to his study he will accom- plish more than if compelled to continue at the same kind ofwork. Did you put in your full time studying when you attended school ? ''But won't it cost more?" Yes, we know cost is de- termined by supply and demand and there is going to be great demand for these teachers. In a few years the supply will become greater and in proportion reduce the wages. We don't believe the time will ever come when you can get a young lowan equipped and qualified for school work, to go into the school room for less wages than farmers are willing to pay a smart teamster or active wood chopper, though a normal school were in session under every shade tree. The farmer should not hope to keep his boy on the farm unless there is some inducement to keep him there. So long as we fail to provide a measure for the healthy expenditure of these pent-up activities we shall be troubled with the boys who frequent the street corners and fill the reform school for want of proper direction. The leading arguments in favor of consolidation are: 1. It permits a better grading of the schools and classification of pupils. Consolidation allows pupils to be placed where they can work to the best advantage; the various subjects of study to be wisely se- lected and correlated, and more time to be given to recitations. 2. It affords an opportunity for thorough work in special branches, such as drawing, music, and nature study. It also allows an enrich- ment in other lines. 3. It opens the doors to more weeks of schooling and to schools of a farme rs' friend . 31 higher grade. The people in villages almost invariably lengthen the school year and support a high school for advanced pupils. 4. It insures th« employment and retention of better teachers. Teachers in small ungraded schools are usually of limited education, training, or experience, or are past the age of competition. The salaries paid in cities and villages allow a wide range in the selection of teachers. 5. It makes the work/ of the specialist and supervisor far more effective. Their plans and efforts can all be concentrated into some- thing tangible. 6. It adds the stimulating influences of large classes, with the re- sulting enthusiasm and generous rivalry. The discipline and training Obtained are invaluable. 7. It affords the broader companionship and culture that come from association, 8. It results in a better attendance of pupils, as proved by experi- ence in townships where the plan has been thoroughly tried. 9. It leads to better school buildings, better equipment, a larger supply of books, charts, maps, and apparatus. All these naturally fol- low a concentration of people, wealth, and effort, and aid in making good schools. The large expenditure implied in these better appoint- ments is wise economy, for the cost per pupil is really much less than the cost in small and widely separated schools. 10. And, again, it quickens public interest in the schools. Pride in the quality of the work done secures a greater sympathy and better fellowship throughout the township. Finally, by transporation the farm again as of old be- comes the ideal place in which to bring up children, enabling them to secure the advantages of centers of population and spend their evenings and holiday time in the country in contact with nature and plenty of work, instead of idly loafing about town. We are in the midst of an industrial revolution. The principle of concentration has touched our farming, our manufacturing, our mining, and our commerce. There are those who greatly fear the outcome. There were those who prophesied disaster and even the destruction of society on the introduction of labor-saving machinery. We have adjusted ourselves to the new conditions thus introduced. Most of us believe- that we shall again ad- just ourselves to the new industrial conditions. The changes in industrial and social conditions make neces- sary similar changes in educational affairs. The watch- word of today is concentration, the dominant force is centripetal. Not only for the saving of expense but for the better quality of the work must we bring our pupils 32 farmers' friend together. No manufacturing business could endure a year run on a plan so extravagant as the district system of schools. IN OTHER STATES. Consolidation and transportation is a settled policy in some of the eastern states and is being adopted to a greater or less extent in many of the western states, where it is rapidly growing in favor. KANSAS. Frank Nelson, state superintendent of public instruc- tion in Kansas, writes: "The consolidation of schools and the transportation of pupils to and from school is one of the really important educational movements of the times. Here in Kansas we are working along this line with much success. The last legislature enacted a law providing for the consoli- dation of school districts and the transportation of pupils. It is the first law of its kind ever enacted in this state and is giving great satis- faction. The people are warm supporters of the consolidation of schools because they realize that it gives them better schools, better courses of study, better teachers, longer terms and a deeper interest in the work. "Under this plan of school administration parents are able to give their children a good education right at home at a very moderate ex- pense. It is the duty of the state to bring the best and' largest educa- tional advantages within easy reach of the people. This is done by building up strong graded schools in the community. "I am a firm believer in the consolidation of schools and the trans- portation of pupils. This movement is destihed to revolutionize our entire school system and to bring greater blessings to all the people." WISCONSIN. L. D. Harvey, state superintendent of public instruc- tion of Wisconsin, says : "I believe this is one of the most important movements in recent years for the betterment of school conditions in certain communities. The smaU country school with almost invariable accompaniment of poorly prepared teachers has little or no value. It is expensive, when the number of persons in attendance is taken into consideration. The consolidation of districts results in better organization of the school, in stronger teaching force, and in taking pupils out of the isolation which necessarily accompanies the small school. "One of the most important things in the education of the child is that he shall come in contact with a goodly number of children of his own age. Without this contact he is missing one of the most important farmers' friend 33 elements of an education. Experience has shown that consolidation may be effected and pupils transported without an increase in the ex- penses for school purposes in the district covered. "The people in our state are very much interested in this matter and in many localities are taking steps to effect consolidation and pro- vide for transportation of pupils." MASSACHUSETTS. In Massachusetts the system was adopted many years ago and has been growing in popularity. In ten years the state's expenditures for conveyance of pupils in- creased from $30,000 to nearly 142,000. The report of the state superintendent of public instruction in Massa- chusetts in 1901 gives the following account of the work- ing of the consolidation system in the town of Warwick : "Six years ago Warwick maintained nine schools twenty-four weeks per year. The average attendance of pupils in the township was eighty- seven. Teachers' wages in the eight outside schools were five dollars per week, in the center school six dollars per week. With few ex- ceptions, the teachers were young and without experience, educated in the district schools. Some were under sixteen years of age, — one term a pupil in a school, the next term a teacher. Occasionally, in recent years, a teacher of marked ability and successful experience has been employed, but the number of schools made it impossible to pay wages that would retain the services of well-qualified teachers many terms. The schools were poorly supplied with books and materials. "Now all of the pupils in the townships are in three rooms of one modern, well-lighted, heated, ventilated building, pleasantly situated in the center of the township. The rooms are supplied with good black- boards, and with books and appliances for the use of pupils. The school has three teachers, — ^normal school graduates of exceptional aJbility. The average wage paid is nine dollars a week, the school year is thirty-six weeks. Special teachers of music and drawing visit the school each week. Pupils are conveyed to the center union school from distant parts of the townships. The average attendance last year was 96. State Superintendent Frank L. Jones, of Indiana, in his report for 1900, says : "The great evil of the small rural school lies in it non-social char- acter. It is wholly unable to furnish each of its pupils that educative influence that comes from association with many of the same age and same degree of advancement; it can not have, in many classes, ei ough 34: FAEMERS' FRIEND of honest and helpful competition to establish a standard to which many a bright pupil would raise himself, and fails therefore to bring from him that supreme effort which develops and ennobles, and which comes only from a vigorous contest with his fellows. The humdrum and monotony of a recitation in a one-pupil class is discouraging to both pupil and teacher. Not only is the mental work of the school thus impaired, but the lack of enough pupils to organize a game on the schoolhouse yard prevents adequate exercise and tends to make mor- bid, selfish and pessimistic all who live in its atmosphere — the deadly quiet and inactivity of the small school kills the spirit. Professor Hins- dale makes a clear statement in the following words: " 'The importance of this element in the rural school problem be- comes obvious at a glance. In populous districts fewer schools and districts relatively are called for, while, at the same time, owing to the larger numbers and the more varied attainments of the pupils, the system can be more fully developed. The school and the home, under the present system, can not be far apart; otherwise children will at- tend the school with difficulty, or not at all. Once more, the interest and enthusiasm of pupils and teachers depend directly upon the number and the ability of the pupils present. For the majority of children individual instruction, or anything closely approaching it, is not to be commended. Aristotle condemned such instruction on political ground's. It may also be condemned on pedagogical grounds. Children need the inspiration of numbers. Besides, numbers contain ethical value. As a rule, you can no more make a good school out of a half dozen pupils than you can make a powerful galvanic battery with one or two pairs of plates.' "The per capita cost in these small schools is not only much too large, but Is continually increasing. In 1879 the cost of education per capita was as follows: In townships $ 6.21 In towns 5.21 In cities 7.48 "In 1899, twenty years later, the cost was: In townships (per capita) ?10.50 In towns (per capita) 11.10 In cities (per capita) 7.07 "These tables are of more than usual interest on this point, and pnesent to the taxpayer a strong argument for a solution of the prob- lem of the small school. It will he observed at once that the per capita cost of education is constantly increasing in the country and towns and decreasing in the cities. This condition in the rural school arises wholly from the prevalence of small schools. There were as nfany rural schools in 1899 as in 1879, the salaries in the former are farmers' friend 35 not substantially different from those in thei latter, the investments in schoolhouses and appliances would about equal, but thie attendance in them has constantly decreased. This condition makes necessary an expenditure for teachers, fuel, apparatus and repairs for the small school of today equal to that of the large one of two decades ago. In the towns the increase is due quite largely to the esitablishment and equipment of high schools of small enrollment. Nearly all cities show congested schools, making necessary many pupils under the direction of each teacher, thus reducing the per capita cost. Add to this a saving in fuel, repairs, buildings and appliances, and the reduced cost of edu- cation in cities is explained." i CONNECTICUT. The legislature in 1893 authorized the transporation of children to and from school at the expense of the town (meaning township,) whenever a school shall be discon- tinued upon the approval of the school visitors. Within seven years about sixty towns took advantage of this, uniting schools and transporting the children to the near- est schoolhouse. The system has been generally satis- factory and has reduced the cost. In 1897-8, eight^^-f our schools were closed and the following year, eighty-five. The report of the state superintendent says that "ex- pense is less than the cost of maintaining schools. The result has been : "1. To make larger schools and provide desirable classification. "2. To make better schools. In some cases the change has been very marked, the consolidated school at once taking high rank because a good teacher was secured. "3. With one exception, the cost has been diminished. "4. In every case the attendance has improved. "5. Unpunctuality is entirely avoided, for the children must reach school on time. "The policy of closing schools and transporting children is not popular at first. When it has been tried and properly managed it has always been approved. "There is substantial agreement that the result, financially and edu- cationally, has been satisfactory. The most/ emphatic expressions of approval come from those who were influenced mainly by the educa- tional motives. "Childre^ are less exposed to storms and to bad weather and are healthier. Atttendance is increased 10 to 20 per cent." 36 FAKMERS' FRIEND Detailed reports from the districts where the system has been tried show imif ormly good results and satisfac- tion to patrons. OHIO. Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruc- tion in Illinois, has made a personal investigation of the operation of the Ohio plan and his account of it is worth careful consideration. Mr. Bayliss says : "I have lately seen some excellent examples of the practical work- ing out of this plan in the state of Ohio. What has become widely- known as the 'Kingsville experiment' was made possible in that state by an act which applied to 'any township which by the census of 1890 had a population of not less than 1,710 nor more than 1,715.' In other words, the legislature of Ohio was willing to let the people of Kings- ville and vicinity furnish an object lesson for their more conservative neighbors, if they were willing to take the chances and foot the bill. That village and township, however, proved to be like the man who insisted 'that he was not such a fool as he looked.' The daily attend- anoe Increased. The cost rper capita diminished. There was a bal- ance on the right side of the account of over $1,000 in the first three years. As a result the enabling act was made general and the plan is spreading. Two very notable examples came under my observation. The first was in Gustavus township, Trumbull county. There were formerly nine districts in that township, and as many small schools. Four years ago the nine districts were consolidated. A frame build- ing, with four rooms, was erected at a cost of $3,000. A principal, three assistants and a janitor were employed. Nine comfortable, cov- ered spring wagons, with drivers under $200 bonds, were engaged to convey the children to and from the central school. Before the con- solidation the average school attendance in that township was 125. Last year it was 144. The school population remains about the same. The year preceding the oonsolidation the schools of the township cost $2,900. The union school cost, including the wagons, $3,156, an in- crease of $256 for the township, but a decrease of $1.29 per pupil on the average attendance. "The other case is in the adjoining township of Green. The people of this township were divided in opinion three years ago. They, there- fore, wisely waited for the result of the experiment in Gustavus. After observing it two years, they were satisfied. Public opinion crystalized in favor of the plan. Last Sieptember the people of this township opened a new, steam-heated, well-lighted and ventilated, brick build- ing, having six large school rooms, an(J two smaller rooms, one of which is set apart for the library. Eight wagons convey the children. FARMERS FRIEND 37 The principal of the school told me, with pardonable pride, that there was a piano coming. Both of these schools do about three years of high school work. Public sentiment is no longer divided. "The la^t statement should, perhaps, be qualified. In May, 1900, a comimittee of two citizens, one for and one against 'consolidation', was sent from a township in Warren county, Ohio, to investigate and report upon the facts as they found them in Gustavus township. The report, signed by both members of the committee, stated that persons known to favor the plan were purposely passed by; that fifty-four persons were questioned, and their answers were as stated in the report. Of that number, forty-three were for, seven against, and four indifferent to the plan. Of the seven who declared against it, six were without children of school age, and of the four who were indifferent, none had children of school age. "Of all the fifty-four, we find, said the committee, but one pereon with children who was opposed to centralization. I talked with the citizens in six or seven country towns in which the plan is in opera- tion, in three different counties, and failed to find a single individual who did not approve it. "Such illustrations could be multiplied. The plan works out. The health of children is improved, because of the diminished exposure to stormy weather. School attendance is increased, both in regularity and in the number of pupils. Tardiness and truancy disappear. The school year is lengthened. Better teachers are employed. Teachers can be better paid. I asked one little fellow of ten or twelve years how he liked the union school. Oh, it's great, he said, to be where some- thing is going on. And, perhaps, it is from this widened circle of acquaintance, extending beyond the children to the whole community, that one of the great benefits is to be derived. The isolation of small schools — ten pupils or fewer — is not favorable to intellectual, moral or social growth. The young mind grows by contact with other minds, and quite as much by contact with those of near its own strength as by the influence of stronger ones." Mr. G. L. Fletcher, Agent Mass. Board of Education, sent out inquiries to school committees and superintend- ents of the state, asking for information about their experience with consolidation and conveyance. Some of the replies received were very significant. It was said that the per capita cost of education has been greatly reduced. "In the year 1893 Seymour Rockwell, the veteran school committee man of Montague, said: " 'For eighteen years we have had the best attendance from the 38 PAEMEES' FRIEND transported children; no more sickness among them, and no accidents. The children like the plan exceedingly. We have saved the town at least $600 a year. All these children now attend a well-equipped school- house at the center. The schools are graded; everybody is converted to the plan. "We encountered all the opposition found anywhere, but we asserted our sensible and legal rights, and accomplished the work. I see no way of bringing the country schools up but to consolidate them, making them worth seeing; then the people will be more likely to do their duty by visiting theim.' "From another town came this suggestive statement: " 'Once when a man wished to sell his farm he advertised, "A school near". Now he advertises, "Children conveyed to good schools". Farms sell more readily now,' " State Superintendent J. F. Riggs of Iowa, in his an- nual report, says : "From personal inspection! and study of some of the consolidated schools in this state, supplemented by the study of reports from other states where the system has been longer in operation and is much more general, I reach the following conclusions: "1. Pupils in consolidated schools very generailly enjoy better schodl privileges and are taught by better teachers than under the old district plan. "2. Where transportation is provided for all pupils the cost of maintenance is usually but not always more than under the district plan, but the enrollment is so much larger and the attendance so much more regular that the increased benefits equal or outrun the increased cost ofmaintenance. "3. Where consolidation is successfully established', the opposition at first engendered gradually disappears and bitter opponents often come to be ardent supporters of the new plan when they see the su- perior benefits It secures to the children. "4. Where transportation is made the fixed policy in any district, wagons specially designed for transportation purposes should be owned by the district. This will result in the greater comfort of the chil- dren and make it easier for the board to secure competent drivers, — a matter of the greatest importance. "5. Children should seldom, if ever, be required to ride a greater distance than five miles. The very long rides are both expensive to the district and hard on the children. It follows from this conclusion that the civil township is, in general, too large a unit for a school district maintaining but one school. The law should authorize the change of boundaries between contiguous school townships or between school townships and independent districts in such a way that consolidated farmers' friend 39 districts of smaller area than the civil township could be established. The size and outline of the consolidated district should be determined by the physical features of its area and by the location of the homes to be accommodated. The homes on opposite sides of a public highway should be in the same district; hence half section lines or quarter sec- tion lines, rather than section lines, should in the main separate school districts. "While an area somewhat smaller than the civil township is pref- erable as a permanent school unit, township conaolidation is practic- able where the roads are good and the schools are small. "6. The consolidated school should in the main be kept in the country or in the small country village. The school should be the social center of the community. Where one or more country districts are con- solidated with a city district, the course of study should be made suffici- ently flexible to provide for those children who can attend school only during the winter." EDUCATION OF THE FAKM BOY AND GIRL. * * * Have the advantages for the education of the farm boy and girl kept pace with the advancement in all other lines of society? Is the little schoolhouse, with its poor equipment, with the poorly trained teacher in many instances, and with very poor work in the common branches sufficient to meet the demands of today for the common school education? Have we not reached the period in all the central west- ern states where nothing short of a well equipped school- house, a first-class teacher and a course of study revised to meet the demands of the times, are a necessity for our children? I believe that every farmer who reads this article will agree with me that conditions have changed since he was a boy, and that it takes a better trained mind to be a suc- cessful farmer or business man today than it did even, ten years ago. It is safe to say that the time has come when the far^ mer must have within comparatively easy reach of his home a well constructed schoolhouse, thoroughly equipped for giving the best of modern education. He 40 farmers' friend ought not to have to send his son or daughter away from home to school until at least two years of the work of the modern high school has been completed. The farm boy and the farm girl should be at home at nights while they are getting their general education. These conveniences may be had everywhere by the consolidation of schools in localities of mutual interests. This has already been done to a large extent in Indiana, and the plan is under good headway in Iowa and some other western states. There is no reason why the farmers should not pro- vide these conveniences of education for their children. It is nothing more than they are doing to provide them- selves with better means of breeding and handling their stock or improving their farms, and certainly their chil- dren's welfare is of much more concern than any farm or stock improvements. * * * The new conditions of life on the farm demand im- provement in general education for the farm boy or girl. It is presumed that the course of study will contain a good course in bookkeeping, and facilities should be pro- vided for a certain amount of industrial work. The chil- dren in the grades should be taught to make various arti- cles, such as cardboard modeling, clay modeling, weaving of rugs and hammocks, baskets with raffia, reed and wil- low, doll houses with raffia furniture and various arti- cles that may be easily made under the direction of a trained teacher, and both the children of the grades and the high school should have access to a shop where they may learn to make articles by the use of simple tools. This work is not to be carried on with the idea of making carpenters or artisans of all, but with the thought in view of cultivating a desire and an appreciation for such work and the further idea of giving the pupils the oppor- tunity to acquire the ability to help themselves and thereby to help others. A few hours a week at such work as this will prove invaluable to any child. Parents have not come to a realization yet how much this indus- trial work means to their children. The expense of pro- viding this equipment is nominal, compared to the good to be received, and the pupils need very little instruction farmers' friend 41 in order to acquire the training it is intended they shall secure from such work. * * * * The proper education of the farm boy and girl can not be neglected without bringing ruin upon the farming communities. If these advantages are not provided the farm boys and girls will drift away early into other callings. If the right kind of schools are provied for the country boys and girls they will remain at home until they receive this general education, and then if they have gifts in other directions it will be time for them to seek special schools. — Pres. 0. H. LoNGWELL in Twentieth Century Farmer. LAWS AND LEGAL FORMS WHICH EVERY FARMER SHOULD KNOW. Deeds. — Laws Governing Deeds. — How to write deeds. — Warranty Deed. — Form. Certificate of acknowledgment. — Quieting Title. Mortgages. — Laws Governing Mortgages. — Acknowl- edgment. — Recording. — Form. — Assignment of Mortgage. — ^^Collection of Mortgage Debt. — Redemp- tion of Mortgage. Chattel Mortgage. — Form. — Mortgagors ' rights. — Re- demption. — Sale Under Statute. Landlord and Tenant. — Lease. — Laws Governing Lea- ses. — Form of Lease. — How to Write a Lease. Contracts. — Laws Governing all Kinds of Contracts. — Land Contracts. — Contracts for Laying Tile or Building Fence. — A Contract for the Sale of Horses, Cattle or Other Personal Property. Promissory Notes. — Laws Governing Notes. Accounts. — Laws Governing Accounts. Exemptions. — Real Estate. — Homesteads. — Personal Property. Fences. — Wliat Constitutes a Legal Fence. Criminal liability. — Estrays. — Estray Notices. — Pay- ment of Fees. — Title to Estrays. — Reclaiming Es- trays. — Taker Up May Use and Work the Estray. Drainage laws of iowa. — Tiling, etc. 42 FAKMEKS' FEIEND HOW TO WEITE A DEED. EuLEs: — It must he written or printed on paper or parchment. 2. The names of the parties and place of residence are written first. 3. The property must be fully described. The de- scription shoidd be by bounds, or by divisions of United States surveys, or by sub-divisions into blocks and lots, as shown on the records. 4. It must express a consideration, also a covenant to "warrant and defend" and be signed and sealed by the grantor or grantors. Caution. — It must be completely written before deliv- ery. Numbers should always be written in words fol- lowed by figures in parentheses. If the grantor is mar- ried, they both should join in the grant and in execution of the deed — signing and acknowledging. Where forms are prescribed by the Statutes of a State, they must be followed. The long form, however, is good in all the States. THE LAW GOVERNING DEEDS. 1. The acknowledgment of a deed can only be made before contain persons authorized to take the same, such as Justices of the Peace, Notaries, Masters in Chancery, Judges and Clerks of the Courts, Commissioners of Deeds, etc. 2. A deed without consideration is void. 3. Any person of legal age, competent to transact business, and owning real estate, may convey it by deed. 4. The deed takes effect upon its delivery to the per- son authorized to receive it, and should be recorded at once. 5. After the acknowledgment of a deed the parties have no right to make the slightest alteration. 6. The person making the deed is called the grantor, the person to whom the deed is delivered is called grantee. FAKMERS' FRIEND 43 7. A Warranty Deed. — The grantor warrants the title to be good, and agrees to defend the same against all persons. A Quit Claim Deed releases only what interest the grantor has in the property. 8. Never purchase real estate without a careful exam- ination of the title, either by yourself or a trusty attor- ney. 9. Always procure an abstract of title before advanc- ing money or signing contract for purchase of land or lots. WAERANTY DEED.— Long Form. This Indenture, made this Second day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven between Andrew Samson and Polly Ann Samson, his wife, of the Village of Fernald, in the County of Story; and State of Iowa, party of the first part, and Ehenezer P. Stought of the City of Chicago, in the County of Cook and State of Illinois, party of the second part: WITNESSETH, That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of Ten thousand Eight hundred and ninety ($10,890.00) Dollars, in hand paid by the said party of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, and the said party of the second part forever released and discharged therefrom, have granted, bargained, sold, remised, released, conveyed, aliened and confirmed, and by these presents do — grant, bargain, sell, remise, release, convey, alien, and confirm unto the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns, forever, all the following described lots, pieces, or parcel of land, situated in the County of Du Page, and State of Illinois, and known and described as follows, to-wit: The 'North-west quarter of Section Thirty-six (36) in Totunship thirty-eight (38) North, of Range eleven (11) East of the Third Principal Meridian, containing one 44 FAKMEKS' FRIEND hundred and sixty acres by Government Survey. Also, an equal undivided one-half interest in Lot number one {l)in Block number three i'S) of Fernald, in the County and State aforesaid. Together with All and Singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in anywise appertaining, and the reversion and reversions, remain- der and remainders, rents, issues, and profits thereof; and all of the estate, right, title, interest, claim, or de- mand whatsoever, of the said party of the first part, either in law or in equity, of, in, and to the above bar- gained premises, with the hereditaments and appurte- nances : To Have and to Hold the said premises above bargained and described, with the appurtenances, unto the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns forever. And the said Andrew Samson and Polly Ann Samson, his wife, party of the first part, for themselves and their heirs, executors and administrators, do covenant, grant, bargain, and agree to and with the said party of the sec- ond part, his heirs and assigns, that at the time of the ensealing and delivery of these presents, they are well seized of the premises above conveyed, as of a good, sure, perfect, absolute and indefeasible estate of inheritance in law, in fee simple, and have good right, full power, and lawful authority to grant, bargain, sell and convey the same in manner and form aforesaid, and that the same are free and clear from all former and other grants, bargains, sales, liens, taxes, assessments, and encum- brances, of what kind or nature soever; and the above bargained premises, in the quiet and peaceable posses- sion of the said party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, against all and every other person or persons lawfully claiming or to claim the whole or any part thereof, the said party of the first part shall and will WARRANT and DEFEND. And the said party of the first part hereby expressly waive and release any and all right, benefit, privilege, advantage and exemption, under or by virtue of any and all Statutes of the State of Illinois, providing for the farmers' friend 45 exemption of homesteads from sale on execution or other- wise. In Witness Whereof, the said party of the first part have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year first above written. Signed, Sealed and Deliv- ered in the Presence of Salamander S. Stone. Andrew Samson, (seal) Polly Ann Samsoyi, (seal) (seal) (seal) (CERTIFICATE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT.) STATE OF IOWA, ss. COUNTY OF STORY I, John Smith, a Notary Public in and for said County, do hereby certify that Andrew Samson and Polly N. Samson, his wife, who are personally known to me to be the same persons whose names are subscribed to the foregoing instrument, appeared before me this day in person and acknowledged that they signed, sealed and delivered the same as their free and voluntary act for the uses and purposes therein set forth, inculding a re- lease and waiver of the right of homestead. Given under mv hand and Notarial Seal this second day of March, 1907. (Signed) John Smith, [Notarial Seal.] Notary Public. MORTGAGES AND LEASES. A mortgage is a conveyance of property for the pur- pose of securing the payment of money, or the perform- 46 FAEMERS' FRIEND ance of some other obligation. Real estate may be mort- gaged by the owner or owners for the security of a debt, or the performance of an obligation, or as an indemnity to secure another against loss. The person who makes the mortgage is called the mortgagor, and he to whom the mortgage is made is called the mortgagee. In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, the mort- gagor of real property retains the legal title and right of possession thereto. This legal title and right of posses- sion he retains not only till the debt is due, but until the mortgage is foreclosed and the land sold and a sher- iff's deed made therefor, which deed cannot be made until one year after the sale. During that year the mort- gagor has the right to redeem. The legal effect, there- fore, of a mortgage in this state is not to convey any estate in the land, but only to give the mortgagee a spec- ial lien or charge thereon to secure the debt. The land remains the property of the mortgagor, to all intents and purposes, the same as if no mortgage had been made. The mortgagee's interest is not real estate, but only per- sonal property. When the mortgagor is married, the wife or husband should join in the mortgage, to the ex- tent, at least, of relinquishing the right of dower, and if the property to be mortgaged is the homestead^ they should both join fullif in executing the same instrument. But if the mortgage is made by the grantor to secure the purchase money, or a part of it, the wife or husband of the purchaser need not join in it. The owner of land may mortgage it to secure the debt of another. Delivery. — A mortgage does not take effect until it has been delivered and accepted. Acknowledging and Recording. — A mortgage cannot be lawfully recorded until it has been acknowledged. An acknowledgment not complying with the law is the same as no acknowledgment at all. The purpose of recording a mortgage is to give notice to the world of the rights of the mortgagee. The statute provides that no instru- ment affecting real estate is of any validity against sub- sequent purchasers for a valuable consideration, with- out notice, unless recorded in the office of the recorder farmers' friend 47 of the county in which the land is situated. However, as between the parties to the mortgage, it is bindingeven though not acknowledged and recorded, and upon per- sons who have actual notice of it. Actual notice means either actual knowledge, or knowledge of such facts as should put a reasonable man upon inquiry, which if pursued, would result in knowledge. Form. — The cardinal element of a mortgage is that of security for the payment of a debt or performance of an obligation. Therefore no particular form is necessary. It may be in the form of an absolute conveyance, yet if it is intended as a security it is a mortgage. A mort- gage of itself never changes its character. ''Once a mortgage always a mortgage" is a legal maxim. Assignment of Mortgage. — If the mortgage is given to secure the payment of promissory notes, the notes are the evidence of the debt, and the mortgage is but an in- cident thereto. A transfer of the notes by endorsement will transfer the mortgage. The mortgage may also be as- signed by a writing on the back thereof, or by a separate written instrument, and if such assignment is made it will authorize the assignee to foreclose the same and to cancel the mortgage upon the records, the assignment being also recorded. If the assignment is to be recorded, it must also be acknowledged like a deed. When one purchases the note or notes secured by the mortgage, he should also take an assignment of the mortgage, duly acknowledged, and file it for record. This will prevent the mortgagee from satisfying the mortgage of record and thereby deprive the assignee of the security. The assignment of the mortgage alone, without an assign- ment also of the note or debt secured thereby, does not carry anything of value to the assignee. He cannot by reason thereof collect any part of the debt. Mortgage Continues Though Debt be Changed. — It is a general rule that nothing but the actual payment of the debt secured by a mortgage, or the express return of the mortgage, will discharge the lien created thereby. The lien lasts as long as the debt, if there is no release. No change in the form of the debt is a payment of it, 48 farmers' friend and no such change will discharge the mortgage. If the old notes be taken up and new notes given for the same debt, with interest added, and an extension of time of payment, the lien of the mortgage continues unbroken. Collection of a Mortgage Debt. — When the mortgage debt, or any jDart of it, is due and unpaid, the holder of the debt may at his option, discard the mortgage and bring an action at law for a personal judgment against the debtor for so much of the debt as is due. However, the ordinary method of procedure to collect the mortgage debt is by the foreclosure of the mortgage. In this proceeding, usually, a personal judgment is rendered against the debtor, and, in addition thereto, there is a special order for the sale of the mortgaged property, or so much thereof as may be necessary to satisfy the judg- ment so rendered, with interest and costs. If the mort- gaged property does not sell for enough to satisfy the debt, a general execution may be had against the debtor for the balance, unless the parties have otherwise agreed. Redemption. — The mortgagor has the same right to redeem the property from the foreclosure sale as if it were sold under a general execution to satisfy an ordin- ary judgment. This right of redemption continues for twelve months after the sale, during which time no title or right of possession passes by virtue of the sale. At the end of that time, if no redemption is made, a sheriff's deed is executed to the person entitled thereto and the purchaser is entitled to enter at once into the i)ossession and control of the land. Satisfaction of Record. — When the mortgage is paid, it is the duty of the mortgagee, or of any assignee who appears by the record to be the owner of the mortgage, to cause it to be canceled on the record, so that it no longer appears as a charge upon the land. When the mortgage is foreclosed, this duty devolves upon the clerk of the court. No specific form of realese is necessary. It may be by the marginal release, as by entering upon the margin of the record of the mortgage a statement to the effect that the mortgage is canceled by payment of the debt or that some portion of the mortgaged prop- farmers' friend 49 erty is released from the lien created by the mortgage, or it may be released and discharged by an instrument acknowledging the payment of the debt and discharge of the mortgage, which should be filed for record in the office of the recorder of deeds. Chattel 'Mortgage. — Such mortgage is a sale of per sonal property for the purpose of securing the payment of a debt or for the performance of some other obliga- tion, upon condition that the sale shall be void upon the payment of the debt or the discharge of the obligation according to the terms of the agreement. The posses- sion of the property may be retained by the mortgagor, or it may pass to the mortgagee, as the parties may agree. Any person of lawful age and of sufficient mental capacity to enter into other contracts may make a valid mortgage of personal property to which he has the legal title, but one who has the mere possession of such prop- erty, without the legal title, cannot make a mortgage upon it which will be binding upon the true owner. Form. — Chattel mortgages are usually in writing, signed and acknowledged by the mortgagor, and re- corded in the office of the recorder of deeds. No partic- ular form is necessary. As between the parties them- selves it is not necessary that the instrument be either acknowledged or recorded, or even that the contract be in writing. Delivery and Acceptance. — As with respect to all other written contracts, so with chattel mortgages ; they do not take effect until there is a delivery and an accept- ance, and from the moment of such delivery and accept- ance, unless there is an agreement to the contrary, they take effect. There are many provisions of the law applicable to consideration, description of the property, description of the debt, what may be mortgaged, future acquired prop- erty and nature of the mortgagor's interest, which are too long and numerous to be treated herein. Mortgagor's Rights and Remedies. — Practically the same remedies are available to the mortgagee under a 50 farmers' friend chattel as under a real estate mortgage. However, with respect to a chattel mortgage he has the further remedy, that he or his agent may seize and sell the mortgaged property, or so much thereof as may be necessary, under the power given him in the mortgage. In pursuing this method, it is customary to give the mortgage to the sher- iff or constable, and authorize him to proceed to seize, advertise and sell the property. However, this is not necessary. The mortgagee may do this for himself, or he may authorize any other person to do it for him ; and when he employs a sheriff or constable such officer acts only as his agent, and not in his official capacity. The mortgagee may seize and sell the property as soon ivS the secured debt is overdue and unpaid. He has the absolute right so to do, still he must not exercise that right unless he can do so peaceably. If nothing is said in the mortgage to the contrary, the mortgagee is by law entitled to the possession of the property. There are usually some conditions in the mortgage under which the mortgagee may take possession and sell before the debt becomes due. When the mortgage provides the manner of seizure and sale of the property, such pro- visions must be strictly complied with. The mortgage in such case is the authority for such acts. Eedemption. — So long as the property remains unsold, the mortgagee has the right to redeem by paying the debt and the costs made to that time. The sale, to be a legal sale, must be made for cash. If the mortgagee barters the property for other property, he who then takes it still holds it subject to the mortgagor's right to redeem. Sale Under Statute. — The statute provides a method of foreclosure and sale by notice, when there is no stip- ulation to the contrary agreed upon by the parties. These provisions prescribe the entire procedure for this method. The statute should be consulted when this method is intended to be followed. FARMEKS' FRIEND 51 NOTARIES PUBLIC. The governor is authorized to appoint one or more persons to the office of notary public in each county as he may deem necessary. Either men or women may receive such appointment. The term is for three years, but all commissions expire on July 4, 1900, and every three years thereafter. The application should be made to the governor on blanks prepared and furnished by that office. The application must be accompanied with a recommendation stating that the applicant is a citizen of the United States, is of age, has proper qualifications in point of ability ajid integrity for the office, and that he has resided in the state a sufficient length of time to entitle him to vote therein. The applicant must be a resident of the county for which he seeks the appoint- ment. When the application is presented to the gov- ernor he will either grant or refuse the application. If he makes the appointment, the applicant will be duly no- tified thereof and furnished with a blank bond to be exe- cuted according to law. If the applicant be a woman she must be at least eighteen years of age and possess the same qualifications as required of male applicants. The commission to the applicant will be issued under the seal of the state by the secretary of state. At the time the secretary of state sends the commission to the applicant, he also makes and mails to the clerk of the district court of the proper county a certificate of ap- pointment, to enable such clerk to certify that the per- son so commissioned is a notary public for that county during the time such commission is in force. Should the commission be revoked, the secretary of state im- mediately notifies the clerk of such fact. Powers and Duties. — A notary public may take ac- knowledgments of deeds and other written instruments, administer oaths for general purposes, take depositions, protest commercial paper, such as promissory notes, bills of exchange, checks, drafts, etc., and give notice to endorsers. He is required to keep a record of all notices with the time and manner in which the same 52 farmers' friend were given or sent by him, and the names of all the par- ties to whom the same were given or sent, with a copy of the instrument in relation to which the notice is served, and of the notice itself. His jurisdiction is limited to the county within which he is appointed; except that he may administer oaths and take acknowledgments in any adjoining county, pro- vided he has filed with the clerk of the district court of such adjoining county a certified copy of his certificate of appointment. Such certified copy is to be obtained from the clerk of the district court of the county for which he has been appointed. The removal of a notary from the county for which he has been commissioned is equivalent to a resignation of such office. No notary pub- lic should act as such in any cases wherein he is directly or indirectly interested. A notary public is liable in damages, to the person employing him, for negligence or misconduct in the line of his official duty. If such notary exercises the duties of his office after the expira- tion of his commission, or when otherwise disqualified, or appends his official signature to documents when the parties have not appeared before him, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined not less than fifty dollars, and shall be removed from office by the governor. HOW TO WRITE A CHATTEL MORTGAGE. Use a legal printed form or write one like the copy given heloiv. A Chattel Mortgage is a mortgage on personal prop- erty, such as live stock, machinery, farm implements, etc. 1. A chattel mortgage must be acknowledged before a Justice of the Peace, or before the Notary of the County, in which the mortgagor resides. 2. The mortgage must be recorded. 3. Chattel mortgages may not run longer than two years. 4. Chattel mortgages are usually given to secure farmers' friend 53 notes of the mortgagor in the same way in which real estate mortgages are given to secure notes of the mort- gagors. Greater strictness, however, is required in tlie acknowledgment, docketing and recording of chattel mortgages than in the case of real estate mortgages. A recent statute of the State of Illinois provides that notes secured by chattel mortgages must show on their face that they are secured by chattel mortgages, or they are absolutely void. Any defense which the maker of the note secured by chattel mortgage could make against the original payee is good against the note in the hands of an endorsee even though endorsed before maturity. Chattel mortgages on household goods must be signed by the wife of mortgagor and can only be foreclosed by a court proceeding. 5. A chattel mortgage is a conditional sale of prop- erty, if the debt for which it was given is not paid. 6. The property must be taken possession of by the mortgagee on the maturity of the mortgage, or it can be taken by other creditors. 7. To sell property covered by a chattel mortgage is a criminal offense. FORM OF CHATTEL MORTGAGE. Know All Men by These Presents, That I, John Smith, of the town of Colo, in the County Story, and State of Iowa, acknowledge myself to be indebted to A. S. Barnard, of the town of Mendon, County of Monroe, State of New York, the sum of Four Hundred Dollars ($400.00) with six per cent, interest from date, and for the security of said sum I do hereby mortgage and sell and assign to the said A. S. Barnard. One Bay Mare. 4 years old. One Wagon, One Set of Double Harness and all my Household Furniture of every description in my house in the town of Colo. And, I hereby authorize and empower the said A. S. Barnard to take possession of said property and effects. 54 FAKMERS' FEIEND he to sell the same and appropriate the proceeds to the payment of said debt and interest. Witness my hand and seal this first day of December, 1906. John Smith, (seal) Chattel mortgages in South Dakota are not acknowl- edged, but require two witnesses, and may run three years. Chattel mortgages in Montana may run one year and sixty days. HOW TO WRITE A LEASE. Rule. — The party granting the possession and profit is called the Lessor, and the party to ivhom the grant is made is called the Leesee. A Lease is a contract to be performed by both parties, and hence they both should sign it. It is proper and best to have two copies of the lease (both alike), so that each party may hold a copy of the original agreement. Write the lessor's name first, and his name shoidd he signed first at the close. Payments of rent should be entered on the back of the lease. Care should be exercised in giving the time, descrip- tion, and the amount to be paid. 1. A LEASE is a contract by which a party gains the possession, use and profit of lands and tenements, in re- turn for which he pays the owner thereof a recompense, called rent. 2. A lease must always give a less interest in land than that of the lessor. If lessor conveys his whole in- terest, it is an assignment or deed. 3. A lease of lands and tenements mav be by written farmers' friend 55 or verbal contract, except that there cannot be a verbal lease for a longer period than one year. 4. A written lease cannot be changed by verbal agree- ment made at the same time or another time. When parties reduce their agreements to writing they are bound by the writing as against any verbal declarations. 5. If no time is stated when the rent is to be paid, it is not due till the end of the lease. A LEASE FOE RENTING A HOUSE. Know All Men by These Presents: That I have this sixth day of September, 1906, let and rented unto B. B. Welty my house and premises, number 142 on Archer Street, in the town of Livermore, and State of Iowa, with the sole and uninterrupted use and occupation thereof for one year, to commence the first day of May next, at the monthly rent of twenty dollars, payable in advance. Witness my hand and seal, Harry Stein, (seal) A LEASE— FOR CASH RENT. This Indenture, made this Fifth day of February, A. D. 1907, between Samuel E. Sport, of the Town of Ames, in the County of Story and State of Iowa, of the one part, and James R. Giddings, of the Town of Lisle, in the County and State aforesaid, of the other part ; WITNESSETH, That the said Samuel E. Sport, for the consideration hereinafter expressed, hath demised, granted and leased, and doth by these presents hereby demise, grant and lease unto the said James R. Giddings and his assigns lots one (1) two (2) and three (3) in block seven {!) of the original Totvn of Ames, as shown hy the plat of said toivn on file in the Recorder's office of the said Story County. And also the NortMvest quar- 56 farmers' friend ter (N. W. ^) of Section Eight (8) m Township Twenty (20), Range Nine (9), East of the 3rd Principal Merid- ian, and containing one hundred and sixty (160) acres according to government survey. All aforesaid real es- tate being situate in the County of Story and State of Iowa, together with all the privileges and appurtenances thereunto belonging. TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the above described premises for and during the term of five years from the date hereof. And the said James R. Giddings doth covenant and agree to pay the said Samuel E. Sport, or his assigns, the sum of One Thousand Dollars, as yearly rent for said premises, in 2 equal payments of Five Hundred Dol- lars each, at the expiration of each and every six months from date, during the continuance of this Lease. In Witness Whereof, The said parties have to this and one other instrument of the same tenor and date interchangeably set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Signed, Sealed and Deliv- [Samuel E. Sport (seal) ered in Presence of G. Handsacker. [^ James R. Giddings. (seal) SECURITY FOR RENT. For value received I hereby enter myself security for the full payment of the rent reserved in the within lease, and guarantee the payment of the rent and full perfor- mance of all covenants contained herein by the said party of the second part. E. E. Brown. AGREEMENT TO CULTIVATE LAND ON SHARES. This agreement, made this first day of March, 1907, between H. M. Schrepfer, of the town of Cohocta, in the farmers' friend 57 County of Livingstone, State of Michigan, party of the first part, and Richard Brown, of the City of La Salle, County of La Salle and State of Illinois, party of the second part, Witnesseth : That the said party of the first part has leased to the party of the second part the south- west quarter of Section 10, Township 33 North, Range 3, east, of the 3rd P. M., in La Salle County, Illinois, for the term of two years from March 1, 1907. Said party of the second part covenants to cultivate said land in good workmanlike manner, so as to raise the greatest amount of grain thereon which the season and the land will permit; to keep the land free from noxious weeds, haul out the manure at least once each year and keep all buildings and fences on said premises in repair, and to deliver to the party of the first part, at his residence in said City of La Salle, one-half of all hay, grain, and other crops raised on said farm, the small grain to be divided at the machine and delivered immediately after the same is threshed, the corn to be husked and cribbed on or before the first day of December in each year. Said party of the second part further agrees to pay four (4.00) dollars per acre for all lands on said premises used as pasture, such rental to be paid to the party of the first part on or before October 1st in each year. Said party of the first part agrees to furnish all material which may be necessary to make the repairs herein pro- vided for, at the railroad station, in said City of La Salle, as the same shall be needed. A violation of any of the covenants herein contained will authorize the party of the first part to declare this lease forfeited and recover possession of the premises hereby demised. In witness hereof, the parties hereunto have set their hands and seals the dav and year first above written. (Signed) B. M. Schrepfer. (seal) Richard Brown (seal) N. B. — It is not necessary to go to a lawyer or notary to make a valid agreement. State what you mutually agree to in plain language. Follow tlie above form as near as possible. 58 FAEMERS' FRIEND THE LAW GOVERNING ALL KINDS OF CONTRACTS. 1. A contract is a mutual agreement between two competent parties for a valuable consideration to do or not to do a particular thing, 2. It must have, 1. Parties; 2. Subject Matter; 3. Consideration; 4. Assent of the parties. There cannot be a contract when any of these are wanting. 3. A consideration is the thing which induces a per- son to make a contract. 4. An alteration of a contract in a material part, after its execution, renders it void. 5. A contract the law forbids is void. Fraud ren- ders all contracts void. 6. A contract made by a minor, a lunatic, or an idiot is not binding upon him, yet he can hold the party with whom he contracts, to all the conditions of the contract. 7. A contract not consistent with law or for immoral purposes is void. 8. A fraudulent contract may be binding on the party guilty of fraud, although not laying any obligation on the part of the party acting in good faith. 9. A contract for the sale or purchase of personal property over a certain amount — ranging from $30 to $200 in some States — must be in writing. 10. A contract which cannot be performed within a year must be in writing. 11. A guaranty must be in writing. 12. If no time of payment is stated in the contract, payment must be made on the delivery of the goods or performance of the contract. 13. A contract totally restraining the exercise of a man's trade or profession is void, but one restraining him in any particular place in not void. 14. An offer or proposal, which includes the essen- tial parts of a contract, becomes a contract as soon as accepted. 15. A contract required by law to be in writing can- not be dissolved by verbal agreement. farmers' friend 59 16. A contract cannot be partly written and partly verbal. It must be wholly written or wholly verbal. CONTRACT— DRUNKENNESS. If a man enters into a contract, and afterwards at- tempts to avoid it upon the ground that he was drunk when he made it, he must prove that he was at the time so completely under the influence of intoxicating liquors that he was unable to understand the effect and conse- quences of the transaction. This is the general doctrine on the subject in all the states. It was approved re- cently by the supreme court of Iowa. HOW TO WRITE A CONTRACT. Rule: — 1. The parties to a Contract are taken in the order in ivhich they are written and referred to as ''the party of the first part", "the party of the second part", ivithout repeating their names. It matters not which name is written first. 2. After writing the date, names of the parties and their places of residence, state fidly all that the first party agrees to do, and then state all that the second party agrees to do. 3. Next state the penalties or forfeitures in case either party does not faithfully and fully perform, or offer to perform, his part of the agreement. 4. Finally, the closing clause, the signatures and seals, the signatures of ivitnesses are written. ( A seal is simply the mark of a pen around the word " seal", ivritten after the signature.) No particular form of legal language is necessary. Use your own words and state in a plain way just what you want done. Anyone who can write a letter and express his desire in an intelligent manner can write a contract. 60 farmers' friend Errors in grammar or spelling do not affect the legal- ity of the agreement. If the language should be obscure on certain points, the ''court" will always interpret the intent of the par- ties, when they entered into the agreement, provided the intent can be gatherd from the terms of the instrument itself. When an agreement is written it must all be in writ- ing. It cannot be partly written and partly oral. LAND CONTRACT. This agreement, made this first day of June, A. D. 1907, between John Brown of the City of Dunkirk, in the State of New York, party of the first part, and Nor- man C. Stull, of the City of Buffalo, of the same State, party of the second part, Witnesseth, That if the said party of the second part shall first make the ]:)a3niients and perform the covenants hereinafter mentioned on his part the said party of the first part hereby agrees to convey and assure to the said party of the second part in fee simple, clear of all incumbrances whatsoever, by a good and sufficient warranty deed the following de- scribed premises to-wit: (Here describe property to be conveyed), and the said party of the second part covenants and agrees to pay to the said party of the first part the sum of two thousand (2,000.00) dollars as follows: Five hundred ($500.00) dollars cash in hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, balance on March 1, 1906, with interest at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum, payable annually after the date hereof, and all taxes and assessments legally levied or imposed upon said land subsequent to the year 1906. A complete ab- stract of title broua:ht down to date to be furnished by said party of the first part on or before thirty days from the date hereof, in case title, on examination should prove to be defective then the said party of the first farmers' friend 61 part agrees to perfect the same within a reasonable time, and in case of failure so to do, or in case said title can- not be perfected the cash paid hereon shall be refunded and this contract shall become null and void. Deed to be delivered March 1, 1908, deferred payments to be secured by note and first mortgage by the party of. the second part on the premises hereby sold. This contract shall extend to, and be obligatory upon the heirs, admin- istrators, executors, and assigns of the respective par- ties. In testimony whereof the parties have hereunto set their hands and seals the day and year first above writ- ten. (Signed) John Brown. (seal) Norman C. St nil. (seal) Witness: Geo. Fry. A CONTRACT FOR THE SALE OF HORSES, CAT- TLE, OR OTHER PERSONAL PROPERTY. This agreement, between John Smith, and Frank Jones, made this nineteenth day of October, 1906, wit- nesseth : That said John Smith, for the consideration hereinafter mentioned, shall sell and deliver on the first day of November next to said Frank Jones at his residence, One Double Wagon, Two Four-Year-Old Colts and Six Yearling Heifers. That said Frank Jones, in consideration thereof, shall pay said John Smith Three Hundred Dollars, upon the delivery of said property. In witness whereof we have this day set our hands and seal. John Smith. Frank Jones. 62 farmers' friend A CONTEACT FOR LAYING TILE OR BUILDING FENCE. This agreement made this first day of July, 1906, be- tween H. C. Nauman of the first part, and G. C. Gasser of the second part, Witnesseth: That the said party of the first part agrees to lay upon the farm of the said party of the second part of Napervill^ Township, Du Page County, Illinois, 120 rods of six inch tile at such places on said farm as the said party of the first part may designate for the sum of forty cents per rod, said tile to be so laid that there shall be sufficient fall to properly drain the land through which the same is laid. And all ditches to be properly filled by the party of the first part; and the said party of the second part agrees to pay said party of the first part one-half the con- sideration above expressed when he has laid 60 rods of said tiling and the balance on completion of the contract. Witness the hands of the parties hereto the day and year above written. (Signed) H. C. Nauman. G. C. Gasser FORM OF MECHANIC'S LIEN, STATE OF IOWA, 1 t .i n- ■, n +q ' I In the Circuit Court, Sac SAC COUNTY. J ^^' County. Julius Warren, vs. V Claim for Lien. Martin Smith. Jiilins Warren, being first duly &worn, on oath, says that he is the claimant above named, and that the attached "Exhibit A", is a just and true statement of the account due him from said Martin Smith for, labor farmers' friend 63 and materials furnished said Martin Smith at the times in said statement mentioned, which various amounts are due and payable to him from and after the respective dates thereof : and affiant says that the labor and mater- ials in said statement mentioned were used in the con- struction and improvement of a two-story frame build- ing situate upon the following described premises in the County of Sac and State of Iowa, to-wit: Lot two (2), in Block three (3), of the original town of Sac City. And affiant says that there is now due and owing to said Julius Warren from said Martin Smith, at whose request said material and labor was furnished as afore- said, after allowing to him all just credits, deductions, and set-offs, the sum of $500, for which amount said Julius Warren claims a lien upon the above described premises. Subscribed and sworn to before me " this 29th day of February, A. D. 1896. John Smith, Notary Public. Julius Warren. N. B. — The foregoing statement should be signed and sworn to before some officer authorized to administer oaths, and filed with the Clerk of the Circuit Court of the county where th)e real estate is situ- ated, and a suit to enforce the same must be begun within two years from the date of the completion of the contract. HOW TO SECURE A MECHANIC'S LIEN ON PROPERTY. 1. A Lien is a legal claim. It includes every case in which either real or personal property is charged with any debt or duty. Or in other words, it is the right to hold possession of property until some claim against it has been satisfied. 2. Possession is always necessary to create a lien except in case of mortgages. The lien simply extends 64 farmers' friend to the right of holding the property until the debt is satisfied. The property cannot be sold without the con- sent of the owner, except by order of the Court. 3. Laiv : The existence of a lien does not prevent the party entitled to it from collecting the debt or claim by taking it into Court. 4. Warehouse men, carpenters, tailors, dyers, mill- ers, printers, etc., or any person who performs labor or advances money on property or goods of another has a lien on same until all charges are paid. 5. Hotel Keepers have a lien upon the baggage of their guests, whom they have accommodated. 6. Common Carriers have a lien on goods carried for transporation charges. 7. Agents have a lien on goods of their principal for money advanced. 8. How to Hold the Lien. Never give up possession of the property until the debt is paid. 9. Real Property. If the debt is on a house, barn or other real property, file a lien on the whole property, and have it recorded in the County Recorder's office. The claim then partakes of the nature of a mortgage. 10. Mechanic's Lien. — Nearly all the states have enacted special laws to protect mechanics and material men who may furnish material and labor for the erec- tion, construction, repair and improvement of buildings situated thereon. The method of securing these Uens and enforcina- them in the different states varies so widely that it is almost impossible to give such a state- ment as will cover all states. The courts have construed such laws very strictly and in order to entitle a person to such lien the provisions of the law granting the same must be strictly complied with. Mechanics and mater- ial men desiring to avail themselves of these statutes had better consult some good lawyer and have him pre- pare the necessary papers. The followina: form is the one commonly in use in the State of Illinois: Attachment. — This is a writ issued by the Justice of the Peace or Judge, or some other officer having juris- diction, commanding the sheriff or constable to attach farmers' friend 65 the property of the debtor, to satisfy the demands of the creditor. This writ may be issued at the beginning or during the suit. In some States, Alabama, Illinois, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri and Iowa, the creditor may retain possession of the property and give a bond as a guarantee that the property will be held for the debt in case he is defeated in the suit. All attachments lose their validity in case the debtor (or defendant) wins the suit. ARBITRATION BEST FOR FARMERS. Arbitration is almost invariably preferable to litiga- tion. It is not only the easiest, quickest and cheapest way to settle disagreements, but saves much vexation and subsequent dissension. Were individuals, corpor- ations and nations to arrange their disputes by arbi- tration, instead of resorting to litigation and warfare, the people would be saved millions of treasure, and the world spared much shedding of blood. A peaceful set- tlement of difficulties is usually followed by prosperity, while ''going to law" or war usually results in loss and suffering to both contestants. Indeed, litigation and warfare are twin relics of the dark ages, and so long as they continue in vogue we may look in vain for harbin- gers of the promised millennium. Of all classes, far- mers should, so far as possible, avoid entering into liti- gation ; for whether they win or lose, they are proverbi- ally worsted, the lawyers usually taking the cream, and leaving only the skim-milk for the winning contestant. Truly, there is neither glory nor honor, profit nor pleas- ure in litigation, and the less people who profess to live "on the square", and, according to the Commandments, have to do therewith, the better it will be for both their present and future peace and prosperity. Even in the most aggravating case of trespass, and the like, no good citizen should resort to the law, until all amicable at- tempts at settlement have failed. Indeed, and finally, whatever may be the provocation don't get mad and im- pulsively prosecute your neighbor, but keep your tem- per. 6G' farmers' friend HOW TO SETTLE DIFFICULTIES BY ARBITRATION. Arbitration is an agreement by parties who have a controversy or difference to the decision of a third party. Arbitration is one of the highest courts for the settle- ment of personal differences, and if people would only learn more of its benefits and advantages, lawyers by the thousands would not thrive and fatten upon the earn- ings of those who could make better use of their money. When the matters in difference are simply those of fact, it is often more satisfactory to submit them to the decision of mutual friends, each contending party choos- ing one, and the two arbitrators thus chosen choosing the third, and the three parties thus chosen constitut- ing the court. The decision of the arbitrators is called an aivard. The award should be specific and distinct containing the decision of the arbitrators in as clear and concise language as possible. The following oath should be taken by the persons chosen to act as arbitrators or referees before entering upon the examination of the matters in dispute: We, the undersigned arbitrators appointed by and between Henry Smith and Richard Brown, do swear fairly and faithfully to hear and examine the matters in contro- versy between said Henry Smith and Richard Brown. , PETITION FOR LAYING OUT A ROAD. To the Commissioners of the toivn of Colo, ] County of Story, and State of Iowa. Your petitioners of the town of Colo tvould respect- fully represent that the public convenience and ivants require that a road and highway should he laid and con- structed, beginning at the Northivest corner of J. D. Wild's farm, in the town of Colo, and leading in a direct line South to the town of Collins. Your petitioners ivoidd therefore ask that your honors FAEMERS' FRIEND 67 would view the premises, and locate and construct said road and highway, according to the laws in such cases made and provided, as shoivn by the Statutes of the State. (Signatures.) (Signatures.) Note. — The places where the road commences and ends should be particularly described, but the farms and lots through which it is to pass need not be de- scribed. This form will apply whether to the commissioners of a town or county. PETITION FOR CHANGING A EOAD. To the Commissioners for the County of The undersigned respectfully represent that the pub- lic road and highway from the house of W. S. Waite, in the town of Barnard, passing the house of G. H. Schaefer, to the house of John Young, in the town of Diegel, is indirect, inconvenient, and out of the way; wherefore, your petitioners request your honorable body to vieiv the premises, straighten or neiv locate such road, and discontinue such parts of the present highway as may be useless, or make such alterations and improve- ments as shall appear to your honors necessary. (Signatures.) (Signatures.) ALL ABOUT RIGHTS OF WAY. When one person has a right to pass over the land of another, this right is called a right of way. There are three methods by which this right can be acquired : 1st, by purchase or land grant from the owner of the land, 2nd, by long-continued use or prescription, 3rd, by neces- sity. To obtain a permanent right of way by the first method, there must be a complete deed of it, with all the formalities required in a deed of the land itself. It is such an interest in the land as the law requires to be 68 farmers' friend by a deed. If the bargain was an oral one, or even in writing, if not in the form of a deed, it would not hold. It should be granted under seal and acknowledged in those States where the law requires a deed to be sealed and acknowledged. A right of way is acquired by prescription by an ad- verse use for twenty years. NOTICE TO WORK ON THE ROAD. , To Mr. H. J. Barter, Lombard, III. You are hereby notified that your road tax of $2.48 and poll tax of $2.50 is now due, and if you desire to ivork out the same on the public road, you will report for duty on the turn-pike, just east of G. E. Gasser's residence. May 28th, 1891, at 7 o'clock A. M. A part or the whole tax may be paid in cash, if preferred. G. F. Diegel, Commissioner or Path Master. ESTRAY NOTICE. LOST COLT. Take Notice! — On the 3rd day of June, 1906, there strayed onto my enclosed land in the town of Lisbon, County of Linn: One two-year old colt, a dark bay, with small star in the forehead, and left hind foot white; and one dark brown calf, with black spots on each side. Any- one claiming the above described animals can obtain possession of same by furnishing sufficient proof of ownership, and paying all expense and cost. 1. The above notice may be printed in the local paper, or written ont, and tacked up in three or four promi- nent places in the vicinity where the stray animal was taken up. 2. No one can claim a stray without advertising the same, and giving the proper notice, such as the statutes of the State require. farmers' friend 69 3. If the stray is not redeemed by the owner, it may be sold at public auction to pay cost and expense. TRESPASSING ANIMALS. If cattle, or horses or sheep or hogs, or chickens, or dogs, or any other animals, trespass upon the land of a neighbor, they cannot be injured or killed by the owner of the land upon which the trespass is committed, no matter how often repeated. The law regulates these matters by damages, and every innocent person is pro- tected, and generally fully compensated for all dama- ges caused by trespassing animals. Many States and local authorities have laws by which trespassing animals can be taken up, and either held by the party upon whose land the trespassing is com- mitted or placed in a public coral or pound. They are kept there at the expense of the owner and damages or fines or both must first be paid before the animals can be taken or removed by the owner. THE FINDINGS OF VARIOUS COURTS IN THE UNITED STATES, IN IMPORTANT TEST CASES. A Promise to Realese A Debt does not Discharge it.- A promise to release a debt is not the same thing as an actual release; and, if there is not sufficient considera- tion for the promise to release, the promise is not en- forceable. And while an actual composition signed by a creditor may have the effect of releasing the debt, a refusal to sign it cannot have such an effect, although the signature was promised. Such a promising cred- itor might see cause to change his mind, for any sufficient reason ; and if he did, the act of release is not perfected, — the discharge does not take place. The creditor still retains his lawful claim against the debtor. McNutt v. Loney, S. C. Pa., 25 At. Rep. 1088. Payment of Bank Checks after Death of Maker. — Some authorities distinguish between cases where Bank 70 farmers' friend Checks are drawn for a valuable consideration and where they are mere gifts, the holding of such author- ities being that in the former class of cases deatli does not revoke the checks, and that in the latter it does. But in the case of gifts when the delivery is coupled with an intent to transfer a present interest, in the money pre- sented by the check, and no revocation is attempted, it would seem that the intent of the donor should be given effect, and the transaction be held to transfer a present interest, and a right to the pa3anent of the check after the death of the drawer, as well as before. May v. Jones. S. C. Iowa, 54 N. W. Eep. 231. FENCE LAWS. 1. Fence laws are generally regulated by State Stat- iites or local authorities. 2. A few general laws, however, are commonly held in all the States. 3. Legal Fence. — ^First find out from the State Stat- ute or local law what constitutes a legal fence. A legal fence is generally a four foot fence with sufficient boards or wire, or both, to turn cattle and sheep. 4. If cattle or horses break through fences in any way defective or neglected, the owner of the cattle or horese doing the damage is not responsible, if it was not his fence or the injury brought about through his neglect. 5. Every man is compelled to look after his own part of the fence and keep it in good repair and look out and restrain his own animals in trespassing upon the lands of another. 6. Owners of adjoining cultivated lands are required to make division fences in common, unless there is a law to the contrary. 7. In erecting division fences according to law, half of it may be placed upon adjoining land, and the other part must pay half for erecting and maintaining it, or FARMEKS' FEIEND 71 the owner of the adjoining land can build it himself. No man has a right to build a fence on another man's land, unless there is a law that will permit him to do so. 8. Fences are fixtures that pass with the sale of the land. Posts or boards that have ever been used as a fence on a farm, though when the farm is sold are piled up, and not used at the time for fencing purposes, can- not be removed as personal property. TERMS AND FACTS OF CRIMINAL LAW. 1. The Rule, "Every man's house is his castle", only applies to civil cases. Any locked door of the house may be forced open to arrest a criminal. 2. Every Man is compelled by law to obey the call of a sheriff for assistance in making an arrest. 3. Embezzlement is a fraudulent appropriation to one's own use what is entrusted to one's care, and can only be charged against a clerk, servant, or agent. 4. The Offense of Stealing cannot be lawfully set- tled by receiving back stolen property. 5. Bigamy cannot be proven in law if one party to the marriage has been absent and not been heard from in five years. 6. Petit Larceny is where the value of the property stolen is less than $15.00. Grand larceny is when the value of the property stolen exceeds $25.00. 7. Arson is the burning of an inhabited building by night. 8. Drunkenness is not a legal excuse for crime. 9. Assault and Battery is where a person has in- flicted physical violence; an assault however, is only an offer or attempt at assault. 10. Mayhem applies to any injury done to a limb. It formerly applied to the injury of the face, lip, tongue, eye or ear. 11. Felony is a crime punishable by imprisonment in a State prison. 72 farmers' friend 12. An Accident is not a crime, unless criminal care- lessness can be proven. 13. Burglary is the entering of a house at night or at twilight, or in any darkness where it is difficult to distinguish a man's face. 14. Perjury is false swearing wilfully done. A wit- ness should always qualify his statements as ''to the best of my belief" or "as I am informed". 15. Murder in the first degree must be premeditated and malicious, or committed while the murderer is en- gaged in some felonious act. 16. Duels. Killing a man in a duel is murder, and any person giving or accepting a challenge is guilty of a misdemeanor. 17. A Police Officer cannot arrest a person with- out a warrant, unless he has personal knowledge of the offense. Criminal Liability. — If any person maliciously kill, maim or disfigure any horse, cattle or other domestic beasts of another, or maliciously administer poison to any such animal, or expose any poisonous substance with intent that the same will be taken by such animal, upon conviction, shall be imprisoned in the penitentiary not exceeding five years, or imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding one year; or be fined not exceding three hundred dollars. Cruelty in General. — It is made a criminal offense punishable by imprisonment in the county jail not ex- ceeding thirty days, or by a fine not exceeding one hun- dred dollars, for any person to torture, torment, over- drive, mutilate, cruelly beat or cruelly kill any animal, or unnecessarily fail to provide the same with proper nourishment or protection, or to drive or work the same when unfit for labor or cruelly abandon the some. Estrays. — Any animal of an unknown owner running at large or trespassing within a lawful enclosure is an astray, and may be taken up by any householder in the county, except an unbroken animal, between the first day of May and the first day of November, where such un- broken animal is not required to be restrained by police farmers' friend 73 regulation. If such householder fails to take up such estray, any other householder may notify him of the fact, and after the expiration of jS.ve days from the giving of such notice may then take up such estray, if still at large, but proof of the giving of such notice must be made before the proper justiceof the peace. Estray Notices. — Any person taking up an estray shall within five days thereafter, post up a written notice in three of the most public places in the township, which notice shall contain a full description of such animal and a statement as to where the same was taken. Un- less previously claimed, such person shall, within ten days, go before a justice of the peace of the township in which the estray was taken up, or if there is none, then before the next nearest justice in the county, and make oath to the correctness of such notice, together with the statement attached thereto as to whether the marks or brands of such animal have been altered to his knowl- edge, either before or after the same was taken up, which notice shall be recorded by the justice in his es- tray book, and within five days forwarded by the jus- tice to the county auditor, who shall enter the same in the estray book in his office, and shall cause a copy of said notice to be posted at the courthouse door. If the estray is stock, the county auditor shall cause notice of the taking up to be published weekly for three weeks in some newspaper in the county. Payment of Fees. — The fees of the justice of the peace and the expense of forwarding the notice to the auditor, and the auditor's fee for entering the notice in the es- tray book and for posting the copy thereof, and if the estray is stock the sum of one dollar and fifty cents for the expense of publishing notice of the taking up must be paid by the person taking up the estray, to be re- funded by the owner of the animal. Two or more es- trays may be included in one notice. If the estrays are owned by different owners, a proportionate division of the fees must be made. Title to Estrays. — If the estray be stock and be not claimed by the owner within one year, or being any other 74 farmers' friend domestic animal if it be not claimed by the owner withm six months from the time it was taken up, the property therein shall vest in the taker-up if he has complied with the above provisions. Keclaiming Estrays. — At any time before title to an estray vests, the owner of the estray may reclaim it, upon payment of the lawful fees and expenses and a reasonable allowance for keeping the estray, to be fixed by the justice before whom proceedings are had, in case the owner and taker up of the estray cannot agree. Within six months after title to an estray has vested in the taker up, the owner of the estray may recover the value thereof at the time it was taken up, not including any increased value accrued since it was taken up, after deducting therefrom the compensation, reward, fees and expenses above provided for; or the taker up of the es- tray may elect to receive such compensation, reward, fees and expenses and return the estray to the owner. Taker-up may Use and Work the Estray. — Any per- son taking up an estray may use and work the same, pro- viding care and moderation are used and no injury is done the same. But if any person unlawfully takes up an estray or fail to comply with these provisions, or use or work it in any manner contrary to this chapter or work it before having it appraised, or keep it out of the county for more than five days at any one time before he acquires title thereto, he shall forfeit t'o the county twenty dollars, to be sued for by any person in the county, and the owner of the estray may recover double damages and costs. Estrays adapted thereto may be bred and milked by the taker. Taking estrays out of the state, before title has vested, subjects the finder to payment of double the value of the estray, and fine and imprisonment, but the auditor may authorize the taker up to transfer the estray to another, who shall take the place of his predecessor. The fees for restraining animals and for keeping and selling the same and for taking up estrays are fixed by law. Fence-viewers. — The township trustees are consti- farmers' friend 75 tuted fence-viewers. They have power to determine any controversy arising relating to fences, upon giving five days' notice in writing to the opposite party or parties prescribing the time and place of meeting, to hear and determine the matter named in such notice. Upon re- quest of any land owner, the fence-viewers shall give notice to all adjoining land owners liable for the erec- tion, maintenance, rebuilding, trimming or cutting back or the repairing of a partition fence, or to pay for an existing hedge or fence ; at such time and place the fence- viewers shall meet and determine by written order the obligations, rights and duties of the respective parties in such matter, and assign to each owner the part he shall erect, maintain, rebuild, trim or cut back or pay for, and fix the value thereof, and prescribe the time in which the same shall be completed or paid for, and in case of repair may specify the time in which the repairs should be made. A division of the line may be made although the adjoining owner is not then lialDle to contribute to the erection of a fence and the adjoining owner shall contribute thereto whenever he becomes liable so to do, as hereinabove specified. The statute fixes the fees of the fence-viewers at two dollars each per day of eight hours. Their fees shall be paid in the first instance by the party requiring their services, and in the report of their proceedings they shall direct who shall pay said fees, and in what sums respectively, and the party having advanced any fees may have his action therefor against the parties so di- rected to pay the same, unless within ten days after de- mand the party entitled thereto shall be reimbursed. Division of Lines. — Adjoining owners may agree upon a division of the line of partition fences by an instrument in writing, acknowledged and recorded like a deed of real estate, and such instrument and all others made in writing by the fence-viewers are binding upon their makers, their heirs and subsequent grantees. If the land should cease to.be a means of revenue or benefit such agreement and orders will be inoperative while not thus used. 76' farmers' friend The Record. — All orders and notices must be in writ- ing and notices must be served like a justice of the peace original notice, and the township clerk must record at length all orders, decisions, notices and returns, and such record or a duly certified copy thereof shall be competent evidence in all courts. Appeals. — An appeal may be taken to the district court from any order or decision of the fence-viewers in the same manner as appeals are taken from a justice of the peace, except that the appeal bond must be ap- proved by the township clerk. The township clerk, after recording the original papers, must file the same in the office of the clerk of the district court, and certify them to be such, and the clerk of the court shall docket the case entitling the applicant or petitioner as plaintiff, and it shall stand for trial as other cases. A Fence on Another's Land. — May be removed by the owner upon his first paying or offering to pay the owner on whose land the fence is, for any damage done to the soil and any timber used in said improvement taken from said adjoining land. Such removal shall be made as soon as practicable, but not so as to expose the crop of the other party. Lines. — A fence may be built on the line between ad- jacent owners, partly on one owner's land and partly on the other's land, and may be removed as if wholly on the land of the person erecting the fence. A Lawful Fence. — Shall consist of three rails of good substantial material, or three boards of not less than six inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick, such rails or boards to be fastened in or to good substantial posts, not more than ten feet apart where rails are used, and not more than eight feet apart where boards are used, or wire either wholly or in part, substantially built and kept in good repair, or any other kind of fence, which in the opinion of the fence-viewers shall be equiv- alent thereto, the lowest or bottom rail, wire or board not more than twenty nor less than sixteen inches from the ground, the top rail, wire or board to be be- farmers' friend 77 tween forty-eight and fifty-four inches in height, and the center rail, wire or board not less than twelve nor more than eighteen inches above the bottom rail, wire or board, or it shall consist of three wires, barbed with not less than thirty-six iron barbs of two points each or twenty-six iron barbs of four points each on each rod of wire, or of four wires, two thus barbed and two smooth, the wires to be firmly fastened to posts not more than two rods apart, with not less than two stays be- tween posts, or with posts not more than one rod apart, without such stays, the top wire to be not more than fifty-four nor less than forty-eight inches in height. Hog and Sheep Tight Fences. — All partition fences may be made tight by the party desiring it, and at his election the added material may be removed. In case adjoining owners or occupants of land shall use the same for pasturing swine or sheep, each shall keep his share of the partition fence in such condition as shall restrain such sheep or swine. Controversies. — Upon the application of either owner, after notice given as prescribed in this chapter, the fence-viewers shall determine all controversies arising under the sections relating to lawful fences and parti- tion fences made hog and sheep tight. HOMESTEADS. The homestead of every family, whether owned by the husband or wife, is exempt from judicial sale, unless there is a special provision of the statute to the contrary. A homestead in this state comprises a house used as a home by the owner, and if he has two or more houses thus used, he may select which he will retain, to include one or more contiguous lots or tracts of land with the buildings and other appurtenances thereon habitually and in good faith used as a part of such homestead. If within a city or town it must not exceed one-half acre in extent, otherwise it must not contain in the aggregate more than forty acres, but in either case, if the value is less than five hundred dollars, it may be increased until it reaches that amount. It must not comprise more than one 78 farmers' friend dwelling house or any other buildings except those that are proper appurtenances thereto. The owner, husband or wife, may select the homestead and cause it to be plat- ted, but a failure to do so would not render the same liable. When it is so selected it shall be marked off by prominent and visible monuments, and the description thereof with the plat shall be filed and recorded by the county recorder in the homestead book. Any creditor of the owner may apply to the district court and upon proper proof may have the homestead fixed and established, and the judgment therein shall be filed and recorded the same as though the selecting was done by the owner. The owner is privileged to change the limits of his homestead by metes and bounds as well as the record of the plat and description. No conveyance or encumbrance of or contract to con- vey or encumber the homestead, if the owner is mar- ried, is valid unless the husband and wife join in the execution of the same joint instrument. The homestead is liable for debts contracted prior to the acquisition, but in such case it may not be sold un- less all other property of the debtor is first exhausted. It may be sold for debts created by written contract exe- cuted by the persons having the power to convey. It is subject to mechanics' lien for work or labor done or fur- nished exclusively for its improvement. Upon the death of either husband or wife the survivor may continue to occupy the old homestead unless it is otherwise ordered by the Court. HOMESTEADS UNDER UNITED STATES LAND LAWS. 1.. Any citizen of the United States, the head of a family of the age of twenty-one years and over, or a person who has filed his declaration of intention to "be- come such citizen, may secure a homestead upon the un- appropriated public lands belonging to the government which are subject to pre-emption. 160 acres if such lands are subject to pre-emption at $1.25 per acre, and farmers' friend 79 80 acres of land which is subject* to pre-emption at $2.50 per acre; such lands to be of legal subdivision of the public lands and can be located only after they are sur- veyed. 2. The person desiring to secure such homestead must make an affidavit before the register of the land office in which the land, upon which he desires to make his entry is located, that he is the head of a family, and is twenty-one years or more of age, or has performed service in the army or navy of the United States; that his application is made for his own exclusive use and benefit, and that his entry is for the purpose of actual settlement and cultivation and not either directly or in- directly for the use and benefit of any other person, per- sons or corporation. Upon filing such affidavit with the register on payment of $5.00 for 80 acres and $10.00 for 160 acres he shall be allowed to enter the amount of land specified. 3. No certificate or patent can be issued until the expiration of five years from the date of such entry, and within two years after the expiration of said five years the party making the application must prove by two disinterested witnesses before the register of his land office that he has actually occupied and cultivated and improved said land as a homestead for the space of five years prior to the making of such application. Upon making such proof to the satisfaction of the register he shall be entitled to his certificate and patent. 4. The homestead right may be changed into a pre- emption and the land proposed to be homesteaded paid for at the regular government rate if the homesteader so desires. 5. In case of the death of any person who would be entitled to a homestead, as hereinbefore stated, before he is able to prove up the same, his wife and children, or in case he leaves no wife, or she remarries, then his children may prove up on the land and secure the title thereto. 6. Soldiers and officers who served in the army of the United States during the Eebellion for 90 days, and 80 farmers' friend who were honorably discharged, are entitled to have the time of such service deducted from the time fixed by the statute upon which they must live upon the land. 7. Homestead lands are not liable for debts con- tracted prior to the issuing of the patent therefor. 8. Only one quarter section can be entered as a homestead. 9. Persons who have entered less than 160 acres are entitled to enter enough more to make up the full limit, 10. A widow, if unmarried, or minor children by their guardian, may enter homesteads, 11. Persons may be absent from their homestead claims not exceeding one year, if such absence is occa- sioned by the failure or destruction of crops. 12. The commissioner of the general land office may, for climatic reasons, in his discretion, allow the settler twelve months from the date of filing his application to commence his residence on his homestead. 13. At the end of the third year of residence thereon, if the homesteader shall have under cultivation for two years one acre of timber, the trees whereof are not more than twelve feet apart each way, and in good thrifty condition, for each and every sixteen acres of such home- stead, may, upon due proof of such facts by two cred- ible witnesses, receive a patent for such homestead. 14. Six months' absence from the homestead claim unexplained, forfeits the claim. 15. Persons becoming insane before securing patents to their homesteads, can have the necessary proofs made by their legally appointed guardians or conservators. farmers' friend 81 EXEMPTIONS. There shall be exempt to an unmarried person not the head of a family, and to non-residents, their own ordinary wearing apparel and trunk necessary to contain the same. If the debtor is a resident of this state and is the head of a family, he may hold exempt from execution the fol- lowing property: All wearing apparel of himself and family kept for actual use and suitable to their condition, and the trunks or other receptacles necessary to contain the same; one musket or rifle or shotgun; all private libraries, family Bibles, portraits, pictures, musical in- struments and paintings not kept for sale ; a seat or pew occupied by the debtor or his family in any house of public worship, an interest in a public or private burying ground, not exceeding one acre for any defendant; two cows and two calves ; fifty sheep and the wool therefrom and materials manufactured from such wool ; six stands of bees; five hogs and all pigs under six months; the necessary food for all animals exempt from execution for six months; one bedstead and necessary bed- ding for every two in the family; all cloth man- ufactured by the defendant not exceeding one hundred yards; household and kitchen furniture not exceeding two hundred dollars in value, all spinning wheels, looms, one sewing machine and other instruments of domestic labor kept for use; necessary provisions and fuel for family for six months; proper tools, instruments or books of debtor, if a farmer, mechanic, surveyor, clergy- man, lawyer, physician, professor or teacher; if the debtor is a physician, public officer, farmer or teamster, or other laborer,a team consisting or not more than two horses or mules, or two yoke of cattle and the wagon or other vehicle, with the proper harness or tackle, by the use of which he habitually earns his living, otherwise one horse: if a printer, a printing press and types, fur- niture and material necessary for the use of such print- ing press, and a newspaper office connected therewith, not exceeding in all the value of twelve hundred dollars ; 82 FARMEES' FRIEND poultry to the value of fifty dollars, and the same to a woman whether the head of a family or not, and if the debtor is a seamstress, one sewing machine. If the debtor, being the head of a family, has started to leave this state, he will have exmpt only the ordinary wearing apparel of himself and family, and such other property in addition, to be selected by himself, in all not exceed- ing seventy-five dollars. No exemption shall extend to property against an execution issued for the purchase money of the same. The earnings of a debtor for his personal service at any time within ninety days next pre- ceding the levy are exempt. For real estate exemptions, see ''Homestead". EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. The district court has original and exclusive juris- diction in the settlement of the estate of deceased per- sons. The court is always open for the transaction of probate business, but the hearing of any matter requir- ing notice may be done only in term time, or at such time and place as the judge may appoint. THE LAW GOVERNING THE SALE AND TRANSFER OF PROPERTY. 1. A sale is the exchange of property for money, which is either paid at once or to be paid in the future. 2. There are many complicated things pertaining to the sale of property which every thoughtful man should understand. 3. The thing sold must either exist at the time of the sale or there must be a well-founded reason that it will be in existence and in possession of the seller. farmers' friend 83 DRAINAGE. Tile Factory, Nevada, Iowa. The board of supervisors of any county has the power and authority at any regular or special session to es- tablish a drainage district or districts, and to locate and establish levees, and cause to be constructed any levee, ditch, drain or water course, or to straighten, widen, deei3en or change any natural water course, in such county, whenever the same will be of public utility or conducive to the public health, convenience or welfare; and the drainage of surface waters from agricultural lands shall be considered a public benefit and conducive to the public health, convenience, utility and welfare. Drainage. — Where a culvert for the drainage of water did not increase the quantity of water on plaintiff's land, or throw it thereon in a different manner than the same would naturally have flowed on it the Supreme Court of Iowa held there was no case for damages. This was the case where one neighbor tiled his land and emptied the water into the public road which fol- lowed the road to a culvert and then flowed onto the adjoining land. It should be well understood by every farmer that there is no law that gives a man the right to tile land in a direction other than is the natural water course. It is not lawful to increase the amount of water that naturally flows onto your neighbor's land by tiling land into a ditch that would naturally run in a different di- rection. 84r farmers' friend You have a right to tile a pond and empty the tile at your line fence notwithstanding your neighbor might claim, had you not tiled, a part of this water would have evaporated and a part settled into the ground. The question for you to answer is are you positive you have carried no water upon your neighbor's land but that which fell upon land naturally having its outlet across your neighbor's farm. You have no legal right to go a single inch across the line in order to connect your tile with that of your neighbors, but you have a right to empty your tile at the line fence and let it take its course. Your neighbor has no right to obstruct the water in any- way. That is to your or anyone's detriment. No individual has the right to embank against the nat- ural flow from an inland stream when the effect may be to cast an increase volume of water upon the land of other proprietors to their injury. He may do so but must pay the actual damages when damages are proven. The above does not apply to cities and towns as they have certain required grades which necessitates certain fills, cuts, etc. It is impossible to set out in brief form the numerous provisions of the statutes of this state governing the ditching and draining of land. FARMERS FRIEND 85 HOW TO FIND THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF TILE. Fall per 100 feet. Gallons Per Minute. FALL PER 100 FEET. SIZE OF TILE. lin. Sin. 6 in. 9 in. 12 in. 24 m. 36 in. 3-inch 4-inch 6-inch.. 8-inch 9-inch 13 27 75 153 205 267 422 23 47 129 265 355 463 730 32 66 183 375 593 655 1033 40 81 224 460 617 803 1273 46 93 258 529 711 926 1468 64 131 364 750 1006 1310 2076 79 163 450 923 1240 1613 12-inch 2551 A large tile will carry more water according to its size than a small one. This is because there is less sur- face on the inside of the large tile compared with the size of stream, and therefore less friction. More water will flow through a straight tile than a crooked one having the same diameter. Examples A nine-inch tile at 6 inches fall to the 100 feet will flow 593 gals, per minute. AREA AND WEIGHT OF TILE. The following table shows the area and the weight of the different sized tile: SIZE. WEIGHT. AREA. SIZE WEIGHT. AREA. 3 -inch 5-lbs. each. 6 lbs. each. 7-lbs. each. 10 lbs. each. 12-lbs. each. 8f sq. in. 9|-sq. m. 14-sq. in. 2H-sq. in. 30i-sq. in. 7-inch 15-lbs. each. 18 lbs. each. 21-lbs. each. 24-lbs. each. 28-lbs. each. 41 -sp. in. 53i-sq. in. 67 -sq. in. 80^-sq. in. 113 -sq. in. BHnch.... 8-inch 4 -inch 9-inch 5 -inch 10-inch 6 -inch 12-inch.. 86 FAEMEKS' FRIEND THE AMOUNT OF PROPERTY THAT CANNOT BE TAKEN FOR DEBTS IN THE DIFFERENT STATES, AS WE FIND IT, JUNE, 1906. 1. Exemption Laws are for the purpose of protect- ing those who are unable to pay their debts without causing distress to themselves and their families, 2. Property covered by mortgage cannot be held. 3. A safe estimate of the property of the person desiring credit should be made before credit is given. EXEMPTION LAWS. PERSONAL PROPERTY VALUE OF HOME- STEAD EXCEPTIONS AND STATES S s EXPLANATIONS $1,000 1,000 500 $1,000 none. 200 200 $2,000 4,000 2,500 California (a) 5,000 2,000 1.000 Must be designated as such in writ- Colorado (a) ing and recorded. ConDCCticut (a) 200 on record of deed. none, none. 300 1,000 81,000 from* 100 to 500 400 500 6006 Florida 60 acres of land in country, J acre in city. Idaho 5,000 1,000 2,500 Single, $1,000. (f) Homestead Illinois 100 200 must be designated by a writing executed and recorded like a deed. No homestead except as before stated. 800 No limit as to value. 160 acres in country, 1 acre in city. 1,000 2,000 Homestead and personal property. Maine (c) 500 Written declaration must be re- recorded. 100 450 500 500 250 none. 800 40 acres in country, $1..500 in city. 80 acres in country, J to 1 acre in 2,000 city. Written declaration must be re- corded. From $1,500 to $3,000 according to 2,500 size of city. Nebraska 500 from 2,000 [15,000 corded. FARMERS FRIEND 87 EXEMPTION LAWS — Continued. PERSONAL PROPERTY VALTE or HOME- STEAD EXCEPTIONS AND STATES S c EXPLANATIONS New Hampshire (c) 500 1 000 Also $500 homestead for single man New Jersey 200 (f). I'OOO 1000 1000 New YorK 250 500 1 500 North Carohna North Dakota 160 acres in country, or 2 acres in Ohio (c) Oklahoma (c) 1,000 city not exceeding $5,000 in value. 160 acres in country, 1 acre in city. 1 aOO Pennsylvania Rhode l^Kind South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee (c) 7300 200 500 750 300 none. 1,000 1000 ' 160 a'cres'in country, i acre n town, limit $5,000. Texas.. Utah (c) 500 200 acres in country, $5,000 in city $1,000 for debtor, $500 for wife. 250 500 2,000 $250 all members of family. Washington (e) 2,000 1,000 Varies from $500 to $2,900 accord- West Virginia.. Wisconsin (c) 200 ing to profession or trade. 40 acres in country, ^ acre in city. 800 1.500 (a) Articles of specific property too numerous to mention, no value fixed, (b) Exemptions vary in dif- ferent counties. (*) In either personalty, realty or both. (X) In personalty or realty, (c) Articles of specific property too numerous to mention, varying in amount in different trades and professions, (d) Articles of spe- cific property, ranging in value from $100 to $500 (:{:) Read or personal, (e) Varying from $500 to $2,000 according to trade or profession, (f ) A single man can claim homestead only in Idaho and New Hampshire. FARMERS' FRIEND HOW TO OBTAIN WEALTH. The way to make money is to save it. Always remem- ber and practice the maxim, "A dollar saved, a dollar earned. ' ' A small sum of money saved daily for fifty years will grow at the following rate: DAILY SAVINGS. One Cent $ 950 Ten Cents 9,504 Twenty Cents 19,006 Thirty Cents 28,515 Forty Cents 38,015 Fifty Cents 47,520 Sixty Cents 57,024 Seventy Cents 66,528 Eighty Cents 76,032 Ninety Cents 85,537 One Dollar 475,208 FARMERS FRIEND 89 THE TIME IN WHICH DEBTS ARE OUTLAWED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES AND BRITISH PROVINCES. Corrected up to date, June, 1906. 1. The time to sue varies in different States and in different classes of cases from one to twenty years. 2. In case the debtor makes a written acknowledg- ment in a note, or papers of that character, the claim is renewed. STATES AND TERRITORIES z 2 i 1- 1 i i < 1 o STATES AND TERRITORIES i 2 c 1 1" 2 1 1 1 o Alabama yrs 5 5 4 6 6 6 3 3 6 5 10 10 10 5 15 5 6 3 6 6 6 6 10 8 5 ^10 5 4 4 6 17 20 12 20 20 5 10 20 10 5 15 10 20 20 10 6 6 10 8 10 yrs 20 10 5 5 6 17 20 12 20 10 6 20 20 20 5 15 10 20 12 20 10 10 7 10 10 5 yrs 3 3 2 6 6 3 3 4 4 2 5 6 ■ 5 3 5 3 6 3 6 6 6 3 5 3 4 Nevada.. New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina . North Dakota Ohio Oregon... Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina .. South Dakota Tennessee Texas-__- Utah Vermont. Virginia. Washington W. Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Canada... New Brunsv ick Nova Scotia yrs 6 6 6 6 3 6 15 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 6 5 6 10 6 5 6 6 6 yrs 20 16 6 20 10 6 15 10 20 20 20 10 10 4 4 8 10 6 10 20 5 20 20 2 yrs 20 20 7 20 10 10 15 10 20 20 20 10 10 10 5 8 20 6 10 20 20 20 yrs fi 6 California 4 fi 3 Delaware fi Dist of Columbia fi fi fi Idaho fi Illinois 6 fi Iowa fi Kansas ?. 2 Louisiana fi Maine ?. 5 Mass chusetts . . 5 Michigan fi s Missouri fi fi Nebraska fi A note is considered a contract and in Iowa is good for ten years. Judgment note, twenty years. When any sum is paid on note it renews the note which extends it ten years. An open account in Iowa runs five years from time of last payment on same. 92 farmers' friend SEED IMPROVEMENT. That the subject of seed improvement has been too much neglected in the past, by progressive farmers, is a fact which all will admit. However, with the increas- ing intelligence of the farming community, very many thinking, working farmers have been forced to acknowl- edge the need of more accurate information on the sub- ject of seed-breeding by means of crossing or hybridiza- tion. It is a subject not less in importance than the pro- duction of thoroughbred stock by such crosses and inter- mixture of blood as will tend to perfect development in the line of the objects sought to be attained. It is upon the recognition of this fact that I have, in the following paragraphs, endeavored to compile, from the most au- thentic sources, a series of facts bearing upon the subject of seed-breeding, with the view of inciting a still deeper and more abiding interest in the most practical methods of seed improvement. SEED CORN. From my experience and somewhat extended observa- tions in relation to the condition of seed corn after being saved, I am satisfied that carefully hanging up the corn in a crib or outhouse of any sort, even though it may not be exposed to dampness caused by storms, yet this is not sufficient to insure the best seed even when the corn is carefully selected, being the best specimens of the crop raised. The trouble is not because the corn is not sufficiently matured to grow, for it is a well-known fact that corn may be saved while still in the milk and if cured well and kept dry will make good seed, and on the other hand, corn that is well matured, if not kept under favorable circumstances, often turns out badly. It is my belief that it is the moisture in the corn, acted upon by the in- tense cold that does the mischief. Just what degree of cold such seed will stand without injury is impossible to tell correctly, and always varies THE COOK TROPHY. This trophy, costing $1,6U().()() was i)resented to the Iowa State College hy Mr. A. E .Cook, of Odebolt, Iowa, and is awarded annually at the International Live Stock Exposition to the winning corn-judging team from any Agricultural C^ollege. Under the initiative of Professor Holden and his helpers at the Iowa Agricultural college at Ames, the second Wednesday in October is hereafter to be set apart as seed corn harvest day, the obje'ct in view being to get the farmers of the state to take this day off and devote it to the selection of the earliest maturing, soundest and most perfect ears in their field. Gathered at this time, seed corn has time to dr\- out thoroughly before the heavy freezes come. In view of the intimate connection between timely selection of seed and vigor and germination power of the same and the effect of this upon the following season's stand and yield of corn the importance of setting aside this seed corn harvest day can hardlv be overestimated. The A B C of Corn Culture* OR, MAKING TWO NUBINS TO GROW WHERE ONLY ONE GREW BEFORE. By Prof. P. CI. Holden — Iowa State College. "And he gave it for his opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before . wo21d deserve better of nnankind and do more essential service to his country than the whole race of politicians put together.— Dean Swift. THE WHITING TROPHY Planting and Cultivating Harvesting AND Storing Insects and Remedies Awarded annually by Hon. W. C. Whiting for the best ten ears of corn, any variety, exhibited ait the Short Course, held at Ames, Iowa, the first two weeks in Jan- uary, each year. Cost $450.00. farmers' friend 93 with the condition of the seed, but one thing I do know and that is that a great deal of what is good seed, when jDut up, comes out in the spring as a very poor article, and in many cases but little more than one-third of it will ever sprout. In such cases the vitality has been destroyed by the cold. It may look well, and the farmer generally supposes it to be well dried out, but in this point he is mistaken. More or less trouble with seed corn is an old complaint, but such a general failure in the vitality of this seed dur- ing the last few years has been a great loss to farmers in general. The failure of seed corn is, indeed, a matter of considerable consequence, for with most farmers it is such a large crop that if it fails to turn out well it will shatter the profits for one year, at least, on the farm. The only safe way to insure the best seed corn in the spring is by using artificial heat. Place the corn in a com- paratively tight room and dry it thoroughly by the use of a stove. This does not require much labor or expense and what little is necessary will be amply paid for by the better results realized the following season. It should be remembered that corn that is saved early is not dry, and hanging it in the shade really retards its drying out, and if it is caught in this condition in a hard freeze while it is yet full of moisture, it will most cer- tainly destroy the vitality of the seed and render it use- less for planting purposes. The selection of seed from the proper specimens of plants is also quite important and not always attended to as it should be. Only the very best seed should be saved, and this can only be obtained from soil that is naturally good, but not excessively rich and highly fertilized, for such rich soil always develops foliage rather than fruit, and the seed is never as perfect or hardy as that ob- tained from ordinary fair-sized plants that are well cul- tivated and in good average condition. There seems to be a fascination about large-sized crops which interests all farmers; and this is, of course, quite a natural feeling, for the larger the yield the greater will be the profit realized, but it should be remembered right 96 farmers' friend here that excellence is not always governed by magni- tude. This fact is quite noticeable with the small fruits and vegetables used on the table. Those that have re- ceived good, honest cultivation and are of a good, fair size are about as near perfect as can be obtained, but in cases where they have been cultivated on excessively rich land the vegetables grow very large and oftentimes are really not fit for table use. It would be much better to choose smoothness and symmetry rather than size. There are thousands of careless farmers throughout the country who should by all means, consider their own interests and give this matter of selecting the proper seed corn more attention, and should be more careful to preserve the vitality of such seed, for if this is done judiciously it will save them a great amount of useless worry, as well as both trouble and expense. The importance of selecting fifty or sixty of the choic- est ears and planting them on one side of our earliest planted field cannot be too strongly emphasized. Out of this seed patch the seed for next year's crop should be selected not later than October 20th, and hung up at once where it can dry out thoroughly before any severe freeze. Let us have a time and a definite plan for harvesting and storing our seed corn. One day devoted to the seed corn at the proper time may be worth more to us than an entire month of hard work next summer put onto a poor stand of corn THE GERMINATION TEST. There is no one thing which will do so much to in- crease the yield of corn on every farm as the making of a germination test of six or eight kernels from each ear of corn to be used for seed, and discarding those ears which show tvea^k or sickly root or stem sprouts. The most common mistake is to conclude that the seed is all right and does not need testing. Of two ears of corn planted in separate rows side by side, one may yield at the rate of more than eighty bushels and the other less than thirty bushels per acre. This hill of three vigorous stalks is from three different ears, each of which showed a strong vitality when tested in the germina- tion box. Four Stalks in One Hill. Two are from ears which showed strong germination test; the two at the right are from ears which showed weakness in the germination box. Fig- 25 — By testing six kernels from each ear we are able to detect the weak and worthless ears. No. i shows weak germination. In No. 3 three of the kernels sent out weak stem sprouts and none of them sent out main roots. No. 2 is a good example of vigorous germination. Ears No. i and 3 should be thrown out. An ordinary examination of ear No. i would not reveal the weakness shown so plainly in the germination box. We cannot afford to plant ears like No. i ; it means eight hundred or one thousand weak stalks at best. r^ ^) hH^^^iBiijini^^^H ■' 'fVff^ l^ Fig. I — Root development of a single corn plant at time of "laying by." The roots do not run straight down from the stalk, as many suppose. Deep cultivation the first time over the field will not injure the corn; it will clean the ground and leave a good mulch. The experiments all show that deep cultivation after this alwavs reduces the vield. FARMERS^ FRIEND 99 Of two stalks in the same hill, both having exactly the same opportmiities so far as soil, cultivation, etc., are concerned, one may produce a good ear of corn weighing a pound or more, while the other stalk will produce an almost worthless ear or none at all. The ear from which one of these kernels came was strong and vigorous and the other weak. The same difference which shows at harvest time between these two stalks also showed when the kernels first began to sprout and grow in the spring. So it is that by testing a few kernels from each ear in the spring we may detect the weak ones and discard them. One poor ear of corn discarded means not only the saving of waste land, but the saving of labor on nearly a thousand weak or worthless stalks. A few days spent during the month of March, when our time is otherwise of little value, in testing each ear of seed corn may be worth to us at harvest time more than a whole year's hard work. Let us remember, too, that we cannot injure our seed by testing it; we are running no risks; it costs but little time, and one person can put to test in one day enough to plant thirty acres. The method here described may not be the best one, yet it has proved most satisfactory to us in testing the seed each year for more than three thousand acres, and it is followed by thousands of farmers in Iowa. The farmer who adopts better methods this year is not only a better farmer himself in the future, but his methods, directly or indirectly, soon become the methods of the community. PEEPARING SEED COEN FOR THE PLANTER. After the germination test, the next step is preparing the corn for the planter. First, by removing the mixed kernels. In yellow varieties it can be done better before shelling and in white varieties after shelling, as the mixed kernels often do not show in white corn until the corn has been shelled ; second, by butting and tipping the ears of corn to insure the planter dropping the correct number of kernels in each hill. To be certain of getting the drop adjusted properly. LOFC 102 farmers' friend twenty or thirty ears should be shelled separately and put into grades of large, medium and small kernels. The planter can then be tried with each grade and the proper plates selected for each grade. If the proper plates are not at hand, then those nearest may be calibrated to do the work as desired. This is very essential and it should be done before the rush of spring work begins. A small outlay for additional plates or a new planter may mean the difference between a good crop and a poor one. The planter must do the work properly. After the planter is tested and it is known what grades are wanted, the seed corn should be carefully shelled, put into sacks and prop- erly labeled. The planter can be adjusted to drop the different grades in a uniform manner if the grades are kept sep- arate and the proper planter plate used for each grade, but if these different sized kernels are mixed and dropped miscellaneously it will be impossible to secure a uniform number of stalks per hill. We cannot afford to neglect this important work. If every farmer in the state would test every ear of his seed corn this winter in the way described above the yield would be wonderfully increased. No other time will be so profitable to the farmer as that time spent in testing the vitality of his seed and in grading it to insure the l^lanter dropping the proper number of kernels in each hill. It is possible for every one to do this work. It will cost nothing but the time, of which there is plenty at this season when the work should bevdone. Every far- mer should realize the importance of testing every ear of his seed corn before spring work begins. No possible loss can come from it and it will insure a good stand of corn which is absolutely essential, if the best results are to be secured from the year's hard work. One day spent in March on the seed corn, may be worth more than a month of hard work in the field, later. Without good seed, the after labor is of little avail. Nothing is more depressing or discouraging than a poor stand of corn. If the seed is carefully tested and only good seed planted there are no risks to run except those made necessary to every one GOOD SHAPES OF EARS. Fig. 7 illustrates good form of ears. These ears are well-proportioned. Their butts and tips are good. The rows are straight and the kernels uniform. The ears are full in the middle parts, showing strength, constitution, and good breeding. It is very essential that an ear show fullness in the middle portion, as this is the place where the greatest quantity as well as the best quality of corn will be found. Ears i and 2 would plant well together. Ears 3 and i are slightly better in shape than 2 and .].. The above cut illustrates one of the best and safest methods of storing seed corn. Ten or twelve ears are tied in a string and hung on some wires sup- ported by other wires from the rafters. The 21 strings of seed corn shown in the cut require a space less than six feet long by twenty inches wide, and yet this amount of seed will plant more than fifteen acres. The advantages of this method of storing are first: that it gives better protection from mice than where it is spread on the floor or corded in piles or put in racks. Second, it gives better circulation of air which allows the corn to drv out quickly and thoroughly, thus protecting it from moulding and sprouting and from being frozen while it is sappy. The greatest enemy to good seed corn is hard freezing while it still contains moisture, consequently there is more danger from late harvesting than from too early harvesting. However, it is not a good plan to harvest the seed in September while the corn is immature, as it is more difficult to preserve, and will be chaffy and give weaker plants than corn which has been allowed to fully mature on the stalk farmers' friend 103 from the conditions of tlie weather, etc., wihch cannot be controlled. It is during the bad seasons, when conditions are unfavorable that we most need the kernels with large deep germs of a bright cheerful color well-matured, and likely to give the most vigorous germination. It is essential to seek improved varieties of corn, but it is also important that better treatment be given to the seed that is to be planted. DO NOT IMPORT SEED CORN. If the test shows the seed to be weak and unreliable and it is necessary to secure other seed it should be ob- tained from some reliable neighbor who has a surplus. No farmer can afford to depend upon imported seed for the main part of his crop. If he is unable to secure a variety from his neighbors that has been grown and that has matured well in his locality and it becomes neces- sary to import seed, it should be secured from the short- est distance possible, east or west, as such seed is pref- erable to that grown in the north or south, but it is safer to import it from the north than from the south. The southern varieties will produce large stalks and heavy foliage, and the large deep kerneled ears will be late in maturing. Northern grown corn will be smaller in ear and finer in stalk, but will mature earlier. Seed corn imported from a distance and especially from a southern latitude, seldom gives satisfactory results the first two or three years, even though the seed be of the best, which oftentimes is not the case. It is well known that most of the seed corn put on the market by seedsmen is bought of farmers in crib lots, shelled, screened and sacked ready for sale, little or no attention being paid to the selection. In fact it is gener- ally handled with a scoop shovel and is known as the "scoop shovel method of selection". The chances are that the farmer has in his own crib better corn than that which he purchases from seedsmen at four or five times the market prices. And then he runs the risk of it not maturing in his locality. 104 farmers' friend If it were simply a matter of losing the price of the bushel of imported seed corn, it would not be so serious, but when we consider that a bushel of seed corn ought to produce four hundred bushels of corn, worth from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and sixty dollars, the serious nature of the question is very apparent. SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN. One of the best plans is to begin this spring by select- ing fifty or one hundred of the very best ears in your seed corn, while you are making the test of germination. These ears should then be butted and tipped and each ear shelled by itself and carefully studied. The kernels should have a bright, cheerful appearance, be full and plump at the tips and have a large clear germ, otherwise they should be discarded. It is very important that this choice seed should be planted at the time of 'the first planting, putting it on the south or west side of the field, unless there is danger that it would become mixed from some neighbor's corn nearby. In this case, it may be put on the other side of the field. The important thing is to get it in early and, if possible, on fall plowed ground. This will allow the corn to become thoroughly matured early next fall. The great importance of this cannot be overestimated. It is the late maturing corn that is caught by the freezes, as there is not sufficient time for it to dry out. All the seed corn for the next crop should be selected from this patch which was planted from the very best ears. It is a very common practice to select the occa- sional good ears found throughout the entire husking season. There are three important reasons why this should not be done. In the first place, we are more likely to neglect the work until too late, when we find ourselves without good seed for the next year. Again, we often be- gin harvesting from the poorest portions of our fields first for early feeding, as this corn is more likely to be soft and will not crib well. It should be remembered that the occasional good ears which are harvested throughout the farmers' friend 105 entire husking season have necessarily been fertilized to a greater or less extent by pollen from the scrub stalks and those which are perhaps barren. In other words, we have simply selected a good female, but know nothing of the character of the male stalks from which the pollen came that fertilized the kernels. On the other hand, if our seed is all selected from the seed patch planted only from the very best ears, we are much more certain of good parents on both sides. It is a good practice and one followed by many corn growers to go through this seed patch of three or four acres planted from this fifty or sixty best ears of corn, after it has been "laid by" and before the tassels appear, and to cut out all the weak aiid sickly stalks and those that are too tall and late or too short and early and in this way prevent them from producing pollen to fertilize the kernels of other ears. One of the most serious results from depending on the occasional good ear found throughout the entire husking season is that manyof the fields are late and the corn immature and the husks will prevent the corn from dry- ing out properly and, as a consequence, it is frozen be- fore it is husked or, at least, before it has had time to dry out after husking. Again, we often begin harvesting out poorest fields first and delay saving seed until we come to our "best fields". If every ear of corn that is to be used for seed in Iowa next year could be harvested this fall not later than Octo- ber 10th, and hung up where it will dry out thoroughly before the bitter cold freezes of November it would add millions of dollars to the wealth of Iowa. Let us go into the best and earliest planted fields, and select well matured ears from the most vigorous stalks, strip off their husks and hang in the attic at once where the circulation of air is good and protection is had from the cold freezing weather of November and December. On the 228,000 Iowa farms an average of about 40 acres is devoted to the growing of corn, and while six bushels of good seed is sufficient to plant ^his, let us abundantly provide ourselves and save two or three times this amount, as some pests may call upon us to replant, or our 106 farmers' friend neighbor may be needing some seed. Remember, it takes only about a dozen ears to plant an acre. Each ear should have special care. POOR STAND OF CORN. A '^poor stand" of corn is responsible more than any- thing else, for the low average yield in the central west. The ground may be rich, the preparation good, and the corn receive the best of cultivation, but if the stand is poor the yield will be correspondingly poor. Careful counts of the number of stalks per hill were made last year in more than a thousand differ- ent corn fields and it would be safe to say that there were not to exceed sixty-six per cent, of a perfect stand on an average and in some cases it fell as low as forty per cent. This means that the state devoted nearly 9,000,000 acres to corn, and pro- duced only a 6,000,000 acre crop, or, to put it in another way, with a perfect stand the present average yield of thirty-two bushels would be increased to fifty bushels per acre or an increase to the sate of 153,000,000 bushels. This does not take into consideration the increased yield made possible through the use of improved varieties, bet- ter bred seed, elimination of barren stalks by means of breeding, better methods of cultivation, etc. The real seriousness of the situation will be more ap- parent from the following counts illustrating the stand in the poorer, medium, and better fields of Iowa. The following figures illustrate the number of stalks per hill in the poorer fields : 22203201301113110 23012100213. Each of the first three hills had two stalks, the fourth hill was missing and the next had three stalks, etc. That the results might be as accurate as possibe, counts similar to the above were made in three places in each field. The hills were taken just as they came in the row and generally crosswise of the way the corn was planted. The field above represents only fifty- two per cent, of a stand of corn. Twenty-five per cent, of the hills were farmers' friend 107 missing. Thirty-five per cent, had one stalk, twenty-five 13er cent, had two stalks and twenty per cent, had three stalks per hill. If the poor stand was largely due to seed of low vitality, which is generally true in case of very poor stands, then the same influence which killed a por- tion of the seed must also have greatly weakened that which did grow, and, as a consequence, the yield is even much less than what is represented by the stand. The above represents what is found in hundreds of corn fields everj^ivhere in Iowa. Many fields were found in which the stand was as low as forty per cent. The following will illustrate very closely the average stand in the state: 2312101133131222303120 2 12. On the average soil of the state this would rep- resent about sixty-five per cent, of a stand of corn. Twelve per cent, of the hills were missing, twenty-eight per cent of the hills had one stalk, thirty-two per cent, of tlij hills had two stalks, and twenty-eight per cent of the hills had three stalks. The following represents the stand in some of the very best fields in the state : 3 4 3 2 133332333323333 3333 3. In this field, there were no hills missing, four hills had one stalk, twelve had two stalks, seventy-six had three stalks, and eight hills had four stalks. This represents not less than ninety-five to ninety-six per cent, of a perfect stand. If we go into our fields at husking time and make a study of the stand of corn, we will be convinced of the serious losses to ourselves and to the state each year from a poor stand of corn. VARIETY TEST OF CORN. In 1905, the Agricultural Department of Iowa Agricul- tural College, secured seed from more than ninety differ- ent sources. The corn was all collected from farmers living within a radius of ten miles from Ames. In order to secure samples of corn actually planted, the farmers were visited and the corn taken either directly from the planter boxes in the field or from the sacks from which the seed corn was being i3lanted. 108 farmers' friend The samples were planted by hand, three kernels per hill, and the experiment was repeated three times and treated alike in every respect, throughout the season. The following table gives the yield per acre of the six highest yielding samples and also of the six lowest yield- ing samples: Six Highest Yielding Samples. Bushel per Acre. Sample No. 59 80.5 Sample No. 58 80.0 Sample No. 66 78.5 Sample No. 71 77.0 Sample No. 138 75.0 Sample No. 68 75.0 Average 77.5 Six Lowest Yielding Samples. Bushel per Acre. Sample No. 44 31.5 Sample No. 132 33.5 Sample No. 36 34.5 Sample No. 32 36.6 Sample No. 29 37.5 Sample No. 33 40.0 Average 35.6 Note particularly the wide range in yield from 80.5 bushels per acre to 31.5 bushels or a difference of 49 bushels. The average yield of the six highest samples was 77.5 bushels, while the average of the six lowest yield- ing samples was 35.6 bushels, or a difference of 41.9 bushels per acre. This great difference in yield was due largely to the difference in vitality of the seed, as in every case the low yielding samples had given a poor stand. It strongly emphasizes the great importance of knowing that the seed to be planted will give a good, strong, vig- orous germination. TESTING EACH YEAE OF CORN. There is, perhaps, no one thing which will do so much to increase the yield of corn on every farm as the testing of each ear to be used for seed. This should be done before the rush of spring work begins or it is likely to be neglected. POOR EARS. No. I is a fairly well shaped ear, has been well fertilized and will give a good proportion of corn to cob. Its utter ack of uniformity of kernels, how- ever, makes it a very undesirable ear for seed. Note the irregularity of the rows, the variation in the size, shape and dent of kernels. Such an ear should never be used for seed. No. 3 shows a spiral arrangement of rows with thick blocky kernels, lacking in uniformity. The tip is weak and the whole ear, through ack of proper pro- portion indicates weakness and lack of breeding. farmers' I'RIEND 113 The importance of discarding ears that refuse to grow or show a weak germination is apparent when we realize that one ear will plant one-fourteenth to one sixteenth of an acre. The most practical way for testing the germination of each ear is by using a germination box. This is a sim- ple affair and can be made by any one in an hour's time. Any box about six inches deep and 2x3 feet in size may be used. Fill the box about half full of moist sand, dirt or sawdust, well pressed down, so that it will leave a smoothj even surface. In case sawdust is used it should be put in a gunny sack and set in a tub of warm water for half an hour or so that it will be thoroughly moistened before using. Take a white cloth about the size of the box, rule it off, checker-board fashion, one and a half inches each way. Number the checks 1, 2, 3, and so on and place it over the saw dust and tack to the box at the corners and edges. Lay out the ears to be tested, side bj" side on the floor; remove one kernel from near the butt, middle and tip of the ear; turn the ear over and remove three kernels from the opposite side, in like man- ner, making six kernels in all, thus securing a sample from the entire ear. Place the six kernels at the end of the ear from which they were taken. Use care that the kernels do not get mixed with the kernels from the ear next to it. After the kernels are removed, boards may be laid over the rows of corn to keep them in place until the germination is known. Place the kernels from ear of corn No. 1 in square No. 1 of the germination box; from ear No. 2 in square No. 2, and so on with all of the ears. Then place over this a cloth considerably larger than the box ; cover with about tw'o inches of moist sand, dirt or sawdust and keep in a warm place where it will not freeze. The sitting-room will perhaps be the most suitable place. The kernels will germinate in four to six days. Then remove the cover carefully to avoid mis- placing the kernels in the squares, (a piece of thin cloth placed over the kernels before the covering is put on will prevent the kernels from sticking to the upper cover). Examine the kernels in the germinating box; for exam- 114 farmers' friend pie, the kernels in squares No. 1, 11 and 20, have failed to grow and some of the kernels in squares 2, 3, 4, 9, 12 and 15 have refused to grow or show weak germination. The corresponding ears should be rejected. The ears showing weak germination should be treated the same as worthless ears. A FEW OF THE LEADING VARIETIES OF CORN. BOONE COUNTY WHITE. This corn is a standing testimony to the good work of Mr. James Riley. Mr. Riley lived in Boone County, Indiana, and has rendered a valuable service to the world by his work in the breeding of corn. Mr. Riley had a large variety of corn known as the White Mastodon. In 1876 he picked over his seed of this corn, selecting for what he believed a desirable type of corn. He planted this special seed in an isolated field, and began changing the large, coarse type of white corn by selection. After several years of careful study and selection he produced the type of white corn he desired to raise, and named it after his home county. The kernel is a large, broad, deep kernel, approaching the broadly rounded wedge type, with a good full tip, up- right attachment at cob and fitting well together in the row from tip to crown of kernel. The dent type is mod- erate to deep creased dent with slightly roughened pro- jections. There should be no approach to the pinched dent, as this reduces the thickness of the kernel crown, an undesirable feature in the Boone County White. This corn is one of the largest of the white varieties, and therefore must have a longer season to mature than the Silver Mine. The shape of the ear is slowly tapering, length approaches ten inches and has an average circum- ference of seven and one-half inches. It matures in from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and thirty- five days. It is well adapted to the southern half of the corn belt — that is, south of a line drawn through Bur- lington, Iowa. farmers' friend 115 • Mr. Riley seems to have been one of the first corn raisers who sought to increase the productiveness of his corn by cutting out the barren stalks, improving both the yield and quality of his corn. When the type he sought to fix has been modified by both the grower and the region where grown, still it remains one of the most distinct and best varieties of white corn, with well-shaped kernels, firmly set on a medium to large-sized cob. It is especially well adapted to rich, strong soils and to river bottoms. It does not stand drought as well as the Silver Mine, but is a large yielder under favorable con- ditions. It requires a long season to mature, but ripens well in the south half of Indiana and Illinois and in the very southern part of Nebraska, the south-western part of Iowa and through Missouri and the eastern part of Kansas. RILEY S FAVORITE This variety is a yellow dent corn originated by Mr. James Riley in 1885. Mr. Riley desired a larger corn than the Pride of the North, quite generally raised in the northern portions of the dent-corn belt, yet one that would mature in his locality in Indiana. He therefore crossed two varieties, producing a hybrid corn. This he carefully planted year by year in an isolated place. Here he gave it the best of culture, cut out the diseased, weak stalks, permitting only the hardy and more vigorous stalks to bear pollen. Mr. Riley named this variety "Riley's Favorite", and sought by selection to fix a type of desirable yellow corn that would mature in but little more than one hundred days. For this reason he se- lected for seed a medium-sized ear with small cob from a stalk of medium height. He and others have found much trouble in fixing a definite type of this corn. There seems to be a tendency to revert to one or the other of the crossed types. The type Mr. Riley seems to have sought was a dent corn with a slowly tapering ear nine inches long, seven inches in circumference; rows distinctly paired and 116 FARMERS FRIEND straight; number of rows fourteen to eighteen, with six- teen as an average ; pinched dent, with tendency of ker- nels to be beaked ; kernels straight, wedge shaped, with a moderately rounded tip; cob red and small; shank attach- ment to stalk medium to small ; color of grain a clear yel- low. Matures in one hundred to one hundred and fif- teen days. It is not possible, nor would it be profitable to go into an extended description of the multitude of different vari- eties of corn in the United States, but enough has been said to show how some of the best varieties have been developed. Not more acres of corn, but ' ' another nubbin of corn to each hill", should be the motto of everj^ farmer in the corn belt. One small ear of corn to each hill on the 3,556 hills per acre will make a yield of thirty-eight bushels. Mr. Robert Reid moved from Brown County, Ohio, to Tazewell County, Illinois, in the spring of 1846. He brought with him a variety of corn known at that time as Gordon Hopkins corn. This was a reddish-colored corn grown quite generally in the Red Oak settlement, where Mr. Reid lived. Mr. Reid planted this corn on his newly purchased farm near Delavan, Illinois. It was late in the spring before it was planted, and his harvest showed immature corn, though it gave a fair yield. Mr. Reid selected the best of it for seed the next year, but on account of the immaturity of the corn he had a poor stand. The field was replanted, or rather planted in with seed of the Little Yellow corn. It thus became mixed corn, but was kept pure from that time onward. Thereafter, from 1847 to date, fifty-seven years, this corn has been carefully se- lected for certain characteristics. The peculiar dimple dent and shape of kernels with creased germs, the shape of ear, remarkable filling out of tips and butts, the high per cent of corn to cob and a finished or cultured appearance are among the strongest characteristics of the Reid's Yellow Dent corn. farmers' friend 117 Occasionally a very deep yellow, or even reddish yel- low, appears, but generally the grain is a light or pale yellow. There is seldom but little soft corn, even the nubbins being solid. The original type sliows a tapering ear, small and poorly filled out, with a small number of rows of kernels. This offers one of the best illustrations of the value of intelligent selection. This variety is one of the best bred varieties of yellow dent corn. The original type of ker- nel was of the shoe peg style with the dimple dent. This seems to be giving place to a broader kernel and an elon- gated rather than a dimple dent. The former kernel has a smooth seed coat. There is a uniformity of color, fin- ish and shape of ear which has made it a great favorite in the ring. During the last few years Mr. Eeid has been breeding toward a rougher type, which gives a deeper kernel and a larger, later corn. This corn has sometimes been known as the ''World's Fair" corn since the Chicago Exposition in 1893, where it won first prize. During the last few years it has come into prominence, and is now extensively grown in cen- tral Illinois and is rapidly extending westward. In Ill- inois it is considered a medium-early corn. It seems to be well adapted to the north-central portion of the corn belt. This would be represented by the region lying be- tween Bloomington and Chicago and by the south half of Iowa, although many parties are growing it success- fully as far north as Mason City Iowa. This variety has won more premiums in the great corn contests than all the other varieties put together. FREEZING OF CORN. Indian corn is the most succulent of all the grains, and the fact that it is late in ripening makes it especially liable to injury by frost. Corn leaves are hurt by even light frosts if the stalks are not previously cut. Just as soon as connection with the root is severed the foliage dies out rapidly, or rather much of it is concentrated in 118 farmers' friend the ear and husk to ripen and mature the grain. Ex- periments made with corn stripped from the stalk after it has hardened show some gain in weight of that cut up at the same time and left on the stalks in the usual way. Probably this passing of sap from the stalk to the grain does not continue long after both are severed from the root. It is therefore safe to husk corn without fear of loss in a few days after cutting. The parting of the husks is the usual sign waited for; but this is rather to facilitate husking than because this is needed to have the corn get full development. If corn ripens late it is safer to go through it even before it is all ready to cut, and strip off enough of the best and earliest ears for seed, leaving the husks on. Hang these ears in a warm place and they will dry out before severe weather comes, so that freezing the germ will be impossible. Seed corn dried by fire heat makes unusually vigorous plants, and is worth this trouble even when crib-dried corn will grow. CHEAPENING THE PEODUCTION OF CORN. In all the departments of production the man who can afford to sell anything of a given quality and a given quantity, the cheapest, is the man who makes the quick- est sale and the most money. Hence the i^roblem of how to decrease the cost of the production of grass, grain and meats is the most important for the Western farmer just now. It is the solemn fact that ranchmen can produce scrubs and low grades cheaper than the granger, that is making cattle so low; that the Hindoo and the Dakota farmer can produce wheat cheaper than the farmer in the middle West, that makes wheat so low ; the fact that the Nebraska farmer can produce corn so low that makes corn raising for sale unprofitable in Iowa. It is not possible for the farmer to do as the railroads, the manufacturer, and m^ny of the merchants, pool their issues, limit production and keep up prices. farmers' friend 119 LITTLE ''NUBBINS". Drudgery is labor without thought. Poor seed meaus poor stand and weak stalks. Getting our heads into the game is half the battle. The farmer who makes two ears of corn grow where but one grew before is a "public benefactor". There are many things which will reduce the yield of our corn crop even though we plant the best of seed. Cause of low yield — poor stand; stalks "fooling around all summer doing little or nothing"; these are the great- est causes of a low yield. The most precious thing in this world is the labor of a human being. Yet hours are wasted every day on vacant ground and worthless stalks. To make a good crop of corn requires good land, good seed, good care, and back of all these must be a great man, a man who mixes brains with his labor. No man has a moral right to himself and family, or to the community in which he lives, to guess that the 800 kernels on an ear will grow and produce strong plants. "If the corn fields of the United States were mine and I could give but one order, that order would be, 'To test six kernels of corn from every ear of seed intended for planting'." Poor seed means missing hills, one — stalk hills, and weak stalks, producing little or nothing. It means wasted land and wasted labor. It means less than thirty bushels of corn per acre in the "corn belt", instead of forty or forty-five bushels. If every ear of corn intended for planting next spring was harvested not later than the middle of October and hung up in the attic where it could dry out thoroughly before the bitter cold freezes of November and December, millions of dollars would be added to the value of next year's corn crop. 120 farmers' friend CORN IS KING; AMERICA'S GREATEST CROP. Rock Island Corn and Wheat Train Lecture by A. M. Ten-Eyck, Professor of Agronomy, K. S. A. C. Corn is distinctively an American crop, having its ori- gin in central Mexico, where the native plant still grows wild. The United States grows 80 per cent of the corn crop of the world, and produces more bushels of corn than of all other grains. The average production of corn in the United States during the five years ending 1904 was 2173 millions of bushels, valued at 946 millions of dollars. The average farm price of corn has increased from 21.5 cents per bushel in 1896, the lowest average price ever received for corn in this country, to 44.1 cents per bushel in 1904. The average farm price of corn for the last five years, as given in the U. S. Agriculture Year-Book, is a fraction less than 45 cents per bushel. The production of corn in this country has trebled since 1870, while the price per bushel has also advanced. The area suitable for the production of corn is to-day largely occupied; there can be no great enlargement of our corn-fields unless the ground be taken from some other crop; the only material increase over our present corn production must come through enriching the soil, improving the breeds of corn, and from better methods of tillage and cultivation. With the corn-producing area limited practically to its present acreage, with the increasing demand for corn at home for feed, food, and for the manufacture of the large number of commercial products now made from corn, with the foreign market for corn increasing, Mr. Phillips of Wall street fame is making no wild prediction when he says: "We shall never again return to the old prices of corn ; in my opin- ion 40-cent corn will represent its lowest price for the future. ' ' farmers' friend 121 Although the total production of corn in the United States has increased three hundred per cent in the last thirty years, the average yield per acre has not in- creased, and as given in the Agriculture Year-Book is only 26.8 bushels per acre in 1904. The average yield per acre in the United States, for ten years, 1895-1904 was 25.0 bushels, while in Kansas for the same period the average yield was only 21.65 bushels per acre. The opportunity for increasing ithe average yield of corn per acre is very great. One kernel of corn will produce an ear having from 800 to 1200 kernels. No other cereal grain is so productive. No crop which the farmer raises is more responsive to breeding and culti- vation than corn. Every intelligent effort which the farmer makes in selecting seed, in fertilizing the land and in improving the methods of planting and cultiva- tion is rewarded in both quality and quantity of grain produced. Improving the quality and increasing the yield of corn by planting well-bred seed and by practic- ing better methods of cultivation may be counted as almost clear profit. Mr. Luther Burbank, the great plant breeder of California, estimates that one extra grain to the head, one extra kernel to the ear, and one more potato to the hill woiiid increase the crops of the Nation, without extra cost, by 1,500,000 bushels of barley, 11,000,000 bushels of corn, 15,000,000 bushels of wheat, 20,000,000 bushels of oats, and 21,000,000 bushels of potatoes. An increase of three bushels of corn per acre in Kan- sas would pay the State and county taxes (some $7,000,- 000 per annum) and leave a margin of $800,000 for build- ing up our State institutions and making other public improvements. The most important factors in the production of any crop are feed, breed, and care or culture. Without a sufficient supply of available plant food and moisture in the soil it is not possible to produce large yields of corn, no matter how well bred the seed, even with the best 122 farmers' friexd of culture. The plant must be fed. Hence, one of the most important problems in growing corn is maintaining the fertility of the soil. Much of the land of Kansas has already been cropped continuously with corn too long. Such land is "corn sick", the soil has become exhausted of its humus, com- pact in texture, filled with plant diseases and in- sects which prey upon the corn plant, and has finally reached that point where profitable crops can no longer be produced upon it without a change in the methods of farming. What the land needs more than anything else is a change of crops, and it will not do to simply sow wheat and other cereal grains for a year or two and return again to corn, since the small-grain crops are really greater exhausters of the fertility of the soil than is corn ; such land must be planted to grass and perrenial legumes, such as al- falfa and clover. Grass is a soil protector, a soil renewer, and a soil maker. It increases the vegetable matter in the soil, re- stores the humus, and improves the soil texture; while alfalfa and clover, by means of the bacteria which grow on the roots of these plants, actually increase the nitro- gen in the soil, which is i^e most essential element of plant food and the one most apt to become exhausted in the soil. Old worn-out land which has been seeded to grasses and legumes for a few years is largely restored to its virgin condition of tilth and fertility, and when broken will produce again large crops of corn and small- grain. Farmers should study more carefully the subject of rotation of crops and means and methods of maintain- ing the fertility of the soil. Barnyard manure should be more carefully saved and used. On the Kansas Ag- ricultural College farm, in the season of 1903, a good coat of barnyard manure applied to corn land and plowed under, increased the yield of corn 18 bushels per acre. It it not advisable to use chemical fertilizers and neg- lect other and cheaper means of restoring and maintain- ing the fertility of the soil. farmers' friend 123 I cannot here go into a detailed discussion of soil till- age and cultivation. It has been truly said that "tillage is manure" to the soil. The plant food is stored in the soil in an insoluble or unavailable condition. By tillage the conditions are made favorable for the development of the soil fertility. The cultivation allows the entrance of the air, conserves the moisture, warms the soil, and makes favorable conditions for the growth of bacteria, and thus hastens the decomposition of organic matter and favors the chemical changes by which the unavail- able plant food is gradually made available for the use of crops. Weeds are robbers ; they waste the moisture and fer- tility^ of the soil, and thorough cultivation of the corn crop is necessary in order to keep the field clear of weeds. Water is the most essential part of the plant food; the rainfall, in time and amount, largely determines the yield of the crop. By keeping the surface mulch of mellow soil the water is retained in the soil and made to feed the crop. At several experiment stations shallow continuous cul- tivation of corn has given the largest average yields, as opposed to deep cultivation. Too deep cultivation not only injures the corn by destroying the roots, but during the period of cultivation it prevents the roots from feed- ing in the most fertile part of the soil. On the other hand, the practice of shallow cultivation may be carried too far; a relatively thick mulch of soil will conserve more moisture than a thin mulch. As regards the conservation of soil moisture, the early cultivation of corn may be shallow; a deep soil mulch is not required at that season of the year, since the weather is moist and cool and evaporation is not great ; but later in the season when the hot, dry days of July and August come the deeper mulch is necessary in order to keep the soil from drying out. Shallow cultivation early in the season also clears ithe ground of weeds better than deeper cultivation, and a thin mulch may favor the quicker warming of the soil in the spring. Loose soil is not so good a heat conductor as firm soil, and more heat 124 farmers' friend can reach firm soil through a thin mulch than through a thick mulch. On the other hand, during the hot part of the season a thick mulch may act as a regulator of the soil temperature and prevent the soil from becoming too hot, as well as too dry. Cultivation experiments at the Kansas, Illinois, and North Dakota Experiment Stations have given results favoring shallow cultivation early followed by medium deep cultivation at the close of the season. Deep culti- vation as the corn was laid by seems to have conserved more moisture than shallow cultivation, and at the Kan- sas Station as an average for three seasons has given an average yield of 2.7 bushels of corn per acre above the yield secured by continued shallow cultivation. It pays to prepare a good seed-bed for corn as well as for wheat or other crops. As to whether level plant- ing or listing is best depends largely on the climate and soil. Throughout central Kansas the listing method is preferred ; the roots of corn planted in lister furrows lie relatively deeper in the soil than roots of level-planted corn, and in a dry climate or light soil corn planted in this way is better able to withstand drouth than level- planted corn. Perhaps less attention has been given to the breeding of corn and the selection of seed than has been given to the cultivation and maintaining of the soil fertilit}^ The work of the last few years, however, demonstrates that it is just as important to breed corn and wheat and other crops as it is to breed stock. Moreover, the effect of the breeding and selection of corn is as great and the results are much more quickly secured than in the breed- ing of stock. There is a great difference in the productiveness of varieties of corn. In 1903, in a test of 79 varieties at the Kansas Station, the yields of what were considered standard varieties varied from 30 to 89 bushels per acre. Similar results were secured in 1904. Different ears of corn not only vary in appearance and quality, but are very different in their prepotency or power of reproducing. The choice selected ears from FARMERS FRIEND 125 Keid's Yellow Dent corn, which were selected for unifor- mity and trueness to breed characteristics, showed as much difference in characters of plants on different rows as might be observed between different varieties of corn, and inl903 a difference of nearly 400 per cent in yield, (per cent figured on lowest yield) was produced by the same area of land planted with seed from individual ears. In 1904 the greatest range in yield with selected ears of this variety was a little over 80 per cent, while in 1905, after 3 years of careful breeding and selection a difference in the productiveness of individual ears, seed selected from the product of the best producing ears during previous years showed a variation in prod- uct of only 60 per cent. After three years' breeding, the ear test plot in 1905 yielded 18 per cent more corn per acre than was secured from the general field planted with first-grade seed selected from the generalcrop the year previous. The first step in corn improvement is the choice of a variety. Choose as pure a type of corn as it is possible to secure, a variety which is adapted for growing in the soil and climate of your section of the State. Choose a type of corn that is hardy, of good quality, and that yields well. From the tests at the State Experiment Station, the "native" Kansas corns, namely, varieties which have been grown a long time in the State, prove to be better producers than the best varieties imported from other States. Perhaps you are now growing in your locality the corn which is best adapted for growing there, and which will furnish an excellent foundation for a better breed of corn. Scientific corn breeding has only been practiced in this country since 1897, when Prof. P. G. Holden, at the Ill- inois Experiment Station, introduced the plan of indi- vidual ear breeding and demons/trated the importance of corn breeding to the farmers of that state and to the country at large. Among the pioneer breeders of corn are Learning, of Ohio. Reid, of Illinois, and Riley, of Indiana, and from their efforts and work we have the Reid.'s Yellow Dent, the Learning, and the Riley's Favor- 126 farmers' friend ite corn. The Boone County White is another of the old standard varieties. These varieties of corn have proved to be good producers in many parts of Kansas, after the corn has been grown for several years and be- come adapted to the climate and soil. The Kansas Corn Breeders' Association, at its annual meeting, March, 1905, passed the following resolutions : Resolved, That the following varieties of Kansas corn be recognized by the Kansas Corn Breeders' Association as possessing merits which make them worthy of distri- bution and propagation in this State, namely, Hildreth (yellow dent), McAuley's White Dent, Hammett (white dent), Mammoth White Dent ,Kansas Sunflower (yellow dent), Griffing Calico and Hiawatha Yellow Dent. Resolved, That the following varieties of corn origi- nated in other states be recognized as suitable for plant- ing in this S-tate, provided the seed has been adapted to Kansas conditions and the corn has maintained its quality and productiveness after having been grown for five successive seasons in this State; namely, Reid's Yel- low Dent, Boone County White, Silver Mine, Legal Ten- der, Hogue's Yellow Dent, and Learning. Choose a field to grow seed-corn away from other fields. Give special preparation to the soil and special cultivation to the corn. Plant at itlie most favorable sea- son, using all efforts to produce as perfect a develop- ment of the corn as possible. If a field away from the general corn-field cannot be selected, 'then plant a strip through the middle of the large corn-field for the breed- ing plot. The average farmer may not be able to follow the individual ear system of breeding, but he can select out of his seed-corn a bushel or so of the choicest ears and plant this corn in a body by itself, as described above. Better select out 40 or 50 of the very choicest ears and plant the corn from each ear on separate rows. In this way the breeder is able to determine which are the best producing ears and select seed from these for future planting. When the corn is tasseling and beginning to silk, pass $i50.oo EAR OF CORN. The highest price ever paid for corn was paid Januar}- i6, 1907 at ihe farmers short course at the Iowa State College. A 19-ounce ear sold at $150 for the single ear, or at the rate of $8,850 a bushel. D. L. Pascal of De Witt, its breeder, paid this phenomenal price. The auction was started by Mrs. Nellie Kedzie Jones of Michigan at $50. E. M. Wentworth of State Center was the next highest bidder, but compromised when the price exceeded all bounds of reason. The champion ear last year sold for $11 and was grown by H. J. Ross of Farragut, Fremont county, Iowa. The best ten ears ever gathered together according to Professor Holden were those of Eddison Bennett, which sold for $30 to Bennett Bros, of Ames. FARMERS FRIEND 131 through the field and remove the tassels from the stalks which show no appearance of a shoot and from every feeble and diseased stalk in order to breed only the best. In this way the farmer really selects his breeding corn plants, the same as he must select his breeding ani- mals. Seed-corn should be selected in the field so that the breeder may observe the stalk as well as the ear. Select for uniformity in stalk and ear, choosing ears which are well placed on vigorous leafy stalks. Select for uniform maturity of ears as well as for uniformity in itype, size and quality. Seed-corn should be stored, and cured in a dry, well ventilated room, and if the weather becomes damp and cold before the corn is fully dry, complete the drying by artificial heat. Corn well dried and kept in a dry place will not be injured by freezing. During the winter the seed-corn should be carefully sorted over and the breeding ears for next season's seed field selected. We have to-day score-cards for corn, by which the perfect ears of different varieties are required to conform to a certain standard as regards size, length, type, uniformity, etc. Perhaps the breeders have not yet learned to recognize all the vital points of a good ear of corn, but some of the characteristics which indicate good quality and high yield in corn are known. The ear should be of good size, symmetrical in form, with straight rows of long, well-dented, medium wedge-shaped kernels. A cylindrical ear allows for more kernels on a cob and a more uniform length in kernels. The tips should be well filled, and at the butts of the ears the kernels should swell out about the shank. The space between the crowns of the kernels should be narrow; also there should be no unoccupied space at the tips of the kernels where they enter the cob. The kernels should also be uni- form in color, either white, yellow, or red, according to the type and variety of corn which they represent. A large germ in the kernel indicates strength, vitality and high feeding value, since the germ of the kernel contains 132 farmers' friend nearly all of the oil in the grain and is also rich in protein. A large yield of corn depends not only on the breed of corn, the fertility of the soil, and the cultivation of the crop, but it also depends upon the germination of seed, stand of corn, and number of ears produced per acre, as well as the type of ear and the type of kernel on the ear. It therefore becomes very important to plant vi- able seed, and every farmer should test the germination of his seed-corn before planting. The actual yield of corn per acre is usually far less than the estimated yield. For instance, with a perfect stand of corn, hills 3^ feet apart, and three stalks in the hill, with one good average ear to the stalk weighing f of a pound, the yield should be 128.5 bushels of shelled corn per acre. With ears weighing one pound apiece the pos- sible production from an acre of land, imder the con- ditions stated above, is 171 bushels. A 30-bushel crop of corn will just pay for the growing. When we consider the fact that a bushel of seed-corn will plant 8 acres, and is capable of producing, on good soil in the average season, with good average cultivation, 400 bushels of corn, we begin to appreciate the value of this bushel of seed-corn. The farmer can aiford to do a great deal of work in growing seed-corn, selecting the seed ears, grading and scoring these ears, and testing the germina- tion of the seed previous to planting, that he may secure a good stand and insure the production of a profitable crop. THE MAGNITUDE OF IOWA'S 1906 CORN CROP. The real magnitude of Iowa's corn crop is sized up by Dr. A. B. Storms, president of the Iowa State College, as follows : ''We will suppose that the 297 million bushels of corn produced in Iowa in 1906 is piled up in one pile in Des Moines and that it is to be loaded into wagons, allowing 50 bushels to each wagon. Let the wagons start west allowing 30 feet to each wagon so as to avoid col- lisions. The head wagon when going into Council Bluff° farmers' FRIEND 133 will still be going and others will still be driving up in Des Moines to be loaded. The head wagon will go on to Denver through a pass in the mountains and finally reach the Golden Gate and yet there will be corn in Des Moines and teams will be loading. We will suppose an imag- inary road across the Pacific with the head wagon ap- proaching Hawaii; it passes on to our eastern posses- sions, through Japan, into Asia, through Europe, over the Atlantic and on to New York and still Iowa men will be loading corn in Des Moines. Let the head man pass up Wall street on to Philadelphia through the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana to Chicago, on to the Mis- sissippi and through Iowa to Des Moines and still the haulers will be loading Iowa's 1906 crop. The leader passes on through Des Moines westward towards Denver and is well on his way across the great Rockies before the last wagon is loaded and the supply of Iowa's 1906 crop is all gone." STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF NEBRASKA. INCREASING YIELDS OF CORN BY SELECTION OF PLANTS. In the past, most of the efforts to improve corn have been in the direction of improving the type of ear, and much good has been accomplished in this way. But type alone is not a sure guide to the yielding power of a variety. We may take two ears of the most approved type, looking as nearly alike as possible, plant them in separate plats, and the yield of one may be twenty-five per cent more than the yield of the other. The difference in productiveness cannot be learned by examining the ears, but only by planting each ear separately and meas- uring its yield. During three years past we have prac- ticed the "individual ear" method of seed selection, each ear being planted in a row by itself and the yield 134 farmers' friend taken. To show the variation in the yield from different ears on the same soil, and under similar treatment, there is given below as an example the yield of ten adjacent rows, each planted with a different ear : Table XIII. — Yields from different seed ears. Row No. I 16 I 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1 1 48.2155.2156.8 24 25 Yield per acre in | | bushels |68.7|73.9 I 44.3|35. 81.6 80.0 76.8 In these ten rows the yield varied from 35.6 to 81.6 bushels, a difference of 46 bushels per acre. The general plan followed in this method of corn breed- ing is to select about 100 good ears of corn and plant each in a row by itself. Marked differences will often be noticed between the rows from the time they come through the ground until harvest time. One row may be two feet taller than the row next to it, while there may be a week's difference in the time of tas- seling, and ten days' difference in the time of maturity. At husking time each row is harvested separately, and all the corn is discarded but that from about 20 of the best yielding rows. This corn from each row is kept in a separate lot and carefully looked over. Any lot that is in any way undesirable is discarded. When the rows that are to be saved have finally been selected, five or ten of the best ears are chosen from each to be planted after the same system again the next year. Many of these ears coming from the high yielding rows fail to in- herit high yielding qualities, but by constantly selecting out high yielding rows from year to year the tendency becomes more fixed. Even one year's work may produce good results, as our experiments have shown. In 1903, 82 rows were planted with different ears. The yield varied from 70 to 108 bushels per acre. From these, 17 rows were selected, all of which had yielded more than 90 bushels per acre. Six ears were taken from each of these and planted in 1904. The season of 1904 was not as good a corn year farmers' friend 135 as 1903, and the soil was not as good as that used in 1903, but an average yield of 68.6 bushels was obtained, while the yield of corn of the same variety in the same field, the seed for which had been selected in the ordinary way, yielded only 62 bushels per acre, or a difference of 6.6 bushels as the result of one year's work. It is hoped that by following this method of selection for sev- eral years the average yield may be greatly increased. WHY OATS RUN OUT. Almost all farmers have noticed that oats run out so badly that it is necessary to change seed frequently. Can it be avoided! Ought not seed to grow better with proper treatment than poorer? An observant farmer in the American Cultivator gives some very sound thoughts on this subject.' He says in discussing the matter: "I have noticed that nearly all new varieties of oats do well for a year or two, and then fall back and yield no better crops than our common oats. This deterioration I have noticed for years, and now we hardly find a crop of oats up to the legal standard of thirty-two pounds per bushel. The average in this vicinity is not more than twenty-five pounds to the bushel. I have studied for years to learn the cause of this trouble. The land is apparently just as good, we have better implements for the preparation of the seed bed, special fertilizers adapted to the wants of the crop, yet no improvement. "My conclusion is that the difficulty lies wholly with the seed. Fifty years ago it was not uncommon to find whole fields of oats yield- ing forty or more pounds to the Ibushel. There were no new fangled oats in those days. Sientific writers tell us the soil was new and that all crops were better, which may be true to a certain extent, yet this is not the only reason. At that time all grains were threshed with a flail, and only the best and plumpest grains were obtained, while the shrunken and imperfect grain was left in the straw. The grain was then winnowed by shaking from a shovel in a strong wind driving through the barn floor, and the head of the heap carefully put away for seed. The tail end of the heap was fed out. Since the thresh- ing machines have come into general use, one can hardly find a farmer who threshes by hand. If a machine leaves even the semblance of an oat in the straw it will be looked upon as an imperfect machine and most likely be ordered out of the barn. There is no head of the heap coming from the machine, and good and poor are mixed together and sown year after year. Is it any wonder that oats deteriorate? 138 farmers' friend "What would be ttLOught of a farmer who should plant all the corn that grew in the hill, nuibbins and all? \H.e would be called insane. Yet this is just what we do with oats and then wonder at their failure. Anyone can satisfy himself, if he will look over a field of oats just after it has headed out. He will find all grades of growth, from tall, well formed, stocky heads, down to plants which have not sufficient vitality to make a head. When harvested one will find all lengths of straw, from six inches to three feet, and all grades of oats from zero up to forty pounds per bushel. "My practice of late years is to allow the machine to blow hard enough to blow over the light oats from those saved for seed, and I find my oats improving from year to year. A better method still would be to thresh the bundles lightly with a fiail, and thus get the best of the grain for seed, and then, if one chooses, to run the bundles through the machine. Let brother farmers try this experi- ment and report the result in future years." RUSSIAN THISTLE. By L. H, PAMMEL. The widespread interest manifested in our state and elsewhere in the northwest indicates that the Russian Thistle (Salsola Jx-ali, variety tragus), is a miserable and execrable weed, doing much injury to agriculture. At the request of the Director of the Experiment Sta- tion I have devoted a little time to the botany of this weed. Some attention has therefore been given to the study of the weed, its germination, the anatomy of the root, stem, leaf and seed. A study of the anatomy will be of interest, because its structure may best adapt it to growing on high, dry soil. Professor L. H. Dewey says : The Russian Thistle grows best on high, dry soil, where it is not much crowded bv other plants. It is sel- dom seen in sloughs or low land, and makes no progress in the native prairie, except where the sod has been bro- ken by badger burrows or by the overfeeding and con- R 1 1 1 THE RUSSIAN THISTLE. farmers' friend 139 sequent tramping of cattle on the ranges. In all places it is more abundant and more robust in dry seasons. NATIVITY OF THE WEED. Linnaeus, according to Dewey seems to have been fa- miliar with the plant, as it occurred in eastern Europe. The common Saltwort {Salsola kali L.), is a common plant of our Atlantic coast, and many botanists, till re- cently, have referred the Russian Thistle to this species. The writer several years ago, in response to queries, re- ferred it to this species, but it is quite distinct from that plant. The Russian Thistle is known as (Salsola kali L., variety tragus, DeCandolle), and is native to the plain of Southeastern Russia and Western Siberia. Senator Hansbrough* says, in regard to the thistle in Russia: "Prince Galitzen tells me 'that four years ago, when he left Russia, he passed through the southwestern portion of Siberia, and there found stretches of thistle for five or six hundred miles in the most fertile parts of that country. It had driven every farmer out of that section. He also tells me that the Russian government, which has been engaged in the great work of irrigation and put- ting in large irrigating ditches in southwestern Siberia for some years, has abandoned the project, chiefly on account of the thistle. He states that the pest has over- run the country, largely in the provinces of Orel and Kiev, which comprise the most fertile agricultural re- gion in Russia, and that the peasant farmers are simply fleeing in terror before it. ' ' In regard to the distribution of this weed in the United States, no one has looked this up more carefully than Mr. Dewey who says : "The plant was first introduced into the United States in 1873 or 1874, in flax seed brought from Russia, and sown near Scotland, Bonhomme county, South Dakota. The land there is somewhat billy, and corn is the chief crop raised, so that owing to the wooded ravines and the 1-iO FARMEES' FRIEND standing cornstalks the Russian Tliistle was at first slow in spreading. In 1877 it first appeared in Yankton county, east of Bonhomme; and five years later it had spread to the counties to the north and west of Bon- homme. It continued gradually to cover new territory until 1888, when it had infested most of the counties be- tween the Missouri and James rivers south of the Huron, Pierre and Deadwood Division of the Chicago & North- western railway. The strong winds during the winter of 1887-88, followed by the dry summer of 1888, and probably a fresh importation of seed into the flax fields of Faulk or McPherson counties, caused the weed to spread within two years to nearly all the remaining counties between the Missouri and James rivers in South Dakota and to infest the southern tier of counties in Nortli Dakota. At about the same time it invaded nor- thern Iowa and northeastern Nebraska." With regard to remedies, it is easily killed. When cut off at the surface of the ground before seeding it dies. This is the best remedy. If a field is neglected until it is seeded, repeated plowings will clean it of this and most other weeds. When the plant is not more than six inches high careful plowing with a drag chain from the end of the doubletree to the plow beam drag- ging back so as to have every plant dragged under the furrow, with harrowing to fill every crevice between the furrows will kill every plant that cannot get its leaves to the surface. THE CANADA THISTLE. BY L. H. PAMMEL. The writer annually receives many queries in regard to noxious weeds. Some have been described in previous bulletins of the experiment station and are referred to in foot note^ so that those who have kept the bulletins may refer to them. It is our intention to issue a bulle- tin containing a full account of the more important weeds farmers' friend 141 at some future time, as well as the germination of weed seeds. Many of the queries received pertain to the Canada Thistle {Cnicus arvensis). Frequently specimens ac- company the query so that we have been able to say whether the weed occurs. Some experiments were con- ducted last summer to determine whether the weed can be exterminated. The results of the experiment show that this weed can be exterminated. WHERE FOUND?— IN ALL THE WEST CENTRAL STATES. Description. Smooth perennial, spreading by creep- ing rootstocks, one to three feet high, corymbosely branched at the top; stems smooth; leaves lanceolate, sessile, and deeply pinnatifid, lobes and margins of the leaves with spiny teeth; heads small, three-fourths of an inch high, bracts appressed, the outer with a broad base, inner narrow, all with an acute tip, never spiny, some- what arachnoid ; flowers purple, dioecious in staminate flowers exserted with abortive pistils, in pistillate less so, scarcely exceeding the bracts, stamens with abortive anthers, tubes of the corolla six inches long, anther tips acute, filaments minutely pubescent, young achenium pubescent, all of the bristles of the pappus plumose. METHODS OF EXTERMINATION. Many methods have been suggested and tried. The following are usually recommended. To thoroughly cul- tivate the field or plow deep. Remove all the thistles and keep the thistles down during the summer. Prof. Beal recommends red clover in stamping it out. While this may help somewhat to hold the weed in check, it will not suffice to stamp it out. More vigorous methods must be pursued. Thorough cultivation and keeping the plants down is an excellent thing to do. In some cases failures are reported but these are due largely because the farmer tires out before the work is completed. Recently several reports^ have appeared on the chem- 142 _ l^AEMERS' FRIEND icar destruction of weeds. These substances are known as herbicides. Experimenters report chemical treat- ment a success. A good opportunity was offered to try the experiment since the yard of Prof. Noble on the college premises and the adjoining lot of Mr. Gray contained a vigorous, lusty growth of Canada thistles. Various treatments such as cultivation, and the use of salt failed to destroy the thistles. I therefore arranged with Prof. Noble to let two students, Mr. T. S. Hunt and Mr. E. A. Elder, try the chemical method, using crude carbolic acid in the following proportions : Carbolic acid 1 part. Water 4 parts. The solution was agitated to have a good mixture. It was found to be very essential to keep the acid and water thoroughly agitated in order to get an even dis- tribution. At first an ordinary garden sprinkler was used. All of the plants were sprinkled. This was found to be expensive, nor did it kill anything more than the tops of the plant. Later at the suggestion of Prof. Noble a small mechanic's oil can was used. It was found where the stems were touched with the solution the root- stocks were killed from a few to ten inches below the ground but below this i3oint they sprouted again in some cases. Generally however they did not sprout again. Where there are many plants this method is very labori- ous and costly. We tried therefore the spud method. The patch of thistles was in a blue grass lawn. The thistles were cut from six to eight inches below the ground. The thistles continued to ap- pear, largely because the ground was thickly cov- ered with the plants and they were not always detected. Early in June the whole patch was plowed, and as soon as the young- thistles appeared the carbolic acid solution was applied with the mechanic's oil can. The , dry weather helped to remove the thistles. Mr. Elder says in regard to the thistles in the yard adjoining that of FARMERS FRIEND 143 Prof. Noble, "The thistles in Mr. Gray's yard were allowed to become twelve inches high, when they were cut with a scythe. The number of shoots which appeared within two weeks was marvelous. The solution was ap- plied with the same effect as above. Three or possibly four applications usually cleared a given patch. An examination of the ground in September showed only a few thistles remaining, and these had been hidden by the grass in such a manner as to escape detection." Prof. Noble who has kept close watch of the thistles informs me that he has found but few this season and these were overlooked in the grass adjoining the plot. On June 25 the writer went over the patch which is now sown with oats and was able to see but a single Canada thistle; so we may conclude that this experiment was a success and that anyone who desires to have the Canada thistle removed can do so in this way. As to expense we used about two gallons of crude car- bolic acid, and the labor amounted to thirty hours at fifteen cents an hour, and the plowing seventy-five cents. We may conclude from this experiment that Canada thistles can be destroyed by methodic removal of the plants, and crude carbolic acid. , POISONING GOPHERS. Frequent inquiries are received asking how best to employ strychnine for poisoning gophers. The amount of damage to farm crops by these little pests is very great. It is estimated that in 1901 the damage to the alfalfa growers of Kansas from the rav- ages of the pocket gopher was $500,000. Grass, small grains, corn, vegetables, etc., suffer largely from go- phers. Their damage is of two-fold character in that they not only destroy the growing grain but throw up little mounds of dirt in the fields to interfere with cut- ting the crops. The gophers also tramp down and de- stroy each season a large amount of grain, and it may be safely said that in North Dakota, the damage to 144 farmers' friend farm crops in the aggregate is greater than the estimated damage to the alfalfa growers of Kansas. The early spring is the breeding season and gophers are very prolific, sometimes producing as many as ten or eleven young in a single litter; therefore, the de- struction of one female gopher, at this season means as much as many killed later in the season. Many complaints are made that strychnine does not seem to destroy many of the gophers, in some instances, where it has been employed. There may be two reasons for this. The strychnine is not soluable to any great extent, even in hot water, and gophers eat but little food at one time. To successfully destroy these pests the poison should be present in the food in considerable quantity and the strychnine should be soluable and in a form or mass acceptable to the animal to be poisoned. TO PREPARE STRYCHNINE POISON. Strychnine is readily soluable in hot acidulated water and we recommend the following method: Bring one quart of vinegar to boiling, add one ounce of strychnine, stir with a stick until fully dissolved and then add six quarts of hot water. Pour this on twenty pounds of wheat or corn and allow to stand for eighteen hours or until ithe solution is entirely absorbed, but the mass must be frequently stirred and vigorously so that it will become uniformly saturated with the poison. The grain should now be spread out to dry, where it cannot be reached by animals or children, for you have a highly poisonous grain. Now dissolve six pounds of sugar in six quarts of water and boil until one gallon remains and then allow to cool. When cold add one tablespoon of anis oil which can be secured at any drug store. You now have a thick syrup which should be poured over the nearly dry poisoned grain and the whole stirred so as to cover each grain with a layer of syrup. Allow the grain to thor- farmers' friend 145 ouglily dry, stirring so as to prevent its sticking in a mass. The odor of anis oil is very attractive to 'the go- pher and each kernel should contain enough poison to destroy one gopher. This sugar coated grain can be used at any time, but great care should be taken to pre- vent any possible poisoning of birds or animals. A little of this grain buried near each gopher burrow will be pretty sure to attract and destroy its victim. FEEDING VALUE OF POTATOES. The Michigan Experiment Station conducted an ex- periment in March, 1896, to ascertain whether the addi- tion of mangels or potatoes to a ration affect the digest- ibility of the other factors of a ration. The experiment covered fifty-two days. Mr. C. D, Smith, the agricul- turist, states that "the addition of either beets or pota- toes seemed to lessen perceptibly the digestibility of the dry matter (crude protein and crude fat) of the grain and coarse feed". In another test of the effect of feeding potatoes upon the quality of butter it appeared to give the butter an undue hardness, elevated the melting point, caused the cream to froth arid to churn with difficulty, and hence was unsatisfactory. With pork selling at $3.80, potatoes fed to hogs were worth 7.7 cents per bushel. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station, trials were made in feeding cooked potatoes, mixed with uncooked corn meal, fed in opposition to uncooked corn meal only, to fattening pigs. In the first trial there were three pigs in each lot and two in the second, the trials extending over a period of forty-five days. Combining these trials it is found that 441 pounds of potatoes are required to save 100 pounds of corn meal. Prof. W. A. Henry, the experimenter, says "in general, we may say that a bushel of corn is worth 4^ bushels of potatoes for fattening purposes when cooked and fed with corn meal". 146 farmers' friend POTATO SCAB. Cut one shows a potato grown from a scabby seed potato not treated to a solution of corrosive sublimate. Cut two shows a potato grown from a scabby seed po- tato that was treated with corrosive sublimate. Cut three shows the potatoes raised on one row where no care was taken in selecting the seed. Cut four shows the potatoes raised on one row of equal length and side by side with number three. It pays to select your seed potatoes at time of digging. You should take potatoes only from hills where the po- tatoes are large and yield well. HOW TO PREVENT POTATOE SCAB. The potato should be treated before cutting. Soak the seed tubers one and one-half hours in a solution of cori'osive sublimate made at the rate of one ounce of powdered corrosive sublimate to six gallons of water, or in a solution of formaldehyde made at the rate of one pound to thirty gallons of water. Then cut as usual. TREATMENT OF BLIGHT, POTATO ROT, ETC. These diseases spread from vine to vine in the field and in a wet season destroy from one-tenth to one-half of the crop on tjhe old lands of the Red River Valley. The vines should be sprayed just before the blossom stage, or when about one-half grovm, with Bordeaux mixture and every two weeks thereafter during the grow- ing season. Paris green may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one-half pound to each fifty gal- lons. This will kill the bugs at the same time. The New York State Experiment Station sprayed a large crop seven times and after deducting all costs had a net gain of $48.75 per acre, over the untreated crop. The Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving four No. I No. 2 ^p/^mm No. 3 No. 4 farmers' friend 147 pounds of quick lime in a few gallons of water and six pounds of copper sulphate in another vessel of water. When all is well in solution, strain each and mix to- gether adding enough water to make fifty gallons in all. Keep this solution thoroughly agitated while it is being sprayed upon the vines. "NOVELTIES" IN POTATOES. Do not pay high prices for a few pounds of tubers of some new potato that may have many claims in its favor unless you are sure of its excellence, and even then it would be well to wait until it has been given a test for several years, as many varieties may be unreliable in some sections. Novelties in seeds, fruits and vegetables are brought out every year, but they sometimes happen to be old varieties with new names. They spring into existence as novelties one year and sink out of sight in two or three seasons. CLOVER AS A FERTILIZER. (Mirror and Farmer.) This subject has been widely discussed, and while it is universally admitted that great value attaches to clover as a fertilizer, there is considerable difference of opinion as to how the best results may be brought about. Some hold that the crop, being diennial, should have full possession of the ground until the second year when in full bloom, but the crop is so valuable for feed that most farmers will be loth to do it. The plowing under of the second crop is, however, considered almost as beneficial, owing to the increase in the length of the roots. There is great value from the roots of clover. Prof. Roberts, of Cornell University, had a portion of a clover crop analyzed, roots and all, and after drying it until the roots contained only ten per cent, of water, and the stalks but eleven and one-half per cent., the tops or stalks on an acre weighed 3,295 pounds, while the roots on an acre weighed 4,893 pounds. Other advantages also 148 farmers' friend come from letting the roots grow long; they penetrate the sub-soil and carry into it elements which release and util- ize plant food which would otherwise lie dormant; they also smother the weeds. BUMBLE BEES AND CLOVER. An Indiana farmer, who told his boys to burn every bumble-bee's nest they found on the farm, and who was complaining at the failure of his clover seed crop, was surprised when Maurice Thompson, the naturalist, said, ''That is why your clover seed fails you. Bumble-bees make your clover seed. ' ' It is a fact that a strong nest of bumble-bees in a big clover field is worth $20 to the owner; for these insects are the chief agents in f utiliz- ing thx! i)Iossoms, thereby insuring a heavy crop of seed. In Austi-alia there are no bumble-bees of our kind, and they could not raise clover seed there until they imported some. HOW TO FERTILIZE WITH CLOVER. It has been, since the days of Cicero, an agricultural axiom, that "feeding cattle is the most important part of agriculture", and feeding cattle has been the support of agriculture. To sell clover hay, or any hay, or even straw, has been considered very poor and wasteful farm- ing, and if we go to the best farming localities — eastern Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New Jersey, parts of Mary- land, and central and western New York — we shall find the reverse of this practice is the very basis of the excel- lent condition of the farms and of the wealth of the far- mers. Rightly managed, clover hay is worth $10 a ton to feed to stock for direct profit, and Dr. Lawes avers that the manure left from it is worth $10 dollars more. If a farmer cannot make $10 out of a ton of clover hay fed to cows in a winter dairy, or to keep cattle along with a proper ration of other feed, he is not worthy the name of a skillful farmer. And if a farmer wastes his re- FARMERS' FRIEND 149 sources and cannot turn a crop of clover to a better pur- pose than to turn it under and let liis land lie idle for two years, lie is not a fit person to teach other farmers their business. The business of a farmer is to raise crops, to feed them to stock, and to turn the raw mater- ials he produces, so far as possible, into finished products. To raise crops and to turn them under for manure, in- stead of feeding them and making manure, is to go back instead of forward. — Cor. Netv York Tribune. THE MAN WHO MAKES MONEY. It is not from the extent of one's farm that money is made, but from the labor that is put upon it. All profit comes from labor. Even a gold mine is valueless without labor. But labor, unaided by intelligence, is of little value. True, ''the hand of the diligent maketh rich", but diligence involves intelligence, and this is obtained by industry; by reading and study; by observation and experiment, and by aptness to learn. One man thus equipped will make more off a farm of 100 acres than another can off one of 1000. — Rural World. EX-FARMEES. We have watched with a good deal of interest the career of well-to-do-farmers who have been elected to county offices. They in general make good officers and do well until after their second term. Then the question arises, Shall I go back to the farm, or continue to live in town? Now and then we find one goes back to the farm, the wiser and better man from having had the experience in public life that the office gave him. For the most part however, they remain in the town. They drift into land offices or insurances agencies, occasionally into merchan- dising, but is it seldom the}^ are as well off in ten years as if they had remained on the farm. Generally they develop, if they do not return to the farm, an aptitude for machine politics. They are always farmers, even if they have not touched a plow for ten years, and parade themselves as the genuine friends of 150 farmers' friend the "honest sons of toil", and on this ground claim the right to lead and direct agricultural opinion. Although they have long ceased to look at public questions from the standpoint of the farm, they produce the annual crop of hay seed and boast their ability to serve the farmer. They form naturally the very best medium through which the party bosses can manipulate the farmer. There is an immense amount of rot and rubbish in this cant about "farmers friends" etc. The friend of the farmer is the man whose main financial interests are in the farm, who studies the social and political questions from the standpoint of the farm, who can suggest the means of advancing the agricultural interests and who does this without any ulterior object of gaining their votes. About the last man to trust is the fellow who has left the farm years ago, has lost its habits, tastes and instincts, and has no visible interest in it, and who is always putting himself forward as the friend of the farmer. This class of farmers will bear close watchingo DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The progress that a nation is making can with reason- able accuracy be measured by the kind of live stock it raises. The general rule is, poor stock, poor people. All the prosperous nations of the globe, especially the grain- growing nations, get a large share of their wealth by rais- ing improved stock. The stock bred by these nations is now, however, very different from the stock raised by the same nations years ago. As soon as man began to pro- gress in the art of agriculture he became dissatisfied with inferior stock. He therefore bent his energies to raise the standard of excellence in domestic animals. By slow stages of animal improvement the angular, thin-flanked wild boar of early times has been trans- formed into the sleek Berkshire or the well-rounded Poland China. In the same manner the wild sheep of the Old World have been developed into wool and mutton breeds of the finest excellence. By constant care, attention, and selection, the thin, leggy wild ox has been FARMEIIS' FRIEND 153 bred into bounteous milk-producing Jerseys and Hol- steins or into Shorthorn mountains of flesh. From the small, bony, coarse and shaggy horse of ancient times has descended the ponderous Norman draft horse and the fleet Arab courser. The matter of meat production is one of vital im- portance to man, for animal food must always supply a large part of man's ration. Live stock of various kinds consume the coarser foods, like the grasses, hays 'and grains, which man cannot use. As a result of this consumption they store in their bodies the exact substances required for the building up of the tissues of man's body. When the animal is used by man for food, one class of foods stored away in the animal body produces muscle; another produces fat, heat, and energ}^ The food fur- nished by the slaughter of animals seems necessary to the full development of man. It is true that the flesh of an animal will not support human life as long as would the grain that the animal ate while growing, but it is also true that animal food does not require so much of man's force to digest it. Hence by the use of meat a part of man's life struggle is forced upon the lower animal. When men feed grain to stock, they receive in return power and food in their most available forms. Men strengthen the animal that they themselves may be strengthened. One of the great questions, then, for the stock grower's consideration is how to make the least amount of food fed to animals produce the most power and flesh. HOW TO BREED AND CARE FOR HORSES. Wliile we have a great many kinds of horses in America, horses are not natives of this country. Just where wild horses were first tamed and used is not def- initely known. It is believed that th6y were first used for warfare and then gradually bried and adapted to other purposes. Where food was abundant and nutritious and climate mild and healthful, the early horses developed large 154 farmers' friend frames and heavy limbs and muscles ; on tlie other hand, where food was scarce and climate cold and bleak, the animals became as dwarfed as the ponies of the Shetland Islands. One of the first recorded uses of the horse is found in Genesis, chapter xlix, verse 17, where Jacob speaks of "an adder that biteth the horse heels". Pharaoh took *'six hundred chosen chariots" and "with all the horses and chariots" pursued the Israelites. The Greeks at first drove the horse fastened to a rude chariot, and later found that they could manage the animal while on its back, with voice or switch and without either saddle or bridle. This ingenious people soon invented the snaffle bit, and both rode and drove with its aid. The curb bit was a Roman invention. Shoeing was not practiced by either Greek or Roman. Saddles and harness were some- times made of skin and sometimes of cloth. Among the tartars of middle and northen Asia, and also among some other nations, mare's milk and the flesh of the horse are used for food. Old and otherwise worth- less horses are regularly fattened for the meat markets of France and Germany. Various uses are made of the dif- ferent parts of a horse's body. The mane and tail are used in the manufacture of mattresses, and the same parts furnish a hair-cloth for upholstering; the skin is tanned into leather ; the hoofs are used for glue, and the bones for making fertilizer. Climate, food, and natural surroundings have all aided in producing changes in the horse's form, size and ap- pearance. The varying circumstances under which horses have been raised have originated the different breeds. In addition, the master's selection had much to do in developing the type of horses wanted : some desired work horses, and they kept the heavy, muscular, stout- limbed animals ; others desired riding and driving horses, so they saved for their use the light-limbed, angular horses that had endurance and stamina. The following table gives some of the diffent breeds and the places of their development: No. 2. Clydesdale Stallion Refiner, Glasgow, Scotland, Toronto, Canada, International Live Stock Show, Chicago, 1905 Owned by State College of Iowa. No. 3. Etradegant, Champion Percheron Stallion, Des Moines, Iowa, Kansas City and Chicago, 1906. Owned by State Agricultural College of Iowa. farmers' friend 157 I. Draft, or Heavy, Breeds. 1. Percheron, from the province of Perche in France. 2. French Draft, developed in France. 3. Belgian Draft, developed by Belgian farmers. 4. iClydesdale, the draft horse of Scotland. 5. Suffolk Punch, from the eastern part of England. 6. English Shire, also from the eastern part of England. II. Carriage or Coach Breeds, 1. Cleveland Bay, developed in England. 2. French Coach, the gen(tleman's horse of France. 3. German Coach, from Germany. 4. Oldenbury Coach, Oldenbury, Germany. 5. Hackney, the English high-stepper. III. Light or Roadster Breeds. 1. American Trotter, developed in America. 2. 'The Thoroughbred, the English running horse. 3. The American Saddle Horse, from Kentucky and Virginia. Therp is a marked difference in the form and type of these horses, and on this difference their usefulness de- pends. The draft breeds have short legs, and hence their bodies are comparatively close to the ground. The depth of the body should be about the same as the length of leg. All draft horses should have upright shoulders, so as to provide an easy support for the collar. The hock should be wide, so that the animal shall have great leverage of muscle for pulling. A horse having a narrow hock is not able to draw a heavy load, is easily exhausted, and liable to curb diseases. The legs of all kinds of horses should be straight: a line dropped from the point of the shoulder to the ground should divide the knees, canon, fetlock, and foot in two equal parts. AVhen the animal is formed in this way, the feet have room to be straight and square, with just the breadth of a hoof between them. The roadsters are lighter in bone and less heavily 158 farmers' friend muscled; their legs are longer than those of the draft horses, and, as horsemen say, more ''daylight" can be seen under the body. The neck is long and thin, but fits nicely into tlie shoulders. The shoulders are sloping and long, and give the roadster ability to reach well out in his stride. The head is set gracefully on the neck, and should be carried with ease and erectness. Every man who is to deal with horses ought to become, by observation and study, an expert judge of forms, quali- ties, types, defects and excellences. The horse's foot makes an interesting study. The horny outside protects the foot from mud, ice, and stones.' Inside the hoof are the bones and gristle that serve as cushions to diminish the shock received while walking or running on hard roads or streets. When shoeing the horse, the frog should not be touched with the knife. It is very seldom that any cutting need be done. Many blacksmiths do not know this, and often greatly injure the foot. Since the horse has but a small stomach, the food given the animal should not be too bulky. In proportion to its size, its grain ration should be larger than that of other animals. Draft horses and mules, however, can be fed a more bulky ration than other horses, because they have larger stomachs and hence greater storage capacity. The horse should be groomed every day. Tliis keeps the pores of the skin open and the hair bright and glossy. When horses are working hard, the harness should be removed during the noon hour. During the cool seasons of the year, whenever a horse is wet with perspiration, it should on stopping work, or when standing for a while, be blanketed; for the animal is as liable as man to get cold in a draught, or from too rapid evaporation. (1). A person cannot practice veterinary medicine or surgery in Iowa without being registered by the state board of veterinary medical examiners, and receiving a certificate signed by the memebrs of the board. A diploma from a correspondence school in Canada would FARMEKS' FRIEND 159 not answer. (2) A certificate from the state board is absolutely necessary. In order to obtain such a certifi- cate, a person must now be a graduate of a legally chartered and recognized veterinary college, and also pass the examination required by the board. BOTS.— THE CORRECT TREATMENT. Many wrong ideas prevail in reference to bots. All horses that are exposed to the bot-fly, must have bots more or less in their stomachs. Dr. Adams made the following experiment: Bots, when taken from the stomach alive, will live In strong rum, 25 hours. In strong decoction of tobacco, 11 hours. In strong oil of vitriol, 2 hours and 18 minutes. In essential oil of mint, 2 hours and 5 minutes. They will live without apparent injury in spirits of camphor 10 hours, fish oil 49 hours, tincture aloes 10 hours, in brine 10 hours. Common-sense consequently teaches us that there is no medical remedy that will effect a cure for the bots, and there is no practicing veterinary surgeon who can tell the difference between bots and colic. Do not be misled. For colic or the bots give the following prescription : 6 ounces of whiskey, 7 ounces of new milk. Give at one time. If not relieved repeat the dose in 30 minutes. If the above remedy cures the horse, the disease is colic and not bots. For bots give slippery elm tea, or potato juice. This will feed and quiet them, but they cannot be destroyed. FOUNDER. Cause. — Founder is produced by hard driving on a full Stomach, and drinking large quantities of cold water when heated, or by eating large quantities of green feed, or over-eating grain or large quantities of ground feed. 160 farmers' friend Symptoms. — Stiffness and a disinclination to move. The limbs appear stift'ened and benumbed. A restless- ness shown by the continual looking around, tenderness of the bowels on pressure by the hand. Treatment. — Give one quart of linseed oil and bathe the legs with hot water. Bleeding is also recommended. A few hours after giving the linseed oil give the follow- ing prescription once a day, until cured : Spirits of turpentine, 1 ounce, Oil of sassafras, lounce. Alum, powdered, 1 ounce. Warm water, 1 pint. Mix and give as a drench. Large doses of aloes may be given, instead of the above prescription, with very beneficial results. HOW TO CURE THE COLIC IN HORSES. Symptoms. — Sleepy look; at times very fidgety; paw- ing with one foot; caution in lying down; breathing la- bored; walking gives relief; legs and ears natural tem- perature. A HOME REMEDY. Two common tablespoonfuls (not heaping) or salera- tus mixed with 1| pints of sweet milk. Give in one dose. ANOTHER REMEDY. Take 1 pint of whiskey and add 3 tablespoonfuls of common gunpowder. Give in one dose. If not better in an hour, repeat the dose, and give a pint of raw linseed oil. The following is an excellent remedy for any form of colic, and should always be kept on hand. It should be given as soon as possible. If the dose does not relieve, follow it in half an hour with another : FAKMERS' FRIEND 161 Chloroform, 1 ounce, Laudanum, 1 ounce. Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce, Linseed oil, 8 ounces. LOCK-JAW. This is a very serious disease and cannot receive atten- tion too promptly. Cause. — Exposure to cold, standing in the rain, hard driving, then suddenly cooling, fatigue and hunger, inju- ries, cuts, bruises, driving of nails in sensative parts of the foot, in shoeing, etc. Symptoms. — Stiffness, straggling gait, stiffness of the jaws, swollen tongue, flowing of saliva from the mouth and a flickering motion of the eyes. Treatment. — If possible, give by the mouth one ounce of aloes and 2 drachms of calomel. Give injections of belladonna, half an ounce dissolved in a pail of water. Give upon the tongue every hour, twenty drops of the following mixture : 1 ounce of dilute hydrocyanic acid, 1 ounce of the tincture of aconite. Mix, and shake well together. WIND-GALLS. Wind-galls may be cured by tying on tightly a pad and bandage and leaVtng it on about two hours a day, morn- ing and evening. They will usually disappear in the course of a week or two. Sometimes, however, it may take four or five weeks. ANOTHER METHOD. Draw the liquid out through the nozzle of a hypoder- mic syringe and apply a wet bandage. Wind-galls may be also removed by applying a strong solution of oak- bark and alum. 162 farmers' friend HIDEBOUND. Cause. — Hard work, neglect, and exposure. Symptoms. — The skin sticks very close to the ribs and appears immovable. Treatment. — To remove the cause is the ifirst step necessary to be taken. The following receipt will cure most cases: 2 ounces of anise seeds, in powder, 2 ounces of ginger, in powder, 1 ounce of grains of paradise, 2 ounces of mustard, 2 ounces of turmeric. All to be powdered, and to be given in warm water, fasting, and to fast two hours after. Bleeding, tipping and physic are also good remedies. A CURE FOR THE CURB. Apply the following receipt morning and evening: Pulv. canitharides, 1 ounce, Citrine ointment, 4 ounces, Olive oil, 1 ounce. HOW TO CURE A FISTULA. This disease is the same as Poll Evil, but instead of being on top of the head it is located along the raised part of the back and over the shoulders, known as with- ers. It is due to some violence or bruise. Treatment. — Open it freely; when the bleeding has subsided, syringe it out with a ten per cent solution of corrosive sublimate. Get a druggist to prepare the solu- tion, and use it carefully, it being poisonous. After springing it out rub well in over a large surface around the sore one ounce of cerate of cantharides. Clip off the hair and clean the skin well before applying it. After 24 hours grease it. After four days wash it and syringe it out again as before, and again after another week. If farmers' friend 163 this does not cure it, repeat the whole course as soon as the scabs of the blister come off. FOR SORE MOUTH. Borax, 2 drachms, Alum, y-2 ounce, Vinegar, 1 pint, Soft water, 1 pint. Shake well and wash the mouth every evening and morning. Feed little hay and feed a pint of flax-seed once a day until well. FOR HARNESS AND SADDLE GALLS. Wash the sore parts thoroughly with castile soap and warm water every evening. Then apply a solution of common salt and sugar of lead (equal parts) after each washing. AN EASY WAY TO CURE GLANDERS. 1 ounce of rock alum, 1 ounce of white vitriol. Powder these well and put them into a pint of warm vinegar, and syringe about one ounce up the nostrils every day. A CURE FOR SWOLLEN LEGS. Bandage the legs in cloths wrung from hot water and give one pint of linseed oil and one pint of sassafras tea. Keep the leg bandaged for a few days, wringing out and applying cloths in hot water, whenever convenient. Make a strong tea of equal parts of mullein leaves, mayapple roots, and poke roots, and add two handfuls of salt. Apply as hot as the horse can bear. 164 farmers' friend HOW TO MAKE OINTMENT FOR HORSES. Cracked Hoof Ointment. — Tar and tallow, equal parts nielted together. For Grease. — Mix four ounces lard with one ounce white lead. Heel Ointment. To the Cracked Hoof Ointment add 3 ounces of verdigris to each pound. For Mange. — Soft soap, oil of turpentine lard, and flower of sulphur, 4 ounces each, mix well. HOW TO DESTROY MITES THAT INFEST THE HORSE. 1. Mites are animal parasites that burrow in the skin, and under favorable conditions they can be transmitted to the mule or even to man, and may live indefinitely on the human skin. It can only be detected by a strong magnifying glass, moving among the scurf or scab of the infected skin. The mite burrows little galleries in and beneath the scurf of the skin, where it hides and lays its eggs and where its young are hatched. The mite is wonderfully prolific, la new generation of fifteen individuals being possible every fifteen days, so that in three months the offspring of a single pair may produce a generation of 1,500,000 mites. 2. Chicken lice often infest the skin of the horse. 3. There is a parasite that attacks the heel and lower parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, and may be present for years without extending upon the body. This parasite lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among the ■scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing of one leg with the other, and the formation of wounds, ulcerous sores and scabs. The intense itching will always ■suggest this parasite. General Treatment. — Take two ounces of tobacco and two ounces of water ; boil thoroughly and then apply to the skin after removing the scabs with a soft cloth or brush ; repeat this every fifteen days. Or take 1 drachm carbolic acid, 2^ ounces of water. Mix and apply until a cure is effected. , farmers' FRIEND 165 HOW TO STOP THE BLEEDING OF A HORSE OR OTHER ANIMALS FROM A WOUND, SNAG, CUT, or BARBED WIRE INJURY. Make an application of dry manure, and it will stop the bleeding of a wound at once. A CURE FOR THE ITCH, MANGE, ETC. Cause. — It is a contagious disease caused by insects burrowing in the skin. Symptoms. — Dirty and rusty color of the hair, skin covered with scales and dandruff, constant rubbing, and pimples about the head and neck and under the mane. The hair falls out and the skin is dry and hard. Treatment. — Wash the horse thoroughly all over with castile soap. Then apply the following mixture: 4 ounces of sulphur, 4 ounces of white copperas, 4 ounces of white hellebore root, in powder. Mix together in two quarts of buttermilk, and rub the affected parts freely. LOTION FOR MANGE. Boil two ounces tobacco in one quart water ; strain ; add sulphur and soft soap, each two ounces. HOW TO CURE CORNS IN HORSES. These are caused by that portion of the foot being bruised which is the sensitive part of the foot. Have the foot pared away so as to admit of the shoe being fitted to the foot so as to set easy. Do not draw too close with nails. Apply a caustic to the corn, and repeat as often as necessary, keeping the foot clean and soft by hoof ointments, and all will go well shortly. Caustic, muriatic acid, chloride of zinc — either applied, will have a tendency to effect a cure. 166 farmers' friend NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE EYE AND NOSE. The cause of this is neglect in distemper, or over-heat or cold; this is a white discharge from the nose, and is not contagious — and can be cured. Cure. — Stop working him — give of alum | pound, resin ^ pound, blue vitriol 4 pound ; grind and mix well with ^ pound of ginger ; give one large spoonful every night and morning — bleed one gallon. Keep him out of the wet, and do not work him. SPAVIN. ONLY SUCCESSFULL TREATMENT FOR SPAVIN. A SURE AND CERTAIN TEST FOR SPAVIN. Stand close to the side of the hind foot, face backwards, place the hand that is next the horse on and above the hock joint behind, as shown by our engraving; lean your weight on this hand, while you bend over and behind the horse's leg and examine the hock on the inside from above and behind, leaving your other hand free to examine and press the inside of the hock with thumb and finger, to detect any tender spot, bony enlargement, inflammation or heat. Many horses will flinch at having their hocks thus examined, but do not mistake this for tenderness. See if there is not some particular spot that is tender and hot, with a slight enlargement. It is always best to have some person hold up the fore leg of the horse on the side you are examining, to avoid danger. This exami- nation must not be hasty or rough. WHAT CAN BE DONE FOR SPAVIN. If the horse is not lame, and the lump does not increase, better not try any active treatment, or it may bring on increased action and prove more serious. If it is situated high up, and a bony deposit already taken place, the joint is incurably affected. You may burn, blister, punch, or even chisel the bunch off, but you can never restore the FARMEr^S' FRIEND 167 delicate membranes and cartilages which have become bone, to their former state. The bunch may often be re- moved so that, to all appearance of the eye, the horse is sound unless tested for it. THE MOST SUCCESSFUL MODE OF CUEING IT. On the first appearance of the inflammation which produces the spavin, certain means can be adopted which will produce a cure. It generally takes about three weeks for a spavin to develop, and the spot to become tender to pressure, and in a short time after, the spavin will be apparent to an experienced eye. During these weeks is the time to treat it, for this is the curable stage, and the destruction of the joint avoided. The first step is good food and perfect rest in the stable, with no driving of any kind. Tlie next step is to reduce inflammation. This can be done by keeping the joint wrapped with a few thicknesses of cloth, or a sponge applied, and kept wet with water, or the following lotion : — Sugar of Lead, 2 ounces, Acetic Acid, 4 ounces. Water, 1 quart. — Mix. As soon as the inflammation lias gone, apply a portion of the following blister, made as follows, and repeat it two or three times as may be necessary, at intervals of two or three weeks. When the parts have recovered from the effects of blistering, a run at pasture for six or eight weeks will be very desirable treatment : — Biniodide of Mercury, 2 drachms, Powdered Cantharides, 1 drachm, Fresh Lard, 2 ounces. — Mix. The above should be thoroughly rubbed in. as its object is to stimulate absorption of the spavin. It will check all further growth, and render any increase in size- im- possible. Give internally, for three months, one drachm of iodide of potassium in a mash, daily. A WARNING ABOUT TREATING SPAVINS. i' It will be well for owners of horses to remember that 168 farmers' friend the bunch that shows on the inside of the hock, is merely the outward symptom of the disease, while the real seat of the trouble is deep within, and the taking off the bunch in an old case, will not cure the spavin, but may make a bad matter worse. Firing or actual cautery is an ex- cellent method of treatment, but it takes good judgment and experience to do it properly. We give an article on how to fire properly, in another part of this work, which can be consulted. CURB. WHAT ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE, It consists of an enlargement, or a gradual bulging out of the rear part of the hock, which is caused by an injury to the tendon of that part. It is easily detected. ITS TREATMENT, AND HOW TO SHOE. If the curb has recently appeared, have the heel of the shoe made a little thicker than those in ordinary use. Fomentations should be applied, with a view of reducing the inflammation, and afterwards hand-rubbing may be employed, in order to promote the action of the absorb- ents of the parts, and stimulate them to remove swelling. It is never advisable to resort to any severe treatment in the first instance; but if the lameness recurs, as is occasionally the case when the animal is put to work, it will be advisable to apply a blister to the part, which may be prepared as follows : — Biniodide of Mercury, 1 dirachm, Fresh Lard, 4 tablespoonfuls. — ^Mix. Apply every night until a watery discharge exudes through the pores of the skin; foment twice a day with warm water; continue bathing for two weeks. When a young horse throws out a curb, absolute and long-con- tinued rest are imperatively demanded ; in an old horse such is not the case, unless to a limited extent. Do not work the horse for four or five months, at least. The farmers' friend 169 high-heeled shoe should be kept on for some time after the animal recovers from the lameness, and when any change is made it must be done very gradually ; otherwise the animal will be liable to renew the injury. RINGBONE. WHAT IT IS AND ITS DIFFERENT EFFECTS. Ringbone, splint and bone spavin all resemble each other in character, being a bony deposit or enlargement, differing only in location. The disease may affect the large pastern bone, the small pastern bone, the lower pastern joint, the joint between the small pastern and bone of the foot, or any two or all of them. It may entirely lock the joint, making it immovable ; it may ex- tend almost entirely around the part, or merely be a small enlargement in front. Sometimes the rear portions of the joint only are affected, the front being free. When the sides only are affected, it is not so serious. Ring- bone, which affects the small pastern and coffin bone, is the most difficult to treat. Its size is no criterion as to the amount of lameness. The enlargement is not the disease, but an effort of nature to strengthen a part naturally weak, or that has been injured by working the animal before the bones are matured. It will thus be seen that it is of serious or minor importance, according to location, size, etc. We give an illustration of a case which involves all the bones. The joint at figure 1 is still capable of some motion, but the coffin joint at figure 2 is immovably locked. MANY CAUSES OF RINGBONE. It is a peculiarity of ligaments, membranes, etc., on o^~ near any joint, when injured and inflamed, that they are liable to produce an ossification or formation of spongj^ bone, which attaches itself immovably to the bone or joint proper. A severe strain inflames the joint, inflam- mation ensues, and lymph is secreted. This is gradually changed into porous bone, and a ringbone is the conse- quence. There is no doubt but what it is inherited to a 170 farmers' friend certain extent. That is, the colts of a ringboned sire are very sure to become ringboned at an early age. We know of one breeder of fancy trotting stock who made a com- plete failure from the fact that his colts, sired by a speedy yet ringboned stallion, all became more or less ringboned at an early age and were valueless. THE PROPER AND BEST ■.•.•REi^TMENT OF IT. The first thing to do in the commencement of a ring- bone, is to allay the inflammation and prevent any further secretion of lymph in the part. Apply cloths to the sur- face, which must be kept constantly wet with the follow- ing lotion : — Sugar of Lead, 2 fluid ounces, Acetic Acid, 4 fluid ounces, Water, 1 quart. — Mix. After the inflammation and pain has subsided, apply on and around the margins of the ringbone, with smart friction, some of the following blister: — Biniodide of Mercury, 2 drachms, Ijard, 4 tablespoonfuls. — [Mix. As soon as blister subsides, apply again. Continue the treatment for at least two weeks. If the opening is not large enough to allow the particles of bone to escape, it must be enlarged by the knife, and in some instances the forceps must be used to remove the dead bone. The lotion should be continued until healed. LAMPAS. A BARBAROUS PRACTICE. This is a favorite disease with some stablemen, who are never so happy as when showing their skill in operating with a hot iron on the tender bars of the horse's mouth. If a young horse is "off his feed", a hot iron is their panacea. WHAT THE DISEASE IS. If affects young horses before they have their full com- FARMEES' FRIEND 171 plement of teeth. Young horses changed from pasture to dry, hard food in the stable, will be troubled with it. The bars of the roof of the mouth slightly inflame and the horse fails to eat his food. ITS SIMPLE TREATMENT. Now, knowing its cause, how easy to cure. Merely give soft food, consisting of bran mashes to keep the bowels open, soaked or scalded oats, boiled roots, etc., for a few days, and the trouble will disappear. We positively assert that no other remedies need be used. In case of loss of appetite take : — Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, 2 ounces, Sulphate of Soda, 8 ounces. Powdered Gentian, 4 ounces. Powdered Linseed, 2 ounces, Spring Water, as much as sufficient to make an electuary. Of this give two tablespoonfuls thrice a day, smearing upon the root of the tongue with a ladle. don't burn THE HORSE 's MOUTH. It ruins the delicate sensitiveness to the touch of the reins so necessary in a pleasant, well-broke roadster. It often destroys the palate and makes the horse a confirmed "wheezer". Of all practices descended from the dark ages, this is the worst. If humanity will not check you, remember you are taking money from your pocket in lessening the value of the horse. BAD TEETH. HOW THEY AFFECT A HORSE. Sometimes a molar tooth projects up into a vacancy in the upper jaw, caused by the loss of a tooth, and having nothing to keep it worn down, finally pierces the gum of the jaw. It makes it difficult for the horse to eat, and he will sometimes throw out a mouthful after it has been partially masticated. It may so affect the face and jaw as to cause nasal gleet. In some cases the molars are worn off by uneven action, 172 FARMEES^ FRIEND to a knife-like edge, and wound the sides of the mouth as well as the hand when introducing a ball. These troubles can be relieved by an operation performed with a tooth rasp. For any wounds, the chloride of zinc lotion for ' 'injuries to the mouth", will be all that is necessary. Bad teeth are often an unsuspected cause of in- digestion and other troubles which puzzle the owner. WOLF TEETH. Many people imagine that "wolf teeth", as they are called, by some mysterious means, reach up to the eye and affect it in some manner, and many other ridiculous fancies. They are merely superfluous teeth. The idea that they are injurious has become so firmly engrafted on the public mind, that it is almost impossible to eradi- cate it. In the great majority of cases, horses affected suffer from recurrent ophthalmia, the teeth having noth- ing to do with the causation of same. COMMON COLD. DESCRIPTION OF THIS AILMENT. It is caused by exposure and neglect, after which the horse is dull, the coat rough, the body of unequal tempera- ture, in parts hot, and in others icy cold. Often tears trickle from the eyes, which may be slightly inflamed. At length a copious discharge flows from the nostrils. WHAT TO DO IN THIS CASE. Blanket the horse warmly, and if possible, steam the nose. The ordinary feed nose-bag is too short, but a substitute can be made from the ordinary two bushel bag, by attach- ing straps to its mouth to go over the head. Put a peck of bran and a handful of hops in the bottom of the bag and pour on the following mixture : Spirits of turpentine, two tablespoonfuls, solution of carbolic acid, two table- spoonfuls. farmers' friend 173 SURE AND SAFE CURE FOR LICE UPON COLTS, HORSES, CATTLE AND HOGS. Powdered Aloes sprinkled by means of spice box or pepper box. It should be freely applied as it is to be used in a dry state. Its application is as safe in cold as in warm weather. Other remedies that are just as effective are given in another place in this book but are intended to be applied only in warm weather. ANOTHER remedy. It is evidence of bad care for any man to allow calves or colts to become lousy. (I wish to save my own reputa- tion by saying that such a thing has scarcely ever happened to my stock, albeit I confess that I am rather a slack-twisted farmer.) But here is the remedy: Put a blanket over the animal and then blow thick clouds of tobacco smoke under it. This may best be done from a common bee-smoker, or one can be easily and simply made. This will kill every louse and every nit and the fumigation will not injure the animal. "Follow up the treatment," as the doctors say, with good care, cleanli- ness, etc. I saw some fine Berkshires at the late State Fair, which were very lousy, though the owners did not probably know it. An approved remedy is mercurial ointment — diluted with lard — and then better care of the swine. A SURE CURE FOR STOPPAGE OF THE BOWELS. Take two quarts of soft and fresh horse manure, add one quart of boiling water, strain through a common cloth strainer; give one pint as a drench. This will cure all ordinary stoppages of the bowels. In case the bowels are paralized there is no cure and any servere medicine would only hasten the death of the animal. TREATMENT FOR LAZY HORSES. Some horses are naturally lazy, but we believe it a man's own fault if he is annoyed with the slothfulness of his team while at work. The yelling and whipping that 174 farmers' friend it takes to urge some teams to move even at a moderate gait is quite trying on the constitution. A steady lash- ing of the whip is sometimes resorted to for the treat- ment of such horses, which to say the least is a cruel treatment, and seldom has the desired effect. The horse that has acquired a lazy habit, and is used to being drub- bed all day, becomes so inured to the treatment that il has but little or no effect upon him. Perhaps the most successful way to break up this slothful habit, for it is a habit more than anything else, is to undertake it with a view to breaking it up thoroughly, the same as you would rid a horse of any other acquired vice. A few lessons in a wagon or breaking cart would be all that would be needed, provided they were of the right kind. The treat- ment would neccessarily be severe, for in all probability the habit was formed on account of the kind and gentle treatment of some former master. A severe application of the whip may be necessary at first, and perhaps for 'Some time, but if each touch of the whip is accompanied by some word that is used afterward when prompting a horse to more rapid action, the use of the whip can soon be dispensed with. A half dozen lessons of the proper kind should suffice for the laziest horse, if they are prop- erly administered. By using certain words when a quick move is required, and using them only at the time such action is wanted, first accompanying their use with a cut or a crack of the whip, a horse will soon act as promptly at the sound of these words as he will if struck with the whip. Prompt, positive action on the part of the driver has much to do with the action of a team, and lazy men are often responsible for lazy horses. A HALF DOZEN WAYS TO TREAT BALKY HORSES. The following different ways of treating balky horses are recommended : First, pat the horse on the neck, ex- amine him carefully, first one side and then the other ; if you can get him a handful of grass give it to him and speak encouragingly to him ,then jump into the wagon and give the word go, and he will generally obey. Second, taking FARMERS FRIEND 175 the horse out of the shafts and turning him around in a circle until he is giddy, will generally start him. Third, another way to cure a balky horse is, place your hand over his nose and shut off his wind until he wants to go. Fourth, then again take a couple of turns of stout twine around the forelegs just below the knee, tight enough for the horse to feel it ; tie in a bow knot ; at the first click he will probably go dancing off. After going a short dis- tance you can get out and remove the string to prevent injury to the tendons. Fifth, again try the following: Take the tail of the horse between the hind legs and tie by a cord to the saddle girth. Sixth, the last remedy I know is as follows: Tie a string around the horse's ear close to the head; this will divert his attention and start him. — North British Agriculturist. The worst way is to get angry and swpar at him. THE HORSE EPIZOOTIC. (ByWm. Home, V. S.) This disease has manifested itself in most of the towns and cities of the Northwest. The present state of the weather is very favorable indeed, and will largely help to modify the attack. Should the weather change to wet and cold the conditions will be vastly different, and we may then expect a persistent attack of influenza. Should the weather so change, every precaution must be taken to preserve all the vitality by every possible device. Warm clothing, little or no work, good warm stables, with a good supply of pure air, are all indispensable. Under no cir- cumstances should those depleting measures be resorted to, which were so disastrous in 1872. My firm conviction is that hundreds of horses were murdered outright by debilitating and exhausting nostrums and practices. I •saw hundreds of horses in Chicago which were nearly blistered to death. Many of them did die. In one stable alone, I used to see daily over 60 animals which had been thus tortured and destroyed, and that too by one who assumed to be a veterinarian. In many cases medication is absolutely necessary. In the majority of cases medicines are not, but every remedy 176 FAEMERS' FRIEND wMch will hold up and brace up the vital functions should be resorted to. One of the simplest and best is a strong decoction of caraway seeds. To one pint of this add half an ounce of tincture of ginger and four ounces of good whisky (pure brandy is better). Give twice a day, if much dejection and weakness be present. This will be very good at almost any time. Or simple stimulants may be given without fear of doing wrong, but with every reasonable hope of doing much good. Everything which has a tendency to exhaust the system will surely do harm. Everything which has a tendency to stimulate and build up the system will most assuredly do good. COLIC IN HORSES. One cause of colic in horses is giving cold water while they are sweating ; another allowing the horse to drink a large quantity of water after a heavy feed and then driv- ing at a fast speed, or again permitting it to draw a heavy load under similar circumstances. Another cause of colic is feeding the horse grain when very hungry. This ani- mal generally eats very fast when hungry, and a large portion of grain thus passes into the stomach without being masticated, and finds its way into the intestines, where it swells and ferments. When a horse has traveled a long journey, it is best to give it a little hay before it is fed grain. Youatt says: ^'Some of the oats are imper- fectly chewed by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones." Careful attention to the feeding and working of horses would save them from many diseases with which they are now liable to be attacked. It is poor economy to feed grain to horses which they do not masti- cate, if no other evils attended it, for it is only the thor- oughly masticated food which renews the energies wasted by labor. In England, horsemen are rolling oats in order to insure their mastication. New oats should not be fed to hard-worked horses, nor old musty ones; the latter should be kiln-dried before being fed. "When a horse has the colic give him perhaps two table- spoonfuls of spirits of turpentine. Put the turpentine in a saucer and add flour enough so that it can be made into FARMERS ' FRIEND 177 a little ball, the size of a small hen's egg. Hold up his head and put the ball as far back in his mouth as possible, when he will chew and swallow it. I have seen horses speedily relieved from a very severe attack of colic by this remedy. BETTER BROOD MARES. A good many farmers that pretend to raise horses are fooling their time away by the use of poor mares. Some of these are poor on account of smallness. They listen to the seductive story that a cross between a Percheron or Clyde, and a Texan pony or broncho will produce a "com- mon-purpose horse", and conclude they may as well have a cheap mare as a good one. Whilst there is little danger in foaling with these small mares, and while much that is claimed from this cross is true, it is all foolishness nevertheless. The farmer should not fool away his time with ponies, or mustangs, or bron- chos. If you have a lot of this truck make a sale and get rid of it, and get a good, large' mare, or, if possible, a grade Percheron or Clyde. One colt from this cross and a draft horse is worth two of the other, and will sell for twice the money and a great deal more readily. Don't raise two colts when you can get the same money out of one. Next, many mares are poor because unsound. Avoid the brood mare with suspicious eyes, or bad legs, or bad morals. By bad morals we mean horse vices, such as kicking or biting or sulking or being balky. If you don't wish your boys to learn to swear, don't raise any balky horses. The habit may not be perpetuated, but the ner- vous, fretful disposition out of which it grows will be. In the course of your life you will meet with enough balky men to try your patience without raising balkv horses. You will find enough vice among men without turning your farm into a vice-breeding establishment. Some mares are unfit to be used as dams, because they are not level-headed. They have not good sense and their colts will be in a measure like them. We are a stout be- liever in the doctrine of "original sin" in horses and 178 farmers' friend cattle, and the less of it you start with the less you will get in the young things. But the original sin is not all on the female side, either in stock or men, and therefore it is essential to avoid vicious sires as well as dams. No sire that is vicious should be used under any circum- stances, nor one that has bad legs or bad eyes. GROWING MARKETABLE HORSES. It may be said of horses as of wheat that any and all grades are marketable, but the farmer who has, from year to year, grown wheat knows very well that when he succeeds in getting in a crop that grades No. 1, he barely gets day wages for growing and marketing the crop, after counting all contingent expenses. This being so, if his crop turns out to be of low grade there is no escaping loss upon it, because in no particular is it grown for less money per bushel than it costs to grow the best. The same rule holds good in the dairy, as shown by the fact that the butter or cheese from a given herd of cows will be first class if made by one party, while in the hands of another the lowest grade only is produced. Horses, like wheat and butter, take rank in market ac- cording to their quality, and the good, that sell for high figures, feed in the same pastures and eat the same quality of oats and hay as the veriest plug. All horses that can do duty must be said to be marketable, but in the sense that rejected wheat is marketable, only at the lowest figures, though all the processes through which the low- grade stock is carried is as expensive in the case of the poor in quality as in the case of the best, save and except the influence of the seed used, and this of course cuts an important figure. But says one, to produce a good qual- ity of grain of any kind you must have a good quality of seed as a foundation, and, applying this to horses, the start is more expensive if a man would have stock marketable at good figures than though he grew animals of lower grade. This, in a measure, is true, yet men who own fairly good brood mares, for the purpose of saving the paltry sum of ten or fifteen dollars in the service of a sire, will continually rear horses for which they get farmers' friend 179 only low prices. The difference that grows out of the service of a good sire, as compared to one of low grade, not infrequently makes a difference of one-third in the selling value of a mature horse, and it is fair to place it higher than this in many cases. BREAKING COLTS. "Educating" is a better word than "breaking" when applied to colts reared by intelligent and humane horse- men. Though many a colt is really "broken" in training, there is seldom, if ever, any necessity for such a bourse. Take a "sucker" when he is too young to have any very pronounced opinions of his own, and there will be found but little trouble in making him understand that his master is really his best friend. When this has been ac- complished no further trouble need be anticipated, so far as an intelligent colt is concerned. Unfortunately, oc- casionally it happens that a horse is met with that has been a fool, and of such an animal it is difficult if not im- possible to make a horse that can ever be handled with any degree of safety. It often happens that a really in- telligent horse becomes possessed of a vice that is truble- some and dangerous, but such a case never presents the difficulties which characterize that of a horse that has been born a fool. As long as a horse has intelligence he can be educated, no matter how strongly unfounded prej- udice mav mislead him. More than 99 per cent of the foals that are dropped have quite enough intelligence to enable them to get through the world pleasantly and sat- isfactorily, but the reason that so many horses are ad- dicted to troublesome and dangerous vices is to be found in faulty education. Too often the system of handling colts is something as follows: The young thing is allowed to run with his dam and to make no human acquaintances. All he knows about boys and men is that whenever they get near him they hit him with a whip or make some (to him) horrid noise that thoroughly terrifies him. He very quickly comes to look upon boys and men as the most dangerous and trouble- 180 farmers' friend some enemies of the equine race in general and of him- self in particular. This state of affairs continues till he is two or three years old. Then some day he finds him- self being chased about a paddock and worried till he is half dead with fright and fatigue, and finally from sheer exhaustion he is compelled to allow himself to be handled. He does not know what is wanted of him, and all that he learns about it comes in the way of bitter experience. After trying every other course to escape punishment and fright, with disastrous results, he gives himself over in sheer desperation to a sort of sullen despair, and al- lows himself to be pushed about by his tormentors or hauled about by another horse that is harnessed with him, just because he has given up all hope of escaping the persecutions of his enemies. His spirit is broken and he is pronounced broken to harness. He is now obedient so far as he knows how to be, but he is so because he dare not be anything else, and not from any desire on his part to do what is right. Such a horse may do what is re- quired of him, but he is liable to run away if suddenly fringhtened, to kick if anything touches his heels, and in short, to do almost anything that is objectionable in the very emergency when his good behavior would be most highly prized by his master. That is what may properly be styled "breaking" a colt. If a m.an wants an "educated" horse he should begin by winning his confidence during the foal's baby-hood, the sooner the better. It does not much matter what the youngster is taught during his first summer, so long as he is thoroughly familiarized with the halter and accus- tomed to being handled freely (though alwa-ys kindly and with gentleness). He soon learns to regard those who handle and feed him with the warmest friendship, and his highest ambition will be to merit their approval as evidenced by a kind word, a caress, or some little dainty of which he happens to be particularly fond. As he grows a little older he should be accustomed to the bit, to the harness and to other appliances to be used when he shall have arrived at a proper age to gp into business. In this way the youngster really grows into his work. He is taught to carry his head properly, to draw, to turn, to farmers' friend 181 back, to be mounted, harnessed and tinharnessed, all with- out any painful or unpleasant process. He grows up to be not the cowed slave, but the trusted, well-tried friend of his master. All that he does he does cheerfully and pleasantly; in short, he is an ''educated" and not a "broken" one. HORSE HINTS. Being gentle with a horse will help him to be gentle. Keep the colt fat and he will make an easy-going horse. Sores on horses' shoulders are largely the result of ill- fitting collars. An excess of food weakens a working animal and dis- ables it from work. Blood, food, care and training are the essentials neces- sary for producing a first-class horse. To a very considerable extent the most costly farming is that done with poor teams. There are few diseases to which horses are subject but are easier prevented than cured, fort, but to its healthfulness as well. Feeding a little wheat bran with the other grain will help to make the horse 's hair sleek and glossy. Good grooming does not only add to the animal's oom- The best farm horse is the one with a kind and tract- able disposition, well broken and serviceable The farmers will always be poor who continue to raise $50 horses at an expense of $100. The feed and care necessary to raise a poor horse costs as much in every way as it does for one of the best. A horse needs exercise every day to keep his system properly regulated and makei his hair to be bright and isleek. Wlien the horse is brought in from work he should be given a good drink ; if too warm to drink he is too warm to eat. TAKE CARE OF THE COLTS. A good many fine colts will be stunted this winter. They might make 1500 pound horses worth $175; they will be 182 farmers' FilIEND 1200 pound horses worth $100. The winter's keep or rather want of keep will do the work. The builder is wise who commences his house at the foundation. When the excavation is made full size and the stone laid well it is ready for the building. The first year is the foundation of the colt. It is a foundation that expands or contracts with food and shelter, and when once made cannot be changed. You can put additional foundation under your house, you cannot under your colt. The old notion that colts must learn to endure hardship and stand the storms and learn to love corn stalks and rye straw and thus become hardy horses is utter foolishness. That is the proper way to make plugs that are hardly salable at from fifty to seventy-five dollars. You can raise them in that style ,reader, from the best Norman blood. Keep them away from the oats bin or corn crib or stack of good hay, drive them out to the stalk field and let them sleep out during storms or in the snow drifts, and the work is done. You have knocked seventy-five dollars off the value of your future horse. If you don't believe it take two colts as near alike as pos- sible, treat one of them in this way and give the other one gallon of oats a day or about twenty to twenty-five bush- els during the winter, with plenty of good hay, good shelter at night and plenty of exercise, and the same treatment to both after the first winter, and when they are three years old you will learn a lesson in the value of oats fed to a colt with shelter and what hay it will eat. We put in our plea for good, decent treatment in be- half of the most intelligent animal on the farm. We might add your own behalf. But we ask mercy and kind- ness to the colt, who in turn will put money in your purse. STYLE IN DRAFT HORSES. The better class of farmers have for years been breed- ing heavy horses. The move in this direction has been a wise one. Nothing on the farm pays better. Few things pay as well. But in this, as in all other matters, they have made mistakes. They have gone too much on mere size and awkwardness. A great big, raw-boned hulk, farmers' friend 183 with churn legs and a walking gait that would almost dis- locate the joint of the luckless mortal that was forced to ride a mile, was regarded, and is yet regarded by some, as a model draft horse. Size is indispensable, but so is action and spirit to the really valuable horse. We have seen draft horses, so-called, that did not have sense enough to keep out of a wire fence. Good sense in a draft horse is almost as essential as in the roadster. Nothing is more provoking about a farm than a horse that is clumsy, awlrward, and a born fool. The good horse of any type is level-headed, broad-minded, sen- sible. No other should be used for breeding purposes. Equally as essential is a brisk movement. There is no more need of a large horse being ungainly, awkward and slow than of a large man. Who has not noticed that some of the most graceful dancers are large men and women? Their size, instead of detracting adds grace as well as dignity to their movements. Why should it be different with a horse? Another essential in a draft horse is spirit, courage, nerve force. We have known a span of these big,. clumsy draft horses stall over a load that was pulled out by a span of plucky mules not above the average weight. What they lacked was spirit and courage. These are matters of inheritance. Luck has nothing to do with it. When the selection of sire and dam is made, the spirit of the colt is fixed. That spirit may be perverted or spoiled by misuse, but no wise treatment can put spirt or courage in a horse whose sire or dam have have been lacking in these. You can't put sense into a fool nor courage into a coward in either man or horse; courage, spirit, activity, these form style in a draft horse. How to Breed and Care for Cattle. CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. Breeds of Cattle. — The Short Horns, their origin and gradual improvement — The Ayrshires and their qualities as a dairy breed — Holstein and Dutch cat- tle and their characteristics — Unrivaled qualities of the Alderneys, Guernseys, and Jerseys as butter makers — The Devons and Herefords — Native cattle. DIFFERENT BREEDS. SHORT HORN CATTLE. This breed of cattle has attained a distinction and won a substantial appreciation which no other race has so fully and widely enjoyed among the enlightened graziers of the world. From Great Britain its dissemination has extended to the continent, to Australia, to South Africa, South America, Mexico, and the West Indies, while it has secured almost a monopoly of the importations of this country and Canada. For the grass pastures of the Ohio valley, and the abundant, natural, and cultivated grasses of the broader prairies of the Mississippi region, it is ad- mirably fitted, and held in high esteem as the most eco- nomical machine for the speediest conversion of corn and grass into meat and money. The original short horns occupied the east of England, Yorkshire, and the valley of the Tees at the date of the earliest records of British stock-growing. They were various in size, color, and other peculiarities; the dark- skinned herds of the fens resembling the black cattle of Holland marshes, and the finer forms of Yorkshire and Durham assuming the style and quality of the noted cattle of Holstein and Jutland; and yet it may not cer- tainly be known whether the ancient emigrants from those localities brought this stock to England, or whether No. 2. Fat Steer Challenger, Grand Champion at International Live Stock Show 1903. Owned by University of Nebraska. No. 3. Pure Bred Short Horn Cow, Roan Marvel. Owned by University of Wisconsin. farmers' friend 187 this similarity is the result of climate and keeping. It was, at least, a race very distinct from that of Ireland and the west of England, with long horns, thick skins, and a heavy coat of hair, well suited for their protec- tion in a climate subject to continuous seasons of rain. It is w6ll known in later times that Dutch and Danish importations modified these cattle of the east of Eng- land, and suggested the more recent and greater improve- ments of Charles and Robert Colling, commencing about the era of our revolution, and continued successfully since by Messrs. Bates, Booth, Townley, and others in England, and Thorne, Alexanders, and other breeders in this coun- try. The story of the bull Hubback, the founder of the mod- ern short horn, has often been told. He was purchased in 1783 by Charles Colling of his brother and a Mr. Waistell for eight guineas, and is said to have been from a cow grazed by a poor man on the highway. It has long been a matter of controversy whether he was a pure-bred Teeswater, the short horn of that day. He was somewhat below the usual size of the Teeswaters, yellow, red, and white in color, of a fine, compact form, admirable touch, and so easily fattened that he early be- came useless as a bull. The cow, also purchased by Colling, acquired fat very rapidly, and never again bred. Either from mere curiosity, or from a suspicion that he was impairing the constitution of his animals by contin- uous breeding in too small a circle. Colling attempted the experiment of infusing some of the Galloway blood, which was confined, it is understood, to a single cross upon certain individuals of his herd. At the sale of Charles Colling, in 1810, forty-seven animals produced 8,911 guineas. Robert Colling, not so renowned, but esteemed by many quite as judicious a breeder, sold sixty-one (but six of them bulls) for 7,484 guineas. High prices have been maintained by later breeders. Mr. Bates, in 1850, sold one family of Duchess stock, including calves, at an average of $581. Lord Ducie's herd, in 1853, realized an average of $760 for sixty-two animals. Individuals of superior excellence, from the day when 188 farmers' friend Colling 's "Comet" sold fof 1,000 guineas, have com- manded fabulous prices. Similar prices have been ob- tained in this country. There were at least five-hundred herds of pure-bred short horns in Great Britain ten years ago, and from six to seven thousand head are registered in the herd book every alternate year at that period, and these num- bers are yearly increasing in accelerated ratio. Derived from a large breed, the improved short horn is heavy, less in height than the originals of the Tees, rounder and deeper in the trunk, the limbs shorter, chest and back broader, appearing less in bulk, while really greater in weight. The skin is light colored, hair red- dish brown or white or mixed, the muzzle flesh colored, the horns shorter and lighter colored than in the for- mer breed, the skin soft to the touch, the form square, the shoulder upright, and the hindquarter large. The color cannot be characterized by a single term, varying greatly from a pure white to a rich red, a mixture being the fashion, known as roan or strawberry. The skin should be velvety and not too thin, while the hair should be plentiful and of a mossy softness. The head of the female is finer and more tapering than that of the male, the neck thinner and lighter, and her shoulder inclining to narrow towards the chin. The short horn looks smaller than he is. He excels all other stock in facility of fattening, making good and heavy beef hn thirty monthe and even in two years. The idea is somewhat prevalent that short horn cows are not good milkers. It has been obtained, without doubt, from the fact of the well known efforts made to perfect their fattening qualities, in accordance with Bakewell's saying that "all was useless that was not beef"; and it is true of many families of short horns. Others are superior milkers. The original Holstein blood of the Durham and Holderness districts was famous for its milking quality, and it is difficult to breed it out with all the culture which modern improved short horns have received. The modern Holderness stock at this day chiefly supplies the London dairies, and many of their farmers' friend 189 best milkers have strong strains of the improved blood. The Duchess stock, of great celebrity and purity, bred by Mr. Bates, was distinguished for its excellence in this respect. Some short horns in this country have yielded ample supplies of milk of excellent quality. CHARACTERISTICS OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE. The leading cattle breeders of Britain have of late years, for the most part aimed to establish in their stock some particular property in a high degree, beef or milk, according to circumstances, being the leading object. Hence it has occurred 'that British cattle have latterly been classed under the heads of "beaf breeds" and "milk breeds". Prominent among the latter is the Ayr- shire breed, which originated in the county of Ayr, Scot- land, and within the last fifty years has been disseminated over every part of that country where dairying is much practiced. They have been introduced into the United States and the British provinces of North America, and, at the pres- ent time, are probably more extensively kept as a dairy breed than any other in the world. Importations of Ayrshire cattle into this country were made upwards of twenty years ago, but the animals were neither numerous nor generally in the hands of persons who took much pains to increase them. It was not, there- fore, until a comparatively late day that the Ayrshire were much known here, or that specimens were suffic- iently numerous to indicate the permanent establishment of the breed in this country. A few remarks in regard to the origin of this valuable breed of cattle, in connection with their comparative value for dairy purposes, may not be out of place. It is evident that the modern Ayrshire breed presents a wide contrast to that which occupied the western por- tion of Scotland many years ago. It follows, therefore, that the modern breed, like various other valuable breeds of domestic animals, originated in crossing. The ques- tion as to the breeds from which it was derived will be brieflv considered. 190 farmers' friend Various accounts represent that the Earl of March- mont, some time between 1724 and 1740, introduced to his estates in Berwickshire some cattle, conjectured (their history was not positively known) to be of the Holder- ness or Teeswater breed, and that not long afterwards some of the stock was carried to estates belonging to the same nobleman in that part of Ayrshire called Kyle. But it is not improbable that the cheif nucleus of the improved breed was the "Dunlop stock", so-called, which appears to have been possessed by a distinguished family by the name of Dunlop, in the Cunningham district of Ayrshire, as early as 1780. This stock was derived, at least in part, from animals imported from Holland. The Dunlop cow soon became noted. Professor Low says: "From all the evidence of which, in the absence of authentic documents, the case admits, the dairy breed of Ayrshire cows owes the characteristics which distinguish it from the older race, to a mixture of the blood of the races of the continent, and of the dairy breed of Alderney." In addition to the foregoing evidence respecting the origin of the Ayrshire cattle, it should be stated that the present leading type of the breed was formed in part by an infusion of the blood of the Kyloe or West Highland breed. Theophilus Parton, of Swinley farm, near Dairy, Ayrshire, about fifty years ago took great pains to es- tablish a herd of what were deemed the best Ayrshire cattle, into which he infused a strain of the West High- land blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly or generally known. The Swinley stock differs from the older Ayrshire in having a shorter head, with more breadth across the eyes, more upright and spreading horns, more hair, and that of a more mossy character, and generally better constitutions. They are also some- what smaller boned than the old stock, though from their superior symmetry and greater tendency to fatten they are fully equal to the former in weight of carcass when slaughtered. The colors preferred are brown, or brown and white, the colors being distinctly defined. In the competition at Ayr, in 1861, for a prize offered farmers' friend 191 by tlie Duke of Athol, the average weight of milk per day, for two days, from six cows, was about fifty pounds, the cows being milked twice a day. The cow which took the first prize gave an average of fifty-seven pounds per day. On this occasion, the Duke of Athol stated that the cow (then in his possession) which received the first prize of the previous year had given an average of upwards of twelve quarts of milk per day for a year, actual measure- ment having shown a product of one thousand one hun- dred and ten and a half gallons in something less than twelve months. Comparatively few accurate trials have been made with specimens of the breed in this country. One of four imported Ayrshire cows, gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts of milk, beer measure. One of the cows, imported by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, in 1837, was said to have afforded sixteen pounds of butter per week, for several weeks in succession. The imported cow, Jean Armour, in 1862, gave an average of forty-nine pounds of milk a day for one hundred and fourteen days, commencing June 1st; and for the month of July her average was fifty-one pounds thirteen ounces per day. Her milk for three days in July yielded six pounds of butter. Her live weight at the close of the trial was nine hundred and sixty-seven pounds. It will be understood, from what has already been said, that the dairy is the leading object with the breeders of Ayrshire cattle. At the same time the important fact has not been overlooked, that to breed and perpetuate a profitable dairy stock, regard must be had to hardiness and strength of constitution, and also to such fattening tendencies as will insure a profitable return from calves, fattened for veal, from steers, reared for beef, and from cows, which, having served their turn in the dairy, are at last dried of their milk and prepared for the shambles. Few trials have yet been made with the Ayrshires in reference to fattening in this country, as most of the males have been kept for bulls, and the females have seldom been turned for beef till too far advancd in years to breed. 192 farmers' friend HOLSTEIN AND DUTCH CATTLE. The Holstein cattle are not only large and well de- veloped, making good beef cattle, yet, at tlie same time, are extra good milkers for the dairy. They have not been imported in so large nmnbers as the short horns, nor subject to so much speculative dealing, yet of late years they are coming rapidly into notice as a very profit- able breed — for the stock raiser or for dairying. Now, properly speaking, everything from Holland is Dutch; so, with propriety, these Holsteins might be called Holland or Dutch cattle, were there not a class of breed of black and white cattle in this country, known and rec- ognized under the name of Dutch or Belted, which are totally diiferent from the Holstein or Hollard cattle in most respects. The Dutch or Belted cattle come from Germany. They were first raised more for their peculiar markings than their superior qualities ; are almost entirely black, with a white band or stripe of white around their middles, and are generally known as Belted cattle. In answer to ques- tions whether the so-called Belted and spotted Holsteins are the same breed of cattle, ditfering only in form of these color markings, we would say that most decidedly they are not the same, coming as they do from diif erent sections of the country. Belted cattle are never seen in Holland, and are of very different form, smaller, differ- ent temperament, and yield much smaller quantities of milk than the spotted cattle. In short, the Belted cattle are not Holsteins, and are not admitted to the Holstein Herd-book. ALDERNEYS, GUERNSEYS AND JERSEYS. These are cattle imported from the British Channel Islands of the same names. While small in size, yet their milk is noted for exceeding richness, and the butter for its rich golden color, hardness of texture, and nutty flavor. They are emphatically butter breeds. The reg- ulation of their breeding in their native homes is very No. I. Pure Bred Jersey Cow "Double Time". Record for the year ending September 24, 1906, Milk 11,357.9 lbs., average per cent fat 4.58; Butter 606.7 lbs. farmers' friend 195 strict ; and the breed is preserved from intermixture with other breeds by strong and arbitrary laws, very carefully enforced. No cattle are allowed to enter the islands (ex- cept for slaughter within a certain number of days), with the exception of oxen for draught. The Jersey cattle's predominant characteristic is but- ter qualification, and they have no superior in this. ^ But have the extra pains been exerted to develop the size of this breed that has marked the development of the fore- going breeds? Have not the Jersey breeders rather scouted size and tried to improve only butter qualifica- tions, to the detriment of size? The Jerseys breed very young, thus stunting growth ; we have heard of instances of breeding at fifteen months old; that is dropping a calf at that age. Also have heard of Jerseys making one pound of butter from four quarts of milk ; and this seems to be the great object. Those actually exported from these islands are generally from Jersey, where the cattle are much the same as those of Alderney, small, with tapering heads, and of a delicate fawn color, and occa- sionally a smoky grey. The Guernsey cow is esteemed by some even more highly than the Alderney ; it is rather larger, coarser, and more of a red, brindled in color. The addition of one or two cows of these breeds to a dairy, materially improves the appearance of the butter made. THE DEVONS. This breed of cattle do not average so large as the short horns, consequently are more active, and better adapted for hilly and rolling pastures. They make the best of working cattle, being quick walkers, and docile dispo- sition. As milkers they are not equal in quantity to Ayrshires, but the milk is rich in quality. They are a breed for general utility. They are a bright cherry red color. THE HEREFOEDS. Bodily, this breed is one-fourth larger than the Devons. 196 farmers' friend They are shorter legged and more beefy. Their general color is red, and white, or mottled face. They are em- phatically a breed for beef, being good feeders, easily kept, and possessing, when slaughtered, beautiful lean meat, largely in proportion to fat. They are fair milk- ers, yet not so good as the Ayrshires. NATIVE CATTLE. The introduction of native cattle into Mexico by the Spaniards, as early as 1525, was probably the origin of our vast Texan herds. In fact they resemble, at this late day, the native cattle of Spain, with their long horns, and leggy bodies. From 1607 to 1622 the English made an importation to their colony on the James river, Vir- ginia ; the Dutch, in New York, imported cattle commenc- ing in 1625; importations were made by the English, in Massachusetts, in 1624, and following years ; the Swedes, in New Jersey, in 1627; the Danes, in New Hampshire, in 1631; importations were made in Maryland, in 1633; in North and South Carolina, in 1660 and 1670 ; in Penn- sylvania, in 1662 ; all by English. From these importa- tions, in the main, our native stock have sprung, with no distinct breed, or specific characteristics. While they may not have been up to the standard of the heavy body and points of the short horn, yet they were of consider- able merit as milkers. The length of time elapsed, with the absence of all records render it impossible to trace any direct pedigree of our native cattle. An attempt Ims been made by some writers to trace the origin of our common stock to the English Devon. It is quite likely that this breed did mingle largely in the early importations, from the fact that early settlers of our country were from the South of England, or embarked from ports in that district where the Devon cattle at that time were the prevailing breed. ^ i^Wi . 1 f p'^'i ■ 1 ^ ^i 1 ::m J'M ^P" ■ ■' mm " - "^ t J 2>i ^ ^!:l *^ I 4 <•. ^ K if '^1 ^^ ''.!'MHIiiiMK h No. 2. "Blackrock" International Grand Champion Steer, 1905, State Col lege of Iowa. No. 3. "Disclosure" Pure Bred Hereford Steer, First Prize at International Chicago, 1906. No. 3. Pure Bred Chevoit Yearling, First Prize International Live Stock Show, 1906, Owned by State Agricultural College of Wisconsin. farmers' friend 201 CHAPTEE II. DISEASES OF CATTLE. THE CHEST, ABDOMEN AND URINARY ORGANS. CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. Diseases of Respiratory Organs. — Inflammation of the Lungs and its treatment — Description and treatment of Pleurisy — Bronchitis and its rem- edies — The treatment of Catarrh or Common Cold — Malignant Catarrh and what to do for it — Other diseases. Diseases of Stomach and Abdomen. — Bloating or Hooven and how to relieve it — Overloaded Paunch and its treatment — Impaction of the Third Stomach — Dry Murrain — Mad Staggers — Inflamma- tion of Bowels and what to do for it — Diarrhoea — Scours — Dysentery and Bloody Flux — Scours in Calves and how to check — Spasmodic Colic — Belly- ache — Peritonitis — Choking with various articles — Worms. Diseases of Urinary and Generative Organs. Inflammation of the Kidneys — Inflammation of the Bladder — Bloody Urine — Red Water-^Abor- tion in Cows — Removal of Dead Calf — Treat- ment of cows before calving — Milk Fever and its cause — Inflammation of Womb and how to treat it — Bloody Milk — Garget — Mammitis — Milk Stop- page — Obstruction of Teats — Leaking Milk — Sore Teats — Warts — Castration of Calves. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. inflammation of the lungs. The causes of this disease are over exertion and sub- sequent exposure, or exposure alone. It is ushered in 202 farmers' friend by a fit of shivering, a drooping appearance, loss of appe- tite, and subsequent feverishness DESTROYING LICE ON CATTLE. Aloes in fine powder is a specific for the destruction of lice on all animals, and as it has not poisonous proper- ties, its intense bitterness being what kills, it can be freely applied, and as it is to be used in a dry state, its application is as safe in cold as in warm weather, con- sequently is free from all objections urged against other remedies. Use with a fine pepper-box, dusting and rub- bing it in all over, and then curry out inside of a week. Or, take a pound of fresh lard, a fourth of a pint of ker- osene oil and four ounces of sulphur powder — of flowers of sulphur ; mix them thoroughly. With this mixture rub the animal's head, also along the spine, and upon the shoulder and brisket, and under the thighs, and wherever the vermin is seen. Repeat the operation once a week until the lice disappear, which will not be long. Or, take quassia chips, steep in water and wash the animal thor- oughly. One application will kill the lice, and in case •of nits that are not hatched, the second application, ap- plied a few days after, will entirely rid the stock of th.e vermin. GRUBS IN THE SKIN. The grubs are produced by the eggs deposited by the gad-fly during the latter part of the summer. They may be prevented by moistening the hairs on the shoulders, back, and loins of cattle, every other day, with a decoc- tion of white oak or walnut leaves. "When present, they may be removed simply by squeezing them out with the fingers. When present in large numbers, they of course cause considerable irritation in the skin and underlying tissues, and thus may interfere with the well-being and thriving of the cattle. SELF-SUCKING COW. A self-sucking cow is prevented from thus indulging by an Illinoisian, who puts a halter or strap over her FARMERS FRIEND 20: head that will hold a common bridle-bit in her mouth. She eats and drinks just as well as without it after a little, and is finally cured of the propensity. ARTICLES IN THE EYE. Hay seed, chaff, etc., may be removed by a pair of small operating forceps, or with the rounded point of a lead pencil covered by a soft handkerchief. Lime, sand and harsh articles can be washed out with water and a small syringe. In some instances the animal may have to be cast before it can be done. The consequent inflam- mation may be treated the same as it is for horses, as is many other diseases such as sprains, bruises, wounds, etc. ANTHRAX BLACK TONGUE BLACK LEG. The above names, as well as many others for the same general disorder, are merely indicitive of the most promi- nent symptoms of a disease which has been very fatal among the young in the west, for some years. It seems to be a constitutional disorder, which changes the char- acter of the secretions as well as the blood. While it is contagious from contact with the discharges of poisonous matter of an affected animal, often destroying nearly all the young stock in a herd, yet its origin may arise from local circumstances and surroundings, and spread over a section if not checked at once. One of the peculiarities of the disease is that it attacks the young and apparently most thriving stock; also, the suddenness with which it terminates, the animal often being found dead in the field before notice has been had of its being sick. There is no doubt but what it is, to some extent, caused by too full feeding of dry corn husks in gathered fields, combined with local influences. The first symptoms of an attack will be plethora, feverishness, a halting on one limb, and excessive tenderness of the skin in spots, to be followed by extensive swellings of those parts, and deposits of black tarry blood, which evolves gas among the tissues, which gives forth a peculiar crackling sound if the hand is pressed over the spot. Bloody, yellowish matter may 204 farmers' friend ooze forth, the spot may slough off, leaving an ichorous ulcer. It may take the form of eruptive blisters, which break, dry up with gangrenous appearance, and gradually spread over adjacent parts. It may take the same form of blisters, but appear on muzzle, jaw and tongue, leaving behind ulcerous sores, with bloody, yellowish discharge from the mouth. It may take an external form with bloody discharge from nostrils, bloody dung and black urine, and death in a short time. An- imals which are affected must be separated from the well. Dead carcasses and all discharges must be buried, and stables where they have been kept disinfected, if success is to be expected. While treat- ment is uncertain and unsatisfactory in the worst cases, yet many can be saved by proper care, and more can be prevented from taking it. After the separation of the sick from the well, give those which are well two ounces of bisulphate of soda, each, in a mach, twice daily for three days, thereafter once each day as long as there is any danger. Give the affected animals two drachms of chlorate of potash, three times daily. Inject into the bowels, daily, a weak solution of carbolic acid and water, one part of acid to one hundred parts of water. Eub the tender spots, or those parts which show signs of swelling, with any stimulating liniment, or even turpentine. Open the blisters and the ulcerous spots and thoroughly cleanse them by the use of the following: — Chloride of Zinc, one scruple; Water, half a pint. — Mix. Apply this lotion three times daily. No meat nor milk of an affected animal must be fed to anything, as it is fatal in its effects. Another remedy for black leg. — Black leg can rarely be cured but it may in a great measure be prevented. Whenever calves lie around and seem stupid they should be treated to hypo-sulphite of soda, at the rate of an ounce per week divided in several doses. It may be pulverized and mixed with bran. Another preventive is regularity in feeding, never allow- farmers' friend 205 ing cattle to get excessively fat nor to be greatly reduced in flesh. The only damaging effect that dry weather can have is to keep the calves from taking the needed exer- cise. In black leg the blood becomes over-loaded with carbon, and once it sets in there is small hope of any cure. We knew one case cured by vigorous applications of Jackson's liniment on the leg, between the affected spot and the body, making a running sore which healed in time, and we have known others relieved by bleeding in the fore foot, just above the hoof and then driving them to induce circulation of the blood. The carcass and hide of calves that die of black leg should be burned, and if they have been buried, the graves should be fenced up, as it will reappear years afterwards if such precautions are not taken. It is not safe to skin them or meddle with the carcass if there are any sores on the hands, as, if the blood comes in contact with the raw flesh or in any way enters the circulation, it is apt to produce an ugly sore. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE CONTAGIOUS APHTHA. This disease affects cattle, swine, sheep, and is of a highly contagious nature. It is not so much to be dreaded from its directly consequent fatality as it is for its after consequences — the condition of weakness and depression in which it leaves its subjects, and from which it is said to cost, in most cases, more than the future value of the animals to recover them. The disease attacks the mouth and feet simultaneously. The mouth will be found hot and covered with blisters, the tongue and lips being also affected. These blisters burst, and the surface becomes raw, inflamed and swollen. In aggravated cases the tongue protrudes from the mouth and is covered with ulcers, which suppurate and cause the tissues to slough away. The disease frequently commences in the hind feet, in consequence of which the animal is continually stretching out first one and then the other hind foot and shaking them. On examination, blisters and watery pus- tules are found around the coronet and between the digits, the parts are inflamed and swollen, and the animal can- not be urged to rise. In some cases the feet becomes 206 farmers' friend ulcerated, the hoofs slough away, in part or wholly, leav- ing the bones exposed to view. With such a condition of things there must he much suffering, with high fever, eyes red, lungs congested, breath fetid. In milking cows the teats and udder become inflamed and ulcerated, ab- scesses are formed, and sloughing takes place, which of course renders the milk totally unfit for use. The treatment consists in the separation of the sick from the well, and administering two ounces of sulphate of soda daily, to the well, as a preventive. The sick are to have a pound of Epsom salts each as a laxative, at the commencement of the treatment. An astringent moutJi- wash is to be used, composed as follows : — Borax, one ounce; Tincture of Myrrh, one fluid ounce; Water, one quart. — Mix. Use twice each day. If the teats are also affected, a weak solution of half a drachm of carbolic acid in a quart of water, can be used with good effect, following with a dressing of glycerine. The feet should be thoroughly cleansed with water, then a rag drawn through between the toes, followed by an application, with a feather, of: — Oil of Vitriol, one fluid ounce; Water, four fluid ounces. — ^Mix. Apply twice each day, and keep the feet tied up in tarred cloths. All detached pieces of horn must be re- moved at once, and the animals must be isolated from the rest of the herd. EPIDEMIC OPHTHALMIA. This is a disease of the eyes which takes an epidemic form, whether from contagion, infection or otherwise, has not yet been determined, but when once an animal in a herd becomes aiTected, it soon spreads with more or less severity, among the rest of the herd, as well as among the neighboring herds with which such animals may come in contact. The eye at first begins to appear raw, and after a day or two a sky blue spot appears just farmers' FRIEND 207 below the sight, which continues to grow until it covers the whole eye, then assumes a lighter color; after this, it grows smaller and sticks out from the ball of the eye about the size of a pea. The animal appears in a great deal of pain all the time until it becomes totally blind. To faciliate treatment, and to check its spread, the diseased ones should, as soon as anything appears amiss with the eyes, be separated from the apparently sound ones, and be placed in a roomy, airy, dry shed, which should be darkened without interfering with proper ven- tilation. The cattle should be kept therein during day- time, but should be given liberty on an enclosed pasture every night, away from other cattle. Then give to each one over two years old, a pound and a half, to those from one to two years old, one pound, and to younger ones according to age, from four to eight ounces of Epsom or glauber salts, dissolved in from a pint to a quart of warm water, and to which is added from one to two ounces of powdered ginger. Give sloppy food, into each ration of which is added a drachm of powdered nitrate of potassa; also give unripe fruit, sliced to prevent choking, and fresh cut grass during the day, which need not be much when they go out nights. To the root of each horn, or otherwise, fasten a folding of cloth in such a manner that it hangs over both eyes, and a few inches below them. This should be kept wet during the day with a lotion com- posed of Chloiride of Zinc, one drachm; Carbolic Acid, two drachms; Water, one gallon. — ^Mix. Apply to the cheeky below each eye, to a space of about two square inches, a small portion of a blister, composed of Spanish Flies, two drachms; Lard, two tablespoonfuls. — ^Mix. Shave off the hair and rub well in, so as not to leave any on the surface which can get into the eye. This should be applied in the morning, and be washed off six hours thereafter with soap suds and a soft sponge, and 208 FAKMERS' FEIEND a coat of lard applied to the blistered surface once a day thereafter. After recovery, it will be proper to still keep the cattle for some time, say a month, away from other cattle. The shed should then be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and whitewashed, and not be used for at least one month thereafter for any live stock. As this disease is commun- icable to sheep, these should not be allowed to come near such diseased cattle. CORN STALK DISEASE. Western farmers have been subjected ever since there was a corn-growing west to losses, sometimes serious, among the cattle turned on to the stalk fields, which is the custom each fall and will be this fall to an unusual degree. The disease is mysterious and recent investi- .gations by the government have not by any means cleared up the mystery. The Department of Agriculture has kept experts employed for two or three years in different parts of the west, but so far they have not been able to report anything whatever which was of any benefit to farmers. The farmer is compelled, therefore, to turn back to the old theory that the deaths were due to the change from a succulent diet to one of very dry fodder and that the deaths were occasioned by a lack of sufficient water. They have attempted to remedy this and have in many cases done so by the free use of salt which would encourage drinking large amounts of water, and more by seeing to it personally that each animal, the weak as well as the strong, actually drank the proper amount of water to soak up and digest this unusually dry substance. It should be stated that November and December, the months in which cattle are turned into the stalks are com- paratively rainless months in the west, that the atmos- phere is very dry the corn blades thin, and hence it is about the driest form of feed that ever goes into the ani- mals stomach. May it not be true that this corn stalk disease is largely indigestion and that animals that lack the proper diges- FARMERS FRIEND 209 live power are the ones that succumb 1 While, however, we think that a large per cent, possibly nine-tenths, of the losses might be avoided by supplying salt and water freely and seeing that the animals actually drink the water, the observed facts seem to indicate that some fields are, entirely independent of the water supply, peculiarly fatal to cattle. It is this part of the mystery that the scientists have endeavored so far in vain to clear up, and therefore all that can be suggested to farmers is to fall back on the old ideas and methods and thus avoid as far as possible the dangers that they have known to be incident to turning cattle, especially in dry times, onto dry corn stalks. We have no doubt that some time in the future our scientific friends will be able to help us. They are not to be blamed for their inability to solve in a brief two or three years all the mysteries connected with this subject. WHITE SCOURS IN CALVES. One of the fatal and much dreaded diseases among calves, and one that is so lasting in its effects upon the cattle industry, is that of white scours. It attacks beef and dairy calves alike. The disease is not fully understood as yet, but it is safe to say it is due to some form of bacteria. The disease is infectious, and when once established on a farm nothing but close attention will eradicate it. White scours attack new born calves. It makes its appearance upon birth of the first few days after. In- stead of the characteristic evacuations of a new calf, they are whitish and of a very offensive odor, it loses appetite, and is soon too sick to stand up, and soon dies. As a rule no treatment is a sure cure. The disease is too far along before the real condition is realized and treatment avails little. Prevention is possible. When the disease breaks out it will go through the herd if nothing is done to prevent the spread. It may last from year to year if calves are coming fre- quent enough to perpetuate the disease. 210 farmers' friend It is quite generally conceded that white scours is due to a bacteria and that this bacteria enters the sytem through the umbilical cord. There seems to be some relation between contagious abortion and white scours. But however the disease may get a start it must be checked at once. The droppings of the sick calf must be disinfected and not tracked all over. The dead calf must be burned and the pen and wherever the calf has been thoroughly dis- infected. A thorough dusting of all litter and floors with air slaked lime or a sprinkling with corrosive sub- limate solution, one part to 2, 500 parts, and a thorough drainage of the stable will kill the germs. Let the sun- shine in. DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS. — Sure cure for calves. Take one-half teacup of wheat flour and stir in water until it forms a paste. Give to the calf at one dose, this will cure the ordinary scours so common among calves fed on sour milk. FEEDING THE CALVES. Hon. F. D. Coburn, Secretary of the Kansas State board of Agriculture, asked the opinion of the leading dairymen of the country on feeding separator skim milk to calves. The subject is covered thoroughly and I take pleasure in reproducing the questions and answers in full for the benefit of the farmers. — Editor. Are calves successfully reared on separator milk, and is it more likely than other skim milk to disagree with calves? If so, how should it he used to guard against ill effects? Also, is siveet or sour skim milk best for calves and pigs? Hoard. Yes, provided it is fed sweet, and with sound judgment. Up to the time the calf is six weeks old, feed the milk sweet; feed it warm, and feed three or four times a day, in small quantities. A tablespoonful of flaxseed meal is a good thing to mix with each feed ; scald the meal farmers' FRIEND 211 by pouring a pint of boiling water on it, and then mix with the milk. After six weeks old feed the milk and flaxseed three times a day, with a few oats each day. Guard the calves from the torment of flies ; on account of flies it is better to have the calves come in the fall. Haecker. We rear about thirty calves each winter on separator skim milk, and find no difficulty in growing them fine and thrifty. The calf is allowed to suck once ; it is then removed and one feeding period allowed to pass without offering it any milk; this is done so the calf will drink without the finger. The first week it receives a light ration of whole milk, fresh from the cow; the sec- ond week it gets half whole milk and half skim milk ; the third week and until it is weaned it receives skim milk, a spoonful of ground flax and hay. We feed no grain to calves intended for the dairy, other than the ground flax meal. By flax meal we do not mean oil meal or oil cake, but the ground flax, containing all the oil there is in the flaxseed. We used to feed oats or ground bar- ley to calves, but found that many of them acquired the habit of laying on flesh, which is a permanent injury to the dairy calf. The quantity of ground flax used daily varies from a t'easpoonful to a tablespoonful in each mess of milk, according to the size of di- gesting capacity of the calves. The flax meal is not scalded as is usually done with flaxseed, but the meal, if dry, is stirred into the milk just before feed- ing. When the calf is young great care should be taken to always feed the same quantity, and at a temperature of at least 90 degrees. After the calf is a few weeks old the skim milk and flax meal may be gradually increased. Scours are generally caused by overfeeding, or by milk fed when cool. From four to six pints of milk is a fair ration for a calf the first week; feed twice a day and keep comfortable and clean, and feed from a clean tin pail. Wallace. Calves can be reared successfully on sep- arator milk, provided it is fed sweet. It should be bal- anced up for the first three or four weeks with flaxseed jelly and corn meal ; the former may be omitted later. Feed milk sweet to all young stock. Study nature. The 212 farmers' friend cow and brood sow feed their young witli milk sweet; they feed it warm and they feed it often, Wilson. Calves do well on skim milk if it is fed warm, and some meal, like corn or oatmeal, added to it; oil meal is not suitable because it is too rich in protein just as skim milk is. Dean. AVe feed separator skim milk to our calves with no bad results. It is largely fancy that separator skim milk injures calves. The separator does nothing to the milk to harm it, no more than if it were turned round quickly in a pail. Sweet milk for young pigs or calves; but for grown hogs, weighing 80 to 100 pounds or over, we have found that sour milk gave slightly better results in fattening. Wing. Separator skim milk is the same as skim milk from any other source and having the same fat content. Sweet skim milk is nearly indispensable for calves, and is much better than sour for pigs. Goodrich. Separator skim milk is all right for calves, if clean and warm and sweet; but if it is run oif at the creamery into a filthy, stinking tank, then hauled home and not fed the calves for 12 to 24 hours, it may kill the calves. The remedy is take the milk fresh from the separator, and keep it clean and sweet until fed. Sweet milk is decidedly better for calves and young pigs than sour, but after pigs are two or three months old they may do fully as well if some of the milk is sour. Alvord. Until a month old the calf must have some new milk, or separator milk must be supplemented so as to feed fat to the calf. After the calf begins to eat grass, or hay, or meal, separator milk is as good as any. Sweet separator (or skim) milk is preferable for calves under six months old. Gurler. I raise calves quite successfully on separator milk. For calves always feed it sweet and as warm as the cow's milk, and feed no more of it than would be fed of the mother's milk. Add some oil meal or corn meal to take the place of the cream. Many calves are ruined by feeding too much skim milk. Don't have the milk too sour, if for pigs. farmers' FRIEND 213 Curtiss. Yes, they may be reared on separator milk with entire success. It is not more likely to disagree with them than milk of similar composition prepared by other methods. Sweet milk is better than sour, but it should always be in uniform condition, and not partially sweet and partially sour, alternating. Replace the fat by a carbonaceous product — corn meal, oats and flaxseed are better than oil meal. Dodge. Separator milk is good for calves but should be used sweet. Dawley. We have no difficulty in rearing calves on separator skim milk, which should be fed them warm and a tablespoonful of linseed meal jelly added to each calf's portion. Feeding in this way, and not allowing the calves to gorge themselves, no ill effects have been ex- perienced. Judging by chemical analysis and practical results, as we have been feeding sweet skim milk to our calves, we are convinced that it is of far more value than sour milk. Some experimenters, however, claim that sour milk is best for the pigs, and I am inclined to believe they are right. Mathieson. I feed the mother's milk for a short time, until I get the calf to eat a little grain; then I feed sep- arator milk and have no trouble with it. Never feed sour milk to calves. Carlyle. Calves can be just as successfully reared on separator skim milk as upon any other kind of milk. It is not more likely to disagree with calves, only that they drink more of it than their stomach can hold, thus caus- ing bowel trouble. Give a young calf a portion of its mother's milk, from a pail, three times a day, for about two weeks, and then gradually change to skim milk, feeding in small quantities, never allowing the calf to gorge itself. By mixing a little porridge, made by boil- ing oil meal in about six parts of water, with the skim milk, the finest kind of dairy calves will be grown. Sweet milk is always best for calves or pigs. Adams. Yes, if kept sweet there is no disagreement. Sweet milk is most decidedly best both for calves and pigs. 214 farmers' friend Boardman. Tliey have been successfully reared on separator milk, but great care should be exercised in feeding it, and all cans and utensils should be kept thor- oughly cleaned. A small quantity should be fed at the start and gradually increased. The milk should be used as sweet as possible. Monrad. Yes, certainly, but it should be pasteurized at the creamery, so as to be returned sweet. It should be fed at least three times a day at blood temperature, with an addition of flaxseed jelly. The first week the calf should have its mother's milk, and then tapering down to skim milk during the second week. The addi- tion of a little rennet extract, or dissolved tablets, is a good thing. Robertson. Sweet milk always for calves under three months, also for pigs for a month after being weaned; fed warm (90 degrees Fahrenheit) in both cases. Fraser. Calves are raised successfully on separator milk, and it is no more likely to disagree than other skim milk. Feed warm and sweet. Sweet milk is best for both calves and pigs. Brandt. Yes, they can be successfully reared on skim milk. Care should be exercised when first feeding the milk, gradually increasing quantity until the animal seems to have been accustomed to it. When young, it should be sweet ; when calves are two months old sour milk will do as well. Morgan. Under the gravity process of raising cream there is usuall}^ considerable butter fat left in the milk, while in separator milk, the fat is all taken out; this is the only difference we know of. Calves should be fed new milk until at least two weeks old; then gradually substitute skim milk and corn meal, giving them a run on grass as soon as possible. Many of our patrons are feeding sour milk to both calves and pigs without serious difficulty. The main point is not to begin while the ani- mals are too young, nor overfeed at the start. Nissley. Yes, calves can be successfully raised on it, but a little oil meal will add to its value quite materially. I would prefer it sweet for calves and sour for pigs. FARMERS FRIEND 215 Jones. Calves can be successfully reared on separator milk, if combined with oil meal, shorts, or corn meal; otherwise it will disagree with them. There are more fattening properties in sweet than sour milk, for either pigs or calves. Eyth. For calves it is satisfactory, with the addition of alittle ground feed or oil cake, if always fed one way, either sour or sweet. For pigs always use soured, mixed with ground feed. Feed the milk sparingly until the pigs weigh about 100 pounds, when all they consume may be fed with safety. MILK FEVER. The Scottish papers say that milk fever, which yearly causes the death of so many of our best milk cows, is caused by taking all the milk from the cow's udder sopn after calving. The organs of the udder are necessarily somewhat inflamed at this period and when the warm milk is withdrawn there is great danger of these inflamed parts being chilled, thus bringing on fever. If this the- ory is correct, and it centainly seems reasonable, the prevention of milk fever is simply to be careful and not allow the calf to take more than one fourth of the milk from the udder at one time, until after the fourth or fifth day, when the inflammation has disappeared and all danger has past. If any part of the udder becomes un- usually distended the milk should be partially removed from that part. The treatment is simple enough, and farmers would do well to practice it; it can certainly do no harm. DEATH OF CATTLE FROM SMUT AND CORN STALKS. We hear of a great number, of losses of cattle from feeding in stalk fields. There is a great amount of smut in fields this year and it seems to be unusually poisonous. We believe this loss might all be avoided if proper pre- cautions were taken. The precautions we regard as essential are: First, in husking corn gather the smut and burn it. 216 farmers' friend This can be done easily by hanging a basket behind the wagon and throwing the smutted ears into it. Second, do not allow cattle to be in a stalk field more than an hour 'the first day or two hours the second. Accustom them to it as you should to any new feed, gradually. Third, see that they have plenty of water and that they actually drink it. It is not enough to know that they can get water. They must actually drink it and plenty of it. If necessary, they should be salted heavily and the owner should see that the smaller and weaker ones drink. We used to have losses with smut and corn stalks, but found they were weak cattle that were driven away by the stronger ones and did not get water. Whether the disease is smut poisoning, and smut is simply the ergot of corn, or whether it is impaction of the stomach, causing dry murrain or mad itch, the best and readiest remedy is plenty of water. A small feed of oil cake would help matters when there is danger of im- paction, and would be in addition a very profitable addi- tion to the ration. THE BOY AND THE SCRUB. The farm boys of the Northwest must either drive the scrub from the farm or the scrub will drive them. In this day of schools and colleges the bright, energetic far- mer boy does not propose to content himself with caring for indifferent stock of all shapes and colors while the boy on the next farm cares for stock whose beautiful forms and handsome colors suggest thrift and profit. He wants to be like his neighbor and have something that will pay for the work and drudgery that belongs to every business. He don't feel like spending his time feeding good corn to cattle which at three years old weigh little over a thousand pounds and sell at the lowest price, while his neighbor boy feeds and cares for cattle which at two years old weigh 1200 and sell for the highest price. He wants an even chance or he will resolve to leave the farm and take an even chance in other walks of life. We have used this illustration to light up the general farmers' friend 217 proposition that if tlie boy is to be kept on the farm that farm must be made attractive, and attractive not merely to a cultivated taste but a cultivated intellect; that the boy must have something to think al)out, something to study over, and we know of nothing that will better draw out what is best in the boy than fine young stock. We don't wonder that boys who are raised on farms where grain is the only crop raised become disgusted. Nor do we wonder that boys whose sense of beauty and love of thrift and progress is never gratified by the graceful forms of well bred animals either become disgusted with the scrub stock or settle down to scrub farmers. But what is scrub stock? Any and every kind of stock that does not pay a profit on the food it consumes. The Shorthorn man counts the Jersey or Holstein a scrub, but if they pay their wa}" and put money in the purse of their owner they are lovely in his eyes and ought to be. Scrub is that scrub does. Any kind of stock is liable to be- come scrubby in the hands of the scrub farmer. In fact, the animal forms in any country and on any farm are living testimonials to the kind and quality of the owner's brain. Now if the boy is to stay on the farm he must see profit in it, must find intellectual gratification in it, must find something in it worthy of the expenditure of force and energy; in short, something worth living for. Bear this in mind, then, that if you don't drive the scrub from the farm he will drive the bright boy from it. THE SCRUB MUST GO. (Western Plowman.) Good bye, old Brindle, bony scrub, The times .demand a better breed. You eat enough; but here's the rub, You never pay for half your feed. So after all those years we part, But pray remember as you go, If this should break your bovine heart. You broke my purse long, long ago. 218 FARMERS FRIEND I gaze at you with tearful eyes. Long-legged, ill-shaped, flabby Br'n, While years of fruitless labor rise And show ime what a fool I've been. The tons of wasted hay and feed In loud and injured tone the while, Complain you used them in your greed To simply swell the barnyard pile. With best of feed you're lank and thin, And I've grown thin through care of you, I've empty barn and empty bin — My pocket book is eijipty too. Well chosen was that famine sign In Pharaoh's dream; and yet, old cow. The seven thin ill-favored kine Told then of want no more than now. But grievous want shall disappear, If I the signs can rightly read. I'll fill my barns this very year With cows of some good dairy breed. I'll have the kind that's fat and sleek, The kind that brings prosperity; My purse shall fatten every week. And no more scrubs shall feed on me. , THE MARKETS. LIVESTOCK. There is a level headed farmer in every community FAR M E r; S FRIEND 219 who goes right along through all times and seasons and makes money — some money always. So can you. In- telligence and methods. Read up. Breed up. Feed up. There will always be blockheads enough to make intelli- gence pay. There will always be scrubs enough to make good breeds pay. There will always be slovens enougE engaged in the production of meat to make healthful and palatable meat pay. Upon the order of nature, there is not a farm product that cannot be produced and sold at a profit, if rightly raised. The profit may be small, but still above cost. Adapt your crops to your soil and to your market. Re- member that the profit is only in good crops. Fertilize your fields, practice economy, diversify your farming, do everything in season as well and fortune will surely attend you and a hungry world will always furnish a ready and remunerative market for your products. MARKET PRICES OF CATTLE. PRICES OF BEEVES IN CHICAGO. The price of beef cattle reached the highest point in 1882, when, on the 1st of June, in Chicago. ''Extra beeves" sold at from $9.15 to $9.40 per cental of live weight, and "choice" were quoted at $8.65 to $8.90, On January 1, 1879, when the upward course of meat values began, the figures for the same grades were, respectively, $4.60 to $5.00 and $4.10 to $4.35. THE BEST MILCH COWS. If those who believe in the "general purpose cow" will consider the following description of the best milch cow which appeared originally in the (English) Agri- cultural Gazette, we think they can but admit that in many essential points it differs widely from that of the best beef animal. Either the description is at fault, or the ideas of those who think that beef and dairy qualities of a high order can be found in the same animal need considerable clearing up. 2ZU FARMERS FRIEND The best milch cow is of medium size and small boued. The head is small and rather long, narrow between the horns, and wide between the eyes. The lips are long and thick, giving the muzzle a flat appearance. The ears are thin, covered with long but soft, silky hair, the in- side of the ear being of a rich orange color. The eyes are large and bright, with a placid expression, the horns set on a high pate, bending outward at the base, light, clear and smooth; the neck long, clean and thin, slender and well cut under the throat, thickening handsomely as it approaches the shoulder, but entirely free from any- thing like a "beefy" appearance. The shoulder blades should meet narrow at the top widening gradually towards the points, which should be broad and well rounded; the ribs rather straight and wide, indicating a good digestion and constitution, for everything depends on that in a good milch cow. The loins should be broad and the hips high and wide, the rump even with the hips; the pelvis wide, giving plenty of room for the udder; the thighs thin; the hind legs a little crooked, and small below the hock, with a long large foot., The udder should be long and broad with the teats all the same size and well set apart; the belly to sag a little in front of the udder, and rise slowly as it approaches the brisket, and somewhat large as compared with the size of the cow. The tail long and slim, tapering gently to the end. The hair must be soft, indicating a mellow skin, which on taking in the hand, feels like soft kid gloves, and no coarse rough hair will grow on such skin. The color of the skin should be of rich butter yellow. This is the first point in handling. Then, pass your hand on the belly in front of the udder and feel the "milk veins". They are an infallible mark of a good cow. The larger they are the better the indications. In extra good cows they branch out into four veins, but they all unite before reaching the udder. The more regular the courses the more sure you may be that the cow is a good milker. The udder should be covered with a short downy coat of hair. This hair should begin to turn its back- ward course from the front teats, then on the back part FARMERS' FRIEND 221 of the udder, called the escutcheon, aud on as far as the vulva, in the best cows. The wider the belt of this up- turned hair the better; it should be short and velvety, covering a short orange colored skin. SELECTING THE BULL. Many farmers look about them during the fall for the young bull desired for use next season. This grows in part out of the leisure the fall affords, and in part out of the fact that in the fall there is a pretty good stock of weanlings, and it is generally expected that a young bull can be bought cheaper in the fall than after he has been wintered, the buyer counting the expense to himself of wintering as of nominal consequence. The added ex- pense put on by the seller on account of having, in part or in whole, wintered the young animal, is a very uncer- tain sum and ordinarily amounts to but little. The principal advantage, however, in buying the young animal in the fall rests in the fact that in a collection of unculled young bulls, well weaned and well settled down to eating rations of grass, hay, and grain, there is ex- cellent opportunity for selecting. The buyer has the opportunity for suiting himself in the breeding; he can judge of the feeding and growing qualities, he can scru- tinize the parentage, and the young stock descended from the same strain or strains of blood; can have his choice as to age color, general make-up, and promise. It is not every one who can tell what shape a young bull at eight months will take on at eighteen months. Novices are likely to pay undue attention to unimportant points, for instance the horn, the head, and the color. The head never gets on the dinner-plate. The horn goes to the comb-maker, the hair to the mortar-bed. The neck is a fancy point with some, yet it is neither broiled nor roasted. Good feeding qualities, growing tendency, plenty of stamina, good breeding, with a wide-spread top from end to end. are the more important points which, together, make up a good bull. Buy with these things in view and you will not be disappointed. FARMERS FRIEND DON'T FORGET THE CALVES. i ""~* i^mymm^.j ^ '^ ' ^ 'k^' ' '^'^*%"'^'' SOI 0mi^^*'mf^^T -3 We have elsewhere pleaded for the colts. We now plead for the calves. The man who steals from a calf steals from himself. He imagines that he is sharp and has made money, but it is money out of pocket never to return. It grieves us to see poor little calves all over the country, Sliorthorns that are trying to look like Jerseys, trying to get their bones and frames adapted to a miser- ably thin diet of skim milk and frosted grass, and grow- ing a long coat of hair to keep warm this winter all be- cause the owner thinks a calf is a calf and some fool will buy it anyhow and pay the same price that a good one should bring. They were knocked on the head with the churn dasher that the owner might make store butter to trade off to the stores at ten cents a pound, and which the merchant sells for five. They will be kept on scant fare this winter and some time next May they will come out alive and the hair will peel off and they will look like mini- ature bales of mildewed cotton, and at three years old go to Chicago to be sold to the canning factories to be ped- dled out to miners in the mountains. This ignoble use of a calf that is born for better things is the result of the penny wise and pound foolish policy of farmers who have never once asked themselves "Why do I raise calves'"? The farmer who did not feed his hogs all they wanted because he was afraid they would get fat before they had eaten up all his corn, was a wiser man; He at least gave his hogs the satisfaction of eating a good deal of corn and doing a good deal of squealing. If you raise a calf for beef then feed it. Raise a big beef that will bring a big price and will weigh well. The sooner you get the weight and the fat the more money farmers' FRIEND 223 you will make. To feed a calf or anything else just to keep it alive is pure waste of the feed, the time, and the interest on the money. Feed given in this way simply converts grain into manure. The farmer will never get rich in this business. If you don't get the foundation, and get it this winter and send the calf out to pasture strong and healthy, you have and always will have an unprofitable steer. LUCK. There is no such thing as luck in this world. The idea is preposterous. The man who depends upon it will never amount to anything; will be a mere cypher. One might as well wait for the ocean to dry up and reveal its hidden treasures; fish to come ashore to be caught; gram to grow without planting or gold to come ready dug and coined. The men called the most lucky are those who never had even a distant idea of valuable things coming for the wish- ing — the men who are the istrongeist put their shoulders to the wheel, pulled the hardest against wind and tide, dug the deepest into the earth and fought the bravest against odds. Success is not luck — not in the least. It did not come by chance, but was the natural result of long and stren- uous effort. There was no waiting no idle hoping. The probabilities were seized and the possibilties worked out to the utmost fraction. While the foolish dreamers were idle the successful man was up and doing. He knew that doomsday would come as soon as luck. Belief in luck is the most senseless of superstitions. If the affairs of this world were dependent upon it, reasoning powers would never have been given; kn owl- edge wouldnot have been bestowed; the brainless faculties of beasts of the field would have been all sufficient. We would only have had to wait. Luck would have brought all we needed — that is to the fortunate — and for those cursed by "bad luck", there would have been no strug- gling against fate, and the sooner they bowed their mis- 224 farmers' friend erable heads to the decree and quietly ended their exist- ence the better. The belief in luck makes man a "tramp", existing upon the bounty, and filching the honest and hard-won 'Substance of others. The only luck he will ever find will be a home in the poor-house and a pauper's grave. The idea of luck is disproved by everything since creation, by creation itself. Luck did not bring order from chaos, and will never produce food and clothing, and honor and a fair name. It is all moonshine of the thinnest quality. Young man, all the luck you can find will be wrought out by brain and muscle^by effort and daring and un- bending will; by plunging into the stream; by climbing the mountain ; by " paddling your own canoe " ; by nerve ; by pushing ; by a brave front and heart ; by kicking hope out of doors; by resisting the temptation to sloth; by turning a deaf ear to idle dreams. Fools alone trust to any other means of acquiring reputation and fortune. Verily believers (and followers of their belief) in luck, will find themselves in the situation of Cowper's people: "Who spent their lives In dropp'ng buckets into empty wells, And growing tired of drawing nothing up.'' Some people call it luck to be spared damage and loss by accident or neglect or to suffer from these. The man who forgot to tie his horses when he left them in the stable at night, and consequently had a leg of one l)roken and the other badly cut up, or who lost a horse by colic from an overfeed of wet clover, or let a cow fall in an open cistern, or another get loose and gorge herself on meal in a bin with the cover left open, says he has had ill luck. This word luck is an old pagan heritage which should be obsolete, as belonging to the past age, when men believed the stars ruled their fortunes. "The fault * * * is not in our stars, But in ourselves that we are underlings." And so every unlucky accident which happens can be shown to be the result of some neglect or mistake or No. I. Berkshire Barrows. Winners International Grand Champions, Chicago, 1906. No. 2. Pure Bred Poland China Barrows. Age 15 months; weight 450 lbs. Owned by University of Wisconsin. No. 3. Duroc Jerseys at the ends. Three Berkshires in middle. Average weight 296 lbs. Owned by University of Wisconsin. No I. Pure Bred Poland-China Barrow. Age 15 months; weight 475 lbs. Owned hv Universitv of Wisconsin. No. 2. "Star Masterpiece". Age 22 months; weight 750 lbs. University of Wisconsin. No. 3. A Pure Bred Duroc Jersey Sow. Weight 400 lb^. University ot Wisconsin. January 31, 1907. FARMERS FRIEND avoidable fault. As the business of a farm is exceedingly intricate and varied, there is more risk of harm from false steps, but then the farmer knowing this, should be on his guard and make a study how to use precaution. Most all doors are marked and the door to success is marked like many others — Push and Pull. Miscellaneous Diseases of Hogs. HOG CHOLERA CANNOT BE CURED. The hog, like every other domestic animal, is liable to sickness. Some of the symptoms, of nearly every disease, of which the hog is liable, in some way resembles the cholera. United States Congress twenty-one years ago appro- priated one hundred thousand dollars for the purpose of making a thorough investigation of the swine plague. Some of the best veterinaries in the United States were employed. They went anywhere in the United States where they were notified that that section of the country was troubled with the cholera. In fully seventy-five per cent of the cases it was discovered that the hogs did not have the cholera, but some similar disease which by proper care and treatment, nearly the entire herds were saved. As soon as the farmer's hog gets sick he comes to the conclusion that the hog has the cholera. He reads of the cure that has just been discovered and hastens to pur- chase some of the so-called ''sure cure for hog cholera". It is true that many of the medicines cure the hogs, or at least does not kill them, and the hogs get well. The use of certain medicines internally, to act as preventives, is no doubt of some value. The alimentary canal is generally the first to be affected by the cholera. Any medicine strong enough to kill the bacteria which causes the cholera will kill the hog. In case any doubtful disease should get among your 228 farmers' friend hogs you should always remove the well ones. It is quite a common thing for farmers to drive out the sick hogs and permit the well ones to remain to be attacked. Following are a number of diseases which are always called cholera : When people remember that we have no specifics for these diseases in the human family, it will be good com- mon sense not to expect it in the porcine family. If farmers will only learn the prevailing types and symp- toms of this disease and the proper remedies to be used during each, how and when to use them, and will follow it up according to directions, they will be successful. They must remember that it is necessary to commence at the first symptoms in the first cases, and keep up the fight till it is stamped out on the farm. If it is too much trouble, no further advice is necessary. We give below the symptoms of the various types of this disease, and the most successful methods of treating the same, which have been successful whenever faithfully tried. If the directions are carried out which have been given in this chapter, there need be no epidemic form of the disease. It can be controlled and wiped out, and never get beyond a few isolated cases. The treatment, as well as the hygenic advice, is from the pen of a celebrated govern- ment commissioner, appointed to investigate the causes and treatment of the disease, and has been very saccess- ful: PUTRm ERYSIPELAS MALIGNANT TYPHUS. This is one of the most frequent forms of anthrax. Its outbreak is preceded by dull, weak appearance, during which the hog refuses food There will be an unsteady walk, a lying down a good deal, rolling in the bedding, and showing a desire to bury his head, or even the whole body. The body will alternate with shivering fits and periods of feverish heat, in quick succession. Tlie pulse and breathing will be hastened, the bowels are consti- pated, or are voided in hard dark-colored lumps. In some cases the hog will attempt to vomit. In about ten to twenty-four hours the symptoms become more intensi- FABMEIIS' FEIEND 231 fied; and spots which soon become confluent, or run to- gether, make their appearance on the inside of the legs, on the lower part of the abdomen, on the breast and neck, and soon present a swelling, which at first is crimson, afterwards purple, and if fatal, finally of bluish-black color. In some cases pustules of a corrosive and gan- grenous character make their appearance on some parts of the swelled surface; the fever increases in intensity; the mucous membranes present a lead-colored appear- ance; the breathing is labored; the temperature of the body much increased at first, is now, by collapse, greatly reduced; the hindquarters are paralyzed; convulsions commence; and the animal dies in from six to twelve hours, yet it usually does not terminate until the second or third day from its commencement. When recovery occurs it is in those cases where the red spots are limited or do not run together; when the fever is less; and the other symptoms abate about the second day. Partial paralysis may remain, with loss of appetite, so that it is difficult to get the animal to eat enough to sustain life. Perfect recovery is seldom, and there remains behind de- fective digestion, which prevents thriving and fattening. THE TREATMENT OF THIS FORM. The first step should be to give an emetic consisting of from five to twenty grains of white helebore in a little milk. If the hog will not drink, it may be mixed with a little flour and water in the form of a pill, and put well back on the tongue or in the throat. If the animal does not vomit freely in twenty minutes, repeat the dose. After the emetic has had is effect, administer to each hog:— Hyposulphite of Soda, half an ounce, Solution Carbolic Acid, ten drops, Tincture of Aconite, five drops. — Mix. Add enough of molasses to make a soft mass, and place well back in the throat. If the hog will eat, it may be given in a small amount of milk. For a number of hogs increase in proportion ; give to all at once in milk. This 232 FARMERS ' FRIEND treatment should be commenced early in the disease, when it will be most successful, and should be repeated at least three times daily, or even every two hours. Injec- tions of warm soapsuds, to which half an ounce of turpen- tine has been added and ten drops of carbolic acid, may be given twice daily, and materially assist a cure. The external ulcerations, on the surface of the swellings, should be opened and bathed in warm water containing half a fluid ounce of carbolic acid solution to a pint of water. Muriate of ammonia in half drachm doses in a little molasses, is an excellent remedy in the latter stages of the disease when signs of a collapse are present. MALIGNANT PUTRID SORE THROAT. This is a frequent form of the disease, and is very fatal in its character. It is more local in its attack than the previous form, and affects the throat larynx, air pass- ages, etc. It may mainly affect the larynx, or it maybe more diffusive and involve the adjoining parts, even into the cavity of the chest, with great congestion of the lungs. The external swellings on the throat vary with different subjects, and the breathing is obstructed in proportion to the amount of congestion and its location. While its ex- tent may vary, yet it is the same type of the disease. The principal symptoms consist of wheezing and labor- ious breathing, hoarse grunting, hacking cough, great heat and dryness of the snout swelling of the tongue, brown-red color of the mucous membrane of the mouth, difficulty in swallowing food, with attempts to vomit, showing affection of the stomach. At the larynx and along the windpipe, even extending down between the fore legs, will be found a hot, hard, painful swelling, which at first presents a crimson appearance, which may change to a lead color, and finally to a dark purple. Tlie fever is usually very high, and the animals breathe with increasing difficulty, and either lie down or sit on their haunches like a dog. Finally the difficulty of breathing be€)omes so great that desperate attempts are made to catch the air by opening the mouth, during which the livid and swollen tongue is protruded. The mucous membrane farmers' FRIEND 233 of the month is now lead-colored ; the temperatnre of the body has become lower than natural, and the hog may either die of strangulation, or gangrenous action inter- nally in the throat and lungs as well as external, in one or two days. In those cases where the attack is concen- trated in the larynx the patient suffocates sooner, and may choke up and die in an hour after the first appear- ance of the symptoms. If it does not terminate in death, which is the case if not attended with proper treatment early, the symptoms are reduced gradually, the swellings are absorbed, and the animal partially recovers. Often the later stages show those peculiar symptoms of oppressed breathing and heaving of the flanks, commonly called ' ' thumps ' '. ITS TREATMENT. To be of any avail, the treatment must be begun at the very first symptoms shown. An emetic of ten to twenty grains of powdered white helebore may be given in a lit- tle milk, or mixed with a little flour and water, and placed on the roots of the tongue. If it does not vomit in twenty minutes, repeat the dose. After the emetic has had its effect, give the following, three times daily : — Hyposulphite of Soda, half an ounce. Muriate of Ammonia, half a drachm, Molasses to make a mass. Place on the tongue. Five drops of tincture of aconite dropped on the tongue during the early stages of the dis- ease when the fever is high, is of great assistance. In addition, the prescription below should be used in the manner prescribed. If it does not all go down the throat, it will do much good as a local remedy : — Chlorate of Potassa, three ounces, Solution of Carbolic Acid, half a fluid ounce, Water, one quart. — Mix. Give this every hour, or even every half-hour in bad cases, in tablespoonful doses, with a tablespoon. It is an excellent application for the inflamed and ulcerated !34 FAEMEES ' FREEXD throat, as well as a powerful antiseptic and refrigerant. As the hog gets better, the periods of administration can be lengthened, or chlorate of potash can ]>e given in his food. When this disease is present on a farm, the best preventive is twenty grains of chlorate of potash to each well hog. in a little milk, before feeding in the morning. An onnce will do for twenty-five hogs, and all be fed at once. It will frequently arrest the disease t^efore it is recognized, and is one of the best preventives known for this form. Ten drops of solution of carbolic aeid every other day. for each hog. assists its preventive power by destroying germs of the disease. It will have a better effect if the hogs are fasted some hours before, and not fed for some two hours after giving. TTPHOID EXTZBITIS IXFLAJ^MATIOX OF BOWELS. This form of the disease partakes somewhat of a typhoid character, regarding its internal results. Its locations are the bowels, the urinary organs, the mem- branes lining the abdominal cavity, as well as the nervous centers. All may be involved, or but one or two in the primary stages. When the peritoneum is involved, which is almost invariably the case, there will be costiveness, the passages being streaked with muous, which may be discolored. In the fatal stages of the attack, a fetid diarrhoea may succeed, which is the forerunner of death, The first symptoms are a short hacking cough in some instances, not so much obstruction in breathing as in the other forms. There will be an unsteady walk, with fully as high fever as is found in the other forms. If the urin- ary organs are affected, the animals will arch their backs in an extreme manner. The external extravasation in these cases is slight, and may be absent entirely. When the nerve centers are involved, paralysis will result. In- temaUy there are adhesions of the intestines, alteration in the kidneys, liver, etc., with effiision of al>dominal cavity. ITS TBEATMENT. In tMs form of the disease an emetic is of greater value FARMERS FRIEND 235 than in the preceding forms, and should be given in the manner indicated. When there is costiveness in the early stages, which is nearly always the ease, a purgative is needed, none being better than calomel, which may be given in doses of one scruple every six hours until it has its effect. It may be given in a little flour and water as a pill or in a little milk, if the hog will eat. Injections of warm soap-suds, to which half an ounce of solution of carbolic acid may be added, will aid its effects. During the early stages of the fever, drop five drops of tincture of aconite on the hog's tongue, every two hours. In ad- dition to this the following prescription should be given after the calomel has had its effect, or may be substituted for it in the early stages : — Hj-posulphite of Soda, one-half ounce. Chlorate of Potassa, one scruple. Molasses to make a mass. — Mix. CONTENTS OF CHAPTER. Diseases of Throat and Lungs. — Quinsy or Strangles, sometimes called Hog Cholera. — ^Diphtheria, which is also Epizootic. — Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Lungs. — Cough. — Catarrh in Pigs. — Sniffles. — Their causes, symptoms and treatment. Diseases of the Somach, Bowels, Etc. — Diarrhoea or Scours in Pigs. — Constipation in Hogs. — Kidney Worms and Intestinal Worms. — Piles in Hogs. — Protrusion of Rectum or Bowel in Pigs. Miscellaneous Diseases. — Paralysis of Hindquarters. — Apoplexy in Fat Hogs. — Thumps or Palpitation of Heart. — Blind Staggers. — Scrofulous Disease. — Rheumatism. — Black Tooth. — Lice on Hogs. — Mange on Pigs. — To Prevent Sows Eating Their Pigs. Operations. — Spaying Sows. — Altering Ridgling Boars. — Castrating Ruptured Hogs. — Prevention of Being Flv-BIown. DISEASES OF THROAT AND LUNGS. quinsy strangles HOG CHOLERA. This disease sometimes assumes an epidemic form sim- 23(3 farmers' friend ilar to distemper in young horses, and proves fatal to large numbers of young pigs as well as older hogs. We have known it to assume so fatal a form as to be called *'hog cholera" by those ignorant of its distinguishing type, yet it differs from anthrax diseases in not being so malignant, and in other respects. Give three times daily, using the aconite as directed, between the doses. Half a drachm of muriate of ammonia may be given at a dose if symptoms of failing strength are present. Mashes and sloppy food, not soured or fer- mented, should be given. AH remedies will have better and more immediate effect by fasting the hogs twelve hours previous. The first symptoms are swelling of the glands under the jaw, followed by rapid and oppressed breathing, and difficulty in swallowing. In the more advanced stages the neck is badly swollen, the tongue protrudes and death is caused by strangulation. Often the swelling takes the gan- grenous form and becomes allied to anthrax. Quinsy is caused by exposure to sudden changes of atmosphere, and if the animal has been under the debilitating influence of bad food, impure water or filthy enclosures, mortification frequently sets in, and death results in a few hours. Al- lowing hogs to pile up around old sraw stacks, during cold nights, is a pre-disposing cause. Any one who has seen hogs routed out in the morning, and observed how those underneath smoke and steam as they come forth and the cold air strikes them, must realize that such sud- den changes produce inflammation of the lungs, quinsy, diphtheria, etc., of a fatal type, resulting in the popular "hog cholera". Young pigs are very liable to be attacked with quinsy. They should be kept in warm, clean, well-ventilated pens, with plenty of clean straw; let them have a mess of thin gruel three times a day, into which stir one-half ounce of chlorate of potash. If the bowels are constipated, from one to two ounces of castor oil may be given each pig. In bad cases the throat may be lubricated with equal parts of cod-liver oil and turpentine. In older hogs, also in pigs, benefit may be had by giving each hog an emetic consisting of four grains of tartar farmers' friend 237 emetic, six grains of ipecacuanah and six grains of white helebore ; half this dose for young pigs. Often a deep in- cision into each tumor, on each side, will relieve it. Not a mere puncture with the knife, but a cut two to four inches long, and deep enough to reach the seat of the dis- ease. Feed thin gruel for a few days, in which a tea- spoonful of turpentine may be incorporated. Three to four drops of tincture of aconite dropped on the tongue every two hours is excellent in the early stages of the disease. DIPHTHERIA. This disease is far more prevalent than most people imagine who class all epidemics or contagious diseases under ''hog cholera". It not only attacks pigs, but older hogs. It is, in a certain degree, contagious, that is, by contact with the shreds of the false membrane coughed up by those attacked, well hogs will take the disease as readily as it is communicated by the human family. It sometimes takes an epidemic form in localities owing to atmospheric causes, local condition of filthy pens, and wet pastures during inclement seasons of the year. Its symptoms are sudden illness, with a dull appearance and loss of appetite. There will be extreme weakness, fever- ishness, stiffness of back and loins, a crouching walk with raised head. The mouth will be dry and open, a hoarse nasal grunt, livid tongue and difficulty in breathing. On examination internally, the throat will be red and swollen, and covered with grayish-white patches of false mem- brane, which increase, involving all the air passages and threaten suffocation. Shreds of false membrane are coughed up during paroxysms of coughing. The animal will lie down, sit on its haunches, or lean against the fence during these attacks of coughing, and will generally perish in one. The treatment, to be successful, must be begun early in the disease. If the drove is ranging in cold, wet pas- tures, they must be changed into dry yards and sheltered pens, and the well separated from the sick. Give each of the well hogs a spoonful of chlorate of potash daily in a small quantity of milk. The whole amount can be given 238 farmers' friend at once by proportioning it to the number of liogs. This will prevent its spread and arrest its incipient stages. The sick must have local as well as constitutional treat- ment. In the first place give the following to each hog, daily : — Sulphite of Soda, two drachms, Powdered Castor Bean, one drachm, Solution Carbolic Acid, five drops. — ^Mix. Give in swill to those which will eat, increasing the amount proportionate to the number of hogs. To those which cannot eat, it may be given by mixing with molasses and smearing on the back of the tongue. To remove the patches of false membrane and prevent further formation, prepare a small swab of sheep-skin with the wool on, and a flexible stick, well secured, and diiDping it in the following solution, swab out the throat twice daily :^ Chlorate of Potassa, one ounce. Solution of Carbolic Acid, two fluid drachms, Water, one quart. — 'Mix. Its virtues can be materially aided by sprinkling the swab with flour of suphur before inserting into the throat. We have never known it to fail. Warm, sloppy food may be given, to which chlorate of potash may be added in teaspoonful doses. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. This disease is always caused by sudden changes, ex- posure to storms, piling of hogs during cold nights, etc. The pig, or hog, is taken with shivering fits, is dumpish, is drawn up in a heap, as it were, loss of appetite, hurried and short breathing generally accompanied with a cough, which is deep and hoarse. It is an inflammation of the cellular portion of the lungs. If the bowels are consti- pated, loosen by injections of warm soap suds. At the same time give, according to size, a half to two draclims of saltpetre, and one to three ounces of Glauber's salt. farmers' friend 239 After six hours, and then thrice daily, 0« 05O^^)C<5'*>O!0t^00O5O M (M (N Ca M P3 0§ at N M •<)< lO <0 O -^ M CO •* lO to t^00050-HMCO'*'OtOt^00050-< rt,^Xi(NINO'-H -^ 0--i rtrtrtrtrt^^rtrt^c^^l^^l^^l^^^^c^^c^^(^^l^^c-^ccco O -H IM CO ^< lO CO t^ QO 05 O ^ M TO ^i lO CD I^ 00 » O ^ _irtrt^^,-irtrtrt.-liMClH-i.-i(MlNINe-»IMf1INC^JININMM I .^ T-H -cvi CO •* lO CD r^ -H O) CO ■* lO rt (M CO ■* O a I (M « •<1< "5 to t^ IN O«et~000»O-<OCOt>.OOOiO-C ® OT-lcNCO-^'ratOt^ N IN IN (N ^(NCO-0«DWOOCTiO'-llMCO'*iO!Dt^00050'H(NCO'*lC!Ot^OOOSO'^ _< w -H(NroTtliOCDt^OOO»OrH^(NW->lO'-lC<O!DI^000>O-HiMC0-<^mo (N CO ■* lO 50 t~ (N 0-1 (M IM ^ IM CO ■* "O CO t--. 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OOOOOOOOOOO'H^, (M !M cq 04 (M (M N M CO C >iCOiOOl 000000'--0-^ T)< CO C^l 1^ O < OCOtOOJCqi (N(Nooo< <.-l0000000^--i. )«OOCO 00 -H coin 00 <>-lC^C^C^(M )OOOOOOC >ooooo6oo-i iCIMOt OC^-*i )0000000000000000000000003000-HCOiOOOOO- SOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^-i^— i(MC0-*0— itO-^tCC-l'Olt^CO 30000000000000000000000000-<-<'M000000-*'^03rt0000000-H-H-HC)(M!MCOCOCO- 30000000000000000C 3000C 300000000C 300000000C ■ 300C sooooooc 3t>.— iTft^OCOtOOlC^liO 300— i-H-<(MC^lMl>)COCO 30000000000 )OOOOOOOW03'H^?DCC--i )000000000-i-i-<-xaiO;^(McO'*io > — < (N CO "if lO to t^ 00 03 O — ' ^^^^ 2^5S5 ?? § is S? 8 £ ?S § o ??. o -oTg^§§22^22g?5.^SSg?5S.S?.??5.^.^.^.". lOibiO^O'OO'^lC 3 (M 00 -^ O Ci "M ^;2^22SOC«OiM-*COCOOC t CO 00 O M OO CO o 1 CJ (M M CO 00 CO ^ ?5q5>3:!e2ssr^^ss rf O CD to o^:C005^M|05 ooooo<=«-w^^^Sooo.qq§Sqqqooooq 22252?:^ ;::^?^?^SSooooooooooooqqqoq-<.-:^a^^ci coco -T^, ^iiillligiiiiliilsS8iil§8§i3§iSiisiii rfillliiiiiiiiisSsgigiiiliiiisssggssssooo jOOOOOOC S§§8^ >ooc )OOC )OOC .QOOsO'JOOiOOOOOOO rHfO-^COt^OSO'NWiOOiOOiOO CDOOOOMCDOCOOSOCOCDOCOOO i-iO-jTjdoOOOOsOfMMtOOeOfflO i-irHrf(MTXiocoa) 4 W M ■* lO t •*OOCD>OCO-HOOOCDiOCCfflOMCOO r-OOtO'OW-HO ^ M M Tj< lO mcoeoocDcoococoO'; .-< (M CS CO ■* Tf lO CO t »Hrt (M(NM ■ COiOCDODO'^COiOOCCOtO ^rtrtr-HrtCOOCO s?§ « + 0) >^ O o a •- o -Sal "' t: a te 5 5 aJ ^. ■2 ■'it -^ s 2 ^ ,? ^ ;. ^ f3 -o ^ n o -o CO > rt j3 ra cc C N S o <"^ IM £ s rt . >- -4_. o KNfO-^iCCDWQOat-^NCOTjdOCO FARMERS FRIEND 335 HOW TO hIND THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS IN A LQAD OF GRAIN AT SIGHT. i= Oats Co;n, rye Barley Wheat § Oats Corn, rye Berley Wheat ^ ?2lbs. 50 lbs. 48 Iba, 60 lbs. ^ ?2 lbs 50 lbs. 48 lbs. 60 lbs. Bus Lbs Bus Lbs B^ Lbs Bu sLbs B^ Lbs Bili Lbs Bil^ Lbs Bus Lbs 1500 46 28 26 44 31 12 25 00 2000 62 16 35 40 41 32 33 20 1510 47 06 26 54 31 22 25 10 2010 62 26 35 50 41 42 33 30 1520 47 16 27 08 31 32 25 20 2020 63 04 36 04 42 04 33 40 1530 47 26 27 18 31 42 25 30 2030 63 14 36 14 42 14 33 50 1540 48 04 27 28 32 04 25 40 2040 63 24 36 24 42 24 34 00 1550 48 14 27 38 32 14 25 50 2050 64 02 36 34 42 34 34 10 1560 48 24 27 48 32 24 26 00 2060 64 12 36 44 42 44 34 20 1570 49 02 28 02 32 34 26 10 2070 64 22 36 54 43 06 34 30 1580 49 12 28 12 32 44 26 20 2080 65 00 37 08 43 16 34 40 1590 49 22 28 22 33 06 26 30 2090 65 10 37 18 43 26 34 50 1600 50 00 28 32 33 16 26 40 2100 65 20 37 28 43 36 35 00 1610 50 10 28 42 33 26 26 50 2110 65 30 37 38 43 46 35 10 1620 50 20 28 52 33 36 27 00 2120 66 08 37 48 44 08 35 20 1630 50 30 29 06 33 46 27 10 2130 66 18 38 02 44 18 35 30 1640 51 08 29 16 34 08 27 20 2140 66 28 38 12 44 28 35 40 1650 51 18 29 26 34 IS 27 30 2150 67 06 38 22 44 35 50 1660 51 28 29 36 34 28 27 40 2160 67 16 38 32 45 00 36 00 1670 52 06 29 46 34 38 27 50 2170 67 26 38 42 45 10 36 10 1680 52 16 30 00 35 00 28 00 2180 68 04 38 52 45 20 36 20 1690 52 26 30 10 35 10 28 10 2190 68 14 39 06 45 30 36 30 1700 53 04 30 20 35 20 28 20 2200 68 24 39 16 45 40 36 40 1710 53 14 30 30 35 30 28 30 2210 69 02 39 26 46 02 36 50 1720 53 24 30 40 35 40 28 40 2220 69 12 39 36 46 12 37 00 1730 54 02 30 50 36 02 28 50 2230 69 22 39 46 46 22 37 10 1740 54 12 31 04 36 12 29 00 2240 70 00 40 00 46 32 37 20 1750 54 92 31 14 36 22 29 10 2250 70 10 40 10 46 42 37 30 1760 55 00 31 24 36 32 29 20 2260 70 20 40 20 47 04 37 40 1770 55 10 31 34 36 42 29 30 2270 70 30 40 30 47 14 37 50 1780 55 20 31 44 37 04 29 40 2280 71 08 40 40 47 24 38 00 1790 55 30 31 54 37 14 29 50 2290 71 18 40 50 47 34 38 10 1800 56 08 32 08 37 24 30 00 2300 71 28 41 04 47 44 38 20 1810 56 18 32 18 37 34 30 30 2310 72 06 41 14 48 06 38 30 1820 56 28 32 28 37 44 30 20 2320 72 16 41 24 48 16 38 40 1830 57 06 32 38 38 06 30 30 2330 72 26 41 34 48 26 38 50 1840 57 16 32 48 38 16 30 40 2340 73 04 41 44 48 36 00 1850 57 26 33 02 38 26 30 50 2350 73 14 41 54 48 46 39 10 1860 58 04 33 12 38 36 31 00 2360 73 24 42 08 49 08 39 20 1870 58 14 33 22 38 46 31 10 2370 74 02 42 18 49 18 39 30 1880 58 24 33 32 39 08 31 20 2380 74 12 42 28 49 28 39 40 1890 59 02 33 42 39 18 31 30 2390 74 22 42 38 49 38 39 50 1900 59 12 33 52 39 28 31 40 2400 75 00 42 48 50 00 40 00 1910 59 22 34 06 39 38 31 50 2410 75 10 43 02 50 10 40 10 1920 60 00 34 16 40 00 32 00 2420 75 20 43 12 50 20 40 20 1930 60 10 34 26 40 10 32 10 2430 75 30 43 22 50 30 40 30 1940 60 20 34 36 40 20 32 20 2440 76 08 43 32 50 40 40 40 1950 60 30 34 46 40 30 32 30 2450 76 18 43 42 51 02 40 50 1960 61 08 35 00 40 40 32 40 2460 76 28 43 52 51 12 41 00 1970 61 18 35 10 41 02 32 50 2470 77 06 44 06 51 22 41 10 1980 61 28 35 20 41 12 33 00 2480 77 16 44 16 51 32 41 20 1990 62 06 35 1 30 41 22 33 10 2490 77 26 44 26 51 42 41 30 336 FARMERS FRIEND now TO FIND TIIE NUMBER OF BUSHELS IN A LOAD OP GRAIN AT SIGHT— CONTINUED. % Oats Corr , rye Ba rley Wheat be Oats Cot" , rye Ba ley Wheat $ 3Z lbs. 56 lbs. 48 lbs 60 lbs. ^ 32 lbs. 65 lbs. 48 bs. 60 lbs. Bus Lbs Bil^ Lte Bui^ Lbs Bus i:bs Bus Lbi Bus Lbs mil Lbs B^ Lb 2500 78 04 44 36 52 04 41 40 3010 94 02 53 42 62 34 50 10 2510 78 14 44 46 52 14 41 50 3020 94 12 53 52 62 44 50 20 2520 78 24 45 00 52 24 42 00 3030 94 54 06 63 06 50 30 2530 79 02 45 10 52 34 42 10 3040 95 00 54 16 63 16 50 4a 2540 79 12 45 20 52 44 42 20 3050 95 10 54 26 63 26 50 50 2550 79 22 45 30 53 06 42 30 3060 95 20 54 36 63 36 51 00 25S0 SO 00 45 40 53 16 42 40 3070 95 30 54 46 63 46 51 10 2570 80 10 45 50 53 26 42 50 3080 96 08 55 00 64 08 51 20 2580 80 20 46 04 53 36 43 00 3090 96 18 55 10 64 18 51 30 2590 80 30 46 14 53 46 43 10 3100 96 55 20 64 28 51 40 2600 81 08 46 24 54 08 43 20 3110 97 06 55 30 64 38 51 50 2610 81 18 46 34 54 18 43 30 3120 97 16 55 40 65 00 52 00 2620 81 28 46 44 54 28 43 40 3130 97 26 55 50 65 10 52 10 2630 82 06 46 54 54 38 43 50 3140 98 04 56 04 65 20 52 20 2640 82 16 47 08 55 00 44 00 3150 98 14 56 14 65 30 52 30 2650 82 26 47 18 55 10 44 10 3160 98 24 56 24 65 40 52 40 2660 83 04 47 28 55 20 44 20 3170 99 02 56 34 66 02 52 50 2670 83 14 47 38 55 03 44 30 3180 99 12 56 44 66 12 53 00 2680 83 24 47 48 55 40 44 40 3190 96 22 56 54 66 22 53 10 2990 84 02 48 02 59 02 44 50 3200 00 00 57 08 66 32 53 20 2700 84 12 48 12 56 12 45 00 3210 00 10 57 18 66 42 53 30 2710 84 oo 48 22 56 22 45 10 3220 00 20 57 28 67 04 53 40 2720 85 00 48 32 56 32 45 20 3230 00 30 57 38 67 14 53 50 2730 85 10 48 42 56 42 45 30 3240 01 08 57 48 67 24 54 00 2740 85 20 48 52 57 04 45 40 3250 01 18 58 02 67 34 54 10 2750 85 •30 49 06 57 14 45 50 3260 01 28 58 12 67 44 54 20 2760 86 08 49 16 57 24 46 00 3270 02 06 58 22 68 06 54 30 2770 86 18 49 26 57 34 46 10 3280 02 16 58 32 68 16 54 40 2780 86 28 49 36 57 44 46 20 3290 02 26 58 42 68 26 54 50 2790 87 06 49 46 58 06 46 30 3300 03 04 58 52 68 36 55 00 2800 87 16 50 00 58 16 46 40 3310 03 14 59 06 68 46 55 10 2810 87 26 50 10 58 26 46 50 3320 03 24 59 16 69 08 55 20 2820 88 04 50 20 58 36 47 00 3330 04 02 59 26 69 18 55 30 2830 88 14 50 30 58 46 47 10 3340 04 12 59 36 28 55 40 2840 88 24 50 40 59 08 47 20 3350 04 22 59 46 69 38 55 50 2850 89 02 50 50 59 18 47 30 3360 05 00 60 00 70 00 56 00 2860 89 12 51 04 59 28 47 40 3370 05 10 60 10 70 10 56 10 2870 89 22 51 14 59 38 47 50 3380 05 20 60 20 70 20 56 20 2880 90 00 51 24 60 00 48 00 3390 05 30 60 30 70 30 56 30 2890 90 10 51 34 60 10 48 10 3400 06 08 60 40 70 40 56 40 2900 90 20 51 44 60 20 48 20 3410 06 18 60 50 71 02 56 50 2910 90 30 51 54 60 30 48 30 3420 06 28 61 04 71 12 57 00 2920 91 08 52 08 60 40 48 40 3430 07 06 61 14 71 22 57 10 2930 91 18 52 18 61 02 48 50 3440 07 16 61 24 71 32 57 20 2940 91 28 52 28 61 12 49 00 3450 07 26 61 34 71 42 57 30 2950 92 06 52 38 61 22 49 10 3460 08 04 61 44 72 04 57 40 2960 92 16 52 48 61 32 49 20 3470 08 14 61 54 72 14 57 50 2970 92 26 53 02 61 42 49 30 3480 08 24 62 08 72 24 58 00 2980 93 04 53 12 62 04 49 40 3490 09 02 62 18 72 34 58 10 2990 93 14 53 22 62 14 49 50 3500 09 12 62 28 72 44 58 20 3000 93 24 53 32 62 24 50 00 * 1 < 6 1 CO 5 "o Q <1 i a a 73 jl 2 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 ! 1 i O 1 o n 5 1 1 T O a} i 1 a .2 o Oi Q S3 |£ 1! go o • Q 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! i - J i 1 ) — i : -. 1 i i i i 1 -| Dollars ER LI tAISED 1 AOR o 1 1 1 1 1 1 EP OR OTH DHASED OR F Description UJ DC ^ 1 1 1 CO y 1 h 1 1- i < s ^ i 1 C 1 a « o i 1 li 1 r. J ' ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 < 6 ^ 2 1 5 I § I- z D o o < -I < D 9 > o z o 1 1 1 1 ! I I 1 1 i 1 o 1 1 i c o i < X 5 - "3 Q O H i 5 a 1 1 5 a fS z D O o o < -J < 9 > o z O < o ) I 1 1 1 1 H eg . 1 i 1 Eh ^; i < 6 1 CO 1 g § 1 1 c o X g I- z D o o o < -J < D o > Q Z a f 1 1 1 f 1 o O 1 i 1 1 »3 § rt H H 03 0. 1 1 Oj Q 1 J3 C S § '^ D o CO ^ c« < I m % o H 1 1 1 1 1 o3 P 1 1 ja 1 o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 g 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 z D O o o < -J < D 9 > o z z o 00 1 1 o o CO 05 , - 1 1 o i < i 03 1 Eh g §' 1 1 1 1 1 1 I g I- z D O o o < s ) CQ I 1 i A o i < CO 32 O i 1 s 1 1 o I- z D O o o < -1 < D 9 > o z o J 1 o 2 o Q 03 1 1 Q i 1 i i Q 1 1 CO g ^ 1 p 1 1 J3 d o 1 « 1 < 8 ■ J • 1 1 1 i i 1 < fa O o oi ■ri U 1 5 o . i o 2 ; i < g O 03 h O 9 < Q. IS u O i o z o h (0 >- < Q. o • 1 < • g ■ i i 1 1 2 J ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP Commenced At per Month ' NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190___ Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. • Jan. Feb. March . April May June July August Sept. Oct Nov. Dee. Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. i ^ C c )C )l J N 1 WITH HIRED HELP No. of Days Worked Amount Due for MoDth .1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 to 11 12 13 „ 15 16 17 19 19 20 „ 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Dollars Cts. H L_ ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP Commenced Work At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190_ Jan. 1 Feb, March April May i June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May 1 June July August Sept. Oct Nov. Dec. 1 Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP — 1 ~^ ~" ~" No. of Days Worked Amount Due for Mpnth 2 3 4 S e 7 8 9 to 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 19 ts 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 t Dollars Cts. s. *-■ • e f _ ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP Commenced Work At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190___ Jan. Feb. iSarch April ■ May 1 June July ! August Sept. 1 Oct. i 1 Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this pag-e space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a completve record. ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP No. of Days Worked Amount Due — 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 Dollar Cts. Q. • /T ? — 1 f 1 — • 1 ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP Connnenced At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190___ Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 1 ! Jan. Feb. 1 1 March April May June i July , August Sept. ! I Oct. i I Nov. Dec. 1 ^ Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. ACCOUNT WITH HIReD HELP ■~" — No. of Days Worked Amount Due for Month ■2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 27 28 31 1 25 26 29 30 Dollars Cts a. f - — ACCOUNT WITH HIRl£D HELP Commenced Work At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190__. Jan. Feb. March April I May June July August 1 Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. • Oct. Nov. Dec. Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a complete record. ACCOUNT WITH Hl'Peb HELP» No. of Days Worked Amount Due for Month 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 „ 12 13 14 15 18 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 28 27 28 29 30 31 \ Dollars Cts s. f - i ACCOUNT WITH HIRtiD HELP Commenced Work At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190___ Jan. Feb. March April i May .Tune i 1 July 1 ■ 1 August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July ' August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this pag-e space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing- necessary, yet you have a complete record. ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP 1 ' No. of Dayl Worked Amount Due for Mooth 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 Dollars Cts. a. ' - • -J ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP Commenced At per Month NAME Month Month Date Dollars Cts. 190 _ Jan. Feb. March 1 April ! May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. . Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Every farmer should keep an exact account with his hired help. You have on this page space to keep an exact record for two hired hands for one year. A single cross X will show the day lost. A check mark will show the day the hand com- menced. No writing necessary, yet you have a complete record. ACCOUNT WITH HIRED HELP n - n - n n P n No. of Days Worked Amount Due « 2 S 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t1 12 13 14 ,5 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Dollars Cts. <2 i - . APR 29 1907